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I 
 
 PRINCIPAL YALE BUSINESS COLLEGE. 
 
NEW EDITION, REVISED AHD EHLARGED! 
 
 GAY’S 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE, 
 
 FORMING 
 
 A STANDARD ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 
 
 EMBRACING ** 
 
 3UTLINE8 OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, PORTRAITS AND BIOGRAPHIES OF EMINENT PERSONS, ILLUSTRATED 
 EXPERIMENTS IN NATURAL PHILO 30PHY AND CHEMISTRY, ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO THE TRADES, 
 ASTRONOMY, MEDICINE, ARCHITECTURE, INTERNATIONAL' COMMERCE, COMMERCIAL LAW, PAR- 
 LIAMENTARY LAW, PENMANSHIP AND BOOK-KEEPING,* COMPOSITION AND CORRESPONDENOE, 
 DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS, LANGUAGE, ELOCUTION AND ORATORY, BIOGRAPHICAL 
 LIST OF AUTHORS, PHONETIC SHORTHAND, TELEGRAPHY, PHOTOGRAPHY, CON- 
 STITUTION OF THE UNITED STATE&, POETRY, LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS, 
 
 HOME LIFE AND HAPPINESS, ETIQUETTE AND CONDUCT OF LIFE, 
 
 COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE, HOME AMUSEMENTS AND 
 ADORNMENT, .HOUSEHOLD RECEIPTS AND COOKERY ; 
 
 AND MANY" OTHER IMPORTANT FEATURES; 
 
 FORMING A COMPLETE SOCIAL AND BUSINESS 
 MANUAL, AND COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL 
 AND SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 SEVERAL HUNDRED INSTRUCTIVE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 
 Col. DEXTER R. WRIGHT, 
 
 Speaker Conn. House Representatives . 
 
 Prof. R. C. LOVERIDGE, 
 
 Yale Business College. 
 
 Rev. Dr. DENNEN. 
 
 C. PURDY LINDSLEY, M.D. 
 
 GEO. A. BUTLER, 
 
 Cashier Nat. Tradestnen’s 
 
 R. G. RUSSELL, 
 
 A rchitect. 
 
 Prof. HOFFMAN. 
 
 Rev. J. H. BEALE, A.M. 
 
 LlEUT. -COL. WILLIAM WHITE, Chief Secretary of Postal Department. Canada. 
 
 RICHMOND, VA. 
 
 B. F. JOHNSON & CO. 
 
 Copyrighted, 1891 , by J. H. Beale. 
 
BEBI0AT'I0N 
 
 f HIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED TO AMERICA, THE 
 home of people from every land : to the millions of busy 
 
 toilers who are desirous of securing that self-culture which will 
 prepare them to meet the responsible duties of life : to the thousands of 
 active men and women who daily feel the need of education denied them 
 in youth : to the millions of young men and women who desire to 
 educate and cultivate themselves : to all parents who would aid their 
 children in obtaining success in life, and to every one who desires 
 practical information upon nearly every subject of daily importance in 
 business, social and domestic life. This volume is thus dedicated in the 
 sincere hope that it will prove a valuable acquisition to all, and a blessing 
 to every home wherein it finds a place. 
 

OUR OBJECT. 
 
 FIRST. — To produce one valuable book containing the essence of an entire library, in clear 
 and concise language, within the comprehension of all readers. 
 
 SECOND. — To cover a much larger range of subjects more freely treated than in any other 
 work of three times the cost. 
 
 THIRD. — To accomplish this no superfluous language is permitted in any article introduced. 
 Each topic is begun and finished in terse and distinct style, until completed, in the least number 
 of words possible, to an intelligent understanding of it. 
 
 FOURTH. — To employ none but the highest talent, thus securing the best work of a master 
 hand in each department. 
 
 FIFTH. — To afford the valuable information needed by the large class of men and women 
 who are engaged in the responsible duties of active life. 
 
 SIXTH. — To advise, encourage and educate the thousands of ambitious young people who 
 can ill afford the time and expense of a thorough academic or collegiate education. 
 
 SEVENTH. — To furnish reliable forms of legal and commercial documents, by which any 
 business man may safely draw such instruments without being subjected to expense of time and 
 money by employing an attorney. 
 
 EIGHTH. — To render the greatest assistance to the largest number who wish to educate 
 and cultivate their powers of mind, by all the aids that the most competent authors can afford. 
 
 The publishers have aimed to accomplish this object in the following way : 
 
 FIRST.— In this Department, How to Attain Success in Life, they have furnished valuable- 
 advice to the young of both sexes, supplemented with numerous examples from the lives of men 
 and women who have achieved prominence by their own exertions. The Biographical Dictionary 
 of more than three hundred noted men and women of America, contains numerous portraits of those 
 whom their countrymen ha ye honored, including all the Presidents and the Present Cabinet. 
 
 SECOND.— This Department, The Business Manual, is a store-house of valuable instruction 
 and reliable information, opening with the Art of Penmanship and followed by the Science of 
 Book-keeping. This has been prepared for this work exclusively by a popular and competent 
 educator of New Haven. This Department contains Commercial and Legal Forms ; Abstract of 
 State Laws on the Rights of Married Women, on Wills, on Marriage and Divorce, on Mechanic’s" 
 Liens and Exemptions, on Interest and the Statutes of Limitation. By the aid of this Depart 
 ment alone the conscientious student can lay the broad foundation of a successful business and 
 commercial education, which will prepare him for any responsible position incite ; and the man 
 already in business can supply, with a small amount of effort, any deficiency of early training 
 which causes embarassment in his daily pursuits. The legal features of this part of the work 
 have been prepared with careful examination of the latest legislative enactments and judicial 
 decisions in all the States. 
 
 THIRD.— In the Department, entitled The True Home, and The Material House, they 
 have furnished from the popular pen of Rev. Dr. Dennen a most valuable article to all, with an 
 extensive amount of advice and information, on the various relations and amenities of social and 
 active life, which cannot fail to be appreciated by every reader. This is followed by Every Man 
 his Own Landlord, which informs the young man or any salaried person how a home may be 
 
viii. 
 
 OUR OBJECT. 
 
 procured at the cost usually paid for rent, There is also an elaborate article on Architecture and 
 the Adornment of the Home. This is beautifully illustrated in fall page, colored prints, and 
 numerous wood cuts, with Designs, Plans, and cost for Building Homes in city and country, and 
 much other technical information. 
 
 FOURTH. — The publishers have presented A Manual of Etiquette or thj Requirements of 
 Good Society, covering the full ground of social life and Etiquette at Home and Abroad, in the 
 Ball Room, when on journeys and in Hotels. The classic utterances of Lord Chesterfield following 
 the pages devoted to Etiquette, will be found of practical value and may be safely regarded as 
 standard authority upon the matters presented. 
 
 FIFTH. — In this Department the publishers have presented Recreation for All, in a' manner 
 which will satisfy all intelligent tastes, and at the same time be entirely innocent and free from 
 objection. A Chapter on the Care and Management of that noble animal, The Horse, will 
 interest all. Nautical Terms Explained will aid the reader of fiction and travels to understand 
 -such terms whenever found, and also be of value to the Amatuer Yachtsman. The Latest Rules 
 for Athletic Sports, are from the most recent authorities, and the Game Birds of North America 
 will be of value to the Amatuer Ornithologist and Sportsman. They have devoted a fair pro- 
 portion of the work to the subject of Parlor Entertainments, introducing those amusements 
 which tend to cement the family circle, and induce all its members to find at home that enjoy- 
 ment which otherwise they may seek amid unfavorable surroundings. 
 
 SIXTH. — The Chapters on Natural Science cover Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, Chem- 
 istry and Electricity as applied to the trades. These subjects are treated from the standpoint 
 of the latest scientific investigation, theoretical and practical. A Chapter upon the highly 
 interesting branch of Botany, — Sex in Vegetable Life, has been introduced, which cannot fail to 
 aid the Florist and Pomologist, as well as the farmer. This Department covers a wide range of 
 very valuable scientific information in most entertaining form. 
 
 SEVENTH.— A glance at the Summary of Contents will show that this Department covers 
 the topics of deepest interest to all who wish to acquire the highest proficiency in Speaking and 
 Writing the English Language. The Scholar, the Letter- writer, the Author, and the Public 
 Speaker will each obtain practical instruction upon all the subjects presented. The Chapter 
 on Medical and Physical Education have been prepared expressly for this work by a successful 
 Pbysican. with the design of furnishing a reliable guide to the family in physical culture, the 
 preservation of health, the steps to be taken in cases of accident and exigency, liable to arise in 
 any family, and the relation of the sexes, or Familiar Chats with the Physician, in the Home of 
 his Patients. 
 
 EIGHTH. — In the Rhetorical and Dramatic Education, they have placed before you the 
 greatest speeches of the most renowned Orators and American Patriots ; also choice selections 
 from great Dramatists and Poets. 
 
 NINTH. — They have made “ The Political, Historical and Statistical Department ” most 
 invaluable to the intelligent citizen, and to the young man who would rightly understand 
 the important duties of American citizenship. The great State Papers, The Constitution, 
 Emancipation Proclamation, Inaugural and Farewell Addresses of George Washington, and The 
 Inaugural Addresses of Abraham Lincoln, are preceded by a digest of the Duties of Officers of 
 Government, a treatise on Parliamentary Law, including the Decision of the Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives of the United States ; also a chapter upon How to Organize Debating 
 and Literary Societies. This Department also contains an article from Senator Edmunds, and 
 one from a well-known banker upon the Balance of Trade. The Historical Section contains a 
 History of the Principal Nations, Biographical Index and Ancient and Modern History in 
 contemperaneous and chronological order. A History of Tariff Legislation in the United States, 
 and Valuable Statistical Tables from the XI th Census. 
 
 The publishers have prepared the best and most complete work of the kind ever presented 
 to the American public, and have combined in its preparation completeness of detail and accuracy 
 of statement, with the latest available authority on all subjects presented. 
 
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 I. — HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 Success the Result of Gradual Development, 21. Consecration to One Purpose, 26. Care in 
 Chosing a Profession, 27. A Worthy Aim in Life, 29. A Proper Use of Time, 30. Force of 
 Character and Self Reliance, 31. Mental and Physical Culture, 32. Persistency and Indi- 
 viduality, 34. Originality, 34. Luck versus Pluck, 35. Business Maxims and Rules, 37. 
 Important Suggestions, 38. Biographical Dictionary of over Three Hundred Eminent Men 
 and Women connected with American History, 45-123. Renowned Artists, 125. 
 
 II. — THE BUSINESS MANUAL. 
 
 Penmanship, 138-152. Science of Book-keeping, 153-175. New Standard Time, 176. Comparative 
 Time Indicator, 177. Difference in Time, 178. The Ready Reckoner, 178. Interest Tables, 
 179-181. Value of Foreign Coins in United States Money, 182. Commercial and Legal, 
 183-264. Negotiable Paper, 183. Indorsements, 184. Forms of Checks, Drafts, etc., 186- 
 192. United States Postal Laws and Regulations, 193. Statute and Common Law, 194. 
 Agreements and Contracts, 194. Arbitration, 198. Breach of Covenants, 199. Agreement 
 to Sell Shares of Stock, 199. A Contract to Build a House, 200. Bills of Sale, 203. Agents 
 and their Authority, 204. Form of Power of Attorney, 205. Bonds, 205. Assignments, 
 209. Chattel Mortgage, 210. Liabilities of Express Companies, etc., 211. Deeds, 212. 
 Insurance, 215. The Rights of Married Women, 217-224. Property Sales and the Law of 
 Titles, 224. Laws and Usages regarding Landlords and Tenants, 225. Form of a Lease, 
 226. Landlord’s Notice to Quit, 228. Mortgages, 229. Partnership and the Duties and 
 Rights of Partners, 230. Form of Partnership Agreement, 232. Dissolution of Partnership 
 and Notice of Same, 233. Patents, 233. The Law of Copyright, 237. The Law regarding 
 Suffrage and Naturalization, 237, Last Wills and Testaments, 239. Form of Will, 240 # 
 Form of Noncupartive Will, 241. Form of Administrator’s Bond, 242. Form of Executor’s 
 Bond, 242. Abstract of State Laws regarding Wills, 243-248. Mechanic’s Liens in all the 
 States, 249-252. Exemption Laws in all the States 253-258. Marriage in its Relation to 
 Law, 259-262. How to Learn Telegraphy 265-267. Great Libraries in the United States, 268. 
 Phonetic Shorthand, 269-274. The Metric System, 275-277. Our Commerce with the World , 
 279. Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitation, 280. 
 
 III.— THE TRUE HOME AND THE MATERIAL HOUSE. 
 
 The True Home, 281. A Good Home is Built on Compromises, 285. Amusements Ought to Find 
 a Place in the Home, 286. Every Man His Own Landlord, 289-292. The Architecture of 
 the Home, 293-305. The Adornment and Furnishing of the House, 305-317. The Art of 
 Cookery, 318-338. The Art of Folding Napkins, 337. Canning Fruits, 338. The Art of 
 Carving Made Easy, 338-346. One Hundred Infallible Receipts, 347-356. Art in the 
 Household, 356-357. 
 
X 
 
 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 IV.— A MANUAL OF ETIQUETTE OR THE REQUIREMENTS' OF GOOD 
 
 SOCIETY. 
 
 The Requirements of Good Society, 361. Courteous Greetings and Introductions, 362. Etiquette 
 in the Home, 364. Visitors at the Home, 365. Ceremonious Visits, 366. Treatment of 
 Callers ; Calls for Congratulation ; Calls for Consolation ; Social Calls, 367. Politeness 
 while Travelling ; The Etiquette Observance at the Table, 368. The Honors of the Table ; 
 General Observances, 369. Dinner Parties, etc. , 370. Table Ornaments and Arrangement, 
 371. Entertaining Company ; A Few Hints to Young Housekeepers, 372. Evening Enter- 
 tainments, 373. The Supper Table ; Taking Leave ; An Early Call Afterwards, 374. Manners, 
 Personal Appearance, Dress, 375. The Care of the Person and the Toilet ; Adjuncts to the 
 Toilet, 376. Courtship and Marriage ; An Offer of Marriage, 377. Love Letters ; Additional 
 Hints to Engaged Parties; Marriage Ceremony, 379. Wedding Cake; Wedding Calls; 
 Wedding Gifts, 381. Husbands and Wives, 382. The Etiquette of the Ball Room, 383. 
 Toilet for the Ball Room ; Gentleman’s Dress ; Etiquette in the Ball Room, 384. Quadrille, 
 385. The Floral Realm, 386-389. Dictionary of Flowers, 389-393. Lord Chesterfield’s 
 Advice to his Son on Etiquette, Business and Social Relations, 394-404. 
 
 * 4 
 
 V.— RECREATION FOR ALL. 
 
 The American Horse, 405^09. Laws for Athletic Sports, 411-428. Laws for La Crosse, 411. Foot 
 Ball, 414. Lawn Tennis, 420. Laws of Lawn Tennis, 423. Laws of Quoits, 426. Base 
 Ball, 426. Fencing, 426. Game Birds of North America, 429-437. Nautical Terms 
 Explained, etc., 438-445. The Amatuer Taxidermist’s Guide, 446-450. How to Practice 
 Photography, 450-454. The Effect of Dress in Photography, 455. Parlor Entertainments, 
 457-464. Laughable and Innocent Amusements for Children, 465-467. 
 
 VI.— CHAPTERS ON NATURAL SCIENCE. 
 
 The Science of Astronomy, 469-502. Illustrated Experiments in Natural Philosophy, 503-532. 
 The Science of Chemistry, 533-542. Sex in the Vegetable World, 543-545. The Science of 
 Electricity, 547-574. The Electric Light, 554-568. The Telephone and Its Uses, 568-570. 
 Electroplating, 571. Electrotyping, 572. The Phonograph or Audophone, 574. Medical 
 and Physical, 575-592. The Five Senses, 581. The Teeth and Their Care, 584. The Skin 
 and Its Care, 586. Treatment of the Drowned, 588. Poisons and Their Andidotes, 589. 
 How to Proceed in Special Accidents, 592. 
 
 VII.— HOW TO ATTAIN SKILL IN WRITING AND SPEAKING. 
 
 The English Language and its Proper Use, 595. The Correct Use of Language in Writing and 
 Speaking, 596. Rules for Spelling, 597. How to Use Capitals, 598. The Art of 
 Composition, 599. Two Hundred Mistakes of Daily Occurence in Speaking, Writing and 
 Pronunciation, 602-614. The Art of Correspondence, 615-666. Types and Their Names, 
 
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. 
 
 xi 
 
 667. How to Correct Printer’s Proof, 668. The Public Speaker and Reader, 869-684. 
 Exercises for Practice, 685. The Elocution of the Pulpit, 687. Extracts from Lord Chester- 
 field upon Elocution and Oratory, 688. A Dictionary of 12,000 Synonymous Words, 690-721. 
 
 VIII.— LITERARY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Selections from Celebrated Orators and American Patriots, 725-747. Selections from Classic 
 Authors, 747-757. Select Pieces from the Pens of Famous Authors, 757. Witty and 
 Humorous Poems, 760. The Young People’s Reciter, 763. Dialogues for Acting and 
 Dramatic Exercise, 768. The Broken Heart, 775. Principal Universities and Colleges in 
 the United States, 777. Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, 780. 
 
 IX.— POLITICAL AND HISTORICAL. 
 
 I.— POLITICAL INFORMATION. 
 
 The Australian Ballot System, 781-785. Duties of Officers of the Various Departments of 
 Government, 786-790. Digest of Parliamentary Law, 792; Parliamentary Law, 793-802. 
 Organization of Literary and Debating Societies, 803-808. Constitution of the United 
 States, 809-819. Declaration of Independence, 820-822. George Washington’s Inaugural 
 Address, 823. George Washington’s Farewell Address, 825-833. Abraham Lincoln at 
 Independence Hall, 834. Abraham Lincoln’s First Inaugural Address, 834-839. Emancipation 
 Proclamation, 839-840. Political Maxims from Cardinal De Retz, 841-843. Maxims of the 
 Earl of Chesterfield, 843-844. Political Duties, 845-846. United States Weather Bureau, 
 etc., 847-849. Dominion of Canada, 851-860. 
 
 II.— HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. 
 
 The Principal Nations of the World, 863-906. English Authors and Literature, 907-910. 
 American Authors and Literature, 911-913. History, Ancient and Modern, etc., 914-931. 
 International Commerce, etc., 933-936. History of Tariff Legislation in the United States. 
 937-941, Population of the States and Territories, 942. Americian Cities having over 
 50,000 Population, 942. Changes in the Tariff, 943. 
 
I N DEX. 
 
 A 
 
 
 American Authors and Literature . 
 
 , 
 
 911 
 
 
 
 American Horse, The . 
 
 
 405 
 
 Abbot, Ezra, Biography of 
 
 45 
 
 Ames, Adelbert, Biography of 
 
 
 47 
 
 Abbott, John S. C., Biography of 
 
 45 
 
 Ames, Fisher, Biography of . 
 
 
 47 
 
 Abbott, Lyman, Biography of 
 
 45 
 
 Amiability .... 
 
 
 401 
 
 Accidents, Special, How to proceed in 
 
 592 
 
 Amusements for Young People 
 
 
 465 
 
 Accounts, Analysis of . 
 
 162 
 
 Amusements ought to find a place in 
 
 the 
 
 
 Account of Stock, Taking . 
 
 164 
 
 Home .... 
 
 
 286 
 
 Adams, Charles F. , Biography of 
 
 45 
 
 Analysis of Copies 
 
 
 145 
 
 Adams, John, Biography of 
 
 45 
 
 Analysis of Subjects for Composition 
 
 
 600 
 
 Adams, John Q., Biography of 
 
 46 
 
 Anderson, Robert, Biography of 
 
 
 47 
 
 Adams, Samuel, Biography of 
 
 46 
 
 Anderson, Rufus, Biography of . 
 
 
 48 
 
 Addition, Separation and Division of 
 
 
 Angles and their Measurements 
 
 
 495 
 
 Questions .... 
 
 798 
 
 Andrew, John A., Biography of . 
 
 
 48 
 
 Address : Lincoln at Independence Hall v 
 
 834 
 
 Anthony, Henry M. , Biography of . 
 
 
 48 
 
 Address : Lincoln, Inaugural of 1861 . 
 
 834 
 
 Anthony, Susan B. , Biography of 
 
 
 48 
 
 Address, Washington, Farewell of 
 
 825 
 
 Appeal, Concerning an . 
 
 
 800 
 
 Address : Washington, Farewell to Army 
 
 728 
 
 Arbitration 
 
 
 198 
 
 Address : Washington, Inaugural of . 
 
 823 
 
 Archery, Rules of 
 
 
 428 
 
 Address : Washington, Resignation of 
 
 
 Architecture of the Home . 
 
 
 298 
 
 Commission .... 
 
 730 
 
 Arc Lamps .... 
 
 
 560 
 
 Adjourn, Motion to 
 
 796 
 
 Argentine Republic, History of . 
 
 
 863 
 
 A dministrator’s Bond, Form for . 
 
 242 
 
 Arthur, Chester A. , Biography of . 
 
 
 48 
 
 Adornment and Furnishing of the House 
 
 305 
 
 Art and Artists 
 
 
 125 
 
 Affectation ..... 
 
 399 
 
 Articles for Use, Chemistry 
 
 
 537 
 
 Affection and Love, Letters on 
 
 636 
 
 Art in the Household 
 
 
 356 
 
 Affinity, Chemical .... 
 
 534 
 
 Assignment of Life Insurance Policy . 
 
 
 216 
 
 Agassiz, Louis J. R. , Biography of . 
 
 46 
 
 Assignments .... 
 
 
 209 
 
 Agents and their Authority 
 
 204 
 
 Astor, John Jacob, Biography of 
 
 
 48 
 
 Agreement, General form of . 
 
 196 
 
 Astronomical Calculations . 
 
 
 495 
 
 Agreement, General, with Indemnity Bond 
 
 197 
 
 Astronomy, Definition of Terms 
 
 
 476 
 
 Agreements and Contracts 
 
 194 
 
 Astronomy, History of 
 
 
 460 
 
 Agriculture, Department of 
 
 790 
 
 Athletic Sports, Latest Laws of 
 
 
 411 
 
 Aim High .... 
 
 403 
 
 Attention, Necessity of 
 
 
 400 
 
 Aim in Life ..... 
 
 29 
 
 Attentions .... 
 
 
 400 
 
 Air-Gun, The .... 
 
 538 
 
 Attraction, Cohesive and Adhesive 
 
 
 517 
 
 Alcott, Amos B. , Biography of 
 
 46 
 
 Auctioneer, The (poem) 
 
 
 685 
 
 Alcott, Louisa M. , Biography of 
 
 47 
 
 Augur, Christopher C., Biography of 
 
 
 49 
 
 All that Move and Breathe (poem) . 
 
 766 
 
 Austria, History of 
 
 
 863 
 
 Ambition and Avarice . 
 
 399 
 
 Australian Ballot System . 
 
 
 781 
 
 Amendments, On .... 
 
 797 
 
 Averell, William W., Biography of . 
 
 
 49 
 
 Amendments to Constitution of United 
 
 
 Awkwardness of Expression 
 
 
 397 
 
 States .... 
 
 817 
 
 Award made under Arbitration 
 
 
 198 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xiii. 
 
 B. 
 
 
 Brutus and Cassius, (Shakespeare) 
 
 768 
 
 
 
 Brutus to the Romans, (Shapespeare) 
 
 728 
 
 Baby, The (poem) 
 
 766 
 
 Buchanan, James, Biography of . 
 
 54 
 
 Bainbridge, William, Biography of . 
 
 49 
 
 Buckingham, William A., Biography of 
 
 54 
 
 Balance of Trade .... 
 
 933 
 
 Buckner, Simon B. , Biography of . 
 
 54 
 
 Balance Sheet .... 
 
 170 
 
 Building Association, Co-operative 
 
 290 
 
 Ball Room, The Etiquette of 
 
 383 
 
 Buell, Don Carlos, Biography of 
 
 54 
 
 Ball Room, Toilet for the 
 
 384 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose E., Biography of . 
 
 54 
 
 Bancroft, George, Biography of . 
 
 50 
 
 Burr, Aaron, Biography of . 
 
 54 
 
 Bank Demand Note, Form of . 
 
 187 
 
 Bushy Eye-Brows, How to Produce 
 
 461 
 
 Bank Draft, Form of 
 
 190 
 
 Butler, Benjamin F., Biography of . 
 
 55 
 
 Banks, Nathaniel P., Biography of . 
 
 50 
 
 Business Law, Maxims on . 
 
 186 
 
 Base Ball ..... 
 
 426 
 
 Business, Letters on 
 
 623 
 
 Bayard, Thomas F,, Biography of . 
 
 50 
 
 Business Maxims and Rules 
 
 37 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre G. F., Biography of 
 
 51 
 
 Business, Order of . . , 
 
 795 
 
 Beck, James B., Biography of 
 
 51 
 
 Business Statement .... 
 
 171 
 
 Beecher, Henry W. , Biography of 
 
 51 
 
 Burying Ground, The, (poem) 
 
 765 
 
 Beecher, Lyman, Biography of 
 
 51 
 
 By-Laws, Building Association . 
 
 292 
 
 Bed-Rooms, Adornment of 
 
 315 
 
 By-Laws, Literary and Debating Society 
 
 805 
 
 Behavior ..... 
 
 403 
 
 
 
 Belgium, History of 
 
 864 
 
 Ca 
 
 
 Bell, John, Biography of 
 
 51 
 
 Caius Gracchus .... 
 
 685 
 
 Benjamin, Judah P., Biography of 
 
 51 
 
 Cake, How to Make 
 
 330 
 
 Benton, Thomas H. , Biography of . 
 
 52 
 
 Calculations, Astronomical 
 
 495 
 
 Bills of Exchange, Foreign, Form of 
 
 192 
 
 Calhoun, John C., Biography of 
 
 55 
 
 Bills of Lading .... 
 
 192 
 
 California Quail .... 
 
 432 
 
 Bills of Sale .... 
 
 203 
 
 Caloric or Heat .... 
 
 538 
 
 Biographical Dictionary . 
 
 45 
 
 Callers, Treatment of 
 
 367 
 
 Biographical Index 
 
 907 
 
 Cameron, Simon, Biography of 
 
 56 
 
 Bird Mounting .... 
 
 449 
 
 Canada, Dominion of 
 
 851 
 
 Bittern, The .... 
 
 436 
 
 Canada, Dominion of, History of 
 
 866 
 
 Blackburn, J. C. S., Biography of 
 
 52 
 
 Canby, Edward R. S., Biography of 
 
 56 
 
 Black, JeremiahS., Biography of . 
 
 52 
 
 Canova, Antonio. Sketch of . 
 
 126 
 
 Blaine, J ames G. , Biography of . 
 
 52 
 
 Capitals, Howto CJse 
 
 598 
 
 Blair, Montgomery, Biography of . 
 
 53 
 
 Capilary Attraction 
 
 519 
 
 Boiling and Stewing Meats 
 
 321 
 
 Carbon ..... 
 
 536 
 
 Boiling Fish .... 
 
 324 
 
 Carlitlr, John G. , Biography of . 
 
 5« 
 
 Boiling Vegetables .... 
 
 322 
 
 Carriage, Genteel 
 
 397-399 
 
 Bolivia, History of 
 
 865 
 
 Carroll, John, Biography of . 
 
 56 
 
 Book-Keeping, New and Improved . 
 
 153 
 
 Carving, The Art of 
 
 338 
 
 Book-Keeping by Double Entry 
 
 154 
 
 Cash Book, The .... 
 
 160 
 
 Book-Keeping by Single Entry . 
 
 175 
 
 Cash Book, The Petty . . . 
 
 172. 
 
 Bond, Forms of 197, 206 
 
 Cass, Lewis, Biography of 
 
 56 
 
 Bonds ...... 
 
 205 
 
 Cataline’s Defiance . . 
 
 686 
 
 Boone, Daniel, Biography of . 
 
 53 
 
 Caveat, Form of . . . . 
 
 236 
 
 Bowling, Laws of . 
 
 418 
 
 Ceilings, Decoration of . , 
 
 313 
 
 Boy who could not tell a Lie, The, (poem) 
 
 767 
 
 Census of 1890 .... 
 
 942 
 
 Bragg, Braxton, Biography of 
 
 53 
 
 Centre of Gravity .... 
 
 513 
 
 Brazil, History of . 
 
 865 
 
 Centre of Percussion 
 
 516 
 
 Bread, How to Make . 
 
 329 
 
 Centrifugal Force .... 
 
 509 
 
 Breckenridge, John C., Biography of . 
 
 53 
 
 Ceremony and Invitation, Notes of . 
 
 649 
 
 British Columbia, Laws of 
 
 860 
 
 Channing, Willian E. , Biography of , 
 
 56 
 
 Broken Heart, The, (W. Irving) . 
 
 775 
 
 Charades ..... 
 
 463 
 
 Brougham, Lord, Speech on Reform Bill 
 
 740 
 
 Chase, Salmon P., Biography of . 
 
 57 
 
 Brown, Joseph E., Biography of . 
 
 53 
 
 Chatauqua Literary and Scientific Circle 
 
 i 780 
 
 Brownlow, William G., Biography of 
 
 53 
 
 Chattel Mortgages .... 
 
 210 
 
xiv. 
 
 Check, Form of . 
 
 Chemistry, The Science of . 
 
 Chesterfield, Maxims by the Earl of . 
 Chesterfield, Letters to his Son . 
 
 Chesterfield, Extracts from 
 Cheves, Langdon, Biography of . 
 
 Chili, History of 
 China, History of . 
 
 Choosing Supplies 
 Church, Frederick E. , Biography of 
 Circumference of the Earth, To find the 
 Cities of the United States having 50,000 
 or more Inhabitants . 
 
 Civilized Life, Application of Electricity to 
 Claflin, Horace B. , Biography of 
 Classic Authors, Selections from 
 Clay, Cassius M., Biography of . 
 
 Clay, Henry, Biography of 
 Cleveland, Mrs. Frances, Biography of . 
 Cleveland, Grover, Biography of 
 Cleveland, Miss Rose E. , Biography of . 
 Clinton, Be Witt, Biography of 
 Clinton, George, Biography of 
 Cobb, Howell, Biography of 
 Cohesion and Adhesive Attraction . 
 
 Colfax, Schuyler, Biography of . 
 
 Colors, Contrasts Required 
 Colors, Harmonizing and Contrasting of 
 Colombia, History of . 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, Biography of . 
 Comets ..... 
 
 Comet, The Wonderful, of 1882 . 
 
 Commerce, International 
 Commerce, Our, with the World . 
 
 Commercial Law and Business Forms 
 Communication of Motion by Wheel- 
 work ..... 
 Company, Entertaining, (R. W. Emerson) 
 Composition, the Art of . 
 
 Conkling, Roscoe, Biography of 
 Committee of the Whole . 
 
 Committees, On 
 Committees, Report of 
 Condolence, Letters of 
 Congo Free State, History of 
 Congratulation,, Calls of 
 Congratulation, Letters of 
 Conservator’s Bond, Form of . 
 
 Consequences of Secession (Clay) 
 
 Consolation, Calls for . 
 
 Constitution of a Co-operative Building 
 Association .... 
 Constitution of Canada 
 Constitution of Literary and Debating 
 
 Society .... 803 
 
 Constitution of the United States . 809 
 
 Contract to Build a House. _ . 200 
 
 Cookery and its Art . . , 318 
 
 Coot, the American . . . 436 
 
 Co-operative Building Association . 290 
 
 Cooper, James Fenimore, Biography of 61 
 
 Cooper, Peter, Biography of .61 
 
 Copyright, The Law of . . 237 
 
 Corea, The History of . 872 
 
 Corcoran, Michael, Biography of . 61 
 
 Corcoran, William W. , Biography of 62 
 
 Cormorant, The .... 436 
 
 Corporations, etc., Liability of . 211 
 
 Correct Position in Writing . . 138 
 
 Correspondence, The Art of . . 615 
 
 Costa Rica, History of . . . 872 
 
 Costume and Make Up . . 459 
 
 Courtship and Marriage . . 377 
 
 Country Cousins, The (poem) . . 761 
 
 Covenant, Breach of, Damages . J99 
 
 Cox, Samuel S. , Biography of .62 
 
 Craft, Different kinds described . 438 
 
 Crane, The .... 436 
 
 Crittenden, John J., Biography of . 62 
 
 Crystallization, Experiments in . . 521 
 
 Cummings, Joseph, Biography of . 62 
 
 Curtains ..... 315 
 
 Curtin, Andrew G., Biography of . 62 
 
 Curtis, George Wm., Biography of . 63 
 
 Curtis, Samuel R., Biography of . 63 
 
 Cushing, Caleb, Biography of . 63 
 
 Cushing, Wm. B., Biography of . 63 
 
 D. 
 
 Dallas, George M. , Biography of . 64 
 
 Day Book Explained . . . 154 
 
 Day Book, Form of Double Entry . 155 
 
 Day Book, “ “ Single “ . 174 
 
 Day Book, Posting from, to Ledger . 175 
 
 Davis, David, Biography of . . 64 
 
 Davis, Jefferson, Biography of . . 64 
 
 Davis, John W., Biography of . 64 
 
 Death of a Member, Resolution on . 807 
 
 Death, To Produce the Hue of . 461 
 
 Debate, Decorum in 800 
 
 Debate, Rights and Duties of . , 799 
 
 Decency, True, .... 395 
 
 Declaration of Independence, . 820 
 
 Deeds, , . 212 
 
 Deems, Charles F. , Biography of . 64 
 
 Delicacy, False .... 398 
 
 Demosthenes, .... 686 
 
 Denmark, History of 873 
 
 Depew, Chauncey M. , Biography of 65 
 
 Deposit Slip, Form of . 186 
 
 Deserted Village, The, (poem) Goldsmith, 757 
 Design of the Home, The . . 306 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 187 
 533 
 843 
 394 
 688 
 57 
 
 867 
 
 868 
 320 
 
 57 
 500 
 
 942 
 554 
 
 58 
 747 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 59 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 60 
 
 517 
 60 
 313 
 310 
 
 870 
 60 
 
 492 
 
 493 
 933 
 279 
 183 
 
 526 
 372 
 599 
 60 
 802 
 805 
 801 
 
 642 
 
 871 
 367 
 
 643 
 207 
 734 
 367 
 
 290 
 851 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xv. 
 
 Designs and Plans. 
 
 American Cottage, . , , 
 
 Block of Four Houses 
 Cheap Cottages, 
 
 City Blocks of Six Houses 
 Country Clergyman’s Cottage 
 Country Cottage 
 Garden Cottage 
 Gothic Cottage 
 
 Home for Professional or Business Men 
 Private Dwelling for a Family of Means 
 Residences .... 
 Rural Gothic Cottage 
 Suburban Cottage 
 Superior Class of Cottages 
 De Stael, Madam, to Madam La Fayette 
 Dialogues for Acting, etc., 
 
 Dickinson, John, Biography of , 
 Difference in Time 
 Digest of Canadian Law . 
 
 Digest of Laws in all the States 
 Territories. 
 
 Divorce .... 
 Exemption .... 
 Interest Laws . . , 
 
 Marriage .... 
 Mechanics’ Liens 
 Rights of Married Women, 
 
 Statutes of Limitation . 
 
 Wills 
 
 Dignity of Labor, Rev. Newman Hall 
 Dining-rooms, Decoration of 
 Dinner Parties, — their Requirements 
 Disraeli on the Death of Lord Wellington 
 Distance from the Earth to the Moon, To 
 find the .... 
 Distance of the Planets from the Sun, To 
 find the .... 
 Distance of the Sun from the Earth, To 
 find the .... 
 
 Dix, John A., Biography of 
 Distraction and Inattention . 
 
 Doubleday, Abner, Biography of 
 Douglass, Frederick, Biography of . 
 Douglas, Stephen A. , Biography of 
 Draft Accompanying Bill of Lading 
 Draft, Bank, Form of 
 Dress, How to 
 
 Dress, The Effect of, in Photography . 
 Drive the Nail (poem) . 
 
 Drowned, The Treatment of the . 
 
 Duck, The Wild. 
 
 Dupont, Samuel F., Biography of 
 Dwight, Theodore W., Biography of 
 Dynamo— Electric Machine, The Weston 
 
 E. 
 
 Early Call, etc. , . . . . 874 
 
 Earth, Daily Revolutions of the , 484 
 
 Earth, The ..... 488 
 
 Ease and Grace, A Noble . . 400 
 
 Eclipse of the Sun and Moon . . 486 
 
 Ecuador, History of . „ 874 
 
 Edison, Thomas A. , Biography of . 67 
 
 Edmunds, George F. , Biography of . 67 
 
 Eggs, How to Select . . .321 
 
 Egypt, History of 874 
 
 Elections in Literary Society . . 804 
 
 Electricity as Applied to the Trades . 547 
 
 Electricity, The Problem Remaining to be 
 
 Solved ..... 567 
 
 Electric Light .... 554 
 
 Electroplating .... 571 
 
 Electrotyping .... 572 
 
 Ellsworth, Oliver, Biography of . 67 
 
 Elocution Considered as an Art . . 670 
 
 Elocution, Introduction to . . 669 
 
 Elocution of the Pulpit . . . 687 
 
 Elocution, Useful Hints on . . 683 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation . . 839 
 
 Emerson, Ralph W. , Biography of . 67 
 
 Emmet, Robert, Speech of . . 751 
 
 Engaged Parties, Additional Hints to 379 
 
 English Authors and Literature . . 907 
 
 Ericsson, John, Biography of . 68 
 
 Equinoxes, Precession of . . . 494 
 
 Etiquette, Manual of . . . 361 
 
 Etiquette of the Ball Room . . 383 
 
 Evarts, William M., Biography of . 68 
 
 Evening Entertainments . . . 373 
 
 Everett, Edward, Biography of . 68 
 
 Every Man His own Landlord . . 289 
 
 Exchange, Foreign Bill of . . 192 
 
 Executive Government of Canada, The 851 
 
 Executor’s Bond, Form for . . 242 
 
 Exemption Laws in all the States . 253 
 
 Exercises in Penmanship . . . 145 
 
 Exercises for Practice in Elocution . 685 
 
 Exercises, Order of . . . . 807 
 
 Express Companies, Liabilities of 211 
 
 Experiments, Chemical . . .535 
 
 F. 
 
 Face, The ..... 402 
 
 Family Physician in the Home of his 
 
 Patients .... 575 
 
 Family and Love Letters . . . 654 
 
 Farewell Address, Washington . 825 
 
 Farewell to the Army, Washington . 728 
 
 Farragut, David G. , Biography of . 69 
 
 Fees, Dues and Assessments in a Literary 
 
 Society ..... 806 
 
 309 
 
 317 
 
 313 
 
 304 
 
 308 
 
 317 
 
 306 
 
 305 
 
 293 
 
 303 
 
 307 
 
 315 
 
 310 
 
 316 
 
 646 
 
 768 
 
 65 
 
 178 
 
 858 
 
 AND 
 
 263 
 
 253 
 
 280 
 
 262 
 
 249 
 
 218 
 
 280 
 
 243 
 
 737 
 
 315 
 
 370 
 
 738 
 
 498 
 
 498 
 
 499 
 
 65 
 
 401 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 188 
 
 190 
 
 396 
 
 455 
 
 767 
 
 588 
 
 431 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 555 
 
XVI. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Female Characters, The Make up of 
 
 Fencing, Laws of 
 
 Fencing, Hints on 
 
 Field, Cryus W. , Biography of . 
 
 Fillmore, Millard, Biography of 
 
 Fire Balloons .... 
 
 Fire Insurance .... 
 
 Fish, How to Select 
 
 Fixed Stars, The 
 
 Flowers, Dictionary of 
 
 Flowers, The Language and Sentiment of 
 
 Floyd, JohnB., Biography of . 
 
 Foot Ball, Laws of ... 
 
 Foote, Andrew H., Biography of 
 Force of Character and Self Reliance . 
 Foreign Coin, Value of, in U. S. Money 
 France, History of . 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, Biography of . 
 Franklin, Letter of, to Mr. Straham 
 Fremont, John C., Biography of 
 Fruits, How to Can 
 Fuller, Melville M. , Biography of 
 Fulton, Robert, Biography of 
 Furniture and Decorations 
 Furniture and Hangings . 
 
 G. 
 
 Galileo, The Florentine 
 Game Birds of North America 
 Garfield, James A., Biography of 
 Garfield, Letters on the Sickness and 
 Death of President 
 
 Garfield, Mrs. Lucretia, Biography of . 
 Gentlemen’s Complete Letter Writer 
 Gentlemen’s Dress in Ball Room . 
 Germany, History of 
 Gerry, Elbridge, Biography of . 
 
 Gesture, On .... 
 
 Gifts, Notes to Accompany and Replies 
 
 Glass of Cold Water, A, (Gough) . 
 
 Godwit, The .... 
 
 Good Breeding .... 
 
 Good Penmanship 
 
 Good Society, Entrance into 
 
 Good Society, Forms and Usages of . 
 
 Goodyear, Charles, Biography of 
 
 Goose, The Wild 
 
 Gough, John B., Biography of . 
 
 Government, Departments of 
 
 Graces, The ..... 
 
 Graceful Behavior 
 
 Grady, Henry W. , Biography of . 
 
 Grant, Mrs. Julia D., Biography of . 
 Grant, Ulysses S. , Biography of . 
 Gravitation .... 
 Gravitation, Application of the Principle 
 
 462 
 
 426 
 
 427 
 69 
 
 69 
 541 
 216 
 320 
 501 
 389 
 386 
 
 70 
 414 
 
 70 
 
 31 
 
 182 
 
 878 
 
 70 
 777 
 
 71 
 338 
 
 71 
 
 71 
 
 308 
 
 314 
 
 474 
 
 429 
 
 72 
 
 621 
 
 72 
 
 623 
 
 384 
 
 882 
 
 72 
 
 677 
 
 645 
 
 747 
 
 434 
 
 396 
 
 141 
 
 398 
 
 361 
 
 72 
 431 
 
 73 
 786 
 398 
 396 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 508 
 
 473 
 
 Great Britain, History of . . 886 
 
 Greece, History of . . . . 887 
 
 Greeley, Horace, Biography of . 74 
 
 Green, Nathaniel, Biography of . 74 
 
 Greetings, Courteous, and Introductions 362 
 Gresham, Walter G., Biography of . 75 
 
 Grouse, The .... 429 
 
 Guardian’s Bond, Form of . . 207 
 
 Guatemala, History of . . . 891 
 
 H. 
 
 Halleck, Henry W. , Biography of . 75 
 
 Halls, The Decoration of . . 316 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, Biography of . 75 
 
 Hamlin, Hannibal, Biography of . 75 
 
 Hamlet to his Mother, Shakespeare . 686 
 
 Hamlet to the Players . . . 685 
 
 Hampton, Wade, Biography ot . . 76 
 
 Hancock, John, Biography of . 76 
 
 Hancock, Winfield S., Biography of . 76 
 
 Harmony of Colors, etc. , . . 305 
 
 Harrison. Benjamin, Biography of . 77 
 
 Harrison, Mrs. Caroline, Biography of 77 
 
 Harrison, William H., Biography of „ 77 
 
 Hawaii, History of . . 892 
 
 Hawley, Joseph R., Biography of . 77 
 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Biography of 78 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford B., Biography of . 78 
 
 Hayne, Robert Y. , Biography of . 78 
 
 Hayti, History of . . . 893 
 
 Hazen, William B., Biography of . 78 
 
 Hearing, The Sense of . . 583 
 
 Hendricks, Thomas A., Biography of 78 
 
 Henry, Patrick, Biography of .79 
 
 Henry, Patrick, Speech to the Assembly 
 
 of Virginia . . . 742 
 
 Here She Goes and There She Goes, (poem) 760 
 Heron, The .... 435 
 
 History of the Science of Astronomy . 470 
 
 Holmes, Oliver W. , Biography of . 79 
 
 Holt, Joseph, Biography of .79 
 
 Home, A Good, is Built on Compromises 285 
 Home, Amusements Ought to Find a 
 
 Place in the . . . 286 
 
 Home, Etiquette in the . . . 364 
 
 Home, The True ... 281 
 
 Honduras, History of 894 
 
 Hood, John B., Biography of . 80 
 
 Hooker, Joseph, Biography of . .80 
 
 Hopkinson, Francis, Biography of . 80 
 
 Horse, The American . . . 4:05 
 
 Hotspur’s Account of the Fop, Shakes- 
 peare .... 774 
 
 Houston, Gen. Sam., Biography of . 80 
 
 Howe, Elias, Biography of 81 
 
 How Often I Offend, (poem) . . 765 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xvii. 
 
 How They brought the Good News from 
 Ghent, R. Browning 
 Husbands and Wives 
 Hydraulics .... 
 
 Hydrostatics ..... 
 
 i. 
 
 Ibis, The ..... 
 Ice Cream of Different Flavors 
 Immobility ..... 
 Impenetrability of Matter 
 Important Suggestions 
 Inattention .... 
 
 Incandescent Lamps, The Maxim 
 Incline Plane .... 
 
 Indemnity Bond, A General Form of . 
 Indorsements .... 
 
 Inertia or Passiveness 
 Inflection ..... 
 Ingalls, John J., Biography of . 
 
 Ingalls, Rufus, Biography of . 
 
 Ingersoll, Robert G. , Biography of 
 International Commerce 
 Instruction on Penmanship Exercises . 
 Instructions and Advice to his Son, Lord 
 Chesterfield 
 
 Instruments used by the Astronomer . 
 Insults and Injuries 
 Insurance . . . . 
 
 Interest Laws .... 
 Interest Tables .... 
 
 Interior, Department of the . 
 Interpretation of Display Signals 
 Introduction to Philosophy . 
 
 Invoice Book .... 
 
 Irving, Washington, Biography of . 
 Irving, Washington, The Broken Heart 
 Italy, History of 
 
 j. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, Biography of . 
 Jackson, Thomas J., (Stonewall) 
 
 Japan, History of . 
 
 Jay, John, Biography of 
 Jefferson, Thomas, Biography of 
 Jefferson, Thomas, Letter of, to John 
 Adams on the Death of his Wife 
 Johnson, Andrew, Biography of . 
 Johnson, Richard M., Biography of 
 Johnston, Joseph E., Biography of 
 Jones, Paul, Biography of 
 Journal-Day Book, The Six-column 
 Journal Explained 
 
 Journal, Forms of .... 
 Judge Others by Yourself 
 Jupiter ..... 
 Justice, Department of 
 
 759 
 
 382 
 
 531 
 
 531 
 
 436 
 
 336 
 
 402 
 
 504 
 
 38 
 
 398 
 
 565 
 
 526 
 
 206 
 
 184 
 
 507 
 
 674 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 81 
 
 933 
 
 140 
 
 394 
 
 496 
 
 396 
 
 215 
 
 280 
 
 179 
 
 788 
 
 848 
 
 503 
 
 165 
 
 81 
 
 775 
 
 894 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 896 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 642 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 84 
 
 172 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 402 
 489 
 790 
 
 K. 
 
 Kalsomining . . . . . 314 
 
 Kearney, Philip, Biography of . 85 
 
 Kent, James, Biography of . . 85 
 
 Kilpatrick, Hugh J. , Biography of . 85 
 
 King, Rufus, Biography of .85 
 
 King, William R. , Biography of . 86 
 
 Kitchen, The .... 318 
 
 Knox, Henry, Biography of . . 86 
 
 Kossuth’s Farewell to his Country . 736 
 
 L. 
 
 Lacrosse, Laws of . 
 
 Ladies’ Complete Guide to Letter Writing 
 Ladies, Fashionable 
 La Fayette, Everett on the Character of 
 La Fayette to Jefferson announcing the 
 Death of Madam La Fayette 
 Landlord, Every Man his Own 
 Landlords and Tenants 
 Landlord’s Notice to Quit 
 Language, Correct Use of . 
 
 Language, The English , 
 
 Language and Sentiment of Flowers 
 Latitude of a Place, to find the 
 Lawn Tennis ..... 
 Lawn Tennis, Laws of . 
 
 Learning, How to Wear . 
 
 Learning and Politeness 
 Lease, Form of ... 
 
 Ledger, Closing of 
 
 Ledger Explained .... 
 Ledger, Form of Double Entry 
 Ledger, Form of Single Entry . 
 
 Ledger, Private .... 
 
 Lee, Henry, Biography of . 
 
 Lee, Robert E. , Biography of . 
 Left-Handedness .... 
 Legislative Powers, Canada . 
 
 Legislative Powers in the Several Prov- 
 inces ..... 
 Letters, Forms for Directing and Con- 
 cluding .... 
 Letters, General Directions for Writing 
 Letters, General Observation Concerning 
 Lever, The . . , . . 
 
 Liberia, History of 
 
 Libraries in the United States, Great . 
 Library, Decoration of the 
 Life Insurance .... 
 Light and its Rapidity . 
 
 Light, Effects of 
 Light, Reflection of 
 Limitation, Statutes of 
 Lincoln, Abraham, Biography of 
 
 411 
 
 646 
 
 398 
 
 726 
 
 643 
 
 289 
 
 225 
 228 
 596 
 595 
 386 
 500 
 420 
 423 
 396 
 402 
 
 226 
 163 
 162 
 166 
 175 
 165 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 400 
 
 852 
 
 853 
 
 620 
 
 616 
 
 619 
 
 524 
 
 898 
 
 268 
 
 315 
 
 216 
 
 539 
 
 539 
 
 540 
 280 
 
 87 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xviii. 
 
 Lincoln’s Address at Independence Hall 
 Lincoln, Benjamin, Biography of 
 Lincoln, Inaugural of 1861 . • 
 
 Literary and Debating Society 
 Little Nothings .... 
 Livingston, Edward, Biography of 
 Livingston, Robert, Biography of . 
 Logan, John A., Biography of . 
 Longfellow, Henry W. , Biography of 
 Longitude of a Place, To Find the 
 Longstreet, James, Biography of 
 Loomis, Elias, Biography of 
 Love Letters, Etiquette of 
 Love, Letters on 
 
 Lowell, James R., Biography of 
 Luck versus Pluck .... 
 Lunar Eclipse .... 
 Lyon, Nathaniel, Biography of . 
 
 M. 
 
 Macbeth’s Soliloquy, (Shakespeare) 
 McClellan, George B. , Biography of 
 Macdonough, Thomas, Biography of . 
 McCulloch, Benjamin, Biography of 
 McDowell, Irwin, Biography of . 
 McPherson, James B., Biography of 
 Madison, James, Biography of . 
 
 Magic Mirror, The Wonderful 
 Manner, etc., . . . . 
 
 Manners, Advantage of 
 Manners, Charm of . . . . 
 
 Manners, Dignity of 
 Manners, Ease of 
 Manners, Formation of 
 Manners, Grace of 
 
 Manners, Personal Appearance, Dress . 
 Mann, Horace, Biography of . 
 
 Man, The Well-Bred 
 Marine Insurance 
 Marion, Francis, Biography of . 
 Marriage, An Offer of . 
 
 Marriage Ceremony 
 Marriage in its Relation to Law . 
 Married Women, The Rights of 
 Mars, The Planet .... 
 Marshall, John, Biography of 
 Mather, Cotton, Biography of 
 Mathews, Stanley, Biography of 
 Maxims by Cardinal De Retz . 
 
 Maxims by the Earl of Chesterfield 
 Maxims of Business Law 
 Meade, George G., Biography of 
 Meagher, Thomas F., Biography of . 
 Mechanical Powers .... 
 Mechanics’ Liens in all the States 
 Medical and Physical 
 
 Meetings, Literary Society . . 805 
 
 Membership, Literary Society . 803, 805 
 
 Members, Initiation of . . . 806 
 
 Mental and Physical Culture . . 32 
 
 Mercury, The Planet . . . 482 
 
 Merganser, Hooded .... 437 
 
 Metric System, The . . . 275 
 
 Meteoric Rings .... 492 
 
 Meteors, Shooting Stars and Aerolites 492 
 Method and Manner . . . 398 
 
 Mexico, History of 898 
 
 Minor Planets, The .... 492 
 
 Mistakes Corrected, Two Hundred . 602 
 
 Mitchel, Ormsby M. , Biography of . 93 
 
 Modification of Motion . . 530 
 
 Monroe, James, Biography of .93 
 
 Moon, The .... 485 
 
 Morgan, Edwin D. , Biography of . 93 
 
 Morris, Robert, Biography of . . 94 
 
 Morse, Samuel F. B. , Biography of . 94 
 
 Mortgage Deeds, Form of . . 229 
 
 Mortgages ..... 229 
 
 Morton, Levi P. , Biography of . 95 
 
 N. 
 
 Naglee, Henry W., Biography of . 95 
 
 Name of Literary Society . . 803 
 
 Napkins, The Art of Folding . . 337 
 
 Nations, The Principal, of the World 863 
 Naturalization, The Law regarding . 237 
 
 Nautical Terms Explained . . 438 
 
 Navy, Department of the . . . 788 
 
 Negotiable Paper . . . 183 
 
 Nelson, William, Biography of . . 95 
 
 Neptune ..... 491 
 
 Netherlands, History of the . . 899 
 
 New Brunswick, Law of . . 858 
 
 Newman, John P., Biography of . 95 
 
 Newton and the Laws of Gravitation 472 
 
 Newton, Isaac, Biography of .95 
 
 New York, The new Landlord and Tenant 
 
 Law of . . . 226 
 
 Nicaragua, History of . . 900 
 
 Nitrogen or Azote . . . 536 
 
 Noble, John, Biography of .96 
 
 Non-cupartive Will, Form of . . 241 
 
 Norval and Glenalvon, (Rev. J. Howe) . 772 
 
 Note, Promissory, Form of . . 188 
 
 Note with Collateral Security . . 189 
 
 Nothing by Halves . . . 400 
 
 Nova Scotia, Laws of 860 
 
 Novice, The, in Society . . 404 
 
 o. 
 
 Object of Literary Society . . 803 
 
 Observances, General, in Etiquette . 369 
 
 834 
 
 87 
 
 834 
 
 803 
 
 403 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 499 
 
 89 
 
 89 
 
 379 
 
 618 
 
 89 
 
 35 
 
 488 
 
 89 
 
 686 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 91 
 
 91 
 
 540 
 
 397 
 
 399 
 
 402 
 
 400 
 
 403 
 
 397 
 
 400 
 
 375 
 
 91 
 
 396 
 
 215 
 
 91 
 
 377 
 
 379 
 
 261 
 
 217 
 
 488 
 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 841 
 
 843 
 
 186 
 
 93 
 
 93 
 
 523 
 
 249 
 
 575 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xix. 
 
 O’Connor, Charles, Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 96 
 
 Phalarope, The 
 
 . 
 
 437 
 
 Offences, On .... 
 
 
 806 
 
 Phillips, Wendell, Biography of 
 
 
 98 
 
 Officers, Duties and Obligations of 
 
 794, 804 
 
 Philosophy, Natural, Illustrated Experi- 
 
 
 Officers, Inauguration of 
 
 
 806 
 
 ments in 
 
 . 
 
 503 
 
 Officers of a Literary Society 
 
 . 
 
 808 
 
 Phonograph or Audophone . 
 
 
 574 
 
 Office, Removal from . 
 
 
 805 
 
 Phonetic Short Hand, Pitman’s System 
 
 269 
 
 Officers, Resolution of Thanks to 
 
 . 
 
 807 
 
 Photography, Instructions in, etc., . 
 
 
 450 
 
 Old Oaken Bucket, The, (Extract) . 
 
 
 685 
 
 Pickett, George E. , Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 99 
 
 Ontario, Laws of 
 
 . 
 
 859 
 
 Pierce, Franklin, Biography of 
 
 
 99 
 
 Orange Free State, History of 
 
 
 900 
 
 Pies, How to Make . . . 
 
 . 
 
 333 
 
 Ord, Edward 0. C. , Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 96 
 
 Pigeon, The Wild 
 
 
 433 
 
 Order of the Day 
 
 
 797 
 
 Pillow, Gideon J. , Biography of . 
 
 • 
 
 99 
 
 Order, Points of 
 
 . 
 
 797 
 
 Pinckney, Charles C. , Biography of . 
 
 
 99 
 
 O’Reilly, John Boyle, Biography of . 
 
 
 96 
 
 Pinkney, William, Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 100 
 
 Organize, How to, in Parliamentary 
 
 
 Pitch, On ..... 
 
 
 676 
 
 Manner 
 
 . 
 
 793 
 
 Pitt, William, Sketch of . 
 
 . 
 
 722 
 
 Organization of Literary or Debating 
 
 
 Planets, The .... 
 
 
 481 
 
 Societies .... 
 
 
 803 
 
 Please, How to 
 
 401, 402 
 
 Originality .... 
 
 . 
 
 34 
 
 Pleasing, The Art of 
 
 
 398 
 
 Othello’s Address to the Senate, (Shakes- 
 
 
 Plovers .... 
 
 . 
 
 435 
 
 peare) .... 
 
 
 773 
 
 Pneumatics, Chemistry 
 
 
 537 
 
 Outlines of History, Ancient and Modern 
 
 914 
 
 Pocahontas, Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 Poe, Edgar Allen, Biography of 
 
 
 100 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 Poet and the Rose, The, (poem) John Gay 
 
 759 
 
 Papers, Reading of, in Parliamentary 
 
 
 Poetry, Selections in 
 
 
 757 
 
 Bodies .... 
 
 . 
 
 798 
 
 Poisons and their Antidotes 
 
 . 
 
 589 
 
 Paraguay, History of . 
 
 
 901 
 
 Polish ..... 
 
 
 398 
 
 Parental and Family Letters 
 
 . 
 
 627 
 
 Politeness a Necessity 
 
 . 
 
 395 
 
 Parker, Theodore, Biography of 
 
 
 96 
 
 Political Duties, or How to Succeed 
 
 in 
 
 
 Passions, How to simulate the 
 
 . 
 
 681 
 
 Public Life 
 
 
 845 
 
 Parliamentary Law 
 
 
 793 
 
 Polk, James K., Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 101 
 
 Parliamentary Rules, Concise Summary of 
 
 792 
 
 Porter, David D. , Biography of 
 
 
 101 
 
 Parlor Entertainments . 
 
 
 457 
 
 Portugal, History of 
 
 . 
 
 901 
 
 Partnership Agreement 
 
 . 
 
 232 
 
 Postal Laws and Regulations of 
 
 the 
 
 
 Partnership and the Duties and Rights of 
 
 
 United States 
 
 
 193 
 
 Partners . 
 
 
 230 
 
 Postal Service of Canada . 
 
 . 
 
 855 
 
 Partnership, Dissolution of 
 
 . 
 
 233 
 
 Postal Rates of Canada 
 
 
 856 
 
 Patents, Bureau of 
 
 
 789 
 
 Post Office Department, The 
 
 . 
 
 789 
 
 Patents, Laws Concerning 
 
 . 
 
 233 
 
 Postpone, Motion to 
 
 
 797 
 
 Patterson, Robert, Biography of 
 
 
 97 
 
 Poultry, How to Select 
 
 . 
 
 331 
 
 Paulding, Hiram, Biography of . 
 
 . 
 
 97 
 
 Powderly, Terrence V., Biography of 
 
 
 101 
 
 Pause, On .... 
 
 
 672 
 
 Power of Attorney, Form of 
 
 . 
 
 205 
 
 Pemberton, John C., Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 97 
 
 Prentiss, Benjamin M., Biography of 
 
 
 101 
 
 Pendleton, George J. , Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 97 
 
 Prescott, William H., Biography of 
 
 . 
 
 101 
 
 Penmanship, Self-Instruction in 
 
 
 137 
 
 Price, Sterling, Biography of . 
 
 
 102 
 
 Penn, William, Biography of 
 
 , 
 
 97 
 
 Prince Arthur and Hubert, (Shakespeare) 
 
 769 
 
 Pensions, Bureau, of . 
 
 
 789 
 
 Priuli and Jaffier, (Thos. Otway) 
 
 . 
 
 771 
 
 Perry, Oliver H., Biography of . 
 
 . 
 
 98 
 
 Problems, Astronomical 
 
 
 498 
 
 Persistency and Individuality 
 
 
 34 
 
 Profession, Care in Choosing 
 
 . 
 
 27 
 
 Person, Care of, and the Toilet . 
 
 * 
 
 376 
 
 Proficiency in Penmanship 
 
 
 142 
 
 Persons of different Ages and Characters, 
 
 
 Progress of Life (Shakespeare) . 
 
 . 
 
 774 
 
 How to make up . 
 
 
 459 
 
 Promissory Note, Form of 
 
 
 188 
 
 Peru, History of 
 
 . 
 
 901 
 
 Promissory Note, Transfer of 
 
 . 
 
 209 
 
 Petition for Patents 
 
 
 236 
 
 Prompter, The .... 
 
 
 462 
 
 Petition to Governor . , 
 
 , 
 
 808 
 
 Proof or Trial Sheet * 
 
 . 
 
 165 
 
 Petition to State Legislature . , 
 
 
 808 
 
 Proof Sheet Corrected . . 
 
 
 668 
 
XX. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 / 
 
 Properties of Matter 
 
 504 
 
 Rittenhouse, David, Biography of 
 
 104 
 
 Property Sales and the Law of Titles 
 
 224 
 
 Roasting, Frying and Broiling 
 
 324 
 
 Propriety, Local .... 
 
 397 
 
 Roebling, John A., Biography of 
 
 104 
 
 Protest Against American War, (Wm. Pitt) 742 
 
 Room for Use, A 
 
 314 
 
 Protest upon Non-Payment of Note, 
 
 
 Roumania or Romania, History of 
 
 902 
 
 Form of ... 
 
 191 
 
 Rubens, Peter Paul, Sketch of 
 
 127 
 
 Ptarmigan, The Rock and American 
 
 437 
 
 Rudeness and Civility 
 
 396 
 
 Public Meetings, How to Call and Con- 
 
 
 Rules, Suspension of . 
 
 798 
 
 duct ..... 
 
 808 
 
 Rush, Benjamin, Biography of . 
 
 104 
 
 Puddings, How to Make 
 
 334 
 
 Rusk, Jeremiah M., Biography of . 
 
 105 
 
 Pulley ...... 
 
 524 
 
 Russia, History of . 
 
 903 
 
 Punctuation .... 
 
 617 
 
 Rutledge, John, Biography of 
 
 105 
 
 Q- 
 
 
 s. 
 
 
 Quadrille ..... 
 
 385 
 
 Sainte Beuve on Lord Chesterfield 
 
 394 
 
 Quaker, The, and the Robber, (poem) 
 
 762 
 
 Safety Devices in Electric Light 
 
 567 
 
 Quebec, Laws of 
 
 860 
 
 Sale of Minor’s Land, Form of Bond for 
 
 208 
 
 Question, Decision of . 
 
 794 
 
 Sales Book, Petty .... 
 
 172 
 
 Question of Privilege 
 
 796 
 
 Salvador, History of 
 
 904 
 
 Question, The Previous 
 
 797 
 
 Samoa, History of . 
 
 904 
 
 Quincy, Josiah, Biography of 
 
 102 
 
 Sandpiper, The Spotted 
 
 433 
 
 Quincy, Josiah Phillips, Biography of 
 
 102 
 
 Saturn ..... 
 
 490 
 
 Quitclaim Deed, Form of . 
 
 214 
 
 Sauces for Puddings 
 
 335 
 
 Quoits, Laws of . 
 
 426 
 
 Saving Banks, Canadian Postal . 
 
 858 
 
 Quorum, Literary Society . 
 
 805 
 
 Scenery for Parlor Entertainments . 
 
 459 
 
 Quorum, Parliamentary Law . 
 
 794 
 
 Schofield, John M., Biography of 
 
 105 
 
 Quorum, On Counting a, Speaker Reed’s 
 
 QAO 
 
 Schuyler, Philip, Biography of 
 
 106 
 
 Decision .... 
 
 oO A 
 
 Scott, Winfield, Biography of 
 
 106 
 
 
 
 Screw, The .... 
 
 528 
 
 Ki 
 
 
 Secondary Motions 
 
 796 
 
 Rail ...... 
 
 435 
 
 Secondary Motions, Modification of 
 
 798 
 
 Rains, Gabriel J. , Biography of 
 
 102 
 
 Sedgwick, John, Biography of 
 
 107 
 
 Ramsay, David, Biography of 
 
 102 
 
 Self-love ..... 
 
 397 
 
 Ramsay, Alexander, Biography of 
 
 103 
 
 Senses, The Five 
 
 581 
 
 Randall, Alexander'W. , Biography of 
 
 103 
 
 Seward, William H., Biography of 
 
 107 
 
 Randall, Samuel J., Biography of 
 
 103 
 
 Sex in the Vegetable World . 
 
 543 
 
 Randolph, John, Biography of 
 
 103 
 
 Shares of Stock, Agreement to sell 
 
 199 
 
 Reader and Speaker, The Public . 
 
 669 
 
 Shepherd, My, (poem) . 
 
 766 
 
 Reading Verse . 
 
 680 
 
 Sheridan, Philip H., Biography of 
 
 107 
 
 Read, Thomas Buchanan, Biography of 
 
 103 
 
 Sherman, William T., Biography of 
 
 108 
 
 Ready Reckoner, The . 
 
 178 
 
 Sickles, Daniel E., Biography of 
 
 108 
 
 Reciter, The Young People’s 
 
 763 
 
 Sight, The Sense of 
 
 582 
 
 Receipts, One Hundred Miscellaneous 
 
 347 
 
 Signals, Weather .... 
 
 847 
 
 Reception, Memorial and Presentation 
 
 
 Simpson, Mathew, Biography of 
 
 108 
 
 Cards ..... 
 
 653 
 
 Size of the Planets, To find the Relative 
 
 500 
 
 Reconsideration .... 
 
 801 
 
 Skin, The, and its Care 
 
 586 
 
 Reed, Thomas B. , Biography of . 
 
 104 
 
 Slocum, Henry W. , Biography of 
 
 109 
 
 Reference to a Committee 
 
 797 
 
 Smell, The Sense of , 
 
 583 
 
 Religious Pieces for Little Ones . 
 
 765 
 
 Smith, E. Kirby, Biography of 
 
 109 
 
 Rembrandt, Van Ryn 
 
 128 
 
 Snow Flake, The new Revelation of a . 
 
 522 
 
 Resignation .... 
 
 806 
 
 Social Calls .... 
 
 367 
 
 Resolutions and Petitions, Drafting of . 
 
 807 
 
 Social Respect .... 
 
 403 
 
 Resolves, Form for 
 
 807 
 
 Solar System, The 
 
 479 
 
 Reynolds, Joseph J., Biography of 
 
 104 
 
 Soups, How to Make 
 
 327 
 
 Reynolds, Sir Joshua, Sketch of 
 
 129 
 
 Spartacus to the Gladiators . 
 
 746 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xxi. 
 
 
 Special Accidents, How to Proceed in . 
 Specific Gravity .... 
 Speeches and Rhetorical Selections 
 Spelling, Rules"for 
 
 Spoonbill, Roseate .... 
 Stage Construction for Parlor Entertain- 
 ments .... 
 Stage Construction for Larger Theater . 
 Stanley, Henry M., Biography of 
 Stanton, Edwin M. , Biography of 
 Stanton, Mrs. Elizabeth C., Biography of 
 State, Department of 
 States and Territories, Census of 1890 
 Statute and Common Law 
 Steam Engine, The 
 
 Stewart, Alexander T. , Biography of . 
 Stilt, The Black-Necked 
 Storm, Cautionary and Wind Signals . 
 Stowe, Mrs. Harriet B. , Biography of 
 Strength of Materials 
 Striking Out and Inserting 
 Stuyvesant, Peter, Biography of 
 Subjects for Compositions 
 Submission to Arbitration, Form of 
 Success, How to Attain 
 Success the Result of Gradual Growth 
 Suffrage and Naturalization, Laws of . 
 Sun’s Diameter, To Find the . 
 
 Sun, The ..... 
 Sumner, Charles, Biography of 
 Sumner on the True Grandeur of Nations 
 Supper Table, The .... 
 Swayne, John W., Biography of 
 Swayne, Noah H., Biography of . 
 
 Sweden and Norway, History of 
 Switzerland, History of 
 Synonymous Words, Dictionary of 
 
 T. 
 
 Table, Etiquette Observable at the 
 Table, Honors of the 
 Table Ornaments and Arrangements 
 Table showing the number of days in one 
 
 month to the corresponding day in 
 
 any other month . 
 
 
 Taking Leave 
 
 . . 
 
 Talent and Breeding . 
 
 . 
 
 Talk, Foolish 
 
 , . 
 
 Talking . 
 
 . , 
 
 Talking about Yourself . 
 
 . 
 
 Taney, Roger B. , Biography of 
 Tariff, Changes in the 
 Tariff Legislation, History of 
 Taste, The Sense of . 
 Taxidermist’s Guide, The 
 Taylor, Zachery, Biography of . 
 
 Teal 435 
 
 Teeth and their Care, The . . 584 
 
 Telegraph, How to Learn . . 265 
 
 Telephone and its Uses, The . . 568 
 
 Telephone, Edison Loud Sounding, The 570 
 Telephone, Type-setting by . . 569 
 
 Temper ..... 401 
 
 Thomas, George H., Biography of . 113 
 
 Thompson, Jacob, Biography of 114 
 
 Thurman, Allen G., Biography of . 114 
 
 v Tickling Follies .... 402 
 
 Tilden, Samuel J., Biography of . 114 
 
 Time, A Proper Use of . . . 30 
 
 Time Indicator, Comparative . . 177 
 
 Time, Its Value .... 403 
 
 Time, New Standard . . . . 176 
 
 Titles, Laws of . . . . 224 
 
 Toilet, Adjuncts to the . . . 376 
 
 Tompkins, David D., Biography of . 114 
 
 Total Eclipse Described, A . . 488 
 
 Touch, The Sense of . . 581 
 
 Trade Marks ..... 237 
 
 Traveling, Politeness while . . 368 
 
 Treasury Department, The . . 787 
 
 Trial Balance .... 164 
 
 Trial Balance, Form of . . 170 
 
 Trifles ...... 401 
 
 True Grandeur of Nations, (Sumner) 725 
 
 Trumbull, Jonathan, Biography of . 114 
 
 Trustees’ Bond, Form of . . 208 
 
 Turkey, The Wild . . . . 429 
 
 Turkey, History of . . 906 
 
 Tyler, John, Biography of . . 115 
 
 Type-Setting by Telephone . . 569 
 
 Types, their Names, Sizes, etc. . . 667 
 
 u. 
 
 Underwood, Joseph R., Biography of . 115 
 
 United States, Constitution of . 809 
 
 United States, History of, (note) . . 906 
 
 United States, Outlines of History . 923, 927 
 
 United States Patent Fees . . 234 
 
 United States, Signal Service and its 
 
 Code .... 847 
 
 Universities and Colleges of the U. S. . 778 
 
 U pham, Charles W., Biography of . 115 
 
 Upton, Emory, Biography of . . 115 
 
 Uranus, The Planet . . . 491 
 
 Uruguay, History of 906 
 
 Useful Hints qp. Elocution . . 683 
 
 Utensils for Cooking . . . 319 
 
 v. 
 
 Vallandigham, Clement L., Biography of 115 
 
 Van Buren, Martin, Biography of . 116 
 
 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, Biography of . 116 
 
 592 
 
 510 
 
 725 
 
 597 
 
 436 
 
 457 
 
 457 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 111 
 
 786 
 
 942 
 
 194 
 
 538 
 
 111 
 
 437 
 
 848 
 
 111 
 
 527 
 
 798 
 
 112 
 
 599 
 
 198 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 237 
 
 500 
 
 479 
 
 112 
 
 725 
 
 374 
 
 113 
 
 113 
 
 905 
 
 905 
 
 690 
 
 368 
 
 369 
 
 371 
 
 181 
 
 374 
 
 398 
 
 398 
 
 404 
 
 399 
 
 113 
 
 943 
 
 937 
 
 584 
 
 446 
 
 113 
 
xxii. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vanderbilt, William H., Biography of 
 Van Renselaer, Stephen, Biography of 
 Venus, The Planet 
 View of the Heavens, Our. 
 
 Virtue, The Reward of . 
 
 Visitors at the Home 
 Visits, Ceremonious 
 Voorhees, Daniel W., Biography of 
 Voting, On .... 
 Vulcan, The Planet 
 
 116 
 
 116 
 
 482 
 
 476 
 
 403 
 
 365 
 
 366 
 116 
 800 
 481 
 
 w. 
 
 Wages, Assignment of, with Power of 
 
 Attorney .... 209 
 
 Waite, Morrison R., Biography of . 117 
 
 Wallace, Lewis, Biography of . . 117 
 
 Wall Paper and Carpets . . 309 
 
 Wanamaker, John, Biography of . 117 
 
 War, Department of . . 788 
 
 Warranty Deed, Form for . . 213 
 
 Washburne, Israel, Jr., Biography of 117 
 
 Washington, George, Biography of . 117 
 
 Washington, George, Farewell of . 825 
 
 Washington, George, Farewell to Army 728 
 
 Washington, George, Inauguration of 823 
 
 Washington, George, Resignation of 
 
 Commission .... 730 
 
 Washington, Mrs. Martha, Biography of 118 
 
 Wayne, Anthony, Biography of . 118 
 
 Waves and their Motions . . . 542 
 
 Weather Bureau and its Value . 847 
 
 Webster, Daniel, Biography of . . 118 
 
 Webster, Daniel, at the Centenary Cele- 
 bration at Washington . . 743 
 
 Webster, Daniel, on Crime its Own 
 
 Detector .... 745 
 
 Webster, Eulogy on, Choate . . 733 
 
 Webster’s Reply to Hayne . . 731 
 
 Webster, Noah, Biography of . 119 
 
 Wedding Anniversaries . , . 652 
 
 Wedding Cake, Cards and Gifts , 381 
 
 Wedding Cards and Invitation . , 650 
 
 Wedge, The . . . 530 
 
 Wedge, The Law of the . 
 
 Weed, Thurlow, Biography of 
 Weeping, To Produce the Effect of 
 West, Benjamin, Biography of » 
 
 What is Taste 
 Wheel and Axle, The . 
 
 Wheel and Pinion . 
 
 Wheeler, William A., Biography of . 
 Where Living Waters Flow, (poem) 
 Whipple, Abraham, Biography of . 
 Whitney, William C., Biography of 
 Whittier, John G. , Biography of 
 Wilkes, Charles, Biography of . 
 Williams, Roger, Biography of 
 Wills and Testaments, Last 
 Will Suitable for General Use, Form oj 
 Wilson, Henry, Biography of 
 Wills, Laws of all the States on 
 Winding, How it is done in Dynamos 
 Windom, William, Biography of 
 Windows .... 
 Winslow, John A., Biography of 
 Winthrop, John, Biography of . 
 Winthrop, Robert C., Biography of 
 Wise, Henry A., Biography of . 
 Witty and Humorous Selections 
 Woman, A Model . 
 
 Woodcock, Snipe, etc., 
 
 Wool, John E. , Biography of 
 Woolsey, Theodore D., Biography of 
 Worcester, Joseph E., Biography of 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yancey, William L., Biography of 
 Yates, Richard, Biography of 
 Young House Keepers, A Few Hints to 
 Young People, Amusements for . 
 Young People’s Reciter 
 
 z. 
 
 Zodiacal Light, The 
 Zodiac, Signs of the 
 Zollicoffer, Felix K. , 
 
 Biography of 
 
 532 
 
 119 
 461 
 
 120, 130 
 307 
 
 525 
 
 526 
 
 120 
 766 
 120 
 120 
 120 
 121 
 121 
 
 239 
 
 240 
 121 
 243 
 555 
 121 
 314 
 122 
 122 
 122 
 122 
 760 
 362 
 434 
 123 
 123 
 123 
 
 123 
 
 123 
 
 372 
 
 465 
 
 763 
 
 494 
 
 477 
 
 123 
 
List of' Illustrations 
 
 Portrait of Prof. It. C. Loveridge 
 
 Frontispiece 
 
 Farragut, David G., 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 69 
 
 The White House, Washington, D. C. 
 
 
 40 
 
 Field, Cyrus W., 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 . 
 
 69 
 
 Presidents of the United States 
 
 
 
 41, 44 
 
 Floyd, John B. , . 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 
 
 
 Foote, Andrew H., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 Adams, Chas. Francis. 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 Fremont, John C., . 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 71 
 
 Agassiz, Louis J. R., 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 Fulton, Robert . 
 
 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 Ames, Fisher, 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 Garfield, Mrs. Lucretia . 
 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 Anderson, Robert . 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 Goodyear, Charles 
 
 
 
 
 
 72'. 
 
 Andrew, John A., 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 Grant, Mrs. Julia D., 
 
 
 
 
 
 73; 
 
 Anthony, Henry B., 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 Greeley, Horace 
 
 
 
 
 
 741- 
 
 Augur, Christopher C., 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Greene, Nathaniel . 
 
 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 Averell, William W., 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Halleck, Henry W., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 Bainbridge, William, . 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 Bancroft, George, . 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Hampton, Wade 
 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 Bayard, Thomas F,, 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 Hancock, John . 
 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre G. F., . 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 Harrison, Mrs. Caroline B., 
 
 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 Benjamin, Judah P., . 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 Hazen, William B., 
 
 
 
 
 
 78; 
 
 Blackburn, J. C. S. , 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 Henry, Patrick 
 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 Blaine, James G., 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 Holt, Joseph 
 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 Boone, Daniel, 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 Hood, John B., . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 Breckenridge, John C., 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 Hooker, Joseph . 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 Buckner, Simon B., 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 Hopkinson, Francis . 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose E., 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 Howe, Elias 
 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 Butler, Benjamin F. , 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 Irving, Washington . 
 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 Calhoun, John C., 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 Jackson, Thomas J., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 82: 
 
 Canby, Edward R. S. 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 Jay, John 
 
 
 
 
 
 83; 
 
 Channing, William E., 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 Johnston, Joseph E., 
 
 
 
 
 
 84. 
 
 Chase, Salmon P., . 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 Jones, Paul 
 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 Church, Frederick E., . 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 Kearney, Philip . 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 Claflin, Horace B. , . 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 Kilpatrick, Hugh J., 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 Clay, Henry 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 King, Rufus 
 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 Cleveland, Mrs. Frances F., 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 Lee, Robert E., 
 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 Cleveland, Miss Rose E., 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 Livingston, Robert R. , . 
 
 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 Clinton, De Witt 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Logan, John A., 
 
 
 
 
 
 88 
 
 Conkling, Roscoe 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 Longstreet, Janies 
 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 Cooper, Peter 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 Lyon, Nathaniel 
 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 
 Corcoran, William W. , 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 McClellan, George B. , . 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 Curtin, Andrew G., 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 Macdonough, Thomas 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 Curtis, Samuel R., 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 McPherson, James B., . 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 Cushing, Caleb 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 Marion, Francis 
 
 
 
 
 
 91 
 
 Davis, David 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 Marshall, John . 
 
 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 Davis, Jefferson 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 Mather, Cotton 
 
 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 Depew, Chauncey M., . 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 Meade, George G., 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 93 
 
 Doubleday, Abner, . 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 Morgan, Edwin D. , . 
 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A., . 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 Morris, Robert 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 94 
 
 Dupont, Samuel F., 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 Morse, Samuel F. B., 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 Edison, Thomas A., 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 Morton, Levi P., . 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 95 
 
 Emerson, Ralph W. , 
 
 
 . 
 
 67 
 
 Nelson, William 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 95 
 
 Ericsson, John, . 
 
 . 
 
 
 68 
 
 Noble, John . 
 
 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 Everett, Edward, 
 
 
 . 
 
 68 
 
 Ord, Edward O. C., . 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 , 
 
 96 
 
XXIV. 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Patterson, Robert • . 
 
 Penn, William • , 
 
 Perry, Oliver H., 
 
 Phillips, Wendell . . • 
 
 Pickett, George E. , 
 
 Pillow, Gideon J., . . . 
 
 Pinkney, William 
 Pocahontas . 
 
 Porter, David D. , . • 
 
 Powderly, Terrence V., 
 
 Price, Sterling .... 
 Ramsay, David 
 Randall, Samuel J., 
 
 Randolph, J ohn 
 Reynolds, Joseph J., . 
 
 Roebling, John A., . 
 
 Rusk, Jeremiah M., 
 
 Schofield, John M., . 
 
 Schuyler, Philip, . • • 
 
 Scott, Winfield 
 Sedgwick, John 
 Sheridan, Philip H., 
 
 Sherman, William T., . 
 
 Sickles, Daniel E., . . • 
 
 Slocum, Henry W., . • 
 
 Smith, E. Kirby . . . 
 
 Stanley, Henry M., 
 
 Stanton, Edwin M., 
 
 Stanton, Mrs. Elizabeth C., . 
 
 Stowe, Mrs. Harriet B., • 
 
 Stuyvesant, Peter 
 Sumner, Charles 
 Thomas, George Henry 
 Thompson, Jacob . 
 
 Tilden, Samuel J. 
 
 Trumbull, Jonathan . . 
 
 Vallandigham, Clement L., . 
 
 Vanderbilt, Cornelius 
 Waite, Morrison R., 
 
 Washburne, Israel, Jr., 
 
 Washington, Mrs. Martha 
 Webster, Daniel 
 Whipple, Abraham 
 Williams, Roger. 
 
 Wilson, Henry 
 Winslow, John A., 
 
 Winthrop, John 
 Wool, John E., . 
 
 Martha Washington in her Early Days 
 Artist and Easel .... 
 Antonio Canova 
 Rembrandt at His Work 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds . . 
 
 Benjamin West .... 
 Artistic Vases . . . 
 
 Pen Flourishing .... 
 
 Correct Position of the Hand 
 
 
 m 
 
 Penmanship Copies 
 
 a 
 
 145-152 
 
 Comparative Time Indicators 
 
 
 . 177 
 
 Commercial Department 
 
 • 
 
 185 
 
 Warehouse and Shipping . 
 
 
 . 194 
 
 Patent Office at Washington . 
 
 • 
 
 235 
 
 Instruments for Telegraphy 
 
 
 . 266 
 
 Batholdi’s Statue of Liberty 
 
 • 
 
 278 
 
 A Desirable Residence, etc., 
 
 
 . 293 
 
 Plan of the First Floor 
 
 • 
 
 294 
 
 A Private Residence, etc., . 
 
 
 . 295 
 
 Suburban Residence 
 
 • 
 
 295 
 
 Architecture of Every Age 
 
 
 296, 297 
 
 Country Clergyman’s Cottage 
 
 • 
 
 298 
 
 An American Cottage 
 
 
 298 
 
 Rural Gothic Farm House 
 
 a 
 
 299 
 
 Suburban Cottage . 
 
 
 299 
 
 Architecture of Every Age 
 
 
 300, 301 
 
 Design for a City Block of Six Houses 
 
 302 
 
 Plan of the Second Story 
 
 
 303 
 
 Plan of City Block of Six Houses 
 
 
 304 
 
 Garden Cottage . 
 
 
 306 
 
 Plan for Ground Floor 
 
 
 306 
 
 Plans for Garden Cottage 
 
 
 307 
 
 Plan for Country Clergyman’s Cottage 
 
 308 
 
 Rear of Country Clergyman’s Cottage 
 
 309 
 
 Plans of an American Cottage 
 
 
 309 
 
 Plans of Suburban Cottage 
 
 
 310 
 
 Front Elevation of House 
 
 
 311 
 
 Plan of Ground Floor of Same . 
 
 
 . 311 
 
 Cheap Cottage . 
 
 
 313 
 
 Plan of Ground Floor, No. 25 
 
 
 314 
 
 Plan of First Floor, No, 27 
 
 
 315 
 
 Plan of Second Floor No. 28 
 
 
 316 
 
 Plans of First and Second Floor, No. 29, 316 
 
 Front Elevation, No. 31 
 
 
 317 
 
 Plan of Ground Floor No. 32 . 
 
 
 317 
 
 A Plan of a Block of Four Houses 
 
 
 317 
 
 Illustrations of Folded Napkins 
 
 
 337 
 
 Illustrations of Fish 
 
 
 339 
 
 Illustrations of Poultry 
 
 
 340, 341 
 
 Illustrations of Game 
 
 
 341, 342 
 
 Illustrations of Joints . 343, 344, 345, 346 
 
 Washington’s Interview with his Mother 358 
 
 Breeds of Horses (colored) 
 
 to face 405 
 
 Skeleton and Points of the Horse 
 
 . 
 
 410 
 
 Quail and Wild Turkey 
 
 to face 429 
 
 The Partridge and its Young . 
 
 
 430 
 
 Wild Goose and Wood Ducks 
 
 to face 432 
 
 Wild Swan and Snipe . 
 
 to face 434 
 
 Yacht Club Signals . 
 
 to face 438 
 
 Instruments used in Taxidermy 
 
 . 
 
 446 
 
 Method of Procedure 
 
 
 447 
 
 Bird Mounting . 
 
 • 
 
 449 
 
 Case for Birds 
 
 
 . 450 
 
 Amateur Photographer 
 
 . 
 
 450 
 
 97 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 102 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 104 
 
 104 
 
 105 
 
 105 
 
 106 
 
 106 
 
 107 
 
 107 
 
 108 
 
 108 
 
 109 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 110 
 
 111 
 
 111 
 
 112 
 
 112 
 
 113 
 
 114 
 
 114 
 
 115 
 
 115 
 
 116 
 
 117 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 119 
 
 120 
 
 121 
 
 121 
 
 122 
 
 122 
 
 123 
 
 124 
 
 125 
 
 126 
 
 128 
 
 129 
 
 130 
 
 132 
 
 135 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 XXV. 
 
 Magic Lantern 
 Stage Construction 
 jalileo Explaining His Theories . 
 Scenery in the Moon . 
 Illustration of Gravitation 
 Application of Principle (two cuts 
 Galileo .... 
 Egyptian Idea of the Zodiac . 
 Parallels and Meridians . 
 
 Signs of the Zodiac 
 Illustrations of the Earth . 
 
 Daily Revolution of the Earth 
 The Seasons .... 
 Phases of the Moon 
 Principle of Eclipses 
 Earth and Moon . 
 
 A Solar Eclipse . . . 
 
 A Lunar Eclipse 
 Jupiter and His Moons . 
 
 Saturn and His Rings . 
 Observatory in Bengal 
 Angles and Measurement of Angle 
 Lenses .... 
 Diagrams of Measurements . 
 
 Star Clusters (two cuts) . 
 Weighing the Crown . 
 Impenetrability of Solids 
 Impenetrability of Air 
 Illustration of Inertia 
 
 45? A Retort ..... 585 
 
 458 Filling a Retort with Oxygen . . 535 
 
 468 Instruments for Use in Chemistry 536, 537 
 
 469 Air Gun ..... 538 
 
 472 Illustration of Steam . . . 538 
 
 473 Paradoxical Experiment . . . 538 
 
 474 Magic Mirror .... 541 
 
 475 Fire Balloon .... 542 
 
 476 Waves and their Motion Illustrated . 542 
 
 478 Weston Dynamo— Electric Machine at the 
 
 483 Central Station . . . 546 
 
 484 The Electric Machine . . . 547 
 
 484 The Electric Toy .... 548 
 
 485 The Electric Chime . . . 548 
 
 486 Henley’s Quadrant Electroscope . . 548 
 
 486 The Leyden Jar . . . . 549 
 
 487 The Toy Lightning Rod (two cuts) . 549 
 
 488 Crystals ..... 550 
 
 489 Horse Shoe Magnets . . . 551 
 
 490 Power of the Magnet . . . 552 
 
 495 Weston Dynamo — Electric Machine . 556 
 
 496 Section Armature and Single Disk . 557 
 
 496 Armature and Commutator . . 557 
 
 498 Diagram of Winding . . . 558 
 
 501 Weston Armature Superposed Winding 558 
 
 503 Side by Side Winding . . e 559 
 
 505 Alternate Superposed Winding . . 559 
 
 506 Weston Armature Showing Adjacent 
 
 507 Coils Connected to Alternate Strips 
 
 Machine to Show Inertia 
 
 508 
 
 of the Commutator 
 
 # 
 
 559 
 
 Illustration of Attraction 
 
 510 
 
 Regulator .... 
 
 # 
 
 560 
 
 Illustration of Specific Gravity 
 
 511 
 
 Cut Off for Arc Lamps 
 
 • 
 
 560 
 
 Machine ..... 
 
 513 
 
 Duplex Lamp 
 
 • 
 
 561 
 
 Illustrations of Centre of Gravity . 
 
 515 
 
 Weston Arc Lamp, Two Views 
 
 
 562 
 
 Illustration of Centre of Percussion 
 
 516 
 
 Duplex Lamp 
 
 # 
 
 563 
 
 Tubes of Various Sizes 
 
 519 
 
 Weston Enclosed Frame- Arc Lamp 
 
 
 563 
 
 Crystallization (two cuts) 
 
 521 
 
 Duplex Lamp, Side Elevation (two cuts) 
 
 564 
 
 Corpuscles in a Drop of Snow Water 
 
 523 
 
 Maxim Incandescent Lamp 
 
 . 
 
 565 
 
 The Lever .... 
 
 524 
 
 Indicator and Interior of Indicator 
 
 
 566 
 
 Diagram of Platform Scales 
 
 524 
 
 Automatic Cut-off for Treating Carbons 
 
 567 
 
 The Pulley .... 
 
 525 
 
 Telephone .... 
 
 . 
 
 569 
 
 The Wheel and Axle 
 
 525 
 
 Phonograph and Graphophone 
 
 . 
 
 574 
 
 Combination Wheel and Axle 
 
 526 
 
 Diagram of the Hand 
 
 . 
 
 581 
 
 Motion by Wheel Work . 
 
 526 
 
 Diagrams of the Eye (three cuts) 
 
 582. 
 
 583 
 
 The Incline Plane 
 
 527 
 
 The First or Milk Teeth . 
 
 
 584 
 
 The Kite ..... 
 
 527 
 
 The Permanent Teeth . 
 
 # 
 
 585 
 
 Strength of Materials 
 
 527 
 
 Treatment of the Drowned (two cuts) 
 
 588 
 
 Testing the Strength of Materials 
 
 528 
 
 How to Fold a Letter (two cuts) . 
 
 # 
 
 617 
 
 The Screw .... 
 
 528 
 
 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham 
 
 # 
 
 722 
 
 Various Applications of the Screw 
 
 529 
 
 Robert Emmet 
 
 
 752 
 
 Combination Lever, Screw and Pulley 
 
 530 
 
 United States Flags 
 
 to face 786 
 
 The Wedge (two cuts) . 
 
 530 
 
 National Capital, Washington, D. 
 
 c., 
 
 791 
 
 Modification of Motion . . 
 
 530 
 
 United States Weather Signals 
 
 to face 84? 
 
 Hydrostatics Illustrated . • 
 
 531 
 
 Victoria Square, Montreal 
 
 
 850 
 
 Hydraulics Illustrated . . 
 
 532 
 
 Map of the World 
 
 . 861, 862 
 
 Experiment in Chemistry , . 
 
 533 
 
 Tomb of Columbus . . 
 
 • 
 
 932 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 THOSE WHO HAVE ACHIEVED IT AND HOW, 
 
 WITH 
 
 EXAMPLES FROM THE LIVES OF EMINENT MEN. 
 

 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 THOSE WHO HAVE ACHIEVED IT AND HOW, 
 
 WITH 
 
 EXAMPLES FROM THE LIVES OF EMINENT MEN. 
 
 SUCCESS THE RESULT OF GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 HEN we come to analyze the character of those with whom we are sur- 
 rounded, we are forced to the conclusion, that for the most part men are 
 neither mentally nor morally what they ought to be. When we contrast 
 the real condition of men, content with a dwarfed intellectual and spir- 
 itual growth with the glorious possibilities of a noble and earnest man- 
 might be his, how vast the difference. If we question the experience of 
 those about us, shall we not be convinced that men are prone to sink to what is below 
 rather than rise to what is above them? The process of leveling down to our surround- 
 ings is so much easier than leveling up to our possibilities. 
 
 Is it not well, then, for the young man at the very outset of his career, to set 
 before him the example of men who have attained eminence among their fellows, and 
 discover if possible the methods by which they succeeded ? 
 
 It is surely the part of wisdom to look upon those who have done the best, and 
 resolve to imitate their example instead of gazing in discouragement upon the thousands 
 who have utterly failed, or who are now pursuing the course which leads to certain fail- 
 ure. Because, however humble our station in life, we are under the weightiest moral 
 obligation to do the best possible and therewith be content. If our life work be worth any 
 effort it demands the noblest and the best, and the man who for the sake of personal ease 
 -or comfort would economize his effort is both a bungler and a trifler. How many are 
 satisfied to saunter along upon the dead level of mediocrity with the plodding multitude, 
 and how few with a noble purpose, born of a strong confidence and indomitable will. fusJi 
 
 hood which 
 
22 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 far in advance of their fellows till from their loftier eminence they can point to grandei 
 triumphs beyond. But the silent influence of the example of these few may be traced 
 in the lives of other men and in the destinies of nations. To stimulate man to the 
 noblest self-exertion, there has been set before him a perfect example, and although he 
 may never attain to its full height, yet he who follows it will surely reach a higher rank 
 than he who counts on certain failure, or who aims at a lower standard. True, some may 
 rise high above us. The Poet and the Prophet may be wafted in their fire-chariot above 
 the clouds and we be unable to follow them in their heavenward flight, but even while 
 we gaze after them their mantle may perchance fall upon us and we may go forth to pro- 
 phesy in the same spirit, or we may catch some spark of the fire which glowed in their 
 bosoms and reflect upon the world its light and heat. 
 
 Are there difficulties in the way, and must we yield to unfavoring circumstances ? 
 No! he who rises in conscious strength above circumstances' is himself master of the 
 situation, and conquers success. So shall it ever be with the true hearted soul who moves 
 steadily onward. Discouragements may gather around him ; they were made only to be 
 overcome, and by overcoming to develop strength. There may be huge stumbling-stones 
 in the way, but they may be made the stepping-stones along which the resolute soul has- 
 tens on his upward course. The hills of difficulty may rise rugged and steep before him, 
 but they shall be changed by the touch of his feet to the mountains of delight where the 
 breezes fresh from the fields of the blessed shall fan his brow, and from whose summit he 
 may overlook all intervening difficulties into the celestial city of glorious success. He 
 who by strength of purpose would accomplish this must remember that success is a prize 
 to be achieved only by persistent, untiring exertion. It is never a premium for a single 
 spasmodic effort, nor a bauble thrown to the votary of the fickle goddess Fortune. 
 
 Permanent and continual success is the only standard of value, and to attain this 
 there must be a normal and steady growth of the powers. — An achievement which would 
 be counted a success for a youth would be a most signal failure for a mature man. It is 
 the promise for the future which enhances the brilliancy of the effort of the lad, and not 
 the intrinsic merit of his performance itself. 
 
 The valedictorian who secures the honor of the college at graduation, may have 
 reached the limit of his growth, or he may be content with his success, and ever after- 
 wards fail to make his mark, while the laggard in his class may far outstrip him in the 
 race of life. 
 
 Those who have achieved commercial, forensic or literary prominence in early life, 
 have surely displayed unusual power, and if there be a symmetrical combination of the 
 physical and the mental under control of judgment and reason, we may safely predict 
 a wonderful brilliancy for the future. 
 
 John Quincy Adams astonished his friends when a lad of seven years, by deliver- 
 ing in the presence of the family, a speech worthy the capacity of a youth of fourteen. 
 If this should be called precocity it was at least attended by a steady development which 
 never ceased. The gray-haired ex-President dies on the floor of Congress, after winning 
 the nobly earned title of “ Old Man Eloquent.” 
 
 That remarkable Poet of Nature, William Cullen Bryant, at the age of sixteen wrote 
 the immortal poem to Immortality, “ Thanatopsis,” and won the admiration of the literary 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 25 
 
 world. After scattering the deathless gems of thought along his pathway for nearly 
 three score and ten years, the octogenerian recently pours forth his “Flood of Years/' 
 which for exalted imagery and purity of diction, has never been surpassed by another, 
 and rarely equaled by himself, and then he dies : 
 
 !t Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
 
 Around him and lies down to pleasant dreams. ” 
 
 Benjamin West, the first American painter, kneeling by the cradle-side, catches the 
 beauty of the smiling babe and with the poor appliances at hand transfers it to paper, and 
 thus displays the dawning of a genius which in later life was recognized and honored in 
 two hemispheres. Yet in spite of these conspicuous examples of youthful genius suc- 
 ceeded by matured power in age, we are forced to acknowledge that the great majority 
 of brilliant achievements in early life are followed by speedy failure and intense obscurity. 
 There must be a reason for this in the philosophy of things. Is there not something in 
 the very character of success that tends to paralyze their power and defeat their ambi- 
 tion ? Does not the the novice wearing his laurel crown, find in the praise of the throng a 
 syren who lulls to sleep his energies, and dissipates his mind with the fearful delusion 
 that his natal sfcar was a lucky one, and therefore the gods will protect him ? Even while 
 we may boast of our individuality and claim to discard utterly the doctrine of fatalism — ) 
 and as Americans we are wont to do this — yet in the bosom’s secret depths there lurks a 
 misty but ever powerful impression that “it is better to be born lucky than rich. ” 
 Never was there a more foolish sophistry than this. “ Luck ” is for him who has the 
 perseverance and the ambition to conquer despite his surroundings. 
 
 Persistency, in the long run, will always outstrip mere brilliancy. The list of 
 mighty names on the annals of history proves this. 
 
 Many who were remarkable for nothing in their youth save stupidity, have, in 
 after years, achieved fame. Julius Caesar, the conqueror of a world, when a youth 
 was very ordinary in mind and aspirations. It required long seasons of the severest 
 experience to rouse his latent energies, and develop his astonishing ability to com- 
 mand unconquerable legions, and give the ages the type of unbounded ambition. 
 Sheridan, the brilliant and witty orator, in his boyhood was regarded as a stupid 
 dunce. The immortal bard of Avon, before he came to his teens, we are told, was 
 dull to a lamentable degree. The great reformer, Martin Luther, was a prodigious 
 drone at his studies, and, while he denounced the tyranny of his teachers, it does not 
 appear that they were successful in rousing his dormant energies, even by means of 
 the fifteen floggings which they bestowed in one forenoon. 
 
 We find him a lad at Mansfeld dependent upon the charity which he begged from 
 door to door, with no resources except a fine musical voice and the meager scraps of food 
 Cast into his bag. A dread of what might happen amounting to a superstition, at length 
 compelled him to enter a monastery, and in later life he tells us: “That it was one of 
 God’s ways of making men out of beggars, as he made the world out of nothing.” Study 
 was so distasteful to Daniel Webster that he never took high rank in his classes, and, in 
 a fit of personal disgust, tore up his diploma and threw away the fragments behind the 
 little church at Dartmouth. Until he was fifteen he tells us the Friday’s exercise in 
 declamation was his mortal dread. The silver-tongued Patrick Henry, who sounded the 
 
24 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 rallying cry of the Revolution, shirked his work and neglected his studies until he was 
 past thirty. 
 
 The most marked characteristics of Beecher, whose recognised abilities and genius 
 are of world-wide reputation, in early years were his dislike of study and his inordinate 
 love of fun. 
 
 In some cases the process of mental development is more gradual than in others, 
 just the same as it is in physical growth. While early success is not always the pre- 
 cursor of early decay, at the same time a tardiness of development and a delay of success 
 are not always unfortunate. The life will be no less valuable when it comes to mature. 
 What, if the youthful power lies dormant at first, when at last it unfolds and grapples 
 with the intricate problems of state, as in the case of Webster and Disraeli, or bends its 
 mighty genius to the accomplishment of some God-given idea, as did the devout Bernard 
 Palissy to discover the application of artistic effect, or Newton to demonstrate the hidden 
 law of nature, then, though it takes scores of years, when it comes it confers a character 
 affecting the life of the discoverer in every direction. One gigantic effort does not make 
 a hero. Was Victor Hugo less a writer of genius before a line of his “ Les Miserables” 
 had been published than after he had received the plaudits of the entire literary world ? 
 Was the Iron Duke less a commander before the bugle sounded the charge at Waterloo 
 than after the proud eagles of the French empire had trailed in dust ? These successes 
 only revealed greatness ; they did not create it. The mighty brain of the novelist had 
 been trained to think, and he was a rhetorician long before he took pen to write his great- 
 est work. Wellington had the genius and the discipline for a warrior before he crossed 
 swords with the Little Corporal. The slowly developing process of daily toil and daily 
 discipline constitute greatness as much, ah, more, than the mighty achievements which 
 they render possible, and for which the world honors them. There is no opportunity for 
 the study of tactics and preparation of equipment after the bugle has sounded the ad- 
 vance. That is the battle cry for action on a hotly contended field. 
 
 The day to rely upon the presige of birth or position has passed. The field is be- 
 fore you, and if you would conquer you must depend upon your own powers of hand, 
 head and heart. Unprovided with these you will be overcome as by a giant’s arm. 
 
 What if some whom you once knew have risen without a seeming struggle? that is 
 no criterion for you. Their personal resources of strength are hidden from you, and 
 should you attempt to accomplish the same you would meet only with failure and dis- 
 grace. In their successes you have seen only the perfected work of the artist and the 
 adept, not the labors and process of the studio and the workshop. 
 
 Disraeli, who has won the proud title of “ The Great Premier,” found that the path 
 that led to his eminence was no royal road of flowers. His career furnishes an illustra* 
 tion of how great toil and humiliating failure one must endure to achieve permanent 
 success. In oratory, in literature, in statescraft, his maiden efforts were, in each case, 
 most signal failures. Every sentence of his first speech in the House of Commons was 
 greeted with prolonged peals of derisive laughter. It was conceived in stilted thought 
 and delivered in lofty diction that rendered it a fitting subject for jeers. It was pro- 
 nounced “ more screaming than an Adelphi farce.” “ Hamlet played as a comedy was 
 nothing compared to it.” But the man, although smarting under the jeers heaped upon 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 him, and stung to the quick by the opprobrium he had received, closed the speech with a 
 sentence which at once displayed the metal which was in him, and his indomitable pur- 
 pose to succeed* Shaking his long, bony fingers in the faces of the laughing throng, he 
 earnestly cried out, “ I have begun a number of things many times and have succeeded 
 in them at last I will sit down now. The time will come when you will hear me ’’ 
 And the prophecy proved true, as the pages of modern history so well demonstrate . 
 He betook himself to careful study to correct his faults, to understand his audience and 
 master the situation. Persistent, untiring exertion was the price which he paid for his 
 final wonderful success. And he won it The ornate and finished orator then takes the 
 house by storm, the crowded galleries and eager members hanging with breathless atten- 
 tion upon his words ; and his manuscripts then command untold prices among the eager 
 publishers. 
 
 The history of journalism in this country furnish examples of what may be accom- 
 plished by these characteristics. Greeley, Brooks, Bryant, were laboring men in a most 
 wonderful degree, and retired at night as thoroughly wearied as any man who worked 
 their old-fashioned hand presses. From positions of obscurity they arose step by step 
 to the foremost rank in their profession, where their commanding influence affected the 
 opinions of hundreds of thousands. 
 
 James Gordon Bennett began the publication of the paper which has made his name 
 a household word wherever the English tongue is spoken, in a cellar with a board across 
 the head of a barrel for his desk. With unconquerable persistence he performed all the 
 work of the office, from the most menial drudgery to that of editor-in-chief. He was 
 without personal comforts or even conveniences, his only hope being his confidence that 
 M sometime the world would recognize the man who did his work well.” Beginning as a 
 penny sheet the Herald has entered the lists in such contests as few other papers have 
 ever ventured to meet. Nor did he relax his exertions till he had raised his paper to a 
 position which demands the respect and influences the thoughts of thousands. 
 
 The same truth holds in the examples of successful financiers. There have been 
 cases of sudden wealth by immense speculation, but often, when the bubble burst, the 
 collapse leaves the man, unfortunately, devoid of other resources. The fortunes of the 
 noted financiers of the world have been acquired after fifty, the previous years having 
 been spent in building up physical strength and gaining knowledge. George Peabody 
 acquired his immense fortune by long years of patient and indefatigable toil, and a para- 
 graph from his speech when on a visit to Danvers, Mass., now called Peabody in his 
 honor, is to the point, and shows the spirit of the man : 
 
 “ Though Providence has granted me an unvaried and unusual success in the pursuit 
 ef fortune in other lands, I am still in heart the humble boy who left yonder unpretend- 
 ing dwelling. There is not a youth within the sound of my voice whose early opportuni- 
 ties and advantages are not very much greater than my own, and I have since achieved 
 nothing that is impossible to the humblest boy among you.” Anything that is worth 
 having or doing is the result of protracted and earnest effort, and though success may 
 seem to be long delayed, yet he who would win it must needs be careful not to relax an 
 effort or to waste an opportunity. 
 
26 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 A. T. Stewart, the gigantic merchant, who built up a business which has been the 
 wonder of the age, amassed the greater part of his fortune after he had passed the age of 
 fifty. The immense establishment which he had conducted with success by his own in- 
 dividuality and executive ability, it is now announced within six years after the death of 
 the originator, will be closed. And this is because of the lack of the very elements 
 which constituted his greatness, although the men in charge have remarkable talents in 
 other directions. 
 
 We are warranted then, in repeating the truism, “ Success is a creature of continual 
 and gradual development. ,, The oak tree that sends its roots deep into the earth, and 
 lifts its branches defiant to the storms of winter, has not come to its strength by any 
 sudden growth, but through the heat and cold, the rain and sunshine of a hundred years. 
 The gourd that springs up in the night may wither beneath the scorching rays of the 
 summer sun, but the giant oak will defy the blast of wildest storms. Despise not then 
 the slow process of development nor the humble means that afford aid around you. If 
 you have not the best appliances use those which you have at hand, and make them serve 
 your noble purpose. Just as Michael Angelo made his first models from lumps of clay 
 with which he was working; as James Ferguson measured the heavens and mapped out 
 the universe with a string of beads stretched between his eye and the firmament ; as 
 “rare old Ben. Johnson” worked on Lincoln Inn with a trowel in his hand and afbook in 
 his pocket, and when not using the one reading the other; as West drew his pictures 
 upon a piece of board with bits of chalk and charcoal, so the men who would reach the 
 noblest success must seize even the meanest instruments and compel them to work grand 
 results. Such a one will never want for help, but will rely upon his own resources. 
 With a dauntless perseverance he will hew for himself, if need be, a path straight through 
 the forest of difficulties regardless of the way-marks blazed upon the trees by those who 
 have preceded him. 
 
 The age demands of its workers the best, and it will sift to the last the pretensions 
 of those who solicit its favors. Never before more than now, was excellence made the 
 crucial test of success. Brilliant talents may and will be improved by industry. Mode- 
 rate ability may more than supply its deficiency by diligence and persistent application. 
 4 ‘ Nothing is denied to well-directed labor ; nothing can be obtained without it.” 
 
 The first class positions are not few, but the men to fill them worthily are scarce. 
 The thoroughfares are crowded with a bustling throng who hustle each other hither and 
 thither but the few who reach the top find an ample space for the use of all their reserved 
 powers. 
 
 Consecration to one Purpose. — Never was a man known to attain anything 
 worth attaining without self-denial, and he who would succeed in life must practice it. 
 Self indulgence ruins men ; she is the Delilah upon whose lap many a noble head has 
 been shorn of its strength and manhood forever. Self denial makes strong men. She 
 is the angel who leads them ever onward over a rough and thorny path it may be, but 
 she finally puts the crown of lasting success upon their brows. There is self indulgence 
 in the terror-stricken, ruined Belshazzar, trembling in the midst of his drunken lords and 
 debased concubines. There is self denial in the Prophet who stands erect before him 
 to pronounce his well deserved doom. And he who would scale the heights of the grand 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 27 
 
 est possibilities must learn this lesson at the very beginning. That what will impair .he 
 strength of mind or of body, militates against the symmetrical development of both, and 
 renders the unfortunate incapable of the best and noblest endeavor. The man of bril- 
 liant genius who puts the spur to his powers by unnatural stimulation, is drawing upon 
 his reserve capital and must suffer in the future for the excess of the present. 
 
 Recreation and amusement are natural demands of the human mind and body, as 
 rest and change at repeated intervals will conduce to the healthful growth of both. But 
 dissipation of any kind, and the kinds are legion, is a violation of nature’s law, which 
 must sometime receive its full penalty. 
 
 Another element conducive to a steady growth of power is self consecration. By 
 that is signified the devotion of one’s energies, time and talent to a given object. All 
 things are made to bend to this one. There is to be no divided aim. He may gather in 
 from all the rich stores about him whatever he can to bless his bodily existence, enrich 
 his mind or elevate his soul all that can prosper him in his temporal circumstances, or 
 win for him the honor of the worldly wise, but all this must be done with a single and 
 worthy aim in view. Then he may reap the golden harvest of commerce, secure the 
 gems of enterprise and art, or cull the fairest flowers of literature. He may lay heaven 
 and earth, mind and matter, society and solitude, nature and art, under contribution to 
 aid him. He may live , as lives the tree by drawing its nourishment from every clod of 
 earth at its roots, from every particle in the atmosphere around its trunk, from every 
 drop of dew that glistens upon its leaves, or every sunbeam that plays amid its foliage, 
 and gains strength from every passing blast, or gentle breeze that sweeps over it. But if 
 he be wanting in these three essentials, self exertion, self denial and self consecration, he 
 has utterly and miserably failed, for without them there can be no uniform and healthy 
 growth, and consequently no continued success. 
 
 CARE IN CHOOSING A PROFESSION. 
 
 CTIVITY is the normal condition of life, and only by its exercise the 
 highest degree of happiness may be reached. It is not labor but fretting 
 that hurts the man and his power. The galling yoke hurts more than the 
 load. It is a philosophical fact the individual type of mind can more 
 readily work in its particular groove. It therefore follows that a man may 
 id to a certain line of pursuit than another. It is most important then that 
 the choice of profession or calling should be made with reference to the mental bent and 
 inclination, thus the desire to find what is regarded as elegant and honorable. A master 
 workman honors his profession. The profession never honors the negligent or superfi- 
 cial one. 
 
 If the parents arrogate the right to choose a calling for their son they have no moral 
 right to consult their own feelings and personal prejudices. It is a matter of the deepest 
 concern to the lad for a lifetime that no mistake be made at the beginning. 
 
 The lad may be most dull and ordinary in a given direction, but there will be some 
 thing that may arouse his latent force and call out the energies which would forevei 
 
28 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 remain dormant if he were forced to follow what was distasteful to him. He must eartf 
 for himself a position in the world or he fails to become a man. 
 
 The old law holds good, “ if any should not work neither should he eat,” but this 
 must not be the greatest nor the only motive for activity. It is not alone to be consid- 
 ered how a man may easiest gain a subsistence, but how can he attain the most useful- 
 ness and become an honor to the world. He who looks for an easy position with the 
 least exertion, may well heed the advice of Beecher to a young- man of this class who 
 wrote to him for aid to find such a place. “Young man,” he wrote, “I have thought 
 over your case pretty thoroughly and know of no place for you but in Greenwood. There 
 you will be troubled by nothing but worms.” Charles Lamb, the genial and worthy 
 essayist, was annoyed by the constant drudgery which chained him to his desk in the 
 India office, but after he had been released from it, within a few years he sighed for an 
 opportunity to return. 
 
 In a civilized state of society a division of labor is required, and it is according to 
 the highest law of nature that some should excel in a given pursuit. The main thing is 
 to study carefully the adaptability of the mind and body to the calling, and choose in ref- 
 erence to these. There are very few men who have a versatility of talents which fit them 
 for a number of different pursuits, and make them adepts in each. Robert Collyer 
 may be able to forge a first-class horse shoe, deliver a magnificent oration, or write a suc- 
 cessful essay, but how many are capable of only one thing. Suit the profession then to 
 the capacity, and having found what that is bend every energy to the effort to excel 
 therein. Hugh Miller, the noted geologist, very pertinently says : “ There is no greater 
 mistake for a laboring man to make than to think that his calling is humiliating. I have 
 known several poor wrecked mechanics who believed themselves to be poets who re- 
 garded the occupation by which they earned a livelihood as beneath them, and, in conse- 
 quence, have become scarcely less than mere mendicants. I would give a wide offing to 
 such a fatal error.” 
 
 Herschel was a musical performer, and followed his profession for a subsistence until 
 he was called to receive the honors of the scientific world for his wonderful discoveries, 
 He would leave the dancers for whom he was playing in Bath to catch an opportunity 
 to study the heavens, and while not despising his occupation, which gained his daily 
 bread, laid the foundation for a lasting fame. Elihu Burritt, the learned blacksmith, 
 while blowing the bellows at his humble forge, devoted his spare moments to study, and 
 by that means became the most noted linguist of his times. 
 
 “It is perfectly indifferent in what circle an honest man acts, provided he do but 
 know how to understand and fill out that circle.” It may be true that circumstances, to 
 a certain degree, develop the tastes and direct the inclinations of a man. There are 
 times in life when he is more susceptible to these extraneous influences than others. The 
 early years of life passed on the coast may give the youth a bias for the sea. A home by 
 an extensive and well established railroad may turn the thoughts to railroading. The 
 acquaintance with an artist, an orator, or an actor, may awaken a penchant for one of 
 these professions. But admiration for greatness and desire to imitate it must not be mis- 
 taken for ability in that direction. When the deeds of these men find a hearty response 
 in the soul, and a longing for the opportunity to accomplish the same that cannot be 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 29 
 
 satiated, then it is well to attempt the same line. Correggio read the biography of 
 Michael Angelo, and his soul burned within him as he exclaimed, “ I, too, am a painter.” 
 Benjamin Franklin took Cotton Mather’s book, “ Essays to do Good,” for his model, 
 and unconsciously repeated its maxims until, in after life, he claimed that these writings 
 were the inspiration of all his usefulness. Alfuri came to devote his life to literature 
 from the enthusiasm which “ Plutarch’s Lives ” inspired within him. But a man may 
 read a hundred biographies and the master chord not be struck in his bosom ; he may be 
 an intimate acquaintance with genius and not feel the fire kindling in his heart. It is 
 because he has not a kindred spirit, and it will require a master hand to touch the key- 
 note of his life. Then let him take time to determine for himself the bent of his abilities, 
 or let those who are responsible for his early training do this. The years to be devoted 
 to mental culture and physical growth, which will lay a broad foundation for an active 
 life in any direction, are not too many, and the world can wait for a competent hand to 
 take the wheel and direct its energies. 
 
 When once the person has chosen let him bend every energy of mind and body in 
 the direction selected ; let him resolve to surpass in some one department of his calling. 
 If he be a blacksmith let him be determined to make the best horse shoe or anything 
 else rather than be a fair workman in all directions. 
 
 No discouragements, no difficulties should stand in the way of his advancement. 
 
 At the age of eighteen Joseph Wright decided to follow the profession of law. He 
 was penniless and almost without friends. He was compelled to gain his daily bread by 
 the sweat of his brow. Toiling in the brick yard during the Summer he would take time 
 to study early and late. In Winter he performed odd jobs while attending school. At 
 the Spring exercise once the Professor refused him opportunity to speak because he 
 deemed his oration unworthy of the occasion. He resolved to speak in spite of the pro- 
 hibition, and after the announced speakers had finished, young Wright, clad in his unpre- 
 tending working dress, came upon the platform and delivered the ablest effort of the 
 evening. He felt that to fail at such a time would wreck all his prospects for life. He 
 afterwards became a most successful lawyer, the Governor of Indiana and Minister to 
 Berlin. 
 
 Whatever your calling may be, either from a mistaken choice or the force of circum- 
 stances, do your best to ennoble it. If you are a rail-splitter like Lincoln, or a canal-boy 
 like Garfield, be the best of them all ; and in whatever station you are placed be a man. 
 
 A WORTHY AIM IN LIFE. 
 
 OSELY connected with the subject above mentioned is this one. Even 
 although a man may possess the most brilliant talents, they are useless if 
 they are not directed in some one channel. There must be a full concen- 
 tration upon the object in view. The true marksman should never scatter 
 his fire, but aim at the object to be brought down. 
 
 The God of Nature has not misapplied his gifts to man, but adapted them to the 
 needs of the time and circumstances. He has given each man something to do, which 
 
30 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 each can accomplish better than any one else. It is your duty to seek out that one thing 
 and do it with all your might. True greatness is connected with every association that 
 an honest man should follow. In its formation the soul is moved by the grand prompt- 
 ings to duty within it, and has no place for the flimsy expectations of the future. It does 
 what it has to do in the present with no thought of the glory to follow, but from very 
 necessity. Demosthenes, bawling to the roaring sea with his mouth filled with pebbles, 
 not dreaming of the position which awaited him. His only motive was to overcome his 
 unfortunate stammering, and be able to attack Philip of Macedonia. Patrick Henry 
 did not consider the honor of posterity, but, fired with a noble patriotism, poured forth 
 the tides of eloquence which aroused his countrymen. Shakespeare wrote not for the 
 ages, but to supply the demand of his times, and produce plays for his own stage. Han- 
 nibal did not think of glory when he was hemmed in by the Roman army, and tied 
 burning fire brands to the horns of the bullocks and drove them bellowing like mad 
 through the camp of the enemy, completely routing and scattering them. He only 
 thought of getting out of that valley of death. The immediate demands of the present 
 are enough to inspire the noblest action and achieve greatness without the prompting of 
 future glory. This is a most essential point. 
 
 A PROPER USE OF TIME. 
 
 ETHOD in the application of effort is required in every pursuit. A time 
 to do everything that needs to be done. The author of Night Thoughts 
 uttered a truth when he said : 
 
 We take no note of time, but from its loss.” 
 
 How often the most precious opportunities are allowed to slip away, and the hours 
 flow by unemployed, or misemployed. If habits of listless idleness are once formed they 
 rivet their fetters about the mind, and it requires the most gigantic effort to throw them 
 off. Wealth once gone may be recovered by patient industry. Forgotten knowledge 
 will return by application, but lost time has fled forever. An unpunctual man never 
 achieves any marked success in anything. The humorous Lord Chesterfield re- 
 marked of the Duke of Newcastle: “His Grace loses an hour in the morning, and is looking 
 for it all day.” That is the fate of an habitually unmethodical man. 
 
 The military chieftains who have stood before the world in conscious strength, have 
 been examples worthy of imitation in this respect at least. Grant never lost his patience 
 with an officer unless he was tardy, that was unpardonable. 
 
 The unusually quiet and methodical Washington told his secretary who excused 
 his tardiness because of the slowness of his watch, “You must get another watch or I 
 another secretary.” 
 
 Bonaparte, upon the eve of an important movement requiring secrecy, ordered all 
 lights in the camp to be extinguished at a given signal. He himself blowed out his can- 
 dle with an important order half written. Then stepping to his tent door he peered out 
 into the darkness to see how well his ordesA had been obeyed. He saw the ray of one 
 light coming from the tent of an officer, and proceeding thither the startled man excused 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 SI 
 
 himself by saying : “He was writing the last line of a letter to his wife/ 1 “Add a post 
 script,” said the General, “I die at sunrise for disobedience of orders.” 
 
 Astor laid the foundation of his immense wealth by saving the pennies. Hersche! 
 and Farraday did not let a moment slip past unimproved. 
 
 A young English officer received an appointment to a position in the East and being 
 asked when he would be ready to start replied. “To-morrow morning.” He became 
 Governor-General of India. 
 
 The best method to economize time is to work by rule. Much depends upon sys- 
 tematic work by an arrangement that makes the very changes a recreation in itself. The 
 mind rests only by change, never by complete inactivity. Very few persons can well 
 afford to be spasmodic and regardless of method. 
 
 Coleridge was a man of whom a writer very justly says : “He passed his whole life 
 out at the elbows physically and morally.” And he never achieved the height of success 
 which he might have won with his splendid talents, had he been systematic in his methods 
 It is wonderful what glorious possibilities may be achieved by an hour here and 
 there taken from the activities of a busy life. Sir Walter Scott an officer of the gov- 
 ernment with his time not his own, plodded at his desk day after day, but write he musti 
 ^and from the hours for recreation and rest he gave the English Tongue the classic novels, 
 that bear his name. Do we not find the great commentator, Albert Barnes, doing the s . 
 same under like circumstances ? George Stephenson wrested the hours from sleep to 
 experiment and study to revolutionize the commerce of the world. An English Lord 
 being entertained at Marshfield by Mr. Webster, at the table one morning remarked, 
 “X do not wish our proposed jaunt for the day to interfere with your plans for study.” 
 “Not in the least,” was the response, “I rise at five and do all my studying before break- 
 fast, then I am ready for business or pleasure.” 
 
 We must take care not to make such unrelaxed use of power as to overstrain body 
 or mind. This is most exhausting, and defeats the obect in view. But there are com- 
 paratively few to whom this caution is necessary. The majority will rust out rather than 
 wear out. Hard work carried on with a due regard to the laws of health will seldom, it 
 ever, break down any ordinary man. When men do break down it is fiom the want of 
 orderly methods in their work, or running under a high pressure of steam at improper 
 times 
 
 FORCE OF CHARACTER AND SELF RELIANCE. 
 
 N element of success, which ought not to be overlooked, is self-reliance. 
 This should be taught the lad in early life. He is not to depend upon his 
 parents for success. His position must be earned by his own unaided 
 powers. Teachers, instructors in every direction, are not to do his work, 
 but show him the best way to do it himself. The thing which a boy does 
 for himself unaided is the indication of the strength there is in him, and the promise 
 tor the future. An imitation, however good, is not for an instant to be compared with 
 an original work, even if inferior. 
 
 An exalted Relf-respect must always oe allied to self-reliance. Disraeli says, “The 
 youth who dc>£/, not look up will look down, and the spirit which does not soar is des- 
 
32 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 lined, perhaps, to grovel.” Luther dared the frown of the Pontiff at Rome, and burned 
 his bull of excommunication, conscious of his power to withstand the enmity of the reli- 
 gious world. A supreme confidence in the right will form the armor of defense and the 
 weapons of offense in any contest in life. Jackson had the same when he vetoed the 
 National Banking Bill, and Napoleon, when he said, “ There are no Alps,” evinced the 
 spirit. The conviction of a soul that dares to think and do for himself will overcome the 
 most appalling difficulties. 
 
 A high-flown conceit must not be mistaken for self-trust, nor recklessness take the 
 place of force of character. 
 
 In the days of medieval chivalry conceit was too often mistaken for courage, and a 
 most miserable counterfeit it was. It afforded the witty Spaniard, Cervantes, a most 
 fitting object for his shaft of satire in Don Quixote , and he paraded the bauble in the 
 ishape of men who seem but cannot be what they claim. 
 
 Bravado must not assume to be self-reliance. There may be an element of make 
 Believe in all that one does, but that is not self-trust. The general who encamped upon 
 <a hill in plain view of a superior enemy, and marched his little army the livelong night 
 in front of his camp-fire, whom the enemy seeing thought to be the continued arrival of 
 reinforcements, exhibited a true degree of self-trust, but when Louis of France declared, 
 At I am the state,” he unconsciously betrayed his own imbecility. 
 
 Luther said, when he was persuaded not to attend the Diet at Worms, “ I will go to 
 Worms though every tile upon the house tops was a devil ” ; Latimer, bound at the 
 stake, holding his hand in the flames until it burned away ; Bruno, when he told the 
 judges of the Inquisition, “ You are more afraid to pronounce my sentence than I am to 
 receive it,” and Charles Sumner, saying to Dr. Brown-Sequard,“ Do not apply nar- 
 cotics if it interferes with the operation, but use the red hot iron,” all displayed the same 
 spirit of self-reliance. 
 
 Frederick Douglas, John Stuart Mill, Salmon P. Chase, Pitt and Fox, and 
 hundreds of others in America and England, have been examples of this same point 
 
 The pages of history are filled with their glorious achievements, and furnish 
 examples worthy of imitation in this respect. 
 
 MENTAL AND PHYSICAL CULTURE. 
 
 % 
 
 T has come to be an acknowledged fact that intelligent labor in any direc- 
 tion is the most competent labor. It is a glaring mistake to suppose that 
 the most stupid makes the best common laborer. A good deal of mental 
 culture is requisite for the performance of any duty, and with it the man 
 may accomplish more than his competitor. In times when armies are called 
 to the greatest hardships, the stupid soldier is the first one to break down. 
 
 In all our mills and factories the captains of industry are the intelligent men or 
 women. Nothing so much astonishes the English traveler of discernment in this coun- 
 try as the intelligence and culture displayed by the native employes in our New England 
 manufacturing towns. A scientific man can dig a better post hole than an ignorant man 
 of i-he same strength. Wisdom is not the monopoly of any one calling. There have 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 33 
 
 been men who have toiled at manual labor their entire lives, who have been the intellect- 
 ual superiors of those for whom they have toiled, and the world has heard from them in- 
 the achievements they have wrought outside of their usual avocations. It will be con- 
 ceded that brain power pays a journeyman as well as the boss. It gives a dignity of 
 character and a happiness to the possessor, and creates a demand for his services. 
 
 There is time for the acquirement of knowledge which can be taken from the odd 
 
 t moments or hours of toil. Elihu Burritt attributes his success in life not to any in- 
 herent genius, but to the fact that he made use of the spare moments from his work. 
 
 Rittf.nhouse, the astronomer, computed the time of eclipses when resting on his 
 plow handle. 
 
 A bit of pasteboard was the tablet on which Newton unfolded the composition of 
 
 light. 
 
 A distinguished scholar, while yet he was working in his masters garden, when asked 
 how he could read in Latin, said, “One needs only to know the letters of the alphabet, in 
 order to learn everything else he wishes.” Gifford the eminent mathematician worked 
 out his first problems on bits of leather hammered smooth at his cobblers’ bench when 
 an apprentice. 
 
 The high school of difficulty graduates more great men than all our colleges. The 
 world may never have heard of Franklin, Stephenson, Watts, preeley or Newton and 
 scores of others had it not been for the discipline of adversity, which developed their 
 greatness and made it all the more conspicuous. 
 
 Culture prunes away all excesses and removes all the tramels from the powers. 
 There needs be a due amount of attention to the physical as well as mental culture. 
 4 'A sound mind in a sound body,” is the old Latin maxim. The proper theory that, the 
 body should be trained along with the mind held with the ancients, and we believe is true 
 in the nature of things. A healthy organization of all the physical functions is conducive 
 to strength of mind. The far too prevalent opinion that physical strength is antagonistic 
 to mental is erroneous. 
 
 The English idea is the correct one and should not be despised by Americans. The 
 Englishman has a regard for his stomach as well as his brain. The English are good 
 eaters and take vigorous exercise in athletic sports. They have muscle as well as brain, 
 and this will tell when work of any kind is to be performed ; hence the statesmen, ora- 
 tors, officers and writers of England can perform more mental effort than those of any 
 other nation, and their life continues beyond the average. 
 
 The soul must employ the functions of the body to make itself known to the world, 
 and a strong man must have a body adequate to his mental power. Charles Bulwer, 
 Sir William Wadsworth, and others furnish illustration of men whose souls consumed 
 their bodies, and therefore forced them to abandon the prize before they had reached the 
 goal of their ambition. 
 
 Have a proper regard then for the physical development and apply the very best 
 means for the preserving and maturing the powers of body by healthful exercise and 
 bodily recreation. 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 34 
 
 PERSISTENCY AND INDIVIDUALITY 
 
 EARN to labor and to wait ,” is a maxim worthy the pen of the lamented 
 Longfellow. Worthy to be adopted*by the youth who is anxious for suc- 
 cess. The crop follows not the day after the sowing of seed, but must 
 have the time to germinate and bring forth after its kind. 
 
 Patient perseverance is the price which the ambitious youth must pay 
 for his success. He is obliged to plod onward with his aim steadily in view. De- 
 Mamstre has said, “To know how to work is the great secret of success.” “At it and 
 always at it,” was the motto that John Wesley gave his itinerant preachers. 
 
 All have read the incident in the life of Robert Bruce, who when hiding from his 
 enemies in an old barn, having been defeated by Edward observed a spider endeavoring 
 to weave his web in a window. Time after time he failed, but at last succeeded. The 
 Scottish chief catching a lesson in perseverance from this, buckled on his armor and 
 went out with renewed courage to win victory. 
 
 It is not “genius” but perseverance that wins in the long run, yet the world has gone 
 wild in its pursuit for genius. Grand ideas are not fruitful instantly. They must have 
 time to root themselves in the soil before they appear on the surface. 
 
 Adam Smith sowed the seeds in his treatise on the“Wealth of Nations,” but seventy 
 years passed before they bore their rich fruitage in the social amelioration they produced. 
 
 Luther died without knowing the mighty result ol his labors, and Bacon scattered 
 oracular and prophetic sayings into the darkness around him. 
 
 Sir Walter Scott displayed the greatest perseverance all through his life. Comte 
 He Buffon gave an illustration to his pithy truism, “Genius is Patience,” in his own 
 untiring industry. In his youth regarded as of medium talents he made up his deficiency 
 by remitless exertion. John Linden, the philosopher, was an ordinary Roxburyshire 
 shepherd boy, and diligently persevered until he gained a world wide reputation. 
 
 The list might be continued indefinitely, but enough has been given to more than 
 prove the point. In science, in literature, in discovery, in every department of active 
 life, the men who have persevered in the face of obstacles, are the men who have won 
 the prize. 
 
 ORIGINALITY. 
 
 HERE is a genius which is never at a discount in this busy world ; it i s 
 the genius of originality. The men who have made their mark in the 
 world have been men of intense individuality. They have come to a door 
 in their path and forced an entrance through it. They have spoken “ as 
 one having authority,” and their prophetic utterances have been the 
 precursors to triumph. They are the men who think for themselves, and are not to be 
 confined to the narrow grooves of other men. They are ever ready to assume the 
 responsibility of their acts, and exhibit no hesitancy in speech. 
 
 The great commoner, Henry Clay, once made a motion in the time of intense 
 excitement in the National House of Representatives, and was told by the bland Speaker 
 that it was contrary to one of the rules of the House. He then moved to suspend that 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 35 
 
 rule. The Speaker again informed him, that according to the “ Rules and Orders,” that 
 could be done only by unanimous consent of the members. “ Then? said Clay, u I move 
 to suspend all the rules of the House . Away with them. Is it to be endured that we shall 
 be trammeled in our action by mere rules and technicalities at a moment like this, when 
 peace and perhaps the existence of the Union is at stake.” 
 
 LUCK VERSUS PLUCK. 
 
 HE English proverb, “ It is better to be lucky than wise,” and the German 
 equivalent, “ Pitch a lucky man into the Nile and he will come up with a 
 fish in his mouth,” were born in the desire to shield oneself from the ill 
 consequences of his mistakes, negligence, or ignorance. The vast num- 
 ber of these grand results, which at first glance we may be inclined to 
 attribute to luck, are really good opportunities well improved. These opportunities may 
 come to a thousand men, but the ability or energy may be wanting till the one man 
 seizes them and compels them to serve his noble purpose. 
 
 Never be a mere imitator in whatever you do. Have your own way tc do a thing, 
 and do it your way if you can accomplish the best results by so doing. Never be con- 
 tent to wear the armor of Saul. Fight with your own well prepared weapons or not at 
 all. Get out of the old ruts and make a path for yourself, with your eye steadily fixed 
 on the object to be attained. 
 
 •• To your own self be true.” 
 
 Apples had been falling from thousands of trees every autumn, but it was only when 
 the mind of a Newton was trained to intelligent thought and deduction that the flash of 
 a sublime truth was struck by such a circumstance. 
 
 How much a man may owe to some fortuitous circumstance, the impetus which 
 gains him prominence is a question. Souls of inherent greatness can not be kept down 
 by any combination, and only when they bend the trivial circumstance to their assistance* 
 and force from it a grand result, we cry out, “how lucky that is.” 
 
 Did Napoleon owe his first upward start to fortune ? Some would think so, but the 
 veteran soldier Moreau had the same chance. 
 
 In the times when France had no leader, and was at the mercy of every fresh aspi- 
 rant for favor, the National Convention was in the most intense trepidation. The reign 
 of terror was at its height, and forty thousand well armed soldiers were arrayed in 
 well equipped battle, with flaunting banners, and trumpet tones, ready to march any mo- 
 ment against the Tuilleries to sack its halls, and convert Paris into one immense slaugh- 
 ter pen. Then the young Corsican saw the general march out to quell the insurgents 
 and as quickly flee in cowardice before the rabble. He hastened to the Tuilleries, and 
 with calm visage and undaunted heart, watched the deliberations, if such they might be 
 termed, of the terror stricken Convention. Moreau had been dismissed in dishonor. 
 Resistance seemed to be useless. It was now eleven at night, and all was consternation. 
 Barras rose and broke the awful stillness of that chamber. “ I know the man who can 
 defend us,” he nervously said, “ It is the young Corsican officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, 
 whose military abilities I witnessed at Toulon. He is a man who will not stand upon 
 ceremony.” Napoleon was called down and asked, “Are you willing to undertake the 
 
36 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 defense of the Convention ?” “ Yes,” was his terse reply. They were surprised to see 
 
 a small, slender, pale-faced youth of eighteen before them. Hesitating a moment the 
 President continued : “Are you aware of the magnitude of the undertaking ? ” With 
 
 his eagle glance fixed full upon his questioner, the young soldier said “ Perfectly ; and I 
 am in the habit of accomplishing what I undertake ! But I must be entirely untram- 
 meled by the Convention. ,, When the sun rose next morning the Tuilleries appeared 
 like an entrenched camp. Artillery was placed to command every approach and defend 
 the capital from the attacks of the infuriated mobs. The armed warriors, black and 
 threatening, poured down the narrow streets. The members sat in silent awe in their 
 very seats, awaiting the attack upon whose issue so much depended. Five thousand 
 against forty thousand. Napoleon, witl. his guns loaded to the muzzle, was ready for the 
 first fire, but he would not assume the responsibility of opening the contest. He did not 
 wait long ; the first volley opened upon the handful of defenders. It was the signal for 
 the instantaneous discharge of all the artillery, which belched forth its slaughter and 
 death till the pavements were filled with the dead and wounded. The day was won, and 
 Napoleon had taken the first advance to fame. As unmoved as if he had do.ne nothing 
 extraordinary, he returned to the Tuilleries. Was it luck? No, for Moreau had the 
 same opportunity and failed. It was the fact that the Corsican had pluck as well as luck. 
 
 Beau Brummel, with his “lucky sixpence,” won ^40,000 in London and New- 
 market, and it seems as if the fickle goddess had taken him for her favorite. He would 
 sometimes shut his eyes and play, but always to win. It seems as if some men had the 
 genius, Midas-like, to turn, by their touch, everything to gold, and these men are below 
 the average in ability and culture, until it has come to pass that men, even of great 
 minds, have come to rely upon fortune and believe in it. 
 
 “ A man is immortal until his work is done,” may be true in a certain sense, but not 
 in the sense of Fatalism. In the storm which overtook Caesar he seemed unterrified. 
 “ Do you not know that you bear Caesar and his fortune,” he cried to the trembling boat- 
 man. One-half of the people down in their hearts believe in luck. Baron Rothschild 
 held that luck was more valuable than ability or energy. Bonaparte had confidence in 
 his star. Louis XIV. believed that he was born on a lucky day, and Frederick the 
 Great was confident that if he engaged in battle before the sun rose he was sure to win. 
 
 Cromwell had a birthday which he regarded as lucky, yet he died on that very day. 
 And Old Hickory, Andrew Jackson, is said to have given hints that even he believed in 
 good and bad luck. 
 
 Men are too willing to charge their short comings upon their want of luck. The 
 difficulty is in the man, and not in the want of fortune. Imagine Columbus, or Galileo, 
 or Palissy, or any of hundreds of others, being repressed by any misfortune. Galton 
 has said, “ If a man is gifted with intellectual powers, eagerness to work, and power for 
 working, I cannot understand how such a man could be repressed. The world is always 
 tortured with difficulties waiting to be solved, struggling with ideas and feelings to which 
 it cannot give adequate expression. If, then, there exists a man capable of solving these 
 difficulties, or of giving a voice to these pent up feelings, he is sure to be welcomed with 
 universal acclamation. We may almost say he has only to put his pen to paper and the 
 thing is done.” 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 37 
 
 Henry Clay, Andrew Johnson, Daniel Webster and Vanderbilt would have risen in 
 spite of any circumstances. Dr. JOHNSON pertinently says : “All the complaints that 
 
 have been made of the world are unjust. I never knew a man of merit neglected ; it was 
 generally his own fault if he failed to succeed.” Washington Irving writes : “ As for 
 
 the talk about modest merit being neglected, it is too often cant by which indolent and 
 irresolute men seek to lay their want of success at the door of the public. Modest merit 
 is too apt to be inactive, or negligent, or uninstructed merit. Well matured and well 
 disciplined talent is sure of a market, provided it exerts itself, but it must not cower at 
 home and expect to be sought for. There is a good deal of cant, too, about the success 
 of forward and impudent men, while men of retiring worth are passed over with neglect. 
 But it usually happens that these forward men nave their valuable qualities of prompt- 
 ness and activity, without which worth is a mere inoperative property. A barking dog 
 is more useful than a sleeping lion.” 
 
 What may be considered ill luck may, in the end, be the very best luck. Welling- 
 ton came near being a revenue clerk. No great work was ever achieved by fortune 
 
 alone. Although every man may be influenced by circumstances, and of other men he 
 is to decide whether he will rule or be ruled by them. Duty and persistency in its dis- 
 charge is to be the battle cry of life, and then it matters not where the state may be or 
 what the opportunity, he will make his mark in the world. 
 
 Neglect of duty upon some line is the most prolific source of ill luck. Bonaparte 
 
 was defeated at Waterloo by the tardiness of one of his generals. Sheridan, command- 
 
 x ing the income of a prince, was continually beset by “duns,” owing to his careless expen- 
 diture. Coleridge, with brain force for a thousand, frittered away his life, and as Charles 
 Lamb puts it, “ left posterity nothing but his debts and rubbish, on forty thousand frag- 
 ments.” 
 
 Many a man has lost his grip on the world simply because he has lost his pluck. 
 He is to be pitied who is too much of a coward to go forward and do battle for the right 
 and true. “ Good pluck ts good luck'.' It is that which amasses wealth, crowns men with 
 success, and brings honor to well directed effort. 
 
 Persistency and pluck are the two weapons which win in the battle of life. 
 
 BUSINESS MAXIMS AND RULES. 
 
 RINCIPLES of justice form the basis of every transaction, and regulates 
 the conduct of the upright man of business. He is strict in keeping his 
 engagements. Does nothing carelessly or in a hurry. Employs nobody 
 to do what he can easily do himself. Leaves nothing undone which 
 circumstances permit him to do. Keeps his designs and business from the 
 views of others, yet he is candid with all. Prefers short credits to long ones, and small 
 profits in credit cases with little risk, to the chance of better gains with more hazards. He 
 is clear and explicit in his bargains. Leaves nothing of consequence to memory which he 
 san commit to writing. Keeps- copies of all his important letters, and has every letter, 
 etc., classed and put away. Is always at the head of his business. Holds it as a maxim, 
 that he whose credit is suspected is not to be trusted. Is constantly examining his books* 
 and sees through all his affairs as far as possible. Balances regularly at stated times. 
 
88 
 
 HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 Important Suggestions. 
 
 AKE the most and the best of yourself. Your destiny is in your own 
 hands and your fortune will be your own making. Are you making the 
 most of the one life that is intrusted to you ? Are you putting to the best 
 uses the natural abilities of body and mind with which you have been 
 entrusted ? Or are you droning through life, steadily and surely drifting 
 behind those of less ability than yourself, men who with fewer talents than you possess 
 are making the most of themselves. Think of this. Put the question squarely to your- 
 selves as we put it for you, and answer it honestly. Are you making the best of your- 
 selves ? If not, now and only now is your chance ; make a radical change and make it 
 at once. Begin a new life and rise out of the old ruts. Do your own thinking and act- 
 ing. Strive to be a man among men, with a worthy purpose and a pure ambition; then 
 will the world not only be better for your living in it, but you will be better for having 
 lived in the world 
 
 You are the Architects of Your Own Fortunes. — God never meant that 
 you should be maintained at the expense of another, a mere drone in the great hive of 
 human activity. It is a noble thing to say at all times with Shakespeare’s Shepherd, 
 “ See, I am a true laborer. I earn what I eat and wear.” If you begin life poor, if you 
 commence at the lowest round of the ladder, you have done what a vast majority of all 
 great and successful men have done. 
 
 Mistake Not Your Calling. — From the mistaken pride of family, personal soli- 
 citations of friends, or the strong predilections of parents, at the beginning of a young 
 man’s career, is more often traced the long train of failures in active life. Others may 
 counsel, advise or aid you, but you will find that your life-work must be done by yourself 
 alone. Find out first in what direction your talents, taste and inclinations lead you, and 
 when you have decided this throw into it all the energy and strength of your nature. 
 
 Unaided Natural Abilities are useless unless systematised by judicious training. 
 The talent to skillfully use one’s own mental power and control others is rare and can 
 only be the result of personal discipline. In every business community there are reserve 
 powers running to waste because the possessors of them have never learned the simple 
 “know how.” If this knowledge be inculcated while the pupil is young it always 
 abides with him. 
 
 Bring Out Your Best Qualities. — What are you doing for yourself? Are you 
 drifting with the tide, waiting for “something to turn up” that will throw into your hands 
 a fortune ? If so, you are decidedly on the wrong track and you had better “ right 
 about” at once. Apply yourself systematically to_some employment that promises to be 
 congenial, adapted to your abilities, and remunerative. Do your best in thinking and in 
 doing. Leave the old path of indifference and put vigor and intelligent actions into your 
 work. 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 
 
 39 
 
 The Successful Competitors in Business. — Business capacity is one of the 
 rarest talents of the age. There are many young men of culture and refinement who 
 are partially unable to earn a livelihood in business circles because they had failed to gain 
 an education that fits them for any of the numerous grooves in the complicated 
 machinery of modern commercial life. The talent acquired by a thorough practical bus- 
 iness education commands the highest values on exchange, and the young man who has 
 been trained for active business by the best methods has his own fortune at his com- 
 mand. 
 
 Successful Men. — The men of this generation who have achieved the most perma- 
 nent success have been those who were trained in youth to some business pursuit and 
 have since concentrated every energy in some one direction. Nine-tenths of the two 
 hundred millionaires of this country to-day began their career without any capital save 
 pluck and energy, and they have conquered in spite of disadvantageous beginnings. 
 They have left behind them an open road which any young man may travel. 
 
 Read This, and Ponder.- — No young man possessed of natural faculties in this 
 country, and in these times, need burden his friends or society with his support ; and no 
 young man, whatever may be his worldly circumstances, has a right to deprive the com- 
 munity of the benefits of the well-directed efforts of his head and hands. Better die 
 at once, and pay a premium on forgetfulness, than to dream of living by proxy in a world 
 where action is life. 
 
 There is, in fact, no such thing as unavoidable idleness, for idleness is crime, and no 
 man can commit involuntary crime. 
 
 Nothing Lost by Courtesy. — A courteous man will often succeed by the mere 
 advantage of good manners, where a man of greater ability without these would fail. 
 The observation of every man will suggest many instances where conciliatory manners 
 have made a fortune for a physician, lawyer, divine, politician or merchant. When intro- 
 duced to a stranger, his affability or the reverse creates a prepossession in his favor, or 
 awakens a prejudice against him. In fact, civility is to men what a pleasing appearance 
 is to women — a letter of recommendation written in a language which every person 
 understands. The best men have often injured themselves by irritability and conse- 
 quent rudeness ; and of two men, equal in all other respects, the courteous one has 
 much the advantage, and by far the better chance of making his way in the world. 
 
JOHN ADAMS, 1797-1801. 
 
 JAMES MONROE, 1817-1825. 
 
 JOHN Q. ADAMS, 1825-1829. 
 
 ANDREW JACKSON, 1829-1837. 
 
 MARTIN VAN BUREN, 1837-1841. 
 
 WM. H. HARRISON, 1841-died, 
 
 ZACHARY TAYLOR, 1849-1850. 
 
 GEO. WASHINGTON, 1789-1797. 
 
 THOS. JEFFERSON, 1801-1809. 
 
 JAMES MADISON, 1809-1817. 
 
 JOHN TYLER. 1841-1845. 
 
 JAMES K. POLK, 1845-1849. 
 
ULYSSES S. GRANT, 1869-1877. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN, 1861-1865. 
 
 ANDREW JOHNSON, 1865-1869. 
 
 GROVER CLEVELAND, 1885-1889 BENJAMIN HARRISON. IS 89. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY 
 
 OF OVER 
 
 THREE HUNDRED EMINENT MEN and WOMEN 
 
 CONNECTED WITH AMERICAN HISTORY. 
 
 Abbot, Ezra.— This eminent divine and 
 theological writer was born in Jackson, Maine, 
 April 29, 1819, and graduated from Bowdoin 
 College, Brunswick, Maine, 1840. He became 
 Assistant Librarian of Harvard College in 
 1856, and in 1872 was appointed to the Chair of 
 New Testament Criticism and Interpretation 
 in the Cambridge Divinity School. Published 
 many theological works and was a member of 
 the Bible Revision Committee. Died March 21, 
 1884. 
 
 Abbott, John S. C.— This American writer 
 was born in Brunswick, Maine, Sept. 18, 1805. 
 He graduated from Bowdoin College in 1825, 
 and from Andover Theological Seminary in 
 1829. He was settled as minister in Worcester, 
 Roxbury, Nantucket and New Haven. He was 
 a voluminous writer of histories. Among his 
 works are the “History of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte,” “ History of the Civil War,” “History 
 of Napoleon III.,” and American Histories. 
 He died at Fair Haven, Conn., June 17, 1877. 
 
 Abbott, Lyman.-The third son of Rev. 
 Jacob Abbott was born in Roxbury, Mass., 
 Dec. 18, 1835, and graduated at New York 
 University in 1853. He practiced Law for a 
 time in New York City, then studied theology 
 with his uncle, J. S. C. Abbott, and was settled 
 at Terre Haute, Ind., from 1860 to 1865. He 
 was connected with the Freedman’s Commission 
 from 1865 to 1868. Accepted the pastorate of 
 the New England Congregational Church in 
 New York City in 1868, and resigned in 1869. 
 He edited the “ Illustrated Christian Weekly” 
 for some time. Among his published works are 
 “Jesus of Nazareth, His Life and Teachings,” 
 “ Old Testament Shadows of New Testament 
 Truths,” “Popular Religious Dictionary,” 
 “Laicus, an Experience of a Layman in a 
 Country Parish,” and Commentaries on Mat- 
 thew, Mark, Luke, John and Acts. He became 
 editor of the “ Christian Union.” 
 
 Adams, Chas. Francis — This American 
 diplomat, the third son of John Quincy Adams, 
 
 was born in Boston, Aug. 18, 1807. He graduated 
 at Harvard University in 1825 and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1828. He was nominated in 1848 
 as Vice-President of the U. S. by the Free- 
 Soilers who supported Martin Van Buren. He 
 published “Life and Works of John Adams.” 
 He served in Congress 1859 to 1861. He was 
 Minister to England during the Civil War, 1861- 
 1865, and found his duties at that post arduous 
 and at times very delicate. He served his 
 
 country while there with much ability, prudence 
 and credit, returning home in 1868. He was 
 one of the Arbiters on the Alabama Claims in 
 1871. Died Nov. 21, 1886. 
 
 Adams, John.- The Second President of 
 the United States was born in Braintree, Mass., 
 Oct. 30, 1735. Graduated at Harvard College 
 in 1755 ; studied Law and was admitted to prac- 
 tice in 1758. He removed to Boston in 1768 and 
 identified himself with the cause of the people. 
 Member of the General Court in 1870 ; first 
 Continental Congress in 1774. He was one of a 
 committee of five to frame the Declaration of 
 Independence, which he supported in an elo- 
 quent speech July 2, 1776; Commissioner to 
 France 1778 ; Minister to England 1780. With 
 Benjamin Franklin and John Jay he negotiated 
 the treaty of peace with Great Britain, which 
 was signed Nov. 30, 1782. Minister to England 
 
46 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 from 1785 to 1788. He wrote his ‘ 1 Defense of 
 the American Constitution ” during this time. 
 Vice-President of the U. S. 1789 to 1797. Presi- 
 dent 1797 to 1801. He retired to private life at 
 Quincy, Mass., where he died July 4, 1826. On 
 the same day expired his political rival and 
 former co-ad jutor, Thomas Jefferson, who had 
 framed the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 Adams, Joint Quincy.— The sixth Presi- 
 dent of the United States was born in Braintree, 
 Mass., July 11, 1767. He was the eldest son of 
 John Adams, second President. In 1778 he was 
 placed in a school in Paris, France, and then in 
 the University of Leyden. He graduated from 
 Harvard University in 1788 and was admitted 
 to the bar in 1791. He was appointed Minister 
 to the Hague in 1794, and was sent as Minister 
 to Berlin in 1797 : recalled in 1801. Elected 
 U. S. Senater 1803 and lost his seat 1808. In 
 1809 he was sent as Minister to Russia. He was 
 one of the Commissioners to negotiate the treaty 
 with Great Britain in 1814, and was appointed 
 Minister to England in 1815. He was Secretary 
 of State under President Monroe for eight years. 
 President of the United States from 1825 to 1829. 
 Elected to Congress in 1830 and represented the 
 same district for seventeen years. He was 
 seized with paralysis Feb. 21, 1848, and died two 
 days afterward. He left a voluminous Diary of 
 his public life which was published. 
 
 Adams, Samuel.— This celebrated early 
 American patriot and orator was born in Boston, 
 Mass. , Sept. 27, 1722, and graduated at Harvard 
 College in 1740. He was chosen to represent his 
 native city in the General Court,— Legislature — 
 in 1765. He was an unflinching friend of the 
 popular cause, and he, together with John 
 Hancock, were exempted from a general pardon 
 offered to * * the rebels ” in 1775. He was a 
 member of the first Continental Congress in 
 1774, and signed the Declaration of Independence 
 in 1776. He remained in the Continental Con- 
 gress about eight years, and was afterwards 
 elected to the Senate of Massachussetts, and 
 was a member of the State Convention which 
 ratified the Constitution of the U. S. Elected 
 Governor in 1794, and twice re-elected. Retired 
 to private life in 1797, and died Oct. 21, 1803. 
 
 Agassiz, Louis J. R.— He was the son of 
 a Protestant minister and was born in the 
 parish of Motier, near Lake Neuchatel, Switz- 
 erland, May 28, 1807. He pursued the study 
 of Medicine and graduated from Munich. He 
 brought out his first work, a description of the 
 fishes brought from Brazil, in 1829-31. He was 
 
 appointed Professor of Natural History at 
 Neuchatel in 1832. While here he added much 
 to his reputation as a Scientist by publishing a 
 work in French, entitled, ‘ ‘ Researches on 
 Fossil Fishes. ” He studied the glaciers of the 
 Alps, and published new and interesting ideas 
 on Geology. He came to the United States on a 
 Scientific expedition in 1846 and being so pleased 
 with the country concluded to remain. He 
 accepted the Chair of Zoology and Geology 
 at Harvard College in 1848. His researches and 
 investigations into the Natural History of the 
 U. S. gave a new impulse to the pursuit of that 
 study. He explored the Amazon in 1865, and 
 discovered more than 1,800 new species of fishes. 
 He was the friend of Cuvier and Humbolt in 
 his earlier years, and in his popular works on 
 Natural History did more than any one writer, 
 
 save Hugh Miller, to adapt the physical sciences 
 to the common reader. His important works 
 besides those mentioned are, * ‘ Outlines of 
 Comparative Physiology, ” ‘ ‘ J ourney to Brazil, ” 
 and an extensive work entitled, “ Contri- 
 butions to the Natural History of the United 
 States. ” In 1868 he was appointed non-resident 
 Professor of Natural History at Cornell Uni- 
 versity. In 1871 he accompanied the Hassler 
 expedition to the South Atlantic and Pacific 
 Ocean and the western coast of America. He 
 died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. 
 
 Alcott, Amos B.— This American ideal 
 philosopher was born at Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 
 29, 1799, and settled in Concord, Mass. He 
 acquired an extensive reputation as an educa- 
 tional reformer. He was a successful teacher, 
 but was chiefly distinguished for his wonder- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 47 
 
 ful conversational powers. He published two 
 volumes of Essays : “Tablets ” in 1868 ; “ Con- 
 cord Days” in 1872. Died at Boston, Mass., 
 March 4, 1888. 
 
 Alcott, Louisa UI.— The talented daughter 
 of the above was born Nov. 29, 1832. She wrote 
 and published a large number of very popular 
 works for young people : “Little Women ” in 
 
 1867; “Old Fashioned Girl ” in 1869 ; “Little 
 Men” in 1871; “Work” in 1873 ; “Joe’s Boys” 
 in 1886, etc. She died in Boston, March 6th, 
 1888, two days after her father. 
 
 Ames, Adeltoert.— He was born at Rock- 
 land, Maine, Oct. 31, 1835, and graduated from 
 West Point in 1861. Lieutenant Col. 24th 
 Infantry, July, 1866. Brigadier General U. S. 
 Vols., May, 1863. Served in the Artillery at 
 Bull’s Run in 1861, for which he was brevetted 
 Major; brevetted Lieutenant Colonel at Malvern 
 Hill. Commissioned as Colonel of 2d Maine 
 Vols., and brevetted Colonel U. S. Army at 
 Gettysburg. Brevetted Brigadier-General U. 
 S. A. and Major-General U. S. A., 1864-1865. 
 Provisional Governor of Mississippi, 1868. Com- 
 manded the Department of Mississippi, 1869. 
 U. S. Senator from Miss. 1870 to 1873. Governor 
 of Miss. 1874 to 1876. 
 
 Ames, Fi slier.— This eminent orator and 
 Statesman was born in Dedham, Mass., April 
 9, 1758. He was a graduate of Harvard, 1774, 
 a student of William Tudor in Boston, and 
 admitted to the bar in 1781. He wrote several 
 articles for the newspapers which attracted 
 general attention. He advocated the adoption 
 
 of the Federal Constitution in the Massa- 
 chusetts Convention in 1788, and was sent to 
 Congress the next year. He was a Federalist 
 and a strong supporter of President Washing- 
 ton. He was speedily recognized as an orator 
 
 of national reputation. His most famous speech 
 was in favor of adopting the Jay treaty with 
 England, April, 1796. This speech has been 
 preseved. He served four terms in Congress 
 and then retired to private life on account of 
 declining health. He delivered a famous oration 
 on Washington before the Legislature of Massa- 
 chusetts in 1799, and was elected President of 
 Harvard College in 1804, but was obliged to de- 
 cline this position. His character was pure and 
 honorable. He was noted for quick and spark- 
 ling wit and fine powers of conversation. His 
 orations are filled with happy metaphors and 
 fine illustrations and a brilliant flow of imagin- 
 ation. His Son, Seth Ames, was the publisher 
 of his works, consisting of orations, essays and 
 letters, in two volumes, 1854. Fisher Ames 
 died July 4, 1808. 
 
 Anderson, Robert.— Was born June 14, 
 1805, near Louisville, Ky. Graduated at West 
 
 Point, 1825. Private Secretary to the U. S. 
 Minister at Columbia, 1825-1826. Inspector 
 General of the Illinois Vols. in the Black Hawk 
 War in 1832. Military Academy, as instructor 
 of Artillery, 1835-37. Florida War 1837-38, 
 where he was brevetted Captain. Aide-de- 
 Camp to Genl. Scott, 1838. Served in Mexico, 
 1847, where he was severely wounded and 
 brevetted Major. He was a full Major in 1861, 
 when he evacuated Fort Moultrie, S. C., and 
 defended Fort Sumpter, until obliged to sur- 
 render April 12-13. He was commissioned 
 Brigadier General May 15, 1861, and brevetted 
 Major General. Placed in command of the 
 department of Kentucky and the Cumberland, 
 but his shattered health obliged him to retire 
 from active duty. He went to Europe in search 
 of restoration to health, and died at Nice, 
 France, Oct. 26, 1871. 
 
48 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Anderson, Rufiis.-He was born in North 
 Yarmouth, Maine, Aug. 17, 1796, and graduated 
 at Bowdoin College in 1818 ; Andover Theologi- 
 cal Seminary 1819 to 1822. He was appointed 
 Secretary of the American Board of Foreign 
 Missions in 1824, and in 1832 Corresponding 
 Secretary of the same body. He held this 
 position for thirty-four years, and resigned at 
 the age of seventy in 1866. He visited a part of 
 the Mediterranean Missions in 1828-29, another 
 part in 1843^4, and the Sandwich Islands in 
 1863. Upon his retirement he was presented, 
 with a testimonial of $20, 000, mostly from the 
 merchants of New York, but Dr. Anderson 
 made over the whole to the Board. He wrote a 
 number of works, mostly on the subject of 
 Missions. He died May 30, 1880. 
 
 Andrew, John A.— This War Governor 
 of Massachusetts was born in Windam, Maine, 
 May 31, 1818. Graduated at Bowdoin College 
 in 1837. Studied law and was admitted to 
 practice in Boston, Mass., in 1840. Elected 
 Governor in 1860 and at the outbreak of the 
 Civil War dispatched five regiments in one week 
 from the first call for troops. He was thrice 
 re-elected to the same office and rendered great 
 service to the country by his eloquent and 
 patriotic addresses, and messages to the Legis- 
 lature. He gained great popularity by his 
 
 unstinted attention to the good of the soldiers 
 during the war. He died greatly lamented by 
 all classes, Oct, 30, 1867. 
 
 Anthony, Henry He was born at 
 Coventry, R. I. , April 1, 1815, and graduated at 
 Brown University 1833. Editor of ‘ ‘ Providence 
 Journal ” from 1838 to 1859. Governor of Rhode 
 Island 1849 to 1851. He was United States 
 
 Senator from 1859 to the time of his death. He 
 held his seat in the Senate for a longer period 
 than any other man in the history of the 
 
 country. He was elected President Pro Tcm . 
 of the Senate 1863, but declined on account 
 of ill health. He died Sept. 2, 1884. 
 
 Anthony, Susan 15.— She was born in 
 South Adams, Mass. , Feb. 15, 1820, and was the 
 daughter of a Quaker. She was a teacher in 
 New York for fifteen years. In 1852 she became 
 actively engaged as a leader in the Woman’s 
 Rights movement and became distinguished for 
 her zeal and eloquence in the Temperance and 
 Anti-Slavery Causes. After the Civil War her 
 time was almost entirely devoted to the cause 
 of Woman’s Suffrage. 
 
 Arthur, Chester A.— The twenty-first Pres- 
 ident of the United States, was born in Frank- 
 lin Co., Vt., Oct. 5, 1830, and graduated at 
 Union College in 1849. Taught School for two 
 years. He studied law and was admitted to the 
 Bar in New York City. In 1861 he was Inspector 
 General of New York and afterward Quarter- 
 master General. Collector of the Port of New 
 York from 1871 to 1878. Elected Vice President 
 Nov. 2, 1880, and at the death of President 
 Garfield, Sept. 26, 1881, he succeded to that 
 office. Died in New York, Nov. 18, 1886. 
 
 Astor, John Jacob.- This successful mer- 
 chant was born at Waldorf, near Heidelberg, in 
 Germany, July 17, 1763. He emigrated to the 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 49 
 
 United States in 1783. Invested his capital in 
 furs, which he sold in London with much profit. 
 He then settled in New York, engaging in the 
 fur trade. He amassed an immense fortune 
 by sending his furs in his own vessels and having 
 them return laden with foreign commodities. 
 He founded Astoria, Or., as a depot for the fur 
 trade. He invested largely in real estate in the 
 City of New York. He endowed Astor Library 
 with $400,000, and at his death (Mar. 29, 1848) 
 his fortune was estimated at twenty million 
 dollars. 
 
 Aug'itr, Christopher C.— Was born in the 
 city of New York in the year 1821, and graduated 
 at West Point 1843. He served in the Infantry 
 until March 4, 1869, when he became Brigadier 
 General in the regular army. Served on frontier 
 
 brevetted Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, 
 Brigadier General, and Major General U. S. A. 
 
 posts, in the occupation of Texas, the Mexican 
 War and the Civil War. In 1861 in command 
 of Cadets at West Point. Commissioned Major- 
 General U. S. Vols., Aug. 9, 1862. Brevetted 
 Brigadier General in regular army 1863. Com- 
 manded Department of Washington 1863-66 ; of 
 the Platte, 1867-71 ; of Texas 1871 to retirement, 
 July 10, 1885. Brevetted Major General for 
 gallant and meritorious conduct, March 13, 
 1865. 
 
 Averell, William W.— Was born in the 
 State of N. Y. in 1830. Graduated at West 
 Point 1855 as Lieutenant Mounted Rifles. 
 Served on frontier and fighting Indians until 
 severely wounded in 1859. In the Civil War, 
 Colonel of the Third Penn Cav., 1861. Brig- 
 adier General of Vols. 1862. Commissioned 
 Captain Third Cav., U. S. A., July, 1862; and 
 
 Resigned 1865. U. S. Consul-General to Canada 
 1866. President of Manufacturing Company in 
 New York City 1875. 
 
 llainbridge, William. — This Commodore 
 in the U. S. Navy, was born in Princeton, N. 
 J., May 7, 1774. He entered the Navy and rose 
 to the rank of Captain in 1800. He commanded 
 the U. S. Frigate Philadelphia in th^ war 
 against Tripoli. His vessel ran aground and 
 was captured by the enemy in Oct. 1803. He 
 
 remained a prisoner until the close of hostilities. 
 June, 1805. In Sept. 1812, he commanded a 
 squadron of three vessels and captured the 
 English ship Java, of 49 guns, Dec. 1812. Died 
 July 28, 1833. 
 
50 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 ■Bancroft, George.- This eminent Ameri- 
 can Historian was born in Worcester, Mass., 
 Oct 3, 1800. He graduated from Harvard Col- 
 
 lege in 1817, and entered the University of Got- 
 tingen the next year. He received the degree of 
 Ph. D. from this University in 1820, and re- 
 mained abroad for two years longer. He pub- 
 lished his first volume of the ‘ ‘History of the 
 United States in 1834. He was appointed 
 Secretary of the Navy in 1845 and the same year 
 established the U. S. Naval Academy at Annap- 
 olis, Md. Resigned that office in 1846 and was 
 sent as Minister to England the same year. He 
 returned home in 1849 and retired from public 
 life. His great work, the “History of the Uni- 
 ted States,” the tenth volume, which comes 
 down to the close of the Revolution, was pub- 
 lished in 1874. The eleventh and twelfth vol- 
 umes, to the formation of the American Con- 
 stitution, was published in 1882. The same 
 year he began his final revision of the entire 
 work. He was appointed Minister to the Court 
 of Berlin in 1867, and negotiated a treaty with 
 Germany by the terms of which the emigrants 
 from that country to this are released from 
 allegiance to their native government. He was 
 Minister Plenipotentiary to Germany in 1871- 
 74, and rendered good service in the settlement 
 of the San Juan boundary question. The re- 
 vised edition of his great work, with last vol- 
 ume, was published in 1885. Died Jan. 17, 1891. 
 
 Bank, Ufatlianiel I*.— This statesman and 
 General was born at Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 
 
 1816. He learned the trade of a machinist, 
 studied law, and was a member of the Legis- 
 lature in 1849. Member of Congress in 1852, as 
 a Democrat, in 1854 as a Republican and 
 “Know Nothing.” Speaker of the U. S. House 
 of Representatives in 1856. Governor of Mass- 
 achusetts in 1857, 1858, 1859. Major General of 
 U. S. Yols. in 1861. Commanded on the Poto- 
 mac 1862, at Winchester, at Port Hudson, May, 
 1863, which he took with 6000 prisoners. Con- 
 ducted an unsuccessful expedition up the Red 
 River in 1864. Relieved of his command in May 
 and re-elected to Congress in Nov. 1864, in 1866, 
 1868 and 1870. Defeated in 1872, but re-elected 
 in 1874 and 1876. United States Marshall at 
 Boston, Mass., 1885 to 1889. Member of the 
 fifty-first Congress, 1889. 
 
 Bayard, Thomas F.— He was born at 
 Wilmington, Del., Oct. 29, 1828. Admitted to 
 the bar in 1851. Was U. S. District Attorney 
 for Delaware in 1853. Elected to the U. S. 
 
 Senate to succeed his father, 1869, and was twice 
 re-elected to that office. Was chosen President 
 pro tern. of the Senate in 1881. He became Sec- 
 retary of State in the cabinet of President 
 Cleveland Mar. 5, 1885, and continued in that 
 position until Mar. 4, 1889. During his term 
 of office the right to the seal fisheries in Berh- 
 ings Straits occasioned discussion with the 
 English government, but little progress was 
 made, however, toward a final settlement of 
 the difficulty between the two nations. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 <51 
 
 Beauregard, Pierre G. F.— He was born 
 near New Orleans, La., May, 28, 1818, and grad- 
 uated at West Point in 1838. Served with 
 distinction in Mexico and was twice brevetted 
 
 for gallantry. Captain of Engineers Mar. 3, 1853. 
 In charge of the defenses of Lousiana 1853 to 
 1860. Appointed Superintendent of U. S. Acad- 
 emy at West Point, but resigned in a few days 
 to enter the Confederate Army. Commissioned 
 Brigadier General C. S. A. and directed the 
 attack on Fort Sumpter in 1861. Promoted 
 to General July 22, 1861. Commanded at Cor- 
 inth, Miss., also at Charleston, S. C. In Vir- 
 ginia in 1864. After the war he was engaged in 
 railroad management. Adjutant General 
 of Lousiana in 1878. 
 
 Bech, James B.— Born in Dumfriesshire, 
 Scotland, Feb. 13, 1822. Received academic 
 education before coming to the U. S. Gradu- 
 ated in Law at Transylvania University, Ky., 
 1846, beginning practice at Lexington. Member 
 of 40th, 41st, 42d and 43d Congresses. Declined 
 re-election to the 44th. Elected U. S. Senator as 
 a Democrat, taking seat March 5, 1877. Re- 
 elected 1882 and 1888. Died May 3, 1890. 
 
 Beecher, Henry W.-This celebrated divine 
 was born in Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813. 
 Graduated at Amherst College in 1834. Studied 
 theology at Lane Seminary, of which his 
 father was president. Pastor of Plymouth 
 Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. , from 1847 to his 
 death. Editor of the • ‘Independent” 1861 to 
 1863. Visited Europe in 1863, where he did 
 much to turn the current of public opinion in 
 England toward the North. He was a promin- 
 ent advocate of Temperance and Anti-slavery. 
 Wrote many volumes of Lectures and Sermons, 
 
 a Life of Christ and one novel, “Norwood.” 
 Died Mar. 8, 1887. 
 
 Beecher, Lyman.-The father of the fore- 
 going was born in New Haven, Conn. Oct. 12, 
 1775, and graduated at Yale College in 1797 
 Pastor at Litchfield, Conn, in 1810. Removed 
 to Boston in 1826 and preached in Hanover St. 
 Church. President of Lane Seminary, Cincin- 
 nati 1832 to 1851. He published “Views on The- 
 ology” and “Sermons on Temperance”, which 
 had a large circulation. Died at Brooklyn, N. 
 Y. , Jan. 10, 1863. 
 
 Bell, John.— He was born near Nashville, 
 Tenn. , Feb. 15, 1797 and graduated at the Uni- 
 versity of Nashville in 1814. Elected a member 
 of Congress in 1827, and continued a member 
 for fourteen years. Speaker of the U. S. House 
 of Representatives In 1834. Secretary of War, 
 Mar. 4, 1841, and resigned in Sept, because he 
 disapproved of the policy of President Tyler. 
 U. S. Senator for Tennessee from 1847 to 1859. 
 Was nominated for President of the U. S. in 
 1860. He died Sept. 10, 1869. 
 
 Benjamin, Judah IP.— He was of Hebrew 
 extraction and born in Hayti in 1812. He 
 practised law in New Orleans : was elected U. 
 S. Senator for Lousiana in 1852 and re-elected 
 
 1859. He acted with the South and became 
 identified with the Confederate cause. He was 
 Secretary of State C. S. A. from Feb. 1862 until 
 the surrender. After the war he practiced law 
 in London, Eng. He died, May 7 1884. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Benton, Thomas H. — This American 
 statesman was born near Hillsborough, N. C. , 
 March, 14, 1782. He came to Tennessee and 
 began the practice of Law at Nashville about 
 1810. Was Colonel under General Jackson in 
 the war of 1812. Removed to St. Louis, Mo. , in 
 1815. Elected U. S. Senator for Missouri in 
 1820, aud continued in the Senate for thirty 
 years. He was called “Old Bullion” because he 
 joined with Gen. Jackson in opposition to the 
 U. S. Bank and in favor of gold and silver cur- 
 rency. In 1852 he was elected to the National 
 House of Representatives. He opposed the 
 extreme State Rights views of Calhoun and the 
 repeal of the Missouri Compromise. He wrote 
 “Thirty Years’ View, or a History of the Work- 
 ing of the American Government, 1820 to 1850. ” 
 He died April 10, 1858. 
 
 Blackburn, J. C. S.— Born in Woodford 
 County, Ky., Oct. 1, 1838. Graduated at Centre 
 College 1857. Admitted to the Bar 1858, and 
 practiced until 1861. Entered Confederate 
 Army 1861, serving through war. Resumed 
 
 practice 1865, and elected to the Legislature 
 1871-73. Elected to the 44th, 45th, 46th, 47th 
 and 48th Congresses, and U. S. Senator 1884. 
 
 Black, Jeremiah S.— This American jurist 
 was born in Somerset Co., Pa., Jan. 10, 1810. 
 Judge of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania 
 1851. Attorney General under President 
 
 Buchanan 1857 and Secretary of State 1860. 
 Died August 19, 1883. 
 
 Blaine, James O.— This distinguished 
 American Legislator was born in Washington 
 Co., Pa., Jan. 31, 1830 and graduated from 
 Washington College in 1847. He removed 
 to Maine and there engaged in newspaper 
 work. He was elected to the State Legislature 
 several times, and was Speaker of the House of 
 
 Representatives in 1861 and 1862. He served 
 in the U. S. House of Representatives in 1863 to 
 1865 and was re-elected five times. He was 
 Speaker of the National House for three 
 terms, from 1869 to 1875. He was appointed 
 Senator from Maine to fill an unexpired term in 
 1876 and elected to a full term in 1877. He was 
 appointed Secretary of State by President Gar- 
 field in 1881 but resigned in Dec. of the same 
 year. He was nominated by the Republican 
 Convention in 1884 for the office of President of 
 the United States, but was defeated. He wrote 
 “Twenty Year’s in Congress” and subsequently 
 traveled in Europe. He was nominated Secre- 
 tary of State by President Harrison March 4, 
 1889 and confirmed for that office by the Senate. 
 He was President of the International Congress 
 of American Nations which convened at Wash- 
 ington, D. C., by the invitation of the United 
 States, Oct. 2, 1889. Mr. Blaine recommended 
 Reciprocity in trade between the nations of the 
 American continents, or any of them, to the 
 United States Senate in 1890, after the adjourn- 
 ment of the International Conference. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 53 
 
 Blair, Montgomery. — This American 
 officer and politician was born in Franklin Co. , 
 Ky,, May 10, 1813, and graduated from West 
 Point in 1835. Served in the Florida War, but 
 resigned May 20, 1836. He was admitted to the 
 Bar and practiced in St. Louis, Mo. U. S. 
 Attorney for Missouri 1839 to 1843. Judge of 
 the St. Louis Court of Common Pleas 1843 to 
 1849. Solicitor of the U. S. in the Court of 
 Claims 1855 to 1858. Counsellor-at-law in 
 Montgomery Co., Md., 1853 to 1861. Post 
 Master General of the U. S. 1861 to 1864. Died 
 July 26, 1883. 
 
 Boone, Daniel.- This famous pioneer and 
 hunter was born in Bucks Co., Pa., Feb. 11, 
 1735. He emigrated to North Carolina in 1769. 
 With five others he penetrated the wilderness 
 of Kentucky. He was captured by the Indians, 
 but escaped from them. Returned to North 
 Carolina in 1771, but removed with his own and 
 five other families to Kentucky in 1773. Built 
 a fort at Boonesborough in 1775. This fort was 
 attacked several times by the Indians in 1777, 
 but they were driven away. Boone was cap- 
 tured in Feb. 1778 and taken to Detroit. He 
 however, escaped and defended his fort from the 
 
 attack of 450 Indians in Aug. , 1778. In 1795 he 
 removed to Missouri and died Sept. 20, 1820. 
 
 Brag-g-, Braxton.— He was born in Warren 
 Co., N. C., in 1817 and graduated at West 
 Point in 1837. Commissioned Captain, June 18, 
 1846. Served in Florida and Mexico and was on 
 frontier duty 1849 to 1855. Brevetted Major and 
 Lieut. Colonel. Resigned Jan. 3, 1856 and be- 
 came a sugar planter in Louisiana, 1856 to 1861. 
 
 Commissioner of Public Works in La. 1859 to 
 1861. Entered the service of the Confederacy ; 
 Commanded at Pensacola 1861, at Shiloh 1862. 
 Promoted to General, but was relieved of com- 
 mand Dec. 2, 1863. Commanded a small force 
 in N. C. and Ga. in 1864. Died Sept. 27, 1876. 
 
 Breckenridge, John C.— Was born near 
 Lexington, Ky., Jan. 21, 1821. He studied Law 
 
 and was admitted to practice in his native city 
 in 1851. Elected to Congress the same year. 
 Vice President of the U. S. in 1856. Nominated 
 for President in 1860 by the Anti-Douglass 
 Democrats and received 72 votes in the Elec- 
 toral College. Sworn as U. S. Senator March 
 1861, but joined the Confederate Army in the 
 Autumn of that year. Commissioned as Major 
 General C. S. A. Became Secretary of War at 
 Richmond, Jan., 1865 and after the surrender 
 visited Europe. He returned to the United 
 States in 1868 and died May 17, 1875. 
 
 Brown, Joseph E.— This distinguished 
 citizen of Georgia was born in Pickens Co., 
 S. C., April 15, 1821. In youth he removed 
 with his parents to Georgia. Five times Gov- 
 ernor of the State for two years each term, 
 prior to 1861. He took a prominent part in the 
 reconstruction and under the new State Con- 
 stitution became Chief Justice of the Supreme 
 Court in 1868. Resigned and took the Presi- 
 dency of the Western and Atlantic R. R. 1871. 
 U. S. Senator 1880— re-elected 1884. 
 
 Bro wnlow, Wm. G. — This celebrated 
 Methodist ‘divine and politician was born in 
 Wythe Co., Va. t Aug. 29, 1805. He entered 
 the itinerate ministry of the Methodist Episco- 
 pal Church, but removed to Tennessee and 
 edited the “Knoxville Whig.” In 1861 he was 
 a firm adherent of the Union cause and was 
 imprisoned because of his sentiments during 
 the war. Governor of Tennessee in 1865 to 1869. 
 United States Senator 1869. Died at Knoxville, 
 Tenn., April 29, 1877. 
 
64 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Buchanan, James. — The fifteenth Presi- 
 dent of the United States was born in Franklin 
 Co., Pa., April 23, 1791; graduated at Dickin- 
 son College in 1809. Admitted to the bar in 
 1812. Elected to Congress in 1828. Minister to 
 Russia 1831. U. S. Senator 1833 to 1845. Secre- 
 tary of State 1845 to 1849. Minister to England 
 1853. Inaugurated President 1857. His admin- 
 istration was stormy and closed with the mutter- 
 ing of Civil War. He was hostile to the oppo- 
 nents of slavery and in his last message to Con- 
 gress affirmed that the Executive had no power 
 or right to prevent the secession of any State. 
 He retired to private obscurity during the war, 
 but published a defense of his Presidential 
 policy in 1866 under the title, “Mr. Buchanan’f 
 Administration.” He died June 1, 1868. 
 
 Bucking-ham, Win. A.- This patriots 
 War Governor was born at Lebanon, Conn., 
 May 28, 1804. After holding many minor 
 offices he was elected Governor of the State in 
 1858 and held that position until 1867. He was 
 elected U. S. Senator in 1869 and died at Nor- 
 wich, Conn., Feb. 5. 1875. 
 
 Buckner, Simon B.— He was born in Ken- 
 tucky in 1823, and graduated at West Point in 
 1844. Served in Infantry 1844-52. Assistant 
 Professor at West Point 1846. In Mexican War 
 1846-48, and was brevetted First Lieutenant 
 and Captain. Resigned March 26, 1855. Super- 
 intendent of Construction of Chicago Custom 
 
 House 1855. Joined the Southern Army 1861. 
 Surrendered Feb. 16, 1862, to General Grant at 
 Donaldson ; exchanged in Aug. , 1862. Major 
 General C. S. A., and surrendered May 26, 
 1865. 
 
 Buell, Bon Carlos.— He was born near 
 Marietta, Ohio, Mar. 23, 1818, and graduated at 
 West Point in 1841. Served in the Infantry 
 during the Florida War, 1841-42; in Texas 1845- 
 
 46 ; in Mexico 1846-48. He was brevettted Cap- 
 tain and Major. Assistant Adjutant General at 
 Washington, D. C. 1848-49, and at various 
 headquarters until 1861. In the Civil War he 
 commanded the Department of the Ohio, 1861- 
 62 ; in Kentucky, 1862-63 ; resigned in 1864. 
 President Green River, Ky., Iron Works in 
 1865. 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose E.— He was born at 
 Liberty, Ind. , May 23, 1824, and graduated at 
 West Point in 1847. Served as Lieutenant of 
 
 Artillery in Mexico, 1847^18. At different 
 points, 1848-53. Frontier duty in New Mexico, 
 1849-50. With Mexican Boundary Commis- 
 sion, 1851-52. Resigned 1853. Invented a breech- 
 loading rifle and engaged in its manufacture 
 from 1853 to 1858 at Bristol, R. I. Employed 
 by the Illinois Central R. R. 1858 to 1861. In 
 the Civil War served as Colonel of a Rhode 
 Island regiment. Commissioned Brigadier 
 General Aug. 6, 1861. Promoted to Major Gen- 
 eral May 18, 1862. Commanded the expedition 
 to North Carolina. Engaged at Roanoke 
 Island, Newburn, Camden and Fort Macon, 
 1862. Commanded the 9th Army Corps and 
 assigned to the command of the Army of the 
 Potomac, Nov. 7, 1862 ; relieved Jan. 28, 1863i; 
 commanded Army of the Ohio 1863 ; com- 
 manded 9th Army Corps in Richmond Cam- 
 paign 1864. Resigned from volunteer service 
 April 15, 1865. Civil Engineer 1865-66. Gov- 
 ernor of Rhode Island 1866-69. United States 
 Senator 1875, re-elected 1880. Died Sept. 13, 
 1881. 
 
 Burr, Aaron.— He was born at Newark, 
 N. J., Feb. 6, 1756, and graduated at Princeton 
 College in 1772. Joined the Continental Army as 
 private in 1775. Served on the staffs of Gens. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 55 
 
 Montgomery, Arnold, Putnam and Washing- 
 ton; became a Lieut. Colonel. Practiced law in 
 Albany and in New York City. Attorney Gen- 
 eral of N. Y. in 1789. U. S. Senator 1791 to 
 1797. Vice President of U. S. 1801 under Jeffer- 
 son. Shot Alexander Hamilton in a duel in 
 1804. Died Sept. 14, 1836. 
 
 It u tier, Benjamin V . — He was born at 
 Deerfield, N. H., Nov. 5, 1818; graduated at 
 Waterville College, Me., and was admitted to the 
 
 Bar at Lowell, Mass. , in 1840. He served in the 
 State Militia from private to Brigadier General. 
 Member of Legislature in 1853 and of the State 
 Senate in 1859. Proceeded to the front at the 
 outbreak of the Civil War. Sent two of his 
 regiments to Fortress Monroe. Siezed Annap- 
 olis and rescued Washington. Commissioned 
 Major General May 16, 1861. Commanded at 
 Fortress Monroe and at New Orleans. The 
 latter place he governed with ability until Dec. 
 1862. In Nov., 1863, placed in command of the 
 Department of Virginia and North Carolina. 
 He occupied City Point and Bermuda Hundred 
 May 5, 1864. He was unsuccessful at Fort 
 Fisher and subsequenly relieved of his com- 
 mand. Member of Congress in 1866. Governor 
 of Mass. 1883. Failed of re-election Nov. 6, 
 
 1883. ‘ ‘ Greenback ” Candidate for President 
 
 1884. 
 
 Cal houn, .John C.— This eminent Southern 
 statesman was born in Abbeville District, S. C. , 
 March, 1782. He graduated at Yale College in 
 1804, and in 1811 took his seat as a member of 
 Congress. He was politically a Democrat and 
 
 a leader of the War party. He was a warm sup- 
 porter of the Tariff of 1816 and of the U. S. Bank. 
 He served as Secretary of War in the Cabinet 
 of President Monroe, and became Vice-President 
 of the United States in 1825, and again in 1829 
 under Gen. J ackson. About this time he adopt- 
 the views of Free Trade and the Sovereignty 
 of the States. He wrote the “ South Carolina 
 Expositions,” and affirmed the principles pro- 
 claimed by Robert Y. Hayne. He resigned the 
 office of Vice-President in 1832 for the purpose 
 of taking his seat as Senator from S. C. In the 
 nullification proceedings he took part with his 
 native State. The “Ordinance of Nullification” 
 was to take effect Feb. 12, 1833, but the deter- 
 mined attitude of General Jackson caused 
 general alarm, and when Henry Clay proposed 
 his compromise measure, which was a virtual 
 abandonment of the protective tariff after 1843, 
 Mr. Calhoun gave him his cordial support. 
 He retired from the U. S. Senate in 1843 and 
 was appointed Secretary of State by Mr. Tyler, 
 Mar. 1844, but was re-elected to the Senate in 
 1845, and continued a member until his death. 
 He was opposed to the Mexican War in 1846, 
 although he had previously negotiated the 
 treaty for the annexation of Texas. His private 
 character was above reproach. Two works of 
 his published after his death, — one a “ Dis- 
 
 quisition on Government,” the other, “A 
 Discourse on the Constitution and Government 
 of the U. S.,” are held in high esteem by his 
 political friends. He died March 31, 1850. 
 
J56 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Cameron, Simon.— He was bom in Lan-’ 
 
 caster Co., Pa., March 8, 1799. Was elected 
 Senator of the United States from Penn, in 
 1845 as a Democrat. Joined the Republican 
 party and elected to the Senate in 1856. Sec- 
 retary of War from March, 1861, to Jan., 1862. 
 Sent as Minister to Russia, but returned in 1863. 
 In 1866 was again elected to the U. S. Senate ; 
 re-elected in 1872 and resigned in 1877 to be suc- 
 ceeded by his son, James D. Cameron. Died 
 June 26, 1889. 
 
 Canby, Edw. R. S.— He was born in Ken- 
 tucky in 1817. Graduated at West Point 1839. 
 
 Served in the Infantry from his graduation 
 until 1846. In Florida 1839HL2 ; transporting 
 Indians 1842-46 ; Adjutant 2d Infantry 1846-47 ; 
 brevetted Major and Lieutenant Colonel for gal- 
 lantry in Mexico ; Assistant Adjutant General 
 of Pacific Division 1849-51 ; in the Adjutant 
 General’s office in Washington, 1851-55; Utah 
 Expedition 1857-60; Navajo Expedition 1860- 
 61. In the Civil War, commander in New 
 Mexico, 1861-62 ; brevetted Brigadier General. 
 Special duty War Department and suppressing 
 New York draft riots in 1863-64. Commanded 
 in West Missisippi 1864-65 ; brevetted Major 
 General. Gulf Department 1865-66. Depart- 
 ment of Washington, 1866-67. Commanded 
 Department of the Columbia and was treach- 
 erously killed by the Indian “Jack” April 
 11, 1873. 
 
 Carlisle, Joint O.— Was born at Coving- 
 ton, Ky. , in 1835. Began to teach school and 
 read law in 1852 and was admitted to the Bar 
 in 1858. Member of the State Legislature in 
 1864 to 1866, and Lieutenant Governor of Ken- 
 tucky 1875. Member of Congress 1879 to 1889. 
 Speaker of the House 1883-1889. U. S. Senator 
 from Kentucky 1890. 
 
 Carroll, John.— Born in Upper Mark 
 borough, Md., Jan. 8, 1735. Educated at St. 
 Omer College, French Flanders, and the Jesuits’ 
 College, Liege. Ordained a Priest 1769; con- 
 secrated a Bishop 1790, and made Archbishop 
 1808. At request of Congress, delivered an 
 eulogy on Washington, Feb. 22, 1800. Died 
 Dec. 3, 1815. 
 
 Cass, Lewis. — W as born at Exeter, N. H., 
 Oct. 9, 1782. Began the practice of Law at 
 Zanesville, O., in 1802. He was taken prisoner 
 in the War of 1812, and afterwards promoted to 
 Brigadier General. Governor of Michigan 
 Territory in 1814, and held that office for sixteen 
 years, negotiating many treaties with the 
 Indians. Appointed Secretary of War by 
 President Jackson in 1831. Minister to Frantee 
 from 1836 to 1842. U. S. Senator from the State 
 of Michigan in 1844. Defeated as Democratic 
 Candidate for Presideut in 1848. In 1849 was 
 re-elected to the U. S. Senate. Became Sec- 
 retary of State in 1857, and resigned in Dec. , 
 1860. He died June 17, 1866. 
 
 dimming, William E. — This eminent 
 American author and divine was born at New- 
 port, R. I., April 7, 1780. He graduated from 
 Harvard College with the highest honors in 
 1798. Employed as tutor in Richmond, Va., he 
 received a view of slavery that influenced all 
 his subsequent life. Returning to Newport, 
 R. I., in 1800. Regent of Harvard College, 1802, 
 
 but became Pastor of the Federal Street Uni- 
 tarian Church in 1803. He delivered his cele- 
 brated lecture, perhaps the finest of all his 
 efforts, on the fall of N apoleon in 1814. Harvard 
 College conferred the degree of D. D. upon him 
 in 1820. In 1822 he went to England and made 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 57 
 
 he acquaintance of Wordsworth, Coleridge 
 and many others. Coleridge said of him, ‘ ‘ He 
 has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love. ” 
 His ‘ ‘ Remarks on the Life and Character of 
 Napoleon Bonaparte,” which appeared in the 
 “Christian Examiner” in 1828, did much to 
 spread his fame to all civilized lands. “Evi- 
 dences of Christianity,” a course of Lectures 
 delivered in 1821, established his claim to be 
 regarded as one of the great theological writers 
 of the century. He was an advocate of Tem- 
 perance and an opponent to Slavery. He died 
 Oct. 2, 1842. 
 
 Chase, Salmon P.— This American States- 
 man and jurist was born at Cornish, N. H., 
 
 Jan. 13, 1808. He was the sixth in direct 
 lineage from Aquila Chase, who came from 
 England in 1630. He graduated from Dart- 
 mouth College in 1826. He studied law and 
 taught school in Washington, D. C. Admitted 
 to the Bar in 1829. In 1830 went to Cincinnati 
 to practice. He prepared an edition of the 
 “Statutes of Ohio,” with notes and a His- 
 torical Introduction, which brought him into 
 notice. In 1834 he was Solicitor of the U. S. 
 Bank in Cincinnati and never after lacked 
 employment. He was opposed to the spread 
 of Slavery and his great maxim was, ‘ ‘ Slavery 
 is sectional, freedom is national. ” U. S. Senator 
 from 1849 to 1855. Governor of Ohio 1855 to 
 
 1859. U. S. Senator, Mar. 1. 1861, but he was 
 very soon called into Mr. Lincoln’s Cabinet as 
 Secretary of the Treasury. With an empty 
 treasury and impaired credit at first, he brought 
 great financial ability to the discharge of his 
 duties. His important public measures adopted 
 by Congress, the issue of legal tender currency 
 and a national banking system, enabled the 
 Government to carry on a gigantic war and 
 maintain its credit. He resigned this position 
 in June, 1864, and became Chief Justice of the 
 U. S. in Dec., 1864, in place of Chief Justice 
 Taney. In this position he had to deal with 
 questions growing out of the war, occasioned 
 by the political movements in which he had 
 shared. He presided over the Senate at the 
 impeachment of President Andrew Johnson in 
 1868. He was stricken with paralysis in 1870, 
 but retained his mental vigor until his death, 4 
 May 7, 1873. 
 
 Cheves, Langdon.-He was born in Abbey- 
 ville District, S. C., Sept. 17, 1776. Member of 
 Congress from 1811 to 1816. Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives for one session, Dec. , 
 1814 to 1815. He voted against the bill to re- 
 charter the United States Bank, but subse- 
 quently became President of that Institution, 
 1819 to 1822. He died June 25, 1857. 
 
 Church, Frederick E.— An American 
 
 landscape painter, was born at Hartford, 
 Conn. , May 14, 1826. He visited South America 
 in 1853 to study the scenery of the Andes. He 
 
58 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 ranked high as an artist on account of his 
 paintings, “ The Heart of the Andes,” “ Morn- 
 ing on the Cordilleras,” “ Sunrise at Mount 
 Desert,” “ The Parthenon, ” “Jerusalem,” and 
 many others. He visited the Holy Lands in 
 1868 and made a second tour to South America 
 in 1875. He had a studio in New York City. 
 
 Cl ail in, Horace B.— Distinguished mer- 
 chant prince. Born in Milford, Mass., Dec. 
 
 18, 1811. Received a common school education, 
 and after serving in his father’s store, went into 
 business for himself, 1882. Opened his importing 
 and jobbing dry goods house in New York City, 
 July, 1843. Suspended briefly in panic of 1860- 
 61, but passed creditably thorough those of 
 1857, 1873. He gave largely to church and 
 charity. Died Nov. 14, 1885. 
 
 Clay, Cassius H.— He was born in Madison 
 Co., Ky., Oct. 19, 1810, and graduated from 
 Yale College in 1832. He was strongly opposed 
 to the annexation of Texas, favored the aboli- 
 tion of slavery and made addresses in the North 
 in 1844, in favor of Henry Clay. He was Editor 
 ©f the “ Free- American, ” an anti-slavery paper 
 published at Lexington, Ky. He was several 
 times attacked by mobs, but defended himself 
 bravely. Served in Mexico as Captain in 1846- 
 -47. Brigadier General in 1861. Minister to 
 Russia 1862 to 1869. 
 
 Clay, Henry.— This American orator, legis- 
 lator and statesman was born near “The 
 Slashes” in Hanover Co., Virginia, April 12, 
 1777. His father died when he was five, and 
 his mother married again ten years after, leav- 
 ing young Henry a clerk in a small store in 
 Richmond. He soon found his way to the law 
 
 office of the Clerk of Courts, and four years 
 after to that of the Attorney General. He was 
 licensed to practise before he was twenty-one 
 years of age. Then he followed his mother and 
 opened a Law-office at Louisville, Ky. When 
 the State Constitution was formed, young Clay 
 publicly besought the Convention to provide 
 for the gradual abolition of Slavery, but was 
 outvoted, as he was fifty years after when he 
 renewed the proposition at the time of re\ ision. 
 In the Presidential election of 1800, young Clay 
 took an earnest part, and the favorite orator 
 was elected to the State Legislature in 1803. 
 Late in 1806, before he was quite thirty years 
 of age, he was chosen by the Legislature to fill 
 out an unexpired term in the U. S. Senate. 
 He was a member only one session, but took a 
 high rank. He was chosen Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives in the State Legis- 
 lature in 1807, and two years later sent to the 
 U. S. Senate for an unexpired term of two 
 years. In 1811 he was elected as U. S. Repre- 
 sentative, and the first day of the session was 
 chosen Speaker of the House. He was in favor 
 of the War of 1812, and being sent to Europe to 
 
 negotiate peace, came home with honor. He 
 was at once re-chosen Speaker in 1815. He be- 
 came Secretary of State under President Adams 
 in 1825. Mr. Clay was three times a candidate 
 for President ; in 1824, when there was no elec- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 69 
 
 tion by the people ; in 1832, when he was badly 
 defeated by General Jackson ; and in 1844, when 
 he nearly won the honor. He was returned to 
 the U. S. Senate in 1832, where he served until 
 his death with only an interval of two years, 
 1842 to 1844. He made his last journey to 
 Washington in 1851 and died June 29, 1852. 
 
 Cleveland, Grover.- The twenty-second 
 President of the United States was born in 
 Caldwell, Essex Co., N. J., March 18, 1837. 
 He obtained a good common school education, 
 and at seventeen years of age went to Buffalo, 
 N. Y. , as a Law student. He was admitted to 
 the Bar in 1859 ; was Assistant District Attorney 
 of Erie Co. in 1863. He was Sheriff of the 
 County from 1871 to 1873. Mayor of Buffalo in 
 1881. Governor of New York 1883, and in- 
 augurated President of the United States, Mar. 
 4, 1885. Re-nominated in 1888, but failed of 
 election. 
 
 Cleveland, Rose E.— Miss Cleveland was 
 born in Fayetteville, N. Y. She graduated at 
 Houghton Seminary, and remained there as 
 teacher for two years. Became Principal of 
 the Collegiate Institute, Lafayette, Ind. When 
 
 her brother became President she accompanied 
 him to the Executive Mansion at Washington, 
 D. C., and became its Mistress. Author of 
 George Eliot’s Essays and other studies, 1885. 
 
 Cleveland, Frances F.— This lady was 
 the daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Folsom, of 
 N. Y. Her father was the law partner of 
 
 Grover Cleveland. Miss Folsom was born in 
 1863 and graduated at West College, Aurora, 
 N. Y. After graduation she travelled in Europe 
 with her mother. She returned to the United 
 States and became the wife of Grover Cleve- 
 land, twenty-second President, on the 2d day of 
 June, 1886. This talented and well educated 
 lady became mistress of the White House and 
 assumed her position as the leader of Washing- 
 ton Society with a quiet dignity and becoming 
 grace that won the admiration of all classes. 
 She met the requirements of her station with an 
 affability and courtesy that won all hearts. 
 On her retirement from the Presidential Man- 
 sion, she found herself a favorite in all parts 
 of the country. 
 
 Clinton, DeWitt.- This eminent American 
 Statesman was born at Little Britain, Orange 
 Co. , N. Y. , Mar. 2, 1769. He graduated from 
 Columbia College in 1786 ; studied Law and 
 became Private Secretary to his uncle, then 
 Governor of N. Y. Member of the Assembly 
 injl797 and of State Senate 1798. U. S. Senator 
 1801. Mayor of New York City 1803, which 
 office he held for nearly eleven years. Lieu- 
 tenant Governor 1811 to 1813. He differed from 
 
60 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 President Madison in regard to the War of 
 1812 and retired to private life in 1814. But he 
 became a prominent advocate of the Canal 
 system, and in 1817 was elected Governor almost 
 
 unanimously, and was re-elected in 1820. He 
 declined to run in 1822, but was again elected in 
 1824. When the opening of the Erie Canal 
 was celebrated in Oct. , 1825, Gov. Clinton was 
 conveyed in a barge from Erie to New York in 
 triumph. He was re-elected in 1826, and died 
 at Albany before his term expired, Feb. 11, 
 1828. 
 
 Clinton, CJeorg-e.— The fourth Vice-Presi- 
 dent of the U. S. and uncle of the preceding, 
 was born in Ulster Co., New York, July 26, 
 1739. He was a Lawyer, and member of the 
 first Continental Congress in 1775. He voted 
 for the Declaration of Independence, but was 
 absent in command of a Brigade of Infantry 
 when it was signed. Governor of N. Y. from 
 1777 to 1795. He presided at the Convention to 
 ratify the Constitution of the U. S. in 1788, but 
 disapproved of that document because it gave 
 too much power to the Central Government. 
 Again' Governor in 1801. Vice-President of 
 the U. S. from 1805 until his death, April 20, 
 1812. 
 
 Cobb, Howell.— Was born in Jefferson Co., 
 Ga. , Sept. 7, 1815. Elected to Congress in 1843, 
 1845, 1847, 1849. — Speaker of the House in the 
 last-mentioned year. Governor of Georgia, 
 1851. Secretary of U. S. Treasury under 
 
 Buchanan, 1857 to 1860. Resigned and was 
 President of the Congress of Secessionists in 
 Feb., 1861. Major General in the Confederate 
 Army. Died in New York City very suddenly, 
 Oct. 9, 1868. 
 
 Colfax, Schuyler.— Was a grandson of Gen. 
 William Colfax, and was born in New York 
 City, March 23, 1823. He removed with his 
 widowed mother to Northern Indiana in 1836 
 and settled at South Bend. In 1845 he became 
 Editor of the “St. Joseph Valley Register,” 
 a Whig paper published at that place. Elected 
 to Congress in 1854 and continued until 1869. 
 Speaker of the House from 1863 to 1869. Served 
 as Vice-President of the United States 1869 to 
 1873. Died Jan. 13. 1885. A bronze statue of 
 him was erected in Indianapolis, Ind. , in 1887. 
 
 Conkling-, Roscoe.-Born in Albany, N. 
 Y., Oct. 30, 1829. Educated for the Bar. Re- 
 moved to Utica 1846. District Atty. for Oneida 
 County 1850. Mayor of Utica 1858. Elected 
 to 36th, 37th, 39th and 40th Congresses, and to 
 U. S. Senate 1866, 1873, 1879. Resigned with 
 his colleague, Mr. Platt, 1880, charging bad 
 faith on President Garfield, in the matter of 
 
 New York Collectorship. Established himself 
 in Law Practice in New York City, rigidly 
 avoiding politics. Died April 17, 1888. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher. — The discoverer 
 of America was born of obscure parents at 
 Genoa in 1436. He styles himself ‘ ‘ formerly a 
 weaver.” His father’s name was Dominico 
 Columbo, and his mother's, Susanna Fontana- 
 rossa. He studied at Pavia, and at fourteen 
 went to sea. In a certain letter, he mentions 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 61 
 
 that he commanded a cruiser in the service of 
 the Count of Province; he also speaks of 
 voyages to the Archipelago, and in 1477 to the 
 Isle of Thule. Once he was shipwrecked and 
 swam two leagues to land. Thence he walked 
 to Lisbon, where he found several of his fellow- 
 countrymen. Here he married Filipa Monis de 
 Palistrello, whose father was an able navigator, 
 but now old. Columbus supported this father- 
 in-law, as well as his own brothers, by making 
 maps and charts. During his residence at Porto 
 Santo, his mind gradually became possessed of 
 the idea of a western ocean track to the East 
 Indies. He corresponded with Toscanelli, an 
 Italian mathematician, who had written upon 
 the subject. After trying to gain royal pat- 
 ronage from several of the Courts of Europe, 
 he finally set sail from Palos, Aug. 3, 1492, with 
 one hundred and twenty men and three small 
 vessels. In spite of many obstacles and the 
 threatened mutiny of his crew, he kept on 
 and landed upon the Island of San Salvador, 
 Oct. 12, 1492. He made three subsequent 
 voyages to the new world, suffered violent 
 persecutions and wrongs, and died without 
 knowing the full extent of the discoveries he 
 had made. He died at Valladolid, May 20, 1506, 
 and was finally buried at Havana on the Island 
 of Cuba. 
 
 Cooper, James Fenimore.- This popular 
 author was born at Burlington, N. J. , Sept. 15, 
 1789, and was the son of Judge William Cooper. 
 He entered Yale College in 1802 and became a 
 midshipman in the U. S. N avy in 1806. He quit- 
 ted that service in 1811. In 1819 he published a 
 novel, entitled “Precaution,” which was con- 
 sidered a failure. His next work was “The 
 Spy,” published in 1822, which met with great 
 success and was translated into several Euro- 
 pean languages. His fictitious writings are dis- 
 tinctly American and “are instinct with a 
 spirit of nationality.” His Leather-Stocking 
 Tales and Tales of the Sea, are considered 
 specimens of classic English. He died at Coopers- 
 town Sept. 14, 1851. 
 
 Cooper, l*eier. — This American inventor, 
 manufacturer and philanthropist was born in 
 the city of New York, Feb. 12, }791. His father 
 required his assistance and young Peter received 
 only a meager schooling of one-half of each 
 day for a year. He was placed to learn the 
 trade of coachmaker when seventeen years of 
 age, and at the close of his apprenticeship his 
 master offered to set him up in business, but 
 he declined to accept the offer. Mr. Cooper 
 
 invented a machine for shearing cloth which 
 came into use in the war of 1812, but after its 
 close he became a’ cabinetmaker. He finally 
 engaged in the manufacture of glue and isin- 
 glass, which he carried on for fifty years. He 
 saw the great resources of this country for iron, 
 and in 1830 erected works near Baltimore and 
 later, a rolling mill near New York. In 1845 
 he erected the most extensive mill of this kind 
 then in the country. He built from his own 
 designs the first locomotive ever constructed in 
 this country, and it was successfully run on the 
 
 Baltimore and Ohio R. R. He became interested 
 in Telegraph lines and took active part in the 
 establishment of the Atlantic Cable which was 
 laid in 1854. He served in both branches of the 
 Common Council of New York City and as 
 School Commissioner. He founded the Cooper 
 Institute and laid the corner stone in 1854. He 
 was nominated by the Independent party for 
 President of the United States in 1876, and 
 received nearly one hundred thousand votes. 
 He died April 4, 1883. 
 
 Corcoran, Michael*— This brave General 
 was born in Carrowkeel, Ireland, Sept. 21, 1827. 
 He emigrated to the United States in 1849 and 
 settled in New York City. He became Colonel 
 of the 69th N. Y. Militia, and at the commence- 
 ment of the Civil War departed for Washington 
 and participated in the first battle of Bull Run. 
 He was taken prisoner and held for a year. 
 
62 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 He organized the Corcoran Legion after being 
 exchanged and was promoted to be Brigadier 
 General, to date from the day of his capture, 
 July 21, 1861. He was thrown from his horse 
 at Fairfax Court House, Va., Dec. 28, 1868, and 
 fatally injured. 
 
 Corcoran, William W.— Distinguished 
 philanthropist and art patron. Born in George- 
 
 town, D. C. f Dec. 27, 1798. Presented the 
 Washington Orphan Asylum its valuable 
 grounds, erected and endowed the Corcoran 
 Art Gallery, and the Louise Home for Women ; 
 endowed Columbia College with a princely 
 estate, and gave largely to the College of 
 William and Mary, the Virginia Military Insti- 
 tute, the University of Washington and Lee, 
 the University of Virginia, and other Insti- 
 tutions. Died Feb. 24, 1888. 
 
 Cox, Samuel S.— This genial statesman was 
 born at Zanesville, Ohio, Sept. 30, 1824, and 
 graduated from Brown University, R. I., in 
 1846. He was a Democratic Member of Congress 
 from Ohio from 1857 to 1865. Then he removed 
 to New York City and was sent again to Con- 
 gress in 1869 and served until he was sent as 
 Minister to Turkey in 1885. He resigned the 
 next year and was returned to Congress for the 
 unexpired term of J. Pulitzer in 1886. Re- 
 elected in 1887 and served with credit until his 
 death, Sept. 16, 1889. He was a well known 
 1 ecturer and published several popular volumes. 
 
 Among them are “Why We Laugh,” “Eight 
 Years in Congress, ” “ Three Decades of Federal 
 Legislation, ” ‘ ‘ The Isles of the Princes, ” ‘ ‘ The 
 Pleasures of Prinkipo,” etc. He died Sept. 10, 
 
 1889. 
 
 Crittenden, John J.— Was born in Wood- 
 ford Co., Ky., Sept. 10, 1786. He studied Law 
 and practised with distinction. He was elected 
 to the U. S. Senate for a short term in 1817. 
 After sixteen years of private life he was 
 returned to the U. S. Senate by the Whigs in 
 1835, and served six years. In 1841 he was 
 appointed Attorney General of the U. S. , but 
 resigned in Sept, of that year. Again a U. S. 
 Senator in 1843. Governor of Kentucky in 
 1848. Attorney General under Mr. Fillmore 
 from July, 1850, to March, 1853. Again a 
 Member of the U. S. Senate in 1855. Opposed 
 Secession in 1860 and 1861. The author of the 
 ‘ ‘ Crittenden Compromise. ” Died J uly 26, 1863. 
 
 Cummings, J o se p It. — This successful 
 American educator was born in Falmouth, Me. , 
 March 3, 1817, and graduated at Wesleyan Uni- 
 versity, Middletown, Conn., in 1840. Entered 
 the ministry of the M. E. Church in 1841. Pro- 
 fessor of Theology in the Biblical Institute, 
 Concord, N. H., 1853. President of Genesee 
 from 1854 to 1857. President of Wesleyan Uni- 
 versity, 1857 to 1872. Pastor of Churches in 
 Mass. , 1872 to 1881. President of North Western 
 University, Evanston, 111., 1881, to his death, 
 March 7, 1890. 
 
 Curtin, Andrew Cf.— Governor Curtin was 
 born in Centre Co., Pa. , April 22, 1817. He was 
 
 the son of Roland Curtin, one of the earliest 
 iron manufacturers of that County. Governor 
 Curtin studied Law at Dickenson College and 
 canvassed the State for Henry Clay in 1844. 
 Secretary of the Commonwealth in 1854. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 63 
 
 Governor from 1860 to 1866. Minister to Russia 
 in 1869. Member of Congress 1881 to 1887. 
 
 Curtis, George William.— This American 
 author and orator was born at Providence, 
 R. I., Feb. 24, 1824. He visited Europe, studied 
 in the University of Berlin and made an ex- 
 tensive tour in the Levant, returning in. 1850. 
 He published among other works, “Nile Notes 
 of a Howadji” in 1851; “The Howadji in 
 Syria,” and “ Lotus-Eating ” in 1852; “The 
 Potiphar Papers” in 1854. He also became 
 distinguished as a popular lecturer and an 
 orator for the Republican party. He was ap- 
 pointed by President Grant as Chairman of 
 the Advisory Board of the Civil Service. He 
 was Editor of “Harper’s Weekly,” and of the 
 Easy Chair in “Harper’s Magazine.” He re- 
 ceived a gold medal from Boston for his Eulogy 
 on Wendell Phillips, delivered there in 1884. 
 
 Curtis, Samuel R.— This American officer 
 was born near Champlain, N. Y. , Feb. 3, 1805, 
 and graduated at West Point 1831. He served 
 at Fort Gibson until June 30, 1832, when he re- 
 signed. Civil Engineer 1836 to 1841 ; Counsellor 
 at Law 1841 to 1846 ; Adjutant General of Ohio 
 1846 ; Colonel of the 2d Ohio Yols. in the Mexi- 
 ican War, 1846-48; Chief Engineer on several 
 important works, 1847 to 185 5; Member of Con- 
 gress 1857 to 1861. Colonel of Second Iowa 
 Vols. in 1861 ; Major General of Yols. Mar. 21, 
 1862 ; commanded the Department of Missouri 
 1862-63 ; Department of Kansas 1864-65 ; Depart- 
 ment of the Northwest in 1865, where he nego- 
 
 tiated several important treaties with the In- 
 dians. United States Commissioner to examine 
 the U nion Pacific R. R. 1865-66. Mustered out 
 of U. S. service April 30, 1866. Died at Council 
 Bluffs, la., Dec. 26, 1866. 
 
 Cushing-, Caleb.— This renowned Ameri- 
 can jurist and scholar was born in Salisbury, 
 Mass., Jan. 17, 1800. He graduated at Harvard 
 and traveled in Europe in 1829. Was elected to 
 Congress as a Whig in 1835 and served four 
 
 consecutive terms. He was a political friend of 
 Andrew Jackson, which caused him to separate 
 from his former party in 1841. He was nomin- 
 ated as Secretary of State in 1843, but was re- 
 jected by the Senate. Served as a Colonel in 
 the Mexican War with the Regiment which he 
 had equipped at his own expense. He was 
 Justice of the Supreme Court of Mass, in 1852, 
 but became Attorney General of the U. S. in 
 1853 and retained office four years. General 
 Grant appointed him to advocate the claims of 
 the U. S. at Geneva in 1871. Minister to Spain 
 1873. Died Jan. 2, 1879. 
 
 Cushing, William B.— Was born in the 
 State of Wisconsin, Nov. 4, 1843, and appointed 
 to the Naval Academy in 1857, but resigned in 
 1858. He, however, entered the service as a 
 volunteer officer in 1861 and was commissioned 
 Lieutenant in the Navy July 16, 1862, Lieuten- 
 ant-Commander in 1864, and Commander in 
 1872. He became distinguished in 1861 on the 
 Blackwater, in the Sounds of N. C. and at New 
 River Inlet. He added to his renown in 1864 
 by several daring exploits and covered his name 
 with glory by blowing up the Confederate ram, 
 Albemarle, at Plymouth, N. C., in 1864. He 
 led the men of the Monticello in the attack on 
 Fort Fisher and was always complimented for 
 his “courage and conduct” by his superiors. 
 He was several times thanked by the Navy 
 Department and once by Congress for “dis- 
 tinguished services.” He died Dec. 17, 1874. 
 
64 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Dallas, Oeorgfe UI.— He was born at Phil- 
 adelphia, Pa., July 10, 1792, studied law and 
 was admitted to the Bar in 1813. He supported 
 General Jackson for President in 1824. Was 
 elected United States Senator for a short term, 
 which expired in Mar. , 1833. Sent as Minister 
 to Russia in 1837 and returned in 1839. Vice 
 President of the U. S. 1845 to 1849. Minister to 
 England 1856 to 1861. Died Dec. 31, 1864. 
 
 Dai is, I> avid.— This American jurist was 
 born in Cecil Co., Md. , Mar. 9, 1815, educated 
 at Kenyon College, O. , and studied law at the 
 Yale Law School. He settled in Bloomington, 
 111. , in 1836. Elected to the lower house of the 
 Legislature in 1844-45; to the Constitutional 
 Convention, which formed a new State Consti- 
 tution, in 1847. Judge of the Eighth Judicial 
 Court 1848 and twice re-elected, 1855 and 1861. 
 Associate Judge of the U. S. Supreme Court 
 Oct., 1862. Resigned and was elected to the 
 U. S. Senate for six years from 1877. President 
 
 pro. tem. of the Senate from Oct. 13, 1881, to 
 Mar. 3, 1883. Died June 26, 1886. 
 
 Davis, Jefferson.— Was bom in Christian 
 Co., Ky., June 3, 1808; graduated at West 
 Point in 1828 ; served on various posts as Lieu- 
 tenant of Infantry 1828-1833 ; Adjutant of 
 Dragoons 1833-34 ; resigned June 30, 1835. 
 Settled as a cotton-planter in Warren Co., 
 Miss., 1835-46. U. S. Congress 1845-46. Colonel 
 First Missisippi Rifle Yols. in Mexican War 
 1846-47. Member U. S. Senate 1847-51. Sec- 
 retary of War in President Pierce’s Cabinet 
 
 1853-57. Member U. S. Senate 1857 to ’61. 
 President of the Southern Confederacy 1861, to 
 
 his capture, May 10, 1865. Prisoner of war 1865- 
 67, at Fortress Monroe, Ya. Released in 1868. 
 Wrote “Rise and Fall of the Southern Con- 
 federacy. ” Resided on his plantation in Missi- 
 sippi until his death at New Orleans, La., Dec. 
 6, 1889. 
 
 Davis, .Volin W.— He was born in Lan- 
 caster Co., Pa. , in 1799. Completed his medical 
 studies and settled in Indiana in 1823. He was 
 elected to several minor offices : twice Speaker 
 of the State House of Representatives ; Com- 
 missioner to treat with the Indians ; U. S. 
 House of Representatives 1835, 1839, 1843. In 
 his last term served as Speaker. Commissioner 
 to China 1848 ; Governor of Oregon Territory 
 1853-54. Died Aug. 22, 1859. 
 
 Deems, Chas. F.— He was born in Balti- 
 more, Md., Dec. 4, 1820, and graduated at 
 Dickinson College. He served before the Civil 
 War in the ministry of the M. E. Church 
 South. Was Professor of the University of 
 North Carolina 1842-47. Professor of Natural 
 Science in Randolph Macon College 1847-52. 
 From 1852 to 1860 he served in the regular pas- 
 toral work. In the latter year he visited Europe. 
 Acted as Presiding Elder of M. E. Church in 
 N. C. from 1860 to 1865. He became Pastor of 
 the Church of the Strangers, New York City, 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 65 
 
 in 1866. Author of “Life of Dr. Clark,” 
 “ Home Altar,” “ Light of Nations,” and many 
 other volumes. 
 
 Depew, Chauncey M. — The President of 
 the New York Central R. R. was born at Peeks- 
 kill, N. Y., in 1837. His ancestors had been 
 farming on the rugged hills of Peekskill for 
 
 more than two centuries. Young Depew 
 graduated from Yale College in 1856 and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1858. He won his first 
 oratorical reputation in the Presidential Cam- 
 paign of 1860. Member of the New York Assem- 
 bly 1861-62. Secretaryof State one term. Com- 
 missioned Collector of the Port of New York, 
 but would not accept ; also declined the offer of 
 Minister to Japan. He was made Regent of 
 the State University 1877. He became con- 
 nected with the Vanderbilt R. R. system in 
 1866 as Attorney for the Harlem R. R. Attorney 
 for the New York Central 1875 ; Vice President 
 1883, and President on the death of Mr. Rutter. 
 His name was presented to the Republican 
 Convention of 1888 as a candidate for President, 
 but was withdrawn. Visited Europe 1890 and 
 received by the Prince of Wales. 
 
 Dickinson, JTolin.— This American States- 
 man and lawyer was born in Maryland, Nov. 
 13, 1732. Studied law in London and had a 
 successful practice in Philadelphia. Member 
 of the first Colonial Congress in 1765, and the 
 first Continental Congress in 1774. He spoke 
 against the Declaration of Independence and 
 refused to sign it. For this he became un- 
 
 popular, but served as a private in the War. 
 In 1779 he represented Delaware in Congress. 
 He was “President of Pennsylvania” 1782-85. 
 Founded and endowed the College which bears 
 his name at Carlisle, Pa. , 1783. Died Feb. 14, 
 1808. 
 
 Dix, John A.— This American Statesman 
 and General was born at Boscawen, N. H., 
 July 24, 1798. He entered the Army in 1812 
 and became Captain in 1825. He resigned and 
 studied law. Elected Secretary of State of 
 N. Y. in 1833. U. S. Senator from 1845 to 1849. 
 He was Secretary of the U. S. Treasury from 
 Jan. to March, 1861, and issued the celebrated 
 order, “If any man attempts to haul down 
 the American flag, shoot him on the spot.” 
 Major General, May, 1861. In command at 
 Fortress Monroe in 1862, and commanded a 
 Corps in 1863 which ascended the York River. 
 Minister to France 1867 to 1868. Governor of 
 N. Y., 1873, 1874. Died at New York City, 
 April 21, 1879. 
 
 Donbleday, Aimer.— He was born at 
 Saratoga, N. Y. , June 26, 1819, and graduated 
 from West Point in 1842. He became Captain 
 in 1855 and was at Fort Sumpter in 1861, and is 
 said to have fired the first shot in the War. He 
 was commissioned Brigadier General of Volun- 
 teers in Feb., 1862, and Major General in Nov. 
 
 of the same year. He commanded his division 
 or corps in the battles of Manassas, South 
 Mountain, Antietam, Chancellorsville and 
 Gettysburg. He was brevetted for gallantry 
 as Brigadier General and Major General in the 
 Regular Army. He was commissioned as 
 Colonel of Infantry in 1867, and retired in 1873 
 at his own request, after thirty years of con- 
 tinuous service. 
 
66 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Douglass, Frederick.— An American 
 orator born in slavery in Talbot Co., Md., 
 about 1817. He learned to read and write by 
 stealth and ran away from his master in 1838. 
 He took up his residence in New Bedford, Mass. 
 He began to lecture against slavery in 1841 
 and very soon gained distinction. Published 
 his Autobiography in 1845. He visited England 
 and delivered very eloquent addresses on 
 American Slavery. Editor of the “North 
 Star” at Rochester, N. Y. In 1870 Editor of 
 the “National Era.” In 1872 he was first in 
 the list of Presidential electors chosen by the 
 Republican party of New York. U. S. Mar- 
 shall D. C. , 1877-85. Minister to Hayti 1889. 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A. — “The little giant” 
 was born at Brandon, Vt., April 23, 1813. His 
 father, a respectable physician, died soon after 
 the birth of his illustrious son. At fifteen he 
 
 engaged at work with a cabinet maker to raise 
 funds to put himself through College. But 
 after preparing for two years he began the 
 study of law and going to Illinois was admitted 
 to the Bar and opened an office at Jacksonville, 
 111., in 1834. Within a year thereafter, he was 
 elected Attorney General. In 1835 was sent to 
 the State Legislature. He was chosen one of 
 the Judges of the Supreme Court of Illinois in 
 1841, and resigned in 1843 to take a seat in 
 Congress. His first speech in the House of 
 Representatives gave him a high rank among 
 the foremost orators in that body, He sup- 
 ported the annexation of Texas and the 
 Mexican War. Mr. Douglas was elected to 
 the Senate in 1847 for six years, and again in 
 1852. He was the leader in the great contest 
 over the Territorial question in 1854, and suc- 
 cessfully carried the measures reported by him 
 
 from the Senate Committee. He was re-elected 
 Senator in 1858, after a strong contest in which 
 he was antagonized by the Democratic Admin- 
 istration, on the one hand, and the rising 
 Republican party, on the other. He was a 
 prominent Candidate before the Charleston 
 Convention of 1860, and when the delegates of 
 certain States withdrew, his friends carried a 
 motion to adjourn to Baltimore. He was 
 unanimously nominated for President by the 
 Baltimore Convention. The Presidential Cam- 
 paign was the most bitter in the history of the 
 nation and resulted in the election of Mr. 
 Lincoln. He gave his support to the call for 
 75,000 troops and aided in all the measures that 
 came up before his death, which occured June 
 3, 1861. 
 
 Du Font, Samuel F. This popular Naval 
 officer was born of French ancestry at Bergen 
 
 Point. N. J., Sept. 27, 1803. He entered the 
 U. S. Navy as a midshipman in 1815 ; became 
 Lieutenant 1826 ; Lieutenant Commander in 
 1842 ; Captain in 1855 and Rear Admiral in 
 1862. He commanded the “Cyane” on the 
 west coast of Mexico in the War with that 
 country ; commanded the Expedition to Port 
 Royal, S. C ; engagement with Fort Sumpter, 
 April 7, 1863; and afterwards in the South 
 Atlantic Squadron; relieved of his command 
 July, 1863. He retired to his home where he 
 died June 23, 1865. 
 
 Dwlg-lit, Theodore W. — This American 
 jurist, professor and editor was born at Catskill, 
 N. Y., July 18, 1822, and graduated at Hamilton 
 College, N. Y. , in 1840. He studied law at the 
 Yale Law School. He established a Law School 
 at Hamilton in 1846. In 1858 he was elected 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 67 
 
 Professor of Muncipal Law at Columbia College. 
 He soon became Warden of the Law School. 
 He has written several important law works. 
 He was appointed Judge of the Commission of 
 Appeals in 1874. He was elected non-resident 
 Professor of Constitutional Law at Cornell 
 University, and Lecturer at Amherst College. 
 
 Edison, Thomas A. — “The Wizard of 
 Electricity” was born in Milan, 0., Feb. 11, 
 
 1847 ; educated himself while a train boy on the 
 road between Port Huron and Detroit. He 
 became a telegraph operator and made his first 
 invention in Cincinati in 1857, by which two 
 messages can be sent at once over the same 
 wire. He invented the Phonograph and brought 
 to perfection the system of electric lighting 
 by incandescence. He built an extensive 
 laboratory at Menlo Park, N. J., in 1876. 
 His inventive genius produced the telephone, 
 the phonograph, the electric light and many 
 other inventions. His patents for electric 
 appliances number more than one hundred. 
 
 Edmunds, George F. — He was born at 
 Richmond, Vt., Feb. 1, 1828. In 1854 he was 
 a member of the Vermont Legislature. He was 
 elected to the U. S. Senate in 1865 ; also in 
 1869 for six years. Again in 1875, 1881 and 
 1887. He served on the most important Com- 
 mittees and March 3, 1883, was elected President 
 pro. iem. of the Senate. He declined the position 
 of Associate Justice of the U. S. Supreme 
 Court which was tendered him March 11, 1882. 
 
 Ellsworth, Oliver — This Chief Justice of 
 the United States was born in Windsor, Conn., 
 
 April 29, 1745, and graduated at Princeton in 
 1766. He was admitted to the Bar in 1771 and 
 elected to the Continental Congress in 1777. 
 In 1784 he was appointed a Judge in the Superior 
 Court and sat in the Convention that framed 
 the Constitution of the U. S. He was elected 
 to the Senate of the U. S. 1789, and in that 
 position won distinction as a debator. He was 
 a strong supporter of Washington’s Adminis- 
 tration, and was appointed by him as Chief 
 Justice of the Supreme Court in 1796. He 
 went to France as Envoy Extraordinary to 
 negotiate a treaty with that country in 1799. 
 He resigned the office of Chief Justice in 1800, 
 and died Nov. 26, 1807. 
 
 Emerson, Ralph W* — The son of Rev. 
 William Emerson and Ruth Haskins Emerson 
 Was born in Boston, Mass. , May 25, 1803. He 
 graduated from Harvard College at eighteen 
 years of age, where he won three prizes during 
 his course. For five years after graduation he 
 taught schools. In March, 1829, he was ordained 
 as colleague to Rev. Henry Ware of the Second 
 Unitarian Church in Boston. In 1832 he re- 
 signed and traveled in Europe for a year. Soon 
 after his return he began the career of a 
 lecturer. In 1834 he gave a series of biographi- 
 cal lectures in Boston, and became known as 
 
 one of the best popular lecturers of the country. 
 He took extensive lecture tours through the 
 West and South, In 1835 Mr. Emerson took up 
 his residence in Concord, Mass. , and the next 
 year issued his celebrated work, “Nature,” 
 
£8 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 which marked a new era in thought. He 
 became the leader of the school of thinkers, 
 known as Transcendentalists. He was known 
 as the “Philosopher of Concord,” but the 
 actual traits of his genius seem to be poetic 
 and literary. A list of Mr. Emerson’s works 
 would make an extensive catalogue. Two 
 volumes of Essays in 1841 and 1844, and 
 “ Poems ” in 1846. His miscellaneous addresses 
 were collected and published in 1849. His 
 “Representative Men” appeared in 1850. 
 These were followed by many others. Mr. 
 Emerson returned from an extensive European 
 tour with his daughter, May 27, 1873, to find that 
 his house at Concord, which had been burned 
 in his absence, had been rebuilt by his fellow- 
 townsmen as a tribute of respect. He died 
 April 27, 1882. 
 
 Ericsson, Joint.— He was born in Verme- 
 land, a province of Sweden, July 31, 1803. He 
 was appointed Cadet in the Engineer Corp 
 when eleven years old, and at seventeen rose to 
 Lieutenant. He resigned from the Engineer 
 Corps in 1826 and devoted himself to mechani- 
 cal invention. He made improvements in steam 
 boilers and in 1829 produced a locomotive that 
 could run fifty miles per hour ; a steam fire 
 
 engine in 1832, and a hot air engine in 1833. 
 He first successfully applied the screw to the 
 propulsion of steam vessels. In 1839 he came 
 to New York and the U. S. screw-steamer, 
 Princeton, was built by him. He also in- 
 
 vented a ‘ ‘ solar engine ” and many ingenious 
 instruments. He built the iron clad vessel, 
 the Monitor, which attacked and destroyed the 
 Confederate Ram Merrimac, thereby producing 
 a radical change in naval warfare. This inven- 
 tion was produced March 9, 1862. He received 
 the grand cross of the order of Naval Merit 
 from the King of Spain. He died March 8, 
 1889, and his body was taken to Sweden by the 
 U. S. Man-of-War, Baltimore, in 1890. 
 
 Evarts, William JI. — An eminent lawyer, 
 son of Jeremiah Evarts, was born in Boston, 
 Mass., Feb. 6, 1818, and graduated at Yale 
 College in 1837. Admitted to the Bar in 1840 
 and won distinction in New York. He was 
 employed as leading Counsel in the defense of 
 Andrew Johnston at his impeachment before 
 the U. S. Senate in 1868 and became Attorney 
 General. He was one of the three lawyers 
 appointed by President Grant to defend the 
 interests of the citizens of the United States at 
 the Geneva Tribunal to settle the “Alabama 
 Claims.” Appointed Secretary of State by 
 President Hayes March 7, 1877. Elected U. S. 
 Senator from New York, Jan. 21, 1885. 
 
 Everett, Edward — This orator and states- 
 man was born in Dorchester, Mass., April 11, 
 1794. He graduated from Harvard College 
 when seventeen, having taken the highest 
 
 prize twice in succession from the Boston 
 Schools. He was ordained Pastor of the Brattle 
 St. Unitarian Church Feb. 9, 1814. He termi- 
 nated his career as a settled Clergyman before 
 he was twenty-one to accept the Eliot professor- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 69 
 
 ship at Harvard, March, 1815. He traveled 
 and studied in Europe and returned in 1819 to 
 assume the Chair to which he had been ap- 
 pointed. Served in Congress from 1825 to 
 1835. Governor of Massachusetts 1836 to 1840. 
 Minister Plenipotentiary to England in 1841. 
 President of Harvard from 1845 to 1848. Sec- 
 retary of State, Nov., 1852. United States 
 Senator from Massachusetts in 1853. He retired 
 from political life and engaged very extensively 
 in lecturing. He devoted his energies to rais- 
 ing sufficient funds to purchase Mount Vernon. 
 He died in Boston Jan. 15, 1865. 
 
 Farragut, David €r. — This American Ad- 
 miral was born at Campbell Station, Tenn. , 
 July 5, 1801, and entered the Navy as Midship- 
 man Dec. 10, 1810. He saw his first service 
 under Com. David Porter. He saw and took 
 part in the severe contest with the pirates at 
 Cape Cruz in 1823 which resulted in their com- 
 plete overthrow. The opening of the Civil 
 War found him a Captain. He was pressed to 
 unite his fortunes with the Confederacy but 
 instead he moved his family to the North and 
 hastened to render service to the Government. 
 He commanded the fleet at the capture of 
 New Orleans in April 1862. He ran the bat- 
 teries at Vicksburg the same year, and on Mar. 
 
 14, 1863 passed Port Hudson and opened com- 
 munication with Com. Porter. In Aug. 1864 
 he captured Mobile. Dec. 22, 1864 he was com- 
 missioned Vice-Admiral. In July 1866, the rank 
 of Admiral was created for him, but with 
 impaired health he held it only until Aug. 14, 
 1870 when he died. 
 
 Field, Cyms W.— Son of Rev. David Field 
 was born at Stockbridge, Mass., Nov. 30, 1819. 
 He was educated in the schools of his native 
 
 town, and became a clerk in New York when 
 fifteen. He travelled in South America for six 
 months in 1853. Upon his return he became 
 interested in ocean telegraphy. The idea came 
 
 to him in connection with the plan to aid a 
 telegraph company, to build a telegraph across 
 Newfoundland, to get early news from Atlantic 
 steamers, to continue the wire across the ocean. 
 In 1854 he obtained the exclusive right from the 
 Legislature of Newfoundland to land telegraph 
 wires from America and Europe. The first 
 cable was lost in a storm while in process of 
 being laid in 1855, and a second was laid in 
 
 1856. Mr. Field accompanied the expedition of 
 
 1857, the two of 1858, and the subsequent ones 
 of 1865-66. The first two of these were failures, 
 the third worked only a little while. In 1865 
 the cable was lost in mid-ocean. The one was 
 laid in 1866 and then the lost one was picked up 
 and completed. Mr. Field crossed the ocean 
 fifty times within the thirteen years it required 
 to bring the project to a success. He subse- 
 quently became connected with other ocean 
 telegraph lines and also with elevated rail-roads 
 in New York City. Mr. and Mrs. Field made a 
 tour of the world in 1880-81. 
 
 Fillmore, Millard. — The thirteenth Presi- 
 dent of the United States, was born in Summer 
 Hill, Cayuga Co., N. Y., Jan. 7, 1800. At the 
 age of fifteen he was apprenticed to a wool 
 carder and cloth dresser. He employed his 
 scanty leisure in study, and when nineteen 
 
70 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 began to read law and teach school. He re- 
 moved to Buffalo in 1822, and the next year 
 was admitted to the Bar. He practiced in East 
 Aurora and Buffalo. He was a member of the 
 State Assembly 1829-32, and Representative to 
 Congress in 1833-35 and 1837^41. He drew 
 up the Tariff Bill of 1842. Comptroller of the 
 State, 1847-49. Vice President 1849-50, and 
 became President July 5, 1850, upon the death 
 of General Taylor. Travelled in Europe 1855- 
 56. In his later years he took great interest in 
 the historical and fine art societies of Buffalo. 
 He died Mar. 8, 1874. 
 
 Floyd, John B. — He was born in Mont- 
 gomery Co., Va., 1805; graduated at South 
 Carolina College 1826; studied and practiced 
 law. He removed to Helena, Ark. , in 1836 but 
 returned to Ya. in 1839. Member of Congress 
 1847-49. Governor of Virginia 1850-53 Active 
 partisan for James Buchanan, who appointed 
 him Secretary of War, Mar. 4, 1857. He used 
 this position to favor the South, and on the 
 
 secession of South Carolina in 1861 he resigned 
 his office. He was indicted by the Grand Jury 
 of D. C. but was not brought to trial. Briga- 
 dier General in the Confederate Army. His 
 course during the war was severely criticised 
 by the press of Virginia. He died Aug. 26, 1863. 
 
 Foote, Andrew II. — Was born in New 
 Haven, Conn. May 4, 1808, and entered the U. 
 S. Navy as Midshipman, Dec. 4, 1822. Became 
 Lieutenant in 1830, a commander in 1852, a cap- 
 tain in 1861, and a Rear Admiral in 1862. He 
 was assigned to the 'command of the Western 
 Flotilla in the fall of 1861. He was obliged to 
 superintend the construction of his gun boats 
 and create a river navy, which he successfully 
 accomplished. Feb. 6, 1862, he captured Fort 
 
 Henry and Feb. 14, bombarded Fort Donaldson, 
 aiding in its capture the next morning. He 
 effected the capture of Island No. 10, but was 
 
 soon compelled to resign his command on 
 account of wounds. June 16, 1862 he received 
 the thanks of Congress and was made Rear 
 Admiral. He was taken ill when on his way to 
 relieve Admiral Du Pont and died in New York, 
 June 26, 1863. 
 
 I ranklir, Benj.— This Statesman, philos- 
 opher, and patriot, was born in Boston, Mass. , 
 Jan. 17, 1706. He was the fifteenth of a family 
 of seventeen children. His father apprenticed 
 him to his older brother James to learn the art 
 of printing. Young Benjamin improved his 
 time and sparse opportunities by much reading, 
 careful and extended writing and the unassisted 
 study of mathematics, until he ventured to 
 print some of his own compositions in his 
 brothers newspaper. This led to a rupture 
 between the brothers, and in 1723 Benjamin 
 broke his indentures and ran away to Philadel- 
 phia where he worked at his trade. He went 
 to England in 1725-1726 and on his return to 
 America established the Pennsylvania Gazette . 
 He soon attracted general attention on account 
 of his talent and judgment. He made his 
 world-renowned investigations into the nature 
 of lightning 1746 to 1752. He was Postmaster 
 General of the Colonies in 1753, he procured 
 the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766 and tried to 
 prevent the war then impending. But was ever 
 a strong defender of the rights of the Colonies 
 and signed the Declaration of Independence as 
 a delegate from Philadelphia. He was Minister 
 to the French Court and aided the cause of 
 Independence by his frank, judicious, and wise 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 71 
 
 course. These nine years, from 1776 to 1785, 
 were the dark days of the struggle which made 
 us a nation and Franklin was doing his part in 
 aid of his country, as perhaps no other man 
 could have done it. He served as a delegate to 
 the convention that framed the Constitution of 
 the United States. He died at Philadelphia, 
 April 17, 1790. 
 
 Fremont, John C.— This distinguished 
 man was born in Savannah, Ga. Jan. 21, 1818. 
 Graduated at Charleston College, S. C., when 
 seventeen. He turned his attention to engin- 
 
 eering, and was appointed Lieutenant of 
 Engineers. He was employed in surveys and 
 making maps of the Mississipi Valley. In 1842 
 he explored the South Pass in the Rocky 
 Mountains and three years later was on his 
 way to the Pacific. In 1846 the Americans in 
 California declared themselves independent of 
 Mexico and elected Fremont Governor. Com. 
 Stocton in command of the Naval forces of the 
 U. S. caused him to be court-martialled, and 
 his commission was taken from him. He 
 retrieved his honor and was elected as one of 
 the first Senators to the U. S. Senate from Cal. 
 Was Republican Candidate for President in 
 1856. Major General in the Union Army 1861, 
 but was required to turn over his command of 
 the W estern Department. Governor of Arizona 
 Territory from 1878 to 1882. Died at New York 
 July 13, 1890. 
 
 Fuller, Melville M. — The eighth Chief 
 Justice was born in Augusta, Me., Feb. 11, 
 
 1883, and graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine, 
 in 1853. Began the practice of law in his native 
 city 1855. Removed to Chicago, 111., in 1856, 
 and remained in practice thirty-two years. 
 Member of Illinois Constitutional Convention 
 in 1862 and of the Legislature in 1863-65. He 
 was a delegate to the Democratic National Con- 
 vention in 1864, 1872, 1876 and 1880. Chief 
 Justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S., Oct. 
 8, 1888. 
 
 Fulton, Robert. — The first person to prove 
 the practical application of steam to navigation 
 was born at Little Britain, Lancaster Co. , Pa. , 
 1765. When seventeen he went to Philadephia 
 and engaged in minature painting there and 
 afterwards at New York. He subsequently 
 went to London and became a pupil of Benjamin 
 West. While in England his attention was 
 turned to practical invention in connection 
 with canals and the new invention of the steam 
 engine by Watts. He received a British patent 
 for canal improvements in 1796. He resided in 
 Paris from 1797 to 1806 and there invented a sub- 
 marine torpedo boat for maratime defense. He 
 began his experiments with the steamboat in 
 1803 on the Seine. This was but partially suc- 
 cessful. In 1806 with the aid of Livingston, 
 the U. S. Minister to France, he purchased a 
 Boulton & Watts engine, and shipped it to 
 New York. After careful study of its merits 
 
 and defects, he built and launched the first suc- 
 cessful steamboat in 1807. This, however, 
 attained a speed of only five miles an hour when 
 
72 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 going up the Hudson. His first U. S. patents 
 covered only the points regulating the shaft 
 and paddle wheels, and in consequence he was 
 involved in endless litigation with parties who 
 infringed upon his patent rights. His most 
 important vessel was “Fulton the First,” a 
 War Steamer built in 1814 and destroyed by 
 accident in 1829. He was persistent in his belief 
 that steam was a desideratum for American 
 Commerce. Fulton died at New York, Feb. 21, 
 1815. 
 
 Garfield, James A. — The twentieth Presi- 
 dent of the United States was bom in Orange 
 Cuyahoga Co., O., Nov., 1831. He graduated 
 at Williams College, Mass., in 1856; studied 
 and practiced law. Member of the Ohio 
 Senate 1859 and 1860. Colonel of the 42d Ohio 
 Volunteers in 1861. Brigadier General of Vols. 
 Jan. 11, 1862. Chief of Staff to General Rose- 
 crans 1863, at which time he was promoted to 
 Major General \)f Vols. Sept. 19, 1863. Member 
 of Congress 1863 to 1880, when he was elected 
 to the U. S. Senate, and the same year elected 
 President of the United States. He entered 
 upon the duties of that office March 4, 1881. 
 Was mortally wounded by a shot fired by 
 Charles J. Guiteau July 2, 1881, and died at 
 Long Branch, N. J., Sept. 19 of the same 
 year. 
 
 Oarfield, Mrs. Eucretia. — The wife of 
 the above was born near Hiram, Ohio, in 1837. 
 
 She was educated in the Hiram College and 
 married James A. Garfield when he was a 
 professor of that institution in 1858. She was 
 
 fully fitted by natural endowment and mental 
 culture to be a valuable aid to her illustrious 
 husband in his early struggles and subsequent 
 advancement. In his congressional and mili- 
 tary career she encouraged and assisted him 
 at every step of his upward course. She was 
 his constant nurse and attendant with his long 
 continued struggle for life, ending with death. 
 
 Goodyear, Charles — This inventor was 
 born at New Haven, Conn., Dec. 29, 1800; 
 
 became a partner with his father, a hardware 
 manufacturer of Philadelphia. After the failure 
 of his firm in 1830 he began the experiment on 
 the use of gum elastic or caoutchouc in the arts. 
 With many discouragements he continued his 
 investigations for nine years before he perfected 
 his idea of vulcanizing India-rubber by means 
 of sul phur. Many other improvements followed 
 and more than sixty patents bear the name of 
 Goodyear. He w r as robbed of the fruit of his 
 labors in Great Britain and France, and even 
 in the United States many infringements and 
 law suits cut down the profits. Mr. Goodyear 
 received many medals and the Cross of the 
 Legion of Honor. He died at New Y T ork July 
 1, 1860. 
 
 Cierry, EIl>i*i<lge. — He was born at Marble- 
 head, Mass., July 1744, and graduated at 
 Harvard College 1762. He became a successful 
 merchant in his native town and was especially 
 interested in the Naval Operations of the Revo- 
 lution. Member of the Continental Congress 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 73 
 
 1776-85. Signed the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence. Member of the Convention to frame the 
 Federal Constitution, but would not sign it. 
 Member of Congress 1789-93 Special Minister 
 to France 1797. Governor of Massachusetts 
 1810 and 1811. Vice President of the United 
 States, 1813. Died at Washington, D. C.,Nov. 
 23, 1814. 
 
 Gougli, John B.— This popular lecturer 
 was born in Kent Co. , England, Aug. 22, 1817. 
 He came to the United States in 1829, and 
 worked at bookbinding. After many years of 
 extreme poverty caused by intemperance, he 
 reformed and became a noted Temperance 
 orator. From 1843 he labored with great zeal 
 and much success in the U. S. He visited his 
 native land in 1853 and again in 1878. He won 
 renown as a lecturer upon other themes. He 
 wrote and published several volumes, mostly 
 on Temperance. Died Feb. 18, 1886. 
 
 Grady, Henry W. — This rising young 
 journalist and orator was born in 1850, and 
 served in the Confederate Army during the Civil 
 War. After its close he became a journalist 
 and arose to distinction in his profession. He 
 was connected with the “Atlanta Constitution,” 
 and attracted much attention as an orator. 
 He made a visit to Boston in 1889 and died of 
 pneumonia contracted while on his way home, 
 Dec. 23, 1889. 
 
 Grant, Ulysses S. — The eighteenth Presi- 
 dent of the United States was born at Point 
 Pleasant, Clermont Co., O., April 27, 1822. 
 He graduated from West Point at the age of 
 twenty-one, and served eleven years in the 
 Army. He was in every battle in the Mexican 
 War, save one, and won two brevets for gal- 
 lantry in action. Resigned his commission 
 and engaged in farming in 1854. When the 
 Civil War broke out he was in the leather trade 
 with his father in Galena, 111. April 19, 1861, 
 found him engaged in drilling a Company of 
 Volunteers in that city. He was commissioned 
 as Colonel of the 21st Illinois Volunteers and 
 reported to General Pope. Aug. 7 he was 
 promoted to Brigadier General of Volunteers. 
 Sept. 1 he was placed in command of South- 
 east Missouri and on the 6th he seized Paducah 
 at the mouth of the Tennessee river. Fort 
 Henry was taken Feb. 4, 1862, and Fort Donald- 
 son Feb. 15. Grant was promoted to Major 
 General. The battle of Shiloh and the victory 
 of Corinth quickly followed. Jan. , 1863, Grant 
 took command of all the forces in the Mississipi 
 Valley and after various movements received the 
 
 surrender of Vicksburg, July 4. He was com- 
 missioned Major General in the Regular Army 
 Oct. 16 and placed in command of the Division 
 of the Mississipi. His successes were rapid and 
 numerous. Congress created the rank of Lieu- 
 tenant General and bestowed it upon Grant in 
 Feb. , 1864. He assumed command of the Armies 
 of the United States March 17, 1864, and directed 
 in person the movements about Richmond. 
 General R. E. Lee surrendered to him April 9, 
 1865. After the assasination of President Lin- 
 coln, Grant was promoted to General and given 
 greater power than anyone had ever received 
 under our Constitution. He was Secretary of 
 War in Johnson’s Cabinet for a while. Presi- 
 dent from 1869 to 1877. Made a tour of the 
 world. Put on the retired list with full pay 
 March 4, 1885. Died July 23, 1885. 
 
 Gniiif, Julia, I>. — Miss Julia Dent was 
 born in 1826. After graduating in 1848, Lieut. 
 
 Grant formed her acquaintance, and on his 
 return from the Mexican War, he was married 
 to her, Aug., 1848. After the Civil War she 
 shared the honors paid her famous husband. 
 His choice of a burial place was conditioned on 
 a pledge that she should be buried beside him. 
 The compositions of his “Personal Memoirs” 
 was lightened by the fact that she was to enjoy 
 a large royalty from its sale, after his death. 
 
74 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ccreeley, Horace. — This famous American 
 journalist was born in Amherst, N. H., Feb. 3, 
 1811. He could read before he was two years 
 old. When he was ten his father removed to 
 W esthaven, Y t. , and when fifteen he was appren- 
 
 ticed to the printing trade at East Poultney,Yt. 
 In four years he became master of his craft and 
 rendered valuable aid in the conduct of the 
 little paper. This paper was discontinued in 
 1830 and young Greeley worked in various 
 offices at poor pay, until he decided to come to 
 New York. He arrived in that city Aug. 17, 
 1831, and worked as a journeyman printer until 
 Jan., 1834, when he entered into partnership 
 with Francis Story in the publication of the 
 “Morning Post,” the first daily penny paper 
 ever printed. This project proved unsuccessful 
 after three weeks trial, but Mr. Greeley con- 
 tinued in partnership with Story until the 
 latter’s death. After several newspaper enter- 
 prises had failed to succeed, Mr. Greeley estab- 
 lished the New York “Tribune,” with which 
 his name was connected until his death. “ The 
 Log Cabin,” a campaign paper, and the “ New 
 Yorker” were merged into the “Tribune,” 
 the first number of which was issued April 10, 
 1841. It was a small sheet with only five- 
 hundred subscribers, but in six months it was 
 put upon a strong financial basis, when Mr. 
 Thomas McElrath became business manager. 
 Mr. Greeley was in Congress 1848 to 1849 to fill 
 out a vacancy. He visited Europe in 1851. In 
 1859 he made an overland journey to the Pacific 
 and had a public reception in San Francisco. He 
 was a delegate to the Republican Convention 
 
 1860, which nominated Mr. Lincoln for Presi- 
 dent. He was himself nominated by the Liberal 
 Republicans for President in 1872 and endorsed 
 by the Democratic Convention, but lost the 
 election. He died Nov. 29, 1872. 
 
 Greene, Nathaniel. — This brilliant officer 
 of the Revolution was born of Quaker parent- 
 age at Warwick, R. I., May 27, 1742. He was 
 a member of the Assembly of his native State 
 in 1770, and from that time until his death took 
 an active part in all the affairs of the country. 
 He led the Rhode Island troops to Cambridge, 
 and soon won the esteem of Washington. In 
 Aug., 1776, Congress made him a Major General. 
 He bore an active part in the battles of Tren- 
 ton, Princeton, Brandywine and German- 
 town. He was appointed Quartermaster 
 General in March, 1778, but permitted to com- 
 mand his division when in action. This he did 
 at Monmouth and Tiverton Heights. During 
 Genl. Washington’s visit to Hartford he was 
 in command of the Army. He presided at the 
 Court-martial of Major Andre. He super- 
 ceded Gen. Gates in command of the Southern 
 department. He planned the battles of Cow- 
 pens and commanded at Guilford. He fought 
 the hardest battle of the War at Eutaw Springs 
 and for his conduct at this time Congress pre- 
 sented him with a gold medal and a British 
 
 Standard. The States of North and South 
 Carolina and Georgia presented him with 
 valuable tracts of land for his patriotic services 
 in the War. In 1784 he removed his family to 
 his estate near Savannah, where he died June 
 19, 1786. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 75 
 
 Gresham, Walter G — He was bom at 
 Corydon, Ind., March 17, 1833. He graduated 
 from Bloomington University ; studied Law 
 and began practice in his native town. Elected 
 a member of the Legislature in 1860. He was 
 Colonel of an Ind. Regiment in the Civil W ar 
 and served under Grant at Vicksburg; under 
 Sherman before Atlanta, and was bre vetted 
 a Major General in 1865. Became U. S. Judge 
 of the District at Albany, Ind., 1872. Post 
 Master General 1883. Secretary of the Treasury 
 Sept. 24, 1884, and U. S. Circuit Judge for the 
 7th circuit the same year. 
 
 Halleck, Henry W. — He was born at 
 Waterville, Oneida Co., N. Y., Jan. 16, 1815. 
 Graduated at West Point 1839. Assistant Pro- 
 fessor of Engineering at Military Academy until 
 1840. Assistant to a Board of Engineers at 
 Washington, D. C. , 1841. Assistant in charge 
 of construction of fortifications in N. Y. 
 Harbor 1842-46. In the Mexican War he was 
 sent to the Pacific Coast and bore an influential 
 part in the military and civil affairs of Cali- 
 fornia. Resigned his commission 1854. In the 
 Civil War was appointed Major General in 
 the Regular Army 1861. Commanded the De- 
 partment of the Missouri, embracing eight 
 
 States. General in Chief with Head Quarters 
 at Washington, D. C., from the fall of Corinth, 
 Miss., until U. S. Grant was commissioned 
 Lieutenant General. Chief of Staff 1864-65. 
 Commanded the Division of the Pacific 1865-69, 
 and the Division of the South 1869 until his 
 death, Jan. 2, 1872. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander. — This distinguish- 
 ed political writer and financier was born in 
 Nevis, one of the West India Islands, Jan. 11, 
 
 1757. His father was Scotch and his mother 
 a French Huguenot. She died while he was a 
 child. His father failed in business and the 
 young lad was sent to a relative in Santa Cruz, 
 where he entered a counting house in 1769. 
 But upon the display of literary taste he was 
 sent to the U. S. to be educated and entered 
 
 Kings (now Columbia) College. He attracted 
 popular attention by his speeches, pamphlets 
 and newspaper articles while still in College. 
 In 1776 he was a Captain of Artillery and 
 served with distinction as aid-de-camp to 
 General Washington. He was entrusted with 
 most delicate and important business. In 1780 
 he married a daughter of General Philip 
 Schuyler. He resigned his commission because 
 of a rebuke from Washington, but received a 
 commission in a New York battalion of Light 
 Artillery and commanded it at the battle of 
 Yorktown. He was a member of Congress 1782- 
 83 and 1787-88, and also of the Constitutional 
 Convention. He was the chief author of ‘ ‘ The 
 Federalist,” and became the first Secretary of 
 the Treasury under Washington. As a strong 
 Federalist he became involved in controversies 
 with Jefferson and Madison, but he used his 
 powerful influence to have the former elected 
 President instead of Aaron Burr. When Burr 
 was defeated as a candidate for Governor of 
 N. Y., Hamilton was accused of using his 
 influence against him. Burr challenged the 
 latter to a dual and shot him July 11, 1804. 
 Hamilton died the following day. 
 
 Hamlin, Ibumibal. — This successful 
 Statesman was born at Paris, Maine, Aug. 27, 
 1809. After a limited amount of schooling he 
 became a printer. He was admitted to the Bar 
 
76 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 as a Lawyer in 1833, and several times elected to 
 the Maine House of Representatives, serving as 
 Speaker for a number of terms. He was Repre- 
 sentative to Congress from 1843 to 1847, and 
 U. S. Senator from 1848 to 1857, when he was 
 elected Governor of the State. The latter office 
 he resigned to enter the Senate again, where he 
 remained as Senator and Vice President until 
 1865. Collector of the Port of Boston 1865. 
 Again U. S. Senator 1869 to 1881. Minister to 
 Spain 1881 to 1883. In a long and successful 
 political career of more than forty years, he 
 never suffered defeat when his name was pre- 
 sented for the suffrages of his fellow citizens. 
 He retired to private life in 1883. 
 
 Hampton, Wade. — He was born in Col- 
 umbia, S. C., 1818; graduated at the South 
 Carolina College. Served in both branches of 
 the Legislature prior to the war. Commanded 
 the Hampton Legion in the first battle of Bull 
 Run. Promoted to Brigadier General and 
 commanded a Brigade at Seven Pines 1862. 
 Engaged at the battle of Antietam Sept., 1862, 
 
 and wounded for the third time. Promoted 
 |to be Lieutenant General. Commanded the 
 Cavalry forming the rear-guard of the Con- 
 federate Army in 1865. Governor of S. C. 1878. 
 United States Senator 1879 to 1885, and re- 
 elected in 1885 for another term. 
 
 II an code, .lolin. — The first signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence was born at 
 
 Quincy, Mass., Jan. 12, 1737. His father was a 
 clergyman of the same name. John Hancock 
 graduated from Harvard College in 1754, and 
 two years afterwards inherited the property of 
 
 his uncle, Thomas Hancock. Young Hancock 
 was present at the coronation of George III. 
 of England. In 1770 he delivered the fearless 
 and eloquent oration over the victims of the 
 Boston massacre. He was President of the 
 Continental Congress which adopted the De- 
 claration of Independence, and his bold auto- 
 graph at the head of the list of signers is 
 characteristic of the man. He was commissioned 
 Major General of Militia in 1778 and served in 
 the field in Rhode Island. He was Governor of 
 Massachusetts from 1780 to 1785 ; a member of 
 Congress 1785-1786, and again Governor 1787- 
 1793. He was a man of strong and decided 
 character, of dignified, courtly but pleasing 
 manner, and of benevolent disposition. His 
 large property was liberally used for charitable 
 and patriotic purposes. He was entrusted with 
 various positions of honor besides those enurn- 
 eratad above. He died on the eighth day of 
 October, 1793. 
 
 Hancock, Winfield S. — He was born in 
 Montgomery Co., Pa., Feb. 14, 1824, and received 
 his early education at Morristown, Pa., Acad- 
 emy. Graduated from West Point in 1844. 
 Commissiontd 2d Lieutenant 1846 ; First Lieu- 
 tenant 1853 ; transfered to the Quarter-master’s 
 department with the rank of Captain 1855; 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Major 1868. In the Mexican W ar he served with 
 his regiment. September 23, 1861, Brigadier 
 General of Vols. Promoted to be Major General 
 of Vols. Nov. 29, 1862. Displayed marked 
 ability and courage at Marye’s Heights, Chan- 
 cellorsville, Antietam, Gettysburg, and all the 
 engagements of the Army of the Potomac. Brig- 
 adier General in the Regular Army Aug. 12, 
 1864. Major General J uly 26, 1866. Commanded 
 the Department of the Gulf 1867-68. Middle 
 Division of the Atlantic 1868-69 ; of Dakota 
 1869-72 ; of the Atlantic 1872 to his death. He 
 was nominated for President of the U. S. by 
 the Democratic National Convention in 1880, 
 but was defeated. Died Feb. 9, 1889. 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin — The twenty-third 
 President of the United States was born at 
 Nonth Bend, O. , Aug. 20, 1883 ; graduated at 
 Miami University 1852, and studied law in 
 Cincinnati. Removed to Indianapolis, Ind., in 
 1854 and practiced law. Official Reporter of 
 Indiana Supreme Court. Enlisted as 2d Lieut, 
 of Indiana Vols. July, 1862, and was mustered 
 out as Brigadier General June, 1865. Repub- 
 lican Candidate for Governor 1876, but was 
 defeated. Member of Mississipi River Com- 
 mission 1879. Elected U. S. Senator for 1881-87. 
 Inaugurated President March 4, 1889. Grand- 
 son of the following : , 
 
 Harrison, William H. — The ninth Presi- 
 dent of the U nited States was born in Charles 
 Co. , Va. , Feb. 9, 1773. In 1791 he was an ensign 
 in the Army, and in 1792 a Lieutenant on Gen- 
 eral Wayne’s Staff. Promoted to Captain in 
 1795. He was Secretary of the North-west 
 Territory 1797-98, and Delegate to Congress 
 1799 and 1800. From 1801 to 1813 he was Gov- 
 ernor of Indiana Territory and Superintendent 
 of Indian affairs. In the latter office he con- 
 cluded thirteen important treaties. He won 
 the famous victory at Tippecanoe Nov. 7, 
 1811. He was made Major General in 1813, and 
 gained renown at the defense of Fort Meigs 
 and the battle of the Thames Oct. 5, 1813. 
 Member of Congress from Ohio 1816 to 1819. 
 State Senator 1819 to 1821. U. S. Senator 1825 
 to 1828. Minister to Colombia 1828 and 1829. 
 After this he retired to his farm at North Bend 
 for twelve years, and was Clerk of Hamilton 
 County, O. Elected President in 1840 and 
 inaugurated March 4, 1841. He died April 4, 
 1841, just one month after his inauguration. 
 
 Harrison, Caroline Ij. — The wife of the 
 twenty-third President was born at Oxford, O., 
 
 71 
 
 1833, and graduated from Miami University. 
 Her father was Rev. J ohn Scott, principal of a 
 Seminary in Oxford. She married Benjamin 
 Harrison soon after he had graduated, and 
 shared his early trials and triumphs. They 
 had a son, Russell, in 1854, and a daughter, 
 Mary (Mrs. McKee) in 1858. They resided at 
 Indianapolis, Ind. , until she removed with her 
 husband and family to become mistress of the 
 
 White House, March 4, 1889. Her simple refine- 
 ment and uniform courtesy, as the first lady in 
 the land, characterized her administration of 
 the social amenities of the capital. 
 
 Hawley, ®Fosepli K. — He was born at 
 Stewartsville, N. C. , Oct. 31, 1826, and graduated 
 at Hamilton College, N. Y. , 1847. Commenced 
 the practice of law at Hartford, Conn., 1850. 
 The Republican party in Conn, was formed in 
 his office and upon his invitation, by a few 
 prominent men, Feb. 4, 1856. Mr. Hawley 
 became Editor of the “Hartford Evening 
 Press ” about this time. He enlisted April 15, 
 1861, and served as Captain in a three months’ 
 regiment. Colonel of the 7th Conn. Vols. 1862. 
 Brigadier General of U. S. Vols 1864. Major 
 General 1865. Mustered out of service 1866. 
 Governor of Connecticut May, 1866, to May, 
 ’67. Elected to fill a vacancy in the 42d Con- 
 gress 1872, and re-elected in 1873 to the 43d 
 
78 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Congress. President of the Centennial Ex- 
 position from its inception to its close in 1876. 
 Member of the 46th Congress. U. S. Senator 
 from Conn. 1881-87. Re-elected in 1887. 
 
 Ilawdioriu', Nathaniel. — This eminent 
 American author was born at Salem, Mass., 
 July 4, 1804. Graduated at Bowdoin College, 
 Maine, in 1825. Removed to Salem and resided 
 with his widowed mother. His first work, 
 “Fanshawe” (1828) was unsuccessful. Edited 
 the “American Magazine, ” 1836, until it became 
 bankrupt. “Twice Told Tales” appeared in 
 1837. This displayed the powers of the author. 
 In the Boston Custom House 1838-41. Removed 
 to Concord, Mass. , 1843. He here became asso- 
 ciated with Emerson, Thoreau, Ellery, Chan- 
 ning and other congenial men, and gave full 
 scope to his genius. His writings are numer- 
 ous, widely read and much admired. U. S. 
 Consul at Liverpool 1853-57, and afterwards 
 spent some years in Italy. He died May 19, 
 1864. 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford. R. — The nineteenth 
 President of the United States was born at 
 Delaware, O., Oct. 4, 1822; graduated from 
 Kenyon College 1842, and from Harvard Law 
 School 1845. Removed to Cincinnati 1849 ; City 
 Solicitor 1858-61. Major 23d Ohio Vols., June 7, 
 1861. Lieut. Col., Oct. 15. 1861. Wounded at 
 South Mountain and rejoined his regiment as 
 Col., Nov. 30, 1862. Commissioned Brigadier 
 General of Volunteers 1864. Member of Congress 
 1865-66. Governor of Ohio 1867-1869. Member 
 of Congress 1875. Inaugurated President March 
 4, 1877. Retired to private life 1881 ; resided at 
 Mentor, Ohio, engaged in quiet agricultural 
 pursuits. 
 
 Hayne, Robert Y. — He was born in Col- 
 leton District, S. C., Nov. 10, 1791. Studied 
 1 aw and was admitted to the bar in 1812. Served 
 for a while in the War of 1812, and distinguished 
 himself in the State Legislature ; was Speaker 
 of the House in 1818. He was U. S. Senator 
 from 1823 to 1832, where he quickly took the 
 first rank as an orator. The famous debate 
 between him and Daniel Webster arose on the 
 constitutionality of the Protective Tariff of 
 1824. He was Chairman of the Convention in 
 South Carolina which reported the “ Ordinance 
 of Nullification” in the great Tariff contro- 
 versey. He was elected Governor of the State 
 the same year, 1832, and made a defiant reply 
 to the famous proclamation of President Jack- 
 son. The State was put in defense for resistance 
 
 to Federal authority. In the meanwhile the 
 Compromise measure of Henry Clay was passed 
 by Congress and the threatened resistance 
 avoided. The State C onvention, held the follow- 
 ing year, repealed the Nullification Ordinances. 
 Mr. Hayne was chosen Mayor of the city of 
 Charleston, S. C. , in 1834, and three years later 
 became President of a railroad. He was the 
 first man to advance in Congress, at least, the 
 doctrine that a State had a right under the 
 Constitution to arrest enforcement of a Federal 
 law which she deemed unconstitutional. He 
 died at Asheville, N. C. , Sept. 24, 1839. 
 
 Hazen, William B. — This General was 
 born in Hartford, Windsor Co., Ver. , Sept. 27, 
 
 1830. Graduated at West Point 1855. Com- 
 missioned Second Lieutenant Sept., 1855. En- 
 gaged on frontier until 1859. First Lieutenant, 
 April, and Captain, May, 1861. Colonel of 41st 
 Ohio Vols. 1861. Brigadier General Vols., 
 Nov., 1862. Major General Dec., 1864. Visited 
 Europe during the Franco-Prussian War 1870. 
 Chief Signal Officer with rank of Brigadier 
 General, Dec., 1880. Died Jan. 16, 1887. 
 
 Hendricks, Thomas A. — He was born in 
 
 Muskingum Co., O. , Sept. 7, 1819. He removed 
 with his father to Shelby Co., Ind., and grad- 
 uated at South Hanover College in 1841. Ad- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 79 
 
 mitted to the bar in 1843. He was an active 
 member of the State Constitutional Convention 
 in 1850. Member of Congress 1851 to 1855. 
 Commissioner of the General Land Office of 
 the U. S. 1855 to 1859. U. S. Senator 1863-69. 
 Governor of Ind. 1872 to 1876. Vice President 
 of the U. S. 1885, and died Nov. 25, 1885. 
 
 Henry, Patrick. — This flaming orator of 
 the Revolution was born at Studley, Hanover 
 
 Co., Virginia, May 29, 1736. His father was a 
 magistrate and school teacher, and young 
 Henry was instructed chiefly by him, but so 
 fond was the lad of hunting and fishing that 
 he made only a poor scholar. At eighteen he 
 married the daughter of an inn-keeper and for 
 a time assisted his father-in-law at that business. 
 He was twice a bankrupt before he was twenty- 
 four. Then after six weeks study was admitted 
 to the bar, but for three years obtained no 
 practice. The celebrated “parson’s cause” 
 won him popularity because of his trumphant 
 plea for the people’s rights. He was a member 
 of the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1765, 
 where he won imperishable renown by his 
 remarkable speech against the Stamp Act. 
 From this time he became the acknowledged 
 leader of the friends of liberty in the Colony. 
 He was admitted to the general practice of law 
 in 1769, in which pursuit he won a fortune. He 
 was the first Speaker of the General Congress 
 at Philadelphia in 1774. He delivered his most 
 famous speech at the Virginia Convention, in 
 favor of putting the Colony into a state of 
 defense in 1775. For a short time the same 
 year he was Colonel of Militia. He served as 
 
 Governor of his native State from 1776 to 1779, 
 and again from 1781 to 1786. He opposed the 
 Constitution of the U. S. , but acquiesced after 
 its adoption. He declined to hold any office 
 thereafter, and died at Red Hill, Charlotte Co., 
 Virginia, June 6, 1799. 
 
 Holmes, Oliver W.— This witty doctor- 
 poet was born at Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 29, 
 1809, and graduated at Harvard College in 1829. 
 He first studied law and then medicine, receiv- 
 ing his medical degree in 1836, after several 
 years attendance in European hospitals. Pro- 
 fessor of Anatomy and Physiology in Dart- 
 mouth 1838 to 1847.. He filled the same chair 
 at the Massachusetts Medical School, Boston, 
 from 1847 to 1882, when he retired. His fame 
 as an accurate anatomist and microscopist is 
 equalled by his popularity as a poet, wit and 
 man of letters. His ‘ ‘ Phi Betta Kappa ” and 
 other College poems and papers published in 
 the “Atlantic Monthly” have added greatly 
 to his reputation. He has also written many 
 medical addresses. He received the unusual 
 honor to an American, the degree of L. L. D. , 
 from the University of Edinburg, Scotland, in 
 1888. 
 
 Holt, Josepli^-He was born in Brecken- 
 ridge Co., Ky., Jan. 6, 1807. Educated at St. 
 Joseph’s College and Centre College. Began 
 the practice of law in 1828 at Elizabethtown, 
 
 Ky., removing to Louisville in 1832. Attorney 
 for Jefferson Co. 1833. Commissioner of Patents 
 1857-59. Post-master General 1859-60. Secretary 
 of War 1860. President Lincoln appointed him 
 Judge Advocate General with the rank of 
 Colonel, Sept., 1862, and upon the establish- 
 ment of the Bureau of Military Justice in 1864, 
 he was retained as its head with the rank of 
 Brigadier General. Retired Nov., 1875. 
 
80 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Hood, John H. — He was born at Owings- 
 ville, Bath Co., Ky., June 29, 1831, and 
 graduated from West Point 1853. Appointed 
 Brevet Second Lieutenant of Infantry and 
 
 transferred in full rank to Cavalry 1855. First 
 Lieutenant 1858. Engaged on frontier duty 
 until 1861, when he resigned. He served in the 
 Confederate Army in all the grades from First 
 Lieutenant up to Lieutenant General. He was 
 in the Virginia Peninsula Campaign, second 
 Bull Run, Antietam, Gettysburg, and at 
 Chickamauga, where he lost a leg. Met the 
 Union forces in battle at Franklin, Nov. 30, 
 1864, and at Nashville, Dec. 15-16. Soon after 
 this he was relieved of his command. Made his 
 residence at New Orleans, and died Aug. 30, 
 1879. 
 
 Hooker, Joseph. — This gallant General 
 was born at Hadley, Mass., Nov. 13, 1814, and 
 
 graduated from West Point in 1837. He served 
 in the Seminole War and on the frontier until 
 
 1846. He was a staff officer in Mexico and was 
 brevetted Captain, Major and Lieutenant Col- 
 onel, for gallantry in action. He designed from 
 the Army and was employed in Oregon as 
 superintendent of military roads. When the 
 Civil War began he tendered his services to the 
 Government and was commissioned Brigadier 
 General May 17, 1861. Appointed to command 
 a division of the Third Corps May, 1862. Pro- 
 moted to Major General. In January, 1863, 
 appointed to command the Army of the Poto- 
 mac, but was relieved at his own request, June 
 27. Assumed command of the 20th Army Corps 
 Sept., 1863. He was brevetted Major General 
 in the Regular Army, and retired with full rank 
 Oct., 1868. Died Oct. 31, 1879. 
 
 Hopkinson, Francis. — One of the signers 
 of the Declaration of Independence was born in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., in 1737. He graduated at 
 Princeton in 1763, and Avas admitted to the bar 
 
 in 1765. Member of Congress from N. J. 1776- 
 77. Admiralty Judge in Pennsylvania 1779-89. 
 U. S. District Judge 1790-91. Died May 9, 1791. 
 He was remarkable for his witty and satirical 
 sayings and wrote many humorous and pat- 
 riotic poems and other papers which were very 
 popular. 
 
 Houston, €len. Sam. — Was born in Rock- 
 bridge Co. , Va. , March 2, 1793. On the death of 
 his father he went with his mother to Tennessee, 
 where he received a scanty education. In 1813 
 he enlisted as a private in the U. S. Army and 
 served under General Jackson against the Creek 
 Indians. Was promoted to Lieutenant for 
 gallantry. After the war he studied law. He 
 was sent to Congress from Tenn. in 1823 and 
 remained four years. Governor of Tennessee in 
 1827, but resigned before expiration of his term* 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 81 
 
 Resided among the Cherokee Indians and rep- 
 resented them at Washington. Went to Texas 
 and became a delegate to Mexico. Was ap- 
 pointed General and Commander in Chief of 
 the Texas forces, which won their independence. 
 President of Texas in 1836. On the admission 
 of the State was U. S. Senator for twelve years. 
 Died July 25, 1863. 
 
 Howe, Elias. — The inventor of the sewing 
 machine was born at Spencer, Mass., July 9, 
 1819. Worked in machine shops in Lowell in 
 
 1835, and afterwards in Boston. Completed his 
 first sewing machine in 1845 and had it patented 
 in 1846. He worked in poverty and neglect ; 
 spent two years in England, but was unsuccess- 
 ful in introducing his invention. He established 
 his claims in 1854 and began to realize a fortune 
 from his invention. Died Oct. 3, 1867. 
 
 Ing-als, John J.— He was born at Middle- 
 ton, Essex Co. , Mass. , Dec. 29, 1833, and grad- 
 uated at Williams College 1855. Admitted to 
 the bar 1857 and removed to Kansas the next 
 year. Delegate to the Wyandotte Constitu- 
 tional Convention in 1859 ; Territorial Secretary 
 1860 ; Secretary of State Senate 1861 ; Member 
 of same 1862; Major, Lieutenant^Colonel, and 
 J udge Advocate of State troops 1863-64. U nited 
 States Senate March 3, 1873, and thrice re-elected. 
 President Pro. Tem. of the Senate 1887. 
 
 Ingalls, Rufus.— He was born in Denmark, 
 Maine, 1820, and graduated from West Point 
 
 1843. Brevet Second Lieutenant of Rifles, 
 transferred to Dragoons 1845, and to Quarter- 
 master’s department with rank of Captain in 
 1848. Served as Quarter-master with his 
 regiment on the frontier and in the Mexican 
 War. In 1860 ordered to Washington, D. C., 
 and in 1861 assumed the duties of Chief Quarter- 
 master of the Army. Brevetted from Lieut. 
 Col. to Major General. Became Quarter- 
 master General of the U. S. Army in 1882. 
 Retired in 1883. 
 
 Ingersoll, Robert O.— This eminent orator 
 was born at Dryden, Gates Co., N. Y. , Aug. 
 24, 1833. Educated in common school and 
 academy and taught school in Tennessee. Began 
 the practice of law in “Egypt,” 111., in 1854. 
 He was Colonel of an Illinois Regiment during 
 the Civil War. He gained much renow n as a 
 lawyer and platform speaker. He was the 
 orator of the day on May 30, 1882, at New 
 York. Author of many publications opposed 
 to the Christian religion. Established a law 
 office in New York City, and practiced in the 
 United States Courts. 
 
 Irving-, Washington. — The youngest son 
 of William Irving, merchant, was born in New 
 York City April 3, 1783. His school education 
 closed with his sixteenth year. Then he began 
 the study of law. When he was nineteen he 
 made his first attempt at literature in the 
 “Morning Chronicle,” edited by his brother, 
 
 Dr. Peter Irving. He made a voyage to Europe 
 in 1804 and after extensive travels returned in 
 
82 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 1806, when he finished his legal studies and was 
 soon after admitted to the bar. He began the 
 amusing serial, “Salmagundi,” in 1807, and a 
 year later he wrote “ Knickerbocker’s History 
 of New York.” He was engaged in mercantile 
 business with two brothers for a while, until 
 1818, when he was editor of the “Analectic 
 Magazine.” In 1814 he was appointed Aid-de- 
 camp to Governor Tompkins with the rank of 
 Colonel. He again sailed for Europe in 1815 on 
 a pleasure trip, but the commercial house of 
 which he was a member failed in 1817, and he 
 was thrown upon his literary work for a living. 
 With the aid of Sir Walter Scott, he found a 
 publisher for his “ Sketch Book,” which was 
 brought out in permanent form and secured 
 the reputation and fortune of the writer. His 
 “Sleepy Hollow,” and “Rip Van Winkle,” at 
 once took favor with the reading public. His 
 subsequent career was smooth, and his writings 
 appeared with great rapidity. He won a gold 
 medal given by George IV., as a prize for excel- 
 lence in historical composition. He was the 
 first American author to gain a standing among 
 English critics. His great work is the “Life 
 of Washington.” His popularity was life-long, 
 and his writings are regarded as classic. He 
 died Nov. 28, 1859. 
 
 J ackson, Andrew.— The seventh President 
 of the United States was born at the Waxhaw 
 Settlement, Union Co., N. C., March 15, 1767. 
 His father died before his birth, and his mother 
 was left in destitute circumstances. His early 
 education was very meager. He volunteered to 
 serve in the Revolutionary War when thirteen. 
 He was a prisoner in 1781 and passed through 
 much suffering. He and his brother were re- 
 leased by the exertions of their mother, but 
 the latter two died of small-pox contracted while 
 attending the prisoners. Young Jackson, left 
 entirely destitute, worked in a saddler’s shop, 
 afterwards taught school and studied law. W as 
 admitted to the bar in 1786 and removed to 
 Nashville, Tenn., then the western district of 
 North Carolina, and appointed Solicitor in 
 1788. He was appointed U. S. Attorney in 1790. 
 He was a member of the Constitutional Con- 
 vention of Tennessee 1796, and was elected U. S. 
 Senator, but declined ; accepted a position on 
 the Supreme Bench of the State, which he held 
 until 1804. He retired from public life and 
 lived on his plantation until the war of 1812, 
 when he tendeied his services to the Govern- 
 ment. He marched to New Orleans, Jan., 1813, 
 at the head of the Tennessee contingent, but 
 
 in March received orders to disband his forces. 
 He very soon took the field again in the Creek 
 War and won several victories over the Indians. 
 In 1814 was commissioned as Major General of 
 the U. S. Army and commanded at the defense 
 of Mobile, Sept. 15, 1814, and seized Pensacola 
 Nov. 6 of the same year. Then he transported 
 his forces to New Orleans. Martial law being 
 declared in Louisania, he had engagements 
 with the British forces Dec. 23 and 28, and won 
 the famous battle of New Orleans Jan. 8, 1815. 
 Conducted the Seminole War in Florida in 1817- 
 1819. U. S. Senator in 1823. Inaugurated 
 President 1829, and again in 1833. Named Van 
 Buren as his successor and retired to private 
 life. Died at the Hermitage June 8, 1845. 
 
 Jackson, Thomas J.— This famous Con- 
 federate General was born at Clarksburg, West 
 Va., Jan. 21, 1824. Graduated at West Point 
 
 in 1846. Served with merit in Mexico, winning 
 the brevets of Captain and Major. Advanced 
 by promotion to First Lieutenant Aug. 20, 1847. 
 After the war he resigned and became Professor 
 in the Virginia Military Institute. When the 
 Civil War broke out, he was commissioned as 
 Colonel and captured Harper’s Ferry May 3, 
 1861. Placed in command of a Brigade known 
 as the ‘ ‘ Stonewall ” Brigade. He acquired the 
 sobriquet of “Stonewall” at the battle of 
 Manassas. He was commissioned as Major 
 General in Sept. , 1861. He held a conspicuous 
 position in all the battles of 1861 to 1863. He 
 was mortally wounded by his own men when in 
 advance of the line and mistaken for the enemy, 
 May 2, 1863, and died May 10. 
 
 •fay. Joint.— He was born in New York 
 City, May 12, 1745. Graduated at King’s Col- 
 lege in 1764, and was admitted to the bar 1768. 
 He was a member of the First Continental 
 Congress. Chief Justice of New York in 1777. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 83 
 
 President of Congress in 1778 and 1779. He 
 was sent as a special minister to Spain in 1779 
 and one of the commissioners to negotiate the 
 treaty of peace with Great Britain at the close 
 of the Revolution in 1782. He was appointed 
 first Chief Justice of the U. S. 1789. Minister to 
 England 1794 ; Governor of New York 1795-1801. 
 He was a strong advocate of the Constitution 
 
 and opposed to slavery and became the Presi- 
 dent of a society to promote the emancipation 
 of slaves in 1785, which led to its abolition in 
 New York in 1799. He died May 17, 1829. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas. — Third President of 
 the U nited States was born in Albermarle Co. , 
 Virginia, April 13, 1743. He was the third in 
 age of eight children, and at fourteen was left 
 an orphan. At his father’s dying request he 
 was educated at William and Mary’s College. 
 He studied law under George Wythe and was 
 admitted to practice when twenty-four years of 
 age. His practice rapidly increased until it in 
 four years amounted to £500 sterling. He was 
 married Jan. 1, 1772, to a childless widow, Mrs. 
 Martha Sketon, and by the death of her father 
 became possessed of a large estate. His first 
 patriotic impulses were stirred by the celebrated 
 speech of Patrick Henry. He served in the 
 Virginia House of Burgesses from 1769 until 
 the Revolution. He took his seat as a member 
 of the Continental Congress June 21, 1775, the 
 very day on which the news of the battle of 
 Bunker Hill reached Philadelphia and on which 
 Washington left to assume command at Cam- 
 bridge. He drew the original draft of the 
 Declaration of Independence, which after some 
 amendment was signed July 4, 1776. He suc- 
 
 ceeded Patrick Henry as Governor of Virginia 
 June 1, 1779, but resigned after holding the 
 office two years. He was Minister to France 
 from June, 1784, to Oct., 1789. Soon after 
 reaching home he was met by a letter from 
 Washington, appointing him Secretary of 
 State. He accepted the office, which he held 
 until Jan 1, 1794. He was Vice President from 
 1797 to 1801, when he became President. This 
 office he held for eight years. Having declined 
 a renomination for a third term, he retired to 
 private life at Monticello. Here he died, fifty 
 years after signing the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence, July 4, 1826. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew.— The seventeenth Pres- 
 ident of the United States was born at Raleigh, 
 N. C., Dec. 29, 1808. His father died when he 
 was four years old. When eleven he was appren- 
 ticed to a tailor. He removed to Greenville, 
 Tenn. , and worked as journeyman tailor 1826-28. 
 Alderman 1828-30. Mayor 1830-1832. In State 
 Legislature 1835 and 1839. State Senator 1841. 
 U. S. Congress 1843-1853. Governor of Tenn. 
 1853; re-elected 1855. U. S. Senate 1857. Leader- 
 of the Loyalist Convention for East Tenn.. 
 1861. Military Governor 1862, with the rank 
 of Brigadier General. Vice President of the 
 U. S. , March 4, 1865. President to succeed Mr. 
 Lincoln April 15, 1865. He broke with the 
 dominant party and reconstructed his Cabinet 
 pi July, 1866. Eleven articles of impeachment 
 were presented against him for “high crimes 
 and misdemeanors,” March 5, 1868. He was; 
 tried before the Senate, sitting as a High Court*, 
 presided over by the Chief Justice of the U. S. r 
 from March 23 to May 26, and was acquitted on 
 each article. Remained in office until March 4, 
 1869. Elected to the U. S. Senate in 1875 and 
 took part in the extra session. Died July 31 s 
 1875. 
 
 Johnson, IS iclisurcl ftl.— He was born in 
 Kentucky Oct. 17, 1780, and educated at Tran- 
 sylvania University; studied law and was 
 admitted to the bar. Member of the Legis- 
 lature in 1803, and of Congress 1807 to 1819. 
 Colonel of a regiment in the war of 1812. He 
 rendered brilliant service in the battle of the 
 Thames Oct. 5, 1813. He slew with his own 
 hand the Indian Chief, Tecumseh. He was 
 wounded, but resumed his seat in Congress in 
 the following Feb. U. S. Senator from Ky., 
 1819 to 1829. Member of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives 1829 to 1837. Chosen Vice President 
 by the Senate March, 1837, in which office he 
 served four years. Retired to private life after 
 
84 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 thirty years of continuous public service. He 
 was elected to the State Legislature, and while 
 serving in this position, died at Frankfort, Ky. , 
 Nov. 19, 1850, in the eighty-first year of his 
 age. 
 
 Johnston, Joseph E.— He was born in 
 Prince Edward Co., Ya. , Feb., 1807, and grad- 
 uated at West Point, and was promoted to 2d 
 Lieutenant of Artillery July, 1829. Served 
 
 mostly in garrison duty until 1887 ; although 
 he was for a time on the staff of Gen. Scott in 
 the Seminole War. He resigned in 1837, but 
 re-entered the service in 1838 as First Lieutenant 
 of Topographical Engineers, and was brevetted 
 Captain for former gallantry in Florida. He 
 served in the Mexican War and was wounded 
 at Yera Cruz and at the final assault on the city 
 of Mexico. In 1855 he was promoted to be 
 Lieut. -Colonel of Cavalry and served in the 
 Utah Expedition as Inspector General. He 
 was appointed Quarter-master General, with 
 the rank of Brigadier General, but resigned 
 this position April 22, 1861, to enter the Con- 
 federate Army. He was at once appointed 
 Major General and commanded at Harper’s 
 Ferry in May. At the battle of Bull Run he 
 waived rank to General Beauregard. He com- 
 manded the Confederate Army in the Peninsula 
 campaign and was wounded May 31, 1862. After 
 an illness of several months, he was promoted 
 to Lieutenant- General and later to General. 
 He was superseded by Gen. J. B. Hood in 1864, 
 but subsequently reinstated and appointed to 
 command in the Carolinas. After being several 
 limes defeated by General W. T. Sherman, he 
 finally surrendered to the latter, April 26, 1865. 
 He was a Member of Congress in 1879-1881, and 
 became United States R. R. Commissioner April 
 2, 1885. 
 
 Jones, Paul.- This man, whose real name 
 was John Paul, was born at Abigland, Scot- 
 land, July 6, 1747. At the age of twelve he 
 was apprenticed to a shipmaster, engaged in 
 the American trade. His first voyage was to 
 Virginia, where his brother William lived. He 
 was freed from his indenture by the failure of 
 his master, and at once engaged as third mate 
 of a vessel in the slave trade. His own good 
 sense led him to see the disgrace of this pursuit 
 and he took passage from Jamaica for Scotland 
 in 1768. The death of both captain and the 
 mate left him in command and he brought the 
 ship safely home. Then he made several voy- 
 ages to the West Indies. His brother William 
 having died, he came again to Virginia to receive 
 the estate. Here he added the name of Jones 
 to his own. He offered his services to Congress 
 in 1775 and was appointed senior Lieutenant 
 and assigned to duty on the flagship Alfred. 
 He hoisted with his own hands the first Ameri- 
 can flag. After several successful exploits, he 
 was put in command of the Bon Homme Richard 
 by the French minister, and at once departed 
 in command of a squadron to spread terror 
 along the English coast. In one month’s time 
 26 vessels had been captured or destroyed by 
 
 him. He defeated the Serapis and the Count- 
 ess of Scarborough Sept. 23, 1779, but the 
 Bon Homme Richard was sunk. Paul Jones 
 received the greatest honors in Paris and the 
 Cross of Military merit. Congress also gave 
 him a vote of thanks and the command of the 
 fine frigate America, 74 guns. Jones was sub- 
 sequently appointed rear-admiral in the Russian 
 Navy, and died in Paris July 18, 1792. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 85 
 
 Kearney, IMiilip.— He was born in New 
 York City June 2, 1815, and graduated at Col- 
 umbia College, but accepted a Lieutenantcy in 
 the First Dragoons, of which his uncle was 
 Colonel in 1837. Visited Europe under orders 
 to examine and report upon the tactics of the 
 French Cavalry system. Served under the 
 French flag as a volunteer in the Chasseurs 
 
 d’Afrique in Algeria, winning the Cross of the 
 Legion of Honor. Returned home in 1840 and 
 served on the staff of General Scott 1841-44; 
 Mexican War, Captain of Dragoons 1846 and 
 bre vetted Major ; lost an arm at San Antonio 
 gate, but subsequently served in Cal. and 
 Oregon. Went to Europe and served in the 
 Italian War of 1859. Engaged at Magenta and 
 Solferine, winning the Cross of Honor the 
 second time. Returned to America and offered 
 his services upon the outbreak of the Civil War, 
 and commissioned at once as Brigadier General 
 of Vols., 1861. Promoted to Major General of 
 Vols., to date July 4, 1862. This brave, bril- 
 liant and successful officer was killed at Chan- 
 tilly, Sept. 1, 1862. 
 
 Kent, James.-He was born at Philipi, 
 Putnam Co. , N. Y. , July 31, 1763, and graduated 
 at Yale College in 1781. Was admitted to the 
 bar in 1787 and elected to the Legislature in 
 1790 and 1792. He became Recorder of New 
 York in 1797, and 1798-1804 was Associate Judge 
 of the Supreme Court; in 1804 Chief Justice. 
 He was appointed Chancellor of New York in 
 1814, and retained that position until 1823. He 
 was a member of the Convention in 1822 to 
 revise the Constitution of the State of New 
 York. He resumed the professorship of law in 
 Columbia College in 1824. His great work in 
 
 four volumes, “Commentaries on American 
 Law,” was published in 1826-30. It is acknow- 
 ledged in Great Britain and the United States 
 as a standard on American Jurisprudence. 
 Chancellor Kent died Dec 12, 1847. 
 
 Kilpatrick, Hugh J.— This dashing Cav- 
 alry officer was born near Deckertown, N. J., 
 Jan. 14, 1836. Graduated at West Point May 
 6, 1861, and entered the Army as Second Lieu- 
 tenant. Commissioned as Captain of the 5th 
 N. Y. Vols., and was wounded at Big Bethel 
 June 10. On his recovery was commissioned as 
 Lieut. -Colonel of the 2d N. Y. Cav. Vols., and 
 became Colonel, Dec., 1862. Promoted to be 
 Brigadier General, June, 1863. At the battle 
 of Gettysburg he commanded a brigade and a 
 division. He was again severely wounded at 
 the battle of Resaca, May, 1864. He was in 
 command of the Cavalry on Sherman’s ‘ ‘ march 
 to the sea,” and often engaged the enemy. He 
 was promoted to Major General of Vols. in 
 June, 1865 ; also Brevet Brigadier General, and 
 Brevet Major General in the Regular Army. 
 
 He resigned his commissions in the Regular 
 Army in Dec., 1865, and in the Volunteer 
 service Jan. 1, 1866. Was Minister to Chili in 
 1865, and again in 1881. Died Dec. 4, 1881. 
 
 King-, Rufus.— He was born at Scar- 
 borough, Maine, March 24, 1755, and graduated 
 at Harvard College in 1777. Studied law and 
 served on the staff of Gen. Glover in Rhode 
 Island in 1778. Admitted to the bar and com- 
 menced to practice at Newburyport in 1780. 
 Member of the General Court 1782. Delegate 
 to Continental Congress 1784. Author of the 
 provision excluding slavery forever from the 
 North-west Territories. Commissioner from 
 Mass, to settle the New York boundary ques- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 tion. Member of the Convention to frame a 
 IT. S. Constitution. U. S. Senator 1789 ; re- 
 elected in 1795. Minister to England in 1796 
 and remained in London eight years. Settled 
 
 on a farm at Jamaica, L. I., in 1804. U. S. 
 Senator 1818-1825. Appointed Minister to Eng- 
 land 1825, but resigned and returned home on 
 account of ill health 1826. Died April 29, 
 1827. 
 
 King-, William II.— He was born in Samp- 
 son Co., N. C., April 7, 1786; graduated at 
 University of North Carolina in 1803 ; admitted 
 to the bar in 1806. Elected to the Legislature 
 the same year, and re-elected 1807, but resigned 
 to accept the position of Solicitor for the 
 Wilmington circuit. Member of Legislature 
 1807. Member of Congress 1810-16. Secretary 
 of Legation, first to Naples and then to St. 
 Petersburg. On his return he removed to 
 Alabama and was a member of the Convention 
 to forma State Constitution 1819. U. S. Senator 
 from Ala. from 1819 to 1844. Minister to France 
 1844-46. Remained in private life two years 
 and was then appointed to fill the unexpired 
 term in the U. S. Senate ; re-elected for a full 
 term in 1849, and in 1850 he was unanimously 
 elected President Pro. Tem. of the Senate. He 
 was elected Vice President of the U. S. in 1852 ; 
 but his health failed and he was in Havana at 
 the time of the inauguration and there took the 
 
 oath of office. He returned and died at his 
 home in Alabama in April, 1853. 
 
 Knox, Henry.— The confidential friend of 
 Washington and his Secretary of War for six 
 years was born in Boston, Mass., July 25, 1750. 
 He was a book-seller and an officer of the 
 militia. He secretly retired to Cambridge be- 
 fore the battle of Bunker Hill and offered his 
 services to General Ward. At the battle June 
 17, 1775, he acted as aid to that General. He 
 attracted the attention of General Washington 
 by his skill when engaged as engineer and 
 artillery officer during the siege of Boston. 
 He was promoted to Brigadier General of 
 Artillery and put in command at New York. 
 He acted a brilliant part in the battles of 
 Trenton and Princeton ; also at Germantown, 
 Brandywine and Monmouth. He was a member 
 of the Court-martial which tried Major Andre, 
 and after the surrender of Cornwallis was pro- 
 moted to Major General. He was assigned to 
 command at West Point and appointed to 
 attend to the disbandment of the Continental 
 troops. He was a commissioner to arrange 
 for the surrender of New York City, with Sir 
 Gen. Carleton. He succeeded General Lincoln 
 as Secretary of War in 1785 and held this office 
 during the administration of Washington. He 
 was granted a large tract of land in the District 
 of Maine, and in 1795 removed to the banks of 
 the St. George’s river, where he built an elegant 
 mansion and lived in what is now Thomaston, 
 Maine. He died here Oct. 25, 1806. 
 
 Lee, Henry.- ‘ ‘Lighthorse Harry” was Dorn 
 in Westmoreland Co., Ya. , Jan. 29, 1756, and 
 graduated at Princeton in 1773. Entered the 
 Continental Army in 1776 as Captain of horse, 
 and commanded an independent corps known 
 as ‘Lee’s Legion. ” He here won the sobriquet 
 of “Lighthorse Harry,” and was renowned for 
 boldness, activity, and efficiency. Member of 
 Congress 1786: Governor of Virginia 1792-95. 
 Commander-in-chief against the Wiskey insur- 
 gents. Member of Congress 1799. Delivered 
 his celebrated oration on Washington, in 
 which first occurs the phrase, “First in war, 
 first in peace, and first in the hearts of his 
 countrymen. ” He was confined for debt in the 
 jail at Spottsylvania in 1809. He was the guest 
 of Mr. Alexander C. Hanson in Baltimore when 
 the house was attacked by a mob (1814) and in 
 its defense received injuries from which lie 
 never recovered. Died Mar. 25, 1816. He was 
 father of the following: 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Lee, Robert E.— The valiant leader of the 
 Army of Northern Virginia, was born at Strat- 
 ford House, Westmoreland Co. , in that State, 
 Jan. 19, 1807. He graduated second in his class 
 from West Point Military Academy in 1829. 
 He was commissioned as Second Lieutenant of 
 Engineers and attached to the army July 1, 
 of that year. He was specially detailed for the 
 important work of settling the boundary line 
 between Ohio and Michigan. Commissioned 
 Captain of Engineers in 1838, he saw his first 
 field service in the war with Mexico, where he 
 won the brevet of Major-Lieut. -Colonel and Col- 
 onel, for gallant conduct. He was wounded 
 at the battle of Chapultepec. From Sept. 1, 
 1852, to Mar. 81, 1855 he was superintendent of 
 
 the Military Academy. He assumed the duties 
 of Lieutenant-Colonel of the 2d Cavalry and 
 served on the Texan border for several years. 
 March 16, 1861, he became Colonel of his Regi- 
 ment, but resigned his commission in three 
 weeks thereafter upon the secession of his na- 
 tive State. He tendered his services and was 
 appointed Major-General of the forces of Vir- 
 ginia, assuming command April 23, 1861. Gen- 
 eral Lee was closely identified with the import- 
 ant defense of Richmond and the movements of 
 the Army of Northern Virginia, of which he 
 was Commander-in-Chief Jan., 1865, until the 
 surrender, April 9, 1865. After the war he was 
 President of the Washington College at Lexing- 
 ton, Va., until his death, Oct. 12, 1870. 
 
 87 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham.- The sixteenth Presi- 
 dent of the United States was born Feb. 12, 
 1809, in a cabin in what is now Larue Co., 
 Ky. His father removed his family to Indi- 
 ana when young Abraham was eight years old. 
 His mother died when he was ten and his father 
 was married again to an estimable lady, who 
 gave the lad his first encouragement to study. 
 The Lincolns removed to Illinois in 1830. Abra- 
 ham Lincoln resided for many years in New 
 Salem, 111., where he labored as clerk, grocer, 
 surveyor and postmaster. He was elected to 
 the Legislature in 1834 as a Henry Clay Whig. 
 Admitted to the bar in 1837 and opened an 
 office in Springfield, meeting with good success. 
 He took an active part in the campaigns of 
 1840 and 1844 and in 1846 was elected to Con- 
 gress. In this one term at Washington Lincoln 
 attained but little, if any, prominence. For 
 several years he was indifferent to political 
 affairs, but in 1854 he was aroused by the 
 Slavery agitation and engaged in debate with 
 Stephen A. Douglass. He was a candidate for 
 the U. S. Senate but defeated in 1855 and again 
 in 1858. He was elected President of the U. S. 
 in 1860. The secession of eleven States and the 
 Civil War followed as a consequence. Thence- 
 forth the career of Mr. Lincoln became a part 
 of the history of his country. He called an 
 extra session of Congress to convene July 4, 
 when he asked for, and obtained, 400,000 men 
 and $400,000,000 for carrying on the war. The 
 Emancipation Proclamation was issued Jan 1, 
 1863. The second inauguration of Mr. Lincoln 
 took place Mar. 4, 1865. He was shot by John 
 Wilkes Booth, an actor, April 14, 1865, and 
 died the following morning. His body is buried 
 at Springfield, 111. 
 
 Lincoln, ISenjamin. — He was born at 
 Hingham, Mass., Feb. 3, 1733, and was a farmer 
 in his native town at the outbreak of the Revo- 
 lution. Member of the Legislature and Pro- 
 vincial Congress, Secretary of the latter 1774, 
 and was appointed Major-General of the State 
 troops. Gained the confidence of Washington 
 at Boston and in Jan., 1776, led an expedition 
 which cleared Boston harbor of British vessels. 
 Aided in many important movements of the 
 war and was commissioned Major-General by 
 Congress Feb. 19, 1777. After many brilliant 
 achievements was obliged to surrender to Corn- 
 wallis at Charleston, S. C., 1780, and was ex- 
 changed 1781. Received the sword of Corn- 
 wallis at his surrender at Yorktown. Secretary 
 of War from 1781 to 1784. Lieutenant Governor 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 of Mass. 1787. Collector of the port of Boston 
 1789 to 1809. Died May 9, 1810. 
 
 Livingston, Edward.— He was born at 
 Clermont, Columbia Co., N. Y., May 26, 1764, 
 and graduated at Princeton 1781. Member of 
 Congress 1795-1801. U. S. District Attorney 
 1802. Mayor of New York 1801-1802. Removed 
 to New Orleans 1804 and won a brilliant repu- 
 tation as a lawyer. Acted as aid-de-camp to 
 Gen. Jackson at the battle of New Orleans, 
 Jan. 8, 1815. Won a lasting fame in Europe 
 and Spanish America by his legal works. Mem- 
 ber of Congress 1823-29 ; U. S. Senator 1829-31 ; 
 Secretary of State 1831-33 ; Minister to France 
 1833-35. Died at Rhinebeck, N. Y., May 26, 
 1836. He was brother of the following : 
 
 Livingston, Robert B. — He was born at 
 New York, Nov. 27, 1747; graduated at Colum- 
 bia College 1765 and became a successful lawyer. 
 Recorder of New York 1773-1775. Member of 
 Continental Congress 1775-77 and 1779-81. Was 
 on the committee which reported the Declar- 
 ation of Independence, but was prevented from 
 signing it. Secretary of Foreign Affairs 1781 to 
 
 ’83. Chancellor of New York 1777-1801. Min- 
 ister to France 1801-1804, and effected the 
 purchase of Louisiana. He aided Robert Fulton 
 in his steamooat experiments. He died Feb. 26, 
 1813. 
 
 Eog-a.ii, John A.— He was born in Jackson 
 Co., 111., Feb. 9, 1824, and received but limited 
 education. Entered the Army as private of the 
 1st Illinois Yols. at the outbreak of the Mexican 
 War and soon became Quarter-master with rank 
 
 of 1st Lieutenant. Was elected Clerk oi his 
 native county in 1849; graduated from the 
 Louisville University in 1852 and began the 
 practice of law. Member of the State Legis- 
 lature in 1852, 1853, 1856, 1857, and of Congress 
 1859 to 1861. He resigned to enter the army. 
 Colonel of the 31st 111., Sept., 1861. Wounded 
 at Fort Donaldson, Feb., 1862. Brigadier Gen- 
 eral of Volunteers March, 1862. Major General 
 Nov., 1862. Commanded the 15th Corps until 
 the death of McPherson, when he assumed 
 command of the Army of the Tennessee. Was 
 relieved by Gen. G. O. Howard, but was re- 
 turned to the same command in May, f865. 
 Member of the 40th and 41st Congress as Repre- 
 sentative. U. S. Senate from 1870 to his death, 
 Dec. 26, 1886. 
 
 Eongfellow, Henry W.— This eminent 
 American poet was born in Portland, Maine, 
 Feb. 27, 1807, and graduated at Bowdoin College 
 in 1825. He entered the law office of his father, 
 but soon accepted the Chair of Modern Lan- 
 guages at Bowdoin, with the privilege of travel- 
 ing in Europe for three years. After studying 
 in Germany, France, Spain and Italy, he as- 
 sumed the Professorship in 1829. In 1835 he 
 was elected to the Chair of Modern Languages 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 89 
 
 and Literature at Harvard University and again 
 went to Europe. He entered upon his new 
 position in 1836, and took his residence in the 
 famous Washington’s Head-quarters in Cam- 
 bridge, Mass. He resigned in 1854, but continued 
 his residence there. His poetical works have 
 received a wide circulation, and many of them 
 have been translated into several languages of 
 Europe. He once received a large compli- 
 mentary vote for the Lord Rectorship of the 
 University of Edinburg. He died March 24, 
 4882. 
 
 Ijong’street, James.— Was born in South 
 Carolina in 1820. Graduated from West Point 
 
 in 1842. Commissioned Lieutenant of Infantry 
 and served with credit in the Mexican War, 
 being brevetted Captain and Major. Commis- 
 sioned as Captain in 1852 ; transferred to Pay- 
 master's department in 1858 with rank of 
 Major. Resigned in June, 1861, and appointed 
 Brigadier General C. S. A. Promoted to Major 
 General 1862. Lieutenant General in 1863. Com- 
 manded the right wing of the Confederate 
 Army at Antietam and at Gettysburg, and the 
 left wing at Fredericksburg. Besieged Burn- 
 side at Knoxville, but was compelled to raise 
 the siege. He was wounded May 6, 1864, in the 
 Wilderness. Surveyor of New Orleans in 1869. 
 Commissioner of Eng. for Louisiania 1871 to 
 1875. Minister to Turkey 1880 to 1881. U. S. 
 Marshall for Georgia 1882 to 1885. 
 
 Loomis Klias.— He was born in Tolland 
 Co., Conn., 1811, and graduated at Yale College 
 1830. Tutor Yale 1833-36, Resided in Paris, 
 France, attending lectures in astronomy, mag- 
 netism and meteorology, 1835-37. Professor of 
 Natural Philosophy, Western Reserve College, 
 
 1837. Called to the University of New York 
 1844, and to Yale College 1860. Author of many 
 college text-books in mathematics and the 
 exact sciences. Died Aug. 15, 1889. 
 
 Lowell, James R.— This popular poet 
 was born at Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 22, 1819, 
 and graduated at Yale College 1838; Harvard 
 Law School 1840. Printed a small volume of 
 poems in 1841. In 1851-52 he traveled in Europe. 
 Professor of Modern Languages in Harvard 
 College 1855. Editor of “Atlantic Monthly” 
 1857-62; “North American Review” 1863-72; 
 traveled in Europe 1872-74. U. S. Minister to 
 Spain 1877, and to England 1880-85. Elected 
 Lord Rector of St. Andrew’s University, Glas- 
 gow, Scotland, but soon resigned that office as 
 incompatible with his position as Minister to 
 England. 
 
 Lyon, Nathaniel. — This gallant officer was 
 bom at Ashford, Windham Co. , Conn. , July 14, 
 1819 ; graduated at West Point, and entered the 
 Army as Second Lieutenant of Infantiy 1841. 
 Promoted to First Lieutenant 1847 and Captain 
 1851. Served throughout the Mexican War; 
 was wounded and brevetted Captain for gal- 
 lantry. Resided for five years in California. 
 Served in Kansas during the political excite- 
 ment and resumed active duty on the frontier. 
 In command of the U. S. Arsenal at St. Louis, 
 Mo., which he defended May 10, 1861, from a 
 threatened attack, and also captured a Con- 
 federate force and twenty cannon. Commis- 
 sioned Brigadier General May 17, 1861. He 
 routed a camp of State guards at Boone ville ; 
 he met and defeated McCulluck at Day Spring, 
 
 Mo. , Aug. 2, 1861 ; he fought the battle of 
 Wilson’s Creek, Aug. 10, 1861, and after being 
 twice wounded was instantly killed by a rifle 
 shot while leading the charge of a regiment 
 whose Colonel had been killed. 
 
90 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 ;i e«lo 11 o 11 g- li, Thomas. — Commodore 
 
 Macdonough was bom in New Castle Co., 
 
 Delaware, Dec. 23, 1783. When he was seven- 
 teen years of age he entered the United States 
 N aval Service as a midshipman. H e was p resent 
 at Tripoli in 1803 and 1804 under Commodore 
 Decatur. Was promoted to Lieutenant in 1807 
 and Commander July 24, 1813. At the cele- 
 brated victory on Lake Champlain, September 
 11, 1814, a naval contest of two hours’ duration 
 with the English fleet, which was destined for 
 the destruction of Plattsburg, and resulted 
 in the capture of nearly every vessel, Mac- 
 donough gained the rank of Captain. He was 
 presented with a gold medal by Congress, and 
 the State of Vermont gave him an estate on 
 Cumberland Hill, which overlooked the scene 
 of the battle. He was also rewarded by the 
 State of New York and the cities of New York 
 and Albany, for his defense of the country. 
 He was in command of the Mediterranean 
 squadron, and while returning home from his 
 command died at sea, Nov. 16, 1825. 
 
 UlcCIellaii, Cieorg-e 15 .— Was born in 
 Philadelphia, Pa. , Dec. 3, 1826 ; graduated 
 from the University of Pennsylvania 1842, and 
 from West Point 1846. Served in the Mexican 
 War and was bre vetted 1st Lieutenant and 
 Captain for gallantry. Visited the Crimea in 
 1855 as one of a military commission. Resigned 
 from the army and was Chief Engineer and 
 Vice President of the Illinois Central R. R. in 
 1857. At the outbreak of the Civil War was 
 
 commissioned by the Governor of Ohio as Major 
 General, April 23, 1861. Major General in the 
 U. S. Army May 14, 1861. He was directed by 
 the President to disperse the Confederate forces 
 in West Virginia. He accomplished this by the 
 14th of July and Congress tendered him a vote 
 of thanks. Assigned to the command of the 
 Army of the Potomac Aug. 20, 1861. After the 
 unfortunate campaign of the Peninsula and the 
 battles of South Mountain and Antietam, he 
 was relieved of command Nov. 7, 1862. Nomin- 
 ated for President by Democratic Convention 
 1864. Made an extensive tour of Europe 1865 
 to 1868. In 1870 he was appointed Chief En- 
 gineer of the Department of Docks in New 
 
 York City, and resigned in 1872. Governor of 
 New Jersey 1878-1881. Died Oct. 29, 1885. 
 
 UlcCiilIitclt, Kenjsimin. — He was born in 
 Rutherford Co., Tenn. , 1814, and received but 
 little schooling. Being fond of hunting he 
 became an expert, and went to Texas to join 
 the expedition of Davy Crockett, but arrived 
 there after his death. Served as a private in 
 the battle of San Antonio, but subsequently 
 was Captain of a company of Texas Rangers 
 in the Mexican War. Distinguished himself at 
 Monterey, Buena Vista and City of Mexico. 
 U. S. Marshall in 1853, and Commissioner to 
 Utah 1857. He espoused the Southern cause in 
 the Civil War and was commissioned Brigadier 
 General. Served in Texas and Missouri. He was 
 killed at the battle of Pea Ridge Sept. 7, 1862. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 91 
 
 McDowell, Irwin.— He was bom at Col- 
 umbia, 0., Oct. 15, 1818, and was educated at 
 College de Troyes, France, and graduated at 
 West Point 1888. Second Lieutenant of Artillery 
 and Adjutant at West Point 1841-45. Aid-de- 
 camp to General Wool in the Mexican War. 
 Brevetted Captain and Assistant Adjutant 
 General 1847. Promoted to Brevet Major in 
 1856. Appointed Brigadier General May 14, 
 1861. Commanded at the first battle of Bull 
 Run, July 21, 1861. Promoted to Major General 
 of Vols. , March, 1862. Commanded the First 
 Corps 1862 ; the Third Corps, Aug. , 1862 ; 
 Department of the Pacific 1864 ; of Cal. 1866 ; 
 of the East 1868. Major General in the Regular 
 Army, Nov., 1872. Assigned to the depart- 
 ment of the South, Dec. , 1872 ; retired Oct. 15, 
 1882. Died May 4, 1885. 
 
 McPherson, James B.— He was born in 
 Sandusky Co., O., Nov. 14, 1828; graduated at 
 
 the head of his class at West Point 1858. Re- 
 tained at the U. S. Military Academy as 
 Assistant Instructor of Engineering until Sept. , 
 1854. He was then assigned to New York as 
 Assistant Engineer on the defenses of the 
 Harbor. Promoted to full 2d Lieutenant, Dec., 
 1854. In charge of the construction of Fort 
 Delaware, and later of defenses in San 
 Francisco Harbor. Promoted to First Lieu- 
 tenant 1858. Engaged in organizing a corp of 
 Engineers in Boston, 1861. Promoted to Cap- 
 tain, and chosen by General Halleck as Aid-de- 
 camp and Assistant Engineer of the Department 
 of Missouri, with rank of Lieutenant-Colonel, 
 Nov., 1861. Promoted to Colonel May, 1862. 
 Brigadier General U. S. Yols. and Major Gen- 
 eral in Oct., 1862. His brilliant record from 
 1862 to the fall of Vicksburg, is summed up in 
 the words of General Grant recommending him 
 
 for promotion, “ He is one of the ablest engin- 
 eers and most skilful generals.” Upon this 
 recommendation he was commissioned as Brig- 
 adier General in the Regular Army, Aug. 1, 
 1863. He was next in command to Gen. Sher- 
 man on his raid to Meridian, and distinguished 
 himself in every battle in which he was engaged. 
 Commanded the left grand division at Atlanta, 
 and was killed in action July 22, 1864. 
 
 Madison, James.— The fourth President 
 of the United States was born at Port Conway, 
 Va., March 16, 1751 ; graduated at Princeton 
 College 1771. Elected to the General Assembly 
 of Virginia 1776 ; to the Executive Council 1778, 
 and to Congress 1780-83. Member of the State 
 Legislature 1784-86, and a delegate to the Con- 
 stitutional Convention in 1786. Member of the 
 first, second, third and fourth Congresses, 1789- 
 97. Secretary of State 1801-1809. President of 
 the U. S. 1809-1817. Died June 28, 1836. 
 
 Mann, Horace.— This renowned educator 
 and lawyer was born at Franklin, Mass. , May 
 4, 1796 ; graduated at Brown University 1819 ; 
 admitted to the bar 1823 and settled at Dedham, 
 Mass. ; removed to Boston in 1833. He was 
 often a member of the State Legislature ; Sec- 
 retary of the State Board of Education 1837-48. 
 Member of Congress 1848-53. President of 
 Antioch College at Yellow Springs, O., 1852- 
 1859. Died Aug. 2, 1859. He published, ‘ ‘ Lec- 
 tures on Education,” 1848; “Letters and 
 Speeches on Slavery,” 1851; “Lectures on 
 Intemperance,” 1852. 
 
 Marion, Francis.— He was born at Win- 
 
 yaw, near Georgetown, S. C. , 1732 ; went to sea 
 
 when sixteen and barely escaped with his life 
 from shipwreck. Volunteered against the 
 
92 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Cherokees in 1759; serving as Lieutenant in a 
 company commanded by his brother. Captain 
 in 1761, and led the forlorn hope at the battle 
 of Etchoee. Member of Congress from S. C. 
 1775. Served in Col. William Moultrie’s regi- 
 ment as Captain ; promoted to Major and aided 
 in the repulse of the British from Fort Moul- 
 trie, June 28, 1776. Left in command of the 
 fort 1779. Escaped from capture at the sur- 
 render of Charleston 1780, because of being sent 
 back to the country with a broken leg. As 
 Colonel of an independent body of rangers, he 
 rescued the prisoners captured by the British 
 at the battle of Camden. Surprised and scat- 
 tered two bodies of Tories in quick succession 
 a few days later, and thus acquired the sobri- 
 quet of ‘ ‘ Swamp Fox. ” His forces increased 
 and were organized into a brigade and he became 
 General. Marion disbanded his forces in 1782 
 and returned to his farm. Served in the State 
 Senate and the Convention to ratify the U. S. 
 Constitution 1790. General of Militia until 1794. 
 Died Feb. 29, 1796. 
 
 Marshall, John.— An eminent jurist of the 
 United States, was born in Germantown, Va., 
 
 Sept. 24, 1755, and saw active service in the 
 War of the Revolution from 1775 to 1779. He 
 studied law and was admitted to practice in 
 1781. He strongly advocated the adoption of 
 the Constitution in the Virginia Legislature, 
 of which he was a member. He was Envoy to 
 the Court of France in 1798 and a member of 
 Congress in 1799. The next year he was ap- 
 pointed Secretary of War and soon after Sec- 
 
 retary of State. He was nominated Chief 
 Justice of the United States by President * 
 Adams in 1801, and held that office with honor 
 for many years. His fame as an honest Judge, 
 sound reasoner and able jurist, extended to other 
 nations. He died at Philadelphia, Pa., July 6, 
 1885. 
 
 Mather, Cotton.— Son of Increase and grand- 
 son of J ohn Mather was born at Boston, Mass. , 
 
 Feb. 12, 1663 ; graduated at Harvard College 
 1678, and ordained as his father’s colleague over 
 the North Church 1684. Actively and aggres- 
 sively engaged in promoting the ascendency of 
 the Church and ministry in civil affairs. Chief 
 instigator of the suppression of witchcraft by 
 law at Salem. His cruelty and bigotry did not 
 entirely hide from sight his better qualities of 
 benevolence to the poor, for whom he zealously 
 labored. He died Feb. 13, 1728. 
 
 Mathews, Stanley.— He was born at Cin- 
 cinnati, O., July 21, 1824, and graduated from 
 Kenyon College 1840; studied law and was 
 admitted to the bar. Editoral manager of the 
 “ Cincinnati Herald ” from 1846-1849. Elected 
 Judge of the Court of Common Pleas 1851, and 
 to the State Senate in 1855. U. S. District 
 Attorney 1858. At the commencement of the 
 Civil War became Lieut. -Colonel of the 23d Ohio 
 Vols., Oct., 1851. Colonel of 57th Ohio Vols. , 
 and commanded a brigade in the Army of the 
 Cumberland. J udge of the Inferior Court 1863. 
 U. S. Senate 1878. Assistant Judge of the 
 Supreme Court of the U. S. 1881 to his death. 
 March 22, 1889. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 9b 
 
 Meade, George G.— Was born at Cadiz, 
 Spain, Dec. 30, 1815, while his father was acting 
 as Navy agent for the U. S. He graduated 
 
 from West Point in 1835 and was commissioned 
 Second Lieutenant of Artillery the same year. 
 He resigned in Oct., 1836, and was engaged as 
 Civil Engineer for six years at the mouth of 
 the Mississippi and in the survey of the 
 boundary line of Texas. In 1842 he was survey- 
 ing the N. E. boundary, and was re-appointed 
 to his former rank in the army. He served 
 with distinction in the Mexican War. After 
 the close of that war, in which he was brevetted 
 First Lieutenant, he was engaged in light-house 
 construction. He became Captain in 1856 and 
 Major in 1862. He commanded the 2d Brigade 
 of Pennsylvania Reserves as Brigadier General 
 of Volunteers. Major General Nov., 1862. Was 
 appointed to command the Army of the Poto- 
 mac at the battle of Gettysburg to the close of 
 the war. Commissioned full Major General 
 in the Regular Army, Aug., 1864. Died at 
 Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 6, 1872. 
 
 Meagher, Thomas Eh— 1 This distinguished 
 General was born in Ireland, at Waterford, 
 Aug. 3, 1823; studied at the Jesuit College of 
 Clongawes, Kildare, and at Stony hurst College, 
 England. He soon became a favorite orator 
 with the Young Ireland party and was sen- 
 tenced to death, but the sentence was commuted 
 and he was transported to Tasmania for life. 
 Escaped in 1852 and came to New York. En- 
 tered law and wrote for the press ; became 
 Editor of the “ Irish News ” 1856. Captain and 
 then Major of the 69th New York Vols. 1861. 
 Raised a brigade which he commanded 1862-63. 
 Secretary of Montana Territory 1865. Drowned 
 July 1st, 1867. 
 
 Mitchel, Ormsby M. — This eminent as- 
 tronomer and General was born in Union Co., 
 Ky., Aug. 28, 1810, and became clerk in a store 
 
 at Miami, O. , when twelve; graduated from 
 West Point 1829. Assistant Professor of Mathe- 
 matics until 1831. He then studied law and 
 was admitted to the bar; practiced at Cincinnati 
 until 1834, when he became Professor of Mathe- 
 matics, Natural Philosophy and Astronomy of 
 Cincinnati College. He delivered lectures on his 
 favorite science of astronomy, and visited 
 Europe to procure apparatus for the observatory 
 on Mount Adams in 1842. The corner-stone of 
 this building was laid by John Quincy Adams 
 1843. General Mitchel invented several scien- 
 tific instruments and made independent dis- 
 coveries in astronomy. In 1859 he became 
 Director of the Dudley Observatory at Albany, 
 N. Y. , but in 1861 tendered his services to the 
 Government. Commissioned Brigadier General 
 Aug. 9, 1861 ; Major General, April 11, 1862 ; 
 appointed to command the Department of the 
 South, but while making active preparation 
 for the coming campaign, died of yellow fever 
 at Beaufort, S. C. , Oct. 30, 1862. 
 
 Monroe, James.— The fifth President of 
 the U. S. was born in Westmoreland Co., Va., 
 April 28, 1758; educated at William and Mary 
 College. Served with distinction in the Revo- 
 lutionary War 1776-78, and was wounded at 
 Trenton. Studied law with Jefferson and re- 
 entered the army in the latter part of the war. 
 Delegate to Congress 1783-86 ; opposed the 
 adoption of the U. S. Constitution ; was U. S. 
 Senator 1790-94 ; Minister to France 1794-96 ; 
 Governor of Virginia 1799-1802, and again 1811 ; 
 Envoy to France 1802 ; to Spain 1805 ; Minister 
 to England 1803-08 ; Secretary of State 1811-17 ; 
 also of War 1814-15; President of the United 
 States 1817-25 ; removed to New York 1831, and 
 died there July 4, 1831. 
 
 Morgan, Edwin IK— He was born at 
 Washington, Mass., Feb. 8, 1811, and became 
 
 clerk when seventeen in a large wholesale 
 grocery store in Hartford, Conn, and afterwards 
 
*94 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 a partner ; removed to New York City 1836 ; 
 State Senator 1843-53 ; Governor 1859-62 ; ranked 
 as Major General of U. S. Yols. (without pay) 
 1861-62 ; U. S. Senator 1863-69 ; declined the 
 proffered appointment of Secretary of the U. S. 
 Treasury, Feb., 1865 and 1881. Died Feb. 14, 
 1883. 
 
 Morris, Robert.— This staunch financial 
 supporter of the Continental Army was born in 
 England, Jan. 20, 1734, and came with his father 
 
 to America in 1747. He served his apprentice- 
 ship in the counting-house of Charles Willing 
 until 1754, when he entered into partnership 
 with his master’s son and continued a successful 
 business until 1793. Mr. Morris opposed the 
 Stamp Act and in spite of his business interests 
 signed the non-importation agreement of 1765. 
 He cast his vote against the Declaration of 
 Independence in the Congress of which he was 
 a member, but subsequently signed his name to 
 that immortal document. He was twice re- 
 elected to Congress 1777-1778. His great service 
 to his country was in aiding her in her deep 
 financial distress. In this respect he was of 
 incalculable value. At one time he pledged his 
 personal credit to the extent of $1,400,000 to 
 furnish supplies to the destitute army. With- 
 out this timely aid the campaign of 1781 would 
 have been an utter failure. He also established 
 the Bank of North America, and as “Superin- 
 tendent of Finance ” from i781 to 1785, used his 
 
 personal credit to aid his department in carry- 
 ing forward the Government. He was United 
 States Senator from 1786 to 1795, having declined 
 the proffered office of Secretary of the Treasury 
 under Washington. He suggested the name 
 of Alexander Hamilton for that position, and 
 Hamilton was appointed. Mr. Morris became 
 involved in an unsuccessful land speculation, 
 which swept away the last vestage of his 
 princely fortune. The last days of this patriot 
 were passed in a debtor’s prison. He died May 
 8, 1806. 
 
 Morse, Samuel F. B.— The inventor of 
 the modern telegraph was born in Charlestown, 
 Mass., April 27, 1791. He went to London in 
 1811 to study art under Benjamin West. Re- 
 ceived a gold medal for his first effort in sculp- 
 ture. Founded the National Academy of 
 Design in New York. Visited Europe in 1829 
 for the second time, and on the return voyage 
 in 1832 he conceived and drew the plans of the 
 recording telegraph which bears his name. He 
 was one of the first Professors of the U nivereity 
 of the City of New York. He set up his rude 
 telegraph in 1835, but did not bring it to public 
 notice until 1844. By the aid of the Govern- 
 ment he opened the first line from Baltimore to 
 Washington, and sent this message, May 24, 
 1844, “What hath God wrought.” He passed 
 
 at once from poverty to riches, and received 
 honors and decorations from colleges and socie- 
 ties in Europe and America. Died April 2, 1872. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 95 
 
 Morton, I^evi I*.— The twenty-second Vice 
 President of the U. S. was born in Shoreham, 
 Vt., May 16, 1824. He prepared for college, 
 but abandoned the plan at fifteen, and entered 
 a store at Enfield, Mass. , and two years after- 
 ward his employer at that time established him 
 in a branch store at Amherst, Mass. He went 
 to Boston in 1849, and two years later he opened 
 a branch in New York as partner under the 
 name of J. M. Beebe, Morgan & Co. He 
 organized the house of Morton & Grinnell in 
 1854. Late in 1861 he established the mercantile 
 firm of L. P. Morton & Co. Mr. McCune, one 
 of the partners, withdrew, and the others 
 founded the banking house of L. P. Morton & 
 Co. , 1863 ; in 1869 the London branch under the 
 name of Morton, Rose & Co. , and the New York 
 branch, Morton, Bliss & Co., were established. 
 These branches acted as fiscal agents for the 
 U. S. Government in the Geneva and Halifax 
 
 Awards. Member of Congress 1879-81; Minister 
 to France 1881-85. Inaugurated Vice President 
 of the U. S. , March 4, 1889. 
 
 Naglee, Henry M.— He was born at Phila- 
 delphia, Pa., Jan. 15, 1815, and graduated at 
 West Point 1835; resigned Dec., 1835. Served 
 in the Mexican War as Captain of New York 
 Vols., and afterwards became a merchant in 
 San Francisco ; was appointed Lieutenant 
 Colonel of the 16th Infantry, May, 1861. He 
 
 was commissioned Brigadier General, Feb., 
 1862 ; commanded a Division in 1863 ; com- 
 manded the 7th Army Corps July, 1863 ; was 
 mustered out April, 1864 ; engaged in banking 
 in California, and died March 5, 1886. 
 
 Nelson, William.— He was born in Mays- 
 ville, Ky., in 1825, and entered the Navy in 
 
 1840. He participated in the siege of Vera 
 Cruz in 1847, and was promoted to Commander 
 in 1861. He exchanged the naval for the military 
 service and was commissioned Brigadier Gen. 
 Sept. 16, 1861. He was a successful General ; 
 commanded the 2d division of General Buell’s 
 Army at Shiloh, Miss. ; promoted Major General 
 July 17, 1862. He was killed in an altercation 
 at the Galt House, Sept. 29, 1862. 
 
 Newman, Jolrn I*.— This eminent Method- 
 ist divine was born in New York City, Sept. 1, 
 1826, and received his education at Cazenovia 
 Seminary. Entered the ministry of the M. E. 
 Church and was for several years Pastor of the 
 Metropolitan M. E. Church, Washington, D. C. 
 Chaplain of the U. S. Senate 1869-74 ; Inspector 
 of U. S. Consulships in Asia 1874-75 ; Pastor of 
 Madison Avenue Cong. Church 1882-84 ; again 
 Pastor of Metropolitan M. E. Church 1886 ; 
 Bishop of the M. E. Church 1888. 
 
 Newton, Isaac.— This American name- 
 sake of the great English philosopher was born 
 in New York City in 1838 ; studied civil engin- 
 eering at the University of New York ; com- 
 misioned Engineer U. S. Navy in 1861, and at 
 Mr. Ericsson’s especial request was appointed 
 Chief Engineer of the iron-clad, “Monitor,” 
 and was commended for coolness, skill and 
 energy in her engagement with the Merrimac ; u 
 ordered to duty as Superintendent of con- 
 struction of iron-clads. He resigned at the 
 
96 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 . close of the war and engaged with a large coal 
 and iron company. Principal Assistant En- 
 gineer, department of docks, New York City, 
 1871-72. He superintended the construction of 
 the masonry pier near the Battery. Died Sept. 
 25, 1884. 
 
 Nohle, John.— He was born in Lancaster, 
 Ohio, Oct. 26, 1831. Graduated at Yale College 
 
 1851. Admitted to the bar and began prac- 
 ticing in St. Louis, Mo. , 1855, afterward removed 
 to Keokuk, Iowa. Became Brevet Brigadier 
 General in the Union Army in the Civil War. 
 Returned to St. Louis at the close of the war. 
 U. S. District Attorney 1866-70. Counsel in 
 many cases involving large interests. Ap- 
 pointed Secretary of the Interior 1889. 
 
 O’Connor, Charles.— This eminent lawyer 
 was born in New York City in 1804. After re- 
 ceiving a common school education he studied 
 law and was admitted to the bar in 1824. By 
 unremitting industry and application he at- 
 tained the position of leader of his profession 
 in the city of his birth. His first noted case, 
 which became widely known and established 
 so firmly his reputation, was that of the fugitive 
 slave, ‘ ‘ Jack,” which was carried to the highest 
 tribunals of the State. He gained every point 
 (1835). Other celebrated cases were the Lis- 
 penard will case in 1843, and the Forrest 
 1 divorce case. He was a Democrat, but never 
 held office, save for a few months as Attorney 
 General under President Pierce, and as a mem- 
 ber of the Constitutional Convention in 1864. 
 He died May 12, 1884. 
 
 Ord, Edward O. C.— He was born in Cum- 
 berland, Alegheny Co. , Md. , Oct. 19, 1818 ; grad- 
 uated from West Point 1839 ; served in the 
 Florida War until 1842; on the frontier in 
 various expeditions against the Indians ; at the 
 outbreak of the Civil War was appointed 
 Brigadier General of U. S. Vols., Sept., 1861; 
 promoted to Major General in May, 1862 ; trans- 
 ferred to the West and commanded the left 
 wing of General Grant’s Army, Aug. -Sept. , 
 1862. Commanded the 13th Corps during the 
 siege and capture of Vicksburg. Commanded 
 8th Corps, July, 1864; the 18th Corps, Sept., 
 1864 ; relieved Gen. Butler Jan. 9, 1865 ; was 
 promoted to Lieut. -Colonel in the Regular 
 Army, but retained his volunteer rank until 
 Sept. , 1866. Was mustered out of the Volunteer 
 Service and commissioned Brigadier General in 
 the Regular Army, to date from July, 1866. 
 
 Retired with the rank of Major General Jan. 
 28, 1881. Died July 22, 1883. 
 
 O’Reilly, John Boyle.— This man was 
 born in Dowth Castle, County Meath, Ireland, 
 June 28, 1844. He became a journalist in early 
 life and at twenty-one was arrested as a revo- 
 lutionist, tried and convicted. He was sentenced 
 to death, but this was commuted to banishment 
 for twenty years to an English penal colony. 
 At the age of twenty-five he escaped from West 
 Australia and came to America. He resided in 
 Boston, Mass. , from 1869 to his death. He was 
 Editor of the “Boston Pilot,” and a poet of 
 known ability. He died Aug. 9, 1890. 
 
 Barker, Theodore.— He was born in Lex- 
 ington, Mass., Aug. 24, 1810, and was the son 
 of the famous captain, John Parker, who com- 
 manded the company at that town April 19, 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 97 
 
 1775. Educated in his native town and at Har- 
 vard. He became proficient in many languages ; 
 graduated from Cambridge Divinity School 
 1834; settled as Pastor of the Second Church 
 (Unitarian) West Roxbury 1837. Travelled in 
 Europe in 1842-44. He became Pastor of the 
 Twenty-eighth Congregational Society in 1846. 
 He opposed slavery and intemperance. Was 
 indicted in the U. S. Court for resistance to the 
 Fugitive Slave Law in 1854, but never brought 
 to trial. Died in Florence, Italy, May 10, 1860. 
 
 Patterson, Rol>ert— He was born in Cap- 
 pagh, Co. Tyrone, Ireland, Jan. 12, 1792. His 
 
 father fled to America, having been engaged in 
 organizing the Irish rebellion of 1798. Robert 
 served through the war of 1812-14, retiring a 
 Captain, and returning to the counting-house 
 business in Philadelphia. Became Major Gen- 
 eral of State Militia, and quelled the ‘ ‘ Red 
 Row” riots in 1838, and the “ Native- American”’ 
 riots In 1844. Appointed Major General of 
 Volunteers for the Mexican War ; he rendered 
 conspicuous services throughout the campaign. 
 In April, 1861, he was selected to command the 
 Pennsylvania troops, and Gen. Scott placed 
 him over the Department of Washington, and 
 gave him unlimited powers. Returned to his 
 business at the close of his term. Died Aug. 7, 
 1881. 
 
 Paulding, Hiram.— He was born in West- 
 chester Co., N. Y. , Dec. 11, 1797, and entered 
 the U. S. Navy as midshipman 1811. In the 
 engagement on Lake Champlain 1814; Lieu- 
 tenant 1816 ; Captain 1844 ; Rear Admiral on 
 the retired list 1861. Commanded at the Navy 
 Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1862-65, and rendered 
 valued service at the time of the New York 
 draft-riots in 1863. Governor of the Philadel- 
 phia Naval Asylum 1866. Died Oct. 20, 1878. 
 
 Pemberion, John C. — He was born in 
 Pennsylvania, Aug., 1814, and graduated at 
 West Point in 1837 ; served in Florida and 
 Mexico, and was brevetted Captain and Major ; 
 resigned April 29, 1861, when Captain of 
 Artillery. Entered the Confederate Service as 
 Colonel of Cavalry and rose by promotion to 
 Lieutenant General. Commanded in Miss, in 
 1863. Surrendered at Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. 
 Served as Inspector of Artillery afterwards, 
 and became a farmer. Died July 13, 1881. 
 
 Pendleton, George II.— He was born at 
 Cincinnati, Ohio, July 25, 1825, and became a 
 lawyer. Member of Congress 1857-65 ; U. S. 
 Senator 1879-85; U. S. Minister to Germany 
 1885-1889. Died Nov. 24, 1889. 
 
 Penn, William.— This celebrated member 
 of the Society of Friends and the founder of 
 the State which bears his name, Pennsylvania, 
 was born Oct. 14, 1644. The son of an English 
 admiral, he received a liberal education at 
 Oxford. He became a Quaker and was expelled 
 from the University. He went to Cork, Ireland, 
 and managed the family estate with great suc- 
 cess. He was imprisoned for attending a Quaker 
 meeting and had to leave Ireland. He went to 
 London and was there cast into the Tower, but 
 
 by the influence of the Duke of York he was 
 released. He inherited the property of his 
 father, in which was a claim against the Govern- 
 ment for £16,000. In the settlement of this claim 
 he received a tract of land in America with the 
 right to found a colony with such institutions 
 
98 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 and laws as he deemed best. In 1682 he visited 
 America, honorably bought the land of the 
 Indians, and made a treaty with them which 
 was kept inviolate. He issued a “charter of 
 liberties, ” instituted a democratic Government, 
 planned the City of Philadelphia, and left the 
 colony in a flourishing condition. In the reign 
 of James II. he was intimate with the court, 
 and after the overthrow of that King was 
 accused of treason, and by an order of Council, 
 March 14, 1692, was divested of his title to Penn- 
 sylvania. He was tried on the charge and 
 acquitted, whereupon his lands were restored 
 to him. He visited America a second time in 
 1699 and returned in 1701. He was brought to 
 the verge of bankruptcy by the villiany of his 
 agent and cast into the Fleet prison in 1708. 
 His health was so affected by this that he was 
 stricken by apoplexy in 1712, and although he 
 recovered his health, his mental faculties were 
 permanently impaired. He died July 8, 1718. 
 
 Perry, Oliver H.— He was born at South 
 Kingston, R. I., Aug. 28, 1785, and entered the 
 
 U. S. Navy as midshipman when thirteen years 
 of age. He cruised with his father, Christopher 
 R. Perry, in the West Indies for two years. 
 Was engaged in the war with Tripoli in 1804-05 
 and commissioned Lieutenant Jan. 15, 1807. 
 When the war began in 1812 he was transferred 
 at his own request from the Atlantic Squadron 
 to Lake Ontario to serve under Com. Isaac 
 Chauncey. He was appointed to fit out a squad- 
 ron for Lake Erie, and having successfully 
 
 equipped nine small vessels, gave battle to the 
 British fleet near Put-in-Bay, O. , Sept. 10, 1813. 
 He gained a complete victory over the British, 
 and sent his famous dispatch, “We have met 
 the enemy and they are ours.” He was pro- 
 moted to Captain and Congress gave him a 
 vote of thanks and a gold medal. Oct. 3, 1813, 
 Perry co-operated with Gen'l. Harrison at 
 Detroit and the battle on the Thames. The 
 next year he was on the Potomac and at the 
 defense of Baltimore. He commanded the Java 
 in Decatur’s Squadron in the Mediterranean in 
 1815 and went to the Spanish Main in command 
 of the Squadron, June, 1819. He ascended the 
 river Orinoco in J uly of that year, and died at 
 Port Spain on the island of Trinidad of yellow 
 fever, Aug. 23, 1819. His remains were taken 
 in a United States vessel to Newport, R. I., by 
 order of Congress, and there buried Dec. 4, 
 1826. An imposing obelisk was there erected 
 by the State of Rhode Island. A fine bronze 
 statue of Commodore Perry was unveiled at 
 Newport, R. I., Sept. 10, 1885. 
 
 Phillips, Wendell.— This life-long cham- 
 pion of human rights was born in Boston, 
 Mass. , Nov. 29, 1811. His father, John Phillips, 
 was the first Mayor of that city. Wehdell 
 Phillips graduated from Harvard College in 
 1831 ; from Cambridge Law School in 1833, and 
 
 was admitted to Suffolk bar in 1834. He had 
 from the first the prospect of success in his 
 chosen profession. The heated discussions of 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 99 
 
 the Anti-Slavery question had greatly excited 
 the public mind and William Lloyd Garrison, 
 the leader of that movement, was dragged 
 through the streets of Boston with a rope 
 about his neck in 1835. He was rescued from 
 the mob by the subterfuge of arresting him 
 as a disturber of the peace and putting him 
 in jail. Young Phillips, not then twenty- 
 five, looked on the “broad cloth mob,” as 
 it was called, and at once gave his whole soul 
 to the unpopular side. He made his first mark 
 as a distinguished speaker at an Anti-Slavery 
 meeting in 1837. He resigned his commission 
 as a member of the bar, because he could not 
 swear to support a Constitution which upheld 
 slavery. He became well known as the fore- 
 most orator of the despised abolition cause, 
 and was everywhere heard in its defense. He 
 also advocated the cause of Woman’s Rights 
 and of Prohibition. He was regarded as one of 
 the foremost orators of the country. He died 
 Peb. 2, 1884. 
 
 Pickett, George E.— He was born in Rich- 
 mond, Va. , Jan. 25, 1825, and graduated at 
 West Point 1846. Served in Mexico from the 
 siege of Yera Cruz to the fall of Mexico, and 
 was brevetted First Lieutenant and Captain 
 for gallantry. On frontier duty until 1861. He 
 was appointed Colonel in the Confederate Army 
 Sept., 1861, and became Brigadier General and 
 Major General in 1862. His Division led the 
 
 famous charge at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, and 
 made the final stand at Five Forks in 1865. 
 Died July 30, 1875 
 
 Pierce, Franklin.— The fourteenth Presi- 
 dent of the United States was born at Hills- 
 borough, N. H., Nov. 23, 1804, and graduated 
 
 at Bowdoin College, Maine, in 1824. Admitted 
 to the bar in 1827. Member of Congress from 
 1833 to 1837, and U. S. Senator 1837 to 1842. 
 Colonel of the 16th U. S. Infantry 1846. Brig- 
 adier General in 1847. Served in Mexico. Presi- 
 dent of the New Hampshire Constitutional 
 Convention in 1850-1851. Inaugurated Presi- 
 dent March 4, 1853. The Gadsden Purchase, 
 the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, the 
 Fugitive Slave Act and the beginning of the 
 troubles in Kansas occurred during his term. 
 Throughout the Civil War his sympathies were 
 with the South. He died at Concord, N. H., 
 Oct. 8, 1869. 
 
 Pillow, Gideon •!.— He was born in Wil- 
 liamson Co. , Tenn. , June 8, 1806, and graduated 
 
 at the University of Nashville 1827; studied 
 law and practiced with success at Columbia. 
 Brigadier General of Tenn. Yols. 1846. Served 
 in Mexico and was one of the Commissioners to 
 receive the surrender of Santa Cruz. Promoted 
 to Major General April 13, 1847. Came into 
 collision with General Scott, tried by Court- 
 martial and acquitted. Major General in Con- 
 federate Army 1861. Commanded at Belmont 
 Nov. 7, 1861. Second in command at Fort 
 Donaldson, but escaped before the surrender. 
 Died Oct. 8, 1878. 
 
 Pinckney, Charles C.— He was born at 
 Charleston, S. C., Feb. 25, 1746, and was 
 educated at Westminister, at Christ Church, 
 Oxford and Middle Temple, London. Studied 
 Military Science at Caen, France. Practiced 
 law at Charleston 1769. Served as Captain and 
 as Colonel in the War of the Revolution. Aid- 
 de-camp to Washington in 1777. Brigadier 
 General 1783, and later Major General of the 
 State, and afterwards of the U. S. Assisted in 
 framing the U. S. Constitution. Minister to 
 
100 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 France 1796-97, when he was ordered to leave 
 the country. Author of the maxim, ‘ ‘ Millions 
 for defence, but not one cent for tribute. ” Died 
 Aug. 16, 1825. 
 
 I* in kiiey, William.— He was born at 
 Annapolis. Md. , March 17, 1764 ; studied medi- 
 cine and law; admitted to the bar 1786 and 
 rapidly rose to distinction. He was a member 
 of the Constitutional Convention of 1788. U. S. 
 Commissioner to England 1796-1804. Attorney 
 General of Md. 1805; Minister Extraordinary 
 with Monroe to Great Britain 1806 ; Minister 
 Resident to the same Court 1806-1811. U. S. 
 Attorney General 1811-14 ; Member of Congress 
 
 1815- 16; Minister to Naples 1816; to Russia 
 
 1816- 18 ; U. S. Senator 1820-22. Died Feb. 23, 
 1822. 
 
 Pocahontas. — This Indian chieftain’s 
 daughter was born about the year 1595. Her 
 father was Powhattan, the chief of a powerful 
 tribe in Virginia. John Smith in his “True 
 Relation,” claimed that she saved his life by 
 throwing herself between him and the uplifted 
 club of her father in 1607, when she could not 
 have been much more than twelve years of age. 
 But this story seems to have been a later inven- 
 tion of Smith, as he does not mention it in his 
 earlier narrative. In 1609 she told Smith of the 
 intended advance of the Indians upon the 
 colonists, and several times supplied their needs 
 when corn was scarce. Three years after she 
 was sold to a person named Argali for a copper 
 pot by the chief, Japazaws, and her father 
 
 offered 500 bushels of corn as a ransom for her. 
 She was married to a colonist, Thomas Rolfe, 
 
 in 1613, and was baptized as Rebecca. She went 
 to London and was there presented at court. 
 She had one child, Thomas Rolfe, from whom 
 many leading families trace their decent, 
 notably, the Randolphs, E Bridges, Murrays, 
 Bollings, Guys and Hemmings. Pocahontas 
 died at Gravesend, England, in March, 1617. 
 
 I*oe, Edgar A.— This gifted poet was born 
 in Boston, Mass., Feb. 19, 1809. His parents 
 died when he was quite young and he was 
 adopted by a wealthy citizen of Richmond, Va. 
 Entered the University of Virginia in 1826, but 
 was expelled within a year ; resided with his 
 benefactor for two years. Admitted as a Cadet 
 at West Point 1830, but expelled March 6, 1831. 
 He soon after quarrelled with his benefactor 
 and enlisted as a private in the army. In 1833 
 he competed for two prizes of $100 each offered 
 by a Baltimore Journal and won them both. 
 He became Editor of the ‘ ‘ Southern Literary 
 Magazine, ” and conducted himself properly for 
 two or three years. Quarrelling with his pub- 
 lisher he went to New York, Jan., 1837, and 
 issued his first prose work 1838. Editor of 
 “Gentleman’s Magazine” 1839-40; “Graham’s 
 Magazine” 1840-42. Wrote the “Raven” in 
 1845, which gained him great popularity. En- 
 gaged in various literary enterprises in New 
 York and Philadelphia. Died in Baltimore 
 Hospital Oct. 7, 1849. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 101 
 
 Polk, James K.— The eleventh President 
 of the U. S. was bom in Mecklenburg Co., N. 
 C., Nov. 2, 1795, of a Scotch-Irish family orig- 
 inally named Pollock. Young Polk removed 
 with his father to Tenn, in 1806, and graduated 
 from the University of Nashville 1818 ; admitted 
 to the bar at Columbia 1820. Member of the 
 State Legislature 1823-25. Member of Congress 
 1825-1839. Elected Speaker of the House 1835 
 and ’37. Governor of Tenn. 1839-40. President 
 of the U. S. 1845-49. The Mexican War took 
 place and ended with peace during his term of 
 office. Died June 19, 1849. 
 
 Porter, David !>.— He was born in Penn- 
 sylvania, June 8, 1814. He entered the Navy 
 as midshipman, and was a Lieutenant actively 
 engaged on the east coast of Mexico in 1846. 
 He was a Commander when the Civil War 
 began and was ordered in command of the 
 Powhattan to the relief of Fort Pickens, Fla. 
 In the Fall of 1862 he was placed in command 
 of all the naval forces on the western rivers 
 above New Orleans as Rear Admiral. He was 
 transferred to the Atlantic coast in 1864. In 
 
 1866 he was made Vice-Admiral and appointed 
 Superintendent of the Naval Academy. He 
 succeeded Farragut as Admiral of the Navy in 
 1870. Died Feb. 13, 1891. 
 
 Powderly, Terrence V.— Mr. Powderly 
 was born January 29, 1849, at Carbondale, Pa. 
 
 After receiving a moderate education, he secured 
 a situation as a switch-tender, and finally be- 
 came a machinist. He settled in Scranton in 
 
 1869, and joined the Machinists’ and Black- 
 smiths’ Union. At 30 years of age he was 
 elected Grand Master Workman of the Knights 
 of Labor and has been re-elected six times. In 
 1878 he was triumphantly elected Mayor of 
 Scranton, and corrected many official abuses. 
 He was re-elected Mayor in 1880, and to a third 
 term in 1882. His articles on the Labor 
 Question have been published in the leading 
 American magazines. He was at one time Editor 
 of the “Labor Advocate” of Scranton. He 
 became prominent in the strike on the New 
 York Central R. R. in 1890. 
 
 Prentiss, S5eiij;imiii HI. — Was born at 
 Bellville, Va., Nov. 23, 1819; removed to Mis- 
 souri and afterward settled in Quincy, 111. , in 
 1841. In the war with Mexico was Adjutant of 
 the 1st 111. Vols., and then Captain. He dis- 
 tinguished himself at Beuna Vista. At the 
 beginning of the Civil War he was Colonel of 
 the 7th 111. Vols. Appointed Brigadier General 
 of U. S. Vols., May, 1861. At the battle of 
 Shiloh, Miss., he was surprised and captured, 
 but was released in Oct., and made Major 
 General of Volunteers Nov. 29, 1862. Com- 
 manded at Helena, Ark., July 4, 1863, and 
 defeated General Holmes. 
 
 Prescott, William II. — This eminent 
 American writer was born at Salem, Mass., 
 May 4, 1796, and removed to Boston 1808. He 
 
102 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 graduated with high rank from Harvard Col- 
 lege 1814, although he received an injury to his 
 left eye during his first year. Spent several 
 months in the Azores Islands in 1815-16, and in 
 Europe 1816-19. He devoted years to an elab- 
 orate study of ancient and modern history, 
 and published the result of his researches in 
 the * ‘ North American Review. ” He published 
 (1838) his “History of the Reign of Ferdinand 
 and Isabella,” “History of the Conquest of 
 Mexico” 1843; “Conquest of Peru” 1847; 
 “ History of the Reign of Philip the Second ” 
 1855. He died Jan. 28, 1859. 
 
 I* rice. Sterling:.— He was born in Prince 
 Edward Co., Va., Sept., 1809, and settled in 
 
 Missouri in 1830. Was a Member of Congress 
 1845-47 ; Colonel of a Mo. Regiment in the 
 war with Mexico and commanded at the battle 
 of Canada, N. M., Jan. 24, 1847. Promoted to 
 Brigadier General July 20, 1847. Governor of 
 Missouri 1853-57 ; became Major General of the 
 State forces in the Civil War, but failed in his 
 attempt to have Missouri secede. Major Gen- 
 eral C. S. A. , May, 1862. After the war went 
 to Mexico and received a grant of land from 
 Maximillian, but returned to the United States 
 after the death of the Archduke, and died in 
 poverty Sept. 27, 1867. 
 
 Quincy, Josiali.— There has been four 
 eminent men of this name in Massachusetts. 
 
 The first, Josiah, sen. , was born 1709 and died 
 1784. He was a successful merchant and zealous 
 patriot of Boston. 
 
 The second, Josiah, jr., son of the former, 
 was born Feb. 23, 1744 ; graduated from Harvard 
 1763, and was an eminent lawyer. He went to 
 England in 1774, and was active in promoting 
 the cause of his country. He died on the return 
 voyage, April 26, 1775. 
 
 The third of the name was son of the pre- 
 ceding, and was born at Boston, Mass. , Feb. 4, 
 1772; graduated at Harvard College 1790; ad- 
 mitted to the bar 1793. Member of State Legis- 
 lature 1804 ; of Congress 1805-13 ; State Senator 
 1813-21 ; State House of Representatives 1821-23 ; 
 Mayor of Boston 1823-29 ; President of Harvard 
 1829-45. Died July 1, 1864. 
 
 The fourth, was son of President Quincy, 
 and was bom Jan. 18, 1802 ; graduated at Har- 
 vard 1821, and became a lawyer. Member of 
 City Council 1833-37 ; President of Mass. Senate 
 1842 ; Mayor of Boston 1845 ; Treasurer of West- 
 ern R. R. for many years. He died Nov. 2, 
 1882. 
 
 Quincy, Josiah Phillips. — Son of the last 
 mentioned was born in Boston in 1830 ; graduated 
 at Harvard 1860, and devoted his talents to 
 literature. 
 
 Rains, Oahriel JT.— He was born in North 
 Carolina in 1805 and graduated from West 
 Point 1827. He gained distinction in the 
 war with the Seminole Indians and won the 
 brevet of Major April 28, 1840. He served in 
 the war with Mexico and attained the rank of 
 Lieut. -Colonel. In the Civil War he became 
 Brigadier and Major General in the Confederate 
 Army. Died Aug. 6, 1881. 
 
 Ramsay, Darid.-He was born in Lancas- 
 ter Co., Pa., April 2, 1749, and graduated at 
 
 Princeton 1765 ; settled as a physician in Char- 
 leston, S. C., 1773. Served in the Revolution 
 as a field surgeon. Was a leading member of 
 the S. C. Legislature 1776-83. Captured at 
 Charleston and kept in close confinement by 
 the British for eleven months. Member of the 
 Continental Congress 1780-86. The latter term 
 serving as acting President on account of the 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 103 
 
 sickness of John Hancock. For the last four- 
 teen years of his life Dr. Ramsay was a member 
 of the State Legislature. Died May 8, 1815, 
 from a wound inflicted by a lunatic. 
 
 Ramsey, Alexander. — He was born near 
 Harrisburg, Pa., Sept. 8, 1815. Member of 
 Congress 1848-47. Governor of Minnesota Terri- 
 tory 1849. Mayor of St. Paul 1855. Governor 
 of the State 1858-62. U. S. Senator 1868-75. 
 Secretary of War 1879-81. 
 
 Randall, Alexander W. — He was born in 
 Montgomery Co., N* Y., Oct., 1819. He studied 
 law and settled in Waukesha, Wis. , 1840. Post- 
 master and Member of the Legislature. Judge 
 of the Second District 1856. Governor of Wis. 
 1857-1861. Minister to Italy 1861-65. Assistant 
 Postmaster-General 1865-66. Postmaster-Gen- 
 eral 1866-69. Practiced law in Elmira, N. Y. , 
 until his death, July 25, 1872. 
 
 Randall, Samuel J. — The leader of his 
 party for many years, was born in the City of 
 Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 10, 1828. He received 
 an academical education and became a merchant 
 in his native city. He soon entered into the 
 local political strife. He served the city for a 
 number of years in both branches of the Coun- 
 cil. He served in the State Senate 1858 and 
 1859. He was elected to Congress as a Demo- 
 crat in 1862 and at every subsequent election 
 
 until his death. He served upon the most im- 
 portant committees of the House of Represent- 
 atives and in Dec. , 1875, was strongly supported 
 for the position of Speaker. He was chosen to 
 
 that office at the last session of the 44th Con- 
 gress in 1876 and presided over the House until 
 the close of the 46th Congress, March 4, 1881. 
 He was sworn in as a Member of the 51st Con- 
 gress while in his sick room, which he was un- 
 able to leave. He died in Washington, D. C., 
 April 18, 1890. 
 
 Randolph, John. — He was a descendant of 
 the Indian chieftess, Pocohontas, and was born 
 
 at Cawsons, Chesterfield Co., Va., June 2, 
 1773. His father died while he was an infant 
 and left him a large amount of property. He 
 studied law at Philadelphia and was elected to 
 Congress in 1799. He was re-elected to each 
 Congress thereafter, except two sessions, un- 
 til 1825. He was prominent as an advocate 
 of State Rights and a strong partisan of Jeffer- 
 son’s administration until 1806, when he separ- 
 ated from his associates, opposed Madison and 
 the measure which led to the war of 1812. Was 
 defeated in the election of that year, but was 
 returned to Congress in 1814. He opposed the 
 Missouri Compromise in 1820 and in 1822 visited 
 England. He fought a duel with Henry Clay 
 in 1826. In 1827 he was a member of the Vir- 
 ginia Convention to revise the Constitution. 
 He supported Gen. Jackson and was sent as 
 Minister to Russia. Returned and was re- 
 elected to Congress, but died before taking his 
 seat, June 24, 1833. 
 
 Read, Thomas Ruclianan. — He was born 
 in Chester Co., Pa., Mar. 12, 1822. Studied 
 sculpture, but soon turned his attention to 
 
104 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 painting, which he practiced in New York and 
 Boston ; removed to Philadelphia in 1846. Re- 
 sided in Florence, Italy, from 1850 to 1872. 
 Author of several volumes of poems and was a 
 successful portrait painter. His best produc- 
 tions are a painting and a poem, both entitled 
 “Sheridan’s Ride.” Died May 11, 1872. 
 
 Reed, Thomas 15. — He was born in Port- 
 land, Maine, Oct. 18, 1839, and graduated at 
 Bowdoin College in 1860. He was admitted to 
 the bar in 1863. Member of the State Legisla- 
 ture 1868-69 and of the State Senate 1870. 
 Attorney General of Maine 1870-72 ; City Solic- 
 itor of Portland 1874-77. Member of Congress 
 1877-1893. Speaker of the National House of 
 Representatives of the 51ct Congress. Re-elected 
 to the 52d Congress. 
 
 Reynolds, Joseph J. — He was born in 
 Kentucky in 1822 and graduated from West 
 
 Point in 1843. Assistant Professor at the Mili- 
 tary Academy 1846-49 ; principal Professor 
 1849-55. Resigned and became Professor in 
 Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., until 
 
 1860. Brigadier General U. S. Vols., June, 
 
 1861. Resigned in Jan., 1862, but was re-ap- 
 pointed in Nov. and promoted to Major Gen- 
 eral Feb. 2, 1863. Commanded the Department 
 of Arkansas from Nov., 1864, to Apr., 1866. 
 Bre vetted Brigadier and Major General U. S. 
 A. for gallantry. Retired June, 1877. 
 
 Rittcxihoitsc, 9>avid — He was born near 
 Germantown, Pa., April 8, 1732, and became 
 eminent as a mathematician and inventor of 
 mathematical instruments. He was employed 
 in connection with Mason and Dixon in 1763 to 
 determine the initial point of their survey, 
 which he accomplished with instruments of his 
 
 own manufacture. Determined the boundaries 
 of Penn, and of other States. Member of the 
 Legislature of Penn 1775 ; State Treasurer 1777- 
 89. Director of the U. S. Mint 1792-95. Died 
 at Philadelphia June 26, 1796. 
 
 Roebling', Joint A. — Was born at Mul- 
 hausen, Prussia, June 12, 1806, and received 
 
 the degree of Civil Engineer from the Polytech- 
 nic School at Berlin. He came to America in 
 1831 and began the work of his profession on 
 the Beaver River. He was employed by the 
 State of Penn, to survey a railroad route over 
 the Allegheny Mountains from Harrisburg to 
 Pittsburg. In 1844 he received the contract to 
 replace the wooden acqueduct over the Alle- 
 gheny River with a wire suspension one. It 
 was opened in May, 1845. He superintended 
 the construction of the Monongahela suspen- 
 sion bridge and the one at Niagara. The ele- 
 gant bridge over the Allegheny at Pittsburg 
 and over the Ohio at Cincinnati were among 
 his works. His final and grandest undertak- 
 ing was the construction of the bridge across 
 the East River connecting New York and 
 Brooklyn. He died July 22, 1866, and left the 
 completion of this work to his son, Washing- 
 ton A. Roebling. 
 
 Rush, Benjamin. — This prominent physi- 
 cian and patriot was born near Philadelphia, 
 Pa., June 4, 1746, and graduated at Princeton 
 1760. Studied medicine at Philadelphia, Edin- 
 burg, London and Paris. Commenced practice 
 in Philadelphia Aug. 1769, and was chosen Pro- 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 105 
 
 fessor of the Medical College. Member of Pro- 
 vincial Conference 1776, and moved the reso- 
 lution to consider a Declaration of Independ- 
 ence. Became a member of the Continental 
 Congress in June and was one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence in July, 1776. 
 Surgeon General 1777. Member of the Penn. 
 Convention to ratify the U. S. Constitution 
 1787. Rendered great service to humanity and 
 medical science in the Yellow Fever epidemic 
 of 1793, for which he received testimonials from 
 the King of Prussia, the Queen of Etruria and 
 the Czar of Russia. One of the founders of 
 Dickinson College. Member of numerous relig- 
 ious and medical societies. Treasurer of the 
 U. S. Mint from 1799 to his death, April 19, 
 1813. 
 
 Busk, Jeremiah HI. — He was born in 
 Morgan Co., Ohio, June 17, 1830. Received 
 
 public school education. Engaged in farming 
 in Vernon Co., Wis., in 1853. Entered the 
 Union Army as Major and became Brevet Brig- 
 adier General. Was State Bank Controller 
 1866-69, and Member of Congress 1871-77. De- 
 clined appointments of Charge d’Affaires to 
 Paraguay and Uruguay, and Chief of the Bu- 
 reau of Engraving and Printing in 1881. Was 
 Governor of Wisconsin 1881-88. Appointed 
 Secretary of the newly created Department of 
 Agriculture 1889. 
 
 Rutledge, John. — He was born at Charles- 
 ton, S. C. , 1739, and studied law at the Temple, 
 London. Commenced practice at Charleston 
 1761. A prominent member of the “Stamp 
 Act” Congress in New York 1765; of the S. C. 
 Convention 1774, and of the Continental Con- 
 gress 1774-75 ; of the S. C. Convention of 1776, 
 and Chairman of the Convention to draft a 
 State Constitution. Governor of S. C. 1779. 
 On the fall of Charleston accompanied the 
 army of General Gates until 1782, when he be- 
 came a Member of Congress and sat in the Con- 
 stitutional Convention. Justice of the Supreme 
 Court of the U. S. 1789 and nominated for Chief 
 Justice of same 1795, but having lost his reason 
 was not confirmed. Died July 23, 1800. 
 
 Schofield, John HI. — He was born in Chau- 
 tauqua Co. , N. Y. , Sept. 29, 1831, and gradu- 
 ated from West Point 1853; became Captain 
 of Artillery May 14, 1861. Professor at West 
 Point from 1855 to 1860. Major of 1st Missouri 
 Vols. April 26, 1860. Brigadier General U. S. 
 Vols. Nov., 1861, commanding the district of 
 St. Louis. Major General of Vols. Nov., 1862, 
 commanding the Army of the Frontier. Com- 
 manded the Army of the Ohio 1864. Com- 
 manded the 23d Corps at Atlanta, Nashville 
 and Franklin. Appointed Brigadier General 
 in the regular Army 1864. Commanded the 
 Department of North Carolina 1865; First Mil- 
 itary District of Virginia 1866-67. Secretary of 
 War, ad interim , May, 1868. Major General in 
 the regular Army Mar. , 1869, commanding De- 
 partment of Missouri. Commanded Division of 
 the Pacific 1870. Superintendent of the Mil- 
 
 itary Academy at West Point 1876. Com- 
 manded the Division of the Pacific 1882-83 ; of 
 Missouri 1883, and of the Atlantic 1886-88. On 
 the death of General Philip H. Sheridan he 
 
106 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 became ranking officer commanding the United 
 States Army. 
 
 Schuyler-, Philip. — This patriotic officer 
 was born at Albany, N. Y., Nov. 20, 1733. In 
 June, 1755, while a Captain of Volunteers, he 
 was engaged in the expedition against the 
 French at Crown Point. After this campaign 
 he left the army. Two days after the battle of 
 Bunker Hill he was made a Major General by 
 Congress and put in command of the Northern 
 Department. He was censured after the failure 
 of the Canada expedition and resigned his com- 
 mission. Congress refused to accept it, and at 
 his request a committee of investigation was 
 appointed. This committee approved his course 
 and he resumed his command. When he fell 
 back upon Saratoga after the forced abandon- 
 ment of Ticonderoga by St. Clair the public 
 clamor again arose, and Congress ordered Gen- 
 eral Gates to supersede him. Schuyler obedi- 
 ently turned over his command, but remained 
 with the army to aid the cause. After the sur- 
 render of the British General, Burgoyne, an- 
 other court of inquiry approved his manage- 
 ment in very strong terms. He nevertheless 
 resigned his commission, although he continued 
 
 to render valuable service in the operations 
 within his native State. He was a member of 
 the Continental Congress from 1778 to 1781. 
 He was appointed to succeed Aaron Burr as U. 
 S. Senator from New York in 1797. While in the 
 Senate of New York he contributed largely to 
 the formation of the code of laws. He died in 
 his native city Nov. 18, 1804. 
 
 Scott, Winfield. — This illustrious General 
 of the War of 1812 and the Mexican War was 
 born in Dinwiddie Co., Virginia, June 13, 1786. 
 He graduated from William and Mary College, 
 studied law and was admitted to the bar. He 
 was commissioned as Captain of Light Artillery 
 
 in 1808 and ordered to New Orleans. Promoted 
 to Lieutenant-Colonel July 12, 1812, and was 
 ordered to Philadelphia to organize troops for 
 the field. Thence he was sent to the Niag- 
 ara frontier at Queenstown, and after Col. Van 
 Renselaer was wounded he made a stubborn 
 resistance, but was forced to surrender with his 
 command. In Mar. , 1813, he was promoted to 
 the full colonelcy of his regiment and led the 
 attack on Fort George, May 27, when he was 
 severely wounded, but was the first to enter 
 the works. He was the hero of Chippewa and 
 Lundy Lane. At the latter battle he had two 
 horses shot under him. Congress voted him a 
 gold medal and promoted him to Major Gen- 
 eral. He prepared his “General Regulations 
 of the Army” in 1818 and a “ System of Infant- 
 ry and Rifle Tactics” in 1826. In the war with 
 Mexico he was ordered to take command in 
 Nov., 1846. The battles of Vera Cruz, Cerro 
 Gordo, Molino del Rey and Chapultepec were 
 followed by the triumphant entry of the army 
 into the City of Mexico, with General Scott at 
 its head. He declined the Presidency of the 
 Republic of Mexico, which was proffered him, 
 and received a vote of thanks and a gold medal 
 from the Congress of the United States. He 
 was a candidate for President on the Whig 
 ticket in 1852. In 1855 the title of Lieutenant 
 General by brevet was conferred upon him. 
 He was placed on the retired list with full pay 
 Nov. 1 , 1861, and died at West Point, N. Y., 
 May 29, 1866. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 107 
 
 Sedgwick, John. — He was bom in Corn- 
 wall, Conn., Sept. 13, 1813, and graduated at 
 West Point in 1837. Served in the Seminole 
 and Mexican Wars. Bre vetted Captain and 
 
 Major for gallantry. Lieutenant-Colonel 2d 
 Cavalry Mar., 1861 ; Brigadier General of Vol- 
 
 unteers Aug., 1861; Major General of Volun- 
 teers July 4, 1862; command of Sixth Corps 
 Peb. , 1863, and stormed Marye’s Height May 3. 
 Made a forced march of 35 miles in one day and 
 arrived at Gettysburg July 2, to enter at once 
 into the engagement. Pursued the enemy July 
 5. He commanded the right wing — 5th and 6th 
 Corps — at Rappahanock Station Nov. 7. At 
 the head of the 6th Corps in the battles of the 
 Wilderness and Spottsylvania. He was killed 
 on the morning of May 9, 1864, by a sharp- 
 shooter, while on the front line. A monument 
 of cannon captured by the 6th Corps is erected 
 to his memory at West Point, N. Y. 
 
 Seward, William II. — Was born in Flor- 
 ida, Orange Co., N. Y., May 16, 1801. Entered 
 Union College at fifteen years of age. Began 
 the practice of law in 1823. Elected to the 
 State Senate in 1830. Defeated as a candidate 
 for Governor in 1834, but elected to that office 
 in 1838 and re-elected in 1840. Declined a re- 
 nomination in 1842 to devote himself to the 
 practice of law. Elected to the U. S. Senate in 
 1849 and re-elected in 1855. He was a prominent 
 candidate before the Republican Convention 
 for President in 1860, but the successful candi- 
 date, Abraham Lincoln, nominated him as Sec- 
 retary of State. He retained this position until 
 1869. At the time of the brutal assassination 
 of President Lincoln Mr. Seward was assaulted, 
 but retained office under Johnson. He made a 
 tour of the world and died Oct. 10, 1872. 
 
 Sheridan, Philip II. — Was born in 
 Albany, N. Y., March 6, 1831, and graduated 
 from West Point in 1853, where he was assigned 
 to the 1st U. S. Infantry. At the commence- 
 ment of the Civil War he was serving as Captain 
 in the 13th U. S. Infantry, in Oregon and Wash- 
 ington. He was recalled to the States and 
 assigned to the Army of S. W. Missouri as 
 Quarter-master. May, 1862, he was commis- 
 sioned as Colonel of the 2d Michigan Cavalry, 
 and in five days was in full pursuit of the enemy 
 from Corinth. Commissioned Brigadier Gen- 
 eral of Volunteers July 1, 1862, and was trans- 
 ferred to the Department of the Ohio. He 
 fought bravely at Murfreesboro and Chatta- 
 nooga, and when Grant was appointed Lieu- 
 tenant-General, he requested to have Sheridan 
 transferred to the East. He was appointed 
 Chief of Cavalry in the Army of the Potomac. 
 He rendered gallant service in this position 
 all through the campaign of 1864, and Aug. 7 
 was assigned to the command of the Middle 
 Department, comprising West Virginia, Wash- 
 ington, Susquehanna. The battle in the valley 
 of the Shenandoah quickly followed and the 
 victory of Cedar Creek. Sheridan was promoted 
 to be Brigadier General in the Regular Army, 
 
 Sept. 20, 1864, and Nov. 8 he became Major 
 General. Returning to the Army of the Poto- 
 mac in March, 1865, he commanded at the battle 
 of Five Forks, which compelled Lee to evacuate 
 Petersburg. The engagement at Sailor’s Creek 
 and at Appomatox Station was quickly followed 
 
108 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 by the surrender of Lee. March 4, 1869, 
 Sheridan was promoted to be Lieutenant- 
 General, and assumed command of the Army. 
 He was promoted to General in 1888, and died 
 Aug. 5, 1888. 
 
 S He i-iii jin, William. X. — W as born in Lan- 
 caster, O., Feb. 8, 1820, and graduated from 
 West Point in 1840. He was at once commis- 
 sioned a full Second Lieutenant in the 3rd 
 Artillery and promoted to First Lieutenant in 
 1841. He was transferred to the Commissary 
 Department with rank of Captain, in Sept., 
 1850, and resigned from the army Sept. 6, 1853. 
 He practiced law in Kansas for a while, and 
 Jan., 1860, became President of a Military 
 Academy in Louisana, but Jan. 16, 1861, he 
 wrote to the Governor, asking to be relieved 
 “ the moment the State determined to secede.” 
 He was soon relieved. He became Colonel of 
 the 13th Regular Infantry May 14, 1861, and at 
 the battle of Bull Run, July 21, was in com- 
 mand of a brigade. Commissioned as Brigadier 
 General, he was assigned to the Army of the 
 Cumberland, and succeeded to the com- 
 mand Oct. 8, 1861. He did valliant service 
 at Shiloh, and Corinth ; was promoted to be 
 
 Major General of Volunteers, May 1, 1862. He 
 was entrusted by General Grant with important 
 positions in the Vicksburg campaign and at 
 Chattanooga ; raised the siege of Knoxville, 
 and after some of the fiercest engagements of 
 the war captured Atlanta, Geo. Then started 
 Nov. 15, 1864, on his famous “march to the 
 
 sea ” ; captured Savannah, Dec. 20. He turned 
 northward with his army Feb. 1, 1865, and 
 after several engagements accepted the sur- 
 render of Johnston’s Army on a “basis of 
 agreement, ” which was not acknowledged by the 
 Government, but April 26 the same terms 
 accorded to Lee were accepted. Promoted to 
 Lieutenant General July 25, 1866, and became 
 General March 4, 1869. He was placed on the 
 retired list Feb. 8, 1884. Died Feb, 14, 1891. 
 
 Sickles, Daniel E. — He was born in New 
 York City Oct. 20, 1822, and was educated at 
 
 the University of New York, but did not 
 graduate. Admitted to the bar 1843 ; Member 
 of Legislature 1847 ; Corporation Attorney of 
 his native city 1853 ; Member of Congress 1857- 
 61. On Feb. 27, 1859, he shot and instantly 
 killed Philip Barton Key, and was tried for 
 murder, but acquitted. Colonel of the 70th 
 N. Y. Vols., June, 1861; nominated Brigadier 
 General of Vols., Sept., 1861, but not confirmed 
 at first; subsequently confirmed to date from 
 original nomination. Commissioned Major 
 General Nov. 29, 1862 ; distinguished for gal- 
 lantry at Chancellorsville, and commanded the 
 Third Corps at Gettysburg, Avherehe lost a leg. 
 Commanded the District of North and South 
 Carolina 1866-67. Commissioned a Colonel in 
 the regular Army July 28, 1866, and retired 
 with rank of Major General April, 1869. U. S. 
 Minister to Spain 1869-74. 
 
 Simpson, Mathew. — This eloquent divine 
 was born at Cadiz, Harrison Co., O., June 21, 
 1810 ; graduated at Madison College 1829 ; 
 studied medicine and received the degree of 
 M. D. in 1833, and was licensed the same year 
 to preach in the M. E. Church. Vice-President 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 109 
 
 and Professor of Natural Science at Allegheny 
 College 1837. President of Asbury University, 
 Indiana, 1839. Editor of the “ Western Chris- 
 tian Advocate” 1848. Elected Bishop of the 
 M. E. Church 1852. He was an intimate friend 
 of President Lincoln, and made many patriotic 
 addresses during the Civil War. He visited 
 Syria and the East in 1863-64, and did much to 
 enlighten public sentiment on the issues of the 
 war. He delivered an eulogy on the death of 
 Lincoln, and opened the Centennial Exposition 
 1876 with prayer. He died June 18, 1884. 
 
 Slocum, Henry W. — He was born at Pom- 
 pey. Onondaga Co., N. Y., Sept. 24, 1827, and 
 graduated from West Point 1852. Promoted 
 to First Lieutenant 1855 ; resigned to engage in 
 the practice of law 1856. Member of Legislature 
 1859. Colonel of the 27th New York Yols. May, 
 1861 ; commissioned Brigadier General of Yols. 
 Aug., 1861; Major General of Vols. July 4, 
 1862. Succeeded General Hooker in command 
 of the 20th Corps and was the first to enter 
 Atlanta, Ga. Commanded the left grand 
 division on Sherman’s “march to the sea.’’ 
 
 Resigned from the army Sept. , 1865. Member 
 of the 41st, 42d and 43d Congress. President 
 of the Board of Public Works City of Brooklyn 
 1876-78. 
 
 Smith, E. Kirby. — He was born at St. 
 Augustine, Fla., in 1824; graduated at West 
 Point 1845. He distinguished himself in the war 
 
 with Mexico and was brevetted First Lieutenant 
 and Captain for gallantry. He became Major 
 
 of his regiment Jan., 1861, and resigned in 
 April. He was commissioned Brigadier Gen- 
 eral in the Confederate Army and served under 
 Gen. J. E. Johnston. Made Major General in 
 1862 and transferred to East Tennessee and 
 placed in command. Promoted to Lieutenant 
 General and full General. He was the last to 
 surrender his forces, which he did May 26, 
 1865. 
 
 Stanley, Henry M. — This celebrated cor- 
 respondent and explorer was born near Den- 
 bigh, Wales, in 1840. His parents were in des- 
 titute circumstances and he remained in the 
 poor-house until he was thirteen years old. 
 He taught school for a while and then shipped 
 as cabin boy for New Orleans. He was adopted 
 by a merchant by the name of Stanley, whose 
 name he took in place of his own. John Row- 
 lands. His adoptive father died intestate and 
 young Stanley enlisted in the Confederate 
 Army ; was taken prisoner and volunteered in 
 the U. S. Navy, as an acting ensign on an iron- 
 clad. When the war ended, in 1865, he went 
 to Turkey and Asia Minor as a newspaper cor- 
 respondent. He was employed by the New 
 York ‘ ‘ Herald ” as its correspondent and accom- 
 panied the British Army to Abyssinia in 1869. 
 He was sent by the same paper in Oct., 1869, to 
 lead an expedition into the interior of Africa 
 in search of Dr. Livingstone, who had not 
 been heard from for two years. Succeeded in 
 finding him in Nov., 1871, and furnished him 
 with supplies. He explored the northern part 
 of Lake Tanganyika and set out on his return 
 in Mar., 1872, arriving in England in July. 
 Here he was received with distinguished honor. 
 In a work entitled ‘ ‘How I Found Livingstone,” 
 
110 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 published in Nov., 1872, he details the incidents 
 of this expedition. Tidings of the death of Dr. 
 Livingstone having reached the civilized world, 
 
 Mr. Stanley was engaged jointly by the New 
 York “Herald” and the London “Telegraph” 
 to make an extended exploration of the Lake 
 region about the equator in Africa. He left 
 the western coast of Africa in Nov., 1872, with 
 three hundred men. He passed through many 
 hardships and severe conflicts with native 
 tribes, losing one hundred and ninety-four men 
 by death and desertion, but succeeded in reach- 
 ing Lake Victoria N’yanza Feb. 27, 1875. Sailed 
 around the lake in a boat which he had trans- 
 ported across the country in sections, finding 
 the lake to be one continuous body of water, 
 thus confirming the opinion of Spike and 
 Grant, in contradistinction to that of Burton 
 and Livingstone. April 17, 1875, he began 
 his exploration in the direction of lake 
 Albert N’yanza and arrived at the mouth of 
 the Congo River Aug. 12, 1877. He had ex- 
 plored its entire course and then wrote a book, 
 “Through the Dark Continent” (1878). He 
 returned to the Congo in 1879 as the leader of a 
 Belgian International Expedition and subse- 
 quently he describes this in his book, ‘ ‘ Congo 
 and the Founding of its Free State.” He made 
 a lecture-tour of the United States in 1886 and 
 returned to Congo Free State in 1887 to lead an 
 expedition to the relief of Emin Bey. (See the 
 article on Congo Free State in another part of 
 this work). He was successful in this expedi- 
 tion as he had been in all of his former under- 
 takings, and reached the east coast of Africa at 
 
 Bagamoyo Dec. 8, 1889. He returned to Eng- 
 land, where he received the honors of the 
 nobility and of Government. He was married 
 to Miss Tennant, of England, in July, 1890, 
 while still suffering from the effects of African 
 fever. 
 
 Stanton, Edwin M. — He was born in Steu- 
 benville, O., Dec. 19, 1814, and was admitted to 
 the bar in 1836. He was reporter of courts from 
 1842 to 1845. He gained national prominence 
 in the case of the State of Pennsylvania against 
 the Wheeling Bridge Company, and in 1856 
 removed to Washington, D. C., to conduct his 
 practice before the U. S. Courts there. He 
 went to California in 1858 as counsel for the 
 U. S. in land claims involving $150,000,000, and 
 aided in the legal and righteous adjustment of 
 these claims. Was appointed Attorney General 
 of the U. S. in Dec., 1860. He became Secretary 
 of War under Mr. Lincoln Jan. 20, 1862. He 
 supported President Lincoln’s administration 
 and remained in the Cabinet of President John- 
 son until the latter suspended him from office, 
 Aug. 12, 1367, but he resumed the office by 
 vote of the Senate Jan. 13, 1868. The President 
 attempted to remove him, but the Senate de- 
 cided that Mr. Johnson had no power under 
 
 the Constitution to do so. The House of Rep* 
 resentatives thereupon impeached the Presi- 
 dent. The conviction failed by one vote. Then 
 Mr. Stanton voluntarily resigned. The Senate 
 again resolved that Mr. Stanton had not been 
 legally removed, but based its confirmation of 
 his successor upon his voluntary retirement. 
 He received a vote of thanks from both Houses 
 of Congress. Appointed Associate Judge of the 
 Supreme Court Dec. 20, 1869. He died before 
 taking the oath of office, Dec. 24, 1869. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Stanton, Elizabeth C. — Elizabeth Cady 
 was born at Johnstown N. Y., Nov. 12, 1815. 
 She was the daughter of Judge Daniel Cady. 
 
 Her education was pursued at the academy of 
 her native town, where she fitted for college at 
 the age of fifteen. After this she attended Mrs. 
 Willard’s Seminary at Troy. While studying 
 Blackstone, Story and Kent, she perceived the 
 disabilities of her sex before the law. In 1840 
 she married Henry B. Stanton and went with 
 him to the World’s Anti-Slavery Convention 
 in London. While there she became acquainted 
 with Lucretia Mott, in connection with whom 
 she signed the call for the first Woman’s Rights 
 Convention. It was held at her home in Seneca 
 Falls, N. Y., July 19-20, 1848. She made a 
 strong plea before the Legislature of New York 
 in 1854 on the rights of married women. In 
 1860 she advocated before the same body divorce 
 for drunkenness. She has repeatedly spoken 
 before Congressional Committees in favor of 
 woman suffrage. She made a canvass of the 
 State of Kansas in 1867 and of Michigan in 
 1874, when this question was submitted to 
 popular vote. She was one of the editors of 
 “The Revolution.” 
 
 Stewart, Alexander T. — This successful 
 merchant was born near Belfast, Ireland, Oct. 
 27, 1802, and was left an orphan at an early age. 
 He came to New York in 1818 with a few hun- 
 dred pounds which he had inherited. He 
 taught for a while in a private school. He was 
 forced to become a trader on account of having 
 invested his money and being left alone with 
 the establishment on his hands. He built up 
 
 an immense business from a small beginning, 
 until he had about eight thousand persons in 
 his employ in all branches. When he died he 
 was regarded as one of the three wealth- 
 iest men in the U. S., John Jacob Astor and 
 Cornelius Vanderbilt being the other two. He 
 died April 10, 1876. 
 
 Stowe, Harriet JB — This talented woman 
 was the daughter of Rev. Lyman Beecher. 
 She was born at Litchfield, Conn., June 14, 
 1812, and engaged for several years in teaching 
 in Hartford. In 1832 she married Rev. Calvin 
 E. Stowe, D. D. , then a Professor in Lane Sem- 
 inary, Cincinnati, O. She published “The 
 Mayflower, or Sketches of the Descendeuts of 
 the Pilgrims ” in 1849. Two years later she began 
 a serial story in the “National Era,” a paper 
 published in Washington, D. C., which was 
 published in book form in 1852 under the title 
 of “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin.” This work met with 
 an unparalleled sale and attained a remarkable 
 success, both at home and abroad. It was trans- 
 lated into fifteen languages spoken in Europe, 
 also into Arabic, Japanese and Chinese. In 
 1853 she put forth a “Key to Uncle Tom’s 
 Cabin,” in which she presented the main facts 
 upon which the story was based. She spent a 
 year with her husband and brother in Europe, 
 
 and on her return produced a work, entitled, 
 “Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands.” She 
 wrote many other works, among which are 
 “Dred, a Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp,” 
 “ The Minister’s Wooing,” “ The Pearl of Orr’s 
 Island,” “ Oldtown Folks,” “ My Wife and I,” 
 
112 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 “Agnes of Sorento,” and “A Dog’s Mission.” 
 Her husband died Aug. 22, 1886, at which time 
 she was living in Hartford, Conn. , where she 
 continued to reside until 1890. 
 
 StuyvesaiU, Peter.— He was born in Hol- 
 land in 1602, and served in the West Indies, 
 where he was for a time Director of the Colony 
 of Curacoa, and in the attack made by the 
 Portuguese upon the Island of St. Martin, lost 
 a leg. He returned to Holland in 1644, and 
 three years after was appointed Director- 
 General of the New Netherlands, which position 
 he held for seventeen years, or until the colony 
 fell into the hands of the English in 1664. His 
 first measure was to make peace with the 
 Indians, who had been stirred up by the policy 
 of his predecessor. Then he visited the English 
 Settlements on the Connecticut, and arranged 
 a boundary line between his province and New 
 England. In 1655 he sailed to the Delaware 
 with 600 or 700 men and recaptured a fort, 
 which Rising, the Swedish Governor, had taken 
 
 from the Dutch the year previous. For ten 
 years his administration was peaceful from 
 without, but within the colony discontent was 
 brewing, caused by the arbitrary methods of 
 the Dutch West India Company. This brought 
 the Governor and the people into unfriendly 
 relations. At length King Charles II. of Eng- 
 land gave his brother, the Duke of York, a 
 charter covering all the land between the Hud- 
 son and the Delaware. This grant included 
 New Netherlands, with other territories. In 
 
 August of that year an English fleet appeared 
 off New Amsterdam and demanded its sur- 
 render. At first the Governor refused, but not 
 being sustained by the people, he surrendered 
 Sept. 8, 1664. The name of the city and pro- 
 vince was changed to New York. Stuyvesant 
 went to Holland, but afterwards returned and 
 lived eighteen years on his farm. He died 
 Aug., 1682. 
 
 Sumner, Charles. — He was born in 
 Boston, Mass., Jan. 6, 1811 ; graduated from 
 
 Harvard College 1830 ; entered Cambridge 
 Law School in 1831, and admitted to the bar 
 in 1834. He was the intimate friend of Judge 
 Story, who gave him such a letter of intro- 
 duction when he visited Washington, as to 
 secure for him the friendship of Kent, Marshall 
 and other legal minds. He was Lecturer at the 
 Harvard Law School from 1835 to 1837, and 
 again in 1843. He had but little practice at the 
 bar, but was engaged in editing “ Story’s De- 
 cisions,” “Dunlap’s Admiralty Treatise,” and 
 other legal works. In 1837 he visited Europe 
 and returned in 1840. He delivered his masterly 
 oration, “The True Grandeur of Nations,” in 
 Boston, July 4, 1845. This was highly criticised 
 at home and as highly commended abroad. 
 On his return from Europe he was received as 
 the pet of society, but his radical views soon 
 caused these doors to be closed to him. He 
 turned to political life and strongly opposed the 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 113 
 
 admission of Texas and the Mexican War. He 
 was defeated in 1848, when he was a candidate 
 for Congress. In 1851 he was sent to the U. S. 
 Senate from Massachusetts, after a long and 
 obstinate contest of three months’ duration. 
 He opened his attack on slavery in 1852, and 
 was the avowed champion of the anti-slavery 
 cause when Washington was filled with men 
 who desired his death. May 22, 1856, while 
 writing at his desk in the Senate Chamber, he 
 was brutally stricken down by Brooks, a 
 Member of the House from South Carolina. 
 He was obliged to go to .Europe for treatment, 
 w hich kept him away for three years. He was, 
 however, re-elected to the Senate in 1857, in 
 1863 and 1869, filling the office for twenty-three 
 years. He died at his home in Washington, 
 March 11, 1874. 
 
 Swayne, John W. — He was born at Colum- 
 bus, 0., in 1835; graduated at Yale College; 
 studied law and practiced in his native city. 
 Major of an Ohio Regiment in 1862 and pro- 
 moted to Colonel, serving through the Atlanta 
 campaign and losing a leg at Salkahatchie. 
 Brevetted Brigadier Gen’l and Major General in 
 1865. He was Assistant Commissioner of Ref- 
 ugees, and retired from the army in 1870. He 
 practiced law in New York. 
 
 Sway lie, Noah If. — He was born in Cul- 
 pepper Co., Va., Dec. 27, 1804, and served as 
 an apothecary’s clerk. Studied law and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1824. Removed to Ohio 
 and elected to the Legislature in 1829. U. S. 
 District Attorney 1830-39. Declined the elec- 
 tion as Judge of the Court of Common Pleas 
 1834. Member of Legislature 1836. Prominent 
 in organizing asylums for the deaf and dumb, 
 for the blind and the insane. Justice of the 
 U. S. Supreme Court 1861 ; resigned 1881. Died 
 June 8, 1884. 
 
 Taney, Roger B. — This Chief Justice was 
 born in Calvert Co., Md., Mar. 17, 1777; gradu- 
 ated from Dickinson College 1795 and admitted 
 to the bar in 1799. Delegate to the General 
 Assembly 1800. Member of State Senate 1816. 
 Appointed U. S. Attorney by General Jackson 
 1831. Appointed Chief Justice of the U. S. 
 Supreme Court 1836 and took his seat Jan. 1837. 
 He delivered the famous or infamous Dred 
 Scott decision in 1857. He also wrote out an 
 opinion that President Lincoln had no author- 
 ity to suspend the execution of a writ of habeas 
 eorpus May 1, 1861. Died Oct. 12, 1864. 
 
 Taylor, Zacliery. — The twelfth President 
 of the United States was born in Orange Co,, 
 Va., Sept. 24, 1784. He was appointed First 
 Lieutenant of the 7th Infantry May 3, 1808. 
 Promoted to Captain Nov. 1810. Commanded 
 Fort Harrison on the Wabash River and made 
 a successful defense against the Indians Sept. 4 
 and 5, 1812, for which he was brevetted Major 
 and promoted to full rank in 1814. Resigned in 
 1815 but re-entered the army in 1816 as Major of 
 the 3d Infantry. Fought the Indians in the 
 Black Hawk and Florida Wars. Promoted 
 Colonel in 1832. Brevetted Brigadier General 
 for his gallantry at the battle of Okee-cho-bee 
 Dec. 25, 1837. In the Mexican War fought the 
 battle of Palo Alto May 8, 1846, and Reseca de 
 la Palma the next day. Brevetted Major Gen- 
 eral May 28, and promoted to full rank a month 
 later. Commanded in many other battles, for 
 which he received the thanks of Congress and a 
 gold medal. Inaugurated President Mar. 4, 
 1849. He died July 9, 1850 and was succeeded 
 by Millard Fillmore as President. 
 
 Thomas, <*eorge Henry. — He was born 
 in Southampton Co., Va., July 31, 1816, and 
 
 graduated at West Point 1840 as 2d Lieutenant 
 of Artillery. He was brevetted for gallantry 
 as First Lieutenant Nov. 6, 1841. In the war 
 with Mexico received the brevets of Captain 
 and Major ; Instructor of Cavalry and Artillery 
 1851-54 ; Major of Cavalry, May, 1855. All the 
 ranking officers of his regiment resigned to 
 enter the Confederate service and he became 
 Colonel May 3, 1861. Brigadier General of Vols. 
 Aug., 1861. He became conspicuous in all the 
 battles from Mill Spring to Chattanooga. Com- 
 missioned Bri gadier General in the regular Army 
 
114 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 Oct. 27, 1862. He was appointed Major General 
 in Dec., 1862. He won the sobriquet of “ Rock 
 of Chickamauga ” by five hours incessant fight- 
 ing against great odds in that battle. Congress 
 gave -him a vote of thanks, and the State of 
 Tennessee bestowed upon him a valuable gold 
 medal for his decisive victory over General 
 Hood, Dec. 15-16, which drove the Confederates 
 out of Tennessee. Gen. Thomas commanded 
 the Division of Tenn. 1865-66 ; the Department 
 of Tenn. 1866-67 ; of the Cumberland 1867-69 ; 
 of San Francisco from Dec. , 1869, to his death, 
 May 27, 1870. 
 
 Thompson, Jacob.— He was born in Cas- 
 well Co., N. C., May 15, 1810, and graduated at 
 the University of North Carolina 1831 ; admit- 
 ted to the bar 1834 and settled in Miss. 1835* 
 Member of Congress 1839-51. Secretary of the 
 Interior from Mar. 1857, to Jan., 1861, when he 
 
 resigned. Governor of Mississipi 1862-64 and 
 afterwards Aide-de-camp to Gen. Beauregard 
 and Inspector General for Miss. Died Mar. 24, 
 1885. 
 
 Thurman, Allen Cm.— He was born near 
 Lynchburg, Va., Nov. 13, 1813; removed to 
 Ohio 1819. Studied law and was admitted to 
 the bar 1835. Member of Congress 1845-47. 
 Judge of the Superior Court of Ohio 1851; 
 Chief Justice 1855-56. U. S. Senator 1869-1881. 
 
 Til den, Samuel «J.— He was born in New 
 Lebanon Co. , N. Y. , Feb. 9, 1814. Educated at 
 Yale College and the University of New York, 
 and was admitted to the bar in 1841. He 
 amassed by his practice the largest fortune ever 
 accumulated in the legal profession. He was 
 a member of the State Conventions for the Re- 
 vision of the Constitution in 1846 and in 1867. 
 He served in the Legislature in 1846 and in 1872. 
 
 Elected Governor of N. Y. in 1874, and acquired 
 a national reputation by his Messages to the 
 
 Legislature. He was nominated for President 
 in 1876 and received the largest majority on the 
 popular vote, but by a special Electoral Com- 
 mission, 185 electoral votes were assigned to his 
 competitor. He traveled in Europe for his 
 health in 1877. On account of impaired health 
 he declined to be a canditate before the Con- 
 vention of 1880, and again in June, 1884. He 
 bequeathed several million dollars to the 
 establishment of public libraries in New York 
 and other cities. He died Aug. 4, 1886. 
 
 Tompkins, David !>.— Was born at Scars- 
 dale Westchester Co., N. Y., June 21, 1774; 
 graduated at Columbia College in 1795 and 
 admitted to the bar the next year. Elected to 
 the Legislature and to the Convention to revise 
 the Constitution 1801. Member of Congress 
 1804-1805. Judge of the N. Y. Supreme Court 
 1804. Governor of the State 1807-17. Com- 
 manded the Third Military District during the 
 war 1812-15. Vice President of the U. S. 1817- 
 25. He recommended the abolition of slavery 
 in New York. Chancellor of the University of 
 New Y 7 ork and delegate to the State Consti- 
 tutional Convention of 1821. Died June 11, 
 1825. 
 
 Trumbull, Jonathan. — This patriotic 
 Governor of the Revolution was born at Leban- 
 on, Conn., June 10, 1710, and graduated at 
 Harvard College 1727. He studied theology 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 115 
 
 and was licensed to preach, but changed to the 
 profession of law. He was elected to the Assem- 
 bly in 1733 and was Speaker in 1739. Became 
 an assistant in 1740 and was re-elected twenty- 
 
 two times. He was Governor in 1769 and held 
 that office until the close of the war. Resigned 
 in 1783. He was an enthusiastic supporter of 
 the popular cause and his advice was much 
 prized by W ashington. He was a leader of the 
 Whigs in New England. He died Aug. 17, 1785. 
 
 Tyler, John.- The tenth President of the 
 United States was bom in Charles City Co., 
 Va., March 29, 1790; graduated at William and 
 Mary College in 1806, and was admitted to the 
 bar 1809. Member of State Legislature 1811-16, 
 and 1823-25 ; Member of Congress 1816-21 ; Gov- 
 ernor of Virginia 1825-27 ; U. S. Senator 1827- 
 36. In the latter year he resigned because of 
 the vote of t?ie Legislature of Virginia instruct- 
 ing him to vote opposite to his own views. 
 Member of State Legislature 1839-40 ; elected 
 Vice President on the ticket with General 
 Harrison, succeeded to the Presidency April 4, 
 1841, and held that office until 1845. Member 
 of the “Peace Convention,” over which he 
 presided in Washington in Feb.," 1861. Died 
 Jan. 17, 1862. 
 
 Undervrood. Joseph. R.— He was bom in 
 
 Goochland Co., Va., Oct. 24, 1791. Removed 
 with his uncle to Kentucky and graduated 
 from the University of Lexington 1811. Served 
 in the war of 1812 and was severely wounded in 
 Dudley’s retreat. Entered upon the practice of 
 law 1813 at Glasgow, Ky. ; Member of the Leg- 
 islature 1816-19 ; removed to Bowling Green in 
 1823, and was Member of the Assembly 1825-26 ; 
 Judge of the Court of Appeals 1828-35 ; Member 
 
 of Congress 1835-43; Member and Speaker of 
 the House of Representatives of Kentucky 1846 ; 
 U. S. Senator 1847-53. Died at Bowling Green, 
 Ky., Aug. 23, 1876. 
 
 Upham, Charles W.— He was born at St. 
 John, New Brunswiek, May 4, 1802; graduated 
 at Harvard College 1821 and Cambridge Divinity 
 School 1824. Settled over the First Church in 
 Salem, Mass., 1824-44; Member of Massachusetts 
 House of Representatives 1849 ; of State Senate 
 1850-51; of the U. S. Congress 1854-55 ; of State 
 Senate 1858 ; of State House of Representatives 
 1859-60. Died June 15, 1875. 
 
 Upton, Emory. — He was born at New York, 
 Aug. 27, 1839; graduated from West Point 1861 
 as 2d Lieutenant of Artillery. Commanded his 
 battery at Yorktown, Gain’s Mills and Glendale, 
 also an Artillery Brigade at South Mountain 
 and Antietam. Colonel of the 121st New York 
 Vols. , Oct., 1862. Commanded a Brigade of 
 the 6th Corps and assigned to a division of 
 Cavalry in the West. Mustered out of Volun- 
 teer Service in 1866. Commissioned Lieut. - 
 Colonel of the 25th Infantry and perfected a 
 “System of Infantry Tactics,” which was 
 adopted in 1867. Transferred to the 17th 
 Infantry 1869, and to the 1st Artillery 1870. 
 Commander of Cadets at West Point 1870-75. 
 Bre vetted from Major to Major General for 
 gallantry in the Civil War. Died March 15, 
 1881. 
 
 Tallamli^hain, Clement L. — He was 
 
 born at New Lisbon, O., in 1822, and was 
 admitted to the bar in 1842. Member of Ohio 
 
 Legislature 1845-46 ; Editor of “Day ton Empire” 
 1847-49 ; Member of Congress 1857-63 ; opposed 
 the Government during the war and was arrest* 
 
116 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 ed by order of Genl A. E. Burnside. He was 
 tried by Court-martial and sentenced to close 
 confinement during the war. This was com- 
 muted to banishment beyond the lines by 
 President Lincoln. He went South, but being 
 dissatisfied with his reception by the Con- 
 federates, he made his way to Canada. He was 
 nominated for Governor of Ohio, but was de- 
 feated. Died June 17, 1871. 
 
 Va n litireu. llartin. — The eighth Presi- 
 dent of the U nited States was bom in Kinder- 
 hook, N. Y., Dec. 5, 1782. He studied law 
 when fourteen and took an active part in poli- 
 tics before he was twenty years of age. Elected 
 to the State Senate in 1812. Attorney General 
 1815-19 ; a State Senator for the second time in 
 1816. He became a member of the “Albany 
 Regency" in 181S, which controlled the politics 
 of the State for twenty years. IT. S. Senator 
 1821-28. Governor in 1828. Secretary of State 
 in President Jackson's Cabinet from Mar. , 1829, 
 to April, 1831. Vice President 1833-37. Presi- 
 dent 1837-1841. Nominated for re-election but 
 defeated. Visited Europe 1853-1854 Died July 
 24, 1862. 
 
 Vanderbilt, Cornelias. — Was bom at 
 
 Staten Island, N. Y., May 27 1794, of sturdy 
 
 Holland stock. When sixteen years old he 
 purchased a boat and ran a ferry between New 
 York and Staten Island. In the war of 1812 he 
 carried some officers from Fort Richmond in a 
 storm. In 1817, having earned $9,000, he retired 
 
 from his harbor trade and became Captain of a 
 small steamer running between New York and 
 New Brunswick, N. J. In 1851 he established 
 a line of steamers between New York and 
 California, which he managed for two years 
 and sold. Having become very wealthy, in 1853, 
 he built the Steamship North Star and took 
 his whole family on a tour to Europe. In 1855 
 he established the steamship line between New 
 York and Havre. In 1862 he presented to the 
 U. S. Government his finest steamship, the 
 Vanderbilt, and received the thanks of Con- 
 gress. He presented a Church to be known as 
 the “ Church of Strangers” to Rev. Dr. Deems 
 in 1870. He endowed the U niversity of his name 
 at Nashville, Tenn., March 27, 1873. He died at 
 New York, Jan. 4, 1877. 
 
 Vanderbilt, William II.— The richest 
 
 man in the world. He was born at New Bruns- 
 wick, N. J. , May 8, 1821. Educated at Colum- 
 bia College Grammar School, New York. On 
 the death of his father, Cornelias Vanderbilt, 
 Jan. 4, 1877, he came into possession of a fortune 
 of $95,000,000. He died Dec. 8, 1885, and in his 
 will bequeathed the enormous sum of $200,000,- 
 000 in cash, securities and realty. 
 
 Van Renselaer, Stephen. — He was born 
 in New York Nov. 1, 1764 and graduated from 
 Harvard College in 1782. Member of Assembly 
 1789 ; of the State Senate 1790-95. Lieutenant- 
 Governor 1795-1801 ; Member of State Consti- 
 tutional Convention 1801 ; Commissioner to 
 explore the proposed line for a canal from Lake 
 Erie to the Hudson 1810, and one of the Canal 
 Commissioners from 1816 to his death. Com- 
 manded the State Militia in the wa*r of 1812. 
 Regent of New York University 1819. Paid 
 for a geological survey of the State by Prof. 
 Hitchcock in 1824 Founded the Renselaer 
 Institute 1824. Member of Congress 1823-29. 
 By his casting vote in the New York delegation 
 he made John Quincy Adams President. Died 
 Jan. 26, 1839. 
 
 Voorbees, Daniel W. — He was bom in 
 Fountain Co., Ind., Sept. 26, 1828. Graduated 
 at Asbury University 1849. Admitted to the 
 bar 1851. Appointed U. S. District Attorney 
 for Indiana 1858. Member of 37th, 38th, 41st 
 and 42d Congresses ; seat successfully contested 
 in the 39th. Appointed successor to O. P. 
 Morton in U. S. Senate 1877; elected for full 
 terms, ending March, 1891, Jan., 1885. Prom- 
 inent as a Democratic leader. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 117 
 
 Waite, Morrison R.— He was born at 
 Lynn, Conn., Nov. 29, 1816; graduated at Yale 
 College 1837. He studied law and was admitted 
 to the bar and settled at Maumee City, O. He 
 
 was elected to the State Legislature in 1849. 
 He removed to Toledo in 1850 and won a high 
 rank in his profession. He declined repeated 
 nominations to Congress and a proffered posi- 
 tion on the bench of the Supreme Court of 
 Ohio. He greatly distinguished himself as 
 Counsel of the U. S. at the Geneva Tribunal 
 1871. He was President, of the State Consti- 
 tutional Convention 1873, and appointed Chief 
 Justice of the Supreme Court of the U. S. 
 March 4, 1874. He declined to serve on the 
 Electoral Commission to decide the election of 
 President in 1876. He died March 23, 1888. 
 
 Wallace, I^ewis.— This popular soldier 
 and author was born in Fountain Co., Ind., 
 about 1828. He studied law and was admitted 
 to the bar. In the war with Mexico he served 
 as 2d Lieutenant in the 1st Indiana Yols. He 
 returned to his profession and served one term 
 in the Ohio Senate. He was placed in command 
 of the 11th Indiana Vols., April, 1861; Brig- 
 adier General Sept., 1861, and stationed in 
 Kentucky. He commanded a division at the 
 capture of Fort Donaldson, and won a com- 
 mission as Major General of Yols., March 21, 
 1862. President of a Court of Inquiry in the 
 case of General Don Carlos Buell. Commanded 
 the 8th Army Corps 1864. Member of the Com- 
 
 mission to try the assassins implicated in the 
 murder of President Lincoln 1865. Minister to 
 Constantinople 1881 ; Envoy Extraordinary and 
 Minister Plenipotentiary to the same court 1882. 
 The latter office he held until March, 1885. 
 Author of “Ben Hur,” and other popular 
 works. 
 
 Wanamaker, Joint. — He was born in 
 Philadelphia, Pa., July 11, 1837. Received 
 country-school education ; learned the clothing 
 business and opened a store of his own 1861, 
 which has grown into an enormous establish- 
 ment. Devoted Presbyterian and Sunday- 
 school and Y. M. C. A. worker. Founded 
 Bethany College and its preparatory and train- 
 ing schools. Active in charitable, religious, 
 and educational movements. Millionaire Pro- 
 tectionist and large contributor to presidential 
 election canvass 1888. Appointed Postmaster 
 General 1889. 
 
 W»slil>iii*ne, Israel, Jr.— He was born at 
 the Norlands, Livermore, Me., June 6, 1813. 
 He received a classic education under tutors 
 and was admitted at the bar Oct. , 1834. Mem- 
 
 ber of Congress 1850-60 ; Governor of the State 
 1861-62 ; declined re-election. Collector of 
 Customs for the Port of Portland 1863. Died 
 May 12, 1883. 
 
 W asliing’ton, George.- The General-in- 
 Chief of the Colonial Army, and the first Pres- 
 dent of the United States, was born in Wash- 
 ington Parish, Westmoreland Co., Virginia, 
 Feb. 22, 1732. His father was Augustine Wash- 
 ington and his mother Mary, daughter of Col. 
 Ball, of Lancaster Co., Virginia. George was 
 left an orphan at the age of twelve, with the 
 homestead as his inheritance. His elder broth- 
 er, Lawrence, his guardian, received the estate 
 at Mount Vernon. This brother had married 
 
118 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 the daughter of the wealthy William Fairfax. 
 Fairfax and Lawrence Washington had served 
 with Admiral Vernon, and through the influence 
 of the latter young Washington received a 
 commission as midshipman, but at the request 
 of his mother he gave it up and became a Sur- 
 veyor. He surveyed the vast estate of Fairfax 
 in 1748. Commissioned as Major 1751 ; Col. 
 1754. Married in 1759 and served in the House 
 of Burgesses. Delegate to first Continental 
 Congress 1774 ; elected Commander-in-Chief 
 June 15, 1775, declining to receive any salary. 
 Resigned his commission Dec. 23, 1783. Pre- 
 sided over the Convention which framed the 
 Constitution in Philadelphia 1787. Inaugurated 
 first President of the U. S. April 30, 1789 ; 
 elected to a second term 1792. Issued his 
 “Farewell Address” Sept. 19, 1796 Commis- 
 sioned as Lieutenant-General upon danger of a 
 French invasion, May, 1798, and died at Mount 
 Vernon Dec. 14, 1799. The life of George 
 Washington is so closely connected with the 
 early history of his country as to form a con- 
 spicuous part of it. 
 
 Washington, .llartha. — The wife of 
 George Washington was Martha Dandridge, 
 
 who was born in New Kent County, Virginia, 
 in 1732. She married Daniel Park Curtis in 
 1749, by whom she had two children. She be- 
 came a widow when about twenty-five years of 
 age, and the young Colonel, George Washing- 
 
 ton, fell in love with her for her wonderful 
 beauty and accomplishments. They were mar- 
 ried Jan. 17, 1759. For fifteen years they 
 enjoyed the quiet and peaceful life at the mag- 
 nificent estate on the Potomac, which had 
 come into the possession of George after the 
 death of his brother, Lawrence Washington, 
 and an infant niece. His estate at Mount 
 Vernon was much enlarged by purchases. This 
 unobtrusive agricultural life was interrupted 
 only by their annual visits to the Legislature, 
 of which her husband was a member. At 
 length he was called to a position which was 
 to make his name the first in the country. 
 Martha Washington shared with her husband 
 the anxieties and privations qf the long struggle 
 and finally she bore her rightful share in the 
 honors which came to him. She was called to 
 preside over the Mansion in New York and 
 afterwards in Philadelphia as “the first lady 
 in the land.” Without a precedent to guide 
 her, with wonderful grace and becoming dig- 
 nity, she sustained her part at public receptions 
 and in the home of the Chief Magistrate of a 
 nqw nation, marking out a course of simple 
 dignity and dignified simplicity. She survived 
 the death of her illustrious husband less than 
 three years, dying in 1802. 
 
 W ayne, Anthony— Was born at East Town, 
 Chester Co., Pa., Jan. 1, 1745. Educated at 
 Philadelphia Academy and became an intimate 
 friend of Benjamin Franklin. Elected to various 
 offices in his native county ; Member of Con- 
 vention and Legislature in 1774. Raised a 
 regiment to invade Canada and became its 
 Colonel Jan 3, 1776. Commanded the fortresses 
 of Ticonderoga and Mount Independence with 
 five regiments until 1777. Brigadier General 
 Feb. 21, 1777. Commanded a division at Brandy- 
 wine Sept. 11, and the right wing of the army 
 at Germantown Oct. 4 ; led the attack on Stony 
 Point July 16, 1779, where he was wounded. 
 Received the thanks of Congress and a gold 
 medal. He defeated the British and Indians in 
 1782. Served in the Pennsylvania Legislature 
 1784-1785, and in the Convention that ratified 
 the U. S. Constitution. Made Major General 
 April 2, 1792. Defeated the Indians Aug. 20, 
 1794, and concluded a treaty with them at Green- 
 ville in 1795. He died while on his return home- 
 ward, Dec. 16, 1796, and is buried near Waynes- 
 boro, Pa. 
 
 Wel>ster, Daniel.— Was born at Salisbury, 
 N- H., Jan. 18, 1782. His early advantages 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 119 
 
 were limited, but by his own exertions he suc- 
 ceeded in graduating from Dartmouth College 
 as the first scholar in his class in 1801. Studied 
 law and was admitted to .the bar in 1805, and 
 soon rose to eminence. He was elected to Con- 
 gress in 1812 and took his seat in 1818, making 
 his first speech Jan. 10 of that year. He took 
 a prominent part in debates upon the war and 
 finances. He removed to Boston in 1816 and 
 for seven years devoted himself to the practice 
 of law. His most remarkable success in the 
 celebrated Dartmouth College case won him a 
 national reputation. In 1820 he was a member 
 of the Massachusetts Convention to revise the 
 
 Constitution of the State. In Dec. 22 of that 
 year delivered his oration on the 200th Anni- 
 versary of the landing of the Pilgrims. Elected 
 to Congress from Boston in 1822, and for three 
 times thereafter. Transferred to the Senate in 
 1827, and retained his seat in that body until 
 1841. He was appointed Secretary of State by 
 President Harrison and continued in office under 
 Tyler until 1843, when he resigned. Resumed 
 the practice of law, but was engaged in speaking 
 on all the great political questions of the day. 
 His bitter disappointment in not receiving the 
 nomination for President on the Whig ticket in 
 1848 and 1852 was a life-long grief to him. He 
 became Secretary of State again in 1850 under 
 Fillmore. His masterly orations, his knowledge 
 of law and wonderful grasp of financial and 
 
 political subjects have placed him in the front 
 rank of American statesmen. His last forensic 
 effort was made at Trenton, N. J. , in the great 
 Goodyear patent case, Jan., 1852. He was 
 thrown from his carriage in May of that year, 
 seriously injured, and died at Marshfield, Mass., 
 Oct. 24, 1852. 
 
 Webster, I^’oab.- This noted lexicographer 
 was bom at West Hartford, Conn., Oct. 16, 
 1758. He graduated at Yale College 1778, and 
 was admitted to the bar 1781. Taught a classic- 
 school at Goshen, N. Y., 1782-83; prepared 
 while there his Spelling-Book, Grammar and 
 Reader. The sale of the first had exceeded 
 40,000, 000 up to 1876. He wrote political articles 
 1784; “Sketches of American Policy” 1785, 
 advocating the Constitution of the U. S. He 
 traveled through the South and visited General 
 Washington the same year ; taught an Academy 
 at Philadelphia 1787 ; practiced law in Hartford 
 1789-93 ; settled in New Haven 1798, and pub- 
 lished a number of works on legal and educa- 
 tional subjects. In 1807 he began the prepara- 
 tion of the great work of his life, ‘ ‘The American 
 Dictionary of the English Language.” He 
 resided at Amherst, Mass., 1812-22, then re- 
 turned to New Haven. Visited Europe 1824-25, 
 completing his work in 1825 at Cambridge, 
 England. He was several times a member of 
 the Legislatures in Mass, and in Conn., and 
 closely connected with the interests of Amherst 
 and Yale Colleges. He carefully superintended 
 the revision of his Dictionary, 2d Edition, 1840- 
 41, and died March 28, 1843. 
 
 Weed, Tliurlow.— He was born at Cairo, 
 Greene Co., N. Y., Nov. 15, 1797. He was 
 a cabin boy on the Hudson when ten years 
 old, and at twelve entered a printing office. 
 Served in the war of 1812 as Quarter-master 
 Sergeant. Established the “ Agriculturist ” in 
 Norwich, N. Y., in 1818, and was Editor of sev- 
 eral papers during the ten years thereafter. 
 Member of the Legislature 1826-30. Founded 
 the “ Albany Evening Journal ” 1830. One of 
 the original leaders of the Whig party, he con- 
 tributed largely to the election of W. H. Seward 
 as Governor in 1838 and 1840, as well as that of 
 Gen. Harrison as President. He visited Europe 
 at the request of President Lincoln in 1861-62, 
 and exerted considerable influence upon pop- 
 ular opinion in England. Settled in New York 
 in 1865 and edited the “Commercial Advertiser.” 
 He retired from active journalism in 1868, but 
 
120 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 retained his powerful influence in politics for 
 some years. Died Nov. 22, 1882, 
 
 West, XCenjamin— ' This great American 
 artist was born at Springfield, Pa., Oct. 10, 
 1788. His parents were members of the Society 
 of Friends. Young Benjamin displayed an 
 artistic precocity even in childhood, and by 
 the aid of a wealthy uncle was enabled to pur- 
 sue his studies in Philadelphia, whither he 
 went in 1757. He practiced his art in that city, 
 the surrounding towns and in New York. Then 
 he went to Italy in 1760, where he remained for 
 three years. In 1768 he took up his residence 
 in London, where he married an American 
 lady. His reputation as an artist increased 
 and he enjoyed the friendship of the great 
 English painter, Sir Joshua Reynolds. He was 
 made a member of the Royal Academy in 1768, 
 and acted as its President 1792 to 1802, and then 
 after an interval of one year, until his death. 
 He had a career of prosperity and success, pro- 
 ducing more than 400 pictures. The best known 
 of which are, “The Battle of La Hogue,” 
 “The Death of Wolfe,” “Christ Healing the 
 Sick,” “ Christ Rejected,” and “ Penn’s Treaty 
 with the Indians.” He died Mar. 11, 1829. 
 
 Wlieeler, William A. — He was born in 
 Malone, Franklin Co., N. Y., June 30, 1819. 
 Educated at the University of Vermont. Prac- 
 ticed law and served as District Attorney for a 
 number of years. Superintendent of common 
 schools for Franklin Co. Member of the State 
 Assembly 1850-51, and of the Senate 1858-59. 
 Served as President of the N. Y. Constitutional 
 Convention 1867-68. Member of the 37th, 41st, 
 42d, 43d and 44th Congresses. Vice President of 
 the United States 1877-1881. He died June 4, 
 1887. 
 
 Whipple, Abraham.- This gallant naval 
 officer was born at Providence, R. I., Sept. 
 16, 1733. He commanded a vessel in the West 
 Indies trade when quite young. Captain 
 of the privateer “Game Cock” during the 
 French War, 1759-60. Captured in a single 
 cruise twenty-three prizes. Led the expedition 
 which burned a British revenue vessel in Nar- 
 ragansett Bay. Commodore of two armed ves- 
 sels fitted out by Rhode Island in June, 1775. 
 When commander of the Columbus, afterwards 
 the Providence, he captured more British prizes 
 than any other vessel. Commanded the new 
 frigate, Providence ; ran the blockade of Narra- 
 
 gansett Bay and took ten prizes in 1779. He 
 was captured at Charleston, S. C., harbor and 
 
 held as a prisoner until the close of the war 
 Settled in Ohio 1788 and died May 29, 1819. 
 
 Whitney, William C.— He was bora at 
 
 Conway, Mass., July 5, 1841, and graduated 
 from Yale College 1863. Studied law and com- 
 menced practice in New York 1865. Rose rap- 
 idly in his profession and became Corporation 
 Counsel in 1875. Appointed Secretary of the 
 Navy 1885 and retired from that office in 1889 
 to resume the practice of his profession. 
 
 Whittier, John Gr.— He was born in Hav- 
 erhill, Mass., Dec. 17, 1807. He received a 
 common school education and spent his early 
 life on a farm. Began to write for the “ Hav- 
 erhill Gazette” when eighteen. Editor of 
 “American Manufacturer” in 1829, and of the 
 “New England Review” in 1830. Edited the 
 “Haverhill Gazette” in 1832 and 1836. Member 
 of the General Court in 1835 and 1836. Edited 
 the “Pennsylvania Freeman” 1838-1839, when 
 his office was sacked and burned by a mob. 
 He was a member of the Massachusetts elec- 
 toral college in 1860 and 1864. He contributed 
 literary productions to the leading periodicals 
 of the country. Several editions of his col- 
 lected poems have been published since 1876. 
 His residence was in Amesbury, although he 
 passed much of his time at Oak Knoll, Danvers, 
 Mass. 
 
BIOGRAPHIC Aij DICTIONARY. 
 
 121 
 
 Wilkes, diaries. — He was bom in New 
 York City in 1801 and entered the Navy as mid- 
 shipman June 1, 1818. Became Lieutenant 
 1826 ; Commander 1843 ; Captain 1855 ; Commo- 
 dore 1862. He commanded the expedition sent 
 out to explore the Southern and Pacific Oceans 
 and was gone from 1838 to 1812. He published 
 an account of this voyage on his return, giving 
 a detailed report of its scientific and geograph- 
 ical results. In 1861 he caused the Confederate 
 Commissioners to be taken from the British 
 mail-steamer, Trent, and delivered them as 
 prisoners of war, but they were quietly surren- 
 dered on the demand of the English Govern- 
 ment. He was promoted to Rear-Admiral July, 
 1866, and soon after was placed on the retired 
 list. He died Feb. 8, 1877. 
 
 Williams, Roger. — The founder of the 
 first commonwealth in America allowing free- 
 dom of religious worship, was born in Wales 
 about 1599. He was educated at Cambridge. 
 Took orders in the Church of England, but 
 soon after he became a non-conformist with 
 very radical views. He arrived in New England 
 in 1631 and was at once called to a church in 
 Boston, but declined the offer. He finally set- 
 tled in Salem. He held peculiar views as to 
 the rights of the Colony to hold lands under 
 the Royal charter. For this and other doc- 
 
 trines which he preached he was ordered to 
 leave the Colony within six days, but was per- 
 mitted to remain until Spring on the condition 
 that he would not ‘ ‘ go about to draw others to 
 his opinions. ” His enemies charged him with 
 breaking this condition and determined to send 
 him to England, but he departed in Jan., 1636, 
 and bought lands of an Indian chief in what is 
 now Warren, R. I. He soon found that he was 
 still within the jurisdiction of Plymouth Col- 
 ony, and removed across the river. Here he 
 
 founded the town of Providence about May 29, 
 1636, as “a shelter for persons persecuted for 
 conscience.” “A covenant of peaceful neigh- 
 borhood ” was made with the Indian sachems. 
 The settlers drew up and signed articles of 
 agreement to subject themselves to the will of 
 the majority “only in civil things.” In 1643 
 Roger Williams visited England, where he ob- 
 tained a charter for his plantation from the 
 King. He returned to America, but in 1651 
 went back to England, where he remained 
 three years. Then again returning to his Col- 
 ony he was chosen President, rendered great 
 service to all the Colonies and died on his own 
 estate in 1683. 
 
 Wilson, Henry.— He was born in Farm- 
 ington, N. H., Feb. 12, 1812. At ten years of 
 
 age he was bound as an apprentice to a farmer 
 until he should become twenty-one. He then 
 went to Natick, Mass., commencing life with 
 limited schooling and $80. In 1840 he was 
 elected Representative to the State Legislature 
 and in 1844 and 1845 served in the State Senate. 
 In 1850 he was again elected to the Senate and 
 became its President. Elected to the U. S. 
 Senate in 1855, where he served on the most 
 important committees ; continuously re-elected 
 until he became Vice President in 1873. He 
 was the colleague of Charles Sumner when the 
 latter was stricken down by the blows of a 
 Representative from S. C., and he denounced 
 the outrage in most fitting terms. Died Nov. 
 22, 1875. 
 
 Windom, William.— He was born in Bel- 
 mont Co., Ohio, May 10, 1827. Received aca- 
 demic education. Admitted to the bar 1850, 
 and elected District Attorney of Knox Co. ^852. 
 Removed to Winona, Minn., 1855. Member of 
 Congress 1858-69. U. S. Senator to fill vacancy 
 
122 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 1871, and again 1871-77. Secretary of the 
 Treasury 1881. Resigned after President Gar- 
 field’s death, and engaged in railroad and finan- 
 cial business. Appointed Secretary of Treasury 
 1889. Died Jan. 29, 1891. He was succeeded by 
 
 Charles Foster of Ohio. 
 
 Winslow, *Fo!n& A. — -This gallant naval 
 hero was born in North Carolina, Nov. 9, 1811. 
 He entered the Navy as midshipman Feb. 1, 
 
 1827 ; became Lieutenant 1839 ; Commander 
 1855 ; Captain 1862 ; Commodore 1864 ; Rear. 
 Admiral 1866. He served on the east coast of 
 Mexico during qur war with that country. He 
 was the hero of the naval engagement with the 
 Confederate steamer “Alabama,” June 19, 1864. 
 He was commander of the ‘ * Kearsage ” at the 
 time. The two vessels were nearly equal in 
 equipment and armament. After an hour’s 
 time the “Alabama” was sunk and her surviv- 
 ors were rescued by French and English boats. 
 Admiral Winslow died Sept. 29, 1873. 
 
 Wise, Henry A.— He was born in Drum- 
 mondtown, Va., Dec. 3, 1806. Graduated at 
 Washington College, Pa., 1825. Elected to 
 Congress 1833, and twice re-elected ; Senate re- 
 jected his nomination for Minister to France 
 1842 ; appointed Minister to Brazil 1844 ; elected 
 Governor of Virginia 1855. John Brown’s 
 seizure of Harper’s Ferry, his capture, trial 
 and execution, occurred under Gov. Wise’s 
 administration, 1859. Member of State Con- 
 vention 1861, and labored to effect a compromise 
 with the seceded States. Upon the secession 
 of Virginia he entered the Confederate military 
 service as Brigadier General. Died Sept. 12, 
 1876. 
 
 W intlirop, Joloi.— John, the son of Adam 
 Winthrop, was born in Groton, England, Jan. 
 12-23, 1587. Educated at Trinity College. He 
 
 was appointed a Justice of the Peace at the 
 age of eighteen, and was chosen Governor of 
 the “Company of the Massachusetts Bay in 
 New England” in 1629. He came to the prov- 
 ince the next year with a large body of emi- 
 grants, having sold his estates in Suffolk Co., 
 Eng. About 900 colonists, among whom were 
 many renowned names, came in the expedition, 
 sailing in seventeen vessels. He settled on the 
 site of Boston Sept. 7, 1630. He visited Ply- 
 mouth and came to an amicable understanding 
 with that Colony. He was re-elected Governor 
 of the Colony annually until 1635, when 1 m was 
 replaced by John Haynes ; also the nex> vear 
 
 by Henry Vane; but was again Governor 1637- 
 1640. He had a controversy with Henry Van© 
 and his party, which ended in the latter’s re- 
 turn to England, when he was again chosen 
 Governor, 1641-43; Deputy Governor 1644-45; 
 and in 1646 he was again re-elected Governor, 
 which office he held until he died in 1649. He 
 left many valuable literary works, among which 
 may be mentioned “The History of New Eng- 
 land from 1630 to 1649,” “Life and Letters of 
 John Winthrop, ’’and “The Winthrop Papers.” 
 
 Wintlirop, Robert C. — He was born at 
 
 Boston, Mass., May 12, 1809, and graduated at 
 Harvard College 1828. Studied law with 
 Daniel Webster 1828-31. Member of the State 
 Legislature 1836-40, and Speaker of the House 
 for the last two years. Member of Congress 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 128 
 
 1841-42 and 1843-50. Speaker of the National 
 House of Representatives 1847-49. Ke delivered 
 the official oraticn at the laying of the corner- 
 stone of the Washington monument in W'ash- 
 itgton, D. C., July 4. 1848, and wrote the one 
 which was read at its completion leb. 21, 1885. 
 U. S. Senator by appointment 1850-51. He was 
 President of the Massachusetts Historical Soci- 
 ety for thirty yeais— from 1855 to 1885. He 
 contributed to the leading magazines for many 
 years. 
 
 Wool, John E.— He was born in Newburg, 
 N. Y., Feb. 20, 1784. He was engaged in the 
 book business for a time, but turned his atten- 
 tion to law. This he abandoned April, 1812, 
 and became a Captain in the 13th Infantry. He 
 was promoted to Major April 13, 1813, and was 
 brevetted Colonel for gallantry at Plattsburg. 
 Appointed Brigadier General 1841, having been 
 
 brevetted as such in 1826. He commanded for 
 a while in Mexico, until he was relieved by Gen. 
 Taylor, and after the latter was recalled he 
 again held the command. In command of 
 various military districts until 1861, when he 
 was placed in command of Fortress Monroe. 
 Promoted to Major General 1862. He was 
 placed on the retired list Aug. 1, 1863, and died 
 Nov. 10, 1869. 
 
 Woolsey, Theodore I>.— He was born in 
 New York City Oct. 31, 1801, and graduated at 
 Yale College 1820. Tutor at Yale 1823-25 ; 
 studied in Germany 1827-30 ; Professor of Greek 
 at Yale 1831-46; President 1846-71. Resided in 
 New Haven until his death. He was busily 
 en gaged in researches and studies, chiefly in 
 political science. He was for many years one 
 of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institute, 
 Washington, D. C. He published a work on 
 “Political Science” 1877, “Essay on Divorce 
 
 and Divorce Legislation” 1889, “Communism 
 and Socialism,” etc. He died July 1, 1889. 
 
 Worcester, Joseph E.— He was born at 
 Bedford, N. H., Aug. 24, 1784, and graduated at 
 Yale College 1811. Taught school and studied 
 theology. Settled at Cambridge, Mass., 1819. 
 He devoted himself to the preparation of his 
 text-books and dictionary, for which purposes 
 he visited Europe 1830-31. His great work, 
 “A Dictionary of the English Language,” 
 divides with Webster’s the suffrage of the 
 English-speaking world. He wrote and pub- 
 lished many other works of an educational 
 character, among which are, “Elements of 
 Geography, Ancient and Modern,” “Elements 
 of History, Ancient and Modern,” “Ancient 
 Classical and Scriptural Geography,” etc. He 
 died Oct. 27, 1865. 
 
 Yancey, William E — He was born at 
 Ogeechee Shoals, Ga., Aug. 10, 1814. He was 
 well educated at the North, and admitted to 
 to the bar at Abbeville, S. C., but removed 
 to Alabama in 1836. Edited the “Cahawba 
 Democrat,” and the “Wetumpka Argus.” 
 Served in both branches of the Legislature, 
 and in 1844-47 was Member of Congress. Re- 
 ported the Ordinance of Secession in the Ala- 
 bama Convention, Jan., 1861. Went to Europe 
 as Agent of the Confederate Government, and 
 afterwards was Member of the Confederate 
 Congress. Died July 28, 1863. 
 
 Yates, Ricliard. — He was born at Warsaw, 
 Ky., Jan. 18, 1818; graduated at Illinois College 
 and studied law. He served in the State Legis- 
 lature 1842-46 and 1848-49 ; Member of Congress 
 1851-55 ; Governor of Illinois 1861-65 ; U. S. 
 Senator 1865-71. Died Nov. 27, 1873. 
 
 Zollicoiiec, Felix K.— He was born in 
 Maury Co. , Tenn. , May 19, 1812. Received an 
 academical education and became a printer. 
 Editor of a paper at Paris, Tenn. , 1829. Pub- 
 lished the “Columbian Observer” 1834. State 
 Printer 1835. State Comptroller 1845-49. State 
 Senator 1849. Member of Congress 1853-59. 
 Brigadier General in Confederate service, com- 
 manding in Tenn., Aug. 8, 1861. Defeated at 
 Camp Wild Cat, Ky., Oct. 21, and at battle of 
 Mill Spring, Ky., where he was killed, Jan. 19, 
 1862. 
 
MARTHA WASHINGTON IN HER EARLY DAYS. 
 
WASHINGTON S FIRST INTERVIEW WITH MRS. CUSTIS. AFTERWARDS MRS. 
 
RENOWNED ARTISTS 
 
 AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 The fine arts of painting and sculpture found their highest perfection in 
 the classic lands of Greece and Rome. The loftiest conceptions of nat- 
 ural beauty were reached by the sculptors of Greece, who were able to 
 
 copy the beauties of the hu- 
 man form divine, and trace in 
 imperishable marble all the 
 wonderful changes of expres- 
 sion and sentiment of which 
 the human mind is capable. 
 Nor was their art confined to 
 the delineations of real life, 
 but arose into the realm of the 
 imagination, and delighted to 
 treat of weird and grotesque 
 as well as of lofty and exalted 
 subjects. The mythologies 
 of Greece afforded her artists 
 ample scope in this direction, 
 while the wonderful history 
 of her brave sons furnished 
 stories of heroism and cour- 
 age worthy the chisels of her grandest artists. The principal cities of Greece thus 
 became renowned for their rich displays of sculpture, in which the fancy of the designs 
 was equaled by the exquisiteness of execution. But after the Romans conquered the 
 country and carried the richest treasures of art to the uncongenial clime of Italy there 
 was a rapid decline in this branch of art. The Vandals of the North poured over the 
 plains of Italy and devastated the imperial city, destroying, in their rude and barbarous 
 fashion, the grandest statuary the world had ever seen. The darkness of the middle 
 ages succeeded, in which the brain of the artist and the intellect of the scholar lay dor- 
 mant for a thousand years. In the process of time the muse of sculpture awoke from 
 her slumber. Michael Angelo (Buonarroti) rekindled the fires of the national genius, 
 and, aided by the skill and perseverance of his successors, the rich treasures of anti- 
 quity were collected, and modern art began her noble endeavor to rival the grace, sub- 
 limity and beauty which existed in the remains of the ancient. From the very nature 
 of the case, the art of sculpture is limited within certain bounds, but within this sphere 
 it is capable of great variety and intricate treatment. The essential property is cor- 
 rectness, and if to correct and perfect form is added the embellishments of grace, dignity 
 of subject, and appropriate expression, as is seen in many of the examples presented 
 
 | 
 
126 
 
 RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 to us, it can truly be said that this noble art has accomplished its purpose. The Apollo 
 Belvidere, the Venus de’ Medici — which is the finest specimen of ancient art which 
 has been preserved to our times — the Laocoon, the Moses of Michael Angelo, and 
 many more which we might mention, have been the models for succeeding generations 
 of artists. Previous to the time, of Mr. Greenough there had arisen no American sculp- 
 tor of any note, but since his day the sculptures of Hiram Powers, Crawford, Brown, 
 Clevinger, Rogers, Palmer, Miss Hosmer, Vinnie Ream, and others, have proved that 
 America can produce talents in this direction not a whit inferior to the highest effort 
 of artists in the same line in other countries. The statuettes of Rogers, which are 
 placed within the reach of all classes, have done much to refine the tastes and create 
 a love for art in many homes throughout our country ; while the subjects treated have 
 shown us that artists need not go back to the ancient days of fable, or even the charac- 
 ters of sacred histo to find subjects worthy of their genius and their labor. 
 
 ANTONIO CANOVA. 
 
 This illustrious sculptor of Italy, of the eighteenth century, was born at Pos- 
 sagno, in Venetia, in 1757. He is one of the greatest sculptors since the revival of art 
 
 in Italy, and his works are remarkable for 
 their sentiment of feeling and beauty of 
 expression. His severe critics claim that this 
 sentiment verges upon the extreme of senti- 
 mentality. He loved to treat of those sub- 
 jects which demanded the highest expression 
 of this. They are such as “ Venus and Ado- 
 nis,” “ Cupid and Psyche,” “ Mary Magda- 
 lene,” etc. After richly earning the honors 
 which came to him he died in 1822, in the 
 sixty-sixth year of his age. No successful 
 follower of his school has yet arisen. 
 
 The art of painting has a close connection 
 with that of sculpture. It has for its design 
 the representation of objects in nature, or thr 
 incidents of human life, with a faithfulness of 
 expression, and grooping upon a plain surface 
 by means of a pencil, crayon, or pigments. 
 There are two particular things to be consid- 
 ered in this art. First, the design ; second, the 
 coloring. Design is the art of presenting the 
 contour of objects, and color, which gives 
 the picture not only its proper tints, but also 
 the form, and relief proper to the object. 
 This art began with the dawn of civilization, 
 and reached a high degree of perfection in 
 Greece and Rome. This art suffered in common with all others at the decline of Rome, 
 
 ANTONIO CANOVA. 
 
RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 127 
 
 anc^ was revived in Italy in the fifteenth century. There were then three schools, or 
 modes of treatment, viz.: the Roman, the Venetian, and the Tuscan. Afterward there 
 came the German, Dutch, Flemish, French, and Spanish. The painting of the Egyp- 
 tians was very crude, with no attempt at color or perspective ; that of the Etruscans, 
 as evidenced from their vases, was elegant. The Greeks must have had considerable 
 merit, yet from the nature of the art but little has been preserved to our times. The 
 Romans reached a high degree of excellence in painting, as exhibited by examples 
 which may be ^een at the city of Pompeii. 
 
 There are several distinct departments of this art, explained by the names given, 
 viz.: historical, portrait, landscape, animal, marine, floral, etc. There is also a distinc* 
 tion recognized in regard to the materials employed, such as water colors, oil-painting, 
 fresco, distemper, miniature, and mosaic. 
 
 Historical painting is the highest department of the art, for in this the artist vies 
 with the poet in the representation of ideas to the observer. He must have technical 
 skill, a practical eye and hand, and understand how to group his figures so as to embody 
 the idea he would represent ; but all this is insufficient without the poetic genius which 
 can form a striking conception of a historical event, or create imaginary scenes of beauty. 
 The works on painting are very numerous and extensive, but a full understanding of 
 the subject can be obtained only by careful and laborious research, supplemented by 
 continued practice. The art of chromo reproduction has done much to bring the adorn- 
 ment of the homely pictures within the reach of all classes ; but we sometimes fear that 
 their cheapness, in more senses than one, has done harm, rather than good, in pervert- 
 ing the taste of the common people. 
 
 PETER PAUL RUBENS. 
 
 This celebrated artist was the most eminent painter of the Flemish school, 
 imd was equally successful in every department of the art. His masterpiece 
 is doubtless “The Descent From the Cross,” which he painted for the Cathedral 
 at Antwerp. The grooping of the figures, the expression on the face of the liv- 
 ing human beings, and on the face of the dead Christ, are unequaled by any 
 work of modern times. The design is most excellent, and the coloring and detail 
 of execution unsurpassed by any specimen of the school which he represents. 
 This artist was born at Siegen, 1577. He was the pupil of Van Noort and Van Veen at 
 Antwerp, and resided for a number of years in Italy, where he studied the best models 
 of his art. He at last returned to Antwerp, and in 1608 was appointed as court painter 
 to the Archduke Albiot of the Netherlands. In the year 1629 he was sent as an embas- 
 sador to the court of St. James (England), where he effected a treaty between that 
 country and Spain. He received at this time the order of knighthood. In his art 
 he combined depth of coloring with breadth of style. His work has stood the severe 
 criticism of time, and has been held to be the highest type of the Flemish school 
 He lied in 1640. 
 
128 
 
 RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 REMBRANDT VAN RYN AT HIS WORK. 
 
 This artist, who did much to elevate the art of painting in the seventeenth century, 
 was the son of a miller, whose house and mill were built upon the banks of a tributary 
 of the Rhine at Leyden. Of the two dates which have been assigned for his birth, that 
 of July 15, 1608, resting upon the evidence of the painter’s marriage-cetificate, dis- 
 covered within a few years, seems to be the more likely correct. He was an attendant 
 at the Latin school in the city of Leyden for a few years and then became a pupil of 
 the famous Jacob van Swanenburg, after which he studied art under Pieter Lastman, 
 
 REMBRANDT VAN RYN. 
 
 at Amsterdam, and Jacob Pinas, at Haarlem. He then returned home, and became 
 a devoted student of nature. Such was the merit of his artistic work that he very 
 quickly attracted the attention of the patrons of art, and was induced to establish him- 
 self at Amsterdam, where he soon achieved a most brilliant success. He executed 
 portraits, landscapes, historical and genre subjects, and also a series of most exquisite 
 etchings, amounting to three hundred and sixty in number. This painter holds the 
 chief place in the Dutch school of art. As regards their composition, color, light, and 
 
RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 129 
 
 shade, his pictures rank with those of the best artists of the world, while his power 
 and originality are exemplified in every branch of the art to which he turned his pen- 
 cil. He was twice married, and died in 1669, leaving two children. His son Titus had 
 died before the death of the painter. 
 
 SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS. 
 
 This man was the greatest portrait painter of England. His birthplace was 
 
 Plympton, where he first saw the light in 1723. 
 afterward resided, and rapidly won a national 
 and continental reputation. He united with 
 Dr. jchnson, the celebrated lexicographer, in 
 forming the renowned “ Literary Club,” and four 
 years after he became president of the Royal 
 Academy. This Academy had been found* 
 ed by men of no common order. Sir Joshua 
 was intimately associated with the founders in 
 its early history. The art of portrait painting was 
 at once raised by him from the low level of imi- 
 tation to that of a high rank of art. Without 
 attempting to rival the great masters in the 
 higher walks of painting he endeavored to 
 compete with the worthiest in his own line. 
 All that he aimed to do he did perfectly. Mr. 
 Knight, in his “Popular History of England,” 
 has accorded to him all the praise that his 
 merits deserve when he says, “Not only was 
 Reynolds the greatest colorist that England 
 had ever seen, but her most intellectual portrait 
 painter, and she had men, women, and chil- 
 dren well worthy the best pencil that could be 
 found to hand them down to posterity.” 
 Reynolds, Wilson, and Gainsborough were co- 
 temporaries, and the latter especially was the 
 first painter of the poetry of homely English 
 scenery. In his own way Sir Joshua Rey- 
 nolds has found no successor and no superior. 
 
 Wilson was a famous landscape painter, 
 but his greatness was conventional rather than 
 broad in its scope. The father of English 2 
 historical painting was not an Englishman at 
 all, and was younger than any of these three 
 already mentioned. He was Benjamin West, 
 an American, who had the courage to take a 
 step far in advance of his cotemporaries. 
 
 He came to London in 1746, where he 
 
 SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS. 
 
RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 136 
 
 BENJAMIN WEST, 
 
 The first American painter, was born of Quaker parents in Chester County, 
 State of Pennsylvania, in the year 1738. He evinced a great talent at an early 
 age. When a mere lad he used to draw with chalk and charcoal upon the sur- 
 face of a board figures that showed the germs of genius. It is related of him that 
 once he was left to take care of an infant sister, sleeping in her cradle, while the 
 mother was absent. As he watched the little one a smile rested upon its features, and 
 young Benjamin, with the quickest appliances he could get — a charred stick and 
 
 rough paste-board — drew the smiling in- 
 fant so accurately that his mother em- 
 braced him with joy on her return, for 
 she saw the indication of genius in this 
 youthful attempt of her son. He was 
 accustomed to say in after years, “ That 
 kiss made me a painter.” A maternal 
 uncle of some little means aided him in 
 his first studies in Philadelphia, and at the 
 age of seventeen he began his profession 
 of portrait painter in that city. Several 
 gentlemen of wealth became interested in 
 the young man, and furnished him with 
 money to pursue his studies in Italy, 
 whither he went. From there he went 
 to London, and became famous as a his- 
 torical painter under the patronage of 
 King George III. In 1792 he became 
 President of the Royal Academy, succeed- 
 ing Sir Joshua Reynolds in that office. 
 His principal pieces — “ The Death of 
 benjamin west. Wolfe "and “ Christ Healing the Sick” — 
 
 are now on exhibition in the British National Gallery, while “ Death on the Pale 
 Horse” and others are in the possession of the Philadelphia Academy of Fine Arts. 
 
 When West was preparing his “ Death of Wolfe,” in spite of the advice of his 
 friends, he departed from the traditionary treatment demanded by the conventional rules 
 of the times, and painted his men in such garments as they then wore, the cocked hats 
 and short breeches of the colonial period. One of the celebrated painters, to prove 
 the error of West, painted the same scene in the traditionary drapery which the strict 
 rules of art then required, and presented the ludicrous spectacle of the American mili- 
 tia contending with the snows of Canada and the forces of Montcalm in Roman togas 
 and bare legs. It is needless to say that West carried off the palm. 
 
 The air of Italy is redolent with the spirit of sacred art. The themes suggested in 
 
RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 131 
 
 the Bible narrative and the early Church histories filled the glowing imagination of the 
 artist with subjects worthy the highest conception and most exalted treatment. The 
 best models of the past ages are constantly before their eyes ; the monuments of grand- 
 eur and the beauties of nature alike appeal to every sentiment of our nature. The 
 people, the climate, the whole surroundings, are congenial to the noblest expressions of 
 art. “ Italy, the home of painting and of song,” will continue to be the Mecca toward 
 which the eager feet of the artist will turn from all parts of the world. The most 
 poetic sentiments, the grandest types of art, and the atmosphere of genius, are to be 
 found in this sunny land. 
 
 The Church of Rome has long been the patron of the higher types of art, in sculp- 
 ture, painting, and music, and the Vatican at Rome is the depository of many of the finest 
 paintings and sculpture in the world, while everywhere her churches are adorned with 
 the richest specimens of these fine arts and their music is the noblest and grandest 
 production of the great masters, while the paintings, statues, and architecture are 
 of the highest style which can appeal to the human heart through the eye. Thus she 
 teaches that religion and art should go hand in hand for the elevation of the race 
 and the good of man. 
 
 Bring the best specimens of art to the home, if possible, where the daily life can 
 come in contact with its influence, and learn its lessons of refinement, and purity, 
 above all, do not divorce the noblest teachings of the arts from their association with 
 religious and devotional themes. In this respect at least the Puritans went to an extreme 
 in their fear of countenancing idolatry. There must be a distinction between the appre- 
 ciation of beauty in art and the homage due to the author of art. The trouble is not 
 with the thing in its essence, but with our want of perception of its spirit. 
 
 A distinctive American school of painting did not arise until 1825, when Thomas 
 Cole (born 1801, died 1848) originated what he termed the American school of land- 
 scape painting. Some of his autumnal scenes were presented in England and regarded 
 as the work of an extravagant Yankee, but they were true to nature and the critics 
 were compelled to acknowledge their merit. Cole performed for America with his 
 brush what Bryant has performed with his pen, he gave the Europeans true glimpses 
 of the beauties of American scenery. Among American artists these names are deserv- 
 ing of mention: Thomas Doughty, Henry Inman, Rembrant Peale (born 1787, died 
 1830), Page, a fine colorist, Eastman Johnson, Homer, Leutze, Wier, May, Powell, 
 Coleman, Perry, Wood. Among the marine painters are Bradford, Dana, De Haas, 
 Dix, Haseltine, Moran, and others, while Church, Brown, Kensett, Inness, the Harts, 
 the Giffords, Bristol, Gignoux, and others are devoted to landscape painting. The 
 painters of animals are J. H. and W. H. Beard, Butler, P. Moran, Tait, Hay, Hicks, 
 and Hinkley. Much attention has been given to the superior art-illustrations which 
 of late years have been introduced into American publications and which are essentially 
 native in conception and execution. 
 
 Landscape painting offers the best field for the development of a pure and noble 
 American school of art, where the practice of relying upon foreign schools maybe, and 
 without doubt will be, avoided. There should be cultivated instead of the departed 
 classicism of the old masters, or the fashionable adaptation of the French colorists, or 
 the realistic and unpoetic representations of the English school, an honest, persistent 
 
132 
 
 RENOWNED ARTISTS AND THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ART. 
 
 study of American scenery, and this will require no aid from these foreign schools to 
 produce the most magnificent and ennobling effects. 
 
 Historical painting also opens a range of subjects which demand the highest ideal 
 of a school distinct from any of those which now exist beyond the Atlantic. As the 
 renowned American painter, West, boldly advanced beyond the conventional trammels 
 of art in his day so may some rising genius mark out a path for a still higher advance, 
 and teach the savants of the old world that there is still remaining on earth something 
 of the spirit of inspiration unbound by the traditions of the past. 
 
 With the development of art in America and the tendency to attain excellency and 
 .rise to a higher standard, her artists, having illimitable resources and possibilities open 
 before them in landscape and history, give high promise for the brilliant future before 
 them, and may produce achievements which will rival any of the productions of the 
 past. The inclination of our earlier artists may have been too much toward the realis- 
 tic English school, but among our more recent painters the tendency has been toward 
 the French and the schools of Munich and Diiseldorf. It is to be hoped that the gro- 
 tesqueness of the preraphaelite movement which arose in England and spread to some 
 extent in this country will prevent that style from becoming national among our artists. 
 The American can find for his brush and his pencil as fine subjects in his native land as 
 ever rose before the vision of poet or painter, and he can treat them with success only 
 from the standpoint of the American school. 
 
THE BUSINESS MANUAL. 
 
 * 
 
 A Valuable Repository op Practical Information, 
 
 RESPECTING 
 
 Business Methods, Penmanship, Book-keeping, 
 Legal and Commercial Forms. 
 
EXECUTED WITH A STEEL PEN BY PROF. R, C. LOVERIDGE, 
 

 
 
 
THE BUSINESS MANUAL 
 
 A Valuable Repository of Practical Information, 
 
 RESPECTING 
 
 Business Methods, Penmanship, Book-keeping, 
 Legal and Commercial Forms. 
 
 WHAT CONSTITUTES GOOD PENMANSHIP. 
 
 EW persons are aware how great a loss of time, and ot money, is occasioned 
 by imperfect and defective methods of teaching penmanship. The time 
 has come when all should be informed upon the matter. That the intelli- 
 gent student and even teachers may become conversant with a philosophi- 
 cal and scientific system of penmanship we insert the following well pre- 
 pared lessons in the art: 
 
 The Three Essential Points to be Observed in Writing a Good Hand are 
 legibility, rapidity, and beauty. Of these the first is most important. For if writing can 
 not be easily read at sight, it is worse than useless. 
 
 There should therefore be some easily recognized system in making each letter, and 
 proper spacing between letters and words. 
 
 Rapidity comes next, and in acquiring this care should be given to have the fewest j 
 movements possible. The lines should be fine, of a regular slope, and the movement 
 graceful. 
 
138 
 
 THE ART OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Correct Position of the Hand and Pen for Pen Flourishing. 
 
 Beauty requires uniformity in slanting, height, and regularity of curves. 
 
 There must be a judicious compromise in attaining these three requirements, for let- 
 ters cannot at the same time be vertical and slanting, large and small, angular and 
 curved. Perfection and accuracy may be acquired in many arts by tedious and laborious 
 approaches, but good penmanship requires direct, masterly and decisive effort. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR POSITION OF BODY AND ARMS 
 
 1st — Sit squarely in front of the desk, your whole weight in the chair; 2d — Place 
 your arms at right angles ; 3d — Let your elbows project from the edge of the desk about 
 two inches ; 4th — See that the fleshy part of the fore-arm rests on the desk; 5th — Turn 
 the wrist as near flat over the desk as possible, without its resting or touching ; 6th — 
 Your feet and limbs should be straight with the body, and not drawn up under the chair; 
 this being done, your body and arms are in the proper position for easy writing. 
 
 Correct Position of the Hand for Writing. 
 
THE ART OF PENMANSHIP 
 
 139 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR HOLDING THE PEN AND PAPER. 
 
 1st — Take the pen between the thumb and first finger, allowing it to pass across the 
 corner of the nail of the second (which should be rather under the pen than against the 
 side of it), the end of the thumb resting against the holder, nearly under the first finger 
 joint ; 2d — The two last fingers should be drawn under the hand so as to rest on the 
 nails ; 3d — The holder should cross the hand a very little in front of the knuckle joint ; 
 4th — The point of the pen should extend about three-fourths of an inch beyond the end 
 of the second finger. The paper should be held square with the desk. 
 
 Oval No, 1, Left Curve, Oval No, 2, Right Curve, 
 
 Commence with Oval No. I, by placing the pen at the top, and passing down the 
 side, indicated by the arrow, twice every second, counting as you practice, down, down, 
 down, &c., to keep the time, touching the paper with the pen as light as you possibly 
 can. Do not let the finger joints move (for this practice), but press forward and back on 
 fleshy part of the fore-arm. CAUTION — See that the coat sleeve does not move with the 
 arm on the desk , but that the fore-arm works in and out of the sleeve. At first it may be 
 necessary to use a little force from the shoulder to produce the movement quick enough. 
 Do not raise the pen or stop your work until it has passed around 15 or 20 times, or the 
 paper begins to wear ; then if you have carried your pen as lightly as you ought to have 
 done, your work will be of a grayish color, instead of black (although you use black ink). 
 Follow these instructions for the practice of No. 2, devoting most time to the Oval, which 
 is most difficult for you to execute. 
 
 REMARKS — As movement precedes form, it is our first business to acquire the habit 
 of moving the fore-arm in writing, and for that purpose I have introduced the simplest 
 exercises possible, to aid in giving that command of the pen which is necessary to pro- 
 duce correct forms. The learner cannot practice them too much, as the freedom which 
 they will give in movement will be of great advantage in the coming lessons. 
 
140 
 
 THE ART OF PENMANSHIP 
 
 FOR THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTIONS SEE CORRESPONDING NUM- 
 BERS IN THE ENGRAVED EXERCISES HEREWITH. 
 
 No. 3. —-When practising this exercise, rest the fleshy part of the fore-arm lightly 
 on the desk, using the finger movement in forming the letters, but in passing from one 
 to the other, use the arm or muscular movement. 
 
 No. 4. — The capital letter O should be made by the muscular movement, same as in 
 the first exercise. The remainder with the combination movement, that is, using the 
 fingers in forming the letters, and the muscles in passing from one letter to the other as 
 before described. 
 
 Commence with No. 5, by placing the pen at the top of Oval and passing down the 
 right side of small oval, as indicated by the arrow, passing around to the top again and 
 down on the right of large Oval, as indicated by arrow, around again to the top, and so 
 on alternately, small and large, counting as you practice, down, DOWN ; down, DOWN ; 
 giving accent on second count, of large Oval. 
 
 No. 6. — Should be shaded same as copy. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 E greatest difficulty which any teacher of penmanship has to contend 
 with, is the want of proper appreciation by his pupils of the value of 
 thotough drilling in the first exercises. My first lesson is simply a practice 
 upon ovals — and you may be tempted to ask “ What are these things for ?” 
 and “What have they to do with writing ?” My answers to these ques- 
 tions, carefully studied y will give you a complete understanding of the theory which I 
 teach ; 1st, because in the oval exercise I combine two-thiras of the principles of writing ; 
 2d, because in no other known way than by continual practice of the oval and straight 
 line exercises can the beginner be cured of the usual complaints of the hand becoming 
 cramped, and of its rolling over when the attempt is made to write a long word, 
 and the inability to move it easily and lightly across the paper. 
 
 Now, to give you ordinary writing for copies, while you are laboring under these 
 difficulties, would be as inconsistent as to ask you to perform difficult music on the piano 
 if you were in ignorance of the rudiments of music and totally unskilled in handling the 
 keys. Much training and practice is as necessary for the skillful and satisfactory use of 
 the pen as the piano, and in the first we must begin with the ground work no less than 
 I in the last. Hence, in the study of Penmanship I give the oval and the straight line to 
 learn you the freedom of movement, to learn you to use the fore-arm to assist your 
 fingers, to learn you to move the pen lightly, promptly, and with confidence, and for the 
 purpose of eradicating all the difficulties experienced by the beginner. 
 
 The straight line is a prominent element of Penmanship, and I give it in three 
 different lengths for practice, because you complain that it is hard work for you to make 
 letters above and below the line, and especially where the g and h are connected The 
 loops are the most difficult part of the letters, and are formed of a simple right curve 
 {this curve is the right of the oval), and the straight line. 
 
THE ART OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 141 
 
 I give you that part of the loop which you will experience the greatest. difficulty in 
 making, viz : the downward stroke, or straight line ; commencing with the shortest which 
 is a little longer than the corresponding straight line in general writing ; taking next, one 
 twice the length, and then one three times the length. Now, the theory is, if you can by 
 practice acquire the latitude of movement equal to the longest line so that you will expe- 
 rience little if any trouble in making it, you certainly can make a straight line one-third 
 the length with ease and precision. These lines are to be made with the finger move- 
 ment, and are not to be shaded. 
 
 The horizontal straight lines are to be executed with a slow movement while resting 
 on the fleshy part of the forearm. This is an excellent practice for steadying the hand 
 and learning you to make good hair-lines. They must not be shaded. 
 
 Observe in No. 7, we have capital loop, and compound curve. No. 8, capital loop, 
 right curve, slight left curve, ending with sharp left cmve. No. 9, capital loop, last 
 reversed loop or left curve. No. 10, capital looop — right curve as in U> then finish with 
 loop. No. 1 1, capital loop ; make small loop at base line, and finish with loop as in small 
 z. Here we have a practical application of the principles of writing as taught by the 
 preceding lessons. In the lessons which follow in due order in my system of instruction, 
 all the remaining letters/both small and capital, will be each separately treated, and 
 explained, and accompanied by such exercises as are needed in developing the necessary 
 movements. 
 
 GOOD PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Good Penmanship is one of the essential accomplishments of the scholar as well 
 as the man of business, and as a single element of success in business, it stands without 
 a rival. The rapid growth of our business and commercial interests, makes it a matter 
 of prime necessity that every young man should not only write well but with ease and 
 
 RAPIDITY. 
 
 The idea so long prevalent, that good writing must ever be confined to the few. and 
 that a person, to excel in penmanship, must possess a peculiar natural talent, has been 
 thoroughly and effectually controverted ; and it is being constantly demonstrated that, 
 under the new and practical methods of instruction and drill here introduced, any person 
 can acquire at least a ready and legible hand writing. 
 
 No. 12. — This exercise should be executed with the full arm movement, with no 
 rest except on the ends of the last two fingers. 
 
 No. 13. — This exercise should be executed with the full arm movement. 
 
 No. 14. — Commence with the exercise and practice with same movement as in previ- 
 ous copies, passing around same way as indicated by the arrows, fifteen or twenty times 
 before stopping. You will advance faster by confining your practice to the exercise until 
 you are perfectly familiar with the movement. Then take the capital stem, resting easily 
 on the fleshy part of the fore arm, and do not let the coat sleeve move on the desk ; count- 
 ing — shade, dot, shade, dot — a little slower than in the first lesson. Bring the shade as 
 near the ruled line as possible. 
 
 You will find this copy difficult to execute, and you may be inclined to say, “ I caritf 
 but you can if you will persist and overcome the awkwardness attending the first trial. 
 
142 
 
 THE ART OF PENMANSHIP, 
 
 No, 15. — The straight line is given in three lengths, to be made by the finger move- 
 ment. The other copies in the exercise should be executed by the muscular movement 
 The facility of using the fingers, together with the muscles of the fore-arm, are indispen- 
 sable to a skillful use of the pen and the elegant formation of letters. 
 
 HE ART OF PENMANSHIP. — No one can hope to attain proficiency^ 
 in the art of penmanship, without constant and unremitting practice of 
 the principles as laid down. There must be a system throughout all- 
 The formation, shading, inclination and curving of the various letters, 
 both small and capital letters, must be according to some well understood^ 
 method. The movement must be free and graceful, and the position of each letter asjo, 
 space and size, must be uniform. 
 
 Let the student carefully read and apply the observations which we have given and 
 practice them with patience and earnestness, and hold the instructor responsible for tha 
 result. There is no doubt that the patient and faithful practice of these rules will. result' 
 
THE ART OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 143 
 
 in securing for the pupil a free, elegant and graceful style of penmanship, such as will 
 be pleasant to the eye and legible as print. 
 
 No. 1 6. — These exercises are to be written with the muscular movement. 
 
 I will first present to you important points to be remembered in forming the letters 
 found in the copies. 
 
 Commencing with h , you will observe that No. 17 is a right curve, extending the 
 full height of the letter, showing that the cnrve is formed in the upward movement. No. 
 18 is a perfectly straight line sloping at an angle of 52 degrees. No. 19 shows curved 
 line and straight line joined — the last part of the letter is formed by the combination of 
 the three principles already given. Reverse the paper and you have the_y. 
 
 You should not fail to reverse the paper and correct your work whenever your copy 
 will admit of it. 
 
 The double oval should be made with the left curve as shown by arrows in the cut, 
 which is the reverse movement of W and should be practiced with both muscular and full 
 arm movement. This exercise should be continued until the student can accomplish it 
 with perfect ease. The reader is to understand when the expression, “full arm move- 
 ment, ” is used under a copy that he is to use a free full arm movement, with no rest 
 except on the nails of the two last fingers. The muscular movement has been fully ex- 
 plained heretofore. It consists in resting the fleshy part of the forearm lightly on the 
 desk, using the finger movement in forming the letters, but in passing from one to the 
 other use the arm or muscular movement. 
 
 We will first give attention to the analysis of the copies given : 
 
 In No. I of the analysis, we first have a line bending to the left called the “ left 
 curve”; next, simply a straight line ; and last, a line bending to the right, called the 
 * right curve." In No. 2, we have these lines joined, and upon reversing the paper, we 
 find this character appears the same as before the reversal, which shows the right and 
 left curves to be of the same angle, being alike from a straight line. In No. 3 we have 
 two right curves joined to a straight line, making the letter /, or one character of the 
 letter U. From this analysis, then, we find that all left curves must be parallel with 
 each other, and all right curves the same ; likewise, the straight lines should be parallel 
 with each other. 
 
 Copy A. 
 
 In copy A , I have introduced the exercise “mu” with an equal number of left and 
 right curves joined to straight lines, consequently they must appear the same when the 
 paper is reversed, if correctly executed. 
 
144 
 
 THE ART OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Copy B. 
 
 In copy B y the exercise “minu” must read the same on the reversal of the paper. 
 Practice counting, up, down, up, down, etc., every second. Do not shade, but carry the 
 pen as light as possible on the paper; the fingers may assist in forming the letters in 
 this exercise. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 In the above exercises are embraced all the principles of small writing, and, as 
 learners are enabled to criticise their own work by reversing the paper, they are espec- 
 ially valuable. 
 
 The first upward line determines the slope of your writing; if it slants too much, 
 start the line straighter up; if it does not slant enough, start the line at a greater slope. 
 If you follow these instructions closely, it will require but a very short time to write a 
 uniform hand. 
 
 The full arm movement is highly important to those who aspire to ornamental pen- 
 manship, or as giving a complete command of the pen in executing capital letters. It 
 should not be overlooked by any one who desires to become a bold and dashing penman. 
 It will be found a pleasant practice. 
 
 We should advise students to practice all capital letters and small writing with 
 muscular movement until they have permanently established the habit of using the fore- 
 arm in writing. In the small writing be careful to bring every letter straight to the 
 ruled line. 
 
 Having given the necessary instructions and copies, \ now refer the student to the 
 engraved examples for practice, No. 20 to No 64, on the following. pages, which have not 
 been given in the above. 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Nos. 3, 4, 5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 s 13 See INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21. 
 See Instructions. 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP 
 
 Nos. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28. 
 (Ladies’ Angular Hand.) 
 
 This exercise is designed to enable the student to acquire a perfect command of the pen, and 
 should be practiced with the muscular movement only, resting upon the nails of the two last fingers. 
 
 May be practiced with the combination movement (finger and muscular) ; great care should be 
 taken in following the slope and angles as given above. 
 
 (Ladies’ Angular Hand.) 
 
 This exercise should be written with the combination movement. 
 
 (Ladies’ Angular Hand.) 
 
 This exercise should be practiced with full muscular movement. 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Nos. 29, 30, 81, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. 
 
 Muscular movement, without raising the pen from the paper except at the ending. 
 
 In practicing the student should be particular to observe the same slope given in copy. 
 
 (Ladies’ Angular Hand.) 
 
 The letters r and s commence with a full right curve extends a little further above base line than 
 the other letters of the alphabet. 
 
 Special care should be taken to make the letters perfectly angular as given in copy. 
 
 This exercise should be practiced with both muscular and full arm movement. The student will 
 find it of great help in acquiring a free movement. 
 
 This exercise should be practiced until a rapid movement is acquired, using only the muscular or 
 full arm movement. 
 
 This copy may be practiced with the full aria movement gliding upon the nails of the two last 
 fingers. 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP,, 
 
 Nos. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 43, 44, 45. 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Nos. 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 61, 62. 
 
 (Ladies , Angular Hand.) 
 
 We give all the principles which are used in the formation of the loop letters. It will be observed 
 <.hat the downward line is perfectly straight the upward line only being curved. 
 
 In practicing great care should be taken in forming the small letters imitating as closely as 
 possible the copy. 
 
 This exercise should be practiced with the combination, or muscular and finger movement, the 
 fleshy part of the forearm resting lightly on the table or desk, and the hand gliding over the paper 
 on the nails of the two last fingers. 
 
 (Ladies* Angular Hana.) 
 
 We give this exercise that the student may acquire perfect control of the pen and a full free 
 movement, using only the muscular movement in practicing the above copy. 
 
 may be written as directed under this exercise. 
 
 ^-0 
 
 teiz-awtn'eZ'n'C'e'. 
 
 
LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP 
 
 Nos. 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58. 
 
 The full arm movement is highly important to those who aspire to ornamental penmanship, or 
 as giving a complete command of the pen in executing capital letters. It should not be overlooked 
 by any one who" desires to become a bold and rapid penman. 
 
 (Ladies* Angular Hand.) 
 
 The above exercise should be practiced with full muscular movement without removing the pen 
 from the paper until the completion of the exercise. After an easy execution has been attained 
 student should join them, writing the entire line without removing the pen. 
 
 In practicing this exercise use the combination movement, imitating as closely as possible the 
 copy. The following words should be practiced as directed under this exercise. 
 
 This exercise is given to help the student acquire an easy and free movement, and should be 
 written with the muscular or free arm movement 
 
LESSONS m PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Nos. 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64. 
 
 May be practiced with both muscular and free arm movement. 
 
 To be written with the combination or muscular movement. 
 
SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING; 
 
 SET ONE. — DObBLE ENTRY. DAY BOOK , JOURNAL, LEDGER, IN- 
 VOICE BOOK ; SALES BOOK, CASK BOOK AND 
 PRIVA TE LEDGER , , 
 
 SET TWO.— SIX COL UMN JO URNAL-DA Y BOOK AND I TEA UXILIARIES 
 SET THREE.— SINGLE ENTRY. DA Y BOOK, CASH BOOK AND 
 
 LEDGER. 
 
 BOOKKEEPING IN ITS NEW AND IMPROVED METHOD. 
 
 ONTRARY to the usual custom, we will commence with our Double- 
 Entry set, and leave the Single-Entry until last, as it will take no longer 
 to learn our Double-Entry than the usual Single-Entry, and Double-Entry 
 is decidedly the only way to keep books properly. 
 
 The demand for an accurate and improved system of keeping accounts is felt by 
 all classes in the commercial world. There are three things essential to a correct and 
 trustworthy system. First; security from error ; second, the utmost brevity to a clear 
 and accurate statement of fact, and third, a uniformity of system. 
 
 In the business houses where the most extensive and intricate operations of trade 
 are conducted, it is a very rare occurrence to find irregularities in the management of 
 their accounts. It is imperatively necessary that every means should be taken to effect- 
 ually prevent the disastrous consequences which would necessarily arise if there were 
 any confusion in this matter. But with those who are engaged in the middle and 
 
154 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 smaller lines of business there is a lamentable amount of inattention, if not down right 
 ignorance, upon this matter. This has been made apparent by the repeated failures in 
 business among men of this class. In adjusting their accounts consequent to winding 
 up their affairs, there is almost always found a deplorable amount of looseness and con- 
 fusion in the keeping of books. 
 
 It is the imperative duty of every one to see that his accounts are kept in a method- 
 ical and systematic way, showing correctly the form of record for every transaction, small 
 or large. This should be done not only because of the pecuniary interest involved, but 
 also because of the loss of credit and business reputation, which is sure to follow the de- 
 tection, sooner or later, of ignorance or carelessness in the keeping of accounts. The atten- 
 tive student of this work can, by judicious application to the system which we unfold in 
 the following pages, not only perfect himself in the science and art of bookkeeping, but 
 acquire a knowledge of a profession that will secure him a livelihood even when not 
 transacting business for himself. 
 
 Definition. — We define bookkeeping to be the science of accurately recording com- 
 mercial transactions in a concise and systematic method. 
 
 BOOKKEEPING BY DOUBLE-ENTRY. 
 
 HE acme of the science of Bookkeeping is reached in Double-Entry, and 
 this is the only perfect and philosophical method of keeping accounts. 
 
 The principle of Double-Entry is that for every debit there must be a 
 corresponding credit in the account to which it properly belongs. This is 
 done that the exact condition of each department of the business may be 
 clearly seen at any time ; then the proprietor can know at once the exact gain or loss on 
 the class of articles bought or sold ; what is due on notes and bills ; what are the ex- 
 penses, as well as what may be owing to or from the individuals with whom he is dealing. 
 Now, all this may be learned in twenty-four hours by the attentive student. 
 
 THE DAY-BOOK. 
 
 1HIS BOOK contains the first record of all transactions in the order in 
 which they have occurred during the day. When there is a single propri- 
 etor in the business he is credited with all capital invested and debited 
 with all that is withdrawn. But in partnership account every partner in 
 the firm is credited in his own name with what he invests and debited with 
 what he withdraws. Each person having transactions with the house is to be debited 
 with all merchandise delivered him on his account and all monies paid him on his ac- 
 count. He is credited by all merchandise or monies received from him on his account. 
 
 All accounts of general and miscellaneous transactions are entered in the Day- 
 Book. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. THE DAY BOOK. 
 
 155 
 
 ZD_A.1T book:. 
 
 New York , January , 1899 . 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 for Cash 
 630 gal. at 60c 
 
 on Acct. 
 750 lbs. at 75c 
 at $ 8.00 
 
 for Cash 
 375 lbs. at 85c 
 at $8.50 
 63 gal. at 69c 
 
 on Acct. 
 at 70c 
 at $1.44 
 
 Commenced business this day at No. 350 Chapel St., with a 
 cash capital of 
 
 Paid W. L. Jones, Bill for Store, 
 
 Fixtures and Furniture, Cash, 
 
 Bought of James Goodwin, 
 
 10 HhdSo Molasses, 
 
 Bought of John Hamilton, 
 
 10 Chests Y. H. Tea, 
 
 100 Bbls. St. Louis Ex. Flour, 
 
 Sold W. H. Clark 
 
 5 Chests Y. H. Tea, 
 
 10 Bbls. St. Louis Ex. Flour, 
 
 1 Hhd. Molasses, 
 
 Bought of Amos Snow, 
 
 2000 Bu. Corn, 
 
 1000 u Spring Wheat, 
 
 Sold Henry Rand for his Note at Six Months, 
 
 5 Hhds. Molasses, 
 
 5 Chests Y. H. Tea, 
 
 Sold E. R. Felton, 
 
 1000 Bu. Spring Wheat, 
 
 1500 u Corn, 
 
 Gave John Hamilton, on Acct., Cash, 
 
 Paid Store Rent in Cash, 
 
 Bought ot John Smith for my Note at 60 days* 
 
 500 Lbs. Java Coffee, 
 
 20 Tubs York State Butter, 
 
 Sold E. R. Felton, 
 
 500 Bu. Corn, 
 
 50 Bbls. St. Louis Ex. Flour, 
 
 10 Tubs York State Butter, 
 
 Sold Jas. Hudson, 
 
 4 Hhds. Molasses, 
 
 500 Lbs. Java Coffee, 
 
 315 gal. at 
 375 lbs. at 
 
 70c 
 
 90c 
 
 for Cash, 
 at $1.43£ 
 at 71c 
 
 at 30c 
 at $ 10.00 
 
 252 gal. at 
 at 
 
 on Acct. 
 at 70 Jc 
 at $ 8.25 
 at $10.75 
 
 on Acct. 
 
 65c 
 35c 
 
 Gave Amos Snow on Acct. our sight draft on E. R 0 Felton, 
 
 Received of James Hudson, on Acct. 
 
 R. C. Jones 7 Note at 30 days, 
 
 Received of E. R. Felton, in full of Acct., Cash, 
 
 Gave John Hamilton, in full of Acct., Cash, 
 
 Bought of John Hamilton, for Note at 3 mos., 
 
 20 Chests, Y. H. Tea, 1500 lbs. at 76c 
 
 50 Bbls. Greenfield Ex. Flour, at $ 7.90 
 
 Paid Insurance on Stock, Cash, 
 
 562 
 
 800 
 
 318 
 
 85 
 
 43 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 47 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,440 
 
 220 
 
 337 
 
 1,435 
 
 1,065 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 352 
 
 412 
 
 107 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 163 
 
 175 
 
 80 
 
 1,140 
 
 395 
 
 5,000 
 
 595 
 
 378 
 
 1,362 
 
 50 
 
 447 
 
 2,840 
 
 558 
 
 2,500 
 
 950 
 
 150 
 
 350 
 
 872 
 
 338 
 
 800 
 
 250 
 
 72 
 
 412 
 
 1,535 
 
 75 
 
 22 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
156 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. THE DAY BOOK* 
 
 BOOK. 
 
 New York, January, 1899. 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 26 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 Sold E. R. Felton, 
 
 25 Bbls. St. Louis Ex. Flour, 
 40 u Greenfield u 
 10 Chests Y. H. Tea, 
 
 on Acct. 
 at $ 8.30 
 at $ 8.10 
 750 lbs. at 80c 
 
 Received of R. C. J^hes for Note due this day, Cash, 
 
 on Acct. 
 630 gal. at 55c 
 at $18.00 
 at $17.50 
 
 Bought of Jas. Goodwin, 
 
 10 Hhds. Molasses* 
 
 20 Bbls. Beef, 
 
 10 Bbls. New Mess Pork, 
 
 Received of E. R. Felton in full of Acct., his Draft at 6 days 
 sight on Phelps & Hodge, accepted, 
 
 Gave Amos Snow) in full of Acct., E. R. Felton’s Draft on 
 Phelps & Hodge, . a 
 Cash for balance, 
 
 Gave Jas. Goodwin on Acct., Cash, 
 
 Paid for Clerk hire, Cash, 
 
 Paid Freight, Cash, 
 
 Bought of C. B. Hall, , v on Acct. 
 
 1 Horse and Wagon, 
 
 Bought of R. C. Loveridge, for Cash. 
 
 10 Shares Lake Shore R. R., 
 
 Stock at 10 per cent, discount, 
 
 Bought of G. C. Payne, for Cash 
 
 House and Lot, located at No. 10 Admiral street, 
 
 Sold E. J. Keeler, for Cash 
 
 5 Shares Lake Shore R. R. Stock, at 5 per cent, premium, 
 Bought of L. E. Whiting, for Cash 
 
 8 Shares New Jersey Central R. R. Stock, at 30 per cent.| 
 discount, 
 
 Sold C. A. Gates 
 
 5 Tubs York State Butter, 
 10 Bbls. New Mess Pork, 
 
 on Acct. 
 at $10.00 
 at $18.00 
 
 I IN’ NT IE IN" T OJEtHT. 
 
 Mdse, unsold as follows : 
 
 10 Bbls. Greenfield Ex. Flour, at $8 25, 
 
 15 “ St. Louis “ “ 8.50, 
 
 10 Chests Y. H. Tea. 750 lbs., at 77c., 
 
 5 Tubs York State Butter, at $10.50, 
 
 10 Hhds. Molasses, 630 gal. at 6oc., 
 
 20 Bbls. Beef, at $18 00, 
 
 Personal Property, 
 
 Real Estate, 
 
 8 Shares N. J. C. R. R. Stock at 29 per cent, below par 
 5 Shares L. S. R. R. Stock, at 2 per cent, above par. 
 Store Fixtures and Furniture, 
 
 207 
 
 324 
 
 600 
 
 346 
 
 360 
 
 175 
 
 1,131 
 
 908 
 
 50 
 
 180 
 
 $ 82.50 
 
 12750 
 
 577-50 
 52.50 
 378 00 
 360 00 
 
 1,578 
 
 
 425 
 
 2,500 
 
 568 
 
 5 IQ 
 
 5io 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 1,131 
 
 250 
 
 881 
 
 1,131 
 
 2,040 
 
 500 
 
 175 
 
 100 
 
 500 
 
 900 
 
 2,000 
 
 525 
 
 560 
 
 230 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 6,091 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 157 
 
 THE JOURNAL 
 
 HE debits and credits of the Day-Book are so arranged in the Journal 
 that they can be easily presented to view in transferring them to the 
 Ledger, and thus avoid the chances of any errors. 
 
 There are two money columns on the right-hand side of the page, in 
 the first of which the amount of debits are placed, and in the second the 
 amount of credits. The name of the debtor, whether a person, firm or an account, is 
 entered on the left of the page, and that of the creditor on the right, with the word “To” 
 between them. 
 
 The entry “ Sundries ” is made simply as a heading for convenience, and is not a 
 Ledger account. It indicates that there are more than one debtor or creditor in the 
 transaction presented. The Journal is, therefore, an analysis of the transactions recorded 
 in the Day-Book, showing the debits and credits that enter into the transaction. 
 
 The student would do well to impress upon his mind the following 
 
 Rule — That for which value is received should be credited ; that for 
 which value is paid should be debited. When you receive cash it is always 
 debtor ; when you pay it out it is always creditor. When persons cause you to part with 
 value they are debtors ; when they cause you to receive it, then they are creditors. 
 Merchandise when bought is debited ; and when sold it is credited. Interest, Commis- 
 sion, Expense and other accounts must be credited when anything is received from them, 
 and debited for any outlay they occasion. 
 
 A check mark should be placed in the marginal column, on the left-hand side of the 
 Day-Book, after the account has been Journalized. 
 
 There may arise instances when it is proper to transfer an amount to a different 
 account than the one in which it stands, before it is posted in the Ledger. Then it 
 should be shown in the Day-Book by an entry to that effect, in order to explain it. 
 
 In regard to notes, drafts, &c., which may appreciate or depreciate in value, the ac- 
 count is kept at the value of the face of the note, & c., and the interest or discount, 
 allowed for prompt payment or payment before it was due, is usually made in the interest 
 or discount account The losses arising from the failure of persons to meet their obliga- 
 tions are carried to the “ Profit and Loss ” account 
 
158 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 New York y January , 1899. Dr. Cr. 
 
 Jan. 100 
 
 1 
 
 Cash, 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Stock, 
 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 101 
 
 1 
 
 Store Fixtures and Furniture, 
 
 595 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 595 
 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 Mdse., 
 
 378 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 378 
 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 Mdse., 
 
 1,362 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 To John Hamilton, 
 
 
 
 1,362 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 Cash, 
 
 447 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 10Q 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 j 
 
 
 447 
 
 22 
 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 Mdse, 
 
 2,840 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 To Amos Snow, 
 
 
 
 2,840 
 
 
 102 
 
 3 
 
 Bill Bee., 
 
 558 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 
 
 558 
 
 
 100 
 
 3 
 
 Cash, 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 102 
 
 3 
 
 John Hamilton, 
 
 950 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 950 
 
 
 102 
 
 4 
 
 Rent, 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 Mdse, 
 
 350 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 To Bill Pay., 
 
 
 
 350 
 
 
 103 
 
 5 
 
 E. R. Felton, 
 
 872 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 
 
 872 
 
 50 
 
 103 
 
 5 
 
 Jas. Hudson, 
 
 338 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 
 
 338 
 
 80 
 
 102 
 
 9 
 
 Amos Snow, 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 To E. R. Felton, 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 102 
 
 9 
 
 Bill Rec., 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 To Jas. Hudson, 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 
 Cash, 
 
 72 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 To E. R. Felton, 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 50 
 
 102 
 
 10 
 
 John Hamilton, 
 
 412 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 412 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 Mdse., 
 
 1,535 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 To Bill Pay., 
 
 
 
 1,535 
 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 159 
 
 croTJ^isr^.L. 
 
 New York , January , 1899 Dr. Cr. 
 
 102 
 
 10 
 
 Insurance, 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 103 
 
 11 
 
 E. R. Felton, 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 Cash, 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 To Bill Rec., 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 Mdse., 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 To Jas. Goodwin, 
 
 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 102 
 
 18 
 
 Bill Rec., 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 To E. R. Felton, 
 
 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 102 
 
 19 
 
 Amos Snow, To Sundries, 
 
 2,040 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 
 Bill Rec., 
 
 
 
 1,131 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 Cash, 
 
 
 
 908 
 
 
 103 
 
 19 
 
 Jas Goodwin, 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 101 
 
 25 
 
 Expense, 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 101 
 
 25 
 
 Expense, 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 101 
 
 25 
 
 Personal Property, 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 To C. B. Hall, 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 101 
 
 25 
 
 Lake Shore R. R. Stock, 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 101 
 
 26 
 
 Real Estate, 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 100 
 
 26 
 
 Cash, 
 
 525 
 
 
 
 
 101 
 
 
 To L. S. R. R. Stock 
 
 
 
 525 
 
 
 101 
 
 28 
 
 Hew Jersey Central R. R. Stock, 
 
 560 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 
 
 560 
 
 
 103 
 
 28 
 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 30,411 
 
 52 
 
 30,411 
 
 52 
 
160 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 THE GASH BOOK. 
 
 N accurate record of all monies received or paid out is kept in this book, 
 but no credit transactions. In keeping this, all monies received are 
 debited, and all sums paid out are credited. Draw a balance at the end 
 of the day’s business, and subtracting the total on the debit side from the 
 total on the credit side, enter that balance in red ink on the credit side . 
 
 dr. o .a. s h: . 
 
 1899 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 To Stock, for amt. of Capital Invested, 
 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 u Mdse., received from W. H. Clark, 
 
 447 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 u Mdse., received from E. R. Felton, 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 9 
 
 “ E. R. Felton, received in settlement of Account, 
 
 72 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 16 
 
 “ Bill Rec., received for R. C. Jones, Note, 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 26 
 
 “ L. S. R. R. Stock, received from E. J. Keeler. 
 
 525 
 
 
 3,794 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,794 
 
 72 
 
 1883. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Balance from Old Acct., 
 
 
 
 1,090 
 
 72 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 161 
 
 After making this balance entry, draw a line, as will be shown in the form of “ Cash 
 Book/’ and carry this forward to new account for the following day. All ruling must be 
 in red ink. 
 
 C -A. S ZEE . Cr. 
 
 1899 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 By Store Fixtures and Fur., paid W. L. Jones* Bill, 
 
 595 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 u Mdse., paid Jas. Goodwin, 
 
 378 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 16 John Hamilton, paid him on Acet., 
 
 950 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 4 
 
 “ Bent, paid for Store Bent, 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 10 
 
 u John Hamilton, paid him in settlement of Acct., 
 
 412 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u Insurance, paid for Insurance on Stock, 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 19 
 
 “ Amos Snow, paid him in full of Acct., 
 
 908 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u James Gordon, paid him on Acct., 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 u Expense, paid Clerk hire, 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 u Expense, paid for Freight, 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 1 % 
 
 u 
 
 u L. S. B. B. Stock, paid B. C. Loveridge, 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 26 
 
 u Beal Estate, paid G. K. Payne, 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 28 
 
 u K. J. C. B. B. Stock, paid L. E. Whiting, 
 
 560 
 
 
 7,704 
 
 00 
 
 a 
 
 30 
 
 u Balance to Kew Acct., 
 
 
 
 1,090 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,794 
 
 72 
 
 ? 
 
162 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 THE LEDGER. 
 
 E Day-Book, as we have said, is a record of all transactions during the day 
 in the order in which they occur. The Ledger contains the account of 
 each person dealing with the concern, in which all debits are entered on 
 the left-hand side and all credits upon the right-hand side of the page or 
 folio. The name is written in bold hand between them, thus : 
 
 John H. Stetson. Ct, 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ACCOUNTS IN THE LEDGER. 
 
 CASH ACCOUNT. 
 
 The receipts and disbursements of all cash enters into account, and it will display 
 the amount on hand. All monies received are debited to this account, and all monies 
 paid out are credited. The “balance” is the difference between what comes in and what 
 goes out, and the cash on hand must always equal this difference. When a Cash Book 
 is kept, let it be balanced every night, and the balance carried forward to open the ac- 
 count for the following day. 
 
 REAL ESTATE. 
 
 All purchases of real estate are debited in this account, together with expenses in- 
 curred upon it, and credited with whatever accrues therefrom. When the account is 
 closed, the market value of the property remaining unsold is entered on the credit side 
 The balance shows the gain or loss. 
 
 BILLS RECEIVABLE. 
 
 Under this account the notes that have been received by the concern are exhibited 
 All notes or drafts which have been received are entered on the debit side, and when the 
 amount is paid it is entered on the credit side. The balance should show all that is due 
 on paper still held by the concern. 
 
 BILLS PAYABLE. 
 
 All notes and bills in the hands of other parties against the concern are placed under 
 this account. When the notes are given they are entered on the credit side, and when 
 paid on the debit. The full amount of notes due from the concern will be shown by the 
 balance in this account. 
 
 MERCHANDISE ACCOUNT. 
 
 In this account is entered on the debit side the cost of all goods bought, and on 
 the credit side the amount received for all goods sold. In closing this account we first 
 enter the total inventory or market value of all goods remaining unsold upon the credit 
 side of the account. The difference between the two sides of this account will be the net 
 gain or loss, as the case may be. If the debit side exceeds the credit, then there will be 
 a loss ; if the reverse, then there will be a gain. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 163 
 
 PERSONAL ACCOUNTS. 
 
 They are kept on the same principle as any other account: Debited with what they 
 
 take, and credited with what they bring. 
 
 EXPENSE ACCOUNT. 
 
 In this account all expenditures for the business are entered on the debit side, such 
 as rent, gas, water, coal, clerk hire, & c. 
 
 partners’ account. 
 
 The account with each partner is kept in his own name, the same as other personal 
 accounts. 
 
 INTEREST OR DISCOUNT ACCOUNT. 
 
 When a large business is done in negotiable paper to a considerable extent there is 
 an account kept termed “Interest” or “Discount Account,” in which all interest re- 
 ceived is credited, and all interest paid is debited. This, however, is usually entered in 
 “ Profit and Loss Account,” when the parties do not wish so many accounts 
 
 “ PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT.” 
 
 Under this account are entered all gains and losses in the business, the gains on 
 the credit side, and the losses on the debit. If the credit side be the greater, there has 
 been a net gain, but if the debit side, then there has been a net loss. 
 
 * 
 
 SUSPENDED ACCOUNT. 
 
 When several personal accounts of doubtful value have been balanced and remain 
 unsettled, instead of entering them at once upon Profit and Loss Account, it is usual to 
 carry them at the time of balancing to Suspended Account, so termed, as many of them 
 may sometime prove good, and yet it is risky to consider them as assets. 
 
 Example as follows : 
 
 Dr. Suspended Account. Cr. 
 
 18 
 
 Dec. 
 
 3 i 
 
 John Paul Jones, 
 
 L.F. 
 
 U 
 
 30 
 
 00 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 Profit and Loss, 
 
 
 30 
 
 00 
 
 « 
 
 
 Geo. W. Ames, 
 
 
 i 2 5 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 Geo. W. Ames, 
 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 These accounts have been running for more than a year, and were of doubtful value. 
 
 CLOSING THE LEDGER. 
 
 The Ledger can be closed as often as desired, and is usually done at the end of the 
 year. 
 
 The reason of this is to avoid carrying the unused accounts, and to bring down each 
 of these accounts into one item and thus clearly exhibit the result of the business for the 
 period since last closed. 
 
 THE METHOD OF CLOSING. 
 
 The first step in the process is to make a trial balance, and this is the test of the 
 correctness of the Ledger, for if the total amounts of credits equal the total amounts of 
 debits, then the Ledger is correct ; if not, then there must be an error somewhere. 
 
164 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 The Taking Account of Stock. — This is an inventory of all merchandise, &c. 
 remaining unsold taken at its market value. This must be credited on the trial balance 
 “ By Mdse, as per inventory.” 
 
 For example, if there are $ 3, 600 worth of goods unsold, they must be credited to 
 Merchandise Account, because it was all charged when that account was opened, or as it 
 was bought from time to time. The account has been credited with all that has been 
 sold, and we need only carry to the credit side the value of which is on hand at the time, 
 to determine whether there has been a gain or loss. In doing so, use the term, “ By 
 Balance,” for the goods unsold are to be regarded as so much assets. 
 
 The same principal holds in regards to all the other accounts. 
 
 The “Interest” or “Discount Account.” — Where interest has accrued in the 
 favor of the business, and in the favor of other parties, it is commonly considered best to 
 enter both, each on its respective side, “To Balance,” if it is a liability, “By Balance,” if 
 it is an asset. 
 
 First close up all these accounts where balances have been found, by taking account 
 of stock, such as Real Estate, Merchandise, Stocks and Bonds, &c., &c., and this will tell 
 whether there has been a gain or loss. The final entry in each account shows this, and 
 should be written in red “To,” or “By” “ Profit and Loss,” as the case may be. Proceed 
 in like manner with all other accounts, not yet closed in Ledger. 
 
 Then carry the profit and loss, in black, to their proper side in that account, and the 
 Balances in the same way to “Balance Account.” 
 
 Close the “ Profit and Loss Account.” If it be a partnership business, the propor- 
 tion of profit or loss must be credited or debited to each one in his personal account. 
 
 THE USE OF RED INK. 
 
 All balances which are to be entered into another account must be written in red 
 ink, but when transferred, must be written in black. 
 
 THE TRIAL BALANCE. 
 
 For the detection and prevention of errors, is the best that has yet been invented, 
 although it is not an infallible one. For if the same, or equal amounts have been omitted 
 from both sides of the account, or if an entry has been made on the correct side of the 
 Ledger, but in the wrong account, then although the two sides of the Ledger will remain 
 undisturbed still an error exists. The Trial Balance is still important, and should always 
 be made immediately after posting the Ledger. 
 
 CORRECTING OF ERRORS. 
 
 If there is a mistake in the Day Book it can be corrected only by making a new 
 entry. If erroneous accounts has been transferred to the Journal and Ledger then they 
 must remain and new entries correcting the mistakes must be made. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 165 
 
 When a wrong entry has been posted, and no corresponding entry is found in either 
 Day Book or Journal, then fill in the money column with ciphers, and post the entry 
 correctly. 
 
 Whenever a transfer is made from one book to another, this mark should be 
 placed against the account so transferred. 
 
 THE PROOF OR TRIAL SHEET. 
 
 Such a Trial Sheet, or Proof, should contain all the amounts which have been posted 
 since the last balance was made. This includes the open and closed accounts. We 
 obtain by means oi this the correct proof which is shown by equal credits and debits, 
 and also the totals of the postings in the Ledger, which must agree with the totals in the 
 Journal. This will furnish the strongest evidence that the Journal has been correctly 
 posted. 
 
 For if a single item has been omitted there must appear a discrepancy in this trial 
 sheet and the same holds when an item has been entered twice. 
 
 THE INVOICE BOOK. 
 
 This is made up by pasting the original invoices received, into a book, suitable for 
 this purpose, made larger than the invoices themselves. 
 
 With a proper index, any invoice can be found more readily than if they were put on 
 file. It should not be often necessary to copy any of these. 
 
 THE PRIVATE LEDGER. 
 
 This book is kept by the partners themselves, and only the totals appear in the Pub- 
 lic Ledger. To avoid unnecessary publicity of their financial condition, the opening 
 entry of business is placed in this private Ledger. 
 
166 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 T ZEE ZED LEDGER. 
 
 Dk. CASH. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 To Stock, 
 
 50 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 I Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 By Store Fix. and Fur., 
 
 50 
 
 595 
 
 
 it 
 
 2 
 
 “ Mdse., 
 
 50 
 
 447 
 
 22 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 u 
 
 Mdse., 
 
 50 
 
 378 
 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 u u 
 
 50 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 1 u 
 
 3 
 
 u 
 
 J. Hamilton, 
 
 50 
 
 950 
 
 
 u 
 
 9 
 
 “ E. E. Felton, 
 
 51 
 
 72 
 
 50 
 
 I u 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 Eent, 
 
 50 
 
 150 
 
 
 u 
 
 16 
 
 “ Bill Eec., 
 
 51 
 
 250 
 
 
 1 “ 
 
 10 
 
 u 
 
 J. Hamilton, 
 
 51 
 
 412 
 
 50 
 
 u 
 
 26 
 
 “ L. S.E.E. Stock, 
 
 52 
 
 525 
 
 
 1 u 
 
 10 
 
 u 
 
 Insurance, 
 
 51 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 19 
 
 u 
 
 Amos Snow ? 
 
 51 
 
 908 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 19 
 
 u 
 
 Jas. Goodwin, 
 
 51 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 a 
 
 Expense, 
 
 51 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 51 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 u 
 
 L. S. E. E. Stock, 
 
 52 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 26 
 
 u 
 
 Eeal Estate, 
 
 52 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 28 
 
 u 
 
 H. J. Central E. E., 
 
 52 
 
 560 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 30 
 
 u 
 
 Balance, 
 
 
 1,090 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 8,794 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,794 
 
 72 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Balance, 
 
 
 1,090 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. MEECHANDISE. Cr. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 2 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 50 
 
 378 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 2 By Cash, 
 
 50 
 
 447 
 
 22 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 u J. Hamilton, 
 
 50 
 
 1,362 
 
 50 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 “ Bill Eec., 
 
 50 
 
 558 
 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 u Amos Snow, 
 
 50 
 
 2,840 
 
 
 u 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 Cash, 
 
 50 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 a 
 
 4 
 
 u Bill Pay., 
 
 50 
 
 350 
 
 
 u 
 
 5 
 
 u E. E. Felton, 
 
 51 
 
 872 
 
 50 
 
 u 
 
 10 
 
 u u 
 
 51 
 
 1,535 
 
 
 (( 
 
 5 
 
 u J. Hudson, 
 
 50 
 
 338 
 
 80 
 
 u 
 
 17 
 
 a Jas. Goodwin, 
 
 51 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 u 
 
 11 
 
 u E. E. Felton, 
 
 51 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 u Profit and Loss, 
 
 
 309 
 
 02 
 
 “ 
 
 28 
 
 61 C. A. Gates, 
 
 52 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “ 
 
 28 
 
 lC Inventory, 
 
 51 
 
 1,578 
 
 
 
 
 — ' 
 
 
 7,656 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,656 
 
 02 
 
 Jan. 
 
 
 To Inventory, 
 
 
 1,578 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 167 
 
 THE LEDGER. 
 
 Db. PERSONAL PROPERTY. Cb. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 25 
 
 To 0. B. Hall, 
 
 52 
 
 500 
 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 (6 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 By Inventory, 
 u Profit and Loss, 
 
 
 425 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Inventory, 
 
 
 425 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Db. lake shore R. R. STOCK. Ce. 
 
 tli 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 u Profit and Loss, 
 
 52 
 
 900 
 
 135 
 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 u 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 By Cash, 
 u Inventory, 
 
 26 
 
 525 
 
 510 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,035 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,035 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Inventory, 
 
 
 510 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Db. EXPENSE. Cb. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 25 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 51 
 
 175 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 By Profit and Loss, 
 
 
 275 
 
 ! 
 
 u 
 
 25 
 
 u u 
 
 51 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 275 
 
 J 
 
 
 — 
 
 ' " 
 
 
 275 
 
 — 
 
 Db. RENT. Cb. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 4 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 50 
 
 150 _| Jan. 
 
 30jBy Profit and Loss, 
 
 
 15° U 
 
168 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 TEIIE LEDGER. 
 
 Dr. INSUBAHCE. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 10 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 51 
 
 75 
 
 l 18 
 
 I Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 By Profit and Loss. 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 “I 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. BILLS EECEIYABLE. Cr. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 3 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 50 
 
 558 
 
 
 I Jan. 
 
 16 
 
 By Cash, 
 
 51 
 
 250 
 
 
 u 
 
 9 
 
 u Jas. Hudson, 
 
 51 
 
 250 
 
 
 u 
 
 19 
 
 u Amos Snow, 
 
 51 
 
 1,131 
 
 558 
 
 50 
 
 u 
 
 18 
 
 u E E. Eel ton, 
 
 51 
 
 1,131 
 
 50j 
 
 I u 
 
 30 
 
 “ Balance, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,939 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,939 
 
 50 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Balance, 
 
 
 558 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. BILLS PAYABLE. Cr 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 (s 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 To Mdse., 
 u u 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 872 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 By Amos Snow, 
 “ Cash, 
 u BillEec., 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 51 
 
 800 
 
 72 
 
 1,131 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,004 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,004 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 169 
 
 THIS LEDG-EB. 
 
 Dr. JAS. GOODWIN. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 a 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 To Cash, 
 
 “ Balance, 
 
 51 
 
 [ 
 
 500 
 
 381 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 17 
 
 By Mdse., 
 
 51 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 By Balance, 
 
 
 381 
 
 50 
 
 Dr. JAS. HUDSON. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 , To Mdse., 
 
 50 
 
 338 
 
 a 18 
 
 80| Jan. 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 By Bill Bee., 
 u Balance, 
 
 51 
 
 250 
 
 88 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 338 
 
 80S 
 
 
 
 
 338 
 
 80 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30|To Balance, 
 
 
 88 
 
 8o| 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. C. B. HALL. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Balance, 
 
 
 500 
 
 B 18 
 
 I Jan. 
 
 25 
 
 By Personal Prop., 
 
 52 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 By Balance, 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 Dr. 0. A. GATES. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 28 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 52 
 
 230 
 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 By Balance, 
 
 
 230 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 To Balance, 
 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dr. PBOFIT AND LOSS. Or. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 GO 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 To Store Fix. and Fur., 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 30 
 
 By Mdse., 
 
 
 309 
 
 02 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 u Personal Prop., 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 u Beal Estate, 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 “ Expense, 
 
 
 275 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 u N. J. O. B. B. S., 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 u Bent, 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 a 
 
 30 
 
 “ L. S. B. B. S., 
 
 
 135 
 
 
 u 
 
 30 
 
 u Insurance, 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 30 
 
 u Stock, 
 
 
 292 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 952 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 952 
 
 02 
 
M70 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 TBIAL 
 
 January 30 , 18 
 
 (This contains the totals of Debits and Credits.) 
 
 Dr. Cr. 
 
 
 Stock, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 Cash, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 8,794 
 
 72 
 
 7,704 
 
 6,078 
 
 
 
 Merchandise, • 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7,347 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 Store Fixtures and Furniture, • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 595 
 
 
 
 
 Personal Property, 
 
 - 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eeal Estate, 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Jersey Central E. E. 
 
 Stock, 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 560 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lake Shore E. E. Stock, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 525 
 
 
 
 Expense, 
 
 ft 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 275 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eent, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 Insurance, 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bills Eeceivable, 
 
 . 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 1,939 
 
 50 
 
 1,381 
 
 1,885 
 
 50 
 
 
 Bills Payable, 
 
 • 
 
 • 4 ' 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 J. Hamilton, 
 Amos Snow, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 m 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 1,362 
 
 50 
 
 1,362 
 
 50 
 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 2,840 
 
 
 2,840 
 
 
 
 E. E. Felton, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 2,004 
 
 
 2,004 
 
 
 
 Jas. Goodwin, 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 881 
 
 50 
 
 
 Jas. Hudson, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 338 
 
 80 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 C. B. Hall, . 
 
 . 
 
 • m 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 C. A. Gates, 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30,411 
 
 52 
 
 30,411 
 
 52 
 
 
 BALANCE 
 
 SHEET, 
 
 
 
 
 January 30 , 18 
 
 Dr. Cr. 
 
 (This contains only the balances , on whichever side they may exist.) 
 
 
 Stock, ...... 
 
 
 
 5,292 
 
 02 
 
 
 Cash, ....... 
 
 1,090 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 
 Merchandise, ..... 
 
 1,578 
 
 
 
 
 
 Store Fixtures and Furniture, .... 
 
 510 
 
 
 
 
 
 Personal Property, ..... 
 
 425 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eeal Estate, - ... 
 
 2,500 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. J. C. E. E. Stock, .... > 
 
 568 
 
 
 
 
 
 L. S. E. E. Stock, ..... 
 
 510 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bills Eeceivable, ..... 
 
 558 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bills Payable, ...... 
 
 
 
 1,885 
 
 
 
 Jas. Goodwin, ..... » 
 
 
 
 381 
 
 50 
 
 
 Jas. Hudson, ...... 
 
 88 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 0. B. Hall, «•••.. • 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 C,. A. Gates, .#•••• 
 
 230 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 8,058 
 
 52 
 
 8,058 
 
 52 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 171 
 
y72 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 THE SIX COLUMN JOURNAL-DAY BOOK. 
 
 HIS is by far the most compact and popular method of recording accounts, 
 and is easily understood at a glance, showing the details of all transactions, 
 and their relation to the business represented. We cannot too highly 
 recommend the student to carefully study this form, and perfect himself 
 in the practical use of it. It is termed Six Column, because it is so ruled 
 that it displays three columns on the left hand or debit side, and three on the right hand 
 or credit side of the account. It may be ruled to show four, five, or six columns on each 
 side. This Journal-Day Book will have to be made to order, as they are seldom found 
 with this ruling. 
 
 The more complicated and extensive the business involved the more desirable it is 
 to display it in detail. 
 
 The ADyANTAGE of such a Journal-Day Book — Cannot be too highly estima- 
 ted since it is in reality four books combined in one, viz. : Journal, Day Book, Cash Book 
 and Sales Book, avoiding the necessity of keeping the last three mentioned. The great 
 economy in time and space recommends it to all who would be able to keep a complete 
 summary, in which the business of a given period can be compared with that of a cor- 
 responding period. 
 
 The Merchandise and Cash Columns can be posted in totals as often as desired, 
 every day, week or month, as the proprietor may wish, and are carried forward from page 
 to page, and a balance shown in the margin at foot of each page. 
 
 The Merchandise and Cash Accounts being the most important ones are given a 
 column on each side of the page. The sundries column contain all the miscellaneous 
 accounts and are to be posted in detail in the Ledger each in its respective place. This 
 refers to all accounts for which there is not a special column. 
 
 If the business has a large Expense Account or Rent Account, a column can be 
 assigned to this, and so for any account that may be desirable to display. These can be 
 posted in totals in the Ledger. 
 
 THE PETTY CASH BOOK. 
 
 In connection with the Six Column Journal-Day Book, it is best to keep a petty 
 cash book, to avoid encumbering the Journal-Day Book with these little items. The 
 totals of each day or week are then entered in the Journal-Day Book from this. 
 
 THE PETTY SALES BOOK. 
 
 In like manner a petty sales book can be kept of all goods ordered or sold in 
 small amounts and the totals entered in the Journal Day Book. 
 
SIX COLUMN JOURNAL AND DAY BOOK COMBINED. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 173 
 
 
 
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174 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF DAY BOOK FOR SINGLE ENTRY. 
 
 New York, January 1st, 1899. 
 
 day entered into partnership 
 1254 State street, under the 
 put in capital as follows : 
 
 per Cash Book, $3,000.00 
 , 100.00 
 100.00 
 450.00 
 
 3,650 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 2,000.00 
 
 
 
 500.00 
 
 2,500 
 
 < 
 
 at 2.50 
 
 250.00 
 
 
 “ 4.00 
 
 120.00 
 
 375 
 
 at 3.50 
 
 175.00 
 
 
 * “ 5.00 
 
 500.00 
 
 675 
 
 
 50.00 
 
 
 at 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 100 
 
 at 14.00 
 
 1,400.00 
 
 
 “ 3.50 
 
 175.00 
 
 1,575 
 
 at 14.00 
 
 1,400.00 
 
 
 “ 3.50 
 
 175.00 
 
 1,575 
 
 firm name of Ray & Gray. 
 
 J. H. Brown owes him on Rote, 
 Merchandise and Store Fixtures, 
 
 Geo. Thompson, Dr. 
 
 On the above bal. due Wm. Ray, 
 
 u 
 
 Geo. Gray, Cr. 
 
 By Cash paid in per Cash Book, 
 u Merchandise per Inventory, 
 
 2 
 
 Geo Thompson, Dr. 
 
 To 100 Vol. History, All Religions, 
 “ 30 “ IT. S., 
 
 (Terms, GO days note.) 
 
 Sheldon & Co., 
 
 To 50 Photograph Albums, 
 u 100 Webster’s Dictionaries, 
 
 5 
 
 Dr. 
 
 George Thompson, 
 
 By Cash on Account, 
 u 2 weeks Salary, 
 
 George Gray, 
 
 To 100 Family Bibles, 
 u 50 Photo. Albums, 
 
 William Ray, 
 
 To 100 Family Bibles, 
 u 50 Photo. Albums, 
 
 Cr. 
 
 u 
 
 Dr. 
 
 u 
 
 Dr. 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
 00 
 
THE SCIENCE OF BOOKKEEPING. 
 
 175 
 
 The Books Required in Single Entry are the Day Book, Ledger and Cash 
 Book. In some cases where the business is limited the cash account is entered in the 
 Day Book, and posted from that into the Ledger, by this means avoiding the use of a 
 Cash Book altogether. 
 
 This set of books may be used by a large class of tradesmen, such as carpenters, 
 mechanics and small retailers and builders, &c., &c., where the commercial transactions 
 are limited, but it is not suitable for manufacturers and business men who conduct exten- 
 sive and complicated transactions. 
 
 POSTING THE DAY BOOK TO THE LEDGER. 
 
 OMMENCING with the first entry charged to his name, write it in on its 
 proper side. In the column for inserting the number of the Day Book 
 Folio, put the number of page where this entry is found, and over against 
 the original entry in Day Book, the number of the Ledger tolio to which 
 it is transferred. And so proceed with all the entries in his name on the 
 And in like manner with the accounts of the several parties whose names 
 appear. It is unnecessary to encumber the Ledger with the details of each transaction 
 as they may readily be found by reference to the Day Book. Where the cash is posted 
 directly from the Cash Book, this must be indicated in the Ledger C. B., fol. 4 indi- 
 cates that the entry is transferred from Cash Book, folio 4. In the set which we present, 
 the cash account appears in the Day Book, and will be posted therefrom to the Ledger. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF LEDGER FOR SINGLE ENTRY. 
 
 Dr. WILLIAM RAY. Cr. 
 
 Dr. GEORGE THOMPSON. Cr. 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 To Bal. due Wm. Ray, 
 
 
 I 1 
 
 100 00 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 5 
 
 By Sundries 
 
 1 
 
 100 
 
 00 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 u Mdse., 
 
 1 
 
 370 00 f 
 
 u 
 
 10 
 
 Balance, 
 
 
 370 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 370 00 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 470 
 
 00 
 
 Dr. SHELDON & CO. Cr. 
 
 5 
 
 To Mdse., 
 
 1 
 
 675 
 
 00 
 
 18 
 
 Jan. 
 
 2 
 
 By Sundries, 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 650 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 10 
 
 Balance, 
 
 
 25 
 
 00 
 
 
 • — " 
 
 
 675 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 675 
 
 loo 
 
NEW STANDARD TIME 
 
 In 1873 seventy different standards of railroad time existed in the United States and Canada, but prior to the 
 change in 1883, they had been reduced to fifty-three. The rapid increase of railroads, which has kept pace wit 
 the prosperity and development of the country, has proportionately increased the inconvenience, delay, act 
 dents and loss of life and limb, resulting from so many standards of time. Suggestions as to reform have been, 
 made from time to time, — the first in 1869, by Prof. Dowd, of Saratoga. To put such suggestions into prac- 
 tical shape required a man whose position and knowledge of the Railroad systems of the country would com- 
 mand the attention and co-operation of the railroad officials. Such a man is Mr. W. F. Allen, Editor of The 
 Travellers' Official Guide , and Secretary of the Railroad Conventions. He it was who proposed, and by his 
 untiring energy and advantageous position, brought to a successful issue the new standards, which were 
 adopted by the Railway Time Conventions of October 11th and 17th, and ordered to take effect at noon, on 
 5unday, Nov. 18th, 1883. 
 
 The change adopted reduces the standards to five in number. Each standard varies from the adjacent ones 
 exactly one hour, the simplest and most readily calculated difference. The official railroad maps designate 
 all railroads that are governed by the same standard, by their being printed in a separate color. This rule is 
 observed for each of the five standards; hence railroad men will know them more particularly by their colors, 
 as indicated in the table on following page. Neither of the five standards extends over so large an area of ter- 
 ritory as to cause a difference of more than about thirty minutes between the new standard and local time, — a 
 difference between railroad and local time that has already stood the test of experience. 
 
 “ The eastern standard will extend from the eastern boundary of Maine to Detroit, Mich., and Bristol, 
 Tenn.; but the Railroads in Ohio, in Pennsylvania, west of Pittsburg, and all in Georgia will, for convenience 
 of operation, be included in the western section. Also the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern, the New York, 
 Chicago and St. Louis, and the New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, may be run to their eastern termini at 
 Buffalo and Salamanca by the central standard, which governs the rest of their lines. It is a curious fact that 
 the central meridian for this eastern section co-incides with the seventy-fifth meridian west from Greenwich, 
 which varies but four minutes from New York time. For the next section the standard will be nine mini.tes 
 slower than Chicago time and one minute faster than St. Louis time. The points of change to the next western 
 hour standard will be at the termini of divisions of the great western and trans-continental lines, and betv een 
 that and the standard for the Pacific slope, at Heron, Ogden, and at the crossings of the Colorado River, all 
 convenient points. These five divisions termed Inter-Colonial time, Eastern time, Central time, Mountain 
 time and Pacific time. At the transfer points, where doubt exists, it is easier to settle it by the addition oi 
 subtraction of one hour, than by the irregular arbitrary differences that now exist.” 
 
 In the following list of cities governed by the same meridian time, as affixed by the new standard, those 
 where the local time most nearly approximates the new standard, are printed in full face letters. Thus we may 
 say that the Eastern standard, (75th meridian) is run on Philadelphia time; and the Central standard (90th 
 meridian) is run on New Orleans time. One railroad will maintain clocks with the dials numbered from 
 1 to 24. Under this system, 1 p. m. (mid-day) will be called 13, and 12 p. m. (mid-night) 24, in order to avoid 
 the confusion on time tables incident to the old method. The old method of calculating the meridian from 
 Greenwich has been adhered to, it being in use by all ships on the high seas. The adoption of the new stan- 
 dard is a long step in the right direction, — that of one standard for the whole country, or possibly for the 
 globe. The rising and setting of the sun will in the future, as in the past, govern each community as to when 
 it shall rise, work, eat and retire; but under a one-standard system the clock would not fail, as it now does, to 
 indicate the fact that New England has breakfasted about four hours earlier than the Pacific coast. 
 
 The desirability of the maintenance of such clocks by the railroads, has suggested for general use, clocks 
 and watches with both systems painted upon their dials. It is also proposed to take old time pieces and 
 paint 13 to 24 directly under the present figures, so that when the clock passes 12 at noon, the time can be 
 counted for the remainder of the day on either the 24 hour system or the old. It is further proposed to 
 arrange clocks and watches with two sets of hands of different colors, one set adjusted to keep local or mean 
 time, and the other to keep standard; but in many principal cities the time has been changed by legal enact- 
 ment to conform to standard time. 
 
 How far these changes will become general, time will tell. The efforts of Mr. Allen were seconded by manv 
 eminent scientists, the Secretary of the Navy, the Signal Service Department and other important bodies. 
 
COMPARATIVE TIME INDICATORS, 
 
 Local and Standard with Ta bles of Difference at Important Points. 
 
 Difference between old 
 and new Standards. 
 
 At points which have been 
 established Standards un- 
 der old system for one or 
 more roads. 
 
 The 75th Meridian Time. 
 
 Eastern or Red, New St’d. 
 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 Baltimore, Md. . . 
 
 Bath, Me 
 
 Boston, Mass.... 
 
 Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Hamilton, Ont. 
 
 Phi ' adelp hia, Pa, 
 
 Port Hope, Can 
 
 HH, Providence, R. 
 Richmond, Va. 
 Savannah, Ga. 
 Toronto, Can.. 
 
 Dubuque, Iowa.. 
 
 Hannibal, Mo.. 
 
 Jefferson City, Mo 
 Kansas Citv, Mo. 
 
 
 fast. 
 
 ..6 “ 
 
 slow. 
 
 .20 “ 
 
 fast. 
 
 . 16 “ 
 
 
 .15 “ 
 
 slow. 
 
 •32 “ 
 
 
 .19 “ 
 
 i€ 
 
 . 6 “ 
 
 fast. 
 
 L.12 “ 
 
 \\ 
 
 • 4 “ 
 
 t. 1 “ 
 
 slow. 
 
 • 14 “ 
 
 
 • 3° “ 
 
 
 • 19 “ 
 
 fast. 
 
 .14 
 
 * 
 
 10 “ 
 
 slow. 
 
 .24 “ 
 
 “ 
 
 
 
 . 8 ‘ 
 
 ** 
 
 dian Time. 
 
 New St’d. 
 
 ,24 min, 
 
 , slow. 
 
 .22 “ 
 
 fast. 
 
 • 9 “ 
 
 44 
 
 .22 
 
 
 .26 “ 
 
 44 
 
 
 “ 
 
 • 3 \\ 
 
 slow. 
 
 
 “ 
 
 ,.16 “ 
 
 fast. 
 
 • 9 V, 
 
 slow. 
 
 19 , 
 
 fast. 
 
 .29 “ 
 
 44 
 
 1.13 “ 
 
 slow. 
 
 . 8 “ 
 
 fast. 
 
 fast. 
 
 slow. 
 
 fast. 
 
 slow. 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn 
 
 Mobile, Ala 
 
 Nashville, Tenn...i3 
 New Orleans, La., the same. 
 
 » tm;iha, Neb 24 min. slow. 
 
 Port Huron, Mich. 30 “ fast. 
 
 St. Louis. Mo... 1 ■“ slow. 
 
 St Paul, Minn..... 12 
 Savannah, Ga. 36 
 
 Selma, Ala 12 
 
 Sioux City, Iowa. .26 
 Terre Haute, Ind..io 
 Vicksburg, Miss.. 3 
 Winona, Minn 7 
 
 The 105th Meridian Time. 
 
 Mountain or Gree, , New St’d. 
 Denver, Col ,time is the same. 
 Laramie, V y- 6 m. si w, 
 
 Salt Lake City, U ah Ter. 28 s. 
 
 The 120th Meridian Time. 
 
 Pacific or Yellow, New St’d. 
 Kal tma, Washington, 10 min. 
 slow. 
 
 Portland, Oregon, 10 min. slow. 
 San Francisco to/,, 10 mm. 
 slow. 
 
 The 60th Meridian Time. 
 
 Inter Colonial or Brown, New 
 Standard, touchingonly Halifax, 
 St. John and Quebec is omitted 
 in this table. 
 
 Standard Time when it is 12 
 Noon at Washington, D. G. 
 
 6o° Meridian Time, 1.08 p m. 
 75 0 Meridian Time, 12.08 p.m. 
 90 0 Meridian 'l ime, n.08 a. m. 
 io5 p Meridian Time, 10.08 a. m. 
 120 0 Meridian Time, 9.08 a.m. 
 
DIFFERENCE IN TIME. 
 
 HE illustration which is shown on the preceding page is self-explanatory, 
 and requires but a glance to understand it. Thus, when the sun crosses 
 the meridian line of Washington it is twelve o’clock noon. The time at 
 all places east of the longitude of Washington, D. C., will be P.M., and 
 all places west of the same will be A.M. 
 
 The reason for this, as we say in common language, is that the sun travels, while, in 
 fact, the world revolves, over the whole circle of 360° in a day, or 15 0 in an hour, or 15' of 
 the circle in one minute of time. It is, therefore, easy to indicate the difference in time 
 between two or more places when we know the difference in degrees of longitude, east or 
 west, between the points. For example, when it is twelve o’clock noon at Washing- 
 ton, D. C., it will be four o’clock and fifty-five minutes P. M. in London, because the 
 longitude of London is 75 0 and 5' east of that of Washington. On the other hand, when 
 we know the difference in time, we can tell the distance in longitude between the two 
 points. 
 
 Persons who cross the Atlantic for the first time have, without thinking of this, sup- 
 posed that their watches had lost time, when, in fact, they were themselves gaining time 
 by traveling eastward to meet the sun at noon each day earlier than the day preceding. 
 In this way, by traveling eastward around the world, the traveler gains one whole day. 
 By traveling westward around the world, one day in time is lost. 
 
 THE READY RECKONER, CONTAINING USEFUL TABLES FOR REFER- 
 ENCE IN COMPUTING WAGES, INTEREST, &c. 
 
 DAILY WAGES AT A GIVEN AMOUNT PER WEEK. 
 
 The time in days is noted in the left-hand column, and the amount of wages under 
 the respective headings, as noted below : 
 
 Per 
 
 week. 
 
 $1 50 
 
 $2 00 
 
 $2 50 
 
 $3 00 
 
 $3 50 
 
 $4 00 
 
 $4 50 
 
 $5 00 
 
 £5 50 
 
 7* 
 
 $6 00 
 
 Days. 
 
 I 
 
 25 
 
 334 
 
 41! 
 
 50 
 
 58^ 
 
 661 
 
 75 
 
 83^ 
 
 911 
 
 1 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 661 
 
 83i 
 
 1 00 
 
 1 i6f 
 
 1 334 
 
 1 50 
 
 1 66f 
 
 1 834 
 
 2 00 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 I 00 
 
 1 25 
 
 1 50 
 
 1 75 
 
 2 00 
 
 2 25 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 75 
 
 3 00 
 
 4 
 
 1 00 
 
 I 333 
 
 1 661 
 
 2 00 
 
 2 33 ^ 
 
 2 661 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 333 
 
 3 661 
 
 4 00 
 
 5 
 
 1 25 
 
 I 661 
 
 2 o8£ 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 91! 
 
 3 33l 
 
 3 75 
 
 4 i6§ 
 
 4 584 
 
 5 00 
 
 6 
 
 1 50 
 
 2 00 
 
 2 50 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 50 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 50 
 
 5 00 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 Per ; 
 week. 
 
 1 
 
 $7 00 
 
 1 
 
 $7 5 ° 
 
 $8 00 
 
 $10 00 
 
 $11 00 
 
 $12 OO 
 
 £13 00 
 
 $14 00 
 
 £15 00 
 
 Days. 
 
 I 
 
 1 16§ 
 
 I 25 
 
 1 334 
 
 1 661 
 
 1 834 
 
 2 OO 
 
 2 17 
 
 2 334 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 
 
 2 334 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 661 
 
 3 334 
 
 3 661 
 
 4 OO 
 
 4 34 
 
 4 661 
 
 5 00 
 
 3 
 
 3 50 
 
 3 75 
 
 4 00 
 
 5 00 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 51 
 
 7 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 4 
 
 4 661 
 
 5 09 
 
 5 334 
 
 6 66 § 
 
 7 334 
 
 8 00 
 
 8 68 
 
 9 334 
 
 10 50 
 
 5 
 
 5 83I 
 
 6 25 
 
 6 661 
 
 8 333 
 
 9 16I 
 
 10 00 
 
 10 85 
 
 n 661 
 
 12 5a 
 
 6 
 
 7 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 8 00 
 
 10 00 
 
 II OO 
 
 12 00 
 
 13 00 
 
 14 OO 
 
 15 00 
 
 If the desired number of days or amount of wages is not in the table, double or 
 treble any suitable number of days or amount of money as the case may be, until you 
 obtain the desired number of days and the wages to correspond. 
 
INTEREST TABLES. 
 
 Rules for the Use of Tables. 
 
 1. To compute the interest at 2$, take one-half the amount given in Table I., 
 against the time found in right hand column and under the amount given in top line. 
 
 2. To compute the interest at 2 y 2 i, follow the above direction, using Table II. 
 
 3. To compute the interest at 3$, use Table III., as above. 
 
 4. The interest at 4$ is found in Table I. 
 
 5. The interest at 5$ is found in Table II. 
 
 6. The interest at 6% is found in Table III. 
 
 7. The interest at 7% is found in Table IV. 
 
 8. To compute the interest at 7%% } take amounts given in Table II. and multi, 
 ply that result by three. 
 
 9. To compute the interest at 8$, double the amounts given in Table I. 
 
 10. To compute the interest at 9$, take one half the amounts given in Table III. 
 and multiply that result by three. 
 
 11. To compute the interest at 10$, double the amounts given in Table II. 
 
 12. To compute the interest at 12$, double the amounts given in Table III. 
 
 13. To compute the interest at 14$, double the amounts given in Table IV. 
 
 14. A SHORT RULE for computing interest for days at six per cent: multiply 
 
 sum by half the number of days, and divide result by 30, and you have the interest 
 in cents. 
 
 INTEREST TABLE I. 
 
 Time. 
 
 $5 
 
 $10 
 
 $20 
 
 $30 
 
 $40 
 
 $50 
 
 $60 
 
 $70 
 
 $80 
 
 $90 
 
 $100 
 
 $500 
 
 1 
 
 day 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .06 
 
 2 
 
 days 
 
 0 
 
 0 i 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .12 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 •03 
 
 .15 
 
 4 
 
 “ 
 
 0 
 
 0 1 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .04. 
 
 .04 
 
 •05 
 
 .22 
 
 5 
 
 44 . • • 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .28 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 .01 | 
 
 | .01 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 •03 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 • 33 
 
 7 
 
 tl 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 •39 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 .00 
 
 .01 | 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .ob 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 • 44 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 •01 i 
 
 i -° 2 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 • 05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .10 
 
 • 50 
 
 10 
 
 “ 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 • 03 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .10 
 
 .11 
 
 • 55 
 
 11 
 
 4 < 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 • 05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .10 
 
 .11 
 
 . 12 
 
 .61 
 
 12 
 
 Ci 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 ' 
 
 •03 
 
 .04 
 
 •05 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 . 12 
 
 .13 
 
 .67 
 
 13 
 
 4 4 
 
 .01 
 
 .OI 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 .10 
 
 .12 
 
 • 13 
 
 .14 
 
 .72 
 
 14 
 
 “ 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 •05 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .12 
 
 .14 
 
 .16 
 
 • 73 
 
 15 
 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .10 
 
 .12 
 
 • 13 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .83 
 
 16 
 
 “ 
 
 • OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 • 05 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 . 12 
 
 .14 
 
 . 16 
 
 .18 
 
 .89 
 
 17 
 
 41 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 .94 
 
 18 
 
 “ 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 . 10 
 
 .12 
 
 .14 
 
 .16 
 
 .18 
 
 .20 
 
 1 .00 
 
 19 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 .21 
 
 1.05 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 . 16 
 
 .18 
 
 .20 
 
 .22 
 
 1. 11 
 
 21 
 
 4 * t t t 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 . 12 
 
 .14 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .21 
 
 .23 
 
 1. 17 
 
 22 
 
 4 * 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 . 10 
 
 . 12 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .24 
 
 1.22 
 
 23 
 
 “ 
 
 .01 
 
 •03 
 
 • 05 
 
 .08 
 
 .10 
 
 .13 
 
 •15 
 
 • 17 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .26 
 
 1.28 
 
 24 
 
 
 .01 
 
 03 
 
 .05 
 
 .08 
 
 . 11 
 
 • 13 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 .27 
 
 1-33 
 
 25 
 
 4 4 
 
 .01 
 
 •03 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 . n 
 
 .14 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .25 
 
 .28 
 
 i -39 
 
 26 
 
 
 .01 
 
 1 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 .14 
 
 .17 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .26 
 
 .29 
 
 1.44 
 
 27 
 
 4 4 
 
 .02 
 
 | -03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 .15 
 
 .18 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 .27 
 
 .30 
 
 1.50 
 
 28 
 
 
 .02 
 
 1 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .13 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .25 
 
 .28 
 
 • 31 
 
 1.56 
 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .06 
 
 . 10 
 
 .13 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .23 
 
 .26 
 
 .29 
 
 .32 
 
 1.60 
 
 1 
 
 month 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .07 
 
 . 10 
 
 .13 
 
 .17 
 
 .20. 
 
 .23 
 
 .27 
 
 .30 
 
 •33 
 
 1.67 
 
 1 
 
 year 
 
 .20 
 
 .40 
 
 .80 
 
 1 . 20 
 
 1 1.60 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.40 
 
 2.80 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.60 
 
 4.00 
 
 20.00 
 
INTEREST TABLE II, 
 
 Time. 
 
 $5 
 
 $10 
 
 $20 
 
 $30 
 
 $ 40 ! 
 
 $5o 
 
 $60 
 
 $70 
 
 $80 
 
 $90 !$100 
 
 1 
 
 $500 
 
 i day 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .OI 
 
 .01 
 
 .07 
 
 2 days 
 
 3 “ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 • OI 
 
 .OI 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .14 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 .OI 
 
 .OI 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 .21 
 
 4 “ 
 
 o 
 
 .OI 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .28 
 
 - < i 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 .OI 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 •35 
 
 6 “ 
 
 o 
 
 • OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .08 
 
 .42 
 
 7 “ 
 
 o 
 
 • OI 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .04 
 
 •05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 . 10 
 
 •49 
 
 8 “ 
 
 • OI 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 . 0*7 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 . IO 
 
 . 11 
 
 • 55 
 
 9 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 ,c8 
 
 .->9 
 
 . 10 
 
 .11 
 
 • 13 
 
 .62 
 
 IO “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 . OT . 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .19 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 .14 
 
 .69 
 
 ii “ 
 
 ,OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 . 12 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 .76 
 
 12 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 ■05 
 
 •07 
 
 .08 
 
 . 10 
 
 .12 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 •17 
 
 .83 
 
 13 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 . 16 
 
 .18 
 
 .90 
 
 14 “ 
 
 • OI 
 
 .02 
 
 ' .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 | 
 
 1 -IO 
 
 .12 
 
 .14 
 
 . 16 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 •97 
 
 15 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 ] 
 
 .10 
 
 • 13 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 1.04 
 
 16 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 . 16 
 
 .18 
 
 .20 
 
 .22 
 
 1. 11 
 
 r; “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .02 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 . 12 
 
 .14 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 ; 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 1. 19 
 
 18 “ 
 
 • OI 
 
 •03 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 . 10 
 
 '13 
 
 .15 
 
 .18 
 
 .20 
 
 .22 
 
 .25 
 
 1.25 
 
 19 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 •03 
 
 .05 
 
 .08 
 
 .11 
 
 -13 ' 
 
 I - l6 
 
 .18 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 .28 
 
 1.32 
 
 20 “ 
 
 .OI 
 
 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .14 < 
 
 ! • T 7 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .25 
 
 .2? 
 
 1-39 
 
 21 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 • 03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 .15 
 
 | .18 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 . 26 
 
 • 3 <f 
 
 1.46 
 
 22 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 . IvJ 
 
 1 - 18 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 .27 
 
 .31 
 
 1-53 
 
 23 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .06 
 
 . 10 
 
 .13 
 
 .l6 1 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .26 
 
 .29 
 
 .32 
 
 1. 71 
 
 24 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .07 
 
 . 10 
 
 .13 
 
 .17 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .27 
 
 .30 
 
 • 33 
 
 1.67 
 
 25 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .07 
 
 .10 
 
 .14 
 
 .17 
 
 .21 ’ 
 
 .24 
 
 .28 
 
 •31 
 
 • 35 
 
 i -73 
 
 26 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .11 
 
 .15 
 
 .18 
 
 .21 
 
 .25 
 
 .29 
 
 .32 
 
 •36 
 
 1 .81 
 
 27 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 .11 
 
 .15 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .26 
 
 .30 
 
 •34 
 
 •37 
 
 1.87 
 
 28 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 . 12 
 
 .16 
 
 .19 
 
 .23 
 
 .27 
 
 .31 
 
 •35 
 
 •39 
 
 1.94 
 
 29 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 . 12 
 
 . 16 
 
 .20 
 
 .24 
 
 .28 
 
 • 33 
 
 .36 
 
 .40 
 
 2.01 
 
 i month 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 .13 
 
 .17 
 
 .21 
 
 .25 
 
 .29 
 
 • 33 
 
 .38 
 
 .41 
 
 2.09 
 
 I year 
 
 •25 
 
 •50 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.50 
 
 5.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 INTEREST TABLE IV. 
 
 Time. j 
 
 $5 
 
 $10 
 
 $20 
 
 $30 
 
 $40 
 
 $50 
 
 $60 
 
 $70 
 
 $80 
 
 $90 
 
 $100 
 
 $500 
 
 1 
 
 day 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 . 10 
 
 2 
 
 days 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 .02 
 
 • 03 
 
 •03 
 
 •03 
 
 .04 
 
 .19 
 
 3 
 
 “ 
 
 , 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .•02 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 .04 
 
 •05 
 
 .06 
 
 • 29 
 
 4 
 
 t 4 
 
 0 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .06 
 
 •07 
 
 .gS 
 
 • 39 
 
 5 
 
 4 4 . . . . T , t 
 
 0 
 
 •OI 
 
 .02 
 
 • 03 
 
 .04 
 
 •05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 . LO 
 
 •49 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .12 
 
 • 5 ? 
 
 7 
 
 4 4 
 
 .01 
 
 .01 
 
 .03 
 
 .04 
 
 .05 
 
 .07 
 
 .08 
 
 . 10. 
 
 .11 
 
 . 12 
 
 .14 
 
 M 
 
 8 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .12 
 
 .14 
 
 .16 
 
 .78 
 
 9 
 
 < i 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 • 05 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 .14 
 
 .16 
 
 .18 
 
 .88 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .08 
 
 . 10 
 
 .12 
 
 .14 
 
 . 16 
 
 .18 
 
 .19 
 
 •94 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .11 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 .17 
 
 .19 
 
 .21 
 
 I.O) 
 
 12 
 
 44 _ . . t 
 
 .01 
 
 .02 
 
 •05 
 
 .07 
 
 .09 
 
 . 12 
 
 .14 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .21 
 
 .23 
 
 1 . 16 
 
 13 
 
 4 4 ... . 
 
 .01 
 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 
 .08 
 
 . 10 
 
 .13 
 
 .15 
 
 .18 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 •25 
 
 1 . 2<f 
 
 14 
 
 44 T . . T t 
 
 .01 
 
 .03 
 
 .05 
 
 .08 
 
 .11 
 
 .14 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .22 
 
 .25 
 
 .27 
 
 I.36 
 
 T 5 
 
 4 4 
 
 .01 
 
 •03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 .15 
 
 .18 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .26 
 
 .29 
 
 I.46 
 
 16 
 
 44 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .06 
 
 .09 
 
 .12 
 
 . 16 
 
 .19 
 
 .2* 
 
 .24 
 
 .28 
 
 .31 
 
 1.56 
 
 17 
 
 < ( 
 
 .02 
 
 •03 
 
 .07 
 
 .10 | 
 
 1 -13 
 
 .17 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .25 
 
 •30 
 
 • 33 1 
 
 1.65 
 
 18 
 
 4 4 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .11 
 
 .14 
 
 .18 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 •27 
 
 .32 
 
 •35 
 
 L 75 
 
 19 
 
 44 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .07 
 
 .11 
 
 .15 
 
 • T 9 
 
 .22 
 
 .26 
 
 •29 
 
 •33 
 
 .36 
 
 1.82 
 
 20 
 
 44 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 .12 
 
 . 16 
 
 .20 
 
 .23 
 
 .27 
 
 • 31 
 
 •35 
 
 .38 
 
 1-94 
 
 21 
 
 44 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .08 
 
 .12 
 
 . 16 
 
 .21 
 
 .24 
 
 .28 
 
 •33 
 
 •37 
 
 .41 
 
 2.04 
 
 22 
 
 44 
 
 .02 
 
 .04 
 
 .09 
 
 .13 
 
 .17 
 
 .22 
 
 .26 
 
 •30 
 
 •34 
 
 •39 
 
 •43 
 
 2.14 
 
 23 
 
 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 •04 
 
 .09 
 
 • x 3 
 
 .18 
 
 .23 
 
 .27 
 
 •31 
 
 .36 
 
 .40 
 
 •45 
 
 2.24 
 
 24 
 
 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .05 
 
 .09 
 
 .14 
 
 .19 
 
 .24 
 
 .28 
 
 •33 
 
 •37 
 
 •42 
 
 •47 
 
 2-33 
 
 25 
 
 “ 
 
 .02 
 
 .05 
 
 . 10 
 
 .14 
 
 .19 
 
 .25 
 
 .29 
 
 •34 
 
 •39 
 
 •44 
 
 •49 
 
 2-43 
 
 26 
 
 4 ‘ 
 
 .02 
 
 .05 
 
 .10 
 
 .15 
 
 .20 
 
 .26 
 
 .30 
 
 • 35 
 
 .40 
 
 .46 
 
 • 50 
 
 2-53 
 
 27 
 
 44 
 
 •03 
 
 .06 
 
 . 11 
 
 . 16 
 
 .21 
 
 .27 
 
 .32 
 
 •37 
 
 .42 
 
 •47 
 
 •52 
 
 2.63 
 
 2S 
 
 4 4 
 
 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 .11 
 
 . 16 
 
 .22 
 
 .28 
 
 • 33 
 
 .38 
 
 •44 
 
 •49 
 
 • 54 
 
 2.73 
 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 .03 
 
 .06 
 
 . n 
 
 .17 
 
 .23 
 
 •29 
 
 • 34 
 
 .40 
 
 • 45 
 
 • 50 
 
 06 
 
 2.82 
 
 I 
 
 month 
 
 • 03 
 
 .06 
 
 . 12 
 
 .18 
 
 •23 
 
 .29 
 
 •35 
 
 .41 
 
 • 47 
 
 .52 
 
 .58 
 
 2.92 
 
 I 
 
 year 
 
 ■35 
 
 .70 
 
 1.40 
 
 2. 10 
 
 2.80 
 
 3-50 
 
 4.20 
 
 4.90 
 
 5.60 
 
 6.30 
 
 7.00 
 
 35.00 
 
A TABLE, 
 
 Showing the number of days from any day in one month, to the same day in any other 
 month. Very useful in Banking business. 
 
 From 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 to January. 
 
 365 
 
 3i 
 
 59 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 15 1 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 February. 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 28 
 
 59 
 
 89 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 303 
 
 March. 
 
 306 
 
 337 
 
 365 
 
 3i 
 
 6 1 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 214 
 
 245 
 
 275 
 
 April. 
 
 275 
 
 306 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 9i 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 214 
 
 244 
 
 May. 
 
 245 
 
 276 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 6 1 
 
 92 
 
 123 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 214 
 
 June. 
 
 214 
 
 245 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 July. 
 
 184 
 
 215 
 
 243 
 
 274 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 92 
 
 223 
 
 153 
 
 August, 
 
 153 
 
 184 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 3i 
 
 6 1 
 
 92 
 
 122 
 
 September. 
 
 122 
 
 153 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 303 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 6 1 
 
 9 1 
 
 October. 
 
 92 
 
 123 
 
 I 5 i 
 
 182 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 3i 
 
 6 1 
 
 November. 
 
 61 
 
 92 
 
 120 
 
 151 
 
 181 
 
 212 
 
 242 
 
 273 
 
 304 
 
 334 
 
 365 
 
 30 
 
 December. 
 
 3i 
 
 62 
 
 90 
 
 121 
 
 I 5 i 
 
 182 
 
 212 
 
 243 
 
 274 
 
 304 
 
 335 
 
 365 
 
 Table III. 
 
 TIME. 
 
 $5 
 
 $10 
 
 $20 
 
 $30 
 
 $40 
 
 £50 
 
 #60 
 
 #70 
 
 $80 
 
 $90 
 
 $100 
 
 $500 
 
 I 
 
 Day. 
 
 O 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 Days 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 << 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 tt 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 tt 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 u 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 tt 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 59 
 
 8 
 
 tt 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 67 
 
 9 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 
 75 
 
 10 
 
 tt 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 
 84 
 
 1 1 
 
 u 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 IS 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 J 8 
 
 
 92 
 
 12 
 
 
 •I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 1 6 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 13 
 
 tt 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 09 
 
 14 
 
 tt 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 1 6 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 ft 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 i 3 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 16 
 
 it 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 1 1 
 
 13 
 
 1 6 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 1 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 7 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 1 9 
 
 « 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 1 6 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 59 
 
 20 
 
 it 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 67 
 
 21 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 25 \ 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 75 
 
 22 
 
 tt 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 1 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 26' 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 23 
 
 tt 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 3 i 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 1 
 
 92 
 
 24 
 
 tt 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 1 6 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 00 
 
 25 
 
 u 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 09 
 
 26 
 
 tt 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 tt 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 4i 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 it 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 tt 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 I month 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 i year. 
 
 i 30_ 
 
 1 60 
 
 1 20 
 
 T 80 
 
 2 40 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 60 
 
 4 20 
 
 4 80 
 
 5 40 
 
 6 00 
 
 30 
 
 00 
 
VALUE OF FOREIGN COINS IN UNITED STATES MONEY. 
 
 (Proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury, January 1st, 1889.) 
 
 Country. 
 
 Standard. 
 
 Argentine Rep. . . 
 
 Double 
 
 Austria 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Double 
 
 
 
 Bolivia 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 British N. Amer. . 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 Chili 
 
 Double 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Double 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 F ranee 
 
 Double 
 
 German Empire. . 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 Great Britain .... 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 Greece 
 
 Double 
 
 Guatemala 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Playti 
 
 Double 
 
 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 India 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Italy 
 
 Double 
 
 Tanan 
 
 *Donble 
 
 
 
 Liberia 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Double 
 
 Nicaragua 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Norway 
 
 Single gold. . . 
 
 Peru 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Single gold. . . 
 
 Russia 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Spain 
 
 Double. . . 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Single gold. . . . 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Double 
 
 Tripoli. 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Single gold . . . 
 
 U. S. Colombia. . 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Single silver. . 
 
 Monetary Unit. 
 
 Value in 
 U.S. Money 
 
 Coins. 
 
 Peso 
 
 $0.96,5 
 
 Gold: argentine ($4.82,4) and ]/ 2 argentine. 
 Silver : peso and divisions. 
 
 Florin 
 
 •33,6 
 
 Gold : 4 florins ($1.92,9), 8 florins ($3.85,8), 
 ducat ($2.28,7), and 4 ducats ($9.15,8). 
 Silver : 1 and 2 florins. 
 
 Franc 
 
 •19,3 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 francs. Silver : 5 francs. 
 
 Boliviano 
 
 .68 
 
 Silver : Boliviano and divisions. 
 
 Milreis of 1,000 reis.. . . 
 
 •54,6 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, and 20 milreis. Silver : 1, 
 
 and 2 milreis. 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1. 00 
 
 
 Peso 
 
 .91,2 
 
 Gold: escudo ($1.82,4), doubloon ($4.56,1), 
 and condor ($9.12,3). Silver: peso and 
 divisions. 
 
 Peso 
 
 .92,6 
 
 Gold: doubloon ($5.01,7). Silver: peso. 
 
 Crown 
 
 .26,8 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Sucre 
 
 .68 
 
 Gold : condor ($9.64,7) and double condor. 
 Silver : sucre and divisions. 
 
 Pound (100 piastres) . . . 
 
 4-94,3 
 
 Gold : pound (100 piastres, 50 piastres, 20 
 piastres, 10 piastres, and 5 piastres. 
 Silver : 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 piastres. 
 
 Franc 
 
 •19,3 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver : 
 5 francs. 
 
 Mark 
 
 .23,8 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, and 20 marks. 
 
 Pound sterling 
 
 4.86,6^ 
 
 Gold : sovereign (pound sterling'* and sot. 
 
 Drachma 
 
 •19,3 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 dracilmas 0 
 Silver : 5 drachmas. 
 
 Peso 
 
 .68 
 
 Silver : peso and divisions 
 
 Gourde 
 
 • 96,5 
 
 Silver : gourde. 
 
 Peso 
 
 .68 
 
 Silver : divisions of peso. 
 
 Rupee of 16 annas 
 
 .32,3 
 
 Gold : mohur ($7.10,5). Silver *. rupee and 
 divisions. 
 
 Lira 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 liras. Silver : 
 5 liras. 
 
 Yen 1 Silver 
 
 •99,7 
 
 Gold : 1, 2, 5, 10, and 20 yen. 
 
 •73,4 
 
 Silver : yen. 
 
 Dollar 
 
 1. 00 
 
 Dollar 
 
 •73,9 
 
 Gold : dollar ($0.98,3), 2j£, 5, 10, and 20 
 dollars. Silver : dollar (or peso) and div. 
 
 Florin 
 
 .40,2 
 
 Gold : 10 florins. Silver : j£, 1, and 2j£ flor. 
 
 Peso 
 
 .68 
 
 Silver : peso and divisions. 
 
 Crown 
 
 .26.8 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Sol 
 
 .68 
 
 Silver : sol and divisions. 
 
 Milreis of 1,000 reis 
 
 1.08 
 
 Gold : 1, 2, 5, and 10 milreis. 
 
 Rouble of 100 kopecks. 
 
 • 54-4 
 
 Gold: imperial ($7.71,8), and % imperialf 
 ($3.86,0). Silver: X, y 2> and 1 rouble. 
 
 Peseta of 100 centimes. 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold : 25 pesetas. Silver : 5 pesetas. 
 
 Crown . 
 
 .26,8 
 
 Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
 
 Franc 
 
 .19,3 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 francs. Silver: 
 5 francs. 
 
 Mahbub of 20 piastres. 
 
 .61,4 
 
 Piastre 
 
 .04,4 
 
 Gold : 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 piastres. 
 Gold : condor ($9.64,7) and double-condor. 
 Silver : peso. 
 
 Peso 
 
 .68 
 
 Bolivar 
 
 .13,6 
 
 Gold : 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 bolivars. Sil. 
 ver : 5 bolivars. 
 
 * Gold the nominal standard. Silver practically the standard. The value of the Shanghai taels based on 
 the price of silver used in estimating the value of foreign silver coins, as above, is $1,005. 
 f Coined since January 1st, 1886. Old half-imperial = $3.98,6. 
 
 Note. — The “ Standard ” of a given country is indicated as follows, namelv : Double , where its standard 
 silver coins are unlimited legal tender, the same as its gold coins ; single gold or single silver , as its standard coins 
 of one or the other metal are unlimited legal tender. The par of exchange of the monetary unit of a country 
 with a single gold standard is fixed at the value of the gold unit as compared with the United States gold unit. 
 
Commercial and Legal. 
 
 THE BUSINESS MANUAL. 
 
 NEGOTIABLE PAPER. 
 
 Any instrument implying an obligation upon the maker to pay a certain sum ot 
 money to a certain person, or order, or to bearer, at a certain time , without condition, iot 
 value received, may be transferred, and the holder will acquire the same rights as the 
 original payee. 
 
 A note without the words “or order” or bearer is not negotiable. If a note is 
 made payable to a certain person or order the payee must indorse it before it can 
 be transferred. A note without a specified time for payment is payable on demand. 
 A note does not draw interest unless it contains the words “ with interest.” A note or 
 bill payable in Mdse, is not negotiable. A note made on Sunday is void. A note ob- 
 tained by fraud or from a person in a state of intoxication cannot be collected. A 
 note containing a condition or contingency upon which the payment is based is not 
 generally negotiable. 
 
 The sum for which notes, bills and checks are drawn is usually expressed in both 
 figures and words, and when any difference arises the words are accepted as expressing 
 the sum intended. 
 
 A bill of exchange should be presented for acceptance within a reasonable time 
 after it is received. Presentment for acceptance should be made to the drawee him- 
 self or his authorized agent. It should be made during the usual business hours of 
 the day. If the drawee has removed his residence or place of business diligent inquiry 
 should be made for him. The drawee should be given reasonable time to consider 
 whether or not he will accept the bill. He should have time, if desired, to look over 
 his accounts to see whether he has sufficient funds belonging to the drawee. If he 
 decides to accept the bill he should write the word accepted across the face, with his 
 name and date of acceptance. The time for which it was drawn is counted from the 
 date of acceptance. If the bill is properly presented and the drawee refuses to accept 
 it, it is said to be dishonored. 
 
 If a foreign bill , it should then be protested and notice immediately given to the 
 drawer and each indorser. A foreign bill is one drawn by a person in one State Of 
 country on a .person in another State or country. 
 
184 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 An inland bill is one in which the drawer and drawee are both residents of thesarm* 
 State or country. 
 
 The several States of the United States are foreign to each other so far as relates 
 to bills of exchange. 
 
 An inland bill need not be protested unless so required by statute, but notice of 
 dishonor should be given to the drawer and indorsers. 
 
 INDORSEMENTS. 
 
 WHEN the indorser simply writes his name on the back of a negotiable instrument 
 it is said to be indorsed in blank. A negotiable instrument thus indorsed is trans- 
 ferable by delivery, like a bank bill. 
 
 When the indorser by his indorsement makes the instrument payable to a particu- 
 lar person, it is said to be an indorsement in full, and demand of payment can be made 
 only by the indorsee or person to whom it is ordered paid. 
 
 When an indorsee intends to transfer the instrument without rendering himself 
 liable, he should write the words “ without recourse ” under his indorsement. 
 
 In order to hold the indorsers of a promissory note, when the maker fails to pay, 
 demand of payment should be made on the day when the note becomes due. 
 
 If a note is lost the obligation of the maker remains the same> if the consideration 
 for which it was given can be proved. Any unreasonable delay in presenting a check 
 or draft for payment may release the drawer from his obligation. 
 
 The law of the place where an indorsement is made controls the rights and regu- 
 lates the duties of the parties to a bill or note. When a note given in one place is 
 made payable in another, the law of the place where payable will govern as to the rate 
 of interest, if no rate is expressed in the instrument. 
 
 The maker of an accommodation note is not liable to the person whom he accom- 
 modates, but to all who give credit on the strength of his indorsement. 
 
 A bill or note may be written with either ink or pencil, and upon paper or any 
 substitute for it. 
 
 If a note or bill payable without grace falls on Sunday or a legal holiday, it is not 
 payable until the next day. When the last day of grace falls on such a day it is pay- 
 able on the day before, because the days of grace are matters of favor which should be 
 shortened instead of lengthened when Sunday or a holiday intervenes. 
 
 When the maker of a note or bill fails to pay it when due, immediate notice of 
 non-payment should be given to the indorsers and all persons liable to pay it. The 
 reason of this is that the party receiving the notice may obtain security from the 
 party liable to him for the sum for which he is liable to the other party. 
 
 The holder of the note may give notice to all the indorsers or only to the last one; 
 in the latter case the indorser so notified must give notice to the last one before him, 
 and so on. 
 
 16 
 
COMMERCIAL, DEPARTMENT, 
 
Maxims of Business Law. 
 
 FORM OF DEPOSIT SLIPS. 
 
 2 . 
 
 5 - 
 
 10. 
 
 ii, 
 
 2 . 
 
 Ignorance of the law ex- 
 cuses no one. 
 
 It is a fraud to conceal a 
 fraud. 
 
 The law compels nq one 
 to do impossibilities. 
 
 An agreement withoutcon- 
 sideration is null and 
 void. 
 
 Signatures made with a 
 lead pencil ate good in 
 law. 
 
 A receipt for money paid is 
 not legally conclusive. 
 
 The acts of one partner 
 legally bind all the 
 others. 
 
 Contracts made on Sunday 
 cannot be enforced. 
 
 A note of or a contract 
 made with a minor or 
 lunatic is void. 
 
 Principals are responsible 
 far the authorized acts 
 of their agents. 
 
 Agents are responsible to 
 their principals for err- 
 ors. 
 
 Each individual in a part- 
 nership is responsible 
 for all the debts of the 
 firm. 
 
 To be filled out and delivered to bank with money and 
 checks deposited: 
 
 DEPOSITED IN 
 
 J7ew York, 
 
 £7 DOLLARS | CENTS. 
 
 77 
 
 Specie, 
 
 (Bills, 
 
 Checks , J7. Y. City ; 
 
 & 
 
 Country Checks . 
 
 
 Ji 
 
 ca 
 
 
 a.* 
 
 /U). 
 
 — > 
 
 gw 
 
 7e.o 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 fc ■ 
 
 
 
 TOTAL 
 COUNTRY 
 
 TOTAL FOOTING. 
 
 
 ~OGL 
 
 $7 7 ft 
 
 ' 3 - 
 
 14 . 
 
 * 5 - 
 
 16. 
 
 17 - 
 
 18. 
 
 Notes bear interest only when so stated. 
 
 It is not legally necessary to say on a note “ for value received.” 
 
 A note drawn on Sunday is void. 
 
 A note obtained by fraud, or from a person intoxicated, cannot be collected. 
 
 If a note be lost or stolen, it does not release the maker; he must pay it. 
 
 An indorsement of a note is exempt from liability if not served with notice of its 
 dishonor within twenty-four hours of its non-payment. 
 

 BANK DEMAND NOTE, WITH INTEREST. 
 
 FORM OF CHECK. 
 Drawn on Bank by Depositor. 
 
 t 
 
form of draft accompanying 
 
 BILL OF LADING. 
 
 If to be sold or discounted the words “ or 
 Collection ' 9 should be omitted. 
 
 FORM OF A PROMISSORY NOTE PAY- 
 ABLE AT BANK. 
 
 If note is to be paid on demand insert 
 words “On Demand” in place of “Three 
 (3) months.” 
 
FORM OF NOTE TO BE GIVEN WITH COLLATERAL SECURITY. 
 Containing power to sell at discretion. 
 
 ^ Ifg u°° 
 
 
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 ties /e\j{Juiy' d' "^HE CHEMICAL NATIONAL BANK OF N. Y ” 
 
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FORM OF BANK DRAFT— DRAWN BY A WESTERN BANK ON A NEW YORK BANKING FIRM. 
 
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FORM OF PROTEST UPON NON-PAYMENT OF NOTE. 
 
 If a note is not paid at maturity, it is customary for a Notary Public to demand payment, and upon 
 neglect to pay he issues a notice of protest. One is sent to each endorser. If this is not done within 
 24 hours after note falls due, the endorser is relieved of all liability. 
 
 Initeb JSlales of America A s 
 
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 IN TESTIMONIUM VERITATIS. 
 
 ' — @AU» V @U&. _ 
 
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UNITED STATES POSTAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS. 
 
 First-Class Matter. — Matter which is in writing, printed commercial papers, 
 filled out in writing, having the nature of a personal correspondence, or being the 
 expression of a money value, and all packages, the contents of which cannot be 
 ascertained without destroying the wrapper. Postage, 2 cents an ounce, and for 
 each fraction above an ounce. On local or drop letters, at free delivery offices, 2 
 cents. At offices where no free delivery by carriers, 1 cent. Weight of packages 
 not limited. Postage must be prepaid. Registered letters, 10 cents in addition to 
 postage. 
 
 The Post-Office Department is not liable for the loss of any mail matter, but 
 will use its best efforts to assist the owners in its recovery. 
 
 Second-Class Matter. — Includes all newspapers, periodicals, or matter in 
 print and issued at stated periods. Postage, if sent by publishers, 1 cent per lb. 
 If by others, 1 cent for each 4 oz. Weight not limited. Postage must be prepaid. 
 
 Third-Class Matter. — Embraces books (printed and blank), transient news- 
 papers and periodicals, circulars and other matter in print, proof-sheets, manuscript 
 copy accompanying the same, printed blanks, printed cards ; postage at the rate of 1 
 cent for each 2 ounces or part thereof. Must be prepaid. 
 
 All packages must be wrapped with open sides or ends, and may be registered. 
 
 Printed matter is “ the reproduction upon paper by any process except that of 
 hand-writing of any words, letters, characters, figures, or images, or any combination 
 thereof, not having the character of an actual and personal correspondence.” Re- 
 productions by the electric pen, papyrograph, and similar processes, are third-class 
 matter. The limit of weight is four pounds. There is no limit on a single book. 
 
 FOURTH-CLASS Matter. — Embraces blank cards, card-board, and other flexible 
 material, flexible patterns, letter envelopes and letter-paper, merchandise, models, 
 ornamented paper, sample cards, samples of ores, metals, minerals, drawings, plans, de- 
 signs, original paintings in oil or water-colors, and any other matter not included in 
 the first, second, or third classes, and which is not in its form or nature liable to 
 destroy, deface, or otherwise damage the contents of the mail-bag, or harm the 
 person of any one engaged in the postal service, except obscene matter, or concern- 
 ing lotteries. Postage rate thereon, one cent for each ounce or part thereof. The 
 limit of weight of packages is four pounds. Fourth-class matter may also be regis- 
 tered, and must be fully prepaid. Seeds, cuttings, bulbs, roots, cions, and plants go 
 at 1 cent for every 2 ounces. 
 
 Other articles of the fourth class, which might destroy the mail bags or injure 
 the persons employed in their delivery, may be transmitted through the mails by 
 being properly protected in metallic or tin cases. The methods of packing these 
 articles, too numerous to mention here, will be given, upon application, by any 
 postmaster. 
 
 Money ORDERS, payable in the United States, are limited to $100, but three 
 money orders, each for this amount, can be sent in one day. The rates are: For 
 sums not exceeding $5, five cents; for $5 to $10, eight cents; for $10 to $15, ten 
 cents; for $15 to $30, fifteen cents; for $30 to $40, twenty cents ; for $40 to $50, 
 twenty-five cents; for $50 to $60, thirty cents; for $60 to $70, thirty-five cents; for 
 $70 to $80, forty cents; for $80 to $100, forty-five cents. 
 
 Postal Notes for sums less than $5 are issued for a fee of 3 cents. 
 
STATUTE AND COMMON LAW. 
 
 THERE are two kinds of laws of binding 
 force recognized by the courts, viz. : Statute 
 law and Common law. 
 
 Statute law is that law enacted by the 
 Legislative power of a country in regular form 
 and embraces the greater proportion of all the 
 laws in force. 
 
 Common law embraces all the laws in 
 force in the colonies before the separation from 
 England, which have not been modified, or re- 
 pealed by statute, whether statute or common, and have been recognized by the courts. 
 Also all those applications, inferences from, or universal usages, which the courts have 
 ceded as having among us the force of law. Therefore there is no authority for common 
 law, but the decisions of the courts upon specified points, and no one can know what these 
 are except by a reference to them. Hence the official reports of decisions in all the States 
 and of the U. S. Courts are of the utmost importance for reference, to the lawyer. 
 
 Common law enters in an important degree into commercial transactions, and is of 
 interest to all business men. 
 
 The custom of merchants which can be proven to have been of long standing and 
 of so numerous application as to be well known to the trade at large has been held by 
 the courts to be the “law of merchants,” and a part of the common law, having the full 
 force of statute law. 
 
 One can readily see, then, that it is very important that business men should be 
 conversant with the general laws of business, especially these affecting contracts, part- 
 nership, the conduct of sales, making notes and enforcing the collection of notes. 
 
 Every man should understand enough of ordinary law to be able to protect himself 
 in his own rights and prevent him from unintentionally infringing the rights of others 
 and thereby shun the many mistakes which are made every day, and which lead to diffi- 
 culty, misunderstanding and loss. 
 
 The writer has endeavored to make this digest of Commercial law so practical and 
 plain to the ordinary reader and at the same time so explicit and trustworthy, that it may 
 be safely consulted with confidence in any emergency. 
 
 The Legal forms given may not exactly cover all the facts to be introduced, but 
 they will be found accurate, and the person using them may adapt the language express- 
 ing the transaction to the necessities of the case. 
 
 AGREEMENTS AND CONTRACTS.' 
 
 ERE must be two authorized parties to an agreement or contract, which 
 is an arrangement between them by which each promises to do, or binds 
 himself to perform certain acts which are specified at or within a given 
 time. 
 
 A legal contract does not exist until both parties entering into the 
 agreement have accepted the same thing in the same sense. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 195 
 
 Then it is imperative that an agreement or contract should clearly state all that 
 either party intends to do, and the time of such transaction. Nothing can safely be 
 omitted from such a document, for it is held in law that no verbal testimony can have 
 force over a written instrument unless fraud is proved. 
 
 Nothing can stand as against fraud. An important guide to direct in the under- 
 standing of any instrument must be the honest and actual intent of the parties signing it. 
 
 If either party can prove fraud as against the other, he is relieved from all obliga- 
 tion in the contract, but if both parties acted fraudulently in the transaction, neither can 
 use the fraud of the other for his own benefit. 
 
 A verbal agreement must be proved by testimony but if in writing it proves itself. 
 
 If parties see fit to set aside custom or usage, and so state in their contract, then 
 neither can regard them as a part of the contract. 
 
 A contract binding in the place where it was made, is of force everywhere unless 
 it is immoral and contrary to public policy. 
 
 When the intention of the parties to a contract is clear, the improper punctuation, 
 or spelling of words are not to be considered in the interpretation of the document, nor 
 will they render it void. 
 
 When a contract specifies that a certain thing shall be performed within a given 
 time, the day on which the instrument is executed is not counted. And a contract t <y 
 complete a work by a specified time signifies that it shall be done before that date. 
 
 It requires the consent of both parties to rescind a contract. 
 
 A verbal contract for hiring an agent, servant or clerk may hold good for a year but 
 if it extends beyond that time it must be in writing. 
 
 But it must be the very intention which they expressed in writing. 
 
 If either of them can show that the agreement was honestly made, but under a mis- 
 taken impression of its intention, actually different from what they had purposed to- 
 make, it will be proper cause for holding that there was no contract. 
 
 All contracts must show that they are formed for a consideration of value, else they 
 are not binding. 
 
 When there are mutual promises, and the promise made is the consideration one for 
 the other, then they are valid. 
 
 An agreement or guaranty for the payment of a note, unless it states it is for a con- 
 sideration of value, unless the undertaking was made at the same time as the note, is not 
 binding in law. The entire contract is void when any part of its consideration is unlaw- 
 ful as against public morals or policy. 
 
 It is preferable that all contracts should be written or printed in ink, since pencil 
 marks may be easily erased, but those made in pencil are valid. 
 
 Both parties to a contract are entitled to a copy, which should be preserved. If on 
 examination of their copy with the original, there appear to be erasures or interlinea 
 tions, unless they are specified on the contract itself, it should be rejected. Some want 
 of formality in law may invalidate a contract. 
 
 In most of the United States the English “ Statute of Frauds” are substantially in 
 force. In New York State if the actual consideration is not stated in the contract it is 
 not binding, but in most of the other States any consideration may be inserted. A house, 
 store, or other building may be rented verbally for one year, but it requires a written 
 
196 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 agreement to hold for a longer time. So also, an agreement to sell land or real estate, 
 the services of a person commencing at a given date, a contract to sell goods above a 
 certain sum, as designated by law in different States. 
 
 If notes or contracts are written on Sunday, they are void, unless delivered on 
 another day of the week. 
 
 When an agreement is entered into by correspondence, the mailing the letter accept- 
 ing the contract completes it, provided the acceptor does not receive a second letter 
 withdrawing the proposition before replying to the first, for the offer is then practically 
 withdrawn. 
 
 The useless repetitions encumbering legal documents and the formal technicalities 
 give no strength to a document, and may safely be omitted, and a legal contract be made 
 without them. 
 
 If the language be clearly understood and there is no room for doubt as to its sense, 
 then it must be performed according to it signification. 
 
 Good legal advice is often requisite for drawing up important contracts. 
 
 The following form will be found to be of practical use : 
 
 GENERAL FORM OF AGREEMENT. 
 
 This agreement, made this day of , A. D. 18 between George 
 
 Thompson, of the city and county of New Haven, State of Connecticut, party of the first 
 part, and Richard Ford, of said city and State, party of the second part, 
 
 Witnesseth y That the said George Thompson, party of the first part, hereby cove- 
 nants and agrees that he will deliver to Richard Ford, the said party of the second part, 
 during the month of , A. D. 18 fifty bushels of potatoes at the store of the 
 
 said party of the first part, twenty-five bushels to be delivered on or before the ioth day 
 sf , and twenty-five bushels more on or before the day of , A. D. 
 
 1882. 
 
 And the said party of the second part, in consideration of the prompt fulfillment of 
 this agreement by the said party of the first part, or his agents, agrees and binds him- 
 self to pay to the said party of the first part the sum of one dollar for each and every 
 bushel so delivered to him, not to exceed said fifty bushels, and to pay for each bushel 
 on delivery. 
 
 In case of the failure of either party to this contract to make good his part of the 
 agreement, it is hereby agreed that the party so failing shall forfeit and pay to the other 
 party the sum of seventy-five dollars. 
 
 In witness whereof, the parties to these presents have hereto set their hands and 
 seals the day and year above written. 
 
 GEORGE THOMPSON, [seal.] 
 RICHARD FORD. [seal.] 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in ) 
 presence of j 
 
 John Howard, 
 
 Peter Jones. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 197 
 
 GENERAL AGREEMENT WITH INDEMNITY BOND ATTACHED 
 
 ; OR FAITHFUL PERFORMANCE OF SERVICE AND RETURN OF PROPERTY AND MONEY 
 
 INTRUSTED. 
 
 Agreement by and between John Smith , of , and Peter Jones , of 
 
 In consideration of John Smith employing the said Peter Jones upon the terms hereinaftei 
 mentioned, the said Peter Jones agrees as follows : 
 
 First — To work faithfully as directed as Agent , for said John Smith , for the term of one year, 
 and to give his whole time, attention and energies to said business while in the employ 
 of said John Smith. 
 
 Second — And to report all business transacted by said Peter Jones. 
 
 Third — To return upon demand all moneys, merchandise, property, etc., belonging to said 
 John Smith , as it is hereby agreed and understood that stock is entrusted to the said 
 Peter Jones , and is strictly the property of said John Smith, and should any loss occur by 
 said Peter Jones disregarding or violating the above instructions, said Peter Jones to be 
 held responsible for the same. 
 
 Fourth — To never sell goods less than the authorized price, unless by permission of 
 said Joh?i Smith . 
 
 Fifth — To never interfere, either before or after leaving his employ ,/ith any of his business. 
 
 Sixth - — Said Peter Jones to pay over at once to John Smith all moneys collected, excepting 
 such sums as may be retained by the written consent of said firm as remuneration. 
 
 Seventh — Said Peter Jones hereby binds himself in the penal sum of Five Hundred dollars, 
 and agrees to forfeit all claims he may have against John Smith , if he fail to keep his 
 part of this agreement. 
 
 In consideration of the foregoing agreement being faithfully carried out, John S?nith agrees 
 as follows : To employ and retain in his employment the said Peter Jones so long as he 
 performs the foregoing obligations. 
 
 The terms of payment for the above services are One Hundred Dollars per month, payable 
 monthly. 
 
 Signed, John Smith. 
 
 Date, (here give date). 
 
 Witness, Signed, Peter Jones. 
 
 BOND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that I, Henry Brown , of , State of 
 
 , as surety, am holden and stand firmly bound unto John Smith, doing business 
 under the firm name of John Smith and Sons, in the sum of Five Hundred dollars, to the pay- 
 ment of which to the said John Smith, or their executors, administrators or assignees, I do 
 hereby bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators firmly by these presents. 
 
 The Conditions of this obligation are such that if one Peter Jones shall well and truly per- 
 form the foregoing contract as an agent for said John Smith, then this obligation shall be 
 void, otherwise it shall be and remain in full force and virtue, and the above bounden Henry 
 Brown hereby agrees to pay said firm the full value of any deficiency that may occur in said 
 Peter Jones ’ accounts, not exceeding the sum of Five Hundred dollars. 
 
 In witness whereof, I, the said Heiiry Brown, have hereunto set my hand and seal, this 
 (here give date). 
 
 Signed and sealed in presence of 
 
 Witness 
 
198 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 ARBITRATION. 
 
 matters involving controversies or claims, to avoid litigation and settle 
 the matters amicably, it is often best to leave the subject matter out to 
 arbitration. 
 
 In such cases generally each party selects a person and the two thus 
 selected choose a third, and the award of these arbitrators or a majority 
 of them is final within certain restrictions. Before the award is made either party may 
 withdraw by giving formal notice to all interested. Otherwise he will be bound. 
 
 FORM OF SUBMISSION TO ARBITRATION. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we, Oscar Wilde and John Fitz, both 
 of ., do hereby promise and agree to and with each other to submit and 
 
 we hereby submit the question and claim between us as to the sale of ten bushels of sun- 
 flower seed from the said Oscar Wilde to the said John Fitz, on the first day of April, 
 1882, to the arbitration and determination of John Smith, Peter Jones and Samuel Fry, 
 all of the city of , State of , U. S. A., whose award and decision 
 
 shall be final, binding, and conclusive to us, and in case of disagreement of said arbitral 
 tors, they, or a majority of them, shall select an umpire whose award shall be final and con- 
 clusive ; and in case of disagreement the decision and award of a majority shall be final 
 and conclusive. 
 
 In witness whereof, we have set our hands this day of 18 
 
 OSCAR WILDE. 
 
 Witness, JOHN FITZ. 
 
 Peter Noble, i 
 
 William Strong. ] 
 
 THE AWARD MADE UNDER THIS AGREEMENT. 
 
 To all whom these Presents shall Come, We, John Smith, Peter Jones and 
 Samuel Fry, of the city of Boston, State of Massachusetts, to whom was submitted as 
 arbitrators, the matter in controversy between Oscar Wilde and John Fitz, as by the con- 
 dition of their terms of submission executed by the parties aforesaid, on the day of 
 
 , A. D. , more fully appears. 
 
 Now therefore, know ye, That we, John Smith, Peter Jones and Samuel Fry, 
 the arbitrators mentioned in said terms of agreement having been duly sworn and having 
 heard the proofs and declaration of the parties, do make this award, — That the said 
 Oscar Wilde shall pay the said John Fitz the sum of one dollar in cash as damages, for 
 his failure to pick out all the bad seeds in the ten bushels delivered, as he had agreed 
 to do. 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands, this first day of June, 1882. 
 
 JOHN SMITH. 
 
 PETER JONES. 
 
 In presence of SAMUEL FRY. 
 
 Charles Brown, ) 
 
 Peter Snow. ( 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 19S 
 
 BREACH OF COVENANTS— DAMAGES. 
 
 Respecting the amount of damages accruing where an injury has been caused by a 
 breach of the contract, for which no provision has been made by law, the general rule 
 requires that the amount should be equal to the damage sustained. 
 
 When a party to an agreement to deliver property fails to fulfill his contract, the 
 plaintiff may recover the value of such property at the time and place specified in the 
 agreement. 
 
 Failure of agreement without actual loss, the plaintiff may recover nominal damages 
 and costs. 
 
 Profits anticipated on speculations in real estates are not recoverable upon breach cf 
 contract. But the plaintiff is entitled to actual expenditures. 
 
 In the absence of fraud, the amount of damages to be determined is the purchase 
 money and interest, when there is a breach of contract to convey real estate. 
 
 When there is a failure to convey land as agreed, the plaintiff is entitled to the value 
 of the land at the time agreement was made. 
 
 If goods are lost by common carriers, the loser is entitled to recover the value of 
 the goods at wholesale in the place where they should have been delivered, minus the 
 freight on same. 
 
 A breach of contract to deliver goods on demand entitles the plaintiff to recover the 
 value of the goods at the time of making the demand. 
 
 A party contracting to work for another for a given time at an agreed price, who is 
 discharged without cause before the expiration of the time, may recover the full amount 
 of his wages for the agreed time, provided he does not enter any other employment. In 
 such a case the claim of defendant for reduction of damages would be allowed. 
 
 AGREEMENT TO SELL SHARES OF STOCK. 
 
 This agreement, made this day of , one thousand eight hundred and , between 
 Charles Jones, of the of , in the county of and State of , of the first 
 part, and Joseph R. Gay, of the of , in the county of , State of , of the 
 second part, witnesseth : That, in consideration of the agreement of Charles Jones, 
 
 hereinafter contained, the said Joseph R. Gay agrees to sell, transfer and convey to the 
 said Charles Jones, on the day of next, shares of the , now owned by the 
 said Joseph R. Gay, and standing in his name on the books of said company, and to 
 execute and deliver to the said Charles Jones all necessary assignments, transfers and 
 conveyances, to assure and convey the same to the said Charles Jones, his executors, 
 administrators and assigns forever. 
 
200 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 In consideration of which, the said Charles Jones agrees with the said Joseph R 
 Gay to pay him dollars for each share of the said capital stock, on the said 
 
 day of next. 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and year first 
 above written. 
 
 CHARLES JONES, [l. s.] 
 
 JOSEPH R. GAY. [l. s.] 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in ) 
 presence of j 
 
 Note. — Page held against Gray notes to the amount of $984.54, on which he re- 
 ceived judgment. Gray then settled with Page, and at the time of satisfying the judg- 
 ment received the following, which is a guaranty against liability for two notes which 
 Page claims to have been lost. The form for satisfaction of judgment can be obtained 
 at all stationers. 
 
 This form may be of practical service as a guaranty of protection when valuable 
 papers have been lost : 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that I, John J. Page, of West Hoboken, N. 
 J., in consideration of the receipt by me of the sum of three hundred dollars in assign- 
 ment of a certain judgment entered for nine hundred and eighty -four 
 
 dollars and fifty-four cents, and the transfer or surrender of two promisory notes, which 
 said sum of money is received from Richard Gray, of Johnstown, La., hereby covenant, 
 stipulate and agree with said Richard Gray that I will hold him harmless from all action, 
 suits, losses or damages arising or founded upon two certain notes on which the above 
 judgment was received ; which notes are now lost or mislaid ; and further, that I will at 
 all times defend, at my cost and without any charge to him, any action or proceeding at 
 law founded or brought on said notes. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of , A. 
 
 D. 18 
 
 JOHN J. PAGE, [seal.] 
 
 Witness : Peter Cooper. 
 
 A CONTRACT TO BUILD A HOUSE AND FURNISH ALL MATERIALS. 
 
 An Agreement of two parts as made this day of , in the year one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and , by and between , party of the first part, and , 
 
 party of the second part. 
 
 The said party of the first part, in consideration of the sum of money to be paid as 
 hereinafter provided, and the covenants and agreements hereinafter mentioned, does, for 
 himself and his heirs and assigns, covenant,^ promise and agree to and with the party of the 
 second part, that he will, in a good and workmanlike manner, and according to the best 
 of his art and ability, do and perform the following work, and provide materials for 
 
 the same, that is to say : 
 
 The whole of said work is to be performed, and all the said materials supplied, ac- 
 cording to the plans and specifications of t architect, hereby appointed b/ tha 
 
CONTRACT TO BUILD AND FURNISH MATERIALS. 
 
 201 
 
 party of the second part, which plans and specifications bear even date herewith, and are 
 signed by the parties hereto, and under the superintendence and direction of , 
 
 hereby appointed Superintendent and Agent for the said party of the second part, which 
 plans and specifications form a part of this agreement. 
 
 All said work shall be completed on or before the day of , in the year 
 
 , and no charge of any kind shall be made by the said party of the first part to the 
 said party of the second part beyond the sum of dollars, unless the said party shall 
 
 alter the plans and specifications, in which case the value of such alteration shall be 
 added to the amount to be paid by this contract, or deducted therefrom, as the case may 
 require- -it being expressly understood that no extra work of any kind be performed, or 
 extra material furnished, by the said party of the first part, unless duly authorized by the 
 party of the second part. The said party of the second part may make any alterations 
 from the said plans and specifications as agreed heretofore. 
 
 The said party of the first part, for himself and his legal representatives, further 
 promises and agrees to effect an insurance upon the building as soon as the roof is cov- 
 ered, and the amount of insurance to be for such sum as the said party of the second part 
 shall direct, to be further increased from time to time as the said party of the second part 
 shall direct, the policy to be in the name and for the benefit of said party of the second 
 part, or his legal representatives, and to be made payable in case of loss to , for 
 
 whom it may concern, each party paying one-half the cost of said insurance. 
 
 The said party of the second part, for himself and his legal representatives, in con- 
 sideration of the materials being furnished and the labor done as herein required, and all 
 other things herein stated being done and performed by said party of the first part, cove- 
 nants, promises and agrees to and with the said party of the first part that he will well and 
 truly pay or cause to be paid unto the said party of the first part, or his legal representa- 
 tives, the sum of dollars, in the manner following : 
 
 It is agreed by and between the parties to this contract as follows : 
 
 1. That for each ana every day’s delay in the performance and completion of this 
 
 contract, or any extra work under it, after the said day of , in the year A. D. 
 1 8 , there shall be allowed and paid by the said party of the first part to the said party 
 
 of the second part, or his legal representatives, damages for such delay, if the same shall 
 arise from any aft or neglect on the part of the said party of the first part. 
 
 2. That the said party of the first part shall not be delayed in the continued ad- 
 vancement of his work under this contract, or any extra work under the same, or con- 
 nected therewith, by said party of the second part, or his legal representative, for any, 
 and for each and every day, if any, he shall be so hindered, he shall be allowed an addi- 
 tional day to complete the work aforesaid from and after the day appointed in this con- 
 tract for its entire completion unless a contingency arise as provided in the fifth 
 article. 
 
 3. That each and every person employed by the said party of the first part in the 
 fulfillment and execution of this contract shall be a suitable, competent and trustworthy 
 person. 
 
 4. That the said party of the first part shall and will engage and provide, at his own 
 expense, a thoroughly competent “ foreman,” who shall attend to all matters hereby un- 
 
202 
 
 CONTRACT TO BUILD AND FURNISH MATERIALS. 
 
 dertaken by said party of the first part ; also to the correct and exact making, preparing, 
 laying out and locating of all patterns, mould, models and measurements in, to, for and 
 upon the works, according to the aforesaid plans and specifications. 
 
 5. That if at any time the party of the second part shall find the work is not carried 
 forward with sufficient rapidity or thoroughness, or the material' furnished, or any of the 
 workmen employed by the party of the first part, are unsatisfactory and insufficient for 
 the completion of the work within the time and in the manner set forth in the plans and 
 specifications, he shall give notice of such insufficiency or defects to the party of the first 
 part, and if within three days thereafter they are not remedied to the satisfaction of the 
 party of the second part, he may enter upon the work and discharge or suspend the said 
 party of the first part and all employed with him, and carry on and complete the work, 
 provide and substitute proper materials and workmen, and the expense thereof shall be 
 chargeable to the said party of the first part, and subtracted from any sum due him upon 
 final settlement. 
 
 6. The said party of the first part shall be responsible for all injury to person or 
 persons upon the premises while in his possession. 
 
 7. The said party of the first part will not deviate from the plans and specifications 
 
 of , the architect, but may, from time to time, apply to him for all needful ex- 
 
 planation at the expense of the said party of the second part. 
 
 And whereas, it is the intention of the parties hereto that the party of the first part 
 is to pay for all material and work furnished, it is hereby agreed that every and all liens 
 for labor and material shall be satisfied before the payment of the sum specified at the 
 times herein mentioned. 
 
 It is expressly understood that all the specifications are to be carried out to their 
 honest intent, even if not illustrated in the drawings, and all the work illustrated in the 
 drawings is to be executed, even if it is not described in the specifications. 
 
 The true intent of the plans, drawings and specifications shall be decided by the 
 architect whenever an apparent discrepancy shall arise, and his decision shall be final. 
 
 It is further agreed, that if any misunderstanding arises, by which either party has 
 a claim for damages upon the other, or disagree in the interpretation of any point in this 
 contract the same shall be referred for arbitration to the following named parties * 
 , and , whose award, or that of a majority*, shall be final > 
 
 it being made and determined within three months from the time submitted. 
 
 In witness whereof the aforesaid parties have set their hands and seals, the day and 
 year first mentioned above, to this and all other instruments of like date and tenor. 
 
 A. B., [seal.] 
 
 C. D. [seal]. 
 
 The above named and personally appeared and acknowledged 
 
 the above instrument by them signed to be of their own free act, before me, 
 
 E. F., Justice of the Peace 
 
 Note. — It is of the utmost importance that each specification be passed upon and 
 written with care by both parties, signed and sealed by them both, in the presence of thJ 
 same witnesses as the contract, and acknowledged as a part of it. In some case* they 
 are inserted in the second paragraph of the agreement. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 203 
 
 BILLS OF SALE. 
 
 WRITTEN contract by which a person, for a valuable consideration, con- 
 veys to another his right, title and claim to personal property, is termed a 
 Bill of Sale. 
 
 The purchaser must be in possession of the property to make the Bill 
 of Sale valid, but in some of the States, if the sale was not fraudulently 
 made to avoid the payment of a legal claim, it is prima facie evidence of sale, and the 
 buyer of them can hold. 
 
 FORM, WITH WARRANTY. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that in consideration of the sum of one 
 hundred dollars to me in hand paid, I do hereby sell, grant and deliver unto Thomas H 
 Jones, his heirs, assigns and administrators, the following goods and chattels, to wit : 
 One set of Parlor Furniture ------ $75 00 
 
 One set of Chamber Furniture 25 00 
 
 $100 00 
 
 To have and to hold all and singly the goods and chattels aforesaid forever. And the 
 said grantor hereby covenants with the said grantee that he is the rightful owner of the 
 goods and chattels, and that he will warrant and defend the same against the lawful 
 claims and demands of all persons whatever. 
 
 In witness whereof the said grantor has hereunto set his hand and seal, this 
 day of A. D. 
 
 THOMAS H. JONES, [seal.] 
 
 Witness : James Black, 
 
 Charles Norton. 
 
 BILL OF SALE. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that I, Henry Hartwell, of Branford, Con- 
 necticut, in consideration of three hundred dollars to me paid by , have bar- 
 gained and sold to the said the following goods and chattels, to wit : One pair 
 
 oxen, one cart and two heifers. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of , 
 
 iff 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in 
 presence of 
 
 HENRY HARTWELL, [seal] 
 
204 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 AGENTS AND THEIR AUTHORITY. 
 
 An agent is a person empowered by another to do certain things in his stead, and 
 with his authority, and in law such acts are as valid as if done by the principal. 
 
 One who cannot in law transact certain things in his own name, may act for another 
 who can. Infants, married women and foreigners may be legally qualified to act for 
 another. 
 
 For all acts of the agent the principal is held, if he has delegated to him the power 
 to represent and act for him. 
 
 The two kinds of agencies are general and special. A general agent is one empow- 
 ered to act for his principal in all parts of his business, or all things pertaining to a par- 
 ticular branch of that business. Then the principal is responsible for all that he does, 
 even if he go beyond the authority, provided the agent keeps within the general scope of 
 that business. 
 
 If the person with whom the agent is transacting business is aware that he is ex- 
 ceeding his actual authority, the principal is not responsible for such transaction 
 
 A special agent is only empowered to perform a specified act, or a few specified 
 acts, and then the principal is not responsible for what he does in excess of his authority. 
 The person dealing with the agent is bound to ascertain by inquiry how far the agent 
 was empowered to act, and unless he does this, it is at his own peril. 
 
 Such power may be conferred either verbally upon the agent, or given in writing y 
 with or without seal. Such a writing is called “ a power of attorney.” When a power of 
 attorney is given for use in another country it should be duly acknowledged before a 
 Notary Public, and his signature attested by a Consul of the Government in which the 
 document is to be used. 
 
 Even after the revocation of agency, the principal is responsible, if the party dealing 
 with the former agent is unaware of its revocation. 
 
 If the agent does not conform to his instructions strictly and accurately, then the 
 principal is not held, and the agent may be liable. But the agent cannot be held 
 responsible if the person dealing with him knew that he exceeded his power. 
 
 An agent has no right to appoint a sub-agent, unless he was so empowered to do. 
 
 An agent is bound to the utmost good faith in the business of his principal, to do 
 carefully and skillfully as he would do for himself. 
 
 He is responsible for any breach of duty to the amount of damages incurred. 
 
 A principal may recover goods embezzled by an agent wherever found, if they can 
 be distinctly identified. 
 
 If an agent sells goods without authority, the principal may collect the amount from 
 the purchaser, or recover the goods, at his own option. 
 
 An agent to sell property cannot buy it himself, and if authorized to buy property 
 cannot purchase his own. 
 
 An agent ought to keep an accurate account of all transactions. 
 
 Authority is revoked by insanity, though if the principal was sane when conferring 
 the power, and another party believes in the authority of the agent, it will not accrue to 
 the injury of the third party. 
 
COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 205 
 
 FORM FOR POWER OF ATTORNEY. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that I, James Long, of the 
 
 county of State of have constituted, ordained and made, and in 
 
 my stead and place put, and by these presents do constitute, ordain and make, and in my 
 stead and place put John H. Rice, to be my true, sufficient and lawful attorney for me 
 and in my name (here state what for) , giving and granting unto him, the said 
 attorney, full power and authority in and about the premises ; and to use all due means, 
 course and process in law for the full, efficient and complete execution of the business 
 aforesaid, and in my name to make and execute due surveillance and discharge ; and for 
 the premises to appear, and the person of me, the constituent, to represent before any 
 governors, judges, justices, officers and ministers of the law whatever, in any court or 
 courts of judicature, and there, in my behalf, answer, defend and reply to all actions, 
 causes, matters and things whatever relating to the premises. Also, to submit any mat- 
 ter in dispute respecting the premises or otherwise, with full power to make and substi- 
 tute lor the purposes any attorney or attorneys, to act under him, my said attorney, and 
 the same to revoke at his will and pleasure. 
 
 And generally to say, act, do, transact, determine, accomplish and finish all matters 
 and things whatever relating to the premises as fully, amply and effectually to all intents 
 and purposes, as I, James Long, the said constituent, if present, ought or might per- 
 sonally, although the matter may require more special authority than is herein com. 
 prised. I, James Long, the said constituent, ratifying, allowing and holding firm and 
 valid whatever my attorney or his agent shall lawfully do, or cause to be done, in and 
 about these premises, by virtue of these presents. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto put my hand and seal, this < day of 
 
 A D. 1 8 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in 
 presence of t 
 
 Chas. W. Brown, 
 John L. Perkins. 
 
 JAMES LONG, [seal.] 
 
 BONDS. 
 
 ONDS are written documents promising to pay a certain sum of money 
 to another, or perform a specified act of duty or obligation at a designated 
 time, with a penalty attached for its non-fulfillment. A bond must be 
 sealed, otherwise it is simply a written promise. There must be some 
 bona fide consideration. The obligor is the party giving the bond ; the 
 party receiving it is the obligee. 
 
 The conditions of the bond are the acts specified to be done in it, and if they are 
 performed within the time designated, the bond is null and void. 
 
 The penalty is usually named at twice the amount of the sum actually due, and is so 
 made to cover the costs and interest. The courts come in to mitigate the severity of 
 the contract, and the obligor is held only to pay a full indemnity to the obligee for dam- 
 age incurred by failure. 
 
206 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 The seal implies a consideration ; therefore none need be alleged in the document. 
 The effect of seals on a bond is : ist. It is prima facie evidence of a valuable equiv- 
 
 alent 2d. By statutes of limitations it runs twenty years, instead of six, before right of 
 action ceases. But the statutes of limitations vary in time in the different States. 
 
 FORM OF BOND. 
 
 BILL OF SALE OF A HORSE, WITH WARRANTY. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents : In consideration of one dollar, and other 
 valuable considerations, to me in hand paid, I, Andrew Brown, do hereby bargain, sell 
 and convey to Henry Carter, his heirs, assigns and executors, one gray horse, of the male 
 sex, fourteen and one-half hands high, with full mane and tail, known as General Grant, 
 to have and to hold the same unto the said Henry Carter, his heirs, executors, adminis- 
 trators and assigns forever. 
 
 And I, for myself and legal representatives, will warrant and defend the said horse 
 unto him, the said Henry Carter, and his legal representatives, forever, against the lawful 
 claim of any person whomsoever. 
 
 ANDREW BROWN. 
 
 Witnesses : James Hickox, 
 Thomas Bowen. 
 
 A GENERAL FORM OF INDEMNITY BOND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, that I, William Thomas, of the city and 
 county of State of am held and bound unto Henry Smith, of 
 
 the city and State aforesaid, in the sum of five hundred dollars, to be paid unto the said 
 Henry Smith, or his legal representatives, for which payment well and truly made I bind 
 myself and my legal representatives firmly by these presents. 
 
 Signed with my seal, this day of 
 
 The conditions of the above obligation are such that if the said William Thomas 
 shall pay or cause to be paid unto the said Henry Smith the just and full amount of two 
 hundred and fifty dollars, with interest, on or before the day of A. 
 
 D. with semi-annual interest thereon, without fraud or delay, then this obligation 
 
 to be void, otherwise to remain in full force. 
 
 It is furthermore agreed, that should there be default to pay the interest semi- 
 annually as it becomes due, within thirty days thereafter, then the aforesaid principal 
 sum of five hundred dollars, with all arrearages of interest, shall, at the option of the said 
 Henry Smith, become due and payable, anything herein contained to the contrary not" 
 withstanding. 
 
 WILLIAM THOMAS, [seai..] 
 
 Executed and delivered in presence of 
 
 Thomas Jones, 
 
 Oscar Wilde. 
 
COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 207 
 
 FORM FOR GUARDIAN’S BOND. 
 
 District of ss. Probate Court, 18 — 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we (insert name of Guardian) and 
 (insert the name of surety) as principal, are holden, and stand firmly bound and obliged, 
 'ointly and severally, to the State of in the penal sum of (state amount), 
 
 dollars, to be paid to said State or to its certain attorney, to which payment well and 
 truly to be made and done we, the said obligors, do bind ourselves, and our heirs, 
 executors, and administrators, and each and every of them, for and in the whole sum 
 aforesaid, firmly by these presents. Signed with our hands, and sealed with our seals, 
 this day of A. D. 
 
 The Condition of this obligation is such, that whereas the above bounden (insert 
 name of Guardian) has been by the Court of Probate for the district of 
 appointed Guardian to (insert name of minor) a minor about years of age ; now, 
 
 therefore, if said (name of guardian) shall faithfully discharge, according to law, the 
 aforesaid trust, to which he has been appointed, and shall render a true account of his 
 guardianship to said ward, when he arrives at full age, and to said Court at such time or 
 times as it shall order, or shall be reouired by law, then this Obligation shall be void, 
 otherwise to remain in full force. 
 
 (Signature.) 
 
 FORM OF CONSERVATOR’S BOND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we (insert name of conservator) and 
 (insert name of principal) as principal, (here insert name of surety) as surety, are holden 
 and stand firmly bound and obliged, jointly and severally, unto the State of 
 in the penal sum of (state amount) dollars, to be paid to said State or to its certain 
 Attorney : to the which payment, well and truly to be made and done, we bind ourselves 
 and each of us, our heirs, executors and administrators, and each and every of them, fof 
 and in the whole sum aforesaid, firmly by these presents. Signed with our hands and 
 sealed with our seals, at this day of A. D. 
 
 The Condition of the above Obligation is such, that whereas the said (insert here 
 the name of conservator) has this day been duly appointed by the Court of Probate, for 
 the District of conservator of (insert name of person) of the Town of 
 
 in said District, an incapable person ; now, therefore, if the said (insert name 
 of conservator) shall faithfully discharge the duties of his said appointment according to 
 law, then this Bond shall be void, otherwise to remain in full force. 
 
 (Signatures.) 
 
 Signed sealed and delivered ) 
 in presence of \ 
 
 (Signature of witnesses.) 
 
208 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 FORM OF BOND FOR SALE OF MINOR’S LAND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we (here insert the name of guardian) 
 as principal, and (here insert the name of surety) as surety, are holden and stand firmly 
 bound and obliged unto the State of in the penal sum of (state amount) 
 
 dollars, the full and just payment of which sum, to be made to said State, or to its cer- 
 tain Attorney, we, the Obligors above named, do jointly and severally bind ourselves and 
 each of us, our heirs, executors and administrators, and each of them, firmly by these 
 presents. Signed with our hands, and sealed with our seals. Duted at this 
 
 day of A. D. 
 
 The Condition of the above Bond or Obligation is such that, whereas said (insert 
 name of guardian) Guardian to (insert name of minor) Minor, under the age of twenty-one 
 years, belonging to said district, is this day empowered by the Court of Probate, for the 
 district of to sell certain real estate ol said Minor situate in (here describe 
 
 property.) 
 
 Now if said (name of guardian) shall vest the avails of the estate sold, in other real 
 estate to be conveyed to said Minor or place the same at interest on good security, by 
 mortgage of at least double the value of the estate sold, or deposit the same in some 
 incorporated Savings Bank in this State, or invest the same in the bonds or loans of this 
 State, the bonds or loans of any town, city or borough of this State or in the bonds, 
 loans, or securities of the United States, or lay out the same in the nurture, educa- 
 tion or advancement in marriage of said Minor as said Court of Probate shall direct or 
 approve, and shall render his account to such Court when required, or to the Minor 
 when arrived at full age, according to the statute in such cases provided, then this obli- 
 gation shall be void, otherwise to be and remain absolute and in full force. 
 
 In presence of 
 
 (Names of witnesses.) (Signatures.) L. S. 
 
 L. S. 
 
 FORM OF TRUSTEE’S BOND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we (here insert the name of trustee or 
 trustees) as principal, and (here insert name of surety) as surety, are holden and stand 
 firmly bound and obliged, jointly and severally, unto the State of Connecticut, in the 
 penal sum of (state amount) dollars, to be paid to said State or to its certain Attorney : 
 to the which payment, well and truly to be made and done, we the said Obligors, do bind 
 ourselves and each of us, our heirs, executors and administrators, and each and every of 
 them, for and in the whole sum aforesaid, firmly by these presents. Signed with our 
 hands and sealed with our seals, at this day of A. D. 
 
 The Condition of this Obligation is such that, whereas the above bounden (insert 
 here the names of trustee, or trustees) has been appointed and constituted Trustee in 
 
COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL FORMS, 
 
 200 
 
 Insolvency under a certain assignment in Insolvency made by (name ot party insolvent) 
 of in the Probate District of (name of District) insolvent Debtor, dated on 
 
 the day of A. D. , and duly lodged for record in the Court of Pro- 
 
 bate for said District, pursuant to the statute in such case made and provided ; now* 
 therefore, if the said (name of trustee) shall faithfully discharge the duties of his said 
 appointment according to law, then this Bond shall be void, otherwise to remain in full 
 force. 
 
 (Signatures.) 
 
 ASSIGNMENTS. 
 
 assignment is a surrender for the benefit of another party of claim upon 
 a third party of any debt, obligation, judgment, wages or bond. 
 
 An assignment may be written on the instrument to be conveyed, oi 
 upon a distinct sheet of paper. 
 
 FORM OF TRANSFER OF PROMISSORY NOTE. 
 
 To be written across its back. 
 
 For value received, I hereby assign and transfer to John Paul Jones, all right and 
 title I may have to the within note. 
 
 ANDREW JOHNSON. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT OF WAGES WITH POWER OF ATTORNEY. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That I, Charles Nichols of the Town and 
 County of , State of in consideration of Twenty Dollars to me 
 
 in hand paid, do hereby assign and transfer to Jacob Strong, all claims and demands 
 which I now have or may at any time hereafter have between this date and the first day 
 of January, 1883, against Paul Rich, for all sums of money and demands due me for ser- 
 vices as clerk, to have and hold the same to the said Jacob Strong, forever. 
 
 And I do hereby appoint and constitute the said Jacob Strong and his assigns to be 
 my Attorney in the premises, to do and perform all acts, matters and things in the pre- 
 mises in like manner and intent, as I would if personally present. 
 
 In witness whereof, I have set my hand and seal, this day of 
 
 CHARLES NICHOLS, [L. S.] 
 
210 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 CHATTEL MORTGAGES. 
 
 CHATTEL MORTGAGE is usually given to secure a debt to a creditor. 
 It Js one given upon personal property, and should always contain a 
 clause concerning the equity of redemption. 
 
 Many of the conditions which regulate the mortgages of real estate 
 apply equally to chattel mortgages, but owing to the great dissimilarity in 
 Vh e character of these two classes of property, there has been a diversity in the legisla- 
 tion of the different States. 
 
 The legislation concerning this class of mortgages is c o 3 ttantly changing in the 
 several States, so that the wisest course will be always to apply to a lawyer who will 
 inform you of the law of that date. 
 
 CHATTEL MORTGAGE WITH POWER OF SALE. 
 
 Know all Men by These Presents, That I, Charles Gray, of the city of 
 , State of , in consideration of two hundred dollars to me paid by John 
 
 Jones of the city and State aforesaid, the receipt of which is hereby acknowledged, do 
 hereby grant, bargain, and sell unto the said John Jones, and his assigns, forever, the 
 following goods and chattels, to wit — 
 
 [Here insert an accurate list of the articles mortgaged ’ giving a full description of tachE\ 
 
 To Have and to Hold, All and singular, the said goods and chattels unto the 
 tuortgagee herein, and his assigns, to their sole use and behoof forever. And the mort- 
 gagor herein, for himself and for his heirs, executors and administrators, does hereby cov- 
 enant to and with the said mortgagee and his assigns, the said mortgagor is lawfully pos- 
 sessed of the said goods and chattels, as of his own property ; that the same are free 
 from all incumbrances, and that he will warrant and defend the same to him, the said 
 mortgagee and his assigns, against the lawful claims and demands of all persons. 
 
 Provided, Nevertheless, that if the said mortgagor shall pay to the mortgage, on 
 the day of - , in the year , the sum of two hundred dollars, then this mort- 
 
 gage is to be void, otherwise to remain in full force and effect * 
 
 And Provided Further, That until default be made by the said mortgagor in 
 the performance of the condition aforesaid, it shall and may be lawful for him to retain 
 the possession of the said goods and chattels, and to use and enjoy the same ; but if the 
 same or any part thereof shall be attached or claimed by any person of persons at any 
 time before payment, or the said mortgagor, or any person or persons whatever, upon any 
 pretence, shall attempt or carry off, conceal, make away with, sell, or in any manner dis 
 pose of the same or any part thereof, without the authority and permission of the said 
 mortgagee or his executors, administrators, or assigns, in writing expresse d, then it shall 
 and may be lawful for the said mortgagee, with or without assistance, or his agent of 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 211 
 
 attorney, or his executors, administrators, or assigns, to take possession of said goods and 
 chattels, by entering upon any premises wherever the same may be, whether in this 
 county or State, or elsewhere, to and for the use of said mortgagee or his assigns. And 
 if the moneys hereby secured, or the matters to be done or performed, as above specified 
 are not duly paid, done or performed at the time and according to the conditions above 
 set forth, then the said mortgagee, or his attorney or agent, or his executors, administra- 
 tors, or assigns, may by virtue hereof and without any suit or process, immediately enter 
 and take possession of said goods and chattels, and sell and dispose of the same at pub- 
 lic or private sa!e, and after satisfying the amount due, and all expenses, the surplus, if 
 any remain, shall be paid over to said mortgagor or his assigns. The exhibition of this 
 mortgage shall be sufficient proof that any person claiming to act for the mortgagee is 
 duly made, constituted, and appointed agent and attorney to do whatever is above 
 authorized. 
 
 In witness whereof, the said mortgagor has hereunto set his hand and seal, this 
 day of 
 
 CHARLES GRAY, [L. S.J 
 
 Signed , sealed and delivered in 
 presence of 
 
 Peter Healy, 
 
 John Wilson. 
 
 Note. — It must be then acknowledged before a Justice of the Peace, or Notary Public*. 
 
 LIABILITIES OF EXPRESS COMPANIES AND CORPORATIONS 
 OR PERSONS TRANSPORTING PERSONS OR PROPERTY. 
 
 HE term applied in law to persons or corporations employed in the busi- 
 ness of transportation is common carrier. 
 
 The rights and responsibilities of a common carrier are summed up in 
 the following: 
 
 He is obliged to receive all goods offered him, unless they are* 
 expressly exempted by announcement or in unfit condition. Also the person of passen- 
 gers, if he be a carrier of passengers, to use due care and promptness in the transport 
 and delivery of them. If he refuse to take goods in his line when he has room for them, 
 he may be held for damages. 
 
 He has lien upon chattels transported for the payment of his rates. 
 
 When goods are lost or injured he is liable, unless the loss or injury was due to an 
 act of Providence, or of a public enemy. 
 
 In case of money lost, the carrier is liable, if that is in his line of business. 
 
 Any article requiring care in its transportation if legibly marked, “ Glass with care,” 
 “Books, keep dry,” “This side up,” must be carried according to direction, or the car- 
 rier is liable 
 
 A carrier of passengers is obliged to receive and carry all persons offering to pay 
 the established rates provided. 
 
212 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 1. If he be a proper person, in proper condition to carry. 
 
 2. That the carrier have room in his conveyance. 
 
 3. That the passengers do not intend to disturb or injure the business of the carrier. 
 
 A person refusing to follow the announced rules ol the carrier may be ejected from 
 
 the conveyance at a proper place, and in a proper manner. 
 
 A passenger carrier is bound to carry the person over the whole distance in suitable 
 conveyances, at proper speed and for a just compensation. If there be any special dan- 
 ger to give notice of it — to accommodate his passengers equally unless they be disor- 
 derly or in an improper condition of body. He should keep his conveyance in a good 
 and strong condition and not crowded, and supplied with suitable motive power, drivers, 
 conductors, brakemen and engineers, take the usual and advertised route, stop at the 
 designated places, with proper intervals for rest and food, leave the passengers where the 
 agreement specifies, or at the ordinary stopping places or depot. 
 
 The passenger must use the proper care for his own person, or he will not be enti- 
 tled to damages for injuries. 
 
 A check calling for baggage, entitles the holder to receive it, and if withheld at the 
 end of the route, he may maintain an action therefor. If the check has been lost, upon 
 giving satifactory evidence of ownership, he may bring action if still withheld. 
 
 Printed rules and regulations which are reasonable', must be obeyed, and if any 
 injury or damage accrue to the passenger violating them through his own carelessness, the 
 carrier is not liable. But any injury or accident for which the passenger was not respon- 
 sible, e. g., a collision, or explosion, the fact of his violating the rules shall not be a bar 
 to the recovery of damages. 
 
 The servants, or employees of a carrying company, cannot maintain suit for injuries 
 incurred by the fault or carelessness of a fellow servant or employe against the carrier ; 
 that is a part of his risk in the business. The same holds true in the case of accident, 
 where there was not gross negligence on the part of the company. 
 
 DEEDS. 
 
 LEGAL instrument conveying land is termed a Deed, as the term is now 
 used. Formerly it embraced all instruments under seal. 
 
 There can be no recognized transfer of real estate in this country 
 without a deed, signed, sealed, acknowledged and recorded. In some 
 States the seal is immaterial to the validity, and in some States great care 
 should be used to have the seal conform to law. 
 
 A grantor is the person transferring the land ; the grantee is the one receiving the 
 conveyance. 
 
 The grantor should write his full name, with good ink, in the proper place. 
 
 The grantee’s full name should also appear in its proper place, written in the best 
 ink. A person accepting a deed signed with lead pencil runs a risk. If *he grantor is 
 unable to write he may make his mark. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 213 
 
 The possession of the deed by the grantee, with the knowledge and consent of the 
 grantor, is essential to make it valid. 
 
 If the grantor should die with a deed duly acknowledged and signed in his posses- 
 sion, not delivered, the instrument would be invalid. 
 
 A deed to a married woman may be delivered to her or her husband. 
 
 The witnesses to a deed, of whom there should be two, and in some States two are 
 required, must actually see the grantor write his name, or hear his acknowledgment im- 
 mediately after writing it. They ought to be disinterested parties, of sound mind and 
 legal age. 
 
 Acknowledgment must be made by the grantor before the person legally author- 
 ized for that purpose, and he should state in his certificate just how it was made. 
 
 The record of the deed must be in the county or town in which made. A deed is 
 legally regarded as on record the moment the recording officer receives and places upon 
 it his endorsement. The officer places upon it the date of the year, month, day, hour and 
 minute, so that the title can be traced with absolute certainty. 
 
 There must be a valuable consideration expressed, and an accurate description of 
 the property conveyed. This latter may be done by referring to former records, if any, 
 describing the property or a part of it. 
 
 The grantor must be of lawful age and sound mind. In many States the restrictions 
 are many and a reference to local law is needful. 
 
 The deed shall convey to the grantee and his heirs, else it limits his title to his life- 
 time, nor can he dispose of it 
 
 A deed in fee simple conveys the absolute and entire ownership. 
 
 A warrantee deed makes the grantor answerable for any defect in title. 
 
 A quitclaim deed conveys all the title, if any, the grantor may perchance have. 
 
 A trust deed conveys the property to the grantor in trust for some special purpose 
 therein specified. 
 
 In States where the wife is required to sign jointly with her husband, or to sign 
 away her right of dower, care is taken that she does so of her own free will, and a clause 
 so stating is provided. 
 
 FORM FOR WARRANTEE DEED. 
 
 To all Persons to whom these Presents shall Come, Greeting: Know ye 
 that I, Henry P. Brown, of the city and county of , State of , for 
 
 the consideration of four hundred and fifty dollars, received to my full satisfaction, of 
 John H. Bliss, of said city and county, do give, grant, bargain, sell and confirm unto the 
 said Bliss, a certain piece of land located in said city, and bounded easterly by State 
 street thirty (30) feet, southerly by land formerly of said Bliss one hundred and fifty (150) 
 feet, westerly by land formerly of Bishop & Brown twenty-seven (27) feet, northerly by 
 land now or formerly of Bishop & Brown ; the southerly boundaiy is 220 feet, and at the 
 westerly end 224 feet northerly from land owned by George A. Brownson, and being th^ 
 
214 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 same land formerly owned by the said Bliss and conveyed to Edward Carter by a quit- 
 claim deed this day. 
 
 To have and to hold the above granted and bargained premises, with the appurte- 
 nances thereof, unto him, the said grantee, his heirs and assigns forever, to his and theii 
 proper use and behoof. And also I, the said grantor, do for myself and my heirs, execu- 
 tors and administrators, covenant with the said grantee, his heirs and assigns, that at 
 and until the ensealing of these presents, I am well seized of the premises as a good in- 
 defeasible estate in fee simple ; and nave good right to bargain and sell the same in 
 manner and form as is above written ; and that the same is free from all incumbrances 
 whatsoever. 
 
 And furthermore , I, the said grantor, do by these presents bind myself and my heirs 
 forever, to warrant and defend the above granted and bargained premises to him, the said 
 grantee, his heirs and assigns, against aii claims and demands whatsoever. 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereuto set my hand and seal, this 
 
 D. 
 
 HENRY P. BROWN, [seal.] 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in 1 
 presence of \ 
 
 Peter Smith, 
 
 Peter Parley, 
 
 County, ss. — personally appeared Henry 
 
 P. Brown, signer and sealer of the foregoing instrument- and acknowledged the same to 
 be his free act and deed before me. 
 
 Chas. Brown, 
 
 Commissioner oi the Superior Court for 
 
 SAMUEL P. SMITH, 
 Justice of the Peace. 
 County, 
 
 Notary Public 
 
 FORM FOR QUITCLAIM DEED 
 
 To all People tct whom these Presents shall Come, Greeting : Know ye 
 that I, John H. Berry, of the city and county of State of for 
 
 the consideration of one hundred dollars, received to my full satisiaction of James P. 
 Stevens, of said city, do remise, release and forever quitclaim unto the said James P. 
 Stevens, his heirs and assigns forever, all the right, title, interest, claim and demand 
 whatsoever, as he, the said releasor, have or ought to have, in or to (here describe 
 
 accurately the premises) 
 
 To have and to hold the premises, with all the appurtenances, unto the said releasee, 
 his heirs and assigns forever, so that neither he, the releasor, nor his heirs, nor any 
 other person under him or them, shall hereafter have any claim, right or title in or to the 
 premises, or any part thereof ; but therefrom he and they are by these presents forever 
 barred and secluded. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 215 
 
 In witness whereof I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this day of 
 A. D. 
 
 JOHN H. BERRY. 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in | 
 presence of ) 
 
 Peter Strong, 
 
 James Brown. 
 
 County, ss.— personally ap- 
 
 peared James H. Berry, signer and sealer of the foregoing instrument, and acknowledged 
 the same to be his free act and deed before me. 
 
 Chas. Brown, 
 
 Commissioner of the Superior Court for 
 
 PETER SIMPLE, 
 Justice of the Peace, 
 County, 
 
 Notary Public. 
 
 INSURANCE 
 
 NSURANCE is a guarantee to make good loss or injury to goods, property 
 or certain personal interest for a valuable consideration. 
 
 The written contract is termed a policy ; the sum paid by the in- 
 sured is called premium. 
 
 The insured must have interest in the property at the- time. 
 
 All persons capable of conducting business may effect insurance. 
 
 Insurance ought to be in writing. 
 
 If the insured accepts the policy which is signed only by the insurers, he is bound 
 by the conditions and stipulations which it contains and under which the risk is taken. 
 
 A policy signifies and accurately describes the property to be insured. But if this 
 is left undetermined, it is called an open policy, and the property is afterwards described 
 upon it. A claim for indemnity cannot exceed the amount of property designated. 
 
 When the premium is paid, the property is regarded in law as insured, since no de- 
 livery of property is required, as in the case of deeds. 
 
 Alterations may be made by mutual consent, but not otherwise. A policy may be 
 assigned and the assignee have all the rights of the insured. 
 
 If the property is conveyed without an assignment of the policy, then the policy is 
 void, unless expressly stipulated to be for the benefit of the owners of the property at the 
 time of loss. After loss the claim for indemnity may be transferred as any othel debt. 
 
 MARINE INSURANCE. 
 
 The insurance of sea-going crafts, their cargo, and all maritime property, against 
 casualty by sea during a certain voyage, or for a deferred time, is Marine Insurance. 
 
 The insurance of a vessel is confined to that one particularly designated, but the 
 goods and cargo may be changed from one vessel to another. 
 
 A cargo coming from abroad may be insured with much less minuteness than would 
 
210 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 be sufficient in a fire insurance or even marine insurance of the vessel and cargo in the 
 port from which she sailed. 
 
 It is enough if the insured suffer pecuniary loss, or is prevented from reaping profit 
 to which he is entitled by the destruction. He may effect an insurance. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE. 
 
 The party insured must have personal interest in property, both at time of insurance 
 and loss. The insured cannot change the property so that it is not recognizable by the 
 description in policy, but he may make needed repairs. When material changes are to 
 be made, notice should be served and permission obtained from the insurers, and en- 
 dorsed on policy. 
 
 Goods are insured only so long as they continue in the same premises as when 
 insured. Notice should be given if moved, and then the policy will be changed. 
 
 Any material misrepresentation or concealment in the application, would render the 
 policy void. 
 
 A policy of fire insurance covers loss sustained by fire, use of water to extinguish 
 fire, or the destruction of a building to prevent the progress of fire. 
 
 When there is no fire occasioned by lightning, the insurers are not liable to any 
 damages thus sustained. Explosion by gunpowder is a loss by fire, but by steam is not. 
 
 A certificate of loss and notice to insurers should be made without delay. 
 
 LIFE INSURANCE. 
 
 A life insurance policy stipulates to a certain person a specified amount upon the 
 death of the person so insured. 
 
 Any misrepresentation or concealment in the answer to questions or other state- 
 ments in the application for insurance, invalidates the policy. 
 
 Premiums must be paid on the days on which they fall due, or the policy is void* 
 although in some States the Statutes provide if a policy is defeated, the company is 
 liable for a proportionate value of the policy. The exact hour of death is sometimes im- 
 portant, when the insurance is for a specified time, to show that it occurred within that 
 time. 
 
 Life policies can be assigned, but if the policy is not actually delivered, a separate 
 deed should be executed. The assignee is then entitled, on the death of the assignor, to 
 the full amount, without reference to consideration paid. 
 
 ASSIGNMENT OF A POLICY TO BE INDORSED THEREON. 
 
 I, Charles Jones, insured by the within policy, in consideration of a dollar paid to 
 me by John Brown, and for other good considerations, do hereby assign and transfer to 
 the said John Brown this policy, with all the right, title, interest and claim which I pow 
 have, or hereafter may have, in, to or under the same. 
 
 Witness my hand, this day of , A. D. 
 
THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 AN ABSTRACT OF THE LAWS RELATING THERETO IN EACH 
 STATE AND TERRITORY ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. 
 
 Their Rights in General. 
 
 The common law originally held in the United States that a married woman 
 could not make contracts on her own account, and the husband’s absolute right to 
 all her personal property at marriage could not vest in the wife, except by decree of 
 court in divorce or by the last will of her husband. 
 
 In case of his death intestate the property is vested in his executors to her 
 seclusion. 
 
 He also, by common law, possessed all her real estate during life, and if a living 
 child be born, he held this right through all his life, by what is called “ tenancy by 
 courtesy.” 
 
 On the death of the husband intestate, she was entitled to her right of dower — 
 one-third interest in the estate, of which he could not deprive her without her consent. 
 
 The husband may debar the wife by will from interest in his personal estate, 
 except her actual wearing paraphernalia suitable to her state in life. 
 
 Such is the unjust and unequal common law, but the several States have contin- 
 ually modified it by statutes. 
 
 The husband is made responsible for the common necessities of life, even if he 
 do not supply them, or if he turns her from his house, or otherwise separates from 
 her without just cause. But he is not held liable if the wife desert him without 
 cause, or he turns her away for cause. But if she leave him upon good cause, ill- 
 treatment or extreme provocation, he is liable. The law in this country does not 
 compel the wife to remain with the husband and suffer cruelty or indecency. 
 
 If a man live with a woman, representing her to be his wife, even to one who 
 knows she is not, he is liable as if she were his wife. 
 
 Contracts made before marriage are regarded as valid in many States, and 
 bestow more enlarged privileges upon the wife than are recognized by statute or 
 common law. Or greater power and rights may be preserved by conveying the 
 property held before marriage to trustees, in an indenture setting forth accurately 
 the trust imposed and the duties enjoined. 
 
 Such a document should be drawn by a skilful and trusty lawyer, as it require } 
 the utmost exactness and care. 
 
218 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL — THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 Their Rights in each State and Territory. 
 
 ALABAMA. — A married woman may hold real estate acquired at any time, but 
 she cannot dispose of it without her husband’s consent, if he be of sound mind, a 
 resident of the State, and has not abandoned her nor been imprisoned for a crime 
 not less than two years. The husband is entitled to one-half of the real and personal 
 estate of his deceased wife. The wife is entitled to one-third the real and one-half 
 the personal estate of the deceased husband. The widow may retain possession of 
 the homestead free of rent until dower is assigned. 
 
 ARIZONA. — She may hold separate property which she can control and dis- 
 pose of as if not married. She is not liable for her husband’s debts, but may carry 
 on business and sue and be sued in her own name. 
 
 ARKANSAS. — A married woman may hold and acquire property of any kind 
 separate from husband and not held for his debts. She must file a schedule at- 
 tested by her to be recorded in her name in the county where she resides. She may 
 sue and be sued, and carry on business upon her sole account. Her contracts shall 
 not bind her husband. In suits where other property is in dispute, she must join 
 with her husband. The widow is entitled to right of dower. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. — A married woman is entitled to all property held at marriage, 
 or afterward received by gift, inheritance, or devise, and such property cannot be 
 taken for her husband’s debts. The property of husband, thus acquired, cannot be 
 held for the wife’s debts; all other property is common property, but controlled by 
 husband. An instrument signed by both must be made to convey such property, 
 and acknowledged by her to be her own freewill. The wife must file a full and 
 complete inventory of her property, signed by her, proved and recorded, then it is 
 exempt from seizure for husband’s debts. Either survivor receives one-half of the 
 common property, while the other half, less the debts of deceased, goes to descend- 
 ant of such deceased. When there is no issue, then the survivor receives the whole, 
 less the debts of deceased. 
 
 COLORADO. — The wife may retain all property owned by her at marriage, or 
 acquired subsequently by gift, devise, descent, or bequest — including gifts from her 
 husband as if unmarried. She may carry on business, sue and be sued, and make a 
 will, but she cannot bequeath more than one-half her property without the written 
 consent of her husband. Nor can he deprive his wife of more than one-half of his 
 property. The husband is liable for the debts of his wife previous to their marriage, 
 only to the extent of the property he has received with and through her, or from 
 rents received on her estates. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. — By the law of 1877, neither wife nor husband acquire any 
 right in the property of the other on account of a marriage, except that the survivor 
 shall have a part in the property of the other. The separate earnings of the wife 
 shall be her sole property, and her whole property may be taken to meet her debts. 
 The property of the husband, when found, shall be used to support the family. 
 When one dies, the other is entitled to the life use of one-third of the real and per- 
 sonal estate left by the deceased ; except a written contract has been previously 
 
COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL — THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 219 
 
 made that the survivor has received from the other property in lieu of the provision 
 of the statute. This right to one-third cannot be destroyed by will. If there are no 
 children, then the Survivor has one-half. For all marriages contracted prior to the 
 passage of the Act of 1877, the wife and husband may, by written agreement for the 
 abandonment of rights of previous laws, come under the provision of this law. 
 
 DELAWARE. — A married woman holds and acquires real and personal estate 
 in her own right and for her separate use, together with all rentals and profits, and 
 this is not liable for husband’s debts nor under his control. She may obtain pur- 
 chase money in full or in part for real estate by any legal instrument, without consent 
 of, or participation of, husband, and may give bonds, receive wages, and sue for 
 them, sue and be sued, and contract in regard to property, and be an administratrix. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. — The wife holds all property held by her at 
 marriage, or received from any one except her husband, as if she were not married. 
 She may contract, sue, and be sued in her own name in those matters only which 
 pertain to her sole property. But her husband shall not be bound by any contract 
 made by his wife. She is held liable for furniture for her own house. Her earnings 
 while living with her husband are his property. 
 
 FLORIDA. — All property belonging to the wife at marriage remains hers, to- 
 gether with all gifts, devises, and bequests. She is not liable for his debts, unless by 
 written consent executed according to law. Husband must join with wife in all 
 sales, conveyances, and transfers of the wife’s property. Widow has one-third dower 
 in real estate and one-third absolute of all personal property; or at her option may 
 share equally with the children of her husband. If there be no children, she inherits 
 all. 
 
 GEORGIA. — The wife has possession of all property held by her at marriage, 
 or subsequently acquired by her. Such property is not liable for her husband’s 
 debts, contracts, or defaults. The wife, by the published consent of her husband, 
 can become a free trader , and then she is liable as if unmarried. Widow has one- 
 third of her husband’s land as dower. 
 
 IDAHO. — The wife holds all property, whether acquired before, or after mar- 
 riage, by gift, bequest, devise, or descent. Other property acquired after marriage 
 becomes common. No estate as tenant by courtesy to the husband nor dower to 
 the wife. Half the common property goes to the survivor. If there are no children, 
 one-half of common property subject to will of deceased, or if there is no will, it 
 goes to heirs at law. 
 
 ILLINOIS. — The wife holds all property and earnings; may sue and be sued; 
 make contracts, and incur liabilities; purchase and sell all property in her possession 
 as if unmarried. Her husband is not liable for her debts or torts, but she cannot 
 enter into a partnership without his consent as long as they live together. She may 
 make a will. Both are liable for family expenses. Neither can testify against the 
 other. The survivor has one-third of the real estate left by the deceased, unless re- 
 linquished by due form of law. 
 
 INDIANA. — A married woman holds and controls all her property acquired in 
 her own name, by bequest, gift, or purchase. Can sue and be sued on its account 
 
220 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL — THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 and dispose of it by will. She may sell her personal property, but cannot sell and 
 deed real estate without husband’s consent. No dower, but wife takes one-third in 
 fee, and free from all demands when husband’s estate does not exceed $10,000. 
 
 IOWA. — A wife may hold real and personal property, acquired by inheritance, 
 gift, or purchase, and control it as if femme sole . She can sue and be sued. Both 
 husband and wife are liable for family expenses, and the education of the children, 
 whether contracted for by one or the other. The survivor receives one-third of all 
 legal and equitable estate left by the other. 
 
 KANSAS. — A married woman can hold real or personal property to her sepa- 
 rate use, the same as unmarried. A note made by a married woman will bind her 
 property. Neither can bequeath more than one-half the property from the other 
 without written consent. If either die intestate and without issue, all the property 
 goes to the other. 
 
 KENTUCKY. — A married woman may hold real and personal estate acquired 
 before and after marriage. She is not liable for her husband’s separate debts, but is 
 liable for joint debts contracted in writing, or for necessaries procured by her or any 
 member of the family. The husband is not held for debts of the wife before mar- 
 riage. She may dispose of her estate by will, and is entitled to dower. 
 
 LOUISIANA. — A married woman can hold real and personal property sepa- 
 rate, and her husband cannot sell the same. Property acquired during marriage, 
 from the joint or separate earnings of husband and wife, is divided equally between 
 them. A married woman has no power in her husband’s estate ; the husband must 
 join the wife in any conveyance of her estate. 
 
 MAINE. — A married woman may hold real and personal estate for her separate 
 use. Her estate is not liable for her husband’s debts. She may make contracts, 
 sue and be sued. A wife must join in a deed from the husband in selling his real 
 estate to relinquish dower. 
 
 MARYLAND. — A married woman holds her real and personal property for her 
 use. She may convey the same by a joint deed with the husband. If she die intes- 
 tate, leaving children, her husband has a life estate in her property; if she leave no 
 children, her husband has a life estate in her real estate, and her personal property 
 vests in him. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. — A married woman may hold real and personal property, 
 convey, make contracts, sue, and be sued, as if unmarried ; but her separate convey- 
 ance is subject to her husband’s tenancy. Conveyances, contracts, and suits not 
 authorized between husband and wife. Every woman is entitled to dower in the 
 lands of her husband. 
 
 MICHIGAN. — A married woman may hold real and personal estate, dispose and 
 encumber, as if unmarried; may sue and be sued in relation to her property. Deal- 
 ings directly between husband and wife permitted. The wife is entitled to dower in 
 all lands owned by her husband during marriage. 
 
 MINNESOTA. — A married woman may hold real and personal property in her 
 own name and use, whether acquired before or after marriage; may make contracts, 
 and her property is liable for her debts; but no conveyance of her separate real 
 estate is valid unless her husband join in the conveyance. 
 
COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL — THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 22r 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. — A married woman may hold real and personal property for her 
 separate use; all revenues from same accrues solely to her benefit; she can control, 
 dispose of as though unmarried, but her husband must join in a deed of conveyance. 
 She may dispose of it by will. She may engage in trade, as if unmarried. She is 
 then bound for contracts made in the course of trade. The same regulations hold 
 both to personal and real estate. If no children, she inherits all her husband’s 
 estate. The husband is entitled, in courtesy, to one-half of all his deceased wife's 
 lands during his life. 
 
 MISSOURI.— A married woman may hold real or personal property to het 
 separate use, through a trustee. Her separate property, whether acquired before or 
 after marriage, is not liable for her husband’s debts. She is entitled to dower of 
 one-third of all the lands of which her husband was seized of an estate of inheritance, 
 at any time during the marriage; also, of leasehold estate for twenty years or more. 
 
 MONTANA. — Married women may file declaration of intention to carry on 
 separate business, and then trade apart from their husbands. Not liable for the 
 debts of husband, unless for necessary expenses of family. Her husband not liable 
 for ante-nuptial debts. She maybe executor, administrator, guardian, or trustee; 
 and may sue in her own name for all injuries to person, property, character, or 
 reputation. 
 
 NEBRASKA. — A married woman may hold real and personal property for her 
 separate use, whether acquired before or during marriage, except through her hus- 
 band. She may control, dispose of, and enter into contract ; she may sue and be 
 sued, and carry on trade or business. Her personal earnings are her sole property. 
 She must join with her husband in the conveyance or encumbrance of the home. 
 
 NEVADA. — A married woman may hold real and personal property for her 
 sole and separate use, whether acquired before or during marriage; and may sell 
 without consent of her husband. Such property must be recorded. All property 
 acquired by husband and wife since the marriage contract is in force, belongs to 
 them in common; and upon the death of the husband, one-half goes to the wife; 
 but during marriage is under control of the husband. He may convey the same 
 without his wife joining in the deed. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. — A married woman may hold property whether ac- 
 quired before or after marriage, except through property of the husband, to her 
 separate use as if unmarried, and may sell, convey, or encumber her separate estate. 
 All such acts are binding upon her property independent of her husband. She m»ay 
 sue and be sued, is entitled to homestead and dower in property of her husband, 
 unless she release the same by joining her husband in its conveyance. Her husband 
 cannot convey real estate to her. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. — A married woman may hold to her sole and separate use 
 real and personal property owned or acquired during marriage by gift, grant, de- 
 scent, and revenues thereof, not subject to her husband, nor liable for his debts. 
 She can be sued with him for debts contracted for her, and which cannot be en- 
 forced against her in equity. She is entitled to dower in one-third of all the real 
 estate of which he died seized, and to the home until dower is assigned her. 
 
222 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL — THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN 
 
 NEW MEXICO. — Married women hold and control the separate propert> 
 which they may inherit. They also can hold and control property of all kinds free 
 from any liability of their husbands. 
 
 NEW YORK. — A married woman may hold real and personal property to her 
 sole and separate use. Such property is not liable for her husband’s debts. Obliga- 
 tions incurred by her can be recovered out of her separate property. A wife may 
 insure her husband’s life for her benefit, provided the premium does not exceed five 
 hundred dollars. May be a guardian, executrix, or administratrix, and can give 
 necessary bonds, make a will, execute a power of attorney as if unmarried. She is 
 entitled to dower to one-third of the land owned by her husband during lifetime, 
 unless she relinquished the same. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. — All property acquired by a married woman, either 
 before or after marriage, except through her husband, is her sole and separate prop- 
 erty, free from the control of her husband, and not liable for his debts, and she car? 
 convey the same with the written consent of her husband. She has dower in all the 
 real estate of her husband. 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA. — Married women have the same rights in real and per- 
 sonal property as if single; may sue and be sued: neither husband nor wife has any 
 right in the property of the other. Dower and courtesy have been abolished. The 
 wife retains all rights and may defend them at law the same as the husband. 
 
 OHIO. — A married woman may own real or personal property in her own right, 
 but cannot dispose of it for more than three years without husband joining her. 
 She is entitled to dower of one-third part of all the realty owned by her husband 
 during marriage, unless she join in conveyances made by him to release same. 
 
 OREGON. — A married woman may hold real or personal property in her own 
 name, and free from control of, or liability for, the debts of her husband, but a 
 schedule of personal property must be filed with the county clerk. She may sue 
 and be sued. She may make a will. The widow has rights of dower and the 
 widower rights of courtesy. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. — All the personal or real property belonging to a married 
 woman is not liable for debts or engagements of her husband. She may hold and 
 ^enjoy as her sole and separate property. Her separate estate is liable for neces- 
 saries purchased by herself for the use of her family, provided her husband’s prop- 
 erty does not satisfy. She may petition to the court for leave to have the benefit of 
 her own earnings, which will be allowed. She cannot make a valid contract, except 
 for the improvement of her separate estate for necessaries. She may loan money to 
 her husband and take security for the same. She may make a will of her separate 
 estate, subject to her husband’s rights as tenant by courtesy. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. — A married woman may hold real and personal estate not 
 coming from the husband, free from all interference of the husband’s creditors, and 
 free from the husband’s interference, by means of trustees appointed in the ordinary 
 manner, or by the supreme court on petition. She is not authorized to do business 
 as a trader. She may sell her personal estate in the same manner as her real estate, 
 and certain unimportant kinds, such as clothing, books, and similar personal prop- 
 
COMMERCIAL AND LEGAL — THE RIGHTS OF MARRIED WOMEN. 
 
 223 
 
 erty, except jewels, she may sell as if single. She may dispose of her separate estate 
 by will, but cannot deprive her husband of his rights as tenant by courtesy. Any 
 policy of insurance for her benefit, not exceeding ten thousand dollars, is hers inde 
 pendently of her husband, or any other party or parties. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. — A married woman may own real and personal prop- 
 erty in her own name and separate use, and such property is in no case liable for the 
 debts of her husband. She may control, sell, encumber, or bequeath her separate 
 estate. When an action concerns her separate estate she may sue and be sued alone. 
 Judgment may be entered against her and execution be levied upon her property. 
 If she die intestate it will descend in the same manner as is provided for the prop- 
 erty of the husband. 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA.— The law pertaining to married women is the same as in 
 North Dakota. 
 
 TENNESSEE. — A married woman may hold real and personal property to her 
 sole and separate use. She can manage and convey the same by her own act. Her 
 separate estate is not liable for the debts of her husband. A note or any other 
 obligation made by a married woman will not bind her separate estate, unless it was 
 executed with the express intention to bind the same, or unless it was given for 
 necessaries for herself or her minor children. She may dispose of her separate estate 
 by will. 
 
 TEXAS. — A married woman can hold real and personal property to her own 
 use, and the marriage of a female minor gives her all the rights of lawful age. Her 
 note, draft, or indorsement for family necessaries on her own estate are valid. All 
 property acquired during marriage is common property, and the husband may dis- 
 pose of it during coverture. If there is no issue, at death the whole goes to the 
 survivor, but otherwise, one-half. The wife cannot convey her separate estate with- 
 out her husband join, and they must join in conveyance of homestead. A wife can 
 make a will. A widow is entitled to one-third of realty during life. 
 
 UTAH. — Wives hold and control all property free from husbands, and not 
 liable for their debts. They can contract on account of separate property as if 
 single. The widow is endowed to a third part of the lands of deceased husband, 
 unless relinquished in due form. 
 
 VERMONT. — A married woman may hold personal property for her sole and 
 separate use. Her real estate and its revenues are exempt from attachment for her 
 husband’s debts and the husband’s interests in the same during coverture — except 
 for debts for necessaries for herself and family, or for work and materials for their 
 benefit. The earnings of a married woman and savings in bank are not subject to 
 trustee process by her husband. She may insure her husband’s life for her own use, 
 vf the premium does not exceed three hundred dollars. When abandoned by her 
 husband she may maintain action in her own name. A married woman may dispose 
 of her property by will. The widow is entitled to dower, during her natural life, of 
 one-third of the real estate of which her husband died seized during his natural life, 
 unless she has relinquished or barred the same. 
 
 VIRGINIA. — A married woman may hold real or personal property to her 
 
234 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 separate use, and is not liable for the debts of the husband. She may make con 
 tracts in relation thereto. She may sue and be sued, but her husband must join ir\ 
 all contracts in relation thereto, except where she is a sole trader, and shall be 
 joined in any suit. The widow is entitled to one-third part of all the real estate 
 owned by her husband during coverture, unless she has relinquished or barred the 
 same. 
 
 WASHINGTON. — Wives have the same property rights and liabilities as if 
 single. Neither party liable for debts of the other. Both can control separate 
 property as if unmarried. Property acquired during coverture is common. Wife 
 and husband must join in the conveyance of common property. Marriage settle- 
 ments must be in writing, executed, acknowledged, etc., as deeds. Dower and 
 tenancy by courtesy abolished. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. — A married woman is secured in real and personal estate 
 and not liable for husband’s debts. May convey and will away her property pro- 
 vided husband joins in the deed with her. If living away from husband his joining 
 with her is not necessary. Her estate is held for her debts prior to marriage, but 
 husband is not liable for them. May patent her own inventions, keep a bank deposit, 
 and draw on own check, hold stock, and vote on same, and make a will. She must 
 join her husband in the conveyance of real estate, and has dower in all real estate of 
 husband. 
 
 WISCONSIN. — A married woman may possess property for her sole use, and 
 is not held for husband’s debts. She has free control of same, but is held for all 
 debts before marriage and those contracted after marriage on account of said prop- 
 erty. She is entitled to dower to all real estate. Husband holds real estate for life 
 unless she had issue from former husband, to whom it might go. 
 
 WYOMING. — Married women may hold real and personal property, sue and be 
 sued, carry on business, make wills, and retain her earnings. 
 
 PROPERTY SALES AMD THE LAW OF TITLES. 
 
 To constitute a valid contract for the sale of land it is essential that both parties 
 should be capable to make a contract, that is, of lawful age and sound mind. 
 
 There may be given a title bond, that is, a bond to execute a deed, but it is 
 necessary that the wife of the seller should sign it jointly with her husband. This is 
 when a part of the purchase money has been paid. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL EORMS. 
 
 225 
 
 When a deed is executed by an attorney in fact, acting for the owner, it should be 
 signed in the name of the owner, by A. B., his attorney in fact. 
 
 The seller is under obligation to furnish certificate of title at his own expense 
 
 The purchaser is not obliged to pay the purchase money, or any part of it, until the 
 dtle has been proved to be valid. 
 
 The words “sell and convey ’ 5 should appear in warranty deeds, as they give ground 
 for claiming back purchase money if title is defective. 
 
 The words “ more or less ” covers only such immaterial errors as are liable to arise 
 from irregularities of ground and variation of magnetic needle. 
 
 Tt is customary for the purchaser, in places where titles are new, to examine back ' ' 
 the United States patents. 
 
 In old settled communities the records for sixty years will establish title. 
 
 The purchaser has a right to submit papers and abstracts to counsel or attorney, 
 
 LAWS AND USAGES REGARDING LANDLORDS AND TENANTS. 
 
 LANDLORD is one holding real estate, rented for occupation to an- 
 other, who is termed a tenant. The lease is the written agreement be- 
 tween the landlord and tenant. 
 
 The person leasing the property is called in law the lessor, and the one 
 
 receiving the lease the lessee. Leases must be in writing, and state so 
 
 clearly the terms of the agreement that there need never arise a dispute as to their mean- 
 ing. All the conditions should be so stated, as no verbal contract can hold as against the 
 
 lease. 
 
 A landlord cannot be compelled to repair a house or other building unless so ex- 
 pressly stipulated in the lease, whatever its condition may be. If, by no fault of the house 
 or its landlord, it should be uninhabitable, still he is not bound to put it in order unless 
 so agreed in writing ; even if burned, or destroyed by other means, the tenant must pay 
 rent till the lease expires. A well-drawn lease should contain a clause abating the rent 
 whenever the house becomes uninhabitable. If the fault be in the house, the law 
 seems to provide that the tenant may vacate, provided he was ignorant of the defect. 
 
 If a tenant agrees to return the house in as good order and condition, reasonable 
 wear and tear excepted, he is bound so to do, even if utterly destroyed by his own care- 
 lessness or that of a servant, and a clause in regard to the return of a house should ex- 
 empt the case of destruction by fire. 
 
 In some States a married woman can lease and hold full control of her own prop- 
 erty by common law ; in the absence of statute, her lease would be void. The husbandi 
 in such case, can lease, but such a lease will not hold after his death. 
 
 A tenant is not held for taxes unless so agreed. 
 
 The tenant of a farm is compelled, even in the absence of written agreement, to till 
 and conduct the property in as good manner as the farms in that vicinity. 
 
226 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 Such a tenant is entitled to the year’s crop which he sowed, if the lease is termina- 
 ted by any circumstance which he could not anticipate or control. 
 
 A lease specifying a time terminates on that date, and the landlord may eject at 
 once ; but in regard to tenants at will, the laws in States vary as to the length of notice 
 to quit required before the landlord can eject. The notice to quit is usually equal to the 
 period of payments ; if monthly, then one month ; if quarterly, then three months, and 
 so on. A lease for life extends through the life of the tenant. A lease for years specifies 
 the time. A lease at will holds only as long as the will of either party. A lease of suf- 
 ferance is when a tenant remains after his lease has expired. 
 
 A landlord is bound to give the tenant possession with a full title. 
 
 When the rent is in arrears the notice to quit may be more brief, and the statutes of 
 each State must govern. 
 
 A tenant’s notice to quit is governed by the same rules, and must be served on the 
 landlord or his legal representative. 
 
 Leases should be drawn in duplicate, one for each party. 
 
 The tenant may remove any fixture which he has placed within or upon the prem- 
 ises in such a manner as to indicate that he thus intended, that is by the means of screws 
 or in such a way as not to injure, upon removal, the property where placed. 
 
 THE NEW LANDLORD AND TENANT LAW IN NEW YORK. 
 
 is calculated to prevent the injustice which was so much complained of under the old 
 law. The new law compels landlords to give five days’ notice before turning out tenants, 
 at any time except May i, which is considered “a general moving day,” when tenants 
 are supposed to leave, unless they have made new arrangements. This seems fair to 
 both sides. 
 
 LEASE. 
 
 This Indenture, made by and between John Brown, of the first part, and Samuel 
 Noble, of the second part, witnesseth , that the said party of the first part has leased and 
 does hereby lease to the said party of the second part, a certain dwelling-house known as 
 No. street, city of to be occupied as a dwelling-house, 
 
 for the term of one year from the day of , A. D. , for the annual rent of 
 three hundred and sixty dollars, payable in monthly payments of thirty dollars each, to 
 wit : on the first day of July and the first day in each month thereafter. 
 
 And the said party of the first part covenants with the said party of. the second part 
 that he has good right to lease said premises in manner aforesaid, and that he will suffer 
 and permit said party of the second part (he keeping all the covenants on his part, as 
 hereinafter contained) to occupy, possess and enjoy said premises during the term afore- 
 said, without hindrance or molestation from him or any person claiming by, from or un- 
 der him. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 227 
 
 And the said party of the second part covenants with the said party of the first part 
 to hire said premises and to pay the rent therefor as aforesaid., also to pay gas and water 
 rates, that he will commit no waste nor suffer the same to be committed thereon, nor in- 
 jure nor misuse the same ; and also that he will not assign this lease, nor underlet a part 
 or the whole of said leased premises, nor make alterations therein, nor use the same for 
 any purpose but that herein before authorized, without written permission from the said 
 party of the first part ; but will deliver up the same at the expiration or sooner determin- 
 ation of his tenancy, in as good condition as they now are in, ordinary wear, fire and 
 other unavoidable casualties excepted. 
 
 Provided , however , and it is further agreed, that if the said rent shall remain unpaid 
 ten days after the same shall become payable as aforesaid, or if the said party of the sec- 
 ond part shall assign this lease, or underlet or otherwise dispose of the whole or any part 
 of said demised premises, or use the same for any purpose but that herein before author- 
 ized, or make any alteration therein without the consent of the party of the first part in 
 writing, or shall commit waste or suffer the same to be committed on said premises, or 
 injure or misuse the same, or shall not perform and fulfill each and every one of the cove- 
 nants herein before contained to be performed by said party of the second part, then this 
 lease shall thereupon, by virtue of this express stipulation therein, expire and terminate, 
 and the party of the first part may, at any time thereafter, re-enter said premises, and 
 the same have and possess as of his former estate, and, without such re-entry, may re- 
 cover possession thereof in the manner prescribed by the statute relating to the summary 
 process ; it being understood that no demand for the rent, and no re-entry for condition 
 broken, as at common law, shall be necessary to enable the lessor to recover such posses- 
 sion pursuant to said statute relating to summary process, but that all right to any such 
 demand, or any such re-entry, is hereby expressly waived by f he said party of the second 
 part. 
 
 And it is further agreed between the parties hereto, that whenever this lease shall 
 terminate, either by lapse of time or by virtue of any of the express stipulations therein, 
 the said lessee hereby waives all right to any notice to quit possession, as prescribed by 
 the statute relating to summary process. 
 
 And it is further agreed, that in case the said party of the second part shall, with 
 the written consent of said party of the first part endorsed hereon, or on the duplicate 
 hereof, at any time hold over the said premises beyond the period above specified as the 
 termination of this lease, then said party of the second part shall hold said premises upon 
 the same terms, and under the same stipulations and agreements as are in this instrument 
 contained, and no holding over by said party of the second part shall operate to renew 
 this lease without such written consent of said party of the first part. 
 
 And it is further agreed between the parties hereto, that the lessee is to comply with, 
 and conform to, all the laws of the State of , and the by-laws, rules and regu- 
 
 lations of the city and town within which the premises hereby leased are situated-relat- 
 ing to health, nuisance, fire, highways and sidewalks — so far as the premises hereby 
 kased are, or may be, concerned ; and to save the lessor harmless from all fines, penal- 
 ties and costs for violation of, or non-compliance with the same, said premises shall be at 
 
228 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 all times open to the inspection of said lessor, his agents, to applicants for purchase oi 
 lease, and for necessary repairs. 
 
 In witness whereof the parties have hereunto set their hands and seals, and to a du» 
 plicate of the same tenor and date, this day of , A. D. 
 
 JOHN BROWN, [seal.] 
 SAMUEL NOBLE, [seal.] 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in | 
 
 presence of ( 
 
 Charles Jones. 
 
 County, ss. — , A. D. , personally appeared 
 
 John Brown and Samuel Noble, signers and sealers of the foregoing instrument, and ac- 
 knowledged the same to be their free act and deed, before me. 
 
 PETER SIMPLE, Justice of the Peace. 
 
 surety. 
 
 In consideration of the letting of the premises above described, and for the sum of 
 one dollar, I hereby become surety for the punctual payment of the rent, and the per- 
 formance of the covenants in the above written agreement mentioned, to be paid and 
 performed by Samuel Noble, and if any default shall be made therein, I hereby promise 
 and agree to pay unto J. Brown, such sum or sums of money as will be sufficient to 
 make up such deficiency and fully satisfy the conditions of the said agreement without 
 requiring any notice of non-payment or proof of demand being made. 
 
 Given under my hand and seal the day of , 
 
 HENRY POWERS. 
 
 LANDLORD’S NOTICE TO QUIT FOR NON-PAYMENT OF RENT. 
 
 State of 
 City and Co. of 
 
 To Sargent Thompson: 
 
 Dec. ist. 
 
 Sir- — You are hereby notified to quit and deliver up to me in 20 days from this date, 
 the following described premises, which you now occupy, as my Tenant, viz. : that cer- 
 tain Frame building and Lot of Ground, known as 113 West Twenty-Fourth street, in 
 the city of State of , according to law, your Rent being due 
 
 and unpaid. If you fail to do this I shall take a due course of law to eject you from the 
 same. 
 
 Witness. 
 
 JOHN BROWN 
 
 Charles Jones. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 '229 
 
 MORTGAGES. 
 
 MORTGAGE is a deed of real estate to secure a creditor in the debt due 
 him in which the mortgagor has the right of redemption within a given 
 time, otherwise its provision conveys the property absolutely. 
 
 The debtor usually gives a note, sometimes a bond ; and the mort* 
 gagee secures it. 
 
 The debtor has a right to redeem but in all other respects the conveyance is valid. 
 Hence if th e mortgage fails to state clearly that the mortgagee may retain possession 
 then the one holding the mortgage may enter and possess. 
 
 The equity of redemption is extended three years from the time the debt falls due, 
 in which time he may pay debts with interest and costs. 
 
 The power of sale mortgage, an arrangement allowed by law, is a mortgage with a 
 clause setting forth that the mortgagee has the right after the debt falls due, to sell at a 
 lair price agreed upon, paying the mortgagor the sum received over and above enough to 
 liquidate the debt and lawful charges. Otherwise the right of redemption always holds. 
 The three years for the right of redemption begins with the day on which the mortgagor 
 comes into lawful possession, or as it is termed forecloses the mortgage. 
 
 Entry upon the property must be peacefully made in the presence of witness, or by 
 due process of law. The laws of the different States govern this mode of procedure. 
 
 A formal tender of amount due with interest and all expenses, must be made by the 
 mortgagor, who wishes to redeem, but he has a claim to all rents and income actually 
 received on the property, or which he would have received by using care in collecting 
 them. If the mortgagee insures the property he cannot recover the cost of insurance 
 unless it was stated in the mortgage that the mortgagor should insure it. The mort- 
 gagee, on coming into possession of land on which buildings have been erected since 
 date of mortgage, holds them also in like manner. If the mortgagee erects buildings 
 they revert to mortgagor when the land is redeemed. v Such matters should be specified 
 in the mortgage, or agreed upon by both parties. 
 
 A quit claim deed given by the holder of the mortgage to the person in possession 
 or holding the right of redemption, releases the property ; this is done in some Stats' 5 
 Sometimes an acknowledgment of satisfaction is written upon the margin of the reco 1 *''' 
 in the office of Register or Recorder of Deeds, signed by the holder of the mortgage. 
 A valid release is made by any legal writing duly signed, sealed and recorded, which 
 clearly sets forth the fact that due satisfaction has been made to the mortgagee. Tne 
 release goes into effect at the instant it is placed in the hands of the proper person to 
 record deeds, and he at once enters it into a book kept for that purpose. 
 
 FORM FOR MORTGAGE DEED. 
 
 TO ALL TO WHOM THESE PRESENTS SHALL COME, GREETING KnOW ye, that % 
 ( here insert name of mortgagor with residence ,) for the consideration of (here state amount, 
 received to my full satisfaction of (here insert name of mortgagee) do give, grant, bargain 
 sell and confirm unto the said ( insert name of mortgagee with full and accurate description 
 
 of property her el) 
 
230 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 To have and to hold the above granted and bargained premises with the appurte- 
 nances thereof unto him the said grantee, his heirs and assigns forever, to his proper use 
 and behoof. And also, I, the said grantor, do for myself and my heirs, executors and 
 administrators covenant with the said grantee, his heirs and assigns that and until the 
 sealing of these presents I am well seized of the premises as a good indefeasible estate 
 in Fee Simple, and have a good right to bargain and sell the same in manner and form 
 as is above written ; and that the same is free from all incumbrance whatsoever. 
 
 And furthermore, I, the said grantor do by these presents, bind myself and my heirs 
 to warrant and defend the above granted and bargained premises to him the said grantee, 
 his heirs and assigns against all claims and demands whatsoever. 
 
 In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this day of 
 
 A. D. 1 88—. 
 
 The condition of this deed is such that whereas the said grantor is justly indebted 
 to the said grantee in the sum of ( state ainount) as covered by his promissory note of 
 even date herewith, payable to the said grantee or order ( state the time and conditions ) 
 with interest. 
 
 Now therefore, if said note shall be paid well and truly according to its tenor then 
 this deed shall be void, otherwise to remain in full force and effect. 
 
 ( Signature and seal.) 
 
 Signed, sealed and delivered in ) 
 
 presence of \ 
 
 ( Witness ’ signature .) 
 
 (To be acknowledged before Justice of Peace") 
 
 PARTNERSHIP AND THE DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF PARTNERS 
 
 PARTNERSHIP is a contract made by two or more individuals to joiit 
 their interests in goods, money or other property for the transaction of 
 any lawful business, and to share in the profits or losses arising there- 
 from. 
 
 The safer plan is always to have the terms oi agreement in writing, 
 although a verbal one will hold. 
 
 Considered by itself, a single commercial transaction by two parties, in which loss or 
 profit does not arise, and a purchase of goods together to be divided between them, can- 
 not be regarded as forming a partnership. 
 
 The date of the agreement is the beginning of the partnership, unless differently 
 expressed therein. 
 
 The agreement must set forth explicitly what proportion of capital each partner fur- 
 nishes, and the proportion of profits to which he is entitled. 
 
 He may contribute money, skill or business ability, and this contract is binding be- 
 tween the members of the firm, but not as against creditors dealing with them, except m 
 case where they knew and transacted their business with the firm on that basis. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 231 
 
 The sharing of profits arising from a business is the test of partnership. 
 
 Partnerships are generally formed for a specified time. This is stated in the agrees 
 ment, and the “ limited ” partnership terminates then. 
 
 If not stated, the partnership is regarded as general, and may be terminated at the 
 will of either party. 
 
 The firm is bound by the acts of either partner. A creditor of a firm may recover 
 the full amount of his debt from either partner, but if the agreement with the firm limits 
 his liability, that partner may take action against them. 
 
 A person who lends his name, or permits it to be advertised as a member of a firm, 
 is held in law to be a partner, even if he consents to its being so used after he has with- 
 drawn. 
 
 A silent partner is one who furnishes capital and shares in the profits without per- 
 mitting the use of his name. A sleeping or dormant partner furnishes capital and shares 
 in profits, but takes no active part in the business. These both are liable for debts of the 
 firm, even if creditors did not know they were connected with it. 
 
 A dormant partner is not held liable after his withdrawing from the firm, nor need 
 he give public notice of his withdrawal. 
 
 In a general partnership broken by the withdrawal of one member wantonly and 
 arbitrarily, such member is liable to the other partners for any loss they may sustain. 
 
 The dissolution of a partnership may be effected by the mutual consent of all the 
 members, or by the decree of a court of equity for cause. 
 
 The court will regard dissipation, reckless living calculated to injure the credit and 
 safety of the partnership, as sufficient grounds to dissolve partnership. 
 
 When one member dies, the firm is dissolved, and its affairs are to be settled as soon 
 as possible. 
 
 If the interest of a member is attached for his private indebtedness, the firm is there- 
 by dissolved. 
 
 Notice of dissolution should be promptly published in the papers of the town or city 
 where business was carried on, and similar notice sent to all correspondents. If this is 
 not done, each member continues liable for the acts of the other members in dealing with 
 persons ignorant of such dissolution. 
 
 The company property is held for all debts of the partnership, and the creditors of 
 one partner cannot recover till these debts are paid. Then such creditor may recover 
 from the surplus. 
 
 A special partner furnishes a stated amount for a given period. Such a partnership 
 is regarded valid in some of the States, but notice of such an agreement must be published 
 according to the law holding in such States. 
 
232 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 FORM OF PARTNERSHIP AGREEMENT. 
 
 Articles of Agreement made this day of , one thousand eight hundred 
 and , between Thomas Smith, of the city of , State of 
 
 and Charles Bowen, of said city and State. 
 
 Witnessethy that the parties aforesaid have agreed to become copartners in the busi- 
 ness of buying and selling groceries, and do hereby agree to be copartners under and by 
 the firm name of Smith & Bowen, in the buying, selling and vending of all sorts of goods 
 and merchandise to the business aforesaid appertaining, their partnership to commence 
 upon the day of , , and to continue for three years from that date ; and 
 
 to that end and purpose the said Thomas Smith and Charles Bowen have each contributed 
 the sum of five thousand dollars as capital stock, to be employed in common between 
 them in the management and support of the business aforesaid for their mutual benefit 
 and interest. It is agreed by and between the parties aforesaid, that they and each of 
 them will give attendance upon, and their best endeavor to the fullest extent of their skill 
 and ability to promote the joint interest, advantage and profit in the buying, selling and 
 employing with their joint stock, and the profit arising therefrom, in the said business 
 during the continuance of their copartnership. And also that they will at all times dur- 
 ing their partnership bear, pay and discharge all obligations and debts, rents and other 
 expenses pertaining to the business equally between them, and all gains, profits and in- 
 crease that shall come, grow and arise therefrom, they will divide equally between them ; 
 and all loss that shall occur from said joint business by bad debts or otherwise shall be 
 shared equally. 
 
 And it is agreed by and between the said parties, that there shall be had and kept 
 at all times during their copartnership perfect, just and true books of account, wherein 
 each of the said copartners shall enter and set down all money by them or either of them 
 received, paid and expended in and about the said business, also all goods, wares, commo- 
 dities and merchandise by them or either of them bought or sold on account of the said 
 business, and all other matters and things whatsoever to the said business and the man- 
 agement thereof in anywise belonging ; which said books shall be used in common be- 
 tween the said copartners, so that either of them may have access thereto, without any 
 interruption or hindrance of the other. And also the said copartners, once in each and 
 every year, or oftener if necessary, shall render each to the other a true, just and perfect 
 inventory and account of all profits and losses by them, or either of them, made or 
 sustained ; and all other things by them done or suffered in this said copartnership and 
 business, and shall pay and deliver, each to the other, at the time, their share of said profits. 
 
 And the said parties hereby mutually covenant and agree to and with each other* 
 that during said copartnership neither of them shall nor will indorse any note, or other- 
 wise become surety for any person or persons whomsoever, without the consent of the 
 other of the said copartners. And at the end, or other sooner determination of their co- 
 partnership, the said copartners, each to the other, shall and will make a true, just and 
 final account of all things relating to their said business, and in all things truly adjust the 
 same ; and what shall remain, either in money, or otherwise, shall be divided between 
 them, share and share alike. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 233 
 
 In witness whereof the said parties have hereunto set their hands, the day and year 
 first above written. 
 
 THOMAS SMITH. 
 
 Witness : CHARLES BOWEN. 
 
 James Brown, 
 
 Joseph Thomas. 
 
 DISSOLUTION OF PARTNERSHIP. 
 
 We, the undersigned ", do mutually agree, that the partnership formed between us by 
 the within articles, be and the same is hereby dissolved, except for the purpose of the final 
 liquidation and settlement of the business -thereof ; and upon such settlement wholly to 
 cease and determine. 
 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seals, this day of 
 
 > 1 8 — . 
 
 PETER BROWN, [seal.] 
 
 JAMES NOBLE. [seal.] 
 
 Sealed, signed and delivered in ) 
 presence of ) 
 
 Charles Jones, 
 
 Henry Tuttle. 
 
 The above to be indorsed upon the back of the original agreement 
 
 NOTICE OF DISSOLUTION. 
 
 Notice is hereby given , that the partnership lately subsisting between (Insert 
 here the names and residence of partners.) under the firm name of , 
 
 was dissolved by mutual consent on the thirty-first day of May last. 
 
 All debts owing to the said partnership are to be received by the said , and 
 
 all demands on the said partnership are to be presented to him for payment. (Or either 
 partner is allowed to use the name of the firm in liquidation of all debts due to and from 
 the partnership.) 
 
 (Signatures.) 
 
 (Place and date.) 
 
 PATENTS. 
 
 PERSON is entitled to the exclusive manufacture, use, and sale of an in- 
 vention made by him, and is protected in his right for a term of years by 
 Government. Such a document is termed a Patent, the inventor holding 
 it as patentee. 
 
 Any person may Patent any invention, improvement, or discovery 
 unknown before and not used by others in this country, nor patented or set forth in any 
 printed publication in this or other countries. 
 
234 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 A person having territorial right may sell the article patented within the limits spe- 
 cified and sometimes may manufacture the same, but the owner generally supplies the 
 article at an agreed price. 
 
 A shop right restricts the use or manufacture of the article to the establishment 
 designated, and to no other place. 
 
 The sum paid the inventor by the manufacturer on each article made or sold is the 
 Royalty. 
 
 A Royalty agreement should be drawn up by the patentee’s own lawyer, and be 
 clearly stated. 
 
 An assignment of Patent should contain provision that assignee agrees to manufac- 
 ture and pay on a specified minimum number each year, and to defend patent at his own 
 costs if infringed. 
 
 The patentee only can receive a reissue of patent and the assignee will have diffi- 
 culty in obtaining extensions if it is not stated in the assignment. 
 
 There must be a model machine or drawing from which a mechanic could make the 
 invention to secure a subsequent inventor from getting a patent. 
 
 Conceiving a theory of an invention, does not render it patentable. 
 
 A Patent formerly granted here is not prejudiced by a subsequent foreign Patent on 
 the same. Every invention of a foreigner must have in use and for sale in the United 
 States a copy of their patentable article within eighteen months of its date of patent. 
 
 A Patent extends seventeen years. No Patents granted since 1861, can be extended 
 
 Application must be made in the name of the inventor, who only can sign the 
 paper. 
 
 Heirs can obtain a Patent on application of executor or administrator of inventor. 
 
 A joint Patent is issued to joint inventors. 
 
 The filing of a caveat precludes the patenting of a similar article with the knowl- 
 edge of the caveator. He is entitled to official notice for one year and if so notified must 
 file his application within three months. 
 
 A caveat extends for one year, and by paying $10 may run another. Citizens of the 
 United States and aliens residing in the United States one year and declaring intention 
 of naturalization only, can file caveat. 
 
 UNITED STATES PATENT FEES. 
 
 On filing each caveat, - $10.00 
 
 On filing each original application for a patent, except for a design, - - 15.00 
 
 On issuing each original patent, ------- 20.00 
 
 On every appeal from Examiners-in-Chief, ----- 20.00 
 
 On application for a reissue, ------- 30.00 
 
 On application for extension, ------- 50.00 
 
 Granting an extension, - -- -- -- - 50.00 
 
 Filing each disclaimer, ------- - 10.00 
 
 Certified copies of patents and other papers, 10 cents per 100 words. 
 
236 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 Recording every assignment, agreement, power of attorney, and other papers, of 
 300 words or under, ------- 
 
 If over 300 and under 1,000 words, - - - - - 
 
 If over 1,000 words, -------- 
 
 Drawings, cost of making same, 
 
 Patents for designs — for three and one-half years, - 
 
 “ “ for seven years, ------ 
 
 “ “ for fourteen years, ------ 
 
 1. 00 
 
 2.00 
 3-oo 
 
 10.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 PETITIONS FOR PATENTS. 
 
 BY A SOLE INVENTOR. 
 
 To the Commissioner of Patents : 
 
 Your petitioner, a resident of , prays that letters patent be granted to 
 
 him for the invention set forth in the annexed specification. 
 
 BY JOINT INVENTORS. 
 
 To the Commissioner of Patents : 
 
 Your petitioners, residing respectively in and , pray that letters 
 
 patent may be granted to them, as joint inventors, for the invention set forth in the 
 annexed specification. 
 
 BY AN INVENTOR FOR HIMSELF AND AN ASSIGNEE. 
 
 T.0 the Commissioner of Patents : 
 
 Y our petitioner, a resident of , prays that letters patent may be granted to 
 
 himself and of , as his assignee, for the invention set forth in the 
 
 annexed specification, the assignment to the said having been fully recorded in 
 
 the Patent Office, in liber page 
 
 FORM OF A CAVEAT. 
 
 To the Commissioner of Patents : 
 
 The petition of of in the County of and State of 
 
 Respectfully represents : 
 
 That he has made certain improvements in and that he is now 
 
 engaged in making experiments for the purpose of perfecting the same, preparatory to 
 his applying for letters patent therefor. He therefore prays that the subjoined descrip- 
 tion of his invention may be filed as a caveat in the confidential archives of the Patent 
 Office, agreeably to the provisions of the act of Congress in that case made and provided; 
 he having paid ten dollars into the treasury of the United States, and otherwise complied 
 with the requirements of the said act. 
 
 (. Signature . 
 
 (Date.) 
 
 ( Here describe the inventio 7 i so far as completed .) 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 237 
 
 TRADE MARKS. 
 
 They remain in force thirty years on articles of home manufacture, but of foreign 
 expire at the same limit as in any foreign country. 
 
 All necessary forms with needed information, will be furnished upon application at 
 the Patent Office. The right to use them may be assigned. 
 
 Any infringement subjects the person offending to an action for damages in any 
 court of competent jurisdiction in the United States. 
 
 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 
 
 OPYRIGHTS are granted for twenty-eight years, and may be extended 
 fourteen years, if application is made within six months of expiration of 
 the original. They may be assigned but record must be entered with 
 Librarian of Congress. 
 
 Before the publication of the book or article, a printed copy of the 
 title, description or model of the same must be sent to 
 
 “ LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D. C.,” 
 
 for which a fee of fifty cents for record and fifty cents for certificate, must be sent. Then a 
 certificate will be forwarded by return mail. 
 
 For assignment of copyright the fee is one dollar, and for every copy, the same. 
 Two full copies of the best edition of the work must be mailed to the address above, 
 within ten days after issue, to perfect copyright. A failure subjects to a fine of $25. 
 
 The following words must be inserted on the title page or pages following : 
 
 “ Entered according to act of Congress, in the year , by in the 
 
 office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,” or, “Copyright, 18 — , by 
 
 Any person inserting the above or words having the same import, who has not 
 received a copyright, is subject to a fine of $100. 
 
 The right to translate or dramatize a work may be reserved but notice must be 
 given by the words, “All rights reserved,” appended to copyright entry, and by informa- 
 tion to the Librarian of Congress. 
 
 The application must explicitly state in whose name copyright is to be entered, and 
 whether he be the author, publisher, or proprietor of the work. 
 
 THE LAWS REGARDING SUFFRAGE AND NATURALIZATION. 
 
 ATURALIZATION is the right of citizenship conferred upon aliens by 
 the United States, but it does not confer the right of suffrage, for that is 
 regulated by each State for itself. 
 
 The Constitution has the following provision : 
 
 Aliens may become citizens of the United States after five years con- 
 tinuous, well-behaved residence, one year of which must be in the State in which they 
 
288 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 are admitted. At least two years prior to admission, a declaration of intention to become 
 a citizen must be filed, when the applicant must renounce allegiance to all foreign pow- 
 ers and potentates, and take an oath to support the Constitution of the United States. 
 
 If the applicant shall have resided in the United States three years prior to his be- 
 coming twenty-one years of age, he may be admitted without the requirement of a pre- 
 liminary declaration, provided he has resided continuously, altogether, five years in the 
 United States. 
 
 Residence in the United States for five years, and good moral character, must be sub- 
 stantiated by the oath of at least one witness. 
 
 If a party who has made declaration of his intention to become a citizen of the United 
 States, shall die before he is finally admitted, his wife and family may be admitted to cit- 
 izenship on his declaration papers, by passing through the same formula that would have 
 been required of the deceased husband and father. Naturalization of a husband and 
 father carries with it the naturalization of his wife and minor children. 
 
 The power to grant naturalization papers is allowed only to courts of record having 
 common law jurisdiction, a seal and a clerk. 
 
 Aliens of countries at war with the United States are forbidden by law to become 
 citizens. 
 
 The exclusive rights of naturalization is vested in the United States. The qualifica- 
 tion for voters is given in the State Constitutions, and differs in the different States. 
 
 Residence in the United States one year and in the State six months, and legal de. 
 claration of intention, are required in Florida and Oregon. 
 
 A residence of one year in the State and legal declaration of intention must be made 
 in Florida, Kansas, Wisconsin and other States. 
 
 In Massachusetts he must have residence two years after naturalization, and be able 
 to read in English and write his own name. In Rhode Island he must possess real es- 
 tate. In Connecticut full citizenship is required, and that he be of good moral character 
 and able to read. In Vermont the law is similar to the last. 
 
 The first clause of the first section of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitu- 
 tion reads as follows : 
 
 “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction 
 thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the State wherein they reside.” 
 
 The Supreme Court of the United States has decided that : 
 
 “ The phrase, ‘subject to its jurisdiction/ was intended to exclude from its operation 
 children of Ministers, Consuls and citizens or subjects of foreign States, born within the 
 United States.” 
 
 To vote for Representatives in Congress the same qualifications must be had as to 
 vote for State Representatives in the State where voter resides. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 239 
 
 LAST WILLS AND TESTAMENTS. 
 
 WILL is a written expression of desire as to the disposition of property 
 after death, according to law. 
 
 The proper preparation of a will is difficult, and there is nothing in 
 which trustworthy advice is more needed. It is the solemn duty of every 
 man of property to execute a will. 
 
 The testator, or one making the will, must be of sound mind and in legal possession 
 of the property willed. A married woman, in States where she can hold property in her 
 right, can make a will, otherwise not. 
 
 The legal age for making a will in regard to real estate is twenty-one years, but in 
 most States personal property can be devised by a male of eighteen or a female of six- 
 teen. 
 
 The last will annuls all previously made, and care should be taken to distinctly 
 state in the very beginning, “ This, my last will and testament,” and if a previous one has 
 been made, to insert a clause revoking all other wills. 
 
 The will must be the deliberate act of the testator, and should so state, and that it 
 is sealed and signed by him according to law. 
 
 There must be a witness to a will, and in most States two witnesses, to make it 
 valid. Some States require three. They and each of them should see the writing of 
 signature. If unable to write, he may make his mark in the presence of witnesses. 
 
 The will should read, “ I give, bequeath and devise my estate and property,” for be- 
 queath refers to personal property, and devise to real estate. 
 
 Then the exact desire of the testator should be clearly and tersely expressed, so as 
 to leave no chance for misconstruction. 
 
 When the intention is that the interest shall not be limited to the lifetime of an 
 heir, his name should be followed by “ and his heirs? 
 
 If a will contains no provision for the child of the testator, then it is regarded as an 
 oversight, and such child is made by law an equal heir with other children. If a parent 
 wishes to exclude a child from any share in his property, he must so state explicitly. A 
 will ought always to designate the executors, but if this is omitted, the will is still valid, 
 and an administrator will be appointed by the courts. A witness to a will ought never 
 to be a legatee, as he cannot inherit it ; but if this should happen, the will is still valid. 
 
 Where property is sold or otherwise disposed of, the will is invalidated to that 
 extent. 
 
 Where a will is made, and testator afterwards marries and has issue, the will is re- 
 voked, unless he makes another affirming the original one. 
 
 An executor appointed cannot act if, at the time of probate, he be a minor, a drunk- 
 ard, convict, or of unsound mind. 
 
 The contents of a will need not be known to the witnesses ; it is enough that the 
 testator acknowledges it to be his will, and see him sign it. 
 
 A will made by a single woman is void if she marry, but she may provide against 
 this in her marriage settlement. 
 
240 
 
 COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 A husband cannot debar his wife of her right of dower by will, but he may bequeath 
 a specified sum in lieu of dower, which she is at liberty to accept or not, at her 
 pleasure. 
 
 The laws in regard to wills are the same in Canada as in the United States, except 
 that in the Province of Quebec a will in the handwriting of the testator does not require 
 to be attested by witnesses. 
 
 A codicil is an addition or modification to a previously made will, which it does not 
 invalidate. i 
 
 A man’s property is held for all his legal debts, and they must be first paid. 
 
 Claims upon the estate have precedence in the following order : i. Funeral expenses, 
 charges of last sickness and for probate. 2. Debts due to the United States. 3. Debts 
 due the State in which the testator died. 4. Any liens on property. 5. General debts. 
 
 FORM OF WILL SUITABLE FOR GENERAL USE. 
 
 I, William Strong, of the city of , State of , being of sound mind 
 
 and memory, do declare this to be my last will and testament : 
 
 1. I give and bequeath to my wife, Mary Strong, all the fixtures, books, 
 paintings, china, silverware, household goods, chattels, furniture and effects other than 
 money and securities for money which at the time of my decease shall be contained in 
 and about my house, No. 20 Main street, in the city of 
 
 2. I give and devise to my wife aforesaid the dwelling-house and lot of ground known 
 
 as No. 20 Main street, city of , with all the appurtenances thereunto belonging, 
 
 to have and to hold unto her, the said Mary Strong, her heirs and assigns forever. 
 
 3. I also give and bequeath to my wife aforesaid the sum of five thousand dollars, to 
 be paid to her within one month of my death, without interest. 
 
 4. I also give and bequeath to my said wife the sum of twenty thousand dollars in 
 the stock of the Connecticut Valley Railroad, now held by me. 
 
 5. I give and devise to my son, James Strong, that certain brick store and lot of 
 
 ground known as No. 49 Center street, city of , with all the appurtenances there- 
 
 unto belonging, to have and to hold unto the said James Strong, his heirs and assigns 
 forever. 
 
 6. I give and devise to my daughter, Jane Ann Strong, that certain dwelling-house 
 
 and lot of land known as No. 144 High street, city of , with all appurtenances 
 
 thereunto belonging, to have and to hold unto her the said Jane Ann Strong, her heirs 
 and assigns forever. 
 
 7. I also give and bequeath the following legacies to the several persons herein 
 
 named : To my beloved pastor, Benjamin M. Adams, the sum of three thousand dollars. 
 To rny nephew, Thomas Henry Strong, the sum of two thousand dollars. To my niece, 
 Henrietta M. Jones, wife of Charles Jones, the sum of two thousand dollars ; and to my 
 old and confidential secretary and friend, William Monroe, of the city of , State 
 
 of , the sum of five thousand dollars. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 241 
 
 8. I also give and bequeath to each of my household servants, who shall be living in 
 my employ at the time of my death, the sum of three hundred dollars. 
 
 9. All the rest, residue and remainder of my real estate and personal property, I 
 give, devise and bequeath to my said wife, Mary Strong, my said daughter, Jane Ann 
 Strong, and my said son, James Strong, their heirs and assigns forever. 
 
 10. I appoint my said son, James Strong, and my trusted friend, Henry Martin 
 Wilcox, my executors of this will and devise, nor shall they be required to give any secu- 
 rity for the performance of their duties. 
 
 In witness whereof, I, William Strong, have hereunto set my hand and seal, this fif- 
 day of , in the year of our Lord one thousand and 
 
 WILLIAM STRONG, [seal.] 
 
 Subscribed b} the testator in the presence of each of us, and at that time declared by 
 
 him to us as his last will and testament. 
 
 George J. Jones, 
 
 Peter I. Brown, 
 Thomas H. Smith. 
 
 FORM OF NONCUPARTIVE WILL. 
 
 Noncupartive Will of Henry Bliss. 
 
 On the tenth day of , A. D. 18 , Henry Bliss, being in the extremity of his 
 
 last sickness, in his own habitation, situate on Pine street, in 
 
 where he had resided for more than ten years next before making this will, in the pres- 
 ence of us the subscribers, did declare this to be his last will and testament. 
 
 He said that he was the owner of the house occupied by him, and also of a certain 
 house and lot of land known as No. 25 Broad street, city of , aforesaid, and 
 
 the sum of ten thousand dollars in preferred stock of the ALtna Life Insurance Company, 
 doing business in Hartford aforesaid, together with five thousand dollars more or less, 
 deposited in the First National Bank, Hartford, Connecticut, to his credit. 
 
 He then said, “I want my wife Jane Bliss to have the house and lot of land on 
 which it stands, in which we live, all the furniture and personal property which it con- 
 tains, except monies and other securities for money, and I wish her to hold undisputed 
 possession of them, as she may see fit. 
 
 “ I want my son, John Henry Bliss, to have my house and the lot on which it stands, 
 known as No. 25 Broad street, Hartford, and to hold undisputed possession as he may see fit. 
 
 “ All other properties I want to be equally divided between my son, the said John 
 Henry Bliss, and my wife, the said Jane Bliss, to be used each and severally for the ben- 
 efit of each, as he and she may see fit, first paying all my just debts.” 
 
 At the time he, the said Henry Bliss pronounced the foregoing will, he was of sound 
 and disposing mind, memory and understanding, and did bid us who were present, to 
 bear witness that this was his will. 
 
 Reduced to writing this day of , 18 . 
 
 NOAH H. PETERS, 
 WILLIAM W. RICE. 
 
 Note. — A noncupartive will, is a verbal expression of desire as to the disposition of 
 property after death, made before witnesses, when in immediate fear of death. 
 
COMMERCIAL LAW AND LEGAL FORMS. 
 
 242 
 
 FORM FOR ADMINISTRATOR’S BOND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we (here insert name of administra- 
 tor,) as principal, and (here insert name of surety) as surety are holden and stand firmly 
 bound and obliged, jointly and severally, unto the State of , in the penal sum 
 
 of (state amount) dollars, to be paid to said State or to its certain Attorney : to the which 
 payment, well and truly to be made and done, we the said Obligors, do bind ourselves 
 and each of us, our heirs, executors and administrators, and each and every of them, for 
 and in the whole sum aforesaid, firmly by these presents. Signed with our hands and 
 sealed with our seals, at this day of A. D. 18 
 
 The Conditions of this Obligation is such, that whereas the above Bounden (here 
 insert name of administrator) has been appointed Administrator of the Estate of (name 
 of deceased) late of (residence of deceased) in the Probate District of 
 deceased ; now, therefore, if the said (name of administrator) shall faithfully discharge 
 the duties of his said appointment according to law, then this Bond shall be valid ; other* 
 wise to remain in full force. 
 
 ( Witnesses.) {Signatures .) 
 
 FORM FOR EXECUTOR’S BOND. 
 
 Know all Men by these Presents, That we (here insert names of executors) 
 as principal, and (here insert name of surety) as surety, are holden and stand firmly 
 bound and obliged, jointly and severally, unto the State of Connecticut in the penal sum 
 of (state amount) dollars, to be paid to said State or to its certain attorney: To the 
 which payment, well and truly to be made and done, we, the said Obligors, do bind our- 
 selves, and each of us, our heirs, executors and administrators, and each and every one of 
 them, for and in the whole sum aforesaid, firmly by these presents. Signed with our 
 hands and sealed with our seals, at this day of A. D. 188— = 
 
 The Condition of this Obligation is such, that whereas the above bounden (insert 
 name of executor) has been appointed executor of the will of (name of testator) in the 
 Probate District of , deceased ; now, therefore, if the said (insert name of 
 
 executor) shall faithfully discharge the duties of his appointment, according to law, then 
 this bond shall be void, otherwise to remain in full force. 
 
 ( Witnesses.) {Signatures) 
 
ABSTRACT OF STATE LAWS REGARDING WILLS. 
 
 ALABAMA. — Two witnesses. Recorded 
 in office of Judge of Probate Court. No 
 nuncupative will can dispose of more 
 than $500 worth of property. Wills are 
 to be executed out of the State in the 
 same way as if within the State. All per- 
 sons over twenty-one years of age can 
 dispose of real estate ; all over eighteen, 
 of personal property. 
 
 Arizona. — Two or more witnesses. 
 Nuncupative wills cannot dispose of more 
 than $300 worth of property. Soldiers 
 and sailors in active service may dispose 
 of personal property by unwritten wills. 
 The statute provides in great detail the 
 manner in which wills shall be executed. 
 
 Arkansas. — All over twenty-one years 
 may devise realty and personalty ; all 
 over eighteen, personalty. Two wit- 
 nesses. Nuncupative wills not to exceed 
 $500. A will, the body of which was 
 written by the testator as well as the sig- 
 nature, may be established by three dis- 
 interested witnesses as to handwriting, 
 when there are no attesting witnesses. 
 
 California. — All persons over eigh- 
 teen years of age may dispose by will of 
 either real or personal property. Two 
 or more witnesses required. Nuncupa- 
 tive wills, not to exceed $2,000, are valid, 
 but must be reduced to writing within 
 thirty days. 
 
 Colorado. — Real estate may be de- 
 vised by all over twenty-one ; personal 
 estate by all over seventeen. Two or 
 more witnesses. A married man may not 
 leave more than half of his property 
 away from his wife, nor can a wife leave 
 more than half away from her husband 
 without his written consent thereto. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. — Three witnesses re- 
 
 quired. All persons over eighteen years 
 of age can dispose of real or personal 
 property. Subsequent marriage revokes 
 a will, and so also the birth of a child, 
 unless provision is made in the will for 
 the contingency. Wills must be offered 
 for probate within ten years. 
 
 Delaware. — Two or more witnesses. 
 Any person of sound mind, and above 
 the age of twenty-one years, may dispose 
 of real or personal property. A married 
 woman must obtain the written consent 
 of her husband, signed, sealed, and at- 
 tested by two witnesses, to enable her to 
 dispose by will of her property. 
 
 District of Columbia. — Males of 
 twenty-one and females of eighteen years 
 of age may dispose of real estate or in- 
 terest therein. Three or more witnesses 
 are required. The person making the 
 will must be of sound mind and capable 
 of making a deed or contract. 
 
 Florida. — Persons above twenty-one 
 years of age may dispose of real or per- 
 sonal property. Three or more witnesses 
 are required. Nuncupative wills must be 
 proved by the oath of at least three wit- 
 nesses who were present when it was 
 made. Such a will must be reduced to 
 writing and sworn to within six days. 
 Foreign wills must be executed according 
 to the law of the State. 
 
 Georgia. — Three or more witnesses 
 are necessary. Persons of fourteen years 
 of age may make a will. Wills are re- 
 corded in the Ordinary’s Court. Mar- 
 ried women may dispose by will of their 
 separate estate. 
 
 Idaho. — Persons over twenty-one 
 years of age may dispose of real or per- 
 sonal estate; persons over eighteen, of 
 
244 
 
 ABSTRACT OF STATE LAWS REGARDING WILLS. 
 
 personal estate. Married women may 
 dispose by will of all separate estate, real 
 or personal. Two witnesses are required. 
 Copies of the will must be recorded in 
 every county where there is any real es- 
 tate conveyed by the will. 
 
 Illinois. — All males above twenty- 
 one, and all females above eighteen years 
 of age, may dispose of real or personal 
 property. Two or more witnesses are 
 required. Wills made out of the State 
 must be probated within the State. 
 
 Indiana. — All persons twenty-one 
 years of age or more may will real or 
 personal property. Married women may 
 dispose by will of their separate prop- 
 erty. Nuncupative wills must not ex- 
 ceed $100. Two witnesses. Record 
 must be made in the office of the County 
 Clerk where probated. 
 
 IOWA. — Testator must be twenty-one 
 years of age. Nuncupative wills cannot 
 exceed $300 worth of property, and must 
 be sworn to by at least two disinterested 
 witnesses. Wills valid where made are 
 valid in the State. All foreign wills must 
 be probated in the State. 
 
 Kansas. — Two or more witnesses. 
 Persons must be of age to make a valid 
 will. Wills made in other States must 
 be probated in the county where the 
 property lies, and are then valid. Wills 
 are recorded in the Probate Office. 
 
 Kentucky. — Persons must be twenty- 
 one years of age and of sound mind to 
 make a valid will. Married women may 
 dispose by will of their separate property. 
 Two witnesses are required. Wills must 
 be proved in the County Court of the 
 county where testator resided. Personal 
 property owned by persons living outside 
 the State may be disposed of by a will 
 made in accordance with the requirements 
 of the place where made. In case of de- 
 
 vise of real estate, the will must be proved 
 where made, and an authenticated copy 
 of the certificate of probate offered for 
 probate in this State. 
 
 Louisiana. — Four kinds of wills are 
 recognized: nuncupative by public act; 
 nuncupative by private act; mystic or 
 sealed wills, and olographic wills. The 
 first must be dictated by testator to a 
 notary public and read in the presence 
 of three resident or five non-resident wit- 
 nesses, and must be signed by the testa- 
 tor and witnesses. The second must be 
 written in the presence of five resident or 
 seven non-resident witnesses, read to 
 them, and signed by the testator and the 
 witnesses, or at least two of them. In 
 the country three resident or five non- 
 resident witnesses will suffice, if more 
 cannot be obtained. The third form, or 
 mystic will, is first signed by the testator, 
 then inclosed in an envelope and sealed 
 up. The testator then declares in the 
 presence of a notary and seven witnesses 
 that that paper contains his will, signed 
 by himself, the notary indorses the act 
 of superscription on the will or envelope, 
 and that act is signed by the notary, the 
 testator, and the witnesses. Olographic 
 testaments are written entirely by the tes- 
 tator himself, and dated and signed by 
 him. No attestation or other form is re- 
 quired. The following cannot act as wit- 
 nesses: women of any age; males under 
 sixteen; the deaf, dumb, blind, or insane; 
 those debarred by the criminal law from 
 exercising civil functions; those who 
 stand as heirs or legatees under the will, 
 except in case of mystic testaments. 
 
 Maine. — Three witnesses not inter- 
 ested as heirs or legatees. Real estate 
 acquired afterward may pass. A post- 
 humous child or other child not provided 
 for by will takes the same share as if the 
 
ABSTRACT OF STATE LAWS REGARDING WILLS. 
 
 245 
 
 deceased had died intestate, unless it is 
 shown that the omission of mention in 
 the will was intentional. Nuncupative 
 wills made in the last sickness and at the 
 testator’s residence, or made by sailors 
 and soldiers, are valid, but must be re- 
 duced to writing within six days, and, if 
 they dispose of more than $100 worth of 
 property, must be sworn to by at least 
 three witnesses. 
 
 Maryland. — Wills of personal prop- 
 erty are valid without witnesses; wills of 
 real estate must be attested by three or 
 four witnesses. Real estate may be dis- 
 posed of by males above twenty-one and 
 females above eighteen years of age, of 
 sound mind and capable of making a deed 
 or contract. Wills are probated before 
 the “Orphan’s Court,” and recorded with 
 the Registrar of Wills. A married wo- 
 man can will her property to her husband 
 or to others, only with his written consent 
 subscribed to the will. She must also be 
 examined apart from her husband, as in 
 case of deeds; and such will must be 
 made sixty days before the death of the 
 testatrix. 
 
 Massachusetts.— Persons of legal age 
 may dispose by will of real or personal 
 property. Three or more witnesses are 
 required, but they need not sign in the 
 presence of each other. A bequest to a 
 subscribing witness is void. A married 
 woman may devise as though single, but 
 she cannot leave more x than half of her 
 personal property away from her hus- 
 band, nor deprive him of his courtesy in 
 her real estate without his written con- 
 sent. Wills must be offered for probate 
 within thirty days after the executor 
 knows of the death of the testator. 
 
 Michigan. — Two or more competent 
 witnesses are required. Nuncupative wills 
 must not dispose of more than $300 worth 
 
 of property. Devisees and legatees are 
 incompetent witnesses. Wills must be 
 recorded in the Probate Court, and a 
 copy of the probate thereof registered 
 with the Registrar of every county in 
 which there may be land conveyed by the 
 will. 
 
 Minnesota. — Two or more witnesses. 
 Nuncupative wills can be made only by 
 soldiers in active service or sailors at sea. 
 All persons of legal age and sound mind 
 may devise. Married women may make 
 wills as if they were single. Legatees 
 and devisees are not competent witnesses. 
 Probate as in Michigan. 
 
 Mississippi. — Any person of legal age 
 may devise real or personal property. 
 Two witnesses are required in case of all 
 wills made after November 1, 1880. Nun- 
 cupative wills can be made by soldiers 
 or sailors in actual service, or by others 
 only in the last sickness and at the resi- 
 dence of the testator. If for more than 
 $100 such a will must be sworn to by at 
 least two witnesses. 
 
 MISSOURI. — Real estate may be dis- 
 posed of by males above the age of twenty- 
 one and females above that of eighteen 
 years. Personal property may be devised 
 by all above eighteen years of age. Two 
 witnesses are necessary. Married women 
 may make wills as though single. Wills 
 should be recorded with the Recorder of 
 Deeds for the county where probate is 
 made, and a copy registered in every coun- 
 ty where land is disposed of in the will. 
 
 Montana. — All persons more than 
 eighteen years of age may dispose by will 
 of either real or personal property. Two 
 witnesses are required. Married women 
 may dispose of their separate estate. 
 Nuncupative wills must not exceed $1,000 
 in amount, must be made by soldiers or 
 sailors in actual service, and must be 
 
246 
 
 ABSTRACT OF STATE LAWS REGARDING WILLS. 
 
 sworn to by two competent witnesses. 
 The law of descent for real and personal 
 property is provided for by the Probate 
 Practice Act. 
 
 Nebraska. — Wills must be attested by 
 two or more witnesses. Nuncupative 
 wills are allowed under stringent statu- 
 tory limitations. Married women may 
 dispose of their property as if single. All 
 foreign wills which have been probated 
 in accordance with the law of the State 
 or country where made, will be admitted 
 to probate in this State. 
 
 Nevada. — All persons over eighteen 
 may make wills as to realty or personalty. 
 Two witnesses required. A child unpro- 
 vided for shall take the share he would 
 have had if testator had died intestate, 
 unless the omission is shown to be inten- 
 tional. Married women may dispose of 
 separate estate, and, with the husband’s 
 consent, of their interest in common 
 property. 
 
 New Hampshire. — The testator must 
 be twenty-one years of age. Three or 
 more witnesses are called for. Married 
 women may dispose of separate estate. 
 Nuncupative wills must be attested by 
 three witnesses, reduced to writing within 
 six days and offered for probate within 
 six months. 
 
 New Jersey. — Testator must be 
 twenty-one years old. A married woman 
 may dispose of personal or real estate, 
 but cannot defeat the husband’s right of 
 courtesy in the realty. Two witnesses are 
 required. A legacy or devise to a wit- 
 ness is void. 
 
 New MEXICO. — Males over fourteen 
 and females over twelve may make wills. 
 Wills may be written or verbal. Verbal 
 wills must be attested by five witnesses, 
 two of whom must swear that the testator 
 was of sound mind; written wills must 
 
 be attested by three witnesses. The pro- 
 bate judge may disapprove a will after 
 hearing the witnesses, and return it to 
 the party applying. It may be then 
 brought before the District Court, and 
 finally approved or disapproved. 
 
 New York. — Personal property may 
 be disposed of by males of eighteen and 
 females of sixteen. Two witnesses. Wills 
 properly proved in the State or country 
 where made will be admitted to probate 
 in this State. 
 
 North Carolina. — Two witnesses are 
 required. Wills, written, dated, and sign- 
 ed in testator’s handwriting throughout, 
 will be admitted on proof of handwriting 
 by at least three witnesses. Nuncupative 
 wills are strictly limited. Wills made out 
 of this State and conveying real estate 
 within this State must be executed accord- 
 ing to the laws of this State ; i.e., the lex 
 rei sites prevails. 
 
 North and South Dakota. — Both 
 real and personal property may be dis- 
 posed of by all persons above eighteen 
 years of age. Wills of which the body is 
 in the testator’s handwriting, and which 
 are signed and dated by him, need not 
 be attested. Two or more witnesses are 
 necessary for other wills. Wills made 
 out of the State are proved in the 
 same way as those made within it. A 
 will made by an unmarried woman is re- 
 voked by her marriage Married women 
 may dispose by will of all their property 
 as though single. 
 
 Ohio. — Two witnesses. Verbal wills 
 may be made in the last sickness as re- 
 gards personal estate They must be re- 
 duced to writing and subscribed by two 
 disinterested witnesses within ten days. 
 A devisee or legatee cannot be a witness. 
 Bequests for religious, benevolent, educa- 
 tional, or charitable purposes are void as 
 
ABSTRACT OF STATE LAWS REGARDING WILLS. 
 
 247 
 
 against children, unless the will is exe- 
 cuted at least one year before the decease 
 of the testator. Wills executed and al- 
 lowed in other States will be admitted to 
 probate in this State. 
 
 OREGON. — All persons over twenty-one 
 may dispose of real or personal estate by 
 will. Personal estate may be bequeathed 
 by all above eighteen. Married women 
 may make wills as if single, but cannot 
 destroy the right of courtesy in real estate. 
 Two or more witnesses. Children not 
 provided for in a will may take as if the 
 parent had died intestate. Real estate 
 owned in this State may be disposed of 
 by will made in another State and ad- 
 mitted to probate in this State. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — All persons of legal 
 age may make wills. Unless the testator 
 is on his deathbed, the will must be in 
 writing. Two witnesses must be present, 
 but they need not subscribe the instru- 
 ment ; no acknowledgment before wit- 
 nesses by the testator is necessary, except 
 in case of a married woman, or of a be- 
 quest for religious or charitable purposes. 
 
 RHODE Island. — Two witnesses are 
 required. Both must be produced when 
 the will is probated, if alive and within 
 the State. Real estate may be disposed 
 of by will by all persons above twenty- 
 one years of age. Personal property by 
 all above eighteen years of age. Married 
 women may dispose of separate estate, 
 but cannot impair the right of courtesy in 
 real estate. 
 
 South Carolina. — Three or more 
 witnesses are called for. Wills are re- 
 corded in the Probate Court of the county 
 where testator had his domicile. Com- 
 mon law principles generally prevail. 
 
 Tennessee. — T wo witnesses. A will 
 written throughout and signed and dated 
 in the testator’s handwriting, and found 
 
 among his papers, or lodged by him with 
 another for safe keeping, will be admitted, 
 though unattested, on the evidence of at 
 least three witnesses as to the handwrit- 
 ing. Nuncupative wills must not exceed 
 $250, and are further limited in various 
 ways by the statutes. No subscribing 
 witnesses are necessary to wills of per- 
 sonal property, except in case of married 
 women. 
 
 Texas. — Testator must be of full age. 
 Unless the will is olographic, there must 
 be at least two competent witnesses. A 
 will properly executed and probated in 
 another State will be admitted to probate 
 here upon application. Nuncupative wills 
 exceeding $30 must be sworn to by three 
 credible persons, made in the last sick- 
 ness, and offered for probate within six 
 months. 
 
 Utah. — Real and personal property 
 may be disposed of by will by all persons 
 of sound mind and of the age of eighteen 
 years. Married women may make wills 
 as if single. Two witnesses are necessary. 
 
 Vermont. — Three witnesses are re- 
 quired. Wills made and executed legally 
 in another State or country may be 
 proved, allowed, and recorded in this 
 State. Wills must be recorded in the 
 Probate Office and also in the Town 
 Clerk’s Office in every town where real 
 estate disposed of may lie. 
 
 Virginia. — All persons over twenty- 
 one may dispose of real property; all 
 over eighteen of personal property. Two 
 witnesses. Married women may dispose 
 of separate property, but cannot impair 
 the husband’s right of courtesy. The cir- 
 cuit, county, and corporation courts have 
 probate jurisdiction. 
 
 Washington. — Males above twenty- 
 one and females above eighteen years of 
 age may dispose by will of realty or 
 
248 
 
 ABSTRACT OF STATE LAWS REGARDING WILLS. 
 
 personal property. Two or more sub- 
 scribing witnesses. Nuncupative wills for 
 above $200 must be sworn to by two wit- 
 nesses, except in case of sailors or soldiers 
 in actual service. 
 
 West Virginia. — Testator must be of 
 legal age. Two subscribing witnesses, 
 except in case of an olographic will. A 
 will executed outside of the State must 
 still be executed according to the laws of 
 the State, in order to convey real estate 
 therein. 
 
 WISCONSIN. — Two subscribing wit- 
 nesses are necessary. Probate is had in 
 the County Court. Wills duly executed, 
 proved, and allowed in other States will 
 be admitted to probate here. 
 
 Wyoming. — There are no statutes in 
 regard to the execution of proof of wills. 
 The common law principles must be fol- 
 lowed. Probate must be had in the 
 County Probate Court. 
 
MECHANICS’ LIENS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 The law in most of the States recognizes the right of the creditor, who has 
 labored or furnished material upon the property of another, to retain a claim upon 
 that property until he has recovered his wages or the price of the material which he 
 has furnished. Such a claim is known as a lien. In some of the States a mechanic 
 who has been employed upon a house, and in some, if he has been employed upon 
 any property, may levy upon the same for the amount of wages due. If the lien is 
 placed upon the property thus improved within a specified time, the mechanic, when 
 the owner fails to satisfy the debt, may cause the same to be sold by due process of 
 law. Sailors have a lien on the vessel in which they have shipped for the amount of 
 their wages. Following are laws pertaining to Mechanics’ Liens in all the States: 
 
 Alabama. — Liens are extended to rail- 
 road laborers, as well as to the usual 
 claisses, mechanics, contractors, etc. Pro- 
 ceedings must commence within six 
 months after the work is finished. The 
 process is by attachment. 
 
 Arizona. — Besides liens of the usual 
 descr iption, any mechanic or artisan who 
 makes, alters, or repairs any article of 
 personal property, has a lien thereon to 
 secure his just charges, and may retain 
 possesion until he is paid. 
 
 Arkansas. — Account of the claim must 
 be filed with the clerk of the circuit court 
 of the County where the land lies within 
 ninety days after the work is done. Suit 
 must begin within nine months. 
 
 California. — Liens have precedence 
 over subsequent or previous unrecorded 
 incumbrances. An original contractor 
 may file his claim within sixty days; 
 others must do so in thirty days. Suit 
 must be brought within ninety days from 
 the date of filing the claim. 
 
 COLORADO. — There is a lien for work 
 and materials over $25 in value. Claim 
 must be filed within forty days and suit 
 brought within six months. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. — Liens exist for amounts 
 over $25. Claims must be verified by 
 oath and filed within sixty days from the 
 
 time when claimant began to furnish ma- 
 terials or work. 
 
 Delaware. — Liens are allowed for 
 amounts above $25. Original contractors 
 must file claims not sooner than sixty or 
 later than ninety days after the building 
 is finished ; others, within sixty days. 
 
 District of Columbia.— Claims must 
 be filed with the clerk of the supreme 
 court of the District within sixty days 
 after the work is completed. The amount 
 claimed must be above $20. 
 
 Florida. — Contracts under which the 
 lien is claimed must be in writing, the 
 amount liquidated or certain, and a net 
 balance struck. Such contracts must be 
 recorded within thirty days. Claims 
 must be filed within six months after the 
 work is done or materials furnished, and 
 suit brought within a year. 
 
 Georgia. — Claims must be recorded 
 within thirty days with the clerk of the 
 superior court of the county where the 
 property lies. Suit must be brought 
 within a year. Mechanics and laborers 
 have also a lien on personal property 
 given them to repair or alter, but lose it 
 on giving up possession of the goods. 
 
 Idaho. — Claims must be not less than 
 $25. The improvement and development 
 of mines, claims, flumes, ditches, and 
 
250 
 
 MECHANICS’ LIENS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 bridges come under the law of mechanics’ 
 liens. Accounts must be filed with the 
 county recorder within sixty days by an 
 original contractor; within thirty, by 
 others. Suit must be brought within six 
 months. Mechanics have a lien on arti- 
 cles left with them to repair or alter, and 
 may sell them, if the charges are not paid 
 within two months, after advertising the 
 sale for three weeks. 
 
 ILLINOIS. — Suit must be brought within 
 six months. Liens for labor and mate- 
 rials take precedence to the extent to 
 which they have increased the value of 
 the property. If the time for completion 
 of the work is fixed by contract at more 
 than three years from the beginning, or 
 the time of payment at more than one 
 year from the time stipulated for the 
 completion of the work, there is no lien. 
 
 Indiana. — Notice must be filed within 
 sixty days after the completion of the 
 work. Suit must be brought within a 
 year. Tradesmen and mechanics have a 
 lien for work done on personal property 
 and may sell the same if not paid for 
 within six months. 
 
 IOWA. — Claims must be filed within 
 ninety days after the work is done or 
 materials furnished. Suit must be brought 
 within two years. Liens hold against rail- 
 roads. Taking collateral security will 
 destroy the lien. 
 
 Kansas. — Claims may be filed by sub- 
 contractors within sixty days ; by others, 
 within four months. Suit must be begun 
 within the year. Tradesmen and me- 
 chanics may hold articles ordered to be 
 repaired or constructed, if their charges 
 are not paid, and after three months may 
 sell the same. 
 
 Kentucky.— C laims must be filed with- 
 in sixty days. Suit must begin within six 
 months after filing the account. 
 
 Louisiana. — Liens are known as u priv- 
 ileges.” Privileges are given to archi- 
 tects, contractors, and material men on 
 the buildings and lot of land not to exceed 
 one acre. The privilege must be recorded 
 with the register of privileges in the par- 
 ish where the property lies. 
 
 Maine. — Statements of accounts must 
 be filed within thirty days after ceasing 
 to labor, in the office of the clerk of town 
 or city where the building is. Attach- 
 ments may issue against buildings ninety 
 days after the work is finished or mate- 
 rials furnished; against vessels four days 
 after they are launched. 
 
 Maryland. — Liens lie on buildings, 
 machines, wharves, and bridges erected or 
 repaired to the extent of one-fourth the 
 value. Notice must be given to owner 
 within sixty days and claim recorded with- 
 in six months. Kent, Charles, Calvert, 
 and St. Mary’s counties are not included 
 in list of those in which lien laws apply. 
 
 Massachusetts. — Claims must be filed 
 with town or city clerk thirty days after 
 the service is rendered. Suit must be 
 commenced within ninety days after the 
 work has ceased. In case of materials 
 furnished written notice must be given to 
 the owner (in case he is not the pur- 
 chaser), that it is intended to claim a lien. 
 
 Michigan. — Liens lie for constructing, 
 repairing, or furnishing materials for 
 buildings, wharves, machinery, or appur- 
 tenances. A contractor must file a copy of 
 his contract with the register of deeds, no- 
 tify the owner of his claim, and begin suit 
 within six months after work has ceased, 
 
 Minnesota. — Liens lie on buildings, 
 appurtenances, boats, vessels, and land on 
 which the buildings stand, not to exceed 
 forty acres, or, if in a city, one acre. 
 The account must be filed within a year 
 and action brought within a year after 
 
MECHANICS' LIENS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 251 
 
 the date of filing. There is a lien on per- 
 sonal property for work done thereon, 
 and it may be sold after three months, if 
 proper charges are not paid. 
 
 Mississippi. — Liens lie on buildings, 
 bridges, fixed machinery or gearing, boats 
 and vessels. Claims must be filed in office 
 of chancery clerk of the county where land 
 lies. Suit must be brought within six 
 months after money claimed is due. 
 
 Missouri. — Claims must be filed within 
 six months by original contractors, thirty 
 days by journeymen and day laborers, 
 and four months by other persons. Ac- 
 tions must begin within ninety days after 
 filing claims. Liens lie on buildings, land, 
 fixtures, engines, and boilers. 
 
 Montana. — Original contractors must 
 file accounts within ninety days from the 
 timework ceases; sub-contractors within 
 thirty days. All liens filed within thirty 
 days of the time the first lien is filed are 
 entitled to share alike. Suit must be 
 begun within ninety days by sub-contrac- 
 tors ; within a year by original contractors. 
 
 Nebraska. — Accounts should be filed 
 within four months of the time the work is 
 done or materials furnished, with the clerk 
 of the county where the property lies. 
 Suit must be brought within two years. 
 The account filed must be sworn to. 
 
 Nevada. — Liens lie in case of railroads, 
 canals, mines, tunnels, and ditches, as well 
 as buildings. The amount due must be as 
 much as $25. Claims must be recorded 
 by original contractors within sixty days, 
 by other persons within thirty days, after 
 work has ceased. Suit must be brought 
 within six months after filing claim. 
 
 New Hampshire. — Liens lie for 
 amounts of $15 or more. Suit must be 
 brought within ninety days. Railroad 
 contractors and lumberers have a like lien 
 for sixty days only. 
 
 New Jersey. — Liens lie on buildings, 
 materials, fixtures, and machinery. Orig- 
 inal contractors, by filing a copy of con- 
 tract before any work has been done or ma- 
 terial furnished, may confine the liability 
 for liens to themselves alone. Claims must 
 be filed and suit brought within a year. 
 
 New Mexico. — Liens lie on land as 
 well as buildings. Claims must be filed 
 within sixty days after the work is done, 
 and must be sworn to. Suit must be 
 brought within a year. Tradesmen and 
 mechanics have a lien upon articles given 
 them for repair. Landlords and innkeep- 
 ers have a lien on property and baggage 
 of tenants and guests. 
 
 New York. — Claims, with specifica- 
 tions, and a copy of the contract, if any 
 exist, must be filed from two to three 
 months after the work ceases. Suit must 
 be brought within a year. The law differs 
 in some respects in the different counties. 
 
 North Carolina. — Liens lie upon any 
 kinds of property. Claims under $200 
 may be filed with a justice of the peace. 
 Over that amount they must be filed with 
 the clerk of the superior court for the 
 county where the work was done. No- 
 tice must be filed within thirty days. 
 Personal property held for charges by 
 mechanics and tradesmen may be sold 
 after thirty days if not above $50 in value, 
 after ninety days if worth more than that. 
 
 North and South Dakota.— The 
 lien lies upon land as well as buildings. 
 Machinery is included in materials fur- 
 nished. The taking of collateral security 
 will destroy the lien. 
 
 Ohio. — Liens lie on buildings, bridges, 
 or vessels. Claims, with copy of the orig- 
 inal contract, if in writing, must be filed 
 within four months. Suit must begin 
 within the year. 
 
 OREGON. — Liens lie for any amount 
 
252 
 
 MECHANICS’ LIENS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 over $20. Claims must be filed within 
 three months. Suit must be brought 
 within a year. Personal property held 
 for charges by artisans or mechanics may 
 be sold after three months. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — Claims must be re- 
 corded within six months in the office of 
 the prothonotary of the court of common 
 pleas. The lien extends to wharves, en- 
 gines, fixtures, machinery, and the land 
 on which the structure stands. Suit may 
 be begun any time within five years. 
 
 Rhode Island. — Liens extend to rail- 
 roads, canals, turnpikes, and other im- 
 provements. The account must be filed 
 with the town or city clerk, and suit 
 brought within sixty days by original 
 contractors, thirty days by others. 
 
 South Carolina. — Claims must be 
 filed within ninety days and suit brought 
 within the year. If the owner is not the 
 contracting party, he may prevent the 
 lien from attaching by giving written no- 
 tice that he will not be responsible for the 
 contractor’s debts. 
 
 Tennessee. — Notice must be given of 
 intention to claim a lien when the work 
 is begun or materials furnished by sub- 
 contractors and workmen. Suit must be 
 brought within a year. In case of vessels 
 and steamboats, suit must be brought with- 
 in three months after the money is due. 
 
 Texas. — Claims must be recorded with- 
 in thirty days. The owner, when served 
 with notice by sub-contractors or work- 
 men, may retain enough to pay them out 
 of the sum due the original contractor. 
 
 Utah. — Liens extend to mining prop- 
 erty as well as to buildings and improve- 
 ments. Claims must be filed in the re- 
 corder’s office within three months. Suit 
 must be brought within a year of the 
 completion of the work, unless the amount 
 is not due within that time, when suit 
 
 may be brought at any time within three 
 months after it is due. 
 
 VERMONT. — In case of work and mate- 
 rials for building, suit must be brought 
 within three months. When the lien is 
 on a vessel or steamboat, suit must be 
 brought within eight months after the 
 completion of the same. Claims must be 
 filed with the town or city clerk of the 
 place where the building is. 
 
 Virginia. — General contractors must 
 file claims within thirty days after the 
 completion of the work; sub-contractors 
 and workmen must give notice to the 
 owner within ten days of the amount due. 
 
 Washington. — Liens for wages ex- 
 tend to lumber and timber. Such claims 
 must be recorded with the county audi- 
 tor within sixty days from the time the 
 work ceased. Suit must begin within 
 four months. Wages of servants, me- 
 chanics, laborers, and others are preferred 
 claims to the extent of $100 each, in cases 
 of insolvency. Also all sums earned for 
 sixty days previous thereto. 
 
 West Virginia. — Claims must be filed 
 with the county clerk within thirty days. 
 The owner, upon notice by sub-contract- 
 ors or workmen of sums due them, may 
 reserve their pay from the amount due 
 the general contractor. Suit must be 
 brought within six months. 
 
 WISCONSIN. — Liens extend to land on 
 which buildings stand, but not to exceed 
 forty acres or a city lot. Sub-contractors 
 and workmen must give notice to the 
 owner within thirty days after completing 
 their services. Suit must be brought 
 within a year. Personal property held 
 for charges may be sold after six months. 
 
 WYOMING. — Claims must be filed with- 
 in sixty days. Suit must be brought with- 
 in a year. Artisans and mechanics may 
 hold personal property for charges due. 
 
EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE LATEST SOURCES. 
 
 In most of the States there are laws to protect the homestead of a debtor from 
 forced sale. There are also laws exempting articles of household goods, tools of 
 trade, libraries and instruments of professional men, domestic animals, food, and fuel. 
 When a person removes from one State to another he should acquaint himself with 
 the provisions of the law in this respect. And all persons selling goods on credit to 
 the citizens of another State ought to be well informed on this subject. In some of 
 the States a certain amount of land, without respect to value, is exempt; in others a 
 certain amount of a specified value. So we have compiled an abstract of the law in 
 each State, for the benefit of debtor and creditor, showing just what amount of 
 property is exempt from attachment and from forced sale on judgment obtained 
 under action for debt. 
 
 Alabama. — A homestead of 160 acres, or if in a city or town, the lot with dwelling, 
 etc., not exceeding $2,000 in value, and owned or occupied by any resident. If the ex- 
 emption is waived, the wife must join in same. One thousand dollars’ worth of personal 
 property, which he may select, and wages due the debtor to $25 per month. Widows 
 are exempted to the extent of wearing apparel, family books and pictures, and pro- 
 visions to last for twelve months. 
 
 Arizona. — The head of a family may be exempted to the extent of a homestead 
 not exceeding $4,000, and to $1,000 personal property selected by himself. 
 
 Arkansas. — A married person or the head of a family is entitled to homestead of 
 not more than 160 acres, with improvements, not above $2,500 in value. In town or 
 city, to the same amount, with one acre of land. Personal property for married person 
 or head of a family to the value of $500 and wearing apparel. To the unmarried, or 
 one not the head of a family, to the value of $200. No conveyance of homestead of 
 a married man, except in case of taxes, laborers’ and mechanics’ liens is valid unless 
 wife joins in. Debtor has the right to select homestead, and if he neglects then the 
 wife may do so. 
 
 California. — When the husband, or wife, or other head of a family, properly files 
 a declaration of homestead in the Recorder’s office, then such homestead is exempt to 
 the value of $5,000, with certain exceptions including debts and mortgages before the 
 declaration and liens for labor and material. A single person is exempt of a homestead 
 to the value of $1,000. Tables, chairs, books, and desks, to $200; necessary household 
 and kitchen furniture, sewing-machine, stove, beds, etc., provisions for family for 
 three months, three cows, four hogs, two horses, oxen, or mules, and seed corn, to 
 $200; the tools of a mechanic or artisan, the instruments of a physician; professional 
 library of an attorney, minister, editor, or school teacher; a miner’s cabin not to 
 exceed $500; also all tools, pipes, and sluices needed in his business, to $500; two 
 horses, or mules with harness, and the claim worked by the miner, to $1,000, are 
 exempt. A drayman may retain two horses, oxen, or mules with harness to the value 
 
254 
 
 EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 of $500. Also the nets, boats, and fishing tackle used to gain a lawful livelihood, to 
 the same amount. Shares of homestead association, to $1,000. When the shareholder 
 has no homestead, declared earnings for thirty days, when the debt was not con- 
 tracted for necessaries of life. Insurance policies and benefits accruing therefrom, 
 when the premium paid did not exceed $500 per year. In all the above, the per- 
 sons are liable for the debts contracted in procuring the property otherwise exempt. 
 
 COLORADO. — Homestead of house and lot in city or town, or a farm of any number 
 of acres, so that the value does not exceed $2,000 ; but the homestead must be recorded 
 as such and occupied by the head of the family. Exempted personal property includes 
 all wearing apparel of debtor and his family, pictures, school books, and library, 
 beds and bedding, stoves, cooking untensils, and household furniture to the value of 
 $100; provisions for six months’ use, tools, implements, or stock in trade, to the value 
 of $200; one cow and calf, ten sheep, and necessary food for them to last six months; 
 working animals to the value of $200. The library and implements of a professional 
 man up to $300. Persons not having a dependent family are exempt on tools, 
 working animals, and stock in trade to the value of $300. The earnings of any 
 debtor, or the wife who is the head of a family, dependent in whole or in part upon 
 such earnings, not exceeding $100, earned during the thirty days preceeding any 
 action at law. All moneys received as pension, when the pensioner is the head of 
 a family. In the above cases, if the debtor dies, or absconds, the exemption applies 
 as to his wife and children. 
 
 Connecticut. — When declaration to hold a homestead is made, it is exempt to 
 the value of $1,000. The necessary wearing apparel, household furniture, and bedding, 
 sufficient to support life for any one person. For any member of the militia, his arms, 
 military uniforms, or musical instruments owned by him. United States pension 
 money in hands of pensioner, implements of the debtor’s trade, library not above $500, 
 one cow not exceeding $150 in value, sheep up to ten, not exceeding all told $150; 
 two swine and the pork from them, or two swine and two hundred pounds of pork; 
 poultry up to $25 ; a physician’s horse up to $200, his saddle, bridle, harness, and 
 buggy; an oysterman or fisherman’s boat and sails, tackle, and implements up to 
 $200 in value; one sewing-machine in use; one pew in church in use ; lot in bury- 
 ing ground; $50 due the debtor for his personal services or that of minor children; 
 all sick and other benefits accruing to a member shall be exempt from foreign attach- 
 ment. A minor child’s wages when living apart from his parents cannot be taken, 
 except for debts contracted for the necessary support of such minor. 
 
 DELAWARE. — No homestead law. Family pictures, bible, and library are exempt ; 
 also lot in cemetery; pew in church, all wearing apparel, sewing-machine in private 
 family; tools of the value of $75. If debtor is head of a family he may claim $ 200 
 personal property additional. 
 
 District OF Columbia. — No homestead law. Personal property is exempt, ex- 
 cept for servants’ or laborers’ hire. This includes wearing apparel, household furniture 
 to $300; provision and fuel for three months; tools and implements of trade to $200, 
 and stock to the same amount; library or implements of a professional man or artist 
 to $300 ; a farmer’s team and other utensils to $100 ; family pictures and library to the 
 
EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 255 
 
 value of $400. By an act of 1878, the wages of any actual resident of the Distirct 
 having a family to support in the said District, not above $100 per month. 
 
 Florida. — Head of a family resident in the State as follows: Homestead of 160 
 
 acres and improvements in the country; if in the city or town one-half acre and $1,000 
 worth of personal property. The improvements on residence and business house of 
 owner. All property liable for taxes and assessments, or for debts contracted for 
 purchase, or improvements, or for the labor expended thereon. The wages of any 
 laborer, the head of a family, are exempt. 
 
 GEORGIA. — The Constitution of 1877 provides that there “ shall be exempt from 
 levy and sale by virtue of any process whatever, under the laws of this State, except as 
 hereinafter excepted, of the property of every head of a family, or guardian, or trustee 
 of a family of minor children ; or every aged or infirm person, or person having the sup- 
 port of dependent females of any age, who is not the head of a family, realty or person- 
 alty, or both, to the value in the aggregate of $1,600.” The exceptions are for taxes, 
 purchase money of homestead, labor or material on same, or for the removal of incum- 
 brances. The debtor may waive or renounce in writing his right thus to provide, 
 except wearing apparel and $300 worth of household furniture, to be selected by him- 
 self and wife, if any; he shall not, after such exempted property has been set apart, 
 encumber it in any way, but he and his wife, if any, with the sanction of the Judge 
 of the Superior Court, may sell it, that the proceeds may be reinvested for the 
 same uses. 
 
 Idaho. — If duly acknowledged and recorded, the homestead to the value of $5,000; 
 office furniture and library to $100; necessary household furniture and provisions for 
 the family for three months; certain farm animals and their food for three months; 
 tools and implements of husbandry to $200. Libraries of professional men and team 
 used by laborer are exempt. 
 
 ILLINOIS. — A homestead to every householder having a family, to $1,000; contin- 
 uing to the surviving head of the family as long as occupied as such, and to the children 
 until the youngest is twenty-one. To every one necessary wearing apparel, bibles, 
 school books, family pictures and $100 of other property selected by debtor. If the 
 debtor is head of a family and resides with them, $300 additional, fifty dollars of 
 wages to the head of a family except the debt is due for wages of servant or laborer. 
 Wages to the amount of fifty dollars earned within six months last past, are preferred 
 debts in case of debtor owning the same. 
 
 Indiana. — There is no homestead law. When the debtor is a resident house- 
 holder, real and personal property to $600, or when the same is in transit, is exempt. 
 Chattel mortgage precludes exemption. Pension money in transit to pensioner, but 
 after receipt of same and it has been invested, it is the same as any other property. 
 
 Iowa. — Homestead, 40 acres in country, and one-half acre in city or town, with 
 buildings thereon, exempt. Homestead exempt to any widow of a soldier or sailor 
 who died of wounds or disease received in the army, or from effect of same. Pension 
 money or homestead purchased with same. Pension money in possession, loaned, 
 or invested. Personal property exempt, includes tools, library, implements, neces- 
 sary team of mechanic, farmer, teacher, or professional man; wearing apparel, and 
 
256 
 
 EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 household and kitchen furniture to $200; certain farm animals, and provisions for 
 family for six months. The above applies to resident heads of family. The unmar 
 ried and non-residents are exempt on wearing apparel and trunks, except pensioners. 
 Printers are exempt on press, type, and furniture to the value of $1,200. One sew- 
 ing-machine to seamstress. Wages earned within 90 days of levy are exempt. Ex- 
 emptions are not waived by failure to, except to levy, or to select property. 
 
 Kansas. — The exemptions are homestead of 160 acres in the country or one acre 
 in city or town, with all buildings. Resident heads of families have exemption on fol- 
 lowing: family bible, school books and family library; family pictures, and musical 
 instruments used by family ; wearing apparel, beds and bedding, cooking stove, and all 
 utensils; all other stoves necessary for use; one sewing machine, spinning wheel and 
 all other instruments of industry; other furniture to the value of $500; certain ani- 
 mals and their food for one year ; one wagon, two ploughs, one dray, and other farming 
 utensils to $300; food for family for one year; tools, implements, and instruments 
 necessary for carrying on trade, or profession, and in addition $400 worth of stock 
 for same; three months’ wages or pension accruing before levy, when the same is 
 needed for support of family. Husband and wife jointly may create a lien on the 
 homestead; material for improvement not exempt. Non-residents not heads of 
 families are exempt on tools, implements, and stock-in-trade, to $400. 
 
 Kentucky. — Bona-fide householder with family may hold homestead to the value 
 of $1,000 free from attachment; specified articles of domestic furniture; livestock, 
 provision and provender, agricultural and domestic implements, libraries and instru- 
 ments of professional men not to exceed to $500; the wages of a laboring man, $50 
 house rent and family supplies; $100 in tools to mechanics; and for all others from 
 $100 to $800, according to size of family. Widow and minor children receive benefit 
 of exemption after the death of debtor. 
 
 LOUISIANA. — Real estate if owned and occupied by the head of a family, and 
 certain furniture, stock, implements, provisions, etc., the property not to exceed 
 $2,000. If wife has separate property above $2,000, no exemption ; widow is entitled 
 to $1,000 out of deceased husband’s estate if in necessitous circumstances, by prefer- 
 ence over first-mortgage creditor. 
 
 Maine.. — Homestead when properly registered, usual wearing apparel, furniture 
 to $150, bedding, pictures, etc., library to $150, fuel and lumber, provision and seed, 
 sewing-machine, certain working animals, a team not above $300 in value, a boat 
 grain, of two tons burden, domestic fowl to $50. Material and stock necessary for 
 trade or business, not exceeding $50 in value. 
 
 Maryland. — No homestead law. Wearing apparel, books and tools (not kept 
 for sale), and other personal property to the value of $100 are exempt, except in cases 
 of breach of promise to marry, and seduction, for bona fide residents of the State only. 
 Equitable interest in property cannot be sold under execution, but may be levied 
 upon, and this lien may be inforced in equity. Choses in action may be attached. 
 
 Massachusetts. — Homesteads, when recorded to the value of $800, are exempt. 
 Necessary wearing apparel for family; certain specified articles of domestic furniture 
 and $300 worth of property additional; library, $50; tools and implements, $100; 
 
EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 25? 
 
 boats and fishing-tackle, $100; one cow, six sheep, one swine, and two tons of hay; 
 sewing-machine, pew in church, etc. 
 
 MICHIGAN. — Homestead of any householder, 40 acres in the country, or house 
 and lot in town, city or village, in either case not to exceed $1,500 in value. Wife, if 
 any, must consent to sale or mortgage ; cannot be sold by probate license to pay debts 
 unless appraised above $1,500, and that amount is paid for it. Personal property ex- 
 empt includes household furniture to $250; stock-in-trade, a team or other things nec- 
 essary to carry on a particular business, to $250; partners of a firm are each entitled 
 to same exemption, unless the debt be for purchase; library and school books not 
 above $150; to a householder, ten sheep, two cows, five swine, provisions, fuel, stoves 
 put up for use in dwelling, tombs and rights of burial, library and school books for 
 each individual in family; provisions and fuel for one month; household goods, fur- 
 niture and utensils to $500, under any execution issued for work and labor, other 
 than professional services. 
 
 MINNESOTA. — Surviving wife or husband holds homestead free from debts of de- 
 ceased for life. Homestead of 80 acres in country, half an acre in city, town, or vil- 
 lage not incorporated, and of less than 5,000 inhabitants ; one lot in larger places, with 
 buildings thereon. Wearing apparel, books, and pictures to the value of $500; three 
 cows, ten swine, twenty sheep and their wool, a yo*ke of oxen, and a horse, or in lieu 
 thereof a span of horses or mule; necessary food for stock for one year; one wagon, 
 ploughs and farming utensils up to $300; necessary seed, grain for actual use in one 
 season; tools and implements used to procure livelihood, and stock in trade to $400; 
 library and instruments of a professional man ; $20 wages for laboring man or woman, 
 for work within 90 days; for a printer: presses, type, furniture, and implements of 
 the craft, up to $2,000, and stock to $400. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. — Homestead of 160 acres in country, house and lot in city to actual 
 head of family, in no case to exceed $2,000 in value, is exempt. Tools, farming imple- 
 ments, wearing apparel, libraries of professional men, instruments of physician, or sur- 
 geon, or dentist, to $250; sewing-machine, two horses, oxen or mules, two cows and 
 calves, five swine, five sheep, with certain food and provisions; fifty bushels of cotton 
 seed, forty gallons of molasses, 1,000 stalks of Louisiana cane, one bridle and saddle, 
 wagon or cart, $100; household furniture, $100, and wages of laborer, $100. A house- 
 holder is entitled to $250 worth of personal property exempt from attachment, if he 
 reside in a city, town, or village. No property exempt against purchase money, but the 
 same liable to seizure at the suit of the vendee, while the first vendor holds possession. 
 
 MISSOURI. — The following are exempt to heads of families: personal property, 
 various articles and stock named, for use, if chosen by debtor, to the value of $300; 
 and laborers’ wages earned in last 30 days. Homestead of 160 acres in country, or 30 
 square rods in cities of 40,000 inhabitants, not above $1,500; in cities of more than 
 40,000 inhabitants, to the value of $3,000. But homesteads are liable to attachment 
 on actions instituted when property was acquired. 
 
 Montana. — Homestead not exceeding 160 acres in country, or one-fourth of an 
 acre in city or town, and not above $2,500 in any case. Usual personal schedule; 
 farmers’ implements, tools, stock, and seed, to $800; tools, teams and libraries of pro 
 
258 
 
 EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 fessional men; mechanic’s tools and implements necessary to carry on his trade; 
 dwelling of miner, $500 ; his tools and machinery, $500 ; wages of laborer for 30 days ; 
 for a teamster, horse, mule, or two oxen and carts. Only married persons or heads 
 of families can claim exemption of any kind. No personal property above mentioned 
 shall be exempt for the wages of any clerk, mechanic, laborer, or servant. 
 
 Nebraska. — None but heads of families are exempt. Homestead to the value 
 of $2,000 consisting of the house and appurtenances where claimant resides and the 
 land on which the same is situated; 160 acres in country, or two contiguous lots in 
 city or town, are exempt, except on mortgage sale by husband and wife jointly, or 
 mechanics’ or laborers’ liens. When debtor has no land he may claim $500 worth of 
 personal property, clothing, necessary furniture, and food for family for six months; 
 certain domestic animals and tools, also wages for sixty days of any laboring man or 
 clerk. 
 
 Nevada. — Homestead, $5,000, is exempt, if the same is necessary to the support 
 of his family; the debtor’s wages for thirty days. Exemptions on personal property 
 follow the law of California, which see. 
 
 New Hampshire.— The following are exempt : Homestead to the value of $500 ; 
 necessary apparel, bedding, and household furniture to $100; Bibles and school books 
 for use in family; library to $200; one cow, one hog and one pig, and pork of the 
 same when slaughtered; tools of occupation of debtor, to $100; six sheep and their 
 fleeces, one cooking stove and its furniture, provision and fuel to the value of $50, 
 and one sewing-machine; beasts of the plough not exceeding one yoke of oxen or a 
 horse, and hay up to four tons. 
 
 New Jersey. — Lot and building thereon owned by debtor who is head of a fam- 
 ily, to $1,000, are exempt. But the deed must specify that it is intended for home- 
 stead, or he must file notice to such effect in the County Clerk’s office. Personal 
 property to the amount of $200, besides wearing apparel, to be appraised by three 
 persons appointed by the sheriff. The widow, or administrator of a deceased person 
 may claim exemption to the same amount. 
 
 New MEXICO. — When the debtor is head of a family, real estate to the value of 
 $1,000. Bedstead and all belonging thereto; one stove and pipe for warming house; 
 one cook-stove and pipe, and sixty days’ fuel; one cow or household furniture, $40 
 in value; two swine or pork thereof, or in lieu $15 in household furniture; six sheep, 
 or the wool, or cloth therefrom, or in lieu $20 worth of household furniture and sixty 
 days’ food for animals. Books and family pictures; certain other kinds of furniture 
 specified. Homestead is not exempt for purchase money or mortgage thereon. Ben- 
 evolent societies and property for extinguishing fires, exempt. 
 
 New York. — Homestead to the value of $1,000 is exempt, but the deed specify- 
 ing the homestead, or a notice describing the property must be properly recorded. 
 Necessary furniture, teams, tools, and instruments of trade, to the value of $250. 
 Even in supplementary proceedings the judgment debtor cannot be ordered to apply 
 upon the judgment his personal earnings for sixty days prior to order, if they be 
 necessary for support of family dependent in whole or in part upon his labor. 
 
 North Carolina. — Every homestead and dwelling thereon, not exceeding 
 
EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 259 
 
 $1,000 in value, to be selected by the owner thereof. Personal property to the value 
 of $500. This law does not apply to debts contracted before August 20th, 1868, 
 but those debts are governed by the laws in force at time contracted. 
 
 North and South Dakota. — Homestead of 16 acres if in country; one acre 
 in city or town. Personal property to the value of $1,500, besides wearing apparel; 
 books to $100; provisions for one year are exempt. Exemption is absolute, except 
 as to taxes, mechanics’ or laborers’ wages, or professional services, purchase money or 
 property obtained under false pretences. 
 
 Ohio. — Homestead to value of $1,000 to head of family subject to liens for labor 
 and improvement; wearing apparel, beds and their furnishng; cook stove and one 
 other stove for use; one cow, two swine, six sheep, and food for animals for sixty 
 days; religious and school books; $50 worth of provisions; all tools and instruments 
 used in trade or occupation of debtor; personal earnings for three months if needed 
 for support of family; private cabinets of natural history or science. In addition to 
 the above, a drayman’s horse, harness and dray; a farmer’s horse, or yoke of oxen, 
 with gearing for same ; a physician’s horse, saddle, and bridle ; books, instruments, and 
 medicine to the value of $100. These are exempt to heads of families. Unmarried 
 women may hold free from exemption $100 worth clothing, one sewing-machine, 
 one bible, hymn book, and other books to $25 ; one knitting-machine; $5,000 or less 
 appropriated by any benevolent society and set aside to be paid to the family of a 
 deceased member. The religious books, private works, insignia of office, and other 
 documents of books belonging to a benevolent society; all property for extinguish- 
 ing fires. All claims for labor less than $100 are exempt. 
 
 OREGON. — No homestead law. Personal property exempt includes books, pic- 
 tures, and musical instruments to the value of $75; wearing apparel to $100, and if a 
 householder, $50 for each one in the family; tools, implements, apparatus, team, vehi- 
 cle, harness, or library necessary to trade or profession ; pew in church. All property 
 of the State. Execution can be had on any property for the purchase money there- 
 of. Debtor must select and reserve the property he claims for exemption. 
 
 Pennsylvania. — No homestead law. Real and personal property to the value of 
 $300 in addition to wearing apparel, bibles, school books, and a sewing-machine 
 are exempt ; but this privilege can be waived at any time. 
 
 Rhode Island. — N o homestead law. Necessary wearing apparel of debtor and 
 family; working tools, not over $200; household furniture and family stores up to 
 $300 are exempt when the debtor is a householder. 
 
 South Carolina. — A homestead to the value of $1,000; the right cannot be 
 waived or alienated. Personal property exempt includes household furniture, carts, 
 wagons, farming implements, and domestic animals, to $500 in value, and in addition 
 thereto all necessary wearing apparel. But no right of homestead shall exist or be 
 claimed in any property, real or personal, alienated or mortgaged by any person 
 or persons against the alienee or mortgagee, or his, her, or their heirs or assigns. 
 
 TENNESSEE. — The exemptions are homestead, $1,000; personal property, consist- 
 ing of household goods, tools, stock, supplies, etc., amounting in all to about $1,000. 
 
 Texas. — By the Constitution adopted in 1876, the homestead in the country is 
 
260 
 
 EXEMPTION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. 
 
 two hundred acres, and in the city or town, lot or lots to the value of $5,000, if the same 
 be used as a home or place of business for the head of the family. The homestead 
 is exempt from forced sale, except for taxes, purchase money, improvements, and in 
 the latter case the improvements must have been ordered in writing; the wife, if 
 any, joining with her husband, as in the sale of homestead. When husband dies, the 
 widow and children have one year’s support, not to exceed $1,000. All personal 
 property, such as household and kitchen furniture; all implements of husbandry; all 
 tools and apparatus belonging to any trade or profession ; all books, five milch cows 
 and two calves, two yoke of oxen, two horses and one wagon, one carriage or 
 buggy, twenty hogs, twenty sheep ; all provision and forage on hand for home con- 
 sumption ; and certain other articles are also exempt. 
 
 Utah. — Homesteads not exceeding $1,000, to head of family, and the further sum 
 of $500 for his wife and $250 for each other member of the family; also necessary 
 household furniture, tools of trade, farming implements, certain domestic animals 
 and provisions for sixty days; one sewing-machine, and the instruments and libraries 
 of professional men. 
 
 Vermont. — Homestead, $500; necessary wearing apparel; household furniture 
 and tools; certain domestic animals; certain amount of fuel, and farm products; arms 
 used by a soldier in the army; sewing-machine; instruments and libraries of pro- 
 fessional men, to $200; certain farm implements and growing crops are exempt. 
 
 Virginia. — Householder the head of a family has exemption on homestead to 
 the value of $2,000, either real or personal property. Also books to $100, wearing 
 apparel, beds, stoves, and household utensils, sewing-machine, certain domestic ani- 
 mals, and mechanic’s tools not exceeding $100 in value. 
 
 Washington. — If selected before sale, the homestead to the value of $1,000; 
 also to each householder goods to $500; provisions and fuel for six months; certain 
 domestic animals, and six months’ food for same. To a mechanic, tools and instru- 
 ments of trade and material, to $500; to a farmer, certain amounts of cereal grains, 
 and other produce; his teams and farming tools, to $500; to a physician, his horse 
 and buggy ; library not above $500 in value, and medicines up to $200; to other pro- 
 fessional men, libraries to $1,000; office furniture, fuel, etc., to $200; to teamsters and 
 loggers, cattle, horses and wagons to $300, and provisions for six weeks. Also all fire- 
 arms for family use, boats with rigging, etc., not above $250. No property is exempt 
 from the purchase money thereof nor for taxes assessed on same. 
 
 West Virginia. — homestead, when deeded as such, or previous declaration to 
 use for the purpose has been recorded to $1,000 is exempt. Also to a resident and 
 parent, $200, personal property. To any artisan, mechanic, or laborer, tools to the 
 value of $50; but in no case shall the exemption for personal property be more than 
 $200 to any one person. 
 
 Wyoming.— Homestead actually occupied as such, 160 acres; in city and town 
 property to $1,500 is exempt. Also household furniture, provisions, etc., to $500; 
 tools, team, implements, stock in trade, $300; libraries and instruments of professional 
 men, $300; personal wearing apparel to every person to the value of $150; earnings 
 of a judgment debtor to the amount of $iqo, if needed for the support of a family- 
 
MARRIAGE IN ITS RELATION TO LAW. 
 
 Marriage is a civil contract between a man over 14 and a woman over 12 joined 
 on the one side, and the State on the other. To make it valid, it must have the 
 consent both of the State and the persons. It has, necessarily, the consent of the 
 State, for that is given in advance to everybody not idiots or of near kin, of the ages 
 mentioned — 14 and 12. The consent of the parties is taken for granted, unless proof 
 to the contrary is shown. It never needs the consent of the parent . But the contract 
 — -valid while it lasts — if challenged, may be terminated by the State formally with- 
 drawing its consent, if the consent of either of the parties to enter into such a con- 
 tract with it, having been temporarily entrusted to the parent, cannot be given or 
 obtained by them. It is their own consent that is lacking, not the parents’. No rule 
 or regulation of the State law concerning marriage applies to a civil contract, which 
 any two citizens may freely enter into with the State at any time and under any 
 circumstances. All rules and regulations affect the personal conduct of the parties 
 during ceremonies outside of the contract. No possible violation of any State law, 
 rule, or regulation concerning marriage can, of itself, make void a contract once 
 entered into between a State and two citizens, and no punishment inflicted for such 
 violation of the law can affect the validity of the marriage. These are questions 
 between the State and single individuals. The State cannot punish one person for a 
 crime committed by another. 
 
 Marriage is a double, not a single contract: 1. A private contract between the 
 two persons; 2. A public contract between the State and the two persons joined. 
 With the private contract between the two persons the State cannot interfere. 
 They may make any changes or modifications they like at any time; this is none of 
 its business. But no private contract they may enter into, and no modification of the 
 private contract they entered into, can affect their joint public contract with the 
 State; and no public contract (which is the marriage) once made between two per- 
 sons and the State can be changed, altered, or amended by them without the consent 
 of the State through its courts; nor can it be changed, altered, or amended by the 
 State without the consent of at least one of the parties to the marriage. No mar- 
 riage is illegal until so declared by a court ; and no person can be legally freed from 
 a marriage contract except by a court or by death. Ceremonies and sacraments 
 are parts of the private contract between the persons, and all rules and regulations 
 concerning licenses, banns, age, and the like, are a part of them ; but they form no 
 part of the public contract between the parties and the State, which is the only 
 marriage the law recognizes, although the public contract must be made a part of 
 the ceremony. No sacrament or ceremony alone can marry a man and woman. It 
 is their contract with the State which alone marries them. In other words, the 
 mutual consent of the parties, if legally marriageable, to be married, constitutes 
 marriage in the eyes of the law, though the statutory requirements as to licenses, 
 
262 
 
 MARRIAGE IN ITS RELATION TO LAW. 
 
 banns, ceremonies, and age are not complied with by them. The neglect to comply 
 may be punishable, but it does not invalidate the marriage. 
 
 MARRIAGE LAWS IN ALL THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 The prohibited degree of consanguinity embraces, ancestors, descendants, 
 brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts, nieces, nephews, and step-relatives in Alabama, Con- 
 necticut, Delaware, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, 
 Mississippi, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, 
 Virginia, Washington. 
 
 The marriage of ancestors, descendants, brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts, nephews, 
 nieces, first cousins, is prohibited in Arizona, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, 
 Montana, Nevada, Ohio, Oregon, Wyoming. 
 
 The marriage of ancestors, descendants, brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts, nieces, 
 and nephews, is prohibited in California, Colorado, Idaho, Louisiana, Minnesota, Mis- 
 souri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Utah, and Wisconsin. 
 
 The law of North and South Dakota has the same prohibitions as Alabama, but 
 also includes all cousins. 
 
 The law of Florida specifies as prohibited marriages those within the “ Levitical 
 degrees,” and that of Georgia, “ the Levitical degrees ” and step-relatives. 
 
 The law of New Hampshire is the same as Alabama, and also first cousins, as also 
 that of Washington. A license previous to marriage is required in all the States 
 except New York, New Jersey, New Mexico, South Carolina, and Wisconsin. The 
 following require both parties to be twenty-one years of age in order to marry with- 
 out consent of parents, viz., Connecticut, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Pennsyl- 
 vania, Virginia, West Virginia. In the following States the male must be twenty- 
 one and the female eighteen or over, viz., Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, 
 Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mon- 
 tana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Island, 
 Texas, Utah, Vermont, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. In North and South 
 Dakota and in North Carolina, both parties must be at least eighteen years of age, 
 while in Arizona the male must be eighteen and the female sixteen years old. 
 
 The marriage of whites and negroes is prohibited in Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, 
 California, Colorado, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Missis- 
 sippi, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, 
 Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia. 
 
 The intermarriage of the white and Mongolian races is prohibited in Arizona, 
 Nevada, Oregon ; of white and Indian, in Nevada, North Carolina, Oregon, South 
 Carolina; of negro and Indian, in North Carolina, and of mixed blood, in Utah. 
 
 Bigamous marriages are declared void by the law in Arizona, Arkansas, Califor- 
 nia, Colorado, North and South Dakota, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, 
 Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, 
 North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Ten- 
 
MARRIAGE IN ITS RELATION TO LAW. 
 
 263 
 
 nessee, Utah, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. When one of the parties is insane at mar- 
 riage it is void in Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, North Carolina, 
 Rhode Island, South Carolina, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. 
 
 DIVORCE LAWS. 
 
 Previous Residence Required. — Dakota, ninety days; Arizona, California, 
 Indiana, Idaho, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, and Wyoming, six months; 
 Alabama, Arkansas, Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Mississippi, 
 Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode 
 Island, Utah, Vermont (both parties as husband and wife), West Virginia, Washing- 
 ton, and Wisconsin, one year; Florida, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, and 
 Tennessee, two years; Connecticut and Massachusetts, three years (if, when married, 
 both parties were residents ; otherwise, five years). 
 
 CAUSES for Divorce. — The violation of the marriage vow is cause for absolute 
 divorce in all the States and Territories, excepting South Carolina, which has no 
 divorce laws. 
 
 Physical inability is a cause in all the States except California, Connecticut, 
 Dakota, Idaho, Iowa, Louisiana, New Mexico, New York, South Carolina, Texas, 
 and Vermont. In most of these States it renders marriage voidable. 
 
 Wilful desertion, six months, in Arizona. 
 
 Wilful desertion, one year, in Arkansas, California, Colorado, Dakota, Florida, 
 Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Wisconsin, 
 Washington, and Wyoming. 
 
 Wilful desertion, two years, in Alabama, District of Columbia, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Iowa, Michigan, Mississippi, Nebraska, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. 
 
 Wilful desertion, three years, in Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maine, Mary- 
 land, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Texas, Vermont, 
 and West Virginia. 
 
 Wilful desertion, five years, in Virginia and Rhode Island, though the court may 
 in the latter State decree a divorce for a shorter period. 
 
 Habitual drunkenness, in all the States and Territories except Maryland, New 
 Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Texas, Vermont, 
 Virginia, and West Virginia. 
 
 “ Imprisonment for felony” or “ conviction of felony” in all the States and Ter- 
 ritories (with limitations), except Florida, Maine, Maryland, New Jersey, New Mexico, 
 New York, and South Carolina. 
 
 “Cruel and abusive treatment,” “intolerable cruelty,” “extreme cruelty,” “re- 
 peated cruelty,” or “inhuman treatment,” in all the States and Territories , except 
 New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, and West Virginia. 
 
 Failure by the husband to provide: six months in Arizona; one year in Cali- 
 fornia, Colorado, Dakota, Nevada, and Wyoming; two years in Indiana and Idaho; 
 no time specified in Idaho, Massachusetts, Michigan, Maine, Nebraska, New Mexico, 
 Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin; wilful neglect for three years, in Delaware. 
 
264 
 
 MARRIAGE IN ITS RELATION TO LAW 
 
 Fraud and fraudulent contract, in Arizona, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Kan- 
 sas, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington. 
 
 Absence without being heard from: three years in New Hampshire: seven 
 years in Connecticut and Vermont, separation, five years, in Kentucky; voluntary 
 separation, five years, in Wisconsin and Kentucky. When reasonably presumed 
 dead by the court, in Rhode Island. 
 
 “Ungovernable temper,” in Kentucky; “habitual indulgence in violent and un- 
 governable temper,” in Florida; “cruel treatment, outrages or excesses as to render 
 their living together insupportable,” in Arkansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missouri, 
 Tennessee, and Texas; “ indignities as render life burdensome,” in Missouri, Oregon, 
 Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Washington, and Wyoming. Attempt to murder the 
 other party, in Illinois and Tennessee. 
 
 Other causes in different States are as follows: “ Husband notoriously immoral 
 before marriage, unknown to wife,” in West Virginia; “fugitive from justice,” in 
 Virginia; “gross misbehavior or wickedness,” in Rhode Island; “any gross neglect 
 of duty,” in Kansas and Ohio; “attempt on life,” in Illinois; “refusal of wife to 
 remove into the State,” in Tennessee; “mental incapacity at time of marrriage,” in 
 Georgia; “ three years with any religious society that believes the marriage relation 
 unlawful,” in Massachusetts; “joining any religious sect that believes marriage un- 
 lawful, and refusing to cohabit six months,” in New Hampshire; “parties cannot 
 live in peace and union,” in Utah; “settled aversion, which tends to permanently 
 destroy all peace and happiness,” in Kentucky; “ insanity for five years,” in Wiscon- 
 sin, and for ten in Washington ; vagrancy of husband, in Missouri and Wyoming. 
 
 In Georgia an absolute divorce is granted only after the concurrent verdict of 
 two juries, at different terms of the court. In New York absolute divorce is granted 
 for but one cause, adultery. In South Carolina there are no divorce laws. 
 
 The granting of divorce for any cause is left to the discretion of the court in 
 Washington. The discretion of court is practically allowed by law in Wisconsin. 
 
 All of the causes above enumerated are for absolute or full divorce, and collu- 
 sion and connivance are especially barred, and also condonation of violation of the 
 marriage vow. 
 
 Remarriage. — There are no restrictions upon remarriage by divorced persons 
 in Arizona, Connecticut, Kentucky, Illinois, and Minnesota. Either party may re- 
 marry, but defendant must wait two years and obtain permission from the court in 
 Massachusetts. The decree of the court may restrain the guilty party from remarry- 
 ing in Virginia. Parties cannot remarry, except by permission of the court, in Maine. 
 In the State of New York the plaintiff may remarry, but the defendant cannot do so 
 during the plaintiff’s lifetime, unless the decree be modified or proof that five years 
 have elapsed and that complainant has married again and defendant’s conduct has 
 been uniformly good. Any violation of this is punished as bigamy, even though the 
 other party has been married. In Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee, no wife 
 or husband divorced for violation of the marriage vow can marry the particcps crim - 
 inis during the life of the former hubsand or wife, nor in Louisiana at any time; 
 such marriage in Louisiana renders the person divorced guilty of bigamy. 
 
HOW TO LEARN TELEGRAPH! 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND INSTRUCTION IN THE MORSE ALPHABET 
 
 E fact that a complete knowledge of this important and useful branch can 
 be acquired in a school of telegraphy equally as well as in an office, has 
 been fully demonstrated, the Western Union Company having maintained 
 such a school for several years past in New York. 
 
 The instruction and practice given in such schools will enable a per- 
 son to learn practically the art of writing the Morse system, reading by sound, the adjust- 
 ment and use of instruments, care of batteries, details of office management, &c., by the 
 same methods as are now in use on all the principal telegraphic lines. The demand for 
 good sound operators is constantly increasing, and those who are well qualified can usu- 
 ally command remunerative positions. One of the most important of an operator’s duties 
 consists in what is termed “ adjusting” the instrument. This sometimes requires much 
 skill and judgment during unfavorable weather, and, of course, can only be acquired by 
 operating on a regular established line. 
 
 The time required depends greatly upon the natural ability of the pupil. Any lady 
 or gentleman can acquire, in a few months and at a trifling expense, a knowledge which 
 may prove very valuable. 
 
 MORSE ALPHABET. 
 
 ABCDEFGHIJKL 
 MNOPQ RSTUV WX 
 Y Z & 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 234 567 
 
 i O 
 
 PUNCTUATION MARKS. 
 
 Period Comma Semicolon Quotation Parenthesis Interrogation Italics 
 Paragraph Exclamation. 
 
 Pleasant and Profitable Employment for Young Ladies. — There is at pres- 
 ent, perhaps, no branch of business where a lady can so readily qualify herself for a per- 
 manent paying situation as by becoming a practical telegraph operator. A great many 
 
266 
 
 THE ART OF TELEGRAPHY. 
 
 offices on all the leading lines in this country are already filled by lady operators ; and it 
 has been practically demonstrated that in this department they can discharge the duties 
 of the position with perfect acceptability. 
 
 No. 1 Sounder. 
 
 Single Plug Cut-Out: 
 
 Progress of the Art. — The word telegraph is composed of two Greek words — 
 tele, signifying at a distance, and grapho , to write, that is, to signify or to write at a 
 distance. 
 
 The first attempt which was made to render electricity available for the transmis- 
 sion of signals was that by Le Sage, a Frenchman, in 1774 ; but it is to American in- 
 genuity that we owe the practical application of the magnetic telegraph. 
 
 In 1844 Congress built the first experimental line, from Baltimore to Washington, a 
 distance of forty miles, and in 1880 there were telegraph lines in the United States open 
 for public business 120,000 miles, besides Railway, Government, private and telephone 
 lines, length not ascertainable. 
 
 To Samuel F. B. Morse and Prof. Henry belong the credit of successfully introduc- 
 ing an art which practically annihi- 
 lates both space and time, and has 
 done more for civilization and advance- 
 ment than any discovery of the age. 
 
 The introduction and use of the 
 Postal Telegraph system cannot long 
 ik be delayed, and with that in operation 
 a channel of employment will be 
 opened second to none in this coun 
 try. 
 
 Hill’s Patent Galvanic Battery 
 
 Hill’s patent three-cell battery. — This is represented in the preceding 
 cut, showing the three cells in their connection with each other. The outer and 
 larger jar is of glass or earthenware and partly filled with diluted acid, while the 
 smaller or inner one is also filled with diluted acid and immersed into the other. Zinc 
 is used in the outer jar, and copper, platinum, or carbon in the inner. They are ar- 
 ranged as seen in the cut ; that is, the copper bar runs down the side of the large jar 
 and is connected with a thumb-screw to the copper hook by which the inner jar is sus- 
 pended. A battery is thus produced of sufficient strength to insulate a wire of consid 
 erable length* This is the battery used in the United States telegraph offices. 
 
THE ART OF TELEGRAPHY. 
 
 267 
 
 The WIRES. — These are carried by means of poles from one city and town to 
 another, and connected with the batteries, sounders, and keys in each office. They 
 are suspended to the poles by some non-conductor — glass, or other substance — to pre- 
 vent the current from being transmitted to the earth. At each station there is a 
 ground wire to carry off the electric current to the earth and complete the circuit. By 
 the recent duplex and quadruple invention several messages can be transmitted on the 
 same wire at the same time. An apparatus having two needles is employed at all 
 principal stations, but this requires a double wire. 
 
 The INSTRUMENTS USED. — The sounder is used by an operator who reads by ear, 
 and does not require a register. It consists of an electro-magnet, which, when a cuu 
 rent passes through its coils, draws down an armature for a short or a long time, indicat- 
 ing by a combination of dots and dashes the different letters of the alphabet, as seen 
 on page 266. 
 
 The REGISTER. — This instrument is designed to record upon the strip of paper 
 that passes over the large wheel, and is touched by the metallic pointer, the several 
 dots and dashes made by the electric current. It runs by clock-work, and is set in 
 motion by the operator when a message is being sent. Its arrangement of wheels ex- 
 plain themselves and is connected with the sounder, Fig . 1, as seen in the above cut. 
 
 The relay. — In working over long lines, or where there are a number of instru- 
 ments on one line, the currents are often not strong enough to work the registers or 
 sounders directly. In such a case there is introduced a relay , or repeater . This instru- 
 ment consists of an electro-magnet, around which the line current flows, and whose 
 delicately-poised armature, when attracted, makes contact for a local circuit, in which 
 a local battery and the Morse receiving instrument are included. The principle of the 
 relay is this, that a current too weak to do the work itself may set a strong current to 
 do its work for it. 
 
 Duplex telegraphy. — There are two distinct methods of arranging telegraphic 
 apparatus so as to transmit two messages from the same wire, one from either end at 
 the same time. The one known as the Wheatstone-bridge method is capable of more 
 general application than the other. The first requirement is that the instrument at 
 each end shall move only in response to signals from the other, so that one operator 
 can signal to the other without his own instrument being affected. To accomplish 
 this the circuit must be divided into two at each end. 
 
 The DIPLEX method of working consists in sending two messages at once in the 
 same direction at the same time. To do this it is necessary to employ instruments 
 which work only with currents in one given direction. The method involves the use 
 of relays, in which the armatures are permanently magnetized (or polarized), and 
 which therefore respond only to currents in one direction. 
 
 The quadruplex method of working combines the duplex and the diplex meth- 
 ods. On one and the same line are two sets of instruments, one of which works only 
 when the direction of the current is changed, and the other only when the strength of 
 the current is changed, and independent of the direction. 
 
 The patent of the telegraphic system. — The world has made rapid strides 
 in the matter of rapid intercommunication since the first telegraph was put into suc- 
 cessful operation in this country in 1844. The nations of the world, widely separated 
 by oceans, mountains, and inhospitable plains, have been brought so closely together 
 that time has been practically annihilated, and we read at the table each morning of 
 transactions that occurred in the antipodes but a few hours before. Great improve- 
 ments have been made in the methods of telegraphy within a few years, and the end is 
 not yet. No one can tell what electricity itself is, and the longer the subject is studied 
 the more perplexing the problem becomes, baffling the wisest and most patient inves- 
 tigation. 
 
GREAT LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES, 
 
 OF 50,000 VOLUMES AND OVER. 
 
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 Library of Congress Washington, D. C. . 
 
 Public Library Boston, Mass 
 
 Harvard College Cambridge, Mass. . 
 
 Astor Library New York City. . . . 
 
 Mercantile Library Association New York City 
 
 Mercantile Library Company Philadelphia, Pa . . . 
 
 Athenaeum Boston, Mass 
 
 Library Company of Philadelphia Philadelphia, Pa. . . 
 
 Public Library Cincinnati, O 
 
 State Library Albany, N. Y 
 
 Yale College New Haven, Conn. 
 
 House of Representatives Library Washington, D. C.. 
 
 Public Library Chicago, 111 
 
 State Historical Society Madison, Wis 
 
 Sutro Library San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Brooklyn Library Brooklyn, N. Y. . . . 
 
 Peabody Institute Baltimore, Md 
 
 American Antiquarian Society Worcester, Mass... 
 
 New York Society Library New York City. . . . 
 
 Surgeon General’s Library Washington, D. C. . 
 
 State Library Annapolis, Md 
 
 New York Historical Society New York City 
 
 Apprentices’ Library New York City. 
 
 Columbia College New York City 
 
 Woodstock College Woodstock, Md. . . . 
 
 Mercantile Library St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Free Public Library San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 Dartmouth College Hanover, N. H. . . . 
 
 College of New Jersey Princeton, N. J. . . . 
 
 Free Public Library Worcester, Mass. . . 
 
 Brown University Providence, R. I. . . 
 
 State Library Sacramento, Cal 
 
 Lehigh University S. Bethlehem, Pa. . . 
 
 State Library Boston, Mass 
 
 Public Library St. Louis, Mo 
 
 State Library Harrisburg, Pa 
 
 Public Library Detroit, Mich 
 
 Mercantile Library San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 City Library Association Springfield, Mass . . 
 
 Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y 
 
 Ohio State University Columbus, O 
 
 Buffalo Library . Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Patent Office Library Washington, D. C. . 
 
 Free Public Library New Bedford, Mass 
 
 Union Theological Library New York City. . . . 
 
 Young Men’s Mercantile Library Cincinnati, O 
 
 American Phil. Society Philadelphia, Pa. . . 
 
 Tulane University New Orleans, La... 
 
 University of Virginia Charlottesville, Va. 
 
 University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, Pa. . . 
 
 565,134 
 
 434,837 
 
 232,800 
 
 223,284 
 
 210,431 
 
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 15°, 261 
 
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 i4 2 ,i53 
 128,871 
 
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 ii9,57° 
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 5°,°°° 
 
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 5°,°°° 
 
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 5°,°°° 
 
 50,000 
 
 50,000 
 
PITMAN’S 
 
 Phonetic Shorthand, 
 
 OR 
 
 LESSONS IN PHONOGRAPHY. 
 
 When Phonography was first published, in 1887, the practice of Shorthand was almost confined to the 
 reporting of speeches and sermons by professional shorthand writers. The art is now in daily use, like long- 
 hand, by thousands of persons in all parts of the world where the English language is spoken. This extended 
 practice of shorthand has been effected by the ever-increasing activity of the age, and by the simplicity and 
 efficiency of the system which has thus commended itself to public favor. As the causes which have produced 
 this result continue in full force, the effects must increase until shorthand shall become the general medium of 
 communication by writing. 
 
 The great and desirable object which the Author believes he has accomplished in the construction of 
 Phonography, is briefly this: — The representation of every sound and articulation that occurs in the English 
 language, by a simple and easy-formed sign, which will readily enter into every combination required, and 
 which is never used to represent more than that one sound or articulation. (The consonant forms of w , y, h — 
 intermediates between vowels and consonants — are exceptions, the characters for which are not simple strokes.) 
 These signs being of the briefest description, (dots, right-lines and curves,) Phonography is necessarily a 
 system of Shorthand; but it must be seen, from what has been stated, that it is radically distinct from all sys- 
 tems of mere Stenography. In Phonography it may be almost said that that the very sound of the word is made 
 visible; whereas, in deciphering any of the common systems of Shorthand, the context, the memory, the judg- 
 ment — all must be called in to assist the eye. This is the great obstacle which has hitherto prevented Short- 
 hand from coming into general use. Its illegibility when written makes us fear to trust our thoughts to its 
 faithless keeping, and renders it quite insufficient to supersede common writing, as a means of general com. 
 munication. 
 
 Phonography combines the legibility of longhand, with more than the brevity of ordinary Shorthand. 
 The system is capable of answering every requirement of the man of science or business, as well as the pro- 
 fessional reporter; yet it is so simple, that its principles may be mastered in a few hours, and an hour’s daily 
 practice for a month, in reading and writing, will enable the student to use it with safety and some degree of 
 freedom; while the same amount of practice, continued for six or eight months, will enable anyone who has 
 acquired fact ty in using the pen in common writing, to report speeches, sermons, lectures, etc., delivered at 
 the rate of a hundred words per minute. By continued practice, the writer will be able to report a rapid 
 speaker verbatim. 
 
 The student of Phonography will find no difficulty in acquiring a knowlege of this most useful art, if he 
 will practice according to the following directions: — He should first obtain a knowledge of the letters of the 
 Phonographic Alphabet, and their names, (as displayed on the succeeding pages) by pronouncing them aloud; 
 and he should then learn the signs by which these sounds are represented. The following Exercises should be 
 first read and then copied into a book made of ruled paper. The pupil is not to read the whole before he 
 commences writing, but to read one lesson and then write out the Exercises in it, several times if necessary, 
 until he can form the characters neatly and accurately. 
 
 The Phonographic letters should not be written smaller than they are here, and care must be taken at 
 the outset to trace them slowly and accurately. Rapidity and accuracy combined can be attained only by 
 practice. Though it is not absolutely necessary to use ruled paper when writing Phonography, it will be a 
 great advantage to the learner. Either a pen or a pencil may be employed. A pencil is the most convenient 
 instrument at the commencement of the pupil’s exercises, but for his usual writing he will find a pen more 
 suitable. It shonld be a fine-pointed one, and should be so held that the pen-holder and the elbow point away 
 from the body. 
 
THE PHONOGRAPHIC ALPHABET. ' vowels and diphthongs. 
 
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THE METRIC SYSTEM 
 
 OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES RAPIDLY BEING ADOPTED BY 
 THE PRINCIPAL GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Tables and Explanations. 
 
 The Metric System derives its name from the standard unit of measure, the 
 METRE. This represents one ten-millionth part of the quadrant of a meridian circle 
 on the earth’s surface, that is to say, of the distance from the equator to the pole. 
 The standard metre is a bar of platinum kept in Paris with great care, to prevent devi- 
 ation in length by change of temperature. Copies are also deposited in the capitals- 
 of all countries where the metric system of weights and measures has been adopted. 
 
 It is a decimal system having for its multiples and subdivisions some power of 
 ten. Hence, all operations by this system are the same as in simple numbers, the 
 decimal fraction alone being used. 
 
 The Greek numerals furnish the prefixes for the multiples and the Latin those 
 for the subdivisions. They are for the multiples: 
 
 DEKA=ten, as dekametre, or ten metres. 
 
 HEKTO=one hundred, as hektometre, or one hundred metres. 
 
 KlLO = one thousand, as kilometre, or one thousand metres. 
 
 MYRIA=ten thousand, as myriametre or ten thousand metres. 
 
 They are for the subdivisions: 
 
 DECI = one-tenth, as decimetre, or one-tenth of a metre. 
 
 CENTI = one-hundredth, as centimetre, or one-hundredth of a metre. 
 
 MlLLI = one-thousandth, as millimetre, or one-thousandth of a metre. 
 
 This system of weights and measures is used quite generally on the continent 
 of Europe and the United States. Congress has adopted it as the standard, but it 
 has not yet come into general use. It is, however, being used by scientists, druggists, 
 and in the custom-houses of the United States. 
 
 The unit of capacity is the LITRE, and is equivalent in volume to one cubic deci- 
 metre. 
 
 The unit of weight is the GRAMME, and is equivalent to the weight of one cubi«. 
 decimetre of distilled Yater at a temperatue of 4 0 centigrade— 39.2 0 Fahrenheit. 
 
270 
 
 THE METRIC SYSTEM. 
 
 Measure of Length. 
 
 io millimetres make 
 io centimetres “ 
 
 io decimetres “ 
 
 io metres 
 io dekametres “ 
 
 io hetometres “ 
 
 io kilometres 
 
 i centimetre = 
 i decimetre — 
 I METRE = 
 I dekametre = 
 i hektometre = 
 i kilometre = 
 i myriametre= 
 
 .01 metre. 
 
 10 metres. 
 100 
 
 1,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 ll 
 
 Cl 
 
 1C 
 
 Surface Measure. 
 
 100 sq. millimetres make 
 
 i sq. centimetre = 
 
 .0001 sq. metre. 
 
 
 100 sq. centimetres 
 
 a 
 
 1 sq. decimetre = 
 
 .01 “ “ 
 
 
 100 sq. decimetres 
 
 Cl 
 
 I SQ. METRE = 
 
 j a it 
 
 I centar. 
 
 100 sq. metres 
 
 cc 
 
 I sq. dekametre = 
 
 100 sq. m. = 
 
 1 ar. 
 
 100 sq. dekametres 
 
 Cl 
 
 1 sq. hektometre = 
 
 10,000 sq. m. = 
 
 1 hektar. 
 
 100 sq. hekometres 
 
 ll 
 
 1 sq. kilometre = 
 
 1,000,000 sq. m. 
 
 
 In the measure of land the square dekametre is called an AR and has one 
 multiple, the hektar = 100 ars, and one subdivision, the centar = .01 of an ar. 
 
 Measure of Volume. 
 
 1,000 cubic millimetres make 1 cubic centimetre. 
 
 1,000 “ centimetres “ 1 “ decimetre. 
 
 1,000 “ decimetres “ I “ CUBIC METRE. 
 
 The STER is used in the measure of wood and stone, and is equivalent to one 
 cubic metre. 
 
 10 decisters make 1 STER. 
 
 10 sters “ 1 dekaster. 
 
 For the purpose of abbreviation, in the subdivisions use the small letter, and in 
 the multiples the large, e.g., 7 dm. signifies seven decimetres, but 7 DM. signifies 
 seven dekametres. 
 
 Measure of Capacity. 
 
 10 millilitres make 1 centilitre = 1 cu. cm. 
 
 10 centilitres 
 
 it 
 
 I decilitre = 
 
 10 “ 
 
 a 
 
 10 decilitres 
 
 cc 
 
 I LITRE = 
 
 100 “ 
 
 cc 
 
 10 litres 
 
 cc 
 
 1 dekalitre = 
 
 1,000 “ 
 
 cc 
 
 10 dekaliters 
 
 cc 
 
 1 hektolitre= 
 
 10,000 “ 
 
 cc 
 
 10 hektolitres 
 
 1C 
 
 1 kilolitre = : 
 
 1,000,000 “ 
 
 ll 
 
THE METRIC SYSTEM. 
 
 277 
 
 Measure of Weight. 
 
 io milligrammes make i centigramme. 
 
 io centigrammes 
 io decigrammes 
 io grammes 
 io dekagrammes 
 io hektogrammes 
 io kilogrammes 
 io myriagrammes 
 IO quintals 
 
 i decigramme. 
 
 “ I GRAMME. 
 
 “ i dekagramme. 
 
 “ i hektogramme. 
 
 “ i kilogramme. 
 
 “ i myriagramme. 
 
 “ i quintal. 
 
 “ i metric ton. 
 
 American Equivalents. 
 
 TABLE FOR THE CONVERSION OF METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES INTO AMERICAN. 
 
 Metres into Yards. 
 
 Kilometres to Miles 
 and Yards. 
 
 Litres into Gallons 
 and Quarts. 
 
 Hektolitres into 
 Quarts and Bushels. 
 
 Kilogrammes into 
 Cwts. Qrs. Lbs. Oz. 
 
 Hektars into 
 Acres. R. P. 
 
 I 
 
 1.094 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 1094 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 0.880 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 2.751 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 X 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 2 
 
 2.187 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 427 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1.761 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 5.502 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 K 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 3 i 
 
 3 
 
 3.281 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1521 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2.641 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 0.254 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 9 X 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 4.374 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 855 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3-521 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 3-005 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 13 , 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 5.468 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 188 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 0.402 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 5-756 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 % 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 6.562 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1282 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 1.282 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0.507 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 3 K 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 7.655 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 615 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2.163 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 3.258 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8.749 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 1709 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 3.043 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 6.010 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 10^ 
 
 8 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 9.843 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 1043 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 3.923 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 0.761 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 *3 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 10.936 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 376 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 0. 804 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3-512 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 0^ 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 21.873 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 753 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 1.608 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 7.024 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 iK 
 
 20 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32.809 
 
 30 
 
 18 
 
 1129 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 2.412 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 2.536 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2^ 
 
 30 
 
 74 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 43-745 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 1805 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 3.215 
 
 40 
 
 13 
 
 6.048 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 40 
 
 98 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 54-682 
 
 50 
 
 3 i 
 
 122 
 
 50 
 
 11 
 
 0.019 
 
 50 
 
 17 
 
 1.560 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 3^ 
 
 50 
 
 123 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 65.618 
 
 60 
 
 37 
 
 498 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 0.823 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 5.072 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 4 ^ 
 
 60 
 
 148 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 70 
 
 76.554 
 
 70 
 
 43 
 
 874 
 
 70 
 
 15 
 
 1.627 
 
 70 
 
 24 
 
 0.585 
 
 70 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 s'A 
 
 70 
 
 172 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 80 
 
 87.491 
 
 80 
 
 49 
 
 1251 
 
 80 
 
 17 
 
 2.431 
 
 80 
 
 27 
 
 4.097 
 
 80 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 197 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 90 
 
 98.427 
 
 90 
 
 55 
 
 1627 
 
 90 
 
 19 
 
 3.235 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 7.609 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6^ 
 
 90 
 
 222 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 100 
 
 109.363 
 
 100 
 
 62 
 
 243 
 
 100 
 
 22 
 
 0.039 
 
 100 
 
 34 
 
 3.121 
 
 100 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 100 
 
 247 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 200 
 
 218.727 
 
 200 
 
 124 
 
 487 
 
 200 
 
 44 
 
 0.077 
 
 200 
 
 68 
 
 6.242 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 200 
 
 494 
 
 0 
 
 37 
 
 300 
 
 328.090 
 
 300 
 
 186 
 
 730 
 
 300 
 
 66 
 
 0. 1 16 
 
 300 
 
 103 
 
 1.362 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 300 
 
 74 i 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 400 
 
 437-453 
 
 400 
 
 248 
 
 973 
 
 400 
 
 88 
 
 o.i 55 
 
 400 
 
 137 
 
 4.483 
 
 400 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 400 
 
 988 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 500 
 
 546.816 
 
 500 
 
 310 
 
 1217 
 
 500 
 
 no 
 
 0.193 
 
 500 
 
 171 
 
 7.604 
 
 500 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 IO 
 
 5 
 
 500 
 
 1235 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 Note. — The United States unit of length is the same as the English unit ; so also are our lb. avoirdupois 
 and lb. Troy identical with the English, but our gallon is different. It contains 231 cubic inches, while the im- 
 perial gallon of England contains 277.274 cubic inches. To reduce English gallons, quarts, or pints to the 
 United States standards, multiply by 1.20024, and to reduce English bushels to United States bushels, multiply 
 by 1.0313644. 
 
 The United States ton contains 2,000 lbs. avoirdupois, while the English ton contains 2,240 lbs.; hence to re- 
 duce the latter to the former, multiply by 25 and divide by 28. 
 

 
 
OUR COMMERCE WITH THE WORLD 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Domestic Merchandise and Specie Exported From the United States During the Fiscal Year 
 
 Ended June 30TH, 1889. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Agricultural Implements 
 
 Animals 
 
 Books, Maps, Engravings, and other 
 
 Printed Matter 
 
 Breadstuffs: Corn bush. 
 
 “ Wheat bush. 
 
 “ Wheat Flour bbls. 
 
 “ All other 
 
 Carriages, Horse and R, R. cars 
 
 Chemicals, Drugs, Dyes, and Medicines 
 
 Clocks and Watches 
 
 Coal: Anthracite tons 
 
 “ Bituminous tons 
 
 Copper Ore, Manufactures of .tons 
 
 Cotton, and Manufactures of, Unmanu- 
 factured lbs. 
 
 Cotton, Manufactures of 
 
 Fancy Articles 
 
 Fish 
 
 Flax, Hemp, and Jute, Manufactures of 
 F ruits, N uts, Apples, green or ripe . . bbls 
 
 Fruits, all other 
 
 Furs and Fur Skins 
 
 Hops lbs 
 
 Instruments for Scientific Purposes 
 
 Iron and Steel, Manufactures of 
 
 Leather, and Manufactures of 
 
 Musical Instruments 
 
 Naval Stores bbls 
 
 Oil Cake, Oil Cake Meal lbs 
 
 69,592,929 
 
 46,414,129 
 
 9 , 374,803 
 
 943,304 
 
 841,798 
 
 38,062 
 
 2,364,816,669 
 
 942,406 
 
 12,589,262 
 
 1,456,601 
 
 588,167,880 
 
 $3,623,769 
 
 18,374,805 
 
 1 , 712,079 
 
 32,982,277 
 
 41,652,701 
 
 45,296,485 
 
 3,945,198 
 
 3,090,521 
 
 5,542,753 
 
 i,355,3i9 
 
 4,217,003 
 
 2,473,476 
 
 7,518,258 
 
 2,348,954 
 
 237,775,270 
 
 10,212,644 
 
 1,142,703 
 
 5,969,235 
 
 1,644,485 
 
 2,249,375 
 
 2,822,209 
 5,034,435 
 2,823,832 
 1,' 033 , 388 
 21,156,109 
 10,747,706 
 998,072 
 2,188,326 
 6,927,912 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Oils : Animal. . galls. 
 
 “ Mineral, crude galls. 
 
 “ Mineral, refined or man- 
 ufactured galls. 
 
 Oils, Vegetable 
 
 Paper and Manufactures 
 
 Paraffine, Paraffine Wax. ... lbs. 
 
 Provisions: Beef Products 
 
 “ Hog Products 
 
 “ Oleomargarine 
 
 Other Meat Products 
 
 Provisions, Dairy Products 
 
 Seeds: Clover lbs. 
 
 “ Allother 
 
 Spirits proof galls. 
 
 “ Turpentine galls. 
 
 Sugar. Molasses, Syrup galls. 
 
 “ Refined 
 
 Tobacco, Unmanufactured lbs. 
 
 “ Manufactures of 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 Wood, and Manufactures of 
 
 All other articles 
 
 Total Exports, Domestic Merchandise. 
 
 Specie : Gold 
 
 “ Silver 
 
 Total Domestic Exports 
 
 2,001,423 $1,117,856 
 
 72,987,383 5,083,132 
 
 543,208,176 
 
 33,826,575 
 
 34 , 253,137 
 
 2,693,430 
 
 9,681,759 
 
 5,347,960 
 
 14,167,216 
 
 223,759,232 
 
 44,830,545 
 
 1,585,783 
 
 r, 191,035 
 2,029,602 
 22,860,241 
 66,716,097 
 
 2 , 915,097 
 
 911,983 
 
 10,719,026 
 
 3,110,583' 
 
 763,921 
 
 2,218,101 
 
 3,777,525 
 
 889,438 
 
 1,070,236 
 
 18,901,068 
 
 3,708,600 
 
 1,449,952 
 
 26,910,672 
 
 20,662,817 
 
 $730,282,609 
 
 $54,930,332 
 
 25,284,662 
 
 $810,497,603 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 Merchandise and Specie Imported Into the United States During the Fiscal Year Ended 
 
 June 30TH, 1889. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Animals 
 
 
 $7,224,043 
 
 1,646,774 
 
 A .07 C.TOO 
 
 Art Works 
 
 
 Ronlr« Mans etc 
 
 
 Bristles 
 
 Breadstuffs 
 
 . lbs. 
 
 *>330,787 
 
 1,284,724 
 
 8.071.722 
 
 Chemicals, Drugs, Dyes, and Medicines. 
 Clocks and Watches 
 
 
 '■My/ A ? / 
 39,654,671 
 2,082,940 
 
 3,929,245 
 
 74,724,882 
 26,805,942 
 6,4/6,299 
 6,661,532 
 4,809,357 
 46,174,028 
 18, 746,417 
 7,416.223 
 
 7 719 02 1 
 
 Coal, Bituminous 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Cotton, Manufactures of 
 
 Earthenware and China 
 
 .tons 
 . lbs. 
 
 1,155,829 
 1 578,397,454 
 
 Fancy Articles 
 
 
 Fish 
 
 
 Flax, Hemp, Jute, and Textiles 
 
 
 Fruits and Nuts 
 
 
 Furs, and Manufactures of 
 
 
 Glass and Glassware 
 
 
 Hats and Bonnets 
 
 
 4, *97,877 
 25,127,750 
 
 1,155,472: 
 
 *2.723,358; 
 
 43,885,45*1 
 
 1,228,393 
 
 CAQ.2^7 
 
 Hides and Skins 
 
 
 Hops 
 
 Indiarubber, and Manufactures of . . . 
 Iron and Steel, and Manufactures of 
 
 Jewelry 
 
 Lead, and Manufactures of 
 
 . lbs. 
 
 4,176,158 
 
 Leather, and Manufactures of 
 
 
 11,296,322 
 
 3,290,077 
 
 Liquors, Spirituous and Malt 
 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Molasses 
 
 Musical Instruments 
 
 Paints and Colors 
 
 Paper and Manufactures 
 
 Paper Stock 
 
 Precious Stones, including Dia- 
 monds, rough or uncut 
 
 Salt 
 
 Seeds 
 
 Silk, Manufactures of 
 
 “ Unmanufactured 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Tea 
 
 Tin 
 
 Tobacco, and Manufactures of . . . . 
 
 Wines 
 
 Wood, and Manufactures of 
 
 Wool, and Manufactures of 
 
 All other Articles 
 
 Total Imports of Merchandise. . 
 
 Specie: Gold 
 
 “ Silver 
 
 Total Imports 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 27,024,551 
 
 $4,753,897 
 
 1,721,428 
 
 1,294,811 
 
 2,542,38 3 
 5,925,047 
 
 582,377,147 
 
 2,762,202,967 
 
 79,575,984 
 
 11,029,138 
 
 943,i3i 
 
 5,097,223 
 
 35,122,766 
 
 19,333,229 
 
 88,580,614 
 
 12,654,640 
 
 7,014,495 
 
 14,610,990 
 
 7,706,772 
 
 15,674,602 
 
 7o,539>457 
 
 68,735,15? 
 
 
 $745,*3i,655 
 
 
 $10,284,858 
 
 18,678,215 
 
 
 $774,094,725 
 
280 
 
 OUR COMMERCE WITH THE WORLD. 
 
 VALUE OF UNITED STATES EXPORTS* 
 
 TO AND IMPORTS FROM PRINCIPAL FOREIGN COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1889 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Domestic. Foreign 
 
 Argentine Republic 
 
 Australasia, British 
 
 Austria 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Brazil 
 
 British East Indies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Canada, Dominion of 
 
 Central American States. . 
 
 Chili 
 
 China 
 
 Colombia, United States of 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Danish West Indies 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Dutch East Indies 
 
 England 
 
 France 
 
 French West Indies 
 
 Germany 
 
 Exports. 
 
 8,37 6 )°77 
 
 12,252,147 
 
 720,825 
 
 22,603,406 
 
 9.276.511 
 4, 33°, 4*3 
 8,197,693 
 
 38,279,044 
 
 4.146.511 
 2,967,254 
 2,790,621 
 3,728,961 
 
 11,297,198 
 
 673*942 
 
 3,213,248 
 2,249,066 
 3 2 7,4 I 8,9 2 3 
 45,110,922 
 1 ,852, 
 66,568,695 
 
 9*7*779 
 
 69,833 
 
 5,227 
 
 74i,8i3 
 
 74,57° 
 
 190,413 
 
 2*328,517 
 
 179*412 
 
 5,54°! 
 
 5°7 
 
 92,056 
 
 394,1*3 
 
 12,370 
 
 4-377 
 
 538 
 
 2,831,549 
 
 1,009,119 
 
 31,909 
 
 *,433,899 
 
 Imports. 
 
 5,454,618 
 
 5,998,211 
 
 7,642,297 
 
 9,816,435 
 
 60,403,804 
 
 20,029,601 
 
 15,985,562 
 
 42,738,074 
 
 8,414,019 
 
 2,622,625 
 
 17,028,412 
 
 4,263,510 
 
 52,130,625 
 
 602,931 
 
 238,973 
 
 5,207,254 
 150,533,695 
 69,566,618 
 1 *0*053 
 
 81,742,546 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Greece 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Hong Kong 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Italy 
 
 Japan 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Peru 
 
 Porto Rico 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Russia and Possessions. 
 
 San Domingo 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Spain 
 
 Sweden and Norway... 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Domestic. Foreign. 
 
 165,079 
 
 3,336,040 
 
 3,975,46i 
 
 3,675,594 
 
 25,299**73 
 
 12,543,928 
 
 4,615,7*2 
 
 10,886,288 
 
 14,800,780 
 
 773,244 
 
 2,175,458 
 
 2,872,507 
 
 8,363,949 
 
 1,150,65 
 
 27,275,035 
 
 11,932,614 
 
 2,612,526 
 
 20,354 
 
 2,027,383 
 
 3,703,705 
 
 39,621 
 
 184,790 
 
 10,790 
 
 1,000 
 
 60,920 
 
 4,273 
 
 600,608 
 
 262,159 
 
 7,59* 
 
 49,473 
 
 562 
 
 596 
 
 29,368 
 
 158,994 
 
 *3,734 
 
 3,043 
 
 165,465 
 
 35,256 
 
 Imports. 
 
 988,923 
 
 12,847,740 
 
 3,757*443 
 
 1,480,266 
 
 8,998,612 
 
 17,992,149 
 
 16,687,992 
 
 21,253,601 
 
 *0,950,843 
 
 3*4,032 
 
 3,707,373 
 
 1,239,291 
 
 2,985,631 
 
 1,454,261 
 
 18,736,760 
 
 4,636,661 
 
 2,983,319 
 
 *3,343,704 
 
 2,986,964 
 
 10,392,569 
 
 ^Domestic and Foreign. 
 
 INTEREST LAWS AND STATUTES OF LIMITATIONS. 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 Interest Laws. 
 
 Statutes of Limitations. 
 
 States and 
 Territories. 
 
 Interest Laws. 
 
 Statutes of Limitations. 
 
 Legal 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Rate Allowed 
 by Contract, 
 
 Judg- 
 
 ments, 
 
 Years. 
 
 Notes, 
 
 Years. 
 
 Open Ac- 
 counts, 
 Years. 
 
 Legal 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Rate Allowed 
 by Contract. 
 
 Judg- 
 
 ments, 
 
 Years. 
 
 Notes, 
 
 Yesp-s. 
 
 Open Ac- 
 counts, 
 Years. 
 
 
 per et. 
 
 per ct. 
 
 
 
 
 
 per ct. 
 
 per ct. 
 
 
 
 
 Alabama 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 6 
 
 IO 
 
 20 
 
 IO 
 
 c 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 6 
 
 IO 
 
 IO 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Montana . 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 D 
 
 2 
 
 Arizona 
 
 7 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 C 
 
 J 
 
 'X 
 
 j 
 
 2 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 California 
 
 7 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 J 
 
 5 
 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Nevada 
 
 7 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 D 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Colorado 
 
 8 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 6 
 
 + 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Dakota * . . . 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 New Mexico. . . . 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Delaware 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 'X 
 
 New York 
 
 6 
 
 6* 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Dist.of Columbia 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 j 
 
 3 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Florida 
 
 8 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Ohio 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 Georgia 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 Oregon 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 Idaho 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Pennsylvania. . . . 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Illinois 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Rhode Island . . . 
 
 6 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Indiana 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 South Carolina . . 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 T owa 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 IO 
 
 5 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Kansas 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 T exas 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 Utah 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 IO 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Vermont. . - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Maine 
 
 6 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Virginia 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Maryland 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Washington 
 
 10 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 Massachusetts. . . 
 
 6 
 
 Any rate. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 West Virginia. . . 
 
 6 
 
 t 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Michigan 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 7 
 
 IO 
 
 IO 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 12 
 
 Anv rate. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 Mississippi . . . 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 * New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on call loans of $5,000 or upward, on collateral 
 security, f No usury; but over 6 per cent, cannot be collected by law. 
 
The True Home 
 
 AND 
 
 THE MATERIAL HOUSE. 
 
The True Home 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 AND 
 
 THE MATERIAL HOUSE. 
 
 OLLAND lies below the level of the sea. It would be submerged at every 
 flood tide, or heavy storm, but for her dikes, which stretch along her coast 
 saying to the proud waves “ thus far and no farther/’ What these walls 
 do to secure the safety and perpetuity of Holland, the house does to 
 secure and perpetuate society. It has always been necessary to dike 
 tides and storms of lawless and base passions. It reflects, I know, upon 
 human nature that such a necessity exists ; but, as far back as any history goes, we find 
 fragments of these dikes in legislation, education and religion ; in various attempts to 
 secure society against the irruption of mischievous and destructive passions. There has 
 been a gradual progress in the means of protecting the social well-being of men. The 
 dikes of Holland, crude at first, have been steadily perfected, until a breach in her long, 
 magnificent sea-wall is a rare occurrence. So have the dikes protecting society been 
 Improved until a magnificent wall of legal, educational, moral, domestic and religious 
 restraints sweep about her. 
 
 Common and civil law imposes a check upon the tide of human selfishness and 
 passions. This has slowly risen under such master builders as Solon, the framers of 
 Roman Jurisprudence, under Blackstone, Burke, Sir Matthew Hale, Jay, Jeremiah 
 Mason, Webster, Story, under wise and careful legislation, into massive walls of common 
 and international law, which stretches its hammered granite defence about society, pro- 
 tecting persons and property against all that endangers their peace, or perpetuity. 
 
 Our Educational Institutions, public and corporate, stand between society and 
 the ignorance and vice which continually rage and beat against it. More especially is 
 this true of moral culture. Morality and religion are the cement which holds the other 
 materials in their places. To educate the intellect and neglect conscience and the moral 
 faculties is to put decayed and dangerous stone and loose sand into your dike. The 
 great sea-wall that encloses the harbor of Port Said, the western entrance to the Suez 
 Canal, is of manufactured stone. Its strength and ability to resist the impact of the sea 
 and waves lies in the proper combination ot tne materials out ot which it is made. So 
 ^there must be the right adjustment of material and moral training to secure the best results 
 of an education. There is a decided tendency, in modern education, to use too much 
 sand of intellect for the small amount of moral and religious cement. The result is our 
 social defences wash and crumble badly, letting in business, political, social, moral un- 
 faithfulness and corruption, to devastate and plow up the foundations of truth and right- 
 eousness. Willows are planted along the Holland dikes, whose long lithe roots weave 
 and mat themselves- about the stones, binding them in their places. So religion and 
 
282 
 
 THE TRUE HOME. 
 
 morality send down their fine, strong roots, to bind the living stones of character and 
 manhood, of law and education into one massive whole and rebind the soul of man to 
 his God. 
 
 There is another dike, the theme of this chapter, of immense and vital importance 
 to the weal of society — HOME. This is the structural institution around which state 
 and church, all social and religious life, character, manhood, and womanhood, nucleate 
 and crystallize. Let the delicate masonry of home be breached, as some would like to 
 have it, men and women become as the beasts of the field, the occupants of the farm-yard 
 and kennel, and all that is best and brightest in human life, all security of business, all 
 that makes this world tolerable and beautiful, would be devastated, as the fair fields and 
 lovely villages and populous cities of Holland with all their struggling inhabitants would 
 be swept away by the surging sea breaking through their dikes. No institution among 
 men is more closely linked with his happiness and destiny than home. No one needs to 
 be guarded with greater jealousy and care, nor protected by wiser and more stringent 
 legislation. I am grateful for the opportunity given me to record my sense of its im- 
 portance and speak on its behalf, and contribute what I can towards its greater useful- 
 ness and glory. 
 
 Home, a Divine Institution. — The roots of home run back to Eden. It is & 
 divine institution, brought to us like some rare and costly casket from a wrecked ship j 
 from out the ruins of Paradise. Jehovah created and married the first man and woman 
 and placed them in their Eden home. The institution of marriage and home have had 
 his peculiar sanction and benediction from the very beginning of the race. A fine illus* 
 tration of the divine estimate of the home is found in Jehovah’s message, sent through 
 the prophet Jeremiah to the captive Jews at Babylon and scattered throughout the Syr- 
 ian Empire. “ Build ye houses and dwell in them, and plant gardens and eat the fruit of 
 them. Take ye wives and beget sons and daughters and take wives for your sons, and 
 give your daughters to husbands, that they may bear sons and daughters, that ye may 
 increase there and not be diminished.” 
 
 The Family and State Rise and Fall Together. — The best interests of man- 
 kind ebb and flood with the outgoing, or incoming tide of home life. The family was 
 all that could save the Jews from disintegrating before those influences which come from 
 a conquering upon a conquered and enslaved people. It has not lost one whit of its 
 importance as a conserving force in state and church, securing the personal chastity and 
 happiness of all the members of society. 
 
 The advice given to the captive Jews is the organic law oi society and is hence of 
 universal application. He who made us sets the solitary in families as the best possible 
 arrangement He is certainly the best judge of what is fittest, as an artist is the best 
 Judge of the light in which to place his own picture. If, therefore, Jehovah declares 
 that homes, flanked with gardens, shaded by trees, enlivened by children, presided over 
 by a virtuous and sensible woman, is an indissoluble bond of union and nationality, a 
 charmed amulet against social vice and physical and moral depravement for the Jews, 
 can it be of less importance to us, or any people, to create and maintain good home*? 
 No one conversant with prevailing tendencies towards disintegration and communistic 
 
THE TRUE HOME. 
 
 283 
 
 ideas can fail to feel the fitness of the counsel given by Jehovah to the captive Jews, 
 to the times in which we live. 
 
 We have not only the Divine estimate of the importance of home, but his sugges- 
 tions as to the kind of home we should form. A man to have a home must have a 
 wife. A boarding place, club-room, or hotel, can never take the place of a home. This 
 is to go through life hanging upon the skirts of a joyless, selfish existence. A bachelor, 
 save for good and sufficient reasons, is a pervert. God created the home as a primal 
 institute. It cannot be set aside without the most serious consequences. 
 
 Young Men and Women are Appointed to Marry and Build them Houses 
 and rear families, plant gardens and eat the fruit of them. They are to join hands and 
 climb the hill together. They will reach the summit much sooner than either alone. 
 Little John Flaxman, England’s greatest artist, married Ann Denham. They were poor 
 but hopeful and plucky. Sir Joshua Reynolds, a bachelor, met Flaxman soon after his 
 marriage and said to him : “ So, Flaxman, I am told you are married ; if so, you are ruined 
 as an artist." Flaxman went home, sat down by his wife, took her hand in his, and said 
 “Ann, I am ruined for an artist.” “ How so, John ? How did it happen ?” He repeated 
 to her Sir Joshua’s unkind remark, saying at the same time, “ I want to be a great artist” 
 “And a great artist you shall be, and visit Rome, too, if that is necessary to make you 
 great.” “ How ? asked Flaxman . “ Work, and economise,” replied the brave woman. “ I 
 will never have it said that Ann Denham ruined John Flaxman as an artist.” So it 
 proved. They worked and economised, until they not only went to Rome but stood hand 
 in hand on the gilded summit of fame, where the crusty old bachelor. Sir Joshua, was 
 compelled to look up to them and do them reverence. So have thousands of young men 
 and women risen together to wealth and consideration. Marriage is often the first step 
 towards an honorable and successful career. Therefore take ye wives. 
 
 To Dwell in Families There Must be a Material House. — This house, ere 
 long to be hallowed by the memories of birth and death, should be owned, if possible, 
 free from debt, or mortgage. I reverence the English love of land -holding. One who 
 lives in a hired house and moves every few years loses all home feeling and love of local- 
 ity. Build a house, moreover, when able, not buy, or rent one. A house one plans and 
 builds he loves as a creation of his own and cherishes it as a child. In building use 
 taste. Let there be a care for the beautiful and comely. Nor does this involve extrav- 
 agance. A chean house can just as economically be made pleasing to the eye as an 
 offence. Given so much lumber, bricks, lime and paint, they can just as prudently be 
 put into a house that shall please and minister to the finer sensibilities of its inmates, as 
 to be built into an ugly, ungainly box, to leave its angular impress upon every child born 
 and raised in it Taste is as cheap as deformity, and much more valuable. How much 
 it adds to that dear spot we christen “ our home” which is to imprint itself, with all its sur- 
 roundings, upon the plastic spirits of children, suggesting ideas of order and beauty and 
 ministering to their mental, moral and eternal grace and strength. 
 
 If a rural home, flank it with grass plat and flowers, with a vegetable and fruit gar- 
 den in the rear. To own and beautify a parcel of one’s mothet earth makes him twice a 
 man, and Antaeus-like restores his vigor and manhood. In the city there is, certainly. 
 
284 
 
 THE TRUE HOME. 
 
 no reason, but the doubtful one of economy, for pushing our houses close up to the 
 street line. Leave a spot of green to rest and refresh the eye and break the everlasting 
 monotony of bricks. With all the variety of trees and shrubs and flowers, annual and 
 hardy, which our Father has given us, with which to adorn our homes, to breathe their per- 
 fume and beautify into our souls, and preach us sermons and keep us pure, there can 
 be found no excuse for nakedness and deformity. Every man and woman, with the 
 smallest modicum of means and brains, can adorn their homes with these sweet smiles 
 and messengers of God. A man can hardly be coarse and bad in such a spot, and while 
 seated on the white throne of such a home he reigns, nature’s lord, over such halcyon 
 dominions. 
 
 It is both sensible and safe for a man to effect such a home and attempt its earliest 
 realization. There would be more empty cells in our jails and prisons, fewer thriftless 
 beings roaming country and city, if instead of hoarding or squandering his money, 
 puffing away his brains and purse in smoke, dissolving manhood and means, as Cleo- 
 patra her pearls, in the wine cup, each man married some suitable woman, built him a 
 house, planted a garden and eat of the fruit of it, he and his. 
 
 Woman’s Eminent Domain. — A house must have an interior as well as an exterior. 
 Like the daughter of a king, our houses should be all glorious within. This is woman’s 
 eminent domain. There are houses all of whose arrangements are so uncomely, or so 
 precise and cheerless, as to repel, and drive one to seek comfort elsewhere; while there 
 are others so comely and natural, that every article of furniture in the rooms, chair, sofa, 
 iounge, table, nay the very folds of the curtains and drapery, welcome you and invite 
 repose. In England home is both a science and an art. In all the wide world, I am sure 
 from personal observation, there are no more sensible, restful homes than in mother Eng- 
 land. The open grate, the sunny room, the pleasant outlook, the sensible, substantial 
 furniture, the general air of comfort are nowhere surpassed, seldom equaled. This 
 accounts for the fact that the English people are so good natured, and in such fine, phys- 
 ical condition, and so self-complaisant. England’s homes are her strength and glory. 
 
 These matters may seem trifles. But life is made and marred by trifles. Our 
 homes have a decided influence upon our mental, moral and even religious character and 
 tastes. Children reared in such a home have a certain refinement, a love of order and 
 thrift, that tell powerfully on their future, in both worlds. The seen and temporal may 
 pass away ; but their influence passes over into the unseen and eternal It is absorbed 
 into character, as the tree absorbs the carbon from the air, and enters into its whole 
 growth and completeness. The most unpretending home can be made so inviting and 
 winsome, can be invested with such an air of ease and comfort, can be so cunningly 
 arranged, so restful to the eye, so grateful to weary brain and body, that its occupants 
 shall turn to it with unfailing delight, and realize in it all our best poets have sung, or 
 artists attempted, in their loftiest delineations of the ideal home. 
 
 Love is the Main Constituent of Home, but other and finer elements enter 
 into the structure of a home. There must be that indefinable, but real, something, 
 called the atmosphere of home, its spirit, its “esprit du corps.” Love is the main 
 constituent of this atmosphere, as oxygen is the major part and vital principle in com- 
 mon air. A home that is to realize the best results must be pervaded by and enswathed 
 
THE TRUE HOME. 
 
 285 
 
 in a considerate, abiding love, a family enthusiasm, like the old clans of Scotland. 
 Then it becomes the cradle and nursery of the noblest loves and aspirations the human 
 heart ever feels. 
 
 A GOOD HOME IS BUILT ON COMPROMISES. 
 
 IS principle, so odious in politics, so cowardly in religion, is the sap- 
 phire arch underneath a home. Tastes, preferences, dispositions, temper- 
 aments, must be consulted, and each must yield something to the gen- 
 eral good. Then the stream of home life flows smoothly on down the 
 vale of time towards the home beyond. There must be eyes that beam 
 lighted up with its aurora, lips that voice it, and seal the utterance with a 
 kiss; deeds of kindness that authenticate its depth and tenderness. Such Spikenard 
 fills the home with perpetual perfume. 
 
 A True Family is a Chain of Gold. — Each member has his or her individu- 
 ality, yet all are wedded into one cohesive whole. If one rises, all rise. If one falls, all 
 feel the shock. The success, or misfortune, of one touches all. This mutual concern 
 and affection are the very essence of home, something which no external grace, or 
 cleverness of internal arrangement, can supply, and yet without which, as too many 
 know by a hard experience, home is but a mockery. How body, mind and soul luxu- 
 riate and ripen in such a domestic atmosphere. Jehovah loves the true home. Angels 
 in celestial armor pace about it, keeping ward and watch. Jesus visits it, as the home 
 of Martha and Mary. Men love it and turn to it as to a shrine. 
 
 It must be as well an industrious home. Labor is the relish, the Halford-sauce, of 
 the family ; it gives it its true zest and restfulness. It becomes then an asylum from 
 the competitions of business and the raspings of universal selfishness. One’s weary feet 
 and brain turn to it and his soul exults in it. If, however, he meets a company of idle 
 complainers, who do little but eat, sleep and dress and find fault, he turns to the club- 
 room, or saloon. This has been the secret of many a man’s undoing. To a listless 
 man or woman home becomes wearisome. A hotel, or boarding house, is preferable. 
 Indolent, unemployed men and women are the poorest possible timber out of which 
 to construct a home. It is all worm-eaten and specked with dry rot. 
 
 One of the Most Serious Evils of Society. — The modern notion that a 
 young woman at marriage must be placed in a home as well appointed as the one she 
 leaves and be free from care, is one of the most serious evils of society. The home we 
 love and prize is the home we create, and labor to maintain, as the bread we earn is 
 the sweetest bread we ever eat. In the absence of energy and industry are found the 
 cause of the decadence of most rich and renowned families. Children reared in luxury 
 and indolence never bear their ancestral name or fortune to a second or third gene' 
 ration. For a home to thrive there must be culture, fireside reading and amusements, 
 conversation, music, merriment, employment. These crown the toilsome day and bring 
 it to a delightful cadence. How it transcends that modern cancer, the club-room, or 
 place of amusement, or any substitute for it. There is not a finer picture in all the 
 realm of poetry than Burns’ Cotter’s Saturday Night. 
 
286 
 
 THE TRUE HOME. 
 
 Economy must be married to industry. It is much easier to make than to save a 
 fortune* No student of sociology but is aware, that home life and happiness decline as 
 men become rich. Money easily and rapidly made is a measureless social curse. It saps 
 the foundations of that wise frugality on which, as on bars of iron, the peace and per- 
 petuity of a home rests. To spend less than one earns is the secret of domestic thrift, 
 as well as of substantial riches. The balance is on the right side. But let it be reversed, 
 out goes overlapping income, and the family is on the road to dissolution. How many 
 homes have been broken up by this one course. How many are upon the verge of dis- 
 solution by careless and criminal extravagance. Love dies where thrift and economy are 
 wanting. The first lesson we have to learn is to clip and pare and contract, until 
 expenses fall below income. Then we have the Alchemist’s stone that turns all it touches 
 to gold ; the Houri’s secret, that converts our homes, however humble, into bowers of 
 bliss. 
 
 AMUSEMENTS OUGHT TO FIND A PLACE IN THE HOME. 
 
 R they will be sought outside of it. Gather up music and mirth, all inno- 
 cent games, merry making and dancing, and bind them, as a wreath of 
 immortelles, about the brow of home. Make it such a charming spot 
 that there shall be no occasion to seek recreation at the hands of profes- 
 sional and mostly unworthy caterers. It may be made so many sided, so 
 variously complete and satisfying as to meet all the demands of our complex natures and 
 chain the feet of its occupants, husbands and sons, within its cheery precincts and rise, 
 like a wall of Jasper, between them and the vices which threaten their ruin. No gVeater 
 danger impends over our land at this hour than the decline in the number of land-hold- 
 ers and homes. We are weakening our own dikes and letting in the surging waters of 
 immorality. We need, for our own sakes and for the public weal, to increase the 
 number and improve the quality of our homes. 
 
 The Strength of England is her Homes. — The weakness and curse of France 
 are the absence of homes. We are gravitating towards the French. That misnamed 
 life called “ single blessedness,” which is rather the exact opposite, a life of meager, solid, 
 soiled selfishness, is on the increase. Marriage is on the decline. Hotels and boarding 
 houses are displacing the modest home. As a consequence court dockets are longer, 
 divorces multiply, jails are crowded, while the bloom on cheek, and the more delicate 
 bloom on character, fade away in the close, hot air of dissipation. How much more 
 sensible, as well as enjoyable, for one to have a home and center all his regards upon it. 
 
 The influences of such a home radiate in every direction, and reach not only through 
 time but beyond it, touches and enswathes the individual, as he opens his eyes upon the 
 light of this life. It weaves with deft, artistic fingers, the web of his future, either in 
 cloth of gold and raiment of needlework, or snarls and spoils the whole fabric. The 
 general trend of life is taken before a child leaves home. The elements and germs of 
 character are found in the domestic conservatory. Says a shrewd observer: “ It is not 
 for ourselves, but for our children , that we should build our homes, whether villas, cot 
 
THE TREE HOME, 
 
 28 : 
 
 cages, or log huts, beautifully and well. It is frequently the case that an impulsive, 
 high-spirited, light-hearted boy dwindles by degrees into a sharp, shrewd, narrow-minded 
 youth ; from thence into a hard and horny manhood, and, at last, into a covetous, unlov- 
 ing and unloved old age. The single explanation is all sufficient — he never had a 
 pleasant home.” The fact is, too many boys are orphans in their father’s house. They 
 are awkward and shy, not knowing what to do with either hands or feet, wishing devoutly 
 they had neither. They are not wanted in drawing-room or kitchen, and so take to the 
 streets, and are soon running the curriculum of petty vices and ere long graduate as 
 criminals. Their social instincts are just waking into life. If they are not met in the home 
 and in a rational way they will seek food and stimulus elsewhere. If, however, they find 
 sympathy, love and society in the house, their future becomes honorable and often illus- 
 trious, and manhood is secured. However widely one may roam, the influence of a good 
 home will follow him, as the water from the smitten rock followed the roaming camp of 
 Israel. However useful and successful he may become, he will be able to trace each and 
 every rivulet that feeds the volume of his fame and goodness to his home. “A kiss from 
 my mother,” says West, ‘‘made me a painter.” Fowell Buxton wrote his mother when 
 at the summit of his splendid fame : “ I constantly feel the effects of principles early 
 implanted in my mind by you.” An army of earth’s noblest men could subscribe such 
 a sentiment. Mrs. Schimmelpennick says of her mother: “In her presence I became 
 transformed into another person.” The seed corn of how much that is great and noble, 
 ixalted in character, splendid in achievement and of world wide beneficence and renown, 
 tas been planted in the silence and gentleness of home. The character of future gene- 
 t ations lies in germ in the home, as die future bird lies in germ in the egg. 
 
 The memory and thought of such a cherished home are a perpetual benison and 
 blessing to those reared in it, when they go out into the actualities and struggles of life. 
 It rises like the Holland dikes between them and the sea of temptation. The memory of 
 home has saved many a young man and woman, when assailed and pressed by powers of 
 darkness. For the sake of those born and reared in our homes, they should be as attract- 
 ive as possible, as full of sunshine and cheer as a summer day, orderly, industrious, eco- 
 nomical, full ot high purpose and noble sentiments, as pure as the breath of heaven, and 
 invigorating as the mountain air. 
 
 But home influences and discipline and culture reach beyond the individual. It 
 ramifies, and poisons or purifies, the whole body politic and social. “ It is the crystal of 
 society, the nucleus of national character, and from that source, be it pure or tainted, 
 issue the habits, principles and maxims, which govern public, as well as private life. The 
 nation comes from the nursery and public opinion is, for the most part, the outgrowth of 
 home.” The rudiments of law and order, the habit of submission and obedience, patri- 
 otism and magnanimity, and all those traits which make good citizens and worthy mem- 
 bers of society, are learned and practiced in the home, if learned at all. Napoleon was 
 once asked “what would place France in the front rank of nations ?” His prompt reply 
 was — “ good mothers'.' A thing France has never had. It is good mothers, and not a 
 score of declaiming women, vexed because they are not men, and a similar number of 
 men, that ought to have been born women, that exalt a nation, or elevate morals and 
 society ; but gentle, true, womanly mothers, ruling their own households by their sweet 
 
288 
 
 THE TRUE HOME. 
 
 grace and love. Such homes as these are the salt of society, a leaven of strength and 
 glory to any nation. Much more so if they are Christian homes, the type of heaven, the 
 prelude and opening symphony of our final home. 
 
 The Duty of the State Towards our Homes is clear and imperative. It 
 should throw around them the utmost protection and fostering care. It should jealously 
 guard their sanctity, and visit their violation with swift and condign punishment. All 
 divorce legislation should be carefully framed and sparingly used. Once formed, the 
 home should be held sacred, and rarely, if ever, broken up. The peace and perpetuity 
 of all our institutions, our social and national life, hinge upon our homes. Every true 
 man and woman should deeply feel their importance and do their utmost to create and 
 preserve them pure and intact. 
 
 On the uplift of home life we rise to national, social and individual triumph and 
 acceptance, or on its decline we sink to the mire of shame and disintegration. God bless 
 *nd preserve our homes I 
 
EVERY MAN HIS OWN LANDLORD; 
 
 OR HOW ANY MAN MAY GAIN A HOUSE BY MEMBERSHIP IN 
 CO-OPERATIVE, LOAN, AND BUILDING ASSOCIATIONS. 
 
 Their Organization, Methods, and Advantages. 
 
 SOCIETIES having for their avowed object to assist their members to build homes 
 for themselves and develop the industry and thrift of the town in which they live, 
 have been formed in very many towns and cities during the last twenty-five years. 
 While the details of method and management may differ, they are mostly based upon 
 the same general commercial and social principles. 
 
 In most cases they are started by a few friends or business acquaintances, who 
 subscribe for a certain number of shares, and then induce others to join them. The 
 amount of shares that can be held is fixed. Then by a system of monthly dues and 
 assessments, the amount of stock subscribed for is paid. The money remaining in 
 the hands of the treasurer after a monthly meeting may be loaned to a person, or 
 persons, for the purpose of erecting a dwelling-house, upon certain conditions which 
 secures the society and the borrower from loss. Usually the borrower gives a mort- 
 gage upon real estate for the payment of his dues, as well as the stipulated interest 
 on his loan. The methods may vary somewhat in the different societies. Usually 
 the money is loaned to the stockholder who will pay the highest rate therefor. 
 The interest of the money loaned and the double interest on premiums paid, and 
 fines or assessments, are really all the sources of income the society has. At the 
 end, all the money which a society has at the end of its specified term is divided ; it 
 has been paid in by its stockholders and may be divided among them. 
 
 It appears that the stockholder who has not borrowed any money has the ad- 
 vantage of the one who has borrowed from the funds, but the borrower has had the 
 use of the money, and if he has invested it wisely and has not paid too high a rate, 
 it has been much to his advantage. If he has been enabled to provide himself a 
 home for the length of time and pay for it in moderate monthly instalments, he has 
 had the additional incentive to thrift and industry that stimulates him to diligence 
 in business. This is the method of a society issuing only one series of stock. 
 
 In other societies new series of stock are issued at regular intervals, and new 
 subscribers come in. In such an organization the premiums are usually higher, and 
 as a consequence, the final payment is made so much shorter. The fundamental 
 principle is the same in both. There is this cardinal advantage that a member, once 
 
390 
 
 EVERY MAN HIS OWN LANDLORD, 
 
 having commenced to invest a few dollars per month, will feel the necessity of con- 
 tinuing to do so, otherwise he may lose a portion of the benefits accruing to mem- 
 bers. But if through misfortune or even carelessness he is obliged to surrender his 
 membership, he nevertheless gets a fair interest for the use of his money, and in 
 some cases also a share in the profits. It would be a wise and prudential organiza- 
 tion to perfect in every manufacturing town and city as an encouragement to indus- 
 trious men to make an effort to secure homes for themselves and become permanent 
 residents of the place. Men of means could thus aid such persons, and at the same 
 time benefit their immediate locality by building up the town with neat and attract- 
 
 ive homes for good citizens. 
 
 The following model of a Constitution 
 tion of an Association of this kind. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Name. — The corporate name of this Company shall 
 
 be The Building, Loan, and 
 
 Savings Association. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Objects. — The object of this Association shall be to 
 accumulate, by co-operation, a fund to be loaned to its 
 members for the purchase of real estate, the erection of 
 buildings, paying incumbrances therefrom, making im- 
 provements thereon, and for the further purpose of 
 accumulating a fund to be returned to its members who 
 do not obtain advances as above mentioned. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 Capital Stock. — The capital stock of this Associa- 
 tion shall consist of the number of shares subscribed 
 for, and shall be issued in series, under the supervision 
 of the Board of Management. The nominal value of 
 each share shall be two hundred dollars, to be paid in 
 instalments of one dollar each per month. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Meetings. — The stockholders of this Association 
 shall meet annually (here specify time and place). 
 Fifteen members shall constitute a quorum. Special 
 meetings may be called by the Secretary, when re- 
 quested in writing by ten members, but the object of 
 such meeting must be stated in the notice. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 Members. — All members of this Association shall 
 be persons of the age of twenty-one years and up- 
 ward. Each member shall sign a copy of the Charter 
 of this Association to be entitled to the rights of mem- 
 bership, and on signing the same shall be bound there- 
 by to conform to and abide by the same, and all laws 
 that may be made by virtue thereof. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 Officers. — Sec. i. The officers of this Association 
 shall be a President, Vice-President, Secretary, Trea- 
 surer, nine Directors, an Attorney, and three Auditors, 
 all of whom, except the Auditors, shall be elected by 
 ballot on the third Wednesday in June in each year, 
 
 and By-laws is given to aid in the forma- 
 
 and shall be Trustees under the provisions of the stat- 
 ute of the State of 
 
 Sec. 2. Each stockholder present at an election shall 
 be entitled to one vote in his own right, and no more. 
 Only women shall be entitled to vote by proxy. 
 
 Sec. 3. A plurality of votes cast shall constitute a 
 choice. 
 
 Sec. 4. The Auditors shall be nominated and elected 
 at the regular annual meeting. 
 
 Sec. 5. In case of a failure to elect officers at the 
 annual meeting, the Secretary shall call a meeting for 
 the purpose within thirty days thereafter. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 President and Vice-President. — It shall be the 
 duty of the President, and in his absence of the Vice- 
 President, to preside at all meetings of the Association 
 and of the Board of Management, and he shall perform 
 all other duties usually appertaining to the office of 
 President. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 (The duties of the Secretary should be minutely specL 
 fied in this Article.) 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 
 (The duties and securities of the Treasurer should be 
 minutely specified in this Article.) 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 Duties of the Attorney. — It shall be the duty of 
 the Attorney to make necessary searches to ascertain 
 the title to all property offered to the Association as 
 mortgage security ; to prepare all deeds, bonds, mort- 
 gages, agreements, and all other writings to be taken or 
 given by the Association in the course of its business, 
 and conduct transfers of property and all legal matters, 
 and give information and advice to the Board of Man- 
 agement when required. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 Board of Management. — Sec. 1. The President, 
 Vice-President, Secretary, Treasurer, and Directors shall 
 constitute a Board of Management. The Board shall 
 meet on the third Wednesday of each month, at such 
 
EVERY MAN HIS OWN LANDLORD. 
 
 291 
 
 time and place as the By-laws shall determine, for the 
 purpose of attending to the financial concerns, and per- 
 sonally superintending the interests of the Association. 
 Five members shall constitute a quorum, and they shall 
 continue in session for the purpose of receiving the 
 dues, interest, redemption fees, etc., from 8 to io p.m. 
 
 Sec. 2. The Board of Management shall at any time 
 have access to the books of the Treasurer and Secre- 
 tary. 
 
 Sec. 3. The Board of Management are authorized 
 to empower any person or persons to purchase at any 
 judicial sale, in the name of the Association, any real 
 estate upon which the Association may have a mort- 
 gage or judgment, if, in their opinion, the interests of 
 the Association should require it. They shall also have 
 full power and authority to sell, dispose of, and author- 
 ize the conveyance of any property thus purchased. 
 
 Sec. 4. They shall have power, in their discretion, to 
 pay interest on dues paid in advance (not to exceed 5 
 per cent, per annum). 
 
 ARTICLE XII. 
 
 Auditors. — It shall be the duty of the Auditors to 
 settle and adjust the accounts of the Association prior 
 to the annual meeting, and to report to the stockholders, 
 with a faithful and ample exhibit of the state of the 
 treasury and the value of each share. They shall ex- 
 amine the securities of the Association in June and 
 December of each year, and report the result to the 
 Board of Management on the third Wednesday of said 
 months, 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. 
 
 (This article provides for the removal of any officer 
 who neglects, or is incapacitated from the performance 
 of his duties ; and for filling vacancies.) 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. 
 
 Payments. — Sec. 1. Each member subscribing to 
 the capital stock of this Association shall pay for each 
 share in his or her name one dollar and twenty-five 
 cents on the first subscription night, and the further 
 sum of one dollar on each share of stock in his or her 
 name on the third Wednesday in each month thereafter, 
 until the payments, interest on loans, and other receipts 
 shall be sufficient to divide into each share of stock in 
 that issue two hundred dollars. 
 
 Sec. 2. When the stock of any issue shall have < 
 reached a value of two hundred dollars, loans upon the 
 same shall be cancelled by transfer of same to the 
 Association, and all shares on which no loans have been 
 advanced shall be paid in full and cancelled. 
 
 Sec. 3. All payments by the Association shall be 
 made by check, to be signed by the President, or Vice- 
 President, and Treasurer, and countersigned by the 
 Secretary. 
 
 ARTICLE XV. 
 
 Loans. — Sec. 1. Every member, for each share of 
 stock in his or her name, shall be entitled to a loan of 
 two hundred dollars from the funds of the Association, 
 on giving to the Association such security as the Board 
 of Management deem satisfactory and sufficient. 
 
 Bids, Premium. — Sec. 2. Whenever unappropriated 
 money is in the treasury, a loan shall be made to the 
 member who offers to pay the Association the highest 
 
 premium on each share of stock regularly on the third 
 Wednesday in each and every month during the contin- 
 uance of the loan, provided that no bid of less than five 
 cents or its multiple shall be received. No member 
 shall be entitled to a loan on more than twenty shares 
 at one meeting. 
 
 Security for Loans. — Sec. 3. When a member 
 shall be entitled to a loan, before receiving the amount 
 due, he shall secure the payment thereof to the Asso- 
 ciation by bond and mortgage on real estate and policy 
 of fire insurance, or such other security as the Board of 
 Management may approve, and transfer at least one 
 share of stock as collateral security for each loan of two 
 hundred dollars ; provided, that no loan shall be made 
 upon property upon which there is a prior mortgage. 
 
 Repayment. — Sec. 4. Borrowers may repay loans at 
 any monthly meeting, and shall pay all expenses inci- 
 dent thereto and attending the cancellation of the 
 mortgage. One share of stock shall be cancelled for 
 each two hundred dollars, or portion of two hundred 
 dollars repaid. The Association shall allow for said 
 cancelled stock the same amount that is being paid to 
 withdrawing stockholders of the same series having no 
 loan. 
 
 Forced Loans. — Sec. 5. In case the money of the 
 Association remain idle and unproductive at any time, 
 the Board of Management may by lot require members 
 in the eldest current series to either withdraw their 
 stock or receive advances thereon. 
 
 ARTICLE XVI. 
 
 Transfer of Property. — Should any member who 
 has executed a mortgage to the Association be desirous 
 of selling the mortgaged property, subject to the mort- 
 gage, he shall be at liberty to do so upon the payment 
 of all monthly dues and transfer of the shares secured 
 by such mortgage to the purchaser, such purchaser 
 thenceforth becoming a member and liable for pay- 
 ment of the monthly dues payable on such shares ; 
 provided, always, that no expense be incurred by the 
 Association, and the transfer is approved by the Board 
 of Management. 
 
 ARTICLE XVII. 
 
 Penalty for Non-payment, Settlement. — In 
 case any member not having a loan from the Associa- 
 tion shall fail to pay dues and fines for four months, 
 then, upon compliance with the statute by the Associa- 
 tion, the right of delinquent to membership shall there- 
 upon and thereby cease, and the stock revert to the 
 Association. The member so failing to pay shall be 
 entitled to receive, out of the first unappropriated 
 money in the treasury, the amount paid into the Asso- 
 ciation, after first deducting all fines and a proportion 
 of all incidental expenses and losses, and thence shall 
 cease to be a member of the Association. 
 
 ARTICLE XVIII. 
 
 (This article provides for fines against members and 
 officers for non-performance of duty.) 
 
 ARTICLE XIX. 
 
 Certificates of Stock, Transfer of Stock, Fees 
 for Transfer. — Each member shall be entitled to a 
 Certificate of Stock, to be issued in the name and under 
 the seal of the Association, and attested by the Presi- 
 
292 
 
 EVERY MAN HIS OWN LANDLORD. 
 
 dent and Secretary, which Certificate may be transferred 
 in person or by attorney, in presence of the Secretary, 
 and shall be recorded on the books and indorsed on the 
 
 Certificate. The Secretary shall charge for 
 
 each share of stock so transferred, which amount shall 
 be paid into the Treasury ; but no share shall be trans- 
 ferred while any fines or dues remain charged against 
 the same, nor until the transferee shall have assumed 
 all the obligations of the original stockholder. 
 
 ARTICLE XX. 
 
 Withdrawals. — Any stockholder may withdraw 
 from the Association on giving thirty days’ notice of 
 his intention to do so, and with such proportion of the 
 profits as the By-laws may determine, less all fines and 
 charges ; provided, that at no time shall more than one- 
 half the funds in the treasury be applicable to the de- 
 mand of withdrawing stockholders, without consent of 
 the Board of Management, and that no stockholder 
 shall be entitled to withdraw whose stock is held in 
 pledge or security. 
 
 ARTICLE XXL 
 
 (This article provides for the rights of deceased 
 members.) 
 
 ARTICLE XXII. 
 
 (Officers to serve until successors elected.) 
 
 ARTICLE XXIII. 
 
 (This article provides for the adoption and amend- 
 ment or suspension of By-laws.) 
 
 ARTICLE XXIV. 
 
 (This article provides for the amendment of the 
 Charter.) 
 
 ARTICLE XXV. 
 
 Questions Unprovided For. — Any questions that 
 may arise which are not covered by these articles shall 
 be submitted to the Board of Management, whose de- 
 cision shall be final, unless reversed by a two-third vote 
 of the Association at a regular meeting of the same. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 Sec. i. The Board of Management shall meet as 
 provided by Article XI. of the Constitution. 
 
 Sec. 2. Unappropriated money shall be loaned at 
 regular monthly meetings only. The Board of Man- 
 agement shall determine the total amount that may be 
 loaned from the treasury. 
 
 Sec. 3. Polls for the election of officers shall be 
 opened for a period of two hours after the calling of 
 the annual meeting to order. 
 
 Sec. 4. The blank form of assignment on the back 
 of certificates of stock, deposited with the Treasurer as 
 collateral security for loans, shall be filled in to corre- 
 spond with the transfer made on the books of the Asso- 
 ciation. 
 
 Sec. 5. Stockholders who may withdraw during the 
 first year of the series shall be entitled to receive only 
 such sums as they have paid in as dues. 
 
 Sec. 6. Stockholders who may withdraw during the 
 second and third years of a series, shall be entitled to 
 receive 50 per cent, of the profits. 
 
 During the 4th year, 60 per cent. 
 
 “ “ 5th “ 60 “ “ 
 
 “ “ 6th “ 70 “ “ 
 
 “ “ 7th “ 75 “ “ 
 
 “ “ 8th “ 80 “ “ 
 
 “ “ 9th “ and thereafter, 100 per cent. 
 
 RULES COVERING LOANS. 
 
 Property Committee. — Sec. 7. A Committee of 
 three, to be known as the Property Committee, shall be 
 appointed by the President as often as occasions require. 
 
 Sec. 8. The Property Committee shall render a state- 
 ment of account against the borrowers of all disburse- 
 ments made by the Committee in ascertaining the value 
 of property, and shall charge in addition thereto, not 
 to exceed $2.50 each for their services ; said bills shall 
 be paid as audited by the Board of Management, and 
 the amounts charged to the accounts of the borrowers. 
 
 Building Estimates. — Sec. 9. Members whose ap- 
 plications for loans for the purpose of erecting build- 
 ings have been accepted shall, before such loans are 
 authorized, file with the Secretary of the Association a 
 copy of their plans and specifications, together with 
 estimates thereon from two reputable builders. 
 
 Building Loans. — Sec. 10. Whenever advances are 
 required as a building progresses, the contract of the 
 owner with the builder, or a duly authenticated copy 
 thereof, shall be filed with the Association, and shall 
 provide that the last payments shall not become due 
 until ten days after the architect, or party acting in that 
 capacity, shall have certified that the building is com- 
 plete and built in accordance with the contract, plans, 
 and specifications ; such contract shall be passed upon 
 by the Board. 
 
 Advances shall at no time exceed the payments named 
 in the contract, nor shall they be made until said pay- 
 ments become due, nor until the terms of the contract 
 shall be fulfilled, and the attorney certifies in writing 
 that there are no liens of record against the owner or 
 contractor. 
 
 The contract shall be filed in the office of the Clerk 
 of the County wherein the building is situated, before 
 work has begun thereon. 
 
Home Adornment, 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL AND ORNAMENTAL. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 HOW TO BUILD HOUSES WITH ECONOMY AND TASTE COMBINED- 
 DESIGNS, PLANS, AND COST OF BUILDING. 
 
 BY R. G. RUSSELL, ARCHITECT, NEW HAVEN, CONN., AND OTHER PRACTICAL ARCHITECTS. 
 
 THERE has 
 been of late years a 
 display of originality 
 In the designs and 
 plans of houses never 
 before equaled in this 
 country. The indi- 
 viduality of the owner 
 has been brought out 
 in any style which he 
 may prefer, and his 
 personal tastes re- 
 specting the details of 
 adornment must thus 
 be regarded. There 
 is no reason in the 
 fitness of things why 
 
 all the houses of a 
 particular street or 
 section of a village 
 should follow the 
 same design, “Like 
 four and twenty 
 blackbirds all in a 
 row.” There should 
 be a proper regard 
 paid to the natural 
 surroundings and 
 the effect which 
 they produce. 
 
 This design, with 
 its plans, is intend- 
 ed to show a neat 
 village or country 
 
 NO. I. — A DESIRABLE HOME FOR PROFESSIONAL OR BUSINESS MEN. 
 
 residence of wood, which, with all the modern improvements, would cost about $5,000. The 
 front elevation shows the side to the street, two stories high, with bay window and piazza' 
 
' 294 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 and dormer window in the roof. There is a bay window on the end. This plan was? 
 originally designed for the residence of a clergyman in a Connecticut town, and is espe 
 cially well arranged, upon an economical basis, for that purpose. 
 
 It is our design to present plans which will enable any of our readers, who are de- 
 siring to select such a home as comes within their means and taste, to erect a dwelling 
 for themselves. 
 
 There has been the same wonderful advancement in the Art of Architecture in this 
 country as in all other branches of art. The marked improvement in the condition, cul- 
 ture and refinement of our people have demanded this. Not only is this advancement 
 marked as in the case of our churches, halls and public buildings generally, but in the 
 dwellings of the people as well. In the present time it is comparatively easy 
 for a frugal, industrious and healthful family to build itself a house, and surround 
 that house with all the comforts and many of the luxuries of life. The advice of Rev. 
 Dr. Dennen, in the early part of this volume, upon this subject is well worth the candid 
 perusal of all our readers. The designs and plans which we present will be found ele- 
 gant, tasteful and at the same time economical, coming within the pecuniary ability of 
 all classes. 
 
 NO. 2.' — THE PLAN OF THE FIRST FLOOR shows the hall, with stair-casvd 
 into the parlor P 14x18, and the sitting room S. R. 18x14. These 
 
 two rooms are connected with sliding doors. 
 Back of the sitting room is the library, L., with 
 closet, C, and a window. The dining room, D. 
 R., opens into the hall in front, and the kitchen, 
 in the rear, of the dining room, is 16x14 and 
 contains a closet, C. The kitchen, K., is in the 
 L which extends to the rear of the building* 
 The external appearance of the house speaks of 
 the refinement and culture of those who dwell 
 therein, or the want of these qualities. If it 
 is tasteful and artistic, though humble, the be- 
 holder concludes that the man who erected that 
 dwelling was cultivated in his tastes, and pos- 
 sessed refinement of a high order. If the 
 dwelling is massive and devoid of architectural 
 beauty, it will tell of a mind without the grace 
 of culture, and only intent upon sordid things. 
 The picturesque homes of Switzerland and Ger- 
 many are indicators of a national type, far ele- 
 vated above those who dwell in the hovels ol 
 some countries. The old style ideas that have 
 too long been prevalent in our country, 
 to the exclusion of the aesthetic and orna- 
 mental, are yielding ground. There is happily “ a golden mean ” between two opposite 
 extremes, in which the ornamental and useful harmoniously blend together, to produce 
 
No. 4. A Private Residence for a Family of Means. Cost $9,000. 
 
 No. 11. Suburban Residence, to cost $2,500. (See Page QQ7.) 
 
ARCHITECTURE OF EVERY AGE: 
 
 A History of Human Habitations, as Illustrated by Charles Gamier at tlie Paris Eipositi 
 

 Ho. 14. Country Clergyman's Cottage, to cost $1,000 to $1,200. 
 
 Ho. 18. An American Cottage, to cost $7,000. 
 
No. 26. Rural Gothic Farm House, to cost $1,100. 
 
 No. 21, Suburban Cottage. 
 
 
ARCHITECTURE OF EVERY AGE: 
 
 A History of Human Habitations, as Illustrated by Charles Gamier at the Paris Exposition. 
 
No. 5. Design for a City Block of Six Houses. 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 303 
 
 the best effect upon the mind, and furnish to the family the means of enjoyment and re- 
 finement, as well as the shelter of a roof. And this is as it should be. There are oppor- 
 tunities enough for a display of every variety of taste and peculiar personal inclination 
 without shocking the sense of architectural beauty and propriety, or offending the eye of 
 the beholder. If there has yet arisen a distinctive school of American architecture, it 
 has not attained the dignity of recognition ; but instead, the styles of former countries 
 have prevailed, modified and adapted by the requirements of the case to the demands of 
 the new country to which they have been transplanted. 
 
 THE PLAN OF NO. 3, SECOND STORY, 
 exhibits bed-rooms marked B. R., situated re- 
 spectively over the parlor, sitting room and 
 dining room, and corresponding in style with 
 them. Over the vestibule and doorway there is 
 a bedroom, B. R., with closets. Above the 
 library is situated the bath room, B. R., and a 
 closet opening into the chamber over the sitting 
 room. The arrangement of the second floor of 
 the L is shown in the plan. These plans dis- 
 play a convenient and economical disposition 
 of all the space. We recommend a careful 
 study of this design and plans to any person 
 who desires to erect a substantial artistic resi- 
 dence at moderate expense, or to ecclesiastical 
 societies who intend to build a parsonage that 
 will be ornamental, durable and economical. 
 
 NO. 4.— A PRIVATE DWELLING (SEE 
 ELEVATION) SUITABLE FOR A FAM- 
 ILY OF SOME MEANS, in a city or town. 
 
 It was intended to be set back from the street 
 upon a lot sloping somewhat to the rear. The 
 front elevation facing the street is shown 
 in the engraving. It is neat and artistic in design and at the same time rich in 
 appearance. The size of the entire first floor is 40x48, and is divided into a sitting-room 
 on the right of hall 15x21, in the rear there is the dining-room, 15x16, from whose rear a 
 conservatory extends to the right, 7x9, and a pantry to the left, 7^x9. The hall running 
 through the building, feet wide, has a back entry, 7x10, separated from the front with 
 a door between, the staircase leading to the second story being in the front hall, a closet, 
 two feet wide in the back entry. On the left there is a piazza in front. The parlor, 14* 
 
 xi8, opening from the hall. Back of this is the kitchen, 14x15, with a pantry, 6x11, 
 in the rear. 
 
 THE SECOND STORY has a dressing-room, 8x10, over the front hall. A front 
 chamber, 15x22, over the sitting-room, back chamber, 12x16, over the dining-room. On 
 the left hall a front chamber over the parlor, 14x15; a back chamber, 14^x15. These 
 chambers have closets from each between the hall. In the rear of these chambers is the 
 bath-room, 6x1 1. The roof which covers the piazzas in front and rear, of course, do not 
 
304 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 come into this estimate. A hall eight feet wide extends from the dressing-room over the 
 front lower hall to stairway. The platform at head of stairs is 21 inches lower than the 
 floor of the chambers and hall, with three steps leading up. From this the bath-room 
 extends to the left and the store-room, 6x7, to the right. 
 
 The first floor of this house is designed to be finished in ash and walnut ; the second 
 plain. The estimated cost of this house with all the modern improvements, furnace, gas 
 and water pipes, & c., is $9,000. A house erected upon a hill and one upon an extended 
 plain should be different in design and adornment to produce a pleasant effect upon the 
 beholder. The house is not only a habitation for the inmates, but an educator and re- 
 finer of taste. Proper regard then should be had to the outward appearance and adorn- 
 ment of the house, no less than to its interior arrangement and furnishing. The plain 
 unadorned buildings which one finds in our country towns and our villages are an offense 
 to the sense of taste and propriety. There is no reason why the homes of our American 
 people should not be erected in a style as artistic and picturesque as the homes of other 
 nationalities. The increase in expense between an unsightly house with four plain walls 
 and an awkward roof, and one of pleasing style of architecture and design is much less 
 than at first sight would appear. 
 
 DESIGN FOR A CITY BLOCK OF SIX HOUSES.—, 
 This design is for the purpose of showing how a group of houses 
 may be built in the same block, in a small city or large town, and 
 present at the same time a tasty and inexpensive style of variety. 
 This is much more preferable than the ordinary method of erect- 
 ing the separate houses of a block without any reference to a 
 general plan, or the appearance of the whole. This front 
 elevation displays six dwellings combined, each having a front 
 of eighteen feet and built three stories high, surmounted by a 
 mansard roof of another story. The sky line is agreeably 
 broken by the different breaks in the elevation producing 
 a pleasing and artistic effect. The face line of the front has no pro- 
 jecting parts more than twelve inches from the part receding. This 
 divides the block into six compartments, which afford opportunity 
 for introducing tasteful adornments, thus giving breadth of light 
 and depth of shadow. Each house has a bay window and porch 
 for front door. These may be uniform in shape or varied to suit 
 the individual taste of the different owners. This design presents 
 the conception of a block, which at moderate expense will meet 
 the needs of a large class of business men of ordinary circum- 
 stances. This block may be built of pressed brick, relieved with 
 stone or marble trimmings, and grains on the four corners, as seen 
 in cut No. 5. 
 
 NO. 6 — THE GROUND FLOOR. — A is the parlor, 12x28, 
 with bay window ; b, the main hall, containing stairway and ves- 
 tibule ; c the pantry ; D, the dining-room, 12x16; E, the kitchen, 
 12x14, and f, the private staircase to the story above. The ar- 
 rangement of rooms in the other stories may be left to the 
 taste of the occupants and the requirements of the family. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 305 
 
 NO. 7— A GOTHIC COTTAGE VILLA TO COST $4,000.— We present in 
 this design a cottage of domestic Tudor style of architecture, suited to a person of 
 moderate financial ability, and at the same time characterized by convenience, propriety 
 and the utmost simplicity consistent with the requirements of architectural effect, united 
 with economy of expense. 
 
 We notice first the exterior decorations and proportions of the building. There are 
 the simple gable of two lines, following the slope of the roof and the steeped gable. The 
 apex of the gable is usually surmounted by a shaft, octagonal in shape, and a pinnacle 
 enriched with ornamental mouldings. The roof is high and does not permit many or- 
 naments, but the sameness may be relieved by using tiles, shingles or slating of 
 different designs. The windows are not pointed but square-headed, having a mould- 
 ing in wood comparing with the head and ending in an elbow, as seen in the cut. The 
 doors of this cottage are made to correspond with the windows. 
 
 This villa is to be constructed of brick of fair quality, laid to an even, smooth wall 
 line, and having the joints flat. It will be two stories high, with attic above the eave„ 
 It will look well, painted in French gray or some other neutral tint. 
 
 NO. 8 — THE GROUND FLOOR — Is an explanation of the ground floor of this 
 dwelling. A, the vestibule, opening into B, the hall, from which there is a return, con- 
 taining a staircase leading to second story. This return is semi-circular in front and 
 forms the base of the tower extending above the roof, as shown in the cut of the front 
 elevation. This produces a most pleasing and striking effect in the architectural design. 
 Passing through the hall, we enter the parlor, A, 19x14, and contains two bay windows 
 The one in front is square, with double or twin windows, and projects two and a half 
 feet, extending to second story. The one on the side forms the three sides of an octa- 
 gon. To the rear of the parlor is a dining-room, A, not connected with it. This i s 
 20x15. The kitchen, A, is 15x16. There is a private passage, C, connecting the kitchen 
 and dining-room, which opens into the front hall, B, the private stairway and the back 
 hall, D. This plan may be modified by introducing a china chest in the dining-room, A, 
 and a door from the front hall to the kitchen ; or other simple changes to suit the taste. 
 
 The second story may be finished to suit the taste of the owner, and he may modify 
 ihe ground floor to suit his personal requirements. 
 
 THE ADORNMENT AND FURNISHING OF THE HOUSE 
 
 WITH TASTE, SIMPLICITY AND ECONOMY, ADDING TO ITS BEAUTY AND COMFORT 
 
 ARMONY OF COLORS FOR CEILINGS, WALLS, CARPETS 
 AND FURNITURE. — In connection with the designs and plans for 
 homes which we furnish our patrons in this work, it is pertinent to give 
 some general hints in regard to furnishing and decorating the interior of 
 those homes. There never was a time when the opportunities to furnish 
 t^e homes of our American people with taste and beauty were more ample than the 
 present or came so completely within the ability of the most humble citizen. 
 
 The surroundings of a well-appointed home have much to do with the happiness 
 and comfort of the inmates who gather beneath its shelter. It is the bounden duty of 
 every man who would maintain a respectable position among his fellows to provide for 
 
306 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 those whom he loves and for whose comfort he is responsible a home whose beauty and 
 refinement blend with simplicity and convenience. 
 
 THE DESIGN 
 OF THE HOME. — 
 The lamented Emer- 
 son has very wisely 
 and beautifully said in 
 his Chapter on Do- 
 oestic Life : “ Let 
 
 us understand that a 
 home should bear 
 witness in all its econ- 
 omy that human cul- 
 ture is the end to 
 which it is built and 
 garnished. It stands 
 there under the sun 
 and moon to ends 
 analagous to theirs— 
 and not less noble 
 than theirs. It is not 
 for festivity ; it is not 
 for sleep ; but the pine 
 
 NO. 9— GARDEN COTTAGE TO COST $2,200.— The upper story (plan not 
 given) consists of four bed-rooms and a bath-room. See No. 10. 
 
 NO. 10 — GROUND FLOOR. — 1, Entrance Porch. 
 2 , Lobby. 3, Drawing-room. 4, Library or Bou- 
 doir. 5, Outside Porch. 6, Diningrooms. 7, 
 Kitchen. 8, Scullery. No. 5 might be a Conserva- 
 tory 
 
 and the oak shall gladly descend from the 
 mountain to uphold the roof of man as 
 faithful and as necessary as themselves, to 
 be the shelter — open always to good and 
 true persons — of all which shines with sin- 
 cerity, brows ever tranquil and a demeanor 
 impossible to disconcert ; where inmates 
 know what they want ; who do not ask 
 your house how theirs should be kept.’* 
 
 That sentiment is the keynote of the 
 whole scope and design of a home. It is 
 not merely a place to eat and drink, sleep 
 and hang up one’s garments, but' a place 
 where love and culture unite in building up 
 the highest type of social life and moulding 
 human character after the best models. 
 
 Too many homes lack a distinct in- 
 dividuality of their own and are copied 
 after the same pattern as others have 
 followed. They are furnished and ar- 
 ranged in such a manner, because the 
 house of .some other person thus fur- 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 307 
 
 nished and arranged. The sense of propriety and the fitness of the surroundings 
 are lost sight of in this desire to follow the leadership of those who have the prestige 
 of wealth and social position. This is often done at the expense of taste and comfort 
 
 NO. ii— DESIGN FOR $2,500 SUBURBAN 
 RESIDENCE. In selection of this plan the architect 
 has avoided all useless and unsuitable ornaments, and 
 chosen cheap but at the same time substantial ma- 
 terial, so that not a dollar more will be expended in 
 the execution of this design than the same accommo- 
 dation would cost in the usual plain modes of build- 
 ing. The rooms are all large and airy, being in size 
 as follows^ (See page 295.) 
 
 Second Floor j No. 13. 
 
 No. 13, second floor, chamber, 15x17 ; 2 cham- 
 bers, 15x14 ; bath room, 5^x8. The porches on 
 the front side and the neat bay window in the draw- 
 ing room preserve the symmetrical form of the 
 building. 
 
 The building is intended to be built of wood, 
 but brick could be used with some additional ex- 
 pense, and if finished in good style with cellar NO. 12 — FIRST FLOOR. — Parlor, 15x17; Dining' 
 throughout would cost about $3,000, perhaps a little room, 15x14, exclusive of bay window; Kitchen v 
 less in some localities, and in others a few hundred 15X.I4; Pantry, 3x11; Hall, 8 feet wide; Front Porch, 
 dollars more. 6 feet 6 inches wide; Back Porch, 11 feet wide. 
 
 and without due regard to the purpose for which they were designed. Culture, 
 taste and a regard to the effect upon the whole design should lead every one to 
 avoid the gaudy display and common decorations which cheapen that effect and 
 offend the critical sensibilities. Judgment and a nice discrimination of “ the eternal 
 fitness of things” should govern in all the appointments of the home, so that the 
 pleasure, convenience and education of every member of the family may result there- 
 from. 
 
 An originality and distinct individuality of character should distinguish all the 
 arrangements of the home and bespeak the character of its inmates, and breathe an air 
 of comfort which delights all the senses. 
 
 WHAT IS TASTE. — Scott, in his work Decorative Art, has defined taste to be 
 “ that faculty by which we distinguish whatever is graceful, noble, just and lovable, in 
 the infinitely varied appearances about us, and in the works of the decorative and im* 
 itative arts. Immediate impulse in the presence of beauty is to feel and admire; 
 when the emotion and sentiment are strong, we are compelled to imitate.” An ap- 
 pearance of taste and refinement may be given to the home of moderate means by 
 
308 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 a thousand ana one little adornments, which are inexpensive in themselves, but which 
 add much to the tasty and elegant appearance of the whole. A cozy chair in a recess, 
 a bracket against the wall, a gauzy curtain artistically draped, a tiny cabinet with its 
 simple treasures, a divan, a bit of embroidery, a gracefully arranged stand of flowers, 
 and many such things easily procured, distil an atmosphere of sweetness about the 
 home and affect every member of the family for good. 
 
 The correctness of taste has more to do with this than an abundance of money. 
 Costly furniture, rich tapestry, luxuriant carpets, and expensive works of art do not 
 always make an elegant home. Even these surroundings of wealth may have their effect 
 NO. 14. COUNTRY CLERGYMAN’S destroyed by an utter want of propriety in de- 
 
 COTTAGE. — To cost $1,000 or $1,200, and to 
 contain upon the first floor No. 15 parlor, study, 
 bed rooms, sitting room, kitchen and pantries. 
 
 First Floor ; No. 15. 
 
 The external appearance of this house is neat 
 and proper without showing pretension. A door 
 at D opens on the veranda. In the study are 
 book-cases with closets for paper atBB. The 
 parlor is 13x16 feet on one side of the hall and a 
 corresponding dining room on the other side, 
 the latter having two convenient closets so 
 placed at the end of the room as to form a kind 
 of bay window effect. There is also a kitchen, a 
 bed room for the clergyman and his wife, and a 
 child’s bed room all in connection. The door A 
 should be glazed in order to light the back en 
 try more completely. If a communication be- 
 tween the bed room and the entry is thought 
 more desirable than the closets, a door may be 
 placed there instead of the closets. 
 
 sign, color or arrangement. The eye is bur- 
 dened with a profuse display and the sensibili- 
 ties shocked by disregard of artistic taste. 
 Some thing must have been dragged into the 
 room which destroys all the beauty and ele- 
 gance of the whole. The quiet refinement of 
 a simple home, where the intuitive taste and 
 judgment of a woman of culture has directed 
 with delicate hands the decoration, is far better 
 than the gorgeous display devoid of these. The 
 combination of simplicity and taste should be 
 carried out in all the departments of a home. 
 Each room should be furnished and adorned 
 with relation to the design for which it was in- 
 tended. This may be accomplished at a tri- 
 fling outlay, and yet to the artistic eye be in 
 proper harmony and correct contrast. A taste- 
 ful home so far from being, as many think 
 “ an expensive luxury,” is within the moderate 
 ability of any lady in the possession of ordi- 
 nary strength and average health. By the 
 proper management of the little details and a 
 judicious expenditure of time and skill she may 
 make for herself and family a beautiful home* 
 adorned with comparative luxury. 
 
 FURNITURE AND DECORATION. — 
 Here are certain essential points to be ob- 
 served in th~ furniture and decoration* 
 They are these : A regard for beauty in form; 
 a harmonious combination of colors and the 
 appropriate fitness of each article fo; the par- 
 ticular purpose for which it is designed. 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 309 
 
 Utility and ornament ought to be blended, but in the past, especially in the houses 
 of our American families, the practical has held the chief place in all its appointments. 
 While the useful should reign as king in the household domain, the ornamental at least 
 should bear sway as queen and both reign over a united kingdom of peace and beauty 
 With this thought in view, let us furnish our homes and make them attractive to child 
 and parent alike. 
 
 No. 16 ; Rear of Country Clergyman’s Cottage. 
 
 No. 16 is a small sketch showing the rear of 
 the cottage. The first story being eleven feet in 
 the dear, the posts for the frame of this cottage 
 •*rould be seventeen feet long. The outside is 
 designed to be covered with vertical sidings and 
 
 No. 17 ; Second Floor. 
 
 The Second Floor plan, No. 17, shows five bed rooms 
 with a closet, a , a , a , a , a , to each. The dotted lines 
 
 battens. 
 
 No 18.— AN AMERICAN COT- 
 TAGE. — (See elevation). — This cottage 
 is intended to be of stone. It is design- 
 ed so as to be adapted particularly as a 
 summer residence, although it will 
 make an admirable and comfortable 
 home at any season. The rooms are 
 large. The roof may be of shingles or 
 slate, and the superstructure of rubble 
 masonry painted. The estimate for this 
 house is $7,000. 
 
 GROUND PLAN, NO. 19. 
 
 A, parlor, 16x30 feet ; B, porch, C, 
 main hall 16x16 feet J D, sitting room, 
 16x16 ; E, dining-room, 13x16 feet} F, 
 kitchen, 16x18 feet. 
 
 shows the roof of the veranda. 
 
 WALL PAPER AND CARPETS. — The 
 paper on the wall is designed to act as a background 
 for whatever the room may contain in the way of 
 decoration and furniture, and the carpet as the 
 groundwork for the same. There should be a happy 
 blending of harmonious colors and design, always 
 bearing in mind the natural arrangements of each 
 While the back- 
 ground of a pic- 
 ture is the part 
 that is least no- 
 ticed in the general 
 effect, it is often 
 that part which 
 causes the artist 
 the most trouble, 
 and requires the 
 most painstaking 
 care and delicate 
 taste. Regard must 
 be had to the size 
 of the room and ment of the rooms can be modified to suit 
 the height of its taste or necessity. The elevation shows a 
 . beautiful and not too ornate exterior and 
 
 walls. Dead white .. , , . , . , 
 
 if made of stone or brick it will prove a 
 Walls are always most satisfactory and substantial home. 
 
 SECOND FLOOR, NO 20* 
 
 The second floor contains four fine cham- 
 bers, as shown in the plan. The third floor 
 two attic rooms. Of course the arrange- 
 
310 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 parlor or a living room. 
 
 objectionable, and no pictures or decorations can relieve them and prevent the bare, 
 blank spaces from standing out in hideous and painful contrast. If the general plan 
 corresponds therewith a light tint may be allowed but rarely. A carpet whose 
 ground work is light, is also objectionable unless the whole plan for the 
 color of the room is also light, and even then the carpet should be darker than the 
 No. 21 — suburban COTTAGE wall, and the wall 
 
 p a P er alwa y s dark - 
 
 over ornamented, a great fault with many er than the tinted 
 modern houses. The rooms are large and .■>. p. , 
 
 conveniently arranged. Every room of ceiling. Un tne 
 the ground floor is pleasant enough for a other hand, Very 
 
 dark walls and car- 
 pet will cause a 
 gloomy aspect by 
 absorbing the light. 
 
 A tint of medium 
 color, which will 
 serve to make the 
 objects against it 
 stand out in relief* 
 is preferable to 
 either extreme. 
 
 Beautiful tints for 
 parlor walls are 
 found in French 
 
 SECOND STORY, NO. 23. 
 
 A, Bed Room 14 ft. 5 in.xn ft. 9 in.; 
 B, chamber, 18-9x15 ; C C, Halls ; D, 
 Bed Room, 9-6x11 ; E, Bed Room, 14- 
 6x11 ; F, servant’s Bed Room, 12-6x14- 
 6 ; G, passge 3 ft. 6 in. in width. 
 
 pearl gray, a pale buff, delicate green, or warm stone 
 color. There is a slight tint of pink like the lining 
 
 ground plan, no. 22 . 0 f sea _ s hells which looks very lovely and combines 
 
 No. 22.— GROUND PLAN.— D. R., „ . , . y J f . 
 
 Rining Room, 18 ft. 9 in.xis feet ; Parlor well with almost every variety of furnishing. 
 180x146: Library, 15x14 6; Kitchen, , T71 c A A , , r . 
 
 12 6x13 6 ; Wash-Room, 12x8 ; Hall 6 When we refer to the colors of a room, we do 
 
 feet 5 inches m width. not s ig n ify that the walls are to be of one uniform 
 
 color, but the predominant color is mentioned which may exist with an endless 
 variety of patterns, and mingling of appropriate colors. A shade of dark almost in- 
 visible green, broken by narrow, gilt panels, would harmonize well with furniture 
 upholstered in light green. With dark woodwork a pleasing effect is produced by a pale 
 lemon or apricot. We insert the following statement of 
 
 COLORS WHICH HARMONIZE AND CONTRAST.— Brown contrasts witfe 
 
 white, and blue harmonizes with yellow and black. 
 
 White contrasts with black, but brown harmonizes. 
 
 Yellow contrasts purple, and white harmonizes with orange and pale shades. 
 Red contrasts with green, but harmonizes with crimson. 
 
 Orange contrasts with blue, but harmonizes with rose pink. 
 
 Black contrasts with pale colors and harmonizes with deep shades. 
 
 Green contrasts with red, and harmonizes with yellow. 
 
 Purple contrasts with yellow, and white harmonizes with crimson. 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 S13 
 
 To form ground colors. Red with pale blue, yellow, green and pearl. 
 
 Good effects are produced by white, with shades of red, green, violet, purple, blue 
 and brown. 
 
 Black with drab, salmon, purple, light blue, gold, pink and lemon. 
 
 Green with gray, yellow, pearl, stone, flesh, dove, lemon, purple, pink and lighter 
 green. 
 
 Blue, with light drabs, with yellows, salmon, pink, lighter blue and buff. 
 
 CONTRASTS IN COLORS REQUIRED. — There is danger that certain colors 
 of the same depth of tone, without a neutralizing tint between them, will produce a mud- 
 dled or dirty appearance if placed side by side ; such as blue, green and red. But light 
 blue with dark green will look well if a line of mutual contrast comes between them. 
 Pale shades of yellow and blue on black ground, wrought in flowing arabesque patterns pro- 
 duce a pleasing effect, and also brown grounds with mosaic designs and shades of dull red 
 and tawny yellow on different ground. Sometimes the most flagrant violation of cor- 
 rect taste are found in the combination of colors even in the rich designs of carpets, and 
 we trust that no one who reads these pages will allow these to be urged upon them be- 
 cause they are beautiful in design or rich in material. The point of observation for a 
 carpet is from above, 
 and when selecting one 
 this should be remem- 
 
 bered, and the person 
 should judge the de- 
 sign and colors with 
 this thought in mind. 
 The design should be 
 perfectly flat, with no 
 attempt to perspective, 
 such as would be suita- 
 ble for wall decoration, 
 and such effect as would 
 look well in a picture 
 
 connection that good 
 taste ought to govern. 
 
 THE CEILING.— 
 Two difficult things to 
 manage in a room are 
 white wood work and 
 white ceiling, because 
 they too often put all 
 its appointments out of 
 time. If a light shade 
 of paper is used the 
 
 CHEAP COTTAGE, NO. 24. 
 
 SOME CHEAP COTTAGES.— The accom. 
 panying designs may be" constructed in either effect IS not SO bad. 
 Would be Out of place Stone or brick. The walls, if stone, should be 
 , 14 inches thick; if brick, 8 inches. 
 
 m the carpet, upon The living 
 
 room, marked A, has two bed 
 which One is to Stand rooms at its rear, a kitchen on the left, and hall 
 
 entrance on the right. The second, or hall story. p ar £ ^ve never could 
 
 rritrpc . room c pq r*h of thpcp * 
 
 the 
 
 the contrast is not so 
 striking. For our own 
 
 vu xnu ^vwiiu, jr hnll Ctnrv 
 
 and look downward. It gives bed-rooms over each of these, 
 is enough to say in this see w ^y ^he ceiling 
 
 should be a uniform white, when an agreeable tint can be imparted so easily. While we 
 are not in favor of highly decorated ceilings for rooms of ordinary size, yet we think 
 there should be some change from the clear white. In a room whose walls are covered 
 with paper of subdued gray or other similar tint, the ceiling can be calsomined 
 with the same tint three or four shades lighter, and a border made with bands of paper 
 in designs of walnut wood, and the ground lines shaded in gray, with fancy corners and 
 centre piece of the same, with a thread of gold along the edge. This would have a 
 pleasing effect, and the imitation would be hard to detect, even with a critical eye. 
 
314 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 KALSOMINING. — There can be no more beautiful and appropriate covering for 
 the walls of a small room with low ceiling than some one of the exquisite tints formed 
 by uniting a little color powder, lavender, peach blossom, blue, delicate gray or violet 
 with the calsomining mixture. 
 
 FURNITURE AND HANGINGS. — An important matter in regard to the furni- 
 ture and the hanging, and one which too many enterprising furniture dealers disregard, 
 is the color and combination of colors. A hue that may be proper in one kind of ma- 
 terial may be the reverse in another. For example, satin may appear gorgeous in yel- 
 low, but cloths of the same hue would be detestable. What in flannel would seem to be 
 
 nothing but a dirty white, in fine cashmere or heavy 
 silk would appear elegant. Green and red of the same 
 depth never go well together, for although they are 
 complementary colors, the effect is unpleasant ; but a 
 delicate sea-green will contrast finely with Indian red 
 or deep crimson. Some one has written the following : 
 “ As lovely a drawing room as we ever saw in point 
 of color was carpeted with gray felt with a deep dark- 
 blue bordering ; the lounges and chairs were covered 
 with chintz in the most delicate shade of robin’s- egg, 
 or gaslight blue, as the wool dealers call it ; the re- 
 mainder was of wicker-work and black lacquer; and the 
 heavy pieces of furniture were in black lacquer and gilt ; 
 the curtains were of snowy muslin under lambrequins of 
 chintz ; and the rest of the room was made up of vases, 
 tripods, cups, pictures, flowers, and sunshine, till it 
 seemed to overflow with harmonious color.” 
 
 A grand rich carpet does not make a furnished room in itself, while a plain straw 
 matting, with tasteful mats and rugs of home manufacture, with appropriate articles for 
 use and a display of flowers and plants, is both furnished and attractive. There must 
 be a happy blending of all the surroundings. 
 
 A ROOM FOR USE. — The apartment that has the air of being kept not for use, 
 but display, though it may be artistic, is most unattractive . “ The best chairs and sofas, 
 
 are those which you like best and those which conform to the natural contour of the 
 human figure in repose.” Let the entire furniture be serviceable, and such as will add 
 to the comfort of the occupant ; in the parlor, not less than in the living room of the 
 family. 
 
 WINDOWS. — Windows require much attention in properly furnishing. The de- 
 sign of the window is to admit the light and to afford the occupant glimpses of 
 die outer world. Therefore, too much elaboration should not be attempted. 
 if the immediate surroundings of the outside do not happen to be agreeable, then 
 there may be some excuse for an artistic attempt to exclude it from view ; but an 
 unobstructed view of pleasant fields and hill slopes, an outlook into the garden, and the 
 sight of the living panorama of nature is worth more than all the artistic glass painting 
 and rose-tinted shades that inventive art have ever devised. 
 
 GROUND PLAN, NO. 25. 
 
 The living room marked A has two 
 bed-rooms at its rear, a kitchen on 
 the left, and hall entrance on the 
 right. The second or half story gives 
 bed-rooms over each of these. 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 315 
 
 No. 27 — First Floor.— P, Parlor; D, Din- 
 ing-room; K, Kitchen; BB, Bed-rooms; C. 
 Closet; E, Bath; P, Pantry; VV, Verandas; 
 W, Woodhouse. 
 
 CURTAINS. — In this day, when the raa- no. 26— rural gothic farmhouse, to cosi 
 „ . J $1,100.— See Elevation, 
 
 terials and designs of curtains are so numerous, 
 
 there is the widest range for the display of taste 
 in curtains and shades for the windows of every 
 room in the house. It would be useless to at- 
 tempt to give any very definite direction in re- 
 gard to them. A sense of propriety and the 
 fitness of things should govern. To produce 
 the best effect, lace curtains should never be 
 hung without thick ones of a decided color either 
 over or under them. Inside curtains of two feet 
 in length may properly by used with them. The 
 effect of white Hollands is to subdue and soften 
 the light, and they make the most satisfactory 
 shades for such purposes. But crimson and 
 scarlet hues may be used, as the delicate 
 shadows cast by them are at the same time 
 cheerful and becoming. An edging of lace and 
 a bow of blue or rose-colored ribbon in the cen- 
 tre just above it adds to the beauty of the white 
 shade. Avoid the use of dark and heavy 
 lambrequins, which exclude the light and darken the room. Under no circumstances 
 shut out the needed light or prevent a glimpse upon the outside when that is desirable. 
 
 THE DINING-ROOM. — The common fault with our American houses is that 
 this room rarely expresses the purpose for which it was designed. It is too often merely 
 the “ eating-room,” and an old work soberly puts forth the advice that the dining- 
 room should contain nothing that would tend to divert the mind from that occupation. 
 The fact is that this room should, by its cheerful and pleasing appearance, be made as 
 inviting to the eye as any room in the house. The articles required for daily use should 
 be not only strong, honest, real and simple, but should possess a dignity and taste which 
 are indispensable to a proper furnishing of a room. Let the furniture then be tasteful 
 and serviceable, the walls adorned with proper pictures, the floor with a harmonious 
 carpet, and all the appointments of the house in keeping with the general idea of refine- 
 ment and culture. We have already spoken of the adornment of the table, and refer 
 the reader to our chapter on page 371 of this volume. 
 
 THE LIBRARY. — In all homes there should be one room in the house where 
 the books, of which there ought to be a good supply, may be suitably kept for preser- 
 vation and reference. However humble the home may be, this library should find a 
 place, even though a separate room cannot be devoted to it. 
 
 BED-ROOMS. — The various theories which have been put forth in regard to sleep- 
 ing rooms are legion and would comprise a volume in themselves. We will venture only 
 a few general hints. Ventilation and light are the essential points and are required by 
 the laws of hygiene and good sense. In reference to the furnishing and arrangement 
 of these rooms but little need be said. Quite often these rooms are used from necessity 
 
316 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 for dressing-room, sitting-room, study, bath-room and boudoir, all in one, and what would 
 be applicable in one case would be inappropriate in another. Either one of two extremes 
 must be avoided — a barren, cold, uninviting aspect, on the one hand, and an over-bur- 
 dened and fussy appearance on the other. There must be of necessity a marked indi- 
 viduality in the sleeping room which partakes of 
 the characteristics of the one who occupies it. 
 The air of his or her presence pervades it, and 
 each room has an aspect peculiar to itself. The 
 furnishing of the room should accord to the indi- 
 vidual’s tastes and peculiarities, so that he may 
 always feel that this is his room. 
 
 THE HALLS. — The first approach to a 
 house should partake of the general plan of the 
 whole, and impart to 
 him who enters it the 
 hint of what he may 
 find beyond the outer 
 courts of its sanctuary. 
 
 Once across the thresh- 
 old which separates it 
 
 No. 28 — second floor. — BBB, Bed-rooms; r , 
 
 ni. u * r> * rom the g reat OUtSlde 
 
 C, Chamber; CC, Closet; P, Passage. The & 
 
 part containing the two bed-rooms, bathing world, he should be 
 and clothes room is quite economically ob- able to discover SOme- 
 tained, it being a lean-to addition, one story j-j^ no . of the Spirit 
 high, with a flatish roof. Above this is a . . . . . 
 
 gabled window, with its stool resting on this whlch P ervades t h e 
 roof. The gable rises to the height of the family and the genius 
 roof, thus breaking the otherwise monoton- which presides Over its 
 ous appearance of that side of the building destinies The C a r - 
 
 and balancing, in a degree, the mass of the ^ -n • 1 
 
 Other Side. pets .walls, pictures and 
 
 The main roof rises at an angle of 45 0 ; furniture of the hall, 
 the woodhouse part is one story — roof one- should be neither bet- 
 fourth pitch. The inside is finished appro- ternor poorer than that 
 priately, plain and neat. The lower story is . 
 
 9 feet high in the clear; the upper story; fin- which he may expect ^ os# ^ and 30. — These are 
 ished to cellar beams, is 8 feet 6 inches. The within the Other apart- plans of a superior class of cot- 
 cellar under kitchen and dining room is well mentS of the house, tage suitable for a merchant, shop- 
 
 lighted and the chimney standing in the centre ^ sense of unitv or deeper, art isan or clerk, though 
 
 is furnished with openings for ventilation; . . . „ none the less adapted to the thrifty 
 
 with this arrangement the cellar can be kept Unity in variety, laborer. A is the parlor, with its 
 
 sweet and wholesome. should govern the bay window, J; B, the dining- 
 
 The bathing room is easily accessible, it whole. room; C, the kitchen, with iis 
 
 being connected with the kitchen and bed- shelved pantry, H; D, the hall; E, 
 
 room, which renders it convenient and CONCLUSION. — the vestibule; F, staircase; S # 
 useful. The cost of this house, with a With these general chamber; I, porch. The second 
 light timber frame, clapboard lined on inside 0 b serv ationS upon a st0I T» AAA— A, bed-rooms; B, 
 with inch lumber, then furred with strip lath, - hall; C, dressing-room; t>, bath- 
 
 lathed and plastered, with two coats finish, is su kject O SO grea room and water closet; E, roof of 
 about $1 100. importance to all, we bay window. 
 
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE HOME. 
 
 317 
 
 ieave our readers to follow the suggestions which they contain. The questions 
 which arise in connection with the subject are numerous and susceptible of differ- 
 ent answers, and would require .extended treatment. What we have said in this 
 general way is merely an outline, to be filled up in its details by the taste and judgment 
 of each one interested. It is simply impossible to give - a few rigid rules from which 
 there can be no deviation. Above all things, avoid being a mere imitator of some one 
 
 else, but display your own 
 personal taste and judg- 
 ment in this matter, and 
 you will find that it does 
 not require a prodigal ex- 
 penditure of money to 
 make the home the attrac- 
 tive abode of beauty and 
 comfort. The interesting 
 and valuable article of 
 the Rev. Dr. Dennen 
 (page 281-287) on “ Home 
 Life and Happiness’ has an 
 
 No. 31— Front Elevation. intimate connection with No * 32— Ground Plan. 
 
 Nos. 33, 34, 35 AND 36 — A PLAN OF A BLOCK OF FOUR HOUSES. 
 
 The plan represents the ground floor of a block of four houses, two or more stories high, built of wood 
 or brick. It is suitable for the city or for a manufacturing village, and may be built plain or ornamental, as 
 the owner may wish. The two pairs are homogeneous and similar, as shown in the subjoined cut. 
 
 The one at the end is designated with description to suit each. The living room in front, 11x13, has a 
 square bay window. The hall opens from the vestibule and into the living room and kitchen. The latter is 
 the same size as the former, and contains the pantry and china closet, each 5x5. A staircase leads from the 
 hall to the second story. 
 
 this subject, and the reader will be more than repaid for perusing it a second or third 
 time. The practical and sensible advice which he has presented in so pleasing a form 
 ought to be the guide in every home and family. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY; 
 
 OR, DOMESTIC ECONOMY IN THE KITCHEN, 
 
 For the Prudent American Housewife. 
 
 HE art of preparing savory and inviting food, that will be at the same time 
 both wholesome and palatable, is one that it is the duty of all housekeepers 
 to acquire in their first experience of married life. When we consider 
 that this physical nature of ours requires so much attention and care to 
 preserve its strength and health, and a constant supply to meet the corre- 
 spondingly constant waste, it does not appear that the profession of a cook is one which 
 should be ignored among sensible men and women. Among all civilized nations a due 
 regard is paid to gastronomic matters, and the evidences of refinement are seen where 
 these have attained the highest perfection. The prudent wife who would live within her 
 husband’s income, and at the same time would preserve the happiness of home, as well as 
 the health of her family, will feel herself in duty bound to perfect herself in the best meth' 
 ods. The early training of marriageable daughters should include this all-important in- 
 struction. We are heartily glad that the subject is beginning to attract the attention 
 that is due to this. As the mother of the writer was accustomed to observe, years ago, 
 “ Every institution for the education of young ladies ought to have a professorship of 
 Domestic Economy,” That mother would have been amply fitted to fill the chair of 
 such a professorship. Of course very much must depend upon the circumstances in each 
 case, and it is unwise, if not impossible, to prescribe any system which can be generally 
 applied without some modification. The hints we give pertain to families in the ordi- 
 nary walks of life, and will be found serviceable to all. No one family should measure its 
 style of living by what another family does. The resources, the tastes, the happiness, 
 and, above all, the health of the family, are items to be taken into account. 
 
 THE KITCHEN. 
 
 The culinary department, if it is to be the abode of a human being, either the mistress 
 of the house or a subordinate for a large part of the waking hours, should be convenient, 
 attractive and pleasant. This should especially be the case if the kitchen is, at the same 
 time, to be the living room of the family. Let it be the pleasantest in the house. “ Our 
 girl Maria” was correct when she said, “ For my part, I do not see why a kitchen, of all 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 319 
 
 the rooms in the house, should be built like a dark box, with the sole prevailing idea of 
 work , work. I think that the baking of bread and pies, the broiling of meats and fish, 
 ought to be made as pleasant as any other part of house work.” I do not see how any 
 sensible woman can endure the drudgery of a kitchen, such as may be found, with only 
 one window, and that over the sink, with dark, dingy walls, and so contracted that sitting 
 in a stiff-backed chair in the center, she can touch them on all sides. Let this room be 
 light and airy, so large that the furniture needed for convenience shall not crowd one 
 piece upon another, and with an appearance of home-like comfort. The appurtenances 
 and utensils should be arranged in order, with a neatness and propriety such as the native 
 good taste of a true woman would suggest ; the walls made cheerful with attractive paper 
 and pictures and growing flowers, arranged to receive the light. To quote 
 from “ our Maria” again : “ I do think, that until some contrivance is invented to carry 
 off the smoke, steam and odor of cooking, which will arise in spite of the utmost care, 
 all the ventilation, sun-light and attractions will be of little avail ; and when that time 
 comes the millennium of housekeeping will set in, and I shall not be there.” With this 
 improvement the kitchen might be made the most pleasant room in the house, and we 
 hope that “ Maria ” will live to see the happy day in a kitchen of her own. 
 
 UTENSILS FOR COOKING. 
 
 They should be made of pottery ware, wood, glass or metal, each of which has its 
 suitable uses in preference to the others. A proper knowledge of chemical effects upon 
 certain metals is imperatively necessary to avoid ill consequences to health, if not imme- 
 diate danger to life. Silver is indissoluble by any substances proper for food, although 
 the sulphates unite with it and form a crust, giving the appearance of varnish, which 
 may come off into the food ; but this is not liable to happen often. The discoloring of 
 silver used in beating eggs is caused by this. 
 
 Copper and brass are dissoluble with vinegar, the acid of certain fruits and pearl- 
 ash, and the compound is highly poisonous. Let vessels made of these metals be lined 
 with tin. Do not suffer ashes or pearlash to remain long in such vessels. 
 
 Block tin is made of thin sheets of iron covered with tin. This is as dissoluble as 
 the copper or brass, but less harmful. Iron is the safest metal for cooking purposes, and 
 the chief objection is its liability to rust, causing labor in cleaning. Orange peel, quinces 
 and artichokes, &c., are turned black by iron, and should not stand in vessels made of 
 this material. Leaden vessels should never be used for milk, cream or salted provisions. 
 
 Oriental china is enamelled with perfect glues which cannot be dissolved. English 
 pottery is badly glazed with lead and unsafe for acids. Glass vessels are better than any 
 pottery except Oriental ware, and should be used in preference for keeping pickles or 
 salted substances. 
 
 Wooden ware may be used for many articles, but when once impregnated with taint 
 of any kind, will impart it to other substances. 
 
 Hollow iron ware, lined with enamel, is to be preferred for all cooking purposes 
 
320 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 CHOOSING AND PURCHASING SUPPLIES. 
 
 BEEF, if it is young, will be of a good red color, with fine open grain, and the fatty 
 parts white and clear. The beef from a cow will be closer than that from an ox, and the 
 lean part not so red, but the fat white. When the beef is deep red, the fat hard and 
 skinny, it is of inferior quality. When the beef has a line of horny substance running 
 between the ribs, you may be sure that the animal was an old one. 
 
 MUTTON is regarded prime when five years old. The firmness and fineness of its 
 texture, good color, and white firm fat are marks for choosing. 
 
 LAMB. — Will spoil soon after it has been slaughtered. If kept too long the veins in 
 the neck will have a greenish tinge, instead of the normal bluish hue. In the hind quarter 
 examine the kidney and knuckle for the same marks. If kept too long the knuckle will 
 not have the firm appearance which it otherwise would have. 
 
 VEAL — Should be of a delicate whiteness, though a deeper color is more juicy and well 
 flavored. The cruel practice of bleeding calves to produce the delicate white color robs 
 the meat of its flavor and nourishment. The loin will furnish the best chance of any part 
 to judge of veal. If the kidney be surrounded with fat, firm and white, deeply imbedded 
 therein it is good, but if the suet is soft and the meat of the kidney flabby, the animal has 
 been kept too long. 
 
 PORK. — The meat will be smooth and cool to the touch if it is fresh. When flabby 
 and clinging it is not good. The rind should be thin. If there are enlarged glands or 
 kernels, so-called in the pork, avoid it for it is unhealthy. 
 
 BACON. — Should have the fat firm and of a reddish tinge. The lean should be 
 firm to the bone, with no yellowish streaks in it. A knife stuck into the bacon should 
 come out not having any meat sticking to it and with no unpleasant odor. 
 
 TO SELECT FISH. 
 
 COD. — Can be judged by the redness of the gills. The flesh should be white, stiff 
 and firm, and the eyes have a fresh appearance. The whole fish should be firm and 
 thick. 
 
 SALMON. — The gills should have a firm red color, and so the flesh ; the texture 
 firm and scales bright. Some persons think that it is better after being kept a day or 
 two. 
 
 TURBOT. — The underside to be good must be of a yellowish white. If it is bluish 
 or very transparent, and then it is not good. Let the fish be thick and firm. 
 
 WHITE FISH. — They are in their prime early in the year. This fish is white and 
 delicate. The fins and flesh should be firm. 
 
 LOBSTERS. — If lately caught, pressing the eyes will cause motion of the claws. 
 The elasticity of the tail will show whether the boiled lobster is good. The weight, 
 aside from freshness, tells of the goodness of this shell fish. 
 
 CRABS. — Are judged of by their weight and the stiffness of the joints of the legs. 
 The appearance of the eye is an indication of how long they have been caught. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 321 
 
 TO SELECT POULTRY ; 
 
 The age of the fowl is the main point to be determined. A smooth black leg, eyes 
 full and fresh and moist feet, are marks of a young turkey. 
 
 CHICKENS. — Will have smooth comb and legs if young, otherwise they will be 
 
 rough. 
 
 YOUNG GEESE. — Will have yellow bills and feet and a few hairs on them. If old, 
 they will be red. If the bird has been recently killed the feet will be pliable, but stiff 
 and dry after some time. 
 
 DUCKS. — Should have a plump, hard breast and supple feet. The tame duck has 
 yellowish feet and the wild one reddish. 
 
 PIGEONS. — Should only be eaten when fresh. When the under part is flabby and 
 discolored they are not good. The condition of the fee^ show the age of the bird. 
 
 TO SELECT EGGS. 
 
 Take the egg in the hand, and holding it lengthwise to the light the egg should be 
 transparent. If there are any specks in it the egg is not fresh laid, but may be good 
 for ordinary purposes. If there is a large spot near the shell it is bad. When a newly- 
 laid egg is softly boiled, the white will be like milk ; an old egg; tough, hard and 
 indigestible. 
 
 BOILING AND STEWING. 
 
 This most simple process of the culinary art is not in many cases carried to the per- 
 fection which it deserves. Care should be taken that the water boils all the time; the 
 liquor should be skimmed and the kettle removed at just the right moment. Less fire 
 is required for boiling than for roasting. The oftener the liquor is skimmed and the 
 cleaner it is kept the sweeter will be the meat, and the neater the appearance of the dish 
 for the table. Put your meats into cold water, letting them come gradually, and note 
 the time from the instant they begin to boil. The size of the vessel should 
 be proportioned to the amount to be boiled. Let the cover be close fitting. Do not 
 let the meats remain in the water after they are done. While under done beef and mut- 
 ton make the better hash, lamb, pork and veal are unpalatable if well boiled. 
 
 BOILING CORNED BEEF. — Put water enough to cover the meat well. Let it 
 heat slowly, and afterwards boil slowly. Skim off the grease. If vegetables are boiled 
 with it pare them. Allow twenty minutes for each pound of beef. 
 
 A GOOD DISH FOR BREAKFAST. — Cold roast beef cut in thin slices in a 
 sauce pan set in boiling water ; cover with a gravy compound of melted butter three 
 tablespoonfuls, walnut catsup, vinegar, one table spoonful each, a little salt and pepper, 
 spoonful current jelly, homemade mustard and warm water, steam for half an hour. 
 With rare roast beef this is very nice. 
 
 TO STEW A BEEF’S HEART. — Cut it lengthwise into large pieces. Put into 
 cold water and parboil for fifteen minutes, skim often. Remove the meat and cut it into 
 small pieces. Strain the liquor and return the meat, add chopped celery, sliced onions* 
 
322 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 peeled potatoes quartered, and a piece of butter. Season with a whole pepper and cloves 
 if you like. Stew slowly until all is quite tender. A beefs kidney, and the heart and 
 liver of the calf can be stewed in the same way. 
 
 BOILED BEEF’S TONGUE. — Soak over night. Put it into cold water and boil 
 it six hours. Take out and trim neatly, then serve it hot with mashed potatoes arranged 
 around it, and sprigs of parsley over the roots of the tongue. 
 
 TO BROIL DRIED BEEF. — Cut into thin slices and put into a saucepan with 
 water enough to cover, set over the fire ten minutes, drain off the water and cut the 
 meat fine with a knife and fork. Return to hot pan with tablespoonful of butter and a 
 little pepper. Stir well beaten eggs into the pan with the fine meat and cook two min- 
 utes. Send it to table in a covered dish. 
 
 BOILING A LEG OF MUTTON. — Make a stuffing of bread and pork seasoned 
 with salt and pepper, chopping all fine. Take out the bone and fill in the cavity with the 
 stuffing, closing wdth a stout thread sewed in, making the whole piece compact. Put 
 into a large vessel, cover with water and let it simmer slowly two hours. If water must 
 be added let it be boiling. 
 
 BOILING HAMS. — Soak the ham in water to draw out a part of the salt, and 
 scrape and trim it well. Put it into a large pan with a good supply of cold water. 
 Place over a moderate fire, and let it be an hour and a half coming to a boil. Skim often 
 and let it simmer for four or five hours, and when done remove the skin. Then rub th« 
 surface of the meat with beaten eggs and sprinkle on cracker dust. Place it in the oven 
 till well browned. Garnish the edges of the dish to make a tasteful appearance when on 
 the table. Cover the cold ham with the skin when set away. The best way to steam a 
 ham. Put into a steamer set over boiling water, allow 20 minutes to the pound, cover 
 tightly. Care should be taken in preparing the ham, soaking 12 hours previous to steam- 
 ing, and rubbed with a stiff brush. When served hot treat as above. 
 
 TO STEW RABBITS. — Truss the animals and put them in warm water for fifteen 
 minutes. Then with plenty of water in a stew-pan, and salt, simmer slowly for an hour. 
 Have boiled onions in another pan and when cooked drain and slice thin. Drawn butter 
 melted in a gill of milk should be added to the rabbit and brought to a simmer, then put 
 in the onions and let it boil up once. 
 
 BOILING VEGETABLES. 
 
 VE them fresh. In summer they should be picked the same day. Ex- 
 amine them well and remove all unripe or damaged portions. Let them 
 stand a little while in cold water before cooking. Always put them into 
 boiling water and let it continue at a boil until the vegetable is cooked. 
 POTATOES. — Select these of nearly the same size. Do not pare, 
 but wash them thoroughly. Put in water to cover them about an inch. Use no lid. 
 When boiling pour off the water and put in cold. This drives the heat to the heart of 
 the potato and makes it mealy. Try them with a fork. When done pour off the water 
 and cover with a cloth, letting them stand on the stove until dry. Peel and send to table. 
 
THE ART OP COOKERY. 
 
 323 
 
 When the potatoes are old it is best to pare them before boiling, and mash them before 
 sending to the table, adding butter, salt and a little milk. New potatoes do not require 
 peeling. 
 
 STEWED POTATOES. — Pare, quarter, and let them stand in cold water half an 
 hour. Stew in enough water to cover them, adding salt. When they are just breaking 
 up, pour off half the water and add the same amount of milk. Boil three minutes, stir- 
 ring well. Add a lump of butter, salt and pepper, with a sprinkling of flour and serve 
 in covered dish. 
 
 SWEET POTATOES. — Boil with skins on, in abundance of water, but no salt 
 Try with a fork and see when done through. Drain and let them dry. Peel and send 
 to table. If they are large roast them. 
 
 CABBAGE. — Examine and clean carefully, by removing the outer leaves ; then pare 
 and trim stalk. If large, quarter it. If small halve it ; let it stand in cold water, large 
 end downwards. Boil it two hours, or till stalk is tender. When done drain and squeeze 
 it well. Introduce fresh melted butter between the leaves. Serve. A young cabbage 
 should be boiled in an hour or an hour and a half. 
 
 BACON AND CABBAGE — Is not an unsavory or unwholesome dish, when prop- 
 erly prepared. Do not boil the two together but boil the cabbage in the pot liquor by 
 itself two hours. Drain thoroughly, pressing out the last drop, without breaking the 
 leaves, and lay the cabbage around the meat upon the dish, and on each quarter of the 
 cabbage a slice of hard boiled egg. Season when eating, with salt, pepper and vinegar. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER — Should be boiled like cabbage and send to the table with melt- 
 ed butter. 
 
 TURNIPS. — Turnips should boil gently for an hour and a half, and when tender 
 drained on a sieve and sent to the table whole, served with melted butter. Or they may 
 be mashed, squeezing and pressing, well seasoned with pepper and salt. A little piece 
 of butter. The sun shining upon turnips after they are cooked imparts a very disagree- 
 able taste. Turnips should always be served with mutton. 
 
 SPINACH. — Boil in clear water half an hour. A bit of pearlash or saleratus will 
 impart a green tint to them. Drain thoroughly and dress with poached eggs and butter. 
 
 GREEN PEAS — Require about an hour to boil soft. Drain them, mix butter and 
 a little pepper. A little sugar boiled with them adds to their flavor, and a sprig of mint, 
 to be removed when they are done. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. — Large, or full sized is best. Set a pot with plenty of water on the 
 fire, sprinkle salt therein. Scrape the stalks till they are nice and white, cut them in 
 equal lengths, leaving but a little below the green part. Put the stalks into cold water 
 as prepared, then bunch them together. Put the bunches into rapidily boiling water, 
 and let them remain boiling for an hour. Serve on toasted bread, with melted butter. 
 
 ONIONS. — Prepare them by removing tops and stems and outer skin. Put into 
 the bottom of a vessel in single layer, cover with water and let them simmer slowly till 
 done. Serve with melted butter. 
 
 TOMATOES — Should stew slowly one hour, with butter, pepper and sugar, adding 
 bread crumbs. 
 
324 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 BOILED GREEN CORN. — Choose young corn still in the milk. Strip off the 
 outer leaves and every bit of the silk. Re-cover the ear with the thin husk that grows 
 nearest to it, and tie the top together with thread ; put into boiling water that has been 
 salted, and boil fast from twenty to thirty minutes ; cut the stalks close to the cob, and 
 serve whole, or cut the corn from the ear while hot and season to taste, serving it in a 
 covered dish. 
 
 OTHER VEGETABLES. — Carrots require three hours boiling; parsnips from 
 thirty to forty-five minutes ; string beans, two hours ; Lima beans, thirty minutes ; arte- 
 chokes, two to three hours ; summer squash, forty-five minutes ; winter squash, much 
 longer ; boiled hominy, five hours ; rice, twenty minutes. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 BOILED MACKEREL. — Put the fish, well cleaned, into cold water, with salt ; 
 boil slowly ; when the eyes start out and the tail splits, they are done ; take them out at 
 once, or put the fish in cold water and let it heat gradually for an hour ; give them one 
 boil and they are done. 
 
 BOILING FRESH COD. — Put the fish into cold water and let it heat gradually 
 for three hours, if large ; if small, for two hours ; then increase the fire and boil it quickly 
 for fifteen minutes only ; salt the water at first. 
 
 BOILING ROCK FISH AND RIVER BASS.— Put into a kettle, with water 
 enough to cover, already salted ; set over a slow fire and not boil too fast, skimming 
 often ; when done, drain, and serve with hard-boiled eggs, cut in half, laid along the back 
 of the fish. 
 
 SEA BASS AND BLACK FISH — May be boiled in the same way. 
 
 SALT COD FISH. — Soak it in water and a half gill of vinegar over night ; put it 
 into cold water enough to cover ; heat gradually, not letting it boil too much ; skim well* 
 and drain the fish when done. 
 
 ROASTING. 
 
 Slow roasting is as important as slow boiling. Let the cook proportion her fire to 
 the work in hand, and see that it has the proper attention. The time that it will take 
 meats to roast will depend upon how long they have been kept and the temperature of 
 the season. No specific rule can be laid down in reference to time. Have a good drip- 
 ping pan ; be attentive to the appearance of your roast, and let it present an evenly 
 browned surface. 
 
 ROAST BEEF. — The sirloin and rib are the best pieces. Have the bone removed 
 and skewer the meat into a round. If roasted in an oven, dash a cup of hot water over 
 the beef when first put in. Baste often, first with salted water and afterwards with drip- 
 pings Allow fifteen minutes to each pound for rare roasts, and more if you wish it well 
 done. When nearly dry, roll with flour and baste once with butter. When ready, re- 
 move beef to a heated dish, skim the drippings, add teacup of boiling water, letting the 
 mixture boil up once, and send to table in gravy boat. Serve with mustard and scraped 
 horse radish. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 325 
 
 BEEF A LA MODE. — Take the bone out of a round, and beat the fresh meat 
 tender. Chop small onions and parsley, the marrow from the bone, and a quarter pound 
 of suet ; add two slices of stale bread grated ; season to taste ; mix well with the beaten 
 yolks of four eggs. Fill the cavity from which the bones were taken with this prepara- 
 tion, and rub it over the outside. Fasten the meat well together to make it compact- 
 Cover the bottom of a stew-pan with slices of ham, lay on your meat, and cover it with 
 more ham. Four onions, four carrots and four turnips, cut in thick slices, are placed 
 around it. Pour in half a pint of water, and cover tightly ; set it in the oven and bake 
 at least six hours. When thoroughly done, remove the beef and vegetables, arranging 
 them on a plate. Make a gravy by straining off the liquid and boiling it over the coals, 
 adding a little port wine. Send to the table. 
 
 A BREAST OF VEAL — Will require roasting three hours and a half. Cover the 
 veal with the caul, and skewer the sweet bread to the back ; take away the caul when it 
 is nearly roasted. 
 
 A FILLET OF VEAL.— The stuffing is made of butter, or suet chopped fine, 
 mixed with an equal quantity of bread crumbs, a tablespoonful of grated lemon peel, sum- 
 mer savory, and thyme, pepper and salt, and parsley ; mix these with the yolks of eggs 
 beaten ; with this fill the cavities from which the bones were removed, and into cuts 
 made for the purpose. Put salt and water into the dripping-pan, and with this baste the 
 meat. It requires three hours’ baking. Half an hour before it is roasted baste with 
 butter and sprinkle on flour. A shoulder of veal may be roasted the same way. 
 
 ROAST PORK. — Cut the skin into narrow strips, with salt, pepper and dry sage 
 rubbed. Stuff between the ribs with a dressing composed of bread crumbs, chopped 
 onion, pepper and salt, mixed with the beaten yolks of eggs. Baste with its own lard 
 while roasting. 
 
 SPARE RIB. — Cover with larded paper when first put into the oven. Remove 
 and dredge with flour ; baste once with butter, and then every little while with its own 
 lard. When ready to take up, cover the surface with bread crumbs seasoned with salt, 
 pepper and sage. Cook five minutes and baste again with butter. For a gravy, add half 
 a cup of hot water, thicken with brown flour, squeeze in lemon juice and pour it over the 
 meat. 
 
 ROAST HAM. — Soak the ham in tepid water over night. Set in the oven to roast 
 two hours. Remove it and take away the hide. Scrape all the fat out of your pan, and 
 return the ham to roast two hours more. Baste often. Put drippings in the saucepan, 
 stir tablespoonful of flour in a teacup of water and let it boil up. 
 
 ROAST TURKEY. — Wash the turkey well both inside and out, removing all the 
 pin feathers. Singe away the fine feathers. With a teaspoonful of salt, half as much 
 black pepper and a lump of butter in a bowl, with broken pieces of bread, pour water 
 over it to make a dough. Scald your bird in a pot, and then fill with the dressing, rub- 
 bing in salt and pepper ; sew up the cavities with a thread. Then grease well with lard 
 and put into the oven. Let it bake slowly, basting it with its own fat ; when it becomes 
 brown bake faster and turn it over. For a gravy, stir half a pint of water with two 
 tablespoonfuls of brown flour into the drippings, adding salt and pepper ; some hot 
 
326 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 oysters added to the dressing improve it. Chopped celery fine is much liked mixed with 
 it. Do not forget to remove the string. 
 
 ROAST CHICKEN. — The same as roast turkey, roasting one-half an hour. Stew 
 the inwards till tender ; chop them and mix into the gravy ; thicken with brown flour ; 
 season to taste. Cranberry or freshly made apple sauce is good. 
 
 ROAST DUCKS. — Have the inside as well as outside well cleaned. For stuffing, 
 green sage leaves very fine, twice as much onion, butter and seasoning to taste, mixed 
 with bread crumbs. Fill the cavities, leaving a little space for the stuffing to swell. Re- 
 serve the liver, gizzard and heart. Tie the bodies of the ducks with strings, and have a 
 brisk fire, basting often. Roast them an hour. Chop the boiled livers, gizzards, & c., and 
 put them into the drippings ; thicken with flour. Do not stuff canvas-backs, and roast 
 them half as long. Parboil other wild ducks, with a carrot, before roasting ; this will draw 
 all the fishy taste away. 
 
 ROAST GOOSE. — For stuffing use four onions minced fine, half the quantity of 
 green sage leaves, grated bread crumbs, piece of butter and the beaten yolks of two eggs. 
 Mix the whole, and fill the cavities, pressed in hard, but not full, as it will swell. Tie the 
 bird up well, and cover the breast with larded paper, to keep from scorching. The fire 
 must be brisk and well supplied. Two hours and a half is the time required. Baste it 
 well and often. Remove the paper when half done and sprinkle on a little flour. Apple 
 sauce should be served with goose. You can make a good gravy of the giblets, stirred in 
 a little water, thickened with butter and flour, seasoned to the taste. Before serving to 
 table remove all but heart and liver ; mincing them up, leave them in the gravy — or a 
 gravy may be made the same as for the turkey. 
 
 BROILING FRESH MACKEREL.— Wash the fish dry with a cloth ; split and 
 rub with salt. Heat the gridiron over live coals and lay on the mackerel, taking care not 
 to let it burn. Turn when one side is done. Put the fish on a hot dish ; butter and pep- 
 per before serving. 
 
 SALT MACKEREL. — Soak twelve hours in lukewarm water ; change to cold 
 water very early in the morning, and let the fish remain till ready to broil ; then proceed 
 as above. 
 
 BROILING A SHAD. — Prepare as above for fresh mackerel ; season with salt and 
 pepper ; broil on gridiron heated over red coals, and serve with melted butter. 
 
 BROILED CHICKEN. — Lay your prepared fowl in skim milk two hours, dust 
 them with flour and lay in cold water. Sprinkle pepper and salt and lay them opened on 
 the hot broiling iron, which must have been well greased. Brown neatly and serve with 
 melted butter. 
 
 BROILING BEEFSTEAKS. — Have a bed of living coals ; when the gridiron is 
 quite hot have it greased well with suet ; lay on the steak, turn often, for 1 5 minutes. 
 When done, season with pepper and salt and lay on a hot plate, basting well with fresh 
 butter. 
 
 BROILED SWEET BREADS. — Parboil, rub with butter and broil on a clean iron. 
 Turn often, and now and then roll them over in a plate of melted butter, to prevent them 
 from becoming hard and dry. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 827 
 
 FRYING FISH. — Clean, wash and dry the fish, roll slightly with cracker dust or 
 flour, with butter clarified drippings, or butter and lard ; fry to a delicate brown quickly, 
 over a good fire, and when just done remove it to a hot plate. 
 
 FRYING OYSTERS. — Put some boiling butter in your frying pan, and selecting 
 fine large oysters, put them in cold water, a few at a time ; take them out quickly roll 
 in stiff corn meal and fry them to a light brown. Serve hot. 
 
 OYSTER FRITTERS. — To a cupful of the liquor drawn from the oysters add the 
 same amount of milk, three eggs, a little salt and flour to make a batter. Chop the 
 oysters and stir them in. Heat the frying pan very hot, put in lard or half lard and half 
 butter, and drop in enough of the batter to make the fritter the size you wish. Take 
 quickly from the pan when a nice brown. Serve hot. 
 
 CLAM FRITTERS. — Twelve clams minced fine, one pint milk, three eggs ; add 
 the liquor from clams to the milk ; beat the eggs, with seasoning ; add the flour to make 
 a batter, and fry as above. 
 
 PLAIN FRIED CHICKEN. — Lay your chicken, cut in pieces, in salt and water, 
 dredge them with flour and fry in boiling lard till nicely browned. Cover the pan while 
 frying. 
 
 TO FRY BEEFSTEAK. — Steaks for frying need to be thinner than for broiling. 
 Beat them to make tender. Season before frying. Fry the steaks for fifteen minutes in 
 hot butter, or nice beef drippings. When browned cover with a large plate to retain the 
 flavor. You can use sliced onions with the steak. 
 
 VEAL CUTLETS. — Mix bread crumbs with the yolks of two eggs beaten. Put 
 the cutlet in the butter and press it down with a knife or cake turner, letting it dry on, 
 then fry in hot lard to a light brown. Thicken the gravy with butter and browned flour. 
 
 VEAL STEAK. — Put the steaks on a hot gridiron and broil them well, turning 
 when required. For seasoning, take finely chopped onions sprinkled with pepper and 
 salt and a little parsley, add butter, and put into sauce pan to stew until browned. 
 
 CALF’S LIVER. — Cut in thin slices. Season to taste. Sprinkle with flour and 
 fry brown in lard, or drippings, cook thoroughly, serve it in its own gravy. A piece of 
 ham or bacon adds to the flavor. A calf’s heart may be fried the same. 
 
 HAM WITH EGGS. — Cut the ham into thin slices, removing the rind. Have the 
 pan hot and fry till well done. Take out the ham and lay on a plate, then break the eggs 
 one by one into the fat, and when the white is done, remove them nicely onto the ham. 
 
 PLAIN OMELET. — Take six eggs, except the whites of two, beat very light and 
 strain, add salt and pepper to taste, divide two ounces of butter into little bits, and add it 
 to the egg. Have sufficient butter boiling in the pan when you put in the egg, fry slowly 
 till a light brown on under side ; you can then brown the top by holding a heated shovel 
 over it. When done double it in half, back upon itself. 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF SOUPS. — The quantity of water should be in propor- 
 tion to that of the meat, or other material used, and depends upon the degree of richness 
 you wish to attain. Fresh meats should always be used, sometimes adding the remains 
 of roast beef well done with new meat added. Cold ham may be used to advantage in 
 white soups. The soup made entirely from fresh meat is generally better the second day 
 
328 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 than the first, reboiling with no water added. If it is absolutely necessary to add water 
 when the soup is boiling, let it be very hot water, for if lukewarm or cold it will spoil it 
 Skim off all the fatty matter that rises. Lean meats are best for soups. Boil slowly and 
 for a long time. Remove all shreds of cartiledge and bone. Season slightly with pepper 
 and salt. 
 
 BEAN SOUP. — One quart of dry, white beans soaked over night put on the fire as 
 early as possible the next day, two and a half pounds of lean fresh beef cut up and all 
 bones broken, with one-half pound of bacon. Season with pepper and pour on three 
 quarts of water. When boiled skim off the grease and put on the beans, first draining 
 them, a half tablespoonful of powdered celery seed, or half a head of fresh celery. Boil 
 slowly and then strain through colander. Use toasted bread in serving up. 
 
 PEA SOUP. — One pint of green peas in one and a half pints of water, boil two 
 hours, strain, return to the pot with a piece of nice pork or bacon, with a part of an onion 
 chopped fine, salt, pepper and little thyme, thicken with butter and flour, mixed with a 
 little of the liquor from the pot. Toasted bread buttered is served up with the soup. 
 
 TOMATO SOUP. — One pound veal or lamb, nearly two quarts of water, one quart 
 tomatoes, one quart potatoes cut fine. Boil the meat fine and the water away to one 
 quart, strain, then put in the tomatoes, stirring all the time, and boil half an hour. 
 Season with salt pepper and any green herb you prefer. Strain again and stir in butter 
 and teaspoonful of sugar. This is better if made of the chicken broth left over from the 
 day before, or chicken instead of the other meat. 
 
 CORN SOUP. — One-half a fowl cut in four pieces, six ears of green corn ; boil 
 chicken in half a gallon of water until tender, then put in the corn cut from the cob and 
 remove the chicken with some of the liquor. Season the soup with salt, pepper and 
 parsley, use rice or wheat flour for thickening and serve without straining. Take the 
 chicken which you have already put on a dish. Beat up an egg in a spoonful of flour, 
 add to the liquor which you reserved from which the corn is strained ; boil a moment 
 with chopped parsley, salt and pepper, and while scalding hot pour onto the chicken, 
 garnish with circular slices of hard boiled eggs and curled parsley, and you have a nice 
 dish of fricasseed chicken. 
 
 VEGETABLE SOUP. — Pare and slice finely six common sized onions, two large 
 yellow turnips, one head of celery and the red part of two carrots. Put into a stew-pan 
 with water and one ounce butter and cover closely. When cooked add well seasoned 
 soup from beef, boil four hours, skim and strain before serving. 
 
 BEEF SOUP. — One pound of beef cut fine, one turnip, one carrot, one onion, and a 
 half head celery, all chopped small, two quarts of water with one tablespoonful bread 
 raspings sifted. Boil all in a covered stew-pan four hours, season with salt and pepper 
 and it is ready to serve. Mutton or veal soup can be made in the same way. 
 
 NOODLE SOUP. — Noodles are composed of a mixture of flour and egg beaten to- 
 gether and made into a thick paste. Take from the neck of mutton one pound, put into 
 sauce pan with one quart water ; when boiled skim well, slacken the fire and let it sim- 
 mer one hour ; put in more mutton and cover with water, salting ; let it boil four hours. 
 Turnips, carrots and onions chopped fine may be added an hour and a half before serving. 
 Noodles are put in just before serving, for if boiled too long they will go to pieces. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 829 
 
 OX TAIL SOUP. — One ox tail, one whole onion, one carrot, half a turnip, one 
 tablespoonful of flour and a little pepper, two quarts of water, boil all together two hours. 
 Remove the ox tail and return the bones to the pot, then boil another hour, strain, rinse 
 a spoonful of arrowroot, add the meat cut from the bones and boil fifteen minutes. 
 
 OYSTER SOUP. — One quart beef or mutton broth, three dozen oysters, one ounce 
 butter and a little flour. Scald the oysters in their own liquor, then add it to the broth ; 
 thicken with flour and butter ; simmer for 15 minutes. Put in the oysters, stirring well ; 
 do not let it boil. Serve hot. 
 
 VERMICELLI SOUP. — Make two quarts of good stock, the day before required ; 
 boil in carrot, turnip, onions, parsley, mace, salt and pepper ; strain and skim. Take the 
 crumbs of French rolls, boil and stir in the mashed rolls for fifteen minutes ; add yolks 
 of two eggs, beaten with cream. Boil the vermicelli fifteen or twenty minutes by itself; 
 put it into the dish and pour your soup on to it. 
 
 BAKING BREAD. — In the mechanical operation of bread making there ought not 
 to be the slightest trouble. If the close attention and insight into chemical effect are 
 taken, any housekeeper can surpass her most sanguinary expectations. Most ovens in an 
 ordinary family will bake a good-sized loaf of bread perfectly, if managed correctly, and 
 home-made bread is more nutritious, healthy and cleanly than baker’s bread. House- 
 keepers need not be told that the best is the cheapest in the end, and the bread made un- 
 der the supervision of the prudent housewife is always the best. 
 
 TO MAKE TWO LOAVES. — A teacupful of baker’s yeast — if home-made 
 three tablespoonfuls is sufficient — a quart of warm water, stir in flour enough to make a 
 soft batter. Do this the last thing at night, placing in a warm spot. In the morning 
 pour your batter into your bread-bowl, into which you have sifted fine flour ; add a tea- 
 spoonful of salt. If the yeast seems sour add a little soda ; do not add any flour. About 
 noon it should be ready to make two loaves. Put it into pans well oiled, leave it to rise, 
 and bake when light in a hot oven. You can make Graham bread in the same way, by 
 using Graham flour in the morning instead of wheat. 
 
 PLAIN BREAD SPONGE. — One pint water, three tablespoonfuls baker’s yeast, 
 one of lard and one of white sugar, half a tablespoonful of soda, flour enough to make a 
 soft batter ; melt the lard in warm water, add the sugar and then the flour, stirring in 
 evenly ; next the yeast then the soda. Beat up hard for several minutes and set away 
 to rise. Bread mixed with potato sponge is the best, keeps longest and is sweeter. 
 
 PLAIN WHITE BREAD. — Set one pint of flour and half the quantity of good 
 hop yeast, stirred together, to rise at 5 o’clock in the afternoon. At 9 o’clock put two 
 quarts of flour in bread-bowl, put the sponge into the center of the flour, with a little 
 lard about the size of a walnut ; knead it up with tepid water, made salt to taste ; work 
 well and set it away to rise. In the morning knead it over with flour, make into two 
 loaves and set it in a warm place till ready ; then bake, and when done wrap it in a 
 coarse cloth. If there is no sugar in yeast, then you stir in a large teaspoonful when 
 you put in the flour. 
 
 BOSTON BROWN BREAD. — Half pint rye meal not sifted, twice as much Indian 
 meal sifted, sour milk one pint, molasses to sweeten, one teaspoonful salt, one of soda. 
 
330 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 dissolved in hot water, stir thoroughly, put in an oiled pan, let it rise an hour, and steam 
 it four hours. 
 
 RISEN BISCUIT. — Milk one quart, lard or buttercup and three-fourths full, same 
 amount of yeast, two tablespoonfuls of white sugar, a little salt, flour to make soft dough. 
 Mix at night. The milk should be warmed slightly and the lard or butter melted. In 
 the morning knead and roll into sheets less than an inch thick. Cut round and set them 
 closely in the pan, letting them rise 20 minoces ; then bake in the same time. If you 
 wish them for tea use half the amount of flour at night, making a thin sponge, and in 
 five hours work in more flour, letting it rise five hours longer, and proceed as directed 
 above. 
 
 JOHNNY CAKE. — Sweet milk and buttermilk one cupful each, one tablespoonful 
 melted butter, enough meal to roll it into a sheet one inch and a half thick. Put in a 
 greased tin or shallow pan and bake 40 minutes. Baste it with melted butter when it 
 begins to brown, repeating four or five times till done. Break it up, not cut it. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT CAKES. — One quart buckwheat and one teacup wheat flour sifted 
 together, one pint good yeast and a little salt, made into a batter, with lukewarm water 
 at night and left in a warm place to rise. If a little sour in the morning put in soda, 
 otherwise not. Use a hot, large griddle and cook fast. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT IN HASTE. — One quart buckwheat, one teacup flour, a large 
 spoonful yeast powder, sifted together and made into a batter, with water and milk in 
 equal parts. Add suet and bake as above. 
 
 RICE CAKES. — One part flour, two parts boiled rice, one egg, one teaspoonful 
 soda, two of cream tartar or three of baking powder, sweet milk to make a batter. 
 
 HOMINY CAKES. — Cook one pint of hominy soft, mix with equal amount ot 
 flour, salt and a little milk, with or without eggs. Fry on a griddle, like buckwheat. 
 
 WAFFLES. — One quart warm milk, two eggs beaten, a small piece of butter, a cup 
 of yeast ; mix with flour a little thicker than for griddle cakes. Let it rise five hours. 
 Bake in waffle irons well greased. 
 
 GEMS. — Three eggs, three teaspoons sugar, one cup half full sweet milk, butter size 
 of a walnut, flour to make a nice thick batter. Have your gem pans burning hot, and 
 bake in very hot oven. 
 
 MUFFINS. — Flour three pints, half a teaspoonful salt, mix with lukewarm water 
 quite stiff ; half pint yeast ; let it rise over night and bake in small pans. Or eight 
 spoonfuls flour, four of meal, one of lard, with four eggs, and milk to make stiff batter. 
 Bake as above. 
 
 BAKING CAKE. — In making cake it is necessary to be accurate in the measuriug 
 of ingredients ; therefore have the kitchen supplied with a quart, pint and gill tin mea- 
 sures. A large sieve for flour, a small one for sugars and spices, &c., &c. Egg and but- 
 ter should not be beaten in tin. The pans for large cakes should have perpendicular 
 sides. All pans for baking should be well greased with fresh butter before using. Fill 
 not more than half full. Use the best flour and butter. Weigh or measure all ingredi- 
 ents. Sift the flour, powder the sugar and prepare the fruit. Then mix and stir the but- 
 ter and sugar and lastly beat the eggs. Stir the mixture very hard at the last, and unless 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 331 
 
 there is yeast in it the sooner it gets into the oven the better. Admit no more cold air 
 than is possible when looking into the oven, and keep a uniform heat. The best guide 
 is practice and experience, for no infallible rule can be given as to length of time in 
 baking. 
 
 WHITE MOUNTAIN CAKE. — One cup of sugar, one of flour, one-half cup each 
 of butter, sweet milk and corn starch Whites of six eggs, a little vanilla, two tea- 
 spoonfulls of baking powder. Frosting — whites from five eggs, twenty tablespoonfuls of 
 sugar, beaten very light, a little vanilla. 
 
 CREAM CAKE. — Three cups flour, two of sugar, two-thirds cup of butter, four 
 eggs, one-half cup of milk, one-half teaspoonful soda and one teaspoonful cream tartar. 
 Bake in thin layers, and when done spread the following mixture between them, viz. : — • 
 One-half pint milk, two tablespoonfuls corn starch, one-half cupful of sugar, one teaspoon- 
 ful vanilla. Start milk to boiling, and stir in the corn starch already wet with cold milk ; 
 mix a little gradually with the beaten egg and sugar, return it to the custard and stir 
 ;onstantly until quite thick. Cool before seasoning. Use vanilla for the icing. 
 
 LEMON CAKE. — Two cups flour, one and a half cups of sugar, half cup butter, 
 the same of milk, two eggs, juice and grate the rind of one lemon, soda half teaspoonfuP. 
 Bake in small square tins and frost top and sides. 
 
 CHOCOLATE CAKE. — One pound flour, half pound butter, three-fourths pound 
 sugar, five eggs, half pint of milk, two teaspoonfuls of vanilla. Beat sugar and butter to 
 a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs beaten separate, then the whites, then milk, and 
 lastly the flour, with the baking powder sifted in. Bake with moderate fire in flat pan. 
 Frosting — half pound sugar, six teaspoons chocolate sifted fine, the whites of two eggs 
 beaten to a froth. Cool the cake half an hour and spread the frosting, then return to 
 the oven to harden, leaving the door open. 
 
 JELLY CAKE. — One-half cup butter, two cups sugar, one of sweet milk, three 
 and half of flour, three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, four eggs. Flavor to taste. Bake 
 in shallow tins, and when cold spread the jelly between the layers. 
 
 CUP CAKE. — Three cups flour, two of sugar, one of butter, one of sweet milk, 
 four eggs, one teaspoonful of soda. Bake in a loaf or as jelly cake. 
 
 COCOANUT CAKE. — Four cups flour, three of white sugar, one of milk, half a 
 cup of butter, three eggs. Mix thoroughly and add one cup of cocoanut. 
 
 ORANGE CAKE. — Three cups flour, two of sugar, one of butter and one of sweet 
 milk, five eggs, omitting the yolks of three, baking powder three teaspoonfuls, two 
 oranges, grating the peel and taking the juice of one. Bake in four layers. Filling, fif- 
 teen table spoonfuls of sugar, whites of three eggs, juice of one orange. Beat together 
 and spread between layers and one outside. Pare and pull to pieces three oranges and 
 lay on top. 
 
 MARBLE CAKE — For the light batter. Two cups flour, one of white sugar, one 
 half cup of butter, the same of milk, whites of three eggs, one teaspoonful of cream tar- 
 tar, one-half the amount of soda. For the dark batter, two cups flour, one-half cupful 
 truwn sugar, the same amount of molasses, half the amount of butter and of milk, half 
 A nutmeg, one teaspoonful cinnamon, half as much allspice, and of soda, one teaspoonful 
 
332 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 cream tartar. Yolks of the three eggs. Butter your mould an& m the Matter in 
 alternate tablespoonfuls. 
 
 SPONGE CAKE. — Beat ten eggs separately, put in an equal weight of sugar, and 
 seven times as much flour ; oeat sugar and yolks together, then add the whites and 
 sprinkle in the flour slowly. 
 
 POUND CAKE. — One and a half cups flour, one of butter, one> and a half of sugar, 
 ten eggs, one-half teaspoonful of baking powder. Beat butter and flour to a cream, beat 
 eggs and sugar lightly, put all together and add baking powder. 
 
 WASHINGTON CAKE. — Four cups flour, three of sugar, two of butter, one of 
 milk, five eggs, three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one pound raisins, one-half pound 
 citron, one teaspoonful ground cinnamon and one nutmeg. 
 
 FRUIT CAKE. — One pound flour, one of powdered sugar, three quarters pound 
 butter, half-pound currants well prepared, half pound of raisins seeded and chopped, 
 quarter pound citron cut in slices, seven eggs, one teaspoonful nutmeg and one of cinna- 
 mon, cream the butter and sugar. Add brandy if you wish. Add the beaten yolks, then 
 spice and whipped whites alternately with the flour, fruit last. 
 
 NUT CAKE. — Three cups of flour, two of sugar, one of butter and one of cold 
 water, one teaspoonful of soda, two of cream tartar, kernels of the nuts carefully picked 
 over, to be added last, two cupsful. 
 
 GOLD CAKE. — Beat to a cream a cup of sugar and half as much butter. Beat 
 very light, the whites of two eggs and yolks of four, half a cupful of milk, two and a half 
 of flour with two teaspoonfuls of baking powder sifted in flour, with lemon. 
 
 HUCKLEBERRY CAKE. — Three cups of flour, two of sugar, one of butter, one 
 of milk, five eggs, two teaspoonfuls of baking powder, one small lemon, brandy if you 
 wish (to be foolish), a quart of huckleberries, dredged with flour and added last. 
 
 SILVER CAKE. — Two and a half cups of flour, with two teaspoonfuls baking 
 powder sifted in, a cupful of sugar beaten with half as much butter, the whites of four 
 eggs beaten well, half a cupful of milk. Flavor to taste. 
 
 SPICE CAKE. — Three and a half cups flour, two of brown sugar, one of butter, one 
 of cold water, one large cup raisins and currants, two teaspoonfuls of baking powder, two 
 of cinnamon, one-half teaspoonful of cloves, the same of nutmeg and three eggs. 
 
 COOKIES. — One cup butter, one of sugar, one egg, teaspoonful of vanilla, half as 
 much soda dissolved in water, flour enough to roll very soft ; cut in shape and bake with 
 quick fire. 
 
 COFFEE CAKE. — Four cups flour, one each of brown sugar, molasses, butter and 
 strained coffee, one pound each of raisins and currants, one tablespoonful each of cloves 
 and cinnamon, two nutmegs and two teaspoonfuls baking powder. 
 
 GINGER COOKIES. — One cup of molasses, one half as much each of butter and 
 boiling water, one teaspoonful each of soda and ginger, a little salt and flour to roll out. 
 
 MOLASSES COOKIES. — One cup butter and one of brown sugar stirred together 
 one cup New Orleans molasses, three eggs, three teaspoonfuls soda, two of ginger ; mix 
 ail with flour enough to make a soft dough. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 338 
 
 BREAD CAKE. — Sugar, two teacups, one of both, mix with two large cups of bread 
 dough, season with essence lemon, two teaspoonfuls common allspice and cloves each 
 one spoonful, a nutmeg, and a large cup of raisins put in last. 
 
 SOFT GINGER BREAD. — Mix together four cups flour, one of sour milk, two of 
 molasses, one of sugar, ginger, cloves, salaratus, one teaspoonful each, four eggs. 
 
 CRULLERS. — Mix into a soft mess, flour, one cup sugar, one of sour cream, one 
 egg, a little soda and salt ; have the lard boiling hot while frying. 
 
 BAKING PIES.- — Sifting one pound of flour pastry, put in a third of the shorten- 
 ing, half lard and butter, salt and mix with cold water. When you have rolled the paste 
 then you will rub on as much of the shortening as you can and kneading it roll out 
 again, when the butter and lard have all been worked in, in this way roll out for use. 
 
 MINCE PIE. — Prepare three pounds of raisins by seeding and chopping them and 
 two pounds of currants by washing, picking over and drying them ; four pounds of meat, 
 that is one part meat to two parts apple, three quarts of cider; brandy if you wish one 
 pint. 
 
 MOCK MINCE PIE. — For sweetening use one cup of molasses and one of brown 
 sugar. For fruit, one cup each of raisens and currants. For seasoning, one tablespoon- 
 full of allspice and cinnamon mixed one teaspoonful each nutmegs, cloves, salt and pepper ; 
 add one and a half cups of melted butter, one of sour cider, two of cold water, two eggs 
 beaten light and half a dozen soda crackers pulverized, and you have a good substitute 
 for mince pies ; use brandy if you wish. 
 
 APPLE PIES. — Prepare by peeling and slicing good tart winter apples, cover your 
 plate with a good crust, put on to it a layer of fruit and one of light brown sugar with five 
 or six cloves, lay on more sliced apple and so on until filled ; put on the top crust and 
 bake. The apples may be cooked and when hot add a little butter and season it with 
 nutmeg, then fill into the crust already baked on the plate. 
 
 PUMPKIN PIE. — Stew and strain one quart of pumpkin, add one of milk, one cup 
 sugar, seven eggs beaten very light, and flavor to taste. 
 
 SQUASH PIE. — The same as above, using squash instead of pumpkin. 
 
 LEMON PIE. — For each pie take one apple, chop fine, one egg, one lemon, chop 
 inside fine and grate the rind, one cup of sugar, and a piece of butter the size of a 
 walnut. 
 
 PEACH PIE. — Prepare the peaches by peeling, stoning and slicing with a good 
 crust on the plate, cover with a layer of sugar, sprinkling in sugar, chop three kernals 
 from the pits and put in each pie ; put in water and cover with a crust or crossbars over 
 the top. 
 
 CHERRY PIE. — U$e ripe cherries and sweeten to taste, cover with crust, eat 
 
 cold. 
 
 CUSTARD PIE. — Milk one quart, four eggs, four tablespoonfuls of white sugar, 
 the yolks and sugar should be beaten light and mixed with the milk, the whites whipped 
 in and all stirred well together, then pour into the crust made in a shell and grate nut- 
 meg on top ; this can be used in pies or in cup custard. 
 
334 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 COCOANUT PIES. — Rub one-half pound of butter and of sugar together and beat 
 light with two teaspoonfuls of lemon juice, stir in the beaten yolks of four eggs, then one 
 pound of grated cocoanut beaten with the whites of the four eggs, add two teaspoonfuls 
 of vanilla and one glass of brandy if you wish ; bake in open crust and cut when cold. 
 
 LEMON PIE.— Three-fourths cup white sugar and grate spoonful of butter beaten 
 into a cream, stir in three beaten yolks of eggs, add the lemon juice and grated peel of 
 almond beaten with the whites, adding a little rose-water and three tablespoonfuls of sugai 
 for a meringue, to cover the pie when done ; this for one good sized pie. 
 
 BLACKBERRY, RASPBERRY AND PLUM PIES.— Are each made like the 
 cherry pie, 
 
 RHUBARB PIE. — Prepare the pie plant by removing the skin and cutting in 
 pieces half an inch in length, sweeten lavishly with sugar and fill the crusts with the raw 
 material, a few seedless raisins scattered over the top will improve the pie, cover with 
 crust and bake. 
 
 PUDDINGS. 
 
 . SWEET APPLE PUDDING.^-Beat the yolks of four eggs very light, put in one 
 quart of milk, some nutmeg and cinnamon, and stir in flour for a stiff batter for five min- 
 utes; three cups of chopped apples with the juice of a lemon, and half its rind are then 
 beaten in, the whites of the four eggs and lastly a little soda dissolved in vinegar. This 
 is to be baked in two shallow tins for an hour and eaten hot. Care must be taken in mix- 
 ing the ingredients. 
 
 TAPIOCA PUDDING. — Put one cup of tapioca into enough water to cover it, and 
 let it stand two hours, drain off the water, then put the tapioca in one quart of milk for 
 two hours. When it has become soft, beat two tablespoonfuls of sugar and the same of 
 butter together, add the beaten yolks of five eggs, the milk and tapioca, and lastly the 
 whites. Stir thoroughly, and bake in a well buttered dish. It is to be eaten warm. 
 
 The same for Sago Pudding. 
 
 APPLE AND TAPIOCA PUDDING. — Pare and core six apples, and pack them 
 in a single layer in a deep dish, steam them in a little water, covering the dish over, and 
 when soft pour on a mixture of tapioca prepared as above. A clove in each apple adds 
 to the flavor. 
 
 CRACKER PUDDING. — Heat one quart of milk slightly, and pouring in one cup 
 of powdered cracker, let it stand for fifteen minutes. Stir into this the beaten yolks of 
 five eggs, then add two t^blespoonfuls of melted butter and one-half teaspoonful of soda. 
 Mix these thoroughly, and add the beaten whites of the five eggs. This is to be eaten 
 hot. 
 
 THE QUEEN OF PUDDINGS. — Have bread crumbs soaked over night in milk. 
 Rub together one tablespoonful of butter and one cup of white sugar, till they are like 
 cream, the yolks of five eggs beaten light. Mix with bread crumbs and one quart rich 
 fresh milk, one-half cup of jelly, then season with vanilla, rosewater or lemon. Bake in 
 a buttered dish until the custard has “ set.” Cover this with the whipped whites of the 
 five eggs and half' a cup of white sugar, and return to the oven until the surface is a deli* 
 cate brown. 
 
THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 385 
 
 COTTAGE PUDDING. — Take two cups flour, one of sugar, one of milk, two eggs, 
 two spoonfuls baking powder, two of melted butter. Mix thoroughly and bake an hour. 
 Eat this pudding with sweet sauce. 
 
 APPLE DUMPLINGS. — Mix one quart of flour, one-fourth pound of suet, one tea- 
 spoonful of salt, one half teaspoonful of soda, one teaspoonful cream tartar sifted into the 
 flour, with cold water enough to make it thick. Knead it well, and roll out, cutting into 
 squares. In the center of each put a nice apple, pared and cored, filling the hole in the 
 apple with sugar moistened with lemonade and a clove. Cover over with the paste, and 
 tie each dumpling in a cloth, after you have wet it with hot water and sprinkled it with 
 flour. Boil an hour, and serve hot, with sweet sauce. 
 
 SUET DUMPLINGS. — Let fine bread crumbs be soaked in a very little milk— two 
 cups full of crumbs will do. Take one cup of beef suet, clean and fine, beat the yolks 
 and whites of four eggs separately ; sift one tablespoonful of sugar and one teaspoonful 
 of cream tartar into the flour, dissolve half a teaspoonful cf soda in hot water, salt and 
 mix with milk to a thick paste. Cover the hands with flour, and make into balls ; put 
 into dumpling cloths which have been dipped into hot water and sprinkled with flour. 
 Boil 45 minutes, and serve hot. ( 
 
 FRUIT SUET DUMPLINGS.— Add to the ingredients as given above one-half 
 pound of raisins, seeded and chopped fine, and one-fourth pound currants, washed and 
 dried, dredging them with flour. Boil i hour and 15 minutes. 
 
 ORANGE ROLLY-POLY.— Prepare your paste as if for apple dumplings, and roll 
 into an oblong sheet. Put sweet oranges, seeded, pared and sliced thickly over it. Scatter 
 white sugar and a little of the grated yellow peel over it, fold over and roll down the 
 edges to secure the juice. Boil in a cloth for an hour and a half. Eat with lemon sauce. 
 
 SAUCES FOR PUDDINGS 
 
 HARD SAUCE. — A fourth of a pound of butter, beaten to a cream, adding grad- 
 ually, while beating, the same amount of sugar. Heat until white, and flavor with lemon 
 or nutmeg. 
 
 PUDDING SAUCE.— The yolks of two eggs beaten very light, mix with one cup 
 of sugar thoroughly, add the beaten whites, with flavor to taste. Serve quickly. 
 
 LEMON SAUCE. — Grate the rind of one lemon, and take the juice, mix with one 
 cup sugar and half the amount of butter and a little boiling water. Thicken in a dish 
 over boiling water. 
 
 A PLAIN SAUCE. — Mix with cold water one tablespoonful of flour, a cup of sugar 
 and a little salt. Pour on a half pint of boiling water, and let it boil up a few minutes. 
 Just before taking it off, put in two tablespoonfuls of butter. Grate nutmeg over it, or 
 flavor to taste. 
 
 CUSTARD, BOILED. — Mix eight eggs, omitting the whites of four, beating light 
 with a quart of milk and four ounces of sugar, pouring in while stirring. Put the yellow 
 peel of a lemon and a handful of cinnamon with this compound into a pan, and simmer 
 slowly over hot coals, stirring it all the while. Take it off the stove the instant it comes 
 
33G 
 
 THE ART OF COOKERY. 
 
 to a boil. Strain it, and add a tablespoonful of rose water. Put a macaroon in each cup, 
 and pour in the custard, grating nutmeg over the top. 
 
 FLOATING ISLAND. — Into a pint of rich cream, sweetened with loaf sugaf stir 
 sufficient currant jelly to give it a rich pink. Place this in a glass dish. In the center 
 put slices of lady cake, or any delicate cake, each piece covered with marmalade or rasp- 
 berry jam, and laid evenly on each other. Flavor another pint of cream with the juice of 
 two lemons, and beat to a stiff foam. Pour this over the mass of cake. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE I0E CREAM. 
 
 LEMON. — Into a pound of nice cream stir a pound of the best powdered loaf 
 sugar, the grated rind of four lemons and the juice of the same. The first is best, but 
 if not to be obtained use essence or oil of lemon instead. Beat the mass already made 
 into a quart and a half of cream, gradually, till it is hard. Cover and set it away for 
 half an hour. Then if flavored and sweetened to taste strain into the freezer ; if not, 
 add more lemon and sugar. It is then ready for freezing. When cream is not plenty, 
 use good milk and powdered arrowroot. Orange may be substituted for lemon. 
 
 CHOCOLATE. — Heat one part of milk almost to boiling point ; beat together two 
 Cggs , one pound of sugar and five tablespoonfuls of powdered chocolate, and pour the ( 
 Scalding milk onto the mass. When cool add one quart of cream, and flavor to taste. 
 It is then ready for the freezing. 
 
 VANILLA.-— In half a pint of milk boil slowly a vanilla bean till the flavor has 
 been extracted. A pound of powdered loaf sugar is then mixed into the milk, and all is 
 stirred hard in a quart of rich cream. It is then ready for freezing, and should be frozen 
 twice. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. — A quart of fresh strawberries should be mashed and the juices 
 Strained through a muslin cloth. Beat this into a quart of cream and freeze very quickly. 
 
 LEMON ICE. — Press the juice from three lemons and one sweet orange, for an 
 hour. Strain through a cloth, wringing it dry. Mix in one pint of sugar and one pint of 
 water. Stir until all is dissolved, and freeze by serving it as for ice cream in a freezer. 
 Open three times to beat all up together. 
 
 ORANGE ICE. — Press the juice out oi a dozen juicy oranges and two lemons ; the 
 grated rind of two oranges in boiling water, a pound and a half of sugar and a quart of 
 water, well stirred together. Strain, and when half frozen add the beaten whites of 
 three eggs. 
 
 PINE-APPLE ICE. — Peel and cut fine one ; uicy pine-apple, the grated peel of a 
 lemon, one pint of sugar, and water to dissolve. Cover the pine-apple with the sugar, 
 mash together and strain ; then it is ready for freezing. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS IN THE ART OF FOLDING TABLE NAPKINS, 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN THE ART OF FOLDING TABLE NAPKINS.— 
 The folding of the dinner napkins, their fair purity and the pretty forms in 
 which they are folded adds much to the 
 effective appearance of the dining table. 
 
 ‘The popularity of the mitre-form has made it 
 
 almost conventional, but there are a variety Cut i. Cut 2. 
 
 of ways which may be practised at leisure, and which our diagrams will easily explain. 
 Thirty inches long by twenty-eight in breadth is a large size for dinner-napkins. To ac- 
 complish the Mitre (Cut i), fold the napkin lengthways into three parts, turn down the 
 right-hand corner, and turn up the left-hand one, as in Cut 2, a and b Turn back the 
 
 point A to the right, so that it shall lie behind, c 
 and B to the left, so as to lie behind d. Double 
 the napkin back at the line e, and turn up from f 
 Cut 3. Cut 4. before, and g from behind, when they will ap- 
 
 pear as in cut 3. Arrange the corner H towards the right, and tuck it behind 1, and bend 
 back the corner k towards the left at the dotted line, and tuck it into a corresponding 
 part in the back. The bread is placed either under the mitre or in the center at the top. 
 The Exquisite (cut 4): Fold the napkin into three 
 parts, as before described, then fold down two- 
 fifths of the length from each side, as in cut 5 at a, 
 roll up the part b towards the back, repeat on the 
 other side, then turn up the corner towards the 
 corner a, and it will appear as d. The center 
 part e, is now turned up at the bottom, and down £ UT ^ 
 
 at the top, and the two rolls adjusted under the center part as in cut 4. The bread is 
 placed under the center, k. The Collegian (cut 6) is another pretty form ; fold the nap- 
 kin, as before, into three parts lengthways, and turn down the sides towards you, 
 JL as the ^ appear * n cut 7 ’ next > ro ^ U P P ort i° n A under-^ 
 f I > / \1 A neath, until it looks like b (cut 8). Then take the cornel' 
 
 b and roll it up in the same way towards c, so that the edge 
 of the rolled part shall be equal with the center line. Re- 
 peat the same on either side and turn the whole over, when 
 Cut 7. Cut 8. it will appear as in cut 6. The bread is placed under k. 
 
 These three forms are amongst the prettiest modes of folding finger-napkins. We refer 
 the reader to “ Table Ornaments and Arrangement,” on page 68 of this work, (Guide to 
 Polite Society.) 
 
 Cut 6. 
 
CANNING FRUITS. 
 
 PEACHES. — Cut the fruit in halves, being careful not to break it; take out the 
 pits, put each half in cold water as prepared. Put a heaping tablespoonful of sugar to 
 each quart, scattering between the layers. When your kettle is full heat it to a boil, and 
 let it boil three minutes ; can and seal. Large white free-stone peaches of firm texture 
 are the best. 
 
 PLUMS. — For a syrup take a gill of pure water, a pound of sugar to every quart 
 of the fruit. When well dissolved add the plums, taking the precaution to prick each 
 one to prevent bursting. Heat the plums slowly and boil five minutes slowly. Put 
 the plums into ajar, and pour the liquid on while hot. Seal up. 
 
 PEARS. — For a syrup use a pint of water and a quarter pound of sugar to each 
 quart of fruit. Peel the fruit and drop into cold water. When the syrup is boiling rap- 
 idly put in the pears, taking care not to bruise them, and boil until they are tender. 
 Pack the pears into cans heated with water, and fill to overflowing with the syrup still 
 left. Apples may be treated the same way. 
 
 PINE APPLE. — Take the same weight of sugar and of the chopped fruit freed 
 from rind, mix together and let it remain in a stone jar 24 hours ; then fill the cans full 
 and seal tightly. In two weeks examine for any signs of fermentation. If there is, un- 
 seal and warm the fruit over again, canning as before. 
 
 CANNED CORN. — When your corn is in nice condition for roasting boil it on the 
 cob for twenty minutes over a brisk fire, and cut off while hot. Prepare as for the table 
 and bring to a hard boil. Then can as quickly as possible, and when cold set in a safe 
 place. 
 
 GLASS CANS — May be prepared to receive hot truits, &c., without breaking by 
 standing them in cold water put in a large boiler, so they will not touch the bottom, and 
 gradually bring it to a boil, and when filled allowing no cold air to reach them. 
 
 THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY 
 
 WITH THIRTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 ARVING is an art that requires manual dexterity, rather than strength. 
 Occasionally some little strength is required, but in general, address will 
 accomplish what physical force never could effect. A good carver is sure 
 to be a general favorite, though he is sometimes to be greatly feared. 
 Knowing, as he necessarily must, the anatomy of every animal, and where 
 to find the most delicious tidbits, he is equally skilled in finding out the most unsavory 
 enorsels, and if he chance to owe a grudge to any of the assembled guests, what an op- 
 portunity has he for revenge! 
 
THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. 
 
 339 
 
 FISH. 
 
 SALMON. — Here is a piece cut out of the middle of a large fish, which is reck- 
 oned tne choicest. In order to avoid breaking the grain, it must be cut lengthways. 
 The fish-slice must be put in requisition — from 
 the thick and lean parts, from a to B; for the thin 
 and fat parts, from c to D. The skin must be 
 cut through in both cases, and left adhering to 
 the pieces when transferred to the plate. A 
 slice of each should be given, unless a wish be 
 expressed to the contrary, as the parts differ in flavor. 
 
 When a salmon is served whole, cut the thickest parts for the lean, and the thinnest 
 for the fat, always taking care to “ work ” towards the head, the tail being less savory. 
 When the fish is very thick, the fish-slice should not be suffered to penetrate to the bone, 
 as, from the richness of the salmon, the flesh near the bone is generally discolored. 
 
 TURBOT. — This should be in good hands, and delicately dealt with ; carry the 
 edge of the knife or slice down to the bone, from a to B along the middle, then make 
 
 deep and clean cuts each way to the fins. Help 
 the underside, which is the most prized, as far 
 as it will go, taking care (unless you would make 
 enemies) to divide and send a portion of the fins, 
 which are considered a delicacy, with each 
 square of fish. Should more than the underside 
 be required, lift up the backbone with a fork, 
 and separate a portion of the upperside ; many 
 persons prefer it, and though not so delicate as the underpart, it is more solid. Brill, 
 Dory and Plaice are served in a similar manner to Turbot. Soles are divided in 
 half unless they are filleted. Whiting and Flounders are served whole. 
 
 COD’S HEAD AND SHOULDERS. — The best parts of this fish are found 
 about the backbone and shoulders. A dainty morsel, called the cheek, lies behind the 
 eye ; the gelatinous parts are about the jawbones 
 and the tongue, palate and sound are considered 
 delicacies. Cut with the fish-slice, before help- 
 ing from A to c, then cut slices from A to B, and 
 from c to D ; give with each plate a portion of 
 the sound, which lines the backbone, and may 
 be easily got at with the aid of a tablespoon in- 
 troduced into the under part of the fish, between B and D. 
 
 MACKEREL.— Introduce the fish-slice at A, and carry it down in a straight line 
 
 as far as B, towards the end of the tail. In help- 
 ing never venture nearer the head of the fish 
 than A, all beyond being discolored and of an ill- 
 flavor. The fhickest part, next the head, is the 
 choicest, and when half a side is served, always 
 give the thick in preference to the thin. The 
 roe may be found at the lower part of the belly, between A and B. 
 
340 
 
 THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 FOWL (ROASTED.) — Hold the fowl down firmly with your fork in the centre 
 of the breast. Then insert the knife at A, and draw it lightly as far as c, just to outline 
 what you intend doing. Take the wing off in the direction of a to B, dividing the joint 
 with your knife, and carrying it skilfully through as far as B, giving a slight jerk with 
 the wrist, and at the same time turning the blade ; this should insure the division of a 
 wing. Next, slip the knife between the leg and body at E, and cut downwards as far as 
 C; with the fork turn the left leg back, and if not an old bird, the joint will separate. 
 
 Turn the fowl, and proceed in the same way to re- 
 move the other wing and leg. Next, take off the 
 merrythought, inserting the knife in the straight 
 line at D, bending it back. The neck bones should 
 be divided from the part that adheres to the 
 breast without breaking them; this is done by 
 putting the prongs of the fork through each and 
 wrenching it up carefully. The next thing is to divide the breast from the back by 
 cutting through the carcass, close to the breast, right down to the tail. Then turn 
 the back up and divide it across the centre. The side bones are then readily separ- 
 ated from the rump. Insignificant as they appear, a delicious morsel will be found 
 lying in the cavity of the bone. The thigh may be divided from the drumstick by 
 inserting the knife at the joint 
 
 FOWL (BOILED).- The only difference in the carving of boiled and roast fowls 
 consists in serving the breast of the former whole, 
 unless it happens to be a very large bird. Proceed 
 as before and take off the wings from A to B, the 
 leg B to c, taking care to fix your fork firmly in the 
 sinews, and to wrench the joint from the socket. 
 
 In helping, the upper part of the leg is considered superior to the wing. Next, 
 take off the merrythought at D and cut up the remainder as directed for a roast fowl. 
 
 TURKEY (BOILED). The anatomy of a turkey is so closely allied to that of a 
 
 fowl the only difference being the absence of the 
 merrythought in the turkey, that the instruction 
 given under the head of Boiled Fowl will be 
 found a good guide, but a turkey being a much 
 larger bird of the two, delicate slices should be 
 cut from the breast, and continued if necessary to 
 the wings and legs, which are rarely removed at the dinner table; if found necessary to 
 remove these, proceed as with a fowl, though more strength will have to be exerted. 
 
 TURKEY (ROASTED). — The most choice 
 parts of a turkey are the breast, wings and neck- 
 bones; the instructions for serving boiled tur- 
 key will equally apply to roast turkey. After 
 cutting all the delicate slices which the breast 
 affords, and serving the portions already named, 
 the thigh-bones may be divided. A thin slice of 
 the forcemeat, or stuffing which is under the breast, should be served to each plate. 
 
THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. d4L 
 
 GOOSE. — In carving a goose turn the neck towards you, and cut quite down to 
 the bone two or three slices from each side of the breast, from A to B; next remove the 
 legs; this is easily done if the bird be a young one, by putting the fork through the 
 small part of the leg bone, and pressing it close to the body, cutting in the direction of 
 DEG. In taking off the wings, put the fork into the small part of the pinion, which 
 
 press in the same way close to the body, and di- 
 vide tlie joint at c, carrying the knife on to D, then 
 take off the merrythought, L to H. To extract 
 the seasoning, remove the apron according to 
 the slope marked FEG. The prime parts are the 
 slices from the breast, the fleshy part of the wing 
 which may be separated from the pinion, the thigh-bone divided from the leg-bone and 
 the side-bones The carcass divided and devilled makes a savory breakfast dish. A 
 Green Goose is carved in' the same way ; the most esteemed part is the breast ; but as 
 this makes only a few slices, the whole bird should be cut up before any one is helped. 
 
 DUCK.— The same likeness prevails in the anatomy of the duck and goose as 
 there is in that of a fowl and turkey ; some persons commence by taking off the legs 
 and wings, and then cut slices from the breast. 
 
 We, however, should follow in every way the di- 
 rections already given for carving a goose — first 
 cutting the prime slices from the breast, A to B, 
 next taking off the leg, D to E, then the wing, c 
 to D, and merrythought, G to F. If necessary, 
 the bird may then be turned, and the opposite joints removed. Help the season- 
 ing, which will be found under the apron, with each portion of the bird. 
 
 PIGEONS Are usually divided down the centre, through both breasts and back, 
 
 and subsequently quartered. The lower part is 
 considered the best. Or they may be divided 
 as in our engraving, by placing the point of the 
 knife at a, and cutting from A B, A c. Also, 
 when very large, they maybe carved like fowls. 
 
 GAME. 
 
 A HAUNCH OF VENISON. — In carving this joint, great care must be taken 
 to prevent the gravy running out. Insert the 
 knife in the line A, and cut straight across the 
 knuckle. Then cut from A to the extreme end, 
 or D. By sloping the knife, in making the 
 premier pass, all the gravy will find its way to 
 the well. The broadside of the joint should now be turned to the carver, who has 
 hitherto had the haunch lengthways before him, and slices are to be cut from 
 each side alternately, serving a portion of the delicious fat with each slice. 
 This, the most highly-prized portion of the joint, will be found at the left side. 
 
342 
 
 THE .ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. 
 
 ROAST HARE. — Either remove the shoul- 
 ders and legs, and cut the back across into 
 four pieces; or, after taking a few slices from 
 either side of the backbone from a to B, slip 
 the point of the knife under the shoulder, at c, 
 and cut all the way down to the rump. Re- 
 peat this process on the other side. Take off 
 the shoulder at c A D, and divide the legs from the body — in doing which be careful 
 to hit the joints. The backbone should be cut through in three or four places, as 
 marked in the engraving. Serve a portion of the stuffing with each slice. The brains 
 and ears are considered a delicacy by some persons. The first should be cut off at 
 the roots, and the head divided by putting the point of the knife into the center of 
 it, and cutting firmly down to the nose. 
 
 PHEASANT. — In carving this bird fix 
 your fork in the center of the breast just below 
 the cross line, which .will enable you to hold it 
 firmly; then cut thin slices from A to B, exactly 
 as you would the breast of a duck. Separate 
 the wing from c to D, and take off the leg on the 
 same side, cutting in the direction of D E. Repeat the operation on the opposite 
 side, removing the merrythought by passing the knife under it from G to F toward 
 the neck, and separate the neck-bone in the same manner as those of a roast fowl. 
 The prime parts are the breast, the wings, and merrythought ; but the thigh has a 
 high flavor, and some persons esteem the brains. 
 
 PARTRIDGE. — If very large this bird may be carved like a fowl: the legs and 
 wings may be taken off in the lines from a to B, and the merrythought if desired in 
 the direction D to c. It is usual, however, on account of its smallness, to help the 
 merrythought with the breast, the wing and leg being served together, the back 
 
 only with some of the other parts. When very 
 small, it is generally divided into two parts by 
 cutting quite through the breast to the tail. 
 
 The wings, breast, and merrythought are the 
 best parts, the wing is most esteemed, and the tip 
 of it is considered by epicures the most delicate morsel of the whole. 
 
 RABBIT (ROASTED). — The anatomy of 
 this animal precisely resembles that of the hare, 
 and it should be carved in like manner. 
 
 RABBIT (BOILED). — Is carved in exactly the same way as roasted; taking off the 
 legs and shoulders first, and dividing the back into two or three pieces. This is very 
 simply managed by placing the knife in the joint and lifting up the back with your fork. 
 The middle piece is the pnmest, then the other portions of the back, afterwards the legs, 
 shoulders, etc. Liver sauce should be served to each plate, or onion sauce, if preferred. 
 
THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. 
 
 343 
 
 JOINTS. 
 
 as the under-cut eats better hot than 
 
 SIRLOIN OF BEEF. — Cutting from B to 
 A in long thin slices. The fat and lean are fairly 
 proportioned, and the flavor is very much bet- 
 ter than when the meat is cut across the grain. 
 
 The most delicate and juiciest portion of 
 the joint lies underneath (see straight line c); 
 a judge will always commence with this part 
 first, the rich fat is found close at hand ; and 
 cold, a word to the wise will be enough. 
 
 RIBS OF BEEF. — This joint is carved in precisely the same way as the pre- 
 ceding one, cutting along the whole length of the bone from the thinnest end. Some- 
 times the joint is boned, stuffed, and rolled ; in which case it must be carved exactly 
 like a round of beef. 
 
 The meat beyond the fourth rib is not so tender as the other parts, and is there- 
 fore called by professional cooks — the chuck , or inferior end. 
 
 ROUND OF BEEF. — Have the dish put 
 before you exactly as in the engraving, then 
 take off a slice about half an inch thick all round 
 from B to A, which must be set aside. Now 
 commence cutting thin slices, both fat and 
 lean, observing that the solid fat will be found 
 at D, the richer marrowy fat at c ; and it may 
 be observed that this is much better eaten hot tiian cold. After a few slices are 
 taken off, the skewer may be taken out. Its own juice is the only gravy necessary, 
 and this will flow after the first round is taken off. 
 
 TONGUE. — The proper mode of cutting a 
 tongue is nearly through the middle ; A to B. 
 The knife must not penetrate very deep, nor 
 the slices be cut very thick, or the tongue will 
 not go far, in a large party. Cut from both 
 sides alternately. If fat be required, it must be cut from under the tongue. 
 
 A SADDLE OF MUTTON— Should be 
 cut in long and rather thin slices from the tail 
 to the end, inserting the knife at B, and cutting 
 on each side of the backbone to A. The lean 
 will be found in the neighborhood of B, the fat 
 at the lower and thin part. Some persons pass the knife down the bone that sepa- 
 rates the two loins, so as to loosen all the meat from that side, which is then cut 
 obliquely, and thus fat and lean are served together. This joint is generally sent to 
 table with a bouquet of vegetable flowers decorating the tale end. 
 
344 
 
 THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. 
 
 LEG OF MUTTON (ROASTED). — Aim at the prime part of this joint, 
 whether roast or boiled, midway between the round end and the knuckle ; in short, 
 cut in the line from A to B. Some persons recommend taking the slices alternately 
 from both sides of this line; we, however, have our prejudice in favor of the upper 
 
 juiciest portion, and recommend that the slices 
 be not too thin; but whichever side is preferred, 
 cut right through to the bone. As the cramp- 
 bone is by some persons considered a delicacy, 
 it is well to know that it will be found near the 
 knuckle, and may be got at between D and c, 
 by cutting in a semi-circular direction. 
 
 LEG OF LAMB, (BOILED). — Draw a line midway between the round and 
 the knuckle from A to B, and help from both sides alternately. Be careful not to cut 
 the slices too thin. The fat will be found in two 
 directions, marked D c, c D. A portion may be 
 cut from each. The meat is said to cut finer on 
 this side, and affords a number of prime pieces. 
 
 Some persons, when the joint is thus presented 
 to them, cut the slices long ways, from the 
 round to the knuckle end. 
 
 OR LAMB. — This much maligned dish pos- 
 sesses greater variety of flavor and more deli- 
 cate slices than any other joint in the sheep. It 
 is always served, as seen in the engraving, back 
 uppermost. Cut through from A to B on both 
 sides for the lean cuts, the prime fat will be 
 found on the outer edge at E; the bladebone, 
 on which some delicious morsels will be found, 
 lies between the lines C D. When there is no necessity for cutting up the whole at 
 one time, the best plan is to begin the joint on the under side. Here the finest cuts 
 will be found, portions full of aroma and juiciness, lost when cold, while by enjoy- 
 ing them the first day, the slightliness of the joint will be preserved for the next. 
 
 LOIN OF MUTTON OR LAMB. — If the butcher has done his duty properly, 
 and separated the joints, this is a very simple affair for the carver, who has only to 
 divide the chops, and help fat and lean together, beginning at the thinnest end. 
 
 SHOULDER OF MUTTON 
 
 UPPER SIDE 
 
 A HAUNCH OF LAMB. — This handsome joint is cut precisely like a haunch 
 ol venison, and is dressed as nearly as possible to imitate it. It is also carved ex- 
 actly in the same way. 
 
 LAMB (FORE-QUARTER) — This requires 
 the fork to be pressed in towards the knuckle, 
 and the knife to be passed round the shoulder in 
 the direction A B c, so as to divide it from the 
 ribs without depriving them of too much of the 
 
 % 
 
THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY. 
 
 •345 
 
 meat. Have close at hand half a lemon or Seville orange, with pepper and salt, and 
 raising the shoulder with the fork, squeeze the juice of the pungent fruit over the 
 ribs, add a little salt and pepper, and lay a piece of butter between the joints till it is 
 melted ; then remove the shoulder to a separate dish, and divide the breast by cut- 
 ting through from A to D. Next separate the ribs by passing the knife in the straight 
 line, E F. The breast, if chosen, must be divided in the direction of G to H. Legs, 
 loins or shoulders of Lamb and Mutton should be carved the same way. 
 
 FILLET OF VEAL. — The directions given for carving a round of beef will be 
 found equally applicable for the proper carving of this joint, except that the upper 
 slice was cut thinner, and instead of being laid 
 aside, a portion of it should be served along 
 with each slice, most persons being fond of the 
 brown. Cut for the lean slices in the direc- 
 tion of a to B, and from D to C for the stuffing, 
 which will be found skewered within the flap. 
 
 The fat lies between A and D ; take care to help some of both to each person. A 
 lemon thinly sliced should accompany this joint. 
 
 KNUCKLE OF VEAL.— In carving this 
 joint, the best way is to cut from B to A; the two 
 bones may be divided from c to D. It is con- 
 sidered delicate and nutritious, but unless very 
 nicely stewed is an insipid dish. 
 
 BREAST OF VEAL. — Put your knife in 
 at A, about four inches from the thick part or 
 “ brisket,” and cut to B ; this will separate it 
 from the long ribs; divide these as shown in 
 the line c, and serve the gristles in portions, as seen at D. A morsel of the sweet- 
 bread, &c., should be served with each plate. 
 
 A shoulder of veal should (if it ever be desired) be carved on the under side for 
 the prime slices, precisely as a shoulder of mutton. 
 
 LOIN OF VEAL. — In carving the chump 
 end of this joint (which our engraving repre- 
 sents) cut in the direction B to A, in the same 
 way as you would carve a sirloin of beef. The 
 fat will be found underneath, and the kidney 
 which imbedded in it is in favor with most 
 people; be careful therefore in helping your friends to send a slice of the fat and 
 kidney to each one, and if, as is sometimes the case, a toast is laid under the joint, 
 serve a portion of that likewise. 
 
 CALF’S HEAD. — Halt of a head as seen in 
 our cut, will generally be found sufficient for a 
 small family. It is an exceedingly rich dish, and 
 abounds in dainty tidbits. In purchasingyou will be sure to have the skin left on: with- 
 
3-lt* THE ART OF CARVING MADE EASY, 
 
 out it the joint is worthless. The eye, the throat sweetbread, the palate, and the fine 
 lean meat under the jawbone,- are each a separate delicacy, and so are the brains and 
 . tongue, which are always made a distinct dish, but should nevertheless be served 
 with the head, as making important parts of it. Commence by cutting slices from 
 A to B, letting your knife go close to the bone. Take out the eye with the point of 
 your knife, and divide it; and look for the sweetbread near the neck, in the direc- 
 tion of c to D. The palate lies under the head, and should be divided into small 
 portions and the delicate meat will be got at by removing the jawbone. Some of 
 the brains and tongue should be served with each slice. 
 
 LEG OF PORK BOILED OR ROASTED. 
 
 — In serving this joint, cut slices in the direc- 
 tion of A to B, helping from both sides alternate- 
 ly. When roasted, unless too broadly scored, the 
 best plan in carving is to follow the lines in the 
 crackling, which most people like. The joint must then be turned over to get at the 
 seasoning, which is generally found under the skin round the shank bone; but if served 
 as in our cut, it will be discovered under the line c to A. Carve from A to B, and as be- 
 fore directed, from both sides alternately. A 
 loin of pork is carved precisely like a loin of 
 mutton. A hand of pork when small, plump 
 and white, is a very delicate little dish ; it should 
 be cut in thin slices— first across, and secondly 
 from off the blade bone, where the most delicate morsels will be found. 
 
 ROAST PIG. — As sucking pig is never 
 sent whole to the table, the cook having first 
 divided the body and head, with which and 
 the ears the dish is usually garnished, all that 
 the carver has to do is to take out the brains, 
 
 mix them with the stuffing and gravy, and divide the ribs. The joints are to be 
 subdivided, or slices may be cut from them. The ribs are considered the prime 
 parts, and the neck, between the shoulders, is preferred by some persons. A por- 
 tion of the ear, and plenty of stuffing and gravy, is to be served to each plate. 
 
 A HAM. — This joint is always served back 
 upwards, and should have the knuckle decor- 
 ated with a paper frill. Some persons adopt 
 the fanciful plan of cutting in a circular direc- 
 tion, as at C, but it is not a good one. Begin 
 by cutting a wedge-shaped slice from A to B, that the other slices may follow in a 
 slanting direction. Let your knife be as sharp as possible, and cut (from the knuckle 
 end upwards) slices of the most wafery thinness. 
 
ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS HOUSEHOLD RECEIPTS. 
 
 RECEIPTS WHICH WILL BE FOUND EXCEEDINGLY VALUABLE 
 
 IN EVERY FAMILY. 
 

ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS HOUSEHOLD RECEIPTS 
 
 RECEIPTS WHICH WILL BE FOUND EXCEEDINGLY VALUABLE IN 
 
 EVERY FAMILY. 
 
 MID the flood of receipts on every conceivable subject which have del- 
 uged the market in late years, we have taken care to select only such 
 ones as will bear the test of practical use and be of the greatest utility. 
 Each one in our list will be found of inestimable value when put to such 
 a test, and we are satisfied that the reader who intelligently employs them 
 will be more than repaid for the space they occupy, and find them of more worth to him 
 than a thousand gathered from other sources. 
 
 TO PRESERVE BUTTER. — Work out the last drop of buttermilk. Use rock 
 salt only, and put in clean cans or jars, airtight. Keep in a cool place, and vou will have 
 good butter at any time. 
 
 TO KEEP EGGS FOR USE IN WINTER.— Fill a barrel half full of water, fresh 
 slacked lime and common salt, in the proportion of one pint of lime and half a pint of 
 salt to every three gallons of water. Then put in the eggs carefully, without cracking 
 the shells. This can be> done by letting the dish containing a dozen or more eggs into 
 the water until it fills, and then overturning it. Fresh eggs put in this brine come out 
 fresh. When the barrel is nearly full, put a board over the eggs and put on more salt 
 and lime to keep the brine equally strong at top and bottom. 
 
 TO CLEAN BOTTLES. — Put powdered charcoal, with hot or cold water, into the 
 bottles, and shake thoroughly. If allowed to remain a little while, all disagreeable smells 
 will be removed. 
 
 DISINFECTANT FOR SICK ROOMS, &c.— Take half a cupful of common salt, 
 and two or three ounces of sulphuric acid. Upon the salt pour one-half ounce of the 
 acid, and stir every fifteen minutes till all the acid is used. Tainted meats, fish or other 
 articles can be purified by being confined in a tight box with salt and sulphuric acid t 
 All effluvia of an animal nature can be removed from a room by burning pulverized coffee 
 upon a fire shovel. 
 
 CAMPHORATED ICE — For chapped hands* or lips. — Heat together until dis- 
 solved, three-fourths of an ounce of powdered gum camphor, four teaspoonfuls oil of sweet 
 almonds and one and a half ounces of spermaceti. Stir constantly, and when cool use 
 freely. 
 
 DRINKS FOR FEVERS. — One pint of water, into which mix the juice of a lemon 
 and one teaspoonful of cream of tartar. Sweeten with loaf sugar, and drink freely. 
 
 EXCELLENT HAIR WASH. — Dissolve in a quart of boiling water, one part oJ 
 camphor and two of borax pulverized. Use frequently when cool. It cleanses, beauti- 
 fies and preserves the hair. 
 
ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 FOR SICK HEADACHE. — This is occasioned by acidity or overloading the stom* 
 ach. When not caused by overeating, all that one need do is to soak the feet in hot 
 water, drinking herb tea and taking a sweat. 
 
 TO REMOVE GREASE AND OIL STAINS. — Mix well together a strong iye 
 of pearlashes and soft water with unslacked lime. Let it settle, and then bottle it up 
 close. Dilute with water, and scour the wood. Do not let it stand too long on the 
 boards, for it will take out the color. Be careful and expeditious. 
 
 SPECIAL RECEIPTS. 
 
 BEEF TEA. — Take a wide-mouthed jar, and put into it a pound of fresh juicy 
 meat, cut fine, and a little salt, and set the jar into a pan of water. Bring it gradually to 
 a boil ; keep it boiling briskly for an hour, then strain the essence of the beef into a 
 bowl. 
 
 CHICKEN TEA is made in the same way, using chicken meat instead of beef. 
 
 INDIAN MEAL GRUEL. — For a cupful, wet a tablespoonful of meal with a little 
 water, pour on half a pint of boiling water, and let it boil for 30 minutes. Nutmeg, sugar 
 and cream will improve this. 
 
 OATMEAL GRUEL is made like the last, using oatmeal in the place of Indian. 
 
 APPLE WATER. — Take a fine juicy apple, pare and slice ; pour on boiling water 
 $md let it stand until cool. 
 
 TO MAKE SOAP. — Cut up fine and dissolve in five gallons of soft water four pounds 
 of white bar soap, adding one pound sal soda. Mix well together and let it cool. 
 
 TO PREVENT TROUBLE FROM MOSQUITOS.— Dilute water of Cologne 
 m a basin of clean water, and wash the hands and face before retiring. It may be ap- 
 plied to neck and arms, and then the pests will not trouble one so long as its odor lasts. 
 There is nothing better. 
 
 TOOTH POWDER. — Mix thoroughly two drachms of rose pink, twelve of precipi- 
 tated chalk, one of magnesia, and six grains of sulphate of quinine, all well pulverized. 
 
 CHEAP BLACK INK. — Mix thoroughly one drachm each of prussiate of potash 
 and bichromate of potash, one ounce logwood and one gallon of water. When dissolved 
 it is ready for use. 
 
 INDELIBLE INK. — One inch of a stick of nitrate of silver dissolved in a little 
 water, and then stir it into a gallon of water. This is good for cloth. 
 
 RED WRITING INK. — Water of ammonia, 20 drops; rain water, one-fourth 
 ounce, and two grains best carmine. Add some gum arabic. 
 
 0 TO CLEAN GLOVES. — Wash the gloves when on your hands with spirits of tur- 
 pentine, and dry them before removing. 
 
 HAIR OIL. — Castor oil and 95 per cent, alcohol, in the proportion of one part of 
 oh to eight parts 01 alcohol. Perfume with oil of cinnamon, or to taste. 
 
 TO CLEAN STRAW MATTING. — Use a cloth wet in clean salt and water to 
 wash the matting, and wipe dry at once. This prevents it from turning yellow. 
 
ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 349 
 
 TO WASH WOOLENS. — Use hot soap-suds, rinse in clear hot water, and shake 
 out the wet without wringing. Worsteds should never be wrung when washed. 
 
 TO CLEAN CARPETS. — Sprinkle with moist tea leaves, then sweep thoroughly, 
 using soft soap and warm water on grease and dirt spots. 
 
 ANTIDOTES FOR POISONS. — For any poison stir a heaping teaspoonful of 
 common salt and of ground mustard each into a glass of water, and drink it all at once* 
 When this emetic has acted, take the whites of two eggs instantly. For corrosive sub- 
 limate, swallow six raw eggs at once after the emetic. For laudanum, a cup of strong 
 coffee, clear. For arsenic, after the emetic take half a cup of sweet oil or melted lard. 
 
 ALUM IN STARCH. — To give a fine gloss, dissolve a bit of alum the size of a 
 walnut in a pint of starch. This holds the colors. 
 
 YEAST FROM CIDER. — With flour enough to make a stiff batter, pour cider 
 taken from sour apples before it foments, while hot. When cool put yeast of common 
 kind, letting it rise ; stir down when danger of running over. Put in a cool place and it 
 will keep until May. 
 
 FOR COCKROACHES. — Cut up green cucumbers and place them at night where 
 these vermin usually come. Remove the peel at morning and place fresh at night. 
 Three applications will be effectual. 
 
 FOR MOTHS. — An ounce of gum camphor and shell of a red pepper are macerated 
 in eight ounces of strong alcohol for a few days, then strained. Sprinkle this over ar- 
 ticles to be preserved, rolling up in sheets. 
 
 SUBSTITUTE FOR YEAST. — In two gallons of water boil one pound of flour 
 and a little salt. When lukewarm, bottle and cork*tightly, and use in 24 hours. 
 
 TO MAKE LYE. — Prepare a large tub or cask and bore a hole in one side for a 
 tap near the bottom. Put in bricks and cover with straw. Put in strong wood ashes ? 
 oak is best. Fill with hot water. If ashes settle down fill up. 
 
 TO GIVE STOVES A BRILLIANT APPEARANCE.— Mix a teaspoonful of 
 the lye with the polish. This will give a permanent lustre to the stove. 
 
 TOMATO WINE. — Use fresh, ripe fruit, mash fine, strain through fine sieve^ 
 sweeten with good sugar. Let it stand in earthen or glass vessel nearly full ; cover 
 tightly with a wet cloth for refuse to work off. When done fomenting, bottle and cork. 
 A little salt improves. The longer it is kept the better. 
 
 TO CAUSE FRUITS AND FLO VERS TO GROW TO UNUSUAL SIZE.— 
 Water with a solution of sulphate of iron and the fruit will be double the usual size. 
 Dr. Becont once tried the experiment on a plantation near the sulphurous springs of 
 Enhein during the early spring, and found that the plants and flowers watered from the 
 spring not only thrived, but grew to great size, and the flowers had unusual brilliancy 
 and beauty. 
 
ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 350 
 
 FOR RESTORING SCORCHED LINEN.— In half a pint of vinegar boil two 
 ounces of Fuller’s earth, an ounce of hen’s dung, half an ounce of cake soap and the 
 juice of two onions. Cover the damaged part, and let it dry on ; then give a good wash- 
 ing, and if the threads are not fully turned it will come out white. 
 
 CHILI SAUCE. — A dozen ripe tomatos, four ripe peppers, two onions, two to three 
 tablespoonfuls of salt, two of sugar, three teacups of vinegar, a little cinnamon. Peel 
 the tomatoes and chop fine with peppers and onions ; boil an hour. 
 
 TO REMOVE INK STAINS. — Soak the stained part in strong salt water, then 
 wash with ammonia. Salt unites with nitrate of silver and forms chloride of silver, which 
 is dissolved by ammonia. 
 
 TO MEND CRACKS IN STOVE-PIPES AND IRON. — Wood ashes and com- 
 mon salt made into a paste will completely close the aperture in a moment. Apply 
 whether stove be hot or cold. 
 
 TO GIVE LUSTRE TO SILVER. — Alum dissolved in water to make a strong 
 brine ; skim carefully, then add soap. Apply with linen rag, rubbing gently. 
 
 TO CLEAN CARPETS. — One teaspoonful ammonia in* one gallon water will re- 
 store color ; or, after the carpet has been well beaten, scour with ox gall ; one pint to 
 three gallons of water for a large carpet. 
 
 TO DRY CORN. — Scrape the corn from the ear, leaving one half the hull clinging 
 to cob. Place an earthen vessel containing the corn in a kettle of boiling water ; stir 
 frequently till dry enough to spread upon a cloth, then the wind and sun will finish the 
 work. For the table, put this in cold water, let it simmer over the fire for two hours, 
 season to taste, then boil ten minutes ; add butter and white sugar when ready to serve. 
 
 CRACKED WHEAT. — Two quarts of water ready boiling in smooth iron pot- 
 stir in one pint of cracked wheat slowly, boil fast and stir constantly half an hour, 
 then cook slowly for a full hour ; cover closely ; do not let it burn. This is the best 
 method. Eat warm or cold, at pleasure. 
 
 GREEN PEA SOUP IN WINTER. — Takethebest marrowfats and sow thickly in 
 pots and boxes six weeks, growing in a temperature of 6o°. When three or four inches 
 high cut the plants and run them through a seive ; this alone will make a fair soup. Dry 
 peas passed through the sieve, mixed with these, add to the flavor. In the spring a few 
 rows may be grown in the open air for the purpose of cutting them when about four 
 inches high. 
 
 TO COOK CAULIFLOWERS. — Take these white, close and of moderate size. 
 Cut away outside leaves, trim stock close, let them soak in salted water for an hour, put 
 . into boiling water with salt, boil moderately and skim until done ; fifteen minutes for a 
 small one. To boil too long impairs the flavor. 
 
 TO PICKLE STRING BEANS. — Put in alternate layers of' beans and salt, leav- 
 ing them for one day. Drain off and put the beans with allspice, cloves, pepper and a 
 little salt. Cover with boiled vinegar, letting it stand 24 hours. Draw off the vinegar 
 and boil again. Cover the beans with this liquid and repeat the third day ; then when 
 cold cover the jars tightly and keep in a cool place. 
 
ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 351 
 
 TO CAN GOOSEBERRIES WHOLE. — Let the jars filled with berries, covered 
 with water, into a vessel of water, and gradually increase to boiling point. Boil eight 
 minutes, remove from kettle and cover the berries with boiling water and seal at once. 
 If to be sweetened, use pure white sugar made into a syrup, instead of the water in the 
 cans. 
 
 TO PREVENT THE SOURING OF MILK.— Add a little sub-carbonate of soda 
 or of potash. It is harmless and does not affect the taste. 
 
 TO PRESERVE MILK FOR A LONG TIME.— Place bottles filled with milk in 
 a saucepan of cold water and let it come to a boil ; take from the fire and cork at once. 
 Let it cool in the water in which it was boiled. This will remain good for six months. 
 
 TO CLEAN FURNITURE. — The best preparation according to one old cabinet 
 maker, is a mixture of three parts of linseed oil and turpentine. It not only covers the 
 disfigured parts, but restores the wood to its natural color, leaving a fine luster. Apply 
 with woolen rag. 
 
 WHITE CEMENT. — White fish glue one pound ten ounces, dry white lead six 
 ounces, soft water three pints, alcohol one pint ; dissolve the glue in a kettle placed in 
 another to prevent burning. When dissolved, put in lead and stir while boiling till com- 
 pletely mixed. When cool add the alcohol and bottle it while yet luke warm. 
 
 TO MAKE CUCUMBER VINES BEAR FIVE CROPS.— Cut the cucumber so 
 as to have about a fourth of an inch on the stem. Slit the stem with a knife to the vine 
 leaving a little of the cucumber on each part ; on each slit there will be a new cucumber. 
 
 A COLD CEMENT FOR MENDING EARTHENWARE.— Grate a pound of 
 cheese into a quart of milk, leave it standing fourteen hours, stirring it frequently. Pul- 
 verize a pound of unslcked lime in a mortar and add, mix by beating ; then whites ot 
 twenty -five eggs are beaten in and you have a good cement. 
 
 TO PREVENT IRON RUST. — Kerosene oil applied will effect the desired result, 
 
 TO REMOVE DRIED PAINT. — Use diluted oxalic acid with a swab having a 
 short handle. 
 
 TO STOP PIN HOLES IN LEAD PIPE.— Place the head of a ten-penny nail 
 over the hole and hit the other end two or three slight blows and you will stop the hole 
 and save a plumber’s bill. This forces the lead together. 
 
 TO WASH SUMMER SUITS — The water should be tepid and the soap should 
 not be applied directly to the fabric. It should be washed and rinsed quickly and turned, 
 then hang in shade. When starched in thin starch it should be folded in some delicate 
 white cloth, then ironed on wrong side quickly. It is well to wash in water in which hay or 
 a bag ot bran has been boiled. A little salt will set the colors of light cambrics and lawns, 
 A little ox gall is good for yellow and purple tints. 
 
 WAX FOR BOTTLING. — Rosin thirteen parts, wax one part, melt and add any 
 color ; used to make bungs and corks tight. 
 
 TO REMOVE GREASE FROM WOOLENS.— Apply Fuller’s earth. If the 
 grease is wax or tallow warm carefully with an iron, then apply the Fuller’s earth. 
 
 WHITEWASH. — Half a bushel of lime slacked, boiling water, covered with a 
 cloth to prevent evaporation, strain the liquor : add salt one peck, previously dissolved in 
 
352 
 
 ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 warm water, three pounds boiled rice reduced to paste, eight ounces Spanish white, one 
 pound glue, five gallons water ; let it stand a few days and heat it when used ; good. 
 
 TO PURIFY WATER FOR DRINKING. — Filter througl a compressed sponge 
 filled with charcoal and all impurities will be removed. 
 
 TO KEEP APPLES FROM FREEZING.— Cover with a linen cloth. 
 
 TO REMOVE INK STAINS. — Muriatic acid diluted with five or six times its 
 weight in water applied to spot, and after a minute washed off, will be found good, but 
 vegetable acids can be used with less risk. Apply acids carefully, as some of them injure 
 the cloth more than the ink. 
 
 TO MEND TIN WARE BY CANDLE HEAT.— Fill a phial two-thirds full with 
 muriatic acid, put in little bits of zinc as long as the acid will act, add a bit of sal ammonia, 
 fill with water. With the cork of the bottle dampen the spot to be mended, then apply a 
 bit of sheet zinc over the hole and hold a lighted candle under the place ; wet the zinc 
 ■with the solution, or a little solder may be used instead of the zinc. 
 
 TO MAKE FENCE POSTS LAST A LONG TIME.— Stir pulverized charcoal 
 into boiled linseed oil, making a paste as thick as paint. Apply this to the post and it 
 will last forever. 
 
 TO PREVENT MOTHS. — Use spirits of turpentine or gum of camphor. 
 
 TO MAKE THE SOLES OF SHOES WATER-TIGHT.— A little beeswax and 
 mutton suet warmed until in a liquid state and"* applied over the stitches will repel the wet 
 and not prevent polish when blacking. 
 
 TO MAKE SEA WATER SUITABLE FOR WASHING.— Soda makes sea 
 water turbid, the magnesia and lime are precipitated. Enough soda should be used to 
 cause this effect. 
 
 TO KILL FLIES. — Quassia chips boiled in water and sweetened with syrup will 
 destroy flies, but not children. 
 
 TO PRESERVE GRAPES. — First put a layer of dry bran in an air-tight cask 
 then a layer of well cleaned grapes, also free from moisture ; alternate layers of bran 
 and grapes, with bran last. When taken out the grapes will be restored to their 
 original flavor by putting the stems into wine, red or white, according to the kind of 
 grape. 
 
 TO PICKLE BEEF FOR LONG KEEPING. — Thoroughly rub in salt and leave it 
 in bulk for twenty -four hours for the blood to draw off ; drain all the blood out and pack, 
 use a pickle prepared as follows : For every hundred-weight of beef seven pounds of salt, 
 one ounce each of saltpetre and cayenne pepper, one quart molasses and eight gallons of 
 water, boil and skim ; apply cold. 
 
 TO TAKE THE IMPRESSION OF A BUTTERFLY IN ALL ITS COL- 
 ORS. — Catch your butterfly and kill it without injury to its wings ; spread out carefully in 
 a flying position ; wash a spot of white paper with gum water, using a small brush ; lay 
 the butterfly on the spot, cut away its body clean to the wings, then cover these with 
 another piece of paper, then let it remain in a letter, press and screw down tightly for hall 
 an hour. This will leave a perfect impressiqn of the wings in their natural colors, then 
 you can paint in the body, coloring it to nature. 
 
ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 353 
 
 TO DESTROY RATS. — Fill a half barrel with water to within six or eight inches 
 of the top. Fix a cover held with pegs, so that it will tip upward easily. Cover this 
 with moistened bran, and arrange so that rats coming onto it will fall into the water and 
 be drowned. 
 
 RAT POISON. — Flour three pounds, sugar one-half pound, sulphur two pounds, 
 phosphorus two pounds. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE GANDIES. 
 
 GINGER CANDY. — One pound of clarified sugar boiled until it becomes brittle ; 
 when cold stir into it a teaspoonful of ground ginger. If you wish to have it extra nice, 
 add half the white of an egg beaten up with fine loaf sugar and 20 drops of strong Ja- 
 maica ginger. 
 
 GINGER DROPS. — The same, made with all loaf sugar. 
 
 GINGER LOZENGES. — One-half an ounce dissolved in a gill of hot water; when 
 cold stir it into a pound and a half of loaf sugar and a teaspoonful of powdered ginger, 
 of essence of ginger 12 drops. Make into a flat paste, and punch out the lozenges with 
 a stamp made for that purpose. 
 
 SAFFRON LOZENGES. — One pound fine powdered sugar, eight ounces pulver- 
 ized starch, one ounce hay saffron finely powdered, mucilage enough to mix. 
 
 LIQUORICE LOZENGES. — Two pounds white sugar, one pound liquorice, mix 
 with mucilage made with rose water. 
 
 PEPPERMINT LOZENGES. — Seven pounds best white sugar, one pound pure 
 starch ; peppermint to taste. 
 
 CANDIED LEMON, OR PEPPERMINT FOR COLDS.--One-half pint of 
 water to one and a half pounds of sugar. Boil till candied and add eight drops of es- 
 sence. Pour on paper spread with butter, and then cut with a knife. Flavor with pep< 
 permint, lemon, rose or horehound. 
 
 COMMON TWIST CANDY. — One pint of water to three pounds common sugar; 
 boil slowly. When boiled work it like molasses candy till white, then twist or braid into 
 any shape you wish. 
 
 FRUIT CANDY. — Dip the lumps of one pound of loaf sugar into water and place 
 into the kettle. Boil and skim until candied. Dip your fruit into this whilo, hot, and 
 place in a cold spot to cool. 
 
 MOLASSES CANDY. — Stir the molasses constantly over a moderately hot fire 
 until boiled enough to work well. Add a little vinegar and any flavoring you like. Pour 
 into greased pans. Add nuts if you wish before pouring it out. 
 
 FIG CANDY. — One pint of water to one pound of sugar, over a slow fire. Add 
 vinegar and a lump of butter when done, and pour into a pan over the figs, split and pre- 
 pared. 
 
 RAISIN CANDY — Is made the same, using raisins instead of figs. 
 
 SCOTCH BUTTER. — One pint water, one pound sugar. When done add one 
 tablespoonful butter. Flavor to taste. 
 
354 
 
 ONE HUNDRED INFALLIBLE MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 
 
 CEMENT FOR THE MOUTHS OF CORKED BOTTLES.— Melt a couple 
 of ounces of beeswax and four ounces of rosin ; stir with a tallow candle ; when melted, 
 dip in the mouth of the corked bottle, this will exclude air. 
 
 FOR LEAKY CASKS, BUNGS, & c. — Tallow two pounds, spirits of turpentine 
 one pound, solid turpentine six pounds ; melt wax and solid turpentine over a slow fire, 
 then add tallow ; remove from the fire and stir in spirits of turpentine and let it cool. 
 
 STOMACH BITTERS equal to Hostetter’s for one-quarter cost. European gen- 
 tian root, | ounce; orange peel, i£ ounces; cinnamon, £ ounce; anise seed, £ ounce; 
 coriander seed, £ ounce ; unground Peruvian bark, £ ounce ; gum kino, £ ounce. Bruise 
 all these, and put in the best alcohol, £ pint. Let it stand a week and pour off ; boil the 
 dregs in one pint of water ; strain and press out all the strength. Dissolve £ pound of 
 loaf sugar in the hot liquid, adding i£ quarts of cold water, and mix with tincture first 
 poured off. 
 
 SODA SYRUP TO BE USED WITH OR WITHOUT FOUNTAIN.— Loaf 
 sugar, 4 pounds ; pure water, 2 quarts ; gum arabic, I ounce ; mix in brass or copper 
 kettle, and boil till dissolved ; then skim and strain through white flannel ; add tartaric 
 acid, 2 \ ounces, dissolved in hot water ; flavor to the taste, using extracts desired. 
 
 SCOTCH WHISKEY. — Twenty gallons proof whiskey, 30 drops creosote dis- 
 solved in I pint of alcohol, 1 ounce acetic acid, £ pound loaf sugar. Let it stand 48 
 hours. 
 
 STRONG BEER— ENGLISH IMPROVED.— Half peck malt ; coarse brown 
 sugar, 3 pounds ; hops, 2 ounces ; good yeast, half teacup. If you have no malt, take 2 
 quarts barley, put it into the oven and steam the moisture from it. Grind coarsely. 
 Pour upon the ground malt if gallons water, heated to 170°. Let the tub have a false 
 bottom, with strainer holes to hold back the malt. Stir well, and let it stand 3 hours ; 
 draw off by faucet ; put in 3£ gallons of water heated to 180 0 ; stir well and let it stand 
 2 hours, and draw off. There should be 2£ to 3 gallons. Add 3 pounds of coarse brown 
 sugar in an equal amount of water, and boil 2 hours with the hops ; when cool put in the 
 yeast, and let it work 20 hours, covered with a sack. Use sound iron-hooped kegs, 
 bung tightly, and in two weeks you will have good strong beer. 
 
 SUPERIOR GINGER BEER. — Five pounds sugar, 4£ ounces of lemon juice, 4 
 ounces of honey, 5£ ounces bruised ginger root, 4£ gallons water, i£ pints of yeast ; boil 
 the ginger in half gallon water for an hour, then add the rest of the water and other in- 
 gredients, and strain ; add the white of an egg beaten, and £ ounce of essence of lemon. 
 Let it stand four days, then bottle. 
 
 ROOT BEER. — For 5 gallons of beer, take i£ pounds common burdock root, or 
 half an ounce essence of sassafras, £ pound good hops, £ pint corn roasted brown ; boil 
 in 3 gallons pure water till you get all the strength ; strain while hot ; add enough cold 
 water to make 5 gallons. When nearly cold, add clean molasses until palatable. Add 
 yeast. Place in cellar or other cold place, and in forty -eight hours you have good root 
 beer. 
 
 CHEAP BEER. — Simmer green shells of peas in a kettle for three hours ; strain 
 off the liquor and add a strong decoction of wood sage, or hops, to make pleasantly bit- 
 
HOW TO PREPARE SUMMER DRINKS. 
 
 355 
 
 ter, then allow it to ferment. Boil a fresh supply of the pea-pods in the decoction before 
 it is cool, and it will become impregnated with soccharine substance as to afford, when 
 fermented, a strong beer. 
 
 GINGER WINE. — Take one pint of 95 per cent, alcohol, put it into a £ ounce of 
 best ginger root, bruised, 2£ grains capsicum, and £ a drachm of tartaric acid. Let it 
 remain one week and filter ; then add £ a gallon of water which has been boiled with £ 
 pound of crushed sugar. Mix when cold. To give color, boil £ ounce cochineal, f ounce 
 cream tartar, £ ounce saleratus, £ ounce alum in £ pint of water. 
 
 PORT WINE. — Worked cider, 21 gallons ; good port wine, 6 gallons ; good brandy, 
 i£ gallons ; pure spirits, 3 gallons ; mix. To give color, elderberry, and aloes and 
 hawthorn berry give a fine color. 
 
 MADEIRA WINE. — To 40 gallons prepared cider add £ pound of tartaric acid, 4 
 gallons spirits, 3 pounds loaf sugar. Let it stand 10 days ; draw off carefully. 
 
 SHERRY WINE. — To 20 gallons prepared cider add 1 gallon spirits, £ pound 
 raisins, 3 gallons good sherry, £ ounce bitter almonds dissolved in alcohol. Let it stand 
 10 days, and draw off carefully ; fine it down, and again rack it off into another cask. 
 
 PORT WINE. — To 20 gallons prepared cider add 3 gallons good port wine, 5 
 quarts wild grapes in clusters, £ pound bruised shatany root, i£ pounds loaf sugar, 1 
 gallon spirits. Let it stand 10 days, then rack it off and fine it. If color is too light, 
 add tincture of shatany root. 
 
 TO PREVENT A BAD TASTE AND SOURNESS IN WINE. — Put in a 
 bag the roots of wild hoise radish, cut in bits. Let down into the wine and leave it two 
 days ; take this out and put in another until the wine is restored — or use wheat. 
 
 HOW TO PREPARE SUMMER DRINKS AT SMALL COST. 
 
 CIDER CHAMPAGNE. — Good cider ten gallons, spirits one-half gallon, honey of 
 sugar three pounds. Mix and let rest for two weeks ; then fine with a pint of skimmed 
 milk. This has often been sold for champagne. 
 
 CIDER WITHOUT APPLES. — Put in a barrel 5 gallons hot water, 30 lbs. brown 
 sugar, | lb. tartaric acid, 25 gallons cold water, 3 pints of hop or brewers* yeast worked 
 into paste (£ lb. flour, and one pint of water will be required in making this paste)* 
 put all together in a barrel, which it will fill, and let it work 24 hours — the yeast running 
 out at the bung all the time, by putting in a little occasionally to keep it full. Then bot- 
 tle, putting in two or three broken raisins to each bottle, and it will nearly equal cham* 
 pagne. 
 
 TO KEEP CIDER SWEET. — By the use of three-fourths of an ounce of the bi- 
 sulphate of lime to the barrel. By burning a little sulphur or sulphur match before put- 
 ting in the cider. By putting into the barrel before the cider has begun to work about a 
 half pint of whole fresh mustard seed tied up in a course muslin bag. 
 
356 
 
 ART IN THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 ICING FOR CAKE. — The whites of two eggs beaten to a froth, one-quarter pound 
 of sugar, beaten until it will remain in a solid mass. Flavor to taste. Spread evenly 
 over the surface of the cake with a knife dipped in cold water frequently. 
 
 EVERTON TAFFY. — Three ounces butter, one and a half pounds of sugar, a 
 teacup and a half of water, one lemon. Boil half the rind of the lemon with water, sugar 
 and butter ; when done and cooled add the lemon juice. A quick fire and constant stir- 
 ring are needed. 
 
 TO CLARIFY SUGAR FOR CANDIES. — A large cup of water to each pound 
 sugar, in a brass kettle, over a slow fire, for half an hour. Put in a little isinglass in 
 gum arabic, dissolved together. Skim off the impurities which rise. If loaf sugar is 
 Used, add a teaspoonful of rum or vinegar to prevent its being brittle. 
 
 ART IN THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 RECEIPTS FOR BEAUTIFYING THE HOME. 
 
 O TRANSFER ENGRAVINGS TO PLASTER PARIS.— Cover the 
 plate with ink, polish its surface, then put a greased paper over it. Pour 
 over it Plaster Paris made into a fine paste, taking care to prevent the air 
 bubbles, and let it remain one hour ; then you will find a good impres- 
 sion. 
 
 TRACING PAPER. — Use the varnish formed with Demarara resin, as follows : 
 Lay the sheets of paper flatly upon each other, spread the varnish over them with a 
 brush till the paper is without color. Remove sheet by sheet and hang it up for drying. 
 After it is dry you can use a pencil or chalk for tracing. 
 
 TO MAKE WAX FLOWERS. — The prepared wax can be found at any store of 
 artists’ supplies. They are in the several colors most needed, but for coloring the white 
 wax to make varigated leaves, there will be needed the following : one bottle each carmine 
 and ultramarine blue, chrome yellow, rose pink, royal purple, scarlet powder, balsam fir. 
 Many moulds for different leaves can be bought ; fine wire for stems and to hold parts 
 together. Stand the flower to be imitated in detail as to all its parts ; then form each 
 one separately and lay aside for use. The leaves can oe traced by mould or pattern with 
 a needle or the thumb nail. When each part is prepared, cover the wire with green wax 
 for stems ; to warm the wax so it will stick, hold carefully between the hands or breathe 
 gently upon it ; the green leaves hanging independently must be formed double, with a 
 wire running through the length between the two layers ; trace the branches and veins 
 to nature. Hold the wax in the left hand, working with the right, commencing at the 
 center of the flower, then place each part in its order until completed. A little fir bal- 
 sam hardens the wax for use in summer, but in winter it is not needed. Flowers can be 
 made without a teacher, but it is better to observe the method of one who is acquainted 
 with the process. If the colored sheets can not readily be produced, you can make them 
 by melting white wax in a clean dish, one pound of wax to one quart of water. When 
 
ART IN THE HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 357 
 
 the wax has boiled sufficiently, take a pane of clean glass, dip it into soft soap suds, and 
 then into the wax ; return it to the soap suds, and a thin sheet of wax will come off 
 The wax, after boiling, can be colored as desired, and the same process used to form the 
 sheets of wax. 
 
 THE ART OF TRANSFERRING ONTO GLASS.— Photographs, water colors, 
 lithographs, steel plates, newspaper cuts, oil paintings, plain and colored engravings, 
 crayons, in fact anything may be used. Have the glass perfectly clean ; varnish it per- 
 fectly smooth ; let it dry over night in a place free from dust. Wet your engraving in 
 clean water ten or fifteen minutes. Dry one side, leaving the other damp ; this can be 
 done by laying it on a newspaper. Then varnish your glass the second time, place your 
 engraving on it, pressing down closely, excluding all the air. Rub the paper on the 
 glass until it is transparent, and varnish it the third time. Articles needed are balsam 
 of fir two ounces, spirits of turpentine one ounce; apply with a camel hair brush. You 
 can then color the back of the photograph, or other print not yet colored, with any de« 
 sired or natural color. 
 
 THE ART OF POTCHIOMONI. — Plain glass jars, thoroughly clean, may be 
 decorated in an endless variety of ways. Use figures, bought in sheets, Chinese, Egyp- 
 tian, Swiss and antique designs. Cut each figure separate, following its outline. Stick 
 your picture, face outward, on the inside ot the jar, with any transparent preparation. 
 This can be obtained by boiling a piece of parchment. Having secured your figures to 
 the jar make a varnish of balsam of fir and spirits of turpentine, with which cover the 
 inside of the jar, and then varnish over with ordinary varnish. Then you can color the 
 figures according to your wish. 
 
 HOW TO PRESERVE DEAD PETS BY EMBALMING.— One pound of dry 
 sulphate of alumine, one-fifth of a quart of water and twenty grains of arsenious acid, 
 well mixed. Inject this into all the vessels of the body, and you can thus preserve cats, 
 dogs, birds, fishes, &c. 
 
 TREE OF LEAD. — Dissolve an ounce of sugar of lead in a quart of clean 
 water, and put it into a glass decanter or globe. Then suspend in the solution, near the 
 top, a small piece of zinc of an irregular shape. Let it stand undisturbed for a day, and 
 it will begin to shoot out into leaves and apparently to vegetate. If left undisturbed for 
 a few days, it will become extremely beautiful ; but it must be moved with great caution. 
 It may appear to those unacquainted with chemistry that the piece of zinc actually puts 
 out leaves, but this is a mistake, for if the zinc be examined, it will be found nearly unal- 
 tered. This phenomenon is owing to the zinc having a greater attraction for oxygen than 
 the lead has ; consequently, it takes it from the oxide of lead, which reappears in its 
 metallic state. 
 
 ARBOR MARTIS, OR TREE OF MARS. — Dissolve iron filings in aquafortis 
 moderately concentrated, till the acid is saturated ; then add to it gradually a solution of 
 fixed alkali, commonly called oil of tartar per deliquium. A strong effervescence will 
 ensue ; and the iron, instead of falling to the bottom of the vessel, will afterwards rise so 
 as to cover the sides, forming a multitude of ramifications heaped one upon the other, 
 which will sometimes pass over the edge of the vessel, and extend themselves on the out- 
 ride with all the appearance of a plant. 
 
A MANUAL OF ETIQUETTE, 
 
 OR 
 
 FORMS AND USAGES OF GOOD SOCIETY 
 
A MANUAL OF ETIQUETTE, 
 
 OR 
 
 FORMS AND USAGES OF GOOD SOCIETY. 
 
 E word etiquette is a comprehensive term, embracing all the social ameni- 
 ties of life, arising in the multiform intercourse of civilized man with his 
 kind in all the various relations of life in the family circle, upon the street, 
 in business, in traveling and in a thousand things. 
 
 In its restricted sense it embraces the usages and customs of good 
 society in all dealings with those with whom they come in social contact. The standard 
 of etiquette may vary in different countries, cities and grades of society, but the same 
 general principles underlie the subject and pertain alike in all grades of social life. A 
 due attention to these forms and customs is requisite of every one who would maintain 
 his position in society and attain the greatest influence among his fellow men. It is the 
 effect of those viewless and unenacted laws which bind society together and preserve 
 the self-respect and manhood of all — and at the same time keeping each in his proper 
 position, preventing all friction and ill feeling among them. 
 
 We write for the benefit of those who have not had the advantages of a training 
 from their birth in the usages of the best society, but who from their own innate power 
 or laudable ambition would rise to a position where these requirements might be expected 
 of them. 
 
 By not attending to these little demands of etiquette which are observed in all good 
 society a person of good parts, extensive information, and even talent, has crippled his 
 usefulness and curtailed his influence. While many another of less ability by a due 
 regard to these matters has surpassed his competitor in the race. 
 
 It should be the especial care of all young people of both sexes, who would be sure 
 of success or happiness in life, to inform themselves of the requirements and regulations 
 pertaining to the best society, for true politeness is often the stepping stone to positions 
 of honor or trust. The underlying principle of true politeness is a proper desire to 
 please and a regard for the feelings and rights of others. When this is innate in the 
 individual he will from very naturalness fall most readily into those usages and forms 
 which are regarded as correct. The fundamental principle of all courtesy is given in 
 the Golden Rule, “ Do unto others as you would have others do unto you.” 
 
 It is always proper for a person to appear to the best advantage, and he can most 
 surely accomplish this only by a proper attention to these matters of which we are treat- 
 ing. As a guide to any one who wishes to inform himself upon the requirements jf 
 society, we write this article believing that by observing strictly and practicing constantly, 
 the precepts and directions given, he may appear at ease and conduct himself with social 
 propriety on all occasions. 
 
 In this connection we think we cannnot do better than insert the following .* 
 
362 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 A MODEL WOMAN. 
 
 Of a lady who died in Pittsburg, Penn., a few days ago, the Commercial Gazette of 
 that city says : “ She was a model woman in all the relations of life, whether as 
 
 daughter, wife, mother, sister, friend or Christian. She was a model in her thoughtful- 
 ness and care for her parents in their declining years. She was a model in the confidence 
 she placed in her husband and her interest in his success. She was a model in the affec- 
 tion she bestowed on her children and her solicitude for their salvation. She was a 
 model in the example she set for her sisters to follow. They were all disposed to take 
 her as such. She was a model as a friend, in that she was a ‘ friend at all times/ She 
 was a model in the consistent, godly life she lived and the peaceful and triumphant death 
 she died. She was altogether unselfish, she was kind, she was benevolent, she was char- 
 itable ; she was forgiving, she was meek, she was humble, she was Christlike ; she 
 believed, she trusted, she worked, she made home happy, and when a stranger entered 
 the family circle to sojourn for a little it was but a little while until he felt he was in the 
 sunshine. She was never idle, and the work she had to do at home, m the church, or 
 institutions for charity, she did well.” 
 
 The valuable space which we have devoted to the classic sayings of Lord Chester- 
 field, will be fully appreciated by our readers, as they contain a mint of wisdom upon the 
 habits and requirements of good society everywhere and for all time. But to make them 
 of practical service in our ordinary life we now intend to touch upon the incidental and 
 particular formalities of etiquette applicable to the social usages of this country. 
 
 COURTEOUS GREETINGS AND INTRODUCTIONS. 
 
 The mode of salutation differs widely in various countries, and especially in the 
 Eastern nations there is a dignity and grace that is admirable. We have thought that it 
 would be better if we had in our English tongue more graceful forms than the simple 
 “ How are you ?” or “ How d’ye do ?” The Bedouin of the desert hails you with his sono- 
 rous ‘‘May God grant you a happy morning,” or “ If God wills it you are well.” But 
 however tempting it may be to study the forms of salutation among different people we 
 must forbear. 
 
 The saluation “ How are you ?” is not allowed, in a slight acquaintance, and the 
 reply, “ Very well, thanks,” is made only among intimate friends. “ Good morning,” and 
 “ Good evening,” are permitted in any society. 
 
 A greeting on the street or in the parlor should always be accompanied by a well 
 defined bow, which is at the same time both deferential and respectful, not a mere nod 
 or jerk of the head. In the street it is the gentleman’s duty to remove the hat to ladies 
 or aged men, with an inclination of the entire body. 
 
 It is the place of a lady to bow first on meeting a slight acquaintance. When a 
 gentleman is promenading with a lady he lifts his hat to every one whom the lady recog- 
 nizes. A gentleman will always stand aside at a narrow crossing and lifting his hat, 
 allow the lady to pass, or in going up or down stairs. Notice a salutation and return it 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 363 
 
 politely, from whomsoever given. True etiquette is based on common sense and morality 
 and requires the exercise of these qualities. 
 
 If you wish to converse with an acquaintance on the street, do not remain standing, 
 to the annoyance of others passing, but in case of a lady turn about and accompany her 
 a few blocks. 
 
 A lady will always thank a person for any polite favor bestowed, and a lady or gen- 
 tleman will express gratitude in concise, well-selected terms. 
 
 At church you should rarely give introductions, or invitations, although you recognize 
 your friends. Do not enter into long conversations with any one. While the arbitrary 
 rules of society do not apply there, true politeness is expected. You may with propriety 
 offer a stranger a seat or a book used in the service, and if a lady, find the place for her. 
 If the books are all in use, or not plentiful, you may offer her half of your own book. 
 
 A gentleman always precedes a lady in entering a public place of amusement or 
 religious service. 
 
 When you introduce a gentleman and lady always mention the name of the lady 
 first, as : Mrs. A. permit me to introduce you to my J?iend Mr. B. or Mrs. A. allow me to 
 
 make you acquainted with my friend Mr. B. Always pronounce the names distinctly so 
 that either party may have no misunderstanding. If the name is not understood by 
 either, that one may say, “ I beg pardon, I did not hear the name,” or “ Excuse me, I did 
 not get the name” A lady when introduced to a gentleman need not offer her hand, but 
 bowing gracefully, may acknowledge the introduction. 
 
 A lady’s permission should be obtained before introducing her to a gentleman, ex- 
 cept in some cases, for instance, where the person introducing the parties is upon terms 
 of firm friendship with both. The lady of the house introducing her guests, or a mother 
 introducing her son, etc. 
 
 But always the friend introducing the parties must be persuaded that the acquain- 
 tance will be mutually desirable. 
 
 With gentlemen the matter of introductions may be less formal, as : Mr. A. this is 
 Mr. B; my friend Mr. A., Mr. B. 
 
 Introductions are rarely given on the street unless desired by the parties, or they are 
 walking in the same direction for some time. 
 
 Ladies may kiss each other when meeting, or upon being introduced. Gentlemen 
 usually shake hands with each other. 
 
 The use of titles in introductions should be gracefully and distinctly done, or not at 
 all. In introducing a single person to a number, pronounce the name but once, so that 
 all may understand, Mr. G., I make you acquainted with Mr. H., Mr. I f Mr. J.> designating 
 each in turn by a gesture. Persons meeting at the house of a mutual friend, although 
 they are not upon good terms with each other must be courteous out of respect to their 
 host or hostess. 
 
 A gentleman may proffer his needed service to a lady, in a respectful manner’ 
 whether acquainted or not. He may lift his hat and say, “ Excuse me , may I assist you ? * 
 A true lady will accept such proffered service, and the gentleman will not on that ac- 
 count presume to press an acquaintance. 
 
 When a person has been introduced to you it is the height of ill breeding to ignore 
 him, however distasteful he may be. 
 
364 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 
 ETIQUETTE IN THE HOME. 
 
 |HE due observance of the forms and requirements of good society among the 
 members of the same family is most requisite to an easy grace of man- 
 ners and air of refinement. Not to speak of the duty of treating our most 
 intimate friends, and those whose interests are most closely allied to our 
 own, with the same courtesy and attention that we bestow upon casual 
 acquaintances, or strangers, this is the surest method of acquiring the habits which are 
 requisite in the best company. By a constant attendance upon these matters an ease of 
 manner and natural demeanor are acquired that no amount of subsequent training will 
 give. Lord Chesterfield, from whom we have already taken so much, writes to his son : 
 
 “ The most familiar and intimate habitudes, connections and friendships require a 
 degree of good breeding, both to preserve and cement them. The best of us have our 
 bad sides, and it is as imprudent as it is illbred to exhibit them. I shall not use cere- 
 mony with you, it would be misplaced between us, but I shall certainly observe that de_ 
 gree of good breeding with you which is, in the first place, decent, and which I am sure 
 is absolutely necessary to make us like one another’s company long.’* 
 
 This is the most sensible counsel which can be given in all the close relations of 
 life, to husbands and wives, to parents and children, to friends and relations, to partners 
 in business, and fellow workmen in trades. 
 
 The scriptural injunction should be heeded. Parents provoke not your children to 
 wrath. ” The habit of teasing and bantering children for sport or the entertainment of 
 others is both foolish and wicked. 
 
 An epithet of ridicule given husband or wife by the other to occasion a little merri- 
 ment, lowers the parent in the eyes of the children, and produces a lasting injury hard to 
 be undone. 
 
 Constant criticism and covert fault finding, either in direct words, or by covert in- 
 sinuation, is both incompatible with good breeding, and destructive to the good feeling 
 which should underlay all true politeness. The use of any term not in accord with re- 
 spectful address to either parent in their presence at any time, is most reprehensible. 
 
 The child who calls his mother “ The Governess, ” “ The Empress, ” or any other 
 title not recognized in good society, shows a bad heart as well as ill-breeding. No one 
 thinks of doing this, yet the lad will speak of “ The Old Man, ” “ The Governor, ” or 
 “ The Emperor, ” in referring to his father. But this is as much a want of refinement as 
 the other. 
 
 At home there should be “ line upon line, precept upon precept, ” in teaching the 
 young by word and example the habits of good society. If it is made a daily matter it 
 will come to be worn easily and naturally like an every day garment, and not with con- 
 straint and awkwardness like a dress coat that is worn only on rare occasions, and for 
 show. 
 
 Let each be taught to respect the rights and feelings of the others ; never proffer a 
 request or secure a favor without observing the due forms of politeness. “ If you please I 
 will take,” etc., I will thank you to,” etc., •* Shall I trouble you for,” etc., always followed 
 when the request is granted, with, “ I thank you,” “ Thanks,” or “ I am much obliged.” 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 365 
 
 VISITORS AT THE HOME. 
 
 N commending a certain person or class, the apostle says the* they were 
 given to hospitality. 
 
 Hospitality is enjoined as a Christian virtue, an4 it as the duty of all 
 householders to exercise it towards friends, and to some extent towards 
 strangers. 
 
 The author of our being did not intend that we should prescribe our life within narrow 
 limits but of course each family has a right, within the conventionalities of good society 
 to select who shall become its guests. Either of two extremes should be avoided by 
 young housekeepers, entertaining too much company, or not receiving any company. 
 
 The advice of the Duke of Sully on this matter is timely and good. “Live frugally 
 that you may live happily ; shut not your doors or hearts against those who have a claim 
 upon your hospitality, but remember, if they really esteem and love you, they will come 
 not to look at your table or furniture, but to enjoy your society.” 
 
 The chief art of hospitality is to cause the guest to have a feeling of home that puts 
 him at his ease. If any thing has arisen to cause you annoyance, do not burden your 
 guests with a recital of your troubles. 
 
 Some persons seem born with the faculty of making everything about them pleasant 
 to all who are with them. They have great discernment, and can encourage the bash- 
 ful, draw out the diffident, repress the forward, and call forth the personal talent of each 
 to advantage, while others strive ever so hard, are unable to do this. But this should be 
 cultivated so far as possible to add to the comfort and pleasure of all. 
 
 If you are entertaining visitors for any length of time it is proper to give them an 
 insight into your mode of living. It is their duty not to encroach too much upon your 
 time, but conform to your established methods. You have a right to give the morning 
 hours to your domestic duties. 
 
 After dinner you should devote your time to their entertainment. You have, it is 
 presumed, provided everything for their comfort, so far as you could before the arrival of 
 the guest. 
 
 Make your guest feel that his visit is a real pleasure to you, and provide for recrea- 
 tions and amusements, which do not enter into the usual routine. Do this without giving 
 the impression that you are “ putting yourself out ” or taking unusual pains, but in a 
 natural easy matter-of-course way that says, “ I am used to this sort of thing.” 
 
 If guests are invited state the day and week when it will be convenient for them to 
 come and the period you would like them to remain, so that they may regulate their own 
 duties and amount of dress to bring to correspond. 
 
 When the guest intimates a desire or necessity of departing and you wish them to 
 continue the visit, say so frankly, but do not urge it, for the visitor is supposed to know 
 his own mind and understand his own business better than yourself. If a longer visit is 
 distasteful to you or tends to disarrange your plans, do not practice any deception by say- 
 ing to the contrary. This is not only a violation of truth, but of good breeding ; of course 
 no guest would depart without giving expression to regrets and good will, and to neglect 
 writing on reaching home to inform of safe arrival, is a gross breach of etiquette. No 
 
366 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 well bred person would be guilty of this, norfail to express gratitude to all the members 
 of the family mentioning each by name in the letter. 
 
 It is proper for guests to remember servants who have bestowed attention upon 
 them, and performed unusual services for them, with a gift of money or its equivalent. 
 
 Above all, the guests in civilized communities should equal the Arab in one respect 
 at least, “he never speaks ill of those whose salt he has eaten. ” It is the height of ill 
 breeding for a guest to repeat to another what he has heard in the privacy of the house, 
 or what he has learned by observation there. This is perfectly unendurable, and ought 
 to debar the party guilty of such a breach of morality and etiquette, not only from the 
 hospitality which he has violated, but from the home of every one, whose sanctity he 
 would be equally ready to violate in the same way. 
 
 CEREMONIOUS VISITS. 
 
 ISITS of ceremony are given after receiving any marked attention from 
 the hands of your friends, and are required by the usages of good society. 
 Though they may demand a considerable amount of time, taking 
 all together, they are not to be neglected, as they are essential to pro- 
 mote good feeling. 
 
 You should call within a week after being invited to a dinner or supper party, or 
 private reception, but the call must be of short duration, unaccompanied by children or 
 pets. You should hand your card to the servant and inquire if tho lady or ladies are at 
 home. When you have gained access to the parlor you retain your hat in hand, not 
 placing it upon rack or table. If other callers are announced do not rise to leave until 
 they are seated. The hostess is not required to introduce casual c allers, but, if you are 
 waiting in the parlor with strangers, you may enter into general conversation with them, 
 and when the lady of the house enters the conversation becomes mutual. Your calls 
 should be made at such hours as you know or think that the lady i* prepared to receive. 
 In the large cities the reception days are printed upon the visiting card : “ At home 
 
 Mondays , from 12 o clock to 4. Only the closest friends will call at any other time. 
 
 When you are intending to be absent from home for a long time, several months, it 
 is your duty to call upon all your friends, send or leave cards for each member of the 
 family. If you neglect to do this previous to a long voyage, or your marriage, it is an 
 intimation that the acquaintance ceases. On return from the voyage or marriage trip, 
 those to whom cards have been sent are to call first. 
 
 A slip of thin card, with the name and residence of the person, is acccepted instead 
 of a visit. Before the name Miss, Mrs. or Mr. is written, or the professional title, but 
 the political, military or naval rank are not designated. 
 
 Never send your visiting card through the post office. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 367 
 
 TREATMENT OF CALLERS. 
 
 O not keep a caller waiting longer than is necessary for the exigencies of 
 the case. 
 
 To perform needlework during a ceremonious call is considered dis- 
 courteous, except in cases of very intimate friends, and when the work 
 does not interfere with conversation. To measure or count stitches, or 
 any work requiring undivided attention, is always discourteous to a caller. 
 
 To look at the watch, or glance at the clock is an intimation that the call has been 
 prolonged to an improper length. If the visitor has come from a distance, or has been 
 long from home, offer some slight refreshment. 
 
 Keep a Visitors’ Book, with record ol calls received and made, for time passes so 
 quickly, and memory is too treacherous to be entrusted with little details. Return calls 
 at proper times. If, however, persons are sick, or infirm, you may call without reference 
 to return calls. 
 
 CALLS FOR CONGRATULATION. 
 
 A call of congratulations may be made after the birth of a child, taking a bouquet of 
 flowers. When a friend has received an appointment to office, or promotion, or has pub- 
 lished a successful book, made a great speech, sermon, or performed any successful 
 achievement in art or literature, it is proper to call ; or when your friends intend to marry. 
 
 CALLS FOR CONSOLATION 
 
 Should be made within a week after bereavement, or after the family has appeared 
 at church. 
 
 You send in your card and inquire if your friends will receive you. The lady caller 
 should be dressed in quiet colors. When the party or parties appear wait until they make 
 the first mention of their bereavement before you speak of it, and then speak in kindly 
 sympathy, but not in a formal, constrained manner. Where invitations are sent to at- 
 tend the funeral, only those to whom they are sent are expected to call. 
 
 SOCIAL CALLS. 
 
 HEN your friends have rooms at a hotel or boarding house send up your 
 card by a servant, and wait until invited before entering the room. 
 
 If a gentleman calls upon a lady who is receiving a lady caller, he 
 rises when she takes her leave and hands her to the carriage. 
 
 In this country ladies are permitted considerable latitude in making 
 and receiving calls, etc. They may appear upon the street in the day time unattended by 
 gentlemen or ladies, and many attend places of amusement, instruction, or religious 
 service alone in the day time. 
 
368 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 In regard to the retiring caller she may do as she pleases, accompany them to the 
 door, shaking hands with them, or bidding them good day in the parlor, ring for a ser- 
 vant to show the visicor out. 
 
 Good manners should be observed constantly and to all, if we would have them a 
 part of our life, and not the mere varnish to be applied at certain times and for certain 
 
 purposes. 
 
 The person who forgets to be polite to a servant, or inferior, is most likely to neglect 
 the duty to others whose good opinion he desires to retain. 
 
 POLITENESS WHILE TRAVELING. 
 
 one should forget that he is a gentleman or she is a lady when traveling. 
 Each should remember the courtesies due to all, and neither take or give 
 what is not regarded his right in the best society. The man who takes more 
 room on a car than he is entitled to by the fare he has paid, is far more ill- 
 bred than the one who, by his boisterous conduct, disturbs the rest of his 
 fellow passengers. 
 
 A lady may safely travel alone in the United States, and if any boor presumes U 
 take advantage of that fact, she has only to appeal to the protection of the nearest gen 
 tleman. In leaving the car at a way station the placing of a coat or valise upon the seat 
 is an indication that the owner has a right to the seat on his return. The rules in regard 
 to checks, tickets, &c., may be found in the chapter on Commercial Law under the title 
 of Common Carriers. 
 
 THE ETIQUETTE OBSERVABLE AT TABLE, 
 
 HE right to be called a gentleman or lady can be tested nowhere else more 
 readily than at the table, and children will there show their careful train- 
 ing, or want of it, more conspicuously than in almost any other way. 
 Those who regard the hour for meals as intended only to supply needed 
 food, and, therefore, a duty which must be performed as speedily as pos- 
 sible, are laboring under a serious mistake. If they are inclined to regard all reference 
 to the etiquette of the table, and other refinements connected with eating, as of little 
 moment, they are unobserving and short-sighted. 
 
 The family meal ought to be served with the same regard to proprieties and arrange- 
 ment when only the home circle are present as when the table is filled with guests. It 
 should be made the occasion of interesting and profitable social intercourse, not only for 
 the benefit of the ease and refinement it gives the young people but for the health of all. 
 “ Chatted food is half digested food,” has come to be a proverb. A meal eaten 
 in silence, or when brooding over some question of business, or in the discussion of dis- 
 agreeable topics, or when the mind is highly excited by any of the master passions, is 
 both unwise and harmful. As a nation we have a reputation not to be envied in this 
 respect. We eat in a hurry, bolting the articles of food as if we had no relish for them, 
 and were in haste to perform a disagreeable duty. The city merchant treats his break- 
 fast and his morning paper in the same way and at the same time, getting through with 
 both as speedily as possible, allowing his brain no rest. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 369 
 
 The farmer finishes his enormous plateful of meat, vegetables, pie or pudding, as he 
 would any other distasteful job, and hurries away from the table before his wife and 
 daughters have had time to serve the men folks and wait upon themselves. 
 
 The student hurries to his boarding house as fast as he can walk after the recitation 
 hour is over, bolts his food as a horse does his oats — as fast as possible — and hurries 
 away to his base ball or boat practice. All these are sowing the fruitful seeds of dispep- 
 sia, or apoplexy, that will in future years bring a harvest of sorrow. 
 
 Sociability is a good digester of food, and the adjunct of a pleasant and proper meal. 
 Solomon has wisely said : “ Better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox 
 
 and hatred therewith.” There is true morality and correct hygiene for all. Let the neat 
 and tasteful arrangement of the viands, however poor they may be, please the eye, and 
 the bright and pleasant conversation of the circle please the mind, and there will be little 
 danger of indigestion or want of appetite. The little things of life which cost nothing 
 in themselves, but are of priceless value, are those which make home what it was 
 designed to be, the most attractive spot in all the world for its inmates. 
 
 The more you invite good society to your table the better, and you can judge of the 
 hospitality of the family and the training of the children more by their demeanor at one 
 meal, than by seeing them under other circumstances for hours. 
 
 THE HONORS OF THE TABLE. 
 
 • 
 
 HE duties of the host and hostess are to attend to the wants and add to the 
 pleasure of their guests in every way, without bustle, confusion, or the 
 appearance of being over-solicitous. It requires tact and judgment of hu- 
 man nature to do this, observing the little peculiarities of people and the 
 indications of their preferences. Of course it is presumed that the table 
 is in readiness, and all things needed are in easy reach of either master or mistress of 
 the house, or can be at once produced by servant. If anything is needed where there 
 is no servant ask one of the family to procure it, and not suffer two persons to leave the 
 table at once during the meal. 
 
 Having ascertained the preferences of the guest to any particular portion of the 
 main dish, help him to that, not too abundantly but enough to tempt the appetite, and 
 have him ready for more. Do not urge more upon a person who has declined. 
 
 Avoid the extreme of carelessness in attention to guests on the one hand, and too 
 great officiousness on the other. Study the wishes of your guests, and in an easy, nat' 
 ural manner, without making a display of such intention, seek to supply them. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVANCES. 
 
 * 
 
 Avoid these ill-bred and disagreeable things : 
 
 Passing the plate to which the host has helped you to another. He knew in what 
 order he wished to serve his guests, and you need not dictate to him. 
 
 Refusing the last piece upon a plate. The old-fashioned idea of not taking the last 
 
370 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 piece is obsolete, and refusing to do so when it is needed is a reflection upon the ability 
 of the host to furnish more. 
 
 Reaching across the table for an article which another might hand you. 
 
 The use of your knife in the butter plate, or your fork in any article not upon your 
 own plate. 
 
 The use of the knife for any other purpose than cutting your own food. 
 
 Waiting after you are helped before commencing to eat until others are served. 
 Spread your napkin on your person to protect the clothing, but never tuck it under your 
 chin for a bib. 
 
 DINNER PARTIES. THEIR REQUIREMENTS 
 
 INNER parties have been supposed to be the indicators of the social pro- 
 gress in a community, and in all generations have been productive of 
 kindly relations between nations, and conducive to the acquaintance of 
 the educated and refined. The ability to preside with elegance and 
 dignity, and to carve with ease and grace, are marks of refinement which 
 cannot be disputed. Upon the subject of carving we refer the reader to the department 
 of cookery. 
 
 The number to be invited to a select dinner party must, of course, be limited 
 Some insist that eight persons are all that can be entertained with due attention to the 
 physical and mental requirements of each. Others ten, but all, whether claiming to be 
 superstitious or not, dislike to set down at a table of thirteen persons in deference to the 
 superstition that if that number, and no more, eat at the same time, one of them will die 
 before the close of the year. If it is to be a formal dinner party the invitations should 
 be issued some time in advance, and the persons invited are bound to respond at once if 
 there is the least uncertainty as to their ability to attend, so that the host can supply his 
 place with another friend. The note of regret must be well worded, as : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A formal acceptance should read : 
 
 
 / 
 
 . 
 
 The acceptance should be directed to the lady, although addressed as above. 
 
 When any doubt arises in your mind as to your ability to attend a dinner party, 
 you should decline at once. But if for an evening party, you would accept, and if being 
 afterwards unable to attend, send regrets. The reason for this is that a dinner party 
 must needs be more select and limited in number than an evening party. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 371 
 
 TABLE ORNAMENTS AND ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 RNAMENTING and arranging the table should not be left to the care of 
 servants unless they are well trained, for this is a very essential part of 
 the dinner, adding much to the comfort or pleasure of the guests. To 
 quote the words of another : “ It has been well said that if you ask a man 
 to dinner you are responsible for his happiness while he remains under 
 your roof, and he who asks his friends to dinner and gives no personal attention to the 
 dinner is unworthy to have any friends.” 
 
 Notice that the center piece does not take too much space, and is not too high to 
 prevent the guests sitting opposite from seeing each other. 
 
 Have a tasty and diffuse display of flowers. 
 
 A very desirable ornament for the center can be made with a block of ice 12 x 16 
 or 18, on a silver salver, or it may be placed upon a common waiter embedded in moss, 
 bright flowers, with trailing vines to conceal the base of the ice. It serves to cool the 
 air overheated by the viands and the presence of the guests, and for this reason has a 
 refreshing influence upon all. 
 
 Many elegant and lovely devices can be obtained at the china and silver stores 
 which, by the aid of the florist, can be made really attractive 
 
 Each guest should have ample space, and there should be placed beside each plate a 
 napkin, two large knives and forks, a tumbler, and (if wine is to be served) three wine 
 glasses, a twisted roll or small piece of bread, also a soup spoon ; then when the dessert 
 is served, a silver knife, fork and spoon. 
 
 Less regard is given in this country to rank or other distinction than in European 
 countries. Yet there is a certain caste in society which is to be respected. When the 
 servant announces that the dinner is ready each gentleman escorts the lady whom the 
 host has designated to him to the dining room, the host, giving his arm to the most dis- 
 tinguished or the greatest stranger among the lady guests, leading the way, the hostess 
 inviting the most distinguished or greatest stranger among the gentlemen present to 
 escort her, frequently urges the other guests to precede her, proceeds to her seat, and 
 motioning her escort to a seat at her right. The guests are informed of their places, 
 care being taken that a lady sits at the right and left hand of the host, a gent at the right 
 and left of hostess, gentlemen and ladies alternating if possible. At stylish parties there 
 is a servant for every three or four guests. 
 
 The first course is usually raw oysters or clams served on the shell. Then soup, of 
 which there are two kinds, one dark and one white, which the guest may choose ; two! 
 kinds of fish, roast beef or mutton, or both, while fowl, wild game, and side dishes may 
 follow ad libitum and finally the dessert ends up with plain crackers and cheese, served 
 after every dainty dish has been offered. The custom for ladies to retire before the gen- 
 tlemen, that they may enjoy their drinking to excess, does not prevail in this country to 
 any extent. Nor is a guest obliged to indulge in wine or cigars. When the servant 
 offers to fill his glass he has only to cover the top of his glass with his fingers and say> 
 “ Please excuse me,” that is sufficient, and it is a breach of courtesy to urge him. The 
 
372 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 more refined portions of society adopt the custom now of rising all together, gentlemen 
 and ladies, from the table, and repairing to the parlor, where the company entertain 
 themselves with music, cards, etc., while any of the gentlemen who wish repair to the 
 Smoking room to indulge in a cigar. 
 
 ENTERTAINING COMPANY. 
 
 BY RALPH WALDO EMERSON 
 
 whole philosophy of hospitality is summed up in the following manner : 
 “ I pray you, O excellent wife ! not to cumber yourself and me to get a rich 
 dinner for this man or this woman who has alighted at our gate, nor the 
 bedchamber made ready at too great a cost. These things, if they are 
 curious in, they can get for a dollar at the village. But let this man see, 
 if he will, in your looks, in your accent and behavior, your heart and earnestness, your 
 thought and will, what he cannot buy at any price, at any village or city, and which 
 he may well travel fifty miles and dine sparingly and work hard in order to behold. Cer- 
 tainly let the board be spread and the bed be dressed for the traveler, but not let the 
 emphasis of hospitality be in these things. Honor to the house where they are simple to 
 the verge of hardship, so that the intellect is awake and sees the laws of the universe, the 
 soul worships truth and love, honor and courtesy flow into all deeds.” One of the greatest 
 comforts of having a home should be that in it we have a place for friends and even 
 strangers — rooms, more than supply the needs of the family and extra “ leaves ” to the 
 extension-table. The secret of true hospitality, as Emerson has stated, is in its coming 
 from the heart. 
 
 A FEW HINTS TO YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS . 
 
 ELECT your guests among those who are agreeable to each other in such 
 a way that there shall be variety but no inharmony, in ages, professions, 
 tastes and attainments. 
 
 Invite an equal number of gentlemen and ladies unless the party be 
 wholly of gentlemen. 
 
 By far the best arrangement is for the master and mistress of the house to sit oppo- 
 site each other in the center of the table with a lady member of the family at one end 
 and a gentleman member at the other end of the table, so that each gentleman may 
 receive attention. 
 
 The soup is served by servants, after the guests are seated, or if the dinner be an 
 informal one it may be placed in a tureen and the hostess serve it first to the right and 
 then to the left. 
 
 No one asks for soup or fish the second time, nor does the hostess offer it. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 373 
 
 Sometimes where only one servant is employed the soup may be placed on the table 
 at each seat before the guests are seated. 
 
 Oysters and clams on the shell are served before the soup, if at all. 
 
 No one will drink wine unless he chooses, and it should not be urged upon a guest. 
 
 The cloth is rarely removed for the dessert now, because large napkins are usually 
 placed under the dishes, to be removed before the last course. 
 
 Let your demeanor be easy and perfectly composed at the dinner table. 
 
 Use low and quiet tones in speaking, and avoid fussiness either with servants, chil- 
 dren or guests. Be pleasant, but not continuously laughing, though that would be better 
 than sourness. 
 
 Teach your servants to be neat and tidy, and attend upon all the little details of wait- 
 ing when you have no guests, and they will be prepared when friends come in unexpect- 
 edly, to perform their duties in an easy, graceful and tidy manner. 
 
 EVENING ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 F the party is to be a simple evening entertainment, you should so state in 
 your invitations, but if a dress party or a ball, a large or a small gathering 
 intimate it so that your guests need not be embarrassed upon the question 
 of dress. 
 
 The caprices of fashion must govern the hour for a party. 
 
 You should provide two dressing rooms, one for ladies, one for gentlemen, with all 
 conveniences, with separate attendants for each, to assist in removing wraps, &c. 
 
 The first imperative duty of guests is to pay their respects to the host and hostess, 
 on coming from the dressing room, the gentleman waiting for the lady whom he has 
 escorted to the party, offering his arm, and with her entering the parlor finds the host 
 and hostess. 
 
 It is the duty of a gentleman to *see that the lady whom he escorts is entertained, 
 her needs provided for, and that she has an escort to the supper table, but if she be 
 mother, sister or wife, he may attend her to the supper room himself. 
 
 When she has found other acquaintances it is proper for him to leave her for a time, 
 always taking notice that she is not unattended or neglected. 
 
 We do not see why a gentleman and his wife should be debarred from waltzing, 
 dancing, or conversing with each other to their heart’s content if it is a pleasure to both, 
 although some authorities say it is not considered strictly decorous for husband and wife 
 to seek each other’s company in society. 
 
 And a high authority says : “A gentleman never dances with his wife unless every 
 one else in the quadrille does the same.” 
 
 Of course it might be considered out of taste for him to dance continually with her 
 but we see no valid reason why he should neglect her because she is his wife. 
 
 A guest may move about quite unrestrained at small private parties conversing here 
 and there with other guests. 
 
 It is the duty of the hostess to add to the amusement and pleasure of all her guests 
 without distinction, and see that none are neglected. 
 
374 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 She must find her own pleasure in seeking that of her guests, making arrangements 
 to have them show off to advantage. Her toilet should be quiet, not outshining that 
 of any guest, and unless there are strangers demanding her attention she should make 
 no distinction in her manner towards any. 
 
 THE SUPPER TABLE. 
 
 HE hostess is relieved from the responsibility of the supper table in cities 
 and towns by obtaining the service of the caterer. But in the country 
 where such an one cannot be obtained, she should superintend the prep- 
 aration. Full directions will be given in the Department of Domestic 
 Economy. 
 
 We cannot forbear one item of advice: Always forget to furnish wine. Aside from 
 the question of morality and responsibility which are connected, young people do not. 
 need any other stimulant than that which is afforded by pleasant company, flowers, 
 music and pleasant viands. 
 
 Every gentleman will offer his arm to a lady when the supper is served and escort 
 her to the table, taking care that her wants are supplied from the delicacies there spread 
 before helping himself, and afterwards attend her back to the reception room. 
 
 TAKING LEAVE. 
 
 O not leave without bidding adieu to the host and hostess, nor remain until 
 all the other guests have gone, nor leave too early and thus attract the 
 attention, as much as to say “ You are keeping this up too late, and I will 
 set you an example.” 
 
 If any circumstances make it necessary for you to retire early, seek 
 the hostess and without attracting the attention of the other guests quietly explain and 
 withdraw. If this cannot be done, then leave at once, without bidding any one good 
 night. 
 
 When the leave-taking is general, be sure to take the right hand in passing through 
 the halls and up and down the stairways, thus avoiding confusion. This rule holds good 
 in all public places of entertainment. 
 
 AN EARLY GALL AFTERWARDS. 
 
 It is the duty of guests to call upon their hostess within a few days after the party, 
 say a week. 
 
 You will express in a few well chosen words, without formality, and in sincerity the 
 pleasure afforded you, complimenting her upon her arrangements, guests, and the enter- 
 tainments. To neglect this call would be impolite and subject you to adverse criticism. 
 
 Many persons who complain that they are not invited out may find the sole reason, 
 if they will but seek, within themselves. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 375 
 
 MANNERS. PERSONAL APPEARANCE. DRESS. 
 
 HILE the old adage remains true, “ Dress does not make the man,” yet a 
 due regard to the elegancies of life in this respect is not only the duty of 
 all who would be received in good society in accordance with their merit, 
 but also a passport to favor and position ; while the man who persist- 
 ently disregards or neglects this will be embarrassed and hindered in his 
 advancement whatever may be his talent. 
 
 The following incident is related of the celebrated French painter, Gerard: When 
 
 he was a young man he presented a letter of introduction to Lanjuinais, then of the 
 Council of Napoleon. He was very coolly received by the minister because of his shabby 
 and uncouth dress. But, displaying a talent in conversation and merit of an extraordi- 
 nary nature, Lanjuinais accompanied him to the door on his departure with such extreme 
 cordiality as to attract the young man’s attention. Upon perceiving this the minister 
 said: “Young man, we receive an unknown person according to his dress ; we take 
 
 leave of him according to his merit.” This is true to some extent, but not altogether 
 true. Yet the first impression is governed to an extent by the dress, and we cannot help 
 'it if we would. A tasteful, appropriate costume, adapted to the form and complexion of 
 the individual, and not too expensive, is the mark of gentility neither out of nor in the 
 extreme of fashion, always bearing in mind the position of the individual in the social 
 scale. 
 
 It is always best to consider the size, form and complexion in the selection of new 
 garments rather than the prevailing fashion. Do not attract attention by being either 
 over-dressed or under-dressed. 
 
 A brunette should avoid silks, thibets or muslins in dark, subdued colors, always 
 excepting black. While a person of fair complexion should avoid high colors and too 
 much variety. 
 
 It should be consistent with one’s age and external appearance. 
 
 The dress should be adapted to the occasion and society in which one is moving. 
 
 An ease of manner will be attained by feeling that one is properly dressed, that can- 
 not be attained if he is constantly reminded of a want in this respect. 
 
 Every one, gentleman or lady, should avoid the two extremes ; one of thinking too 
 much about the dress, the other of ignoring the matter altogether. While you have en- 
 gaged in conversation for a time with a lady, and do not remember how she was dressed, 
 you may be sure that she was clad in taste. 
 
 After you have paid all due attention to tne matter of dress before your appearance 
 in company, do not give it another thought, but leave your mind free to attend to the 
 courtesies of the occasion. And do not attract the attention of others by manner, ges- 
 ture, or reference to your dress in any way. 
 
 The compliment of a lady upon her dress should be done judiciously and in well 
 chosen terms or not at all. Let the dress be what it is intended to be, for the protection 
 and adornment of the person, and not to advertise the wealth of the wearer, or the es- 
 tablishment where it was purchased. 
 
 Much more might be added, but the hints above given form the ground work of all 
 that ought to be said. 
 
376 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 THE CARE OF THE PERSON AND THE TOILET. 
 
 amount of talent or genius can atone for the habits of carelessness and 
 neglect of the person into which many have fallen. Not to speak of the 
 importance of the matter from a hygienic standpoint, it is encumbent 
 upon all to avoid everything that would be offensive and disagreeable to 
 others with whom he associates. 
 
 The cleanliness of the person in all its minor details adds very much to the enjoy- 
 ment of life, and heightens the regard of those with whom he associates. We might go 
 into the details of the toilet, but our readers are sufficiently conversant with the matter 
 if they only give it due attention. 
 
 The care of the hair and the preservation of the teeth in their natural whiteness, de- 
 mand daily attention. The external parts of the system, concealed by the clothing, 
 should not be neglected, while the proper appearance of the hands, ears, neck and face 
 are to be regarded by all means. Frequent bathings are conducive to health, and pro- 
 duce an exhilaration at once grateful to the individual and agreeable to all, because it 
 removes the effete matter that has exuded from the pores, and the invisible perspiration 
 that collects upon the surface of the body. 
 
 Attend to the bath as a sacred duty of the toilet that nothing but sickness and in- 
 firmity should prevent. 
 
 The preservation of beauty of complexion can be accomplished by a proper attention 
 to the laws of physical health in diet, exercise and bathing, and any attempt to heighten 
 the natural charms, or hide defects, by cosmetics, will be attended with injurious effect 
 to the skin if not to the health ; but, for the benefit of “whom it may concern,” we give 
 a few harmless receipts for 
 
 ADJUNCTS TO THE TOILET. 
 
 ACE WHITE. — French chalk, finely powdered, is one of the most harm- 
 less. Whitestarch, powdered, is also used. Another — i lb. starch ; 4 oz 
 oxide bismuth. 
 
 Hair Oil. — One pint fine olive oil ; 16 drops ottar roses. If color 
 is desired, use alkanet root strained before putting in the ottar of roses. 
 ce the Hair Curl. — One pound olive oil ; one drachm oil of Origanum ; 
 one and a quarter drachms oil of rosemary. 
 
 Caution. — White lead, and all cosmetics having it for a base, should be avoided, as 
 it is most dangerous. 
 
 Hair dyes are all pernicious. Avoid the use of all coloring material under whatever 
 name sold or by whom recomended, for the complexion. 
 
 Hair brushes, nail brushes, tooth brushes, and flesh brushes, etc., are important ad- 
 juncts to the toilet table, and should be used habitually. 
 
 A due attention should be paid to the breath. Personal neatness is the mark of 
 gentility which cannot be disregarded with impunity by any one. An untidy, ill-dressed 
 slovenly appearing man is repulsive in any society ; what shall we say of such a woman. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 377 
 
 Teach your young people that an ease of manner, tidiness in dress, courteous de- 
 portment and refinement in address are requisites for success, but not the chief or greatest 
 duty of an earnest, true manhood or womanhood. They are the graces and adornments 
 that heighten and make attractive the solid fabric of true character. 
 
 COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE. 
 
 HIS subject is by far the most important of any in the great problems of 
 social life. 
 
 The marriage state is the foundation stone upon which the super- 
 structure of all society rests — the family, the community, the State, the 
 world. If this be insecure, or ill-chosen, the whole fabric suffers in com 
 
 sequence. 
 
 The most important changes in life are made at this point. The young lady goes 
 out from the sanctity of her girlhood home to form a home of her own. The young man 
 turns his back upon the friendships and surroundings of his earlier years to enter a 
 realm of beauty and happiness, where these cannot enter save as he opens the way for 
 them to catch glimpses merely of what that enchanted land may possess. This step 
 is taken not for a day, but for a life, and “ should not be entered into thoughtlessly,, 
 inconsiderately, or unadvisedly.” Nor should the least step be taken leading thereto* 
 which one would, of necessity, be obliged to retrace. 
 
 While the duty of choice must devolve upon the parties most interested, the man 
 and woman who are to enter the state, the advice and suggestion of parents and rela- 
 tives upon the matter are to be considered, but we insist that no one has a right to inter- 
 fere with the matter in the least. 
 
 AN OFFER OF MARRIAGE. 
 
 Love will seek its own vehicle of thought and expression, and be as varied in form 
 as the thousand peculiarities of individuality. If it is done in the formal and hackneyed 
 phraseology of the “ Popular Letter Writer,” as if copied for the purpose, it may be safe 
 to question its sincerity. No encouragement m words or manner ought to be presented 
 which a refined gentleman would construe into a personal regard for himself, unless there 
 is sincerity. The thoughtless flirt who would lure a man on to a declaration of le grande 
 passion , only to deceive and ridicule him, is unworthy the title of lady. She who does 
 not scruple to sacrifice the aspirations and hopes of a gentleman upon the altar of her^ 
 inordinate vanity, for the purpose of boasting of her conquests, is an object to be shunned 
 by man and woman. If this is said of the female flirt, what words can be too mean, too 
 contemptuous for a recognized male flirt. When a lady perceives that she has become 
 attractive to a gentleman for whom she has no more than a passing regard, she should 
 take some of the thousand little ways that women know how to employ so well without 
 rudeness, to make him sensible of the true condition of affairs, before he has taken the 
 final step. It is cruel, not to say discourteous, to leave him in suspense only to fling him 
 into the vortex of disappointment. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 378 
 
 It is far better not to receive any attentions from him, save those which are due to 
 all ladies from gentlemen, unless there is a tacit, if not expressed understanding in re- 
 gard to the whole subject. 
 
 Love, reason, and good common sense should govern in all these matters. Where 
 there is the first of these that alone should settle the whole question, other things being 
 equal. A due regard for the proprieties of the case, the laws of hereditary descent, 
 and relationship ought to have their proper weight. 
 
 Temperament, health, physical structure, taste, and education also should be consid- 
 ered before the affections are seated upon the object. A passing fancy, great admira- 
 tion or respect fora person must not be mistaken for the superlative passion itself. When 
 that has been aroused toward any lady who by her manner has indicated a preference for 
 the society of any true man, he has a God-given right to declare it in a respectful way at 
 a proper time, and choose his own words for doing it. 
 
 When such a declaration is made in writing answer it as becomes a true lady, ask- 
 ing the advice of parents, or if none, of some matured relative, letting no one else into 
 the secret. 
 
 If you are adverse to the proposition say so frankly and pointedly. Be sincere in 
 what you say, as your own happiness and that of another are involved for all time, if not 
 for eternity. If you intend to refuse the suit commence the reply with — “ Sir.” 
 
 There is enough pain and mortification in being rejected, but to be known as a 
 rejected lover is worse, and no true woman will subject an honorable man to that by 
 telling other persons of it. 
 
 When you have accepted the suit of a gentleman pray be sensible and use your 
 reason. Do not exhibit him in triumph as a great capture, to be led triumphantly before 
 your friends. Do not take advantage of his love and impose upon his better nature. 
 Nor seek to have him uniformly yield to your tastes, inclinations, and habits of thought. 
 Above all, do not try to excite his jealousy to test the strength of his affection. We 
 repeat, treat the matter with good common sense and remember that the to you new ex- 
 perience of happiness is as old as the race, and thousands have seen the same picture of 
 human life which you are now presenting. The tale of love is as old as our human 
 nature, but ever new to hearts that feel its power. 
 
 Your behavior to your accepted lover will affect all your life with him to a greater 
 degree than you imagine. A mutual forbearance, desire to please, concession to taste, 
 and promotion of each other’s happiness should be the characteristics of their dealing 
 with each other during engagement. 
 
 There should be a marked preference for each other’s society, but this can be shown 
 in a thousand ways without being constantly by each other’s side, or extolling the excel- 
 lences of each to one’s friends. 
 
 Above all, avoid insipid twaddle and silly pet names in company. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 :J7o» 
 
 LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 RUE sentiment is neither forced nor restrained, and the interchange of 
 thought between lovers should be natural and to the point. It need not 
 stray into the byways of literature, nor cull the flowers of poesy and rhetoric, 
 but breathe the spirit of the heart which indited it. If it is the impulse 
 of love it can no more be forced to flow into set channels of thought and 
 expression than the Nile can be turned back upon its source. They will be natural, 
 unaffected, and straightforward, all model love letters to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 ADDITIONAL HINTS TO ENGAGED PARTIES., 
 
 A closer and less restrained intimacy is allowed to persons engaged in this country 
 than elsewhere in the world. 
 
 When the suitor has been introduced to the friends of the lady she in turn is intro- 
 duced to his friends. The latter make the first call upon the lady’s family. 
 
 The lady will be more careful to refuse than encourage attention from other gentle- 
 men. Affected indifference and exclusiveness are alike in bad taste. Do not exhibit too 
 great freedom in public, or make too much display of affection. Treat the relatives and 
 friends of the opposite party with the respect which is due them under the circumstances. 
 Be not extravagant in presents and expressions of esteem. Begin as you intend to con- 
 tinue through life. The engagement ring, worn on the next to the little finger of the 
 right hand in England, sometimes the fore finger, in this country, should be a plain gold 
 band, set with gems, or if the lover can afford it, with diamonds. It remains there until 
 after marriage when it is transferred to the corresponding finger of the left hand as a 
 keeper for the wedding ring. 
 
 MARRIAGE CEREMONY. 
 
 Marriage being regarded as a religious ceremony, is usually performed in a 
 church, but with propriety can be performed at the home of the bride. 
 
 We will suppose that the all-important day has been set and the bride’s trousseau, 
 with all its hidden mysteries, has been prepared. Then the bride calls upon all her 
 acquaintances, whom she wishes to retain after marriage, or sends them a card with P. P« 
 C. (to take leave,) engraved on the right-hand lower corner. 
 
 This is done from four to two weeks before the wedding, and before the wedding 
 cards are out. 
 
 The yearly fashion decides the style and wording of the wedding cards. There 
 must be one containing the name of the bride, one that of the bridegroom, a large card 
 
380 
 
 THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 containing the names of the bride’s parents, the hour and date of the ceremony and of 
 the reception at the house. The present fashion requires two cards written in script* 
 thus : 
 
 
 The invitation to the reception should read : 
 
 If the married parties don’t take a trip, then a wedding card, with the name of hus- 
 band and wife should be sent to all friends. 
 
 twist/ 
 
 & 'c/ao/i. 
 
 J 6 J2. C^uwistte 
 
 HESE cards are sent to all the husband’s friends whom he wishes to retain. 
 The bride always rides to church with her parents, or those who fill 
 their place. 
 
 The bridegroom comes with his friends and endeavors to be on hand 
 , in time to help her out of her carriage. 
 
 The bridegroom furnishes a carriage for the officiating clergyman, and one for 
 himself. 
 
 The bridesmaids and grooms come in carriages furnished by the groomsmen. 
 
 The ushers are selected from the relatives and friends of both, and attend to assign- 
 ing the invited guests to seats in the church. 
 
 When the wedding party have arrived at church the last bridesmaid and grooms- 
 man precede them, the others following in the order in which they are to stand at the 
 altar. The father walks with the bride, and groom attends her mother. When arriving 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 381 
 
 at the altar the father and mother stand aside and the groom offers his reft ^rm to the 
 bride and take their places at the center of the altar. 
 
 Sometimes the bride and groom walk arm in arm behind the first bridesmaid and 
 groomsman, the former standing to the right, the latter to the left to leave a space for 
 the couple at the altar. 
 
 The near relatives stand in a group around the wedding party, or are seated in the 
 pews. 
 
 When the guests are all seated and before the arrival of the wedding cortege, the 
 ushers stretch a white ribbon along the entrance of the pews on either side of the aisle 
 up which the party is to come, to inform them that they are to remain in their places 
 Until the ceremony is over, and the cortege has passed out. Then the ribbon is removed, 
 ind the ushers announce the other carriages. 
 
 The ushers wear a white badge upon the left hand lappel of the coat. 
 
 When the party have reached the house of the bride’s parents, the ushers escort the 
 invited guests in to congratulate the newly married pair and introduce any who may not 
 be acquainted with both. The guests use well chosen words in congratulation. Do not 
 feiake the mistake of wishing either party many happy returns, as was once done. 
 
 A supper or dinner may be furnished by the bride’s parents, but should not be 
 ieyond the easy means of the family. 
 
 WEDDING CAKE 
 
 RIGINATED from a Latin custom of furnishing a cake of barley or wheat 
 to signify the close conjunction or union between man and wife. It forms 
 a conspicuous part of the wedding entertainment, and pieces are provided 
 in white paper for the guests to take home. 
 
 WEDDING CALLS. 
 
 When the day for receiving company has arrived, the friends should make their calls 
 as soon as possible, within two or three weeks.. Cake and wine may be served. If 
 business engagements prevent the young husband from being present, some gentleman 
 friend should represent him, apologizing for his absence, or if not a gentleman, some 
 l ady friend of the bride, not leaving her alone to perform this duty. 
 
 WEDDING GIFTS: 
 
 If they are the spontaneous promptings of the heart they have a significance of 
 greater value than money. If they are the forced demand of custom they are to be re- 
 gretted, for the day of reckoning will surely come. We gladly commend the custom, 
 which is gaining ground, to announce in the invitations, “ No presents received, ” and 
 advise our readers to adopt it. 
 
THE GUIDE TO POLITE SOCIETY. 
 
 832 
 
 HUSBANDS AND WIVES. 
 
 HUSBAND’S duty is to make an agreeable and attractive home for his 
 wife, and to do so he is to break away in a measure from his old modes 
 of living. No one who fails to receive a card has a right to call after 
 marriage, because the man has assumed new responsibilities, and knows 
 best how he can meet them. 
 
 The young husband should not conceal from his wife the condition of his business 
 and expect her to practice economy when she does not know the reason therefor 
 
 The more honorable and the happier way to do is to inform the wife just what the 
 income is expected to be, and what are the unavoidable expenses, and together plan for 
 the disbursement of the amount, he supplying her with so much money per week or 
 month for the house and giving her the whole management, unless she asks his assist- 
 ance. If she has sense enough to attract you for a husband, she has sense enough to at- 
 tend to your interests. 
 
 Be kind and patient to her in her new experience oi housekeeping. Do not notice 
 the little deficiences, much less complain of them, and never by word or intimation in- 
 sinuate that your old home was better kept. 
 
 Your own mother had the same experience before you were born. Praise your wife 
 and encourage her in all her duties. Remember, however much you appreciate her, a 
 word of that appreciation fitly spoken, makes her unusual burden lighter, and carries a 
 gleam of light that lasts when you are away from her side. Overpraise never kills, but 
 fretting and fault finding may destroy love. 
 
 By gentle treatment, courteous bearing, and an exhibition ot genuine affection teacn 
 jr'our wife to regard you as a Prince among men. 
 
 One of the chief duties of the wife is to make the house the most attractive place in 
 ill the world to her husband, a haven of rest from the cares and perplexities of business > 
 i.nd a home in every sense of the word, where the wicked can not come, and where the 
 sanctities of life have found their most endearing shrine. 
 
 We need not tell any sensible woman that she should not neglect her personal ap- 
 •jearance and dress when no one is to see her but her husband ; that his taste for beauty 
 “iiid neatness are so much to be regarded before as after marriage. 
 
 Why does it matter so much just how this that or the other thing is placed ? Is not 
 the great satisfaction of having pleased your husband better than the feeling of having 
 nad your own way at the expense of pain to him, or a slight alienation in affection that 
 may widen into an irreparable breach ? Be prompt at the toilet, the table, and in all the 
 duties of the household 
 
 Study the little personal peculiarities of your husband, and conform thereto. 
 
 When the question is one simply of taste or comfort, always yield to him with readi- 
 ness. He has no moral right to dictate in matters of conscience and belief, but even 
 ‘■here a quiet demeanor, and gentle passing over the differences of opinion, will accorm 
 nUsh more than persistent argument and debate. Never tease him, or make his foibles 
 ihe subject of merriment before others. 
 
THE ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL ROOM. 
 
 383 
 
 Yield to his superior judgment in matters pertaining to business life, and never re- 
 flect upon his not trusting your advice, even when afterwards he comes to see his mis- 
 take. 
 
 Never compare your home with your parents with that to which he has brought 
 you, in disparagement to the latter. Be not too hasty to get up in the world, but appre- 
 ciate all your husband is doing for your comfort and mutual advancement. Defer to his 
 wishes in all your social relations with other gentleman. 
 
 Do not give him the least cause to think that relations have regretted the choice you 
 have made. 
 
 Never take part in the first quarrel and you will have no second one. 
 
 THE ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL ROOM, 
 
 PUBLIC AND PRIVATE, WITH FULL INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 E directions which we give apply to private dancing parties, as well as to 
 public balls. 
 
 The lady of the house sends the invitation in her own name, using 
 small note paper of fine quality. If printed forms are most desired they 
 can usually be found at any stationery store in gold or silver. It is proper 
 to use gilt edged, but not colored paper. 
 
 A week or ten days before the ball is the proper time to send out the invitations. 
 The person receiving one should reply within two or three days of its reception, and 
 should address the lady sending it 
 
 This is the proper form to be employed : 
 
 Mrs. Peters requests the honor of Col. Brown s company at an evening party, on 
 
 Wednesday, May the ioth inst. 
 
 Dancing will commence at nine o’clock, 
 
 Thursday, April 27th. 
 
 And this is the reply . 
 
 Col Brown has much pleasure in accepting Mrs. Peters’ polite invitation for Wednesday 
 
 evening, May the ioth inst. 
 
 Friday, April 28th 
 
 There should be a room reserved for the accommodation of ladies, provided with 
 mirrors, brushes., combs, and other articles used in the toilet; and affording ample space 
 for the deposit of outside wraps. 
 
THE ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL ROOM. 
 
 A room for supplies of refreshment — coffee, ices, wines and lemonade — where guests 
 may repair at any time during the evening. If this is not done then pass refreshments 
 between the dancing. 
 
 TOILET FOR THE BALL ROOM. 
 
 Age, wealth and fashion must decide the matters of dress. The fickle goddess 
 changes so suddenly that what was fashionable to-day may be altogether different to-mor- 
 row. But we will venture to throw out a few general hints on the subject, in addition to 
 what has been said on dress in another place. 
 
 Even if the fashion demands long trails, ease and comfort in the ball room suggest 
 the propriety of wearing such as will conduce to the enjoyment of the lady and others 
 while in the dance. 
 
 Proper coverings for the hands and feet are indispensible. Too much jewelry is in 
 bad taste, but flowers are always attractive to any lady. 
 
 GENTLEMEN’S DRESS. . 
 
 ! 
 
 A gentleman should wear a simple suit in good taste and of excellent quality, black 
 enamelled boots, white necktie, white or delicate light colored gloves, a plain or embroid- 
 ered shirt, and but little jewelry. A watch chain with charms, and small but rich studs. 
 
 ETIQUETTE IN THE BALL ROOM. 
 
 First pay your respects to the hostess, then salute such acquaintances as are present. 
 
 At a public ball the gentleman must ask the committee to introduce him to any 
 strange lady with whom he wishes to dance. 
 
 No gentleman, at any time, must ask a lady to whom he has never been introduced 
 to dance with him, nor will a lady dance with a gentleman under the circumstances. 
 
 At a private party the guarantee of the host and hostess is sufficient to establish the 
 respectability of all the guests. The mere gathering of the company in the home of 
 their host is a kind of general introduction. 
 
 A gentleman should not presume upon the introduction in a ball room to claim ac- 
 quaintance with a lady unless she chooses to recognize him first. 
 
 No gentleman would accept an invitation to a ball if he is unable to dance. It is a 
 breach of etiquette to attempt to dance when he does not understand how, as well as an 
 insult to his partner. Neither gentleman nor lady ought to place a partner under such 
 embarrassment. Never forget the engagement made in the ball room. 
 
 The gentleman bows to his partner at the conclusion of the dance, and escorts her 
 to a seat or offers to conduct her to the refreshment room. No gentleman will suffer a 
 lady to pay for any refreshment, but no lady will accept these attentions from a stranger. 
 
 It is not regarded as good taste to dance too often with the same lady at the same 
 entertainment. 
 
 If by any chance a lady should stand up with a partner, having forgotten a previous 
 engagement, the gentleman making the engagement is bound to consider it uninten- 
 tional, and never allow his sensitive pride to get the advantage of his bette r judgment. 
 
THE ETIQUETTE OF THE BALL ROOM. 
 
 885 
 
 Avoid any scene in the presence of guests, or of your host and hostess. 
 
 Remember that gentility and good temper always go hand in hand. 
 
 Let your conversation be sprightly and interesting, not confined to the topic of ihm 
 weather, while conversing with your partner. 
 
 Take proper care not to injure the dress of your partner. 
 
 Do not attempt to take the place appropriated to another in a dance. 
 
 Reconduct your last partner to the supper room and escort her back to the ball-room. 
 From eighteen to twenty-one dances are enough for an evening’s entertainment, 
 having a recess for supper after the twelfth dance. 
 
 The following arrangements of dances and engagements is a good guide : 
 
 PROGRAMME. 
 
 ENGAGEMENTS. 
 
 I 
 
 Quadrille. 
 
 2 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 3 
 
 Quadrille. 
 
 4 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 5 
 
 Lancers. 
 
 b 
 
 Galop. 
 
 <7 
 
 Quadrille. 
 
 8 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 9 
 
 Quadrille. 
 
 *0 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 si 
 
 Quadrille. 
 
 12 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 <3 
 
 Lancers. 
 
 *4 
 
 Galop. 
 
 5=5 
 
 Quadrille. 
 
 16 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 17 
 
 Quadrille 
 
 18 
 
 Waltz. 
 
 19 
 
 Lancers. 
 
 20 
 
 Galop. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 io 
 
 n 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 At public balls, a floor committee, distinguished by a badge they wear, have charge 
 of the arrangements, and gentlemen wishing to dance apply to them for introductions to 
 ’ady partners. 
 
 QUADRILLE. 
 
 The most popular and by far the most sociable of all the dances in vogue at the 
 present day, is the Quadrille. It is suited to all ages, permits frequent interchange of 
 partners and gives opportunity for interesting conversation among partners. 
 
 Each one is free to a certain extent in his movements, and an occasional mistake is 
 less observable in this than any other dance. The gentleman and lady are not forced by 
 the partner to dance otherwise than is convenient. A graceful carriage, a good ear for 
 time, and a knowledge of the figure are the prerequisites for good quadrille dancing. 
 
 An elegant walk is permitted without attention to the steps. 
 
 When a gentleman has engaged a lady for a quadrille, he should try to have a friend 
 or acquaintance as his opposite, and if the post of honor at the head of the set be still 
 vacant, conduct his lady there, always placing her at his right. 
 
 You would do well not to burden the memory with too many figures, but learn a 
 few which are most practical. 
 
THE FLORAL REALM 
 
 AND 
 
 DICTIONARY OF FLOWERS. 
 
 LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 the economy of Nature, where nothing has been created in vain, flow* 
 ers have their office of beauty and refinement. They appeal to the 
 finest sensibilities of our nature, and while they gladden the eye 
 with their beauty they impress the heart with sweet lessons of love and 
 wisdom. The prattling child, unable to tell the reason of his happiness, 
 laughs in very glee amid the opening blossoms of spring, while drinking in their beauty 
 and fragrance. The youthful lover with timid hands plucks the modest garland to give 
 to his “ ladie faire ” that it may speak to her the tender message which he dare not trust 
 his tongue to utter. 
 
 The wreath of flowers offers its incense of fragrant loveliness at the shrine when 
 bridal vows are plighted. The wealth of spring is poured with lavish love by a grateful 
 nation upon the graves of its hero dead. 
 
 The homes of rich and poor alike may share in the beautiful gift which nature 
 strews broadcast through forest and field. They add new grace to the charms of female 
 loveliness, and deck the triumphant battle flags of returning heroes. They nestle in the 
 cradle of the innocent babe, and hallow the chamber of the aged pilgrim. They speak 
 of hope and love at the bridal, and teach faith in immortality at the graves of our dead. 
 Everywhere their forms of beauty, and the perfume of their fragrance reach the senses 
 of humanity and teach the heart that “ God is good.” 
 
 The Eastern nations spoke a language rich in abundant metaphor and striking 
 simile, and with all this wealth of expression in speech they were the first to catch the 
 idea that flowers could be made to utter the sentiments of human passion and love, with a 
 tenderness and refinement unknown to tongue or pen. It was from them that the language 
 of buds and blossoms first came. The sighing swain and modest maiden whose mother 
 tongue was Anglo Saxon, is indebted to the gifted Lady Mary Wortley Montague for 
 the knowledge of how the tender lovers of the Orient had given a mute language to the 
 i flowers, and compelled the fragrant boquette to bear its message of love to the happy 
 recipient. She taught them how to convey the various expressions of thought without 
 a written or spoken word, and showed them how to transmit letters of passion, friend* 
 ship, courtesy, or even information without using paper or pen. 
 
 THE 
 
THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 387 
 
 THE ROSE, THE QUEEN OF FLOWERS. — In that realm of beauty whose 
 loveliness appeals to the heart through the eye and where the incense of fragrant perfume 
 arises to bless the air, the rose reigns without a rival. Whether it decks the wilderness 
 with its variegated colors or blossoms in the gardens of the wealthy, in its wild or culti- 
 vated condition, it is alike the peerless beauty and the unrivaled gem of them all. The 
 richness of color from the heavy damask, the deep red, the maiden’s blush, the yel- 
 low and the pure white, unites with the exquisite perfume which it breathes upon the 
 senses to compel the adoration of every lover of the beautiful. The ancients regarded it 
 with especial favor, and acknowledged its right to royalty by giving it the power to com- 
 pel secrecy upon all who came beneath its sway. They suspended the rose in their hall 
 of council and entertainment, to denote that whatever was said or done therein was to 
 be kept inviolably secret. The Eastern nations gave it a prominent place in their poetry, 
 and made it the symbol of the highest type of beauty, and in the language of sentiment 
 it tells of the ruling passion which sways human hearts, that of love. There is a legend 
 that when the Queen of the Fairies would bestow upon each flower some new grace to 
 increase its loveliness, she found that she could add nothing to that of the rose, which 
 she held in her hand, and laying it aside upon the moss clad throne upon which she sat, 
 some of the moss adhered to the tender leaves still wet with dew, and thus there were 
 the new variety of the moss rose, combining the regal beauty of queen with the humility 
 of the least of her subjects. Thus the delicate loveliness of the rose blended with ver- 
 dure of the moss to create the perfect union of beauty in humility, the rarest type of 
 exquisite perfection. The Rose, still peerless and unrivaled, has been the theme of the 
 poet’s fancy, the symbol of inspired truth, and the subject of the painter’s brush. Be- 
 neath its emblem, female charms have held their sway, and under the rival standards of 
 the Roses of York and Lancaster, brave men have dared to contend and meet death with 
 undaunted courage, 
 
 THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. — Quite an extended correspondence might 
 be carried on by the use of buds and blossoms between absent friends, each combining 
 the different flowers which convey the sentiments desired, into a bouquet, and sending it 
 to the other. For example, if one wishes to convey to a lady the following : 
 
 MESSAGE: “You are pure and lovely. I dare confess my love for you, and 
 think myself worthy of you. Let the bonds of wedlock unite us. I offer you my all.” 
 
 Flowers Required. 
 
 Red Rosebud. — Pure and lovely . 
 
 Moss Rosebud. — Confession of love. 
 
 White Rose. — lam worthy of you. 
 
 White and Red Rose together. — Unity . 
 
 Shepherd’s Purse. — I offer you my all. 
 
 ANSWER : “I partake your sentiment, and will consider your offer. Your love 
 is returned.” 
 
 Flowers Required. 
 
 Garden Daisy. — I share your sentiment. 
 
 Wild Daisy. — I will think of it. 
 
 Ambrosia. — Love returned. 
 
388 
 
 THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 MODIFIED SIGNIFICATION. — When the natural position of the bud or blos- 
 som is reversed it has the opposite meaning from its original one. 
 
 Divesting a rosebud of its thorns while the leaves are left intact, would express the 
 sentiment, “ I no longer fear but hope,” the first signifying lear and the last hope. When 
 both the thorns and leaves are removed, the language implied is, " there is nothing either 
 to fear or to hope.” 
 
 The position in which the flower is placed also has its peculiar signification, for in- 
 stance, the marigold placed on the head conveys the sentiment, “ mental anguish,” on the 
 breast, “ Indifferent.” 
 
 When the flower is bent to the right hand the language applies to the person giving 
 it, but when to the left, to the person receiving ; for example, if a gentleman hands a 
 mountain pink to a lady, with the flower bent to the right, it would signify, “ I am aspir. 
 ing ; ” if bent to the left, “you are aspiring.” 
 
 To touch the lips to the flower means “ Yes.” 
 
 To pinch a petal and throw it aside signifies “ No.” 
 
 Twisting a laurel leaf about a bouquet significes u I am.” 
 
 An ivy leaf folded together, “ I have.” 
 
 The leaf of a Virginia creeper, “ I offer you.” 
 
 SWEET V ?EAS. 
 
 * * * * * But who can paint 
 Like Nature ? Can imagination boast 
 Amid its gay creation, tints like hers. 
 
 Or can it mix them with that matchless skill 
 And lose them in each other, as appears 
 In every bud that blows ? If fancy then 
 Unequal fails beneath the pleasing task 
 Ah ! what can language do ? 
 
 —Thompson’s Seasons. 
 
 This humble flower, so common in all our gardens, speaks to us of “ Delicate 
 Erasure, ” and reminds us that we need not soar too high in our search for the 
 things that make our lives happy and pleasurable. 
 
 It is the fitting emblem of that ethereal . ecstacy which fills the soul with an ex- 
 quisite delight and warns her, that the sweetest joys of earth are short lived and transitory, 
 and in the innocent enjoyment of them she should not forget that “ we all do fade as a 
 leaf.” 
 
 Flowers are their own interpreters and speak a universal language. The blind lady ■ 
 in one ot the historic towns of Connecticut, who thought that the flowers talked to her, 
 was not far away from the truth after all. If they had been neglected she said, “ they 
 would plead with her in plaintive tones for water and care.” If they had been tenderly 
 cared for, she said that she could hear them laugh and sing as they thanked her in joyous 
 language. 
 
 Was it all a fancy ? If so, it was at least a pretty one, and as I have heard her chat- 
 ting away to the flowers when she was alone with them, and she seemed to converse with 
 some unseen friend, I could but think that the blind have eyes we know not of How 
 many go through life as in a blind show, careless of the forms of life and beauty ail around 
 
THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 m 
 
 them. Nature will continue to sing her songs of praise, and hope from the thousands of 
 winged creatures in the air, in the winds that move, the waving trees and rustling grains 
 in the running streamlet and the heavy cascade, she will paint with matchless colors the 
 clouds which skirt the western sky, the bow that hangs upon the summer shower, and 
 the delicate petals of the flowery world, but mortal ears are dull and human eyes are holden 
 so that they fail to see and hear what is all around them. “ Flowers bloom best in the 
 gardens of those who love them,” is a sentiment from the pen of one of England’s 
 greatest writers. 
 
 The heart that is susceptible to the gentle influences which come from their beauty 
 and which feels their power is in tune with the deep under tones of nature and alive to 
 the tenderest emotions which sway our hearts. Their unrivaled tints, delicate 
 perfume and exquisite forms all speak to the eye and tell the soul that, 
 
 “ A thing of beauty is a joy forever.” 
 
 DICTIONARY OF FLOWERS. 
 
 Abecedary — Volubility. 
 
 Abatina — Fickleness. 
 
 Acacia — F riendship. 
 
 Acanthus — The fine arts, artifice. 
 Acalia — T emperance . 
 
 Aconite, Crowfoot — Luster. 
 Adonis, Flos — Sad memories. 
 African Marigold — Vulgar minds. 
 Almond (flowering) — Hope. 
 Almond, Laurel — Perfidy. 
 
 Allspice — Compassion. 
 
 Aloe — Grief, religious superstition. 
 Alyssum (sweet) — Worth beyond 
 beauty. 
 
 Amaranth (globe) — Immortality, 
 unfading love. 
 
 Amaryllis — Pride, timidity, splen- 
 did beauty. 
 
 Ambrosia — Love returned. 
 American Cowslip — Divine beauty. 
 American Elm — Patriotism. 
 American Linden — Matrimony. 
 American Starwort — Welcome to 
 a stranger, 
 
 Amethyst — Admiration. 
 Andromeda — Self-sacrifice. 
 Anemone (garden) — Forsaken. 
 Angelica — Inspiration, or magic. 
 Angrec — Royalty. 
 
 Apricot (blossom) — Doubt. 
 
 Apple (blossom) — Preference. 
 Apple, Thorn — Deceitful charms. 
 Apocynum — Deceit. 
 
 Arbor Vitae— Unchanging friend- 
 ship. 
 
 Arum (Wake Robin) — Ardor, zeal. 
 Ash-leaved Trumpet-flower — Sep- 
 aration. 
 
 Ash Tree — Grandeur. 
 
 Aspen Tree — Lamentation, or fear. 
 Aster (China) — Variety, after- 
 thought. 
 
 Asphodel — My regrets follow you. 
 Auricula, scarlet — Avarice. 
 Austurtium — Splendor. 
 
 Azalea — T emperance. 
 
 Bachelor’s Buttons — Celibacy. 
 Balm — Sympathy. 
 
 Balm, gentle — Pleasantry. 
 
 Balm of Gilead — Cure, relief. 
 Balsam, red — Touch me not. 
 Balsam, yellow — Impatience. 
 Barberry — Sharpness of temper. 
 Basil — Hatred. 
 
 Bay leaf — I change but in death. 
 Bay Wreath — Reward of merit. 
 Bearded Crepis — Protection. 
 
 Beech Tree — Prosperity. 
 
 Bee Orchis — Industry. 
 
 Bee Ophrys — Error. 
 
 Begonia — Deformity. 
 
 Belladonna — Silence, hush ! 
 
 Bell Flower — Constancy. 
 
 Belvedere — I declare against yuu. 
 Betony — Surprise. 
 
 Bilberry — T reachery. 
 
 Bindweed, great — Insinuation, im- 
 portunity. 
 
 Bindweed, small — Humility. 
 
 Birch — Meekness. 
 
 Birdsfoot, Trefoil — Revenge. 
 Bittersweet — T ruth. 
 
 Black Poplar — Courage. 
 Blackthorn — Difficulty. 
 
 Bladder Nut Tree — Frivolity, 
 Amusement. 
 
 Bluebottle — Delicacy. 
 
 Bluebell — Constancy, regret. 
 Bonus Henricus — Goodness. 
 Borage — Bluntness. 
 
 Box Tree — Stoicism. 
 
 Bramble — Lowliness, envy. 
 
 Branch of Currants — You please 
 all 
 
 Branch of Thorns — Severity, rigor. 
 Bridal Rose — Happy love. 
 
 Broom- Humility, Neatness. 
 Browallia Jamisonii — Could you 
 bear poverty ? 
 
 Buckbean — Calm repose. 
 
 Buglos — F alsehood . 
 
 Bulrush. — Indiscretion, docility. 
 Burdock — I mportunity. 
 
 Burr — Rudeness, you weary me. 
 Buttercup — Ingratitude, childish- 
 ness. 
 
 Butterfly Orchis — Gayety. 
 
 Butterfly Weed — Let me go. 
 
 Cacalia — A dulation. 
 
 Cactus — W armth. 
 
 Calla ^Ethiopica — Magnificent 
 beauty. 
 
 Calceolaria — I offer you my for- 
 tune. 
 
 Calycanthus — Benevolence. 
 Camelia Japonica, red — Unpre- 
 tending excellence. 
 
 Camelia Japonica — Perfected love- 
 liness. 
 
 Camomile — Energy in adversity. 
 
 C ampanula Pyramida — Aspiring. 
 Canary Grass — Perseverance. 
 Canterbury Bell — Acknowledg- 
 ment. 
 
 Cardamine — Paternal error. 
 
390 
 
 THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 Carnation, deep red— Alas ! for my 
 poor heart. 
 
 Carnation, striped — Refusal. 
 Carnation, yellow — Disdain. 
 Cardinal Flower — Distinction. 
 Catchfly — Snare. 
 
 Catchfly, red — Youthful love. 
 Catchfly, white — Betrayed. 
 
 Cattleya — Mature charms. 
 
 Cedar — Strength. 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon — Incorruptible. 
 Cedar Leaf — I live for thee. 
 Celandine, lesser — -Joys to come. 
 Cereus, creeping — Modest genius. 
 Centaury — D elicacy . 
 
 Champignon — Suspicion. 
 Checkered Fritillary — Persecution. 
 Chestnut Tree — Do me justice. 
 Chinese Primrose — Lasting love. 
 Chickweed — Rendezvous. 
 
 Chicory — F rugality. 
 
 China Aster — Variety. 
 
 China Rose — Beauty always 
 new. 
 
 Christmas Rose — Relieve my 
 anxiety. 
 
 Chrysanthemum, red — I love. 
 Chrysanthemum, white — Truth. 
 Chrysanthemum, yellow — Slighted 
 love. 
 
 Cineraria — Always delightful. 
 Cinquefoil — Maternal affection. 
 Circaea — Spell. 
 
 Cistus, gum — I shall die to-mor- 
 row. 
 
 Citron — Ill-natured beauty. 
 Clematis — Mental beauty. 
 
 Clematis, evergreen — Poverty. 
 Clianthus — W orldliness. 
 
 Clotbur — Rudeness, pertinacity. 
 Cloves — Dignity. 
 
 Clover, four-leaved — Be mine. 
 Clover, red — Industry. 
 
 Clover, white — Think of me. 
 Cobaea — Gossip. 
 
 Cockscomb, Amaranth — F oppery, 
 affectation. 
 
 Coltsfoot — Justice shall be done. 
 Columbine — F oily. 
 
 Columbine, purple — Resolved to 
 win. 
 
 Columbine, red — Anxious and 
 trembling. 
 
 Convolvulus — Bonds. 
 
 Corchorus — Impatient of absence. 
 Coreopsis — Always cheerful. 
 Coreopsis Arkansa — Love at first 
 sight. 
 
 Coriander — Hidden worth. 
 
 Corn — Riches. 
 
 Corn, broken — Quarrel. 
 
 Corn Straw — Agreement.. 
 
 Corn Bottle — Delicacy. 
 
 Corn Cockle — Gentility. 
 
 Cornel Tree — Duration. 
 
 Coronella — Success crown your 
 wishes. 
 
 Cosmelia Subra — The charm of a 
 blush. 
 
 Cowslip — Winning. 
 
 Cowslip, American — Divine beauty. 
 Crab, blossom — Ill-natured. 
 Cranberry — Cure for heart-ache. 
 Creeping Cereus — Horror. 
 
 Cress — Stability, power. 
 
 Crocus — Abuse not. 
 
 Crocus, Spring — Youthful glad- 
 ness. 
 
 Crocus, Saffron — Mirth. 
 
 Crown, Imperial — Majesty, power. 
 Crowsbill — Envy. 
 
 Crowfoot — Ingratitude. 
 
 Cuckoo Plant — Ardor. 
 
 Cudweed — Unceasing remem- 
 brance. 
 
 Currant — Thy frown will kill me. 
 Cuscuta — Meanness. 
 
 Cyclamen — Diffidence. 
 
 Cypress — Death, mourning. 
 
 Daffodil — Regard. 
 
 Dahlia — Instability. 
 
 Daisy — Innocence. 
 
 Daisy, garden — I share your senti- 
 ments. 
 
 Daisy, Michaelmas — Farewell. 
 Daisy, party-colored — Beauty. 
 Daisy, wild — I will think of it. 
 Dandelion — Rustic oracle. 
 
 Daphne — Glory, Immortality. 
 Daphne Odora — Painting the lily. 
 Darnel — Vice. 
 
 Dead Leaves — Sadness. 
 
 Dew Plant — A serenade. 
 
 Dianthus — Make haste. 
 
 Diosma — Your simple elegance 
 charms me. 
 
 Dittany of Crete — Birth. 
 
 Dittany of Crete, white — Passion. 
 Dock — Patience. 
 
 Dodder of Thyme — Baseness. 
 Dogwood — Durability. 
 
 Dragon Plant — Snare. 
 
 Dragon wort — H orror. 
 
 Ebony Tree — B lackness. 
 
 Elder — Zealousness. 
 
 Elm — Dignity. 
 
 Endive — F rugality. 
 
 Everflowering Candytuft — Indiff- 
 erence. 
 
 Everlasting — Undying remem- 
 brance. 
 
 Everlasting Pea — Lasting pleasure. 
 
 Fennel — Worthy all praise. 
 
 Fern — Fascination, sincerity. 
 Ficoides, Ice Plant — Your looks 
 freeze me. 
 
 Fig — Argument. 
 
 Fig Marigold — Idleness. 
 
 F ilbert — Reconciliation. 
 
 Fir — Time. 
 
 Fir Tree — Elevation. 
 
 Flax — Domestic industry. 
 Flax-leaved Golden-locks — Tardi- 
 ness. 
 
 Fleur-de-lis — Flame, I burn. 
 
 F leur-de-Luce — F ire. 
 
 Flowering Fern — Reverie. 
 
 Flower - of - an - Hour — Delicate 
 beauty. 
 
 Fly Orchis — Error. 
 
 Flytrap — Deceit. 
 
 Fool’s Parsley — Silliness. 
 Forget-Me-Not — True love. 
 
 F oxglove — Insincerity. 
 
 Foxtail Grass — Sporting. 
 Franciscea Latifolia — Beware of 
 false friends. 
 
 French Marigold — Jealousy. 
 French Willow — Bravery and 
 humanity. 
 
 Frog Ophrys — Disgust. 
 
 Fuller’s Teasel — Misanthropy. 
 
 F umitory — Spleen. 
 
 Fuchsia, scarlet — Taste. 
 
 Garden Chervil — S incerity. 
 Garden Marigold — Uneasiness. 
 Gardenia — Refinement. 
 
 Germander Speedwell — Facility. 
 Geranium, dark — Melancholy. 
 Geranium, Horse-shoe — Stupidity 
 Geranium, Ivy — Bridal favor. 
 Geranium, Lemon — Unexpected 
 meeting. 
 
 Geranium, Nutmeg — Expected 
 meeting. 
 
 Geranium, Oak - leaved — True 
 friendship. 
 
 Geranium, Penciled — Ingenuity. 
 Geranium, Rose — Preference. 
 Geranium, scarlet — Comforting. 
 Geranium, Silver — Recall. 
 Geranium, wild — Steadfast piety. 
 Gillyflower — Bonds of affection. 
 Gladioli — Ready armed. 
 
 Glory Flower — Glorious beauty. 
 Goat’s Rue — Reason. 
 
 Golden Rod — Precaution. 
 Gooseberry — Anticipation. 
 
 Gourd — Extent, bulk. 
 
 Grape, wild — Charity. 
 
 Grass — Submission, utility. 
 
 Hand Flower Tree — W arning, 
 Harebell — Submission, grief. 
 Hawkweed — Quicksightedness. 
 Hawthorn — Hope. 
 
 Hazel — Reconciliation. 
 
 Heath — Solitude. 
 
 Helenium — Tears. 
 
 Heliotrope — Devotion. 
 
 Hellebore — Scandal, calumny. 
 
THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 391 
 
 Hemlock — You will be my death. 
 Hemp — Fate. 
 
 Henbane — Imperfection. 
 
 Hepatica — Confidence. 
 
 Hibiscus — Delicate beauty. 
 
 Holly — F oresight. 
 
 Holly Herb — Enchantment. 
 Hollyhock — Ambition, fecundity. 
 Honesty — Honesty, fascination. 
 Honey Flower — Love sweet and 
 secret. 
 
 Honeysuckle— Generous affection. 
 Honeysuckle (Coral) — The color 
 of my fate. 
 
 Honeysuckle (French) — Rustic 
 beauty. 
 
 Hop — Injustice. 
 
 Hornbeam — Ornament. 
 
 Horse Chestnut — Luxury. 
 Hortensia — You are cold. 
 Houseleek — Vivacity, domestic in- 
 dustry. 
 
 Houstonia — Content. 
 
 Hoya — Sculpture. 
 
 Hoyabella — Contentment. 
 
 Humble Plant — Despondency. 
 Hyacinth — Sport, game, play. 
 Hyacinth, purple — Sorrowful. 
 Hyacinth, white — Unobtrusive 
 loveliness. 
 
 Hydrangea — A boaster. 
 
 Hyssop — Cleanliness. 
 
 Iceland Moss— Health. 
 
 Ice Plant — Your looks freeze me. 
 
 I mbricata — U pr ightness . 
 
 Imperial Montague — Power. 
 
 Indian Cress — Warlike trophy. 
 Indian Pink, double — Always love- 
 
 . *y- 
 
 Iris — Message. 
 
 Iris, German — Flame. 
 
 Ivy — Friendship, fidelity, marriage. 
 Ivy, sprig of — Assiduous to please. 
 
 Jacob’s LADDER~-Come down. 
 
 J asmine — Amiability. 
 
 Jasmine, Cape — Transport of joy. 
 Jasmine, Carolina — Separation. 
 Jasmine, Indian — I attach myself 
 to you. 
 
 Jasmine, Spanish — Sensuality. 
 Jasmine, yellow — Grace and ele- 
 gance. 
 
 Jonquil — I desire a return of affec- 
 tion. 
 
 Judas Tree — Unbelief, betrayal. 
 Juniper — Succor, protection. 
 Justicia — The perfection of female 
 loveliness. 
 
 Kennedia — Mental beauty. 
 King-cups — Desire of riches. 
 
 Laburnum — Forsaken. 
 
 Lady’s Slipper — Capricious beauty. 
 Lantana — Rigor. 
 
 Larch — Audacity, boldness. 
 Larkspur — Lightness, levity. 
 Larkspur, pink — Fickleness. 
 Larkspur, purple — Haughtiness. 
 Laurel — Glory. 
 
 Laurel, common — Perfidy. 
 
 Laurel, Ground — Perseverance. 
 Laurel, Mountain — Ambition. 
 Laurestina — A token. 
 
 Lavender — Distrust. 
 
 Lemon — Zest. 
 
 Lemon Blossoms — Fidelity in love. 
 Lettuce — Cold-heartedness. 
 
 Lichen — Dejection, solitude. 
 
 Lilac, field — Humility. 
 
 Lilac, purple — first emotion of love. 
 Lilac, white — Youthful innocence. 
 Lily, Day — Coquetry. 
 
 Lily, Imperial — Majesty. 
 
 Lily, white — Purity, sweetness. 
 Lily, yellow — Falsehood, gaiety. 
 Lily of the Valley — Return of hap- 
 piness. 
 
 Linden or Lime Trees — Conjugal 
 love. 
 
 Lint — I feel my obligations. 
 
 Live Oak — Liberty. 
 
 Liverwort — Confidence. 
 
 Liquorice, wild — I declare against 
 you. 
 
 Lobelia — Malevolence. 
 
 Locust Tree — Elegance. 
 
 “ “ green — Affection be- 
 
 yond the grave. 
 
 London Pride — Frivolity. 
 
 Lote Tree — Concord. 
 
 Lotus — Eloquence. 
 
 Lotus Flower — Estranged love. 
 Lotus Leaf — Recantation. 
 f Love in a Mist — Perplexity, 
 
 Love lies Bleeding — Hopeless, not 
 heartless. 
 
 Lucern — Life. 
 
 Lupine — V oraciousness. 
 
 Madder — Calumny. 
 
 Magnolia — Love of Nature. 
 Mallow — Mildness. 
 
 Mallow, Marsh — Beneficence. 
 Mallow, Syrian — Consumed by 
 love. 
 
 Mallow, Venetian — Delicate beau- 
 ty. 
 
 Mandrake — Horror. 
 
 Maple — Reserve. 
 
 Marianthus — Hope for better days. 
 Marigold — Grief. 
 
 Marigold, African — Vulgar minds. 
 Marigold, French — Jealousy. 
 Marigold, Prophetic — Prediction. 
 Marigold and Cypress — Despair. 
 Marjoram — Blushes. 
 
 I Marvel of Peru — Timidity. 
 
 Meadow Lychnis — Wit. 
 
 Meadow Saffron — My best days 
 are past. 
 
 Meadowsweet — Uselessness. 
 Mercury — Goodness. 
 
 Mezereon — Desire to please. 
 Mignonette — Your qualities sur- 
 pass your charms. 
 
 Milfoil — War. 
 
 Milkvetch — Your presence softens 
 my pains. 
 
 Milkwort — Hermitage. 
 
 Mint — Virtue. 
 
 Mistletoe — I surmount difficulties. 
 Mock Orange — Counterfeit. 
 Monkshood — A deadly foe is near. 
 Moonwort — F orgetfulness. 
 Morning Glory — Affectation. 
 Moschatel— W eakness. 
 
 Moss — Maternal love. 
 
 Messes — Ennui. 
 
 Mossy Saxifrage — Affection. 
 Motherwort — Concealed love. 
 Mountain Ash — Prudence. 
 Mourning Bride — Unfortunate at- 
 tachment. 
 
 Moving Plant — Agitation. 
 Mudwort — Happiness, tranquillity. 
 Mulberry Tree, black — I shall not 
 survive you. 
 
 Mulberry Tree, white — Wisdom. 
 Mushroom — Suspicion. 
 
 Musk Plant — Weakness. 
 
 Mustard Seed — Indifference. 
 Myrrh — Glad ness. 
 
 Myrtle — Love. 
 
 Narcissus — E gotism. 
 
 N asturtium — Patriotism. 
 
 Nettle, common stinging — You are 
 spiteful. 
 
 Nettle, burning — Slander. 
 
 Nettle Tree — Conceit. 
 Night-blooming Cereus — Tran- 
 sient beauty. 
 
 Night Convolvulus — Night. 
 
 N ightshade — F alsehood. 
 
 Oak Leaves — B ravery. 
 
 Oak Tree — Hospitality. 
 
 Oak, white — Independence. 
 
 Oats — The soul of music. 
 
 Oleander — Beware. 
 
 Olive — Peace. 
 
 Orange Blossoms — Your purity 
 equals your loveliness. 
 
 Orange Flowers — Chastity, bridal 
 festivities. 
 
 Orange Tree — Generosity. 
 
 Orchis — A belle. 
 
 Osier — F rankness. 
 
 Ox Eye — Patience. 
 
 Palm — V ictory. 
 
 Pansy — Thoughts. 
 
393 
 
 THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 Parsley — F estivity. 
 
 Pasque Flower — You have no 
 claims. 
 
 Passion Flower — Religious Super- 
 stition, when the flower is 
 reversed, or Faith if erect. 
 Patience Dock — Patience. 
 
 Pea, Sweet — Departure. 
 
 Peach — Your qualities, like your 
 charms, are unequaled. 
 
 Peach Blossom — I am your cap- 
 tive. 
 
 Pear — Affection. 
 
 Pear Tree — Comfort. 
 
 Pennyroyal — Flee away. 
 
 Peony — Shame, bashfulness. 
 Peppermint — Warmth of feeling. 
 Periwinkle, blue — Early friendship. 
 Periwinkle, white — Pleasures of 
 memory. 
 
 Persicaria — R estoration. 
 Persimmon — Bury me amid Na- 
 ture’s beauties. 
 
 Petunia — Your presence soothes. 
 Pheasant’s Eye — Remembrance. 
 Phlox — U nanimity . 
 
 Pigeon Berry — Indifference. 
 Pimerpnel — Change, assignation. 
 Pine — Pity. 
 
 Pine-apple — You are perfect. 
 
 Pine, Pitch — Philosophy. 
 
 Pine, Spruce — Hope in adversity. 
 Pink — Boldness. 
 
 Pink, Carnation — Woman’s love. 
 Pink, Indian, double — Always 
 lovely. 
 
 Pink, Indian, single — Aversion. 
 Pink, Mountain — Aspiring. 
 
 Pink, red, double — Pure and ar- 
 dent love. 
 
 Pink, single — Pure love. 
 
 Pink, variegated — Refusal. 
 
 Pink, white — Ingeniousness, talent. 
 Plantain — White man’s footsteps. 
 Plane Tree — Genius. 
 
 Plum, Indian — Privation. 
 
 Plum Tree — Fidelity. 
 
 Plum, wild — Independence. 
 Plumbago Larpenta — Holy wishes. 
 Polyanthus — Pride of riches. 
 Polyanthus, crimson — The heart’s 
 mystery. 
 
 Polyanthus, lilac — Confidence. 
 Pomegranate — F oolishness. 
 Pomegranate Flower — Mature ele- 
 gance. 
 
 Poor Robin — Compensation. 
 Poplar, black — Courage. 
 
 Poplar, white — Time. 
 
 Poppy, red — Consolation. 
 
 Poppy, scarlet — Fantastic extrava- 
 gance. 
 
 Poppy, white — Sleep ; my bane. 
 Potato — Benevolence. 
 
 Potentilla — 1 claim your esteem. 
 
 Prickly Pear — Satire. 
 
 Pride of China — Dissension. 
 
 Primrose — Early youth and sad- 
 ness. 
 
 Primrose, Evening — Inconstancy. 
 
 Primrose, red — Unpatronized mer- 
 it. 
 
 Privet — Prohibition. 
 
 Purple Clover — Provident. 
 
 Quaking-grass— A gitation. 
 
 Queen’s Rocket — You are the 
 queen of coquettes, fashion. 
 
 Quince — T emptation. 
 
 Ragged Robin — W it. 
 
 Ranunculus, garden — You are 
 rich in attractions. 
 
 Ranunculus, wild — Ingratitude. 
 
 Raspberry — Remorse. 
 
 Ray Grass — Vice. 
 
 Reed — Complaisance, music. 
 
 Reed, split — Indiscretion. 
 
 Rhubarb — Advice. 
 
 Rocket — Rivalry. 
 
 Rose — Love. 
 
 Rose, Austrian — Thou art lovely. 
 
 Rose, Bridal — Happy love. 
 
 Rose, Burgundy — Unconscious 
 beauty. 
 
 Rose, Cabbage — Ambassador of 
 love. 
 
 Rose, Campion — Only deserve my 
 love. 
 
 Rose, Carolina — Love is danger- 
 ous. 
 
 Rose, China — Beauty always new. 
 
 Rose, Christmas — Tranquilize my 
 anxiety. 
 
 Rose, Daily — Thy smile I aspire 
 to. 
 
 Rose, Damask — Brilliant complex- 
 ion. 
 
 Rose, deep red — Bashful shame. 
 
 Rose, Dog — Pleasure and pain. 
 
 Rose, Guelder — Winter, age. 
 
 Rose, Hundred-leaved — Pride. 
 
 Rose, Japan — Beauty is your only 
 
 ' attraction. 
 
 Rose, Maiden-blush — If you love 
 me you will find it out. 
 
 Rose, Montiflora — Grace. 
 
 Rose, Mundi — Variety. 
 
 Rose, Musk — Capricious beauty. 
 
 Rose, Musk, cluster — Charming. 
 
 Rose, single — Simplicity. 
 
 Rose, thornless — Early attachment. 
 
 Rose, Unique — Call me not beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 Rose, white — I am worthy of you. 
 
 Rose, white, withered — Transient 
 impressions. 
 
 Rose, yellow — Decrease of love, 
 jealousy. 
 
 Rose, York and Lancaster — War. 
 
 Rose, full-blown — Secrecy. 
 
 Rose, white and red — Unity. 
 
 Roses, crown of — Reward of vir. 
 tue. 
 
 Rosebud, red — Pure and lovely. 
 Rosebud, white — Girlhood. 
 Rosebud, Moss — Confession of 
 love. 
 
 Rosebud (Rhododendron) — Be- 
 ware, danger. 
 
 Rosemary — Remembrance. 
 Rudbeckia — J ustice. 
 
 Rue — Disdain. 
 
 Rush — Docility. 
 
 Rye Grass — Changeable disposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Saffron — Beware of excess. 
 Saffron — My happiest days are 
 past. 
 
 Sage — Domestic virtue. 
 
 Sage, garden — Esteem. 
 
 Sainfoin — Agitation. 
 
 Saint John’s Wort — Animosity. 
 Salvia, blue— Wisdom. 
 
 Salvia, red — Energy. 
 
 Saxifrage, mossy — Affection. 
 Scabious — Unfortunate love. 
 Scabious, sweet — Widowhood. 
 Scarlet Lychnis — Sunbeaming 
 eyes. 
 
 Scotch Fir — Elevation. 
 
 Sensitive Plant — Sensibility. 
 
 Senvy — I ndiff erence. 
 
 Shamrock — Light-heartedness. 
 Shepherd’s Purse — I offer you my 
 all. 
 
 Snakesfoot — Horror. 
 
 Snapdragon — Presumption, No. 
 Snowball — Bound. 
 
 Snowdrop — Hope. 
 
 Sorrel — Affection. 
 
 Sorrel, wild — Wit ill-timed. 
 
 Sorrel, wood — Joy. 
 
 Southernwood — Jest, bantering. 
 Spanish Jasmine — Sensuality. 
 Spearmint — Warmth of sentiment. 
 Speedwell — Female fidelity. 
 
 Spider Ophrys — Adroitness. 
 Spiderwort — Esteem, not love. 
 Spindle Tree — Your charms are 
 engraven on my heart. 
 
 Star of Bethlehem — Purity. 
 Starwort— After-thought. 
 Starwort, American — Cheerfulness 
 in old age. 
 
 Stock — Lasting beauty. 
 
 Stonecrop — Tranquillity. 
 
 Straw, broken — Rupture of a con- 
 tract. 
 
 Straw, whole — Union. 
 
 Strawberry blossom — F oresight. 
 Sultan, lilac — I forgive you. 
 
 Sultan, white — Sweetness. 
 
 Sultan, yellow — Contempt. 
 
THE LANGUAGE AND SENTIMENT OF FLOWERS. 
 
 393 
 
 Sumach, Venice — Splendor. 
 Sunflower, dwarf — Adoration. 
 Sunflower, tall — Haughtiness. 
 Swallow- wort — Cure for heartache. 
 Sweet Basil — Good wishes. 
 Sweet-brier, American — Simplicity. 
 Sweet-brier, European — I wound 
 to heal. 
 
 Sweet-brier, yellow — Decrease of 
 love. 
 
 Sweet Pea — Delicate pleasures. 
 Sweet Sultan — Felicity. 
 
 Sweet William — Gallantry. 
 Sycamore — Curiosity. 
 
 Syringa — Memory. 
 
 Syringa, Carolina — Disappoint- 
 ment. 
 
 Tamarisk — Crime. 
 
 Tansy, wild — I declare war. . 
 
 T easel — Misanthropy. 
 
 Thistle, common — Austerity. 
 Thistle, Fuller’s — Misanthropy. 
 Thistle, Scotch — Retaliation. 
 Thorn, apple — Deceitful charms. 
 Thorn, branch of — Severity. 
 
 Thrift — Sympathy. 
 
 Throat wort — Neglected beauty. 
 Thyme — Activity or courage. 
 Traveler’s Joy — Safety, 
 free of Life — Old age. 
 
 Trefoil — Revenge. 
 
 Tremella Nestoc — Resistance. 
 Trillium Pictunv — Modest beauty. 
 Triptilion Spinosum — Be prudent. 
 T ruffle — Surprise. 
 
 Trumpet Flower — Fame. 
 
 Tuberose — Dangerous pleasures. 
 Tulip, red — Declaration of love. 
 Tulip, variegated— -Beautiful eyes. 
 Tulip, yellow — Hopeless love. 
 Turnip — Charity. 
 
 Valerian — An accommodating 
 disposition. 
 
 V alerian , Greek — R upture . 
 
 Venus’ Car — Fly with me. 
 
 Venus’ Looking-glass — Flattery. 
 Venus’ Trap — Deceit. 
 
 Verbena, pink — Family union. 
 Verbena, scarlet — Unite against 
 
 evil. 
 
 Verbena, white — Pray for me. 
 Vernal Grass — Poor, but happy. 
 
 V eronica — F idelity . 
 
 Veronica Speciosa — Keep this for 
 my sake. 
 
 Vervain — Enchantment. 
 
 Vine . . Intoxication. 
 
 Violet, blue — Faithfulness. 
 
 Violet, dame — Watchfulness. 
 Violet, sweet — Modesty. 
 
 Violet, yellow — Rural happiness. 
 Virginia Creeper — I cling to you. 
 
 Virgin’s Bower — Filial love. 
 Viscaria Oculata — Will you dance 
 with me ? 
 
 Volkamenia — May you be happy ! 
 
 Walnut — Intellect, stratagem. 
 Wall flower — Fidelity in adversity. 
 Water Lily — Purity of heart. 
 Water Melon — Bulkiness. 
 
 Wax Plant — Susceptibility. 
 
 Wheat Stalk — Riches. 
 
 Whin — Anger. 
 
 Whortleberry — T reason. 
 
 Willow, Water — Freedom. 
 
 Willow Herb — Pretension. 
 
 Willow, Weeping — Mourning. 
 Willow, French — Bravery and hm 
 manity. 
 
 Witch Hazel — A spell. 
 
 Woodbine — Fraternal love. 
 
 Wood Sorrel — Maternal tender- 
 ness. 
 
 Wormwood — Absence. 
 
 Xanthium — Rudeness, perti' 
 nacity. 
 
 Yew — S orrow. 
 
 Zephyr Flower — Expectation. 
 Zinnia — Thoughts of absent 
 friends. 
 
LORD CHESTERFIELD’S 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS AND ADVICE TO HIS SON 
 
 ON 
 
 ETIQUETTE. BUSINESS AND SOCIAL RELATIONS. 
 
 ONE is more celebrated than Lord 
 Chesterfield, who has been truly 
 called “the master of true polite- 
 ness.” His letters, sentences and 
 maxims to his son are regarded as 
 the finest in the English language, 
 and are equally applicable to every age and coun- 
 try. We therefore propose to quote extensively 
 from the writings of this classic author of whom it 
 has been written — 
 
 ’It should be put into the hands of every young 
 gentleman.” — Dr. Johnson , May , 1766. 
 
 “Viewed as compositions, they appear aimost 
 annvalled for a serious epistolary style ; clear, ele- 
 gant, and terse, never straining at effect, and yet 
 joever hurried into carelessness.” — Lord Mahon y 1845. 
 
 “In point of style a finished classical work, they 
 contain instructions for the conduct of life that "will 
 never be obsolete. Instinct with the most consum- 
 mate good sense and knowledge of life and busi- 
 ness, and certainly nothing can be more attractive 
 than the style in which they are set before their 
 readers.” — Quarterly Review , vol. Ixxvi., 1845. 
 
 "Lord Chesterfield’s letters are, I will venture to 
 say, masterpieces of good taste, good writing and 
 good sense.” — John Wilson Croker, 1846. 
 
 “If Chesterfield in particular instances, insists 
 upon graces of manner at any price, it is because he 
 has already provided for the more solid parts of 
 education, and because his pupil is not in the least 
 -danger of sinning on the side which makes man re- 
 spectable, but rather on that which renders him 
 Agreeable.” — Sainte-Beuve. 
 
 Sainte-Beuve on Lord Chesterfield. — Before 
 going into detail, it will be necessary to know a 
 little about Lord Chesterfield, one of the most bril- 
 liant English wits of his time, and one most closely 
 allied to France. Philip Dormer Stanhope, Earl of 
 Chesterfield, was born in London, on the 22d of 
 September, 1694, the same year as Voltaire. The 
 descendant of an illustrious race, he knew the value 
 of birth, and wished to sustain its honor ; neverthe- 
 less, it was difficult for him not to laugh at genea- 
 logical pretensions when carried too far. Thus, 
 
 while upholding the honor of race, he put bis veto 
 upon chimerical vanities arising from it. 
 
 His father paid no attention whatever to his edu- 
 cation ; he was placed under the care of his grand- 
 mother, Lady Halifax. From a very early age he 
 manifested a desire to excel in everything, a desire 
 which later he did his utmost to excite in the breast 
 of nis son, and which for good or ill is the principle 
 of all that is great. Like himself in his early youth, 
 he was Without guidance, he was deceived more 
 than once in the objects of his emulation, and fol- 
 lowed some ridiculous chimera. He confesses that 
 at one period of inexperience he gave himself up to 
 wine, and other excesses, for which he was not at 
 all inclined by nature, but it flattered his vanity to 
 hear himself cited as a man of pleasure. Jn this 
 way he plunged into play (which he considered a 
 necessary ingredient in the composition of a young 
 man of fashion), at first without passion, but after- 
 wards without being able to withdraw himself from 
 it, and by that means compromised his fortune for 
 years. “Take warning by my conduct,” said he to 
 his son, “choose your own pleasures, and do no* 
 let others choose them for you.” 
 
 In his letters to his son, he has pictured himself 
 the first day he made his entree into good society 
 still covered with the rust of Cambridge, shame 
 faced, embarrassed, silent ; and, finally, forcing ins 
 courage with both hands to say to a beautiful 
 woman near him, “Madame, don’t you find it very 
 warm to-day ?” 
 
 In 1744 he became one of the administration, first 
 as Ambassador to the Hague and Viceroy of Ire- 
 land, afterwards as Secretary of State and member 
 of Cabinet. 
 
 He wrote to his son, in all sincerity, “From the 
 first day of your life, the dearest object of mine has 
 been to make you as perfect as the weakness o| 
 human nature will allow.” Towards the education 
 of his son ail his wishes, all his affectionate and 
 worldly predilections tended. And whether Viceroy 
 of Ireland or Secretary of State iu London, he found 
 time to write long letier> ■M" or minute details to 
 
LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 395 
 
 him to instruct him in small matters and to perfect 
 him in mind and manner. 
 
 He was not long in finding out what was wanting 
 in this child whom he wished to bring up ; whose 
 bringing up was, indeed, the end and aim of his 
 life. “On sounding your character to its very 
 depths,” he said to him, “I have not, thank God, 
 discovered any vice of heart or weakness of head so 
 far ; but I have discovered idleness, inattention and 
 indifference, defects which are only pardonable in 
 the aged, who, in the decline of life, when health 
 and spirits give way, have a sort of right to that 
 kind of tranquility. But a young man ought to be 
 ambitious to shine and excel.” And it is precisely 
 this sacred fire, this lightning, that makes the 
 Achilles, the Alexanders and the Caesars to be the 
 first in every undertaking , this motto of noble hearts 
 and of eminent men of all kinds, that nature had 
 primarily neglected to place in the honest but 
 thoroughly mediocre soul of the younger Stanhope. 
 “You appear to want,” said his father, “that vivida 
 vis animi which excites the majority of young men 
 to please, to strive, and to outdo others.” “When 
 I was your age,” he says again, “I should have 
 been ashamed for another to know his lesson bet- 
 ter, or to have been before me in a game, and I 
 should have had no rest till I had regained the ad- 
 vantage." 
 
 “I have a boy,” he wrote to a friend, “who is 
 now thirteen years old. As to the boy, perhaps it 
 is partiality, but I think him amiable ; he has a 
 pretty face ; he has much sprightliness, and I think 
 intelligence, for his age. He speaks French per- 
 fectly ; he knows a good deal of Latin and Greek, 
 and he has ancient and modern history at his fin- 
 gers’ ends. He is at school at present, but as they 
 never dream here of forming the manners of young 
 people, and they are almost all foolish, awkward 
 and unpolished, in short such as you see them 
 when they come to Paris at the age of twenty or 
 twenty-one, I do not wish my boy to remain here 
 to acquire such bad habits ; for this reason, when 
 he is fourteen I think of sending him to Paris. As 
 I love the child dearly, and have set myself to make 
 something good of him, as I believe he has the stuff 
 in him, my idea is to unite in him what has never 
 been found in one person before — I mean the best 
 qualities of the two nations.” 
 
 Here are some precepts or remarks which are 
 worthy of those masters of human morality : 
 
 “The most essential of all knowledge, I mean the 
 knowledge of the world, is never acqiured without 
 great attention, and I know a great many aged per- 
 sons who, after having had an extensive acquaint- 
 ance, are still mere children in the knowledge of 
 the world.” 
 
 “Human nature is the same all over the world ; 
 but its operations are so varied by education and 
 custom that we ought to see it in all its aspects to 
 get an intimate knowledge of it.” 
 
 “Almost all men are born with every passion to 
 some extent, but there is hardly a mail who has not 
 a dominant passion to which the others are subordi- 
 nate. Discover this governing passion in every 
 individual ; search into the recesses of his heart, 
 and observe the different effects of the same passion 
 in different people. And when you have found the 
 master passion of a man, remember never to trust 
 to him where that passion is concerned.” 
 
 “If you wish particularly to gain the good graces 
 and affection of certain people, men or women, try 
 to discover their most striking merit, if they have 
 one, and their dominant weakness, for every one 
 has his own, then do justice to the one, and a little 
 more than justice to the other .” 
 
 “Women, in general, have only one object, which 
 is their beauty, upon which subject hardly any flat- 
 tery can be too gross to please them.” 
 
 “The flattery which is most pleasing to really 
 beautiful or decidedly ugly women, is that which is 
 addressed to the intellect.” 
 
 Lord Chesterfield tells his son that he always fre- 
 quented the company of his superiors ; and his 
 superiors he reckoned not only by their rank. “Dr. 
 Swift and Mr. Pope,” he says, “condescended to 
 admit me into their company, and though they had 
 no titles, and I was an earl, I always felt that I was 
 obliged by their politeness, and was favored by 
 being allowed to converse with them.” 
 
 True Decency. — One of the most important 
 points of life is decency ; which is to do what is 
 proper, and where it is proper ; for many things are 
 proper at one time, and in one place, that are ex- 
 tremely improper in another ; for example, it is 
 very proper and decent that you should play some 
 part of the day ; but you must feel that it would be 
 very improper and indecent, if you were to fly your 
 kite, or play at nine pins, while you are with Mr. 
 Maittaire [his tutor.] 
 
 Lord Chesterfield died on the 24th of March, 1773. 
 Politeness a Necessity. — Know then, that as 
 learning, honor and virtue are absolutely necessary 
 to gain you the esteem and admiration of mankind ; 
 politeness and good breeding are equally necessary 
 to make you welcome and agreeable in conversa- 
 tion and common life. Great talents, such as 
 honor, virtue, learning, and parts, are above the 
 generality of the world, who neither possess them 
 themselves nor judge of them rightly in others : but 
 all people are judges of the lesser talents, suck a« 
 civility, affability, and an obliging, agreeable ad- 
 
396 
 
 LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 dress and manner, because they feel the good effects 
 of them as making society easy and pleasing. 
 
 Good Breeding and Good Sense. — Good sense 
 must, in many cases, determine good breeding ; be- 
 cause the same thing that would be civil at one time, 
 and to one person, may be quite otherwise at an- 
 other time, and to another person ; but there are 
 some general rules of good breeding that hold 
 always true, and in all cases. 
 
 Rudeness and Civility. — I dare say I need not 
 tell you how rude it is to take the best place in a 
 room, or to seize immediately upon what you like 
 at table, without offering first to help others, as if 
 you considered nobody but yourself. On the con- 
 trary, you should always endeavor to procure all 
 the conveniences you can to the people you are 
 with. Besides being civil, which is absolutely nec- 
 essary, the perfection of good, breeding is to be 
 civil with ease and in a gentlemanlike manner. 
 For this, you should observe the French people, 
 who excel in it, and whose politeness seems as easy 
 and natural as any other part of their conversation ; 
 whereas the English are often awkward in their 
 civilities, and, when they mean to be civil, are too 
 jauch ashamed to get it out. 
 
 Good Breeding. — Though I need not tell one of 
 your age. experience, and knowledge of the world, 
 now nesessary good breeding is to recommend one 
 to mankind ; yet, as your various occupations Of 
 Greek and cricket, Latin and pitch-farthing, may 
 possibly divert your attention from this object, I 
 take the liberty of reminding you of it, and desiring 
 you to be very well bred at Lord Orrery’s. It is 
 good-oreeding alone that can prepossess people in 
 your favor at first sight, more time being necessary 
 to discover greater talents. This good breeding, 
 you know, does not consist in low bows and formal 
 ceremony ; but in an easy, civil and respectful be- 
 havior. "Vou will therefore take care to answer 
 wiih complaisance when you are spoken to ; to 
 place yourself at the lower end of the table, unless 
 bid to go higher ; to drink first to the lady of the 
 house, and next to the master ; not to eat awkward- 
 ly or dirtily ; not to sit when others stand ; and to 
 do all this with an air of complaisance, and not 
 with a grave, sour look, as if you did it at all un- 
 willingly. 
 
 The Well-bred Man — Feels himself firm and 
 easy in all companies ; is modest without being 
 bashful, and steady without being impudent ; if he 
 is a stranger, he observes with care the manners 
 and ways of the people the most esteemed at that 
 pbce, and conforms to them with complaisance. 
 Instead of finding fault with the customs of that 
 •lace, and telling the people that the English ones 
 
 are a thousand times better (as my countrymen are 
 very apt to do), he commends their table, their 
 dress, their houses, and their manners, a little more, 
 it may be, than he really thinks they deserve. Bu* 
 this degree of complaisance is neither criminal noi 
 abject, and is but a small price to pay for the good 
 will and affection of the people you converse with. 
 As the generality of people are weak enough to be 
 pleased with these little things, those who refuse to 
 please them, so cheaply, are, in my mind, weaker 
 than they. 
 
 How to Dress. — Take great care always to be 
 dressed like the reasonable people of your own age, 
 in the place where you are ; whose dress is nevei 
 spoken of one way or another, as either too negli- 
 gent or too much studied. 
 
 Insults and Injuries. — However frivolous a 
 company may be, still, while you are among them 
 do not show them : by your inattention, that you 
 think them so ; but rather take their tone, and con- 
 form in some degree to their weakness, instead of 
 manifesting your contempt for them. There is 
 nothing that people bear more impatiently, or for- 
 give less, than contempt ; and an injury is much 
 sooner forgotten than an insult. 
 
 Good Breeding. — Civility, which is a disposition 
 to accommodate and oblige others, is essentially 
 the same in every country ; but good breeding, as it 
 is called, which is the manner of exerting that dis- 
 position, is different in almost every country, and 
 merely local ; and every man of sense imitates and 
 conforms to that local good breeding of the place 
 which he is at. A conformity and flexibility of 
 manners is necessary in the course of the world ; 
 that is, with regard' to all things which are noj 
 wrong in themselves. The versatile ingenium is the 
 most useful of all. It can turn itself instantly from 
 one object to another, assuming the proper manner 
 for each. It can be serious with the grave, cheerful 
 with the gay, and trifling with the frivolous. En- 
 deavor, by all means, to acquire this talent, for it is 
 a very great one. 
 
 How “to wear” Learning. — Wear your learning, 
 like your watch, in a private pocket, and do not 
 pull it out and strike it merely to show that you 
 have one. If you are asked what o’clock it is, tell 
 it, but do not proclaim it hourly and unasked, like 
 the watchman. 
 
 Graceful Behavior. — There is another object 
 that must keep pace with and accompany knowl- 
 edge ; I mean, manners, politeness, and the graces, 
 in which Sir Charles Williams, though very mucn 
 your friend, owns you are very deficient. The man- 
 ners of Leipzig must be shook off ; and in that re- 
 spect you must put on the new man. No scrambling 
 
LORD CHESTERFIELD OK BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 397 
 
 tt your meals, as at a German ordinary ; no awk- 
 ward overturns ot glasses, plates and saltcellars ; 
 no horseplay. On the contrary, a gentleness of 
 manners, a graceful carriage, and an insinuating 
 address, must take their place. I repeat, and shall 
 never cease repeating to you, the graces , the graces. 
 
 Carriage of the Body. — It sounds ridiculously 
 to bid you study with your dancing-master ; and 
 ?et I do. The bodily carriage and graces are of in- 
 finite consequence to everybody, and more particu- 
 larly to you. 
 
 Formation of Manners.— Nothing forms a young 
 man so much as being used to keep respectable and 
 superior company, where a constant regard and at- 
 tention is necessary. It is true, this is at first a dis- 
 agreeable state of restraint * but it soon grows 
 habitual, and consequently easy ; and you are am- 
 ply paid for it by the improvement you make and 
 the credit it gives you. 
 
 Local Propriety. — Remember that there is a 
 local propriety to be observed in all companies, and 
 that what is extremely proper in one company may 
 be, and often is, highly improper in another. The 
 jokes, the bon mots , the little adventures, which 
 may do very well in one company, will seem flat 
 and tedious when related in another. The particu- 
 lar characters, the habits, the cant of one company 
 may give merit to a word or a gesture which would 
 have none at all if divested of those accidental cir- 
 cumstances. Here people very commonly err ; and, 
 fond of something that has entertained them in one 
 company, and in certain circumstances, repeat it with 
 emphasis in another, where it is either insipid, or, it 
 may be, offensive, by being ill timed or misplaced. 
 
 Self-Love. — Do not let your vanity and self-love 
 make you suppose that people become your friends 
 at first sight, or even upon a short acquaintance. 
 Real friendship is a slow grower, and never thrives 
 unless ingrafted upon a stock of known and recipro- 
 cal merit. 
 
 Manner. — An easy manner and carriage must be 
 wholly free from those odd tricks, ill habits and 
 awkwardnesses which even very worthy and sen- 
 sible people have in their behavior. 
 
 Manner — Absence — Awkwardness — Atten- 
 tion. — However trifling a genteel manner may 
 Sound, it ’S of very great consequence towards 
 pleasing in private life, especially the women, 
 which (sic), one time or other you will think worth 
 p’ easing; and I have known many a man, from his 
 awkwardness, give people such a dislike of him at 
 first, that all his merit could not get the better of it 
 afterwards. Whereas a genteel manner prepossesses 
 people in your favor, bends them towards you, and 
 nakes them wish to like you. Awkwardness can 
 
 proceed but from two causes ; either from not hav 
 ing kept good company, or from not having attended 
 to it. As for your keeping good company, I will 
 take care of that ; do you take care to observe their 
 ways and manners, and to form your own upon 
 them. Attention is absolutely necessary for this ; 
 and indeed it is for everything else ; and a man with- 
 out attention is not fit to live in the world. When 
 an awkward fellow first comes into a room he goes 
 and places himself in the very place of the whole 
 room where he should not ; there he soon lets his 
 hat fall down, and, in taking it up again, throws 
 down his cane ; in recovering his cane, his hat falls 
 a second time ; so that he is a quarter of an hour 
 before he is in order again. His hands are trouble- 
 some to him when he has not something in them, 
 and he does not know where to put them ; but they 
 are in perpetual motion. All this, I own, is not 
 criminal ; but it is highly disagreeable and ridicu- 
 lous in company and ought to be most carefully 
 avoided by whoever desires to please. From this 
 account of what you ought not to do, and a due at- 
 tention to the manners of the people of fashion and 
 who have seen the world, will make it habitual and 
 familiar to you. 
 
 Awkwardness of Expression. — There is, like- 
 wise, an awkwardness of expression and words 
 most carefully to be avoided, such as false English, 
 bad pronunciation, old sayings, and common prov- 
 erbs, which are so many proofs of having kept bad 
 and low company. For example: if, instead of 
 saying that tastes are different, and that every man 
 has his own peculiar one, you should let off a prov- 
 erb, and say that “What is one man’s meat is an- 
 other man’s poison”; or else, “Every one as they 
 like, as the good man said when he kissed his 
 cow,” everybody would be persuaded that you had 
 never kept company with anybody above footmen 
 and housemaids. 
 
 Attention will do all this, and without attention 
 nothing is to be done ; want of attention, which is 
 really want of thought, is either folly or madness. 
 You should not only have attention to everything, 
 but a quickness of attention, so as to observe, at 
 once, all the people in the room ; their motions, 
 their looks, and their words, and yet without staring 
 at them and seeming to be an observer. This quick 
 and unobserved observation is of infinite advantage 
 in life, and is to be acquired with care ; and, on the 
 contrary, what is called absence, which is a thought- 
 lessness and want of attention about what is doing 
 makes a man so like either a fool or a madman, 
 that, for my part, I see no real difference. A fool 
 never has thought, a madman has lost it, and an ab- 
 sent man is, for the time, without it. 
 
398 
 
 LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 Inattention. — There is no surer sign in the 
 world of a little, weak mind, than inattention. 
 Whatever is worth doing at all is worth doing well ; 
 and nothing can be done well without attention. It 
 is the sure answer of a fool, when you ask him 
 about anything that was said or done where he was 
 present, that “truly he did not mind it.” And why 
 did not the fool mind it ? What had he else to do 
 there but to mind what was doing ? A man of sense 
 sees, hears, and retains everything that passes 
 where he is. I desire I may never hear you talk of 
 not minding, nor complain, as most fools do, of a 
 treacherous memory. Mind not only what people 
 say, but how they say it ; and, if you have any 
 sagacity, you may discover more truth by your eyes 
 than by your ears. People can say what they will 
 but they cannot look what they will, and their looks 
 frequently discover what their words are calculated 
 to conceal. The most material knowledge of all— 
 I mean the knowledge of the world — is not to be 
 acquired without great attention. 
 
 False Delicacy. — As for the mauvaise honte I 
 hope you are above it ; your figure is like other peo- 
 ple’s, I hope you will take care that your dress is so 
 too. Why then should you be ashamed ? Why not 
 go into mixed company with as little concern as you 
 would into your own room ? 
 
 Art of Pleasing. — It is impossible to reduce the 
 art of pleasing to a system, yet this principle I will 
 lay down, that the desire of pleasing is at least half 
 the art of doing it ; the rest depends only upon the 
 manner, which attention, observation and frequent- 
 ing good company will teach. But if you are lazy 
 careless, and indifferent whether you please or not, 
 depend upon it you never will please 
 
 Foolish Talk. — The conversation of the ignorant 
 .3 no conversation, and gives even them no pleas- 
 ure : they tire of their own sterility, and have not 
 matter enough to furnish them with words to keep 
 up a conversation. 
 
 Entrance into Good Company. — You may pos- 
 sibly ask me whether a man has it always in his 
 power to get into the best company ? and how? I 
 say, yes, he has, by deserving it ; provided he is 
 but in circumstances which enable him to appear 
 upon the footing of a gentleman. Merit and good 
 breeding will make their way everywhere. Knowl- 
 edge will introduce him, and good breeding will 
 endear him to the best companies i for, as I have 
 often told you, politeness and good breeding are 
 absolutely necessary to adorn any or all other good 
 qualities or talents. Without them, no knowledge, 
 no perfection whatsoever, is seen in its best light. 
 
 Fashionable Ladies. — The company of women 
 
 of fashion will improve your manners, though not 
 your understanding ; and that complaisance and 
 politeness, which are so useful in men s company, 
 can only be acquired in women’s. 
 
 Talent and Breeding. — Remember always, what 
 I have told you a thousand times, that all the tal- 
 ents in the world will wan<. all their lustre, and 
 some part of their use too, ix they are not adorned 
 with that easy good breeding, that engaging manner, 
 and those graces, which seduce and prepossess 
 people in your favor at first sight. A proper care 
 of your person is by no means to be neglected 5 
 always extremely clean ; upon proper occasions, 
 fine ; your carriage genteel, and your motions 
 graceful. Take particular care of your manner and 
 address, when you present yourself in company. 
 Let them be respectful without meanness, easy 
 without too much familiarity, genteel without affec- 
 tation, and insinuating without any seeming art or 
 design. 
 
 Polish. — Now, though I would not recommend to 
 you to go into women’s company in search of solid 
 knowledge or judgment, yet it has its use in other 
 respects ; for it certainly polishes the manners, and 
 gives une certain tournure, which is very necessary 
 in the course of the world, and which Englishmen 
 have generally less of than any people in the world. 
 
 The Graces. — A thousand little things, not sepa- 
 rately to be defined, conspire to form these graces, 
 this je ne sais quoi , that always pleases. A pretty 
 person, genteel motions, a proper degree of dress, 
 an harmonious voice, something open and cheerful 
 in the countenance, but without laughing ; a dis- 
 tinct and properly varied manner of speaking: all 
 these things and many others, are necessary ingredi- 
 ents in the composition of the pleasing je ne sais 
 quoit which everybody feels, though nobody can 
 describe. Observe carefully, then, what displeases 
 or pleases you in others, and be persuaded that, in 
 general, the same things will please or displease 
 them in you. Having mentioned laughing, I must 
 particularly warn you against it ; and I could heart- 
 ily wish that you may often be seen to smile', but 
 never heard to laugh, while you live. Frequent 
 and loud laughter is the characteristic ot folly and 
 ill manners ; it is the manner in which the mob ex- 
 press their silly joy at silly things, and they call it 
 being merry. In my mind, there is nothing so 
 illiberal and so ill-bred as audible laughter. 
 
 Method and Manner. — The manner of doing 
 things is often more important than the things them- 
 selves ; and the very same thing may become either 
 pleasing or offensive by the manner of saying or do- 
 ing it. Materiam superabat opus is often said of works 
 of sculpture, where though the materials were valu- 
 
LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 399 
 
 able, as silver, gold, etc., the workmanship was still 
 more so. 
 
 Advantage of Manners. — Manners, though the 
 last, and It may be the least ingredient of real 
 merit, are, however, very far from being useless in 
 Its composition ; they adorn and give an additional 
 force and lustre to both virtue and knowledge. 
 They prepare and smooth the way for the progress 
 of both, and are, I fear, with the bulk of mankind, 
 more engaging than either. Remember, then, the 
 infinite advantage of manners ; cultivate and im- 
 prove your own to the utmost ; good sense will 
 suggest the great rules to you, good company will 
 do the rest. 
 
 Affectation. — Any affectation whatsoever in 
 dress implies, in my mind, a flaw in the understand- 
 ing. Most of our young fellows here display some 
 character or other by their dress ; some affect the 
 tremendous, and wear a great and fiercely cocked 
 hat v an enormous sword, a short waistcoat, and a 
 black cravat ; these I should be almost tempted to 
 swear the peace against, in vcy own defence, if I 
 were not convinced that they are but meek asses in 
 lions' skins. Others go in brown frocks, leather 
 breeches, great oaken cudgels in their hands, their 
 hats uncocked, and their hair unpowdered, and imi- 
 tate grooms, stage coachmen and country bumpkins 
 so well in their outsides, that I do not make the 
 least doubt of their resembling them equally in their 
 insides. A man of sense carefully avoids any par- 
 ticular character in his dress : he is accurately clean 
 for his own sake, but all the rest is for other peo- 
 ple’s He dresses as well, and in the same manner, 
 as the people of sense and fashion of the place 
 where he is. It he dresses better, as he thinks, 
 that is. more than they, he is a lop ; if he dresses 
 worse, he is unpardonably negligent 5 but if he is 
 negligent at twenty, he will be a sloven at forty, and 
 stink at fifty years old. Dress yourself fine where 
 others are fine, and plain where others are plain j 
 but take care always that your clothes are well 
 made and fit you, for otherwise they will give you a 
 very awkward air. When you are once well dressed 
 for the day, think no more of it afterwards ; and, 
 without any stiffness for fear of discomposing that 
 dress, let all your motions be as easy and natural as 
 if you had no clothes at all. So much for dress, 
 which I maintain to be a thing of consequence in 
 the polite world. 
 
 Ambition and Avarice. —There are two incon- 
 sistent passions which, however, frequently accom- 
 pany each other, like man and wife, and which, like 
 man and wife too, are commonly clogs upon each 
 other. I mean ambition and avarice ; the latter is 
 often the true cause of the former, and then is the 
 
 predominant passion. It seems to have been so in 
 Cardinal Mazarin. who did anything, submitted to 
 anything, and forgave anything for the sake of 
 plunder. He loved and courted power like a 
 usurer, because it carried profit along with it. 
 Whoever should have formed his opinion, or taken 
 his measures, singly, from the ambitious part of 
 Cardinal Mazarin’s character, would have found 
 himself often mistaken. Some, who had tound this 
 out, made their fortunes by letting him cheat them 
 at play. On the contrary. Cardinal Richelieu’s 
 prevailing passion seems to have been ambition, 
 and his immense riches only the natural conse- 
 quences of that ambition gratified ; and yet. I make 
 no doubt, but that ambition had now and then its 
 turn with the former, and avarice with the lattet 
 ^Richelieu (by the way) is so strong a proof of the 
 inconsistency of numan nature, that I cannot help 
 observing to you, that, while he absolutely governed 
 both his king and his country, and was, in a great 
 degree, the arbiter ot the fate of all Europe, he was 
 more jealous of the great reputation of Corneille 
 than of the power of Spain, and more flattered with 
 being thought (what he was not) the best poet, than 
 with being thought (what he certainly was) the 
 greatest statesman in Europe ; and affairs stood 
 still while he was concerting the criticism upon the 
 Cid. Could one think this possible, if one did non 
 know it to be true ? 
 
 Genteel Carriage. — Next to graceful speaking, 
 a genteel carriage and a graceful manner of present- 
 ing yourself are extremely necessary, for they are* 
 extremely engaging ; and carelessness in these 
 points is much more unpardonable in a young fel- 
 low than affectation. It shows an offensive indiffer 
 ence about pleasing. I have been told by one here, 
 who has seen you lately, that you are awkward in 
 your motions and negligent of your person ; I am 
 sorry for both, and so will you be when it will be toe 
 late, if you continue so some time longer. Awk- 
 wardness of carriage is very alienating, and a total 
 negligence of dress and air is an imperthient insult 
 upon custom and fashion. 
 
 Talking About Yourself. — The only sure way 
 of avoiding these evils is, never to speak of yourself 
 at all. But when, historically, you are obliged to 
 mention yourself, take care not to drop one single 
 word that can directly or indirectly be construed as 
 fishing for applause. Be your character what if 
 will, it will be known ; and nobody will take it 
 upon your own word. Never imagine that anything 
 you can say yourself will varnish your defects or 
 add lustre to your perfections ; but, on the con- 
 trary, it may, and nine times in ten will, make the 
 former more glaring and the latter obscure. If you 
 
400 
 
 LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 are silent upon your own subject, neither envy, in- 
 dignation nor ridicule will obstruct or allay the 
 applause which you may really deserve ; but if you 
 publish your own panegyric, upon any occasion, or 
 in any shape whatsoever, and however artfully 
 dressed or disguised, they will all conspire against 
 you, and you will be disappointed of the very end 
 you aim at. 
 
 Attentions — A young man should never be want- ' 
 ing in these attentions ; they cost little and bring in 
 a great deal, by getting you people’s good word 
 and affection. They gain the heart, to which I have 
 always advised you to apply yourself particularly ; * 
 it guides ten thousand for one that reason influ- 
 ences. 
 
 Grace of Manner. — I cannot end this letter 
 without repeating my recommendation of the Graces. 
 They are to be met with at Turin ; sacrifice to them, 
 and they will be propitious. People mistake gross- 
 ly to imagine that the least awkwardness, in either 
 matter or manner, mind or body, is an indifferent 
 thing, and not worthy of attention. It may possibly 
 be a weakness in me (but in short we are all so 
 made), I confess to you fairly, that when you shall 
 come home, and that I first see you, if I find you 
 ungraceful in your address, and awkward in your 
 person and dress, it will be impossible for me to 
 love you half so well as I should otherwise do, let 
 you intrinsic merit and knowledge be ever so great. 
 
 Left Handedness. — An awkward address, un 
 graceful attitudes and actions and a certain left 
 handedness (if I may use that word) loudly pro- 
 claim low education and low company ; for it is 
 impossible to suppose that a man can have fre- 
 quented good company without having caught 
 something, at least, of their air and motions. A 
 new raised man is distinguished in a regiment by 
 his awkwardness ; but he must be impenetrably 
 dull, if, in a month or two’s time, he cannot per- 
 form at least the common manual exercise, and 
 look like a soldier. The very accoutrements of a 
 man of fashion are grievous incumbrances to a vul- 
 gar man. He is at a loss what to do with his hat, 
 when it is not upon his head ; his cane (if unfor 
 tunately he wears one) is at perpetual war with 
 every cup of tea or coffee he drinks; destroys them 
 first, and then accompanies them in their fall. 
 
 A Noble Ease and Grace. — Do not imagine that 
 these accomplishments are only useful with women ; 
 they are much more so with men. In a public 
 assembly, what an advantage has a graceful speaker, 
 with genteel motions, a handsome figure, and a lib- 
 eral air, over one who shah speak full as much 
 good sense, but destitute of these ornaments ! In 
 business how prevalent are the graces, how detri- 
 mental is the want of them ! By the help of 
 
 these I have known some men refuse favors less 
 offensively than others granted them. The utility of 
 them in courts and negotiations is inconceivable. 
 You gain the hearts, and consequently the secrets, 
 of nine in ten that you have to do with, in spite 
 even of their prudence ; which will, nine times in 
 ten, be the dupe of their hearts and of their senses. 
 Consider the importance of these things as they de- 
 serve, and you will not lose one moment in the 
 pursuit of them. 
 
 Dignity of Manners. — There is a certain dignity 
 of manners absolutely necessary to make even the 
 most valuable character either respected or respect- 
 able. Horse-play, romping, frequent and loud fits 
 of laughter, jokes, waggery and indiscriminate 
 familiarity will sink both merit and knowledge into 
 a degree of contempt. They compose at most a 
 merry fellow, and a merry fellow was never yet a 
 respectable man. Indiscriminate familiarity either 
 offends j^our superiors, or else dubs you their de- 
 pendant and led captain. It gives your inferiors 
 just but troublesome and improper claims of equal- 
 ity. A joker is near akin to a buffoon ; and neither 
 of them is the least related to wit. Whoever is ad- 
 mitted or sought for in company upon any other 
 account than that of his merit and manners, is 
 never respected there, but only made use of. We 
 will have such a one, for he sings prettily ; we will 
 invite such a one to a ball, for he dances well ; we 
 will have such a one at supper, for he is always 
 joking and laughing ; we will ask another, because 
 he plays deep at all games, or because he can drink 
 a great deal. These are vilifying distinctions, mor- 
 tifying preferences, and exclude all ideas of esteem 
 and regard. Whoever is had (as it is called) in 
 company for the sake of any one thing singly, is 
 singly that thing, and will never be considered in 
 any other light ; consequently never respected, let 
 his merits be what they will. 
 
 Nothing by Halves. — Whatever business you 
 have, do it the first moment you can ; never by 
 halves, but finish it without interruption, if possible. 
 Business must not be sauntered and trifled with ; 
 and you must not say to it, as Felix did to Paul, 
 “at a more convenient season I will speak to thee.” 
 The most convenient season for business is the 
 first ; but study and business, in some measure, 
 point out their own times to a man of sense ; time 
 is much ottener squandered away in the wrong 
 choice and improper methods of amusement and 
 pleasures. 
 
 Necessity of Attention. — Sir Charles Williams 
 told me then, that in company you were frequently 
 most provokingly inattentive, absent, and distrait. 
 That you came into a room and presented yourseli 
 very awkwardly, that at table you constantly threvf 
 
LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 401 
 
 down knives, forks, napkins, bread, etc., and that 
 you neglected your person and dress, to a degree 
 unpardonable at any age, and much more so at 
 yours. 
 
 Distraction and Inattention— I know no one 
 thing more offensive to a company than that inat- 
 tention and distraction. It is showing them the 
 utmost contempt ; and people never forgive con- 
 tempt. No man is distrait with the man he fears, or 
 the woman he loves ; which is a proof that every 
 man can get the better of that distraction , when he 
 thinks it worth his while to do so ; and, take my 
 word for it, it is always worth his while. For my 
 own part, I would rather be in company with a dead 
 man, than with an absent one ; for if the dead man 
 gives me no pleasure, at least he shows me no con- 
 tempt ; whereas the absent man, silently indeed, 
 but very plainly, tells me that he does not think me 
 worth his attention. Besides, can an absent man 
 make any observations upon the characters, cus- 
 toms and manners of the company? No. He may 
 be in the best companies all his lifetime (if they will 
 admit him, which, if I were they, I would not,) and 
 never be one jot the wiser. I never will converse 
 with an absent man ; one may as well talk to a deaf 
 one, It is, in truth, a practical blunder to address 
 a man who, we see plainly, neither hears, minds, 
 nor understands us. Moreover, I aver that no man 
 is in any degree fit for either business or conversa- 
 tion, who cannot, and does not, direct and com- 
 mand his attention to the present object, be that 
 what it will. You know by experience that 1 
 grudge no expense in your education, but I will 
 positively not keep you a flapper. You may read 
 in Dr. Swift the description of these flappers, and 
 the use they were of to your friends. 
 
 Amiability. — There is a certain concurrence of 
 various little circumstances which compose what 
 the French call Vaimable , and which, now you are 
 entering into the world, you ought to make it your 
 particular study to acquire. Without them, your 
 learning will be pedantry, your conversation often 
 improper, always unpleasant, and your figure, how- 
 ever good in itself, awkward and unengaging. A 
 diamond while rough has indeed its intrinsic value, 
 but till polished is of no use, and would neither be 
 sought for nor worn. Its great lustre, it is true, 
 proceeds from its solidity and strong cohesion of 
 parts, but without the last polish it would remain 
 forever a dirty, rough mineral in the cabinets of 
 some few curious collectors. You have, I hope, 
 that solidity and cohesion of parts ; take now as 
 much pains to get the lustre. Good company, if 
 you make the right use of it, will cut you into 
 shape, and give you the true brilliant polish. A 
 
 propos of diamonds, I have sent you by Sir James 
 Gray, the king’s minister, who will be at Venice 
 about the middle of September, my own diamond 
 buckles, which are fitter for your feet than for my 
 old ones ; they will properly adorn you, they would 
 only expose me. 
 
 Trifles. — Great merit, or great failings, will 
 make you respected or despised ; but trifles, little 
 attentions, mere nothings, either done or neglected, 
 will make you either liked or disliked, in the gen- 
 eral run of the world. Examine yourself why you 
 like such and such people, and dislike such and 
 such others, and you will find that those different 
 sentiments proceed from very slight causes. Moral 
 virtues are the foundation of society in general, and 
 of friendship in particular, but attention and graces 
 both adorn and strengthen them. 
 
 How to Please. — You must not neglect your 
 dress neither, but take care to be bien mis. Pray 
 send for the best operator for the teeth at Turin 
 where I suppose there is some famous one, and 1^ 
 him put yours in perfect order, and then take care 
 to keep them so afterwards yourself. You had 
 very good teeth, and I hope they are so still ; but 
 even those who have bad ones should keep them 
 clean, for a dirty mouth is, in my mind, ill man- 
 ners. In short, neglect nothing that can possibly 
 please. A thousand nameless little things, which 
 nobody can describe, but which everybody feel?, 
 conspire to form that whole of pleasing, as the sev- 
 eral pieces of a mosaic work, though separately of 
 little beauty or value, when properly joined, form 
 those beautiful figures which please everybody. A 
 look, a gesture, an attitude, a tone of voice, all bear 
 their parts in the great work of pleasing. The art of 
 pleasing is more particularly necessary in your in- 
 tended profession than perhaps in any other ; it is, 
 in truth, the first half of your business, for if you do 
 not please the court you are sent to, yop will be of 
 very little use to the court you are sent from. 
 Please the eyes and the ears, they will introduce 
 you to the heart, and nine times in ten the heart 
 governs the understanding. 
 
 Make your court particularly, and show distin- 
 guished attentions to such men and women as are, 
 best at court, highest in the fashion and in the 
 opinion of the public; speak advantageously of 
 them behind their backs, in companies who you 
 have reason to believe will tell them again. 
 
 Temper. — The principal of these things is the 
 mastery of one’s temper, and that coolness of mind 
 and serenity of countenance which hinders us from 
 discovering, by words, actions, or even looks, those 
 passions or sentiments by which we are inwardly 
 moved or agitated, and the discovery of which givey 
 
402 
 
 LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 ooler and abler people such infinite advantages 
 over us, not only in great business, but in all the 
 most common occurrences of life. A man who 
 does not possess himself enough to hear disagree- 
 able things without visible marks of anger and 
 change of countenance, or agreeable ones without 
 sudden bursts of joy and expansion of countenance, 
 is at the mercy of every artful knave or pert cox- 
 comb ; the former will provoke or please you by 
 design, to catch unguarded words or looks, by 
 which he will easily decipher the secrets of your 
 heart, of which you should keep the key yourself, 
 and trust it with no man living. 
 
 Immobility. — Determine, too, to keep your coun- 
 tenance as unmoved and unembarrassed as pos- 
 sible ; which steadiness you may get a habit of by 
 constant attention. I should desire nothing better 
 in any negotiation than to have to do with one of 
 these men of warm, quick passions, which I would 
 take care to set in motion. By artful provocations 
 I would extort rash and unguarded expressions, 
 and, by hinting at all the several things that I could 
 suspect, infallibly discover the true one by the alter- 
 ation it occasioned in the countenance of the per- 
 son. V6lto sciolto con pensieri stretti is a most useful 
 maxim in business. 
 
 The Face,— Make yourself absolute master, 
 therefore of your temper and your countenance, so 
 far, at least, as that no visible change do appear in 
 either, whatever you may feel inwardly. This may 
 be difficult, but it is by no means impossible ; and 
 as a man of sense never attempts impossibilities on 
 one hand, on the other he is never discouraged by 
 difficulties. 
 
 Judge of others by Yourself. — In order to 
 judge of the inside of others, study your own, for 
 men in general are very much alike ; and though 
 one has one prevailing passion, and another has 
 another, yet their operations are much the same ; 
 and whatever engages or disgusts, pleases or 
 offends you in others, will, mutatis mutandis , en- 
 gage, disgust, please, or offend others in you. 
 
 Learning and Politeness. — I have often asserted 
 that the profoundest learning and the politest man- 
 ners were by no means incompatible, though so 
 seldom found united in the same person ; and I 
 have engaged myself to exhibit you as a proof of 
 the truth of this assertion. Should you, instead of 
 that, happen to disprove me, the concern indeed 
 will be mine, but the loss will be yours. Lord 
 Bolingbroke is a strong instance on my side of the 
 question ; he joins to the deepest erudition the 
 most elegant politeness and good breeding that 
 «£ver any courtier and man of the world was adorned 
 With. And Pope very justly called him All Accom- 
 
 plished, St. John with regard to his knowledge and 
 his manners. He had, it is true, his faults, which 
 proceeded from unbounded ambition and impetuous 
 passions ; but they have now subsided by age and 
 experience ; and I can wish you nothing better than 
 to be, what he is now, without being what he has 
 been formerly. His address pre-engages, his elo* 
 quence persuades, and his knowledge informs all 
 who approach him. Upon the whole, I do desire 
 and insist that from after dinner till you go to bed 
 you make good breeding, address and manners 
 your serious object and your only care. Without 
 
 them, you will be nobody ; with them, you may be 
 anything. 
 
 Charm of Manner. — The late Lord Townshend 
 always spoke materially, with argument and knowl- 
 edge, but never pleased. Why? His diction was 
 not only inelegant, but frequently ungrammatical, 
 always vulgar ; his cadences false, his voice unhar- 
 monious, and his action ungraceful. Nobody heard 
 him with patience, and the young fellows used to 
 joke upon him and repeat his inaccuracies. The 
 late Duke of Argyle, though the weakest reasoner, 
 was the most pleasing speaker I ever knew in my 
 life. He charmed, he warmed, he forcibly ravished 
 the audience ; not by his matter certainly, but by 
 his manner of delivering it. A most genteel figure, 
 a graceful, noble air, an harmonious voice, an ele- 
 gancy of style, and a strength of emphasis, con- 
 spired to make him the most affecting, persuasive 
 and applauded speaker I ever saw. I was capti- 
 vated like others ; but when I came home and 
 coolly considered what he had said, stripped of all 
 those ornaments in which he had dressed it, I often 
 found the matter flimsy, the arguments weak, and I 
 was convinced of the power of those adventitious 
 concurring circumstances which ignorance of man- 
 kind only calls trifling ones. 
 
 Tickling Follies. — If you will please people, 
 you must please them in their own way ; and, as 
 you cannot make them what they should be, you 
 must take them as they are. I repeat it again, they 
 are only to be taken by agremens , and by what flat- 
 ters their senses and their hearts. Rabelais first 
 wrote a most excellent book which nobody liked ; 
 
 then, determined to conform to the public taste, he 
 wrote “Gargantua” and “Pantagruel,” which every- 
 body liked, extravagant as it was. Adieu. 
 
 How to Please. — An air, a tone of voice, a com- 
 posure of countenance to mildness and softness, 
 which are all easily acquired, do the business*; and 
 without farther examination, and possibly with the 
 contrary qualities, that man is reckoned the gen- 
 tlest, the modestest, and the best natured man alive. 
 Happy the man who, with a certain fund of parts 
 
LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 403 
 
 and knowledge, gets acquainted with the world 
 early enough to make it his bubble, at an age when 
 most people are the bubbles of the world ! for that 
 is the common case of youth. They grow wiser 
 when it is too late ; and, ashamed and vexed at hav- 
 ing been bubbles so long, too often turn knaves at 
 last. Do not, therefore, trust to appearances and 
 outside yourself, but pay other people with them, 
 because you may be sure that nine in ten of man- 
 kind do, and ever will, trust to them. This is by no 
 means a criminal or blameable simulation, if not 
 used with an ill intention. I am by no means 
 blameable in desiring to have other people’s good 
 word, good will and affection, if I do not mean to 
 abuse them. Your heart, I know, is good, your 
 sense is sound, and your knowledge extensive. 
 
 Time— Its Value. — Very few people are good 
 economists of their fortune, and still fewer of theif 
 time ; and yet of the two the latter is the most pre- 
 cious. I heartily wish you to be a good economist 
 of both, and you are now of an age to begin to 
 think seriously of these two important articles. 
 Young people are apt to think they have so much 
 time before them that they may squander what they 
 please of it and yet have enough left, as very great 
 fortunes have frequently seduced people to a ruin- 
 ous profusion. Fatal mistakes, always repented of, 
 but always too late ! Old Mr. Lowndes, the famous 
 secretary of the treasury in the reigns of King Wil- 
 liam, Queen Anne, and King George the First, 
 used to say, Take care of the pence and the pounds will 
 take care of themselves. To this maxim, which he 
 not only preached but practiced, his two grandsons 
 at this time owe the very considerable fortunes that 
 he left them. 
 
 Aim High. — Aim at perfection in everything, 
 though in most things it is unattainable ; however, 
 they who aim at it, and persevere, will come much 
 nearer it than those whose laziness and despond- 
 ency make them give it up as unattainable. Mag- 
 nis tamen excidet ausis is a degree of praise which 
 will always attend a noble and shining temerity, 
 and a much better sign in a young fellow than 
 serpere humi , tutus nimium timidusque procellce % for 
 men, as well as women. 
 
 The Reward of Virtue. — If a virtuous man be 
 ever so poor or unfortunate in the world, still his 
 virtue is his own reward and will comfort him under 
 his afflictions. The quiet and satisfaction of his 
 conscience make him cheerful by day and sleep 
 sound of nights ; he can be alone with pleasure and 
 is not afraid of his own thoughts. Besides this, he 
 is esteemed and respected, for even the most wicked 
 people themselves cannot help admiring and re- 
 specting virtue in others. 
 
 Little Nothings. — I know a man, and so do; 
 you, who, without a grain of merit, knowledge or 
 talents has raised himself millions of degrees above 
 his level singly by a good air and engaging man- 
 ners, insomuch that the very prince who raised him 
 so high calls him mon aimable vaurien , but of this 
 do not open your lips, pour cause. I give you this 
 secret as the strongest proof imaginable of the effi- 
 cacy of air, address, tournure et tous ces petits reins. 
 
 Ease of Manners. — Les bienseances are a most 
 necessary part of the knowledge of the world. They 
 consist in the relations of persons, things, time and 
 place ; good sense points them out, good company 
 perfects them (supposing always an attention and a 
 desire to please), and good policy recommends them. 
 Were you to converse with a king, you ought to be 
 as easy and unembarrassed as with your own valet 
 de chambre, but yet every look, word and action 
 should imply the utmost respect. What would be 
 proper and well bred with others, much your supe- 
 riors, would be absurd and ill bred with one so very 
 much so. You must wait till you are spoken to ; 
 you must receive, not give, the subject of conversa- 
 tion, and you must even take care that the given 
 subject of such conversation do not lead you into 
 any impropriety. 
 
 Social Respect. — In mixed companies with your 
 equals (for in mixed companies all people are to a 
 certain degree equal) greater ease and liberty are 
 allowed ; but they too have their bounds within 
 bienseance. There is a social respect necessary ; 
 you may start your own subject of conversation 
 with modesty, taking great care, however, de ne 
 jamais parler de cordes dans la maison d’ un peudu. 
 Your words, gestures and attitudes have a greater 
 degree of latitude, though by no means an unbound- 
 ed one. You may have your hands in your pockets, 
 take snuff, sit, stand, or occasionally walk, as you 
 like ; but I believe you would not think it very 
 bienseant to whistle, put on your hat, loosen your 
 garters or your buckles, lie down upon a couch or 
 go to bed and welter in an easy chair. These are 
 negligences and freedoms which one can only take 
 when quite alone ; they are injurious to superiors, 
 shocking and offensive to equals, brutal and insult- 
 ing to inferiors. That easiness of carriage and be- 
 havior which is exceedingly engaging widely differs 
 from negligence and inattention. 
 
 Behavior. — Imitate, then, with discernment and 
 judgment, the real perfections of the good company 
 into which you may get ; copy their politeness, their 
 carriage, their address and the easy and well bred 
 turn of their conversation ; but remember that, let 
 them shine ever so bright, their vices, if they have 
 any, are so many spots which you would no more 
 
404 : 
 
 LORD CHESTERFIELD ON BUSINESS AND SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 imitate than you would make an artificial wart upon 
 your face because some very handsome man had 
 the misfortune to have a natural one upon his ; but, 
 on the contrary, think how much handsomer he 
 would have been without it. 
 
 Talking. — Talk often, but never long ■ in that 
 Case, if you do not please, at least you are ? ire not 
 to tire your hearers Pay your own reckoning, but 
 do not treat the whole company, this being one of 
 the very few cases in which people do net care to 
 be treated, every one being fully convinced that he 
 has wherewithal to pay. 
 
 Tell stories very seldom, and absolutely never 
 but where they are very apt and very short. Omit every 
 circumstance that is not material, and beware of 
 digressions. To have frequent recourse to narra- 
 tive betrays great want of imagination. 
 
 Never hold anybody by the button or the hand in 
 Order to be heard out, for if people are not willing 
 to hear you, you had much better hold your tongue 
 than them. 
 
 Most long talkers single out some unfortunate 
 man in company (commonly him whom they ob- 
 serve to be the most silent or their next neighbor) to 
 whisper, or at least, in a half voice, to convey a con- 
 tinuity of words to. This is excessively ill bred, 
 and, in some degree, a fraud, conversation stock 
 being a joint and common property. But, on the 
 <>ther hand, if one of these unmerciful talkers lays 
 hold of you, hear him with patience and at least 
 seeming attention, if he is worth obliging, for noth- 
 ing will oblige him more than a patient hearing, as 
 nothing would hurt him more than either to leave 
 him in the midst of his discourse or to discover 
 your impatience under your affliction. 
 
 Take rather than give the tone of the company you 
 are in. If you have parts, you will show them more 
 or less upon every subject, and if you have not, you 
 had better talk -illily upon a subject of other peo- 
 ple’s than of your own choosing. 
 
 Avoid as much as you can in mixed companies 
 argumentative, polemical conversations, which, 
 though they should not, yet certainly do, indispose 
 for a time the contending parties towards each 
 other ; and if the controversy grows warm and 
 noisy, endeavor to put an end to it by some genteel 
 levity or joke. I quieted such a conversation hub- 
 bub once by representing to them that though I was 
 persuaded none there present would repeat out of 
 company what passed in it, yet I could not answer 
 
 for the discretion of the passengers in the street 
 who must necessarily hear all that was said. 
 
 Above all things and upon all occasions avoid 
 speaking of yourself, if it be possible. Such is the 
 natural pride and vanity of our hearts that it per- 
 petually breaks out, even in people of the best 
 parts, in all the various modes and figures of the 
 egotism. 
 
 The Novice in Society. — I remember that when, 
 with all the awkwardness and rust of Cambridge 
 about me, I was first introduced into good com- 
 pany I was frightened out of my wits. I was de- 
 termined to be what I thought civil ; I made fine 
 low bows and placed myself below everybody, but 
 when I was spoken to or attempted to speak myself, 
 obstupui , steterunque comae et vox faucibus hcesit. If I 
 saw people whisper I was sure it was at me, and I 
 thought myself the sole* object of either the ridicule 
 or the censure of the whole company, who, God 
 knows, did not trouble their heads about me. In 
 this way I suffered for some time like a criminal at 
 the bar, and should certainly have renounced all 
 polite company forever if I had not been so con- 
 vinced of the absolute necessity of forming my man- 
 ners upon those of the best companies, that I deter- 
 mined to persevere and suffer anything or every- 
 thing rather than not compass that point. Insen- 
 sibly it grew easier to me, and I began not to bow so 
 ridiculously low and to answer questions without 
 great hesitation or stammering; if, now and then, 
 some charitable people, seeing my embarrassment, 
 and being desocuvre themselves, came and spoke to 
 me, I considered them as 3ngels sent to comfort me, 
 and that gave me a little courage. I got more soon 
 afterwards, and was intrepid enough to go up to a 
 fine woman and tell her that I thought it a warm 
 day; she answered me very civilly that she thought 
 so too, upon which the conversation ceased on my 
 part for some time, till she, good naturedly resum- 
 ing it, spoke to me thus : “I see your embarrass- 
 ment, and I am sure that the few words you said to 
 me cost you a great deal; but do not be discouraged 
 for that reason and avoid good company. We see 
 that you desire to please and that is the main point; 
 you want only the manner, and you think that you 
 want it still more than you do. You must go 
 through your novitiate before you can profess good 
 breeding, and if you will be my novice I will pre- 
 sent you to my acquaintance as such.” 
 
RECREATION FOR ALL 
 
 IN 
 
 HOME, FIELD, FOREST AND SEA. 
 
 RULES FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS 
 
 AND 
 
 HOME AMUSEMENTS, 
 
 Containing a Dictionary of Nautical Terms ; Chapters 
 on the Horse, his Care and Management; 
 
 The G-ame Birds of North America; 
 
 The Amatuer Taxidermist and 
 Photographer. 
 
THE AMERICAN HORSE. 
 
 POINTS IN BUYING A HORSE— CARE AND MANAGEMENT, WITH 
 VALUABLE HINTS ON THE CAUSE AND CURE OF DISEASE. 
 
 A valuable and good-sized work might be written on the history of the horse, 
 but the size and purpose of this article do not permit us to enter into this subject, 
 and we will only allude to a few of the incidents and accidents that may befall this 
 noble beast. No animal has been tamed and trained for the use of man which 
 deserves better treatment from his hands. The chief essential to the successful 
 management of the horse is that his training should be with a firm but gentle hand. 
 
 BREEDS: — The American Thoroughbred came from English stock, which origin- 
 ated nearly two hundred years ago from a mixture of Turks, Arabs, and Barbs. 
 Since which time it has been a distinct class renowned for the faculty of reproducing 
 in its offspring the leading characteristics for which it is itself distinguished. The 
 trotter inherits his speed and power of endurance from the thoroughbred, and the 
 blood of the racer predominates in the approved hunter and cavalry horse. The 
 roadster is also indebted to him for the great staying power which he possesses. For 
 these reasons the thoroughbred is much sought after to cross with other hardier and 
 more robust native breeds. 
 
 The American Trotter can hardly be called a distinct breed, but he will almost 
 always be found to be a cross between a thoroughbred and some other hardier 
 stock. “ Messenger,” an English thoroughbred, was imported in 1788, and sired 
 “ Plato,” “ Engineer,” “Commander,” “Why Not,” “Mount Holly,” “ Mambrino ” 
 and “ Hambletonian.” He was the grandsire of the famous “American Eclipse,” who 
 became the progenitor of a long list of trotters and runners in the United States. 
 Canada has also added somewhat to our trotting stock. 
 
 The Cleveland Bay and Suffolk Peenche . — These make fine stylish carriage horses, 
 being lighter and more active than either of the above, with plenty of movement 
 and good carriage for the road. The Suffolk Peenche as a rule are shorter jointed 
 and more compactly built, and of a sorrel color. 
 
 Scrubs. — In this class are enumerated all horses less than half breeds of any well- 
 established and well-recognized class. This includes the light weight, mongrel 
 “native,” the mustang, the Indian pony, and some others. 
 
 The Draft-Horse. — This is the race which first made the name of La Perche 
 famous. They were from fifteen to sixteen hands high, weighing from twelve hun- 
 dred to fourteen hundred pounds. Their ability to move heavy loads at a rapid rate, 
 as well as for use in post carriages and omnibuses, brought them into prominence. 
 But there being a demand for larger frame and greater weight they were crossed 
 
406 
 
 THE AMERICAN HORSE— POINTS IN BUYING. 
 
 with the large, lumbering draft horses imported from Flanders. In the main these 
 descendants possess the endurance and action of the original Percherons, having a 
 long, elastic step, fine legs, a long, tough hoof, a kind and spirited disposition, with 
 the weight and strength of the true draft-horse. They are, moreover, sure breeders. 
 
 TRAINING A Colt. — He should be weaned when five or seven months of age, 
 being first taught to eat and drink. The education of the colt should be commenced 
 very early, even before he is weaned. Let the owner often pet and caress him with 
 his own hand while feeding him. Teach him the use of the halter, both in the stall 
 and about the yard, also to be led by the foretop. Kindness and never harshness 
 should be the rule. “A hand of steel in a velvet glove,” is the maxim, never permit- 
 ting the colt to obtain the least advantage over his master. Uniform mastery over 
 himself and over the animal will accomplish wonders in the breaking of the young 
 horse. Much patience and a firm hand are needed at every step in the process. 
 
 To teach the colt to obey the word of command it is imperatively necessary to 
 impress upon him its meaning. Take one command at a time and see that he 
 understands and executes it. For example, to teach him to stop at the word 
 “whoa,” fasten a strap to the colt’s right fore foot and pass it over his back, then 
 walk to his left side, pull down the strap and say, “whoa,” in a firm, but mild tone 
 of voice. Repeat the process until he understands the meaning of the word. 
 
 WHAT TO NOTICE WHEN BUYING A HORSE. Examine the horse in 
 an outdoor light. See that the feet are of uniform size and free from cracks or rings. 
 
 Eyes. — Examine them closely and thoroughly while the horse is kept quiet. 
 The shying of many horses is caused by defective eyes. A horse with either eye not 
 actually perfect is unsound. 
 
 Corns are mostly on the inside of the heels and look like bruises. In the thin, 
 brittle hoof they are the worst. In a strong hoof they are of less consequence, pro- 
 vided they are not soft corns. If a horse is a superior one with good hoofs, do not 
 reject him on this account. 
 
 Thrushes are situated in the frogs of the feet, rendering them ragged and 
 causing a fetid moisture. With proper treatment they are of little consequence; 
 but when neglected they turn to canker — which is troublesome to cure. 
 
 Wind Galls are situated just below the pastern joint. They are not an un- 
 soundness, except in extreme cases. 
 
 THOROUGH Pins are wind galls in the hocks. Unless they cause inconvenience, 
 which is rarely the case, they are not an unsoundness. 
 
 SPLINTS are hard, bony lumps inside the leg, toward the back of the cannon 
 bone. When forming they may cause lameness; but after they are formed — unless 
 they are under a tendon— they are a blemish of the least consequence. 
 
 CURBS are bony enlargements at the back of the lower part of the hock and are 
 considered an unsoundness. 
 
 Ring Bone is the turning into bone of the gristle above the hoof. It causes a 
 ring-like enlargement. It is a permanent unsoundness, as bone cannot be changed 
 back into gristle. 
 
THE AMERICAN HORSE — KlS CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 SPAVINS are an enlargement on the inside and rather toward the front of the 
 hock, and are an unsoundness. 
 
 Blood Spavins are an enlargement of the thigh vein which passes over the 
 inside of the hock. Blood spavins are of rare occurrence and rarely produce 
 lameness. 
 
 Capped Hocks are the result of blows or kicks. They are not an unsoundness. 
 
 SPRING Halt is an awkward catch of the hind leg. It can easily be detected 
 when the horse comes out of the stable. Also see if one hip is lower than the other. 
 If so, this is an unsoundness. 
 
 Have the horse driven or exercised, and listen to perceive if his wind is broken. 
 
 WHY YOU SHOULD BLANKET YOUR HORSE. Blanketing a horse in 
 the stable makes his coat short and sleek. ThL makes him look more valuable, and 
 it is easier to keep him clean than a long-haired horse. An unblanketed horse has a 
 long and shaggy coat, which makes him look rough and requires a great deal of time 
 to keep him clean. 
 
 A short-coated horse after driving can be rubbed dry in half the time required 
 for drying a shaggy horse ; and if you have a shaggy horse, unless you spend a long 
 time rubbing him dry, the sweat retained by the long coat will cause him to catch 
 cold and make him stiff. 
 
 Buy good Horse Blankets, save trouble and make your horse worth more. 
 
 The Farm , Field and Stockman, of Chicago, one of the most influential agricul- 
 tural papers, said, December 8th, 1888: 
 
 “ Every kind-hearted man should provide his horse with a comfortable blanket, 
 both for stable wear and for covering when hitched out of doors. Nor is it a matter 
 of kindness alone, but really a matter of economy. A well-blanketed horse will keep 
 in good condition, and in the spring will be better prepared for hard work, on less 
 feed, than one not blanketed. The cost of a blanket will be more than saved in the 
 feed, besides adding to the physical comfort and appearance of the beast. When 
 purchasing a blanket it is an object to get the best for your money. A good blanket, 
 which will wear well, is the cheapest in the end.” 
 
 REMEDIES FOR SICK HORSES. Colic. — Pulverize half an ounce of car- 
 bonate of ammonia and quarter of an ounce of ground Jamaica ginger together; 
 dissolve in a pint of water. Give every twenty minutes until horse is relieved. If 
 colic is from indigestion and there is no swelling, give a quart of raw linseed oil 
 first and the above prescription afterward. 
 
 FOUNDER. — Take off the front shoes; soak the front feet in warm water for 
 two hours, night and morning; keep warm bran poultice on the feet ; give a light 
 dose of physic. Keep well blanketed. 
 
 SCRATCHES OR Sore Heels. — Cut the hair off close and wash the part clean. 
 Dissolve one pound of sulphate of zinc in a gallon of water and apply night and 
 morning. Keep the leg warm with dry flannel bandages. 
 
 Nails IN the Foot. — Clean the wound; soak in warm water; keep bran poul- 
 tices on. Do not put on spirits of salts, or anything, but leave the rest to nature. 
 
408 
 
 THE AMERICAN HORSE — HIS CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Sore Back and Shoulders. — Keep clean, and apply solution of sulphate of 
 zinc twice a day (one pound sulphate of zinc to a gallon of water). 
 
 Wounds, Cuts, Etc. — Apply a solution of sulphate of zinc. 
 
 Inflamed Eyes. — Bathe with warm water, and apply a lotion of laudanum — 
 one ounce to eight ounces of rain water. 
 
 Rheumatism and Lameness. — Give a light dose of physic, bathe well with 
 warm water, and keep hot damp woollen bandages on for two days, then apply lini- 
 ment (turpentine, 2 ounces; hartshorn, ]/ 2 ounce, with a pint of sweet oil) once or 
 twice a day. Use the same liniment for Sore Throat. Keep well blanketed. 
 
 Breaking and Training. — The horse should become trained to the duties 
 which he must perform, then it will become natural and not irksome. The proper 
 training will not fatigue the animal any more than his voluntary' exercise if suffered 
 to run at large. 
 
 The trainer should bear in mind the following things: 
 
 ist. That obedience is the ruling principle in the nature of the horse, and there 
 need be no use of violence. 
 
 2d. He is ignorant of his own strength, and it is wise to keep him so by kindness.. 
 
 3d. That fear in the horse as in man is born of ignorance, and therefore you have 
 only to accustom him to an object of which he stands in dread to show that it will 
 not harm him. The best means is to allow him to examine the object in the most 
 natural way. 
 
 4th. That to make him obey he has only to make him understand what is wanted 
 of him. 
 
 5th. That the best way is to regard him as an intelligent creature, and teach him 
 that man is his superior and best friend. 
 
 Care in THE Stable. — The principal requisites are punctuality and regularity, 
 for the physical nature of the horse as well as man comes to be governed by habit. 
 
 Attention should be paid to ventilation and cleanliness. Feed and water should 
 be supplied at regular intervals, for the stomach will be regulated by habit, and ex- 
 cessive thirst and hunger will be avoided. The grooming should not be done while 
 the horse is feeding. All accumulation in the stable of refuse material will engender 
 foul air, which will be harmful to the animal, therefore mangers, stalls, and every 
 part of the stable requires attention. A horse which is kept well groomed and in a 
 clean stable will thrive better and on less than one where these conditions are want- 
 ing. Good grooming removes all outward impurities, which if allowed to remain 
 there, would work into the wrinkles of the skin and produce sores, or into the pores 
 and prevent their normal functions. It not only removes these impurities, but 
 quickens circulation and gives nutrition to the skin, producing a glossy coat of hair 
 and better health. The legs should be washed with judicious care, always leaving 
 them as dry as possible. It is important to furnish abundant bedding — the best is 
 wheat or oat straw. 
 
 After Work OR Exercise. — For a weary horse there should be supplied only 
 food of an easy kind to digest and in moderate quantity, oats or barley mixed with bran. 
 A very small amount of water, if any, and that not cold. A little tepid water with 
 
THE AMERICAN HORSE HIS CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 
 
 409 
 
 oats or barley meal thrown in. Do not torture the animal under the pretence of cleaning 
 him, but if muddy or covered with perspiration remove gently and quietly, and allow rest 
 before a thorough cleaning. 
 
 CARE OF FEET. — There is a whole volume in the pretty maxim, “No foot , no 
 horse!' Many writers might enlarge upon the subject, but the gist of the matter is con- 
 tained in these words. The construction of a horse’s foot is most wonderful and intricate. 
 The shoeing should be done by a man skilled in his trade and possessing a knowledge of 
 this construction. The cutting away of the hoof so much, as is generally done, is a 
 mistake. Some say this is done to prevent it from growing out of shape, but there is 
 often much mischief accomplished by this. The important thing is to use judgment and 
 care in horse shoeing as in everything else. Keep the feet dry. Foot ointments should 
 be used with care. 
 
 THE CAUSES OF DISEASE AND THEIR CURE.— It is far better to prevent 
 than to cure. In most cases the disease arises from ignorance or mismanagement. Im- 
 perfect stable regulations are a prolific cause. In his normal condition the horse 
 is always health). It is a mistake to drug a horse while in health to prevent disease. In 
 complicated or critical cases a veterinary surgeon should be called, but in disease so 
 trivial that a man of average perception can understand, medicines may be safely used. 
 
 Do not bleed ; keep the strength of the horse unimpaired, attend to proper ventila- 
 tion of stable, and the warmth of body, and use simple remedies. 
 
 Congestion of lungs is attended with shivering, quickened breathing and muscular 
 twitching of the flanks. This requires skill. If the blood can be caused to circulate, re- 
 lief is at once afforded and danger is over. This may be accomplished in most cases by 
 the use of hot water and blankets, with promptness and persistence. 
 
 Colic is caused by distension of the bowels with unhealthy gases, and is attended 
 with much pain. If there are no intervals in the pain inflammation has set in. Avoid 
 feeding coarse heavy food and you avoid danger. 
 
 Splints, or boring enlargements on the inside of the fore-leg require strong blisters 
 and rest. Swelled legs and cracked heels call for tonics. These symptoms follow hard 
 work after feeding at grass, but good diet and alteratives with proper exercise will remedy 
 the trouble. A dry stall, washing and the use of ointments based on glycerine, with 
 moderate exercise is the course prescribed for cracked heels. Lameness, arising from 
 over work, demands perfect rest. Horses put to violent exercise are subject to strains of 
 the tendons and ligaments, then the treatment depends upon the circumstancs of the 
 case. Usually a dose of physic, cooling applications and a continued rest are required. 
 Strong blisters and sometimes firing must be resorted to in severe cases. Bone spavin 
 is the result of straining and too hard work. It is a bony deposit inside the joints of the 
 hock. Begin treatment at once. If neglected it becomes incurable. Much depends upon 
 the part of the hock affected in regard to method of treatment. 
 
 Corns are caused by improper driving, and indicate injury to the feeling part of the 
 hoof. The corn will yield if treated properly as soon as discovered. It may be pared 
 and the shoe shaped to prevent pressure on the heel. Those preparations which pro- 
 mote the growth of the horse may be resorted to, and ointments that relieve inflammation. 
 
 Wounds should be cleansed with warm suds, made of castile soap, and all foreign 
 matter shculd be removed. Then apply ointments of a cooling and healing nature, 
 
<D 
 
 saeletci: urn “yorars” nrorm. 
 
 Bok - "^. — 1 Cranium ; 2 Lower Jaw; r Cer^cal Vertebr;,* <£, 4 Dwaa' ^Nj?} 
 
 tebrse ; 6. 6 Sacrum-; 7, 7 Coccjg. Vertebrae- 8 "Jterrium ; *•, 9 , i v ae Riba, V f t tO Cartilage "sll 
 True Ribs; l 1 ., 11 False Ribs;' 12, 12 Cartilages of J .Ise RL „3 ; 13 C.**,ula; 14 Hum^ruc; 15 Radius; Ifl 
 jfSIiow ; 17 Os Pisiferme ;’ 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 Carpal Boi ea ; 24 Large Metacaiv:?.,! Bone ; %5 O'Pter SmaFb 
 llei.?earpa! Bone ; 26 faster SsialJ V / j^aroal Bone ; 27, 28 Sesamoid F a. es ; 29 Os Suffraginis ; 30 Os Coro- 
 nae; 31 Gs Pedis;’ 32 Wi^g of Peaal Bone; 33, 'u 36 O.- 1 .,‘omin.Jum ; "7 Femur, 38 Tibia, M >> 
 'Caleis; 40 Astragalus ; 4f, 02, 43, 44 ifsr^al Bones; 45 -Cdi-ge Metatarsal ; 16 084*? 5 mal? Met«taj»J< 
 Bone ; 47 Inner Small Metatai-sal Bone. 
 
 Teeth, Joints, Ero. — A Ildar Teeth-; 3, H Canine -s? Tui.h ; C, I Incisors ; S.< ; G Crbit ; 64 
 
 sXriniform Cartilage ; N EcruUai Ca. vilage ; <0 Co.acoid iroeec of f 5capuP ; P "pine ; Q Cartilage*?* 
 
 'Trochanter Maio* ; S Sub-Trocnanleriac Crest; x xN'ihleaj^U Exte nd Cor dy!v; V Pa?Afia; W H«lt 
 •Joint. 
 
 Parts. — a Forehead; b CvTPi? n^o'e the i X) Tempt' ,' < 3 . Lips; e ji'uff , f Nostril* i % 'T'.p 
 
 Nose; li B-arcL ; i Chi..,- j Neck; k iFuroat; 1 inane; m Ior*Top; v« Cncst ; o Shoulders ; f. W2tt«nj 
 q Arm; r Knee ; s iViank ; t Fetlock Joint; u Pastern; v Coronet ^ ^ • « iPsflook ; 7 B.'ck Slu- 
 
 cws or 2 &£in Tendonj; * Plate Vein; a n Cbesnut; b b Quarters: c c Toe; d d Keel; e e ETlho* ; 1 f 
 
 Reins; g g Ribs; h h Flanks; i i l«fely ; j j Fillets; k * Tai! ; 1 * Rump; m no. Buttocks; a -« 
 e to i launches; p £ ‘3'oighs ; «, q 1 of titj :\&y £ ; £ &’ J'Xafcjp*. 
 
 
LATEST LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 AS ADOPTED BY THE VARIOUS ASSOCIATIONS: 
 
 LA CROSSE, FOOT-BALL, BOWLING, LAWN TENNIS, QUOITS, 
 BASE-BALL, FENCING, AND ARCHERY. 
 
 Importance of a Knowledge of the Laws. 
 
 It is of paramount importance that all officials, and especially referees, should 
 have a thorough knowledge and clear understanding of not only the special rules 
 and regulations that govern the issues on which they are called on to decide, but 
 also the legal bearings which may be involved in the decisions that they make. We 
 have before us many cases in Athletics, which, from erroneous decisions by officials, 
 have been the means of dragging them before the judicial authorities of both Eng- 
 land and America. 
 
 Laws of Lacrosse. 
 
 The following Revised Laws are those 
 adopted by the National Lacrosse Asso- 
 ciation of Canada: 
 
 1. Section I. The crosse may be of any 
 length to suit the player, woven with 
 catgut, which must not be bagged. 
 (“ Catgut ” is intended to mean raw-hide- 
 gut or clock strings, not cord or soft 
 leather.) The netting must be flat when 
 the ball is not in it. In its widest part 
 the crosse shall not exceed one foot. No 
 string must be brought through any hole 
 at the side of the tip of the turn. A 
 leading-string resting upon the top of the 
 stick may be used, but not fastened so as 
 to form a pocket lower down the slick 
 than to the end of the length-strings. 
 The length-strings must be woven to with- 
 in two inches of their termination, so 
 that the ball cannot catch in the meshes. 
 
 Sec. II. Players may change their crosse 
 during a match. 
 
 2. The ball must be India-rubber 
 
 sponge, not less than eight and not more 
 than nine inches in circumference. In 
 matches it must be furnished by the chal- 
 lenged party. 
 
 3. The goals may be placed any dis- 
 tance from each other, and in any posi- 
 tion agreeable to the captains of both 
 sides. The top of the hag-poles must be 
 six feet above the ground, including any 
 top ornaments, and six feet apart. In 
 matches they must be furnished by the 
 challenged party. 
 
 4. There shall be a line or crease, to be 
 called the goal-crease, drawn in front of 
 each goal, six feet from the flag-poles, 
 within which no opponent must stand 
 unless the ball has passed cover-point. 
 
 5. Sec. I. There must be two umpires 
 at each goal, one for each side, who must 
 stand behind the flags when the ball is 
 near or nearing the goal, unless otherwise 
 agreed upon by the captains. They must 
 not be members of either club engaged in 
 the match, nor shall they be changed 
 during a match except for reasons of ill- 
 
412 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 ness or injury. They must be thoroughly 
 acquainted with the game, and in every 
 way competent to act. Before a match 
 begins they shall draw the players up in 
 line, and see that the regulations respect- 
 ing the crosse, spikes, soles, etc., etc., are 
 complied with. They must also see that 
 the regulations are adhered to respecting 
 the ball, goal, crease, etc., and, in decid- 
 ing any of these points, shall take the 
 opinions of the captains and the referee. 
 They must know before the commence- 
 ment of a match the number of games to 
 be played. They shall have power to de- 
 cide all disputes, subject to Law 6, and 
 to suspend for anytime during the match 
 any player infringing these laws, the game 
 to go on during such suspension. 
 
 Sec. II. No umpire, either directly or 
 indirectly, shall be interested in any bet 
 upon the results of the match. No per- 
 son shall be allowed to speak to the um- 
 pires, or in any way distract their atten- 
 tion when the ball is near or nearing the 
 goal. 
 
 Sec. III. When “ foul ” has been called, 
 the umpires must leave their posts and 
 cry “time,” and from that time the ball 
 must not be touched by either party, nor 
 must the players move from the position 
 in which they were standing in at the 
 moment, until the umpires have returned 
 to their posts and “play” is called. If a 
 player should be in possession of the ball 
 when the umpires leave their posts, he 
 must drop it on the ground in front; if 
 the ball enters the goal after the umpires 
 leave their posts it will not count. The 
 jurisdiction of umpires shall not extend 
 beyond the day of their appointment; 
 they shall not decide in any matter in- 
 volving the continuance of a match be- 
 yond the day on which it is played. 
 
 6. The umpires shall select a referee, 
 
 to whom all disputed games and points, 
 whereon they are tied, may be left for 
 decision, and who must be thoroughly 
 acquainted with the game, and in every 
 way competent to act. He shall take the 
 evidence of the players particularly in- 
 terested, the respective opinions and offers 
 of the captains. In cases where the dis- 
 continuance of the game is threatened, 
 his decision shall be final. Any side re- 
 jecting his decision by refusing to con- 
 tinue the match, shall be declared the 
 losers. The referee must be on the 
 ground at the commencement of, and 
 during the match, but during the play he 
 shall not be between the two goals. The 
 referee has no right to express an opin- 
 ion, and any expressed opinion must be 
 taken as his decision. His “ first ” deci- 
 sion must in all cases be final. 
 
 7. Captains to superintend the play 
 may be appointed by each side previous 
 to the commencement of a match. They 
 shall be members of the club by whom 
 they are appointed, and of no other. 
 They may or may not be players in a 
 match ; if not, they shall not carry a 
 crosse, nor shall they be dressed in La- 
 crosse uniform. They shall select um- 
 pires, and toss up for choice of goal. 
 They shall report any infringement of laws 
 during a match to the nearest umpires. 
 
 8. The players of each side shall be 
 designated as follows : “ Goal-Keeper, who 
 defends the goal ; Point , first man out 
 from goal; Cover-Point , in front of Point ; 
 Centre , who faces Home nearest oppo- 
 nent’s goal. Others are Fielders . 
 
 9. Sec. I. Twelve players shall consti- 
 tute a full field, and they must have been 
 regular members of the club they repre- 
 sent, and no other, for at least thirty days 
 prior. 
 
 Sec. II. A match shall be decided by 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 413 
 
 the winning of three games out of five, 
 unless otherwise agreed upon. 
 
 Sec. III. Captains shall arrange previ- 
 ous to a match whether it is to be played 
 out in one day, or postponed at a stated 
 hour, in the event of rain, darkness, etc., 
 or to be considered a draw under certain 
 circumstances, and, if postponed, if it is 
 to be resumed where left off. 
 
 Sec. IV. If postponed and resumed 
 where left off, there shall be no change 
 of players on either side. 
 
 Sec. V. Either side may claim at least 
 five minutes’ rest, and not more than ten, 
 between each game. 
 
 Sec. VI. No Indian must play in a 
 match for a club unless previously agreed 
 upon. 
 
 Sec. VII. After each game the players 
 must change sides. 
 
 Sec. VIII. No change of players must 
 be made after a match has commenced, 
 except by reasons of accident or injury 
 during the match ; when a match has 
 been agreed upon and one side is deficient 
 in the number of players, their opponents 
 may either limit their own numbers to 
 equalize the sides, or compel the other 
 side to fill up the complement. 
 
 10. No player must wear spiked soles. 
 
 11. The ball must not be touched with 
 the hand, save in the case of Rules 12 
 and 13. 
 
 12. Goal-keeper, while defending goal, 
 within the goal crease, may put away 
 with his hand or block the ball in any 
 manner. 
 
 13. Should the ball lodge in any place 
 inaccessible to the crosse, it may be taken 
 out by the hand, and the party picking it 
 up must face with his nearest opponent. 
 
 14. Ball thrown out of bounds must be 
 picked up with the hand, and faced for at 
 the nearest spot within bounds. 
 
 15. No player shall throw his crosse at 
 a player or at the ball under any circum- 
 stances. 
 
 16. Should the ball be accidentally put 
 through a goal by one of the players de- 
 fending it, it is game for the side attack- 
 ing that goal. Should it be put through 
 a goal by any one not actually a player, 
 it shall not count. 
 
 17. Should the ball catch in the net- 
 ting, the crosse must immediately be 
 struck on the ground so as to dislodge it. 
 
 18. No player shall take hold of an- 
 other’s crosse, nor shall grasp opponent's 
 stick with his hands, under his arms, nor 
 between his legs, nor shall any player 
 hold his opponent’s crosse with his crosse 
 in any way to keep him from the ball 
 until another player reaches it. 
 
 19. Any player raising his fist to strike 
 another shall be immediately ruled out of 
 the match. 
 
 20. Sec. I. Any player considering him- 
 self purposely injured during play must 
 report to his captain, who must report to 
 the umpires, who shall warn the players 
 complained of. 
 
 Sec. II. In the event of persistent foul- 
 ing, after cautioning by the umpires, the 
 latter may declare the match lost by the 
 side thus offending, or may remove the 
 offending player or players, and compel 
 the side to finish the match short-handed. 
 
 21. In the event of a match being in- 
 
 terrupted by darkness, or to any other 
 cause considered right by the umpires, 
 and one side having won two games, the 
 other none, the side having won the two 
 games shall be declared winners of the 
 match. Should one side have won two 
 games and the other one, the match shall 
 be considered drawn. » 
 
 22. In the event of a flag-pole being 
 knocked down during the game, and the 
 
414 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 ball put through what should be the goal 
 if the flag were standing, it will count 
 game for the side putting it through. 
 
 23. Any amendment or alteration pro- 
 posed to be made in any of these laws 
 shall be made only at the Annual Con- 
 ventions of the National Association, and 
 by a three-fourths vote of the members 
 present. 
 
 Football. 
 
 The following Revised and latest Laws 
 of Foot-ball are those adopted by the 
 Rugby Union : 
 
 1. A drop-kick or drop , is rtiade by let- 
 ting the ball fall from the hands, and 
 kicking it at the very instant it rises. 
 
 2. A place-kick or place , is made by 
 kicking the ball after it has been placed 
 in a nick made in the ground for the pur- 
 pose of keeping it at rest. 
 
 3. A punt is made by letting the ball 
 fall from the hands, and kicking it before 
 it touches the ground. 
 
 4. Each goal shall be composed of two 
 upright posts exceeding 11 feet in height 
 from the ground, and placed 18 feet 6 
 inches apart, with a cross-bar 10 feet 
 from the ground. 
 
 5. A goal can only be obtained by kick- 
 ing the ball from the field of play direct 
 (without touching the ground, or the dress 
 or person of any player of either side) 
 over the cross-bar of the opponents’ goal, 
 whether it touch such cross-bar or the 
 posts or not ; but if the ball goes directly 
 over either of the goal-posts, it is called 
 a poster, and is not a goal. A goal may 
 be obtained by any kind of kick except 
 a punt. 
 
 6. A try is gained when a player touches 
 the ball down in his opponent’s goal. 
 
 7. A match shall be decided by a ma- 
 jority of goals, but if the number of goals 
 
 be equal, or if no goal be kicked by a 
 majority of tries, or if no goal be kicked 
 or try obtained, the match shall be drawn. 
 When a goal is kicked from a try, a goal 
 only is scored. 
 
 8. The ball is dead when it rests abso- 
 lutely motionless on the ground. 
 
 9. A touch down is when a player, put- 
 ting his hand upon the ball on the ground, 
 in touch or in goal, stops it so that it re- 
 mains dead or fairly so. 
 
 10. A tackle is when the holder of the 
 ball is held by one or more players of the 
 opposite side. 
 
 11. A scrimmage takes place when the 
 holder of the ball being in the field of 
 play puts it down on the ground in front 
 of him, and all who have closed round on 
 their respective sides endeavor to push 
 their opponents back, and by kicking the 
 ball to drive it in the direction of the op- 
 posite goal-line. 
 
 12. A player may take up the ball 
 whenever it is rolling or bounding, except 
 in a scrimmage. 
 
 13. It is not lawful to take up the ball 
 when dead (except in order to bring it 
 out after it has been touched down, in 
 touch or in goal) for any purpose what- 
 ever. Whenever the ball shall have been 
 so unlawfully taken up, it shall at once 
 be brought back to where it was so taken 
 up and there put down. 
 
 14. In a scrimmage it is not lawful to 
 touch the ball with the hand under any 
 circumstances whatever. 
 
 15. It is lawful for any player who has 
 the ball to run with it, and, if he does so, 
 it is called a run. If a player runs with 
 the ball until he gets behind his oppo- 
 nent’s goal-line and there touches down, 
 it is called a run in. 
 
 16. It is lawful to run in anywhere 
 
 across the goal-line. 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 415 
 
 17. The goal-line is in goal, and the 
 touch-line is in touch. 
 
 1 8. In the event of any player holding 
 or running with the ball being tackled, 
 and the ball fairly held, he must at once 
 cry “ down,” and there put it down. 
 
 19. A maul in goal is when the holder 
 of the ball is tackled inside a goal-line, or 
 being tackled immediately outside, is car- 
 ried or pushed across it, and he on the 
 opposite side, or both, endeavor to touch 
 the ball down. In all cases the ball, when 
 so touched down, shall belong to the 
 players of the side who first had posses- 
 sion of it, before the maul commenced, 
 unless the opposite side have gained entire 
 possession of it. 
 
 20. In case of a maul in goal those play- 
 ers only who are touching the ball with 
 their hands, when it croses the goal-line, 
 may continue in the maul in goal, and 
 when a player has once released his hold 
 of the ball after it is inside the goal-line, 
 he may not again join in the maul, and, 
 if he attempts to do so, he may be dragged 
 out by the opposite side. But if a player, 
 when running in, is tackled inside the 
 goal-line, then only the player who first 
 tackled him, or if two or more tackle him 
 simultaneously, they only may join in the 
 maul. 
 
 21. Immediately the ball, whether in 
 the hands of a player or not, goes into 
 touch in goal, it is at once dead and out 
 of the game, and must be brought out as 
 provided by Rules 41 and 42. 
 
 22. Every player is on side, but is put 
 off side if he enters a scrimmage from his 
 opponent’s side, or being in a scrimmage 
 gets in front of the ball, or when the ball 
 has been kicked, touched, or is being run 
 with by any of his own side behind him, 
 between himself and his own goal-line. 
 No player can be off side in his own goal. 
 
 23. Every player, when off side, is out 
 of the game, and shall not touch the ball 
 in any case whatever, either in or out of 
 touch or goal, or in any way interrupt or 
 obstruct any player until he is again on 
 side. 
 
 24. A player being off side is put on 
 side when the ball has been run with five 
 yards, or kicked by, or has touched the 
 dress or person of any player of the op- 
 posite side, or when one of his own side 
 has run in front of him, either with a ball 
 or having kicked it when behind him. 
 
 25. When a player has the ball, none 
 of his opponents who at the time are off 
 side may commence or attempt to run, 
 tackle, or otherwise interrupt such player 
 until he has run five yards. 
 
 26. It is lawful for any player who has 
 the ball to throw it back toward his own 
 goal, or to pass it back to any player of 
 his own side who is at the time behind 
 him, in accordance with the rules of on 
 side. 
 
 27. Knocking on, that is, deliberately 
 hitting the ball with the hand, and (throw- 
 ing forward) throwing the ball in the di- 
 rection of the opponent’s goal-line, are 
 not lawful. If the ball be either knocked 
 on or thrown forward, the captain of the 
 opposite side may (unless a fair catch has 
 been made as provided by the next rule), 
 require to have it brought back to the 
 spot where it was so knocked on or thrown 
 forward and there put down. 
 
 28. A fair catch is a catch made direct 
 from a kick, or a throw forward, or a 
 knock on, by one of the opposite side, or 
 from a punt-out or a punt-on (see Rules 
 29 and 30), provided the catch makes a 
 mark with his heel at the spot where he 
 has made the catch and no other of his 
 own side touch the ball. (See Rules 43 
 and 44.) 
 
416 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 29. K punt -out is a punt made after a 
 touch-down by a player from behind his 
 opponent’s goal-line toward his own side, 
 who must stand outside the goal-line and 
 endeavor to make a fair catch, or to get 
 the ball and run in or drop a goal. (See 
 Rules 49 and 51.) 
 
 30. A punt-on is a punt made in a man- 
 ner similar to a punt-out, and from touch 
 if necessary, by a player who has made a 
 fair catch from a punt-out or another 
 punt-on. 
 
 31. If the ball goes into touch , the first 
 player on his side who touches it down 
 must bring it to the spot where it crossed 
 the touch line; or if a player, when run- 
 ning with the ball, cross or put any part 
 of either foot across the touch line, he 
 must return with the ball to the spot where 
 the line was- so crossed, and thence re- 
 turn it into the field of play in one of the 
 modes provided by the following rule. 
 
 32. He must then himself, or by one of 
 his own side, either 
 
 i. Bound the ball in the field of play, 
 and then run with it, kick it, or throw it 
 back to his own side; or, 
 
 ii. Throw it out at right angles to the 
 touch line ; or, 
 
 iii. Walk out with it at right angles to 
 the touch line any distance not less than 
 five nor more than fifteen yards, and there 
 put it down, first declaring how far he in- 
 tends to walk out. 
 
 33. If two or more players holding the 
 ball are pushed into touch , the ball shall 
 belong in touch to the player who first had 
 hold of it in the field of play, and has not 
 released his hold of it. 
 
 34. If the ball when thrown out of 
 touch be not thrown out at right angles 
 to the touch line, the captain of either 
 side may at once claim to have it thrown 
 out again. 
 
 35. A catch made when the ball is 
 thrown out of touch is not a fair catch. 
 
 36. Kick off is a place-kick from the 
 centre of the field of play, and cannot 
 count as a goal. The opposite side must 
 stand at least ten yards in front of the 
 ball until it has been kicked. If the ball 
 pitch in touch it shall be brought back 
 and kicked off again. 
 
 37. The ball shall be kicked off 
 
 i. At the commencement of the game. 
 
 ii. After a goal has been obtained. 
 
 iii. After change of goals at half-time'. 
 
 38. Each side shall play from either 
 goal for an equal time. 
 
 39. The captains of the respective sides 
 shall toss up before commencement of 
 the match; the winner of the toss shall 
 have the option of choice of goals, or the 
 kick off. 
 
 40. Whenever a goal shall have been 
 obtained, the side which has lost the goal 
 shall then kick off. When goals have 
 been changed at half-time, the side which 
 did not kick off at the commencement of 
 the game shall then kick off. 
 
 41. Kick out is a drop-kick by one of 
 the players of the side which has had to 
 touch the ball down in their own goal or 
 into whose touch in goal the ball has gone 
 (Rule 21), and is the mode of bringing 
 the ball again into play, and cannot count 
 as a goal. 
 
 42. Kick out must be a drop kick , and 
 from not more than twenty-five yards out- 
 side the kicker’s goal-line. If the ball 
 when kicked out pitch in touch, it must 
 be taken back and kicked out again. The 
 kicker’s side must be behind the ball when 
 kicked out. 
 
 43. A player who has made and claimed 
 a fair catch shall thereupon either take a 
 drop kick , or a punt , or place the ball for 
 a place-kick. 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 417 
 
 44. After a fair catch has been made 
 the opposite side may come up to the 
 catcher’s mark, and (except in cases un- 
 der Rule 50) the catcher’s side retiring, 
 the ball shall be kicked from such mark, 
 or from a spot any distance behind it. 
 
 45. A player may touch the ball down 
 in his own goal at any time. 
 
 46. A side having touched the ball 
 down in their opponents’ goal shall try at 
 goal either by a place-kick or a punt-out. 
 
 47- H a try at goal be made by place- 
 kick , a player of the side who has touched 
 the ball down shall bring it up to the 
 goal-line (subject to Rule 48), in a straight 
 line from and opposite to the spot where 
 the ball was touched down, and there 
 make a mark on the goal-line, and thence 
 walk straight out with it at right an- 
 gles to the goal-line, such distance as 
 he thinks proper, and there place it for 
 another of his side to kick. The kicker’s 
 side must be behind the ball when it is 
 kicked, and the opposite side must remain 
 behind their goal-line until the ball has 
 been placed on the ground. (See Rules 
 54 and 55.) 
 
 48. If the ball has been touched down 
 between the goal-posts it must be brought 
 out in a straight line from either of such 
 posts. 
 
 49. If the try at goal be by a punt-out 
 (see Rule 29), a player of the side which 
 has touched the ball down shall bring it 
 straight up to the goal-line opposite to 
 the spot where it was touched down, and 
 there make a mark on the goal-line and 
 then punt-out. The opposite must keep 
 behind their goal-line until the ball has 
 been kicked. (See Rules 54 and 55.) 
 
 50. If a fair catch be made from a punt- 
 out or a punt-on the catcher may either 
 proceed as provided by Rules 43 and 44, 
 or himself take a punt-on , in which case 
 
 the mark made on making the fair catch 
 shall be regarded (for the purpose of de- 
 termining as well the position of the 
 player who makes the punt-on as of the 
 other players of both sides) as the mark 
 made on the goal-line in the case of a 
 punt-out. 
 
 51. A catch made in touch from a punt- 
 out or a punt-on is not a fair catch ; the 
 ball must then be taken or thrown out of 
 touch as provided by Rule 32, but if the 
 catch be made in touch in goal the ball is 
 at once dead, and must be kicked-out, as 
 provided by Rules 41 and 42. 
 
 52. When the ball has been touched 
 down in the opponent’s goal, none of the 
 side in whose goal it has been so touched 
 down shall touch it, or in any way dis- 
 place it or interfere with the player of 
 the other side who may be taking it up or 
 out. 
 
 53. The ball is dead whenever a goal 
 has been obtained; but if a try at goal be 
 not successful, the kick should be consid- 
 ered as only an ordinary kick in the 
 course of the game. 
 
 54. Charging , i.e., rushing forward to 
 kick the ball or tackle a player, is lawful 
 for the opposite side, in case the player 
 who is bringing the ball out after a try at 
 goal has been obtained (see Rules 47 and 
 48) shall fail to make a mark on the goal- 
 line, in all cases of a place-kick after a fair 
 catch , or upon a try at goal , immediately 
 the ball touches or is placed upon the 
 ground ; and in cases of a drop-kick or 
 punt after a fair catch , as soon as the 
 player having the ball commences to run 
 or offers to kick, or the ball has touched 
 the ground ; but he may always draw 
 back, and flnless he has dropped the ball 
 or actually touched it with his foot, they 
 must again retire to his mark. (See Rule 
 56.) The opposite side in the case of a 
 
418 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 punt-out ox punt-on, and the kicker’s side, 
 in all cases may not charge until the ball 
 has been kicked. 
 
 55. If a player, having the ball when 
 about to pitnt it out , goes outside the 
 goal-line, or, when about to punt-on , ad- 
 vances nearer to his own goal-line than 
 his mark, made on making the fair catch, 
 or if, after the ball has been touched 
 down in the opponent’s goal, or a fair 
 catch has been made, more than one 
 player of the side which has so touched 
 it down or made the fair catch, touch the 
 ball before it is again kicked, the oppo- 
 site side may charge at once. 
 
 56. In cases of a fair catch the opposite 
 side may come up to and charge from 
 anywhere on or behind a line drawn 
 through the mark made by the player 
 who has made the catch, and parallel to 
 their own goal-line; but in the case of a 
 fair catch from a punt-out or a punt -on, 
 they may not advance further in the di- 
 rection of the touch line nearer to such 
 mark than a line drawn through such 
 mark to their goal-line and parallel to 
 such touch line. In all cases (except a 
 punt-out and a punt-on ) the kicker’s side 
 must be behind the ball when it is kicked, 
 but may not charge until it has been 
 kicked. 
 
 57. No hacking , or hacking over, or trip- 
 ping up, shall be allowed under any cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 58. No one wearing projecting nails, 
 iron plates, or gutta percha on any part of 
 his boots or shoes shall be allowed to 
 play in a match. 
 
 59. That unless umpires be appointed, 
 the captains of the respective sides shall 
 be the sole arbiters of all disputes, and 
 their decisions shall be final. If the cap- 
 tain of either side challenge the construc- 
 tion placed upon any rules, he shall have 
 
 the right of appeal to the Rugby Union 
 Committee. 
 
 60. Neither half-time nor no side shall 
 be called until the ball is fairly held or 
 goes out of play, and in the case of a try 
 or fair catch the kick at goal shall be al- 
 lowed. 
 
 Bowling. 
 
 The following are the Revised Laws of 
 the National Bowling Association: 
 
 1. The game adopted to be played by 
 clubs belonging to this Association shall 
 be what is known as the American Ten 
 Frame Game. 
 
 2. In playing of match games there 
 shall be a line drawn upon the alleys sixty 
 feet from the head or front pin. 
 
 3. In the playing of match games, any 
 wooden ball may be used, including 
 Wood’s Patent Bush Ball, not exceeding 
 twenty-seven inches in circumference. 
 
 4. The games shall consist of ten frames 
 on each side, when, should the number of 
 points be equal, the play shall be contin- 
 ued until a majority of points upon an 
 equal number of frames shall be attained, 
 which shall conclude the game. All 
 strikes and spares made in tenth frame 
 shall be completed before leaving the alley 
 and on the same alley as made. 
 
 5. In playing all match games, ten play- 
 ers from each club shall constitute a full 
 team, and they must have been regular 
 members of the club which they repre- 
 sent for thirty days immediately prior to 
 the match ; and they shall not play in a 
 team representing any other club during 
 the season. 
 
 6. Players must play in regular rota- 
 tion, and after the first inning no change 
 can be made, except with the consent of 
 the Captains. 
 
 7. In match games, two alleys only are 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 419 
 
 to be used ; a player to roll a frame at a 
 time, and change alleys every frame. 
 
 8. The Umpire shall take great care 
 that the regulations respecting the balls, 
 alleys, and all rules of the game, are 
 strictly observed. He should be the judge 
 of fair and unfair play, and shall deter- 
 mine all disputes and differences which 
 may occur during the game. He shall 
 take special care to declare all foul balls 
 immediately upon their occurrence, un- 
 asked, in a distinct and audible voice. He 
 shall in every instance, before leaving the 
 alley, declare the winning club, and sign 
 his name in the score book. 
 
 9. In all matches the Umpire shall be 
 selected by the Captains of the respective 
 clubs, and he shall perform all the duties 
 in Rule 8, except recording the game, 
 which shall be done by two scorers, one 
 of whom shall be appointed by each of 
 the contending clubs. 
 
 10. No person, engaged in a match 
 game, either as Umpire, Scorer, or player, 
 shall be directly or indirectly interested 
 in any bet on the game. Neither Umpire, 
 Scorer, nor player shall be changed during 
 a match, unless with the consent Qf both 
 parties, except for reason of illness, or 
 injury, or for a violation of these rules, 
 and then the Umpire may dismiss any 
 such transgressors. 
 
 11. No person except the Captains 
 shall be permitted to approach or speak 
 with the Umpire, Scorers, or players dur- 
 ing the progress of the game, unless by 
 special request of the Umpire. 
 
 12. No person shall be permitted to 
 act as Umpire, Scorer, or Judge on set- 
 ting up pins in any match, unless he be 
 long to a club governed by these rules. ' 
 
 13. Whenever a match game shall have 
 been determined upon between two clubs, 
 play shall be called at the exact hour ap- 
 
 pointed, and should either party fail to 
 produce their players within thirty min- 
 utes thereafter, the club so failing shall 
 admit a defeat, and the game shall be con-' 
 sidered as won, and as such counted in 
 the list of matches played ; unless the 
 delinquent club fail to play on account 
 of the recent death of one of its mem- 
 bers, or one of its member’s own family, 
 and sufficient time has not elapsed to en- 
 able them to give their opponents due 
 notice before the time of playing. 
 
 14. A player must not step on or over 
 the line in delivering the ball, nor after 
 it has been delivered. Any ball so de- 
 livered shall be deemed foul , and the pins 
 (if any made on such ball) shall be re- 
 placed in the same position as they were 
 before the ball was rolled. It is also con- 
 sidered a foul ball if the hand is placed on 
 any part of the alley beyond the line. 
 All foul balls shall count as balls rolled. 
 
 15. Should the first ball delivered on a 
 full frame leave the alley before reaching 
 the pins, the pins, if any made on such 
 ball, shall not count, but must be set up 
 again, the ball to count as a ball rolled. 
 After the first ball on each frame, all pins 
 knocked down from the effect of the ball 
 rolled by the player shall count to his 
 credit ; unless the ball should rebound 
 from the back cushion, when the pins so 
 knocked down shall be respotted and not 
 counted. 
 
 16. No lofting or throwing balls upon 
 the alley will be allowed. The ball must 
 be rolled. Such balls will be considered 
 foul at the discretion of the Umpire. 
 
 17. In all match games two persons to 
 act as Judges shall be chosen, one by 
 each Captain, who shall take their posi- 
 tions at the head of the alleys, and see 
 that the pins are properly set up and 
 that no one interferes with them in any 
 
420 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 way until the player is through rolling. 
 They will immediately report to the Cap- 
 tains any irregularities that they may 
 notice during the progress of the game. 
 
 1 8. Any club that shall be detected in 
 tampering with the persons setting up the 
 pins, or by any unfair means seeking to 
 win a victory, shall, on proof of such con- 
 duct, be expelled from the Association. 
 
 19. To decide the championship here 
 after, each club shall play one game with 
 every club in the Convention, said game 
 to be played on a neutral alley. When a 
 game is arranged between two clubs who 
 occupy the same alley, said alley shall be 
 considered as neutral, and the game may 
 be played thereon subject to mutual 
 agreement. Any club having no engage- 
 ment, and receiving a challenge, must roll 
 the game within fifteen days from the de- 
 livery of such challenge. Any other chal- 
 lenge received during said fifteen days 
 must be acted upon and game played 
 within ten days from date of completion 
 of former game. The alley to be named 
 immediately after the toss. The club 
 failing to comply with the above forfeits 
 the game. The club winning the greatest 
 number of games on or before the Sep- 
 tember meeting of the Association in 
 each year shall be declared the Champion. 
 
 20. No person who has been expelled 
 from any club, or who shall at any time 
 receive compensation for his services as a 
 player, shall be competent to play in 
 match ; any club giving compensation to 
 a player, or having to its knowledge such 
 a player in its team, shall be debarred 
 from membership in the National Asso- 
 ciation, and they shall not be considered 
 by any club belonging to this Association 
 
 , as a proper club to engage in a match 
 
 ' game, and such club so playing with them 
 shall forfeit its membership. 
 
 21. Any match games played by any 
 club in contravention of the rules adopted 
 by this Association shall be considered 
 null and void, and shall not be counted in 
 the list of match games won or lost. 
 
 22. Any club refusing to play any other 
 club in the Association, according to the 
 rules, shall forfeit all claims to the cham- 
 pionship, and all games played with such 
 club shall be considered null and void, 
 and shall not count in the list of games 
 won or lost. 
 
 23. A regulation pin must be used in 
 match playing. Each pin, excepting the 
 king-pin, to be from fifteen to sixteen 
 inches in length and fifteen inches in cir- 
 cumference at the thickest part. 
 
 24. Should the games played for the 
 championship result in a tie between two 
 or more clubs, a deciding game shall be 
 played under the rules of this Association. 
 
 25. Any club expelling a member shall 
 immediately notify the Corresponding 
 Secretary of the Association, and he shall 
 notify the several clubs on the receipt of 
 such information. 
 
 26. No club shall issue or receive more 
 than two challenges at a time. 
 
 Lawn Tennis. 
 
 The players may be few or many, but 
 the best game is formed by two, four, or 
 eight persons. When more than two join 
 the game, sides -are to be formed. The 
 players occupy the courts on each side of 
 the net, and the choice of courts is usu- 
 ally decided either by tossing or by a spin 
 of the racquet. For the sake of simplifi- 
 cation, the winner of the service is called 
 server , and the player who receives the 
 service, the servee. He who serves (i.e., 
 delivers the first stroke) is said to be 
 Hand-in , if he loses a stroke, he becomes 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 421 
 
 Hand-out , and his adversary becomes 
 Hand-in and serves. 
 
 Description of the Game. 
 
 The ball shall be served by the Hand- 
 in standing with one foot without the 
 base line of the court. The racquet 
 should be held lightly but firmly with the 
 fingers and in such a position that, while 
 the stroke may be firm and vigorous, the 
 wrist may have free play in order to at- 
 tain the strokes, the cut, the twist , and the 
 screw , which enable the player to place 
 the ball in any part of his adversary’s 
 court, fie must serve the ball from the 
 right and left courts alternately, and must 
 hit it so that it shall drop over the net 
 between the net and service line of the 
 court diagonally opposed to that from 
 which it was delivered. The server or 
 Hand-in from the left court, consequently 
 has to serve to the servee or player oc- 
 cupying the left hand court on the oppo- 
 site side. It is a fault if the ball served 
 shall drop in the wrong court or beyond 
 the service line, and the Hand-in shall 
 serve again from the same court. 
 
 The ball to be served properly must 
 fall in the court diagonally opposed to 
 the server, between the net and the ser- 
 vice line. If the Hand-out or servee take, 
 or attempt to take, a ball served in the 
 wrong court, or over the service line, the 
 service shall be treated as good ( i.e ., it 
 shall not be a fault of the server). The 
 service, or ball served, is not to be volleyed 
 {i.e., taken before it shall have touched 
 the ground) by the Hand-out or servee. 
 The Hand-in is not to serve until the 
 Hand-out shall be prepared. The Hand- 
 in shall win a stroke and score one point 
 if the Hand-out fails to return the ball 
 served or any subsequent stroke, if he 
 volleys the service, or if he strikes the 
 
 ball in play so that it shall drop out 
 of the court. The Hand-in shall be 
 Hand-out if he fails to serve the ball 
 over the net, or if he serves it so that it 
 shall drop out of the court. If he makes 
 two successive faults {i.e., if he twice 
 serves the ball into the wrong court or 
 beyond the service line), he shall also be 
 Hand-out ; or if, after the ball has been 
 returned by the Hand-out, in his turn he 
 fails to return the ball in play so that it 
 shall drop in the opposite court. 
 
 The Hand-in duly serves the ball from 
 the right court to the opposite right 
 court, between the net and the service 
 line, and the Hand-out following up the 
 game safely returns the ball after it has 
 touched the ground, and before it has touched 
 the ground a second time, so that it shall 
 pass over the net in due course. After 
 the service has been so returned, the 
 ball is a good return, provided that it falls 
 anywhere on the opposite side of the net, 
 and not outside the base or boundary 
 lines. After the service has been returned 
 by the servee, all distinctions of court 
 cease, and the ball is hit to and fro until 
 either it fails to pass over the net, or it 
 goes over the base line, or outside the 
 boundary lines. If it touch the hand, or 
 any part of the person or clothes of any 
 player, or if a player shall strike the ball 
 more than once, it shall also be a false 
 stroke, and count to the opposite side; 
 or if a player either take a fault, or aim 
 at and miss a ball that passes over the 
 base or boundary lines, it shall be consid- 
 ered a false stroke and count to the op- 
 posite side. A ball which drops on any 
 line is considered to have dropped into 
 the court marked by that line, and to be 
 a good service or return although the ball 
 touch the net or either of the posts. 
 
 The game is won by the player or side 
 
422 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 first scoring fifteen aces, and an ace is 
 won whenever the Hand-out fails to return 
 the ball properly over the net or outside 
 the boundaries, if it hits his person or 
 clothes, if he aims at and misses a ball 
 passing outside the boundary lines. Any 
 of these failures gives an ace to the 
 Hand-in , and he serves again from the 
 opposite court, serving alternately from 
 each court until he becomes Hand-out by 
 failing to return the ball according to 
 rule. It is worthy of remark, too, that if 
 both players reach fourteen the score is 
 called “ Deuce.” Another point called 
 “Vantage” is then introduced, and a 
 player, in order to score Game, must win 
 two points in succession , viz., Vantage and 
 Game, otherwise, though he may have 
 won Vantage, if he should lose the next 
 stroke the score returns to Deuce. 
 
 Double matches are played the same as 
 single, except that there are two players 
 on each side. At the commencement of 
 a game, the Hand-in or side serving shall 
 only have one service, and on that player 
 being Hand-out, both the opposite sides 
 are Hand-in , the same as at Racquet. 
 One member of A’s side serves first, and 
 if either his partner or he fail to return 
 the ball properly, the Hand-in goes to 
 B, to be followed by B’s partner, and then 
 to A and his partner, and so on. After 
 the first Hand-in, when the Hand-in who 
 first serves shall have been put out, his 
 partner shall serve so that before the side 
 is Hand-out, both partners shall have been 
 put out. The Hand-in serves from the 
 right court to the opposite right court, 
 and continues to change from right to 
 left as long as he scores, the opposite 
 players maintaining their positions for the 
 service. When a player of one side is 
 Hand-out, and his partner becomes Hand- 
 in, the latter serves from the court differ- 
 
 ent to that occupied by his partner when 
 losing his service. The Hand-in serves 
 the ball under the same provisions as in 
 single games; but after the service has 
 been properly returned, the partners on 
 either side may occupy any positions in 
 their court they may find advisable, and 
 either may take the ball. If the service 
 be delivered into the wrong court, it may 
 be taken by either adversary. In other 
 respects, the same laws guide double as 
 they do single matches. In double games 
 the side has the same advantages as the 
 individual, and Vantage and Game can 
 be scored by the partners instead of by 
 one of them, as in single games. 
 
 There are numerous ways of handicap- 
 ping players or sides to make the game 
 equal. A player may restrict himself to 
 half-court, i.e., he may elect as to which 
 half of the opposite court he will play. 
 In this case he will lose the stroke if he 
 fail to drop the ball into that half-court, 
 the same as if he infringed the usual 
 rules. Others have a cord stretched be- 
 tween the posts at a height of seven feet, 
 or any other height agreed upon, and the 
 giver of odds has to play every ball over 
 this cord or lose a stroke. A player may 
 give his adversary points, or he may con- 
 cede his adversary the privilege of being 
 Hand-in two or more times. If one 
 player plays against two adversaries he 
 will be Hand-in twice, except at the com- 
 mencement of the game. 
 
 The following hints and directions are 
 by Mr. JOHN TOMPKINS, of the Tennis 
 Court, Brighton : 
 
 The racquet should lie in the hand and 
 be grasped by the thumb and fingers. 
 The hand should be elongated, so that 
 the player may have a free use of the 
 wrist. The racquet should be held so as 
 to be a continuation of the arm. 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 423 
 
 In striking with the racquet the stroke 
 should come from the shoulder and not 
 from the elbow. In holding the racquet 
 the face of it should be at an angle, the 
 bottom of the racquet forward, then when 
 it meets the ball it will have what is 
 called a cut, so that when a ball is struck 
 it acquires a natural rise, because in this 
 way the ball is hit below its centre. 
 
 The advantage of the cut is that it 
 gives more time for the ball to rise, be- 
 cause it retards its motion. 
 
 There are two twists that can be given 
 to the ball besides the cut. 1st. The 
 underhand twist; it is given by the ball 
 being struck on the left-hand side with 
 the head of the racquet, below the hand, 
 the racquet brought upward. The over- 
 hand twist is given by the player striking 
 the ball on the right-hand side, with the 
 head of the racquet above the hand. In 
 the underhand twist the bound of the ball 
 is to the right-hand side, and in the over- 
 hand twist to the left-hand side. 
 
 The player should stand easily, the left 
 leg advanced a little in front, and the 
 body should be in line with the direction 
 that the ball is required to go, as the 
 stroke is given by the racquet passing in 
 front of the body. 
 
 A ball being taken toward the right 
 hand, rather behind the player, will go 
 into the backhand corner of his adver- 
 sary’s court ; if taken exactly opposite 
 the body, it will go in a straight line down 
 the court ; if taken a little more in front 
 of the body, toward the left hand, then 
 into the forehand court of his adversary. 
 
 When striking, the body should be 
 moved to give power to the stroke. 
 
 If the player wants to know what twist 
 his adversary has put on the ball, he 
 must watch his racquet as he strikes, and 
 by its motion as described above he will 
 
 know what twist has been put on the ball, 
 and where to place himself. 
 
 When the ball is played backhanded, 
 the right leg should be extended a little 
 in front of the body, the back of the hand 
 turned up so as to give the same oblique 
 direction to the racquet for the backhand 
 as for the forehand. 
 
 When a ball is taken near the ground, 
 the body should be dropped so that the 
 player may get the edge of his racquet 
 under the ball. 
 
 If half volley the player must meet the 
 ball just as it leaves the ground. 
 
 Whatever the size of the court the ser- 
 vice line should be one-third from the end. 
 
 Laws of Lawn Tennis. 
 
 1. The choice of sides and the right of 
 serving during the first game shall be 
 decided by toss; provided that if the 
 winner of the toss choose the right to 
 serve, the other player shall have the 
 choice of sides, and vice-versa . The play- 
 ers shall stand on opposite sides of the 
 net; the player who first delivers the ball 
 shall be called the Server , the other the 
 Striker-out. At the end of the first game, 
 the Striker-out shall become Server, and 
 the Server shall become Striker-out ; and 
 so on alternately in the subsequent 
 games of the set. 
 
 2. The Server shall stand with one foot 
 outside the Base-Line, and shall deliver 
 the service from the Right and Left 
 Courts alternately, beginning from the 
 Right. The ball served must drop within 
 the Service-Line, Half-Court-Line, and 
 Side-Line of the Court, which is diagon- 
 ally opposite to that from which it was 
 served, or upon any such line. 
 
 3. It is a fault if the ball served drop 
 in the net, or beyond the Service-Line, 
 or if it drop out of Court, or in the wrong 
 
424 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 Court. A fault may not be taken. After 
 a fault, the Server shall serve again from 
 the same Court from which he served 
 that fault. 
 
 4. The service may not be volleyed, i.e., 
 taken before it touches the ground. 
 
 5. The Server shall not serve until the 
 Striker-out is ready. If the latter at- 
 tempt to return the service, he shall be 
 deemed to be ready. A good service 
 delivered when the Striker-out is not 
 ready annuls a previous fault. 
 
 6. A ball is returned, or in-play , when it 
 is played back, over the net, before it has 
 touched the ground a second time. 
 
 7. It is a good service or return, al- 
 though the ball touch the net. 
 
 8. The Server wins a stroke, if the 
 Striker-out volley the service ; or if he 
 fail to return the service or the ball in- 
 play; or if he return the service or ball 
 in-play so that it drop outside any of the 
 lines which bound his opponent’s Court; 
 or if he otherwise lose a stroke, as pro- 
 vided by Law 10. 
 
 9. The Striker-out wins a stroke, if the 
 Server serve two consecutive faults; or 
 if he fail to return the ball in-play; or if 
 he return the ball in-play so that it drop 
 outside any of the lines which bound his 
 opponent’s Court; or if he otherwise lose 
 a stroke, as provided by Law 10. 
 
 10. Either player loses a stroke if the 
 ball in-play touch him or anything that 
 he wears or carries, except his racquet in 
 the act of striking ; or if he touch or strike 
 the ball in-play with his racquet more 
 than once. 
 
 11. On either player winning his first 
 stroke the score is called 15 for that 
 player; on either player winning his sec- 
 ond stroke the score is called 30 for that 
 player; on either player winning his third 
 stroke the score is called 40 for that 
 
 player; and the fourth stroke won by 
 either player is scored game for that 
 player, except as below: 
 
 Sec. I. If both players have won three 
 strokes, the score is called deuce; and 
 the next stroke won by either player is 
 scored advantage for that player. If the 
 same player win the next stroke, he wins 
 the game ; if he lose the next stroke, 
 the score is again called deuce; and so 
 on until either player win the two strokes 
 immediately following the score of deuce, 
 when the game is scored for that player. 
 
 12. The player who first wins six games 
 wins a set ; except as below : 
 
 Sec . /. If both players win five games, 
 the score is called games-all; and the 
 next game won by either player is scored 
 advantage-game for that player. If the 
 same player win the next game, he wins 
 the set; if he lost the next game, the 
 score is again called games-all; and so on 
 until either player win the two games im- 
 mediately following the score of games- 
 all, when he wins the set. 
 
 Note. — Players may agree not to play 
 advantage-sets, but to decide the set by 
 one game after arriving at the score of 
 games-all. 
 
 13. The players shall change sides at 
 the end of every set. When a series of 
 sets is played, the player who was server 
 in the last game of one set shall be striker- 
 out in the first game of the next. 
 
 14. A bisque is one stroke, which may 
 be claimed by the receiver of the odds at 
 any time during a set, except as below: 
 
 See. I. A bisque may not be taken after 
 the service has been delivered. 
 
 Sec. II. The Server may not take a 
 bisque after a fault ; . but the Striker-out 
 may do so. 
 
 15. One or more bisques may be giver 
 to augment or diminish other odds. 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 425 
 
 1 6. Half- 1 5 is one stroke, given at the 
 beginning of the second and every subse- 
 quent alternate game of a set. 
 
 17. 15 is one stroke given at the begin- 
 ning of every game of a set. 
 
 18. Half-30 is one stroke given at the 
 beginning of the first game, two strokes 
 at the beginning of the second game ; and 
 so on, alternately, in all the subsequent 
 games of a set. 
 
 19. 30 is two strokes given at the be- 
 ginning of every game of a set. 
 
 20. Half-40 is two strokes given at the 
 beginning of the first game, three strokes 
 at the beginning of the second game; 
 and so on, alternately, in all the subse- 
 quent games of a set. 
 
 21. 40 is three strokes given at the be- 
 ginning of every game of a set. 
 
 22. Half-Court: the players having 
 
 agreed into which Court ’the giver of 
 odds shall' play, the latter loses a stroke 
 if the ball, returned by him, drop outside 
 any of the lines which bound that Court. 
 
 Three-Handed and Four-Handed 
 Games. 
 
 23. The above laws shall apply to the 
 three-handed and four-handed games, ex- 
 cept as below: 
 
 Sec. /. In the three-handed game, the 
 single player shall serve in every alter- 
 nate game. 
 
 Sec. II. In the four-handed game, the 
 pair who has the right to serve in the first 
 game may decide which partner shall do 
 so, and the opposing pair may decide 
 similarly for the second game. The part- 
 ner of the player who served in the first 
 game shall serve in the third ; and the 
 partner of the player who served in the 
 second game shall serve in the fourth; 
 and so on in the same order in all the 
 subsequent games of a set or sets. 
 
 Sec. III. The players shall take the 
 service alternately throughout each game ; 
 no player shall receive or return a service 4 
 delivered to his partner; and the order 
 of service and of striking-out once ar- 
 ranged shall not be altered, nor shall the 
 strikers-out change Courts to receive the 
 service before the end of the set. 
 
 Alternate Method of Scoring, 
 
 24. The above laws shall apply to Lawn 
 Tennis, played by the game, except as 
 regards the method of scoring. The 
 word Hand-in shall be substituted for 
 Server , and Hand-out for Striker -out. 
 
 25. The Hand-in alone is able to score. 
 If he lose a stroke, he becomes Hand-out, 
 and his opponent becomes Hand-in, and 
 serves in his turn. 
 
 26. The player who first wins 15 points 
 Scores the game. 
 
 27. If both players have won 14 points, 
 the game is set to 3. The score is called 
 Love-all. The Hand-in continues to serve ; 
 the player who first wins 3 points scores 
 the game. 
 
 28. In the three-handed or four-handed 
 game, only one partner of that side which 
 is Hand-in shall serve at the beginning of 
 each game. If he or his partner lose a 
 stroke, the other side shall be Hand-in. 
 
 29. During the remainder of the game, 
 when the first Hand-in has been put out, 
 his partner shall serve, bginning from the 
 Court from which the last service was not 
 delivered ; and, when both partners have 
 been put out, then the other side shall be 
 Hand-in. 
 
 30. The Hand-in shall deliver the ser- 
 vice in accordance with Laws 2 and 3 ; 
 and the opponents shall receive the ser- 
 vice alternately, each keeping the Court 
 which he originally occupied. In all sub- 
 
426 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 sequent strokes the ball may be returned 
 by either partner on each side. 
 
 31. One or more points may be given 
 in a game. 
 
 32. The privilege of being Hand-in two 
 or more successive times may be given. 
 
 Laws of Quoits. 
 
 1. Distance from Pin to Pin, 18 yards. 
 
 2. The Mot or Pin shall not be more 
 nor less than one-half inch above the clay. 
 
 3. Measurement must be from the cen- 
 tre of the top of Mot or Pin to the near- 
 est iron in sight without disturbing the 
 clay. 
 
 4. In case of a tie, two opposing Quoits 
 being equal, it shall be declared a draw. 
 
 5. In the case of two or four playing, 
 twenty-one points shall constitute a game. 
 
 6. In the event of six playing, fifteen 
 points shall constitute a game. 
 
 7. In the event of eight playing, eleven 
 points shall constitute a game. 
 
 8. In playing, the one getting the first 
 shot shall lead off at the next end. 
 
 9. Each player shall have the privilege 
 of selecting his own size Quoits, unless 
 otherwise agreed upon. 
 
 10. The Mot or Pin in all cases must 
 be at an angle of forty-five degrees. 
 
 BASE BALL. 
 
 The laws of Base-ball are revised every 
 year at the meeting of the National Con- 
 vention of Base-Ball Players. 
 
 The Revised Laws are published in 
 cheap form every year, before the season 
 for playing commences. 
 
 Fencing. 
 
 The Art of Fencing comprises Fencing 
 with Foils, Broad-Sword, and Single Stick, 
 each of which requires separate notice. 
 
 FENCING WITH FOILS. 
 
 1. The foil shall be 34 inches in length, 
 have a flat blade, and be unattached to 
 the hand or wrist. 
 
 2. A free thrust must be followed by a 
 pause, if this thrust has been successful. 
 
 3. Reprisals, or double thrusts, being 
 forbidden, the competitor who has lunged 
 must return on guard, to avoid or pre- 
 vent hand-to-hand fight. 
 
 4. Time or stopping thrusts delivered 
 without the lunge count only in favor of 
 the giver, provided he is not hit himself; 
 if both are hit simultaneously, the count 
 must be given to the competitor who is 
 extended ; if both are extended, neither 
 count. 
 
 5. A disarm counts one point. If the 
 foil is lost while making an attack and 
 hitting the opponent, the count is not lost. 
 
 6. It is forbidden to parry or take your 
 opponent’s foil with the disengaged hand. 
 
 7. The number of points shall be not 
 less than five or more than ten, to be de- 
 cided by the Judges or Referee, the com- 
 petitor first making the full number of 
 points to be declared the winner. 
 
 8. The buttons of the foils must be 
 chalked before each round, and competi- 
 tors must wear a black body-cover in 
 order to distinguish between a clean thrust 
 and a glance or passe. 
 
 FENCING WITH BROAD-SWORD. 
 
 1. The sword shall be 34 inches long, 
 have a flat blade three-quarters of an inch 
 broad at hilt and half an inch at point, 
 and be unattached at hand or wrist. 
 
 2. All cuts must be made with the edge 
 of the blade upon any protected part of 
 the body above the waist. No cuts with 
 the flat of the blade allowed. 
 
LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 42 ? 
 
 3. A cut must be followed by a pause, 
 if the cut has been successful. 
 
 4. Where two cuts are delivered at the 
 same time, the count belongs to the com- 
 petitor who is extended ; if both are ex- 
 tended, neither count. 
 
 5. A disarm counts one point. If the 
 sword is lost while making attack and 
 hitting the opponent, the count is not 
 lost. 
 
 6. Neither of the competitors must, in 
 any case, allow his hands to come in vio- 
 lent contact with his opponent’s body. 
 
 7. The number of points shall be not 
 less than five nor more than ten, to be 
 deided by the Judges or Referee, the 
 competitor first making the full number 
 of points to be declared the winner. 
 
 FENCING WITH SINGLE STICK. 
 
 1. The stick shall in no way be fastened 
 to the hand or wrist. It must be made 
 of ash or hickory, five-eighths of an inch 
 at the grip, and tapering at the end, 36 
 inches long. Or an ordinary walking- 
 cane may be used, if agreed upon by the 
 contestants. 
 
 2. Blows only count on the mask and 
 arms. 
 
 3. A blow must be followed by a pause, 
 if the blow has been successful. 
 
 4. If both contestants are hit simulta- 
 neously, the count belongs to the compet- 
 itor who is extended ; if both are ex- 
 tended, neither count. 
 
 5. A disarm counts one point. If the 
 stick is lost while making an attack and 
 hitting the opponent, the count is not 
 lost. 
 
 6. Neither of the competitors must, in 
 any case, allow his hands to come in vio- 
 lent contact with his opponent’s body. 
 
 7. If a competitor seize his opponent’s 
 
 stick with his hand (his own weapon be- 
 ing free), it shall count one point against 
 him. 
 
 8. The number of points shall be not 
 less than five nor more than ten, to be 
 decided by the Judges or Referee, the 
 competitor first making the full number 
 of points to be declared the winner. 
 
 HINTS ON FENCING OR SPARRING. 
 
 1. Never put yourself on guard within 
 reach of your adversary’s thrust, more 
 especially at the time of drawing your 
 foil, sword, or stick. 
 
 2. Be not affected, negligent, nor stiff. 
 
 3. Be not angry at receiving a touch, 
 but take all care to avoid it. 
 
 4. Do not think yourself expert, but 
 hope you may become so. 
 
 5. Be not vain of the hits you give, nor 
 show contempt to those you receive. 
 
 6. Do not endeavor to give many 
 thrusts on the lunge, running the risk of 
 receiving one in the interim; and it is 
 wrong to deliver a second hit on the lunge 
 if you are certain you made a hit the first 
 time. 
 
 7. When you present the foils to a 
 stranger, give the choice without pressing. 
 
 8. If you are much inferior make no 
 long assaults. 
 
 9. Do nothing that is useless — every 
 movement should tend to your advantage. 
 
 10. Judge of a thrust rather by reason 
 than by its success. 
 
 11. Let your play be made as much as 
 possible within the line of your adver- 
 sary’s body. 
 
 12. It is not enough that the parts of 
 your body agree — that you are quick, 
 supple, firm, and vigorous — you must also ; 
 be prepared to answer to your adversary V> * 
 movements. 
 
4.23 
 
 LAWS FOR ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 13. Endeavor by all fair means to dis- 
 cover your adversary’s designs and con- 
 ceal your own. 
 
 14. Two skilful men fencing together 
 act more with their heads than their 
 hands. 
 
 15. The smaller you make your feints, 
 the quicker will your point arrive at your 
 adversary’s body. The same rule holds 
 good in sparring. 
 
 16. Do not make the time-thrusts 
 too frequently, unless your adversary is 
 much your inferior, and that you are not 
 likely to receive a hit at the same time. 
 In sparring, we say, do not lead too 
 often. 
 
 1 7. In fencing, if one hit the body, and 
 the other the face or elsewhere at the 
 same time, the hit On the body is counted 
 only. In sparring, the reverse, head-hits 
 having the preference. 
 
 18. If in parrying, or by any means 
 your adversary’s foil falls, the hit if made 
 is good and should count, because you 
 are not obliged to know that he will lose 
 the grasp of it ; but if the hit is made after 
 you see the foil is out of his hand, or 
 partly so, you cannot count it ; but in 
 politeness you should pick up his foil and 
 present it to him. In sparring, when the 
 glove works loose the same rule holds 
 good. 
 
 19. Never attempt to hit your adver- 
 sary while thrusting carte and tierce in the 
 salute, unless by mutual agreement; and 
 it is a proper civility in saluting to ask 
 the adversary to make the first thrust. 
 
 20. Be sure, at no time while fencing 
 with a skilful man to attempt to valte , 
 disarm , etc. — these are ridiculous things, 
 only taught by the ignorant, and often 
 attended with danger. 
 
 21. Never deny a hit. 
 
 22. Do not ridicule another's manner 
 of fencing or sparring. 
 
 23. Be sure never to use the foils with- 
 out having the mask on. 
 
 ARCHERY. 
 
 Archery fell into disuse in England 
 after the reign of Charles II. But in the 
 latter part of the last century it was taken 
 up as a pastime. As an exercise for ladies 
 it has no superior, being in every way 
 adapted to the habits, dress, and physical 
 ability of both ladies and gentlemen. 
 
 In this exercise there should be no 
 stooping, but with head erect, chest ex- 
 panded and the lips so closed as to breathe 
 through the nostrils, the archer should 
 stand firm. Care must be exercised by 
 those just beginning to practise Archery 
 not to overstrain the muscles by bows 
 too stiff or strong for them, or by remain- 
 ing too long at one time at the exercise. 
 Archery is steadily growing in public 
 favor, and will no doubt soon become 
 very popular; but there is as yet no au- 
 thorized code of laws for its government. 
 The rules by which Archery meetings are 
 at present regulated are usually framed 
 by the officers of each Meeting, and em- 
 body the spirit of the general laws which 
 govern out-door sports, and are founded 
 upon the universal principles of good 
 manners. They vary according to cir- 
 cumstances and need ; but the lady or 
 gentleman acting in authority has the 
 power to decide all disputed questions, 
 and the said lady’s or gentleman’s deci- 
 sion shall be final. 
 
 The distance for shooting should be 50, 
 75 and 100 yards, and the 3 and 4-feet 
 targets be used. The strength of bows 
 for the use of ladies should be from 
 twenty-four to thirty-four pounds. 
 
GAME BIRDS AND THEIR HAUHTS -QUAIL 
 
@MI§3i®§ ABIT® I IB 
 
GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 THEIR DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS, THEIR HAUNTS AND 
 MIGRATIONS, WITH OTHER POINTS OF INTEREST TO SPORTS- 
 MEN. 
 
 The TURKEY. — This bird is a native of North America. It was found by the 
 first settlers in abundance in the forests from the Isthmus of Darien to the woods of 
 Canada. Even the primeval forests of New England were well fillea with them. After 
 the discovery of America by Columbus, the turkey became domesticated in Europe. 
 It is now found in its wild condition in many parts of the North American Continent. 
 Our common domesticated turkey is a descendant of the Mexican form, and not of 
 the wild turkey found in the United States. The characteristic form of this bird is a 
 large, upraised body, long neck, and small head. There are no feathers on the head 
 and neck, but scattered hairs are found, and a fleshy excrescence which extends from 
 the forehead. It has a moderate bill, and the male is armed with spurs. The tail 
 is about as long as the wing, is truncated, and has more than twelve feathers. At 
 present the family is limited to two species: (i) the common turkey, of which there 
 are two varieties — one found in the south-western part of the United States and 
 Mexico, the other in the northern part of the United States; (2)- the beautiful and 
 rare turkey of Honduras. The turkey belongs to the class of gallinaceous birds, and 
 is designated meleagriddae. The two species are meleagris gallipavo, and meleagris 
 ocellata. 
 
 GROUSE. — This is the common name for birds belonging to the order rasores and 
 the family tetraonidce. There are numerous species, many of which are distinctly 
 American. The spruce partridge or Canada grouse, the cock of the plains, the 
 prairie chicken or pinnated grouse, the ruffled grouse (incorrectly called the pheas- 
 ant) and others are well known game birds. 
 
 The pinnated grouse, or prairie chicken, is restricted to the United States. It 
 exists in great numbers on the plains of the West, where it is an object of sport for 
 the hunter. It is now very rare in its former eastern range, but a few are said to be 
 found on Martha’s Vineyard and the adjacent islands. Its favorite haunts are the 
 prairies of the Wisconsin Valley, and the open plains as far south as Louisiana. 
 This species can easily be known by the feathers which grow on the legs and the 
 long lance-like feathers on the neck. The tail is short, and in the male there is an 
 air-sac or bladder by which, in the mating season, he is able to give utterance to a 
 single note by alternately filling and emptying this sac with air. The principal food 
 of this species is the berry of various plants and buds. In some parts of the country 
 it is a great pest to the farmer. 
 
GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 431 
 
 The spruce partridge or Canada grouse is nowise related to the partridge of 
 Europe, but belongs to the grouse family. It is found in the New England States 
 and Canada in considerable numbers. The New England quail, or the partridge of 
 the South is, strictly speaking, neither a quail nor a partridge, but partakes of the 
 nature of both. Its length is about nine inches. The upper part of the body is a 
 reddish-brown variously striped ; the lower portion is bluish-white, striped and barred 
 with reddish-brown. It makes its nest on the ground, lays from twelve to eighteen 
 eggs, and feeds on grains, seeds, and berries. They live in coveys of dozen or more. 
 Their flesh is delicious, and the sport of hunting them is great. 
 
 The ruffed grouse is easily distinguished from the other grouse by not having 
 feathers on the lower half of the tarsus. It has a ruff of soft brown feathers about 
 the neck. The tail is about as long as the wing and has two bands of gray with a 
 broad black one between them. This species is quite generally distributed through 
 the north-temperate part of America. It is known in New England by the name of 
 partridge, in the Middle States as the pheasant, and in some of the British Provinces 
 as the birch partridge. It is mostly found in hilly and woody country and along water 
 courses, rarely in the open plain. When disturbed it will run into the bushes and, 
 squatting low, remain close to the ground. It is hard to shoot one on the wing, as 
 its flight is very unsteady. Its flesh is considered very delicious. 
 
 The Wild GOOSE. — This bird belong to the family anatidce or web-footed 
 birds, which includes the duck, the swan, the goose, and some others. It grows to 
 thirty or thirty-five inches in length. Its prevailing color is brown above, lighter 
 below, with black bill, head, neck, and feet, and a white patch on each cheek. Its 
 home is North America, where it breeds in the northern part, and passes the winter 
 in the warmer portions. During their migrations they fly in the shape of a letter 
 “ V,” with the point in advance. They breed in the northern latitudes, and remain 
 there until warned to seek a warmer clime. They fly at a great height, nearly or 
 more than one-fourth of a mile above the earth. They return in the spring — from 
 March 20th to the latter part of April, according to the weather. The Canadian 
 goose is confined to this continent. The largest usually weighs ten pounds. In 
 their migration they seem to be led by an experienced gander, who controls the 
 movement of his column through the air. Wilson, the ornithologist, is of the opin- 
 ion that the range of the wild goose “ extends to the utmost polar point, amid the 
 silent desolation of unknown countries, shut out from the prying eye of man by 
 everlasting and insuperable barriers of ice.” 
 
 Our domesticated goose is supposed to have sprung from the wild goose of the 
 European continent, commonly called the gray lay. There are several species of 
 wild goose not as familiar as the others, to be found in the western portions of 
 North America. 
 
 The Wild Duck. — The name comes from the verb “duck,” to dive. It is ap- 
 plied to many swimming birds of the family anatidcz. The true ducks haunt the fresh 
 water and live on both vegetable and animal food. They go in flocks, and the male 
 bird is prettier than the female, as well as larger. In their wild state they live in 
 pairs, one male and one female, but when domesticated, the males are polygamous. 
 
432 
 
 GAME BIRDS Ov NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Eight orders of true ducks are found in North America. The sea duck or scoter is 
 distinguished by the bill being much swollen at the base ; the feathers extend for- 
 ward as far as the nostril, and the color is generally black. The common scoter, the 
 long-billed scoter, surf duck or sea coot, and the velvet duck or white-winged coot, 
 are varieties of the sea duck. The wood duck is the most beautiful of our water- 
 fowl. He has a crested head, and is iridescent, green and purple in color, with par- 
 allel curved lines of white at the side of his head and a broad, forked, white patch 
 on his throat. The upper part of the body is dark reddish-brown, with bronze and 
 purplish reflections ; the breast and belly are grayish- white, and the sides and lower 
 part of the neck are reddish-purple, each feather tipped with white. The feet are dull 
 orange; the bill red and black. This beautiful bird is easily shot, and very palatable 
 for food. It makes its home m a blasted tree near the water, and if it can find a 
 hole where a limb has broken off, or one made by a woodpecker or squirrel into 
 which it can squeeze, a nest is made and twelve buff-green polished eggs are laid. The 
 female broods them and the male goes away and returns when the young are able to 
 fly. This species is the only one seen in summer in many parts of the country, and 
 is therefore termed the summer duck. It is common from the Gulf of Mexico to 
 Canada. 
 
 The canvas-back duck is found only in North America. It is found in the bays 
 of the sea and the estuaries of rivers. It has a fine plumage diversified with black, 
 white, chestnut-brown, and slate color. It returns from its northern migration in 
 the month of November, and may be shot on Chesapeake and Delaware Bays during 
 the winter. The flesh is highly prized, and many persons think that it is the most deli- 
 cious of water-fowl. Those found on the Chesapeake Bay are regarded as the best. 
 
 The eider duck is found in the northern part of America and of Europe. The 
 down from the breast of this bird, with which it fills its nest during the period of 
 incubation, is taken by the hunter as a valuable article of commerce. It generally 
 has its haunts on low, rocky islets near the coast. The king eider is found in Green- 
 land. 
 
 California Quail. — There are two species of quail found in California, one on 
 the mountains and the other in the valleys. The latter is much more common, and 
 is usually meant when the California quail is mentioned. Its home name is valley 
 quail, and its scientific name, lophorlyx calif ornicus. 
 
 Its size is about that of the eastern Bob White. Lead-gray is the prevailing 
 color. The wings and back are glossed with olive-brown and prettily streaked with 
 black and white. The belly is orange, fading into buff and white, with each feather 
 tipped with black. The head of this bird is its principal beauty. The forehead is 
 brownish-yellow, with the shafts of feathers black ; there is a narow fillet of white 
 with its ends floating backward along the sides of the neck, inclosing the light brown 
 back of the head and nape, and from the crown of the head a bunch of tall plumes, 
 two, four, or six, rises and curves forward. The chin and throat are black with a 
 white margin, which starts at the eye and passes round to the other eye. This quail 
 frequents the grain districts from the Columbia River to Cape St. Lucas. They be- 
 come a nuisance to the farmers. The eggs are creamy in color, with drab and brown 
 
GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 43 : 
 
 spots and streaks. The California quail runs through the tall grass when pursued, 
 hence the dogs are trained to rush forward and retrieve the game as soon as it falls. 
 The older birds will trust more to their swift flight than the younger ones. They 
 are difficult to hit on the wing, but their flesh is very good. 
 
 The Wild PIGEON. — It seems hard for one who has always resided east of the 
 Alleghanies to believe the stories told by the early settlers in regard to the vast 
 numbers of wild pigeon in this country. The whole eastern portion of the country 
 was overrun by them, and their great migrations gave them the name of passenger- 
 pigeon. The change of seasons does not wholly account for these migrations, for 
 certain parts of the innumerable flocks remained to breed in the South, while others 
 went to the very edge of the Arctic Zone and, after rearing their young, remained 
 till midwinter. It would seem that their movements were determined by their abil- 
 ity to find food, and they changed from one part of the country to another in search 
 of subsistence. They are especially fond of the beechnut acorn, and any nuts which 
 they can crack and swallow. They are very fond of rice, but they will eat all kinds 
 of grain and berries. It is stated that it now costs the rice growers of the South, 
 $2,000,000 per year to keep them off the rice fields. What would be the expense if 
 they were as numerous as when the great ornithologist, Audubon, saw them near 
 Louisville in 1813, when he said, “ The light of the noonday sun was obscured as by 
 an eclipse.” He travelled on horseback all day without getting out from under 
 them, and their rear guard did not pass until after midnight. He estimated that 
 1,200,000,000 individual birds passed over in this one migration. They seemed 
 moved by a common purpose. The clearing away of the forests and the wholesale 
 destruction of old and young have diminished the number, and the remnant have 
 been driven to the more distant north to rear their young. Pigeon shooting can still 
 be enjoyed in the Alleghanies and other less cultivated regions, and a few scattered 
 flocks can be found in every State where there are still left large tracts of forest. 
 The weapon should be a rifle, though the strong flight of the bird taxes marksman- 
 ship. 
 
 The various breeds of domestic pigeons have come from the wild pigeon and its 
 many varieties. The wild pigeon, the Columbia livia, belongs to a section of that 
 genus which has a long tarsus. The wings are black at the outer margin and have a 
 black spot at the end of the secondaries and another on the great coverts. The 
 rump is ashy. The tail is bluish-ash two-thirds of the way and black the rest. The 
 entire length of the bird is fifteen inches, with a spread of wing of twenty-seven. 
 The feet at the middle toe are two and three-quarter inches long. This is the 
 description of the wild, or passenger-pigeon. Darwin, who made a study of them, 
 divides them into eleven distinct races, with more than 250 varieties. 
 
 The Spotted Sandpiper. — This is a bird of the woods as well as of the sea- 
 shore. The riverside and mountain brooks are also his haunts. They are not shot 
 for food but for sport by those who wish to practise upon their erratic flight. They 
 are by no means shy, but are found wherever they can procure water insects and mol- 
 lusks. They are found as far north as the Arctic Zone, but these come back to winter 
 
434 
 
 GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 in the Northern and Middle States. Those which spend the summer in these States 
 migrate further south for the winter. 
 
 They scrape out a hollow in the sandy border of a salt marsh, or in a cornfield 
 near fresh water, in which they deposit four eggs much the shape of a top and the 
 color of clay blotched with sienna-brown. They have a peculiar method of defend- 
 ing their eggs and young. On the approach of an enemy the bird throws herself 
 before the intruder and utters a scream — peet-weet, peet-weet — and flutters away with 
 one wing apparently broken, and one leg disabled. If you think she is wounded and 
 give chase, she will elude your grasp and lead you a safe distance from the nest, 
 when she suddenly recovers and shoots away. 
 
 The color of the adult bird is a bronzed or brownish-green, the wings are crossed 
 with a narrow band of white, and the outer feathers of the tail tipped also with white. 
 The under parts of the bird are white, with brown spots circular and oval in shape. 
 The sandpiper has a great many local names, as “teeter-tail,” “wag-tail,” “tip-up,** 
 and others. These refer to the amusing movements of the bird when it alights, or 
 stops in its running along the beach. It will begin to teeter upon its legs, lift and 
 drop its tail, and rise and sink on its elastic toes as if courtesying to some one. The 
 scientific name of this little bird is tringoides macular ius. Its flesh has a decidedly 
 fishy taste and is not relished for food. 
 
 WOODCOCK, Snipe, ETC. — These form a family of wading birds called by Lin- 
 nseus, Scolopacidce, from the Latin name of woodcock. They have a long, slender 
 bill, soft and flexible, with a blunt tip. Their wings are long and pointed, with a 
 short, even tail. Their legs are elongated, with naked thighs. This family is quite 
 an extended one, embracing the curlew, the sandpiper, the snipe, and the woodcock. 
 These differ in their habits and characteristics, but are found quite extensively in 
 North America. The curlews of this continent are the long-billed curlew, the short- 
 billed curlew, and the Esquimau curlew. These are much relished for food, and 
 sought for by hunters because of their wild and shy habits. Their haunts are found 
 along the seashore and open moorlands, where they can find a supply of worms, mol- 
 lusks, insects, etc. They have long legs, slender, curved bills, and short tails. The 
 body of the long-billed curlew is twenty-five inches and its bill often eight inches. 
 Its color is a pale reddish with ashy tints and brown-black marks and lines of black 
 running lengthwise. The short-billed curlew is about two-thirds as large, with a bill 
 about four inches long. The Esquimau curlew is still smaller. 
 
 The snipe belongs to the same family, and has many varieties, among which are 
 the American snipe, the gray snipe, grass snipe, robin snipe, and stone snipe. The 
 grass snipe and robin snipe are known as sandpipers, which have been described. 
 The flesh of the snipe proper is much liked by many because the bird is exceedingly 
 fat when it finds a good feeding ground. It feeds upon the larvae and grubs of the 
 common fly which destroys grasses and turf. This bird lays four olive-brown eggs. 
 
 GODWIT. — This is a popular name given to various wading birds having long 
 bills. The great marbled godwit, the Hudsonian godwit, and the tell-tale godwit, 
 are the North Amercian species. They belong to the genus limosa , and have char- 
 acteristics in common with the family of waders, and are good table food. 
 
GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 435 
 
 PLOVERS. — This is also a family of waders and includes many genera such as 
 lapwings, turnstones, golden plovers, kildeer plovers, and others. They are mostly 
 found in temperate climates. Many of the species are highly prized for game. 
 
 The kildeer plover is found in summer on the interior plains of North America, 
 but in winter it frequents the sea coast from Massachusetts to Texas. The name is 
 derived from a resemblance to its cry, which it constantly repeats. It is hunted for 
 sport rather than for food, as its flesh is not highly prized. The turnstone is so 
 named from his habit of turning stones to obtain food. He is allied to the plovers 
 and is a wader. He is commonly found on the shores of the Atlantic and Pacific 
 coasts. On the Pacific he is known as the black turnstone. 
 
 Rail. — This is the common English name for the species of the family rallidce, but 
 especially to the two branches, rallus and porzana, found in the United States. The 
 rails have the bill slender and longer than the head. This class embraces the com- 
 mon or marsh rail, the largest of which grows in the United States, about seventeen 
 inches long, and the clapper or mud rail, whose length is about fourteen inches. 
 
 Teal. — This is an English name given to ducks of a small size. As far as the 
 species in North America are concerned, we quote from Professor Burd in his work, 
 The Birds of North America.” (i.) “ The blue-winged teals have a rather broad or 
 moderately narrow bill (about one-third or more of the lower edge); the nail is 
 proportionately broad (about one-third the width of the bill); the lower angle of the 
 bill extends rather farther back than the lower edge; the colors are characteristic in 
 that the wing coverts and the outer web of the scapulars are bright blue; the greater 
 coverts tipped with white; a grass-green speculum is just below the white of the 
 coverts; the scapulars are streaked with yellowish buff; the top of the head and chin 
 are dusky, and the crissam is blackish. (2.) The green-winged teals have a narrow 
 bill; the nail proportionately narrow; the upper bill does not reach as far back as 
 the beginning of its lower edge ; the colors are distinctive in that head and neck are 
 chestnut, with a broad patch of green on the side of the head ; the breast has rounded 
 black spots; the upper part and sides are finely waved traversely with black and 
 grayish-white; the crissam is black, edged with creamy yellow; the wing coverts are 
 plain olive-gray, the greater with a terminal band of fulvous; the speculum is green 
 edged externally and internally with black.” These species frequent the fresh water 
 ponds and lakes, and are the best for food. Those found in America are the blue- 
 winged teal, the green-winged teal, and the red-breasted teal. 
 
 The species of the porzana are the common rail or sora, the little black rail, and 
 the little yellow rail. These all have their haunts in salt marshes and are much 
 sought after by hunters as game birds. 
 
 Heron. — This name is given to a part of the birds belonging to the family 
 ardeidee ; they are waders and are found in North America under the species of the 
 Louisiana heron of the South, the snowy heron, the white heron, the great blue 
 heron, the night heron, and many others. The great blue heron is a splendid bird, 
 but very dangerous when wounded, for it strikes at the eyes of its captor with its 
 long bill and gives severe blows to the last. Egret is the diminutive form of the same 
 word, heron, in French, and is a name applied to several species. It is a splendid 
 
438 
 
 GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 bird, and its plumes are used for ornament. It has a soft, flowing plumage of pure 
 white, except the train, which is of a creamy tint. They live in low marshy places 
 and eat fish, frogs, lizards, and snakes. 
 
 The Bittern. — This bird is regarded by some naturalists as a species of heron. 
 It has a long, straight, sharp bill, long legs and neck. The latter has a loose plum- 
 age or fringe which it can erect at will. It is a handsome bird. It lies hidden in the 
 reeds of marshy fens and the shores of lakes and rivers by day, and at night goes out 
 for its prey — frogs, fish, etc. Its note or cry is a peculiar hollow and booming sound, 
 noticed by Goldsmith in the lirwe, 
 
 “ The hollow-sounding bittern guards its rest.” 
 
 / 
 
 There are two varieties in North America. 
 
 The American Coot. — The scientific name of this bird is Fulica Americana , 
 and this is the species to which the name “ coot ” should be applied. But it is com- 
 monly applied to several birds, mostly of the duck family ; for example : the box coot, 
 or surf duck ; the broad-billed coot, and the white-winged coot or velvet duck. In the 
 South the name is given to the sora rail. The American coot resembles the water- 
 hen. It lives in lakes or large ponds or along the banks of quiet rivers. Its food 
 consists of insects, shell fish, and similar creatures which it hunts in the water or on 
 the land. It swims exceedingly well, as the broad membrane on each side of the toe 
 presents a wide surface to the water. It walks with some grace, and on the perch 
 grasps the limb firmly. In winter it goes dpwn to the sea. 
 
 Ibis.— The American species of this bird are the glossy ibis, the white ibis of 
 Florida, and the scarlet ibis. These handsome birds are mostly found in the warm 
 regions. There is also the wood ibis. The white ibis of Florida has been regarded 
 as a variety of the sacred ibis of Egypt. This sacred bird of Egypt is often found 
 embalmed in that country. It was thought to be an incarnation of the god Thoth. 
 These birds are waders, with long legs and bills. The white ibis and the scarlet ibis 
 are game birds. 
 
 The CORMORANT. — This is a web-footed bird of the family pelicanidce. It has a 
 compressed bill, with a strong hook at the point of the upper part, wings moderate 
 in length, and stiff tail-feathers. These latter are used in walking. These birds are 
 very voracious and pursue their prey both by swimming and diving. The cormorant 
 common to the eastern coast of North America is mostly black and about thirty- 
 three inches long. Other species are also found in the United States. 
 
 The Crane. — Of these birds the American species are the whooping crane, the 
 sand-hill crane, the little crane, and the common crane. The crane differs from the 
 heron family, storks, etc., in having the short hind toe placed much higher on the 
 leg than the front one. They are mostly large birds with long necks and legs and 
 powerful wings. The wings are rounded, not elongated. The whooping crane is 
 larger than the common crane, with pure white plumage and wings tipped with black. 
 In the winter it is found in the southern parts of the United States, but in summer 
 it goes to the North. 
 
 Roseate Spoonbill. — This bird is named from its color and the shape of its 
 
GAME BIRDS OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 437 
 
 bill. The color is a delicate rose hue, and its bill is much the shape of a spoon-bowl. 
 It belongs to the heron family and lives in communities in the southern United 
 Stater and Central America. It grows some thirty inches long and is considered 
 good for the table. 
 
 The PHALAROPE. — This is an aquatic bird, resembling the plover in form. 
 The bill is as long as the head, nearly straight; wings long and pointed; tail short 
 and rounded, and legs set far back. G. R. Gray says of them : “ The species are in- 
 habitants of the northern regions, but migrating to more temperate climes in severe 
 winters. They are usually observed in pairs or in small parties, swimming about on 
 the sea, or on lakes, ponds, and streams of fresh water near the margins, moving 
 quickly in search of floating seeds, aquatic insects, and the small crustacean animals 
 on which they subsist. They swim with great facility and swiftness, and their flight 
 is rapid and elevated in the air. The female deposits four eggs among a tuft of 
 herbage in the marshes.” Only one species is found in North America. 
 
 The Rock Ptarmigan and American Ptarmigan. — This is a species of 
 grouse distinguished by having the legs feathered to the claws. They have sixteen 
 or eighteen tail feathers. They inhabit the high northern regions and assume a coat 
 of white in the winter, in the summer changing to a reddish or buff color. In winter 
 they are sheltered in willows, birches, and when pursued dive into the snow and 
 easily work their way out of sight. In the summer they frequent the plains. They 
 lay eight or ten eggs in May or June. 
 
 Hooded Merganser. — This is a beautiful water fowl of North America, also 
 called hairy-head, water pheasant, and hooded sheldrake. They differ from the 
 true ducks by their more slender bill, which has a little hook at the tip. They be- 
 long to the family anatidce. 
 
 The Black-necked Stilt. — This is the only species of stilt found in America. 
 It ranges from the northern part of the United States to Paraguay. Its full length 
 is fourteen inches, of which the tail is three inches, and the bill three. The color is a 
 glossy black on the head above, the neck behind, the back, and the wings ; the bill is 
 black and theTegs red; the rest is white. The legs are very long and slender; the 
 bill is also slender. 
 
 It dwells on the seashore and is found inland in the United States along the 
 lakes and rivers of the West. They flock in numbers of twenty or thirty. They 
 choose muddy flats with reedy margins. They breed in the United States. They 
 lay four large eggs of a yellowish hue, with brownish blotches and lines. They feed 
 on aquatic insects, the eggs and young of fish, and small fishes of different kinds. 
 
NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED 
 
 WITH 
 
 A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
 CRAFT USED ON OUR WATERS. 
 
 A Ship has three masts full-rigged, 
 that is, with yard-arms on each mast. 
 
 A Brig has two masts, one of which is 
 full-rigged and the other with square sail 
 and spanker. 
 
 A Bark has three masts, but only two 
 of them have yard-arms, the third having 
 a spanker and a triangular top-sail. 
 
 A BRIGANTINE has only one full-rigged 
 mast, the other mast having a spanker 
 and triangular top-sail. 
 
 A SCHOONER may have one, two, three, 
 four, or even five masts, but no yard-arms. 
 
 A Sloop has but one mast. 
 
 A Yacht is a steam or sail vessel, used 
 for pleasure; either a sloop or schooner. 
 
 A Tug is a steam craft used for towing 
 other craft or floating merchandise. 
 
 A Barge is a boat without masts used 
 for carrying passengers for pleasure, or 
 to transport large burdens. 
 
 A Scow is a flat-bottom boat for car- 
 rying heavy loads of merchandise. 
 
 A Yawl is a sea boat rather long and 
 usually rowed with four or six oars. 
 
 A Wherry is a light river boat having 
 a keel, rowed with oars. 
 
 A Skiff or Punt is a flat-bottomed 
 boat of light construction. 
 
 A Catamaran is a light sail boat of 
 slight construction and used principally 
 for fast sailing in smooth water. 
 
 A Long Boat is the largest boat car- 
 
 ried on a sea-going craft. It is strongly 
 built and intended to use in a heavy sea. 
 
 A Canal Boat is one used on canals 
 to carry passengers or freight. 
 
 A Whale Boat is large, strongly built 
 and equipped for chasing and taking 
 whales. 
 
 A Life Boat is large and strong with 
 air-tight compartments and so built as 
 not to sink. It is intended for use at life- 
 saving stations and on the great seas when 
 life is in danger. 
 
 A Steamer is a generic term applied 
 to all vessels propelled by steam. A 
 screw steamer is propelled by one or 
 more screws revolving in the water. A 
 side-wheeled steamer is propelled by a 
 wheel on each side. A wheelbarrow, or 
 stern steamer is propelled by one wheel 
 at the stern. 
 
 Different names may be given to the 
 same style of craft in different parts of 
 our country, but the above are known 
 and generally recognized. 
 
 Nautical Terms Explained. 
 
 Aback. — A sail is taken aback if the 
 wind blows upon its forward surface. 
 
 Abaft. — T he position, toward the stern, 
 or hinder part of the vessel, from any 
 stated point; as, “abaft the forecastle,” 
 “ abaft the mainmast,” “ abaft the cabin.” 
 
 Abeam. — Any object is said to be 
 

INTERNATIONAL 
 
 CODE. 
 
 Answering 
 
 Pennant 
 
 Assent-Yes, 
 
 N. York Canoe 
 
 South Boston 
 
 Stapleton 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Dorchester 
 
 Neenah 
 
 ^Williamsburg 
 
 .ong Island 
 
 INTERNATIONAL 
 CODEof SIGNALS, 
 
 universal Series. 
 
 Negative-No. 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 South Carolina Prospect Park Model Knickerbocker 
 
 Chautauqua Lake 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES AND CANADA. 
 
 Manhattan 
 
 Genesee 
 
 St. Augustine 
 
 .land Model 
 
 Union, N. J. 
 
 International 
 
 Rockaway 
 
 Hudson River 
 
 Warwick 
 
 AMERICAN VACHT ENSIGN 
 
 Hoboken 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Royal Halifax 
 (Burgee) 
 
 Royal Canadian 
 
 Royal Halifax 
 
 N. Hamburg Ice Boat American Model 
 
 Central Hudson 
 
 Haverhill 
 
 Beverly 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 Boston 
 
 Royal Canadian yRoyal Bermuda 
 (Burgee) Q 
 
 Jersey City 
 
 U.S. Storm Signal 
 
 > ortland Oshkosh Royal Bermuda (Burgee) 
 
 Pougluceepsie Ice Yacht 
 
 Madison 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Seawanhaka 
 
NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 439 
 
 abeam that bears at right angles to the 
 line of the keel ; and an imaginary line 
 drawn at right angles across the keel, 
 equidistant from the bow and stern, di- 
 vides the vessel into two parts. Any- 
 thing bearing forward of this line is said 
 to be “ forward of the beam,” and any- 
 thing bearing behind this line is said to 
 be “ abaft the beam.” 
 
 Aboard. — In the vessel; as, “Get the 
 anchor aboard ! ” “ Come aboard ! ” 
 
 About.— A vessel is said to “ go about ” 
 when tacking, the order to prepare for 
 which is, “ Ready about! ” 
 
 Abreast. — Opposite to, as relates to 
 the sides of a vessel; as, abreast of a 
 lighthouse, when the side of the vessel is 
 at right angles to it, or nearly so. 
 
 Adrift. — Broken loose from moorings; 
 or anything rolling about the decks loose 
 in a sea-way has broken adrift. 
 
 Afloat. — Clear of the bottom, sus- 
 tained by the water. 
 
 Afore. — That part of the vessel near- 
 est to the stem, or head. 
 
 Aft. — Behind ; as, “ Stand further aft,” 
 “ Haul aft the main-sheet ! ” i.e., bring the 
 boom nearer the line of the keel. 
 
 After. — Hinder, as after sails, such as 
 the mainsail, in contradistinction to for- 
 ward-sails, such as the jib. 
 
 AGROUND. — Not having water enough 
 for the vessel, which rests on the ground. 
 
 Ahead. — Before the vessel ; anything 
 in advance of where the vessel is being 
 directed. 
 
 A-LEE. — The helm is a-lee when the 
 tiller is put to the lee-side; “hard a-lee,” 
 when it is put over as far as it will go.” 
 All in the Wind. — When the sails 
 receive a portion of the wind on both, 
 surfaces, and shake or wave like a flag. 
 
 All Hands, Ahoy. — A summons to 
 call all the crew on deck in an emergency. 
 
 Aloft. — Up above, at the masthead. 
 
 Alongside. — Close to the side of the 
 vessel. 
 
 Amidships. — Anything in a line with 
 the keel, viz.; “Put the helm amid- 
 ships ! ” 
 
 To ANCHOR. — To let the anchor fall 
 overboard that it may hold the vessel; 
 order for which is “ Let go the anchor! ” 
 
 Anchorage.— Ground fit to anchor on. 
 
 To Weigh the Anchor.— To heave 
 it up from the bottom to the bow of the 
 vessel. 
 
 ASHORE. — On land, aground. 
 
 ASTERN. — Behind the vessel. 
 
 Athwart.— A cross. 
 
 Athwart-Ships.— A nything lying at 
 right angles to the line of the keel, or 
 nearly so. 
 
 Avast. —To cease pulling, to stop. 
 
 A-WEATHER. — The helm is said to be 
 a-weather when the tiller is put over to 
 the windward side of the vessel ; and 
 “hard a-weather,” when it is put over as 
 far as it will go. 
 
 Awning. — A canvas covering stretched 
 overhead, to give protection from the 
 heat of the sun. 
 
 Back-Stays.— R opes fixed at the top- 
 masthead, and fastened to the sides of the 
 vessel to sustain the topmast. 
 
 BALLAST. — A quantity of heavy mate- 
 rial placed in the hold of the vessel to 
 give her proper stability. 
 
 Bands. — Pieces of canvas sewn across 
 a sail to strengthen it to sustain the reef- 
 points, and called reef-bands. 
 
 Bar. — A shoal, usually found at the 
 mouths of rivers and harbors that are 
 subject to much current. 
 
 Bare Poles. — Having no sail up, on 
 account of the severity of the wind: 
 “ scudding under bare poles,” that is, run- 
 ning before the wind with no sail set. 
 
440 
 
 NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 Beams. — Pieces of timber across the 
 vessel under the decks, bound to the sides 
 by knees. A vessel is said to be on her 
 “ beam ends ” when she is hove down by 
 any force, so that the ends of the beams 
 point toward the ground. 
 
 Forward of the Beam. — When the 
 object or wind is at some position be- 
 tween abeam and ahead. 
 
 Before the Beam. — When the wind 
 or object bears on some point forward of 
 the beam, but within the right angle 
 formed by the keel and a line across the 
 middle of the vessel. 
 
 Abaft the Beam. — The opposite to 
 Before the Beam. 
 
 BEARINGS. — The direction of any ob- 
 ject by observation of the compass; also 
 to any object, as the lighthouse bears 
 abaft the beam. 
 
 Beating to Windward. — Advancing 
 in the direction from which the wind pro- 
 ceeds by a series of manoeuvres called 
 “ tacking.” 
 
 Becalmed. — Having no wind to fill the 
 sails. One sail is also said to becalm 
 another when the wind is aft. 
 
 Belay. — To make fast a rope around a 
 cleat or pin. 
 
 To Bend. — To fasten; as to bend the 
 sails, bend on the cable to the anchor, 
 bend on the colors, etc. 
 
 Bight.— Any slack part of a rope be- 
 tween the ends. 
 
 BILGE. — The flat part of a vessel’s 
 bottom where the water that she ships, 
 or which leaks in, remains, and is called 
 “ bilge-water.” 
 
 Binnacle. — A box, fitted with lights, 
 which contains the steering-compass. 
 
 Berth. — An anchorage; a bunk or 
 wooden shelf used for sleeping in. 
 
 BlTTS. — Large, upright pieces of tim- 
 ber, with a cross-piece, to which hawsers 
 
 or large ropes are belayed; also called 
 “ knight-heads.” 
 
 Blocks. — Instruments with pulleys 
 used to increase the power of ropes. 
 
 Block and Block (also called, com- 
 monly, “ chock-a-block ”). — When the two 
 blocks of a tackle have been brought as 
 near together as possible. 
 
 To Make a Board. — To tack. 
 
 To Make a Stern-Board. — To move 
 through the water stern foremost. 
 
 Bob-Stays. — Ropes from the cut-water, 
 or stem, to the bowsprit end, to sustain 
 and strengthen it. 
 
 Bolt-Ropes. — Ropes sewn round the 
 edges of sails, to prevent splitting. 
 
 BOOMS. — Round pieces of timber oil 
 which the foot of sails are lashed. 
 
 Bows. — The round part of the vessel 
 forward, ending in the cut-water, or 
 stem. 
 
 To Bouse. — To haul upon. 
 
 BOWSPRIT. — A spar nearly parallel with 
 the deck, extending out over the stem. 
 
 To Bring Up. — To take the bottom 
 suddenly, as brought up by a shoal; to 
 come to an anchor. 
 
 To Bring To. — To make the vessel 
 nearly stationary by stopping her head- 
 way by means of the sails set in different 
 positions, so as to counterpoise each 
 other in connection with the helm. 
 
 Butt End. —The end of a plank in a 
 vessel’s side ; to start a butt ; i.e., to leak. 
 
 By the Board. — A mast is said to go 
 by the board when carried away just 
 above the deck. 
 
 By the Head. — When a vessel is deep- 
 er in the water forward than aft. 
 
 By the Stern. — The reverse of “by 
 the head.” 
 
 By the Wind. — When a vessel is as 
 near the wind as she can be sailed with- 
 out the sail shaking ; called “ full and by.” 
 
NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 441 
 
 CABLE. — The rope by which the vessel 
 is secured to the anchor. 
 
 To Pay out the Cable.— To allow 
 more of it to pass outboard, so that the 
 vessel lies farther from the anchor. 
 
 CABOOSE. — Place where the food is 
 cooked; also called the “cook’s galley.” 
 
 Call. — A silver whistle used by the 
 boatswain to have certain orders obeyed. 
 
 Capsize. — To turn over. 
 
 To Carry Away. — A spar is carried 
 away when it is broken by the wind. 
 
 To Cast Off. — To untie, to allow to 
 go free, viz.: “Cast off the main-sheet!” 
 “Cast off that boat’s painter! ” 
 
 Casting. — To pay a vessel off on the 
 desired tack when weighing anchor, by 
 arranging sails so as to be taken aback. 
 
 Cat-Boat Rig. — A vessel rigged with 
 one mast placed chock forward in the 
 eyes, and without stays or bowsprit, and 
 fitted with one fore-and-aft sail. 
 
 Cat’s-Paw. — A light breeze or puff of 
 air seen upon the water. 
 
 To Calk. — To drive oakum or cotton 
 into the seams to prevent leaking, and to 
 “ pay ” the same with pitch or tar. 
 
 Centre-Board. — A movable keel that 
 can be lowered or hoisted at pleasure. 
 
 To Claw Off. — To beat to windward 
 from off a lee-shore. 
 
 Cleat. — A piece of wood with two 
 horns, fastened to the side of the vessel 
 or to the mast upon which ropes are 
 made fast. 
 
 Clews. — The corners of sails. 
 
 Close Hauled. — T o sail as near the 
 wind as possible. 
 
 Coiling. — To gather up a rope into a 
 circular form ready for running out again 
 at a moment’s notice; such as, “ Coil up 
 the peak-halliards, and have them ready 
 for running! ” 
 
 COURSE. — The point of the compass 
 on which the vessel sails. 
 
 Cross-Bearings. — The finding of the 
 exact position of the vessel upon the chart 
 by taking the bearings by compass of two 
 objects on shore. 
 
 CROTCH. — Two crossed pieces, of wood 
 in which the main boom is lashed, when 
 the vessel is at anchor or the sail furled, 
 to confine it in place. 
 
 To CUN. — To direct the helmsman how 
 to steer. 
 
 Cut-Water. — The timber forming the 
 entrance of the vessel. 
 
 BOAT Davits.- — Pieces of strong, bent 
 iron standing out over the side to hoist 
 boats up to, and secure them. 
 
 DOWNHAUL. — A rope used to pull down 
 the jib, etc. 
 
 DRAUGHT. — Depth of water. Thus it 
 is said of a vessel her draught is three feet ; 
 i.e ., she draws three feet of water. 
 
 DRIFT. — To drive to leeward ; to lose 
 steerage way for want of wind. 
 
 EARINGS. — Small ropes used for lash- 
 ings. 
 
 Ease Off. — To slacken. 
 
 Ease Off Handsomely. — To slacken 
 very carefully. 
 
 End for End. — To change a rope 
 that has been worn, and use one part 
 where the other was formerly used. 
 
 End On. — To advance bow or stern 
 on, or to have another vessel approach 
 in a similar manner. 
 
 ENSIGN. — The national flag, carried 
 always at the gaff-end. 
 
 Fag-End. — The end of a rope which 
 is frayed. 
 
 Falling Off. — W hen a vessel moves 
 from the wind farther than she ought. 
 
 Fathom. — S ix feet in length. 
 
 Fid. — A tapered piece of wood used 
 
442 
 
 NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 to splice ropes with, and, when made of 
 iron, called a “ marline-spike.” 
 
 To Fill.— T o have the wind strike the 
 inner or after surfaces of the sails. 
 
 Flake. — One circle of a coil of rope. 
 
 Flukes. — The broad, spade-like parts 
 of an anchor. 
 
 Fore. — That part of the vessel nearest 
 to the head. 
 
 Fore and Aft. — In the direction of 
 the keel ; also vessels without square 
 yards. Hence a schooner is called a “ fore- 
 and-after ; ” and a ship, a “ square-rigger.” 
 
 Foul Hawse. — When the cables are 
 twisted. 
 
 To Foul. — To entangle a rope; as, 
 “The jib-halliards are foul.” To run foul 
 of a vessel is to come in collision with an- 
 other. 
 
 To Founder. — To sink. 
 
 Furling. — Making the sails fast to the 
 booms and spars, and stowing them, by 
 means of gaskets. 
 
 Gaff. — The spar that supports the 
 head of a fore-and-aft sail. 
 
 GANGWAY. — The place where persons 
 come on board. 
 
 Gasket. — A piece of rope used to tie 
 up sails with, or lash anything. 
 
 To Go About. — To tack. 
 
 GORING. — Cutting a sail obliquely. 
 
 Granny-Knot. — A foul knot, — one not 
 tied in a proper manner. 
 
 Griping. — When a vessel carries too 
 great a weather-helm. 
 
 Halliards. — Ropes or pulleys to 
 hoist up sails. 
 
 Hands. — The crew; i.e., “ Send a hand 
 aft here!” “All hands,” all the crew. 
 To “hand a sail,” to furl it. “Bear a 
 hand,” hurry up to help. Hand lead, in- 
 strument used for sounding. 
 
 Handsomely.— C arefully. 
 
 Hanks. — Oval rings, fitted to work 
 
 upon stays, to which the sail h lashed to 
 be hoisted or lowered. 
 
 Hatchway. — A square hole in the 
 deck that communicates with the hold. 
 
 To Haul. — T o pull. 
 
 To Hail. — To call out to another ship 
 such as “ What shipds that?” 
 
 To Heel. — To incline to one side ; i.e., 
 she heels over too much on account of a 
 want of ballast. 
 
 Helm. — A tiller or wheel which con- 
 trols the rudder. 
 
 To Haul Home. — To pull the clew of 
 any sail as far as it will go. 
 
 Too High. — The warning given helms- 
 man when vessel is too near the wind. 
 
 To Hitch. — To make fast. 
 
 The Hold. — The space under deck. 
 
 Hull. — T he body of a vessel. 
 
 ‘ In Irons.” — A vessel is said to be 
 “ in irons ” when she has lost steerage 
 way and will not obey the helm. 
 
 Jack-Stay. — A small bar of iron, or 
 slat of wood, fastened to a spar, and to 
 which the sail is bent. 
 
 To Jam. — A knot is said to be jammed 
 when it cannot be untied. 
 
 JUNK. — Old pieces of rope, canvas, etc. 
 
 JURY-MASTS. — Temporary masts used 
 when others are carried away. 
 
 Jibing. — The act of passing the main- 
 boom from one side of the vessel to the 
 other, while running before the wind. 
 
 Keel. — That part of the vessel lowest 
 in the water, and upon which all her su- 
 perstructure is erected. 
 
 KINK.— A twist or turn in the rope. 
 
 To Labor. — A vessel is said to labor 
 when she pitches and rolls in a sea-way* 
 
 Land-Fall. — Discovering the land. 
 
 Larboard. — The left side of the vessel, 
 facing forward, now almost obsolete, 
 having almost wholly taken its place ; 
 larboard having been found in practice 
 
NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 443 
 
 to be too near in sound to its opposite 
 starboard. 
 
 Lay Aft. — The command to come aft. 
 “ Lay aloft,” to go up the rigging. “ Lay 
 out,” to go out, on the bowsprit, for in- 
 stance. “ Lay in, to come in.” 
 
 Leach. — The perpendicular border of 
 a fore-and-aft sail. 
 
 Lee-Lurch. — W hen the vessel rolls 
 heavily and suddenly to leeward. 
 
 Lee-Shore. — The coast-line to leeward 
 of the vessel, on which the wind is blow- 
 ing. 
 
 Leeward. — The direction toward 
 which the wind is blowing. 
 
 Long Leg. — A term used when the 
 wind is not dead ahead, but so as to cause 
 the vessel to make a long tack and a short 
 one. Hence, to make “a long leg,” and 
 “ a short leg.” 
 
 Log. — The record of the vessel’s per- 
 formance each day of twenty-four hours, 
 as concerns weather, courses, etc., kept 
 in a log-book. “ Heaving the log,” to as- 
 certain the speed by means of a log-line. 
 
 Looming. — The appearance of a dis- 
 tant object, such as another vessel, or the 
 land, especially in foggy or misty weather, 
 when it is said to loom, i.e., look larger, 
 and appear nearer, than it really is. 
 
 Lubber. — A person who is not a sailor 
 — a greenhorn. 
 
 Luff. — An order to have the helmsman 
 put the helm to leeward ; the forward 
 part of a fore-and-aft sail attached to the 
 mast by hoops. 
 
 Lying To. — Bringing the vessel to the 
 wind under small sail, and lashing the 
 helm a-lee, so that she may lie safely, and 
 ride out the storm. 
 
 To Moor. — T o secure the vessel by 
 more than one anchor. 
 
 Moorings. — The place where the ves- 
 sel is generally kept when in harbor, and 
 
 denoted by a buoy, which watches over 
 them. 
 
 Neap-Tides. — Those tides which occur 
 when the moon is in her quarters; spring- 
 tides being much higher, and occurring at 
 the full and change. 
 
 Too Near. — A warning to the helms- 
 man that the sails are not quite full, and 
 that he is steering a little too near the 
 wind. 
 
 Main Chains. — P lace on the vessel’s 
 side where the shrouds and backstays are 
 fastened. 
 
 Miss-Stays. — The act of failing to “ go 
 about ” on the other tack. 
 
 Model. — The shape and form of the 
 hull. 
 
 Off and On. — Approaching the land 
 on one tack, and leaving it on the other. 
 
 OFFING. — Out to sea, clear of all dan- 
 gers, yet near the land ; sea-room. 
 
 Overboard. — Out of the vessel ; in the 
 water. 
 
 Overhauling. — To haul a rope 
 through a block; to examine anything 
 thoroughly; to gain upon a vessel or ob- 
 ject ahead. 
 
 Painter. — A short rope in the bows of 
 the boat by which she is secured. 
 
 To Part. — To tear asunder; i.e., the 
 cable has parted; the main-sheet has 
 parted. 
 
 To Pass a Lashing. — To wind a rope 
 round a spar or sail. 
 
 Pay. — To rub on pitch or tar with a 
 large brush. 
 
 To Pay Off. — To make a vessel’s 
 head recede from the wind by hauling the 
 jib to windward, and easing off the main- 
 boom to leeward. 
 
 To Peak Up. — To elevate the outer or 
 after end of a gaff, so that the sail may 
 set better. 
 
 Plying. — Turning to windward. 
 
<44 
 
 NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 POOPING. — A vessel is said to be pooped 
 when she is struck by a sea that comes 
 on board over the stern or quarter. 
 
 Port. — See Larboard. 
 
 Preventer. — Anything to secure or 
 take off the strain, as preventer jib-sheet. 
 
 Pennant. — A long, narrow flag. 
 
 Quarter. — That part of the vessel's 
 side contained between the beam and 
 stern. 
 
 Rake. — The sheer of masts from the 
 perpendicular. 
 
 Range of Cable. — A sufficient length 
 over-hauled and ready so as to allow the 
 anchor to reach the bottom without foul- 
 ing. 
 
 To Reef. — To reduce a sail by fasten- 
 ing it down to a boom or jack-stay by 
 means of reef-points. 
 
 To Reeve. — T o pass a rope through a 
 block. 
 
 To Ride. — To be held at anchor. 
 
 To Right. — A vessel is said to right 
 when she rises to an upright position 
 again, after having been thrown on her 
 beam-ends by a sudden squall. 
 
 To Right the Helm. — T o put it 
 amidships, so that the rudder will be in a 
 line with the keel. 
 
 To Run Down. — When one vessel 
 sinks another by running over her. 
 
 SCANT. — The wind is said to be scant 
 when a vessel will barely lay her course. 
 
 SCOPE. — To pay out more of the cable 
 when at anchor. 
 
 To SCUD. — To run before the wind in 
 a storm. 
 
 To SCUTTLE. — To make holes in a ves- 
 sel’s bottom to sink her. 
 
 To SERVE. — To wind anything round a 
 rope so as to save it from chafing. 
 
 To Seize. — To make fast or bind. 
 
 To SHEER. — To vary to the right and 
 left from a direct course. 
 
 TO Ship. — To receive anything on 
 board ; as, to ship a sea, to ship a crew. 
 
 To Shiver. — To make the sails shake 
 in the wind’s eye. 
 
 SHOAL. — The land beneath the water 
 that approaches near the surface, or is 
 left bare at low water. 
 
 The Slack of a Rope.— The part 
 that hangs loose. 
 
 To Slip a Cable. — To let it run out 
 overboard, and release the vessel from the 
 anchor, being first generally buoyed so 
 as to be recovered. 
 
 To Slue. — To turn anything about. 
 
 Snub. — Used in reference to the cables,, 
 in checking the vessel, after they have 
 been paid out. 
 
 To SOUND. — To ascertain the depth of 
 water by means of a lead-line. 
 
 To Take a Spell. — To relieve any 
 one at any duty; as, to take a spell at the 
 wheel. 
 
 To Spill. — To take the wind out of a 
 sail by easing off the sheets or otherwise, 
 so as to remove the pressure of the 
 wind. 
 
 To SPLICE. — To join two ropes to- 
 gether by interweaving the strands. 
 
 To Spring a Mast.— To crack or 
 split it. 
 
 A SPRING. — A rope made fast to the 
 cable, and taken on board aft, in order to 
 haul the vessel’s side in any direction. 
 
 Spring Tides. — The highest tides, 
 which occur at the full and change of the 
 moon. 
 
 To Stand On. — To keep on in one’s 
 course. 
 
 To Stand By. — To be ready. 
 
 Starboard. — The right side of a ves- 
 sel, looking from aft forward. 
 
 To Steer. — To control the vessel with 
 the rudder and tiller. 
 
 Stranded. — A vessel is said to be 
 
NAUTICAL TERMS EXPLAINED. 
 
 445 
 
 stranded when she is so far on shore that 
 she cannot be floated. 
 
 To Strike. — To beat against the bot- 
 tom ; to hit suddenly any object below 
 the surface of the water. 
 
 Swig Off. — To take a turn with a rope 
 at a cleat, and then pull upon it laterally, 
 so as to gather in all the slack. 
 
 To Tack. — T o advance by a series of 
 angles toward the direction from which 
 the wind proceeds. 
 
 Taut. — T ight. 
 
 Taunt.— L ong, lofty. 
 
 Tender. — A small boat or wherry used 
 to pass from the vessel to the shore. 
 
 To Tow. — To drag anything astern 
 behind the vessel; as, to tow the tender. 
 
 Truck. — The small ball at the topmast- 
 head, through which the signal-halliards 
 reeve. 
 
 Trough of the Sea. — The level of 
 the water between two waves. 
 
 Turning to Windward. — Tacking. 
 
 Unbend.— T o cast off, to release; as, 
 “Unbend the anchor from the cable!” 
 “Unbend the mainsail!” — roll it up and 
 put it below. 
 
 To Unship. — To take anything from 
 the place where it was fixed ; as, to “ un- 
 ship the rudder.” 
 
 Wake. — The track, or furrow, left by 
 the vessel on the water behind her. 
 
 To Wear. — To turn a vessel round 
 from the wind — the opposite of tacking. 
 
 To Warp. — M oving vessel by hawsers. 
 
 Watch. — A division of the crew into 
 starboard and larboard watch, who take 
 turns in taking care of the vessel. 
 
 Water-Logged.— T he condition of a 
 vessel when she is so full of water as to 
 be unmanageable, and nearly submerged. 
 
 Way. — Progress through the water : 
 “She has good way on.” To a boat’s 
 crew, to cease pulling, the command is 
 given, “ Way enough.” 
 
 To Weather a Vessel. — To get to 
 the windward side by faster speed, or 
 lying nearer the wind. 
 
 Weather Beaten. — Worn by the 
 weather and exposure. 
 
 Well of All. — A command used 
 when the several ropes of a sail have 
 all been hauled upon at the same time, 
 and it is perfectly set, and means to 
 belay. 
 
 To WEIGH. — To lift an anchor from 
 the bottom. 
 
 Wind’s Eye. — The exact direction 
 from which the wind proceeds. 
 
 To Windward. — Toward that point 
 from which the wind blows. 
 
 To Work to Windward.— To tack 
 so as to make progress in the direction 
 from which the wind blows. 
 
 Yacht. — A vessel used for pleasure 
 only, and not for commerce or trade; 
 built for speed and comfort. 
 
 To Yaw. — To swerve suddenly and 
 violently from the true course, in spite of 
 the action of the rudder. 
 
THE AMATEUR TAXIDERMISTS GUIDE. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 PRESERVING, STUFFING AND MOUNTING OF BIRDS, WITH NEATNESS, 
 
 TASTE AND SAFETY. 
 
 ANY things are required to make anything of this art — such as delicacy of 
 hand, great practice, but, above all, patience. A fair specimen being ob- 
 tained, take common cotton wadding, and with an ordinary paint-brush 
 stick, plug the throat, nostrils, and, in large birds, the ears, with it, so 
 that when the skin is turned no juices may flow and spoil the feathers ; 
 you must then provide yourself with the following articles : 
 
 THE INSTRUMENTS NEEDED. — A knife of this kind, A, which is very com* 
 mon ; a pair of cutting plyers, b ; a pair of strong scissors, c, of a moderate size ; a but* 
 ton-hook, d ; a marrow-spoon, e : and a hand-vice, f. With these, a needle and thread? 
 and a sharpener of some kind to give your knife an 
 occasional touch, you are prepared, so far as im- 
 plements go. Then provide yourself with annealed 
 iron wire of various sizes ; some you may buy ready 
 for use, some not ; but you can anneal it yourself 
 by making it red-hot in the fire, and letting it cool 
 in the air. Common hemp is the next article, cot- 
 ton wadding, pounded whitening and pounded alum, 
 or chloride of lime ; as to the poisons which are 
 used, they will be spoken of by and by. Y ou should 
 also have a common bradawl or two, and some 
 pieces of quarter-inch deal, whereon to stand the 
 specimens when preserved, if to be placed as walk- 
 ing on a plane ; if not, some small pieces of twigs 
 or small branches of trees should be kept ready for use, oi various sizes according to the 
 size of the bird ; something of this form. Spanish chestnut, or common laurel cut in 
 
 December, will be found to answer best, but this must 
 be regulated by fancy and the requirements of the case! 
 oak boughs are sometimes of a good shape. 
 
 THE BEST TIME FOR PRESERVING SPEC- 
 IMENS is in spring, because then the cock birds are in 
 the best feather, and the weather is not too warm. In 
 mild weather three days is a good time to keep a bird, 
 as then the skin will part from the flesh easily. If a specimen has bled much over the 
 feathers, so as to damage them, wash them carefully but thoroughly with warm water and 
 a sponge, and immediately cover them with pounded whitening, which will adhere to 
 them. Dry it as it hangs upon them slowly before the fire, and triturating the hardened 
 lumps gently between the fingers, the feathers will come out almost as clean as ever. To 
 
THE AMATEUR TAXIDERMIST'S GUIDE. 
 
 447 
 
 test whether the specimen is too decomposed to skin, try the feathers about the auricu« 
 Jars, and just above the tail, and if they do not move you may safely proceed. 
 
 THE METHOD OF PROCEDURE. — Lay the bird on his back, and, parting the 
 feathers from the insertion of the neck to the tail, you will find in most birds a bare 
 space. Cut the skin the whole length of this, and passing the finger under it on either 
 side, by laying hold of one leg and bending it forward you will be able to bring the bare 
 knee through the opening you have made ; with your scissors cut it through at the joint ; 
 pull the shank still adhering to the leg till the skin is turned back as far as it will go ; 
 denude the bone of flesh and sinew, wrap a piece of hemp around it, steeped in a strong 
 solution of the pounded alum, and then pull the leg by the claw, by which means the skin 
 will be brought again to its place. 
 
 After having served both legs alike, skin carefully round the back, cutting off and 
 leaving in the tail with that into which the feathers grow, that is the “ Pope’s nose/' 
 Serve the wing bones the sameas the leg, cutting them off close to the body, and turn the skin 
 inside out down to the head. The back of the skull will then appear 
 and you will now find it of advantage, as soon as you have got the legs 
 and tail free, to tie a piece of string round the body, and hang it up as 
 a butcher skins a sheep. Make in the back of the skull a cut of the 
 annexed form, with your knife, which you can turn back like a trap- 
 door, and with the marrow-spoon entirely clear out the brains ; A rep- 
 resenting the neck, and B the skin turned back. Having done this, wash the interior of 
 the skull thoroughly with the alum, and fill it with cotton wadding. The next operation 
 requires care and practice — namely, to get out the eyes. This is done by cutting cau- 
 tiously until the lids appear, being careful not to cut the eye itself, and you can then with 
 a forceps, which you likewise will find useful, pull each from its socket wipe the orifice 
 carefully, wash it with the alum solution, and fill it with cotton wadding. Cut off the neck 
 close to the skull, wash the stump, and the whole of the interior of the skin with the alum 
 and the skinning is done. 
 
 NOW COMES THE STUFFING. — Take a piece of the wire suitable to the size 
 of the bird — that is as large as the legs will carry — and bend it into the following form, a , 
 
 representing the neck, b , the body, and, c, the junction 
 of the tail, allowing sufficient length of neck for the 
 b O' wire to pass some distance beyond the head, and be- 
 
 ing sharpened at each end, which may be done by 
 obliquely cutting it with the plyers. Wind upon this wire hemp to the size of the bird s 
 body, which you should have lying by you to judge from, and it will present something of 
 his appearance. You can shape it with the hand, but be careful not to make it the least too 
 large-, and, after you have finished it to >our satisfaction, you may singe it as the poulterer 
 would singe a fowl, which will make all neat ; but be particular to wind the hemp very tight, 
 Then take the skin, lay it on the table on its back, and pass the wire at the head into the 
 marrow where the neck is cut off, through above the roof of the mouth, and out at one 
 nostril, and draw it up close to the skull ; turn the skin back and 
 draw it down over the hemp body, and pass the wire spike pro- 
 truding at the lower end through the flesh upon which the tail 
 grows, about the center, and rather below than above. The skin 
 may now be adjusted to the hemp body, and sewn up, beginning 
 
448 
 
 THE AMATEUR TAXIDERMIST’S GUIDE. 
 
 from the top of the breast, and being particularly careful always to take the stitch from 
 the inside, otherwise you will draw in the feathers at every pull. At first sew it very 
 loose, and then with the button-hook, draw it together by degrees. 
 
 With the plyers cut two lengths of wire long enough to pass up the legs and into 
 the neck, and leave something over to fasten the bird by to the board or spray upon 
 which it is to be placed. The next operation requires some address and great practice, 
 namely, the passing the wire up the legs. This is done by forcing it into the centre of 
 the foot, and up the back of the legs into the hemp body, through it obliquely, and into 
 the neck until it is pretty firm. In doing this, you mus^ remember the ordinary position 
 of a bird when alive, and, therefore, instead of passing the wire the whole way within 
 the skin of the leg, when you get to the part where you have cut off the bone — that is, 
 the knee joint — pass it through the skin to the outside, and in again through the skin 
 from the outside where the knee would come naturally in the attitude ot standing or 
 perching. This is essential, because if the wire be passed the whole way inside the skin, 
 it produces a wrong placing of the legs. The accompanying cut will 
 illustrate this, a representing the line in which the wire should run. 
 The bird is now stuffed, and you may at once place it upon a spray 
 or board. In placing a bird upon a spray, the first joint should be 
 bent almost on a level with the foot ; and, in placing a bird on a 
 board, one leg should be placed somewhat behind the other. If the 
 wings are intended to be closed, as is usually the case, bring them 
 into their place, which may be done by putting the fingers under them 
 and pressing them together over the back ; you may then pass a needle or large pin 
 through the thick part of the upper wing into the body, and so by the lower wing, and 
 if you allow these to protrude, you may fasten to one of them a piece of thread, and wind 
 it carefully and lightly round the body, which will keep the feathers in their places, and 
 this thread should be kept on for a fortnight or three weeks, until the bird is dry. The 
 tail should be kept in its place also for the same time by a piece of thin wire bent over 
 
 TO PUT IN THE EYES. — The only thing now to do is to put in the eyes. 
 The color of course depends on the bird, and these you may buy at any fishing-tackle 
 shop. If you do not use eyes too large, you will find little difficulty ; the juice of the lids 
 will act as a sufficient cement. 
 
 THE FRENCH METHOD of preserving is this: Measuring from the insertion of 
 
 the neck to the tail, make a wire frame in this form, 
 
 the measure taken being from a to b. Upon this 
 wind hemp for the neck only, and place in the skin in the same way as before directed, 
 only that instead of one wire being passed through that in which the tail grows, it is a 
 fork that is passed through it. Having formed this frame fit onto it two legs, [See eng.] and 
 after the frame itself is in the skin, pass these from the inside down each leg, instead of 
 from the outside, and fasten them on to the frame with the plyers by twisting the ends, 
 B b, round the frame, c, in the first figure. This will make all firm, and you can then 
 fill the body with cut hemp and sew up. 
 
THE AMATEUR TAXIDERMIST’S GUIDE. 
 
 449 
 
 One word as to the other preparations used by bird-preservers. These are either 
 corrosive sublimate or regulus of arsenic, which is yellow and 
 of a consistence like butter. As we have said before, in cold 
 weather, when there are no flies about, alum will do perfectly 
 well ; in warm weather either of the two others may be used. 
 
 We prefer the former — corrosive sublimate — as the other is 
 “ messy,” and the chief object is to dry up anything which 
 can be attacked by flesh-seeking insects. When you have 
 finished your bird, you can lay the feathers with a large 
 needle — it is as well to have one fixed in a handle and kept for 
 this purpose — and, tying the two mandibles of the bill together with a piece of thread 
 until the whole specimen has hardened and dried, the work is dona 
 
 BIRD MOUNTING. 
 
 THE IMITATION OF NATURE. — Young hands commonly suppose that 
 a bird should stand bolt upright, with the legs almost perpendicular, or at right 
 angles to the perch. This is a great mistake, and never to be found in Nature. 
 Do we stand rigid, like a foot-soldier on drill ? Does not a bird, as well as ourselves, 
 accommodate itself to the thing upon which it rests ? Assuredly it does ; for birds do 
 not, as a young bird-stuffer endeavors to do, find always a perch to rest upon in the plane 
 of the horizon. It therefore follows that, as he keeps himself upright, his legs must 
 accommodate themselves to his perch. So in the ground-birds there is a gentle slope 
 
 backwards from the hind toe, the balance being preserved 
 in both cases by throwing the body forward in proportion. 
 A bird preserved is supposed to represent a bird in a 
 state of repose, that is, not in flight. It may be that a 
 bird, essentially aereal, like the wift, or perhaps some 
 of the terns or the frigate-bird, may be represented as ac- 
 tually on the wing. In this case, of course, the wings must be spread ; and this is best 
 done by passing a wire, not too thick, from the base of the quill-feathers on the under 
 side, alongside the bone into the body towards the tail ; then pass it under the longest 
 quill-feather, and through the back of the case, and fasten it by bringing it back again 
 through and clinching it, concealing it so by the oblique position of the bird that it is 
 not detectable. It is obvious that by passing the wire alongside the bone, you may bend 
 the wings to any angle you please. 
 
 THE CASES USED. — One thing must always be remembered, do not have your 
 case a shade too large , just clear the object so as not to stint it for room ; and in flat cases 
 this applies chiefly to depth, for it should have sufficient light, or it will not not look well. 
 Wooden cases should be made as slight (in thickness) as is consistent with firmness ; 
 well-seasoned deal is best ; and the case should be formed of back, top, and bottom, 
 open at the front and sides, and at each corner of the front two slight deal supports, rab- 
 beted on their inner edges, a [See engraving on the next page.] It should be 
 
450 
 
 HOW TO PRACTICE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 papered on the top and back within, and when the 
 paste is dry washed over carefully with size and 
 whitening, tinted with a little stone-blue ; some add 
 some touches of white subsequently to represent 
 clouds, the ground representing the air ; some also 
 paste a landscape on the back, but this must be 
 good, or you had better have plain color. The bird 
 to be placed in this case is either perching, standing, or flying. After the bird is fixed, 
 the whole bottom should be carefully glued over with thin glue, taking care, where the 
 bird’s feet are on the bottom, not to touch the toes 
 with the glue. Some fine sifted sand or gravel 
 should then be sifted over it, and it will adhere wherever the glue has touched ; for this 
 purpose a small tin shovel is best, something in this form, and about two inches wide by 
 four long, with a handle in proportion, which can be made to order at any tinman’s for a 
 trifle. 
 
 THE CARE TO BE USED. — Everything used in “ weeding” should be baked 
 in a slow oven, otherwise spider’s eggs and minute creatures, which are pretty 
 sure to be contained in it, will make their appearance after the case is closed in the disa- 
 greeable form of destroying your specimen. Moss, & c., by being slowly dried, will also 
 keep its color better. Yellow moss, found on the roofs of old barns, and dark gray of the 
 same species, are very generally useful ; and where yellow moss cannot be had, the white 
 or gray may be colored with chrome, and looks as well. 
 
 HOW TO PRACTICE PHOTOGRAPHY, 
 
 Instructions to Amateurs. 
 
 THE OUTFIT, METHODS AND RESULTS— HOW TO OBTAIN A GOOD 
 
 PICTURE. 
 
 HE invention of the prepared sensi- 
 tive plates, technically called gela- 
 tineo bromide dry plates, has made a 
 large demand from tourists and 
 others for outfits*, so that the time 
 will soon come when every family will have its 
 photographic apparatus. 
 
 DIRECTIONS TO AMATEURS. — By 
 whichever process the photographic negative is 
 produced — the wet or dry process — it is the result 
 of three distinct operations. First, the securing 
 of the image on the sensitized plate exposed to the 
 light in the camera ; second, the developing of that 
 image or picture ; and third, the fixing or making 
 permanent the picture taken. 
 
 [Note. — Outfits cost $10, at Anthony & Co.’s, N. Y., of 
 others furnish them.] 
 
HOW TO PRACTICE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 451 
 
 The first operation is obtained by the means of the camera with its lenses. Having 
 fastened the camera upon the tripod and placed it in the proper relation to the light and 
 the object to be taken, by the means of the focusing screen or ground glass, adjust the 
 focus. The lens is capped and you are prepared to expose a plate. Remove the slide 
 with the ground glass and replace it with one of the carriers containing the proper pre- 
 pared plate. Let this be done carefully. Then withdraw the slide quickly, uncap the 
 lens, count one, two, three, recap the lens and push back the slide. The first opera- 
 tion is then complete, and you have the latent image. 
 
 The Second Operation — The Development. — There are two distinct methods for 
 developing the dry plate — one called the alkaline-pyrogallic and the other the ferrous- 
 oxalate development. We describe the latter method. The first thing to be done is to 
 make a saturated solution of the oxalate of potash. 
 
 In order to do this take four ounces of the oxalate of potash crystals, put in a quart 
 wide-mouthed bottle, and pour over them a pint of hot water ; shake thoroughly from 
 time to time, so as to dissolve as much as possible — the more perfectly saturated the 
 solution is, the better. When cold, filter it into a clean bottle and test with a piece of 
 litmus paper. If the latter turns from blue to red, the solution is acid, which is the pro- 
 per condition ; if not, add a drop or two of oxalic acid, though this will seldom be neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Now take the same quantity of the C. P. sulphate of iron, place it in an eight-ounce 
 bottle, fill it with hot water and shake well. When the water has taken up all the sul- 
 phate of iron possible, a drop or two of sulphuric acid may be added, and then the solu- 
 tion filtered into another clean bottle. This is now ready for use. 
 
 Now dissolve in a similar way ten grains of bromide of potassium in one ounce of 
 water, and in still another bottle dissolve thirty-two grains of rock candy in one ounce of 
 w T ater and add thirty -two grains ol glycerine. The above are all stock solutions, to be 
 used as required, and will keep. 
 
 The development must only be attempted in a dark closet, by the light of a lamp 
 properly protected with a ruby-tinted chimney of the correct non-actinic shade, or in a 
 room where the windows are entirely covered with non-actinic paper — an article pre* 
 pared expressly for the purpose. 
 
 Before removing the exposed plates from the carriers shut the door of the closet or 
 room and see that no light enters from any source ; then light the lamp and carefully re- 
 place the ruby chimney. Then take the four-ounce graduate and pour into it three 
 ounces of the saturated solution of the oxalate of potash, from four to six drams of the 
 sulphate of iron solution and one dram of the glycerine and rock candy solution. 
 
 The developer being ready, pour it into one of the iron trays ; carefully remove one 
 of the exposed plates from the carrier, lay the plate in the tray with the film side upper- 
 most, and rock it gently from side to side and end to end, allowing the solution to flow 
 over the entire face of the plate evenly. In a short time the outlines of the picture will 
 become visible, and finally all the more delicate details. Allow the plate to remain in 
 the tray, and soon, once more gently rocking it, the picture will seem gradually to van- 
 ish or sink into the plate again. When it has almost entirely disappeared the plate is 
 fully developed, and an outline of the subject may be seen from the back. The plate may 
 now be removed and washed well under a gentle stream of water. 
 
452 
 
 HOW TO PRACTICE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 Now the negative is all ready for the final stage. 
 
 THE THIRD AND FINAL OPERATION — THE FIXING.— The fixing of 
 the latent image is a simple operation, requiring but a few moments. It should be per- 
 formed only by non-actinic light. Prepare in a separate bottle a solution of water, one 
 ounce, and hyposulphite of soda, eight ounces, when dissolved, pour some of it into 
 another tray — one kept specially for the purpose — sufficient to properly immerse the 
 plate, which should be laid in face upward, as before, and allowed to remain until the 
 light color on the back of it has entirely disappeared. Then wash well again under the 
 tap, and the negative is finished. 
 
 If, however, from over-exposure, the plate comes up too soft, after fixing and well 
 washing it can be intensified by immersing it in a solution of bromide of copper, made 
 as follows : 
 
 Sulphate of copper, • - io grains 
 
 Bromide of potassium, * * • - io grains 
 
 Water, - - - - » ^ loz. 
 
 until the negative is entirely bleached ; then wash and immerse it in the ferrous-oxalate 
 developer until it is black ; then work as usual. 
 
 Care and cleanliness are very essential in all the operations from the very first. 
 When the plates are removed from the original package they should be softly dusted, 
 preferably with a camel’s hair brush, and all dust should be scrupulously kept from the 
 carriers, etc.; the floor should also be washed thoroughly clean, and by no means should 
 any of the hyposulphite of soda be allowed to mingle with other chemicals, the slightest 
 trace of* it being sufficient to destroy the entire result. Particularly be careful not to 
 use the developing tray for the fixing solution, or for any other purpose. 
 
 When the plate has been fixed the door may now be opened. The negative will be 
 found to have the opposite appearance of the ordinary finished photograph, those parts 
 which should be dark being light, and vice versa. 
 
 Formerly there was a subsequent operation, that of varnishing the negative, but 
 with gelatine plates this is not essential. 
 
 TIME OF DEVELOPMENT. — The image or outline oi the picture will require 
 about one minute to begin to appear, and the full development from ten to twelve minutes. 
 If not exposed enough, it will appear slowly and show but a feeble outline, and continue 
 so for a long time. When this occurs a stronger development should be used imme* 
 diately, and this can be done by using three ounces of oxalate solution to an ounce of 
 iron solution. But should it come out too quickly, as soon as it begins to go back into the 
 film, remove it and finish in the weaker solution. Many have a practice of keeping two or 
 three bottles of the developer of different degrees of strength, and begin by testing the 
 one of medium strength first. A little experience will be the best teacher. 
 
 APPEARANCE OF NEGATIVE. — As the negative is the reverse of the photo- 
 graph when finished, the places on it which appear dark will be light, and conversely the 
 light places will appear dark in the print. Very strong contrasts in the negative will be 
 the same in the positive, and show generally a want of detail in the shadow. The cause 
 of this is a too quick development. To avoid this, remove the negative when half 
 
HOW TO PRACTICE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 453 
 
 developed to a weaker solution. If, on the other hand, the solution be too weak, there 
 will be a thin lilac color throughout, especially if the action is continued too long. If 
 the development is stopped too quickly it may show all the details, but still will be too 
 weak to make a good forcible print. If any floating particles of dust adhere to the 
 plate they will show as white spots in the print, but are opaque in the negative. 
 
 PAPER POSITIVES. — The negatives having been produced the next step to be 
 taken is to print the photograph. This will more clearly reveal to the novice the beauty 
 of his work. A piece of sensitized paper closely pressed against the negative, allowing 
 no other light than that which passes through the negative to act upon it, will accom- 
 plish this. The positions on the positive are restored to their natural order. Albumen 
 paper is used for this purpose because it reproduces the finest lines of the negative. But 
 before any prints can be made it must be sensitized with salts of silver. This paper is 
 sensitive to action of light and gradually darkens when exposed, until eventually it 
 becomes black. By placing the negative between it and the light, the different grada- 
 tions of light are transferred to the paper but in reverse order. The sensitized paper should 
 be kept well secured from the light at all times, both before the positive has been printed 
 and after, until fixed as already described. The dry plates can be safely exposed to a 
 ruby light, but the sensitized paper require a yellow or orange color. They may be ex-< 
 posed to moderate lamp or gas light without injury, unless the exposure be too long con- 
 tinued. 
 
 PRINTING FRAME. — This is an oblong frame with a ledge on the inside, and a 
 hinged door fitting into it and covering all the back, each part having a spring riveted to 
 it. These doors are firmly held in place by the springs and press the paper firmly 
 against the film of the negative. They are made to fit all sizes of pictures. While 
 examining the print which has to be done from time to time, to see if it has been suffi- 
 ciently exposed, turn back one of these doors and raise the print. 
 
 TO PRINT THE PICTURE. — Lay the printing frame on the table, face down. 
 Remove the back and lay the negative in the frame with film side up. Lay several thick- 
 nesses of newspaper behind this, replace the back and fasten down. Place the print in 
 the sun and watch it until printed enough. This will be indicated by the white spots in 
 the print beginning to show a slight discoloration. This can be discovered by turning 
 back the door and examining the print from time to time. After the prints have been 
 taken, soak them in the following solution for ten minutes : Water 6 oz., Solution B, J oz. 
 
 TONING BATH. — The print is now ready for the process of toning. The bath is 
 made of the following solution : Water 5 oz. Solutions A, B, and C 1 oz. each ; solution 
 D i oz. The solution A, should be added just before you use the bath. Test the bath 
 with the blue litmus paper. If it turns red add solution B till it returns to its blue 
 color. Warm this bath till tepid. Immerse the prints in this until sufficiently toned. 
 Then wash irv one change of water and immerse in a solution of water 8 oz., Hypo. Soda 
 1 oz. for a fixing bath. Let them remain in this solution until they resume their original 
 tone, a little lighter than when they came from the toning bath. After this they must 
 be washed in a number of changes until all the hyposulphite of soda is removed from the 
 paper. If any of this remain it causes yellow spots. 
 
454 
 
 HOW TO PRACTICE PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 CAUTION ! — The sensitized paper must be kept in a dark place. The cutting of 
 it to the desired size can be done in a weak light, by candle or gas. The print is put in 
 the dark box until it is desired to tone, which can be done when you have a batch 
 ready. 
 
 Use the same dishes for the same solutions at all times, and never change them. 
 More failures result from carelessness in carrying the hyposulphite of soda into the vari- 
 ous dishes than from all other causes. 
 
 We give descriptions of the mixtures and the prices of each, but would advise all to 
 procure the proper chemicals and mix for themselves. 
 
 Solution A is composed of water, y\ ounces ; chloride of gold, 1 5 grains. Price 
 50 cents. 
 
 Solution B is composed of water, 8 ounces; bicarbonate of soda, 1 ounce. Price 
 10 cents. 
 
 Solution C is composed of water, 8 ounces ; acetate of soda, 400 grains. Price 12c. 
 
 Solution D is composed of water, 4 ounces ; chloride of sodium, 160 grains. Price 
 10 cents. 
 
 Hyposulphite of soda, per lb., in paper bag, 8 cents. 
 
 Sensitized albumen paper, per sheet, 25 cents. 
 
 Gum royal for mounting, per quart, 50 cents. 
 
 Anthony’s flint negative varnish, per bottle, 40 cents. 
 
 Printing Frames, 45 to 75 cents. 
 
 FAILURES. — These will occur at times, and we will mention some, giving rea- 
 sons, viz. : 
 
 Transparent Spots : Dust; bubbles in developer that prevented uniform develop- 
 
 ment. 
 
 Weak and Foggy Image: Over-exposure ; white light in the dark room ; reflec- 
 
 tions in the camera. 
 
 Weak, with clear shadows : U nder-development . 
 
 Strong, with clear shadows : Under-exposure. 
 
 Yellow deposit on negative: Too much iron in developer. 
 
 MOUNTING. — As the prints naturally roll and curl, to mount them easily place 
 them in a basin of water, allowing them to remain until all become perfectly flat. Now 
 lay them on a sheet of clean paper, face down, and remove the excess of moisture with a 
 piece of blotting-paper ; cover smoothly and evenly with a flat brush, using gum royal 
 or starch (preferably the former). Seize the print by opposite corners, turn it face up 
 and lower it gently on the cardboard, allowing the central part that is lowest to touch 
 first ; then gradually let it all down on the card, taking care to have it come in proper 
 position; lay apiece of clean, smooth paper on it and rub well, to push to the edges any 
 bubbles of air that may have come between the print and the card. A circular motion 
 of the hand, beginning at the center and finishing at the edge, is best ; then lay the 
 mounted prints away until dry, after which they can be smoothed down with a warm 
 sad-iron. 
 
The Effect of Dress in Photography. 
 
 THE STYLE AND COLOR OF DRESS. — There is nothing which tries 
 the patience of the artist and displays the want of judgment and good taste in the sub- 
 ject more than the matter of dress and combination of colors. Remember that fashion is. 
 a fickle goddess, and in a photograph which is to last for years it is best to have the dress 
 such as will produce the highest artistic effect. It often happens that a person becomes 
 weary of a particular style of dress in a picture when the face is perfectly satisfactory. 
 
 The persons in the theatrical profession take the best photographs, because they 
 understand the art of producing effect, and often they come to the studio with the ma» 
 terials for making up the best appearance, and permit the artist to select and arrange 
 them so as to hide a defect here, and increase the effect there. Ladies should be cam 
 ful to dress in those materials which naturally fall in neat folds, or drape neatly about th«. 
 person, such as poplins, silks, satins or reps. They should avoid that which has too much 
 gloss, as this reflects the light, but often the operator can overcome this by a proper dis- 
 position of the light. Dark orange, golden and red brown, dark green, bottle green, 
 cherry or wine color will take dark but not black. Light orange, sea green, leather color, 
 slate, light, Bismarck, scarlet, garnet and claret are all good colors for a photograph. 
 Pea green, pink, crimson, magenta, dark purple, pure yellow, blue, navy blue, fawn color, 
 dove, ashes of roses, buff, plumb and stone color, will appear a pretty light gray when 
 photographed. The worst colors to take are sky blue, French blue, blue purple, laven- 
 der and lilac, even more objectionable than pure white. Salmon and corn color are pre- 
 ferable to these. Dark Bismarck and snuff brown will take darker than black silk. Silk, 
 goods will usually produce a lighter shade than woolens of the same colors. Always 
 avoid striped goods, or those of a bold design, as they will ruin the picture. Do not wear 
 anything that will take streaked or spotted. Fine shadow pictures are produced with 
 white drapery in deep folds, having the bodies trimmed with laces and puffs. You will 
 ( learn how to dress for the best effect by carefully studying the above. A large patch of 
 white on a dark dress in a picture destroys its beauty, therefore do not wear blue, or pink 
 ribbons, nor trimmings. The converse is also true. 
 
 THE EFFECT OF THE HAIR. — Persons who have light hair should select 
 lighter clothing than those who have darker hair, and for this reason light shades take 
 more quickly than dark ; therefore if a person of light complexion dresses in dark colors 
 the face of the dress will be “ over done.” The converse holds true of persons who have 
 dark hair, they should avoid too light clothing. 
 
 The subject of arranging the hair is one that requires good taste. There are many 
 who persist in following the prevailing fashion without any regard to formation of the 
 
456 
 
 HOW TO PRODUCE THE BEST EFFECTS IN PHOTOGRAPHY. 
 
 face and head. The effect of arranging the hair may heighten the general symmetry of 
 the features, or conceal a defect, or, on the other hand, may destroy the one and magnify 
 the other. The hair of a person whose face is broad should not be combed low on the fore- 
 head, or parted at the side. If the neck is long it will appear at a disadvantage if the 
 hair is built up high, while the skillful arrangement of a few drooping curls would change 
 the whole effect for good. If a lady has a high lorehead she may comb her hair low and 
 it will be an improvement. If you wish a profile good picture avoid combing the hair too 
 smooth or displaying too little of it. To powder the hair produces a good effect. 
 
 FOR GENTLEMEN. — The advice given above is also applicable to gentlemen as 
 far as they apply. A plain business suit of good color and material will always take 
 good with white linen and plain watch chain across the vest. 
 
 THE PERSONAL BEHAVIOR. — For the mutual benefit of both the operator 
 and the subject we will touch lightly upon rather delicate matters. He has spent years 
 of study and practice to learn the best methods. How to set the subject, the arrange- 
 ment of the light and all the minor details of the business have been reduced to a science. 
 Do not, therefore, waste his time and your own patience by discussing the matter, nor 
 persist in your own opinion against his judgment, for the result will be dissatisfactory to 
 both. The head rest must be used to enable you to preserve the position of the body. 
 In spite of the exercise of will power, there will be a slight movement of the body, 
 caused by the normal pulsations. An economy of time is gained by its use. Do not 
 move the eyes, but wink to your heart’s content. Think only of what is pleasant and 
 agreeable. Avoid a senseless smirk on the one hand, and a graveyard solemnity on the 
 other. Be yourself, and maintain a quiet repose. Let your friends who accompany you 
 to the studio remain outside the screen. 
 
 THE PROPER TIME TO COME. — It is not always necessary to choose a bright 
 day. In truth, when the sky is clouded and the sun shines through the clouds, often 
 better. Persons with light hair and eyes will take a better picture on such days. If the 
 day is slightly clouded, but not dark, the subject will obtain a better negative, even if 
 obliged to sit a few seconds longer than on a clear day. The morning of a clear day is 
 preferable for the babies, as the picture is obtained quicker, but care should be observed 
 not to interfere with their usual nap. They are so much sweeter, and feel so much 
 better after having their sleep. Avoid a late hour of the day. If you are uneasy and 
 flurried the blood rushes to the face, and red takes black. Besides, your photograph will 
 have a tired and weary look, which will be unsatisfactory. If your mind be free from 
 domestic or business cares, from planning and anxiety, you may confidently expect to 
 obtain a natural picture and feel repaid for the time devoted to it. Ladies who have 
 planned to visit a photographer and do their shopping on the same day will do well to 
 attend to their pictures first. 
 
 Sitting pictures are to be preferred to any others, because the most graceful position 
 can be secured in them. But permit the artist to be the judge. An unskilled eye can 
 judge nothing from the negative, so do not waste time by insisting upon a view of it 
 Wait until the artist has a proof of the picture. 
 
 WITH THE CHILDREN. — They are usually the best subjects, for they are 
 natural and unaffected in their postures and movements, but often are difficult to take. 
 Do not threaten a child nor coax him with candies. Leave the care in the hands of the 
 artist, and if he fails to manage the child, go away and come again some other day. Use 
 good taste and care in dressing the child, so that he will not appear prim and awkward. 
 There should be no gaudy colors, startling plaids or variety in color. Do not dress them 
 in black. Leave all the arrangement of person to the artist. There is an endless 
 variety of posture and surrounding that would be proper for a child, that would be 
 absurd for an adult. 
 
 COPYING PICTURES. — This department of photography has reached a very 
 high degree of perfection, so that the tiniest locket picture can be enlarged to life size. 
 The style of dress, arrangement of the hair and all the surroundings can be changed 
 from what they were in the original picture. 
 
Parlor Entertainments. 
 
 STAGE CONSTRUCTION.— SCENERY, COSTUME AND MAKE-UP. 
 
 THE PROMPTER, HIS DUTIES. HOW TO PROCURE PLAYS AND AMATEUR OUTFITS. 
 
 N the first place, we would strongly counsel amateur companies not to 
 attempt too much. The lamented Artemus Ward used to remark, on 
 the subject of his vocal powers, “ I am always saddest when I sing. So 
 are those who hear me. They are sadder even than I am ! ” A theatrical 
 performance, to be worthy of the name, demands a theatre of some sort for 
 its due exhibition. 
 
 PARLOR STAGE CONSTRUCTION— FORMING THE PROSCENIUM.— 
 Where there are sliding doors, take a curtain pole, or gilt cornice of proper dimensions, 
 and hang it over the opening ; trom this suspend a couple of ordinary window curtains, 
 "rep, damask or cretonne. A piece of deal, six inches wide, and covered with some dark 
 material, should be fastened in an upright position on the floor across the lower part of 
 the opening, each end being hidden by the drapery. This is designed to form a screen 
 to the footlights, a curtain being- added after the manner hereafter described. 
 
 STAGE CONSTRUCTION FOR A LARGER THEATRE.— Where there are 
 nc folding doors, and one long room has to be divided into stage and auditorium, a rather 
 more elaborate arrangement must be adopted ; but even in this case, there will be no 
 great difficulty. We will suppose that the room or hall at our disposal is thirty feet in 
 
458 
 
 PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 length, twenty in width and fifteen in height. We shall require two deal battens, each 
 one an inch thick, five inches wide and a fraction under twenty feet long. In each of 
 these, at about four feet from each end, we cut a hole or mortise, one and a half inch 
 square, right through the wood. We next procure two more pieces of deal, three inches 
 square and a little less than fifteen feet long, and square each end of these so as to form 
 a tenon fitting the mortises already mentioned. Then, having decided how much of the 
 available space is to be devoted to the “ stage,” we lay one of our two battens across the 
 floor at this point, and nail it down securely. A couple of long finished nails driven 
 through the wood into the floor will be amply sufficient, and will pass through the carpet 
 (if any) without doing it the smallest injury. Next fit the two uprights into their respect- 
 ive holes, and on to their upper ends fit the remaining cross-piece, which must be kept 
 in position by a couple of strong hooks driven into the wall on each side, and which hooks 
 form really the only encroachment on the integrity of the original premises, constituting^ 
 as will be seen, a regular framework right across the room. 
 
 The side spaces may now be filled up with hanging drapery nailed to the upper 
 cross-bar, or canvas may be tacked over the openings, and a light wall paper pasted over 
 this. The arrangements of the curtains, already described, may form the proscenium. 
 
 It is very desirable to have the floor of the stage a foot or so above the level of that 
 of the auditorium. Procure three deal planks, eleven inches by three, and as long as the 
 depth of the intended stage. Take a fourth plank of the same thickness, and cut it into 
 (say) twelve-inch lengths. Screw three of these at right angles to each of the three 
 planks before mentioned, one at each end, and the others at equal intervals. You will 
 thus have three rough “ benches,” something after the manner of school forms. Place 
 these parallel with one another, as shown in Cut, and across them lay nicely planed inch 
 floor-boards, of such a length as to correspond with the intended width of your stage. 
 Fasten each down with a screw at each end, and you will have a good solid stage= 
 
 The open space in front must of course be properly boarded in, and between the 
 enclosure and the stage a small space may be left for the footlights. These should con- 
 sist of a length of gas-pipe, with burners 
 (fitted with glass chimneys) at regular 
 intervals, and connected by means of an 
 india-rubber tube with the domestic gas 
 supply. These burners should be con- 
 Stage Construction. trolled by a single tap, which should be 
 
 placed at the left or “ prompt” side, so as to be within the reach of the prompter. Two 
 other lengths of gas-pipe, fitted with similar burners, should be fixed in a vertical position 
 at each wing, so as to throw a side light also on the actors, whose bodies, but for this pre- 
 caution, would cast dark heavy shadows on the scenery behind them. 
 
 Just within the proscenium is placed the curtain. In very small theatres this may 
 be of green union or tammy, and mounted like an ordinary window-blind, or may be made 
 to open in the middle, drawing off simultaneously to either side, after the fashion of what 
 are known as French curtains. On the side remote from the audience, a number of rings 
 are stitched to the curtain in vertical rows, the rows being two or three feet apart, the 
 rings at about six-inch intervals. In the cross batten, immediately above each row of 
 
PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 459 
 
 rings, is a pulley. Through each of these pulleys a cord passes, travels down through 
 the rings, and is attached to the lower edge of the curtain, in the hem of which are sewn 
 bags of shot to make it descend swiftly and steadily. The other end of each cord travels 
 over the top of the batten and through another pulley at the side. The various cords are 
 merely tied together, and all drawn simultaneously by hand, and secured by being twisted 
 round a cleat.* Whichever be the plan adopted, the result is the same. On the cords 
 being drawn, the curtain rises, being “ reefed up.” 
 
 SCENERY. — The scenery will be the next consideration. In many cases this may 
 be dispensed with altogether ; for example, where the action is supposed to take place in 
 an ordinary parlor, which forms the actual stage. 
 
 Where, on the other hand, the aspirants have selected a piece involving out-door or 
 otherwise elaborate scenery, we should strongly recommend them not to endeavor to 
 paint it for themselves, but to hire what they may require from a theatrical furnisher. 
 This arrangement will be found both less expensive and more satisfactory. 
 
 COSTUME AND MAKE-UP. — One point should always be borne in mind, 
 namely, that each actor, when on the stage, forms a part of a living picture, and particu- 
 lar care should therefore be taken, especially in the case of female characters, that the 
 prevailing hue of any costume does not clash, either with that of any other character 
 or with the scene itself. Thus a green dress and a green grass plot will mutually “ kill ” 
 each other ; and the same effect will happen where one lady character is habited in 
 red and another in pink, although either dress, seen singly, may be the perfection of 
 elegance. Hence the necessity of a committee of taste, particularly among the ladies, 
 at an early period of the rehearsals, as a lack of mutual understanding on this point may 
 be productive of disastrous results. 
 
 Prepared Fullers Earth, to powder the face before making up. Powdered Blue , to 
 imitate the color of the shaven chin. Pearl Powder , to whiten the complexion, hands, 
 arms, &c. Rouge , to give color. This is absolutely indispensable in the glare of the 
 footlights, however perfect the natural complexion. Ruddy Rouge , for tanned or sun- 
 burnt complexions. Dutch Pink , for sallow complexions. Mongolian , for Orientals, 
 North American Indians, &c. Powdered Antimony , to produce the effect of hollows 
 under the eyes, cheek bones, &c. Chrome , for sallow complexions, and for lightening 
 the natural color of the moustache, whiskers, & c. Carmine , to produce a red tint in the 
 same. Prepared Whitening , for clowns’ faces, statuary, &c. Prepared Burnt Cork , for 
 Christy Minstrels, &c. Email Noir (Black Enamel), for “ stopping out ” front teeth. 
 Joining Paste , for concealing the junction of a “ bald ” wig With the forehead, &c. Paste 
 Powder , for altering the shape of the nose, &c. Crape Hair — Artificial hair sold in plaits 
 for the purpose of forming wigs, moustaches, eyebrows, &c. Spirit Gum , for attaching 
 crape hair, &c., to the face. Crayons d' I talie, to produce the appearance of veins. Eye- 
 brow Pencils , Camels' Hair Brushes , powder puffs , hares' feet , cotton wool ’ pins , needles , 
 hairpins , etc. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE UP TO REPRESENT A MAN OF 20— The first step, as 
 indeed in all make-up, is to wash the face thoroughly. The face and throat should be 
 
 * L. W. Seavey, 8 Lafayette Place, New York City, supplies curtains, and undertakes all othei 
 mechanical arrangements connected with the amateur stage. 
 
480 
 
 PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 well powdered with pearl or violet powder. A little rouge should then be applied to the 
 cheeks and under the eyebrows. This is generally done with a hare’s foot, with which 
 the color should be nicely shaded off, working it well up towards the eyes, as a dab of 
 rouge low down on the cheek will look more like the flush of consumption than the 
 natural bloom of youth. Then with a camel’s hair pencil draw a fine line of burnt um- 
 ber just under the lower eyelash; this gives brightness to the eyes. The actor may 
 either wear his own hair, a slightly curled modern wig, or a midiseval wig with hair cut 
 short over the forehead. 
 
 TO REPRESENT A MAN 25 YEARS OF AGE. — In addition to the above add 
 with the camel’s hair pencil and burnt umber two or three very fine lines at the outer cor- 
 ner of each eye. The older the character, the more marked should be these lines. If the 
 personage represented is of a cheerful temperament, these lines should have a down- 
 ward tendency ; if the reverse, they should tend slightly upward. 
 
 THE SAME FACE MADE UP TO REPRESENT MIDDLE AGE (say 40 to 
 50). — What is called a half-bald wig may be here employed. To conceal the junction 
 with the forehead, the inside of the front edge of the wig, and also the forehead beneath 
 it, are slightly rubbed with “joining paste,” a kind of flesh-colored cosmetic. The wig 
 should be then worked down into position, and a little more of the joining paste rubbed 
 on the outer part, just where it meets the forehead. Powder the face and throat with 
 prepared fuller’s earth (which is used in preference to pearl powder for other than very 
 youthful complexions), then with a hare’s foot apply just a suspicion of rouge over the 
 whole, taking special care that the tone of the forehead shall match that of the artificial 
 scalp. A little additional rouge may be added on the cheeks and beneath the eyebrows. 
 If a grey wig is used, the eyebrows may be made to match it by first rubbing them with 
 a little joining paste or cosmetic, and then powdering them with flour or prepared 
 whitening. 
 
 The lines of the face will in this case be both more numerous and more marked 
 than in the previous figures. In addition to those leading from the outer corners of the 
 eyes, as above directed, there should be one or two more drawn from the inner corners 
 of the eyes towards the cheek bones. There should also be one or two short vertical 
 lines between the eyes, and two or three more drawn horizontally across the forehead. 
 These are beet determined by frowning slightly (not in a ferocious, but in a thoughtful 
 manner), and following the lines thus indicated. A line should be drawn from each side 
 of the nose down towards the corner of the mouth, and a shorter line from the corner of 
 the mouth and in the dimple of the chin. If the actor wears no beard, a suspicion of 
 powdered blue may be applied to the shaven portions of the face. If the artist should 
 at any time chance to make the lines a little too marked, they may be toned down by 
 powdering them over with pearl powder or fuller’s earth, as the case may be, according 
 to the general tone of the complexion. 
 
 If the character is of a sombre or melancholy disposition, the hollows of the cheeks 
 may be shaded with powdered antimony. Two or three lines round the neck may be 
 added when it is desired to give a still more marked appearance of age. 
 
 FOR SAILORS, COUNTRYMEN, FARMERS, ostlers, and other characters 
 who may be supposed to have a more or less sunburnt appearance, a slight tint of the 
 
PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 461 
 
 dark or ruddy rouge, toned down with pearl powder or the prepared fuller’s earth, should 
 be applied all over the face and neck, then adding the “ lines,” rouge on the ckeeks, &c, 
 
 FOR AMERICAN INDIANS, GIPSIES, and others demanding a red-brown 
 complexion, what is called Mongolian is used. This may either be mixed with water, 
 and so applied to the face, the “ lines ” being added after it is dry, or the lines may be 
 first painted, and the Mongolian mixed with cold cream and applied to the face after- 
 wards, carmine being added on the cheeks to give the necessary color. 
 
 FOR A VERY DARK OR OLIVE COMPLEXION, first powder the face with 
 the prepared fuller’s earth, then color with a mixture of the ruddy rouge and Dutch pink, 
 using carmine to give color to the cheeks, and making the burnt umber line under the 
 lower eyelashes rather stronger than usual. 
 
 JEWS SHOULD BE MADE UP WITH RATHER DARK COMPLEX- 
 IONS. The effect of an aquiline nose may be produced by slightly darkening with 
 burnt umber that portion of the bridge just between the eyes. This causes the portion 
 so marked to (apparently) recede, and so brings the lower part of the nose into greater 
 prominence. There should be a strongly marked line from each side of the nose to- 
 wards the corners of the mouth, and the inside of the nostrils should be darkened with 
 burnt umber. The lower lip may be made to look fuller by the application of grenadine 
 or carmine. 
 
 TO REMODEL THE NOSE. — This is done by mixing paste powder with water 
 to the consistency of a stiff putty, attaching it to the nose with spirit gum, and then 
 moulding it into the desired shape, and coloring as may be desired. The cheeks or chin 
 may be treated in the same manner. 
 
 TO MAKE UP DRUNKARDS, OR OTHER CHARACTERS demanding a 
 bloated, bulbous proboscis, wool, attached by spirit gum, may be used in place of the 
 paste, and cut and pressed into shape, then duly colored. Warts and pimples on the face 
 may be simulated in like manner, and colored with ruddy rouge or Mongolian. 
 
 WHERE THE PART DEMANDS BUSHY EYEBROWS, the natural eye- 
 brows may either be made more prominent by rubbing them with dark cosmetique, or 
 new eyebrows may be manufactured. To do this, take a small portion, say about an 
 inch, of the “ crape hair ” (this is sold in plaits of about half an inch wide, and when un- 
 plaited retains a frizzy, curly appearance), pull it apart, roll it between the hands into a 
 rough resemblance to an eyebrow, and stick it on with spirit gum. (This latter is a glu- 
 tinous fluid, which combines the advantages of drying very rapidly and adhering very 
 firmly). When dry, trim the eyebrow with a pair of scissors to the requisite dimensions, 
 and darken or lighten it with cosmetique, chrome, or whitening, as the case may 
 require. 
 
 THE EFFECT OF WEEPING IS GIVEN by slightly reddening the eyelids 
 with rouge. Where it is desired also to give a poverty-stricken, half-starved appearance, 
 a little antimony should be rubbed under the eyes and on the cheeks, below the cheek- 
 bones. 
 
 THE HUE OF DEATH is given by powdering the face well with prepared 
 whitening, then applying a coloring of Dutch pink, and darkening the hollows of the eyes* 
 
462 
 
 PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 cheeks and temples with antimony. Paint the lines to indicate the age of the character, 
 as already directed ; and lastly, put a little powdered blue on the lips, and a suspicion o{ 
 chrome on the eyelids and down the bridge of the nose. 
 
 The directions we have given for lining the faces of male characters will equally ap- 
 ply to the make-up of females characters. 
 
 THE MAKE-UP OF FEMALE CHARACTERS.— In this case, also, the ar- 
 rangement of the hair will be found of the greatest importance. A powdered wig, a touch 
 of rouge and a patch or two will convert the belle of a modern drawing-room into a living 
 likeness of Pope’s Belinda, or of her own great-great-grandmother at nineteen ; while a 
 false front, a pair of spectacles, and a tooth “ stopped out,” will, as if by magic, effect the 
 conversion of a comely middle-aged lady into a Gamp-like harridan or toothless Hecate. 
 
 THE PROMPTER not only has to prompt, but on him rests the responsibility of see- 
 ing that each actor is “ called ” in time to go on at the right moment. He sees that all the 
 necessary “ properties ” are in readiness, and either on the stage in the first instance, or 
 handed to the actor who is to take them there. He further conducts, and in a great meas- 
 ure performs, all “ business ” off the stage, as ringing of bells, knocking at doors, tramping 
 of feet, firing of pistols, &c. He has the control (where there is no gasman) of the gas an 
 rangements, and regulates the elements, in the shape of thunder, lightning and rain. To 
 facilitate the discharge of his duties, in which he is assisted by a junior known as the 
 “ call-boy,” complete and orderly system is necessary. To ensure, in the first place, that 
 each actor shall be ready at the wing when it is his turn to go on, a mark is made in the 
 prompter’s copy of the piece at a point just forty-two lines (known as a “length ”) before 
 such actor is actually wanted. Each call is distinguished by a number ; thus, the first 
 call in the piece will be marked i, with a circle round it thus (i), to render it more con- 
 spicuous. The second call will be marked (2), and so on. Corresponding numbers are 
 marked on a slip of paper, together with the names of the person or persons to be in- 
 cluded in the call, and a memorandum of any “ properties ” they are to bring on with 
 them. This slip of paper is known as the “ entrance plot,” and is handed to the call-boy, 
 who may be regarded as the movable portion of the prompter. 
 
 As soon as the prompter calls a given number, the call-boy refers to that number in 
 the “ entrance plot,” sees what actor is referred to, and forthwith goes and “ calls ” him 
 accordingly, at the same time handing him any “ property ” which he finds set against his 
 name, and returning to the side of the prompter as quickly as he can. 
 
 The prompter should not prompt until he is quite sure that help is needed ; and 
 when he does so, it should be in a low but distinct voice, so as to be clearly audible to 
 the actor, but not, if he can possibly help it, to the audience. 
 
 Note. — M r. French, the popular publisher of Dramatic Plays and amateur outfits, on 
 Fourteenth street, New York, will furnish a catalogue of plays free upon application. 
 From this, plays may be selected for any number or variety of characters. This house 
 also publishes an excellent manual, entitled “The Amateur’s Guide,” which gives a great 
 many useful hints, suggestions and directions for those who wish to go into the extended 
 treatment of this subject. 
 
CHARADES. 
 
 HARADES may be performed after a variety of different fashions. First 
 and foremost, we have the highly finished charade, with both speech and 
 action carefully prepared and duly rehearsed. Secondly, there is the 
 spoken charade, got up on the spur of the moment, words and action being 
 alike extempore. We have seen a good deal of fun got out of charades 
 of this description ; but unless the actors are of more than average ability, and have had 
 some little dramatic experience, the chances are much against any very satisfactory re- 
 sult. On the whole, we should strongly recommend that where a charade is got up ex- 
 tempore, it should be acted in pantomime only. 
 
 It is of course understood that whatever be the particular mode of performance, a 
 charade always represents a “word” to be guessed, with one scene to each syllable, or 
 group of consecutive syllables, and a final scene representing the whole word. The suc- 
 cessive scenes are sometimes wholly independent of each other, but in the more finished 
 class of charades are made parts of a complete drama. The following are good charade 
 words : 
 
 Knighthood 
 
 Windfall 
 
 Dramatic 
 
 Pigtail 
 
 Penitent 
 
 Sweepstake 
 
 Infancy 
 
 Welcome 
 
 Looking-glass 
 
 Sackcloth 
 
 Snowball 
 
 Friendship 
 
 Hornpipe 
 
 Antidote 
 
 Definite 
 
 Horsemanship 
 
 Necklace 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Bowstring 
 
 Coltsfoot 
 
 Indolent 
 
 Pearl-powder 
 
 Carpet 
 
 Bridegroom 
 
 Light-house 
 
 Kingfisher 
 
 Sunday 
 
 Housmaid 
 
 Hamlet 
 
 Card-sharper 
 
 Shy lock 
 
 Curlpapers 
 
 Pantry 
 
 Footfall 
 
 Earwig 
 
 Crumpet 
 
 Phantom 
 
 Housekeeping 
 
 Matrimony 
 
 Cowhiding 
 
 It will be obvious that in some of these instances, as, for instance, “ Card-sharper, n 
 ** Housekeeping,” two syllables must be taken together to supply the motif for a single 
 scene. 
 
 PANTOMIME CHARADES. 
 
 We will take the word “ Windfall ” as affording a ready illustration of the panto- 
 mime charade, and be it remembered that in charades of this description, the shorter and 
 simpler the action the better. Thus the first scene, Wind,” may be represented by a 
 German band puffing away at imaginary ophicleides and trombones, with distended 
 cheeks and frantic energy, though in perfect silence. The next scene, “ Fall” may be a 
 party of boys on a slide, who “keep the pot a-boiling” for a moment or two and then 
 exeunt. Enter an elderly gentleman, with umbrella up ; walks unsuspectingly on to the 
 slide, and falls. It should be mentioned that the expedient adopted in the very early 
 days of the drama of putting up a placard to notify, “ This is a street,” “ This is the 
 quarter-deck of H. M. S. Pinafore,” is quite en regie in the case of a pantomime 
 charade. The complete word “ Windfall ” may be represented by a young man sitting 
 
464 
 
 PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 alone, leaning his elbows on his hands, and having every appearance of being in the last 
 stage of impecuniosity. To produce this effect, he may go through a pantomime oi ex- 
 amining his purse and showing it empty, searching his pockets and turning them one by 
 one inside out, shaking his head mournfully, and throwing into his expression as much 
 despair as he conveniently can. A postman s knock is heard ; a servant enters with a 
 legal-looking letter. The impecunious hero, tearing it open, produces from it a roll of 
 bank notes (these, if a due supply of the genuine article does not happen to be readily 
 obtainable, may be of the “ Bank of Elegance ” description), and forthwith gives way to 
 demonstrations of the most extravagant delight, upon which the curtain falls. 
 
 ACTED CHARADES. 
 
 A very absurd, but not the less meritorious, charade of this class is represented as 
 follows : The curtain rises (i. e. f the folding doors are thrown open), and a placard is 
 
 seen denoting “ This is Saville Row,” or any other place where the professors of the heal- 
 ing art most do congregate. Two gentlemen in out-door costume cross the stage from 
 opposite sides, and bow gravely on passing each other, one of them saying, as they do 
 so, “ Good morning, doctor.” The curtain falls, and the audience are informed that the 
 charade, which represents a word of six syllables, is complete in that one scene. When 
 the spectators have guessed or been told that the word is “ met-a-physician,” the curtain 
 again rises on precisely the same scene, and the same performance, action for action and 
 word for word, is repeated over again. The audience hazard the same word, “ metaphy- 
 sician,” as the answer, but are informed that they are wrong — the word now represented 
 having only three syllables, and they ultimately discover that the word is " metaphor ” 
 (met afore). 
 
LAUGHABLE AND INNOCENT AMUSEMENTS 
 
 FOR- 
 
 YOUNG PEOPLE. 
 
 More amusement can be had from this game than any other. Any number of per- 
 sons can play it. Anyone wishing to try his fortune will place a pencil or anything 
 else on a number or square without looking at the number, after which refer to the num- 
 ber amongst the following list of answers, and you will find the answer, which 
 may be correct, false or ridiculous, as it always is with professional fortune tellers. 
 
 THE TABLE OF SQUARES. 
 
 ii 7 
 
 1 18 
 
 119 
 
 120 
 
 121 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 vn 
 
 00 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 n6 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 50 
 
 5 i 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 88 
 
 ii5 
 
 77 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 55 
 
 89 
 
 1 14 
 
 76 
 
 46 
 
 24 
 
 25 • 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 56 
 
 90 
 
 Ii 3 
 
 75 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 3 i 
 
 57 
 
 91 
 
 112 
 
 74 
 
 44 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 58 
 
 92 
 
 in 
 
 73 
 
 43 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 59 
 
 93 
 
 no 
 
 72 
 
 42 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 l6 
 
 34 
 
 60 
 
 94 
 
 109 
 
 7i 
 
 4i 
 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 61 
 
 95 
 
 108 
 
 70 
 
 69 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 62 
 
 96 
 
 107 
 
 106 
 
 105 
 
 104 
 
 103 
 
 102 
 
 IOI 
 
 IOO 
 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 97 
 
466 
 
 PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 LIST OF ANSWERS. 
 
 1. A life full of changes, die rich. 
 
 2. Early marriage and prosperous. 
 
 3. Many lovers, but die single. 
 
 4. A speedy journey of great importance. 
 
 5. Become rich through a legacy. 
 
 6. Hours of pleasure, years of care. 
 
 7. Y our present lover is false. 
 
 8. You will marry your present choice. 
 
 9. Wed thrice, and die in widowhood. 
 
 10. You will travel over land and sea. 
 
 11. If not already wed, you never will be. 
 
 12. Gaming will be your ruin. 
 
 13. You will be very happy in marriage. 
 
 14. You will change your love soon. 
 
 15. A long life and prosperous. 
 
 16. A rival will cause you tears. 
 
 17. Beware of a false friend. 
 
 18. Fate decrees you two partners. 
 
 19. A large family of prosperous children. 
 
 20. You will not wed your present lover. 
 
 21. You will soon fall desperately in love. 
 
 22. You will soon be in mourning. 
 
 23. You will gain an estate by industry. 
 
 24. You will better yourself by marriage. 
 
 25. You will soon lose by fraud. 
 
 26. You will marry an ill-tempered person. 
 
 27. A sudden rise attends you. 
 
 28. You will see an absent lover. 
 
 29. Many enemies, but finally triumph. 
 
 30. A bad partner, but happy reformation. 
 
 31. A speedy proposal of marriage. 
 
 32. A present, and a new lover. 
 
 33. Invitation to a gay party. 
 
 34. A serious quarrel. 
 
 35. A disgraceful intrigue. 
 
 36. A run of ill luck. 
 
 37. Gifts of money. 
 
 38. A good partner in marriage. 
 
 39. You will become rich. 
 
 40. Money through love. 
 
 41. Cash by trade. 
 
 42. A long journey. 
 
 43. Important news soon. 
 
 44. Mind what you say to a lover. 
 
 45. A present from a distance. 
 
 46. A dispute with one you love. 
 
 47. Visit from a distant friend. 
 
 48. A lawsuit. 
 
 49. Advancement in life. 
 
 50. Love at first sight. 
 
 51. A prize worth having. 
 
 52. Wealth, dignity, honor. 
 
 53. Visit to a foreign land. 
 
 54. Profit by industry. 
 
 55. A multitude of cards. 
 
 56. Preferment through a friend. 
 
 57. Second partner better than first, 
 
 58. Surmount many difficulties. 
 
 59. A false friend. 
 
 60. A pleasing surprise. 
 
 61. A change in your affairs. 
 
 62. A ramble by moonlight. 
 
 63. Injured by scandal. 
 
 64. Unpleasant tidings. 
 
 65. Great loss and disappointment. 
 
 66. About to attend a christening. 
 
 67. Change of situation. 
 
 68. A handsome present soon. 
 
 69. An invitation to a marriage. 
 
 70. News from sea. 
 
 71. Happiness or marriage. 
 
 72. Pleasant intelligence from abroad. 
 
 73. An agreeable partner. 
 
 74. You are in love, though you won't 
 
 avow it. 
 
 75. A quarrel with your intended. 
 
 76. Disappointment in love. 
 
 77. You will fall in love with one who is 
 
 already engaged. 
 
 78. You will inherit an estate, shortly. 
 
 79. An unexpected death. 
 
 80. You meditate an elopement. 
 
PARLOR ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 46 ? 
 
 8t. A dangerous illness. 
 
 82. Crosses and disappointments await you. 
 
 83. You have three strings to your bow. 
 
 84. You long to be married. 
 
 85. Your intended is in the sere and yel- 
 
 low leaf. 
 
 86. A lapful of money and a lapful of chil- 
 
 dren. 
 
 87. You will marry a widow or widower. 
 
 88. You will have a few friends. 
 
 89. You will be married this year. 
 
 90. You will be apt to break your promise^ 
 
 91. Marry in haste and repent at leisure. 
 
 92. You are in danger of losing your 
 
 sweetheart. 
 
 93. Beware of changing for the worse. 
 
 94. You shall have many offers. 
 
 95. You will be happy if contented. 
 
 96. You will shortly obtain your wishes. 
 
 97. An advantageous bargain. 
 
 98. You will see your intended next Sun- 
 
 day for the first time. 
 
 99. Others will covet your good luck. 
 
 100. Travel in a foreign land. 
 
 10 r. Venture freely, and you will certainly 
 gain. 
 
 102. Y our present speculations will succeed. 
 
 103. You love one who does not lo^ you. 
 
 S04. Wealth from a quarter you little sus 
 pect. 
 
 105. You will obtain your wishes through 
 
 a friend. 
 
 106. A fortune is in store foryou — persevere. 
 
 107. Alter your intention ; you cannot sue. 
 
 ceed. 
 
 108. Remain at home for the present. 
 
 109. Ill luck awaits you. 
 
 1 10. Prepare for a journey. 
 
 hi. You will succeed according to your 
 wishes. 
 
 1 1 2. Beware of enemies who seek to do you 
 
 harm. 
 
 1 13. Misfortune at first, but comfort and 
 
 happiness after. 
 
 1 14. Prosperity in all your undertakings 
 
 1 15. Rely not on one who pretends to be 
 
 your friend. 
 
 1 16. Change your situation and you will do 
 
 better. 
 
 1 17. It will be difficult for you to get a 
 
 partner. 
 
 1 1 8. Y our love is whimsical and changeable. 
 
 1 19. You will meet sorrow and trouble. 
 
 120. Your love wishes to be yours this 
 
 moment. 
 
 1 2 1. You will gain nothing by marriage. 
 

CHAPTERS ON NATURAL SCIENCE, 
 
 THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL, 
 
 WITH 
 
 ILLUSTRATED EXPERIMENTS. 
 
10 EXPLAINING HIS THEORIES. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 SIMPLIFIED AND ILLUSTRATED WITH EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 I. 
 
 HISTORY AND DEFINITION. 
 
 The study of the heavens above us must always prove to be a fascinating one to 
 all people of reflection and observation. As we look into the sky upon a clear night 
 in autumn or winter, and notice the starry host that shine down upon us with their 
 twinkling light, or behold the moon with her silver disk riding across the blue arch* 
 we are led at once to ask, What are these bodies? The youngest child will gaze with 
 eager interest into the clear blue depths and inquire, What is that star? and with its 
 unformed mind ask a thousand questions that will puzzle the parent to answer. The 
 
470 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 same principle of curiosity or desire to acquire knowledge will lead the young to study 
 this the most ancient, and in many respects the most fascinating, of all-the sciences. 
 The few years that have just passed have marked rapid strides in the advancement of 
 this science as well 'as all the natural sciences. The old estimate of distances which 
 prevailed so long has been corrected by the establishment of a different base line. 
 
 This has proved to us that the sun is much nearer than the older astronomers 
 supposed. The velocity with which light travels has been found to be less than the 
 commonly received opinion, and the use of the spectrum has taught the present genera- 
 tion of astronomers much valuable truth. So the science of astronomy to-day is far in 
 advance of what it was even one generation ago. These recent discoveries and the 
 corrections based upon them are scattered through many volumes, and consequently 
 beyond the reach of the ordinary reader. We therefore shall endeavor in this article 
 to present the most interesting outline of the science, and give, so far as our space will 
 admit, the latest discoveries and the rational deductions from them. Our purpose is to 
 aid in the instruction of those who have that desire of knowledge which is common 
 to the inspiration of youth, and not to burden the mind with the accumulation of tables 
 •of distance, size, weight, etc., which it would be useless, if not impossible, to retain. 
 
 The study of astronomy will lead one into the realm of the imagination, and at the 
 same time hold him fast by the laws of rigid mathematics. The word itself is derived 
 from the Greek words astron, a star, and nomos , a law. It deals with all the heavenly 
 bodies, including our earth, which is one member of the solar system. 
 
 We will stand upon some elevation where we have a full view of the whole horizon 
 on some cloudless night, and from this point of vision gaze upon the clear blue expanse 
 studded with countless stars. We see that they vary in color and brightness. There is 
 -another difference which presently we notice : some shine with a constant tranquil 
 light steadily upon us, and some with a twinkling flash, while some of them are scarcely 
 seen at all. If we observe the same scene for a number of evenings in succession we 
 cannot fail to notice that these stars which shine with a steady clear light have changed 
 their respective positions. These are called planets , or wanderers. The others which 
 twinkle or shine with a changing light are “ fixed stars,” which, although they move 
 with greater velocity than the planets, are so far away that they seem to us to be 
 stationary. We cannot fail to see a girdle of whitish vapory color stretching across 
 the heavens in a diagonal direction ; this is called the milky way. This blue dome of 
 the firmament is the book spread out with its broad page of light for us to study. 
 
 i 
 
 THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE. 
 
 The Chinese boast much of their discoveries in astronomy. They record an eclipse 
 of the sun which took place two thousand one hundred and twenty-seven years before 
 the birth of Christ. The Chaldean shepherds became intelligent astronomers, and 
 Alexander found in Babylon a record of astronomical observations extending back quite 
 as far as the Chinese’. These people divided the days into twelve hours, used the sun- 
 dial, and discovered the “ Chaldean Period.” The Grecians also taught the principles of 
 astronomy. Thales, in the seventh century B.C., asserted that the earth is round and 
 that the moon receives her light from the sun, and many other facts. Pythagoras 
 .knew the causes of eclipses and could calculate them, and he held a theory which was 
 
HISTORY AND DEFINITION. 
 
 471 
 
 substantially correct. He taught that the sun was the center of the solar system, and 
 many other truths. Eudoxus, who lived 410 B.C., taught an incorrect theory. Hip- 
 parchus, who has been styled the “Newton of antiquity,” catalogued the stars and 
 estimated the length of the year, making a mistake of only six minutes. The Egyp- 
 tians were celebrated for their knowledge of the natural sciences before they were intro- 
 duced into Greece. At the schools of Alexandria, where was collected the most mag- 
 nificent library the world has ever seen, the Greek philosophers came to study all the 
 sciences. Ptolemy, the Grecian, wrote his great work at this place. It was called the 
 Almagest , and was regarded as the standard text-book on astronomy for fourteen hun- 
 dred years. It contained the exploded Ptolemaic theory, but also had many scientific 
 facts which are still regarded as correct. The Ptolemaic theory claimed that the earth 
 was stationary and the sun and planets revolved around it. A very cumbrous and com- 
 plicated theory of “ cycles and epicycles ” was devised to account for the movement 
 of the heavenly bodies around the world, which it would take too long to illustrate. 
 By this theory he tried to explain how the interior planets — that is, those between the 
 earth and the sun — would sometimes appear to go in front of the sun and sometimes 
 behind him. Every time a new motion was discovered in the planets a new arrange- 
 ment of the “ cycles and epicycles” had to be made. After the times of Ptolemy the 
 science of astronomy became debased into the practice of astrology. This continued 
 until the middle ages, when the art became extensively practiced and accepted as true 
 by all classes. 
 
 Copernicus, who flourished about the middle of the sixteenth century, discarded 
 the Ptolemaic theory which had been taught so long, and substituted in its place the old 
 system of Pythagoras. The very simplicity of regarding the sun as the center of the 
 planetary system was fascinating to him. He knew how natural it is to think when we 
 are being carried along rapidly that external objects are moving away from us instead 
 of our moving in the opposite direction, and applying this to the stars and planets he 
 maintained that instead of their revolving around the earth every twenty-four hours 
 the earth revolved around its own axis, producing the phenomena of the rising and set- 
 ting of the heavenly bodies. While the revolution of the earth once a year around the 
 sun would account for and simplify much of the phenomena connected with that body, 
 he regarded the orbits of the planets as perfect circles, and this led him to retain the 
 complicated theory of “ cycles and epicycles.” But his system was a great advance 
 upon that of Ptolemy, and his book, first put into his hands on his death-bed, has been 
 accepted as substantially correct. The next great advance was made by Kepler, a 
 pupil of the astronomer Tycho Brahe, a Danish nobleman. This advance is con- 
 tained in what are known as Kepler’s Laws. They constitute the three fundamental 
 principles of astronomical science. He adopted the Copernican theory of the sun as 
 the center, and regarding the orbits as a circle he set to work to account for the move- 
 ments of the bodies in their orbits, but found that they would not agree by eight min* 
 utes of a degree in a certain point of the orbit. “ From these eight minutes we will 
 construct a new theory,” said he, “that will account for all the movements of the heav* 
 enly bodies.” He set to work, as he said, “ to hunt it down,” and for eight years hs 
 tried every hypothesis that he could devise, until he had tested nineteen in all and each 
 one in turn failed. Then he thought of the ellipse. 
 
472 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 FIRST LAW : With this ellipse Kepler set to work again to compute the orbit of 
 Mars, but he still regarded the sun as in the center. Again he failed, but had come nearer 
 the truth. He put the sun at one of the foci and traced the orbit of Mars for a whole 
 year ; and lo ! he had discovered the first law, and at once boldly announced it, viz. : 
 Planets revolve in ellipses with the sun at one focus. 
 
 SECOND LAW : This discoverer was aware that the planets moved in some parts of 
 their orbits faster than in others, and he set about the discovery of the principle which 
 governed this velocity. He soon found that the planet moved faster when at perihel- 
 ion, or nearest the sun, and slowest when at aphelion, or farthest from the sun. Af- 
 ter again tracing the planet Mars he discovered, tested, and announced the second law, 
 viz.: 
 
 A line connecting the center of the sun and the center of the earth passes over equal 
 
 spaces in equal times. 
 
 Third law : These two discoveries were grand enough to satisfy any ordinary 
 man ; but Kepler set about the investigation of the relation of the movement of the 
 heavenly bodies around the sun to their distance from that center. He tried every 
 conceivable hypothesis based on the calculations he had already taken and proved. 
 First he compared their squares, then their cubes, and then he combined the two and 
 found the secret, but a blunder in his mathematical calculations puzzled him for months. 
 This mistake was detected and corrected, and then he had discovered, proved, and was 
 ready to announce his third law, viz. : 
 
 The squares of the times of revolution of the planets about the sun are proportional to the 
 cubes of their mean distances from the sun. 
 
 Explanation : The distance of the earth from the sun is ninety-one and one-half mill- 
 ions of miles, its period of revolution is three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days; 
 the distance of Venus is sixty-six million miles, her period of revolution two hundred and 
 twenty-five days. Then the proportion may be stated thus: 365 1-4 2 : 225 2 : : 91 1-23 : 
 663 , or the square of the earth’s period is to the square of Venus’ period as the cube of 
 the earth’s distance is to the cube of Venus’ distance. 
 
 NEWTON AND THE LAWS OF GRAVITATION. 
 
 Sir Isaac Newton, the English philosopher, was born the same year Galileo died 
 theory was accepted by all the scientists and philosophers after 
 a time, and the Ptolemaic theory became a relic of the dark ages. 
 When Newton was a young man he was led to investigate the 
 subject of gravitation, it is said, by the falling of an apple from 
 the tree to the ground. Reflecting upon the forces which act 
 upon bodies falling to the earth, it occurred to him that the 
 same force might extend into space and act upon the moon. 
 He knew something of what we have learned in our Natural 
 Philosophy, that bodies once set in motion move in a straight 
 line unless prevented by some external force. There being no 
 friction in space to retard the bodies there they all ought 
 to move forever in a straight line and with their original velocity ; but instead of 
 
HISTORY AND DEFINITION. 
 
 473 
 
 this they were always moving in a curve. Why is this so? was the question for him to 
 solve. He began to calculate upon the moon’s orbit, and after toiling with a patience 
 even greater than that of Kepler at last he made his discovery. It was this : Every 
 particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force directly pro- 
 portional to its quantity of matter , and decreasing as the square of the distance 
 increases. 
 
 APPLICATION OF THIS PRINCIPLE. 
 
 We are about three millions of miles nearer to the sun in the winter than we are 
 in the summer ; but from the more oblique or slanting direction of the rays of the sun 
 during the winter season we do not derive any increased heat from this greater prox- 
 imity. The sun, therefore, appar- 
 ently varies in size ; but this seeming 
 difference is so trifling that it is of no 
 importance in the discussion ; and 
 here we may ask, Why does the earth 
 move round the sun ? Because it is 
 impelled by two forces , one of which 
 is called the centrifugal power, and 
 the other, although termed the cen- 
 tripetal force, is only another name 
 for the “attraction of gravitation.” 
 
 To show their mutual relations let 
 us suppose that, at the creation of the 
 universe, the earth, marked A, was 
 hurled from the hand of its Maker ; 
 according to the law of inertia, it would continue in a straight line, A C, through space 
 forever provided it met with no resistance or obstruction. Let us now suppose the earth 
 to have arrived at the point B, and to come within the sphere of the attraction of the 
 sun. Here we have at once contending forces 
 acting at right angles to each other ; either the 
 earth must continue in its original direction, A C, 
 or fall gradually to the sun. But mark the beauty 
 and harmony of the arrangement : like a billiard- 
 ball, struck with equal force at two points at right 
 angles to each other, it takes the mean between 
 the two, or what is termed the diagonal of the 
 parallelogram, and passes in the direction of the 
 curved line, B D ; having reached D, it is again 
 ready to fly off at a tangent ; the centrifugal force 
 would carry it to E, but again the gravitating force controls the centripetal, and the 
 earth pursues its elliptical path, or orbit, till the almighty Author who bade it move 
 shall please to reverse the command. 
 
 The mutual relations of the centripetal and centrifugal forces may be illustrated by 
 suspending a tin cylindrical vessel by two strings, and having filled it with water, the 
 
474 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 vessel may be swung round without spilling a single drop ; of course, the movement 
 must be commenced carefully, by making it oscillate like a pendulum. 
 
 The cord which binds it to the finger may be compared to the centripetal force, 
 while the centrifugal power is illustrated by the water pressing against the sides and 
 remaining in the vessel. Upon the like principle the moon revolves about the earth, 
 but her orbit is more elliptical than that of the earth around the sun ; and it is evident 
 from our diagram that the moon is much farther from the earth at A than at B. As 
 a natural consequence, the moon appears sometimes a little larger and sometimes 
 smaller than the sun ; the apparent mean diameter of the latter being thirty-two min- 
 utes, while the moon’s apparent diameter varies from twenty-nine and a half to thirty- 
 three and a half minutes. 
 
 GALILEO, THE FLORENTINE. 
 
 This famous philosopher lived in the same age with Kepler, and was also a great 
 discoverer and astronomer. He adopted the theory of Copernicus, and boldly an- 
 nounced his adherence thereto. The principle of the pendulum to mark time was one 
 
 of his important discoveries, and also the 
 laws of falling bodies. Galileo was a pro- 
 fessor in the University of Pisa, and at 
 first taught the old theory of Ptolemy, but 
 when the Copernican theory was brought 
 to his attention his clear and discriminat- 
 ing mind comprehended at once its sim- 
 plicity, and he advocated it with all th& 
 ardor of an enthusiast. About the same 
 time he heard of the use of a glass to 
 make distant objects appear nearer, an in- 
 vention of a Dutch watchmaker named 
 Jansen, and before he had seen one he 
 applied his knowledge of optics to the 
 construction of a telescope which could 
 magnify thirty times. It was a crude 
 affair, but it was the first telescope ever 
 used, and did much to advance the 
 Copernican theory, and revolutionize 
 the whole science of astronomy. By 
 this imperfect instrument he discovered 
 the moons of Jupiter, resolved some por- 
 tion of the milky way into nebulous stars, and investigated the surface of the moon. 
 He was denounced as a heretic, and therefore he hastened to Rome to answer for the 
 crime of teaching against the theories of the Church, where, in 1616, the pope, Paul V., 
 interdicted him from teaching the pernicious theory. But in 1632 Galileo published 
 his theories and was cast into prison, where he remained a number of years, and was 
 liberated only after signing a recantation of his teaching. After he had signed the 
 required document he said, “ But the world does move for all that.” He died 1642. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
HISTORY AND DEFINITION 
 
 175 
 
 FIG. 6. — EGYPTIAN IDEA OF THE ZODIAC. 
 
476 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 OUR VIEW OF THE HEAVENS. 
 
 We are standing upon a little speck in space, called the earth, and moving at a 
 wonderful velocity among the stars, many of which are hundreds of thousands of times 
 larger than the planet we inhabit. As we gaze into boundless space we see innumer- 
 able objects which attract our attention. We desire to locate them and adopt some 
 system of measurement. But our position is constantly changing as the world revolves 
 on its axis and moves around the sun in its orbit. The arch above us is termed the 
 celestial sphere, and we can see one half of this at a time, for the distance of this sphere 
 is so great that we can see as much of it from any point on the same hemisphere of the 
 
 world as if we were standing at its center, 
 where our view would be bounded by a 
 great circle of the earth. On the great 
 sphere of the heavens there are drawn im- 
 aginary lines called circles. The meridians 
 of longitude and parallels of latitude which 
 are employed on the earth’s surface are ex- 
 tended to the celestial sphere and imagined 
 to be drawn thereon. Our young readers 
 fig. 7. have learned in geography the definition 
 
 and principles as applied to the measurement and location of places on the earth’s sur- 
 face. This may be imagined as transferred to the celestial sphere and used to locate 
 and measure the starry heavens. Celestial longitude is the distance from the vernal 
 equinox measured on the ecliptic eastward. Celestial latitude is measured on a merid- 
 ian from the ecliptic north or south. 
 
 DEFINITION OF TERMS. 
 
 The horizon is that circle which bounds our vision of the celestial sphere and 
 passes through the center of the earth, separating the visible from the invisible heavens. 
 This is called the rational horizon. The sensible horizon is the small circle where the 
 earth and sky seem to come together, and is on a plane parallel to the rational hori- 
 zon, but separated from it by the semi-diameter of the world. This varies at every 
 point on the earth’s surface, but the rational horizon continues the same for all points 
 on the same side of the world. 
 
 The zenith and the nadir. — The zenith is the point in the heavens directly over- 
 head, and the nadir is the point in the celestial sphere beneath our feet. The verticle 
 circles are lines passing through the zenith and nadir at right angles with the horizon. 
 The prime verticle is the line passing through the east and west points of the horizon. 
 The terms azimuth , amplitude , altitude , and zenith distance have reference to measure- 
 ments on the horizontal system and are used in observations with mural circles and 
 transit instruments, and we refer our readers for their explanation to more extended 
 works on the subject. The equinoctial is the celestial equator, or the world’s equator 
 extended to the celestial sphere. The hour circles, called right ascension circles, are 
 meridians marking the twenty-four hours on the circle, and each comprises fifteen degrees 
 of longitude. 
 
HISTORY AND DEFINITION. 
 
 477 
 
 The colures are two meridians dividing the celestial sphere into four equal parts. 
 The equinoctial colure is the meridian passing through the equinox. The solstitial colure 
 passes through the solstitial points. 
 
 The declination parallels are circles parallel to the equinoctial, and correspond to the 
 parallels on the earth’s surface extended to the heavens. 
 
 The celestial poles are the points where the extended axis of the earth touch the 
 celestial sphere. The equinoxes are the points where the ecliptic and the equinoctial 
 intersect each other. The measurements by this system are right ascension , declination, 
 and polar distance. These are used by modern astronomers to a great extent and are 
 employed at the best modern observatories. 
 
 The ecliptic is the plane of the earth’s path around the sun, and is inclined to the 
 plane of the equator at an angle of twenty-three degrees and twenty-eight minutes. 
 This inclination is termed the obliquity of the ecliptic. The equinoxes are the points 
 on the ecliptic where the equinoctial crosses it, as we have said. The point crossed in 
 the northward movement of the sun, as we say in common language, is called the 
 vernal equinox and marks the position of the earth on the 21 st day of March. The 
 point crossed by the sun moving south is called the autumnal equinox, and is reached on 
 the 2 1st day of September. The solstices are the points equally distant from the equi- 
 nox, and mark the farthest u northern and southern points in the sun’s apparent path. 
 The summer solstice occurs on the 22d of June. The winter solstice , on the 22d of De- 
 cember. The measurements in this system are celestial longitude and celestial latitude , 
 which have been already explained. 
 
 There is a belt of the celestial sphere on each side of the ecliptic called THE 
 ZODIAC. It extends eight degrees north and eight degrees south, and as employed in 
 astronomy is of a great antiquity. It has been divided by the old astronomers into 
 twelve signs of thirty degrees each, to which fanciful names have been given. 
 
 SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. 
 
 The ancient Hindoos and Egyptians used the zodiac to indicate the position of 
 the planets and of the earth during different parts of the year. The same methods 
 have been applied to the modern science. Our full-page illustration, Fig. 8, gives us 
 a view of the signs of the zodiac. In the center is represented the sun. The light 
 curves represent the equinoctial and the ecliptic , and the position of the earth at the 
 equinoxes and the solstices. On the outer band we represent the zodiac. The dotted 
 line represents the ecliptic, or the apparent path of the sun around the world. The 
 names given and the characters used to designate the twelve signs are as follows : 
 
 Aries — The Ram, T ; Taurus — The Bull, &; Gemini — The Twins, n; Cancer — • 
 The Crab, © ; Leo — The Lion, SI ; Virgo — The Virgin, ttj2 ; Libra — The Scales, =£= , 
 Scorpio — The Scorpion, TR ; Sagittarius — The Archer, $ ; Capricornus — The Goat, V3 : 
 Aquarius — The Waterman, Pisces — The Fishes, 
 
 These names had reference to certain stories in the ancient mythology of Greece, 
 and the characters were supposed to have some crude reference to the animals and ob* 
 jects designated, or were rude combinations of letters of the Greek alphabet. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 
 UTO. 2 
 
II. 
 
 THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 Let us imagine a system of worlds suspended in space and held there by no visible 
 force, but obeying the universal law of gravitation, the principles of which were dis- 
 covered by Sir Isaac Newton. Each planet attracting all the other planets and in turn 
 held in its orbit by the greater attraction of the sun, the center of all. To begin at 
 this center : The sun is a vast luminous globe large enough to overcome the attraction 
 of all the planets that wheel around him in space. Then in their order come the 
 planets, each of which revolves upon its own axis and circles around its sun in an ellip- 
 tical orbit. Accompanying some of these planets are moons, or satellites, which in turn 
 revolving on their axes whirl in their courses around the grand luminary. There are 
 also comets which flash across the immensity of space and disappear again in orbits 
 peculiar to themselves. Shooting-stars and meteors darting hither and thither fill up 
 the wonderful picture. To this add the notion of the intense velocity with which all 
 these bodies are pursuing their ceaseless journey in the boundless realm and you have 
 but touched the narrow inner circle of the vast universe opening up to the astronomer. 
 All this is moving by the unvarying laws of creation that appoints their times and 
 seasons with an exactness that cannot be equaled in the most highly perfected mech- 
 anism of man. In this solar system there are seven distinct orders : 
 
 1. The Sun, the great center of all. 
 
 2. The major planets in the order named: Vulcan (undetermined), Mercury, Venus, 
 
 the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. The first three, which are 
 nearer the sun than is the earth, are called interior planets. The last three are 
 farther from the sun than is the earth, and are termed exterior planets. 
 
 3. The minor planets, of which there are designated at present (1883) two hundred and 
 
 twenty, are called asteroids. 
 
 4. Moons, or satellites, which revolve about their planets. There are in all twenty of 
 
 these. 
 
 5. Meteors and shooting stars. 
 
 6. Nine comets whose orbits fcave been determined, and many others of which little is 
 
 known. 
 
 7. The zodiacal light. 
 
 THE SUN. 
 
 The sign is O, a buckler with its boss. This is by tar the largest body in the 
 solar system, but not the largest with which astronomy has to deal. The numbers 
 with which we are dealing are so vast that we can have but slight conception of them. 
 Take for illustration the average distance of the earth from the sun, which is ninety-one 
 and a half millions of miles. What does that signify to our minds ? And yet this is to 
 be the unit (one) of measure in the computations of this wonderful science. The fastest 
 express train, at the rate of sixty miles an hour — a speed rarely attained — would re- 
 quire one hundred and seventy years and six months to pass over that distance. That 
 is to say, five entire generations of human beings would have passed away in the time. 
 Yet this enormous distance is used by astronomers as a carpenter uses a foot or an 
 
480 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 inch to express the distance measured by him. How do they accomplish this? The 
 answer is, the same as the surveyor measures distances on the earth’s surface, by a scien- 
 tific arrangement of triangles, with one side and two angles given to find the other sides 
 and angle. Having established a correct base-line he can go on from that and meas- 
 ure all creation and the rest of space if he can only set up his signal of flashing light. 
 This base line is computed by the aid the transit of Venus, and observations taken 
 December 8, 1874, led to a correction of the distance from the earth to the sun. 
 
 The sun is the source of light and heat to the worlds that revolve about him. The 
 theories and investigations into the nature and causes of these are too extended and 
 complicated for us even to mention. We must content ourselves with the statement 
 that the light of the sun is five thousand five hundred and sixty-three times that of a 
 wax candle held a foot distant from the eye, or eight hundred thousand times greater 
 than that of the full moon. We receive in one year from the sun heat enough to melt 
 a layer of solid ice around the world thirty-eight yards thick. The gentle rays of the 
 sun when they strike the earth’s surface are only one three-hundred-thousandth as 
 much as when they leave the sun’s surface. Remember that only a very slight portion 
 of the heat which emanates from the sun ever reaches the earth. The rest is diffused in 
 space. Sir John Herschel says: “ If a solid cylinder of ice forty-five miles in diameter 
 and two hundred thousand miles long were plunged end first into the sun it would 
 melt in one second of time.” 
 
 The apparent size of the sun varies at different times in the year, because it is a little 
 nearer to us in winter than in summer. The real size of the sun is eight hundred and 
 fifty thousand miles in diameter. Its volume is one thousand two hundred and forty- 
 five thousand times that of the world, and its mass six hundred and seventy-four times 
 that of all the rest of the solar system, and its weight in tons is the enormous amount of 
 1 , 910,2 7 8 , 070 * 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 , 000 . 
 
 This number has no meaning to us, but it represents an amount of attraction which 
 holds the solar system in its place and prevents this world and all the planets from 
 deviating a single second of time from exact regularity in all their movements. The 
 density of the sun’s mass is about one-fourth that of the earth, but so immense is 
 its magnitude that a man of one hundred and fifty pounds weight on the earth would 
 weigh four thousand and eighty pounds at the sun’s surface. 
 
 Very many discoveries have been made in respect to the sun and the materials of 
 which it is composed by the means of the spectroscope, but we cannot enter into a dis- 
 cussion of this. The theories of the spots on the sun’s surface and the causes are too 
 many and too complicated for our purpose. The cause of the sun’s heat is but little 
 understood as yet. Many theories have been advocated by distinguished philosophers, 
 but none of them have been generally adopted. Some account for this great heat by 
 the condensation of the sun, and others as boldly assure us that it is caused by the falling 
 of meteors into the sun, their motion being converted into heat to feed the central fire. 
 Some claim that the heat of the sun is constantly becoming less. We may be sure 
 that its power is sufficient to last for millions of years to come and therefore need 
 not borrow anxiety upon that score. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 481 
 
 THE PLANETS. 
 
 We shall start out from the center to pursue an imaginary journey through space, 
 but before we proceed we will mention some of the characteristics which the planets 
 have in common. Then we will visit each planet in turn, note its distance from the 
 sun, size, length of year, day and night, climate, seasons, and other phenomena. In 
 this way we shall show something of what we know of the character of each, asking our 
 readers to defer the natural question, “How can we know this ? ” till they come to 
 study the more advanced works on this grand science. For the present we will take 
 the facts upon the statements of scientists, and when we come to investigate more 
 fully hereafter we shall find that they are all based upon correct calculation or logical 
 deduction. 
 
 The planets have six characteristics in common. First, they move in the same di- 
 rection around the sun. If we look from the north side of the ecliptic the movement is op- 
 posite that of the hands of a watch. Second, they have elliptical orbits, varying but slight- 
 ly trom a circle. Third, their orbits are inclined more or less to the plane of the ecliptic, 
 which they intersect at two points, and for one-half the distance or time the orbit is above, 
 or north, the ecliptic and for one-half below, or south, of it. The point where the planet 
 crosses to the north is termed the ascending node , and where it goes south, the descend - 
 ing node. The nodes are the points where the two planes intersect, and are represented 
 in Fig. 8 by the points of the earth’s position on the 21st of March and the 2 1st of 
 September, as seen in the two light lines which surround the sun. The point crossed 
 on September 2 1st is called the descending node and the opposite point the ascending 
 node. The same applies to all the other planets, but their nodes come at different times. 
 Fourth, the planets are all opaque, and shine with light reflected from the sun. Fifth, 
 they turn upon their axes, and have alternate day and night. Sixth, they all obey 
 the same law of gravitation, which causes them to move fastest when nearest the sun 
 and slowest when farthest from him. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANETS. 
 
 I. VULCAN. — This is the name given to the supposed new planet. In 1859 it was 
 claimed by La Verrier that he had detected errors in the assumed position of Mercury, 
 which could only be accounted for on the supposition of the presence of another planet 
 nearer the sun than this. March 26th of the next year M. Lescarbault stated that he 
 saw the new planet crossing the sun’s disk, and La Verrier visited him and became sat- 
 isfied of the truth of the statement of his friend, the French physician, who was an 
 enthusiastic astronomer and wonderfully accurate in all his calculations. Mr. Lummis, 
 of Manchester, England, observed, March 20, 1862, a dark, moving object, which he 
 regarded as the transit of an inferior planet over the sun’s disk, and many other in- 
 stances of a similar kind have been observed by astronomers. But the presence of such 
 a planet has not yet been conceded by most of the scientists. However, its distance 
 from the sun has been calculated at thirteen million miles and its periodic time at 
 twenty days. This little one is called Vulcan and its sign is a hammer. The name, 
 
482 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 time, distance, and sign are ready to be given to the stranger when he shall announce 
 his presence. Vulcan was the god of the Forge. Observations and investigation made 
 by eminent astronomers at the time of the total eclipse of the sun May 6, 1883, has 
 led to very serious doubt as to there being any inter-mercurial planet whatever. 
 
 2. MERCURY, the fleetest of the gods; his sign is $ , the wand. — This planet 
 is nearest the sun of all the planets with which we are acquainted. In a clear sky we 
 are able to discern it sometimes just after sunset. It is a bright star in the western 
 sky. It appears here for a few evenings and is then last in the light of the sun, but 
 afterward reappears in the east as a morning star. Its mean distance from the sun is 
 thirty-five million miles, but his orbit is very elliptical, at perihelion being only twenty- 
 eight million miles from the sun, and at aphelion forty-three million. The mercurial 
 year is only eighty-eight days, for being so near the sun it moves at the rapid rate of 
 thirty miles every second of time. Its synodic period is one hundred and sixteen days, 
 for when Mercury gets around to the same point from which it started to record its 
 year the earth has also been moving in the same direction, and it takes twenty-eight 
 days more to overtake it. The distance of Mercury from the earth varies greatly, owing 
 to the relative positions of the two planets from the sun. The nearest distance is forty- 
 seven million miles and the greatest one hundred and thirty-six million. The diame- 
 ter of this planet is three thousand miles ; its volume is one-twentieth that of the world. 
 The seasons of Mercury are characterized by intense heat or cold, and each part of the 
 planet changes from ten times the heat of the world to four and one-half times, mak- 
 ing these sudden transitions from one extreme to the other eight times in one of our 
 years. The length of day and night vary more on this planet than on the earth. 
 Through the telescope it presents the appearance of our moon at different phases. 
 Mercury has no moon. 
 
 3. Venus, the queen of beauty; her sign was $, an ancient mirror. — This planet 
 is next in order to Mercury, and is the most brilliant of all the planets. When it 
 appears before sunrise it is the morning star, and was called by the ancients Lucifer ; 
 when after sunset she is the evening star, and was then called Hesperus. She presents 
 much the same characteristics as the planet before mentioned, but is seen much earlier 
 in the morning and much longer at night. The orbit of this planet is the most nearly 
 circular of any of the planets, her mean distance from the sun being sixty-six mill- 
 ion miles, and the variation from greatest to least distance being only half a million 
 miles. The year of Venus is two hundred and twenty-five days, but because she 
 moves only a little faster than the earth it takes five hundred and eighty-four days for 
 her to come into conjunction with the earth again. Her distance from the earth varies 
 in the proportion of ten, eighteen, and sixty-five, and her appearance is like that of 
 Mercury and the moon, changing from full to half and crescent as it reflects the light 
 of the sun. The diameter of Venus is seven thousand five hundred miles, its volume 
 four-fifths that of the earth ; the seasons very much like those of Mercury, as the 
 inclination of its axis is seventy-five degrees, The heat and light of Mercury is four 
 times that of the world, and the variation of day and night very unequal. Venus has 
 no moon. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 483 
 
 4. The EARTH. — The earth, ©, is the fourth planet from the sun. To our young 
 readers who have not been instructed on this point it may appear strange that the 
 world which appears so large to them in comparison with the stars should 
 be regarded as one of the planets. The world seems to stand still and all 
 the heavenly bodies to revolve around it. It is a vast extensive mass of 
 high mountains, plains, oceans and rivers, so it appears to the uninformed. 
 
 On this same general belief Ptolemy constructed his theory, which could 
 not stand the test of scientific research and has now become obsolete. The fact is, the 
 world is small in comparison with some of the other planets, and a mere speck com- 
 pared to the sun. 
 
 The reason that the stars, and even the sun and moon, appear so small to us is be- 
 cause of their gre^t distance away. Pig. 9 will serve to illustrate this fact, and also 
 another. A person standing on the fort 
 looking out to sea will discover the steamer, 
 b, at a distance and she seems very small ; 
 but as she comes nearer she appears larger, 
 until, when she arrives close to shore, she 
 proves to be of immense proportions. 
 
 This shows that the farther off any object fig. 9. 
 
 is the smaller it looks to us. But this same Fig. 9 illustrates another fact. The world 
 is not a flat plain, broken only by mountains and valleys. It is spheroidical ; that is, 
 like a ball or globe. It is slightly flattened at the poles. The “ roundness ” of the 
 earth is proven from the fact that we see the top of the masts of a steamship at sea 
 before we can see any other part. In Fig. 9 a c is a horizontal line on the ocean level. 
 The steamer, c , first presents the tips of the mast because the water “ curves ” and hides 
 the rest. The shape of the world is that of an oblate spheroid, flattened at the poles. 
 The diameter at the equator is seven thousand nine hundred twenty-five and one-half 
 miles, and at the poles seven thousand eight hundred and ninety-nine. The circumfer- 
 ence is about twenty-five thousand miles. There are other proofs of the rotundity of 
 the earth besides the one mentioned. Ships have sailed 
 around it. The shadow of the earth, Fig. 10, on the moon 
 is circular. The pole star appears to rise higher as we go 
 northward, and the horizon expands as we ascend to the 
 top of a hill or mountain. All these prove that the earth 
 is round. This curvature is eight inches for every mile. 
 
 Any one of our readers can prove this very easily by going 
 on to a frozen pond in winter, and with a spirit-level placed 
 on the ice find the true level. At half a mile distance 
 this level will be four inches above the ice. The compres- 
 sion at the poles is about twenty-six and one-half miles. If we represent the earth 
 6y a globe one yard in diameter, the polar diameter would be one-tenth of an inch too 
 long. It has been recently shown that the equator itself is not a perfect circle, but is 
 somewhat flattened, there being a difference in the diameters of two miles. 
 
484 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 THE DAILY REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH. 
 
 The earth turns upon its axis from west to east, and this causes the sun «.o appar- 
 ently rise in the east and set in the west. One-half of the world is all the time in the 
 
 light and the other half in the dark, this 
 causing the alternation of day and night. 
 Fig. ii illustrates this fact. The world 
 turning upon its axis brings each meridian, 
 represented by the lighter circle, directly 
 under the sun at midday, while the oppo- 
 site point is midnight. The unequal length 
 of day and night for the varying seasons is 
 caused by the inclination of the earth’s axis 
 to the ecliptic. Any given point on the 
 equator passes the meridian at twelve o’clock 
 each day, and to complete the circuit of its 
 fig. ii. revolution has to pass over twenty-five thou- 
 
 sand miles in twenty-four hours, or more than a thousand miles an hour. At the poles 
 there is, of course, none of this motion, and consequently if the axis of the earth was in 
 the plane of the ecliptic the poles would be in the light constantly : but such is far from 
 being the case. The inclination between the axis and the plane of the ecliptic is twenty- 
 three degrees and twenty-eight minutes, and this causes unequal day and night as well 
 as THE VARIATIONS OF THE SEASONS. By reference to our illustration, Fig. 12, we 
 
 will try to explain this. The dotted 
 line represents the orbit of the earth 
 with the sun in the center. The char- 
 acters of the zodiac are arranged around 
 the outside. Here are some things 
 which we are to remember: first, the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic , that is, the in- 
 clination of the earth’s axis ; second, 
 in all parts of the orbit the earth’s axis 
 is parallel to itself ; third, the sun’s 
 rays strike the various parts of the 
 earth at a different angle in the differ- 
 ent seasons of the year. This can be 
 seen by the cut. When the sun is at 
 Aries, the ram, March 21st, and again at Libra, the scales, September 25th, the sun 
 shines directly upon the equator. But when at Cancer, the crab, it shines upon the Tropic 
 of Cancer and brings the summer to the northern half of the world ; and when at Capri- 
 cornus, the goat, it shines upon the Tropic of Capricorn, and it is summer in the south- 
 ern hemisphere. So the direction of the sun’s rays on any portion of the earth s surface 
 is changed every six months. Fourth, the two hemispheres, north and south, are un- 
 equally illuminated at all points of the year except at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. 
 Fifth, the season in the northern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the southern hem- 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 485 
 
 isphere. When it is winter in one it is summer in the other, and vice versa. Sixth, the 
 southern summer is warmer than the northern, because the earth is then nearest the sun, 
 or in perihelion. The southern winter is colder than the northern, because the world is 
 then in aphelion. Seventh, the sun is not in the center of the earth’s orbit, but in one of 
 the foci ; therefore the summer is longer than the winter. This is owing, in part, to the 
 difference in velocity of the earth at the different seasons. The mean duration of the 
 seasons is as follows: spring, ninety-two and nine-tenths days; summer, ninety-three 
 and six-tenths days ; autumn, eighty-nine and seven-tenths days ; winter, eighty-nine 
 days. The earth is seven and eight-tenths days longer in passing from Aries to Libra 
 than from Libra to Aries. 
 
 THE MOON. 
 
 Her mean distance from the earth is two hundred and thirty-eight thousand miles ; 
 her time of revolution is twenty-seven and one-third days ; this is, if the earth remained 
 fixed ; but since the earth and moon are together moving along the earth’s orbit it takes 
 about two days longer for the moon to reach the same apparent place in her orbit. 
 The diameter of the moon is two thousand one hundred and sixty miles. The light 
 of the moon is the reflected light of the sun, and from this cause we see a little more 
 than one-half of its surface from one period to the next. If the sky were filled with full 
 
 moons shining at their height the 
 light would not equal that of the 
 sun. The phases of the moon, 
 from a narrow crescent to the 
 full are caused by the reflection of 
 the sun’s light on the moon at 
 varying angles. “ The old moon 
 in the new moon’s arms ” is caused 
 by the reflection of the earth on 
 the moon being returned to us. 
 
 This occurs for a few days before 
 and after the new moon. This 
 is shown in our illustration, which 
 explains itself. The moon’s sur- 
 face as seen through the telescope 
 presents very interesting features; 
 there are mountains and great 
 gray plains, or seas, with rills and 
 luminous bands, craters and 
 walled plains. These are seen 
 in the ideal landscape of the 
 moon, which we have presented 
 at the beginning of this article. 
 
 The sun and earth, as they appear fig. 13.— phases of moon. 
 
 from the moon, is also introduced in the same illustration. There is one class of phe- 
 nomenon connected with the relation of the moon to the earth which we will endeavor, 
 to explain. 
 
486 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 ECLIPSE OF THE SUN AND MOON. 
 
 When the moon comes between the sun and the earth at the time of either of hei 
 nodes there is. caused an eclipse of the sun, for the three bodies are then in a straight 
 line and the moon hides a large part of the sun’s disk. 
 
 The general theory of an eclipse 
 can be presented in the following 
 manner, as illustrated by Fig. 14. A 
 common bull’s-eye lantern may be 
 used in a darkened room with a 
 three-foot globe inclined at the 
 proper angle to represent the posi- 
 tion of the earth as seen in the illus- 
 tration. The lantern may be called 
 the sun, and, of course, it is under- 
 stood that correct comparative sizes 
 are not attempted in this arrange- 
 to the lantern, which, like the sun, 
 is self-luminous, and is giving out its own rays ; these fall upon the globe we have desig- 
 nated the earth and illuminate one-half, while the other is shrouded in darkness, re 
 
 minding us of the opacity of the earth, and teaching, in 
 a familiar manner, the causes of day and night. 
 Another globe, say six inches in diameter, and sup- 
 ported by a string, may be compared to the moon, 
 and, like the earth, is now luminous, and shines only 
 by a borrowed light : the moon is simply a reflector of 
 light like a sheet of white cardboard, or a metallic mir- 
 ror. When, therefore, the small globe is passed be- 
 tween the lantern and the large globe a shadow is 
 
 cast on the earth : it is also seen that only the half 
 of the small globe turned toward the lantern is illumi- 
 nated while the other half, opposite the large globe, is 
 in shadow or darkness. And here we understand why 
 the moon appears tobe black while passing before the 
 fig. 15.— earth and moon. sun ; so also by moving the small globe about in 
 
 various curves it is shown why eclipses are only visible at certain parts of the earth’s 
 surface ; and as it would take (roughly speaking) fifty globes as large as the moon to 
 make one equal in size to our earth, the shadow it casts must necessarily be 
 
 small, and cannot obscure the whole hemisphere of the earth turned toward it. 
 
 An eclipse of the sun is, therefore, caused by the opaque mass of moon pass- 
 ing between the sun and the earth, while an eclipse of the moon is caused by the 
 the earth moving directly between the sun and the moon : the large shadow cast by 
 earth renders a total eclipse of the moon visible to a greater number of spectator? 
 on that half of the earth turned toward the moon. All these fads can be clearly 
 demonstrated with the arrangement already described in Fig. 14. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 487 
 
 All the planets being opaque cast a shadow opposite the sun, and this causes the 
 phenomena of the eclipse, as will be seen by an examination of the illustration Fie- 
 15* The moon’s shadow is ’ s * 
 
 longer than its distance from 
 the earth, and consequently 
 she casts a dark shadow on 
 the earth’s surface whenever 
 she comes between it and the 
 sun. In the cut we see that 
 the dark shadow of the moon, 
 termed umbra , comes to a 
 point ; in fact it covers about 
 one hundred and forty miles 
 diameter on the earth’s sur- 
 face. The penumbra , or 
 lighter shadow, diverges from 
 the moon. Now when the 
 dark shadow at the time of 
 an eclipse falls upon the 
 earth there is a total eclipse ; 
 but when the penumbra 
 falls on the earth it is 
 a partial eclipse; while in 
 the portions of the world 
 outside of the penumbra 
 there is no eclipse. When 
 the eclipse takes place at 
 the time the moon is the 
 farthest from the earth the 
 shadow cast by the moon is 
 not of sufficient size to 
 cover the sun’s disk; it is 
 
 ° r ’I" 8 '' 1 * 6 ’ eCUpSe - This Can be Seen in Fi S- 16. In order to com- 
 prehend the difference between an annular and a total eclipse of the sun it is necessary 
 
 o mention the apparent sizes of the sun and moon : thus, the former is a very large 
 o y viz., eight hundred and eighty-seven thousand miles in diameter ; but then the 
 sun is a very long way off from the earth, and is ninety-one and a half millions ofmiles 
 distant from us; therefore he does not appear to be very large : indeed, the sun seems 
 about the same size as the moon ; for, although the sun’s diameter is (roughly speaking) 
 four hundred times greater than that of the moon, he is four hundred times farther 
 away from us, and, consequently, the sun and moon appear to be the same size, and 
 when they come in a straight line with the eye, the nearer and smaller body, the moon, 
 
 or a tot I 6 3 u m ° re d!Stant maSS ’ the SUn ; and henCe We have either “ annuli 
 
 a total eclipse, as the moon is farthest from or nearest to the earth at the time show- 
 
 .SLT b "’“" *'* ' ye * “ r6 " bo< ' y '“ <, * ith " 
 
488 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 A TOTAL ECLIPSE DESCRIBED. 
 
 If the annular eclipse of the sun be a matter for wonderment, the total eclipse of 
 the same is much more surprising ; no other expression than that of awfully grand can 
 give an idea of the effects of totality, and of the suddenness with which it obscures the 
 light of heaven. The darkness, it is said, comes dropping down like a mantle, and as 
 the moment of full obscuration approaches people’s countenances become livid, the 
 horizon is indistinct and sometimes invisible, and there is a general appearance of 
 horror on all sides. These are not simply the inventions of active human imaginations, 
 for they produce equal, if not greater effects, upon the brute creation. A swarm of ants, 
 busily engaged, stopped when the darkness commenced, and remained motionless till 
 the light reappeared. A herd of oxen collected themselves into a circle and stood still, 
 with their horns outward, as if to resist a common enemy ; certain plants, such as the 
 convolvulus and silk-tree acacia, closed their leaves. A “ total eclipse ” of the sun has 
 always impressed the human mind with terror and wonder in every age : it was always 
 supposed to be the forerunner of evil ; and not only is the mind powerfully impressed 
 as darkness gradually shuts out the face of the sun, but at the moment of totality a 
 
 magnificent corona, or glory of light, is visible, and prominences, or flames, as they 
 
 are often termed, make their appearance at different points round the circle of the dark 
 mass. This glory does not flash suddenly on the eye ; but commencing at the first 
 limb of the sun passes quickly from one limb to the other. 
 
 A LUNAR ECLIPSE. 
 
 An eclipse of the moon is caused by the moon 
 passing through the earth’s shadow and can occur 
 only when she is at the full. This can take place 
 
 only at or near the nodes. Fig. 17 shows the 
 
 moon in the umbra, or shadow, of the earth. 
 The earth is so much larger than the moon that 
 there can never be an annular eclipse of the moon, 
 but as the eclipse may occur a little before or after 
 the nodes there may be a partial eclipse. Total 
 eclipses of the moon are more rare than those of 
 the sun, yet we see them more frequently, because 
 when they do occur they last longer and cover a 
 larger part of the earth’s surface. From the first 
 to the last contact with the penumbra the time 
 may be five hours and a half. We must pass with 
 this explanation of the phenomena of eclipses to 
 the planet next outward from the earth. 
 
 5. Mars, the god of war; sign, $ , shield and spear. — This is the first of the supe. 
 rior planets, and in its structure most like the earth. To the unaided eye it appears like a 
 bright red star scintillating and shining with a steady light. This will serve to distinguish 
 it from the fixed stars. Its apparent size changes from four seconds when it is at conjunc- 
 tion to thirty seconds when it is at opposition with the sun. Its mean distance from the 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 439 
 
 sum is one hundred and forty million miles, but its orbit is so elliptical that its nearest 
 distance is one hundred and twenty-seven million miles. Its day is about forty minutes 
 longer than ours, and its year is equal to six hundred and eighty-seven of our days. 
 The distance from the earth varies the same as that of all the superior planets from 
 the difference between the distance of Mars from the sun and that of the earth to the 
 sum of these distances. When they are on the same side of the sun, and in a line with 
 it, or in conjunction, the distance between the two planets is thirty-three million miles. 
 When on opposite sides, and in the same line, it is two hundred and thirty-three 
 million. Its diameter is less than five thousand miles ; its volume one-fourth that of 
 the earth and its density one-half, consequently the mass of Mars is only one-eighth 
 that of the world. Its axis is inclined 28.7 degrees to the ecliptic, and on this account the 
 seasons are very much like our own, but are twice as long. The light and heat de- 
 rived from the sun is about one-half the amount which comes to the earth. Mars 
 has at least two moons and an atmosphere similar to ours. The telescope shows 
 seas and continents on the surface of Mars and a change from a snowy whiteness to a 
 ruddy color, with all the vicissitudes of the seasons. 
 
 6 . JUPITER, the king of the gods; sign, 2£, a hieroglyphic representation of an 
 eagle. — The next planet going outward is Jupiter, the largest of the solar system. It 
 was known to the ancients and regarded as the ruler of storms and tempests. But all 
 such notions in connection with the science of astronomy have passed away. The 
 mean distance of this planet from the 
 sun is four hundred and seventy-five 
 million miles, and its orbit is more 
 nearly a circle than that of any of the 
 planets we have so far visited. The '== 
 motion of Jupiter among the fixed 
 stars is slow and majestic, and his ad- 
 vancement along the zodiac is at the 
 rate of one constellation a year. Slow- 
 ly as he appears to move his actual 
 rate is five hundred miles per minute. 
 
 His day is only ten of our hours, but 
 his revolution around the sun requires 
 twelve of our years. Once in thirteen 
 months he is opposite the sun from us, 
 and twice in that time he is in con- 
 junction with us. His least distance 
 from us is three hundred and eighty- 
 two million miles, his greatest five = 
 hundred and sixty-eight millions. The 
 diameter of this planet is eighty-eight 
 thousand miles, or one-tenth that of 
 the sun, and his volume is fourteen hun- FIG * i 8 -J upiter AND HIS MOONS - 
 
 dred times that of the earth. The density of its mass is one-fifth that of the earth, and 
 a. c a point upon its equator travels at the rate of four hundred and sixty-seven miles 
 
490 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 per minute compared with seventeen miles per minute on the earth’s equator, the mass 
 of J upiter is immensely flattened at the poles. The equatorial diameter is five thousand 
 miles greater than the polar. The axis of this huge world is but little inclined to its 
 orbit, and therefore the days and nights are more equal and the seasons are more unh 
 form on all parts of its surface than on the earth. The appearance of Jupiter and his 
 moons, of which there are four, presents in the telescope a complete Copernican sys- 
 tem reduced in size and number. These moons revolve about the planet, varying 
 from hour to hour. They are of different sizes ; one of them larger than the planet 
 Mercury, and all larger than the asteroids. To an observer on the surface of the 
 planet these moons present all the phases of our moon, with changes and eclipses. 
 Names have been given them, their distance from the planet, their density and periods 
 have all been computed. Their names are /<?, Europa , Ganymede , and Castello. The 
 eclipses of Jupiter’s moons enabled the Danish astronomer, Romer, to compute the 
 velocity of light, and subsequent independent scientific investigation proved him to be 
 substantially correct. 
 
 7. SATURN, the god of time ; sign, h,an ancient scythe. — We now come to 
 the seventh planet from the sun, the fifth and last one known to the ancients. It is 
 
 FIG 19. — SATURN AND HIS RINGS. 
 
 smaller than the planet Jupiter, but more gloriously attended. It has eight moons and 
 several rings. Its mean distance from the sun is eight hundred and seventy-two mill- 
 ion miles and its orbit is but slightly elliptical, a trifle more than that of Jupiter. It 
 moves at the rate of twenty-one thousand miles per hour, and yet it takes thirty years 
 like ours to make one revolution, or twenty-five thousand of Saturn’s days, which are 
 ten and a half hours of our time. The different distances from the earth vary; 
 the least distance is seven hundred and eighty-eight million, the greatest distance 
 is nine hundred and seventy-two million miles. The diameter of this planet is 
 seventy-two thousand miles, its volume seven hundred and fifty times that of 
 the earth, its density is less than that of water, and its seasons similar to those on 
 the earth, but each one lasts seven of our years. For fifteen years the sun shines 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 491 
 
 on the north pole of Saturn and it is summer there, and then fifteen years of summer 
 on the south pole. The rings of Saturn are its most important features, and have 
 long attracted the attention of astronomers. There are three rings of unequal breadth 
 surrounding the planet at the equator. The outer ring is separated from the middle one 
 by a distinct break, while the inner one seems joined to it. They differ in brightness ; 
 the outer ring is of a grayish tint, the middle one is more brilliant than Saturn himself, 
 and the inner ring has a purple tinge. These rings revolve around Saturn in ten and 
 a half hours in the same direction as the planet revolves on its axis. To us the rings 
 present different phases as the sun illuminates the sides or edges. There are dusky belts 
 on the surface like those on Jupiter, and the regions about the equator are brighter 
 than the other parts of the disk. There are eight moons revolving around this planet. 
 The scenery on its surface must be grand and lovely beyond description. 
 
 8. URANUS, the most ancient of the gods; sign, U, H, with a planet suspended 
 from the cross-bar of the letter. — This planet was discovered by Sir William Herschel, 
 March 13, 1781, and at first was regarded as a comet. Soon the error as to its character 
 was detected and the astronomical world placed it where it belongs among the planets. 
 Its mean distance from the sun is one thousand seven hundred and fifty-four million 
 miles, its year eighty-four of our years. Its diameter is thirty-three thousand miles 
 and its density about that of ice, or less than water. Nothing has been ascertained in 
 regard to its seasons, and it presents no peculiar telescopic appearance. Uranus has 
 four moons which move opposite to the motion of their primary. 
 
 9. Neptune, the god of the sea; sign, his trident. — This is the farthest planet 
 
 from the sun as yet discovered, and in the telescope appears as a star of the eighth mag- 
 nitude. The discovery of this planet was one of the most wonderful achievements of 
 modern astronomy. Herschel found that there was some body outside of Uranus 
 which disturbed him in his orbit, and at once concluded that it must be another planet. 
 Finally he gave this difficult problem to two young mathematicians, M. Leverrier, of 
 Paris, and Mr. Adams, of Cambridge, each unknown to the oth'er : “ Given the disturb- 
 ances caused by the attraction of an unknown planet, to find its orbit and its place in 
 the orbit.” Mr. Adams labored assiduously for two years, and then submitted his cal- 
 culations to the Astronomer Royal, Professor Airy, in 1845. The young Frenchman 
 laid his paper before the Academy of Sciences in Paris announcing the position of the 
 new planet. Professor Challis, of Cambridge, at the request of Professor Airy, turned 
 the large telescope to the point of the heavens indicated in the paper of Mr. Adams 
 and saw a star, but failed to ascertain its true character. Doctor Galle, of the Berlin 
 Observatory, on the evening of September 23, 1846, at the request of M. Leverrier 
 turned his great telescope at the point of the heavens indicated and discovered the 
 unknown planet, which was called Neptune. The mean distance of this planet from the 
 sun is two thousand seven hundred and fifty million miles ; its year is equal to one hun- 
 dred and sixty-five of our years ; its velocity is only twelve thousand miles per hour; 
 its diameter is thirty-seven thousand miles, and its volume is one hundred times that 
 of the earth, while its density is less than that of water. The sun furnishes Neptune 
 only one-thousandth part the light and heat which comes to the earth. Of the seasons 
 of Neptune we know nothing. It has one moon, whose revolution about the planet 
 occupies six days. This moon is about as near its primary as our moon. We have 
 
 48 
 
492 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 come to the confines of the solar system, and yet we have touched only upon the bare 
 outlines which it contains. But there are other bodies in this system which we must 
 briefly mention. 
 
 THE MINOR PLANETS. 
 
 Between Mars and Jupiter there is a wide interval of space which for a long time 
 was regarded as unfilled. Kepler boldly announced that there must be a planet some- 
 where in this belt. This was corroborated by the discovery of Bode’s law, which is 
 this: Take the numbers o, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, 192, 384, and you will see that after o 
 they increase in twofold ratio. Now if we add 4 to each term of this series we have 
 4, 7, 10, 16, 28, 52, 100, 196, 388. These numbers represented the position of all the 
 planets at the time of the discovery of this law, with the exception of 28, which was un- 
 filled. On the 14th day of January, 1801, Peazzi discovered a small planet at almost the 
 exact distance to fill this gap. Up to the present time (1883) there have been discov- 
 ered more than two hundred and twenty of these minor planets, called asteroids. These 
 “ pocket planets,” as Herschel terms them, are very small and move in regular orbits with- 
 in a zone of one hundred million miles’ width, with paths variously inclined to the ecliptic, 
 that of one inclining only forty-one minutes, and another as great as thirty-four de- 
 grees. Some scientists account for the great number of these small planets on the 
 hypothesis of the explosion into fragments of a large planet in remote ages, causing the 
 different portions to move in variously inclined orbits. Names and signs have been 
 given to these planets whenever discovered, but the discoveries came so fast that since 
 then they have been designated by numbers within a circle. 
 
 METEORS, SHOOTING-STARS, AND AEROLITES. 
 
 These all seem to have a common origin and to be moving in space around the 
 sun. Whenever the earth in its orbit intersects their path they are attracted out of 
 their course, and either fall to the earth as aerolites, or burn out in the air as shooting- 
 stars, or sweep across the circuit of the atmosphere and continue their journey in space. 
 There are numbers of them any night in the year, but they seem to have a periodicity 
 which Arago has designated thus: April 4th to nth; August 9th to nth; October 
 about 15th, and November nth to 13th, when they are most abundant. 
 
 METEORIC RINGS. 
 
 It is supposed that these bodies revolve about the sun in rings of immense num- 
 bers collected together. Recent investigations indicate that there are distinct rings 
 for each of the periods, and that they are very elliptical. The November ring seems 
 to have its perihelion in the ecliptic and its aphelion beyond the orbit of Uranus, while 
 the August ring extends much farther. Herschel estimates the height of the shooting- 
 stars at seventy-three miles above the earth when they enter the earth’s atmosphere 
 and fifty-two when they disappear, and Professor Harkness estimates their weight at 
 one grain. 
 
 COMETS. 
 
 These are perhaps the most fascinating of all the heavenly bodies which come 
 within our range of vision. The suddenness with which they appear, the swiftness of 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 493 
 
 their flight, the varying forms they assume, the length of their fiery tails, their remark- 
 able character, and the rapidity with which they disappear partake somewhat of the 
 marvelous. The word comet signifies a hairy body. They usually have three parts : 
 the nucleus, a bright spot in the center of the head ; the coma (hair), a cloud-like mass 
 surrounding the bright spot, and the tail, a long, streaming banner of luminous appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Some comets have been seen without a nucleus and others without a tail. These 
 bodies appear in every part of the heavens and are not confined to the zodiac. Their 
 orbit is of every conceivable shape in which a curved line can be constructed. Kepler 
 says that there are as many “ comets in the heaven as fish in the sea.” Some comets 
 return, since they have elliptical orbits ; others never can return, for their orbits are 
 parabolic or hyperbolic, and the farther they get from the sun the wider the lines of 
 the orbit becomes. The comets have an endless variety of form and dimension. Some 
 comets loose their tails, others are like the comet of 1843, which “exhausted itself in 
 the manufacture of its own tail.” This comet was visible in full daylight and was 
 very near the earth. In 1861 the earth passed through the tail of a comet. The comet 
 of 1835 has a period of seventy-five years. This was the same comet that appeared in 
 1531, 1607, 1682, 1758. In 1456 at its appearance the pope ordered this prayer to be 
 said by everybody: “ Lord save us from the devil, the Turk, and the comet.” The peo- 
 ple of 1223 regarded it as the forerunner of the death of Philip Augustus, of France, and 
 in 1066 the British signaled it as the foreteller of victory for William the Conqueror. 
 This comet is known as Halley’s comet, because he predicted its return in 1758 or 1759 
 and computed its period. One other comet will be mentioned. 
 
 THE WONDERFUL COMET OF 1 882. 
 
 The 18th of September will be memorable in the annals of the year 1882, for on 
 that day a comet suddenly blazed forth like a gigantic meteor from the skies. It was 
 close to the sun, three degrees west of it, and a little to the south, when first discov- 
 ered, and large enough and bright enough to be distinctly visible in near proximity to 
 the glorious luminary. Lord Crawford telegraphed the discovery by European ob- 
 servers to Harvard College Observatory, and at almost precisely the same time the news 
 came that Mr. Miller, of Leon, Kan., had seen the celestial visitor. A comet visible in 
 the full blaze of sunlight had not been seen since 1843, and ' m the whole course of astro- 
 nomical observation only five or six members of the cometic fraternity had deigned to 
 make a call in the daytime. Astronomers eagerly attacked the sky with telescope, 
 spectroscope, and practiced eye. The grand aim was to obtain the three positions from 
 which the elements could be calculated and the orbit deduced. For only in this way 
 could they find out if the newcomer was making its first visit to solar domains, or if it 
 were an old friend, repeating its visit after the lapse of many years. If the comet 
 moved in a parabola, an orbit that never closes, this was its first appearance, and when 
 it disappeared it would depart to return no more. If it moved in an ellipse, unless 
 turned from its course by the attraction of one of the giant planets, it would be sure to 
 renew its visit when its revolution was completed. 
 
 In a few days the leading cometic observers had computed the comet’s elements 
 and marked the orbit in which it was traveling. There was a general agreement on 
 
494 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 some important points. These were, that the comet had passed perihelion when first 
 seen, unless it was identical with Crule’s comet, discovered at Rio Janeiro on the ioth 
 of September; that it had passed very near the sun, absolutely grazing the solar atmos- 
 phere; that it was one of the largest comets on record; that it was receding from 
 the sun and the earth, and that there was a surprising similarity between the orbit of 
 the present comet and the orbits of the comets of 1843 and 1880. A startling theory 
 is founded on the correspondence of orbits. A prominent cometic observer an- 
 nounced his belief that in the newcomer we beheld a return of the comets of 1843 
 and 1880. 
 
 It was announced that, about the 30th of September, our erratic visitor would 
 cease to be an object of interest in northern skies, though its course might be followed 
 in southern climes. But the comet bade defiance to the calculations of mathematicians. 
 Nearly at that time the storm ended, and, on the morning of the 30th, the eastern sky 
 was aglow with the most superb and glorious specimen of cometic splendor that had 
 occurred during the comet’s reign. On the 5th of October our gossamer-tailed visitor 
 got up a new excitement. The nucleus, as seen in the telescope, seemed to break into 
 three pieces, though still maintaining its unity to the unaided eye. Again there was 
 a war of opinion, but the prevailing theory ascribed the appearance to the condensa- 
 tion of the nebulous matter in the head into concentric layers, and the threatened 
 catastrophe of a great comet splitting into three parts ceased to be a cause of alarm. 
 Those who remembered when Biela’s comet divided into twin comets that reappeared 
 at its next return, traveled harmlessly side by side, and then disappeared forever, 
 did not borrow trouble on this occasion, and desired nothing better than the split- 
 ting apart of the strange visitor. On the 8th of October, Schmidt, of Athens, dis- 
 covered a small comet following in the exact track of the more brilliant member of the 
 same family. Some fanciful theorist quickly advanced the opinion that it was a 
 piece of the great comet broken off by the brush with the sun’s corona and starting on 
 an independent existence. But neither the little comet nor the theory has attracted 
 much attention. 
 
 THE PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES. 
 
 We have treated the equinoxes as if they were constant; but the fact is, that there 
 is a backward motion of about fifty seconds each year. As the circle is divided into 
 three hundred and sixty degrees our young readers can easily find out how many years 
 it will take for a complete revolution of the equinoxes. Reduce three hundred and 
 sixty degrees to seconds and divide by fifty and you will find that it takes twenty-five 
 thousand eight hundred and sixteen years. The vernal equinox has fallen back 
 thirty degrees on the zodiac, and should now be in Pisces. There are many other 
 points connected with the science of astronomy as applied to our earth, such as the 
 refraction and aberration of light , the parallax , and others, for the full discussion of 
 which the reader must consult larger works. 
 
 THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 
 
 We may have noticed in the western horizon during the short twilight of March 
 or April a faint luminous light of conical shape often as high as the constellation Pleiades. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 495 
 
 In September and October the same appearance may be observed near the eastern horizon. 
 But this can be seen in the temperate zones only on the most favorable nights, and is 
 often liable to be confounded with the milky way or the auroral lights. The base has a 
 reddish hue and is often quite bright. In the tropics it is seen every night and morning, 
 and shines with a brilliancy sufficient, says Humboldt, to cast a sensible glow on the 
 opposite part of the heavens. One theory is that it is caused by a meteoric zone that 
 can be seen only when the sun is lost to view. Another is that it is a “ nebulous ring 
 that encircles the earth within the moon’s orbit.” It is an interesting object and 
 worthy the attention of the scientist. 
 
 FIG. 20. — OBSERVATORY IN BENGAL. 
 
 ASTRONOMICAL CALCULATIONS. 
 
 We are quite well satisfied when the surveyor calculates the distances between 
 towns and cities, the dimensions of a park, or the height of a hill, and we readily ac- 
 cept his results as correct ; but when we read the immense figures which represent ce- 
 lestial distances, the dimensions and periods of the heavenly bodies, we have a vague 
 idea of uncertainty in regard to the whole subject of astronomical calculations. Many 
 people think that these measurements involve principles which are so mysterious that 
 no ordinary mind can comprehend them. We will try to illustrate a few of the prob- 
 lems and show that measurements in the heavens are as mathematically exact as the 
 lesser measurements on the earth’s surface. Their accuracy depends solely upon the 
 establishment of a correct “ base-line,” and the properties and relation of the sides and 
 angles of a triangle. 
 
 ANGLES AND THEIR MEASUREMENT. 
 
 As even our youngest readers may be aware, every circle is divided into three hun- 
 dred and sixty degrees. These degrees are employed in the measurement of all angles, 
 as can readily be seen in the accompanying illustrations. The circle contains four right 
 angles, as we show in Fig. 21. The two rulers are placed over the point which indicates 
 the center of a circle of any size whatever and dividing the entire circle into four ec^Tnl 
 
496 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 parts. Each one of these is a right angle and contains ninety degrees. All angles less 
 than a right angle are called acute angles ; those greater than a right angle are termed 
 obtuse angles. Of the properties of angles and triangles the reader will be referred to 
 the works on trigonometry. The measurement of angles is a very delicate matter 
 and requires a most careful adjustment of instruments ; this is done by means of a grad- 
 
 uated scale moving on a vernier, so accurately graduated as to enable the astronomer to 
 measure minutes, seconds, and tenths of a second. Fig. 22 gives an illustration of the 
 comparative size of angles, and somewhat of an idea of the difficulties with which the 
 astronomer has to contend in ascertaining the exact size of angles. The arcs of a cir- 
 cle described on this figure show that the circumference of a circle makes no difference 
 in the angles, but the angle decides the distance to be measured on the arc of the cir- 
 cle. The angles are enumerated from o, the starting-point, moving opposite to the 
 hands of a watch around to o again. The principle of the vernier is described in the 
 works on mathematics. Now, as the entire accuracy depends upon the precise meas- 
 urement of angles and a fixed base-line, when these two points are gained all the 
 rest must be mathematically correct. 
 
 THE INSTRUMENTS USED BY THE ASTRONOMER. 
 
 The first we mention is the telescope. There are two classes of this instrument, the 
 refracting and the reflecting telescope. The principles of the telescope depend upon 
 the refracting powers of different lenses. The various shapes of these lenses — plain, 
 
 double-convex, plano-convex, double-con- 
 cave, plano-concave, concavo-convex — are 
 shown in Fig. 23. The properties of these 
 lenses will be described in another place. 
 A correct application of the use of lenses 
 CAn be obtained, and the idea of the refracting telescope illustrated in this way : let a 
 
 FIG. 23. — LENSES. 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 407 
 
 lens of any focal length exceeding six inches be placed at one end of a tin or card-board 
 tube, which must be six inches longer than the focal length of the lens ; the tube 
 may be in two parts, sliding one within the other, and when the eye is placed at the 
 other end, an inverted image of the object looked at is apparent. By using two 
 double-convex lenses a more perfect simple astronomical telescope is obtained. The 
 object-glass — i.e., the lens next the object looked at — must be placed at the end of a tin 
 or pasteboard tube larger than its focus, and the second lens — called the eye-glass, 
 because next the eye — is a smaller tube, termed the eye-tube; and if the focal length of 
 the object-glass is three feet the eye-glass must have a one-inch focus, and of course 
 the eye-tube and glass must slide freely in the tube containing the object-glass. An 
 object-glass of forty feet focus will admit of an eye-glass of only a four-inch focus, and 
 will, therefore, magnify one hundred and twenty times. A tube of forty feet in 
 length would of course be very troublesome to manage, and therefore it is usual to 
 adopt the plan originally devised by Huygens, viz., that of placing the object-glass in a 
 short tube on the top of a high pole with a ball-and-socket joint, while the eye-glass is 
 brought into the same line as the object-glass and focused with a tube and rack-work 
 properly supported. In an ordinary terrestrial telescope there are four lenses, in order 
 that the object seen by its assistance shall not be inverted ; and whenever objects are 
 examined by a common telescope they are found to be fringed, or surrounded with 
 prismatic colors. This disagreeable effect is corrected by the use of achromatic lenses, 
 in which two kinds of glass are united ; and the light decomposed by one glass, uniting 
 with the colors produced by the other, form white light ; thus, a double-convex lens of 
 crown glass may be united with a plano-convex lens of flint glass, and the latter must 
 have a focus about double the length of that of the crown-glass lens. The concave 
 lens corrects the color or chromatic aberration of the other, and leaves about one-half 
 of the refracting power of the convex lens as the effective magnifying power of the 
 compound lens. The French opticians cement the lenses very neatly together, and use 
 them in ordinary spy and opera-glasses. The reflecting telescope shows an image of 
 the object reflected to the eye of the observer. The great telescope of Lord Rossi, 
 at Parsonstown in Ireland, is a magnificent example of such an instrument, but its expla- 
 nation belongs to the subject of the reflection of light rather than here. 
 
 The transit instrument is a telescope so constructed as to point always to a meri- 
 dian. It revolves on a horizontal axis directed due east and west, and is used to indi- 
 cate the exact time a star crosses the meridian. The axis must be horizontal ; that is, it 
 must point due east and west. The optical axis of the instrument must be at right angles 
 to it. This telescope is placed between two graduated circles, such as Fig. 23, so the alti- 
 tude as well as meridian time of the star can be determined. 
 
 A mural circle is an instrument for fixing the zenith distance of stars, and from 
 this their north polar distance and its complement. It is a circle having a telescope 
 attached, and all secured to a solid wall of masonry. It revolves in the plane of a meri- 
 dian. A siderial clock is used for accurately measuring the time of any heavenly body 
 during the period of observation, and the chronograph for recording the time. These 
 instruments are used in the best observatories in connection with an equatorial telescope for 
 ascertaining the right ascension , declination, and polar distance of the stars. A full explana- 
 tion of these instruments cannot be given in our limited space. Suffice it to say that they 
 
498 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 are constructed with precision and scientific perfection that reduces the possibility ok 
 error to the least fraction. A vast amount of expense attends the construction and 
 equipment of an observatory, which requires the aid of government or the patronage of 
 men of great wealth. The illustration at the head of this article represents the observ- 
 atory at Benares, a division of Bengal-Hindostan, supported by the English govern- 
 ment. Most of the civilized countries have national observatories, under the charge 
 of competent astronomers. 
 
 SOME OF THE PROBLEMS TO BE DETERMINED. 
 
 First . — To FIND THE DISTANCE OF THE PLANETS FROM THE SUN. 
 
 In Fig. 24 let S be the position of the sun, V the position of Venus, and E the 
 position of the earth when the earth and the planet Venus are nearest together. The 
 angle S V E is a right angle, and remains a right angle whatever may be the relative 
 position of the earth and Venus. The angle S E V changes with the change of posi- 
 tion of those planets. When Venus is in aphelion and the earth is in perihelion this 
 angle will be the greatest. We know that in every right-angle-triangle the hypoth- 
 enuse and the opposite side change their proportion as the angle S E V changes. 
 The proportion between the hypothenuse S E and the side S V is called the line of 
 the angle S E V. Now, by getting this angle when Venus is nearest the earth and 
 when it is farthest away we can find the mean distance of the line E V. The lines of 
 all the angles are published in tables of mathematics. By this the mean distance of 
 Venus is found to be seventy-two one-hundredths of that of the earth. So we see 
 that the problem resolves itself into a very simple question of mathematics. 
 
 Second . — The distance from the earth to the moon. 
 
 This is taken by means of the luna parallax. The parallax is the apparent posi. 
 tion of the same object seen from different points. 
 
 In Fig. 25 let P P' represent the axis of the earth, G the situation of the observa- 
 tory at Greenwich, England, and C the observatory at Cape Town, South Africa. An 
 observer from Greenwich will see the moon projected on the firmament at G'and the 
 one at Cape Town will see the same moon at C'. Now the distance from the north pole 
 
THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 
 
 409 
 
 of the celestial sphere to G r will be one hundred and eight degrees. The distance 
 from the south pole to the point C ; will be seventy-three and one-half degrees* 
 The sum of the two is one hundred eighty-one and a half degrees, but we know 
 that there are only one hundred and eighty between the north and south poles. 
 Therefore the points G' and C' must be one and a half degrees apart. This 
 is the moon’s parallax. The arc of the angle C' M G r measures the oppo- 
 site angle G M C. This much is found by the observers at the two points at the 
 same time. Now the lines G E and C E are radii of the earth, which we know to be 
 three thousand nine hundred and fifty-six miles. The moon’s zenith distance from the 
 two points G and C is known, and so the angles M G E and MCE can be easily 
 found. E M, the moon’s distance, is then readily computed by a simple formula in 
 trigonometry. 
 
 Third.— The distance of the sun from the earth. 
 
 This is the most important problem, and one of the most difficult to solve. This 
 difficulty does not arise from the intricate mathematical calculations, but from “that 
 plague of all astronomical calculations,” the refraction of light, which increases when 
 the sun is shining. This makes it extremely difficult to calculate small angles with 
 accuracy. Astronomers have therefore calculated this distance not only by the solar 
 parallax at Greenwich and Cape Town, as in the case of the moon, but by observations 
 of the planet Mars and the transit of Venus. These transits occur at rare intervals, 
 that are indicated by the numbers 8, 105 1-2 and 8, 121 1-2, etc. The earth must be in 
 one of its nodes at the same time with Venus. The nodes of Venus fall in that part of 
 her orbit which we pass in June or December, and consequently transits can happen 
 only in these months. 
 
 Observations of the transit of June 3d, 1769, attracted a great amount of interest, 
 and observations were taken at Tahiti, St. Petersburg, Pekin, Lapland, California, and 
 other points, in order that the cords might be as long as possible. By the calculations 
 based upon these observations, the solar parallax was given as eight and fifty-eight one- 
 hundredth seconds and his distance from the earth as ninety-five million two hundred 
 and ninety-three thousand miles. The next transit of Venus occurred on December 8, 
 1874, and attracted much attention from the improved and more accurate instruments 
 of the times over those of a hundred years before. Yet although the solar parallax was 
 found to be different from that given by the previous calculations the astronomers have 
 not agreed in their statements. But American authorities state the solar parallax as 
 8.94 ", which reduces the distance of the sun from the earth to ninety-one million four 
 hundred and thirty thousand miles. The great difficulty in this matter is seen when we 
 remember that the difference between 8.58" and 8.94" may be represented by the 
 breadth of a human hair at a distance of one hundred and twenty-five feet. The astro- 
 nomical world awaited with deep interest the observation of the transit of Venus 
 which occurred December 9, 1882. 
 
 Fourth . — To FIND THE LONGITUDE OF A PLACE. 
 
 I. By a solar observation . — The sailor observes the sun when it has reached its 
 highest point in the heavens. This is the apparent noon. From this he subtracts or 
 adds the equation of time as given in his Almanac, and he obtains the true or mean 
 
500 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 time. Comparing this time with Greenwich time kept by a chonometer he reduces 
 the difference in time to degrees, minutes, and seconds of longitude. 
 
 2. By lunar observation. — The sailor with his sextant obtains the angular distance 
 of the moon from a fixed star, and by referring to the Nautical Almanac, which is pub- 
 lished by government three years in advance, and gives the distance of the moon 
 from any fixed star for all the hours of the day, he can compare the local time with 
 Greenwich time and reduce to degrees, minutes, and seconds. 
 
 Fifth . — To FIND THE LATITUDE OF A PLACE. 
 
 1. Find the elevation of the pole above the horizon by means of the sextant and 
 this will be the latitude. 
 
 2. Take the height of the sun above the horizon at noon, then subtract from this 
 the sun’s declination for that day, as founed in the Nautical Almanac. Then subtract 
 this remainder from ninety degrees and you have the latitude of the place. 
 
 Sixth . — The circumference of the earth. 
 
 The degrees of latitude increase in statute miles as we go north or south of the 
 equator, because the earth is not a perfect sphere. Now it is necessary to measure a 
 degree of latitude very accurately at different intervals on a meridian of longitude of 
 the earth’s surface and note the variations, and from these compute the average length 
 of a degree of latitude. This accurate measurement has been made at great expense 
 in Peru, nearly on the equator, in Lapland, in England, France, Russia, and other coun- 
 tries. So great accuracy has been reached that two astronomers who have calculated 
 the problem independently of each other have differed in their estimate of the earth’s 
 circumference by only seventy-seven yards. 
 
 Seventh . — To FIND THE RELATIVE SIZE OF THE PLANETS. 
 
 The principle of this problem is this : two spheres are to each other as the cubes of 
 their like dimensions ; that is, their diameter, their radii, their circumference, or their semi* 
 circumference. For example, the diameter of the earth is seven thousand nine hum 
 dred and twenty-five miles, that of Mercury is two thousand nine hundred and sixty- 
 two miles ; then we would state the proportion thus : The volume of Mercury : the 
 volume of the earth : : 29623 : 79253. The same principle applies to any two members 
 of the solar system of which the diameters are known. 
 
 Eighth. — TO FIND THE SUN’S DIAMETER. 
 
 1. A very primitive method is to take a circular piece of card-board and hold it at 
 a sufficient distance from the eye to just cover the sun’s disk; then with the diameter 
 of the paper and its distance from the eye known we have this proportion, viz. : As the 
 distance of the paper : the distance of the sun : : the diameter of the paper to the 
 sun’s diameter. 
 
 2. The apparent diameter of the sun as seen from the earth is about thirty-two 
 minutes, and the apparent diameter of the earth as seen from the sun is twice the solar 
 parallax, or seventeen and eighty-eight hundredth seconds. From this we construct 
 the following proportion, viz. : The apparent diameter of the earth : the apparent 
 diameter of the sun : : the real diameter of the earth : the real diameter of the sun. 
 
THE FIXED STARS. 
 
 501 
 
 3. With the apparent diameter of the sun and its distance from the earth given 
 we can find the real diameter by this simple problem in trigonometry, viz. : 
 
 The distance of the earth : the sun’s radius : : the sun’s radius : the sine of sixteen 
 minutes. That is, multiply the distance of the earth from the sun by the sine of six- 
 teen minutes (or one-half the apparent diameter of the sun) and extract the square 
 root and you have the sun’s radius, or semi-diameter. By a similar method one can 
 calculate the diameter of any of the planets. 
 
 III. 
 
 THE FIXED STARS. 
 
 In all we have thus far written upon astronomy we have been only like the chil- 
 dren who explore the garden that surrounds their humble home while the vast world 
 lies beyond the garden-gate, through which they have not yet passed. We had reached 
 the planet Neptune, who sweeps around the sun at a distance of two thousand seven 
 hundred and fifty millions of miles. We can see the nearest fixed star, but we are ap- 
 
 
 ***■ 
 ****** 
 ***4f 
 
 * * * ***** 
 
 FIG. 26. — STAR CLUSTER. 
 
 *■. *** * 
 
 * £ * * **** ** * ** 
 
 FIG. 27. — STAR CLUSTER. 
 
 parently no nearer than when we left the sun. It twinkles in the same spot, and be- 
 tween us and it there is still a vast chasm, which no imagination can measure. The 
 figures which we roll up to designate this distance are perfectly meaningless to our 
 conception, and the finite mind fails to grasp them. Take that of the star Alpha Cen- 
 tauri, supposed to be the nearest of these innumerable worlds, and its distance is two 
 hundred thousand times that of the earth's distance from its sun, or, in round figures, 
 
 19,000,000,000,000 miles. This is the limit within which it cannot come, and yet it 
 may be farther away than that. Light, which travels at the rate of one hundred and 
 eighty-three thousand miles per second, would take one hundred and twenty-five years 
 to reach this earth from the smallest star which is visible to the unaided eye. But 
 stretching far beyond this are worlds and systems of worlds opened up by the telescope, 
 and besides these there are clusters of stars like those represented by Figs. 31 and 32. 
 These stars appear eternally fixed, and present no change from age to age ; yet *hey 
 have a motion in comparison to which the swiftest flight of any member of our sola* 
 system sinks into utter insignificance. Our sun is only one of these stars and has its 
 motion among the rest. 
 
502 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF ASTRONOMY. 
 
 The stars are catalogued and numbered on the charts of astronomers. There are 
 twenty stars of the first magnitude, sixty-five of the second, two hundred of the third • 
 of the fifth there are eleven hundred, and three thousand two hundred of the sixth 
 magnitude. Very few persons can distinguish with the naked eye stars below the fifth 
 or sixth magnitude. Stars of the tenth magnitude can be distinguished by the use of 
 ordinary telescopes, while those of great power have been employed to distinguish 
 .wars of the twentieth magnitude. Many of the brightest stars have had names given 
 them. After this the stars of each constellation are designated by the letters of the 
 Greek alphabet. The brightest one is called Alpha ( a ), the next Beta (/?), in connec- 
 tion with the genitive case of the name. For example : a , Arietis ; f3, Lyrce. That is, 
 the brightest star in the constellation Aries, the second star in Lyra, and so on. 
 The constellations are named from the fancied resemblance to animals, per- 
 sons, and objects in the stories of ancient mythology. The old system has be- 
 come so imbedded in the notions of astronomy that it is difficult to change the 
 arrangement now, although it is an unscientific and crude one. There' are the twelve 
 constellations of the zodiac with the same names as the signs ; but the signs and constella- 
 tions do not now agree, as we have before said, for the latter have moved back by the pro- 
 cession of the equinoxes. The northern circumpolar constellations are : Ursa Majo* 
 and Ursa Minor (the Great and Little Bear), Perseus, Cassiopea, Cepheus, Draco, and 
 Lynx. In the equatorial constellations are found Andromeda, Pegasus, Aurega, 
 Orion, Cetus, the River, the Whale, the Hare, the Dog, the Ship, Berenice’s Hair, 
 Bootes, Crata, Crovus, Hydra, Hercules, the Crown, the Serpent-Bearer, the Dolphin, 
 the Eagle, the Southern Fish, the Wolf, the Swan, and the Harp. The constellations 
 of the equatorial region are the most numerous, because this belt is by far the largest 
 and extends north and south of the equator. The first zone, or the northern circum 
 polar constellations, embrace those stars that we of the north temperate zone see the 
 entire year. The second zone, or equatorial constellations, are those which we see at 
 some part of the year. The third zone, or southern circumpolar constellations, embrace 
 those stars that cannot be seen in this latitude, — forty-one degrees north. These con- 
 stellations are Hydrus, the Southern Cross, the Centaur, the ship Argo, the Crow, the 
 Riticule, the Wolf, the Southern Crown, the Crane, and the Peacock. 
 
 There are also double stars, star clusters, and nebulae, with many other objects of 
 interest in the heavens. The constellations are indicated upon the maps of the stars 
 and designated by their old names, as given above. The study of astronomy is one of 
 the most fascinating and stimulating to the imagination of any which comes within 
 the range of man- We have been able to hint only at the great wonders of creation, 
 but we trust we have said enough to encourage all our readers to study the manifolcjl 
 wonders of God. At best we are able to know but “ a part of his ways/* 
 
' ILLUSTRATED EXPERIMENTS 
 
 IN 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 The Principles of Natural Science Explained and Illustrated with In. 
 
 TERESTING AND AMUSING EXPERIMENTS, WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR EN- 
 TERTAINING the Home Circle and Larger Audiences with Rational 
 and Instructive Diversion. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The following illustrated pages must be regarded as a series of philosophical ex- 
 periments, detailed in such a manner that any young person may perform them with 
 the greatest facility. The author has endeavored to arrange the manipulations in a 
 methodical, simple, and popular form, and will indeed be rewarded if these experiments 
 should arouse dormant talent in any 
 of the rising generation, and lead 
 them on gradually from the easy read- 
 ing of the present philosophical ex- 
 periments to the study of the com- 
 plete and perfect philosophical works 
 of scientific authors. 
 
 Every boy should ride “ a hobby 
 horse ” of some kind ; and while 
 play, and plenty of it, must be his 
 daily right in holiday time, he ought 
 not to forget that the cultivation of 
 some branch of the useful arts and 
 sciences will afford him a delightful 
 and profitable recreation when sa- 
 tiated with mere play, or imprisoned 
 by bad weather, or gloomy with the 
 unamused tediousness of a long win- 
 ter’s evening. The author recollects with pleasure the half-holidays he used to devote 
 to chemistry, with other lads, and in spite of terrible pecuniary losses in retorts, bot- 
 tles, and jars, the most delightful amusement was enjoyed by ad who attended and as- 
 sisted at these juvenile philosophical meetings. It has been well remarked by a pop- 
 ular author that bees are geometricians ; the cells are so constructed as, with the 
 least quantity of material, to have the largest sized spaces and the least possible inter- 
 stices. The mole is a meteorologist . The bird called the nine-killer is an arithmetician , 
 also the crow, the wild turkey, and some other birds. The torpedo, the ray, and the 
 electric eel are electricians. The nautilus as a navigator ; he raises and lowers his 
 sails, casts and weighs anchor, and performs nautical feats. Whole tribes of birds are 
 musicians. The beaver is an architect , builder , and wood-cutter , j he cuts dcrvo trees 
 
 FIG. A. 
 
504 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 and erects houses and dams. The marmot is a civil engineer ; he does not only build 
 houses, but constructs aqueducts, and drains to keep them dry. The ant maintains a 
 regular standing army. Wasps are paper manufacturers. Caterpillars are silk-spinners. 
 The squirrel is a ferryman ; with a chip or a piece of bark for a boat, and his tail for a 
 sail, he crosses a stream. Dogs, wolves, jackals, and many others, are hunters. The 
 black bear and heron are fishermen. The ants are day-lahorers. The monkey is a rope- 
 dancer. Shall it, then, be said that any boy possessing the godlike attributes of mind 
 and thought with free-will can only eat, drink, sleep, and play, and is therefore lower 
 in the scale of usefulness than the animals? No ! no ! Let “ Young America ” enjoy 
 his manly sports and pastimes, but let him not forget the mental race he has to run 
 with the educated of his own and other nations ; let him nourish the desire for “ scien- 
 tific knowledge ” not only as a school lesson, but as a treasure, a useful ally which may 
 some day help him in a greater or lesser degree fight “ the battle of life.” With the 
 hope that the following pages may aid our young readers in the development of a 
 taste for rational and intellectual experiment we submit them to their perusal, trusting 
 that they may find pleasure and profit in applying the principles and illustrations given 
 to successful experiment. By following the directions explicitly as we have presented 
 them no one need fail to perform any experiment to the satisfaction of himself and 
 friends. 
 
 I. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHYc 
 
 THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER. — IMPENETRABILITY. 
 
 In the present state of our knowledge it seems to be universally agreed, that we 
 cannot properly commence even popular discussions on astronomy, mechanics, and 
 chemistry, or on the imponderables, heat, light, electricity, and magnetism, without 
 a definition of the general term “ matter which is an expression applied by philoso- 
 phers to every species of substance capable of occupying space, and, therefore, to 
 everything which can be seen and felt. 
 
 The sun, the moon, the earth, and other planets, rocks, earths, metals, glass, wool, 
 oils, water, alcohol, air, steam, and hosts of things, both great and small, all solids, 
 liquids and gases, are included under the comprehensive term matter. Such a numer- 
 ous and varied collection of bodies must necessarily have certain qualities, peculiarities, 
 or properties ; and hence we come in the first place to consider “ the general powers 
 or properties of matter.” Thus, if we place a block of wood or stone in any position, 
 we cannot take another substance and put it in the space filled by the wood or stone 
 until the latter be removed. Now this is one of the first and most simple of the prop- 
 erties of matter, and is called impenetrability, being the property possessed by all solid, 
 liquid, and gaseous bodies, of filling a space to the exclusion of others until they be 
 removed, and it admits of many amusing illustrations, both as regards the proof and 
 modification of the property. 
 
 Thus, a block of wood fills a certain space : how is it (if impenetrable) that we can 
 drive a nail into it? A few experiments will enable us to answer this question. 
 
 Into a glass filled with spirits of wine, a quantity of cotton wool many times the 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 505 
 
 bulk of the alcohol may (if the experiment is carefully performed) be pushed without 
 causing a drop to overflow the sides of the vessel. 
 
 Here we seem to have a direct contradiction of the simple and indisputable truth, 
 that “two things cannot occupy the same space at once.” But let us proceed with 
 our experiments : — 
 
 We have now a flask full of water, and taking some very finely-powdered sugar it 
 is easy to introduce a notable quantity of that substance without increasing the bulk of 
 the water ; the only precaution necessary, is not to allow the sugar to fall into the flask 
 in a mass, but to drop it in grain by grain, and very slowly, allowing time for the air- 
 bubbles (which will cling to the particles of sugar) to pass off, and for the sugar to dis- 
 solve. Matter, in the experiments adduced, appears to be penetrable, and the prop- 
 erty of impenetrability seems only to be a creation of fancy : reason, however, enables 
 us to say that the latter is not the case. 
 
 A nail may certainly be hammered into wood, but the particles are thrust aside to 
 allow it to enter. Cotton wool may be placed in spirits of wine because it is simply 
 greatly extended and bulky matter, which, if compressed, might only occupy the space 
 of the kernel of a nut, and if this were dropped into a half-pint measure full of alcohol 
 the increase of bulk would not cause the spirit to overflow. The cotton-wool experi- 
 ment is therefore no contradiction of impenetrability. The experiment with the sugar 
 is the most troublesome opponent to our term, and obliges us to amend and qualify 
 the original definition, and say, that the ultimate or smallest particles or atoms of 
 bodies only are impenetrable ; and we may believe they are not in close contact with 
 each other, because certain bulks of sugar and water occupy more space separately 
 than when mixed. 
 
 If we compare the flask of water to the flask full of marbles, and the sugar to some 
 rape-seed, it will be evident that we may almost pour another flask of the latter among 
 the marbles, because they are not 
 in close contact with each other, 
 but have spaces between them ; 
 and after pouring in the rape-seed 
 we might still find room for some 
 fine sand. 
 
 The particles of one body 
 may thus enter into the spaces left 
 between those of another without 
 increasing its volume ; and hence, 
 as has been before stated, “ the 
 
 atoms only of bodies are truly impenetrable,” so we see the definition is correct. 
 
 This spreading, as it were, of matter through matter assumes a very important func- 
 tion when we come to examine the constitution of the air we breathe, which is chiefly 
 a mechanical mixture of gases: seventy-nine parts by volume or measure of nitrogen 
 gas, twenty-one parts of oxygen gas, and four parts of carbonic acid vapor in every 
 ten thousand parts of air having the following relations as to weight : nitrogen, speci- 
 fic gravity, 972; oxygen, 1105 ; carbonic acid, 1524. 
 
 It might be expected that these gases would arrange themselves in our atmosphere 
 
506 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 in the above order, and if that were the case we should have the carbonic-acid gas (a 
 most poisonous one) at the bottom, and touching the earth, then the oxygen, and, last 
 of all, the nitrogen ; a state of things in which organized life could not exist. The gases 
 do not, however, separate ; indeed they seem to act, as it were, like vacuums to one an- 
 other, and the “diffusion of gases” has become a recognized fact, governed by fixed 
 laws. One of the most elegant modes of showing the diffusion of gases is by taking a 
 large round porous ceil, such as would be employed in a voltaic battery, and having ce- 
 mented a brass cap with a glass tube attached to its lower extremity it may then be 
 supported by a small tripod of iron wire, and the end of the glass tube placed in a tumbler 
 containing a small quantity of water colored blue with sulphate of indigo. If a toler- 
 ably large jar containing hydrogen is now placed over the porous cell bubbles of gas 
 make their escape at the end of the tube, because the hydrogen diffuses itself more 
 rapidly into the porous cell than the air which it already contains passes out. When 
 the jar is removed the reverse occurs ; hydrogen diffuses out of the porous cell, and the 
 blue liquid rises in the tube. 
 
 This diffusive force prevents the accumulation of the various noxious gases on 
 the earth, and spreads them rapidly through the great bulk of the atmosphere surround- 
 ing the globe. 
 
 Although air and other gases are invisible they possess the property of impenetra- 
 bility, as may be easily proved by various experiments. Having opened a pair of com- 
 mon bellows, stop up the nozzle securely, and it is then impossible to shut them ; or, 
 fill a bladder with air by blowing into it, and tie a string fast round the neck ; you then 
 find that you cannot, without breaking the bladder, press the sides together. 
 
 It is customary to say that a vessel is empty when we have poured out the water 
 which it contained. Having provided two glass vessels full of water, place each of them 
 in an empty white pan to receive the overflow, then lay an orange upon the surface of 
 
 Fig. 2 represents the water over- 
 flowing, as the glass, with the ori- 
 fice closed, is pressed down, prow 
 ing the impenetrability of air. 
 
 Fig. 3. The orange has entered the 
 glass vessel, and the air having 
 passed from the orifice no water 
 overflows. 
 
 the water of one of them, and being provided with a cylindrical glass, open at one end, 
 with a hole in the center of the closed end, place your finger firmly over the orifice, 
 and endeavor, by inverting the glass over the orange, and pressing upon the surface 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 507 
 
 of the water, to make it enter the interior of the glass cylinder ; the resistance 
 of the air will now cause the water to overflow into the white pan, while the orange 
 will not enter. The orange may now be transferred to the other vessel of water, and 
 on removing the finger from the orifice of the cylindrical glass, and inverting it as before 
 over the orange, the air will rush out and the orange and water will enter, while there 
 will be no overflow, as in the preceding experiment. The comparison of the two is very 
 striking, and at once teaches the fact desired. 
 
 Having sufficiently indicated the nature and meaning of impenetrability we may 
 proceed to discuss experimentally three other marked and special qualities of matter — * 
 viz., inertia, gravity, and weight. 
 
 INERTIA, OR PASSIVENESS. 
 
 Inertia is a power which (according to Sir Isaac Newton) is implanted in all mat- 
 ter of resisting any change from a state of rest. It is sometimes called vis inertice, and 
 is that property possessed by all matter of remaining at rest till set in motion, and 
 vice versa ; and it expresses, in brief terms, resistance to motion or rest. 
 
 A pendulum clock wound up and ready to go does not commence its movements 
 until the inertia of the pendulum is overcome, and motion imparted to it. On the 
 other hand, when seated in a carriage, should any obstruction cause the horse to stop 
 suddenly, it is only perhaps by a violent effort, if at all, that we can resist the onward 
 movement of our bodies. To illustrate inertia, construct a metal tray, about three 
 feet long, two feet wide, and two inches 
 deep, with a glass bottom, and arrange 
 it on a frame-work supported by legs 
 like a table, and having filled it with 
 water let the room be darkened, and 
 then place under the tank a lighted 
 candle, at a sufficient distance from 
 the glass to prevent the heat cracking 
 it. If a piece of calico or paper, 
 stretched on a frame-work, be now held 
 over the water at an angle of about 
 thirty degrees, all that occurs on the 
 surface of the water will be rendered 
 visible on such screen. Attention may 
 now be directed to the quiescence, or 
 the inertia, of the water, while the op- 
 posite condition of movement and formation of the waves may be beautifully shown by 
 touching the surface of the water with the finger; the miniature waves being depicted on 
 the screen, and continuing their motion till set at rest by striking against the sides of 
 the tin tray. 
 
 If the above experiment should be thought too troublesome or expensive to pre- 
 pare, inertia may be demonstrated by filling a tea-cup or other convenient vessel with 
 water, and after rapidly moving it in any direction, if we stop suddenly the rigidity of 
 
 49 
 
508 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 all parts of the cup we hold brings them simultaneously to a state of rest ; but the mo* 
 bility of the liquid particles allows of their continuing in motion in their original direc- 
 tion, and the liquid is spilled. Thus, carelessness in handing and spilling a cup of tea 
 (though not to be recommended) serves to illustrate an important principle. The inertia 
 of bodies in motion is further and lamentably illustrated by the accidents caused from the 
 sudden stoppage of a railway train while in rapid motion, when heads and knees come in 
 contact with frightful results. It is more especially demonstrated by the earth, the 
 moon, and the other planets continuing their motion forever in the absence of any 
 friction or resistance to oppose their onward progress. It is the friction arising from 
 the roughness of the ground, the resistance of the air, and the force of the earth’s at- 
 traction, which puts a stop to bodies set in motion about the surface of the earth. 
 
 The same principle of inertia is shown by Fig. 5. The frame contains ten ivory 
 balls suspended from a cross-bar. The balls are of equal size. If one of the balls, as 
 
 B, be moved to D and allowed to drop back to its 
 place, the balls between B and A will remain sta- 
 tionary, but A will fly off to C. If two balls be 
 moved away then two balls at the other end will 
 
 9 ly off to C. 
 
 fig. 5. 
 
 GRAVITATION. 
 
 Inertia represents a passive force, gravitation an active condition of matter ; and 
 this latter may truly be termed a force of attraction, because it acts between masses 
 at sensible and insensible distances : it is illustrated by a stone, unsupported, falling to 
 the ground ; by the stone pressing with force on the earth, and requiring power to raise 
 it from the ground : indeed, it is commonly reported that it was by an accident—" an 
 apple falling from a tree ’’—that the great Newton was led to reflect on the universal 
 law of gravitation, and to pronounce upon it in the following memorable words : — 
 
 “ Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle of matter with 
 a force or power directly proportional to the quantity of matter in each , and decreasing 
 as the squares of the distances which separate the particles increase .” 
 
 A falling body descends about sixteen feet in one second, sixty-four feet in two 
 seconds, one hundred and forty-four feet in three seconds, two hundred and fifty-six 
 feet in four seconds, four hundred feet in five seconds, five hundred and seventy-six 
 feet in six seconds ; the spaces passed over being as the squares of the times. Sup- 
 pose a stone takes three seconds in falling to the surface of the water in a well, then 
 3 x 3 = 9 x 16= 144 feet would be a rough estimate of the depth. The calculation will 
 exceed the truth in consequence of the stone being retarded in its passage by the re- 
 sistance of the air. 
 
 All bodies gravitate equally to the earth : for instance, if an open box, say one 
 foot in length, two inches broad, and two inches deep, be provided with a nicely-fitted 
 bottom, attached by a hinge, a number of substances, such as wood, cork, marble, iron, 
 lead, copper, may be arranged in a row ; and directly the hand is withdrawn, the move- 
 able flap flies open, and if the manipulation with the disengagement of the trap-door is 
 good, the whole of the substances are seen to proceed to the earth in a straight lin<*“ 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 509 
 
 If a heavy substance, like gold, be greatly extended by hammering and beating into 
 thin leaves, and then dropped from the hand, the resistance of the air becomes very 
 apparent ; and a gold coin and a piece of gold-leaf would not reach the earth at the 
 same time if allowed to fall from any given height. The force of gravitation is dem- 
 onstrated by the action of the sun and moon raising the waters of the ocean, and pro- 
 ducing the tides ; and also by the earth and moon, and other planets and satellites 
 being prevented from flying from their natural paths or orbits around the sun. It is 
 also very clearly proved that there must be some kind of attractive force resident in 
 the earth, or else all movable things, the water, the air, the living and dead matters, 
 would fly away from the surface of the earth in obedience to what is called “ centrifu- 
 gal force. ” Our earth is twenty-four hours in performing one rotation on its axis, 
 which is an imaginary line drawn from pole to pole, and represented by the wire round 
 which we cause a sphere to rotate. All objects, therefore, on the earth are moving 
 with the planet at an enormous velocity ; and this movement is called the earth’s di- 
 urnal, or daily rotation. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 
 
 Is that power which drives a revolving body from a center, and it may be illustrated 
 by turning a closed parasol, or umbrella, rapidly round on its center, the stick being 
 the axis ; the ribs fly out, but if there is much friction in the parts the illustration is 
 more certain by attaching a bullet to the end of each rib. The same fact may be illus- 
 trated by a square mahogany rod, say one inch square and three feet long, with two 
 flaps eighteen inches in length, hanging by hinges, and parallel to the sides of the cen- 
 ter rod, which immediately fly out on the rotation of the long center-piece. The toy 
 called the centrifugal railway is also a very pretty illustration of the same fact. A 
 glass of water, or a coin, may be placed in the little carriage, and although it must be 
 twice hanging perpendicular in a line with the earth, the carriage does not tumble 
 away from its appointed track, and the centrifugal force binds it firmly to the interior 
 of the circle round which it revolves. 
 
 Another striking and very simple illustration is to suspend a hemispherical cup by 
 three cords, and having twisted them by turning round the cup it may be filled with 
 water, and directly the hand is withdrawn the torsion of the cord causes the cup to 
 rotate, and the water describes a circle on the floor, flying off at a tangent from the 
 cup. 
 
 A hoop when trundled would tumble on its side if the force of gravitation was not 
 overcome by the centrifugal force, which imparts to it a motion in the direction of a 
 tangent (tango, to touch) to a circle. The same principle applies to the spinning-top — 
 this toy cannot be made to stand upon its point until set in rapid motion. 
 
 Returning again to the subject of gravitation, we consider it in relation to other 
 and more magnificent examples which we discover by studying the science of astron- 
 omy. See our article on Astronomy. 
 
 These words may appear very obscure to our juvenile readers ; but when dissected 
 and examined properly they clearly define the property of gravitation. For instance, 
 “ every particle attracts every other with a force proportional to the quantity of mat 
 
510 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 ter in each.” This statement was verified some years back by Maskelyne, who, having 
 sought out and discovered a steep, precipitous rock in the Schi- 
 challion mountains, in Scotland, suspended from it a metal weight 
 by a cord, and going to a convenient distance with a telescope, 
 and observing the weight, he found that it did not hang perpen- 
 dicularly, like an ordinary plumb line, but was attracted, or im- 
 pelled, to the sides of the rock by some kind of attraction, which, 
 of course, could be no other than that indicated by Newton as the 
 attraction of gravitation. 
 
 This truly wonderful power of attraction pervades all 
 masses; and being, as before stated, proportional to the quan- 
 tity of matter, if a man could be transported to the surface of 
 the sun he would become about thirty times heavier : he would 
 be attracted, or impelled, to the sun with thirty times more grav- 
 itating force than on the surface of the earth, and would weigh 
 about two tons. Of course, nursing a baby on the sun’s surface 
 would be a very serious affair with our ordinary strength ; while 
 on some of the smaller planets, such as Ceres and Pallas, we 
 should probably gravitate with a force of a few pounds only, and 
 with the same muscular power now possessed we should quite 
 emulate the exploits of those domestic little creatures sometimes 
 called “ the industrious fleas,” and our jumping would be something marvelous. There 
 is no very good lecture-table experiment that will illustrate gravitation, although at- 
 tention may be directed to the fact of a piece of potassium thrown on the surface of 
 water in a plate generally rushing to the sides, and, as if attracted, attaching itself with 
 great force to the substance of the pottery or porcelain ; or, if a model ship, or lump 
 of wood, be allowed to float at rest in a large tank of water, and a number of light chips 
 of wood or bits of straw be thrown in, they generally collect and remain around the 
 larger floating mass. 
 
 The attraction of gravitation decreases (quoting the remainder of Newton’s defini- 
 tion) as the squares of the distances which separate the particles increase — i.e., it obeys 
 the principle called “ inverse proportion ” — viz., the greater the distance, the less grav- 
 itating power ; the less the distance, the greater the power of gravitation. Gravitation 
 is therefore like the distribution of light and other radiant forces. 
 
 Fig. 6. — A represents ihe 
 ordinary position of a 
 plumb line, while the line 
 of the weight B indicates 
 (of course with some ex- 
 aggeration) the attractive 
 power of 4 the mass of the 
 rock drawing it from the 
 perpendicular. 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
 
 It is recorded of the great Dr. Wollaston, that when Sir Humphry Davy placed 
 in his hand what was then considered to be the scientific wonder of the day — viz., a 
 small bit of the metal potassium — he exclaimed at once, “ How heavy it is,” and was 
 greatly surprised, when Sir Humphry threw the metal on water, to see it not only 
 take fire, but actually float upon the surface. Here, then, was a philosopher possessing 
 the deepest learning, unable, by the sense of touch and by ordinary handling, to 
 state correctly whether the new substance (and that a metal) was heavy or light ; 
 hence it is apparent that the property of specific gravity is one of importance, and 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 511 
 
 being derived from the Latin, means species , a particular sort or kind ; and gravis , 
 heavy or weight — that is, the particular weight of every substance compared with a 
 fixed standard of water. 
 
 We are so constantly in the habit of referring to a standard of perfection in music 
 and the arts of painting and sculpture, that the youngest will comprehend the office of 
 water when told that it is the philosopher s unit or starting point for the estimation of 
 the relative weights of solids and liquids. A good idea of the scope and meaning 
 of the term specific gravity is acquired by a few simple experiments, thus : if a cylin- 
 drical glass, say eighteen inches long, and two and a half wide, is filled with water, and 
 another of the same size is also filled, one half with water and the other half with a 
 saturated solution of common salt, or what is commonly termed brine, a most amusing 
 comparison of the relative weights of equal bulks of water and brine can be made 
 with the help of two eggs ; when one of the eggs is placed in a glass containing water 
 it immediately sinks to the bottom, showing that it has a greater specific gravity than 
 water ; but when the other egg is placed in the second glass containing the brine it 
 sinks through the water till it reaches the strong solution of salt, where it is suspended, 
 and presents a most curious and pretty appearance ; seeming 
 to float like a balloon in air, and apparently suspended upon 
 nothing, it provokes the inquiry, “ whether magnetism has 
 anything to do with it?” The answer, of course, is in the 
 negative ; it merely floats in the center, in obedience to the 
 common principle, that all bodies float in others which are 
 heavier than themselves ; the brine has, therefore, a greater 
 weight than an equal bulk of water, and is also heavier than 
 the egg. A pleasing sequel to this experiment may be shown by 
 demonstrating how the brine is placed in the vessel without 
 mixing with the water above it ; this is done by using a glass 
 tube and funnel, and after pouring away half the water con- 
 tained in the vessel (Fig. 9), the egg can be floated from the 
 bottom to the center of the glass by pouring the brine down 
 the funnel and tube. The saturated solution of salt remains 
 in the lower part of the vessel and displaces the water, which 
 floats upon its surface like oil on water, carrying the egg 
 with it. 
 
 The water of the Dead Sea is said to contain about 
 twenty-six per cent, of saline matter, which chiefly consists 0 f FlG - 9— A vessel half full of 
 common salt. It is perfectly clear and bright, and in conse- poured down the tube the egg 
 quence of the great density a person may easily float on its S iaduall y nses - 
 surface, like the egg on the brine ; so that if a ship could be heavily laden while float- 
 ing on the water of the Dead Sea it would most likely sink if transported to the Hudson 
 River. This illustration of specific gravity is also shown by a model ship, which being 
 first floated on the brine will afterward sink if conveyed to another vessel containing 
 water. One of the tin model ships sold as a magnetic toy answers nicely for this 
 experiment, but it must be weighted or adjusted so that it just floats in the brine ; then 
 it will sink when placed in another vessel containing only water. 
 
512 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Another amusing illustration of the same kind is displayed with gold-fish, which 
 swim easily in water floating on brine, but cannot dive to the bottom of the vessel, 
 owing to the density of the saturated solution of salt. If the fish are taken out imme- 
 diately after the experiment and placed in fresh water they will not be hurt by contact 
 with the strong salt water. 
 
 These examples of the relative weights of equal bulks enable the youthful mind 
 to grasp the more difficult problem of ascertaining the specific gravity of any solid or 
 liquid substance ; and here the strict meaning of terms should not be passed by. 
 Specific weight must not be confounded with absolute weight ; the latter means the 
 entire amount of ponderable matter in any body : thus, twenty-four cubic feet of sand 
 weigh about one ton ; while specific weight means the relation that subsists between 
 the absolute weight and the volume or space which that iveight occupies. Thus a cubic 
 foot of water weighs sixty-two and a half pounds, or one thousand ounces avoirdupois, 
 but changed to gold the cubic foot weighs more than half a ton, and would be equal 
 to about nineteen thousand three hundred ounces ; hence the relation between the 
 cubic foot of water and that of gold is nearly as i to 19*3 ; the latter is therefore called 
 the specific gravity of gold. 
 
 Table of the Specific Gravities of the Metals in Common Use . 
 
 Platinum 21.5 
 
 Gold 19.3 
 
 Mercury 1 3.56 
 
 Lead 11*445 
 
 Silver 10.50 
 
 Bismuth 
 Copper 
 Iron 
 Tin . 
 Zinc 
 
 9-83 
 
 8.96 
 
 7-79 
 
 7.28 
 
 6.5 to 7.2 
 
 Now a mode of taking the specific gravity of different substances — viz., by the 
 weight of equal bulks, whether cubic feet or inches, could not be employed in conse- 
 quence of the difficulty of procuring exact cubic inches or feet of the various substances 
 which by their peculiar properties of brittleness or hardness would present insuperable 
 obstacles to any attempt to fashion or shape 'them into exact volumes. It is therefore 
 necessary to adopt the method first devised by Archimedes, 600 B.C., when he dis- 
 covered the admixture of another metal with the gold of King Hiero’s crown. 
 
 This amusing story, ending in the discovery of a philosophical truth, may be thus 
 described : King Hiero gave out from the royal treasury a certain quantity of gold 
 which he required to be fashioned into a crown : when, however, the emblem of power 
 was produced by the goldsmith it was not found deficient in weight, but had that 
 appearance which indicated to the monarch that a surreptitious addition of some other 
 metal must have been made. It may be assumed that King Hiero consulted his friend 
 and philosopher, Archimedes, and he might have said, “ Tell me, Archimedes, without 
 pulling my crown to pieces, if it has been adulterated with any other metal.” The 
 philosopher asked for time to determine the question. He went to a public bath with 
 the problem still in his mind. On entering the bath he noticed that the water was dis- 
 placed by the bulk of his own body. Rushing from the bath he ran through the streets 
 naked as a pair of his own compasses, crying “ EUREKA ! EUREKA ! ” — I have found it , 1 
 have found it. The gold and the alloy each had different weight in the water as com- 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 513 
 
 pared with its weight in air. And by a mathematical calculation he could determine 
 how much gold and how much alloy was in the crown (see Fig. A at the beginning of 
 this article). For the sake of argument, let it be supposed that the crown weighs seven- 
 teen and ane-half ounces avoirdupois, which are duly placed 
 in the other scale-pan, and without touching these weights 
 the crown is now placed in a vessel of water. It might be 
 supposed that directly the crown enters the water it would 
 gain weight, in consequence of being wetted ; but the contrary 
 is the case, and by thrusting the crown into the water it may 
 be seen to rise with great buoyancy so long as the seventeen 
 and one-half ounces are retained in the other scale-pan ; and 
 it will be found necessary to place at least two ounces in the 
 scale-pan to which the crown is attached before the latter 
 sinks in the water; and thus it is distinctly shown that the 
 crown weighs only about fifteen and one-half ounces in the water, and has therefore 
 lost instead of gaining weight while immersed in the liquid. The rule may now be 
 worked out thus: Weight of crown in air, seventeen and one-half ounces; weight of 
 same in water, fifteen and one-half ounces; loss of weight in water, two ounces. Now 
 divide the weight of the crown in air by the loss of weight in water, and the quotient, 
 eight and three-fourths, demonstrates that the crown is manufactured of copper, 
 because it would have been about nineteen and one-fourth if made of pure gold. 
 
 The simple rule already explained may be applied to all metals of any size or 
 weight, and when the mass is of an irregular shape, having various cavities on the sur- 
 face, there may be some difficulty in taking the specific gravity, in consequence of the 
 adhesion of air-bubbles ; but this may be obviated either by brushing them away with a 
 feather, or, what is frequently much better, by dipping the metal or mineral first into 
 alcohol, and then into water, before placing it in the vessel of water, by which the actual 
 specific gravity is to be taken. 
 
 CENTER OF GRAVITY. 
 
 That point about which all the parts of a body do, in any situation , exactly balance each 
 
 other . 
 
 The discovery of this fact is due to Archimedes, and it is a point in every solid 
 body (whatever the form may be) in which the forces of gravity may be considered as 
 united . In our globe, which is a sphere, or rather an oblate spheroid, the center of 
 gravity will be the center. Thus, if a plummet be suspended on the surface of the 
 earth it points directly to the center of gravity, and, consequently, two plummet-lines 
 suspended side by side cannot, strictly speaking, be parallel to each other. If it were 
 possible to bore or dig a gallery through the whole substance of the earth from pole 
 to pole, and then to allow a stone or the fabled Mahomet’s coffin to fall through it, the 
 momentum — i.e., the force of the moving body — would carry it beyond the center of 
 gravity. This force, however, being exhausted, there would be a retrograde movement, 
 and after many oscillations it would gradually come to rest, and then, unsupported by 
 anything material, it would be suspended by the force of gravitation, and now enter 
 
514 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 into and take part in the general attracting force ; and being equally attracted on every 
 side, the stone or coffin must be totally without weight. Momentum is prettily illus- 
 trated by a series of inclined planes cut in mahogany with a grooved channel at the top 
 in imitation of the famous Russian ice mountains, and if a marble is allowed to run 
 down the first incline the momentum will carry it up the second, from which it will 
 again descend and pass up and down the third and last miniature mountain. 
 
 In a sphere of uniform density the center of gravity is easily discovered, but not 
 so in an irregular mass ; and here, perhaps, an explanation of terms may not be alto- 
 gether unacceptable. 
 
 Mass , is a term applied to solids, such as a mass of lead or stone. 
 
 Bulk, to liquids, such as a bulk of water or oil. 
 
 Volume , to gases, such as a volume of air or oxygen. 
 
 To find the center of gravity of any mass, as, for example, an ordinary school-slate, 
 we must first of all suspend it from any part of the frame ; then allow a plumb-line to 
 drop from the point of suspension, and mark its direction on the slate. Again, suspend 
 the slate at various other points, always marking the line of direction of the plummet 
 and at the point where the lines intersect each other there will be the center of gravity. 
 The equilibrium of bodies is most affected by the position of the center of gravity. 
 
 The famous story of Columbus and the egg suggests a capital illustration of thii 
 fact. The methods of doing this are two. The first is that usually attributed to the 
 great discoverer and consists of slightly cracking the shell at the large end so that it 
 will stand on a little flat surface. 
 
 The most philosophical mode of making the egg stand on its end, and without dis- 
 turbing the exterior shell, is to alter the position of the yolk, which has a greater den- 
 sity than the white, and is situated about the center. If the egg is now shaken so as 
 to break the membrane inclosing the yolk, and thus allow it to sink to the bottom of 
 the smaller end, the center of gravity is lowered ; there is a greater proportion of 
 weight concentrated in the small end, and the egg stands erect. It is this variable 
 position of the center of gravity in ivory balls (one part of which may be more dense 
 than another) that so frequently annoys even the best billiard-players ; and on this ac^ 
 count a ball will deviate from the line in which it is impelled, not from any fault of the 
 player, but in consequence of the ivory ball being of unequal density, and therefore, 
 not having the center corresponding with the center of gravity. 
 
 The toy called the “ tombola ” reminds us of the egg-experiment, as there is 
 usually a lump of lead inserted in the lower part of the hemisphere, and when the toy 
 is pushed down it rapidly assumes the upright position, because the center of gravity 
 is not in the lowest place to which it would descend. 
 
 After what has been explained regarding the improvement of the stability of the 
 egg by lowering the situation of the center of gravity, it may at first appear singular 
 that a stick loaded with a weight at its upper extremity can be balanced perpendicu- 
 larly with greater ease and precision than when the weight is lower down and nearer 
 the hand ; and that a sword can be balanced best when the hilt is uppermost ; but 
 this is easily explained when it is understood that with the handle downward a much 
 smaller arc is described as it falls than when reversed, so that in the former case the 
 balancer has not time to readjust the center, while in the latter position the arc de* 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 515 
 
 scribed is so large that before the sword falls the center of gravity may be restored 
 within the line of direction of the base. 
 
 The leaning-tower of Pisa is one hundred and eighty-two feet in height, and is 
 swayed thirteen and a half feet from the perpendicular, but yet remains perfectly firm 
 and secure, as the line of direction falls considerably within the base. If it was of 
 a greater altitude it could do longer stand, because the center of gravity would be so 
 elevated that the line of direction would fall outside the base. This fact may be illus- 
 trated by taking a board several feet in length, and having cut it out to represent the 
 architecture of the leaning-tower of Pisa, it may then be painted in distemper, and 
 fixed at the right angle with a hinge to another board representing the ground, while 
 a plumb-line may be dropped from the center of gravity ; and it may be shown that 
 as long as the plummet falls within the base, the tower is safe ; but directly the model 
 tower is brought a little further forward by a wedge so that the plummet hangs outside, 
 then, on removing the support, which may be a piece of string to be cut at the right 
 moment, the model falls, and the fact is at once comprehended. 
 
 The principles already explained are directly applicable to the construction or 
 secure loading of vehicles ; and in proportion as the center of gravity is elevated above 
 the point of support (that is, the wheels), so is the insecurity of the carriage increased, 
 and the contrary takes place if the center of gravity is lowered. Again, if a wagon be 
 loaded with very heavy substances which do not require much space there will be less 
 danger of upsetting than if the load be light and bulky. 
 
 In the one instance the center of gravity is near the ground and falls within the 
 base ; in the other it is higher than the wheels, and if one side be elevated above the 
 other it falls without the base, and the wagon is overturned. The same principles 
 apply to the human body in its varying postures. To maintain an erect position a 
 man must so place his body that the line of direction of his weight will fall within the 
 base formed by his feet. The more the toes are turned outward, the more contracted 
 will be the base, and the body will be more liable to fall backward or forward ; and 
 the closer the feet are drawn together, the more likely is the body to fall on either side. 
 The acrobats, dancing dogs, etc., 
 unconsciously acquire the habit of 
 accurately balancing themselves in 
 all kinds of strange positions ; but 
 as these accomplishment^ are not to 
 be recommended to young people 
 some other marvels (such as balanc- 
 ing a pail of water on a stick laid 
 upon a table) may be adduced, as illustrated in Fig. 7. 
 
 Let A B represent an ordinary table, upon which place a broomstick, C D, so that 
 one-half shall lay upon the table and the other extend from it ; place over the stick 
 the handle of an empty pail ^which may possibly require to be elongated for the experi- 
 ment) so that the handle touches or falls into a notch at H ; and in order to bring the 
 pail well under the table another stick is placed in the notch E, and is arranged in the 
 line G F E, one end resting at G and the other at E. Having made these preparations 
 the pail may now be filled with water ; and although it appears to be a most marvel- 
 
516 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 ous result, to see the pail apparently balanced on the end of a stick which may easily 
 tilt up, the principles already explained will enable the observer to understand that the 
 center of gravity of the pail falls within the line of direction shown by the dotted line ; 
 and it amounts in effect to nothing more than carrying a pail on the center of a stick, 
 one end of which is supported at E, and the other through the medium of the table 
 A B. 
 
 Boat-accidents frequently arise in consequence of ignorance on the subject of the 
 center of gravity, and when persons are alarmed while sitting in a boat, they generally 
 rise suddenly, raise the center of gravity, which falling, by the oscillation of the frail 
 bark, outside the line of direction of the base, cannot be restored, and the boat is upset ; 
 if the boat were fixed by the keel, raising the center of gravity would be of little con- 
 sequence, but as the boat is perfectly free to move and roll to one side or the other, 
 the elevation of the center of gravity is fatal. 
 
 THE CENTER OF PERCUSSION. 
 
 Before we dismiss this subject it is advisable to explain a term referring to a very 
 useful truth, called the center of percussion • a knowledge of which, gained instinctively 
 
 or otherwise, enables the workman to 
 wield his tools with increased power, and 
 gives greater force to the cut of the 
 swordsman, so that, with some physical 
 strength, he may perform the feat of cut- 
 ting a sheep in half, cleaving a bar of 
 lead, or neatly dividing, h la Saladin , in 
 ancient Saracen fashion, a silk handker- 
 chief floating in the air. There is a 
 feat, however, which does not require 
 any very great strength, but is suffi- 
 ciently startling to excite much sur- 
 prise and some inquiry — viz., the one 
 of cutting in half a broomstick support- 
 ed at the ends on tumblers of water 
 without spilling thh water or cracking 
 or otherwise damaging the glass supports {Fig. 8). 
 
 These and other feats are partly explained by reference to time : the force is so 
 quickly applied and expended on the center of the stick that it is not communicated 
 to the supports ; just as a bullet from a pistol may be sent through a pane of glass 
 without shattering the whole square, but making a clean hole through it, or a candle 
 may be sent through a plank, or a cannon-ball pass through a half-opened door with- 
 out causing it to move on its hinges. But the success of the several feats depends in 
 a great measure on the attention that is paid to the delivery of the blows at the 
 center of percussion of the weapon ; this is a point in a moving body where the percus- 
 sion is the greatest, and about which the impetus or force of all parts is balanced on 
 every side. When a blow is not delivered with a stick or a sword at the center of per- 
 
 fig. & 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 517 
 
 cussion, a peculiar jar, or what is familiarly spoken of as a stinging sensation, is appar- 
 ent in the hand. 
 
 COHESIVE AND ADHESIVE ATTRACTION. 
 
 In the previous pages only one kind of attraction has been illustrated in a popular 
 manner, viz.: the attraction of gravitation. The attraction of cohesion will next engage our 
 attention. We have a peculiar satisfaction in investigating such subjects, because every 
 step is attended by a convincing proof. In studying the powers of nature, which the 
 most skeptical mind allows must exist, there is an abundant field for experiment with- 
 out attempting the exploits of Macbeth’s witches, or the fanciful powers of Manfred ; 
 and, returning to the theme of our present chapter, it may be asked, How is cohesion 
 defined ? and the answer may be given, by directing attention to the three physical 
 conditions of water, which assumes the form of ice, water, or steam. 
 
 In the polar regions, and also in the Alpine and other mountains where glaciers 
 exist, there the traveler speaks of ice twenty, thirty, forty, nay, three hundred feet in 
 thickness. Here the withdrawal of a certain quantity of heat from the water evidently 
 allows a new force to come into full play. We may call it what we like ; but cohesion — 
 from the Latin cum , together, and hcereo , I stick or cleave — appears to be the best and 
 most rational term for this power, which tends to make the atoms or particles of the 
 same kind of matter move toward each other, and to prevent them being separated or 
 moved asunder. That it is not merely hypothetical is shown by the following experi- 
 ments. 
 
 If two pieces of lead are cast, and the ends nicely scraped, taking care not to touch 
 the surfaces with the fingers, they may, by simple pressure, be made to cohere, and in 
 that state of attraction may be lifted from the table by the ring which is usually inserted 
 for convenience in the upper piece of lead ; they may be hung for some time from a 
 proper support, and the lower hit of lead will not break away from the upper one ; 
 they may even be suspended, as demonstrated by Morvean, in the vacuum of an air- 
 pump, to show that the cohesion is not mistaken for the pressure of the .atmosphere, 
 and no separation occurs. And when the union is broken by physical force it is sur- 
 prising to notice the limited number of points, like pin points, where the cohesion has 
 occurred ; while the weight of the lump of lead upheld against the force of gravitation 
 reminds one forcibly of the attraction of a mass of soft iron by a powerful magnet, and 
 leads the philosophic inquirer to speculate v^n the principle of cohesion being oniy 
 some masked form of magnetic or electrical attraction. 
 
 A lump of lead six inches long by four broad, and half an inch thick, may be sup- 
 (ported by dexterously taking off a thick shaving with a proper plane, and after pressing 
 an inch or more of the strip on the planed surface of the large lump of lead, the cohe- 
 sion is so powerful that the latter may be lifted from the table by the strip of metal. 
 The bullets projected from the celebrated steam-gun, at the rate of three hundred per 
 minute, are thrown with such violence that, when received on a thick plate of lead backed 
 up with sheet iron, a cold welding takes place between the two surfaces of metal in 
 the most perfect manner, just as two soft pieces of the metal potassium may be squeezed 
 and welded together. The surfaces of an apple torn asunder will not readily cohere, 
 but if cut with a sharp knife cohesion easily occurs ; so with a wound produced by a 
 
&18 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 jagged surface it is difficult to make the parts heal, whereas some of the most desper- 
 ate sabre-cuts have been healed, the cohesion of the surfaces of cut flesh being very 
 rapid ; hence, if the top of a finger is cut off, it may be replaced, and will grow, in con- 
 sequence of the natural cohesion of the parts. 
 
 The art of plating copper with silver, which is afterward gilded, and then drawn 
 out into flattened wire for the manufacture of gold lace and epaulets, usually termed 
 bullion, is another example of the wonderful cohesion of the particles of gold, of which 
 a single grain may be extended over the finest plate wire measuring three hundred 
 and forty-five feet in length. The process of making wax candles is a good illustration 
 of the attraction of cohesion ; they are not generally cast in molds, as most persons sup 
 pose, but are made by the successive applications of melted wax around the central plaited 
 wick. Other examples of cohesion are shown by icicles, and also stalagmites ; which lat- 
 ter are produced by the gradual dropping of water containing chalk (carbonate of lime) 
 held in solution by the excess of carbonic acid gas ; the solvent gradually evaporates, 
 and leaves a series of calcareous films, and these cohere in succession, producing the 
 most fantastic forms, as shown in various remarkable caverns, and especially in the 
 cave of Arta, in the island of Majorca. 
 
 In metallic substances the cohesion of the particles assumes an important bearing 
 in the question of relative toughness and power of resisting a strain ; hence the term 
 cohesion is modified into that of the property of “ tenacity.” 
 
 Adhesion must not be confounded with cohesion, for it refers not to the clinging 
 of the particles of the same or like bodies, but the drawing or attraction of bodies of a 
 dissimilar kind. There are numerous illustrations of adhesion, such as mending china, 
 and the use of glue, or paste, in uniting different surfaces, or mortar, in building 
 with bricks ; it is also well shown by means of a pair of scales, one scale-pan of which 
 being well cleaned with alkali at the bottom may then be rested on the surface of 
 water contained in a plate ; the adhesion between the water and the metal is so perfect 
 that many grain-weights may be placed in the other pan before the adhesion is broken ; 
 and after breakage, if the pan be again placed on the water, and a few grains removed 
 from the other, so as to adjust the two pans, and make them nearly equal, 
 a drop of oil of turpentine being added instantly spreads itself over the water^ 
 and breaking the adhesion between the latter and the metal, the scale-pan is again 
 immediately broken away, as the adhesion between the turpentine and the metal is 
 not so great as that of water and metal. The adhesion of air and water is well dis. 
 played in an apparatus recommended for ventilating mines, in which a constant 
 descending stream of water carries with it a quantity of air, which, being disengaged, is 
 then forced out of a proper orifice. The same kind of adhesion between air and water 
 is displayed in the ancient Spanish Catalan forge, where the blast is supplied to the 
 iron furnace on a similar principle, only a natural cascade is taken advantage of instead 
 of an artificial fall of water through a pipe. 
 
 The adhesion of air and water becomes of some value when a river flows through 
 a large and crowded city, because the water in its passage to and fro must necessarily 
 drag with it a continuous column of air, and assist in maintaining that constant agita- 
 tion of the air which is desirable as a preventive to any accumulation of noxious air 
 charged with foetid odors arising from mud banks, or from other causes. The fact of 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 519 
 
 adhesion existing between water and air is readily shown by resting one end of a long 
 glass tube, of at least one inch diameter, on a block of wood one foot high. If water 
 is allowed to flow down the tube, so as to leave a sufficient space of air above it, the 
 adhesion between the two anciefit elements becomes apparent directly a little smoke 
 is produced near the top end of the glass tube resting on the block of wood. The 
 smoke, which has a greater tendency to rise than to fall, is dragged down the glass 
 tube, and accompanies the water as it flows from the higher to the lower level. The 
 same principle is seen in the horizontal troughs through which water flows. There is 
 so great an adhesion between air and glass that the mercury has to be boiled in the 
 tube of the best barometers to prevent the air from creeping up into the vacuum at 
 the top of the tube. Even then after a course of years the air will somehow get into 
 the tube. 
 
 CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 
 
 This form of attraction is that which causes fluids to rise in small tubes, some of 
 which are as fine as a human hair. The fluid is attracted and retained at a point higher 
 than the ordinary level. If you will carefully observe a goblet of water you will readily 
 see that its surface is not level, but it rises up at the sides of the glass. The smaller the 
 
 Two pieces of glass laid flat 
 
 IE 
 
 <■ >1 
 
 FIG. II. 
 
 diameter of the glass the higher on the sides it will rise, 
 together in water and then opened like the leaves of a 
 book draw up the water between them. If you put a 
 mass of salt or sugar upon a plate with a little indigo 
 water you will see that the colored water will rise in the 
 salt or sugar. Most kinds of wood possess this power of 
 capillary attraction, and will float because the minute 
 pores are filled with air. Ebony and lignum-vitae sink 
 on account of their density, closeness, and freedom from 
 air. One of the curious illustrations of this kind of 
 attraction is seen in the preparation of leather for the 
 market. This is thoroughly wet with water, and while 
 the skin is damp oil is rubbed on and it is then exposed 
 to the air ; the water evaporates at ordinary temperature, but oil does not ; the con- 
 sequence is that the pores of the leather give ujqthe water, which disappears in evapo- 
 ration, and the oil, by capillary attraction, is then drawn into the body of the leather; 
 the oil in fact takes the place vacated by the water, and renders the material very sup- 
 ple, and to a considerable extent waterproof. In paper-making, the pores of this 
 material, unless filled up or sized, cause the ink to blot or spread by capillary attrac_ 
 tion. The porosity of soils is one of the great desiderata of the skillful agriculturist^ 
 and drainage is intended to remove the excess of water which would fill the pores of 
 the earth, to the exclusion of the more valuable dews and rains conveying nutritious 
 matter derived from manures and the atmosphere. 
 
 A cane is an assemblage of small tubes, and if a piece of about six inches in length 
 (cut off, of course, from the joints) be placed in a bottle of turpentine, the oil is drawn 
 up and may be burnt at the top ; it is on this principle that indestructible wicks of 
 asbestos, and wire gauze rolled round a center core, are used in spirit-lamps. Oil, wax, 
 
520 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 and tallow, all rise by capillary attraction in the wicks to the flame, where they are 
 boiled, converted into gas, and burnt. 
 
 The capillary attraction of skeins of cotton for water was known and appreciated 
 by the old alchemists ; and Geber, one of the most ancient of these pioneers of science, 
 and who lived about the seventh century, describes a filter by which the liquid is sepa- 
 rated from the solid. This experiment is well displayed by putting a solution of 
 acetate of lead into a glass, which is placed on the highest block of a series of three, 
 arranged as steps. Into this glass is placed the short end of a skein of lamp cotton, 
 previously wetted with distilled water ; the long end dips into another glass below, 
 containing dilute sulphuric acid, and as the solution of lead passes into it a solid white - 
 precipitate of sulphate of lead is formed ; then another skein of wetted cotton is 
 placed in this glass, the long end of which passes into the last glass, so that the deaf 
 liquid is separated and the solid left behind. 
 
 In this filter the lamp cotton acts as a syphon through the capillary pores which it 
 forms. The threads of which linen, cotton, and woolen cloths are made are small 
 cords, and the shrinkage of such textile fabrics is well known and usually inquired 
 about when a purchase is made. Here again capillary attraction is exerted and the 
 fabric contracts in the two directions of the warp and woof threads ; thus, twenty- 
 seven yards of common Irish linen will permanently shrink to about twenty-six yards 
 in cold water. In these cases the water is attracted into the fibers of the textile mate- 
 rial, and, causing them to swell, must necessarily shorten their length, just as a dry 
 rope strained between two walls for the purpose of supporting clothes has been known 
 to draw the hooks after being suddenly wetted and shortened by a shower of rain. 
 
 In order to tighten a bandage it is only necessary to wind the dry linen round the 
 limbs as close as possible and then wet it with water, when the necessary shrinkage 
 takes place. If a piece of dry cotton cloth is tied over one end of a lamp glass, the other 
 may be thrust into or removed from the basin of water very easily, but when the cot- 
 ton is wetted the fibers contract and prevent air from entering, so that the glass 
 retains water just as if it were an ordinary gas jar closed with a glass stopper. 
 
 A Spanish proverb, expressing contempt, says, “ Go to the well with a sieve 
 but even this seeming impossibility is surmounted by using a cylinder of wire gauze, 
 which may be filled with water, and by means of the capillary attraction between the 
 meshes of the copper-wire gauze and the water the whole is retained, and may be 
 carefully lifted from a basin of water ; the experiment only succeeds when the air is 
 completely driven out of the insterstices of the gauze, and the little cylinder com- 
 pletely filled with water. This may be done by repeatedly sinking and drawing out the 
 cylinder, or still more effectually by first wetting it with alcohol and then dipping the 
 t^dinder in water. A balloon, made of cotton cloth, cannot be inflated by means of a 
 pair of bellows; but if the balloon is wetted with water then it maybe swelled out 
 with air just as if it had been made of some air-tight material; hence the principle of 
 varnishing silk or filling the pores with boiled oil when it is required in the manufac- 
 ture of balloons. It can be readily seen that much of the success attending the appli- 
 cation n{ the arts and manufactures of civilized life depends upon this principle. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 521 
 
 EXPERIMENTS IN CRYSTALLIZATION. 
 
 The term crystal was originally applied by the ancients to silica in the form of 
 what is usually termed rock crystal, or Brazilian pebble ; and they supposed it to be 
 water which had been solidified by a remarkable intensity of cold, and could not be 
 thawed by any ordinary or summer heat. A singular and almost instantaneous crys- 
 tallization can be produced by saturating boiling 
 water with Glauber’s salt, of which one ounce and 
 a half of water will usually dissolve about two 
 ounces ; having done this, pour the solution, while 
 boiling hot, into clean oil flasks, or vials of any 
 kind, previously warmed in the oven, and imme- 
 diately cork them, or tie strips of wetted bladder 
 over the orifices of the flasks or vials, or pour into fig. 12 . 
 
 the neck a small quantity of olive oil, or close the neck with a cork through which a 
 thermometer tube has been passed. When cold, no crystallization occurs until atmos- 
 pheric air is admitted, and it was formerly believed that the pressure of the air af- 
 fected this object until some one thought of the oil ; and now the theory is modified, 
 and crystallization is supposed to occur in consequence of the water dissolving some 
 air, which causes the deposit of a minute crystal, and this being the turning point the 
 whole becomes solid. However the fact may be explained, it is certain that when the 
 liquid refuses to crystallize on the admission of air, the solidification occurs directly a 
 minute crystal of sulphate of soda, or Glauber’s salt, is dropped into the vessel. When 
 the crystallization is accomplished the whole mass is usually so completely solidified 
 that on inverting the vessel not a drop of liquid falls out. It may be observed that 
 the same mass of salt will answer any number of times the same purpose. All that is 
 necessary to be done is to place the vial or flask in a saucepan of warm water, and 
 gradually raise it to the boiling point till the salt 
 is completely liquefied, when the vessel must be 
 corked and secured from the air as before. 
 
 When the solidification is produced much heat 
 is generated, which is rendered apparent by 
 means of a thermometer, or by the insertion of 
 a copper wire into the pasty mass of crystal in 
 the flask, and then touching an extremely thin 
 shaving or cutting of phosphorus, dried and 
 
 placed on cotton wool. Solidification in all cases produces heat. Liquefaction pro- 
 duces cold. 
 
 In order to cause a substance to crystallize it is first necessary to endow the par- 
 ticles with freedom of motion. There are many methods of doing this chemically or by 
 the application of heat, but we cannot by any mechanical process of concentration, com- 
 pression, or division, persuade a substance to crystallize, unless perhaps we except that 
 remarkable change in wrought or fibrous iron into crystalline or brittle iron, by con- 
 tant vibration, as in the axles of a carriage, or by attaching a piece of fibrous iron to 
 
522 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 a tilt hammer. If we powder some alum crystals they will not again assume their 
 crystalline form ; if brought in contact there is no freedom of motion. It is like plac- 
 ing some globules of mercury on a plate. They have no power to create motion ; their 
 inertia keeps them separated by certain distances, and they do not coalesce ; but in* 
 cline the plate, give them motion, and bring them in contact, they soon unite and form 
 one globule. The particles of alum are not in close contact, and they have no freedom 
 of motion unless they are dissolved in water, when they become invisible ; the water 
 by its chemical power destroys the mechanical aggregation of the solid alum far beyond 
 any operation of levigation. The solid alum has become liquid, like water ; the parti- 
 cles are now free to move without let or hindrance from friction. A solution (from 
 the Latin solvo, to loosen) is obtained. The alum must indeed be reduced to minute 
 particles, as they are alike invisible to the eye whether assisted by the microscope or 
 not. No repose will cause the alum to separate ; the solvent power of the water op- 
 poses gravitation ; every part of the solution is equally impregnated with alum, and 
 the particles are diffused at equal distances through the water ; the heavy alum is actu- 
 ally drawn up against gravity by the water. How, then, is the alum to be brought 
 back again to the solid state? The answer is simple enough. By evaporating away 
 the excess of water, either by the application of heat or by long exposure to the at- 
 mosphere in a very shallow vessel, the minute atoms of the alum are brought closer 
 together, and crystallization takes place. The assumption of the solid state is indicated 
 by the formation of a thin film (called a pellicle) of crystals, and is further and still 
 more satisfactorily proved by taking out a drop of the solution and placing it on a bit 
 of glass, which rapidly becomes filled with crystals if the evaporation has been carried 
 sufficiently far. 
 
 THE NEW REVELATIONS OF A SNOW FLAKE. 
 
 M. Tissandier states that by evaporating a drop of snow water in dry air on a 
 glass slide, and examining subsequently with the microscope, crystals, some needle- 
 like, some prismatic, and others star-shaped, were observed to form. During the course 
 of one experiment, however, he remarked a noticeable difference in the crystallization. 
 The crystals appeared to ramify, throw off other needles, these last others again, until 
 the slide under the lens presented a beautiful appearance. Under the influence of a 
 high temperature these new crystals evaporated, but it was not difficult to prove them 
 to be the nitrate of ammonia, the presence of which chemical analysis had previously 
 indicated. Further investigations showed also that among the nitrate of ammonia 
 crystals were scattered others of different form and totally unlike those of the rhom- ( 
 boidal system. Some were cubical, indicating them to be probably sea salt, others re- 
 sembled the sulphate of soda crystals. The last probability was rendered quite certain 
 by throwing a few flakes into a supersaturated solution of sulphate of soda, in which 
 they immediately caused crystallization to take place. All the crystals, it appears, 
 formed on the edges of the drop, while the corpuscles formed a dense group in the 
 center. 
 
 It is difficult to believe that the pure white flake, which settles noiselessly upon the 
 earth nnd which seems, even when moderately magnified, but a mass of exquisite white ice 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 523 
 
 crystals, is, after all, but a scavenger of the atmosphere. But such, nevertheless, is the 
 fact, and henceforth we must regard the snow-drops but as so many sponges which 
 absorb into their porous substance the myriads of microscopic bodies which form that 
 peculiar atmospheric dust, found near the surface , of the earth, and most largely in the 
 vicinity of cities. This dust is itself a queer mixture of heterogeneous substances. M. 
 Gaston Tissandier, who has been making a 
 number of very interesting investigations on 
 the snow, states that, in a drop of water ob- 
 tained from a single flake and magnified five 
 hundred times, he found pieces of coal, frag- 
 ments of cloth, grains of starch, sandy matter, 
 and an immense variety of other substances, 
 not a fragment of which exceeded in diameter 
 three ten-thousandths of an inch. Some idea 
 of the numbers in which these infinitesimal 
 particles must exist in the snow can be gained 
 from Fig. 14, which represents a drop of snow 
 water gathered at the summit of Notre Dame 
 towers, in Paris, and magnified under the mi- 
 croscope five hundred diameters. The fibers 
 of fabrics and bits of coal are easily recognized. 
 
 By examining large volumes of snow water M. 
 
 Tissandier has been able to determine the 
 weights of these corpuscles. A quart of water collected in the city and evaporated 
 gave 3.2 grains of residue, and the same quantity obtained in the country yielded about 
 half that weight. The residue is an impalpable pulverulent gray powder, composed in 
 round numbers of seventy per cent, mineral and thirty per cent, organic substances. 
 It is very rich in carbon, burns brilliantly, and contains certain chlorides and sulphates 
 in appreciable quantities, besides carbonate of lime, alumina, silex, and sufficient iron 
 to be readily recognized by reagents. Nitrate of ammonia is also detected in the 
 proportion of about 0.015 grains per quart of water. 
 
 MECHANICAL POWERS. 
 
 The machines by which the direction of power is changed or made more effective 
 are termed mechanical powers, and are commonly regarded as six in number: the lever, 
 pulley, wheel and axle, reducible to the lever ; the inclined plane, wedge, and screw, 
 which are modified forms of the inclined plane. Archimedes, who weighed the crown 
 for Hiero, was the first to explain these forces on true philosophical principles, although 
 the machines had been known and applied long before his time. Galileo wrote his 
 famous work, “Della Scienza Mechanica,” in 1592, in which he described the lever, in- 
 clined plane, screw, falling bodies, and the pendulum. He was the renowned astrono- 
 mer who said, “The earth moves for all that.” 
 
 We deem it of importance to treat the subject in this connection so that our 
 young readers may understand that the principles of philosophy apply even to the 
 50 
 
524 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 commonest things of life, for there is not an act of our lives, however simple, but in- 
 volves some one or more of the principles which underlie the basis of true philosophy. 
 
 THE LEVER. 
 
 The lever is any straight bar acting over a fixed point called the fulcrum, and 
 moving a body, the weight, by the application of power to the opposite arm of the 
 lever. The illustration, Fig. 15, represents a lever of the first kind. The crowbar is 
 
 the lever. The small stone is the fulcrum , and the 
 large stone is the weight, or mass to be moved. The 
 power is applied at the hand. The amount of power 
 multiplied by the distance from the power to the 
 fulcrum is equal to the weight that can be moved 
 multiplied by the distance from the weight to the 
 fulcrum. The shorter the distance from the weight 
 to the fulcrum and the longer the distance from the 
 fig. 15. power to the fulcrum the greater the amount of 
 
 the mass which can be raised by the given power. But what is gained in this way is 
 lost by the time expended, for evidently the longer the arm of the lever from the 
 power to the fulcrum the more space will it have to move, and at the same time the 
 shorter the arm from the fulcrum to the weight the less space will the mass be moved. 
 In a lever of the second kind the resistance is between the power and the fulcrum. An 
 illustration of this kind of a lever is seen in the wheel-barrow. The axle is the fulcrum, 
 the two handles are the levers, the strength used to lift them the power, and the load is 
 
 the weight or resistance. It is easily seen that the power 
 must be greater in proportion to the mass than in the lever 
 of the first kind. A lever of the third kind is where the 
 power is applied between the fulcrum and the resistance, as 
 in the tongs and the nut-cracker, or the treadle of a lathe or 
 sewing-machine. In this the power must be greater than 
 the resistance. 
 
 c The platform scales furnish an illustration of this lever. 
 A is the fulcrum, e the power, and the force acting upon b 
 fi g . 16. is the resistance, d the base of the scales, and c the point of 
 
 the bar which supports the platform on which the load rests. The combination of 
 levers accurately adjusted makes it possible to weigh heavy bodies with weights of 
 comparatively small size. 
 
 THE PULLEY. 
 
 A great mechanical advantage is gained when a number of wheels or sheaves are 
 arranged in a block as in the common block-and-tackle. The pulleys are thus sepa- 
 rated and have separate cords. One block is fixed and does not move, the other is 
 movable and the weight or resistance is attached to it ; one end of the rope is secured 
 to the fixed block and passes over one pulley of the movable block, then one in the 
 fixed block back to another in the movable block, and so on. The amount of the 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 525 
 
 weight which can be raised by a given power depends upon the number of ropes and 
 pulleys. 
 
 This one of the six mechanical powers consists of a wheel with a groove in its 
 Mrcumference, freely movable about either a fixed or movable pivot ; hence the pulley 
 
 is either fixed or movable : the latter is termed a runner^ 
 The principle on which the pulley acts is the same as 
 that of the lever, but the mode of estimating its power 
 is different. 
 
 The single pulley — that is, a line passing over a 
 wheel which turns on its axis — is only a change in the 
 direction of force and requires as much power as there 
 is weight to be overcome, the arms of the lever in 
 this case being equal, since the semi-diameters of the 
 wheel are all equal to each other. Thus, in a single 
 fixed pulley the weight and power must be equal, be- 
 fig. 17. cause the arms of the lever, a b , are equal. There is 
 
 therefore no advantage in such a pulley. Its use is, in connection with 
 
 the rope, to change the direction of motion. 
 
 But if one pulley is fixed and the other movable then it is evident that 
 the weight will be divided between the two strings, and in this arrangement 
 the power and weight will be in equilibrium when the power multiplied into the number 
 of strings is equal to the weight : or, if a number of fixed and movable pulleys are ar- 
 ranged in a block, the power will equal the weight divided by twice the number of mov- 
 able pulleys . 
 
 THE WHEEL-AND-AXLE. 
 
 The wheel-and-axle is a combination of a series of levers of the first kind. The 
 
 radius of the wheel is the long arm, and the radius of the axle the short arm, while 
 
 the axis is the fulcrum. If, therefore, we can ascertain the 
 diameter of the wheel and of the axle, the law of equilibrium 
 is easily determined : it is the same as that of the lever. 
 
 Fig. 18 is a common well curb which represents the wheel-and- 
 axle. The crank with the handle acts as the longer arm of a 
 lever of the first kind. The diameter of the shaft is the short 
 arm. The amount of the weight lifted can be calculated in 
 this way : by the law of inverse proportion the power is to 
 the weight as the radius of the axle to the radius of the wheel, 
 or, the power and weight will be in equilibrium when the power 
 multiplied into the radius of the wheel equals the weight multi- 
 plied into the radius of the axle. 
 
 The wheel-and-axle is a very useful machine, and as the 
 power depends upon the relation of the radius of the wheel to that of the axle, if the latter 
 is diminished and the former increased the greater, in both cases, will the power become. 
 But there is a limit to this increase of power ; the axle cannot be diminished beyond 
 
 fig. 18. 
 
526 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 a certain size without breaking, nor can the wheel be enlarged to a very great extent 
 without becoming unwieldy. To obviate this and to secure the requisite power a 
 
 combination of wheels may be used as in Fig. 19. 
 In this case a very heavy weight may be raised, 
 but its velocity, compared with that of the power, 
 is very small, so that what is gained in power is 
 lost in time. 
 
 In the illustration a b represents the lever of 
 the first kind acting so as to turn the wheel, d , 
 where cogs act upon the small wheel, e f turning 
 on the same axle the larger wheel, g h , which 
 turns h i on the same axle as /. Around the 
 drum, /, a rope is wound which runs over a pulley 
 and lifts the heavy weight. This is a rude illus- 
 tration of the action of a weight in a clock. 
 
 COMMUNICATION OF MOTION BY WHEEL-WORK. 
 
 By the action of two or more wheels upon each other a very rapid or a very slow 
 movement may be given to machinery. If two wheels of equal size touch each other 
 
 by their circumferences the motion of the one, if there 
 is considerable friction, will cause the motion of the 
 other ; or, if a band is made to pass around two wheels, 
 motion may be communicated from one to the other 
 and their relative velocities will depend upon their size. 
 The smaller wheel will move as much faster as its di- 
 ameter is less. But the most common mode of com- 
 20. municating motion from one wheel to another is by 
 
 means of teeth cut into the circumference of one wheel, and corresponding notches, 
 called leaves , into the axle of the other. This arrangement is called 
 
 THE WHEEL AND PINION (FIG. 20). 
 
 The number of teeth in the wheel and of leaves in the axle will be in proportion 
 to their circumferences, or to their radii, and hence: 
 
 The product of the power into the number of teeth in the wheel will be equal to the 
 product of the weight into the number of leaves in the axle. 
 
 The velocity of each wheel and of its pinion will be inversely as the number of 
 teeth ; that is, the greater the number of teeth the less the velocity, and the reverse. 
 By means of several wheels of different diameters motion may be increased or dimin- 
 ished to an indefinite extent. 
 
 In the pendulum of the common clock it is necessary to add a slight force to over 
 come the resistance of the air and the friction at the point of suspension. 
 
 THE INCLINED PLANE. 
 
 This is reckoned one of the mechanical powers because, by rolling it up a plane, a 
 man may raise a weight which he could not lift. This principle is extensively made us® 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 527 
 
 of chiefly in the raising of weights and in road-making. It is here unnecessary to go into 
 a mathematical investigation of the theory of the 
 inclined plane as it may be seen in the common 
 books on mechanics. 
 
 The inclined plane is much used in practical 
 life. Roads leading up the sides of hills are illus- 
 trations of this. The force needed to haul a 
 loaded cart up such a road is the power needed to 
 overcome the friction and at the same time overcome the gravitation of the load acting 
 parallel to the plane. If the hill is very steep the road is made to wind around it. 
 The stairs in a house furnish an example of the same thing. The laws of the inclined 
 plane are these: I. When the power acts parallel to the inclined plane the power to 
 hold a weight in suspense is to the pressure of the load as the height of the plane is to 
 the base ; 2. When this power is parallel to the base of the plane the load is to its 
 gravity as the base of the plane is to its length. 
 
 A familiar illustration of the inclined plane is seen in the common toy kite, Fig. 22. 
 The line a b is the inclined plane and c d the power of gravitation drawing against 
 the force of the wind which blows on the 
 kite. The pressure against the broad side 
 of the kite would carry it off in a straight 
 line ; the power of attraction would draw 
 it down, but the line holding it takes a di- 
 agonal of a parallelogram. ' Another illus- 
 tration may be seen in the case of beveled 
 wheels. The positions of the inclined 
 planes are seen in the cut on the right. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that the inclined plane 
 is used in the arts, the manufactures, and 
 the sports of civilized life. The grading of rail roads is upon the same principle. The 
 farmer rolls a barrel of cider into his wagon up an inclined plane, and we walk up an 
 inclined plane when we ascend the stairs. 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 The important question in all mechanical contrivances is to determine the strength 
 of the materials used. This may be estimated in many ways. Absolute strength is 
 he amount of force exerted lengthwise that 
 would cause the wire, rope, or other substance 
 to part, and may be applied as in Fig. 23. The 
 strength of wire is increased by drawing it out, 
 as there is given to the atoms of the surface 
 greater tenacity than to the atoms within the 
 wire ; so that if the surface of a wire be removed fig. 23. 
 
 by a piece of sand-paper its strength will be much diminished ; hence, by twisting 
 
528 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 many wires together increasing the surface the strength of the metal is much 
 
 greater than when it is in one solid wire. Some 
 of the heaviest bridges are sustained by iron 
 cables made of small wire. The same is true 
 of hemp and silk cords ; the latter possesses 
 twice the strength of the former, and their te- 
 nacity is still further increased by gluing the 
 F1G - 2 4 - threads together. By wetting the cord it is 
 
 also rendered stronger. 
 
 The resistance which a body opposes to a force applied directly across it, when one 
 or both ends are supported, is called the lateral strength , as seen in Fig. 24, in which 
 the strength of the cross-bar is tried by making it fast to an elliptical link of iron or 
 steel. This is generally much less than the absolute strength. The strength of a 
 beam, supported at the two ends, and weights applied at the center, will depend, 1st, 
 upon its length ; the shorter it is, the greater its power of resistance ; 2d, upon its 
 breadth and depth, the strength being as the breadth multiplied into the square of the 
 depth; hence a board will be strongest when placed on its edge. If the beam is sup- 
 ported at one end, its strength is but about one-fourth as great. 
 
 The resistance to compression increases with the thickness of the body until it has 
 reached a certain diameter, and then diminishes. In this case the pressure may be 
 made directly across the body, as is the case with a wedge, or lengthwise, as is illus- 
 trated by pillars that sustain heavy structures. 
 
 The resistance which a body opposes to being twisted is called the strength of tor- 
 sion. This power varies very much, and depends upon elasticity. Some bodies may 
 be twisted to a great extent and return again to their former position, while others 
 are easily broken by twisting them, or become permanently bent. These points are 
 the limits of the force of torsion. 
 
 THE SCREW. 
 
 The screw is an inclined plane wound round a cylinder. This can be illustrated 
 by vinding a strip of paper cut in the shape of a right-angle triangle about a lead pen- 
 cil, commencing with the perpendicular side and wind- 
 ing to the tapering point. It will be seen at once 
 that the edge of the paper representing the inclined 
 plane will wind in a spiral from the point upward. 
 The screw, Fig. 25, is made of a spiral thread winding, 
 as seen, around a cylinder, the nut which turns on 
 the screw having a groove corresponding to the thread. 
 This thread may be flat, as seen in the cut, or triangu- 
 lar and pointed, as in the carpenter’s screw, for build- 
 ing purposes. 
 
 The principle and law of the screw is this : the 
 power is to the weight as the height of the plane to 
 its base. We shall find that an equilibrium will be pro- 
 FIG< 2 5 * duced when (1) The power is to the weight as the dis- 
 
 tance between two contiguous threads to the circumference of the base. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 529 
 
 power, 
 
 elevated 
 
 FIG. 26. 
 
 The screw, when used as a mechanical 
 being turned within a concave nut, Fig. 26, 
 and for turning it a lever is usually employed^ 
 so that the screw combines the advantages of 
 the lever and inclined plane. Hence the 
 power which a screw is capable of exerting 
 will be increased over that of the inclined 
 plane in the ratio of the length of the lever to 
 the radius of the cylinder. In this case it is 
 found that equilibrium is maintained when 
 {2) The pozver is to the weight as the distance betzveen two contiguous threads to the cir- 
 cumference of a circle made by one revolution of the power. 
 
 Fig. 27 is a screw such as is used by cabinet-makers for pressing together pieces of 
 wood to hold them firmly while being glued together, and for other purposes. There 
 are two concave nuts for the same screw through which to work. The 
 strength of the screw and the power to be exerted depend upon the dis- 
 tance between the threads and the length of the lever applied to turn it. 
 
 The less the distance and the longer the lever the more weight can be ap- 
 plied, but it will be at the expense of time. 
 
 The screw is generally used for the purpose of compression ; but it mat- 
 ters not how the power is applied, for a force that will lift a weight of ten 
 tons will impart the same amount of pressure. The endless screw, Figs. 
 
 28 and 29, combined with the wheel-and-axle, is employed for certain pur- 
 poses, and is capable of exerting great pressure or lifting very heavy iwiiiiiiiiiiiiibl 
 weights. In the Fig. 28 the crank, a b, represents the power; the axis 
 of the screw, b c, turns the cog-wheel and the rope is fastened to the heavy 
 weight to be raised. As a matter of course the crank will have to be turned FIG 2 7 » 
 as many times to make one revolution of the large wheel as that wheel is larger than 
 the axle, b c> and the distance the weight is raised will only be the circumference of the 
 
 axle of the windlass. There is in this a great gain of power at an expense of time. 
 Fig. 29 shows the endless screw in equilibrium. 
 
530 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 In the machine represented in Fig. 30 is a combination of the lever, the screw. 
 
 and the pulley ; e h v is a lever of the first kind, 
 with its fulcrum at h. Its arc of movement is 
 b g. The pallets, d and e , work on a cog-wheel 
 connected with the pulley at a and f. The rope is 
 made fast at one end. By this machine a weight 
 can be raised, like the barrel, or a carriage can be 
 drawn up an inclined plane, or the two can be com- 
 bined. In this case the weight, represented by 
 the barrel, prevents the wheel from turning back 
 when the lever is raised to g. 
 
 THE WEDGE. 
 
 The wedge is the last of the mechanical powers, and, like the screw, can be reduced 
 to an inclined plane. It consists of two inclined planes placed together at their bases 
 
 with a common perpendicular. It is 
 used for cleaving wood, rocks, or other 
 hard substances whose cleavage will 
 permit. Sometimes it is employed for 
 raising heavy bodies, as the hull of a 
 vessel for launching, and so on. The 
 power of the wedge depends upon 
 friction, and, unlike any of the other 
 powers, it is aided rather than retarded 
 by this property, which is both a diffi- 
 culty to be overcome and an aid in 
 applying force. All cutting and pierc- 
 are examples of the wedge. Fig. 32 shows 
 
 fig. 31. 
 
 32. 
 
 ing tools, as knives, planes, chisels, shears, etc 
 how the wedge may be reduced to the inclined plane. 
 
 MODIFICATION OF MOTION. 
 
 It is often desirable to change the direction of motion from horizontal to vertical, 
 or from circular to reciprocating, and the reverse. For this purpose cog-wheels and 
 
 joints are employed, called 
 
 Gearing. — Cog-wheels have been already 
 noticed, where the object was to increase or 
 diminish velocity. They are also used to 
 change the direction of motion, in which case 
 they occupy different positions in reference 
 to each other, or else the direction in which 
 the teeth are cut is varied. 
 
 1. If the teeth lie in the same plane with 
 the wheels it is called spur gearing , in which 
 fig. 33. case the direction of the motion is not 
 
 changed. 2. If the teeth are cut obliquely to the axis, it is called spiral gearing. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 531 
 
 3. If the teeth are so cut as to prevent motion in one direction by means of a catch 
 while it allows it in the opposite direction it is called a ratchet wheel . 
 
 4. If the axis of motion is one side of the center of a wheel, so that the velocity of 
 the circumference varies at different points, it is called an eccentric wheel. Such 
 wheels are used in orreries, to exhibit the varying motions of the planets in their orbits. 
 
 5. Reciprocating motion is generally produced by means of a crank attached to a 
 wheel with a shaft, which rises up and down as the wheel turns. This is exemplified 
 in the saw-mill, steam-engine, and some other machines. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS. 
 
 Liquids differ from solids in the fact that their atoms are less under the influence 
 of cohesion, and hence have a freer motion among themselves, in consequence of 
 which the force of gravity draws each atom separately toward the center of the earth. 
 
 Liquids as well as solids are under the influence of 
 gravity, but, in consequence of the freedom of motion 
 among their atoms, each atom of a mass is separately at- 
 tracted toward the center of the earth. The fundamental 
 difference between a liquid and a solid in this respect de- 
 pends upon the relative force of cohesion and gravity. 
 
 Fig. 34 illustrates the law of hydrostatic pressure and 
 the preservation of level. It shows a water tank and 
 waste-pipe. A is the tank. B the syphon through which 
 the water flows to the cup. The dotted lines show the 
 course of the pipes which are concealed from sight. The 
 waste-pipe carries off the water through the syphon, E. 
 
 The water rising in the pipe, C, by its upward pressure on 
 D, indicates the number of gallons contained in A. The 
 hydrostatic press is constructed on the principle that fluids 
 rise to the same level in small as in large tubes. 
 
 If the surface of the bottom be made very large and 
 the tube very high, the pressure will be increased in a compound ratio. This is called 
 the hydrostatic paradox, because a very small quantity of liquid may be so applied as 
 to raise a very large weight. A single pound of water may be made to exert a pressure 
 of ten, fifty, or a thousand pounds. This force is limited only by that of capillary at- 
 traction. It is obvious that there is no limit to the force which such a press may be 
 made to exert but that which arises from the strength of the material of which it is 
 constructed. This press may be used for pressing paper, books, cotton, hay, and 
 many other substances where great force is required. By means of a lever applied to 
 the cylinder the weight of one man is sufficient to tear up the largest tree by its roots ; 
 in fact, to exert a pressure of more than two millions of pound 
 
 HYDRAULICS, OR WATER IN MOTION. 
 
 We have been dealing with water at rest. Now we come W. water in motion. 
 Hydraulics treats of the motion of liquids, and of the machines which are put in mo- 
 tion by them. The motion of liquids, whether they flow in pipes, rivers, or canals, re- 
 
532 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 suits from the attraction of gravitation ; but, owing to the peculiar properties of a 
 liquid, and the action of this force already noticed, page 120, their motions are subject 
 to special laws, different somewhat from those of solids, so that the laws of their mo- 
 tion derived from theory must be modified in actual experience, in order to be fully 
 relied upon. That is, when we determine how a liquid should move by the laws of 
 motion, we find, by experiment, a considerable deviation from the theoretical law. 
 
 The principles of hydraulics depend upon the 
 following laws : 
 
 The motion of liquids is generally due to 
 gravity, though it often results from other 
 forces ; but, owing to the peculiar properties 
 of liquids, the laws of motion, derived from 
 theory, are somewhat modified in practice. 
 
 I. The velocity of a liquid spouting from 
 an orifice in the side of a vessel is just equal to 
 that which a falling body would acquire in de- 
 scending through the perpendicular height of 
 the column above the orifice. 
 
 II. The quantity of liquid discharged from 
 any vessel is modified by friction and the cross- 
 ing of currents at the orifice. 
 
 III. The quantity is also modified by con- 
 ducting tubes, which, if short, increase, and if long, diminish the quantity of efflux. 
 
 IV. A jet of water issuing from the side of a vessel describes the curve of a 
 parabola ; and a random from a jet at the center of the column is greatest, while those 
 at equal distances from the center above and below have the same random. 
 
 V. When liquids flow in rivers, pipes, and canals, the velocity of the stream, at 
 any part of its course, is inversely as the area of the section of that part. 
 
 VI. Liquids resist the motion of bodies passing through them in the ratio of the 
 square of the velocity. 
 
 VII. Liquids are practically applied to move machinery by means of wheels which 
 are placed either vertically or horizontally, and are moved by the force of the stream. 
 
 The laws are illustrated in Fig. 35. The water at the fairest would press out with 
 velocity equal to the amount of pressure on the surface h h. The pressure is reduced 
 by means of an inverted cup, a a b, the water level, b , in the cup exerting only the 
 pressure of its surface. This explains the system of a water supply from a great body 
 of water like one of the Great Lakes. 
 
 The law of the wedge is : The power or force applied equals the resistance multi- 
 plied into half the back and divided by the length of the wedge. The wedge is an instru- 
 ment of much power, but it depends solely upon the presence of friction. In attempt- 
 ing to split a frozen log the wedge will bound out, because there is so little friction to 
 hold it. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY, 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATED EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 There is hardly any kind of knowledge which has been so slowly acquired as that 
 of chemistry, and perhaps no othe: ' * ‘ ‘ 
 
 labor of its votaries as the philoso- 
 pher s stone , which was to produce 
 an unfailing supply of gold ; or the 
 elixir of life, that was to give the 
 discoverer of the gold-making art 
 the time, the prolonged life, in 
 which he might spend and enjoy 
 it. 
 
 Hundreds of years ago Egypt 
 was the great depository of all 
 learning, art, and science, and it 
 was to this ancient country that 
 the most celebrated sages of an- 
 tiquity traveled. Hermes, or Mer- 
 curius Trismegisms, the favorite 
 minister of th Egyptian king 
 Osiris, has been celebrated as the 
 inventor of the art of alchemy, and the first treatise upon it has been attributed to Zosy- 
 mus, of Chemnis or Panopolis. The Moors who conquered Spain were remarkable for 
 their learning, and the taste and elegance with which they designed and carried out a new 
 style of architecture, with its lovely arabesque ornamentation. They were likewise 
 great followers of the art of alchemy when they ceased to be conquerors, and became 
 more reconciled to the arts of peace ; and when all Europe was laid waste under the iron 
 rule of the Goths they became the protectors of philosophy and the promoters of its pur- 
 suits ; and thus we come to the seventh century, in which Geber, an Arabian prince, 
 lived, and is stated to have been the earliest of the true alchemists whose name has 
 reached posterity. 
 
 Without attempting to fill up the alchemical history of the intervening centuries 
 we leap forward six hundred years, and now find ourselves in imagination in England, 
 W1 .”P the learned friar, Roger Bacon, a native of Somersetshire, who lived about the 
 middle of the thirteenth century; and although the continual study of alchemy had 
 not yet produced the “ stone,” it bore fruit in other discoveries, and Roger Bacon 
 is said, with great appearance of truth, to have discovered gunpowder, for he says in 
 one of his works: “ From saltpeter and other ingredients we are able to form a fire 
 which will burn to any distance ; ” and again alluding to its effects, “ a small portion of 
 matter, about the size of the thumb, properly disposed , will make a tremendous sound 
 and coruscation, by which cities and armies might be destroyed. ’’ The exaggerated 
 style seems to have been a favorite one with all philosophers, from the time of Roger 
 ^ a< ? n ^° Musschenbroek of the University of Leyden, who accidentally discov- 
 
 ered the Leyden jar in the year 1746, and receiving the first shock, from a vial contain- 
 ing a litter water, into which a cork and nail had been fitted, states that “ he felt him- 
 self struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast, so that he lost his breath, and was t^vfi 
 
 science has ottered such fascinating rewards to the 
 
 Fig. A. — A, the finger-glass; B, the violin bow; C, the ebony- 
 ball. The dotted ball shows how it is repelled during the vibra- 
 tion of the glass. 
 
504 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 days before he recovered from the effects of the blow and the terror ; ” adding that “ he 
 would not take a second shock for the kingdom of France.” Disregarding the numerous 
 alchemical events occurring from the time of Roger Bacon we again advance four hun- 
 dred years — viz., to the year 1662, when, on the 15th of July, King Charles II. granted 
 a royal charter to the Philosophical Society of Oxford, who had removed to London, 
 under the name of the Royal Society of London for Promoting Natural Knowledge, and 
 in the year 1665 was published the first number of the Philosophical Transactions ; this 
 work contains the successive discoveries of Mayow, Hales, Black, Leslie, Cavendish, 
 Lavoisier, Priestley, Davy, Faraday ; and since the year 1762 has been regularly published 
 at the rate of one volume per annum. With this preface we proceed to discuss some of 
 the varied phenomena of chemical attraction, or what is more correctly termed 
 
 CHEMICAL AFFINITY. 
 
 The above title refers to an endless series of changes brought about by chemical 
 combinations, all of which can be reduced to certain fixed laws, and admit of a sim- 
 ple classification and arrangement. A mechanical aggregation, however well arranged, 
 can be always distinguished from a chemical one. Thus, a grain of gunpowder consists 
 of niter , which can be washed away with boiling water, of sulphur , which can be sub- 
 limed and made to pass away as vapor, of charcoal , which remains behind after the 
 previous processes are complete ; this mixture has been perfected by a careful propor- 
 tion of the respective ingredients, it has been wetted, and ground, and pressed, granu- 
 lated, and finally dried ; all these mechanical processes have been so well carried out 
 that each grain, if analyzed, would be similar to the other; and yet it is, after all, only 
 a mechanical aggregation, because the sulphur, the charcoal, and the niter are 
 unchanged. A grain of gunpowder moistened, crushed, and examined by a high 
 microscopic power, would indicate the yellow particles of sulphur, the black parts of 
 charcoal, while the water filtered from the grain of powder and dried would show the 
 niter by the form of the crystal. On the other hand, if some niter is fused at a dull 
 red heat in a little crucible, and two or three grains of sulphur are added, they are 
 rapidly oxidized, and combine with the potash, forming sulphate of potash ; and after 
 this change a few grains of charcoal may be added in a similar manner, when they burn 
 brightly, and are oxidized and converted into carbonic acid, which also unites in like 
 manner with the potash, forming carbonate of potash ; so that when the fused niter is 
 cooled and a few particles examined by the microscope ; the charcoal and sulphur are 
 no longer distinguishable, they have undergone a chemical combination with portions 
 of the niter, and have produced two new salts, perfectly different in taste, gravity, and 
 appearance from the original substances employed to produce them. Hence, chemical 
 combination is defined to be “ that property which is possessed by one or more substances, 
 of uniting together and producing a third or other body perfectly different in its nature 
 from either of the two or more generating the new compound .” 
 
 A very slight and partial examination of three simple bodies does not, however, 
 afford us any deep insight into the principles of chemistry ; we have, as it were, only 
 mastered the signification of a few words in a language ; any number of isolated experi- 
 ments with various chemical substances would be comparatively useless, and therefore 
 the “ alphabet of chemistry,” or “ table of simple elements,” must first be acquired. 
 These bodies are understood to be solids, fluids, and gases, which have hitherto defied 
 the most elaborate means employed to reduce them into more than one kind of matter. 
 Even pure light is separable into seven parts — viz., red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
 indigo, and violet ; but the elements we shall now enumerate are not of a compound, 
 but, so far as we know, of an absolutely simple or single nature ; they represent the 
 boundaries, not the finality, of the knowledge that may be acquired respecting 
 them. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 535 
 
 The elements are sixty-four in number, of which about forty are tolerably plenti- 
 ful, and therefore common ; while the remainder, twenty-four, are rare, and for that 
 reason of a lesser utility: whenever Nature employs an element on a grand scale it 
 may certainly be called common, but it generally works for the common good of all. 
 and fulfills the most important offices. 
 
 CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 The three gases which head the list will first engage our attention, beginning with 
 the element oxygen — Symbol O, combining proportion sixteen. There is nothing can 
 give a better idea of the enormous quantity of oxygen pres- 
 ent in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, than 
 the statement that it represents one-third of the weight of 
 the whole crust of the globe. Silica, or flint, contains about 
 half its weight of oxygen ; lime contains forty per cent. ; 
 alumina about thirty-three per cent. In these substances 
 the element oxygen remains inactive and powerless, chained 
 by the strong fetters of chemical affinity to the silicium of 
 the flint, the calcium of the lime, and the aluminum of the 
 alumina. If these substances are heated by themselves they will not yield up the large 
 quantity of oxygen they contain. 
 
 Nature, however, is prodigal in her creation, and hence we have but to pursue 
 our search diligently to find a substance or mineral containing an abundance of oxygen, 
 and part of which it will relinquish by what used to be called by the “ old alchemists ” 
 the torture of heat. Such a mineral is the black oxide of manganese, or more correctly 
 the binoxide of manganese, which consists of one combining proportion of the metal 
 manganese — viz., 55*0, and two of oxygen — viz., 16 x 2 = 32. 
 
 There are other solid oxygenized bodies in which the affinities are less powerful, 
 and hence a lower degree of heat suffices to liberate the oxygen gas, and one of the 
 most useful in this respect is the salt termed chlorate of potash. If the substance is 
 heated by itself the temperature required to expel the oxygen is almost as high as 
 that demanded for the black oxide of manganese ; but, strange to say, if the two substances 
 are reduced to powder, and mixed in equal quantities by weight, then a very moderate 
 increase of heat is sufficient to cause the chlorate of potash to give up its oxygen, 
 while the oxide of manganese undergoes no 
 change whatever. It seems to fulfill only a 
 mechanical office — possibly that of separating 
 each particle of chlorate of potash from the 
 other, so that the heat attacks the substance in 
 detail, just as a solid square of infantry might 
 repel almost any attack, while the same body 
 dispersed over a large space might be of little 
 use ; so with the chlorate of potash, which under- 
 goes rapid decomposition when mixed with and 
 divided among the particles of the oxide of 
 manganese ; less so with the red oxide of iron 
 and still less with sand or brick-dust. 
 
 The retort is heated over a slow fire and 
 the oxygen escapes through the water in Fig. 2 
 and is received in bubbles in the glass receptacle. This method of preparing oxygen 
 is both simple and inexpensive, and can be accomplished with safety by our young 
 scientists if care is used. 
 
 fig. 2 . 
 
536 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 NITROGEN, OR AZOTE. 
 
 Composition of Atmospheric^ 
 
 Oxygen 20 
 
 Nitrogen 80 
 
 100 
 
 Weight. 
 
 22*3 
 
 777 
 
 IOO* 
 
 The atmosphere is the great storehouse of nitrogen, and four-fifths of its prodig- 
 ious volume consists of this element. 
 
 The usual mode of procuring nitrogen gas 
 is to abstract or remove the oxygen from a 
 gjiven portion of atmospheric air, and the only 
 point to be attended to is to select some sub- 
 stance which will continue to burn as long as 
 there is any oxygen left, as will be seen in the following : 
 
 Experiment . — To prepare nitrogen gas it is only necessary to place a little dry 
 phosphorus in a Berlin porcelain cup on a wine-glass, and to stand them in a soup-plate 
 
 containing water. The phosphorus is 
 set on fire with a hot wire, and a gas jar 
 or cylindrical jar is then carefully placed 
 over it, so that the welt of the jar stands 
 in the water in the soup-plate. At first, 
 expansion takes place in consequence of 
 the heat, but this effect is soon reversed 
 as the oxygen is converted into a solid 
 by union with the phosphorus, forming 
 a white smoke, which gradually disap- 
 
 pears. 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 This element has almost the prop- 
 erty of ubiquity, and is to be found not 
 only in all animal and vegetable sub- 
 tances, in common air, sea, and fresh 
 water, but also in various stones and 
 minerals, and especially in chalk and 
 limestone. 
 
 A piece of carbon, in the shape of 
 the Koh-i-Noor, was one of the chief at- 
 tractions at the first Exhibition in Hyde 
 Park. The diamond is the hardest and 
 most beautiful form of charcoal ; how it 
 was made in the great laboratory of 
 fig. 3. nature, or how its particles came to- 
 
 gether, seems to be a mystery which up to the present time has not yet been solved, 
 at all events no artificial process has yet produced the diamond. 
 
 Experiment . — Box and various woods, dried bones, and different organic matters, 
 placed in a nearly closed iron or other vessel, and heated red hot, so that all volatile 
 matter may escape, leave behind a solid black substance called charcoal. If that kind 
 obtained from bones, and termed bone-black or ivory-black, is roughly powdered, and 
 placed in a flask with some solution of indigo or some vinegar, or syrup obtained by 
 dissolving common moist sugar in water, and boiled for a short period, the color is 
 removed, and on filtering the liquid it is found to be as clear and colorless as water, 
 provided sufficient ivory black has been employed. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 537 
 
 ARTICLES FOR USE. 
 
 Figs. 3, 4, 5, represent various vessels and articles which will be of service in the 
 laboratory and experimenting room : the retort, glass tubes with closely-fitting pistons, 
 
 m the long tube with funnel-shaped top for 
 
 JJJ pouring liquids in long distances, and for va- 
 rious uses. The amount of apparatus for a 
 well-conducted laboratory is quite considerable and involves 
 considerable outlay; therefore amusements based upon experi- 
 ments in electricity are not within the reach of most families. 
 But we have given the few, and others can be learned from 
 the school chemistries. 
 
 PNEUMATICS. 
 
 The term pneumatics is derived from a Greek word, 
 pneuma , the name of the air. As a branch of mechanics, its 
 object is to investigate the conditions of the equilibrium and 
 motion of elastic or aeriform fluids. Aeriform fluids differ in 
 some respects from liquids , and hence, in these respects, pneu- 
 matics is distinguised from hydrostatics. When certain 
 solids and all liquids are heated they become vapors , or elastic 
 fluids, which differ from gases in being more easily reduced by 
 cold or pressure to the liquid or solid state. Only two elastic 
 fluids are generally treated of in natural philosophy: steam , 
 which is the vapor of water, and common air, which is a perma- 
 nently elastic fluid, because it has never been reduced to the liquid or solid state by cold or 
 pressure. Caloric always pervades the particles of bodies, and overcomes, to a greater 
 or less extent, the force of cohesion. The latter power is predominant in solids, nearly 
 in equilibrium with caloric in liquids, and entirely destroyed in gases, the particles 
 being removed, in the last, beyond the reach of their mutual attraction. 
 
 The following facts must be borne in mind in regard to the atmosphere. It is 
 material and has all the properties of matter: first, it is impenetrable ; second, it is ex- 
 tended in space , third, it has weight ; fourth, it has inertia ; fifth, it is a fluid. These 
 points are all capable of demonstration, but first we will explain 
 
 Hydrostatic Balloon . — If the ball is made a little heavier than the water, so as to 
 remain at the bottom of the jar, and the cloth removed, on placing the whole under 
 the receiver and exhausting the air, the bubble in the ball will expand, drive the water 
 out, and the ball will rise to the surface. On admitting the air the balloon will sink, 
 because the air within is condensed, and the water, being forced in, renders the balloon 
 specifically heavier than water. The elasticity of the air may be employed to produce 
 a beautiful jet of water by using an instrument called the transferer. 
 
 The Sucker. — The pressure of the air is often illustrated by a circular piece of 
 leather with a string passed through the center. When this is moistened and pressed 
 down on any smooth surface, a weight of many pounds may be raised by the string in 
 the center, in consequence of the pressure of the air upon its surface. Boys often use 
 this to lift smooth stones and drag them along. Insects are enabled to walk upon the 
 ceiling of a room because their feet are formed like the sucker, and the upward press- 
 ure of the air holds them firmly to the ceiling. Animals drink and draw their milk by 
 forming a vacuum with their lips, and the atmosphere forces the liquid into their 
 mouths. What is called suction is nothing but the pressure of the air exerted upon 
 the surface of a liquid, forcing it into a partial vacuum, which is formed by the mouth 
 or by some othe* mechanism. 
 
538 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 THE AIR-GUN. 
 
 In this instrument the air may be compressed in it about one thousand six 
 
 hundred times its volume, and when al- 
 lowed to exert its elasticity upon the ball 
 it will propel it with the force of gunpow- 
 der. A ball is driven from the ordinary 
 gun by the elastic force of the gases which 
 fig. 6. are formed by igniting the powder. 
 
 CALORIC, OR HEAT. 
 
 The subject of caloric belongs to chemistry, but, as heat is a powerful mechani- 
 cal agent, there is one branch of it which comes appropriately under the notice of the 
 natural philosopher. 
 
 Caloric exists in two states: i. Sensible , in which state it produces the sensation of 
 heat, and tends to expand all bodies into which it is introduced. 2. Insensible , in which 
 condition it does not affect the temperature of bodies, but exists in them in greater or 
 less quantities, and gives rise to the liquid and gaseous forms of matter. 
 
 I. Sensible caloric has one fundamental property, which is a tendency to diffuse itself 
 equally through all bodies ; i. e., to bring all bodies to an equilibrium of temperature. This 
 is effected in two ways : i. By conduction , in which case it passes from particle to par- 
 ticle through any body. The rapidity with which it passes varies greatly in different 
 substances. Solids are almost the only bodies which conduct heat at all. In liquids 
 the power is very slight. In gases it is wholly wanting. Solids are heated by conduc- 
 tion, but liquids and gases are heated by convection , that is, by contact of their particles 
 against the surface of some heated solid. 2. By radiation , in 
 which case caloric is thrown off in all directions from the surface 
 of a heated body in right lines, and passes through air and other 
 gases without heating them. When radiant caloric falls upon solid 
 or liquid surfaces it is either reflected — that is, thrown back from 
 the surface in the same manner as a solid would be ; or it is 
 absorbed — that is, passes into the body and heats it ; or trans- 
 mitted — that is, passed directly through the body. 
 
 II. Sensible caloric produces one generic effect , expansion. It 
 expands all bodies, solids, liquids, and gases. In solids and 
 liquids the degree of expansion varies in different substances, 
 and in the same substance at different temperatures ; but all 
 gases are equally expanded by heat, whatever their temperature 
 may be. 
 
 THE STEAM-ENGINE. 
 
 The steam-engine owes its present perfection to Mr. James 
 Watt. In order to understand the principle by which steam 
 is applied in the engine, it is only necessary to take a glass 
 tube, with a bulb and solid piston capable of working up and 
 down in the tube, Fig. 7. By heating the water with a spirit- 
 lamp the steam formed will raise the piston to the top ; then, 
 FIG - 7* by immersing the bulb in cold water it will condense the steam, 
 
 and the force of the atmosphere will drive the piston to the bottom. Now if, by 
 means of a tube connected with a steam boiler, the steam be admitted at the bottom 
 below the piston, it will raise it up as before ; but, in order to condense it, its tempera- 
 ture must be reduced. This may be effected by stopping the supply of steam ; and, 
 
THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 539 
 
 by means of a tube in the side, introducing a small jet of cold water,' the pressure" of 
 the atmosphere will again force the piston to the bottom ; on readmitting the steam 
 it will be forced up. This may illustrate one form of the low-pressure engine. It will 
 be seen that the piston must be forced up against the pressure of the atmosphere, and 
 hence the steam must have considerable tension ; but if the piston-rod is made to 
 move through a steam-tight collar, and the steam introduced and condensed at the top 
 of the cylinder as well as at the bottom, the same motion may be produced with much 
 less power ; as the whole pressure of the atmosphere is removed the piston will be forced 
 up by a force less by fifteen pounds to the square inch, but when it is at the top we must 
 apply thd/same force to press it to the bottom. Hence, as the engine is worked with a 
 lower power of steam, it is called a low-pressure engine, and the improvement of Watt 
 consisted chiefly in condensing the steam in a separate vessel called a condenser, so that 
 the temperature of the cylinder was kept uniform. 
 
 If a Florence flask is first fitted with a nice soft cork, and this latter removed, and 
 the former half filled with water, which is then boiled over a gas or spirit flame, the 
 same fact already mentioned and illustrated on a 
 preceding page may be rendered apparent when the 
 flask is corked and removed from the heat. If it is now 
 inverted, and cold water poured over it, an ebullition 
 immediately commences, because the cold water con- 
 denses the steam in the space above the hot water in 
 the flask, and producing a vacuum, the water boils as 
 readily as it would do under an exhausted receiver on 
 an air-pump plate {Fig 8). 
 
 LIGHT AND ITS RAPIDITY OF MOTION. 
 
 “ A cannon-ball moving uniformly at its greatest 
 velocity would require seventeen years to reach the sun. 
 
 Light performs the same distance in about seven minutes 
 and a half. The swiftest bird, at its utmost speed, would 
 require nearly three weeks to make the tour of the 
 
 earth supposing it could proceed without stopping to piG 8 ._ The paradoxical experiment of 
 take food or rest. Light performs the same distance in boiling by the application of cold wa- 
 less time than is required for a single stroke of its wing.” ter. 
 
 Perfection admits of no addition, and it is just this feeling that might check the 
 most eloquent speaker or brilliant writer who attempted to offer in appropriate language 
 the praises due to that first great creation of the Almighty, when the spirit of God moved 
 upon the face of the waters and said, “ Let there be light.” 
 
 It is understood that light is produced by an emanation of rays from a luminous 
 body. If a stone is thrown from the hand, an arrow shot from a bow, or a ball from a 
 cannon, we perfectly understand how either of them may be propelled a certain dis- 
 tance, and why they may travel through space ; but when we hear that light travels 
 from the sun, which is ninety-five millions of miles away from the earth, in about seven 
 minutes and a half, it is interesting to know what is the kind of force that propels the 
 light through that vast distance, and also what is supposed to be the nature of the light 
 itself. 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF LIGHT. 
 
 Light issues from the sun, passes through millions of miles to the earth, and as it 
 falls upon different substances a variety of effects are apparent. There is a certain 
 class of bodies which obstruct the passage of the rays of light, and where light is not, a 
 shadow is cast, and the substance producing the shadow is said to be opaque. Wood, 
 51 
 
54 * 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 stone, the metals, charcoal, are all examples of opacity ; while glass, talc, and horn 
 allow a certain number of the rays to travel through their particles, and are therefore 
 called transparent. Nature, however, never indulges in sudden extremes, and as no 
 substance is so opaque as not (when reduced in thickness) to allow a certain amount of 
 light to pass through its substance, so, on the other hand, however transparent a body 
 may be, a greater or lesser number of the rays are always stopped, and hence opacity 
 and transparency are regarded as two extremes of a long chain ; being connected 
 together by numerous intermediate links, they pass by insensible gradations the one into 
 the other. 
 
 Light is thrown out on all sides from a luminous body like the spokes of a cart- 
 wheel, and in the absence of any obstruction the rays are distributed equally on all 
 sides, diverging like the radii drawn from the center of a circle. As a natural conse- 
 quence arising from the divergence of each ray from the other, the intensity of light 
 decreases as the distance from the luminous source increases, and vice versa. 
 
 That which transmits light is called a medium. Gases, liquids, and transparent 
 solids impede its passage more or less, and are therefore imperfect media. A vacuum 
 is a perfect or free medium. A ray of light is a line of luminous particles proceeding 
 from a luminous point; a beam of light is a number of parallel rays ; and a pencil of 
 light is a collection of rays radiating from a luminous point. 
 
 REFLECTION OF LIGHT. 
 
 I. When a ray of light is reflected — i. The angles of incidence and of reflec* 
 tion are equal ; 2. When rays of light fall upon plain mirrors the reflected rays have 
 the same inclination as the incident rays have ; and, 3. The images formed by plain 
 mirrors correspond with the objects, being at the same distance from the mirror, and 
 like situated in every respect. A. When two mirrors are placed at an angle, two or 
 more images of the object are formed. 
 
 II. Rays of light falling on curved surfaces observe the same law ; hence, 1. Par- 
 allel rays falling upon a concave mirror are reflected to a point called the focus of 
 parallel rays, which is half way between the center of curvature and surface of the mir- 
 ror. Concave mirrors give rise to images, whose position and magnitude will depend 
 upon the position of the objct. 2. Rays of light falling upon a convex mirror are 
 rendered diverging ; and hence the images of such mirrors are less than the object be*' 
 hind the mirror, and nearer to it than the object. 
 
 THE WONDERFUL MAGIC MIRROR. 
 
 HOW TO ENTERTAIN AN AUDIENCE AND ASTONISH THE LEARNED. — THE GHOST 
 
 MYSTERY EXPLAINED. 
 
 One of the most startling effects that can be displayed to persons ignorant of the 
 common laws of the reflection of light is called the “ magic mirror,” and is described 
 by Sir Walter Scott in his graphic story of that name. The apparatus for the purpose 
 must be well planned and fixed in a proper room for that purpose, and if carefully con- 
 ducted may surprise even the learned. A long and somewhat narrow room should be 
 hung with black cloth, and at one end may be placed a large mirror, so arranged that 
 it will turn on hinges like a door. The magician’s circle may be placed at the other 
 end of the chamber in which the spectators must be rigidly confined, and there is very 
 little doubt that the arrangement about to be described was formerly used by clever 
 astrologers who pretended to look into the future, and to hold communication with 
 the supernatural powers. Theatrical effects were not disdained, such as suppressed 
 io d dismal groans, sham thunder, and the wizard usually heightened his own inspiring 
 
THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 541 
 
 personal appearance by wearing of course a long beard and flowing robe trimmed with 
 hieroglyphics, and with the assistance of a ponderous volume full of cabalistic signs, a 
 few skulls and cross-bones, an hour-glass, a pair of drawn swords, a black cat, a char- 
 coal fire, and sundry drugs to throw into it, a very tolerable collection of imps, famil- 
 iars, and demons, might be expected to attend without the modern practice of spirit- 
 rapping. As before stated, the delusion must be carefully conducted, and a confede* 
 ate is necessary in order to use the phantasmagoria, or magic lantern. The slides of 
 course were painted to suit the fortune to be unfolded — an easy road to riches for the 
 gentlemen, a tale of love, ending in matrimony, for the ladies. 
 
 The spectators, being placed in the magic circle, are directed to look into the mir- 
 ror; they may even be ordered singly to fetch a skull off the mantle-shelf beside the 
 mirror and while doing so to look full into the mirror, and then return to the circle. 
 Absolute silence is enjoined, and soft music is now heard. 
 
 The confederate may remove the mirror from its frame and 
 place it at an angle of forty-five degrees, then throw on a Ij 
 picture from a magic-lantern. No end of amusement can be 
 afforded by judicious and careful management. 
 
 A combination of mirrors will produce the amusing 
 changes of the popular “ ghost show ” and the beheaded 
 man. The effect produced is the result of these laws. 
 
 If a plane mirror be placed at an angle of forty-five 
 degrees to the horizon, an erect object placed before it will 
 appear horizontal, and a horizontal object erect, because 
 the image will have the same inclination to the mirror as 
 the object ; and as each is forty-five degrees, taken together 
 they will amount to ninety degrees. When the object is 
 twice the length of the mirror, and placed parallel to it, 
 its image will be distinctly seen, for the angle of reflection 
 is equal to the angle of incidence, and these, taken together, 
 are double the angle of incidence. The surface, therefore, 
 which reflects the rays from the object will be but half as 
 long or as broad as the object ; hence a person may see 
 his whole length in a mirror which is but half of his height. 
 
 The distinctness or brightness of the image increases as the 
 angle of incidence increases. For example, if the light of a 
 lamp fall nearly perpendicularly upon ground glass, polished 
 wood, or varnished paper, we cannot distinguish any flame ; 
 but if the rays fall obliquely, the image will be distinctly 
 seen ; that is, the intensity of the reflected rays is least 
 at perpendicular incidence, and increases with the angle 
 of incidence. The intensity of the reflected rays is modified, also, by the medium in 
 which they move, and the nature of the surface against which they impinge. 
 
 Fig. 9. — Plan of room. A A, tha 
 frame of the looking-glass; A B, 
 mirror put back to an angle of forty, 
 five degrees; C, the confederate* 
 who manages the lantern and shuts 
 the glass to the frame after each for. 
 tune is told ; D, the magic circle, to 
 which the rays are reflected. 
 
 FIRE BALLOONS. 
 
 These balloons are a good example of the expansion of gases, and the lightness of 
 the air thus increased in bulk was taken advantage of by a Frenchman, Montgolfier, in 
 the construction of a famous balloon which, with an arrangement containing various 
 animals, ascended in the presence of the king and royal family of France at Versailles ; 
 it ascended to the height of ten thousand two hundred feet, and descended without 
 injury to the animals or himself. The gallant aeronaut, Pilate de Rcgier, offered him- 
 self to be the first aerial navigator, and having joined Montgolfier they made three 
 successful ascents and descents with an oval-shaped balloon- forty-eight feet in diam- 
 
j'42 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 eter, and seventy-four feet high. On the fourth occasion he ascended to a height of 
 
 two hundred and sixty-two feet, but in the descent 
 a gust of wind having blown the machine over some 
 large trees of an adjoining garden, the situation of the 
 brave aeronaut was extremely dangerous. On de- 
 scending again, he once more, and without the slight- 
 est fear, raised himself to a considerable height by 
 feeding his fire with chopped straw. Some time after 
 he ascended, in company with M. Giroud de Vilette, 
 to the height of three hundred and thirty feet, hover- 
 ing over Paris at least nine minutes, in sight of all the 
 inhabitants, and the machine keeping all the while per- 
 fectly steady. 
 
 The danger in using this method of inflating the 
 balloon arises from the possibility of generating gas, 
 which escaping unburnt into the body of the balloon 
 may accumulate and blow up, or burn afterward. 
 
 Fire-balloons, as usually made, are very dangerous 
 toys, and may sometimes prove rather costly to the 
 person who may send them off, in consequence of their 
 being blown by the wind on a hay or corn rick, or other 
 combustible substances. The safest mode of using 
 fire-balloons is to fill them with hot air from a lighted 
 Fig. ii.— a gas stove, with ring of gas gas stove; the balloons may then be used in large 
 jets lighted inside ; the air rushes in the r00 ms, or out in the air, without fear of doing any 
 
 direction of the arrows, C C, and escaping , • i , • , r , u y 
 
 at the top Of the chimney, D D, soon fill! harm to neighboring property, as of course the stove 
 the air or fire-balloon, which is usually and the fire remain behind, and will fill any number 
 made of paper. Q f air-balloons. 
 
 WAVES AND THEIR MOTION. 
 
 Water-Waves. — Water-waves are generally produced by the combined agency of 
 air and gravity ; but, whatever the disturbing cause may be, any elevation or depres- 
 sion of the surface of a liquid is propagated to a con- 
 siderable distance from the point of disturbance. 
 Thus, if a stone be thrown into a pond of water, cir- 
 cular waves will be formed, which consist of eleva- 
 tions and depressions, that follow each ^ 
 other with considerable rapidity, and 
 spread themselves with uniform veloc- 
 ity to a greater or less distance over the surface of the 
 pond. Such waves have a progressive motion ; the 
 water does not move in the direction of the wave, but 
 only rises up and down in a vertical plane. That there 
 iHI is no progressive motion of the water is shown by the 
 fact that light bodies floating upon its surface do not advance 
 with the wave, but only rise and fall in a vertical line as the 
 vave elevations and depressions pass under them. The force 
 which propels the wave is gravity. The particles on the top of 
 the wave are drawn down by this force with such velocity that 
 they sink below the general level of the surface, and cause the 
 particles which are adjacent in the advance of the wave to rise 0 
 
 up and form another elevation, and gravity again draws them down and makes a 
 second depression. 
 
 The theory of waves is illustrated by Fig. ii, a glass dish of water with an arrange- 
 ment of balls that strike the edge and cause a slight undulation in the water. 
 
 FIG. II. 
 
SEX IN THE VEGETABLE WORLD. 
 
 What IS Life? — The distinction between the organic and inorganic worlds is 
 very marked when you rise in the scale of created things, but on its lower border it 
 seems difficult to define the line of demarkation. It may be summed up in one 
 word — Life. This is the principle which separates the two realms, organic and in- 
 organic. What is life in its broadest sense? This question has puzzled the philoso- 
 phers who have spent their lives in an attempt to solve the problem. 
 
 Man possesses life in common with an almost infinite variety of other creatures. 
 The hugest monster of any age and the tiniest insect revealed by the microscope; 
 the giants of the forest and the minute species of moss that clings to the rock, are all 
 imbued with life. All nature teems in myriad forms and endless variety with that 
 strange thing or principle we call life. 
 
 Animal and Vegetable Life. — If the distinction between organic and inor- 
 ganic nature is so difficult, that between the animal and vegetable is more so. While 
 it is comparatively easy to point out the general characteristics of each, still at the 
 lower confines of the two kingdoms they seem strangely to interblend and thus mys- 
 tify the scientific observer. All organic beings have life, and this term refers to the 
 phenomena which arise from organization. This, however, is not a definition, but 
 a repetition of terms. 
 
 Life FORCE a MYSTERY. — Observation proves to us that this force is convert- 
 ible into heat and mechanical force. Very delicate instruments have demonstrated 
 that life force is changed into electricity. The electric eel and some other fish have 
 such an amount of this as to discharge a shock which paralyzes larger animals. The 
 firefly and other insects have the power of converting vital heat into light. 
 
 How life is produced is a question of mystery as yet unsolved by the science of 
 to-day. That it is reproduced is the experience common to animals and vegetables 
 alike. 
 
 REPRODUCTION. — This is a function and a distinct characteristic of plants and 
 animals. By this method they increase or multiply. Every organic being seems to 
 have its cycle of birth, growth, decadence, and death. The great variety in every 
 rank of animal and plant life, and the difference of condition and circumstance at- 
 tending these, make it apparent that there must be a corresponding variety in their 
 modes of reproduction as to general character and detail. But there is a unity in all 
 this seeming diversity. That unity may be expressed by the word sex. 
 
 The law may be stated thus : Every living organism originates with some previ- 
 ously existing living being or beings. 
 
 Sex. — W e find that reproduction comes from the uniting of two very dissimilar 
 elements. The exceptions to this are very rare indeed. These elements do not, in 
 the higher forms of life, exist in the same individuals, but are generated by them. 
 Since they are unlike, there are special organs which produce them, each organ able 
 to furnish the particular element needed. As these exist in separate beings, it gives 
 rise to the distinction of sex — male and female. In many species the difference is so 
 great, that for a long time it was not known that they were of different genders, or 
 
544 
 
 SEX IN THE VEGETABLE WORLD. 
 
 even kinds. An individual plant or animal, possessing both male and female organs 
 of reproduction, is termed a hermaphrodite. This combination is not so rare 
 among plants as among the higher order of animals, although the snail, the oyster, 
 the earth-worm, and the barnacle, are examples of true hermaphrodites in the animal 
 world. 
 
 VEGETABLE Organs OF Sex. — The sexual organs of plant life are found in the 
 flower. The wonder, adaptation, variety, and loveliness of these are worthy of study. 
 It may seem strange to the ordinary reader to ascribe sexuality to plants. The 
 science of botany has, however, established the truth that these organs may be as 
 readily distinguished in the vegetable as in the animal world. 
 
 The parts of the flower which develop the seed correspond to the female 
 organs, and the parts which, though they do not bear seeds, are necessary to their 
 fecundation, are the male organs. These flowers are in some cases found on separate 
 individuals of the species, and in many cases upon separate stocks of the same plant 
 or tree. To this latter class belong the oak, walnut, and other forest trees, as well 
 as the Indian corn. In this familiar illustration, in the last mentioned, the “tassel ” 
 exhibits the male, and the “ silk ” the female flowers on the same stock, but in sepa- 
 rate parts. There are a large number of plants which are true hermaphrodites, com- 
 bining both elements in the same flower. But in all there must be a normal com- 
 bination of the two to reproduce the species. 
 
 The Structure of the Flower. — Perfect flowers consist of four parts. Two 
 of these are essential, namely, the stamen and the pistil . The others are accessory 
 and helpful to these, namely, the calyx and the corolla. That portion of the flower 
 which surrounds it at the outer or lower part is called the calyx. It is of different 
 form and color in the different species, but usually it is some tinge of green. The 
 corolla forms the most attractive and showy part just within the calyx. The divi- 
 sions of the corolla are called petals , those of the calyx are called sepals. Within the 
 calyx, the outer envelope, and the corolla, the inner envelope, are found the essential 
 organs, the stamen and pistils. The first are the proper male organs, and the second 
 the proper female organs. 
 
 The Sexual Organs. — The stamens consist of a stem or filament, on top of 
 which are found two little sacs. This is called the anther , and is filled at maturity 
 with a fine dust, seen under the microscope, called the pollen . This contains the 
 male element for reproduction. One writer has termed this part of the flower the 
 vegetable husband. Some flowers have many stamens. From this circumstance the 
 great Linnaeus, the investigator of organic life, based his scientific classification of 
 flowers. A flower with but one stamen he called monandria, or one husband ; those 
 with two stamens, diandria, or two husbands ; those having a number, polyandria , or 
 many husbands. 
 
 The female organs are the pistils which grow in the very centre of the flower. 
 This bears a cell which contains the female element of reproduction, termed an ovule. 
 Above it grow the style and the stigma . 
 
 In some plants these sexual organs of both kinds are invisible to the unaided 
 eye. Such are called cryptogamia, or hidden marriages. We cannot fail to be im- 
 
SEX IN THE VEGETABLE WORLD. 
 
 545 
 
 pressed by this brief outline of an interesting study with the wonderful correspond- 
 ence in the reproduction of life in animals and vegetables. There is a striking anal- 
 ogy at every step in the structure as well as the function of the sexual apparatus in 
 both forms of life. 
 
 How Flowers FECUNDATE. — The renowned naturalist, Linnaeus, was the first 
 to make known these interesting facts and explain them upon a scientific basis. 
 There is found in one of his productions a passage of marvellous beauty showing the 
 analogy of the process in both the great realms of nature, the animal and the vege- 
 table. This displays the steps of the process in language which may be too scientific 
 for our purpose. He has been styled the father of the modern science of botany, 
 and we mention this to prove how early in the history of this subject the fact of 
 which we are now treating was known. The correspondences in nature are as mar- 
 vellous as they are widely extended. Nowhere is this more strikingly illustrated than 
 in the mystery which lies at the beginnings of life. In this common and vital process 
 we see the thread which runs through all forms of life and binds all together in one 
 infinite series, from the lowest form of plant to the highest, and from the tiniest 
 insect up to man, the crowning piece of creation. 
 
 Something almost akin to intelligence may be observed in the action of plants. 
 When the proper development has arrived, the corolla of the plant contracts in such 
 a way as to bring the essential organs nearer together, or even in contact. In cer- 
 tain water plants the flowers raise themselves above the surface while the process is 
 being effected, and at once sink again beneath the water. 
 
 Some flowers present curious changes at this season. The stamen grows moist, 
 and is perceptibly odorous. Often it becomes greatly congested with the sap of the 
 plant, and sometimes has, in a remarkable degree, the power of contraction. The 
 tulip presents an example of this kind, and also one variety of the sensitive plant. 
 This condition is assumed not only by the normal action of the pollen upon the 
 stamen, but under other means of stimulation. There is in some flowers a percepti- 
 ble increase of heat. This is said to be the case with the arum of Italy. In those 
 species where the stamen is longer than the pistil, the latter is observed to bend over 
 and thus come in contact with the stamen at the right time. In many cases the 
 fecundation of plants is merely a mechanical action of the parts to the conditions 
 required, but through it all we can readily trace the law of adaptation. 
 
 Practical Bearings. — This subject is not only very interesting, but it is one 
 that the horticulturist and nurseryman should understand in all its relations to be 
 successful. And the farmer, too, will find it greatly to his advantage to understand, 
 that he may not, through want of information, plant his cereal grains or other crops 
 in such a way as “to mix” with other kinds, to his great detriment. On the other 
 hand, these men may learn the secret of nature, which is an open one to the intelli- 
 gent observer, and so cross his grains or fruit trees as to improve them. Many fields 
 of corn have been spoiled for the market by having been planted too near to some 
 other variety in the vicinity, and the farmer did not see how they could mix. The 
 pollen carried by the feet or wings of the busy insect, or wafted by the wind from 
 the one, has fecundated the silk of the other. 
 
SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION 
 
 APPLICATION, 
 
 Interior View, 
 
 Showing the Weston Dynamo-Electric Machines at the Central Station. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF ELECTRICITY 
 
 AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE. 
 
 The subject of electricity has occupied the public attention to a great extent dur- 
 Mg the past few years, and has come to be applied to so many of the arts and manu- 
 factures of the present age that it is important to give our readers some insight into 
 the wonderful science. The force of magnetism and electricity are so closely allied 
 that they must be explained together. 
 
 The word electricity is derived from a Greek word which signifies amber. It was 
 given to this subtile fluid because its effects were first observed from the use of amber 
 as an electric. It had been found that if a piece of amber, glass, sealing-wax, resin, or 
 of some other substances were rubbed with a cloth, or the skin of a cat, it acquires the 
 remarkable property of attracting other substances. The substance that has this 
 power which was first seen in the amber is called an electric. The power of attracting 
 or repelling fight substances was called electric attraction or repulsion. The discovery 
 of electricity was first made by chance, as has been the case with many other important 
 scientific discoveries. The first electric machine was invented by Otto Guericke, who 
 was the inventor of the air-pump. There is no question but that his machine, which 
 consisted of a globe of sulphur so arranged as to be turned with a crank while the rub- 
 ber was pressed against it by the hand, was the first of its kind. After the time of 
 Guericke another philosopher substituted a glass cylinder for the globe of sulphur. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC MACHINE. 
 
 The purpose of this machine is to obtain for experimental purposes a larger sup- 
 ply rf electricity than can be obtained by rubbing any of the substances which have 
 
 been mentioned above. Fur, wool, resin, glass, silk, 
 metals, sulphur, india-rubber, gutta percha, and collodion 
 are electrics, but are excited only to a limited degree 
 when the power of the hand only is applied. This ma- 
 chine consists of a glass cylinder mounted on a frame- 
 work and turned by a crank, as shown in the illustration. 
 Against the surface is pressed a pad of leather stuffed, 
 with horse-hair, having its surface covered with powdered 
 amalgam of zinc or tin. A flap of silk covers the top. 
 On the side of the central cylinder is a smaller elongated 
 cylinder with globe-like ends mounted on a glass stand. 
 These are the “ prime conductors,” and upon the end. 
 not seen in the cut usually carries a rod terminating in a 
 brass ball or knob. When the crank is turned the friction between the glass and the 
 amalgam-coated pad produces a powerful electrical separation. The positive current 
 
 FIG. i. 
 
548 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 \s carried around the surface of the glass and negative electricity is produced in the pad 
 The currents are carried into the prime conductors on the side. The negative is 
 tnarked N , and the positive P. A metallic chain runs from each prime conductor, which 
 is also of metal. When the two chains are grasped one in either hand the electric cur 
 rent passes through the body. There is another style of electrical machine, which con- 
 sists of a circular wheel of plate-glass or ebonite, which revolves between two pair ot 
 rubber cushions made of double pads placed at the highest and lowest points. The 
 principle on which it works is the same as the one described above. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH THE ELECTRICAL MACHINE. 
 
 An amusing little experiment can be tried with the machine, as shown in the ac- 
 companying cut. A circular metallic plate is suspended from the rod of the prime con- 
 ductor. A second flat plate is placed about two inches from the 
 upper one and connected with the .floor, so that no non-conductor 
 can cut the earth circuit. Little figures cut in the shape of hu- 
 man beings can be made to stand erect by holding them between 
 the plates and turning the machine ; the figures are made of tissue 
 paper, pith, or any light substance. This can be carried on in- 
 definitely by keeping up the electric current. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC CHIME. 
 
 This experiment was first introduced by Dr. Franklin 
 in 1725, for the purpose of warning him of the presence of at- 
 mospheric electricity, which was drawn from the air by a pointed 
 It consists of three bells suspended from a metallic rod. The two outer bells are hung 
 on metallic wire, while the center is hung by a silk cord, and from 
 this bell a metallic chain hangs to the ground or floor. The small 
 brass balls hang on silk thread between them. This arrangement 
 is suspended to the knob of .the electric machine the same as Fig. 2. 
 
 When the machine is charged the balls will be attracted to the 
 outer bells, and when they have been charged will be repelled 
 and attracted to the center bell, and thus continue to oscillate 
 from side to side. This is an amusing and instructive experi- 
 ment, and will interest any one, young or old. 
 
 HENLEY’S QUADRANT ELECTROSCOPE. 
 
 This little instrument is used to measure the degree of electricity 
 with which an electric is charged. It consists of an electric of some kind 
 suspended to an arm, moving on the graduated arc of a circle, and when 
 attracted by the electric current flies out, as seen in the engraving. It is 
 seldom used except to show whether an electrical machine or Leyden 
 ar is sufficiently charged. It is not intended to measure the amount, 
 out to indicate the presence of a large charge. It can show us by the 
 i odicator standing at one point when the electric potentiality of the machine 
 the same at one time as another. 
 
 FIG. 2. 
 
 rod above his house. 
 
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 549 
 
 THE LEYDEN JAR. 
 
 The two kinds of electricity have been shown to repel each other and attract their 
 opposite. Electricity cannot flow through glass, because it is a non-conductor, and yet 
 it can act across glass, as we will presently show. The Leyden 
 jar was named after the city where it was first discovered. It 
 consists of a glass jar, covered on the outside and inside with tin- 
 foil to within two or theee inches of the top. A brass knob at* 
 tached to a stout wire passes downward below the tin-foil, and com* 
 municates by a little chain with the inner coating of tin-foil. This 
 jar is charged by holding the knob to that on the end of the prime 
 conductor. When a charge of positive electricity is thus impart- 
 ed to the inner coating it acts inductively upon the outer coating ) 
 attracting a negative charge to the face of the coating nearest the 
 glass, and repelling a positive charge to the outer side of the same 
 surface, and then to the earth. After a few moments the jar will be charged with pos- 
 itive electricity on the inner, and negative on the outer coating. If the glass be of 
 good quality, and perfectly dry, the charge within will remain until discharged by the 
 means of bringing the two electricities together. This is done by the discharging-tongs 
 seen in the cut. The two knobs of the discharging-tongs are brought at the same time 
 in contact with the outside coating of tin-foil and the knob on the top of the jar. 
 A bright snapping spark leaps from one to the other knob of the discharger 
 
 THE LIGHTNING-ROD. 
 
 A little experiment shows the principle of the common lightning-rod. Fig. 6 
 represents the gable end of a toy house, with a rod extending from A to the block 
 
 C D, and a rod from the block to the ground. With the 
 charged Leyden jar touch the knobs together and the 
 charge will pass off from A to B across the block, fob 
 lowing the dotted lines. Then remove the lower half of 
 the block C D and the rod B, again touch the knob 
 with the charged Leyden jar, and the toy house will be 
 demolished. This shows the necessity of connecting the 
 lightning-rod with the earth, for if this connection is 
 broken the rod is more dangerous than if no rod was used* 
 A Leyden jar is sometimes covered with spangles of 
 tin-foil, and the light from the discharge is seen from each one. The illustration, 
 Fig. y, represents a Leyden jar covered with tin-foil, except the circular spots, which 
 are of clear glass. This will produce a greater discharge than the ordinary jar. 
 
 ANIMAL ELECTRICITY. 
 
 A number of the species of animals which inhabit the water have the power of 
 producing an electric discharge, such as the torpedo , gymnostus , and silurus. The elec, 
 trie eel is well known to most of our readers. But it is not our purpose to go into an ex- 
 tensive resume of this subject, and we therefore only mention the fact. In fact there 
 
 FIG. 7. 
 
550 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 is an electric current running through everything in nature, animate and inanimate, 
 organic and inorganic. The earth itself is an immense magnet, with well defined 
 electric currents and its opposite poles, as demonstrated by the use of the magnetic 
 needle. 
 
 PYRO-ELECTRICITY. 
 
 There are certain crystals which, while being heated or cooled, have the property 
 of exhibiting electrical charges at certain points or poles. Crystals thus electrified are 
 said to be pyro-electric. The chief of these 
 is the tourmaline , whose power of attracting 
 light bodies to its ends has been observed for 
 centuries. The tourmaline is hard, semi- 
 transparent when cut into slices, and of a 
 dark green or brown color, but in its natural 
 state it looks perfectly black and opaque. 
 
 It also possesses the power of polarizing light. 
 
 It is usually found in hexagonal or six-sided 
 prisms having the alternate sides only partly 
 developed. When the prism is perfect it has 
 both ends pointed. Its approximate form is 
 shown in the cuts under Fig. 8. The two 
 ends are slightly different from each other. 
 
 While this crystal is rising in temperature 
 one end is positive and the other negative, 
 and when falling in temperature the positive 
 becomes negative and the negative becomes 
 positive. This phenomenon is not observed 
 above three hundred and two degrees Fahrenheit. A heated crystal of tourmaline sus- 
 pended by a silk fiber will be attracted and repelled by electrified or another heated tour- 
 maline. The similar poles repel and the opposite poles attract each other. Even when 
 a crystal is broken up each fragment has the same property. Besides the tourmaline, 
 there are other crystals which are more or less pyro-electric. We mention among 
 others silicate of zinc, beracite, sugar-cane, quartz, tartrate of potash, sulphate of 
 quinine. A peculiar half-symmetry is exhibited by all the crystals mentioned, which 
 are termed hemihedrical ; that is, half of their sides are regular, and half irregular. 
 This is doubtless due to their singular electric property, and which in many cases deter- 
 mines the optical phenomenon of the crystal called polarization of light. 
 
 THE HORSE-SHOE MAGNET. 
 
 Magnetism is not only the result of a current of electricity through any good con- 
 ductor, but there are certain oxides of iron, called magnetic iron ores, which have the 
 property of attracting iron filings, and are mostly found in primitive rocks, being abun- 
 dant at Roslagen, in Sweden, and called the loadstone, from its always pointing, when 
 freely suspended, to the Polar, North, or Load Star. If a tolerably large specimen of 
 this mineral is examined, there will be found usually two points where the iron filings 
 45 
 
 FIG. 8. 
 
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 551 
 
 are attracted in larger quantities than in other parts of the same specimen. These 
 attractive points are called poles, and the loadstone being properly mounted with soft 
 iron bars, termed cheeks, bound round it has its magnetic power greatly increased, and 
 is then said to be endowed with magnetic polarity ; and to prevent the loss of power, 
 a soft piece of iron, called the armature, is placed across and attracted to the poles of 
 
 fig. 9. 
 
 the loatTstone. If the horse-shoe magnet is placed on a sheet of paper, and some iron 
 filings are dusted between the poles, a very beautiful series of curves are formed, 
 called the magnetic curves, which indicate the constant passage of the magnetic power 
 from pole to pole. The magnetic force exerted by a horse-shoe-shaped piece of soft 
 iron, surrounded with many strands of covered copper wire in short lengths, is 
 extremely powerful, and enormous weights have been supported by an electro-magnet 
 when connected with a voltaic battery. Supposing a man were dressed in complete 
 armor, he might be held by an electro-magnet, without the power of disengaging him- 
 self, thus realizing the fairy story of the bold knight who was caught by a rock of load- 
 stone, and, in full armor, detained by the unfriendly magician. The natural magnet 
 or loadstone is an ore of iron known as magnetite, and is found in large quantity in Swe- 
 den, Spain, and the State of Arkansas, on the Isle of Elba, and other parts of the globe. 
 Artificial magnets, like Fig. 9, are made by rubbing a piece of iron, or, better still, of 
 steel, upon the loadstone. It will then attract small bits of iron or steel, and if suspended 
 by a thread they will point due north and south. The horse-shoe magnet is made in 
 the form of Fig. 9. The illustration shows five magnets united, with the central one 
 longer than the rest. The armature or keeper is also a horse-shoe magnet. 
 
 THE METHOD OF MAGNETIZING. 
 
 The steel or iron to be magnetized can be rubbed upon the natural magnet until 
 the power is applied, but in this case the last spot touched on the magnet will be the 
 pole of the magnetized metal and opposite to that touched. The better way is to mag- 
 netize by the divided or double touch. In the divided touch the bar to be affected is 
 laid down and two magnets with their opposite poles together are laid upon it. They are 
 
552 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 then drawn asunder toward the end of the iron several times. The bar to be magnet- 
 ized is turned over, and the same operation is repeated on the other side and on the 
 edges. The magnetization by double touch differs slightly from this, by laying the two 
 magnets upon the unmagnetized iron, as before, with a bit of wood or cork between 
 the ends, and then rubbing them both back and forth on the bar under them. A steel 
 bar cannot be magnetized beyond a certain point by either of these methods. The 
 magnetic field is the space around a magnet in which it has a perceptible power of 
 attraction. When the armature is placed upon the poles of a horse-shoe magnet the 
 field is lessened. A closed magnet has no field of power. 
 
 LAWS OF MAGNETIC FORCE. 
 
 The reader all along will find in his perusal of the subject that the two great laws 
 hold good. First law : Like magnetic poles repel one another and unlike attract. 
 SECOND LAW : The force exerted between two magnetic poles is proportional to the pro • 
 
 duct of their strength, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them » 
 
 MAGNETIZING BY ELECTRICITY. 
 
 A strong current of electricity carried in a spiral wire around a bar of steel or iron 
 magnetizes it much more powerfully than any of the methods we have mentioned. If 
 the bar be of soft iron it remains a magnet only as long as the current continues to 
 flow. It is then called an electro-magnet. Elias, of Haarlem, first proposed to mag- 
 netize steel bars by passing them through a wire coiled up in a ring of many turns, 
 through which a strong current was sent by a voltaic battery. Bar magnets are made 
 of hardened steel for scientific purposes, but for many purposes a horse-shoe magnet is 
 preferred. The armature, or keeper, is a magnet by induction when placed across both 
 poles of the horse-shoe, and will then attract with greater force than when connected 
 with only one pole. 
 
 The power of the magnet may be illustrated by means 
 of Fig. io, which consists of little -steel knots upon the end 
 of slender wires set in a frame. By placing the magnet in 
 certain positions the wires will be bent as indicated, because 
 the steel knot is attracted to the magnet, and in its attempt 
 to touch it the wires are bent as shown above. 
 
 FIG. IO. 
 
 CURRENT ELECTRICITY. 
 
 After it had become established that electricity could be transmitted from a charged 
 body by any conducting substance, a wire or wetted string, it became a problem how a 
 continuous current could be produced. It was discovered that this could be done by 
 the voltaic cells, or batteries of such cells, most satisfactorily, although there were other 
 means. 
 
 CHEMICAL ELECTRICITY. 
 
 The first and most simple experiment that can be adduced in proof of electrical ex- 
 citation by chemical means, is to take a bit of clean zinc and a clean silver coin, and 
 placing one on the tongue and the other below it, as long as they remain separate no 
 
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO THE TRADES. 
 
 553 
 
 effect is observed, but directly they are made to touch each other, while in that posi- 
 tion, a peculiar thrill is rendered evident by the nerves of the tongue, which in this 
 case answers the same purpose as the electroscope already described, and in a short 
 time a peculiar metallic taste is perceptible. 
 
 It has been stated over and over again that it was to a somewhat similar circumstance 
 we owe the discovery of voltaic electricity, and the story of the skinned frogs agitated 
 and convulsed by an accidental communication with two different metals, or, as some 
 say, with the electricity from an ordinary machine, has been repeated in nearly every 
 work on the science. Professor Silliman, however, asserts that the galvanic story is 
 doubtful, and is a fabrication of Alibert, an Italian writer of no repute, and that greater 
 merit is due to Galvani than that of being merely the accidental discoverer of this kind 
 of electricity, because he had been engaged for eleven years in eletcro-physiological ex- 
 periments, using frogs’ legs as electroscopes. 
 
 THE DISCOVERY OF VOLTA. 
 
 The theory of Galvani had several opponents, one of whom, the celebrated Volta, 
 succeeded in pointing out its fallacy ; he maintained that the electrical excitement was 
 due entirely to the metals, and that the muscular contractions were caused by the elec- 
 tricity thus developed passing along the nerves and muscles of the dead animal. To 
 him we are indebted for the first voltaic battery. 
 
 He showed, first, that the contact of two dissimilar metals produced the opposite 
 kinds of electricity on the two surfaces, one negative the other positive. Second, that 
 by placing a pair of disks of copper and zinc with a pair of zinc and copper, having a 
 moist conductor between them, and so on in pairs thus separated, a very perceptible 
 shock would be produced by touching the top and bottom of the pile at the same time. 
 The power of the shock will be in proportion to the number of the pairs. Third, he 
 constructed “ the crown of cups,” which consisted of a number of cups filled with brine, 
 or diluted acid, into which were dipped strips, half zinc, half copper, the zinc in one 
 cup, the copper in another, and so on around the circle of cups. He found that a cur- 
 rent was thus generated, strong enough to ring an electric bell. 
 
 A SINGLE VOLTAIC CELL. 
 
 Our young readers can easily see how this works by taking an ordinary glass jar or 
 tumbler filled with water, into which a few drops of sulphuric acid have been put. Let 
 two clean pieces of zinc and copper be placed into this diluted acid without touching 
 each other, and you will have a cell of the galvanic or voltaic battery. The wire of 
 copper connecting the two strips of dissimilar metal will at once render one positive 
 and the other negative. In fact there is a continuous current of electricity flowing 
 through the cell from the zinc to the copper by means of the connecting wire back to 
 the zinc. 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 THE MOST WONDERFUL APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE PRACTICAL DEMANDS 
 
 OF CIVILIZED LIFE. 
 
 The most wonderful application of electricity to the purpose of lighting large 
 towns and cities has marked a great advance in the practical workings of the science, 
 and promises to revolutionize the whole system of illumination. The luminous effect 
 produced by the electric current had been observed first by Faraday long before any- 
 one thought of applying it to any practical use. If the terminals from a powerful bat- 
 tery are joined and then slightly separated the current will pass through the air, 
 causing the most intense light and heat. This flame is called the voltaic arc, and is 
 best produced between two pencils of carbon, which are heated to a white heat by the 
 electric current. This was first observed by Sir H. Davy in 1809, since which time it 
 has been the problem of scientists and inventors to make some practical application 
 of this important principle. It has remained for the inventors of the last half of the 
 nineteenth century to discover this practical method, and it has been done within the 
 past few years. Many pieces of self-adjusting mechanism have been devised by Du- 
 boscq, Foucault, Serrin, Siemens, Brush, and others. That devised by Mr. Brush, and 
 known as the Brush machine, is the one used at the present writing (1883) by the com- 
 panies now doing the most extensive business in this country. This instrument, used 
 for generating the electricity, is called a Dynamo-electric Machine, a good repre- 
 sentation of which is seen in our full-page illustration. In 1867 the suggestion was 
 made simultaneously, but independently, by two men, Siemens and Wheatstone, that a 
 coil rotating between the poles of an electro-magnet might, from the feeble amount of 
 magnetism remaining in it, induce a small current, which, if transmitted through the 
 coils of the electro-magnet, increase its magnetism and thus induce a stronger current. 
 In these machines the coils of the field magnet are placed in circuit with the coils of the 
 revolving armature, so as to be crossed by the whole, or a part of the induced current, 
 which is due to magneto-electric induction. The dynamical power is produced by 
 the steam-engine, or other motor, which causes the rotating coils of wire to revolve in 
 the magnetic field, the force generated in proportion to the number of turns of wire 
 in the rotating armature and the speed of revolution. The dynamo-electric machines 
 in use differ chiefly in the means used to obtain the practical continuity of the current. 
 When the force needed is small, like that required in electro-plating and electrotyping, 
 a few turns of stout wire or ribbon of copper are sufficient ; but for procuring currents 
 of high power, such as is needed for the electric light, the armature must be driven 
 very fast, and must consist of many turns of wire. This may be very thin, as its resist- 
 ance is not of great moment in a long circuit where there are considerable resistances 
 already. 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 555 
 
 THE WESTON DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 
 
 The illustration we give presents a highly improved and perfected dynamo- 
 electric machine of the Weston patent. The field magnets are situated in a hori« 
 zontal position on each side of the armature. Their cores, pole-pieces and yoke-plates 
 are arranged in a rectangle of cast iron, which constitutes the framework of the 
 machine. The yoke-plates at each end — the one in view having the lettering on it 
 —come down to form the feet on which the machine rests, while the supports for 
 the armature bearings are cast in one piece of iron with the frame. The form of the 
 armature is cylindrical and the iron core is built up of a series of iron disks placed 
 side by side, but slightly separated from each other. 
 
 The armature is thus constructed of a large number of separate portions or sec- 
 tions, insulated from each other by spaces of air at every point except near the center. 
 Induced currents in the core of the armature are thus almost entirely prevented, and the 
 difficulty so commonly encountered in other machines of this kind is avoided. At the 
 end of the armature, as seen in the illustration, there is an arrangement which causes a 
 rapid circulation of air from the center to the circumference of the armature, thus 
 cooling the conductors and keeping their resistance much lower than if this were not 
 used. The greatest efficiency is attained by the peculiar winding of the coils of wire 
 on the armature, and they are so perfectly balanced electrically that the spark on the 
 commutator can scarcely be discovered. 
 
 The coils which excite the field magnets are situated in a branch circuit of high 
 resistance instead of being in the main circuit, as is the usual way, and only a small 
 proportion of the entire current passes over them. This is of great advantage in 
 many ways. The great efficiency of the Weston dynamo-electric machine is seen in 
 the fact that more than ninety per cent, of the power applied at the driving pulley is avail- 
 able as useful current in the working or lamp-circuit. 
 
 HOW THE WINDING IS DONE. 
 
 As will be seen, the grooves for holding the wire are made somewhat shallower 
 than before, in order to bring the coils up nearer to the pole-pieces of the field, and 
 the end plates have been changed in shape. The armature core is, as shown in Fig. i. 
 built up of iron disks, of the form shown in the upper part of the figure, at the left. 
 
 These are secured together upon the armature shaft, but separated somewhat 
 from each other so as to leave spaces between them. These spaces serve to break up 
 the continuity of the core, and thus prevent the formation of induced currents, and 
 also form ventilating spaces. By a very ingenious arrangement, the armature is made 
 to act as a centrifugal blower, to maintain a circulation of air through the core and 
 about the coils, which dissipates whatever heat may be generated in them. The coils 
 are spread apart, where they pass across the heads of the armature, by flanged plates 
 (shown somewhat removed from the head of the armature in Fig. i), so as to leave an 
 
WESTON DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT- 
 
 557 
 
 opening about the shaft for the admission of air, which is taken into the interior of 
 the armature and thrown out between the coils by centrifugal force. With a sectional 
 armature and this system of ventilation no trouble whatever is experienced from 
 heating of the core or coils, although, as is well known, such heating was so great with 
 
 FIG. I. — SECTION ARMATURE AND SINGLE DISK. 
 
 machines of this type having solid armature cores as to be an almost insuperable ob- 
 stacle to their use. The armature complete, with the coils connected to the commuta- 
 tor, is shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 FIG. 2. — ARMATURE AND COMMUTATOR. 
 
 As will be seen, the number of sections in the commutator has been very greatly 
 increased, in order to reduce the spark and prevent any tendency of the current to dis- 
 cnarge across from one brush to the other. The number of sections formerly used was 
 eight ; in the present machines, from forty-eight to one hundred and forty are used. 
 
 As the amount of spark at the commutator depends largely upon the method in 
 which the armature coils are wound and connected to the commutator, Mr. Weston 
 has bestowed much attention upon different systems of winding as applied to cylindri- 
 cal armatures. The continuous winding of the coils in a single closed circuit, with 
 loops taken out to the commutator sections, which was introduced by Gramme, was 
 undoubtedly a very great improvement upon any system which had before been used ; 
 but this winding cannot be applied to a cylindrical armature without considerable 
 modification, since in winding coils upon a cylinder each coil fills up two diametrically 
 opposite spaces, and the entire surface of the cylinder is covered in winding half way 
 round, while only half as many loops are taken off at the junctions of the coils as 
 
558 
 
 THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 
 FIG. 3. — DIAGRAM OF WINDING. 
 
 there should be sections in the commutator. To overcome this difficulty Mr. Weston 
 devised the system of winding of which a diagram is given in Fig. 3. 
 
 For the sake of simplicity only eight coils 
 are shown, but it is obvious that the same prin- 
 ciple may be applied to any other number. 
 Supposing, for instance, that the winding com- 
 mences at a , the coils follow the course indi- 
 cated by the full lines, and at every place 
 where the wire passes from one coil to another 
 a loop is taken off for connection with a corre- 
 sponding segment of the commutator. After 
 winding four coils it will be observed that all 
 of the spaces on the armature have been occu- 
 pied ; while there are only four loops for at- 
 tachment to the commutator, there should be 
 eight ; to supply the remaining loops a second 
 set of coils is wound, as shown by the broken 
 lines, and loops are taken off in the same way 
 until the entire surface of the armature has 
 again been covered, when the last terminal of the second set of coils is connected to 
 
 the entering terminal of the first set at a • 
 Supposing now that the brushes are in con- 
 tact with commutator plates connected with 
 m m , the course of the current through the 
 coils may be traced by following the direction 
 indicated by the arrows, and it will be seen 
 that the current divides and passes through 
 the coils on each side of the dividing line from 
 m at the right to m on the other side. If any 
 other diametrically opposite loops be taken 
 the current will be found to follow a similar 
 course. By covering the entire surface of the 
 armature with the first set of coils and then 
 winding the second, the second coils are su- 
 perposed upon the first in the manner shown 
 in the diagram, Fig 4, which represents a cross 
 section of the armature. 
 
 The white circles indicate the wires of the second set of coils, and the black ones 
 those of the first. This was found to be objectionable, as the coils of the second set 
 were not only longer than those of the first, but were brought up nearer to the poles cf the 
 field, and moved faster, being further from the shaft. In consequence, the two sets 
 were not electrically balanced, and an objectionable spark was produced at the com- 
 mutator. This difficulty was overcome by winding the coils of the two sets, side by 
 side, as shown in the diagram, Fig. 5. With this winding all of the coils occupy the, same 
 relative position with respect to the armature core and the field ; and a perfect electrical 
 
 Fig. 4. — section of weston armature 
 
 POSED WINDING. 
 
 SUPER. 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 559 
 
 balance is obtained, by which the spark at the commutator is reduced to a minimum. 
 A modification of this, which is shown in diagram, Fig. 6, has been found simpler to 
 wind, and in some respects more efficient. In this, the coils of the two sets are alter- 
 nately superposed, so that both sets are, as a whole, under precisely the same condi- 
 
 tions, and are electrically balanced. With machines of the improved type wound in 
 this way the spark on the commutator is hardly perceptible. In Fig. 7 is shown an 
 ingenious system of connecting 
 the coils with the commutator, 
 for use in machines in which the 
 electro-motive force is high. Coils 
 are sometimes burned out in ma- 
 chines having commutators of 
 this general type by accidental 
 short circuiting of two adjacent 
 commutator sections. In the 
 armature, of which Fig. 7 is a 
 diagram, there are two distinct 
 sets of coils, represented by the 
 white and the black lines, which 
 alternate about the circumfer- 
 ence ; and they are connected to 
 alternate plates of the commutator, as shown. It is obviously impossible to short cir- 
 cuit any coil by connecting adjacent sections of the commutator, and the chances of 
 accidental connection between three consecutive sections are very slight. Machines of 
 various sizes are manufactured, which run from one to twenty arc lamps in the same 
 circuit. There is a device for preventing sparks and shocks while establishing or break- 
 
 FIG. 7. — WESTON ARMATURE, SHOWING ADJACENT COILS CON- 
 NECTED TO ALTERNATE STRIPS OF THE COMMUTATOR 
 
560 
 
 THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 ing the circuit between the machine and the field conductors. This consists of a coil 
 of high resistance in the field circuit in combination with a switch which closes, and thus 
 cuts off the resistance coil. On opening this switch when the machine is at work the 
 current is reduced to such an extent that the line connection may be broken without 
 the least danger to the person or the machine. It consists of the rheostat, which is 
 shown in Fig. 8, interposed in the field circuit. The contact plates shown in front are 
 
 connected with the terminals of resistance coils, of 
 German silver wire, enclosed in the box. The resist- 
 ance of the field circuit, and consequently the amount 
 of current passing through it, may be varied by turn- 
 ing the handle of the rheostat so as to adjust the 
 machine for running any number of lights, from one 
 up to its full complement. This system of regulation 
 does not at all disturb the proper operation of the ma- 
 chine, as is the case where the commutator brushes 
 are turned, or the field partially shunted out of the 
 circuit. The twenty-light or thirty-light machine 
 works as well with one lamp as with its full comple- 
 ment. The same form of rheostat is used with ma- 
 chines for running incandescent lights for the pur- 
 poses we have stated above, but unless it is desired 
 fig. 8.— regulator. to vary the illuminating power of all the lights, it is 
 
 not used after the first adjustment is made. 
 
 ARC LAMPS. 
 
 The automatic cut-off for the arc lamp is exhibited in Fig. 9. This diagram indi- 
 ;ates the electral connections. About the coil of the magnet are wound a few convo- 
 
 lutions of insulated German silver wire, which are included in the shunt circuit. The 
 current in this supplementary coil flows in the same direction as in the main coil, and 
 the object of the supplementary coil is to cause the electro-magnet to act more quickly 
 to open the shunt circuit when the lamp is lighted. The resistance of the shunt coil is 
 very slight (about the same as that of the lamp with the carbons), and, with the shunt 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 561 
 
 closed, and the lamp circuit open, it is obvious that the entire current must pass through 
 the resistance, but there being few convolutions, and these at a distance from the core 
 of the magnet, too little magnetism is developed to lift the armature. Whenever the 
 lamp circuit is closed, however, the current at first divides between the two coils on the 
 magnet, and both co-operating lift the armature very quickly. As soon as the armature 
 is lifted the shunt is broken, and the entire current passes through the lamp. This form 
 of cut-off has been found very efficient under ordinary circumstances. 
 
 The feeding mechanism of the single lamp is the same as that of the duplex lamp, 
 omitting, of course, the duplicate parts and the shifting mechanism. Its construction 
 and operation are too well known to require 
 detailed description. The extraordinary sen- 
 sitiveness and certainty of operation of this 
 feeding mechanism are probably due, princi- 
 pally, to the peculiar arrangement of the arma- 
 ture of the electro-magnet, D , and to the con- 
 struction of the clutch. It will be observed 
 that the armature, D , which controls the 
 movements of the clutch and upper carbon- 
 carrier, is suspended in front of the poles of 
 the electro-magnet, but somewhat below a 
 symmetrical position, with respect to them, by 
 the flexible strips e e, which admit of only a 
 vertical movement of the armature. When 
 the magnet is excited the armature tends to 
 come to a symmetrical position with respect 
 to the poles, and rises into a more intense part 
 of the field of the magnet. Of course the sen- 
 sitiveness of the feeding mechanism in the 
 lamp depends largely upon the amount of 
 force which is necessary to lock or unlock the 
 feeding mechanism, as this force is derived solely from variations in the strength of the 
 current, due to fluctuations in the length of the arc. 
 
 In our next illustrations, Figs, n and 12, we show a new form of feeding mechan- 
 ism. The feeding of the carbons is controlled by a brake-wheel, to the shaft of which 
 the upper carbon-carrier is attached by a cord and pulley, or rack and pinion move- 
 ment. The shaft of the wheel is mounted upon a swinging lever, M y which is pivoted 
 to a fixed support at m, and at its other end is linked to an oscillating lever, K. Two 
 solenoids, A and B , of peculiar form, are used for controlling the position of the oscil- 
 lating lever. One of these solenoids is included in the main circuit, and the other in a 
 derived circuit about the arc ; and they are attached to the ends of the lever by flexible 
 metallic straps, / and b. The wheel, W, is controlled by a brake, A, which is pivoted to 
 the lever, M, just outside of the periphery of the wheel, and has a short arm at the right 
 to which the lifting link, a , is attached at a . It also has a long tail-piece, L, extending 
 over, and resting upon, the frame of the lamp at n. The construction of the solenoids 
 
562 
 
 THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 used is shown at the left, in Fig, 1 1, where the shell and part of the coil are cut away to 
 show the construction. It will be seen that the solenoid has the ordinary core, and, in 
 addition, an iron shell surrounding the coil, and made in one piece with the core. Mr. 
 Weston has found that with a solenoid constructed in this way an extremely long 
 range of movement is obtained with very uniform power; and that the solenoid is about 
 
 FIG. II. — WESTON ARC LAMP, FRONT VIEW. FIG. 12. — WESTON ARC LAMP, SIDE VIEW. 
 
 as powerful as an ordinary bi-branched electro-magnet, having double the amount of 
 wire upon it. The great disadvantage of ordinary solenoids is their comparative feeble- 
 ness in proportion to their size. 
 
 The lamps used with the machines of which we have been speaking are of various 
 sizes and patterns. We present an illustration of the “ Plain Open-frame Duplex Arc 
 Lamp ” and “ Enclosed-frame Arc Lamp.” In the first there is a single pair of carbons ; 
 the lower one is permanent and the upper carbon is moved downward as the two are 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 563 
 
 consumed. The clock-work mechanism which “ feeds ” the upper carbon is covered by 
 the metallic case on top of the frame. 
 
 The frame of both lamps is made of brass and iron, and the electrical connec* 
 
 FIG. 13. — WESTON DUPLEX LAMP. FIG. I4. — WESTON ENCLOSED-FRAME ARC LAMP. 
 
 tions are placed inside and completely insulated from it. In the duplex arc lamp 
 there are, as seen, two pairs of carbons, so arranged that when one pair has been coiv 
 
564 
 
 THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 sumed the second pair is automatically brought into use, and the clock-work in the case 
 moves the upper one of the second pair as it did the first. This lamp will burn from 
 sixteen to eighteen hours with the two pairs of carbons. 
 
 We have shown the mechanism for feeding the duplex lamp in Figs, io, 15, 16. 
 There is one electro-magnet to control both pair* of carbons, D D. It is wound with two 
 
 sets of coils, one of heavy wire and the other of light wire, in a derived circuit of high 
 resistance. This adapts the lamp for use in a series. 
 
 The electric connection is made with both upper carbon-carriers so that the current 
 and the clock-work can change from one to the other at the same instant. This is done 
 by the changing magnet M, also included in a downward circuit of high resistance. 
 The lever, C , carries wedge-shaped sides, h h' , inserted, so connected with one or the 
 other clutch in such a way as to trip it and prevent it from connecting with its rod. 
 
 The circuit, M, is open during the time the first pair of carbons is burning. The 
 one marked R' is held by the hook L while the other is burning. When this is con- 
 sumed the circuit of M is completed by the stop, H, coming in contact, with K ; at the 
 same time the magnet draws up its armature, G, lifting the detent from C , and allows the 
 whole to swing over to the second set of carbons. This is done so quickly as to cause 
 scarcely a flicker in the light. 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 665 
 
 THE INCANDESCENT LIGHT — FIG. 1 7 . 
 
 Our explanation so far applies to the light produced by the voltaic arc, but there 
 is still another method of the application of electricity to lighting purposes, called the 
 incandescent light. In this the light is pro- 
 duced by the incandescence of a slender car- 
 bon conductor inclosed in a vacuum within 
 a small glass globe. This gives a steady and 
 uniform light. It has all the excellences of 
 the arc light as regards convenience and secu- 
 rity, and is superior to it on account of its 
 steadiness and the softness of color, which is 
 more agreeable to the eyes. This is espe- 
 cially convenient for the interior of buildings 
 where small lights are needed. Although it 
 cannot be made so economically as the arc 
 light, nor so powerfully, it can compete suc- 
 cessfully in both particulars with the produc- 
 tion of gas. 
 
 The Weston machine for the purpose of 
 incandescent lighting is similar in its general 
 construction to what we have already de- 
 scribed. The winding of the armature and 
 field magnets is somewhat modified, that it 
 may produce the quality required. It also 
 has the power of self-regulation. The number 
 of lamps in a circuit vary, and of course the 
 quantity of the current generated must vary 
 correspondingly to prevent any accident, and 
 to keep the lamps at uniform brilliancy. It 
 has been demonstrated by practical experi- 
 ment that on a circuit of one hundred lamps, 
 if ninty-nine of them be extinguished at the 
 same instant the remaining one will continue 
 to burn with uniform brilliancy. This ma- 
 chine is the only one as yet discovered that 
 has ever produced this very desirable result. 
 
 THE MAXIM INCANDESCENT LAMPS. 
 
 The M-shaped carbon is enclosed in a glass 
 globe in vacuo. The globe is about two and a 
 half inches in diameter. This carbon is made 
 by Mr. Maxim by a peculiar process devised 
 by himself, which renders it very durable, strong, and capable of resisting the effects o 
 powerful currents. This incandescent light was run at the Paris Exposition for a shor 
 46 
 
 FIG. 1 7 . — MAXIM INCANDESCENT LAMP. 
 
506 
 
 THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 time at an illuminating power of eleven-hundred candles. The average “ life ” of the 
 lamps run for a year was over one thousand hours, while many have been burning two 
 or three times as long. This system, the first one ever put to any practical use, was first 
 introduced in the fall of 1880, and has been in constant operation in the vaults of the 
 Mercantile Safety Deposit Co. of New York since that time. Each lamp has a socket 
 or holder, which is so constructed that the lamp is held firmly when in position and is 
 complete in electric connection. It may be easily removed for renewal and another 
 placed in position. They are made with switches or without them, and of various tasty 
 designs and patterns. The light for an ordinary apartment is equal to eight candles. 
 
 In Figs. 18 and 19 is shown an indicator, for use in central stations, and other 
 places where the lamps are at a considerable distance from the machine. The coils of 
 
 FIG. l8. — INDICATOR 
 
 FIG. 19. — INTERIOR OF INDICATOR. 
 
 the magnet, shown in Fig. 19, are included in the circuit with the lamps, and the retract- 
 ible spring of the zT-shaped armature is so adjusted as to bring the needle, which is 
 attached to the shaft, to zero on the scale, when the current is of normal strength. 
 Should the current exceed or fall below the normal strength, however, either the mag- 
 net or the spring would preponderate, and the needle would swing in one direction 
 or the other, indicating the direction of the change ; and in case of any considerable va- 
 riation, one of the contact springs on the lever would close the battery circuit, by making 
 contact with a stop-screw in the upper part of the box, and ring a bell at the top to call 
 the attention of the attendant. By means of this indicator the attendant at the cen- 
 tral station can see, upon starting the machine, that the normal current is sent to the 
 
THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 
 
 567 
 
 lamps, and is informed at once when any accident occurs to the circuit, or when lamps 
 are put into circuit or cut-out, and can immediately adjust the machine to compem 
 sate for the change. 
 
 The automatic cut-out, time meter, indicator, and other appliances used in connec 
 tion with the electric light, are recent inventions of great interest and value to be in 
 spected personally to obtain a correct idea of them. 
 
 In Fig. 20 we show a device, designed 
 by Mr. Maxim, for automatically cutting 
 the carbon out of circuit at the proper time. 
 
 An electro-magnet, R, is included in the 
 same circuit with the carbon in course of 
 treatment, which is represented at C. The 
 surrounding vessel, B, contains a rarefied at- 
 mosphere of hydro-carbon gas. The wires, 
 
 A A, lead to a generator, which should be 
 worked under the same conditions with all 
 the carbons treated. It is obvious that as 
 the resistance of the carbon, C, decreases, 
 owing to the deposition of carbon upon it, 
 more current flows through the coils of the 
 magnet ; and the retractile spring, M , is fig. 20 .— -automatic cut-out for treating carbons. 
 so adjusted that the magnet will draw down its armature when the resistance of the 
 carbon has fallen to the standard fixed. When this occurs, the hammer, G, is 
 released, and, falling upon F, breaks the circuit suddenly at T, and cuts out the car- 
 bon ; the spring, F, is prevented from rising again by a detent, R. In a modification 
 of this device, which is somewhat more sensitive, instead of the retractile spring, M, 
 another electro-magnet, included in a derived circuit about the carbon in course of 
 treatment, is made to pull down the other end of the armature lever, A . By this ap- 
 paratus the carbons are made of very uniform resistance. 
 
 SAFETY DEVICES. 
 
 In order to prevent any accident arising from overheating the connecting wires 
 an automatic cut-out has been devised which is placed in every branch, and interrupts 
 the circuit if from any reason it becomes too strong. This consists of some kind of an 
 alloy which fuses at alow temperature below two hundred and twelve Farenheit. This 
 cut-out is placed in the lamp-holders and fixtures, where they will be easy of access. 
 The strips of alloy are made of different sizes, according to the current they are intend- 
 ed to carry. There can be no danger of combustion to the most flamable material from 
 any of the melted alloy, for the temperature at which it fuses is too low to cause 
 ignition. 
 
 THE PROBLEM REMAINING TO BE SOLVED. 
 
 The applicability of using the electric light for general illuminating purposes has 
 become established beyond the realm of doubt and experiment. The remaining ques- 
 tions to be solved resolve themselves into two very important ones. They have refer 
 
568 
 
 THE TELEPHONE. 
 
 ence solely to the economic production of electricity. The power to generate th« 
 electric current must now be applied constantly while the lights are burning, and 
 this power must be exerted upon every circuit by a separate machine. The two 
 problems are, first, to provide for a storage of electricity for consumption in the 
 future, and second, to procure the generation of electricity by the aid of less power, 
 or the application of power which will act on more than one circuit at the same time. 
 There are indications that a successful solution of these questions will be reached at no 
 distant day. In fact it is stated that their demonstration has already passed beyond 
 the period of successful experiment, and we await the public announcement of the fact 
 with patient interest. 
 
 THE TELEPHONE AND ITS USES. 
 
 The announcement that it is actually possible to transmit the sounds of the human 
 voice through a telegraphic wire is perhaps the most startling information which any 
 one ignorant of the march of physical science could conceive. 
 
 Up to the year 1876 no instrument had been devised for transmitting speech 
 except a little toy called the thread telephone, which was sold, I believe, some 
 twenty years ago, and forgotten, but revived within the last year or two. It is, 
 however, something more than a mere toy, for it teaches us how wonderfully sounds, 
 and even articulate speech, can be converted into motion, and again produced at a dis- 
 tance as speech. It consists of two little boxes made of wood, card, or metal, open at 
 one end, and closed at the other with a diaphragm of parchment. To the center of 
 each diaphragm is knotted the two ends of a piece of twine. With this simple com 
 trivance people a hundred yards apart can keep up a conversation without difficulty. 
 The action of the instrument is as follows : — the speaker into one box throws the dia- 
 phragm into vibration by the vibration of his voice ; these vibrations constitute so 
 many pulls upon the cord leading to the other diaphragm, and so the latter is made 
 to describe similar movements, and the sounds become audible to the listener there. 
 It is evident, then, that if we can find some means of throwing a diaphragm into mo- 
 tion at a distance, so as to correspond with the movements of a diaphragm agitated by 
 the voice, we can reproduce the original sounds given. Twine will of course only 
 answer the purpose for a few yards; and although experiment has shown that this dis- 
 tance can be greatly increased by the use of fine copper wire, still such distance is lim- 
 ited to a few hundred yards. It was reserved for Professor Graham Bell to solve the 
 problem by the use of magnetism. 
 
 Professor Bell's first form of articulating telephone made its appearance at the 
 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, but the instrument then shown has since 
 been considerably modified. Want of space will compel me to leave out many inter 
 esting details as to the manner in which Professor Bell, step by step, surmounted ever\ 
 difficulty until the end which he had in view was attained. And I must content my 
 self by simply describing the instrument, and by briefly explaining to my readers the 
 
THE TELEPHONE. 
 
 569 
 
 principles involved in its construction. The principal part of the instrument is the 
 bar-magnet which passes through its center, the north pole of which is surrounded by a 
 coil of silk-covered copper wire. This end of the magnet almost touches the iron dia* 
 phragm ; its outer end is fitted with a screw, by 
 which its exact position can be regulated to a 
 nicety. The ends of the coil are carried down 
 to the back of the case, where they are .connected 
 with two binding-screws, to which the line wires 
 can be readily adjusted. 
 
 The patents of the Alexander Graham Bell 
 telephone in the United States cover all the forms 
 of communication by telephone now in use, and 
 the other forms are claimed by him to be an in- 
 fringement upon his patent. 
 
 It is quite impossible to notice here the vari- 
 ous forms of telephones which have been devised 
 since Professor Bell pointed out how articulation 
 could be reproduced at a distant point. Their 
 name is legion. 
 
 So far as the telephone itself is concerned it 
 requires no battery whatever, its action being dependent upon the magnet contained 
 within it. The sonorous vibrations set up in the air by the voice are projected upon 
 the diaphragm, which also vibrates in sympathy. These vibrations, by constantly 
 varying the distance between the center of the iron disk and the magnet behind it, 
 cause variations in the current of electricity which is induced in the coil of wire, and 
 such variations are telegraphed to the distant telephone, where the corresponding dia- 
 phragm is brought into similar movements, and gives out the sounds conveyed. 
 
 SETTINC TYPE BY TELEPHONE. 
 
 The London Times contained an article describing the system of telephonic reports 
 adopted by that journal, in order to have the latest and fullest report of the speeches 
 made in the Houses of Parliament. Permission having been obtained from the Metro- 
 politan Board of Works to lay down the necessary wires in the subway of the Embank- 
 ment, a new connection between the House of Commons and the Times office was 
 formed, and one of Edison’s loud-speaking telephones placed at either end. The im- 
 mediate result of this arrangement has been to bring the compositor at the machine 
 into direct communication with the Parliamentary reporter at the House, and to enable 
 the debates to be reported and printed from half to three-quarters of an hour later than 
 had previously been possible. The notes made by the reporter can be read directly 
 into the telephone receiver in a room adjoining the gallery, either by the reporter 
 himself when relieved or by another person employed for the purpose ; and the com- 
 positor, at his machine in the office, sits with his ears in juxtaposition with the other 
 terminal of the instrument. The plan which has been found the most efficacious for 
 
570 
 
 THE TELEPHONE. 
 
 the purpose of shutting out distracting sounds of other kinds is to place the disk of 
 the telephone above and behind the compositor, and then to arrange two tubes, each 
 with two trumpet-shaped extremities, in such a manner that these extremities are ap- 
 plied at one end of the two sides of the telephone disk, and at the other end to the two 
 ears of the compositor. The compositor is also furnished with a speaking instrument, 
 with a key for ringing a bell, and with a bell which is rung from the House, a simple 
 code of bell signals, consisting of one, two, or three strokes, sufficing for the ordinary 
 requirements of each message. The compositor announces by the bell that he is ready,, 
 receives a sentence, strikes the bell to indicate that he understands it, sets up the type 
 with his machine, strikes the bell again for the reader to continue his dictation, and so 
 on until the work is carried as far as time will allow. If there is any doubt or difficulty 
 about the words, a bell signal will cause them to be repeated, or explanations can be 
 sought and received by direct vocal communication. 
 
 THE EDISON LOUD-SOUNDING TELEPHONE. 
 
 The latest form of telephone produced by this fertile inventor is that known as the 
 “ loud-speaking telephone. ” The instrument has more than once been called “ the shout- 
 ing telephone, ’ and that term by no means conveys an exaggerated idea of its capa- 
 bilities. The action of the instrument is entirely different to every telephone which 
 preceded it, and is three-fold — namely, electrical, chemical, and mechanical. 
 
 We will now explain how the Edison telephone system is adapted to the wants of 
 every-day business life. At a central station in the city is situated the telephone ex- 
 change, to which the various wires connected with different offices where the telephone 
 has been adopted are carried. These wires are joined up to what is called a switch- 
 board, in front of which sits the clerk in charge. We will stand by his side for a few 
 minutes and notice how the work is carried on. Presently a bell rings, and a little disk, 
 one of a number on the upper part of the board, drops down and exposes a number, 
 say, No. 12. The clerk immediately switches his telephone on to the line denoted by 
 this figure, and asks the applicant what he wants. The reply comes audibly through 
 the telephone as the clerk turns the little handle, “ Put me on to number 27.” By the 
 simple insertion of a little metallic peg in a particular hole in the board, the clerk 
 places No. 12 and No. 27 into communication. Now No. 12 may represent some mer- 
 chant at the west end of the city, and No. 27 may be his agent at the east end, and 
 possibly they may be three or four miles apart ; but by the insertion of that little peg 
 in the switch-board they converse as easily as if they were in the same room. In the 
 mean time the clerk at the exchange is unable to hear a single word they say to each 
 other. When they have finished speaking they ring the exchange bell, and both their 
 numbers drop, as a signal to the clerk that they have done talking. In this wonderful 
 manner is conversation carried on between two distant people. 
 
ELECTROPLATING. 
 
 The britannia ware is prepared for the electroplating room by being first brushed 
 clean from all dust and washed in a strong solution of soft water and alkali, which re- 
 moves any oily substance that may have come from the machinery or hands of the 
 workmen. An electro-magnet of great force is used. A wire is carried from each pole 
 of the battery into a trough holding a solution of copper, silver, or gold, according to 
 the metal he wishes to deposit. The article to be plated is attached in the trough to 
 the wire coming from the zinc of the battery, and opposite to it is a plate of the metal 
 dissolved in the liquid of the trough. Now, as soon as all this is properly arranged, 
 the electricity of the battery travels from the silver plate to the plate of metal by 
 means of the wire, and reaching the liquid dissolves off a portion of the plate. This 
 part dissolved off is carried to the article which is to be plated, and is there thrown 
 down again as a metal to any thickness that may be desired. Thus as much is dis- 
 solved off one plate as is thrown down on the article, and all this is due to electricity 
 now chiefly produced by what is called the magneto-electric machine. 
 
 The electro-plater first carefully cleans the article from all dirt, brushing it so as to 
 remove everything from the surface. If it be a metal body he dips it into an acid 
 solution, so as to remove a small portion of the metal, and thus to get a perfectly clean 
 surface. The object is then hung by means of a wire in the trough holding silver dis- 
 solved by a salt called cyanide of potassium and facing a silver plate, the latter being 
 connected with the silver plate of the battery,, while the object is in connection with 
 the zinc plate. Silver is instantly deposited ; and after a sufficient thickness has been 
 thrown down the article is removed, washed, polished, and burnished, when it presents 
 even a finer and more brilliant appearance than a common silver object, because the 
 electro-plated surface is of perfectly pure silver. 
 
 If a gold plate and solution are employed, the article becomes gilded, the entire 
 process being precisely similar to 'that of electro-plating, except in the metal and 
 solution. The article is said to be single-plated, double-plated, or triple-plated, accord- 
 ing to the amount of silver deposited. This depends upon the length of time the 
 article remains in the bath. After it has been plated to the desired amount it is 
 removed, washed in clean water, and buffed. It then is ready for the packing-room. 
 
 Some articles are partly silver-plated and partly gilded, which is effected in this 
 way. The parts that are to be silver-plated are covered with a black paint, which is a 
 non-conductor of electricity, and then the article is suspended in a solution of gold, 
 where the gilding is accomplished. When taken out the black paint is removed from 
 the parts to be silvered and the gilding covered with the same kind of paint ; the article 
 is then suspended in the bath of silver. Or the latter operation is performed first. The 
 description we have given may appear very simple and tame, but in all the many thou- 
 sand articles now made of britannia ware the same processes have to be employed, and 
 the detail does not differ much. The use of machinery and the introduction of many 
 operations by this means has given the American manufacture of these goods the ad- 
 vantage in the markets of the world. The plating will last for a long time, and when 
 worn out can be renewed ; but the styles and designs are changed from year to year. 
 
572 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 and in this way the manufacture has created a constant demand for new articles, and 
 thus finds a ready market for the immense supply which he turns out. The Meriden 
 Britannia Company, the largest establishment of its kind in the world, turns out an 
 infinite variety of articles, from an elaborate water tank of eight gallons to the tiniest 
 little article for ornament on the table. This company manufacture a great variety of 
 articles for ornament and use, which are combined with fancy glass-ware. For this 
 purpose an especial department is devoted to the imported glass of every conceivable 
 shape for castors, toilet-sets, table ornaments, ink stands, etc., etc. 
 
 A visit to the show-rooms of this establishment in Meriden, Connecticut, or to their 
 ware-rooms in New York City, is well worth the time and expense of a long journey. 
 The eye would be dazzled by the rich, exquiste, and artistic display. At the Cen- 
 tennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, in 1876, the display made by this company was 
 unsurpassed by any. There were artists present throughout the entire exhibition, tak- 
 ing sketches in every department for the use of the designers, engravers and pattern- 
 makers of this company. The benefit of their labors have in part been given to the 
 public in new designs and ornamentations, and much more lies in reserve for future 
 use in the same direction. 
 
 ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 WHEN the demand for a given publication requires a number of editions of the book 
 the pages are electrotyped ; that is, a copper-faced metal impression of each is taken, and 
 this plate, properly “ backed,” is used instead of the movable type. This avoids the set- 
 ting up of copy a second time or the locking up of type so that it cannot be used for 
 other purposes. At the same time a less amount of type is required for the book, for 
 when the pages have been electrotyped the type may be “ distributed ” and used for 
 setting up the subsequent pages. Let us now visit the factory of the electrotyper and 
 see him at his work. The process of electrotyping begins with the page of metal type 
 properly corrected and locked in its “ chase.” The most suitable type for this purpose 
 is that which has high instead of low spaces. That is to say, the “ quads ” come up 
 even with the letter on the end of the type, or, as the printers call it, to the “shoulder’' 
 of the type. This prevents the wax from being pressed between the type. The pages, 
 then surrounded with guard rules, are covered with molding pans about one-fourth of 
 an inch thick, filled with a perfectly smooth surface of common beeswax. The type 
 is pressed into this, when the wax is heated from ninety to one hundred degrees. This 
 wax, being a non-conductor of electricity, a term explained in Natural Philosophy, 
 is rendered a conductor by passing through the “ black-leading ” or “ metalicizing ma- 
 chine,” which deposits a metal surface upon it. This plate is then ready for the “ bat- 
 tery,” or “ precipitating room.” Here a thin coating of copper, about eight one-thou- 
 sandths of an inch thick, is deposited by means of the electro-machine. This process 
 takes the place of the old-fashioned acid battery and requires about two and a half hours 
 to complete it. The electro-machine is described in the chapter on Natural Philosophy* 
 and need not be described here. When the shell becomes thick enough it is removed 
 trom the wax by a jet of hot water. It is then ready for the “ casting room.” Here 
 
ELECTROTYPING. 
 
 575 
 
 it is first covered with “ soldering acid.” Then a sheet of soldering foil is laid ovef 
 it and placed upon the “ casting pans.” These pans are placed upon the metal, 
 and then heated until the solder melts. The pans must then be removed to a per- 
 fectly level place, and the metal poured upon them to about one-fourth of an inch in 
 thickness. When this becomes sufficiently cool the “ cleaner ” removes all refuse wax 
 and other material from the plate by the use of benzine, and it is ready for the “ finish- 
 ing room.” Here it passes under a planer, which makes the under surface perfectly 
 level. The pages are sawed apart from each other and the finisher then takes them 
 in charge to remove all the shrinkages that may appear upon the plate. They then 
 pass under the shaving machine and the edges are then beveled. The electrotype 
 plates are now ready for the printer, who secures them upon patent blocks of uniform 
 thickness the height of the metal type. This is done with clamps prepared for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Cuts for catalogues, or to be used in connection with movable type, are prepared in 
 the same way, except that instead of beveling the edges of the finished plate it is 
 mounted on a block of wood the thickness of type and secured there by riveting. 
 
 It is much better that the movable type used in electrotyping should never be 
 used for taking printed impressions, for by this means the type can be kept clear and 
 distinct, whereas if subjected to constant inking and pressure it gradually becomes worn 
 and indistinct. 
 
 We have now taken our readers upon a tour through the establishment of the 
 electrotyper and shown them the methods of the work there done. 
 
 There is much to interest the thoughtful observer in such a visit. The battery 
 room, the casting room, and the finishing room are each places of interest, where hours 
 might profitably be spent in observation and study. 
 
 The process of electrotyping has to a great measure taken the place of stereotyp- 
 ing, which is done on much the same principle. The process is as follows: thin sheets 
 of dampened paper are placed upon the type and an impression of each character and 
 letter driven into the paper by beating the surface with a hard brush. The paper is 
 then carefully removed and forms a mold, into which the metal is poured. The paper 
 has, previous to taking the impression, been covered with a peculiar kind of paste, and 
 then fitted into a frame which keeps it level. The metal is composed of lead and an- 
 timony, and makes an exact copy of the mold and preserves it in solid form, from 
 which any number of impressions can be taken. From the nature of the case and the 
 amount of work that must be “ done by hand ” the result of stereotyping cannot be so 
 perfect as that of electrotyping. In the latter the wax is pressed upon the surface of 
 the type by the power of machinery, which crowds it down so hard as to make an even 
 and exact mold of every letter, and the powerful agent of electricity makes a perfect 
 copy of that mold. This cannot be done so well by the stereotyper, for very obvious 
 reasons. The latter process is rarely used except in the offices of the great daily papers, 
 or in periodicals which are in demand only for a limited time. 
 
 We are indebted to the gentlemanly courtesy of Mr. C. S. Butler, of the firm of 
 E. B. Sheldon & Co., New Haven, Conn., for the information contained in the article 
 on electrotyping. 
 
PHONOGRAPH OR AUDOPHONE 
 
 This curious and ingenious instrument is very simple in its construction, but it seems 
 destined to become of permanent commercial as well as scientific value. It was invented by 
 Thomas A. Edison in 1877, and has since been improved by him. It is designed to make an exact 
 
 copy of articulate and other sounds upon a cylinder 
 of metal by means of impressing upon a stretched 
 membrane the undulations of air produced by sound. 
 
 To operate the machine the cylinder is first coated 
 with a sheet of tin-foil, and the stylus is brought to bear 
 against the foil, so that on turning the cylinder a furrow 
 is made by the stylus. The mouth is then placed to the 
 opening in the vulcanite disk, and the machine is talked 
 to while the cylinder is turned with a steady, uniform 
 motion. The impression made upon the stretched 
 membrane re-acts very much, as the bow acts upon 
 the strings of a violin, and thus the vibrations are re- 
 corded upon the tin-foil about the cylinder. We now 
 have a record of the sound-waves made upon the foil. 
 
 To reproduce this record, or to make the instrument 
 talk back, the point of the stylus is removed from the cylinder, and it is reversed to its original 
 position. Then the stylus is brought again to the cylinder, and by turning the crank travels over 
 the same groove which was before made. Thus the same vibration of sound are reproduced from 
 the traces which were recorded on the tin-foil. 
 
 This instrument has been successfully used to reproduce the exact inflection, accent and 
 modulation of the human voice of all ages and both sexes, as well as the sounds of musical 
 instruments and the cries of animals. In this way the very conversation of absent friends and 
 the rendition of famous musical artirts can be preserved for reproduction at any time. The 
 immense value of this invention to science and commerce, as well as to the social life and musical 
 art, is hard to estimate. 
 
 PHONOGRAPH. 
 
 It may be made the means of recalling the tones of deceased friends, or of noted orators and 
 singers, long after they have departed this life. It may 
 become a practical aid in the detection of crime and 
 advancement of science. It is already something more 
 than a scientific toy, for it has found its uses in the 
 office and counting-room of the busy merchant. The 
 Audophone and Graphophone readily record the words 
 of any communication, letter, instruction, or speech 
 made into it, and then the amanuensis or type- writer 
 can write it out at leisure when the busy merchant, 
 lawyer, editor, or publisher, is otherwise engaged or 
 absent. It may be used to reproduce the music of an 
 entire orchestra or band, the programme of an evening 
 concert, or the lecture of a famous orator. In fact, so simple are the conditions of increasing the 
 sounds, that there is practically no limit to the capacity of the invention in this direction. 
 
 GRAPHOPHONE. 
 
Medical, and Physical. 
 
 The Family Physician in the Home of H is Patients. 
 
 HE writer of the following article does not share the prevalent senti- 
 mentality, which excludes from the elementary works on human physiol- 
 ogy, or those designed for home reading, the consideration of the most 
 important physical functions connected with our human life. The re- 
 sponsibility of parents to rightly educate their own children in this branch 
 of knowledge has been too long neglected, or shirked upon irresponsible parties. This 
 education should commence as soon as the child has discovered the fact that there is a 
 separation of the sexes in the social relations for which he cannot account. This will 
 occur at a much earlier age in some children than in others. If such a system of edu- 
 cation were pursued in all intelligent families, a vast amount of misery, evil and sin, con- 
 sequent upon ignorance, would be avoided. Otherwise the information, which should 
 have been afforded by the judicious and conscientious parent, will be imparted, little by 
 little, in his association with older people of vicious tendencies. 
 
 Too often, the child has thus been left to the baneful influences by which he inno* 
 cently contracts those pernicious habits which are harmful alike to body and mind, and 
 of the consequences of which he knows nothing. The parent finds too late that a false 
 delicacy upon this subject has left the opportunity for sowing the seeds of a dangerous 
 harvest in the fertile soil of body and mind which are difficult to eradicate or prevent 
 from bearing their fearful fruitage of evil in the years to come. Then let the parent dare 
 to perform his whole duty, by instructing his offspring in these important matters, and 
 warning his child of the evil consequences of ignorance and vice. If this were done. 
 
576 
 
 MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 the purity of home and the sanctities of the social relations would not be violated, for it 
 holds true in this as in every thing else, “ He who is warned, is thrice armed.” 
 
 THE DESIRE FOR THE SOCIETY OF THE OPPOSITE SEX.— When the 
 Author of all good said “ It is not good for man to be alone,” he uttered a truth that has 
 been proven in all grades of society since the creation. There is a mutual adaptation 
 and correspondence in the mental as well as physical constitutions of the sexes which 
 render them helpful and necessary each for the other. The male and female elements 
 run through all the domain of animal and vegetable life. As we ascend the scale to 
 the human family, we discover specimens of men and women who are but little elevated 
 above the brute, and in whom the animal wholly predominates. On a higher grade of 
 spiritual and mental development, we find those characteristics of physical organization 
 and impulse which lead to a mutual attraction that calls for considerable interchange ot 
 social and personal contact. Among those who were created in the divine image we find 
 a higher grade of moral, intellectual and spiritual advancement, where the lower nature 
 is subjected to the domination of the higher. Even here the refining and elevating in- 
 fluences of social interchange among the sexes are recognized. The one is a comple- 
 ment of the other, and each requires the presence and association of the other to rise to 
 the highest type of perfection in manhood or womanhood. Society is formed upon this 
 basis, and recognizes the necessity of our nature. The forced separation of the sexes 
 either for educational or supposed religious advancement, has always resulted in pre- 
 senting a dwarfed intellectual and physical development in each, producing an impair- 
 ment of power in both. Ample illustration of these facts can be seen in the various re- 
 ligious societies and those institutions where the male or female members are precluded 
 from association with the opposite sex for a long time. There is an undefined and subtle 
 attraction, which, for want of a better term, we call sexual magnetism, which is demanded 
 by the physical and mental welfare, and without which each would alike suffer. By all 
 means, then, allow the sexes to be educated together, and together enjoy the amenities 
 and bear the responsibilities of social life. 
 
 WHAT TO TEACH YOUR BOY. — The boy should, at an early age, be taught 
 that he must treat his mother and sisters, and all females, with a respect and considera- 
 tion different from that which he shows to males ; that good breeding and etiquette re- 
 quire him to show them attentions, and for them sacrifice his own convenience and com- 
 fort when he would not be expected to do so for one of his own sex. Teach him why he 
 must do this. Tell him plainly and in language which he can understand whatever he 
 should know of the physical relation of the sexes. Do not say that your parents left 
 you to find this out for yourself. Perhaps they did — more shame to them. Do not pre- 
 varicate or mislead your child, when his principle of curiosity, by which he acquires all 
 knowledge, leads him to innocently ask you questions upon what are regarded as indeli- 
 cate subjects. It is better for you to tell him plainly and in simple language, than for 
 him to learn of vicious companions later in life, or grow up in lamentable ignorance. If 
 you tell him that he is not old enough to understand, and you will tell him when he is 
 old enough, be sure and keep your promise before he has been misled, and his imagina- 
 tion influenced by others who are misinformed or debased. Teach him that he is not to 
 neglect the “ demands of nature ” at the instant they are felt, using all becoming secrecy 
 
MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 577 
 
 from observation and publicity. Tell him of the laws of health upon this matter. Ware 
 him of the evil consequences of vile habits and associations, and the results of low lan- 
 guage and immodest stories upon both body and mind. 
 
 WHAT TO TEACH YOUR DAUGHTER. — -Let the pure minded mother 
 teach her daughter, as early as she can comprehend, the physical difference between her- 
 self and brothers ; why she cannot safely engage in the romping sports and violent exer- 
 cises which are common to boys. Teach her the virtue of modesty of behavior and lan- 
 guage. Let her be told of the true sphere of woman, to become, like her own mother, 
 the parent of well developed and healthy children. Tell her plainly the value of a good 
 reputation, and the evil consequences of promiscuous habits on body and mind. Tell 
 her, before she learns it elsewhere, or her imagination becomes perverted by ill-informed 
 companions, the true idea of courtship, marriage and maternity. Let her be able to say 
 to her companions who would excite her curiosity or misinform her about these import- 
 ant matters, “ My mother has told me all that I care to know about it.” Above all, let 
 her be informed and her mind prepared for the wonderful change in body and mind that 
 comes at the close of her girlhood. The mother who will permit her child to remain 
 ignorant of this, or trust to schoolmates or older persons of vicious tastes to tell her, and 
 then laugh at the alarm of the daughter who first makes the discovery when the unmis- 
 takable evidence has come upon her own person, is derelict in duty and unworthy of her 
 position. Tell her of the irreparable injury that may arise from carelessness and want of 
 methodical habits in regard to the demands of nature. Inform her plainly of the unut- 
 terable suffering and misery of body and mind occasioned by the secret vice and the im- 
 proper care of her person. She should be taught how to avoid that bane of 
 American women, the contraction of those difficulties which are peculiar to her sex. 
 
 The time in life when the procreative organs assume their peculiar functions differs 
 in different individuals. It occurs at a much earlier age in warm countries than in cold. 
 In the female this is the period when the entire being of the girl undergoes a change so 
 marked and radical as to affect every department of her nature. The emotional nature 
 is awakened to new life, the mind assumes a strength before unknown, and the develop- 
 ment of physical beauty, in rotundity of form and grace of outline, is rapid and conspicu- 
 ous. This is the important crisis which perchance is to determine the condition of 
 her health for a lifetime. She now requires the attention and advice of a well-informed 
 and judicious mother. Alas for the unfortunate daughter whose mother is misinformed 
 or who shirks her sacred responsibility behind the retreat of a false delicacy. To 
 establish the health of the daughter upon a firm basis, and direct her natural instincts 
 in the proper channels at this critical point, is an important trust that can devolve upon 
 no other human being. It is most lamentable that there is such an utter disregard and 
 apathy concerning the maternal duty. 
 
 A FALSE DELICACY. — Whatever may be said of the modesty which should be 
 observed in social society in regard to the relation of the sexes, that undue sentimentality 
 which veils the eyes of the mother from the physical functions which nature is about to 
 establish in her own daughter, is both pernicious and unnatural, for at this time many 
 of those peculiar diseases which shatter the constitution of woman and make her life one 
 
578 
 
 MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 continued burden of suffering and agony, are laid. This might have been avoided by the 
 proper care of the individual at this period. While Nature would establish the function 
 of womanhood upon a natural and healthful basis, it is the mother’s duty to intelligently 
 aid her in this important work, and to prevent her daughter, through ignorance or false 
 delicacy, from obstructing or interfering with it. But how often the mother’s own want 
 of information or false sense of modesty prevents her doing this needful service. 
 
 A WORD OF WARNING. — It is utterly useless to moralize upon this subject. 
 When the alternative arises between the question of social etiquette and personal suffer- 
 ing, followed by disease, dispense with the mock sentimentality of etiquette. Because 
 the penalty of the first, second or third abuse of these delicate organs does not speedily 
 follow, the thoughtless persistently disregard the warning of physicians until the fearful 
 penalty must be paid in untold suffering. Chronic inflammation of the kidneys or 
 the bladder, paralysis of the bladder, gravel, stone in the bladder, stricture and other 
 evils are sure to follow. A prominent clergyman of New England, whose name would be 
 familiar to a vast majority of our readers, when advanced in life, and suffering great mis- 
 ery from this cause, told his physician : “ If I was a young man, and intended to follow 
 the ministry, knowing what I do now, I would attend to the demands of nature whenever 
 there was the slightest intimation, even if I had to interrupt a wedding or a sermon.” 
 
 CATHARINE BEECHER’S OBSERVATION.— It is confidently affirmed that 
 “ Catharine Beecher goes from one village to another in New England and reports that 
 there are to be found no healthy women within their limits, though the oldest inhabitant 
 remembers one, his grandmother.” Now if this be so, and to a great extent it appears to 
 be the fact, there must be some cause for it. It is no argument to say that, while our 
 grandmothers were more healthy than their posterity, they were quite as destitute of 
 physiological information. If the advancement of material prosperity and civilization 
 has carried in its train pernicious evils dangerous to the race, then the voice of science 
 and religion alike should unite to sound the alarm, and avert the danger. That the cus- 
 toms of society in regard to dress, mode of living and social intercourse are at fault, 
 and chargeable with this deterioration of physical strength in American women, none 
 can deny. The hardy stock which, from necessity, lived more in accord with natural 
 laws, were a law unto themselves. Their degenerate posterity have neither the good 
 sense nor simple habits of their grandmothers, and, in consequence, suffer from an igno- 
 rant or willful disregard of physical laws. 
 
 ADVICE TO MEN. — All the natural appetites of our being were given us by the 
 great Creator for wise and beneficent purposes, and nature requires a legitimate gratifi- 
 cation of them. The mysterious and complicated organism which has for its object the 
 perpetuation of the species was designed to contribute to the happiness and health of man. 
 But this must be held under the restraint of judgment and moral obligation. No man has 
 a right to supply the demands of his own nature at the expense of violating the rights of 
 another or the rights of society. Much less has he the right to break the physical laws of 
 his being, since the consequences which follow and the penalty which Nature exacts are 
 so fearful and so sure to result. 
 
MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 579 
 
 The teachings of the Bible are upon the plain of the highest philosophy as well as 
 the highest morality ; and no sophistry or plausible argument of physical necessity can 
 overthrow them. Let every man who would regard his own welfare, physical and moral, 
 and the good of society, regard the standard of morality presented in Scripture as the 
 guide of his personal conduct in all the relations of life. “ Drink waters out of thine 
 own cistern, and running waters out of thine own well. * * * Let them be thine own, 
 and not a stranger’s with thee. Let thy fountain be blessed ; and rejoice with the wife 
 of thy youth.” — Prov. v., 15, 17, 18. It is true of the harlot, “Her home is the way to 
 hell, going down to the chambers of death.” — Prov. vii., 27. 
 
 COUNSEL TO THE UNMARRIED.— “ God setteth the solitary in families,” 
 is the utterance of divine inspiration. The plainest teaching of revelation, of nature and 
 of history is that the great Author of our being intends that one man and one woman 
 shall constitute the golden link of which all human society is formed. The highest type 
 of bliss is represented in the union of a single pair in an indissoluble bond of affection, 
 cementing the interests, desires, inclinations and lives ?f both. The highest civilization, 
 the best specimens of physical and mental development, and the most refined culture 
 are found in those countries where monogamic marriage is recognized as the only mar- 
 riage. The choice of a life companion is one that should not be made hastily, unadvis- 
 edly, or without a proper regard for its vast importance. The temperament of the parties, 
 condition of health, tastes and inclinations should be carefully considered before any ad- 
 vances are made in this direction. It is, perhaps, unfortunate that under the customs of 
 society the male alone is expected to make the advances ; but such is the fact. Since 
 this is true, the man should bring the same credentials of purity and correct living that 
 he expects to find in his bride. The subsequent happiness of the home and the health 
 of the offspring demand this. Let the man cultivate the society of ladies who are pure 
 and noble, and none other. When the object of his choice has been found, let him allow 
 good judgment rather than sentiment to govern him. That there should be an affection 
 between the pair surmounting every other consideration, is true. But let this be awak- 
 ened only after good sense has given her verdict. Young women should cultivate their 
 minds and surround their persons with those adornments of modesty which will attract 
 the best elements of manhood, nor be satisfied with the empty admiration and vapid sen- 
 timentality which pass in so-called good society. The highest type of mental and physi- 
 cal female development is the one great demand of the age. There can be found a sup- 
 ply to this demand if the young women of the present day rise to the possibility which 
 is theirs. 
 
 A SOUND OF ALARM. — It is a rule that men know more about women than 
 women know about men. This is due to the system of education and social requirements 
 of the time. The innocent girl is, therefore, placed at a continual disadvantage in he* 
 intercourse with gentlemen. 
 
 Unless she be upon her guard, the plausible flattery and the hollow compliments per- 
 mitted in social intercourse will turn her head, and too late she will find that what she 
 regarded as sincere expression* love, were only the empty pretensions of a libertine. 
 
580 
 
 MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 PHYSICAL CULTURE. — The undue attention which has been paid in this 
 country to intellectual culture ta the expense of the physical, has produced its effect upon 
 the present generation, in impaired bodily power, weakened constitution, nervous irrita~ 
 bility, and want of mental strength That there are other causes for this we acknowl- 
 edge ; but, while in no other country and no other age has there been so rapid strides in 
 mental culture, this other department has been too much neglected, and ought to claim 
 the attention of those who have the good of the rising generation at heart. In the great 
 hurry and bustle of commercial and professional life there has been danger that physical 
 exhaustion would tell upon the youth of the nation, but latterly there has been awakened 
 a new interest in athletic sports among students and others that, if not carried to the ex- 
 treme of excess, will be beneficial in the future. The leading educators have been 
 aroused to the peril, and a new era has dawned. Pedestrian contests, out-of-door spcrts, 
 bowling, base ball playing, aquatic sports, and all forms of exercise which tend to develop 
 the physical powers and promote the health, without exciting the passions, are proper for 
 the American youth. More than this, we contend that all families, schools and institu- 
 tions should make provision for the physical culture of its members, by supplying all 
 needed appliances to that end. In the public schools ample time should be afforded 
 during each session for systematic exercise of all the pupils, male and female. A simple 
 system of calisthenics should be introduced under a competent teacher, introducing exer- 
 cises with the dumb bells, rings, Indian clubs, bean bags and wands. For out -door 
 sports provision should be made for croquet, lawn tennis, base ball and other games. The 
 use of the bicycle, parlor skates and other appliances should become common among all 
 classes. 
 
 Those exercises which call into play the muscles of the human body and develop 
 their strength, are always healthful when not carried to excess, or engaged in when the 
 physical conditions are not such as to warrant it. 
 
 THE GROWTH IN BODY. — Nature demands that the years of childhood shall 
 be devoted to growth of body and mind, and that these should keep pace with each other- 
 To this end she has implanted in the young the love of athletic sports and vigorous exer- 
 cise. The parent and teacher should make provision for this, as we have indicated in the 
 preceding section. To attain the highest benefit, this exercise must be uniform and sys- 
 tematic. Nor need the judicious mother feel unnecessary alarm if the sports of her boys 
 appear to her to be hazardous and inimicable to life or limb, for nature has wisely provided 
 in a wonderful manner against such an emergency by giving the bones of the young an 
 elasticity which they lose in after life. The girl may seem to be gaining the epithet of 
 tom-boy, but elasticity of step, quickness in circulation, roundness of form and brightness 
 of eyes that indicates good health, more than compensates for all that. Then allow your 
 children, by all means, to engage in the proper sports of youth. Nor chide them it the 
 physical growth outstrips the mental, for th^e is time enough for Nature to do her luii 
 work under judicious attention- 
 
MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 581 
 
 THE FIVE SENSES. 
 
 TOUCH : — All we know of the outer world comes to us through the medium of 
 the five human senses. They are those of Touch, Taste, Smell, Sight and Hearing- 
 Each has its especial organ for the transmission of the effect to the brain. Through all 
 the body there is an intricate system of nerves transmitting their effect to the seat of 
 all feeling, the human brain ; but the principal organ which is used is the hand. This is 
 the first of the senses, used by the child. By it we gain*our notion of solidity, and 
 throughout all the life rectify the other sensations. In the palm of the hand there are 
 twelve thousand nerves to the square inch, and we can see the small, fine ridges along 
 which they are arranged. In the finger-tips they are very sensitive and capable of great 
 
 cultivation. The physician can acquire a learned touch , which is of inestimable value in 
 his profession. The blind usually have a delicacy of touch, which makes up in a great 
 degree for the loss of sight. There seems to be a wonderful amount of sympathy be- 
 tween the different senses, and when one is lost or impaired, the others appear to com- 
 pensate in a great degree for the lack. The Englishman, Cuthbert, was blind ; but by 
 the sense of touch he became the best polisher of telescopic mirrors in London. Saun- 
 derson, a blind man, who followed Newton as Professor of Mathematics in Cambridge 
 University, could tell the difference between real and spurious coin by the touch alone. 
 We have known a blind lady who could tell when she was approaching any object by the 
 change in the air. We show the hand with skin removed in Figure 1. 
 

 Cavity occupied 
 
 Lens 
 
 i its Capsule 
 
 by Vitreous Humour 
 
 Figure 3. 
 
 vitreous humor of the back chamber, and throws the image of the object upon the retina, 
 from which the sensation is sent to the brain by the optic nerve. The image produced 
 on the retina is the reverse of that of the object represented. The study of optics is a 
 science by itself, and can only be understood after studying physiology. 
 
 MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 SIGHT : — The eye is the organ of vision 
 and in its arrangement and delicate mechan- 
 ism, is the most wonderful of all the organs 
 in the body. It is a globe of an inch in diame- 
 ter, and is covered by three coats. On the 
 outside is the sclerotic coat, a tough, hard cas- 
 ing, which gives the shape to the organ ; 
 within this is the choroid, a black lining that 
 absorbs the light, and inside of this is the 
 retina, an expansion of the optic nerve. The 
 retina is shown in Figure 3. The Figures 
 2-3 are perfect representations of the eye, 
 and explain themselves. In the front of the 
 eye, Figure 2, is the pupil, surrounded with 
 the iris. The iris is of different color in 
 various persons. The iris is surrounded with 
 the white of the eye, that part of the sclerotic 
 coat which appears in sight when the lids are 
 open. The eye is divided into two chambers. Figure 2. 
 
 The front chamber takes up about one-fifth of the eye, and is called the cornea. This is 
 filled with a limpid liquid, termed aqueous humor. Back of this is a crystaline lense and 
 a chamber filled with virtreous humor. The light is admitted by the pupil, and passes 
 
 through the aqueous humor, and the lense concentrates the rays which pass through the 
 
 Sclerotic 
 
 Choroid <Nr- Tendon rf bxctus 
 
 Retina - 
 
 Hyaloid Membrane 
 
 Ciliary Muscle 
 and Ligament 
 
 Circular Slnut 
 Canal of Petit 
 
MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 583 
 
 How We See : — The usually received theory of light is that there is a universal 
 atmosphere, termed ether, which extends to all space. This is infinitely more subtile 
 than the air, and fills all its pores. As sound is produced by waves 
 of air, so the light is caused by waves of ether. These light-waves 
 pass through the iris and lenses to the retina, and thus send their 
 pulsations to the optic nerve and thence to the brain. This is the 
 most satisfactory theory to explain the presence and operation of 
 light, and has been very generally accepted by learned men. Figure 
 4 shows how the light is gathered to a focus in the eye. 
 
 Figure 4. 
 
 HEARING : — The ear is the organ of hearing, and is divided into the external, the 
 middle, and internal ear. The external ear is the sheet of cartilage of a peculiar shape 
 for catching sounds, and transmitting them to the internal ear. The tube which con- 
 nects this outer ear with the inner is about an inch in length. Across the lower end of 
 this canal, called the auditory canal, there is a membrane, or drum, which is kept very 
 soft by a kind of wax. The middle ear has a tube leading to the mouth, and contains 
 three tiny bones, called from their shape, the hummer , the anvil ' and the stirrup. These 
 tiny bones have all the properties of other bones ; one has a ball-and-socket joint and 
 one a hinge-joint. The internal ear' is hollowed out of the solid bone, and consists of an 
 intricate arrangement called a labyrinth. There are the vestibule, about the size of a 
 grain of wheat ; three semi-circular tubes open from this and connect with the cochlea , or 
 snail-shell. There is inside of this snail-shell a delicate harp arrangement coiled up, and 
 so placed that the longest string comes first and the shortest last. 
 
 How We Hear : — Sound-waves are made in the air by one body striking against 
 another. These waves of air strike the membrane, which vibrates and sends the motion 
 along the three tiny bones to the internal ear, where the sound is reproduced in the snail- 
 shell by the fibers and stony appliance, which send it to the nerves that carry it to the 
 brain. 
 
 Great care should be taken of the ear on account of its delicacy and intricate ar- 
 rangement. Cold water should never be allowed to enter the auditory canal. The wax 
 should not be removed with any hard substance, nor should the hair around the ear be 
 left wet, for this may chill the organ. Avoid shouting in the ear of another person, for 
 the severe shock may produce bad results. Soldiers who fire heavy guns and men who 
 work where large trip-hammers are kept in motion by machinery, put cotton or some soft 
 substance in their ears to deaden the concussion of the air. Otherwise they would be- 
 come deaf by the overstraining of the delicate parts of the ear. 
 
 SMELL: — The nose is the seat of this sense, and is composed of cartilage covered 
 with muscle and skin. It is connected with the skull by small bones. The nostrils open 
 at the back and are covered with mucuous membrane. The olfactory nerves passthrough 
 a sieve-like, bony plate at the root of the nose. The object to be smelled need not 
 always touch the nose, but tiny atoms are brought to it on the air and come in contact 
 with these nerves. 
 
584 
 
 MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 TASTE : — This sense is seated in the nerves of the tongue and palate. The nerves 
 end in the skin in a slight projection called papillae. These start up when tasting, as you 
 can see for yourself by putting a drop of vinegar upon your tongue as you stand before a 
 mirror. The velvety appearance on the surface of the tongue is caused by hair-like pro- 
 jections, which absorb the liquid from the article and convey it to the nerves. The back 
 of the tongue is sensitive to salt and bitter substances, and the edge of the tongue to sour 
 and sweet. The use of the taste was originally to aid in the selection of food, but it has 
 become perverted by habit and the use of high seasoning. 
 
 THE TEETH AND THEIR CARE, 
 
 We have purposely left the subject to appear in an article by itself, for we deem it 
 :»f especial importance to our young readers to impress upon their minds the necessity 
 of keeping these beautiful portals to the mouth in the best condition. 
 
 There are thirty-two teeth in an adult person, sixteen in each jaw. The four in the 
 center have wide, sharp edges, like a chisel, for the purpose of cutting the food, and are 
 called insisors. The next tooth on each side resembles the tearing or holding tooth of a 
 dog, and they are called canine teeth. The next two have broader crowns or tops, with 
 two points, and are called bicuspids. The other three on each side are grinders or 
 molars. The incicors and canine, or eye teeth, have one fang or root, and the other twe 
 or three which are firmly set into the jaw, and each root has its nerve running to a com- 
 mon nerve, which leads to the brain. 
 
 The First Teeth or Milk Teeth : — Nature has provided us with two sets of teeth. 
 The first are fewer in number and smaller in size than the permanent teeth. They are 
 called the milk teeth, and are only 
 twenty in number. In each set of five 
 (Figure 5) on one-half of the jaw there 
 are two incisors, one canine and two mo- 
 lars. The middle incisors usually make 
 their appearance in the infant at seven 
 months of age, the others at nine months, 
 and the canine teeth at eighteen months. 
 
 Two molars in each jaw at a year old, 
 and the others at from two to three 
 years old. As a rule, the lower teeth 
 come before the corresponding upper 
 ones. The time often varies, but this is 
 the natural order in which they come. 
 
 These teeth remain in health until the 
 child is about six years of age, when the crowns of the permanent teeth begin to work up 
 against the roots of the first set, and absorbing these roots, leave the teeth to fall out, 
 while the new ones push up to fill their places. The central incisors appear when the 
 child is seven years of age, the other two at eight. The first bicuspids come at nine, the 
 
MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 585 
 
 rest at ten years of age. The canines are seen later, and then the first molars and the 
 last molars at twelve or thirteen. The wisdom teeth do not appear until after maturity. 
 
 Figure 6 gives a good view of 
 the permanent teeth, which are 
 more regular in form and longer 
 than the milk teeth, and show the 
 natural form of the different teeth. 
 They shut closely and evenly upon 
 each other, and tear or grind the 
 food by the action of the jaws in 
 chewing. The bone is removed to 
 show the roots of the teeth and 
 their nerves. The interior of a tooth 
 is composed of a dense substance 
 resembling bone called dentine , 
 which in the elephant we know as 
 ivory. The cr#wn of the tooth 
 which is exposed to view by fric- 
 Figure 6. tion is covered with a hard, white, 
 
 glistening material, termed enamel. This contains a very small proportion of animal 
 matter. The root is covered with a thin layer of real bone. In the center of the tooth 
 there is a hollow cavity, filled with blood-vessels and nerves, which makes a pulpy mass, 
 and is very sensitive. Any irritation of this, causes the toothache. 
 
 The tooth is fitted into the jaw in a most wonderful way. The socket is lined with 
 a soft membrane, which acts as a cushion and deadens the force of any sudden jar or 
 blow. When this becomes diseased, or inflamed, it is the seat of the most severe pain. 
 The decay of the teeth is caused by some part of the food which remains between them 
 and quickly decomposes by the action of the moisture and heat of the mouth, or the 
 saliva leaving on the teeth a sediment called tartar. The organic matter collects on this 
 and a fungus appears, which is injurious to the teeth. These two causes give an offen- 
 sive oder to the breath, and destroy the teeth. The excessive use of confectionary, the 
 cracking of nuts with the teeth, drinking the tea or coffee too hot, and many other things 
 we might mention are injurious, and lead to an early decay of the teeth. 
 
 Preservation of the Teeth : — Our young readers should bear in mind that the 
 preservation of the teeth by proper care and attention is of great importance. The 
 enamel of the tooth can never be restored after it has once been injured, and the tooth 
 once removed can never be replaced by a natural one. However much the skill of mod- 
 ern dentistry can do to make up the loss, it still remains true that the natural teeth are 
 far superior to any that the skill of man can devise. By all means, then, use every method 
 that is healthful to preserve the natural teeth as long as possible. You should brush 
 your teeth every morning with lukewarm water, and at least twice a week with soap and 
 powdered orris-root. After every meal the least particle of food should be removed from 
 between the teeth by a quill or wooden toothpick. Let the teeth be examined by a com- 
 petent dentist once a year, to detect if there be any small openings in the enamel, which 
 
586 
 
 MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 ought to be filled as soon as they appear. Avoid the use of any gritty tooth-powder, of 
 metal picks of any kind. Do not bite thread, crack hard nuts, or any solid substance 
 with the teeth, for by so doing you wear away the enamel or crack it. Regular, even 
 and pearly-white teeth add very much to the beauty of the face and go far in compensa- 
 ting for a lack at some other point. The cleanliness of the teeth is conducive to health 
 and comfort, and these will more than repay for the trouble of taking good care to keep 
 the teeth clean and sound. Some kinds of medicine are harmful to the teeth, turning 
 them black and causing decay. 
 
 THE SKIN AND ITS CARE. 
 
 The skin, that thin, tough and close-fitting garment which covers and protects the 
 tender flesh of the body, is most wonderfully fitted for the use to which it is designed. 
 It is so elastic as to conform to every movement of the limbs or body, and has an import- 
 ant part to do to keep it in health and vigor. It oils itself to keep its smoothness, re- 
 place its waste, worn-out matter as fast as it is removed, and shows at the same time the 
 perfection of beauty and use. That part we call the skin, — that is the part which rises 
 in a blister, — is only the covering of the true skin. This outer skin is called the cuticle , 
 and the inner the cutis . The first does not bleed, give rise to pain, or fell the heat and 
 cold, but the second is full of delicate nerves and blood-vessels. The outer skin is com- 
 posed of flat scales, which are thrown off from the surface and as constantly renewed from 
 the skin below. In this cutis , or second skin, there are immense numbers of little cells, 
 beyond the conception of the mind. These are flattened and hardened as they come to 
 the surface. The cuticle, or outer skin, becomes thicker and harder by contact with for- 
 eign substances, as on the hand or foot. The boy who goes bare-foot for the first time 
 finds that the pebbles and briers hurt his tender feet, while the country lad who has gone 
 unshod all summer can run where he chooses over the thistles and stones. The black- 
 smith has hard and horny hands which can grasp a heated iron that would burn an or- 
 dinary man, and the mason can handle brick, stone, and mortar without being scratched 
 or injured. This is because the cuticle becomes thick and callous. 
 
 The Complexion : — There is a coloring matter between the outer and inner skin com- 
 posed of tiny grains. In the tints of this pigment lies all the difference in complexion 
 between the lightest blonde and the darkest brunette, the European and the Negro. 
 The Jewish complexion has some of this coloring matter in it. The sun has a powerful 
 effect upon it, causing “ tan,” or a browning of the skin. When this browning of the 
 skin does not spread over all the skin, but gathers in spots, these are called freckles. 
 
 The hair and nails are modified forms of the cuticle. 
 
 The Perspiration : — There are an infinite number of fine tubes which run through 
 the cutis, or inner skin, and this coils up in little balls. They are found in every part of 
 the body. The mouths of these glands, — or pores, as we call them, — may be seen 
 through a pocket lense along the ridges which cover the skin. A vapor exudes from 
 these pores, forming what we call insensible perspiration. This goes on all the time, but 
 when excited by heat or exercise it flows out more freely in drops of moisture, commonly 
 called sweat. This is composed of ninety -nine parts water, and one part animal matter. 
 On the average, an adult person throws off two pounds of this every day. We have told 
 of two offices which the skin performs, namely, to protect the flesh and to .cast off the 
 waste matter in perspiration ; there is another : — 
 
MEDICAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 587 
 
 The Absorbing Power : — This is not so easy of notice as the others, but we can 
 prove that the skin does absorb or take up material from the outside. Contagious dis« 
 eases are contracted in this way. Poisons are sometimes acquired by the touch. 
 
 Care of the Skin : — The pores of the skin ought to be kept open and free to 
 work. Therefore, the clothing should be of such a nature as to permit a free passage to 
 the perspiration, and the waste material and dirt should be removed from the skin to 
 allow this to go on unobstructed. Baths should be taken with regularity. The best 
 time for this is, according to some writers, in the morning on rising from bed. The body 
 is warm and relaxed and needs bracing up. It can then sustain the gentle shock of 
 moderately cool water. If the system is strong enough to cause reaction, cold water is most 
 invigorating. After the bath the body should be rubbed dry, and the circulation stimu- 
 lated by a gentle friction. At first this may be unpleasant to the sensitive skin, but the 
 lively glow that follows will more than make up for this. Avoid taking a bath just after 
 a hearty meal, as it will impede the digestion. Soap and ungeants should be used 
 sparingly, and followed by the use of clear water. When cold water is used the surface 
 is chilled and the blood is driven to the heart, which increases its action and causes it to 
 send the blood back to the surface, where it reddens, warms and stimulates the skin. 
 This is termed reaction. If, on the other hand, warm water is used, the blood is drawn 
 to the surface, and less goes to the heart, and languor results. After a warm bath a dash 
 of cold water over the body will prevent this. When the circulation of the blood is not 
 vigorous enough a cold bath leaves the person chilly and depressed, but the general 
 effect of a cold bath is exhilarating and beneficial, while that of a warm bath is depress- 
 ing. The latter should not be taken oftener than once a week, while the former may be 
 taken every day without harm, if a proper reaction follows it. 
 
 A sea-water bath is very stimulating, on account of the action of the salt and the ex- 
 citing surroundings. No one should swim in salt or fresh water over twenty minutes or 
 naif an hour at a time. Gentle exercise after a bath, either at home or in the air, is very 
 beneficial. Great care chould be taken to keep all parts of the person neat and clean sit 
 all times, both on account of personal health and comfort 
 
TREATMENT OF THE DROWNED. 
 
 TWO THINGS TO BE DONE. 
 
 RESTORE BREATHING: RESTORE ANIMAL HEAT. 
 
 Fig. I 
 
 RULE i. — Unless in dan- 
 ger of freezing, never move 
 the patient from the spot 
 where first rescued, nor allow 
 bystanders to screen off the 
 fresh air, but instantly wipe, 
 clean the mouth and nostrils, 
 rip and remove all clothing 
 to a little below the waist, 
 rapidly rub dry the exposed 
 part, and give two, quick ? 
 smarting slaps on the stom 
 ach with your open hand. If 
 this does not succeed imme- 
 diately, proceed to perform artificial breathing according to the following directions : 
 
 RULE 2. — Turn the patient on his face as seen in Cut i, a large bundle of tightly 
 rolled clothing being placed beneath his stomach, and press heavily over it upon the 
 spine, for half a minute. 
 
 RULE 3.— 
 
 Turn the pa- 
 tient quickly 
 again on his 
 back, as seen in 
 Cut 2, the roll 
 of clothing be- 
 ing so placed 
 beneath as to 
 make the short 
 
 ribs bulge prominently forward, and raise them a little higher than the level of the 
 mouth. Let some bystander hold the tip of the tongue out of one corner of the mouth 
 with a dry handkerchief, as shown, to keep it from falling back into the throat and block- 
 ing up the air passages to the chest, and hold both hands of the patient together, the 
 arms being stretched forcibly above the head. 
 
 RULE 4. — Kneel astride the patient’s hips, and with your hands resting on his 
 stomach spread out your fingers so that you can grasp the waist about the short ribs. 
 Now throw all your weight steadily forward upon your hands, while you at the same time 
 squeeze the ribs deeply, as if you wished to force everything in the chest upwards out of 
 the mouth. Continue this while you can slowly count one — two — three — then suddenly 
 let go, with a final push, which springs you back to your kneeling position. Remain 
 erect upon your knees while you can count one — two — then throw your weight forward 
 
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 589 
 
 again as before, repeating the entire motions — at first about 4 or 5 times a minute, and 
 continuing with the same regularity of time and motion as is observed in the natural 
 breathing which you are imitating. 
 
 RULE 5. — Continue this treatment though apparently unsuccessful, for two hours, 
 until the patient begins to breathe ; and for awhile after this help him by well-timed 
 pressure to deepen his first gasps into full, deep breaths ; while the friction of the limbs 
 which should if possible, have been kept up during the entire process, is now further 
 increased. 
 
 AFTER TREATMENT. 
 
 EXTERNALLY. — As soon as the breathing has become perfectly natural strip the 
 patient rapidly and completely. Enwrap him in blankets only. Put him in bed in a room, 
 comfortably warm, but with a free circulation of fresh air, and except for the administra- 
 tion of internal treatment, let him have perfect rest. 
 
 INTERNALLY. — Give a little hot brandy and water, or other stimulant at hand, 
 every 10 or 15 minutes, for the first hour, and as often thereafter as may seem expedient 1 
 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 A few practical suggestions to the laity on medical and surgical emergencies, 
 and hygiene : 
 
 It is often important that there should be in the possession of every family a work 
 containing in a concise and comprehensive form, within the understanding of the peo- 
 ple, a few practical suggestions in regard to certain cases of emergency where inexperi- 
 enced persons are called upon to act. Such a work will often enable one to do what is right 
 when otherwise he would be helpless, or worse, do what is absolutely wrong. This 
 article then is not intended to make every man his own doctor, but simply to give a few 
 practical ideas required in emergencies where health or life is at stake. 
 
 Emergency cases requiring the prompt administration of medicine are more com- 
 monly found in persons who have accidentally or intentionally swallowed some form of 
 poison, here it is necessary to do the right thing as soon as possible, and in all cases 
 where poisons have been known to have been swallowed within one to two hours, an 
 emetic should be given at once, and ordinarily the most convenient will be one of a table- 
 spoonful of mustard in water, followed by the free use of warm water, or salt and water. 
 For the special antidotes to the more common poisons the following table will guide 
 the reader : 
 
 For the sake of order we will divide the poisons into what are termed narcotic, cor- 
 rosive, irritant, and external. 
 
 The more common poisons of the first class are the various preparations of opium, 
 belladonna, hyoscyamus, stramonium, chloral, tobacco, lobelia, aconite, alcohol, 
 strychnine, and prussic acid. 
 
 Of the second class only arsenic, corrosive sublimate and the mineral acids need be 
 mentioned. 
 
 Of the third class only the asphyxiating gasses, coal gas and common illuminating 
 gas will be spoken of. 
 
590 
 
 POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 Of the fourth class we will mention poison oak, or poison ivy ; poison sumac of 
 poison dogwood, and the bites of poisonous reptiles, rabid animals, and stings of insets. 
 
 In all cases where the poison is discovered within an hour or two of its administration, 
 unless specially contraindicated under the head of the treatment of the special poison 
 give an emetic at once. 
 
 The common poisons, with their symptoms and antidotes : 
 
 1. Poisons. — Opium, laudanum, morphine and paregoric. Symptoms : Drowshiessj 
 
 becoming more and more profound, breathing becomes heavy and snoring, face flushed 
 and dusky, pupils contracted to mere points, cessation of the respiration, finally causing 
 deadly suffocation. Treatment : Vomit, if possible, with tablespoonful of mustard in 
 
 water, followed by copious draughts of warm water or salt and water, then counteract the 
 tendency to sleep by cold effusion, strong coffee, tickling of the skin, walking the 
 patient. 
 
 2. Poisons. — Belladonna, atropia, stramonium, hyoscyamus. Symptoms : Pupils 
 
 largely dilated, a period of delirious excitement, followed by convulsions and later by 
 profound stupor. Treatment : As chemical antidotes, fresh animal charcoal, tannin, 
 
 teaspoonful dose of ammonia in water. Mustard and ipecac should be used as 
 emetics. Symptom of drowsiness should be combatted by cold douches, irritants to the 
 skin, alcoholic stimulants. 
 
 3. Poison. — Chloral. Symptoms : Drowsiness, diminished frequency of respiration, 
 
 weakening of heart’s action. Treatment : Warmth to the body, stimulation with strong 
 
 coffee, irritation of the skin, galvanism. 
 
 4. Poison. — Lobelia. Symptoms : Causes giddiness and headache, nausea, symptoms 
 of intense prostration. The danger is greater and symptoms more pronounced if nausea 
 does not exist, when stupor may be followed by convulsions and death. Treatment 
 Stomach should be washed out with warm water and tannic acid, and symptoms of 
 depression treated by stimulants ; counter irritants and friction. 
 
 5. Poison. Aconite. Symptoms. May kill rapidly by direct failure of the heart’s 
 
 action, or if the action be less rapid respiratory failure, great muscular weakness is noted 
 the heart’s action becomes weak and irregular, the face pale, a cold sweat covers the body. 
 Treatment : Stimulants to sustain the action of the heart; keep the patient most rigidly 
 
 in the recumbent position for fear of fatal syncope by suddenly setting up. 
 
 6. Poisons . Alcohol. Symptoms : This is sometimes difficult to distinguish from 
 
 concussion or compression of the brain or apoplexy, but ordinarily the friends will rec- 
 ognize the symptoms. Treatment : The stomach should be emptied at once by table- 
 
 spoonful of mustard in warm water, followed by copious draughts of warm water, and the 
 patient should be roused from his perilous condition of coma by dashing cold water upon 
 his head. 
 
 7. Poison. — Strychnia. Symptoms : Violent convulsions leading to death by exhaus- 
 tion or suffocation. Treatment: Tannin should oe administered at once, to make an 
 
 insoluble compound of that which had not been absorbed. Then evacuate the stomach 
 and administer fifteen grain doses of chloral to antagonise its action. 
 
 8. Poison. — Tobacco. Symptoms: In large doses it produces nausea, giddiness, 
 
 disorder of vision, relaxation of the muscles, coldness of the skin, and prostration. 
 May be followed with convulsions. Treatment: Give an emetic, and afterwards stimu- 
 
 lants. 
 
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 
 
 591 
 
 9. Poison. — Prussic Acid. Symptoms : If the dose does not kill at once, symptoms 
 
 of suffocation supervene, convulsive action may occur, followed by great muscular prostra- 
 tion, dilatation of the pupils and quite feeble, irregular pulse. Treatment: Cold effu- 
 
 sion, and the inhalation of ammonia, artificial respiration. 
 
 1. Poison. — Arsenic and soluble arsenites. Symptoms: Burning pain in the 
 
 stomach, vomiting, diarrhoea, headache, fever and disturbed sleep, followed by prostration 
 and death from collapse. Treatment : Hydrated sesqui-oxide of iron in teaspoonful doses, 
 and calcined magnesia may be administered in milk. Also give decoction of barley or 
 oily mixture to soothe the stomach. 
 
 2. Poison. — Salts of mercury and corrosive sublimate. Symptoms : Same as for 
 
 arsenic, only more acute and violent, as the poison is more soluble. Treatment : Albu- 
 
 men (or white of egg, flour and water). Milk may be freely drank and vomiting en- 
 couraged. Iron filings form a chemical antidote. 
 
 3. Poison. — Mineral acids, nitric, muriatic, sulphuric, nitro muriatic. Symptoms: 
 
 Violent burning pain in the stomach and intestines, vomiting, purging, intense prostra- 
 tion and death by shock or the results of secondary inflammation. Treatment: Magne- 
 
 sia mixed with water or milk, carbonate of lime, chalk, soda, potash, and the fixed oils. 
 
 4. Poisons. — Cantharides, Spanish Fly. Symptoms: Burning sensation in the 
 
 throat, violent pain in the stomach and bowels, nausea, vomiting and purging, the de- 
 jections being frequently bloody, great heat and irritation of the urinary organs. Con- 
 vulsions, lockjaw, delirium and syncope. Treatment : Promote vomiting by warm 
 
 drinks freely administered, flaxseed or slippery elm tea, or mucilage water, warm baths. 
 
 1. Poison. — Coal gas, illuminating gas, choke damp, charcoal gas. Symptoms : The 
 first poisonous effects are noticed in the irritation of the mucous membrane of the ah 
 passage, producing cough. Afterward the patient becomes unconscious and usually 
 when found is in a complete or partially comatose condition, with the seeming slow respi- 
 ration. Face livid or bluish, extremities cold. Treatment: Fresh air should immediately 
 be admitted ; friction to the skin and extremities ; galvanism, stimulants, and artificial 
 respiration ; cold effusion to the head. 
 
 1. Poison. — Poison ivy, or poison oak ; poison dogwood, or poison sumach. Symp- 
 toms: Violent itching of the poisoned parts, with heat, pain, and swelling, with viscera- 
 
 tion, coming on from a few hours to several days after exposure. Usually at its height 
 about the fifth day, after which disqualmation begins. Treatment : Alum curd ; or a tea- 
 spoonful of calomel in a pint of lime water as external application. Vasaline may relieve 
 the itching. A weak solution of ammonia in water may also be used moderately. 
 
 2. Poison. — Poisoned bites of mad dogs. Symptoms : There are no immediate 
 
 symptoms other than the pain which would follow any injury of equal severity. 
 
 3. Poison. — Of snakes. Symptoms : Pain at the seat of injury, followed by livid 
 
 redness and extensive swelling, numbness of the injured part. In from half an hour to 
 two hours there may follow faintness, long continuing chilly sensations, cold sweats, irreg- 
 ular pulse, general prostration, vomiting, diarrhoea, and in severe cases, convulsions and 
 delirium. 2 and 3. — Treatment : A moderately light, broad ligature placed above the 
 
 point of injury, then scarification, and suction at the point of injury. Afterwards cauter- 
 ization with the hot iron or mineral acids. If a finger or toe be bitten amputation should 
 be performed at the next joint above, after application of the ligature. Keep the patient 
 quiet and administer freely of spirits, (whisky.) 
 
 4. Poison. — Stings of insects. Symptoms: Itching, soon followed by an intense 
 
 pain through the entire limb, and spot at the point of puncture growing larger and be- 
 coming nearly or quite black at the center. Treatment: Cold compresses, ice, lead 
 
 water, and ammonia. 
 
How to Proceed in Special Accidents, 
 
 accidents will happen in the best regulated families, a few directions in 
 cases of emergency may be of some benefit in time of need. Of the 
 graver injuries, such as fracture and dislocation, little need be said, as 
 such cases should always be left in the most comfortable position till 
 skilled assistance can be procured. Probably the most frequent class ot 
 jrhaps the most alarming, the laity are called upon to attend, are incised 
 wounds, which are often accompanied by much loss of blood, which, as a rule, the tem- 
 porary dresser is at a loss how to control. Let us take, first, incisions about the head. 
 Here we have a hard, smooth surface, covered mostly by fibrous tissue and skin through 
 which ramify many good-sized veins and arteries, hemorrhage from which may always be 
 readily checked by a little firm pressure with the side of the finger at several points 
 close to and on different sides of the cut till the spurting vessels cease to flow, when* 
 having found the point or points, a compress made of several fold% of cotton cloth wet 
 may be bound upon the head, so as to keep up a steady pressure at the desired point till 
 the blood-vessel can be secured, or, if there is no spurting, but a steady flow of darker 
 colored blood, a cold wet compress may be placed over the entire wound and a little 
 steady pressure maintained. In children, who so frequently fall and cut the scalp, this 
 treatment is ordinarily all-sufficient, and even where the cut is quite extensive (less than 
 an inch in length) it is often best to mat the hair over the wound, and dress it in this 
 simple manner, in preference to shaving the head and strapping or securing the wound. 
 Simple bruises without impairment of the continuity of the skin should likewise be 
 treated in this way. In dressing incised wounds of the extremities the hemorrhage is 
 frequently aggravated by the ignorance of the dresser in tying a handkerchief tightly 
 at random just above the point of injury. Nine times in ten this does not exert the least 
 pressure on the vessel which supplies the blood to the injured member, and which or- 
 dinarily lies deeply and if possible protected by the bones ; but, on the contrary, does 
 press directly upon the vessels which return the blood to the body and which lie very 
 much more superficially ; so the blood, unable to flow further towards the body, flows out 
 at the wound. In all severe cuts of the upper extremity below the elbow, in order to 
 check hemorrhage, a compress should be placed over the brachial artery, which will be 
 found more superficial at the lower third on the arm on the inside. Firm pressure made 
 at this point, directly against the bone, will often save many a valuable ounce of human 
 blood ; and so with the lower extremities. In all severe incisions below the middle of 
 the thigh pressure should be made at a point about two to four inches from the top of the 
 thigh, about the middle of the inside aspect. In nearly all other instances of hemorrhage 
 from cuts about the trunk the bleeding vessels should be picked up and tied at once. 
 
 FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS will be recognized ordinarily by the pain 
 and deformity at the point of injury, and should generally be left in as comfortable a 
 position as possible till skilled assistance can be procured. Applications of cold watei 
 may be made to prevent excessive swelling. 
 
HOW TO ATTAIN SKILL 
 
 IN 
 
 Speaking and Writing 
 
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 AND ITS PROPER USE. 
 
 The English language is divided into nine Parts of Speech: Article, Noun, Ad • 
 fective, Pronoun, Verb, A dverb. Preposition , Conjunction, and Interjection. 0 f the nine parts 
 of speech, the Noun is the principal one 0 Like the sun in the solar system, it takes the 
 position of center, round which the remaining eight parts of speech revolve as mere 
 satellites, taking the secondary office of modifiers. Nouns are names ; or, a noun is 
 the name of any person, place, object, or idea. This, or any other definition, gives but 
 a feeble idea of this part of speech, for the noun forms the base upon which the whole 
 superstructure of the English language is beautifully and permanently erected. Nouns 
 are divided into Common and Proper. A common noun belongs to any one of a race 
 or class. A proper noun is the individual name of one of any race or class. Nouns are 
 said to be varied by Person, Gender, Number and Case. Person is that relation existing 
 between the speaker , the audience , and the subject of discourse, or correspondence. The 
 persons are first , second, and third, as they represent respectively the speaker, the person 
 addressed, or the person or thing mentioned Gender has the same relation to nouns 
 that sex has to individuals. Nouns have four Genders : Masculine, Feminine, Common 
 and Neuter. There are only two Sexes, male and female. Number is the distinction of 
 one from more. There are two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The singular 
 denotes one ; the plural denotes more than one. The plural is usually formed by the 
 addition of s or es to the singular. Case is the relation one noun bears to another, or to 
 a verb, or preposition. There are three cases, the Nominative, Possessive, and Objective . 
 These are indicated by their relation to the verb or the idea of ownership. The addi- 
 tion of the apostrophe and an s to the nominative form indicates the latter, as Johns 
 book. Articles limit nouns ; or, an article is a word that points out nouns and limits 
 them ; as, a star ; an organ ; the sun. The is called the definite article because it 
 defines and points out definitely. A ox an is called the indefinite article. For the sake 
 of euphony the removed n is sometimes recalled to coalesce with a , as, an apple ; an 
 instrument. This necessity produced the following simple rule, assented to by all 
 grammarians : Vowel sounds require an before them ; Consonant sounds, a. Adjectives 
 imply character ; or, an adjective is a word added to a noun to give character to those 
 objects which the nouns represent; as, an interesting child , a large city; chappy 
 home ; a pure thought. Comparison is called into use when rivalry in character exists. 
 There are three degrees of comparison : the Positive , the Comparative , and the Superla- 
 tive. The positive expresses the ordinary character without comparison with any other ; 
 the comparative is used when two characters are in rivalry with each other ; the super- 
 lative is used in the comparison of three objects , or more, and expresses the highest or 
 lowest extreme of character. Pronouns are substitutes ; or, a pronoun is a word that 
 is used as a substitute for a noun. Pronouns are divided into Personal, Relative, Demon- 
 strative, and Distributive. Personal pronouns are used instead of the names of persons*) 
 hence their name personal. They are : I, thou , he, she, it, in the singular ; and we, you , 
 they, in the plural. Relative pronouns are words which relate to nouns or phrases 
 going before them. They are who, which , and that. Who is applied to persons, o* 
 the higher intelligences generally. Which is applied to animals and inanimate objects. 
 That is used when it would be improper to use either who or which, or when the repe- 
 tition of either becomes offensive. Verbs imply action ; or, a verb is a word that 
 expresses something of its noun or nominative. Verbs are of three kinds: Transitive 
 Passive, and Neuter . The English language is supposed to contain about eight thou- 
 sand verbs, of which upward of seven thousand eight hundred are regular. These 
 
596 
 
 THE CORRECT USE OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 
 form their past tense and present perfect by a uniform process of adding d or ed to the 
 present. Those verbs which do not form their past tense and present perfect by under- 
 going a similar process are called irregular. Adverbs give character to action ; or, an 
 adverb is a word that qualifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. They promote 
 brevity, and add much to the beauty of the language, making it concise and elegant. 
 Conjunctions unite ; or, a conjunction is a word that connects words or sentences to- 
 gether. The words generally used as conjunctions are: also, and, as well as, but, yet, 
 nevertheless, nor, notwithstanding, or, neither, if, though, unless, for, since, lest, than, 
 because, inasmuch. Interjections express emotion ; or, an interjection is a word caused 
 by some sudden and exciting sensation of the mind ; as, Hark / the bell tolls. Oh! 
 make her a grave where the sunbeams rest. See ! the eclipse is now complete. 
 
 THE CORRECT USE OF LANGUAGE IN WRITING AND 
 
 SPEAKING. 
 
 VERY one who desires to maintain a reputation for intelligence in polite 
 society should pay due attention to the proper use of his mother tongue. 
 No matter how well versed he may be in other modern or ancient lan- 
 guages, in the arts or sciences, if he does not correctly employ the lan- 
 guage of his native land his education has been neglected at a vital point. 
 
 The ordinary student need not be appalled at the vast number of words which ap- 
 pear in the Dictionary when he remembers that only a small part of them are required 
 for daily use in commercial, social, or even professional life. 
 
 The complete works of Shakespeare, the wonderful delineator of human character 
 and passion, are said to contain only five thousand different words, and the Bible, aside 
 from Greek and Hebrew names, even a less number. 
 
 The proper grammatical formation of the English language may be acquired by the 
 child in the home and the public school, or by association and conversation with edu- 
 cated and informed people; but in all parts of our country there are peculiar provincial- 
 isms which betray the person and tell from what part of the Union he has come. These 
 should be guarded against by every one. 
 
 There are three essential points to be observed in the use of language : 
 
 First — Purity. By this is signified the use of good English. It precludes the em 
 ployment of all slang words, obsolete terms, foreign idioms, or any ungrammatical ex* 
 pression. It does not sanction the use of any newly-coined word until it has been 
 received by the best writers and speakers. This confines one to the use of pure English 
 both in speaking and writing. 
 
 Perspicuity. This demands the clearest expression of the thought to be conveyed in 
 unequivocal language. It forbids all ambiguous words, or those of doubtful meaning, 
 and, when possible, all strictly technical terms. It requires a style at once clear and 
 comprehensive, and entirely free from pedantry. 
 
RULES FOR SPELLING. 
 
 597 
 
 Precision . This requires concise and exact expression, free from redundancy and 
 tautology, in a style so terse that the hearer or reader cannot fail to comprehend its 
 meaning at once. The elegant writer or speaker will avoid long and involved sentences 
 on the one hand, and too short and abrupt ones on the other. The former taxes the 
 attention of the hearer or reader, and the latter indicates a nervous style which weakens 
 the force. 
 
 For the ordinary uses of description or didactic composition, an easy flowing conver- 
 sational style is to be preferred. The extremes of dryness and too ornate diction should 
 be equally avoided. 
 
 We have space to give only a few hints, and leave the student to follow the subject 
 at his leisure in other parts of this work. 
 
 The various articles bearing upon this subject, “The Dictionary of Synonyms,” “The 
 Art of Correspondence,” “ Selections in Prose and Poetry,” and “ The Department of 
 Political Education,” are filled with choice examples of the correct use of language. 
 
 In the foundation of a literary style be no mere copyist, but acquire a graceful, nat- 
 ural style for yourself, one suited to the subject upon which you write or speak, and the; 
 occasion. 
 
 The habit of committing one’s thoughts to writing should be practiced by every one 
 whatever may be the avocation which he is to follow in life ; for there will arise occa. 
 sions when he will be called upon to do this. Many men who are good in conversation,, 
 when they attempt to put their thoughts upon paper assume a cramped and heavy style 
 that is laborious for themselves and unpleasant to their readers. Like any other mental 
 function, this will be developed by practice. 
 
 The young man would do well to exercise the art of extemporaneous speaking, and 
 thus acquire the habit of thinking while facing an audience. For this purpose the forma- 
 tion of debating societies and lyceums wherever a number of young people can be found 
 to conduct them, is desirable. 
 
 RULES FOR SPELLING. 
 
 S incorrect spelling frequently occurs when it is desirous of expressing 
 more than one thing of the same kind, the few following rules will greatly 
 facilitate the writer in spelling such words correctly : 
 
 i. As a general rule the letter s added to a word meaning one will 
 represent more than one ; but to this rule there are several exceptions, as, 
 lor instance, words ending iny when the y has any other letter than a , e, i, o or u before 
 it, the y is left out and ie is used in its place, as lady , ladies, baby , babies. 
 
 2. In words ending in sk, ch , x , o or ss, e is added in addition to the s, as church , 
 churches , marshy marsheSy boxy boxes , hero y heroes y witnesSy witnesses. Ox is an exception 
 to this rule, en being added instead of es, as ox, oxen. 
 
 3. Words ending in f or fe have v substituted for the f, as wife , wives , knife, knives 9 
 etc., except when ending in Jf. 
 
 4. Some words are spelled the same in both cases, as deer , sheep , etc., in which in- 
 stance, by placing a before the word, one is meant, and by using the , more than one. 
 
598 
 
 HOW TO USE CAPITALS. 
 
 5- Some words are spelled altogether differently, as mouse , mice , goose , geese. 
 
 In spelling words it is necessary to consider well the different sounds of each part of 
 the word. Every separate sound in a word must have in it one of the following letters : 
 a , e , i, o or u. Take for instance contemplate , which consists of three different sounds 
 con-tem-plate ; there are the letters 0 , e and a , respectively, in each sound or syllable, as 
 it is called, and each one gives the sound to its syllable. In dividing such words at the 
 end of a line you must not let the last letter be any one of the above-mentioned five let- 
 ters, but must divide according to the syllable. 
 
 Another rule to be observed in the spelling of words which have ing added to them, 
 when such word, ends in e the e must always be left out, as come, coming , divide, dividing. 
 
 It is also found difficult when the letters i and e come together in a word to know 
 which is to be placed first. The following simple rule will obviate such difficulty : 
 
 When i and ^ follow c in a word the e is invariably placed first, as receive, deceive, 
 conceive , etc.; in other instances i comes before the e, as believe, relieve , etc. 
 
 A few remarks respecting the use of the words a and an will guide the writer as to 
 their proper application. Words commencing with any of the five letter a , e, i, o or u 
 must have an placed before them. Other words meaning one have a used except words 
 beginning with h when not sounded, as hour, honor, herb, humble . These have an before 
 
 them. 
 
 HOW TO USE CAPITALS. 
 
 HE first word of every sentence and the first word of every line of poetry 
 should begin with a capital letter. 
 
 All proper names should begin with capital letters. 
 
 Words derived from proper names begin with a capital. 
 
 Every word that denotes the Deity should begin with a capital. 
 Pronouns relating to the Deity should generally commence with a capital. 
 
 Capital letters are used when you begin a sentence ; also all names of persons, cities, 
 streets, mountains, rivers, etc.; the days of the week, the months of the year, and when a 
 name is given to one thing of the same kind to distinguish it from another of that kind. 
 
 The words North, South, East, West and their compounds and abbreviations, as 
 Northwest, commence with capitals when they denote a section of country. 
 
 The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitals. 
 
 Every direct quotation should begin with a capital letter. 
 
 All titles of persons begin with capitals. 
 
 All the principal words in the titles of books should begin with capital letters 
 The several chapters or other divisions of any book begin with capitals. 
 
 Common nouns personified begin with capital letters. 
 
 Any word particularly important may begin with a capital letter. 
 
 All words denoting religious denominations begin with capital letters. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 SUBJECTS AND THEIR ANALYSIS. 
 
 The art of expressing the thoughts of the writer in an easy, graceful and clear style 
 is one that can be acquired only after careful study and much practice. There are 
 many competent business men, and not a few good speakers, who, when they come to 
 put their thoughts upon paper, are trammeled and cramped in the expression of their 
 ideas. The chief design is to express our thoughts and knowledge in clear, compre- 
 hensive and elegant language. The main object to be attained is to have something to 
 say, and to say it in a way that will be at once interesting and intelligible. This presup- 
 poses some knowledge of grammar and the construction of language. The young stu- 
 dent will do well to have a well digested plan in mind before commencing the actual 
 work of composition, and by this means he will avoid repetition, confusion and want of 
 clearness in his treatment of the subject. 
 
 The first thing for a student, after he has chosen his subject, is to think about it 
 and decide what he will write ; for this purpose note down his thoughts upon a separate 
 slip of paper. Suppose he chooses as a subject, “ The value of the horse to man,” he 
 will write an analysis something like this : 
 
 The Horse : His Value to Man. 
 
 First Thought. — His noble qualities, beauty, speed, strength, intelligence, obedience to man. 
 
 Second Thought. — Found in all parts of the world ; easily tamed and trained to the back, to the wagon, 
 to the plow, to go into battle. 
 
 Third Thought. — What he can do : Heavy work on a farm and in the city, take long journeys, add to 
 
 man’s pleasure. 
 
 Fourth Thought. — His great rate of speed ; the fastest time on record. 
 
 Fifth Thought. — What he has done in war. 
 
 Sixth Thought. — -His length of life, confidence in his master’s superior knowledge, and willingness to 
 do what he understands. 
 
 Conclusion. — How he should be treated. 
 
 When the student has outlined his work in this way, he can go on and write a com, 
 position that is interesting to the reader, and creditable to himself. Let him do this 
 with every subject, and soon “ Composition Day ” will cease to be such a dreadful thing 
 as he may think 
 
 List of Subjects. 
 
 1. The elements of success. 
 
 2. Ambition and its fruits. 
 
 3. Force of character. 
 
 4. Perseverance in business. 
 
 5. Energy, and what it will accomplish. 
 
 6. The demands of the age. 
 
 7. The evils of intemperance. 
 
 8. The necessity of self-respect. 
 
 9. The study of language. 
 
 10. The advantages of art. 
 
 11. The study of history. 
 
 12. The necessity of application. 
 
 13. The resources of our country. 
 
 14. The study of mathematics. 
 
 15. The lives of great men. 
 
 16. The education of the young. 
 
 17. The pleasure of study. 
 
 18. The difficulties of study. 
 
 19. The hope of che future. 
 
 20. The use of steam. 
 
 21. The application of electricity. 
 
 22. The city I live in. 
 
 23. The beauties of nature. 
 
 24. The result of the last war. 
 
 25. The English language. 
 
 26. The necessity of self-reliance. 
 
600 
 
 THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 27. The utility of enthusiasm. 
 
 28. Ancient and modern history. 
 
 29. The study of Astronomy. 
 
 30. The study of Philosophy. 
 
 31. The science of Geology. 
 
 32. “ Know Thyself.” 
 
 33. True success. 
 
 34. The possibilities of youth. 
 
 35. Lessons from the life of Napoleon. 
 
 36. A life on the ocean. 
 
 37. The wealth of nations. 
 
 38. Commerce of the United States. 
 
 39. The desire of praise. 
 
 40. The love of country. 
 
 41. The human mind. 
 
 42. The human body. 
 
 43. The power of mind over matter. 
 
 44. Care in little things. 
 
 45. The sum of human happiness. 
 
 46. The works of Shakespeare. 
 
 47. The poetical works of John Milton. 
 
 48. The life and writings of Longfellow. 
 
 49. George Washington and Napoleon I. 
 
 50. Youth the time for preparation. 
 
 51. The proper use of time. 
 
 52. A proper aim in life. 
 
 53. Successful merchants. 
 
 54. The value of character. 
 
 55. The formation of character. 
 
 56. Reputation and character, 
 
 57. The relation of recreation and work. 
 
 58. Mental discipline. 
 
 59. The reward of labor. 
 
 60. The triumphs of youth. 
 
 61. A successful life. 
 
 62. Defeated ambition. 
 
 63. The highest type of manhood. 
 
 64. The progress of our country. 
 
 65. The true statesman. 
 
 66. The duty of the press. 
 
 67. Public opinion. 
 
 68. The law of supply and demand. 
 
 99. The manufactories of our land. 
 
 70. Industry. 
 
 7 1. Patience and perseverance. 
 
 72. The reward of true merit. 
 
 73. Success of men in business. 
 
 74. A division of labor. 
 
 From these we will select a few for illustration in analyzing. Our object is to stim- 
 ulate the mind of the student to the utmost thought and study, and not to do the work 
 for him. But to show him what to do, and point out the proper methods to accom- 
 plish it to the best advantage. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 5. 
 
 First. — A few words of definition as an introduction to the subject, not too long, but clear, and limiting 
 the scope of the article to one line of thought. 
 
 Second. — Its Importance. 1st, In commercial life. 2d, In professional life. 3d, In political life. 
 4th, In mechanical pursuits : illustrated by those men who have been successful in these directions, and 
 the want of success by those who have been lacking in the quality. 
 
 Third. — What it has accomplished. 1st, For the country ; 2d, For the individual, and 3d, For the com- 
 munity at large ; in the railroad, manufacturing and business interests of the country or community. 
 
 Fourth. — The necessity of developing this trait in youth, and manifesting it in every act of his life. 
 
 Fifth. — Conclusion, with a direct application to the persons to whom writing. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 20. 
 
 First. — As an introduction leading up to the subject you can refer to annoyance caused by the steam 
 whistles or in any way bring the thought to the main ideas. 
 
 Second. — The wonderful discovery in its application to the uses of life. Its importance as a motive 
 power. 
 
 Third. — Its great utility in factories, locomotives, steamers, and for heating purposes. Each of these 
 can be developed to make a full paragraph if the writer wishes. 
 
 Fourth. — Its uses in ordinary life for heating and other purposes. 
 
 Fifth. — As a trained servant it is powerful, ready and willing to labor for man. 
 
 Sixth. — Its consequence when beyond the control of its master. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 23. 
 
 First. — A short introduction descriptive of a walk will naturally lead up to the subject., or any pleasant 
 way of introducing it. 
 
 Second. — The love of nature essential to an appreciation of its beauty. 
 
 Third. — The word-painting of a sunset. 
 
 Fourth. — Describe the scenery in the mountains. 
 
 Fifth. — At the sea side. • 
 
 Sixth. — Spring and autumn contrasted. . 1 
 
 Seventh. — The unity in variety, all making a perfect and complete whole. 
 
 Eighth. — Man’s feeble attempt at imitation. 
 
THE ART OF COMPOSITION. 
 
 601 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 35. 
 
 First. — By some historical incident introduce the subject. 
 
 Second. — His early life career, downfall and influence upon the history of the world, in short and 
 concise narrative. 
 
 Third. — His good traits, energy, self-reliance, personal courage, perseverance, etc. 
 
 Fourth. — His evil traits, inordinate ambition, selfishness, cruelty and inhuman butchery. 
 
 Fifth. — Sum up the balance of character and decide whether upon the whole he is worthy of imitation. 
 Sixth. — Conclusion with a proper application. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 52. 
 
 First. — One life given to each one in which to accomplish the work. 
 
 Second. — Only one thing can be attained with success. 
 
 Third. — The important object, to develop the highest type of manhood. 
 
 Fourth. — The choice to depend upon, taste, inclination and mental capacity. 
 
 Fifth. — Each one to decide for himself, since he is the arbiter of his own fortune. 
 
 Sixth. — The advice, counsel and aid of friends not to be disregarded. 
 
 Seventh. — Every other thing in life to be made subservient to the main object. 
 
 Eighth. — The conclusion, the result of a persistent following of one well defined purpose. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 54. 
 
 First. — The distinction between character and reputation. 
 
 Second. — A good reputation of great importance, but not always a sure test of character. 
 
 Third. — Character acquired by gradual growth. 
 
 Fourth. — Character the standard of real worth among men. 
 
 Fifth. — Character in its effect upon the present life. 
 
 Sixth, — Character to decide the future destiny. 
 
 Seventh. — Character a personal possession of incalculable value to the individual, because, 1st, the sat- 
 ' isfaction it gives the individual ; 2d, the dignity it bestows upon the community ; 3d, its example upon 
 others, and 4th, the test of man’s real worth. 
 
 Eighth.. — The conclusion and personal application of the subject. The character can be built up only 
 by daily toil and perseverance. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 55. 
 
 The subject naturally grows out of the preceding one, and is closely allied to it. 
 If an exercise has already been written by the student on the former he may refer to 
 that, or even repeat the substance of the closing paragraph. If he writes independently 
 of the former subject, he may speak briefly: 
 
 First. — Of the value of character. 
 
 Second. — Character is the test of real worth. 
 
 Third. --Character is a personal development. 
 
 Fourth. — This development is gradual, beginning in early life and pertaining to all the actions of 
 every day. It does not change from day to day, now good, now bad, but is the result of constant growth. 
 Fifth. — It is the inner real life of the man, known perfectly only by himself and his Maker. 
 
 Sixth. — The acts, words, motives and all outward forms of manifestation are the processes by which it 
 is developed, but not the real character itself. 
 
 Seventh. — Watchfulness over one’s self, his associates and surroundings of essential importance. 
 Eighth. — A mistake once made has a permanent effect upon the character which can never be fully 
 eradicated. 
 
 Analysis of Subject No. 56. 
 
 Very intimately connected with the two preceding exercises the subject of thepres r 
 ent one can be treated much the same. 
 
 First. — A concise definition of the two words. 
 
 Second. — The popular use of them with the same meaning. 
 
 Third. — Reputation, the estimation which others place upon a man as a whole. This may vary with 
 time, place, or among different classes of men. 
 
 Fourth. — Character, the same and unchangeable ; the real worth of the man. 
 
 Fifth. — Reputation to be sought and prized only because of its influence for good among men. 
 
 Sixth. — Character the one object to be attained, and prized as the chief good of life. 
 
 We acknowledge that the single line of thought that we have marked out for the 
 subjects analyzed is but one of the very many which can be adopted by thinking stu- 
 dents, and perhaps not the best. We have given them as examples of how they may be 
 treated rather than models of perfect treatment. 
 
TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES 
 
 OF DAILY OCCURRENCE 
 
 IN SPEAKING, PRONOUNCING, AND WRITING 
 
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The aim of this “ treatis,” by correcting a multitude of common errors in the use 
 of language, is mainly to offer assistance to such persons as need greater facilities for 
 accurate expression in ordinary conversation. It is not designed to suggest topics of 
 talk, nor to give rules or examples pointing out the proper modes of arranging them. 
 The subject of a conversation need not be made a matter of study, or special prepara- 
 tion. Men may talk of things momentous or trivial, and in either strain be alike 
 attractive and agreeable. 
 
 Some suggestions on points most prominent are accordingly given among these 
 introductory remarks — not in formal statements of grammatical rules, but in examples 
 by which the spirit of such rules is revealed. 
 
 Not the least glaring among the many misuses of words and forms of expression 
 in conversation, occur by incorrectly employing the pronouns — who , which, what , and 
 that. It may be remarked that who should be applied exclusively to persons. 
 Which usually refers to animals and inanimate objects, except in such an expression 
 as, “Tell me which of the two men was chosen ?” What, means that which : thus, 
 “ This is the book what I wanted,” should read, “ This is the book that (or which) I 
 wanted.” 
 
 Among interrogatives, who? inquires for the name; which? for the individual; 
 what ? for the character, or occupation. Thus, “ Who built the bridge ? ” “ Mr. Blake.” 
 “Which of the Blakes?” “ Charles Blake.” “ What was he?” “A distinguished civil 
 engineer.” 
 
 The title of a small book for young people recently published, was — “ The Way 
 that Little Children Enter Heaven ;” the word that is here incorrectly used as a sub- 
 stitute for in which, or by which. 
 
 When this and that, and their plurals, are used in the sense of latter and former , 
 this and these signify the latter, and that and those the former. Thus in the following 
 couplet from Burns : 
 
 “ Farewell my friends, farewell my foes ; 
 
 My peace with these , my love with those." 
 
 these refers to “foes,” and those to “ friends.” 
 
 The use of the hyphen [-} is frequently disregarded in epistolary correspondence, 
 
x wO HUtMURRU MISTAKES. 
 
 603 
 
 occasioning not only a blemish but a blunder. Its importance may be seen by com- 
 paring the meaning of “ glass house ” with “glass-house ;” the former may mean the 
 Crystal Palace, while the latter is a manufactory of glass-ware. 
 
 Adjectives are often improperly used for adverbs; as, “extreme bad weather,” for 
 “ extremely bad weather.” 
 
 It is sometimes difficult to choose between such phrases as “ the first three,” and 
 u the three first” To say first three when there is no second three is inelegant, because 
 superfluous; and three first is absurd, because impossible. As a general rule and, 
 easy to be recollected, let “first” be first. 
 
 The use of some for about is by many writers thought to be awkward : as, “ Some 
 fifty years ago,” instead of “About fifty years.” 
 
 An ambiguity occasionally arises in employing the adjective no. Thus, “No 
 money is better than gold,” may mean either that gold is the best kind of money, or 
 that gold is not so good as no money at all ! 
 
 After numerals, the words couple , pair , dozen , score , hundred, thousand, and a few 
 others, need not take the plural form : thus, custom first, and finally grammar, have 
 sanctioned such uses as, “three pair of shoes,” “ nine dozen bushels,” four couple of 
 students;” also, “forty sail of vessels,” “seventy head of cattle.” 
 
 The article (a or an) renders an important service in such expressions as “ A few 
 followed their leader throughout the long struggle.” To say, “Few followed him,” 
 would imply, unlike the former phrase, that he was almost deserted. 
 
 “ A black and a white horse,” suggests the idea of two horses, while a black and 
 white horse,” refers to but one — as if written “a black-and-white horse.” 
 
 The grammatical number of a verb should agree with that of its subject, and not 
 of its predicate. Thus the sentences, “ Death is the wages of sin,” and “ The wages 
 of sin are death,” are properly written. 
 
 In changing from a past tense to the present, when the same nominative remains, 
 the form of the verb should continue unaltered. Thus, instead of saying “He was 
 travelling and travels ,” say, “ He was travelling, and is travelling.” 
 
 When a verl} has both a singular and a plural nominative, separated by or, its 
 number agrees with that of the nearer : as, “ the cup or his billiards were his ruin ; ” 
 or, “ his billiards or the cup was his ruin.” 
 
 Custom — which, when crystallized, becomes grammar — allows expressions like 
 “ The linen tears,” and “ The meadow ploughs well ;” although they should not be 
 frequently employed, and should be more seldom coined. 
 
 A fruitful source of mistakes in language, is in the linking together of two or 
 more inappropriate tenses, or in the misuse of one. Many among the learned and 
 refined commit blunders of these kinds. 
 
 Adverbs are often inelegantly used instead of adjectives, as, “ the then ministry,” 
 for “the ministry of that time.” 
 
 Of the phrases “ never so good,” or “ ever so good,” as to whether one is prefer- 
 able to the other, authority is divided. Modern usage inclines to the latter, whiJ j 
 ancient preferred the former, as in the Scriptural expression, “charm he never scA 
 wisely.” 
 
604 
 
 TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 Yea and nay are not equivalent to yes and no ; the latter are directly affirmative 
 and negative, while the former are variously employed. 
 
 Of prepositions, it has been frequently said that no words in the language are so 
 liable to be incorrectly used. For example, “ The love of God,” may mean either 
 “ His love to us,” or “ our love to Him 1 .” 
 
 Many more of these particles are inelegantly, if not ambiguously used. Instead 
 of “ the natives were a different race to what they are now,” say “ different from.” 
 
 A good heed to what has been said in the few preceding paragraphs will enable 
 a person who carefully reads this work to mend his modes of expression to no incon- 
 siderable degree. 
 
 1. “ The business would suit any one 
 who enjoys bad health.” Few persons 
 who have bad health can be said to enjoy 
 it. Use some other form of expression : 
 as, one in delicate health , or, one whose 
 health is bad. 
 
 2. “We have no corporeal punishment 
 here,” said a schoolmaster. Corporeal is 
 opposed to spiritual. Say corporal punish- 
 ment. Corporeal means having a body. 
 
 3. “ Insert the advertisement in the 
 Weekly.” Emphasize vert and not ise. 
 
 4. “He rose up , and left the room:” 
 leave out up, as it is absurd to say rise 
 down. The Irishman who was hoisted 
 down the coal-pit, did not observe this 
 rule. 
 
 5. “ Set down and rest yourself ; ” say 
 sit down : settmg is said of the sun in the 
 west, but cannot be properly applied to a 
 person taking a seat. “ Sit down ” is not 
 improper, though “ rise up ” should never 
 be used. Sitting down expresses the act 
 of appropriating a chair, while sitting up 
 means sitting erect. Sitting up also refers 
 to watching during the night with the 
 sick. 
 
 6. “You have sown it very neatly,” 
 said a seamstress to her apprentice ; say 
 sewed , and pronounce so as to rhyme with 
 road. The pronunciation of sew , meaning 
 
 to use the needle,” violates its spelling ; 
 
 it is the same as that of sow , meaning “ to 
 scatter seed.” 
 
 7. “ This is a secret between you and 
 I ; ” say, you and me. The construction 
 requires the objective case in place of 7 , 
 which is in the nominative. It is in still 
 better taste to say, “ This is a secret with 
 you and me.” 
 
 8. “Let you and I take a walk;” say, 
 Let you and me, or Let us. Who would 
 think of saying, Let I go ? The expression 
 “ Let I and you ” is frequently heard, 
 which contains the additional impropriety 
 of putting the first person before the 
 second. 
 
 9. “He is going to learn his brother 
 Alfred how to knit nets ; ” say teach. 
 The act of communicating instruction is 
 expressed by “ teaching ;” the act of receive 
 ing it, by “ learning.” The distinction 
 between these words was made as early 
 as the time of Shakespeare, and cannot be 
 violated without incurring censure. 
 
 10. “John and Henry both read well, 
 but John is the best reader;” say, the 
 better reader, as best can be properly used 
 only when three or more persons or ob- 
 jects are compared. 
 
 1 1 . “ The two first cows are the fattest,” 
 said a farmer at an agricultural fair. He 
 should have said, “the first two ;” there 
 can be only one that is first — the other 
 must necessarily be second. 
 
TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 605 
 
 12. “ It is an error ; you are mistaken ; ” 
 say, you mistake. Mistaken means mis- 
 apprehended ; “ you mistake ,” means “ you 
 m isapprehend. 
 
 13. “Have you lit the fire, Bridget?” 
 say, lighted ; lit is now obsolete. 
 
 14. “Are you at leisure ?” pronounce 
 lei in leisure the same as lee. The word 
 should not rhyme with measure. 
 
 15. “John is my oldest brother;” say, 
 eldest. Elder and eldest are applied to 
 persons — older and oldest to things. U sage, 
 however, does not make these distinctions 
 imperative. 
 
 16. Sparrowgrass: it is only the grossest 
 ignorance which confounds this word with 
 asparagus . The same is the case with 
 ing-uns for onions. 
 
 17. The following words were posted 
 as a sign, in a reading-room : “No Talk- 
 ing Allowed ; ” which was designed to 
 prohibit all conversation. A wag altered 
 the inscription so as to read, “ No Talking 
 Aloud,” which (he declared) did not pre- 
 vent whispering and chatting in low tones. 
 What shall be said of the following — 
 “ No Smoking Aloud ? ” 
 
 18. “No extras or vacations /” [from 
 the prospectus of a schoolmistress :] say, 
 NOR vacations. 
 
 19. “ Dearly beloved brethren,” when 
 beloved is placed before the noun, as in 
 this instance, pronounce it in three 
 syllables ; when placed after , in two 
 syllables, as, “ She was much be-loved by 
 us all.” When used as a noun by itself, 
 it is pronounced in three syllables ; as, 
 “ Be-lov-ed, let us love one another.” 
 
 20. Not as I know say, that I know. 
 
 21. “He would never believe but what 
 I did it ; ” say, but that I did it. 
 
 22. “ He is quite as good as me ; ” say, 
 as good as I. Also, instead of as good as 
 him , say, as good as he. 
 
 23. “ Many an one has done the same ; ” 
 say, many a one. A, and not an, is also 
 used before the long sound of u, that is, 
 when u forms a distinct syllable of itself : 
 as, a unit , a union, a university : it is also 
 used before eu : as, a euphony , and like- 
 wise before the word ewe : as, a ewe : we 
 should also say, a youth , not an youth. 
 
 24. “ How do you like these kind oi 
 pears?” say, these kinds ; a noun in the 
 singular number will not allow its ad- 
 jective to be in the plural. 
 
 25. “You should have went home;’’ 
 say, gone. 
 
 26. “ I see him last Monday ;” say, saw 
 him. 
 
 27. “He was averse from such a pro- 
 ceeding ; ” say, averse to. 
 
 28. Have you shook the table-cloth ? ” 
 say, shaken. 
 
 29. “ I have rang several times;” say, 
 rung. 
 
 30. “ I know' d him at once ; ” say, knezv. 
 
 31. “ You have too much of it;” 
 
 say, drunk. 
 
 32. “ He has chose a very poor pattern ;” 
 say, chosen. 
 
 33. “ They have broke a window : ” say, 
 broken. 
 
 ' 34. “ I have just began my letter ; ” say, 
 begun. 
 
 35. “Give me them books;" say, those 
 books. 
 
 36. “ Whose are these here books ? ” say, 
 these books. Here is superfluous and in- 
 elegant. 
 
 37. “ Who do you mean?” say, whom. 
 
 38. “ The men which we saw ; ” say, 
 whom. 
 
 39. “ The flowers what you have ; ” say, 
 which, or that. 
 
 40. “ The boy as is reading;” who is 
 reading. 
 
 di . “ It was them who did it ; ” say, they. 
 
606 
 
 TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 42. “ It is me who am in fault ; ” say, 
 It is I. 
 
 43. “ Was it her who called me ? ” say, 
 ?ke. 
 
 44. “If I were her, I would accept his 
 offer; ” say, If I were she. 
 
 45. “ He has got my slate;” omit got ; 
 has is sufficient for the sense. 
 
 46. “The pond is froze ;" say frozen. 
 
 47. “You cannot catch him;” pro- 
 nounce catch so as to rhyme with match , 
 and not ketch — as the fishermen are in the 
 habit of saying. 
 
 48. “ Who done it ? ” say, Who did it ? 
 
 49. “ The club gives an impetus to the 
 ball ; ” pronounce impetus with the stress 
 on im, and not on pe. 
 
 50. “ Spain and Portugal form a penin- 
 sula /” pronounce pen-in-su-la , with the 
 accent on in, and not on su. 
 
 51. “He must by this time be almost 
 as far as the antipodes pronounce antip- 
 odes with the accent on tip, and let des 
 rhyme with ease ; it is a word of four 
 syllables, and not of three. 
 
 52. Vouchsafe : a word seldom used, but 
 when used, the first syllable should rhyme 
 with pouch; never say vousafe. 
 
 53. Purpose and propose: these two 
 words, which are often confounded, are 
 entirely distinct in meaning. To purpose 
 means to intend ; to propose means to offer 
 a proposition. 
 
 54. Directing and addressing tetters : 
 Directing designates the persons to whom, 
 and the place to which the letter, as a 
 parcel, is to be sent ; addressing refers to 
 the individual to whom, as a communica- 
 tion, it is written. A letter addressed to 
 the President, may be directed to his sec- 
 retary. 
 
 55. Who do you think I saw yester- 
 day ? say, Whom. 
 
 56. A popular proverb is expressed in 
 
 the following language : Of two evils 
 choose the least ; say, the less. 
 
 57. Exaggerate : pronounce exad-gerate y 
 and do not sound agger as in dagger. 
 
 58. Ladies School : the usual form, but 
 not correct ; write Ladies' School. The 
 apostrophe (’) is thus used after nouns in 
 the plural, and indicates possession. 
 
 59. The following equivocal notice is 
 said to swing out on a sign-board some- 
 where in the Western country: “Smith 
 & Huggs — Select School. — Smith 
 teaches the boys, and Huggs the girls." 
 Huggs needs correction ! 
 
 60. “ The drought lasted a long time ; ” 
 pronounce drought so as to rhyme with 
 sprout, and not drowth. 
 
 61. “ The two friends conversed together 
 for an hour ; ” omit together. 
 
 62. “ The affair was compromised ; ” pro- 
 nounce compromised in three syllables, and 
 place the accent on com, sounding mized 
 like prized. 
 
 63. “ Several of the trappers were mas- 
 sacred by the Indians ; ” pronounce 
 massacred with the accent on mas, and red 
 like erd, as if massaker'd ; never say 
 massacreed, which is abominable. 
 
 64. “A respite was granted the con- 
 vict:” pronounce respite with the accent 
 on res, and sound pite as pit. 
 
 65. “He soon returned back;" leave 
 out back, which is implied by re in re - 
 turned. 
 
 66. “ The ship looked like a speck on 
 the edge of the horizon /” pronounce 
 horizon with the accent on ri, and not on 
 hor, which is often the case. 
 
 67. “ They were early at the sepulchre /” 
 pronounce sepidchre with the accent on 
 sep, and not on the second syllable. 
 
 68. “ I have often swam across the 
 Hudson ; ” say, swum. 
 
 69. “ I found my friend better than I 
 
TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 607 
 
 expected to have found him ;" say, to find 
 him. 
 
 70. Shall and will are often confounded 
 or misused. The following suggestion 
 will be of service to the reader : mere 
 futurity is expressed by shall in the first 
 person, and by will in the second and 
 third ; the determination of the speaker by 
 will , in the first, and shall, in the second 
 and third. For example : “ I shall go by 
 the way of Halifax," simply expresses an 
 event about to take place — as also you will, 
 and they will ; I will expresses determin- 
 ation — as also you shall and they shall. 
 
 71. “ Without the grammatical form of 
 a word can be recognized at a glance, lit- 
 tle progress can be made in reading the 
 language ” [from a work on the study of 
 the Latin language]. Say, Unless the 
 grammatical, etc. The use of without for 
 unless is a very common mistake. 
 
 72. “ He claimed admission to the chief- 
 est offices say, chief. Chief, right, su- 
 preme, correct, true, universal, perfect, 
 consummate, extreme, etc., imply the su- 
 perlative degree without adding est, or 
 prefixing most. In language sublime or 
 impassioned, however, the word perfect 
 requires the superlative form, to give it 
 its fullest effect. 
 
 73. An obituary notice contained the 
 following ludicrous statement : “ He left 
 a large circle of mourners embracing his 
 amiable wife and children ! " Comprising 
 should have been used instead of embrac- 
 ing. 
 
 74. “ Victoria is Queen of the United 
 Kingdom; ” say United Kingdoms. Who 
 ever speaks of the United State of 
 A merica ? 
 
 75. “I have not travelled this twenty 
 years;" say, these twenty years. 
 
 76. “ The yellow part of an egg is very 
 nourishing;” never pronounce yellow so 
 
 as to rhyme with tallow, as we so often 
 hear. 
 
 77. “He strived to obtain an appoint- 
 ment ; ” say, strove. 
 
 78. “ He always preaches extempore 
 pronounce extempore in four syllables, with 
 the accent on tern, and never in three, mak- 
 ing pore to rhyme with sore — but with 
 story. 
 
 79. “ The Emperor of Russia is a 
 formidable sovereign ; pronounce formid- 
 able with the accent on for, and not on 
 mid. 
 
 80. Before the words heir, herb, honest , 
 honor, and hour, and their compounds, 
 instead of the article a, we make use of 
 an, as the h is not sounded ; likewise be- 
 fore words beginning with h, that are not 
 accented on the first syllable : such as 
 heroic, historical, hypothesis , etc., as, “ an 
 heroic action ; " “ an historical work ; " “ an 
 hypothesis that can scarcely be allowed.” 
 
 81. “He was such an extravagant young 
 man, that he soon spent his whole patri- 
 mony.” This construction, which is much 
 used, is not so elegant as, “ He was so 
 extravagant a young man," etc. 
 
 82. “The girl speaks distinct ;" say, 
 distinctly. Never use adjectives as ad- 
 verbs. 
 
 83. The combination of letters ough is 
 
 pronounced in eight different ways, as 
 follows: 1. Though, in which it is pro- 
 nounced 0; 2. Through, pronounced 00/ 
 3. Flough, ow ; 4. Sought, awe; 5. Cough T 
 off; 6. Though, uff ; 7. Bo roitgh, ugh; 
 8. Lough, ok. The following sentence, 
 which is of doubtful authorship, affords 
 an example of each of these eight modes 
 of pronunciation: “I put (1) dough 
 
 (6) enough in the (5) trough near the 
 (3) slough by the (8) lough, to last the 
 ducks that I (4) bought at the (7) borough 
 (2) through the day.” 
 
608 
 
 TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 84. “ I saw his august majesty, the 
 Emperor of Hayti, last August /” pro- 
 nounce the former word with the accent 
 on gust ; the latter, on An. 
 
 85. “We laid down to sleep:” say, we 
 lay down , etc. We can say, however, 
 “ we laid him down to sleep.” 
 
 86. “ He who makes himself famous by 
 his eloquence, makes illustrious his origin, 
 let it be never so mean ; ” say, ever so mean. 
 The practice of using never in such 
 phrases was anciently in vogue, but is now 
 becoming obsolete. 
 
 87. “ His reputation is acknowledged 
 through Europe ; ” say, throughout Europe. 
 
 88. “ The bank of the river is frequently 
 overflown ; ” say, overflowed. Flown is 
 the perfect particle of fly, flying ; flowed , 
 of flow , flowing. 
 
 89. “ I doubt if this will ever reach 
 you ; ” say, whether this , etc. 
 
 90. “It is not improbable but I may 
 be able to procure you a copy ; ” say, that 
 I may , etc. 
 
 91. “There were not over twenty 
 persons present ; ” say, more than. 
 
 92. “ Bills are requested to be paid 
 quarterly ; ” the bills are not requested , but 
 the persons who owe them. Say, instead : 
 It is requested that bills be paid quarterly. 
 
 93. “There can be no doubt but that he 
 will succeed ; ” omit but. 
 
 94. “It was no use asking him any more 
 questions;” say, of no use to ask him , or 
 there was no use in asking , etc. 
 
 95. “The Americans said they had no 
 right to pay taxes.” [From a Fourth of 
 J uly Oration.] They certainly had a right 
 to pay them, if they wished. What the 
 speaker meant was, they were under no ob- 
 ligation to pay , or, they were not bound to 
 pay. 
 
 96. “ He intends to stop at home for a 
 few days ; ” it is more elegant to say 
 
 stay. If the time, however, should be very 
 brief, stop would better express the idea ; 
 as, “We stopped at Elmira about twenty 
 minutes.” 
 
 97. “ Brutus and Aruns killed one 
 another /” sa y,each other, which is more 
 proper. But many similar instances which 
 occur in the New Testament, as, “ Beloved, 
 love one another ,” and others no less 
 beautiful and cherished, have rendered 
 this form of expression common, and 
 almost unexceptionable. 
 
 98. Words to be Carefully Dis- 
 tinguished.— Be very careful to dis® 
 tinguish between indite and indict (the 
 former meaning to write, and the latter 
 to accuse ') ; key and quay ; principle and 
 principal ; marshal and martial ; counsel 
 and council ; counsellor and councillor ; 
 fort and forte ; draft and draught ; place 
 and plaice (the latter being the name of a 
 fish)\ stake and steak; satire and satyr ; 
 stationery and stationary ; ton and tun ; 
 levy and levee ; foment and ferment;fo- 
 mentatio 7 i and fermentation ; petition and 
 partition; Francis and Frances ; dose and 
 doze ; diverse and divers; device and 
 devise ; wary and weary; salary and celery; 
 radish and reddish; treble and triple ; 
 broach and brooch; ingenious and ingen- 
 uous ; prophesy and prophecy (some clergy- 
 men sounding the final syllable of the 
 latter word long like the former) ; fond- 
 ling and foundling ; lightning and lighten- 
 ing / genus and genius ; desert and dessert ; 
 currier and courier ; pillow and pillar ; 
 executer and executor (the former being the 
 regular noun from the verb “ to exectite 
 and the latter a strictly legal term) ; rid- 
 icule and reticule ; lineament and liniment ; 
 track and tract ; lickerish and licorice 
 {lickerish signifying dainty, and licorice 
 being a plant, or preparation from it) ; 
 statute and statue ; ordinance and ordnance; 
 
TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 609 
 
 lease and leash; recourse and resource ; 
 straight and strait ( straight meaning di- 
 rect , and strait , narrow ) ; immerge and 
 emerge ; style and stile ; compliment and 
 complement; bass and base ; contagious 
 and contiguous ; eminent a?id imminent; 
 eruption and irruption ; precedent and pres- 
 ident ; relic and relict. 
 
 99. “ The number of emigrants arriving 
 in this country is increasing and alarm- 
 ing ; ” say, immigrants. Emigrants are 
 those going out from a country ; immi- 
 grants, those coming into it. 
 
 100. “This House To Let;” more 
 properly, to be let. 
 
 101. Here , there , where , with verbs of 
 
 motion, are generally better than hither , 
 thither , whither; as, “ Come here; Go 
 there." Hither , thither , and whither , 
 
 which were used formerly, are now con- 
 sidered stiff and inelegant. 
 
 102. “ Whom say ye that I am?” This 
 is the English translation, given in Luke 
 ix. 20, of the question of Christ to Peter. 
 The word whom should be who. Other 
 instances of grammatical inaccuracies 
 occur in the Bible; for example, in the 
 Sermon on the Mount, the Saviour says : 
 “ Lay not up for yourselves treasures on 
 earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt ," 
 etc. “ Moth and rust ” make a plural nom- 
 inative to “ doth corrupt," a singular verb. 
 The following, however, is correct : “ But 
 lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, 
 where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt." 
 
 103. “ The first edition was not as well 
 printed as the present ; ” say, so well, etc. 
 
 104. “He is a despicable fellow, and 
 such an epitaph is strictly applicable to 
 him ; ” never place the accent in despicable 
 and applicable on the second syllable, but 
 always on the first. 
 
 105. “ Some disaster has certainly befell 
 him ; ” say, befallen. 
 
 106. “ I am very wet, and must go and 
 change myself ;" say, change my clothes. 
 
 107. “ He is taller than me ;" say, than I. 
 He is much better than me ; ” say, than I. 
 “You are stronger than him;" say, than 
 he. 
 
 108. “ His character is undeniable ;" a 
 very common expression ; say, unex- 
 ceptionable. 
 
 109. “ The room is twelve foot long, 
 and nine foot broad ; ” say, twelve feet, 
 nine feet. 
 
 no. “They are detained at France;” 
 say, in France. “ He lives at New York 
 say, in New York. 
 
 in. “He is very dry" (meaning thirsty), 
 is a very common and very improper 
 word to use ; say, thirsty. 
 
 1 1 2. “ Such another victory, and we 
 shall be ruined ; ” say Another such vie 
 tory, etc. 
 
 1 1 3. “It is some distance from our 
 house ; ” say, at some distance, etc. 
 
 1 14. “ I shall call upon him ; ” say, on 
 him. 
 
 1 15. “Give me leave to tell you;” 
 never say lief for leave. “ I had as lief do 
 it as not ; ” lief means willingly, gladly, 
 and is not to be confounded with leave. 
 
 1 16. “First of all I shall give you a 
 lesson in French, and last of all in music ; ” 
 omit of all in both instances. 
 
 1 17. “I shall have finished by the latter 
 end of the week ; ” leave out latter , which 
 is superfluous. “They sought him 
 throughout the whole country ; ” leave out 
 whole, which is implied in throughout. 
 “Iron sinks down in water;” leave out 
 down. “ A warrant was issued oiit for his 
 apprehension ; ” leave out the word out, 
 which is implied in issued. “He covered 
 it over ; " leave out over. 
 
 1 18. “ I bought anew pair of shoes ;" 
 say, a pair of new shoes. 
 
610 
 
 TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 . 1 19. “Honor to the patriot and the 
 
 sage ; ” divide the syllables like pa-tri-ot, 
 not pat-ri-ot. Irish rowdyism has been 
 called “ Pat-riot-ism .” 
 
 120. “ He raised the national standard 
 pronounce the first two syllables like the 
 word nation , never as if written fiash-ion-al. 
 
 12 1. Principal and Principle : be careful 
 to observe the distinction between these 
 words. Principal signifies chief ; princi- 
 ple, motive. 
 
 122. “St. John’s is about two days 
 nearer England than Halifax.” [From 
 an account in a New York newspaper, 
 of the Submarine Telegraph Expedition, 
 September, 1855.] Does it mean that 
 St. John’s is nearer to England than 
 Halifax is, or nearer to England than 
 to Halifax ? 
 
 123. “He wears a blue-spotted neck- 
 handkerchief ; ” say, neckerchief , or, still 
 better, neck-cloth , or cravat. The original 
 word is kerchief \ and not handkerchief ‘ 
 which is a kerchief for the hand. 
 
 124. “The city was illumined in honor 
 of the victory ; ” better say illuminated. 
 Distinguish between the pronunciation 
 of illumined and ill-omened. 
 
 125. “Hemet with luck;" say either 
 “ bad luck," or “ good luck ; ” luck primarily 
 refers to simple “ chance,” although its 
 derivatives, lucky and luckily, imply only 
 good fortune. 
 
 126. “The in-va-lid signed a deed that 
 was in-val-id ; ” pronounce the former 
 “ invalid ” with the accent on the first 
 syllable ; the latter, with the accent on 
 the second. 
 
 127. “ He deserves chastisement ;" say, 
 chas-tiz-ment , with the accent on chas, and 
 NEVER on tise. 
 
 j 128. “ They committed a heinous crime 
 pronounce heinous as if spelled hay-nus ; 
 NEVER call the word hee-nus or hain-yus . 
 
 129. “He is a powerful ally;" never 
 place the accent on al in ally, as many 
 do. 
 
 1 30. “ We have never been called, almost, 
 to the consideration of the Apocalypse, 
 without finding fresh reasons for our 
 opinion.'’ [Such are the words of a very 
 eminent reviewer.] He should have said, 
 “We have scarcely ever been called,” or, 
 “ we have almost never." 
 
 13 1. “He built a large granary;" do 
 not pronounce granary so as to rhyme 
 with tannery. Call the word grainary. 
 Both pronunciations, however, are given 
 by scholars. 
 
 132. Beware of using Oh! and O indis- 
 criminately. Oh ! is used to express the 
 emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, 
 “ Oh! the exceeding grace of God.” O is 
 used to express wishing exclamation, or a 
 direct address to a person, as, 
 
 * ‘ O mother, will the God above 
 Forgive my faults like thee?” 
 
 133. “ I will retain two-thirds, and give 
 you the balance ; ” say, remainder. 
 
 134. “He dickered with him an hour ; ” 
 say, “ he bargained." This is a word some- 
 what peculiar to New York. 
 
 135. “Do don't" is a vulgar usage of 
 the Southern States, especially Georgia, 
 for “ do not." 
 
 1 36. “ He is done gone ;" say, ruined. 
 
 137. “We had a dreadful fine time ; ” 
 say, very, or exceedingly. 
 
 138. “The message was sent by his 
 aid-de-camp ; " pronounce as if written 
 ade-de-kawng, avoiding, however, as much 
 as possible a twang on the last syllable. 
 
 139. To yank is a vulgarism, meaning 
 to twitch powerfully. 
 
 140. “The basket is pretty large;" 
 avoid, if possible, the use of the word 
 pretty out of its legitimate signification ; 
 
TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 611 
 
 the language abounds with substitutes 
 more elegant. 
 
 141. The following sentence affords an 
 example of three words of similar pro- 
 nunciation, but different signification : 
 “It is not easy to pare a pear with a pair 
 of scissors.” 
 
 142. “ The robber entered the dwelling, 
 and secretly carried off the silver ; ” say, 
 thief ; a robber attacks violently, and com- 
 mits his depredations by main force ; a 
 thief is one who uses secrecy and decep- 
 tion. 
 
 143. “Go and fetch me my riding- 
 whip ; ” say, bring . Fetch means to go 
 and bring ; go and fetch is repetition. 
 
 144. To leave and to quit are often used 
 as synonymous terms, though improperly ; 
 to leave implies a design of returning 
 soon — to quit , an absence of a long time. 
 
 145. Mute and dumb. A dumb man 
 has not the power to speak ; a mute man 
 either does not choose, or is not allowed 
 to speak. It is, therefore, more proper 
 to say of a person who can neither hear 
 nor speak, that he is “ deaf and dumb,” 
 than that he is a “ deaf mute.” 
 
 146. “ Isaac Newton invented the law of 
 gravitation ; ” say, discovered. “ Galileo 
 discovered the telescope ; ” say, invented. 
 
 147. To hear and to listen have each 
 distinct degrees of meaning. To hear 
 implies no effort or particular attention. 
 To listen implies some eagerness to hear. 
 An old proverb says, “ They that listen 
 seldom hear any good of themselves.” 
 
 148. Ought and should both express 
 obligation, but the latter is not so bind- 
 ing as the former. “ Children ought to 
 love their parents, and should be neat in 
 their appearance.” 
 
 149. Alone and only are often mis- 
 applied. “ He only could do it,” means 
 that no other but himself could do it ; 
 
 “ he alone could do it,” should mean that 
 he, without the assistance of others, could 
 do it. 
 
 150. “Whether he will or no;” say, 
 not. 
 
 15 1. “ He looked at it first lengthways, 
 then sideways ; ” say, lengthwise and side- 
 wise. Also, say otherwise instead of other- 
 ways. 
 
 152. “Will you accept of this slight 
 testimonial?” Omit of, which is super- 
 fluous and weakens the sentence. 
 
 153. “The Danube empties into the 
 Black Sea ; ” say, flows ; to empty means 
 to make vacant ; no river can properly be 
 called empty, until it is entirely dried up. 
 
 1 54. “ There's the books you wanted ; ” 
 say, there are ; avoid all abbreviations 
 when they lead to a grammatical error, as 
 in the present instance. 
 
 155. “The most eminent scholars will, 
 on some points, differ among one another ;” 
 say, among themselves. 
 
 156. To differ from and to differ with ; 
 to differ from a man means to have an 
 opinion different from his ; to differ with 
 a person signifies a quarrel or rupture. 
 
 157. “He barely escaped having one or 
 two broken heads;” a man has but one 
 head, let it be broken or whole. Say, 
 “He once or twice barely escaped having a 
 broken head.” 
 
 158. The word only is often wrongly 
 placed in the sentence, and made to ex- 
 press an idea which is not designed to be 
 conveyed. “ Not only Chinese are super- 
 stitious/’ implies that others besides the 
 Chinese are superstitious. “ Chinese are 
 not only superstitious,” implies that in 
 addition to being superstitious, they have 
 some other characteristics. “ Chinese not 
 only are superstitious,” leaves room for 
 something still further to be implied of 
 the Chinese than superstition, and which 
 
612 
 
 TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 is not necessarily the predicate of are ; 
 as, “ Chinese not only are superstitious, 
 but they persecute those who do not put 
 faith in Confucius.” 
 
 159. The word long should not now be 
 employed to signify many. An example 
 of this early usage is found in the Fifth 
 Commandment, “that thy days may be 
 long upon the land.” 
 
 160. “ Have you any leisure upon your 
 hands ? ” omit upon your hands. 
 
 161. “ Seven lads were present, and he 
 gave them all a book * ” say, gave them 
 each a book. All refers to a number of 
 persons or things taken collectively, as one 
 body ; each refers to every individual, 
 separately considered. 
 
 162. “ I am afraid it will rain ; ” say, 
 I fear. A fraid expresses terror ; fear 
 may mean only anxiety. 
 
 163. Never say o-fences for offences ; 
 pison for poison ; co-lection for collection ; 
 voiolent for violent ; kivver for cover ; 
 afeard for afraid ; debbuty for deputy. 
 The last three examples are very common. 
 
 164. “ Gibbon wrote the Rise and Fall 
 of the Roman Empire ; ” pronounce Rise, 
 the noun, so as to rhyme with price ; 
 Rise, the verb, rhymes with prize. 
 
 165. “ Received this day of Mr. Brown 
 ten dollars ; ” say, “ Received this day 
 fromf etc. 
 
 166. “ Of whatever you get, endeavor 
 to save something ; and with all your get- 
 ting, get wisdom ; ” carefully avoid saying 
 git for get, and git ting for getting. 
 
 1 67. “ Lower the sails, as the sky begins 
 to lower f' pronounce low in the former 
 so as to rhyme with mow, and low in the 
 latter so as to rhyme with cow. 
 
 168. “There was a great row on 
 Monday, in Tryon Row /” pronounce the 
 former row so as to rhyme with cow — the 
 latter row, so as to rhyme with mo. 
 
 169. “The buildings are so old that 
 they pay almost no rent now ; ” scarcely 
 any rent, is better. 
 
 170. Active verbs often take a neuter 
 sense ; as, “ The house is building ; ” here 
 is building is used in a neuter significa- 
 tion, because it has no object after it. By 
 this rule are explained such sentences as, 
 “ Application is wanting “ The Grammar 
 is printing, ” etc. 
 
 1 7 1 . “He attackied me without the 
 slightest provocation ; ” say attacked. 
 
 172. “ I called on him every day in the 
 week successfully very common, but 
 incorrect ; say, successively. 
 
 173. “I fear I shall discommode you ; ” 
 it is better to say incommode. 
 
 174. “He was obliged to fly the 
 country;” say, flee the country. A very 
 common mistake. 
 
 175. “Too free an indulgence in luxuries 
 enervate and injure the system ; ” say, 
 enervates and injures, etc. The plural, 
 luxuries , standing directly before the verb 
 (which should be enervates, in the singular), 
 deceives the ear. 
 
 176. “A father divided a portion of 
 his property among his two children, and 
 the remainder he distributed between the 
 poor ; ” say, between his two children, and 
 among the poor. Between is applicable to 
 two only, among to three or more. 
 
 1 77. “ Every child should obey their 
 parents ; ” say, his parents. The pronoun 
 must agree with the noun in number, etc. 
 
 178. Coming , going, according, etc., are 
 often pronounced without the final g; 
 speak them distinctly, and pronounce 
 difficult words with de-lib-er-a-tion. 
 
 179. If you are a Yankee, you should 
 take special pains with your vowel sounds, 
 that they be not formed through the 
 nasal cavities. Don’t say heow , ceow , con- 
 feound, for how , cow, etc. 
 
TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 612 
 
 180. If you are a Western man, you 
 are liable to give your vowel sounds too 
 great breadth. You should not say bar 
 for bear, hum for home, dawlar for dollar ; 
 and it is better to avoid using such ex- 
 pressions as I reckon , I guess , I calculate , 
 too frequently. 
 
 1 8 1 . Some people add a superfluous 
 preposition at the end of a sentence — - 
 “More than you think for." This is 
 awkward. 
 
 182. “Wanted, two apprentices, who 
 will be treated as one of the family ; ” 
 great practical difficulty would be found 
 in realizing such treatment ! Say, as mem- 
 bers of the family. 
 
 183. Sometimes but is incorrectly sub- 
 stituted for that ; as, “ I have no doubt 
 but he will be here to-night.” Sometimes 
 for the conjunction if, as, “ I shouldn’t 
 wonder but that was the case.” And 
 sometimes two conjunctions are used 
 instead of one, as, “If that I have offended 
 him,” “ After that he had seen the 
 parties,” etc. All this is very awkward, 
 and should be avoided. 
 
 184. Never say, “Cut it in halff for 
 this you cannot do unless you could 
 annihilate one half. You may “cut it in 
 two,” or “ cut it in halves,” or “ cut it 
 through,” or “ divide it,” but no human 
 ability will enable you to cut it in half. 
 
 185. To lay and to lie . — To lay is an 
 active or transitive verb, and must always 
 have an object expressed or understood. 
 To lie (not meaning to tell a falsehood ) is a 
 neuter or intransitive, and, therefore, does 
 not admit of an object. The only real 
 difficulty arises from the fact that the 
 past tense of “ lie,” when used without 
 an auxiliary, is the same as the present of 
 “ lay.” But a little attention will obviate 
 this. Nothing can be more erroneous 
 than to say, “ I shall go and lay down.” 
 
 The question which naturally arises in 
 the mind of the discriminating hearer is, 
 
 “ What are you going to lay down — ' 
 money, carpets, plans, or what? ” for, as 
 a transitive verb is used, an object is 
 wanted to complete the sense. The 
 speaker means that he himself is going 
 to lie down. “ My brother lays ill of a 
 fever,” should be, “ My brother lies," etc. 
 
 186. The uneducated speaker uses 
 adjectives instead of adverbs, and says: 
 “This letter is written shocking /” the 
 genteel speaker uses adverbs instead of 
 adjectives, and says, “ This writing looks 
 shockingly." 
 
 187. A grammatical play upon the 
 word THAT : 
 
 “ Now that is a word which may often be joined, 
 
 For that that may be doubled is clear to the mind, 
 And that that that is right is as plain to the view, 
 j As that that that that we use is rightly used too ; 
 
 And that that that that that line has in it, is right 
 In accordance with grammar, is plain in our sight. ” 
 
 188. “ He will go from thence to- 
 morrow.” The preposition “ from ” is 
 included in these adverbs, therefore it be- 
 comes tautology in sense when prefixed 
 to them. 
 
 189. “ Equally as well,” is a very com- 
 mon expression, and a very incorrect one ; 
 the adverb of comparison, “ as,” has no 
 right in the sentence. “ Equally well,” 
 “ Equally high,” “ Equally dear,” should 
 be the construction. 
 
 190. “ No other resource but this was 
 allowed him;” say, “No other resource 
 than this,” etc. 
 
 19 1. “I don’t know but what I shall go 
 to White Plains to-morrow ; ” say, “ I 
 don’t know but that," etc. 
 
 192. “ He spoke contemptibly of him,” 
 should be, “He spoke contemptuotisly of 
 him.” 
 
 193. Avoid all slang, obsolete and vul- 
 gar words and phrases, as, Anyhow , 
 
614 
 
 TWO HUNDRED MISTAKES. 
 
 Bating , Bran new , To blow up , Bother , Cut, 
 Currying favor , Fork out , Half an eye, I 
 am up to you. Kick up, Scrape , 7 Vz^ scratch , 
 Walk into. 
 
 194. “ It is I who is to receive the 
 appointment ; ” say, who am to receive ; 
 who is in the first person, and the verb of 
 which it is the subject must be in the same. 
 
 195. “ Every lancer and every rifleman 
 were at their post ; ” say, was at his post. 
 
 196. “ I can lift as many pounds as he 
 has ;” add lifted. 
 
 197. Do not use to, the sign of the infin- 
 itive mood, for the infinitive itself. “ I 
 have not written to him, and I am not 
 likely to,” should read, “ I am not likely 
 to write to him.” 
 
 198. The word agree is sometimes 
 followed by the wrong preposition. We 
 should say agree with a person — to a pro- 
 position — upon a thing among ourselves. 
 
 199. We should say copy after a per- 
 son — copy from a thing. 
 
 200. In should not be used ioxinto, after 
 verbs denoting entrance. “ Come in my 
 parlor,” should read, “Come into my par- 
 lor.” 
 
 201. “ We confide in, and have respect 
 for , the good.” Such a form of expression 
 is strained and awkward. It is better to 
 say, “ We confide in the good, and have 
 respect for them,” or, “We trust and 
 respect the good.” 
 
 202. “ This veil of flesh parts the visible 
 and invisible world ; ” say, “ parts the 
 visible from the invisible.” It certainly 
 is not meant that the veil of flesh parts 
 (or divides') each of these worlds. 
 
 203. “ Every leaf, every twig, every 
 blade, every drop of water, teem with life; ” 
 say, teems. 
 
 204. The last direction which this little 
 treatis will give, on the subject with 
 which it has been occupied, is one that 
 long ago was given in the greatest of 
 books — “ Let your conversation be as 
 it becometh the Gospel of Christ.” If 
 obedience to this injunction may not 
 guard him who heeds it against the com- 
 mission of such mistakes as are numbered 
 in this catalogue, it will not fail to lead 
 him out of the way of errors more grievous 
 and solemn. 
 
^The Art of Correspondence 
 
 GIVING DIRECTIONS AND FORMS FOR WRITING, PUNCTUATION, &C. 
 
 LETTERS ON BUSINESS, 
 
 FRIENDSHIP, INTRODUCTIONS, LOVE, ETIQUETTE, CONDOLENCE, 
 
 AND OTHER TOPICS OF INTEREST. 
 
 HERE are few things of more importance for the mercantile man, the 
 statesman, the divine, and indeed to all who would be thought to possess 
 ordinary intelligence than the ability to correspond by letter with free- 
 dom and elegance. To the student preparing to compete with those 
 already in the race of business life, it is an art that should have a very 
 prominent place, and to the acquirement of which too much attention cannot be given. 
 It is of advantage to a young man replying to an advertisement or applying for a situa-* 
 ( tion, because however geometric may be its calligraphy, if clumsily expressed or badty 
 arranged, it carries its own refusal, while another of inferior penmanship, if neatly 
 expressed, concise and to the point, its mechanical arrangement showing the character of 
 the writer, it will attract the attention of the recipient and secure the position. 
 
 The utility of a letter writer adapted to the requirements of the present day cannot 
 be questioned, for it must be apparent to all that the use of judicious, forms as models in 
 which to convey one’s own thoughts and feelings, so far from being detrimental to the 
 youthful writer, may be really advantageous to him.- The antiquated books upon the 
 subject are not adapted to the present day, being obsolete in expression, verbose and 
 unnatural. The thought is high-flown and the rhetoric exaggerated often to a laughable 
 degree. A modern letter writer should, give models for the present time free from these 
 peculiarities and defects. But we are aware that it is impossible to suit a model to the 
 ten thousand forms of letters on the varied subjects demanding the attention of the 
 present generation of letter writers. 'I he endless variety of topics, the characteristics 
 of mental temperament, and position in society, and the frame of mind at the time of 
 inditing the letter are all lc N* considered The faculty of good letter writing is one 
 that all should cultivate, since it is the mainspring of the commercial and social life, — 
 the link that binds the complicated chain of civilized society. The style should vary 
 according to the subject. A business letter should be terse, explicit and free from am- 
 biguity, without useless compliment, and contain nothing but the business in hand. 
 This can be contracted into ten lines ordinarily. It should be brief without being dis- 
 courteous. A clear and flowing interpretation of our own ideas is the prerequisite of 
 good familiar correspondence among relatives and friends, united with an understanding 
 of the mind of the person to whom we are writing. A child at school, a friend on the 
 eve of marriage, a family in sorrow, an official of state, a clergyman and a brother or 
 sister would not all be addressed in the same manner. Let the substance and tone of 
 the letter be natural to yourself and to the circumstances. 
 
616 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 The surest method to attain proficiency as a letter writer is, to correspond with 
 those who themselves are adepts in the art. The next best thing is to peruse carefully 
 the letters that are so large a part of the best of the writings of the best authors. 
 
 Why should anyone make so fearful a bugbear of letter writing ? The thing 
 required is to have something to say, and to express it in a clear, natural and graceful 
 manner. 
 
 This subject should receive the attention it deserves m our schools and institutions 
 of learning. Our purpose is to give models of letters, not to be copied by our readers, 
 but to guide them in the best methods of moulding their own thoughts. These three 
 rules should always be observed : Write courteously, write truthfully, and write sensibly. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS AS TO LETTER WRITING. 
 
 First, in writing letters, it is necessary to make the style clear, elegant and appro- 
 priate for all subjects ; vivacity of discourse forces us frequently to sacrifice happy 
 though tardy expressions to the necessity of avoiding hesitation ; but what is thus an 
 obstacle in speaking, does not interfere with the use of the pen. We ought, therefore, to 
 avoid repetition, erasures, insertions, omissions, and confusion of ideas, or labored con- 
 struction. If we write a familiar letter to an equal or a friend, these blemishes may 
 remain ; if otherwise, we must commence our letter again. The most exact observance 
 of the rules of grammar is strictly imperative ; an error of orthography, or an incorrect 
 phraseology is not admissible, even in the least careful letter, or the most unimportant 
 billet. Even correction is not allowable, for besides being a blemish to the letter, it be- 
 trays ignorance or carelessness of the party writing it. The choice of materials for 
 writing, without being very essential, is yet necessary ; to write on very coarse paper is 
 allowable only for the most indigent, to use gilt-edged and perfumed paper for letters of 
 business would be ridiculous. 
 
 Many distinguished people, however, reasonably prefer simplicity in this thing, and 
 make use of very beautiful paper, but yet without ornament. 
 
 It is extremely impolite to write upon a single leaf of paper, even if it is a billet ; it 
 should be always double, although we write only two or three lines. 
 
 It is as indispensable to answer when you are written to as when you are spoken to, 
 and the indolence which so many correspondents allow in themselves in this respect is 
 an incivility. And if, after all, they decide to answer, they begin by apologies so often 
 renewed that they become commonplace. We must use much care that these excuses 
 may not appear ridiculous. Conciseness and some new terms of expression are, in this 
 case, indispensable. The same observation is applicable in making use of reproving 
 terms. 
 
 Letters supply the place of visits, in bestowing presents, or on occasions of mar- 
 riages, funerals, etc.; and to neglect to write in such cases, is gross impoliteness. 
 
 Two persons should not write in the same letter by one writing upon the first, and 
 another upon the second leaf, except on very intimate acquaintance with the correspond- 
 ent. The language of men who write to ladies ought always to have a polish of respect, 
 with which the latter ought not to dispense in answering ; but on occasions of great cere* 
 
ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 617 
 
 mony a lady may address to a gentleman such phrase as, “ I have the honor to be,’* etc., 
 while he should use the most respectful terms, as “Deign, madam, to allow me,” * ‘Allow 
 me the honor of presenting you my respects,” etc. 
 
 You may use a lofty style towards persons to whom you owe respect; an easy, 
 tempting, or even jesting style towards a friend, and a courteous style towards one an- 
 other generally. 
 
 If you have many subjects to treat of in the same letter, commence with the most 
 important ; for if the person to whom you write is interested while reading it, he will be 
 more impatient to resume its perusal, however little interesting he may find it. 
 
 It is useful and convenient to begin a paragraph at every change of the subject. 
 After having written “Sir,” or “Madam,” at the top of the letter, we should not commence 
 with one of these phrases : “Sir,” “Madam,” — “Your sister has written me thus.” We 
 should say, “I understand by a letter which Madam , your sister, has written me.” 
 
 Take care, also, when writing to a person of great consideration, not to make com- 
 pliments to any one, but write to this third person whatever you wish him to know. 
 
 How to fold a letter, first fold How to fold a letter, second fold 
 
 from you for the width of from you for the length of 
 
 envelope. envelope. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 To render a letter intelligible, it is necessary to pay attention to the stops or marks 
 which denote when a pause should be made by the reader. These marks are — the 
 comma (,)the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period or full stop (.) the note of admiration 
 (!) and the note of interrogation (?). 
 
 A comma denotes that a short pause is to be made, as in the following cases : Two 
 
 or more substantives, adjectives, etc., immediately succeeding each other, require a 
 comma after each; but, if joined by a conjunction, the comma is not needed; as,. “She is 
 an industrious and frugal woman.” If an admonition is made to a person, the noun 
 requires a comma before and after it ; as, “ Remember, boy, what thou hast heard.” 
 Many adverbs should have a comma before and after them, as perhaps, before , etc. 
 
 A semicolon requires a longer pause than a comma, but denotes that something else 
 is to follow before the whole idea can be expressed. As, “A boorish air is but a trivial 
 defect ; yet, trivial as it is, it is enough to render a person unwelcome'” Or it is used 
 to distinguish those members of a sentence, though less nearly joined than those divided 
 by commas, are not so independent as those marked by a colon ; thus, “ The way of the 
 wicked leads to death ; that of the righteous to life everlasting.” 
 
 A colon implies that the idea is fully expressed, but that something else follows for 
 the purpose of giving still more force to the author’s meaning, or casting additional light 
 upon it, thus, “This is your triumph : it is my shame.” Quotations should be preceded 
 by a colon, as, a popular author says : “The pen is mightier than the sword.” 
 
618 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 The period or full stop ends the sentence, as “ Give me the book.” “ Let us go home.” 
 It is also placed after all abbreviations, as N. Y. New York, A. D. Anno Domini, Fred., 
 Jno. 
 
 A note of admiration is used to show that lively emotion is expressed, as : “Oh, 
 Virtue ! how lovely thou art !” 
 
 A note of interrogation is placed at the end of every question, as “ Have you seen 
 my brother ? How late ?” 
 
 Other marks are used in writing which need explanation. The dash ( — ) is used 
 when the sentence is abrubtly broken off ; thus, “Exactly so — a wonderful young man !” 
 The parenthesis () is used to enclose part of a sentence which may be left out without 
 spoiling the sense ; as, “Let us hear from all (including Ellen) when you write again.” 
 The apostrophe (’) is used to denote the possessive case, or to abbreviate a word ; thus : 
 
 “Frederick’s book, thro’ for through.” The caret (a) is used for the purpose of showing 
 
 grave, 
 
 something omitted; thus, “Most reverend, ^and potent seignors.” The hyphen (-) is used 
 
 for all compound words; thus, “self-glorification.” The asterisk (*) is used to refer to 
 notes, as are also the following signs : f, §, ||, and ^[. The index points out 
 
 anything worthy of especial notice. 
 
 Unless you attend to the punctuation, serious mistakes may be made by the individual 
 with whom you correspond. Even the omission of a comma will sometimes give a 
 meaning to the sentence precisely the reverse of that which you intend to convey 
 
 LETTERS ON LOVE. 
 
 The love letter ought to be more easy to write than any other, premising always that 
 the writer is really under the influence of the grand passion. Upon first addressing the 
 object of your regard, there should be no prudent hesitation about committing yourself 
 too far. You either love the fair being whom you address, or you do not. If you are 
 not decided upon that point, you do wrong to write at all ; but if you earnestly desire 
 to unite your destiny with hers, you must, in the first instance, give her to understand 
 that you entertain for her a sincere and earnest admiration. 
 
 Your letters should express respect blended with exalted and overpowering passion, 
 and this applies more particularly to your first letter. A tame, hesitating lover cannot 
 make a strong impression upon the hearts of the gentle sex. The writer must show the 
 woman of his choice that his love is too real and too violent to be prudent, or to have any 
 place for a selfish fear of compromising himself. He must compromise himself fearlessly 
 and thoroughly in his first address to her, and have his mind made up to stand the hazard 
 of the die; for the first thing a man has to do when disclosing his love for a woman, is, 
 to convince her that he does love her, and that he loves her a great deal, and her alone. 
 
 Let this be the aim of your letters; speak just as you feel, and speak out all that 
 you feel, in straightforward, simple, honest language — which is always the language ot 
 strong emotion — and if she be a virtuous woman, whose heart has not been hackneyed 
 by the arts of coquetry, she will know how to estimate your sincerity and your devotion. 
 
ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 615 * 
 
 It is best to use gilt-edged paper, and of a fine quality; write in good hand if pos- 
 sible; fold and seal your missive neatly, and direct it in a bold plain manner, that it may 
 not fall into the hands of the wrong person, and expose your lady-love to the jeers ancl 
 malicious remarks of idle and heartless worldings. 
 
 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Some few general remarks on very simple matters — which are nevertheless of much- 
 importance in the transactions of every-day life — may be advantageously appended to 
 the specimens to be laid before the reader. 
 
 I. There is great judgment required in using “Sir,” or “Dear Sir,” especially in 
 addressing a person of superior worldly position to yourself. Always reflect whether 
 you are on such terms with the person to whom you write as to warrant your using 
 “Dear,” or “My dear,” before the more retiring phrase of address. 
 
 At the same time, the use of “Dear Sir,” even towards a stranger, is considered a 
 graceful manner of addressing an inferior; but, in responding to this, it would be prefer- 
 able to avoid too much familiarity at first. A golden rule in such matters is, that noth- 
 ing is lost by too much modesty, while nothing gives so much offence as officious 
 familiarity 
 
 “Reverend and dear Sir” is a frequent address from one clergyman to another, with 
 whom he is supposed to have little acquaintance beyond that of being in the same pro- 
 fession. “Dear Sir” is afterwards adopted, when one or two letters have passed between 
 the parties. 
 
 “Dear Sir” is frequently used in transactions between gentlemen and their trades- 
 men; but such use must be guided by the good sense of both parties. It must also be 
 considered that the position and character of many tradesmen render them fully on a par 
 with many professional or independent persons. 
 
 “Honored Sir,” though somewhat antiquated, is still frequently used, either in ad- 
 dressing a person in very advanced years, a parent, a person to whom we have been under 
 great obligations, or in an appeal from a poor person to a rich and powerful one. 
 
 Nearly the same rules apply to letters addressed to persons of the other sex. 
 
 II. Never send a note to a person who is your superior, unless it be upon a very 
 slight and indifferent matter. In asking a favor of an intimate friend, address him in the 
 first person. 
 
 III. Do not take bad writing for freedom of style. Whatever pleasure your friends, 
 may derive from reading your letters, you have no right to suppose that they have time 
 for the study of hieroglyphics. 
 
 IV. And, finally, remember that whatever you write is written evidence either of 
 your good sense or your folly, your industry or carelessness, your self-control or impa- 
 tience. What you have once put in the letter-box may cost you lasting regret, or be 
 equally important to your whole future welfare. And, for such grave reasons, think be^ 
 fore you write, and think while you are writing. 
 
620 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 FORMS OF DIRECTING, COMMENCING AND CONCLUDING LETTERS. 
 
 The title of Esquire is now given to almost every person of respectability, but in 
 directing to persons of high position and distinction, we generally add etc., etc., etc., 
 writing the word Esquire at full length. It should however be used sparingly. 
 
 The wives of gentlemen, in cases where several persons of the same family are 
 married, are distinguished by the Christian name of their husbands, e. g. y Mrs. Frederick 
 Brown, Mrs. Alfred Brown. 
 
 THE CLERGY. 
 
 Direct — To the Right Rev. the Bishop of 
 
 Commence — My Bishop. 
 
 Conclude — I have the honor to be, Bishop, your most obedient, humble servant 
 
 Direct — To the Rev. , D. D. (or, to the Rev. Dr. .) 
 
 Commence — Rev Sir. 
 
 Conclude — I have the honor to be, Rev. Sir, yours, etc. (according to the cirumstances 
 under which we write, or our acquaintance with the person. 
 
 TO AMBASSADORS, SECRETARIES, CONSULS, ETC. 
 
 The President of the United States and ambassadors from other governments have 
 the title of Excellency added to their quality. 
 
 Direct — To His Excellency, Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States. 
 
 Commence — Sir, Your Excellency 
 
 Direct — To , Secretary from the Republic of Mexico. 
 
 Commence — Sir. 
 
 Direct — To , Esq., U. S. Consul to Her Britannic Majesty at Smyrna. 
 
 Commence — Sir. 
 
 Direct — To His Excellency, , Ambassador from the Court of St. James. 
 
 Commence Sir, Your Excellency. 
 
ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 621 
 
 LETTERS ON THE SICKNESS AND DEATH OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD 
 
 FROM A. F. ROCKWELL, 
 
 Mrs. Garfield, Elberon , New Jersey : 
 
 The president wishes me to say to you 
 for him that he has been seriously hurt — 
 how seriously he cannot yet say. He is 
 himself, and hopes you will come to him 
 soon. He sends his love to you 0 
 
 A. F. Rockwell. 
 
 Queen Victoria to the Secretary of State: 
 
 “ I wish to exp; ess my great satisfaction 
 at the very favorable accounts of the pres- 
 ident, and hope that he will soon be con- 
 sidered out of danger.” 
 
 F>j?m the Chief of the Confederate Tribes of 
 Washington Territory: 
 
 4 Tell the Great Chief at Washington 
 that it makes our hearts sad to hear of the 
 cowardly attempt made on his life. Chief 
 Mosos and all of his people offer their 
 warmest sympathies to the Great Father 
 and his family c He has always been a 
 good friend to the Indians. We are glad 
 to hear that he is recovering, and hope his 
 life may be spared.” 
 
 Card From the Governor of Ohio. 
 
 “ Governors Office , Columbus , O., July io. 
 
 “ Present indications strongly encourage 
 the hope that the president will recover 
 from the effects of the horrible attempt 
 upon his life. It must occur to all that it 
 would be most fitting for the Governors of 
 the several States and Territories to issue 
 proclamations setting apart a day to be 
 generally agreed upon for thanksgiving and 
 praise to Almighly God for the blessed 
 deliverance of our president, and for this 
 
 great evidence of His goodness to this 
 nation. If this suggestion meets your ap- 
 probation, permit me to name the Govern- 
 ors of New York, Pennsylvania, Kentucky 
 Maryland, and Ohio, as a committee to fix 
 upon a day to be so observed. Please 
 reply. (Signed) 
 
 Charles Foster.” 
 
 On the President’s Condition. 
 
 “ The President had another chill of con- 
 siderable severity this morning, which, fol- 
 lowing so soon after the chill of last evening, 
 left him very weak indeed. His pulse be- 
 came more frequent and feeble than at any 
 time since he recovered from the immedi- 
 ate shock of the wound, and his general 
 condition was more alarming during the 
 day. His system has reacted to some 
 extent, and he passed the afternoon and 
 evening comfortably. At this hour he is 
 resting quietly, and no disturbance is ex- 
 pected during the night. There has been 
 however, no gain whatever in strength, and 
 therefore, there is no decrease of anxiety.” 
 
 To Secretary Lincoln , at Boston : 
 
 Long Branch, Sept. 19, 1881, 9 p. m. 
 
 “ The president has passed a comfortable 
 day, and is now resting quietly. 
 
 Wayne MacVeagh.” 
 
 To Vice President Arthur, N V. City: 
 
 “ It becomes our painful duty to inform 
 you of the death of President Garfield, and 
 to advise ycu to take the oath of office as 
 President of the United States without 
 delay. If it concurs with your judgment, ( 
 
622 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 will be very glad if you will come here on 
 the earliest train to-morrow. 
 
 “William Windom, Sedy of the Treasury . 
 “W. H. Hunt, Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 “ T homas L. J ames, P ostmaster-G eneral. 
 
 * Wayne MacVeagh, Attorney General. 
 
 “S. J. Kirkwood, Secretary of Interior!' 
 
 To the President' s two sons in College at 
 Williamstown, Mass. : 
 
 “ At thirty-five minutes past ten o’clock 
 to-night your father passed peacefully away. 
 Come to Long Branch at once.” 
 
 To Yoshida, Japanese Minister, Washington: 
 Tokio, Sept. 21. 
 
 You are instructed to transmit the fol- 
 lowing message to the Hon. James G. 
 Blaine, Secretary of State: 
 
 We have received with feelings of pro- 
 found sorrow a telegram from our Minister, 
 announcing the death of President Garfield. 
 The favorable reports of his condition we 
 have from time to time received make this 
 sad announcement the more unexpected 
 and painful. In the name of His Majesty, 
 we tender to you and the sadly bereaved 
 family our heartfelt condolence and sympa- 
 thy. Inouye, 
 
 Minister for Foreign A fairs. 
 
 To Secretary of State , Washington : 
 
 By special command of His Majesty, the 
 King of Italy, now absent in the northern 
 provinces, the Minister for Foreign Affairs 
 communicates to me the expression of the 
 profound regret of His Majesty, and of the 
 Italian nation, for the death of our late 
 chief magistrate. 
 
 Marsh. 
 
 From the Acting Governor-General of Can- 
 ada : 
 
 Ottawa, Sept. 21. 
 
 Be pleased to convey to the President, 
 
 and through him to the people of the Uni- 
 ted States, the deep sympathy felt by the 
 government and people of the Dominion oi 
 Canada, for the sad loss the people of the 
 United States have sustained in the melan- 
 choly death of their late President. 
 
 To the Secretary of State , Washington , D. C.T 
 The Minister for foreign Affairs tele- 
 graphs me that the Sultan and the Ottoman 
 government are profoundly grieved at the 
 death of the President ; and His Excellen- 
 cy charges me to present, in the name of 
 His Majesty and the government their 
 sincerest sympathy to Mrs. Garfield, and 
 the government of the United States. 
 
 Aristarchi. 
 
 To Secretary Blaine, Washington: 
 Sympathy in Belgium for the nation, and 
 President Garfield’s family, profound and 
 universal. The King, the government lega- 
 tions, and citizens have expressed it. 
 
 Putnam, Brussels. 
 
 To His Excellency, the Minister of Foreign. 
 
 Affairs , Washington: 
 
 Rome, Sept. 21. 
 
 The loss of the illustrious President Gar- 
 field has roused a deep sorrow to the Holy 
 Father. His Holiness directs me to pre- 
 sent his condolence to Your Excellency, 
 and to the government, and his best wishes 
 for the prosperity of the republic. 
 
 L. Cardinal Jacobini. 
 
 To President Arthur: 
 
 The Anglo-Jewish Association deplores 
 the loss sustained by the American nation, 
 and offers heartfelt sympathy to the Govern- 
 ment and people of the United States, and 
 also to the bereaved family of the late 
 illustrious president. 
 
 Baron de Worms, M. P. 
 
ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 623 
 
 The Pall Mall Gazette said : 
 
 A year ago to-day not one Englishman 
 in a thousand had heard Garfield’s name. 
 To-day there will scarcely be an English- 
 man in a thousand who will not read of his 
 death with regret as real and as deep as if he 
 had been a ruler of our own. A communion 
 of sorrow unites the members of the 
 English race to-day more closely than it 
 has ever been since 1 776. 
 
 Glasgow, Sept. 26, 
 
 The flags were at half-mast, and the bells 
 were tolled for an hour, the principal mar- 
 kets have closed for the afternoon. 
 
 Manchester, Sept. 26. 
 Business was, to a great extent, suspend- 
 ed to-day. There was- a funeral service in 
 the Cathedral. 
 
 The Gentleman’s Complete Guide to Letter Writing, 
 
 EMBRACING FORMS FOR 
 
 eFa 1444^ cvwb eF Setter oj Qsoviboi Wroe, 
 Q&vwflt o^u^o4>k>44, ShicjTLC/tte ci/nb £oue. 
 
 ZBTTSIZDsTIESS L E T T B HRj S . 
 
 FROM A WORKING MAN “TO THE SECRETA- 
 RY OF A RAILWAY COMPANY. 
 
 Church Street f New York, May 4, 1 8 — . 
 
 Honored Sir : — Feeling desirous of ob- 
 taining a situation as a in the service 
 
 of railway company, for which I be- 
 
 lieve myself fully competent, having been 
 
 for several years engaged as in the 
 
 service of , I refer you to the enclosed 
 
 letter of recommendation from Mr. , of 
 
 , and Mr. , of , in my favor, 
 
 which I hope may prove ' satisfactory. 
 Should I, by your kind assistance, obtain 
 the situation I seek, I will endeavor to 
 show my sense of the obligation by a zeal- 
 ous and diligent discharge of my duties. 
 
 I remain, honored sir, 
 
 Your obedient, humble servant. 
 
 TO A FIRM SEEKING A CLERK. 
 
 B roadway , April 4, 18—. 
 
 Gentlemen — Perceiving by your ad- 
 vertisement in the Post of Saturday, that 
 you are in want of a clerk, I beg to enclose 
 testimonials, and venture to hope that from 
 my previous experience in the line of busi- 
 ness you pursue, I should be of some use 
 in your establishment. My habits of life 
 are such as to assure regularity in the dis- 
 charge of my duties, and I can only assure 
 you that, should you honor me with your 
 confidence, I shall spare no pains to acquit 
 myself to your satisfaction. 
 
 I remain, gentlemen, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 William Gray. 
 
 To 
 
 To Messrs. Brown & Bolton. 
 
624 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 A SECOND ANSWER TO A FIRM. 
 
 Broadway , April 5, 18 — . 
 
 Gentlemen : — In answer to your ques- 
 tion as to the salary I should expect, I beg 
 to express my perfect satisfaction with the 
 offer you propose, and can assure you that, 
 should we ultimately come to terms, no 
 pains will be spared on my part to do jus- 
 tice to the confidence reposed in me. With 
 
 regard to the guarantee required, Mr. ’s 
 
 name will, I trust, be satisfactory. 
 
 I remain, gentlemen, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 Charles Smith. 
 To Messrs. Brown & Bolton. 
 
 AN APPLICATION FOR A SITUATION 
 
 Hudson City , March 30, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — Understanding that you are a 
 shareholder in some of the principal rail- 
 ways, and on intimate terms with several 
 of the directors, I venture to solicit your 
 kind interest on behalf of my eldest son, 
 
 , now in his twenty-second year. His 
 
 education has been of a useful character ; 
 and since he left school he has been with 
 
 Mr. , the of this town. The 
 
 period for which he was engaged has ex- 
 pired, but my means are insufficient to 
 enable me to establish him in business. 
 Under these circumstances I venture to 
 write to you, in the hope that, should you 
 have it in your power to oblige me in his 
 behalf, by pointing out any situation that 
 you think would suit him, either at the 
 principal station or any other on the line, 
 you would kindly intercede in his favor. 
 In doing so, you would confer a lasting 
 obligation both to him and me. 
 
 I remain, sir, 
 
 Your obliged servant, 
 
 Charles Smith. 
 
 A HINT FOR THE PAYMENT OF A SMALL 
 DEBT. 
 
 New York , Match 7, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Sir : — Being at present rather 
 short of cash, I am compelled to remind 
 you that I have in my possession your 
 
 I O U for the sum of $ . I need say 
 
 no more, but that I hope to hear from you, 
 if convenient, by return of post, and re- 
 main, 
 
 My dear sir, 
 
 Yours, most sincerely, 
 
 John Adams. 
 
 IN ANSWER TO THE ABOVE. 
 
 Galveston, Texas , June 1 2, 18-—. 
 
 Dear Sir : — I am happy in being able 
 to enclose you the sum for which I have 
 been already too long your debtor. Assur- 
 ing you that unforeseen disappointments 
 have been the sole cause of any want of 
 punctuality, 
 
 Believe me, dear sir. 
 
 Your obliged and faithful servant, 
 
 James Bowen. 
 
 delaying the payment of a debt. 
 
 — Ann Street , Jan , 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — I really must beg of you to defer 
 the settlement of your account till after 
 the middle of next month, when I shall be 
 in a condition to meet your demand. Re- 
 gretting that circumstances prevent my 
 being more prompt in attending to your 
 wishes, 
 
 I remain, sir, 
 
 Yours, 
 
 Charles Stevens. 
 
 to a firm, asking extension of time. 
 
 Georgetown , .S'. C., June 15, 18 — . 
 
 Gentlemen : — I much regret that cir- 
 cumstances prevent my being as punctual 
 
ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 625 
 
 as is my wont, and hope you will kindly 
 renew the acceptance you hold of mine for 
 another three months. The failure of a 
 person largely indebted to me, and some 
 other losses in business, have caused me 
 severe inconvenience, and I really must 
 depend upon your leniency as one means 
 to enable me to recover myself. 
 
 I remain, gentlemen, 
 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 J. H. Blake. 
 
 URGING PAYMENT. 
 
 Georgetown , S. C. f Feb. 15, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — -In consequence of my having a 
 heavy sum to make up by the — th, I must 
 beg you to give immediate attention to my 
 account, which has already run far beyond 
 my usual extent of credit. You have not 
 
 remitted me anything for months, and 
 
 I must really urge greater promptness on 
 your part, as the nature of my business 
 does not allow me to remain out of my 
 capital so long. 
 
 I am, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 Charles H. Powell. 
 
 answer. 
 
 Philadelphia , February 16, 18 — . 
 
 Str: — I am really grieved to have occa- 
 sioned you any inconvenience, but I assure 
 you that the depression of business of late 
 has had a similar effect upon the incomes 
 of professional men, and I have scarcely 
 known which way to turn to extricate my- 
 self from the difficulty. 
 
 If you will kindly wait about three or 
 four weeks longer, I think I can safely 
 
 promise you dollars, and the rest of 
 
 your account within a few months after. 
 
 Again regretting that I cannot at once 
 meet your wishes, 
 
 I remain, 
 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 David Carter. 
 
 declining to lend money. 
 
 Baltimore , March 3, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : — I have always made it 
 
 a principle in life never to borrow or lend 
 money, not even when members of my own 
 family have been concerned. I therefore 
 trust you will excuse conduct which may 
 seem harsh and uncourteous on my part, 
 but which I have ever found to be the 
 safest, and, in the long run, the kindest 
 course for all parties. 
 
 I remain, 
 
 Yours very faithfully, 
 
 John Brown. 
 
 APPLICATION FOR A LOAN ON INSURANCE. 
 
 Boston , June 4, 18-—. 
 
 Gentlemen : — Having been insured in 
 your office for — years to the amount of 
 
 $ , at $ premium, I wish to know 
 
 what sum you would feel disposed to ad- 
 vance me thereupon, as I am anxious to 
 complete a partnership in business for my 
 eldest son. 
 
 The favor of an early communication will 
 oblige, 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 Timothy Bowen. 
 
 To the Managers and Directors of th^ 
 
 Insurance Co. 
 
 AN APPLICATION FOR SHARES IN A BUILD- 
 ING OR OTHER SOCIFTY. 
 
 Union Place , New York , July 12, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — I beg that you will place my name 
 on the list of shareholders in the so- 
 ciety for shares at the rate of , 
 
€26 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 and herewith enclose a check for $ as 
 
 the first installment payable thereupon. 
 
 I am, sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 J. H. Howard. 
 
 To the Secretary of the Society. 
 
 TO TRANSFER SHARES. 
 
 Savannah , November 15, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — In answer to your application 
 
 respecting shares in the , I beg to say 
 
 that I shall be happy to transfer (mention 
 the number) to you, and if you will give 
 your attorney the requisite directions, the 
 necessary forms shall be prepared immedi- 
 ately. I am, sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 C. V. Scofield. 
 
 TO DELAY THE PAYMENT OF A BILL. 
 
 New Street , August 7th, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — Your account, amounting to $ — , 
 ms, indeed, remained some time unsettled, 
 ^)ut disappointments of a pecuniary nature, 
 to which I need not more particularly 
 allude, will prevent my liquidating it for 
 some time to come, perhaps three months, 
 but the payment will not exceed that period. 
 From the pressing language of your appli- 
 cation, I am disposed to think that a pro- 
 missory note for that time may be of ser- 
 vice to you, it being negotiable ; if so, I 
 have no objection to give it, and will be 
 prepared to honor it when duly presented. 
 
 I am, sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 Charles Jones. 
 
 A GENTLEMAN DESIRING THE RENEWAL OF 
 A NOTE. 
 
 New Orleans , Aug. 3 d y 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — My note of hand (or acceptance), 
 will be due on the 28th instant, but I 
 regret to say that, owing to circumstances 
 
 beyond my control, I fear that I shall not 
 be able to meet it. May I therefore request 
 that you will grant me the indulgence of a 
 short renewal of (six weeks), when I doubt 
 not of my means to take it up. Your com- 
 pliance with this wish will confer an obli- 
 gation upon, Sir, 
 
 Your very obedient servant, 
 
 James Madison. 
 
 from a tenant, excusing delay of 
 
 PAYMENT. 
 
 Washington , Jnne 12 th, 18 — . 
 
 Sir: — I have now been your tenant 
 above ten years in the house where I now 
 live, and you know that I never failed to 
 pay my rent quarterly when due. At pres- 
 sent I am extremely sorry to inform you 
 that from a variety of recent disappoint- 
 ments, I am under the necessity of beg- 
 ging that you will indulge me one quarter 
 longer. By that time I hope to have it in 
 my power to answer your just demand, and 
 the favor shall be ever gratefully acknowl- 
 edged by 
 
 Your obedient humble servant, 
 Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 TO A TRADESMAN PROPOSING TO OPEN AN 
 ACCOUNT. 
 
 Louisville , Feb. 7th, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — My friend, Mr. of B 
 
 street, has spoken of you in terms of high 
 recommendation ; so much so, indeed, that 
 having found reason to withdraw my 
 
 orders from , I am disposed to open 
 
 an account with your firm. You will there- 
 fore much oblige me by forwarding a list of 
 prices, together with other necessary par- 
 ticulars as to your manner of doing busi- 
 ness. I am, Sir, 
 
 Yours respectfully, 
 
 Martin Van Buren. 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 627 
 
 TO A PHYSICIAN IN TOWN, ASKING HIS AD- 
 VICE. 
 
 Hudson City, N J, July 7 th, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — For a long time past, I have been 
 suffering in the most distressing manner 
 from a long train of symptoms, which 
 have baffled the skill of all the medical 
 men here, and which, I fear, if not arrested 
 in their progress, will terminate in the total 
 prostration of my strength. Loss of appe- 
 tite, and desire of stimulating and artificial 
 means of sustenance at irregular times, 
 want of healthy sleep, and consequent de- 
 pression on rising in the morning, render 
 life quite a burden to me, and interfere seri- 
 ously with the discharge of my professional 
 duties. I am of a florid complexion, slight- 
 ly corpulent [state description of appearance, 
 habit, whether sedentary or active, etc., pro- 
 fession, and the hours it occupies , early habits, 
 and any other particulars you think may bear 
 upon the matterl) 
 
 My friend Mr. , who has been stay- 
 
 ing here for a few days, speaks in high 
 terms of your treatment of him under sim- 
 ilar circumstances. As far as I can per- 
 ceive, our constitutions, as well as our com- 
 plaints, are very similar, and so satisfied 
 am I of your professional repute, that I 
 would gladly have paid a visit to New York 
 to consult you in person ; various reasons, 
 however, render that impossible, and I 
 therefore hope that you will enter into 
 a correspondence with me on the subject. 
 Meanwhile, I beg to enclose a check for 
 
 — — upon Messrs. , and assure you 
 
 that I shall think the restoration of my 
 
 health more than equivalent for any sum it 
 may cost me. 
 
 I have the honor to remain, sir, 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 To Dr. . Andrew Jackson. 
 
 Or, to , M. D. 
 
 recommending a successor on retiring 
 
 FROM BUSINESS. 
 
 New Orleans, June 3 d, 18 — . 
 
 To Messrs. , , & Co. : 
 
 Gentlemen : — We flatter ourselves that 
 there are many friends amongst our con- 
 nection, who will regret to hear that we are 
 just upon the point of relinquishing busi- 
 ness. In doing so, our premises and stock 
 of goods will be transferred to the hands of 
 
 Messrs. & Co., who will, in future, 
 
 carry on the business on the same approved 
 system, and the same extensive scale as 
 ourselves, provided they can rely on receiv- 
 ing the patronage of our connection ; in 
 the hopes of which, it is our pleasure and 
 duty to present these gentlemen to your 
 notice. We cannot speak too highly of the 
 confidence we feel in their liberal mode of 
 conducting business, and their strict atten- 
 tion and punctuality in their mercantile 
 transactions ; and, in the hope that they 
 may be honored with the same countenance 
 received by ourselves from your respecta- 
 ble firm. 
 
 We beg to subscribe ourselves, 
 
 Your obliged and most 
 
 obedient servants, 
 
 C. H. Beel & Co. 
 
 PARENTAL AND FAMILY LETTERS. 
 
 prom A merchant to the president of long entertained of your character as a' 
 yale college, recommending his scholar and gentleman, encourages me to 
 son. solicit your kind assistance in an affair of 
 
 New York, January 17th, 18 — . very great importance. 
 
 Rev. Sir: — The high opinion I have My son Charles has just completed his 
 
628 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 course of studies at , and is desirous 
 
 of being entered in your college. The 
 variety of business in which I am engaged 
 requires my constant residence in New 
 York, but, being anxious to procure for my 
 dear boy every advantage within my power, 
 I feel that there is no gentleman in New 
 Haven to whose fidelity I could so readily 
 trust him as to yourself. Should you, there- 
 fore, feel disposed to honor my son by ad- 
 mitting him as a member of your college, 
 you will confer a great favor upon, 
 
 Sir, your most obedient servant, 
 
 James B. Reed. 
 
 To the Rev. . 
 
 THE REPLY. 
 
 New Haven, Conn., June iStk, 18 — . 
 
 Dear Sir: — Your favor of the 17th inst. 
 is at hand. I send you by to-day’s mail, a 
 copy of the last annual “ Catalogue of Yale 
 College,” with “requirements for admis- 
 sion” marked. Your son will be expected 
 to pass an examination in each department 
 as given. I will be pleased to be of any 
 service to him that lies in vny power, but 
 you must know that I am very busy at this 
 time with the matters pertaining to com- 
 mencement. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 TC A SCHOOLMASTER. 
 
 Albany, N Y, April i%th, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — I regret that the pressure of busi- 
 ness prevents my accompanying my son 
 
 down to House, as I should gladly 
 
 have had a few minutes’ conversation with 
 you, relative to his studies. At the same 
 time I have such thorough confidence both 
 in your will and capacity to train youth in 
 a manner calculated to render them useful 
 to themselves and others, that I unhesita- 
 tingly entrust my dear boy to your charge, 
 only hoping that he may prove worthy of 
 
 the attention which I feel persuaded he will 
 receive at your hands. 
 
 I have che honor to remain, sir, 
 
 Your very obedient and 
 humble servant, 
 
 To . James Buchanan. 
 
 A GENTLEMAN TO HIS DAUGHTER ON HER 
 PREFERENCE OF A SUITOR, 
 
 Hudson Villa, Dec. 3, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : — What pleasure must 
 
 it give me when I declare that my child- 
 ren’s conduct has ever displayed that 
 dutiful affection which has made their 
 present happiness and future welfare my 
 constant aim 1 To find that they have 
 made a prudent choice in their partners for 
 life, and to see them living in harmony, 
 and in comfortable circumstances, with 
 those partners, have been among my dear- 
 est and most cherished wishes. I suppose 
 I shall occasion you some little emotion 
 
 in mentioning the name of Mr. ; but 
 
 be assured, my dear child, that from my 
 own observation of that gentleman’s char- 
 acter, and from the esteem in which he is 
 generally held, there is scarcely one 
 amongst my acquaintance for whom I have 
 greater respect, and whom I regard, from 
 his worldly position, his integrity, his gen- 
 tlemanly conduct, his prudent and well- 
 known good temper, as being more likely 
 to make a woman happy. I can therefore 
 truly say, that although I shall sorely feel 
 the loss of your dear company, I cannot 
 but approve of the choice you have made ; 
 and in regard to his visits in the character 
 of a suitor, neither I nor your mother will 
 
 offer any obstacle. As you and Mr. 
 
 have preferred addressing me upon this 
 subject by letter, I return my answer in 
 the same form, and am, 
 
 My dear child, 
 
 Your ever affectionate father, 
 
 To . Frank K. Pierce. 
 
ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 629 
 
 A GENTLEMAN TO HIS SON ON THE MAR- 
 RIAGE OF THE LATTER. 
 
 Petersburg , July 1 1 , 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dear : — It is with no small 
 
 pleasure, and with no slight feeling of 
 parental pride, that I now congratulate you 
 upon your recent change of state. That 
 you have my best and heartiest wishes for 
 your future happiness you already know ; 
 but I feel a natural pleasure in again giv- 
 ing them expression. And here I have to 
 add, that no parent could join in those 
 wishes with more fervent sincerity than 
 your dear and kind mother, who desires 
 you to unite with me in the most affection- 
 ate regards to our new relation, our daugh- 
 ter-in-law. That your marriage state may 
 be blessed with the same domestic happi- 
 ness that has fallen to my lot, is the sincere 
 wish of, 
 
 My dear son, 
 
 Y our ever affectionate father, 
 
 To . U. S. Grant. 
 
 AN INVITATION TO A PICNIC PARTY. 
 
 Albany , July 3, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Sir, — We are endeavoring to 
 
 get up a small excursion to visit on 
 
 the — of this month. Will you do us the 
 favor of making one of our number ? Mrs. 
 — — - and my family desire their compli- 
 ments, and request me to mention that they 
 have taken upon themselves the task of 
 providing the “ creature comforts ” for that 
 occasion, and trust that their exertions will 
 meet with unanimous approval. Should 
 you have no previous engagement for that 
 day, and feel disposed to join our party, a 
 carriage will be at your door by — o’clock 
 
 on morning ; and believe me to be, 
 
 My dear sir, 
 
 Yours most sincerely, 
 
 To . John Kelley. 
 
 P. S. — The favor of an early answer will 
 oblige. 
 
 ANOTHER, TO A FATHER OF A FAMILY. 
 
 New York , July — , 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dear Sir : — May I hope that you 
 will allow your boys and girls to join mine 
 
 in an excursion to on the ? We 
 
 expect to make rather a large party, and 
 have therefore made arrangements to dine 
 at . 
 
 In haste, believe me, 
 
 My dear sir, 
 
 Yours ever sincerely, 
 
 To . John Burgh. 
 
 FROM A REDUCED GENTLEMAN, SOLICITING 
 AID. 
 
 Portland , Maine , March 7, 18 — . 
 
 Dear Sir :■= — Though many years have 
 elapsed since we last met, I trust that the 
 
 name 01 is not entirely obliterated 1 . 
 
 from your memory. It is the same -> 
 
 your former friend and intimate companion,, 
 who now addresses you ; but, I lament to> 
 say, sadly changed from the individual you: 
 then knew. My former flow of spirits has 
 gone long since with my prosperity, and 
 with those who once thronged round to 
 flatter me. Sorrow, poverty and the sneers 
 and contempt of an unfeeling world alone 
 remain. This, to a man of your sensibility, 
 must be as painful to read as it is for me to 
 write. It is not my object to practice on 
 your feelings by overwrought language ; 
 but my distresses have increased to that 
 degree, that speak they will in some guise: 
 and, urged on by them, I have stifled mv 
 previous repugnance at disclosing them u 
 you. Without further circumlocution, let 
 me tell you then at once that my state is 
 that of the bitterest poverty— in fact, of 
 destitution ; and I make my appeal to your 
 kindly feelings in the name of that friend- 
 ship which once existed between us. I 
 need but add my address, and subscribe my- 
 self, Your most unfortunate friend, 
 
 John Poor. 
 
630 
 
 ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 Charleston , May 12, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Sir: — I have just received 
 your letter, which I know it must have cost 
 you much pain to write, and which I must 
 have been wanting in all friendly feeling 
 could I have read it unmoved. Most sin- 
 cerely do I sympathize in your present 
 sufferings, and as sincerely do I hope that 
 some unlooked for change of fortune may 
 speedily relieve you from them, and event- 
 ually restore you to comfort and prosperity. 
 As far as my good offices can extend you 
 may readily command them, and as some 
 alleviation to your present necessities, I 
 beg you will accept the enclosed {check or 
 sum of money). Should you wish to see 
 me, and call at my house, you will meet 
 the reception due to an old and respected 
 acquaintance ; and with every hope that 
 your present embarrassments may be but 
 temporary, 
 
 Believe me, 
 
 My dear sir, 
 
 Your ever sincere friend, 
 James Rich. 
 
 warning a young lady against an im- 
 prudent MATCH. 
 
 1 2 King Street , Nov. 6, 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dear Miss : — I have so much 
 
 confidence in your good sense and discre- 
 tion that I trust you will excuse me, as a 
 very old friend, offering a few words of ad- 
 vice to you on a matter which may seri- 
 ously affect the happiness of your whole 
 life. 
 
 You are young, and have been unhappily 
 bereft of paternal care for many years past. 
 Under such circumstances you are exposed 
 to temptations, not only dangerous in them- 
 selves, but the more so in proportion as 
 your innocence of heart renders you open 
 and unsuspecting in your opinion of others. 
 
 Report seems to speak of as your 
 
 accepted lover, or, at all events, as having 
 paid you of late many attentions, which 
 appear to have been favorably received. I 
 
 sincerely hope, my dear Miss , that you 
 
 will not feel offended at one who, from long 
 knowledge, entertains a father’s feeling, 
 almost a father’s anxiety, on your behalf, 
 speaking plainly what he is but too well 
 aware of. 
 
 I have long had my eye upon young 
 
 ’s doings, and I am convinced that, 
 
 without saying anything unduly harsh, he 
 is not calculated to make any wife happy. 
 He is violent and unrestrained in his tem- 
 per, extravagant in his habits, and by no 
 means particular as to the society he keeps. 
 Believe me, my dear child, you never could 
 be happy with such a man. Your life 
 would be one of incessant suffering ; you 
 would find a tyrant to whom you had en- 
 slaved yourself, not a protector and friend 
 on whom your weakness should depend for 
 support ; you would perhaps find yourself 
 neglected and forgotten, when the fleeting 
 charms of youth and beauty had departed* 
 and you would find yourself the victim of a 
 man whose whole object is immediate grat- 
 ification, but whose want of stability and 
 decision of character totally incapacitates 
 him from looking forward to the serious 
 duties of the future. Think well of this, 
 my dear girl, and do not commit yourself 
 by rashly encouraging the advances of a 
 young man of so doubtful a disposition. 
 Reflect upon the happy life your own pa- 
 rents enjoyecf and depend upon it you will 
 find that affection, unaccompanied by es- 
 teem, is no incentive to linking your desti- 
 nies with those of another. 
 
 And now, my dear girl, I ciose this long, 
 and, it may seem tedious lecture, trusting 
 that God may lead you to weigh anxiously 
 and carefully the consequences of so seri- 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 631 
 
 ous a step ; and that your own heart may 
 be your truest and soundest adviser, is the 
 sincere prayer of 
 
 Your affectionate guardian, 
 
 To Miss . W. H. H. Ray. 
 
 A WIDOWER TO HIS DAUGHTER AT SCHOOL. 
 
 Chicago , June 14, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : — Your last letter gave me 
 much pleasure, as it conveyed to me the 
 belief that, although enjoying every com- 
 fort under the care of Miss , you still 
 
 cling with fondness to your home and to 
 your father. Believe me, my dearest child, 
 it was no small trial for me to part with 
 you after my unhappy bereavement, but I 
 felt that parental fondness must not be in- 
 strumental to making a sacrifice of a child’s 
 prospects, and that nothing can excuse a 
 man debarring his children of the necessary 
 advantages of education, in order to gratify 
 the somewhat pardonable desire to see 
 them around his own fireside. I trust, my 
 
 dear girl, that when you return to 
 
 your improvement in all that can elevate 
 the character of a young woman will be 
 ample atonement for the sorrow I feel in 
 your temporary absence from me. Pray 
 write another letter soon, and believe 
 me, 
 
 Your ever affectionate father, 
 
 P. T. Brown. 
 
 A GENTLEMAN SEEKING A TUTOR 
 FOR HIS SON. 
 
 Cincinnati , June 4, 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dear : — Your large acquaint- 
 
 ance among men of education leads me to 
 believe that you could materially assist me 
 in a matter which I have much at heart. My 
 
 son is now of age sufficient to render 
 
 strict attention to his education of import- 
 ance. Wishing, however, to give him due 
 preparation before sending him to a public 
 
 school, I write to ask whether you are ac- 
 quainted with any gentleman who would be 
 willing to undertake the office of private 
 tutor for the next two or three years. 
 
 As I am convinced of the importance of 
 laying a good foundation before we attempt 
 to elevate the superstructure of education, 
 I should gladly offer a liberal remuneration 
 to any gentleman on whose fitness for the 
 office I could thoroughly depend. 
 
 I trust the importance oi the matter will 
 be my best excuse for troubling you with 
 it, and remain, 
 
 My dear , 
 
 Yours ever faithfully, 
 
 To , Esq. J. G. Blaine. 
 
 the answer. 
 
 Jersey City , June 6, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear — — : — I lose no time in re« 
 plying to your letter, as I not only feel 
 complimented by your reliance on my judg- 
 ment, but am fortunately acquainted with 
 a gentleman who is every way likely to suit 
 your views. Mr. is a very old ac- 
 
 quaintance of mine, and has not only taken 
 high classical honors himself, but has been 
 almost uniformly successful with his pupils. 
 Being at present partially disengaged, he 
 would be willing to devote a few hours 
 every day to the instruction of your son ; 
 and, from all I know of his character and 
 attainments, I feel certain that you will 
 have no cause to regret selecting him to an 
 office of such vital importance to your son’s 
 future welfare. 
 
 I enclose Mr. ’s present address, 
 
 and in the sincere hope that your corre- 
 spondence may prove satisfactory to both 
 parties, 
 
 I remain, my dear , 
 
 Yours ever truly, 
 
 To , Esq. John Andrews. 
 
632 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 FROM A TUTOR TO A FORMER PUPIL. 
 
 Pittsburgh , June 29 th, 1 8 — -. 
 
 My Dear : — I sincerely hope this 
 
 brief epistle from an old friend and pre- 
 ceptor will not be thought impertinent. I 
 have known you so long, that I feel as- 
 sured you will receive a few words of 
 counsel from an older head, and that you 
 will believe that whatever my advice be 
 really worth, it is at least dictated in a 
 kindly and straightforward spirit. 
 
 You have entered on a style of life in 
 which the advantages and the temptations 
 follow each other so closely, that it is often 
 difficult to separate the one from the other. 
 Even the talents which procured you your 
 scholarship may become a means of mis- 
 chief if you do not exert severe control 
 over their application and direction. But 
 I know too much of your innate goodness 
 of heart to believe that you will ever allow 
 yourself to be spoilt even by success, and 
 have a happy confidence in your integrity 
 of character, which leads me to think you 
 incapable of anything mean or flippant. 
 
 But, above all, my dear , let me ex- 
 
 hort you never to forget the duty you owe 
 to God, who has bestowed a share of his 
 gifts upon you. We are all of us too apt, 
 amidst the bustle and enterprise of every- 
 day life, to forget Him upon whom our 
 very life utterly depends, and to think only 
 of worldly success, while we lose all 
 thought of the life for which our present 
 existence should be but a preparation. Let 
 
 me express a hope, my dear , that you 
 
 will think goodness preferable to great- 
 ness; that you will study the cultivation of 
 the soul as well as of the mere intellect; 
 that you will recollect how great a virtue 
 is reliance on God, and how noble a self- 
 reliance is the result of such virtue. 
 
 That every honorable success, and every 
 
 consequent happiness, may be the result of 
 your efforts, is the sincere prayer of 
 
 Your old tutor and ever since friend, 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 Nashville, April 4th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Sir : — It is, indeed, delight- 
 ful to receive such a letter from so valuable 
 and tried a friend. I sincerely hope that 
 your example, as well as your conversation, 
 has possessed sufficient influence over my 
 conduct here to enable me to withstand 
 some of the temptations of the place, and 
 to think of duties higher than those which 
 merely result from our ambition or self- 
 satisfaction. I am happy in enjoying the 
 society of young men who have greater 
 belief in conscience than irf mere talent 
 and I trust that, without advocating ex- 
 treme views of any kind, I am living as 
 you would wish me and have taught me to 
 live. 
 
 I look forward with delight to the time 
 when we shall again meet. Meanwhile, 
 believe that no success can ever efface the 
 remembrance of the kind friend and pre- 
 ceptor to whom I owe all. With sincerest 
 wishes for your health, happiness, and long 
 continuance in your exemplary career of 
 usefulness, 
 
 Believe me, my dear sir, 
 
 Your ever affectionate pupil and friend, 
 To the Rev. . . 
 
 FROM A YOUNG MAN OF NEGLECTED EDU- 
 CATION TO AN OLD FRIEND. 
 
 Charleston , 4 th February , 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — Since my appointment to the 
 office of clerk in Messrs. ’s establish- 
 
 ment, through your kind interest, I have 
 felt very anxious as to my present imper- 
 fect education. Circumstances, with which 
 you are well acquainted, rendered my early 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 633 
 
 means of instruction very limited, and I 
 now feel that it is high time to remedy my 
 deficiences. Enjoying, as I now do, an 
 income sufficient to support me in respect- 
 ability, I still feel unhappy in the con- 
 sciousness of my deficiency of that general 
 knowledge which renders a man fit for the 
 society around him. May I solicit your 
 advice as to the best course of reading and 
 instruction likely to remedy this evil ? I 
 feel not only the desire, but the will, to 
 learn, and humbly trust that, with your 
 long experience of the world, and your 
 knowledge of what is, in these times, re- 
 quired of every man, I may derive no small 
 benefit from your advice. 
 
 Hoping that you will excuse my trou- 
 bling one to whom I am already so much 
 indebted, 
 
 Believe me, sir, 
 
 Your obliged and faithful servant, 
 
 To Esq. Geo. W. Pollard. 
 
 FROM A GENTLEMAN TO HIS SON OR 
 DAUGHTER AT SCHOOL. 
 
 Boston , yuly \*]th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : — Though I have so 
 
 long been silent, you have not been absent 
 from my remembrance, and I should have 
 written to you before, had I not waited for 
 some intelligence which would have ren- 
 dered my letter more acceptable. Noth- 
 ing, however, of any particular importance 
 has transpired, and I have, therefore, only 
 to inform you that your mother, myself, 
 and your brothers and sisters remain as 
 well as when I last wrote. My knowledge 
 of your usual good behavior and attention 
 to your duties, renders any fresh advice in 
 regard to your conduct unnecessary. I 
 leave you, my dear child, to the guidance 
 of your own good sense, and the guardian 
 
 care of Mr. or Mrs. , to whom myself 
 
 and your mother desire to be remembered, 
 with our compliments to . Believe 
 
 me, with the best wishes of myself and 
 your dear mother for your health and hap^ 
 piness, 
 
 Your ever affectionate father, 
 
 To . J. H. Bellow. 
 
 a father’s letter to his son, con- 
 taining PARENTAL ADVICE. 
 
 Hartford , Conn., yune 15, 1882. 
 
 My Dear Boy : — In your last letter, I 
 found that which gave me pleasure as well 
 as pain. I am glad that you are well and 
 progressing so well in your studies, but 
 sorry to have you ask for more money. 
 The allowance I gave you ought to be suf- 
 ficient for all purposes, especially as I pay 
 all the necessary expenditures of your edu- 
 cation. You must remember that I have 
 other members of the family for whom I 
 must make provision. 
 
 You must learn the virtue of economy, 
 and practice retrenchment in all your ex- 
 penditures. I will, however, for this time 
 only, send you a small amount, hoping that 
 you will use it with discretion. Do not 
 borrow money of any one, nor get in debt 
 for anything. 
 
 We shall remove to 112 Elm street, to 
 which you direct your next letter. All the 
 family wish to be remembered to you. 
 
 Believe me, your affectionate father, 
 
 C. H. Buck. 
 
 A WIDOWER TO HIS DAUGHTER AT SCHOOL. 
 
 Springfield , Mass ., May 10, 1882. 
 My Darling Child : — 
 
 Your last affectionate letter was, indeed, 
 a comfort to me. You cannot know how 
 much I miss you. I would have been 
 selfish enough, I fear, to have kept you 
 with me at home, had not your kind aunt 
 advised me that your interests and pros- 
 pects would be better subserved by send- 
 ing you to Mount Holyoke. The great 
 void which has come into our home can 
 
634 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 never be relieved, and I am truly desolate. 
 Your aunt does all in her power to make 
 my home happy and bright, but I miss your 
 pleasant greeting. Do not, my child, allow 
 the sorrow we both must feel to weigh too 
 heavily upon your spirits. Follow the ex- 
 ample of your dear mother, and may you 
 become such a model woman as she. 
 When time may have lessened the sorrow 
 of your father, you may be happy with him 
 in the home upon which you will ever have 
 the strongest claim. 
 
 Write often and at length. 
 
 Your affectionate father, 
 
 John P. Jones. 
 
 A FATHER TO HIS SON, ABOUT COMMENCING 
 LIFE. 
 
 Waterbury, Conn. y May 30, 1882. 
 My Dearest Son : — 
 
 Your are about to leave the home of your 
 boyhood, to try the world for yourself, and 
 you will pardon your father for giving you 
 a word of advice, based upon the experi- 
 ence of years. There will come times 
 when you will feel the necessity of having 
 the immediate advice of some friend in 
 whom you can trust. 
 
 Let me warn you, then, to seek the soci- 
 ety only of those whom the community at 
 large respect. Avoid forming friendships 
 with the so styled fast young men whose 
 highest ambition is to make a display ot 
 recklessness and gratify their own selfish- 
 ness. Make judicious friendships and few 
 intimacies. If you are tempted to a wrong 
 action, as you may be, ask, “Would I do 
 this at home where I am well known ?” or, 
 “Would I willingly have it known at 
 home ?” and the truthful answer should be 
 your guide to do or not to do it. 
 
 We have high hopes of you, my son, and 
 follow you with our prayers. 
 
 Your father, Charles W. Taylor. 
 
 TO A FATHER FROM A SON WHO HAS MIS 
 USED HIS EMPLOYER. 
 
 Wallingford , Conn., May 20, 1882. 
 
 Dear Father : — I hardly know how to 
 begin this letter, for I am in trouble caused 
 by my own misconduct. I have left the 
 place you found for me, without any provo- 
 cation, in the most busy season, just for a 
 little foolish amusement. I forgot my duty 
 to him — the best of employers — and to you 
 as well, and ran away for two whole days, 
 till I am ashamed to return and tell the 
 truth. You know I cannot deceive him. 
 He cannot accuse me of dishonesty, so I 
 hope that he will be lenient with me= Will 
 you see him and explain all and. if he will 
 allow me to return I will do my best to 
 please him ^nd serve Tim faithfully in fu* 
 ture. Write me soon, and believe me, 
 
 Y our repentant son, 
 
 Charles 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 East Haven, Conn., May 2 $d, 1882. 
 
 My Dear Son : — I am grieved at your 
 indiscretion, and cannot attribute it to any 
 lack on my part in giving you good advice, 
 and proper training. While I am sorry 
 that you have so quickly forgotten these I 
 trust that you have not fallen into bad com- 
 pany or bad personal habits. I went to 
 New Haven and saw your employer to-day, 
 and he was glad to hear that you were sor- 
 ry, and said that he thought that you were 
 influenced by others against your better 
 judgment. If you will return at once he 
 will reinstate you in your old position 
 which is still vacant. Let this experience 
 be a lesson and a warning to you, my son. 
 Shun even the appearance of evil. 
 
 Your fond father, 
 
 James Lincoln, 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 635 
 
 FROM A FATHER TO HIS SON AT SCHOOL. 
 
 dddamfic/en, ^an. J 23 , /<¥$/. 
 
 ^ : Od'i it m?f e/atcf to ae/oide ^oa to 
 
 made tde atmodt o^ tde o^ioltanitted vfoa note dane, dfoa 
 cannot tedd teitd todat anauettp (2d dave dent ?foa oat J^iom 
 dome to ac^aite an ee/acatcon . Q> ^ ^ oa tooadc/ deeome a 
 
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 done J/t dtac/^ ^ot itd oa/n dade. /d/f)o not dajjj/et a natata/ 
 
 done o^ eade ant/ comj/ott to dcno/er ^ oa on ^oal 'tea d toot'd: 
 /d/d/ememdet tdat tde daditd o^ nunc/ ano/ c^ doo/f eonttactec/ tn 
 ^oatd deeome conjdtmee/ on a^lel ^eaod. eradication at 
 
 ^ildt deemd c/cj^/ca/t, dene/ ^oat enet^aed at once , ane/ doon it 
 widd de a 'lead jft dead ate to ^ oa . dd/dde amditioad to daeceec/ dtp 
 
 metit adone, a?ic/ de date tdat daeeedd cnidd attend tdode todo 
 ^letdeoete. dfoa dane a j/ail ddate o^ tadentd , dat toidd e/oadt- 
 dedd meet toitd otdetd todoj at^itdf di^df ma^ de mote drid/bant; 
 c/o not on tdat aecoant de e/idcoata^ee/. (<r (///de dattde id not 
 to tde dioij/t” dat to tde ^lattentj tde enet^etie^ tde ^letdeoetcn^. 
 
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 ane/ tememdet tdat de adtoand dad neat dedt entetedtd at dealt* 
 
 *oat affectionate fatnel; 
 
 ^bdn dd. dd/d/eacd. 
 
636 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 student’s ANSWER TO REQUEST OF PRIN- 
 CIPAL. 
 
 Mr. R. C. Loveridge. 
 
 Dear Sir : — I am sure that I have ac- 
 quired very much which will be of inesti- 
 mable value in after life, and I am well 
 pleased with your College. 
 
 Your arrangements for teaching book- 
 keeping are very complete, and I think that 
 
 any young man who has any ambition may 
 profit greatly in pursuing the course you 
 have laid out. 
 
 I should be very much pleased if I could 
 improve my penmanship, although this 
 branch seems to be more difficult for me to 
 acquire than any other. 
 
 Very respectfully yours, 
 
 L. B. Pawe. 
 
 LETTERS OF AFFECTION AND LOVE. 
 
 TO AN ACQUAINTANCE OF LONG STAND- 
 ING. 
 
 Charleston , October i$tk, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Miss : — I have so long 
 
 enjoyed the happiness of being received as 
 a welcome guest at your respected parent’s 
 house, that I write with the more confi- 
 dence on a subject of most serious impor- 
 tance to my welfare. 
 
 From constantly meeting with you, and 
 observing the thousand acts of amiability 
 and kindness which adorn your daily life, I 
 have gradually associated my hopes of fu- 
 ture happiness with the chance of possess- 
 ing you as their sharer. Believe me, dear 
 
 Miss , this is no outbreak of boyish 
 
 passion, but the hearty and healthy result 
 of a long and affectionate study of your dis- 
 position. It is love, founded on esteem ; 
 and I feel persuaded that your knowledge 
 of my own character will lead you to trace 
 my motives to their right source. 
 
 May I, then, implore you to consult 
 your own heart, and should I not have 
 been mistaken in the happy belief that my 
 feelings are in some measure reciprocated, 
 to grant me permission to mention the 
 matter to your parents. 
 
 Believe me, dear Miss , 
 
 Your ever sincere, but at 
 
 present anxious friend, 
 Adolphus Fitzroy. 
 
 ON RECEIVING A FAVORABLE ANSWER. 
 
 Charleston , October 16th , 18 — . 
 
 Dearest Miss {or use Christian name )'. — - 
 Words cannot express my delight on find- 
 ing your note on my table last night. The 
 toils of the day were over, but how delight- 
 ful was it to find a letter — and such a letter ! 
 — from one whom I may now hope to hail 
 as the companion of my whole future life ! 
 The weight taken off my mind by the can- 
 did and gentle confession of one whose 
 love seemed too great a happiness to hope 
 for is beyond description. To-morrow I 
 shall hasten to the presence of her from 
 whom I hope I may never henceforth be 
 parted ; but I could not retire to rest with- 
 out making one feeble attempt to express 
 my delight at finding that hopes so flatter- 
 ing have not been in vain. 
 
 Believe me, dearest. 
 
 Your devoted and happy lover, 
 
 Adolph. 
 
 TO A WIDOW FROM A WIDOWER. 
 
 Union Square , Nov. 14th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Madam : — I am emboldened 
 to lay open to you the present state of my 
 feelings, being so convinced of your good 
 sense and amiable disposition, that I feel 
 assured you will deal candidly with me in 
 your reply. 
 
 Like yourself, I have been deprived of 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 the partner of my earlier life, and, as I ap- 
 proach the middle state of existence, I feel 
 more and more the want of some kindred 
 spirit to share with me whatever years are 
 reserved to me by Providence. My fortune 
 is such as to enable me to support a lady 
 in the manner which T feel to be due to 
 your accomplishments and position, and I 
 sincerely hope that you will think carefully 
 over my proposal ; and, if you can make up 
 your mind to share my fortune and affec- 
 tions, I trust that no efforts will be wanting 
 on my part to insure you the happiness 
 /ou so well deserve. 
 
 I need scarcely say, that an early answer, 
 on a matter so much connected with my 
 future happiness, will be a great favor to, 
 My dear madam, 
 
 Your devoted friend and admirer, 
 
 Chales W. Brown. 
 
 to the father of a lady. 
 
 Montreal, J an. 12 th, 18 — . 
 
 Respected Sir : — I venture to hope that 
 you will call all your friendly feelings to 
 my assistance, in considering a proposal I 
 am about to lay before you, in which my 
 happiness is much concerned. 
 
 For a long time past your daughter 
 
 has held a strong hold over my affections, 
 and I have reason to believe that I am not 
 indifferent to her. My position is such as 
 to warrant my belief that I could support 
 her in the style of comfort which she so 
 well deserves, and which it has been your 
 constant aim to provide for your children. 
 As regards my character and disposition, I 
 trust that they are sufficiently well known 
 to you to give you confidence in the pros- 
 pect of your child’s happiness. 
 
 I have not, however, ventured on any 
 express declaration of my feelings, without 
 first consulting you on the subject, as I feel 
 persuaded that the straightforward course 
 
 65? 
 
 is always the best, and that a parent’s sanc< 
 tion will never be wanting, when the cir- 
 cumstances of the case justify its being 
 accorded. 
 
 Anxiously awaiting the result of your 
 consideration on this important and inter- 
 esting subject, 
 
 I remain, sir, 
 
 Your most faithful and 
 
 obedient servant, 
 
 Peter Noble. 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 Quebec , Jan. 14 th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : — I thank you very 
 
 much for the manly and honorable way in 
 which you have addressed me in reference 
 to my daughter’s hand. I have long since 
 perceived that your actions to her were of 
 a marked character, and that they appear- 
 ed to give her much pleasure. I know no 
 reason whatever to oppose your wishes, 
 and, if I may judge from the manner in 
 which she received the communication 
 from myself, you will find a by no means 
 unwilling listener. 
 
 Dine with us to-morrow at , if you 
 
 are not engaged, and you will then have an 
 opportunity of pleading your own cause. 
 Meanwhile, believe me, with every confi- 
 dence in your integrity and good feeling. 
 
 Yours, most sincerely, 
 
 Stephen Rose. 
 
 UNFAVORABLE, ON ACCOUNT OF A PRE-' 
 
 ENGAGEMENT. 
 
 Hoboken , N J, April 4th. 
 
 Dear Sir : — It is always painful to return 
 an unfavorable answer, but such is unfor- 
 tunately my task on the present occasion. 
 
 My daughter has for a long time been 
 engaged to a gentleman whose character 
 and position give her no cause to regret the 
 tie. At the same time she duly appreci- 
 
638 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE, 
 
 ates the compliment implied by your pre- 
 ference, and unites with me in the sincere 
 wish that as an esteemed friend, you may 
 meet with a companion in every way calcu- 
 lated to insure your happiness. 
 
 Believe me, 
 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 Your sincere friend, 
 
 J. H. Mints. 
 
 TO A YOUNG LADY TO WHOM ONE IS 
 ENGAGED. 
 
 Charleston , Oct. 1 5 th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Fanny : — If there is one thing 
 which can console me for my unavoidable 
 absence from your side<, it is the pleasure 
 of being able to pen a few lines to express, 
 however feebly, my continued and increas- 
 ing affection for you. It is, indeed, a pain- 
 ful and irksome change from our rambles 
 about the fields, our evening duets, and our 
 stolen conversations, to a dull routine of 
 mercantile accounts and the never-failing 
 confusion of business. Happily, however, 
 my affairs are in a rapid state of settlement, 
 and I shall soon hope once more to bask in 
 the sunshine of my Fanny’s sweet counte- 
 nance, and to feed my imagination with 
 thoughts of the happiness which her placid 
 and sincere disposition will hereafter shed 
 around a home ! I need hardly say how 
 eagerly I watch for the post, and how I 
 cherish every line that bears the evidence 
 of my dear girl’s affection, and how grate- 
 fully every sentiment that flows from her 
 pen is treasured in my memory. 
 
 God bless you, dearest Fann), and be- 
 lieve me, with most respectful and affec- 
 tionate remembrances to your parents, and 
 all friends. 
 
 Your ever affectionate 
 
 and devoted 
 
 Henry. 
 
 TO JULIA, ON HER BIRTHDAY. 
 
 New York, Feb. i$tk, 18—. 
 
 Dearest Julia : — How sad it is that I 
 am hindered from being with you on this 
 dearest of all days of the year — the day 
 that gave my Julia to the light, and that 
 laid the foundation of the greatest happi- 
 ness of my life. 
 
 Words cannot express the deep gratitude 
 I feel to that Power, which, in granting 
 you life, has at the same time, year after 
 year, ripened those graces of the soul, as 
 well as developed the outward perfections 
 of the body. As I see you, the companion 
 of my childish pains and pleasures, expand- 
 ing into the woman who is to share both with 
 me throughout my future lot, I feel almost 
 surprised as to how I have deserved such 
 happiness, and gratitude beyond expression 
 to the kind parents who have encouraged 
 and approved our affection. 
 
 Accept, dearest, the enclosed portrait. 
 I feel that its original is too deeply stamped 
 on your heart to require any photograph. 
 
 Yours, as devotedly as ever, 
 
 John. 
 
 TO AN EARLY COMPANION AND PLAYMATE. 
 
 Cincinnati , July 6th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Emma : — Fori can only think 
 of you, woman as you are, as the “little 
 Emmy” of the many happy days of child- 
 hood we have spent together. Can you 
 make up your mind to listen to a very 
 awful confession ? In plain words, I love 
 you as heartily now as ever, and, if I may 
 judge from our last night’s meeting, after 
 so long a separation, you have not quite 
 lost the remembrance of your old playfel- 
 low. But, joking apart, Time has done 
 much for both of us ; for you, in making 
 you all that can be desired by man, as the 
 object of his love and trust * for me, in en- 
 abling me to provide a home for her who 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 639 
 
 has ever been dearest to me, and whose 
 image has never faded from my memory 
 amidst the varied exertions of a preliminary 
 professional career. 
 
 And now, my dear Emmy, think well 
 whether you can transfer that affection as 
 a woman, which, in your girlhood, was my 
 
 chiefest delight. We shall meet on 
 
 at ’s, and then, perhaps, my heart 
 
 may be gladdened by the belief that “there 
 is something in first loves.” 
 
 Eagerly awaiting our meeting, 
 
 Believe me, 
 
 Your affectionate old playmate 
 
 and new lover, 
 Chas P. Thompson. 
 
 EXPLAINING AWAY AN APPARENT SLIGHT. 
 
 August 5 th y 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dearest : How grieved am I 
 
 that you should think me capable of waver- 
 ing in my affection towards you, and inflict- 
 ing a slight upon one, in whom my whole 
 hopes of happiness are centered ! Believe 
 
 me, my attentions to Miss were never 
 
 intended for anything more than common 
 courtesy. My long acquaintance with her 
 father, and my knowledge of her amiable 
 character, as well as the circumstances of 
 her being a comparative stranger to the 
 ’s, such were my sole reasons for pay- 
 ing more attention to her than I might 
 otherwise have done. 
 
 Pray rest confident in the belief that my 
 affection for you is as unchanging as my 
 regret is great that I should ever have 
 given you cause to doubt it, and believe 
 me, Dearest , 
 
 Yours ever sincely and 
 
 devotedly, 
 
 Charlie. 
 
 FROM ONE YOUNG MAN TO ANOTHER IN 
 REFERENCE TO AN ATTACHMENT. 
 
 Jersey City , June 3 d> 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : — You will laugh at me, 
 
 with some reason, when I tell you that all 
 my old skepticism about matrimonial hap- 
 piness is at an end. I have met with a 
 young lady who, I believe, would convert 
 even you to a belief that marriage may be 
 a very happy state, and that bachelors are 
 only miserable wretches after all. 
 
 In brief, I am the engaged and accepted 
 suitor of Miss , whose you re- 
 member at . Words can scarcely suf- 
 
 fice to express how great has been the en- 
 joyment I have hitherto derived from her 
 society, and the more I see of her amiable 
 character and high accomplishments, the 
 more certain do I feel that the day which 
 first made known to me her consent to 
 share my fortunes, will prove one of the 
 happiest in my whole existence. 
 
 You may think this a very wild effusion, 
 and one strangely at variance with my 
 former avowed callousness on the score of 
 domestic life, but, believe me, you will soon 
 be a convert when you see my dear Louisa. 
 
 Wishing that you may prove as fortunate 
 in the selection of a partner as I have at 
 present reason to believe I myself am, 
 Believe me, 
 
 My dear , 
 
 Ever yours, 
 
 M. T. Vogle. 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 F hiladelphia, Jan. 6 th , 18 — . 
 
 Dear Old Fellow : And so you real- 
 
 ly are to be a Benedict ! Well ! I have no 
 objection, provided you feel convinced that 
 it is a measure likely to tend to your hap- 
 piness. For myself, I am still a bachelor, 
 although I do not know what such tempta- 
 
640 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 tion as you appear to have undergone might 
 not do towards upsetting my present reso- 
 lutions. You know I have no antipathy to 
 matrimony : but, unlike yonrself, I have 
 not independent means sufficient to render 
 me fearless of consequences, and should 
 not be disposed to involve any woman, 
 whom I could like sufficiently to make my 
 wife, in a doubtful state of circumstances, 
 if not in a discomfort which must be pain- 
 ful to a man of proper feeling and honor. 
 At the same time, believe me, I cordially 
 sympathize with your delight at the pros 
 pect of an agreeable union, and wish sin- 
 cerely that every happiness may be the 
 result. 
 
 Ever truly yours, 
 
 H. W. Norton. 
 
 FROM A YOUNG MAN AVOWING A PASSION. 
 
 New York , Feb. 13, 18 — . 
 
 Dear Miss : — It is with no small 
 
 degree of apprehension, as to the manner 
 in which you may receive the following 
 avowal, that I take up my pen to address 
 you ; but I have so long struggled with my 
 feelings that they have now got the better 
 of my irresolution ; and throwing aside all 
 hesitation, I have ventured, although 
 alarmed at my own boldness in doing so, 
 to lay open my whole heart before you. 
 For months past I have been oppressed 
 with a passion that has entirely superseded 
 every other feeling of my heart — that pas- 
 sion is love — and you — you alone are the 
 object of it. In vain have I endeavored to 
 drive the idea from my mind, by every art 
 that I could possibly think of ; in vain have 
 I sought out every amusement that might 
 have a tendency to relieve my mind from 
 the bias which it has taken, but love has 
 taken that firm hold of my whole soul, that 
 I am unable to entertain but one idea, one 
 thought, one feeling, and that is always 
 
 yourself. I neglect myself, my business, 
 and can neither hear nor see any one thing 
 —but you bear the chief part therein. Be- 
 lieve me, I am sincere, when I assert that 
 I feel it totally impossible to live apart 
 from you — when near you, I am in para- 
 dise — when absent, I feel in torture ; this, 
 I solemnly assure you, is a true description 
 of the feelings with which my breast is 
 continually agitated, and it remains only 
 for you to give a reality to those hopes, or 
 at once to crush them, by a single word ; 
 say but that word, and I am the happiest 
 or the most miserable of mankind. 
 
 Yours, till death, 
 
 Charles Coan. 
 
 TO A LADY. 
 
 Trenton , N J, July 3, 18 — . 
 
 Dear Madam : — I have been so har- 
 assed with love, doubt, distraction, and a 
 thousand other wild and nameless feelings, 
 since I had the happiness of being in your 
 company, that I have been unable to form 
 one sane reflection, or to separate events 
 from the feelings that accompanied them 
 —in fact, I have been totally unable to 
 bring my thoughts into anything like regu- 
 larity, for they are so entirely mixed up 
 with the idea of yourself that the business 
 of the world and the pursuits of amusement 
 and pleasure have been entirely forgotten 
 in the one passion that holds undivided 
 empire over my soul. I have deferred from 
 day to day penning this confession to you, 
 in order that I might have been enabled to 
 have done so with some degree of ease and 
 calmness ; but the hope has proved fruit- 
 less. I can resist no longer, for to keep 
 silent on a subject which is interwoven 
 with my very existence would be death to 
 me. No, I am unable to do so, and I have 
 therefore determined to lay open to you 
 the sufferings of my heart, and to implore 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 G41 
 
 from you a restoration of that peace and 
 happiness which once were mine. You, 
 
 my dear Miss , are alone the cause of 
 
 my unhappiness, and to you alone can I 
 look for a relief from the wretchedness that 
 has overwhelmed me. The fervent passion 
 that devours my soul for your adorable 
 self can only be allayed by the declaration 
 that I am loved as fervently in return. 
 But dare I ask so much purity, so much 
 sweetness, mildness and modesty to make 
 such a declaration ? I know not what I 
 say — but O ! my dear Miss , be mer- 
 
 ciful, and if you cannot love me, say, at 
 least, that you do not hate me. Never 
 could I survive the idea of being hateful to 
 that angelic being whose love I prize more 
 than existence itself. Let me then cling 
 to the idea that time may accomplish that 
 which, I fain hope, a first impression has 
 done presuming, unless a fatal pre-engage- 
 ment exists (a thing I dare not trust my- 
 self to think of), that you will comply with 
 my request, seeing that my designs are 
 perfectly sincere and honorable. I remain, 
 waiting with the utmost impatience for 
 your favorable reply. 
 
 Dear Miss , 
 
 Yours till death, 
 
 G. H. Godney. 
 
 FROM A LOVER TO A FATHER, ON HIS AT- 
 TACHMENT TO THE DAUGHTER. 
 
 April 2, 1 8 — . 
 
 Sir : — As I scorn to act in any manner 
 that may bring reproach upon myself and 
 family, and hold clandestine proceedings 
 unbecoming in any man of character, I 
 take the liberty of distinctly avowing my 
 love for your daughter, and humbly request 
 your permission to pay her my addresses, 
 as I flatter myself my family and expectan- 
 cies will be found not unworthy of your 
 notice. I have some reason to imagine 
 
 that I am not altogether disagteeable to 
 your daughter ; but I assure you honestly, 
 that I have not as yet endeavored to win 
 her affections, for fear it might be repugn 
 nant to a father’s will. 
 
 I am, sir, 
 
 Your most obedient servant, 
 
 Charles Wilcox. 
 
 THE FATHER’S ANSWER IN THE NEGATIVE. 
 
 Harrisburg , Pa. y April 3, 18 — . 
 
 Sir : — I make no doubt of the truth of 
 your assertions relative to yourself, charac- 
 ter and connections, but as I think my 
 daughter too young to enter into such a 
 serious engagement, I request I may hear 
 no more of your passion for the present 
 In every other respect, 
 
 I am, sir, 
 
 Y our most obedient, 
 Frank H. Hall. 
 
 IN THE AFFIRMATIVE. 
 
 Sir : — There is so much candor and 
 honor apparent in your letter, that to with- 
 hold my consent would be both ungener- 
 ous and unjust. As the duty of a father 
 demands, I shall first make some necessary 
 inquiries, assuring you that I would never 
 oppose my daughter’s choice, except I had 
 some very just reason to imagine it would 
 be productive of ill consequences, for I am 
 convinced that, in the marriage state, hap- 
 piness consists only in reciprocal affection. 
 You may therefore depend upon hearing 
 from me in a few days ; till then I remain, 
 Your very faithful servant, 
 
 Seymour Smith. 
 
 A GENTLEMAN DESIROUS OF DISCONTINU- 
 ING HIS ADDRESSES. 
 
 Long Branch y June 5, 18 — . 
 
 Dear : — Whatever may be your 
 
 future lot in life, and whatever change mav 
 
642 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 take place in your circumstances, of this be 
 assured, if put to the test, in me you will 
 find a steadfast friend, and one ever ready 
 to protect your interests. I make this 
 avowal from a deep feeling of respect, which 
 long experience of your worth has im- 
 planted within me, but in doing so (and, 
 believe me, it is a declaration that causes 
 me inexpressible pain to utter), I have also 
 to make another avowal, for which I appre- 
 hend you are little prepared, and which I 
 fear may give some shock to your feelings. 
 
 My dear , with pain I utter it — I must 
 
 resign all hopes of our future union. Ask 
 me not wherefore ; my answer would inflict 
 an additional pang in the breasts of both. 
 This is no hasty resolve ; I have deliber- 
 ately weighed it, and know it to be essen- 
 tial to our mutual happiness and welfare. 
 Whatever letters I may have of yours I will 
 dispose of as you think fit ; and, if you pre- 
 fer it, will enclose them to you under seal ; 
 entreating, however, that you will grant me 
 the indulgence of being allowed to keep 
 only one, as a memorial of the past ; and 
 with this request, I bid you a painful but 
 affectionate adieu, and entreat you will be- 
 lieve me, 
 
 Ever yours sincerely, 
 
 Henry Jones. 
 
 FROM A YOUNG MAN TO HIS SWEETHEART. 
 
 California , Jan . 13, 18 — . 
 
 My Dearest : — At length, by the 
 
 blessing of Providence, I am able to reclaim 
 my promise and claim you as the partner 
 of my joys and sorrows for life. 
 
 I trust, from your constant affection 
 when we both saw nothing but want and 
 distress before us^ that the news of my 
 prosperity will be most acceptable to you. 
 Never can I be sufficiently thankful to Mrs. 
 Chisholm for the help her kindness pro- 
 cured me, but I shall feel far, far more 
 
 grateful when I welcome my dearest ■ - 
 
 to a home on this side of the wide ocean. 
 
 I send you , which will be amply 
 
 enough for your outfit, and , which 
 
 pray give to your mother with my most 
 affectionate duty, and tell her that, however 
 far removed from her presence, neither you 
 nor myself will ever forget that, now we 
 have the power, it is our bounden duty to 
 assist and cherish her declining years. 
 
 I also send some little presents, chiefly 
 of the produce of the country, as tokens of 
 
 friendship to ( mention the najnes). 
 
 And now, with kindest love to all, and with 
 heartfelt wishes for your safe voyage and 
 speedy arrival, believe me, 
 
 Dearest , 
 
 Your affectionate and impatient, 
 
 A. H. Hamlin. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON TO JOHN ADAMS, ON 
 THE DEATH OF MRS. ADAMS. 
 
 Monticello , Nov. 13, 1818. 
 
 The public papers, my dear friend, an- 
 nounce the fatal event of which your letter 
 of October the 20th had given me ominous 
 foreboding. Tried, myself, in the school 
 of affliction, by the loss of every form of 
 connection which can rive the human 
 heart, I know well and feel what you have 
 lost, what you have suffered, are suffering, 
 and have yet to endure. The same trials 
 have taught me that for ills so immeasur- 
 able, time and silence are the only medi- 
 cine. I will not, therefore, by useless con- 
 dolence, open* afresh the sluices of your 
 grief, nor, although mingling sincerely my' 
 tears with yours, will I say a word more 
 where words are vain, but it is of some 
 comfort to us both that the time is not very 
 distant at which we are to deposit in the 
 same cerement our sorrows and suffering 
 bodies, and to ascend in essence to an 
 ecstatic meeting with the friends we have 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 643 
 
 loved and lost, and whom we shall still love • 
 and never lose again. God bless you and 
 support you under your heavy affliction. 
 
 Th. Jefferson 
 
 LA FAYETTE TO JEFFERSON, ANNOUNCING 
 THE DEATH OF MADAME LA FAYETTE. 
 
 Anteuily Feb. n, 1808. 
 
 My Dear Friend : — The constant 
 mourning of your heart will be deepened 
 by the grief I am doomed to impart to you. 
 Who better than you can sympathize for 
 the loss of a beloved wife ? The angel 
 who for thirty-four years has blessed my 
 life, was to you an affectionate, grateful 
 friend. Pity me, my dear Jefferson, and 
 believe me, forever, with all my heart, 
 Yours, 
 
 La Fayette. 
 
 , ON the death of a wife. 
 
 New Haveny Conn ., April 25, 1882. 
 
 My Dear Friend : 
 
 Allow me to express my heartiest sym- 
 pathy in your recent bereavement. I well 
 know that all words must be hollow and 
 almost meaningless to one over whom the 
 
 wave of such a sorrow has swept ; yet I 
 cannot forbear the mournful pleasure of 
 expressing to you the feelings of my own 
 heart. 
 
 Your wife was a true Christian woman, 
 and that expression embraces all that is 
 noble and lovely in character and life. 
 That she adorned such a character with 
 the graces of patience and meekness to a 
 remarkable degree. Her charities were 
 without display. Her constant cheerful- 
 ness was like the sunlight to your home. 
 Her devotion to family and friends, her 
 charms of person and adornments of mien, 
 won the esteem of all, and the admiration 
 of her chosen friends. I give you my 
 fullest assurance of sympathy, knowing too 
 well that there is a sanctity in your grief 
 into which not even the closest friendship 
 should enter. May the comfort of Him 
 who has promised to be with us in trouble, 
 be yours. I shall be most happy to re- 
 ceive a visit from you at your convenience. 
 
 I am, as ever, 
 
 Your friend, 
 
 Joshua H. Brown. 
 
 LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION. 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON TO GENERAL WASHING- 
 TON, UPON HIS RETURN FROM ABROAD, 
 AND SUCCESS AT YORKTOWN. 
 
 Monticelhy Oct. 28, 1781. 
 Sir : — I hope it will not be unacceptable 
 x j your Excellency to receive the congrat- 
 ulations of a private individual on your re- 
 turn to your native country, and, above all 
 things, on the important success which 
 has attended it. Great as this has been, 
 however, it can scarcely add to the affec- 
 tion with which we have looked up to you. 
 And if, in the minds of any, the motives of 
 gratitude to our good allies were not suffi- 
 
 ciently apparent, the part they have borne 
 in this action must amply convince them. 
 Notwithstanding the state of perpetual 
 solicitude to which I am unfortunately re- 
 duced, I should certainly have done my- 
 self the honor of paying my respects to you 
 personally ; but I apprehend that these 
 visits, which are meant by us as marks of 
 our attachment to you, must interfere with 
 the regulations of a camp, and be particu- 
 larly inconvenient to one whose time is too 
 precious to be wasted in ceremony. I beg 
 you to believe me among the sincerest of 
 those who subscribe themselves your Ex- 
 
644 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 cellency’s most obedient and most humble 
 servant, Th. Jefferson. 
 
 A FORMAL LETTER OF CONGRATULATION. 
 
 Mr. and Mrs. Stevenson desire to offer to 
 Mr. and Mrs. Thompson their sincere con- 
 gratulations on the convalescense of Miss 
 Nellie, and to express the wish that she 
 may very speedily regain her usual health. 
 
 1234 State street. 
 
 April 29, 1882. 
 
 ON THE ELECTION OF A FRIEND TO CON- 
 GRESS. 
 
 Meriden , Conn., Nov. 15,1882. 
 
 I give you the hearty congratulations of 
 a friend upon your triumphant election. 
 There is glory enough for one day. This 
 congressional district has done itself honor, 
 and I am not surprised at the majority we 
 roiled up. I knew that you deserved elec- 
 tion, and believe the result is both an en- 
 dorsement of your personal merits as well 
 as the principles you uphold. Your con- 
 stituents can safely intrust their interests 
 in your hands, and be sure that you will 
 serve them with fidelity. 
 
 I am ever, 
 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 John P. Hale. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM A LETTER OF SIR WALTER 
 SCOTT TO ROBERT SOUTHEY ON HIS IN- 
 VESTITURE AS POET LAUREATE. 
 
 Edinburgh , Nov. 13, 1813. 
 
 I do not delay, my dear Southey, to say 
 my congratulatory. Long may you live, as 
 Paddy says, to rule over us, and to restore 
 the crown of Spencer and Dryden to its 
 pristine dignity. * * * 
 
 I was greatly delighted with the circum- 
 stances of your investiture. ' It reminded 
 me of the porters at Calais with Dr. Smol- 
 lett's baggage, six of them seizing one 
 small portmanteau and bearing it in tri- 
 umph to his lodgings. * * * 
 
 Adieu, my dear Southey ; my best wishes 
 attend all that you do, and my best con- 
 gratulations every good that attends you — 
 yea, even this, the very least of Providence’s 
 mercies, as a poor clergyman said when 
 pronouncing grace over a herring. * * 
 
 My best compliments attend Mrs. Southey 
 and your family. 
 
 Ever yours, 
 
 Walter Scott. 
 
 ANNIVERSARY OF A SILVER WEDDING. 
 
 Dear Friends: — Not often is one 
 privileged, as I, to congratulate his friends 
 upon twenty-five years of married bliss. 
 How swiftly the years have flown with their 
 changes of gladness and sorrow, burdens 
 and happiness, care and tranquillities 1 Bui 
 on looking back you can only see the hill- 
 tops of joy, forgetting the vales of trouble 
 and disquietude. May the sunlight of in- 
 creasing prosperity and happiness be yours 
 for many years ! to come, and God grant, 
 you his favor. A small gift accompanies 
 this. Not for its intrinsic worth, but for 
 the affection which it represents, I beg you 
 to accept from your friend, 
 
 J. H. Slowcom. 
 
 TO THE FATHER OF A BOY. 
 
 New Haven , May 5, 1882. 
 
 Dear Jack : — And so it is a boy ! Well, 
 here is my hand in congratulation. Of 
 course, it looks like his daddy, they always 
 do; but be careful and train him up in the 
 correct principles of the party. Remember 
 he is soon to be a sovereign of this great 
 and glorious republic, and must never 
 scratch the ticket. 
 
 You have my congratulations and hearty 
 wishes. May the mother and child con- 
 tinue to do well, and may he live to reflect 
 honor upon his parents. 
 
 Y ours, as ever, 
 
 James M. Beebe. 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 645 
 
 NOTES TO ACCOMPANY GIFTS, AND SUITABLE REPLIES THERETO. 
 
 I 
 
 ACCOMPANYING A PRESENT. 
 
 New Haven , Conn., Nov. 20, 1882. 
 
 My Dearest Jennie: — Accept this 
 token of love and esteem from an old 
 friend. It is but a small proof of my affec- 
 tion, which words are not needed to ex- 
 press, for I am well aware that you know 
 me ever to be 
 
 Your true and loving friend, 
 
 Maria Powell. 
 
 RETURNING THANKS FOR THE GIFT. 
 
 My Dearest Maria : — How can I 
 chank you sufficiently for your magnificent 
 gift, you dear, kind Iriend ? You quite 
 load me with kindness; no proof of your 
 friendship was wanting to assure me of 
 your esteem and friendship, which I hope I 
 shall always deserve. Thanking you from 
 my heart, believe me, 
 
 Yours most affectionately, 
 
 Jennie Harrison. 
 
 ACCOMPANYING A BIRTHDAY GIFT. 
 
 Clinton, Sept. 3, 1882. 
 
 Dear Nellie : — Accept this little token 
 ot love and esteem from an old friend. 
 Many happy returns of the day ! 
 
 Your loving friend, 
 
 Minnie Peck. 
 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 Madison, Sept. 3, 1882. 
 
 Will Miss Minnie Peck accept this little 
 token of remembrance on this her natal 
 day ? Nellie Buell. 
 
 /ACCOMPANYING A GIFT OF A BASKET OF 
 FRUIT. 
 
 Miss Brown presents her compliments 
 to Miss Jones, and is happy in presenting 
 
 for her acceptance the accompanying bas 
 ket of fruit. 
 
 600 State street. 
 
 Hartford, May 6, 1882. 
 
 ANSWER. 
 
 Miss Jones considers herself much fa- 
 vored by the kind attention and generous 
 gift from Miss Brown, and returns her sin- 
 cere thanks for her handsome present. 
 
 169 Asylum street, May 7, 1882. 
 
 ACCOMPANYING A BETHROTHAL RING. 
 
 356 Fifth Ave.,Aug. 19, 1881. 
 
 My Beloved Nettie : — Will you please 
 accept and wear the accompanying ring as, 
 a pledge of the endless love and affectiom 
 of your beloved Harry. 
 
 Miss Nettie R. Caswell. 
 
 ANSWER ACCEPTING THE FOREGOING. 
 
 My Dear Harry : — You need no assur- 
 ance from me that your valuable gift will 
 be doubly precious to me, as a token of 
 your affection. May our love, like your 
 ring, have no end. 
 
 Your loving 
 
 Nettie. 
 
 ACCOMPANYING TICKETS FOR A THEATRI- 
 CAL PERFORMANCE. 
 
 * 
 
 New Haven, Feb. 6, 1882. 
 
 My Dear Nellie : — This morning a 
 friend of mine sent me three tickets for 
 reserved seats at Carll’s Opera House, Sat- 
 urday matinee. We have all seen the play 
 now being acted there, and as I thought 
 your young people might like to go, I in- 
 close them to you with our best love. 
 
 Believe me, yours affectionately, 
 
 Mary Gowes. 
 
The Ladies’ Complete Guide to Letter Writing. 
 
 FROM MADAM DE STAEL TO MADAM LAFAYETTE. 
 
 
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NOTES OF INVITATION. 
 
 647 
 
 NOTES OF INVITATION, REUNIONS, SLEIGHING PARTIES, SURPRISE 
 
 PARTIES, ETC., ETC. 
 
 
 % 
 
 ■a 
 
 'th 
 
 
 
 i idttz C$ d&cd&'f C$ 
 
 C$ 
 
 
 
 'tzdd&ri'. 
 
 REPLY TO INVITATION. 
 
 y/ S / s/ <F (F (3 . 
 
 
 
 
648 
 
 NOTES OF INVITATION. 
 
 December I, 1882. 
 
 Dear Carrie : 
 
 The young people of our literary society 
 are contemplating a surprise party upon 
 their warm friend and co-worker, Miss 
 Lizzie Sanford. 
 
 I have arranged to be present, and have 
 been assigned by the committee the pleas- 
 ant duty of specially inviting you. 
 
 I trust circumstances will admit of your 
 presence. The evening is Thursday, the 
 4th in st. 
 
 Your friend, 
 
 Minnie Acton. 
 
 December 1, 1882. 
 
 Friend William : 
 
 Can you not, for one evening, thrust 
 aside pressing duties and attend a merry- 
 making Thursday evening next ? 
 
 Sister Jane and I are concocting a sur- 
 prise reception for Mr. and Mrs. Douglass, 
 who have been absent a long time in the 
 west. 
 
 Will you not make a special effort to be 
 present, remembering that there are to be* 
 refreshments and dancing ? 
 
 Your friend, 
 
 Thomas Augur. 
 
 December 1, 1882. 
 
 Dear Ada : 
 
 We are to give a surprise party on 
 Thursday, December 4, to our friends, Mr. 
 and Mrs. Edmonds. 
 
 If the weather should prove unfavorable 
 at that time, it will be postponed until 
 Tuesday evening, the 9th. 
 
 We rely upon you to be present with 
 your escort, who so pleasantly entertained 
 us at Miss Black’s receptions last season. 
 Your friend, 
 
 Hattie Selkirk. 
 
 December ly 1882. 
 Miss Sarah Weaver : 
 
 There is to be a reunion of the ancient 
 theatrical society to which you were at one 
 time connected. Y ou remember the young 
 man who personated Hamlet? Well, he 
 has promised to be in attendance. 
 
 An effort will be made to have you recite 
 Ophelia, with all the necessary dramatic 
 situations. I warn you in advance to be 
 ready to do so. The part will need but an 
 hour’s rehearsal — you have it at your 
 tongue’s end. 
 
 May I presume to send the coupe for 
 you at 8 o’clock Wednesday evening ! 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 Jennie Thornton. 
 
 September 1, 1882. 
 
 Dear Charlie : 
 
 The hint I gave you last week foreshad- 
 owed the truth. We are to have a sleigh- 
 ing party Thursday evening. 
 
 It is not to be a formal affair, but a trip 
 in an omnibus sleigh with plenty of straw. 
 The objective point is Farmer Durant’s, in 
 Eagleville. 
 
 Will you be on hand early, at Miss 
 Smith’s, with your wife ? 
 
 Your friend. 
 
 Frank Cummins. 
 
NOTES OF CEREMONY AND INVITATION. 
 
 649 
 
 NOTES OF CEREMONY AND INVITATION. 
 
 These models are about one-quarter size. 
 
 INVITATION. 
 
 DECLINING THE SAME. 
 
 AfeticrTiNG. 
 
 Mr. 6° Mrs. Ford 
 request the pleasure of Mrs. 
 Gage's company at dinner, on 
 Monday, the 30 th of Jan. at 
 seven o'clock. 
 
 146 W. 14 th SU 
 
 
 Mrs. Gage 
 
 regrets extremely that a prior 
 engagement will prevent her 
 having the pleasure of din- 
 ing with Mr. Mrs. Ford, 
 
 on the 30 th of Jan. 
 
 24 Lewis Place, Jan. 16th. 
 
 
 Mrs. Gage 
 
 has much pleasure in accept- 
 ing Mr. <2r* Mrs. Ford's 
 invitation to dinner 
 on the 
 
 joth of January, 1882 
 24 Lewis ** lace , Jan . 16 th. 
 
 o f-<« 
 
 Wednesday JBve., May id, '82, at 8 o'ciock. 
 
 (T\ r ~V »» V~ ?r /5> 
 
 INVITATION TO A DINNER PARTY. 
 
 My Dear Miss Perkins : 
 
 Will you please favor us with your com- 
 pany at dinner , on Wednesday next ? It 
 will be a family party , but James and I 
 should not consider it complete without you 
 Sincerely yours, 
 
 Jane Gordon. 
 
 Charles St., May $th. 
 
 A LESS FORMAL INVITATION. 
 
 Dear George: 
 
 Come and dine with us on Monday next, 
 to meet a few old friends, I assure you it 
 will' give you great pleasure to see them , es- 
 pecially as Charlie and his sister will be here. 
 Pray let me have a favorable reply, and be- 
 lieve me. Very sincerely, 
 
 1 16 E. 14 th. Mar 10 th. Josie % 
 
650 
 
 WEDDING CARDS AND INVITATIONS. 
 
 INVITATION TO AN EVENING PARTY. 
 
 Mrs. Osborne 
 
 requests the pleasure of Mr. &> Mrs. 
 Lewis’ company , to an evening 
 party , on 
 
 Monday , 14 th October. 
 
 Eight o'clock. Dancing. 
 
 32 Charles Street. 
 
 INVITATION TO EVENING PARTY. 
 Mrs. Bingham 
 
 requests the pleasure of Mr. Wood’s 
 company to-morrow evening , at 
 nine. Dancing. 
 Brightwood , Feb. 12 th. 
 
 WEDDING CARDS AND INVITATIONS. 
 
 The size paper in use at the present time for fashionable invitations is about 3! x 6 i, and 
 envelopes 3^ x 3I. These models are much smaller than the usual size. 
 
 Sc ^eo-tcje ^oho/m, 
 
 'fcecj'west the -pf’eao'W'te o| i^out coTH-pcmi^ at the -ma^eiacje ceeetwam^ 
 o| theie t>aa.cj.htee, 
 
 to 
 
 powao 
 
 ©j^owbaty a^teMAoo^, |®atj- 15 th, at tvuo o’cfoch. 
 
 ^ace ^h-tvrch, 
 
 Mr. dr 3 Mrs. Wm. Towns he ad 
 request your presence at the mairiage of their 
 daughter 
 Julia 
 to 
 
 George A. Thompson y 
 Saturday morning , May $th, 1882, 
 at 11 o'clock. 
 
 Trinity Church , 
 iV<?w/ Haven, 
 
 Friday evening , March 10 th, 1882 
 af%. 30 j clock. 
 
 Fred ford. Grove Greenwood . 
 
WEDDING CARDS AND INVITATIONS. 
 
 651 
 
 WEDDING CARDS AND INVITATIONS. 
 
 These cards should be tied to each other by a white satin ribbon, the wedding knot 
 should be in the upper left hand corner; they should accompany the invitation to the 
 
 wedding. 
 
 When no invitations have been issued, it is fashionable to send announcements as soon 
 as convenient after the marriage, as follows : 
 
 The following note is another form. 
 
 Ipftowpso-M., 
 
 
 9Tt^. 8c e F. ‘SfvotHaj. 
 
 
 9Tl^. &9TC/ZO. cHofe'zt 3z4M44<j, 
 
 Wt a 3 ane 
 
 
 < 3\LowbaAjC> 
 
 
 dt eJfoWC' 
 
 91t 
 
 
 ai 4 b 
 
 
 ‘^9'Weobaip 144 911ch^, 1882. 
 
 91 ZonbaAj, eF<dx 1882. 
 
 
 eFz4ba4p. 
 
 
 12 G lVitou<^Mnj ct/uc. 
 
 9le™ 
 
 
 122 W. 18tfv Street. 
 
 
 21 ett-ipf extern. 
 
652 
 
 WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES. 
 
 WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES. 
 
 The Wooden Wedding. Printed 
 on a thin sheet of wood. 
 
 The Tin Wedding. Printed 
 on a sheet of tin-foil paper. 
 
 The Crystal Wedding. Invitations to 
 a Crystal Wedding should be printed 
 on cards with a fine glass finish. 
 
 1872. 1877. 
 
 
 1872. 1882. 
 
 FIFTH ANNIVERSARY. 
 
 
 TENTH ANNIVERSARY. 
 
 OTU. Sc 9T Tro. g Wxyl. Gjct/i^. 
 
 
 p*. & gte- mmm 
 
 AT HOME 
 
 
 AT HOME. 
 
 Monday eve, June $th, at 8 o'clock. 
 
 
 Wednesday evening, June $th,'?>2. 
 
 113 York Street. 
 
 
 113 York Street. 
 
 1871. 1886. 
 
 CRYSTAL WEDDING. 
 
 Mrs. & Mrs. George 2. Ford. 
 
 AT HOME. 
 
 Monday evening , September l$th , 
 at eight o'clock. 
 
 24 Hillhouse Avenue. 
 
 I The China Wedding. The paper should have a smooth 
 surface, resembling China-ware. 
 
 The Silver Wedding. Invitations should be issued upon 
 white paper in silvered letters. 
 
 1862. 1882. 
 
 
 1881/ 1906. 
 
 CHINA WEDDING. 
 
 
 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY. 
 
 Jg. 
 
 AT HOME. 
 
 
 SILVER WEDDING. 
 
 Iljpt'. Sc 
 
 Compliments, 
 
 Saturday evening, January 20 th , 
 
 
 and requests the pleasure oj your company, on 
 
 MERIDEN, CONN. 
 
 
 Monday evening , Jan. 1 st, 1883 , at 8 o'clock. 
 408 Degraw St., Brooklyn. 
 
 The Golden Wedding. Invitations should be printed in 
 rich gilt letters, upon heavy white or cream 
 colored paper. 
 
 The Diamond Wedding is held on the seventy-fifth mar- 
 riage anniversary. Invitations should be printed 
 on the finest paper, envelopes to match. 
 
 1832. 1882. 
 
 
 1808. 1883. 
 
 FIFTIETH ANNIVERSARY. 
 
 
 SEVENTY-FIFTH ANNIVERSARY. 
 
 9TC^. Sc 9Tt^. cx'JUo GWoobfiv Cb, 
 
 
 fptr. & fgtes. gamjesgjetmjett. 
 
 AT HOME, 
 
 
 AT HOME. 
 
 Tuesday afternoon and evening , May 22 d. 
 
 
 Friday afternoon, May 12 th. 
 
 No. 1 1 Agate Place. 
 
 
 No. 46 Clinton Ave. 
 
RECEPTION, MEMORIAL AND PRESENTATION CARDS. 653 
 
 Reception, Memorial and Presentation Cards, 
 
 Invitations for informal afternoon and evening receptions are issued on cards as follows, 
 
 no reply is needed. 
 
 Informal afternoon reception card. Informal evening reception card. 
 
 ©JJ/t'. 8c |j. ||cm /zotxitb. 
 
 
 < 3\lv. 8c 9TC/&0-. (^. St. ^otocyn. 
 
 16lfv, 1882. 
 
 
 |wm 3 tiff 5 ociocb. 
 
 
 < 3 X^<ib'i\<iobci\^ ©ucrrwKj. 
 
 146 ^ovn^tocb ^gtue4vue. 
 
 
 149 Matilda Street. 
 
 J 
 
 Memorial card to be sent to friends of deceased about three weeks after funeral. 
 
 
 ooo- 
 
 tow to 
 
 ytvono, oav& txc/o 0/0cep^cM4cc ttxo 
 
 ao cv totwAV o| two votoovn. 
 
 ’ch^ lOtfv, 1882 . 
 
654 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 FROM A GENTLEMAN TO A LADY WITH 
 WHOM HE IS IN LOVE. 
 
 Madam : — I have three times attempted 
 to give you a verbal relation of the con- 
 tents of this letter, but my heart as often 
 failed. I know not in what light it may be 
 considered, only if I can form any notion 
 of my own heart from the impressions made 
 on it by your many amiable accomplish- 
 ments, my happiness in this world will, in 
 a. great measure, depend on your answer. 
 I am not precipitate, madam, nor would I 
 desire your hand if your heart did not ac- 
 company it. My circumstances are inde- 
 pendent, my character hitherto unblem- 
 ished, oi which you shall have the most 
 undoubted proof. You have already seen 
 
 some of my relations at your aunt’s in 
 
 street, particularly my mother, with whom 
 I now live. Your aunt will inform you 
 concerning our family, and if it is to your 
 satisfaction, I shall not only consider my- 
 self extremely happy, but shall also make 
 it the principal study of my future life to 
 spend my days in the company of her whom 
 I do prefer to all others in the world. I 
 shall wait for your answer with the utmost 
 impatience. 
 
 And am, madam, 
 
 Your real admirer, 
 Charles Augustus Montague. 
 
 THE LADY’S REPLY TO HER ADMIRER. 
 
 Sir : — I received your letter last night, 
 and as it was on a subject I had not yet 
 any thoughts of, you will not wonder when 
 I tell you I was a good deal surprised. 
 Although I have seen and familiarly con- 
 versed with you at different times, yet I 
 had not the most distant thoughts of your 
 making proposals of such a nature. Some 
 of your sex have often asserted that we are 
 
 fond of flattery, and very much pleased 
 with praise ; I shall therefore suppose you 
 one of that class, and excuse you for those 
 encomiums bestowed upon me in your let- 
 ter ; but I am afraid were I to comply with 
 your proposals, you would soon be con- 
 vinced that the charms you mention, and 
 seem to value so much, are merely exterior 
 appearances. An appearance of sincerity 
 runs through your letter, but there is one 
 particular to which I have a very strong 
 objection ; you say that you live with your 
 mother, yet you do not say that you have 
 either communicated your sentiments to 
 her or to your other relations. I must 
 freely and honestly tell you that, as I would 
 not disoblige my own relations, neither 
 would I, on any consideration, admit of any 
 addresses contrary to the inclination of 
 yours. If you can clear up this to my sat- 
 isfaction, I shall send you a more explicit 
 answer, and am, sir. 
 
 Your most obedient, 
 
 Mary L. Harrison. 
 
 A LADY ON SENDING HER PORTRAIT TO 
 HER LOVER. 
 
 Boston , yuly n, 18 — . 
 
 Dear Sir : — Accept my very best thanks 
 for your kind inquiries regarding my health, 
 which I am happy to say is as good as 
 usual. My thoughts often recur to the 
 happy hours which we have passed to- 
 gether — hours which I have thought passed 
 like minutes, so full were they of the pleas- 
 ure which I ever feel in your company. 
 While I feel that my personal pretensions 
 are but humble, I believe that you will be 
 pleased with the enclosed miniature, the 
 view of which, in my absence, may call to 
 your mind a remembrance of me. While 
 I feel that the likeness is rather a flattering 
 
THE AKT OF CORRESPONDENCE. LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 655 
 
 one, still, should it but serve to bring me 
 to your remembrance, the skill of the artist 
 will not have been exercised in vain. Pray 
 accept it as a friendly memento from, 
 
 My dear sir, 
 
 Ever sincerely yours P 
 Emily Wood. 
 
 FROM A YOUNG- LADY TO HER MOTHER. 
 
 Newport , September 3, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Mamma : — From what you 
 know of Newport you will not be surprised 
 to hear that I have enjoyed an incessant 
 round of gaiety and pleasure, my health too 
 is completely recruited, and my friends are 
 so kind that I almost feel at home. 
 
 But I have another more serious matter 
 to confess to you, at which I hope you will 
 not feel angry. It seems almost ungrateful 
 to think of loving any one but you, but O, 
 mamma ! if you saw Henry — — you would 
 forgive me, I am sure. He is so handsome, 
 gentle in his manners, and yet so sensible 
 and accomplished ! We met at the — — ~ 
 ball, and he scarcely quitted my side the 
 whole evening. Mrs. - — - has so high an 
 opinion of him that she has repeatedly in- 
 vited him to her house, until his visits have 
 become of almost daily occurrence. He is 
 most honorable and straight-forward, and 
 only waits permission to write to you, in 
 order to give you full particulars as to his 
 condition and prospects. 
 
 Pray, dear mamma, forgive me when I 
 confess that my feelings are deeply enlisted 
 ,in his favor, and that I feel as if much of 
 my future happiness depended upon our 
 union. I wish you were here to counsel 
 and advise with me, for never before did I 
 so much feel my own heart master of my 
 reason. 
 
 I hope you will write directly, or come 
 immediately to your affectionate but anx- 
 ious child. Gussie. 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 New York , September 7, 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dearest Child : — Make yourseli 
 perfectly easy as to my consent to anything 
 that can promote your happiness. If Mr, 
 
 be what you represent, my fondest 
 
 wishes that you might meet with a desira- 
 ble partner in life will be realized. At the 
 same time, do not be too hasty in giving an 
 unqualified assent to his proposals, but take 
 time to learn those minute shades of dispo- 
 sition and character which nothing but 
 constant acquaintance can display. 
 
 I shall be at Newport on the th, and 
 shall not only be delighted to meet my dear 
 child again, but to be introduced to the 
 man whom she has thought so worthy od 
 her affections. 
 
 Y our ever loving mother. 
 
 TO THE GENTLEMAN. 
 
 Newport , Sept. 5, 18—, 
 
 My Dear Sir:— You will be delighted 
 that mamma is every way favorable to our- 
 attachment. I say our — for I now feel un- 
 der no restraint in confessing that my par- 
 tiality for you is closely akin to a deeper 
 feeling. Let us, however (as she herseP 
 advises), seek to know each other’s tempe: 
 and character more thoroughly ere we take 
 too decided steps. Let us learn each oth- 
 er’s little humors and wishes that we may 
 the better know wherein we have to make 
 allowance for and yield to one another. 
 
 I trust we shall see my mamma in a few 
 days, when I am sure her favorable opinion 
 of you will be more and more confirmed. 
 
 Believe me, dear sir, 
 
 Very sincerely yours, 
 
 Gussie. 
 
 A WIDOW IN ANSWER TO PROPOSALS. 
 
 Kingston , July 14, 18 — . 
 
 Dear. Sir : — I take the first opportunity 
 
656 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 of acknowledging the receipt of the flatter- 
 ing letter with which you have favored me. 
 Y ou wish to know whether I am willing to 
 enter again into the marriage state, and in 
 the event of my being so, whether I should 
 be adverse to admitting you in the quality 
 of a suitor. I assure you, sir, I feel flat- 
 tered by the latter question, and as to the 
 former, I can only say that I have no dis- 
 like to entering again into that state. But 
 our acquaintance is at present imperfect, 
 and we are comparatively strangers to each 
 other’s tastes and tempers. I need scarcely 
 observe that an intimate knowledge of such 
 matters is absolutely requisite before we 
 can decide whether we are fitted for enjoy- 
 ing together a partnership in life. Mean- 
 while I have no objection to allowing such 
 freedom of acquaintance as shall enable us 
 both to arrive at this knowledge, and can 
 therefore only say, in conclusion, that the 
 commencement of your addresses will meet 
 with no obstacle, 
 
 Dear sir, 
 
 Yours most faithfully, 
 
 Evie. 
 
 THE WIDOW'S REPLY IN THE NEGATIVE. 
 
 Kingston , July 14, 18 — . 
 
 Dear Sir : — I have just perused the flat- 
 tering letter with which you have favored 
 me. Of late, whilst enjoying the pleasure 
 of your company, I have not failed to ob- 
 serve that your behavior towards myself 
 has been more than ordinarily attentive ; 
 and that on more than one occasion you 
 have rendered yourself of essential service 
 to my interests. Such conduct has not 
 failed in attaining my favor and friendship, 
 but has not had the effect of inspiring a 
 deeper passion — a passion which I have 
 totally renounced, whether on account of 
 the advance of years (as the case may be), or 
 of attachment to the memory of my late 
 
 husband, it is immaterial for me to state. 
 Had I allowed myself to suppose that the 
 attentions to which I have just alluded 
 were prompted by any other feeling but 
 that of simple friendship, I should certainly 
 have endeavored to repress them. Hence 
 you may infer that, while I decline the 
 honor of your addresses, I still remain, with 
 best wishes for your future welfare, 
 
 Dear sir, 
 
 Your sincere friend, 
 
 Evie. 
 
 TO AN ACCEPTED LOVER. 
 
 Yonkers , April 12, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear : Your kind and affec- 
 
 tionate letter gave us much pleasure, es- 
 pecially as you state that it is your inten- 
 tion to come down next midsummer, and 
 that you purpose settling here. I can 
 assure you we shall all be on the tiptoe of 
 expectation for your arrival ; what delights 
 dear father and mother the most is that you 
 propose settling in the country, as in that 
 case we shall not be deprived of seeing 
 each other, and they will be partakers of 
 our pleasures, which could not be had you 
 made up your mind to reside in New York. 
 
 I have received your pretty present, and 
 will repay you for your kind remembrance 
 of me with a token more acceptable than 
 money when I see you ; until then, my 
 dearest , 
 
 I remain, 
 
 Yours, affectionately, 
 
 Josie. 
 
 AFTER A MISUNDERSTANDING. 
 
 April 2, 18 . 
 
 Dear : Your kind letter satisfies 
 
 me, and I now regret that, in the anxiety 
 of my affection for you, I should have given 
 way to anything resembling a doubt. You 
 allow that appearances were a little against 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 657 
 
 you, and that I had some reason for com- 
 plaint. Let no more be said on the sub- 
 ject, but hasten to the company of 
 
 Your affectionate and faithful. 
 
 Sarah Ann. 
 
 MORE SERIOUS. 
 
 July 23, 1 8 . 
 
 Sir : The attempt you make to excuse 
 
 your conduct is neither straightforward nor 
 satisfactory. It is, in fact, only exculpating 
 yourself by admitting a fault as great as 
 the one of which I complain {Jtere state par- 
 ticulars). Under these circumstances, what- 
 ever pain it may cause me, I must avow 
 my determination never, under any consid- 
 eration, to admit of your addresses, feeling 
 persuaded that the consequences would not 
 be favorable to the happiness of either. 
 
 I remain, sir, 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 Sarah Ann Morton. 
 
 CONFESSING A CHANGE OF FEELING. 
 
 New York , June 4, 1 8 . 
 
 My Dear Sir : I fear my avowal may 
 
 give you some pain ; but it is better to be 
 sincere and open in matters where the hap- 
 piness of another is concerned. 
 
 To speak plainly, then, I feel that my 
 sentiments in regard to yourself are no 
 longer what they were. While my esteem 
 for your character remains unshaken, I still 
 cannot blind myself to the fact that I do 
 not cherish that affection which a wife 
 ought to feel for her husband, and without 
 which the married life is one continual 
 scene of torment and vexation. You will 
 not, I am sure, give me credit for acting 
 from mere fickleness — especially as I do 
 not at present entertain a partiality for any 
 other : but you must pardon me when I 
 express my firm belief that all correspond- 
 ence between us had better cease, and that 
 
 such letters as have passed between us 
 should be returned at the first convenient 
 opportunity. 
 
 I remain, my dear sir, 
 
 • Yours very respectfully, 
 
 M. J. W. 
 
 A FEMALE SERVANT TO HER SUITOR, 
 Williamsburg, May 1, 18 . 
 
 Dear : I am very happy to receive 
 
 your kind letter, and to hear that you are 
 doing so well. My mistress is so satisfied 
 with me that she has increased my wages. 
 I am in hopes that with care and economy, 
 we may both of us save something, and not 
 start into married life, as many do, without 
 a dollar to help us. 
 
 As I go out on Sunday afternoon I shall 
 hope to meet you as usual at ; till 
 when I remain 
 
 Your affectionate 
 
 POLLIE. 
 
 ANOTHER. 
 
 York Street , Saturday 12, 18 . 
 
 Dear : I received your kind letter 
 
 of the th, and am happy to hear that you 
 are well in health, and giving satisfaction 
 to your employer. I look forward with 
 anxiety to the day when we shall be united 
 forever, and when I shall enjoy the protec- 
 tion of an honest and persevering husband. 
 Jennie is happy and is now here. 
 
 Continue to go on as you have done, and 
 assure yourself of the constant affection of 
 
 Maria. . 
 
 NOT SO FAST, YOUNG MAN. 
 
 Yonkers , August 5, 18 . 
 
 Dear : I cannot say I am dis- 
 
 pleased at your proposal, but I want to 
 know you better before I make up my mind. 
 Mother says “ that they who ride fast never 
 ride long,” and I think we shall both do 
 better if we try to know more about one 
 
658 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 another than we do at present. Mother is 
 willing for you to visit here, and I shall 
 make no opposition, as I cannot say I dis- 
 like you. 
 
 Yours faithfully, 
 Jennie Shaw. 
 
 VERY URGENT TO NAME THE WEDDING 
 DAY. 
 
 Yonkers , October 12, 1 8 . 
 
 Dear : You are so very urgent 
 
 that I suppose I must consent to the day 
 
 you name, the — th of next. I have 
 
 settled with your two sisters to be my 
 bridesmaids, and shall busy myself in mak- 
 ing preparations. Meanwhile, I suppose 
 we shall see you as usual every evening 
 after work is over. 
 
 Your affectionate wife to come, 
 
 Louise Linwood. 
 
 ASKING FOR BRIDESMAIDS. 
 
 Dear : I write to ask you whether 
 
 -you and you? sister can get ready by the 
 — th of next — — , as you have kindly prom- 
 ised to act as my bridesmaids on the im- 
 portant occasion ; — — is so very impatient 
 that I cannot resist him any longer. I shall 
 call and see you to-morrow ; tell then, 
 Believe me, 
 
 Your sister elect, 
 Louise Linwood. 
 
 THE ANSWER, IN WHICH THEY ARE GLAD OF 
 THE CHANCE. 
 
 Yonkers , October i^ m 18 — . 
 
 Dear : We are both delighted to 
 
 hear that the happy day is fixed, and shall 
 set to work directly to make ourselves as 
 fine as possible in our quiet humble way. 
 Plain white and a few artificial flowers 
 (which we shall coax father to bring from 
 — ), will be all that we shall require, and 
 
 you would look pretty in anything. So no 
 more at present from 
 
 Your affectionate sisters, 
 Amelia and Sophia 
 
 A CLERGYMAN PROPOSES — SHE SEEMS 
 DELIGHTED — THE ANSWER. 
 
 Meriden , A ugust 8 18--. 
 
 My Dear Sir : — I was indeed surprised 
 and delighted by my visit to your charming 
 
 little church last , and was in every 
 
 way impressed by the devout behavior of 
 the congregation, and the evident pervad- 
 ing influence of the clergyman among his 
 parishioners. 
 
 I must own that the favorable impression 
 thus formed of yourself has increased on 
 
 our subsequent meetings at , and that 
 
 I have ever looked upon the life of a zeal- 
 ous clergyman as a guarantee of happiness 
 to those around him. My friends here (to 
 whom I have communicated the report of 
 your flattering letter) plead strongly on 
 your behalf; and I must candidly confess 
 that I feel both honored and pleased by 
 your preference. I cannot say more than 
 
 that you will be a welcome visitor at , 
 
 and that I hope our further acquaintance 
 will tend to strengthen, rather than dimin- 
 ish, our mutual good will. 
 
 Believe me, my dear sir, 
 
 Yours very faithfully, 
 
 Gertrude. 
 
 A.LADY TO HER FRIEND, INFORMING HER 
 OF HER INTENDED MARRIAGE, AND EN- 
 GAGING HER AS A BRIDESMAID. 
 
 New Haven, Sept. 18, 18 — . 
 My Dear Susie : — You have witnessed 
 the attentions which have so long been paid 
 
 to me by , and are of course aware 
 
 that he has addressed them to me in the 
 quality of a suitor. I can assure you it 
 has not been without the closest scrutiny, 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. FAMILY AND LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 659 
 
 both on my part and that of my dear par- 
 ents, into his moral character, temper, 
 tastes and habits, that I have come to the 
 resolution of becoming his partner for life. 
 His disposition is cheerful ; I know him to 
 be a man of the nicest honor ; and I re- 
 joice to say, as I have hitherto found, that 
 we seldom fail to coincide in our opinions ; 
 which shows, at least, that we are actuated 
 by such a unity of tastes as is calculated 
 to give one every reasonable prospect of 
 enjoying happiness in the married state. 
 The day of our union has at length been 
 decided ; and the mention of this brings 
 me to the chief purport of my letter, which 
 is that of inviting you to become my brides- 
 maid. Allow me to promise myself this 
 favor, which I am convinced you will not 
 refuse after our long friendship. The — th 
 of — — has been fixed upon as the auspi- 
 cious day, upon which, if you have no other 
 more particular engagement, may I rely on 
 seeing you ? An early reply, as you are 
 aware, will be requisite ; and trusting that 
 it may be in compliance with my earnest 
 wish, 
 
 I remain, my dear , 
 
 Y our affectionate friend, 
 Clara Vere de Vere. 
 
 SUSIE ACCEPTS, AND CONGRATULATES HER 
 
 FRIEND ON HER INTENDED MARRIAGE. 
 
 Baltimore , Sept. 20, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Clara: — No one, I believe, 
 can be more desirous to hear of your wel- 
 fare and your prosperous settlement in the 
 marriage state than myself. I have long 
 been sensible of your worth, your goodness 
 of heart, your rectitude of principle, and 
 your warmth of friendship. Enviable among 
 men will be the lot of him who is destined 
 to become your partner for life, and fortu- 
 nate, indeed, was Mr. • in that intro- 
 
 duction which first presented you to his 
 
 notice. As for Mr. — — , I need scarcely 
 observe that I approve of your choice, in 
 which you have shown a discrimination 
 that does credit to your taste, and that good 
 sense which has been the guide of your 
 past life. Your friendly letter, in which 
 vou announce your intended marriage, now 
 lies before me, and I must say that I feel 
 highly favored in your preference of me to 
 become one of your bridesmaids. You 
 could scarcely have preferred any request 
 with which I would more gladly comply. 
 Expect, therefore, to see me without fail 
 
 on “, the — th, a period to which I shall 
 
 look forward with some impatience, as the 
 day on which the happiness of a dear and 
 valued friend will, I hope, be consummated. 
 Adieu till then, and believe me to be, my 
 dear , 
 
 Yours, most sincerely and affectionately, 
 
 Susie. 
 
 A LADY, VISITING IN PROVIDENCE, TO HER 
 HUSBAND. 
 
 Providence, July 22, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Charles : — In imagining what 
 your thoughts and feelings are likely to be 
 during my absence, I have only to call to 
 recollection what my own have been on like 
 occasions, when you, dear — — , have been 
 absent from home. How has my remem- 
 brance of you then been interwoven with 
 each minute of my existence? and how 
 have I counted the hours till that had ar- 
 rived which brought me intelligence of 
 your welfare? So justly do I appreciate 
 your attachment, that I feel convinced this 
 feeling must be mutual, and I picture to 
 myself the smile of delight with which you 
 will receive my present letter: I know you 
 will experience real satisfaction in hearing 
 that I still enjoy my health, and, in fact, 
 was never better, and that the hospitality 
 and kindly attentions of , so far from 
 
660 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. FAMILY AND LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 diminishing, seem rather to increase. They 
 make it indeed their study to surround me 
 with comforts, and are constantly devising 
 some fresh plans which they think may 
 conduce to my amusement. Be assured, 
 therefore, my dear , that with the ex- 
 
 ception of missing your cheering company, 
 and that of our dear children, I am as hap- 
 py as you, the fondest of all my well wish- 
 ers, could desire me to be. 
 
 Having said this much of myself, let me 
 now observe that I am most anxious to re- 
 ceive a letter from you, for I long to hear 
 how you aLv": the children still continue in 
 regard to health, and what fresh occur- 
 rences have taken place since you wrote 
 last. At present I have no reason for sup- 
 posing that my absence from home will be 
 prolonged beyond the — th, on which day I 
 hope again to be with you. Give my kind- 
 est love to Millie, and believe me, 
 
 My dear , 
 
 Your ever affectionate wife, 
 
 Evie. 
 
 FROM THE SAME TO HER DAUGHTER, WHO, 
 IN HER ABSENCE, ACTS AS HOUSE- 
 KEEPER. 
 
 Providence , July 22, 18 — , 
 My Dear Millie As the duty of man- 
 aging our small establishment has devolved 
 upon you during my absence, I am anxious 
 to have some account of your proceedings 
 at home, and should be happy to give you 
 any further instructions in case you have 
 met with any difficulty, or find yourself at 
 a loss how to act. You will have learnt 
 from the letter which I have sent to your 
 father that I still continue to enjoy my 
 health, and considering that I am separated 
 from my own family, my time passes as 
 pleasantly as I could reasonably desire, my 
 
 hospitable entertainers, Mr. and Mrs. , 
 
 being constantly attentive to promote my 
 
 comfort and amusement. We have had 
 several most agreeable parties, and I have 
 been favored with many introductions, and 
 have formed acquaintances of a desirable 
 nature. I have been very much delighted 
 with some excursions which we have made 
 in the neighborhood ; amongst the rest, to 
 (; mentioning the places ). These short trips 
 
 have much benefited my health, as well as 
 increased my knowledge of the country. 
 Yet amidst all my enjoyments my thoughts 
 continually recur towards home and to that 
 affectionate circle which has endeared it to 
 me. I shall endeavor to return by the — -th, 
 and in the meantime let me repeat that I 
 am anxious to receive a full account of 
 your domestic proceedings. Write, there- 
 fore, at your earliest opportunity, with such 
 particulars as you think likely to interest 
 Your absent but 
 
 Ever affectionate mother. 
 
 THE ANSWER. 
 
 Brooklyn , July 24, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Mamma : — I was delighted to 
 hear from you, especially as you write in 
 such excellent spirits and in such evident 
 enjoyment of your excursion. Everything 
 was left in such capital order when you 
 went out of town that I have had little diffi- 
 culty in our domestic matters, and papa 
 says that I am getting quite a little woman 
 of business. 
 
 At this season ol the year very few of 
 our friends are in town, and we have not, 
 
 therefore, had many visitors. Mrs. 
 
 called the other evening, and made many 
 
 kind inquiries after all of us, and Mr. 
 
 spent the evening with papa last . 
 
 We were rather anxious about Emily last 
 week ; she was so languid and feverish tha. 
 
 papa went off for Dr. at once. I sat 
 
 up with her the greater part of the night, 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. FAMILY AND LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 661 
 
 and scarcely left her room till she recover- 
 ed. She was as patient and amiable as 
 ever, but often wondered a little about 
 mamma. However, as there was no danger 
 (so Dr. — — assured us), we would not 
 think of alarming you, and spoiling the 
 pleasure of your visit by news that we 
 knew would have caused you severe anx- 
 iety. Like all of us, dear Emily sends her 
 hearty love to you, and desires me to tell 
 you that she never was better or more hap- 
 py than at present. 
 
 Our life is passed much as usual. Miss 
 
 , our governess, is as kind to the 
 
 younger children as you could possibly de- 
 sire, and proves a most agreeable compan- 
 ion and helpmate to myself in the perform- 
 ance of our little domestic duties. Papa 
 and I go out a great deal, and he seems to 
 find me a substitute, though a very poor 
 one, for your society. 
 
 Sincerely hoping that when you return 
 you will be pleased with all that has been 
 done during your absence, 
 
 I remain, 
 
 My dear Mamma, 
 
 Your ever affectionate daughter, 
 
 Millie. 
 
 A LADY TO HER FRIEND IN TOWN, INVIT 
 ING HER TO SPEND A MONTH IN THE 
 COUNTRY. 
 
 Washington , Ct ., June 14, 18 — . 
 My Dear Friend Susie : — I need 
 scarcely tell you that I always feel the 
 greatest pleasure in your society, and am 
 selfish enough on the present occasion to 
 covet it for a month, or for a longer period, 
 should it suit your convenience. I think 
 you would gather some amusement, and 
 also perhaps, improve your health by a so- 
 journ in the country. Will you then do us 
 the favor of making our rural retreat your 
 temporary abode, assuring yourself that 
 
 your presence will enliven our family cir 
 cle, and be a real source of enjoyment to 
 Your sincere friend, 
 Phinnie. 
 
 ANSWER TO THE SAME, AFFIRMATIVELY. 
 
 New Haven , June 16, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Phinnie: — I have iust re- 
 ceived your kind letter, inviting me to 
 spend a short time at your pleasant house. 
 I can assure you that there are few who 
 feel more delighted with the country than 
 myself, and I could be well contented to 
 make it my residence during a certain part 
 of every year, and should certainly do so, 
 
 did the pursuits of Mr. allow us to 
 
 live out of town. However, my domestic 
 duties are not at present of so pressing a 
 nature as to force me to decline your 
 
 friendly invitation, and Mr. -, so far 
 
 from offering any obstacle to my absence 
 from home for a short time, has urged me 
 to send you an affirmative answer, and as 
 he thinks that, in addition to the enjoy- 
 ment which I cannot fail to experience in 
 the society of yourself and family, I shall 
 benefit my health by a change of air and 
 scene, I therefore accept your kind invita- 
 tion most cheerfully. 
 
 My dear, 
 
 Your ever sincere friend, 
 
 Susie . 
 
 FROM A YOUNG- LADY TO iEE SISTER, AN- 
 NOUNCING HER ENGAGEMENT. 
 
 New York , Jan. 25 th y 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Sister : — You may remember 
 my mentioning to you the marked atten- 
 tion Mr. C. paid me ; it has now termina- 
 ted in a formal proposal of marriage, which 
 I think of accepting, but it won’t be pru- 
 dent to be hasty in my decision, as such a 
 course might lead him to suppose I was 
 anxious to have him. A lady’s policy ui>- 
 
682 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. FAMILY AND LOVE LETTERS. 
 
 der circumstances of this kind, ought to 
 be so effectually carried out, as to cause 
 the gentleman some trouble in the attain- 
 ment of his ends, so that he may more 
 highly value the prize, when gained. How 
 soon he may wish me to change my name, 
 I cannot at present say, but I do not think 
 he will be long, as he does not appear to 
 be one of the deferring kind. He is snug- 
 ly off and doing a profitable business, a 
 few years my senior, good looking, and ap- 
 rently good tempered. 
 
 I hope you will soon return home. You 
 can then pass your opinion. I shall have 
 to tax your time, as I shall require assist- 
 ance in preparing for my anticipated union. 
 
 I remain 
 
 Your affectionate sister, 
 
 Jane. 
 
 ANSWER TO THE ABOVE. 
 
 Chicago , ///., Jan . 1 8th, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Sister I cannot say I am 
 much surprised at the news in your last 
 letter. It would have been anything but 
 honorable, or feeling, had Mr. C. acted 
 otherwise than he has. I am sure his bear- 
 ing towards you would have lead any one 
 to believe you were on the eve of marriage. 
 
 I must congratulate you on your con- 
 quest. I shall return home the 4th of Feb= 
 ruary, and render you all the assistance I 
 can in your multitudinous preparations for 
 the great event of your life. 
 
 Your affectionate sister, 
 
 Mary. 
 
 FROM A YOUNG- GENTLEMAN, DESIRING A 
 YOUNG LADY TO ELOPE WITH HIM. 
 
 My Dear Minnie : — I cannot live with- 
 out you, and if you persist in refusing to 
 comply, I am miserable forever. Do not 
 be afraid of poverty ; if ever you loved me ( 
 let me beg that you will not make me any 
 
 longer unhappy. Let me entreat you by 
 all that is dear, that you will comply with 
 my request, and meet me at six on Sunday 
 evening, at the back door of the garden, 
 where a carriage will be ready. I will fly 
 on the wings of love to my charmer, and 
 be happy in her embraces forever. 
 
 I remain your dear lover, 
 
 James Adams. 
 
 FROM A YOUNG LADY, IN ANSWER TO A 
 PROPOSAL AFTER A SHORT ACQUAINT- 
 ANCE. 
 
 New Haven , July 6 th , 18 — 
 Sir : Although it is the highest com- 
 
 pliment that can be paid our sex, to receive 
 offers calculated to ensure a lasting acqaint- 
 ance, I must still complain of the precipi- 
 tate character of your address to one who, 
 till a few days ago was a total stranger to 
 you. Without wishing to say anything 
 harsh, I must confess that I do not feei any 
 motive to entertain so hasty a proposal, and 
 have felt bound to lay your letter before 
 my parents, as I could not think of con- 
 cealing from them any correspondence of 
 such a description. 
 
 Trusting that you will see the matter in 
 its proper light, 
 
 I remain, 
 
 Sir, 
 
 Yours, respectfully, 
 
 Harriet Beecher. 
 
 ON MORE INTIMATE ACQUAINTANCE. 
 
 New Haven , May 1st, 18 — . 
 Dear : — We shall all be very hap- 
 
 py to see you here for a little evening fes- 
 tival to the children of the village. When 
 I say we, it of course includes some one in 
 whose heart you now hold a place, with 
 whose fondest thoughts and prayers your 
 name has been associated for some months 
 past. I believe we are to perform charades. 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE. 
 
 663 
 
 or something of that sort, and I have been 
 occupied half the week in cutting old win- 
 dow curtains and sofa-covers into absurd 
 costumes supposed to be Oriental. I know 
 you are very clever at that sort of non- 
 sense, so I hope you will come and have a 
 good laugh with and at 
 
 Your affectionate , 
 
 Harriet Beecher. 
 
 ON RECEIVING A BIRTH-DAY CONGRATTJLA 
 TION. 
 
 Worcester , May fih, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear — If anything could com- 
 
 pensate for your absence from me yester- 
 day, it is the charming, kind letter in which 
 you poured out your thoughts so fervently. 
 I have read, and cried over it, till I begin 
 to believe that there is even a degree of 
 painfulness in feeling oneself beloved. 
 
 We had, in all other respects, a most de- 
 lightful day. My friends here make so 
 much of me, that I am afraid I shall be 
 spoilt by over-indulgence. We. were en- 
 gaged in a picnic the whole of the after- 
 noon, and came home heartily tired. This, 
 however, did not prevent a great deal of 
 music and singing in the evening, and it was 
 o’clock before we parted. I have lit- 
 tle news to convey to you; indeed, our let- 
 ters are so frequent that they almost anti- 
 cipate events. 
 
 My aunt, Mr. and Mrs. , and all here 
 unite in their kindest regards, and, with 
 sincere gratitude for your constant tender, 
 ness and affection. 
 
 Believe me, 
 
 Your ever loving and faithful 
 Julia Romance. 
 
 COMPLAINING OF NOT RECEIVING A LET- 
 TER. 
 
 Detroit, May 2 d, 18 — . 
 
 Dear : — No letter again ! Y ou are 
 
 really growing intolerably negligent, and I 
 
 shall begin to think that you are getting 
 tired of me, and that some new attraction 
 is in the field. Knowing how anxious I am 
 respecting your health and welfare, I am 
 sure you will give me the credit of not 
 writing from idle jealousy, although I really 
 feel grieved and anxious at your unusual 
 neglect. 
 
 I have no news just at present; indeed, 
 
 I am too much out of spirits to write at 
 any great length. Pray hasten to remove 
 all doubt from the mind of one whose 
 thoughts, day and night, are upon you only. 
 
 Your affectionate 
 
 Lizzie. 
 
 A LETTER OF CONDOLENCE ON THE DEATH 
 OF A HUSBAND. 
 
 Springfield, May i 8 tk, 18 — -. 
 
 My Dear : — If any consolation can 
 
 be afforded under so heavy an affliction as 
 you have just experienced, it must come 
 from a higher power than mine. Your own 
 strong sense of religion, and of our duty of 
 resignation to a power that is beyond our 
 control, and a will that is ever beneficently 
 directed towards our good, must uphold you 
 in this most bitter trial. I well know how 
 painful the well-meant, but often mistaken, 
 officiousness of friends may be on such 
 occasions, or I should have hastened to your 
 side, and sought to assuage the pangs of 
 your overworn spirit. 
 
 It were a melacholy pleasure to dwell 
 upon the virtues and accomplishments ofj 
 your late beloved husband ; but the sub- 
 ject is too painful for me, and, in the confi- 
 dence that he is in the enjoyment of an 
 everlasting happiness, such as, my dear 
 
 , even you could not have realized to 
 
 him on earth, I hope that you will support 
 your spirits both for your own and your 
 children’s sake, and look forward to that 
 
664 
 
 THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE. 
 
 brighter and happier world in which we 
 shall go to those who cannot return to us. 
 
 God comfort you, 
 
 Dear . 
 
 Your affectionate and 
 
 sorrowing friend, 
 
 Mrs. Jane Sympathy. 
 
 A LETTER OF CONDOLENCE ON THE DEATH 
 OF A CHILD. 
 
 New York , Aug. 10th, 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dear : If anything could have 
 
 caused me especial pain, it was the news of 
 your sad bereavement. How I remember 
 your dear child ! Affectionate, lively, and 
 intelligent, ever displaying a thoughtfulness 
 beyond his years, and holding forth hopes 
 of happiness in after times which will 
 scarcely bear reflection. 
 
 It has, indeed, been a heavy blow, and I 
 scarcely know how to talk of consolation 
 under so bitter an affliction. But think, 
 
 my dear , of One who “ careth for all,” 
 
 who loves little children beyond others, 
 and think of the bright and never-ending 
 future life of that dear child, whose spirit 
 has passed away but for a brief period, 
 whose soul only waits in heaven to hail the 
 mother from whom he has been parted. 
 
 I can say no more ; human consolations 
 are weak and poorly. May a higher power 
 do that which I cannot ! 
 
 Ever sincerely yours, 
 
 Mrs. G. H. Trowbridge. 
 
 A LETTER OF CONDOLENCE ON A REVERSE 
 OF FORTUNE. 
 
 Columbus , Ohio , yan. 3, 18 — . 
 
 Dear : — I am truly pained to hear 
 
 of the melancholy change in your circum- 
 stances. I had hoped that your husband’s 
 position and connections would have pre- 
 vented the possibility of his embarking in 
 any scheme where there seemed room for 
 
 uncertainty. But, unhappily, the specula- 
 tive spirit of the age is too seductive to be 
 easily withstood, and we are every day 
 hearing of families being reduced to abso- 
 lute poverty, more from mischance than 
 wilful error. 
 
 But you must not only cheer up, but 
 labor to cheer your husband likewise. Let 
 him find that he possesses a wife who will 
 not display her annoyance at the depriva- 
 tion of many (perhaps unnecessary) luxu- 
 ries of life, and whose determination to 
 economize will make poverty seem less 
 poor, and whose affection will insure him 
 that comfort which the wealthiest position, 
 without undivided affection, would wholly 
 fail to realize. 
 
 Nor must you look at matters as hope- 
 less. Although changed in your means, 
 you have not lost in character. Y our truer 
 friends look upon you with the same eyes 
 as formerly, and for the shallow and insin- 
 cere you ought not, cannot care. Besides, 
 a favorable change must result from your 
 husband’s persevering and consistent efforts; 
 and by the exercise of economy, and the 
 patient submission to a few privations, you 
 may ere long fully retrieve the position you 
 have already adorned. 
 
 That success and happiness may soon 
 spring out of the present unfavorable con- 
 dition of things, is the hearty and earnest 
 wish of, 
 
 Yours ever affectionately, 
 
 Grace Arlington. 
 
 ANNOUNCING TO A LADY THE DEATH OF 
 HER SISTER. 
 
 Portland , May 18, 18 — . 
 
 My Dear Madam : — You have long been 
 aware of the painful and serious illness 
 under which your dear sister has been suf- 
 fering; but perhaps you have not been 
 fully sensible of its dangerous tendency, 
 
THE ART OF CORRESPONDENCE. ON PUBLISHING BOOKS. 
 
 665 
 
 and of the fears always entertained by those 
 around her that its termination would be 
 fatal. Would that our fears had been with- 
 out foundation ; but I am reluctantly com- 
 pelled to tell you that our worst anticipa- 
 tions have been too mournfully realized, 
 your poor sister having expired (last even- 
 ing ), though, it is consolatory to state, with 
 little bodily suffering. She had borne her 
 affliction with the fortitude of a Christian, 
 retained her faculties to her last moments, 
 yielding her breath in full peace of mind, 
 and convinced that she was leaving this 
 earthly state for a better and a happier in 
 another world. Your dear mother is in 
 such a state of prostration that she finds 
 the task of writing to you too painful for 
 her feelings, and has expressed her wish 
 that I, the intimate friend of your late sis- 
 ter, should be the communicant of the sad 
 intelligence. She desires me to say how 
 much your presence would help to console, 
 not only herself, but also your father and 
 the whole of the family. They hope, there- 
 fore, to see you by the earliest opportunity, 
 and request me to send you their best love. 
 
 Accept, dear madam, my sincerest con- 
 dolence under this sad bereavement and 
 affliction, and 
 
 Believe me to remain, 
 
 Ever yours, sincerely, 
 
 Mrs. Julia St. John. 
 
 TO A YOUNG LADY ANXIOUS TO PUBLISH 
 A BOOK. 
 
 New Haven , Oct . 7, 1 8 — . 
 
 My Dear : — I am the last person 
 
 in the world to dream of discouraging the 
 efforts of young persons, especially when 
 their whole conduct displays uniform amia- 
 bility of disposition and soundness of char- 
 acter. But I cannot conceal what I believe 
 to be the real truth, viz. that you are too 
 young to have thought upon, or seen enough 
 
 of human nature, to venture to express 
 yourself in print. Remember, my dear 
 
 , that even a mere letter, once written, 
 
 is irrevocable. How much greater, then, 
 the mischief of committing oneself to print ? 
 In the one case, one person only may be 
 offended, in the other, thousands. Do not 
 let the precociousness of some few Ameri- 
 can and English authoresses deceive you- 
 Among the former, the instances are but 
 rare ; among the latter, there is little which 
 an American lady should imitate. 
 
 You have, it is true, received an excel- 
 lent education ; and your natural aptitude 
 has made that education profitable to you 
 in the fullest extent. But do not think 
 that your juvenile years are fit for the diffi- 
 cult task of novel writing. As an old au- 
 thoress, I look back with regret to many 
 crude publications of my early days, and 
 feel happy in their oblivion. Do not think 
 me unkind or querulous in my views. I 
 believe that where there is genius, genius 
 will find opportunities of fair development ; 
 but you must not mistake a mere partiality 
 for a pursuit for the talent which alone is 
 calculated to insure success. Do not 
 “ rush into print.” Deepen your present 
 thoughts by continued experience; mark 
 every transaction — every thought of your 
 own life, and think cautiously and impar- 
 tially upon the deeds and dealings of those 
 
 around you ; svich, my dear , are the 
 
 only studies which can ever make you fit 
 for the responsible and difficult duties of an 
 authoress. 
 
 Above all, beware of writing from mem- 
 ory . There are too many writers who dis- 
 course profusely upon things they have 
 never seen, society they have never moved 
 in. This is of little consequence where 
 mere facts are concerned, and what is once 
 well ascertained and known, is common 
 property; but in novel writing it is far 
 
666 
 
 THE AkT OF CORRESPONDENCE. FAMILY LETTERS. 
 
 otherwise. The great charm of Mrs. South- 
 worth’s works is their wondrous truthful- 
 ness and probability ; fiction to be success- 
 ful should bear the closest impress of truth ; 
 character should never be exaggerated, ab- 
 surdity should not be increased under the 
 mistaken belief that wit is displayed through 
 its means ; every feature of a story should 
 be modelled on the original in common 
 life, and the inculcation of a principle 
 should be consistent with what men and 
 women think and do, not with some fairy- 
 land notions of the authoress. 
 
 My dear , I have no doubt that if 
 
 you mature your conceptions, and mean- 
 while pay attention to the minute matters 
 of style which are so unhappily, and yet so 
 often, neglected, I shall one day hail you 
 as a younger sister in authorcraft. But it 
 is because I wish sincerely and affection- 
 ately for your welfare that I would have 
 you begin your career, not with precocious 
 crudities, but with well ripened and wo- 
 manly efforts, the result of reflection and 
 patience, as well as of genius. 
 
 Come to me on , and bring some of 
 
 your MS. with you. You will find a sin- 
 cere, but I trust not unkind, friend in 
 
 My dear , 
 
 Yours ever sincerely, 
 
 Clara Howard Bell. 
 
 FROM A MOTHER TO HER DAUGHTER, WHO 
 HAS LEFT HOME FOR DOMESTIC SERVICE 
 IN A LARGE CITY. 
 
 Glens Falls , Y Y, y an. 18, 18 — . 
 My Dear Daughter: — The time has 
 now arrived when you must henceforth de- 
 pend upon your own energies and moral 
 strength to battle successfully with the 
 world. 
 
 From the quiet, unsophisticated and 
 comparative innocence of country life you 
 are now launched into the midst of the 
 bustle, cunning and consequent evils to be 
 found in all large cities. This is a critical 
 period of life, and will require all your for- 
 titude, sustained by the early lessons so 
 carefully inculcated into your yet uncon- 
 taminated mind, to firmly withstand. 
 
 In the new sphere you have chosen be- 
 ware of the associations formed ; you will 
 come in contact with those who, from hav- 
 ing lived perhaps all their lives in the city, 
 have acquired its habits of gaiety and be- 
 come acquainted with the fascinating influ- 
 ences so detrimental to those uninitiated 
 in the wiles and schemes practiced to take 
 advantage of the young, unprotected and 
 unsuspecting female. 
 
 So, dear child, look well to the compan- 
 ions you choose. You are old enough to 
 know right from wrong ; you can discern 
 whether the society in which you mingle 
 will tend to good or evil. The question, 
 “ Will mother approve of this ? ” answered 
 according to conscience, may guide and 
 protect you from besetting snares. 
 
 In conclusion, faithfully discharge the 
 duties devolving upon you ; let not the 
 persuasions of others influence you in de- 
 parting from such a course of conduct as it 
 has been my fervent wish and prayer for 
 you to follow, it having been my sole en- 
 deavor to train your mind to a course of 
 rectitude of conduct and integrity of pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Your ever affectionate mother, 
 
 Julia Grah\m. 
 
TYPES AND THEIR NAMES, 
 
 SHOWING HOW TO SELECT TYPE FOR PRINTING, WITH SPECIMENS 
 
 OF THEIR SIZE AND STYLE. 
 
 ANY persons who have occasion to employ a printer at some time in their 
 lives and are unfamiliar with the terms used in a printing office when they 
 hear the printer use the words “ Brevier,” “ Nonpareil,” “ Long Primer,” 
 and other terms, are at as great a loss to understand him as if he spoke a 
 foreign language. They may wish an advertising card, a circular, a 
 handbill, or the programme of an entertainment, and naturally desire to have it at once 
 attractive and contain as much matter as possible. To aid such of our readers, we give 
 a specimen of the various forms and sizes of type commonly used, showing the same 
 amount of “ copy ” and the space it will require when “ set up ” in each style. 
 
 [PEARL.] 
 
 Within this volume’s crowded pages 
 The careful reader e’er cau find 
 Instruction suited to all ages 
 
 And wisdom to enrich the mind. 
 
 The youth may learn to write with beauty, 
 
 And “ keep his books ” with proper care. 
 
 The forms of speech and social duty, 
 
 And how to treat his lady fair. 
 
 [NONPAREIL.] 
 
 The maid may learn the art of writing, 
 
 To correspond with skill and ease, 
 
 To keep her home, no duty slighting, 
 
 And how to dress, the eye to please. 
 
 And if she had the wise instruction 
 
 Of “ Etiquette and Ball Room Guide,” 
 
 Some youth will seek an introduction 
 And ask her to become his bride. 
 
 And when the lover’s vows are plighted, 
 
 They learn of” wedding cards and cake,” 
 And soon in happy bonds united, 
 
 A home of peace and comfort make: 
 
 For in our book they have been reading 
 Of happiness in wedded life, 
 
 And this instruction wisely heeding, 
 
 They gain “ success in business ” strife. 
 
 [BREVIER.] 
 
 They learn how houses are erected 
 With great simplicity and taste, 
 
 How every part may be protected 
 And nothing good need run to waste. 
 In our “Domestic Education” 
 
 The wife may learn the household art ; 
 And, fitted for her honored station, 
 Judiciously may act her part. 
 
 “ Commercial Law ” and honest action 
 Will lead the toiling man to gain 
 In business ample satisfaction, 
 
 And thus his lawful rights maintain ; 
 While he who loves “The Constitution,” 
 And proudly aims to serve the State, 
 May learn “ The Art of Elocution,” 
 “The Rules and Order of Debate.” 
 
 [LONG PRIMER.] 
 
 And he who seeks for information 
 Of solid fact and honest worth, 
 
 The “ strength and power of every nation 
 That dwells upon the face of earth,” 
 The best and latest compilation 
 Within these lids he quickly finds, 
 Without the tedious operation 
 
 Of searching books of many kinds. 
 
 [SMALL PICA.] 
 
 The one in literature delighting, 
 
 And seeking gems of classic thought, 
 Or flowing verse of those inditing 
 Poetic works by genius wrought, 
 
 May read these precious gems at pleasure, 
 Enrich the mind with classic lore, 
 
 And find our book a priceless treasure 
 To teach his children o’er and o’er. 
 
 [PICA.] 
 
 The child should find his recreation 
 At home with friendsand parentsdear, 
 Where in this fond association 
 There need arise no painful fear 
 Of harm or wicked dissipation. 
 
 To aid in this we have designed 
 Amusements rich, without temptation, 
 And in our book their place assigned. 
 
The Public Speaker and Reader, 
 
 A SELF-EDUCATOR IN ELOCUTION AND ORATORY. 
 
 F English Grammar be truly defined as “ the art of speaking and writing the 
 English Language with propriety,” then, assuredly, the practice of elocu- 
 tion is important. Among all classes of society there is no complaint 
 more general than that of the rarity of good readers. 
 
 A celebrated orator has said : *‘ What is the cause of this admitted 
 
 neglect of the art of reading in so many schools and families ? Why is it that elocution 
 has been of late years so much disregarded as a part of education, and yet singing, 
 drawing and other accomplishments, have all received their due share of attention ? One 
 reason is, I believe, to be found in the fact that this very word, elocution , has been made 
 a bugbear of, and has frightened away many from its study, through a completely erro* 
 neous interpretation of its meaning and character. Do not many persons imagine that 
 the study of elocution must lead to a pompous, bombastic, stilted, or pedantic style — a 
 style in which the artificial reigns predominant over everything that is simple and 
 natural ? I can only say, if elocution meant anything of the kind I should be the last 
 man to advocate its adoption in schools or anywhere else. If I am asked to define what 
 I them mean by elocution, I think I should answer — ‘ That which is the most effective 
 pronunciation that can be given to words when they are arranged into sentences and 
 form discourse/ In this of course I include the appropriate inflections and modulations 
 of the voice, the purity of its intonation, the clearness of articulation, and, when statable 
 to the occasion , the accompaniments of expression of countenance and action. This art 
 of elocution, then, I may further define as that system of instruction which enables us 
 to pronounce written or extemporaneous composition with proper energy, correctness, 
 variety, and personal ease ; or, in other words, it is that style of delivery which not only 
 expresses fully the sense and the words so as to be thoroughly understood by the hearer, 
 but at the same time gives the sentence all the power, grace, melody and beauty of which 
 it is susceptible. 
 
 “ Is it not strange, let me ask, when we reflect on the marvellous power which spoken 
 language has to excite the deepest feelings of our common nature, that the cultivation of 
 the art of speaking which once received so much attention, should afterwards, and for so 
 long a time have been almost completely neglected ? We know what importance the 
 ancient orators of Greece and Rome attached to the study of rhetoric. The prince of 
 them all, Demosthenes, asserted that 1 Delivery’ (under which term is included every* 
 thing that relates to the effective management of voice, look, and gesture) is the first, the 
 second and the last element of success in a speaker. And surely this is as true in our 
 own day as it was in his. For even assuming that a youth has no apparent prospect of 
 debating in Congress, of addressing judges or juries at the Bar, or appealing on the most 
 solemn and important topics of all from the pulpit, does it therefore follow that he need 
 bestow no trouble in learning to speak his native language elegantly and effectively ? 
 
670 
 
 ELOCUTION CONSIDERED AS AN ART. 
 
 Will he never have occasion to read aloud in his family circle, or to a company of friends, 
 some leader from the newspaper, some chapter from a book, or some verses from a poem? 
 And what a difference will there be in the effect produced upon the reader and upon his 
 audience accordingly as this is done well or ill ! All should be taught the full develop- 
 ment of that which is the crowning glory of man — the divine gift of speech.” 
 
 ELOCUTION CONSIDERED AS AN ART. 
 
 RATORY, like poetry, is a gift, and cannot be acquired ; the conception 
 of original ideas and the ability to put them rapidly into form is common 
 to both — but as verification is to poetry what elocution is to oratory, both 
 maybe improved by study ; the versifier becomes in some sense a poet, 
 and the elocutionist an orator. 
 
 To be able to speak and read well must certainly rank amongst the foremost 
 accomplishments ; and the truth of this proposition appears to be very generally admit- 
 ted, and attested by the pleasure that is so universally derived from a just, appropriate, 
 and harmonious delivery ; for as language is the medium through which we communicate 
 •our thoughts, feelings, and impressions, so the force and power it exerts over us must 
 naturally be considerably modified by the manner in which it is conveyed to us. 
 
 To the cultivation of this power the Art of Elocution addresses itself, and is defined 
 to be, the just and graceful management of the Voice, Countenance and Gesture. 
 
 The importance of this art has been felt and acknowledged in all countries wherein 
 civilization and learning have attained their highest state of perfection. Even from the 
 earliest times it has ever been esteemed an indispensable branch of education ; nor can 
 its too common neglect with us be justified when we reflect upon its nature, and its 
 almost paramount necessity, not alone as regards those who aspire to distinguish them- 
 selves in Congress , at the Bar , or in the Pulpit , but even as to its influence in the trans- 
 actions oi commercial life and the management of large public societies. Nor is it pos- 
 sible to deny the grace and charm with which it invests the conversation of the scholar 
 and the gentleman ; for, as Cicero has justly observed, (( A cultivated address and a knowl- 
 edge of its principles are highly ornamental and useful even in private life .” And surely 
 the truth of this observation must, at some time or other, have been apparent to most of 
 us when we have witnessed the efforts of some unfortunate youth who has unexpectedly 
 been called upon to entertain a family circle, by reading a selection from the works of a 
 favorite author ; or, on the contrary, have been charmed by the correct' and pure enunci- 
 ation — the just and natural harmony — with which, it may be, some other friend has, on a 
 similar occasion, entranced the attention and elicited the applause and delight of all 
 around him. 
 
 Nor are the disadvantages from the neglect of this very essential branch of a perfect 
 and polite education in oratory — that is, the extemporaneous expression of our own 
 thoughts and sentiments —less apparent. How many instances may be cited where awk- 
 wardness of address, and a stammering and confused style of delivery, have imperilled a 
 good cause, whose advocate, defective only in this respect, has been compelled to sue 
 cumb before mere fluency of speech and confident volubility. 
 
ELOCUTION CONSIDERED AS AN ART. 
 
 671 
 
 As an art, it is, like others, entirely imitative: Nature in her most graceful and 
 harmonious expressions of the intentions, sentiments and emotions of the mind, being 
 the model ; and the rules of that art teach us to reproduce in our utterance of the 
 thoughts of others, the same tones, inflections, and pauses with which Nature has invest- 
 ed our own. 
 
 It is not indeed pretended that by the study and application of those rules excel- 
 lence can be insured , or an equal proficiency attained by all ; that of course must depend 
 on natural powers and capacity ; but few who have-deeply considered the subject will be 
 disposed to deny the great advantages that might accrue from a systematic instruction 
 in this art in early life, when the vocal organs are pliable and ductile, the observation 
 keen, and the ear quick and sensible of modulation, for it is precisely at this period 
 much of the evil from its neglect arises. It is by the neglect of all study that either a 
 drawling kind of monotony, a uniform rehearsing tone, by which a dull, unvarying sound 
 unbroken by inflection or pause, is acquired, producing a wearying effect on the ear, or 
 that a no less disagreeable sensation is inflicted from a diametrically opposite cause, viz . 
 a constant rising and falling of the voice totally regardless of the nature or feeling of the 
 subject delivered, and this careless unanimated whining manner, uncorrected, becomes 
 a habit not easily eradicated. 
 
 Now, we have to consider what are the principles and rules for a just and appropri- 
 ate delivery in reading as laid down by the art of elocution as opposed to this, and they 
 consist, first, in a distinct articulation modified by tone to the emotions of the mind, next 
 in the judicious observance of pause , inflection , and emphasis , as governed by the sense, 
 and lastly, the key , or pitch, being the proper management of the voice ; and to these are 
 added gesture or action when referring to oratory or recitation. 
 
 The most essential quality in a speaker being distinctness, not only as regards the 
 pleasure with which he is heard, but also the comfort and convenience of himself, a mod- 
 erate power of voice being audible at a much greater distance, provided the articulation 
 is pure and correct, than would be the case with a much stronger organ if confused or 
 indistinct in its utterance. Defects in this particular are chiefly attributable to a too great 
 precipitancy of speech, and are not unfrequently the result of school repetitions, in 
 which readiness and quickness of utterance are considered, often, rather a clever achieve- 
 ment on the part of the pupil, and a satisfactory evidence of being perfect by the master. 
 Be this as it may, the result is a bad habit, and the most effectual method of counteract- 
 ing and removing it that perhaps can be suggested, is the daily practice of reading aloud 
 either a vocabulary of words or some literary composition, neglecting altogether its con- 
 struction or sense, and paying attention only to the pronunciation of every syllable, par- 
 ticularly regarding the vowel sounds in all their tonic variety, and in this manner going 
 through the entire task slowly and distinctly, much slower indeed than would be neces- 
 sary if read in the proper manner. The indistinctness acquired by sacrificing sense to 
 rapidity may, by the opposite process, be removed. 
 
 This will be found also a very efficient way of strengthening the voice in all its 
 pitches. 
 
672 
 
 ELOCUTION. ON PAUSE* 
 
 ON PAUSE. 
 
 HOUGH it would be wrong to affirm, of any particular branch of the “art 
 of elocution/’ that it is the first in importance, since they all act, as it were, 
 in combination, and each contributes its share essentially in imparting 
 force, elegance, feeling, or harmony to the delivery of the perfect reader 
 or speaker, according to the variety of character with which Infinite Good- 
 ness has endowed that supreme and distinctive gift, the articulate voice of man ; yet, as 
 the ease and propriety with which we are enabled to pronounce written language, or our 
 own extemporaneous effusions, is mainly dependent on the theory of pausing, its skilful 
 adaptation may at least be considered the foundation on which the art of reading and 
 speaking is in some measure based. To appreciate it properly, it is necessary we should 
 understand the difference that exists between language as it addresses itself to us through 
 two different mediums — those of the eye and ear — to the first by written characters, and 
 to the latter by oral expression. 
 
 Now, the system of punctuation or stops, by which the former of these is distin-, 
 guished, can only be considered serviceable as it instructs the silent reader in the gram- 
 matical construction of the subject before him, and he is thus guided in the sense of his 
 author ; that is, if they are correctly placed, which, however, may not always be the 
 case. 
 
 These, then, for distinction sake, we will call “Grammatical Pauses.” But these are 
 by no means sufficient for the purpose of reading aloud, and it is the ignorance or disre- 
 gard of this fact, that is the foundation of many false rules of instruction in this particu- 
 lar branch of education. Hence the common direction, “ mind your stops” by which is 
 meant, those alone that appear on the printed page, with no reference at all to any others 
 that may be deemed necessary, and indeed are absolutely essential to correct oral 
 delivery. 
 
 Hence, too, the second injunction, which is “that the breath is never to be drawn 
 but at a full stop.” Now, concerning these stops, we are told, that a “ comma” is a rest 
 while you count one, a “ semicolon” two, a “colon” three, and a “period” four, and by this 
 precise division of time, it is evident that they are generally accepted as sufficient for all 
 the purposes, not only of sense, but expression also. But herein lies the error; “Not 
 half the pauses are found in printing which are heard in the pronunciation of a good 
 reader or speaker ;” and these, which we distinguish as “ Rhetorical Pauses,” are neces-y 
 sary to him, to enable him to take breath, relieve the organs of speech, and to enable the! 
 attention of his auditors, unwearied by the continuity of sound, to follow with a perfect 
 appreciation of the meaning of that which he utters. 
 
 The Rhetorical Pauses consist of three rests of different durations of time- — viz.: the 
 smaller or short pause , answering in this respect to the comma ; the greater or middle 
 pause , to the semicolon ; and the greatest or rest, to the period or full stop. To the first of 
 these, on account of the frequency of its recurrence, and consequent assistance rendered 
 to the speaker, the most importance is attached. 
 
ELOCUTION. ON PAUSE. 
 
 673 
 
 This pause is generally used after several words occurring in one phrase, serving as 
 the nominative to some verb : 
 
 The objective phrase in an inverted sentence — that is, sentences the number of 
 which, when inverted as to order, preserve the same sense. 
 
 The emphatic word of force and the subject of a sentence, Each number of a 
 “ series,” whether single ; (that is, composed of single words) or compound, \ being com- 
 posed of sentences. 
 
 It should be used also before the infinitive mood : 
 
 Prepositions (except when part of one phrase), relative pronouns and conjunctions, 
 adverbs of time, similitude, and some others : 
 
 In some cases, for the sake of emphasis, it is used after disjunctions. 
 
 Whatever number intervenes between the nominative case and the verb must be 
 considered to be of the nature of a parenthesis, and is therefore separated from both of 
 them by the short pause. 
 
 The greater or middle pause is properly to be used when a sentence is composed of 
 two principal parts, in the first of which, the sense being incomplete or suspended, is per- 
 fected by the latter ; the pause taking place at that point where the sense begins to be 
 complete, thus dividing it into distinctive portions, each of which, it is to be observed, 
 has also a distinctive tone or inflection. 
 
 great rest or full pause completes the entire sense, and being identical with the 
 “ period,” can therefore be well understood. 
 
 To these various rests a fourth is sometimes added by writers on this subject, which 
 they term the long pause. It is mentioned here as being chiefly of use to the orator as» 
 by marking certain divisions in his subject — a change of ideas or a return from a digres- 
 sion — it affords him, in the heat of argument or the effects of exhaustion, time to collect 
 himself, and it may be, an opportunity for correcting the tone or pitch of voice, which 
 from excitement may have become raised too high to be sustained with comfort or effect. 
 
 To return, however, to the erroneous direction noticed, viz.: “That the breath is 
 never to be drawn but at a full stop or period.” It has been before observed that the 
 use of these pauses is for the greater ease and facility of the speaker. The absurdity of 
 this injunction must be therefore most apparent, since the fact is really that at every one 
 of these rhetorical pauses or rests the breath receives, or should receive, a gentle, insensi- 
 ble, but at the same time inaudible inspiration ; and thus the lungs, like the bellows of 
 an organ, being constantly supplied and inflated with fresh breath, the power of the 
 speaker is considerably increased by the very control he is enabled to exercise in the 
 increase or diminishment of its power at will, after the manner of the “ crescendo” and 
 “diminuendo” in music. 
 
 If the student would practically test this let him take up the Exordium to Milton’s 
 first book of “ Paradise Lost.” There are four periods in that fine opening ; the first 
 consisting of nine and a half lines, the next six and a half, the third five and a half, and 
 the last four and a half. Let him try to accomplish the delivery of the first period with, 
 out taking breath. If he succeeds he may rest satisfied that he possesses lungs of the 
 consistency of leather with the capacity of the cave of ^Eolus ; but as this experiment 
 will infallibly prove the contrary, let him again essay, using not only the punctuated or 
 
674 
 
 ELOCUTION. ON INFLECTION. 
 
 grammatical, but the rhetorical pauses in aid, according to the general rules already 
 recited, and he will find himself able to master not the first period alone, but also to 
 reach the end of the subject through the three succeeding ones with the greatest ease 
 and facility, and in addition he will learn also this, that in attempting to pronounce more 
 in a breath than he could conveniently effect, and neglecting those pauses where the 
 breath ought to be taken, he has been obliged to pause where the sense, not being sepa- 
 rable, forbade it, and thus has rendered the whole of his subject an unintelligible jumble. 
 
 ON INFLECTION. 
 
 OST if not all the defects which are discernible in the generality of read- 
 ers with regard to “ inflection,” arise from an artificial habit acquired in 
 early youth of reading with different tones and cadences from those which 
 they are accustomed to use in speaking. Now, whatever may be the 
 cause from whence it originates, a more fatal error, one more subversive 
 of propriety of delivery, does not exist ; for in reading, the utterance should be so regu- 
 lated as to fall on the ears of the auditors as though we were conveying to them the 
 sentiments of the author — as if they were the emanations of our own mind. 
 
 Mr. Sheridan, in his “ Lectures,” observes : “ There are few persons who in private 
 company do not deliver their sentiments with propriety and force in their manner when- 
 ever they speak in earnest ; consequently, here is a sure standard for propriety and force 
 in public speaking.” And this observation must apply therefore equally to reading ; but 
 to reduce this to practice it is essentially necessary that we should first be perfect mas- 
 ters of the nature and subject-matter to be delivered, and the intention of the author; 
 and to this end, therefore, it is always advisable that the student should accustom him- 
 self in his private practice, first, to peruse carefully the composition he intends to read 
 aloud, so as entirely to comprehend the full meaning and import of the words and the 
 general construction of the language, the character of which sometimes bears the dis- 
 tinctive impress of its particular writer, and then let him endeavor to deliver it as if the 
 ideas and sentiments were his own, and in that natural and forcible manner as in that 
 case he would ; and this can only be effected by observing those various inflections of 
 voice which Nature herself has prescribed, and adapting them according to the form and 
 sense of the various sentences. 
 
 These consist of the “Rising,” the “Falling” and the “Circumflex” or “Com- 
 pound Inflections.” The first of these is so called from the voice rising or ascending 
 upwards, the second when it falls or slides downwards, and the last when both the rising 
 and falling inflection is combined in the same word, or even in more than one, as is 
 sometimes the case ; but when the voice continues on the same note it is then said to 
 be “ monotone.” 
 
 The “ Circumflex Inflection ” is capable of being again subdivided for distinction's 
 /ake into the rising and falling circumflex, according as it commences with either the 
 rising or falling slide of the voice. 
 
ELOCUTION. ON INFLECTION. 
 
 675 
 
 New, in speaking, the voice is regulated either by the implied or expressed sense or 
 feeling of the subject, or nature of the sentence ; that is, it indicates either that the 
 sense is complete or suspended — is Affirmative, Negative, Interrogative or Imperative t 
 Thus, suspended sense is accompanied and marked by the “rising inflection/’ coupled 
 with the middle pause. “ Complete or finished sense ” is distinguished by the falling, and 
 to it also belongs the “ full pause,” answering to the period or full stop. But here it is 
 necessary to notice a very common error — it is the very common direction to drop the 
 voice at the end of a sentence. Now, the last part of a sentence — and more especially 
 the last word, as it completes the sense — must of necessity be the most essential to the 
 perfect understanding of that sentence. To let it, therefore, fall listlessly or feebly on 
 the ear, so as to strain the attention of the auditor or reduce him to the bewilderment of 
 guessing at its import, is a manifest absurdity. The fact is, it should ever be considered 
 of equal importance to the first ; and though receiving the downward inflection of the 
 voice, as such maintain its full tone, pitch and enunciation. 
 
 To proceed, however. The Affirmative sense is indicated by the falling, and the 
 Negative, as a general rule, receives the rising inflection. The same applies to the In- 
 terrogative sentences, while the Imperative is distinguished by the falling ; of course, it 
 must be understood that all these are subject to certain exceptions, which exceptions are 
 caused by the influence of what is termed the emphasis of force or feeling, and depend, 
 therefore, on the judgment and intelligence of the speaker. 
 
 The compound or circumflex inflection, as we have before stated, both descends and 
 ascends in what may be described as a curve of the voice, and is generally used in strong 
 or vehement interrogation, its extent being determined by the force or extent of the 
 passion by which it it is governed ; it is expressive of Wonder, Contempt, Scorn, Ridicu le % 
 Irony, & c., &c. 
 
 The speech of Brutus, in the quarrel scene between himself and Cassius, will afford 
 an apt illustration of the nature of this particular inflection of the voice, beginning “ All 
 this, and more,” &c., &c. 
 
 The same inflection must be given to all words or phrases whose meaning and con- 
 struction are in opposition, but when antithetical or opposed to each other they demand 
 opposite inflections, and by this agreement of tone in the first and opposition in the latter 
 case the sound, as it were, is to the ear in accordance with the sense. When many 
 antithetical members, however, follow in succession, for the sake of variety and harmony 
 the inflections should be alternated. Let the student refer for an example of this to I 
 Cor. xv. 39, 40 : 
 
 39. All flesh is not the same flesh ; but there is one kind ot flesh of men, another 
 flesh of beasts, another of fishes and another of birds. 
 
 40. There are also celestial bodies and bodies terrestrial ; but the glory of the 
 celestial is one and the glory of the terrestrial is another. 
 
 We have instanced these two verses only ; but the whole chapter, indeed, from the 
 20th verse, not only in respect to this, but every other rule, is an admirable exercise in 
 inflection ; ” and its perfect delivery must at all times declare the accomplished elocu- 
 tionist 
 
676 
 
 ELOCUTION. ON PITCH. 
 
 ON PITCH. 
 
 HE management and modulation of the voice is another branch of the art 
 of elocution to which the student who is ambitious of becoming a good and 
 effective reader or speaker should devote the most sedulous attention, and 
 for this purpose it is necessary for him to be thoroughly acquainted with 
 the theory and nature of the various pitches of that organ, for by them 
 not only does he derive the variety that is so pleasing to the ear, and secure for himself 
 relief from that inconvenience which his ignorance or neglect in this respect must inevit- 
 ably entail on him, but he is enabled to exhibit by their just and appropriate use the 
 various emotions and sentiments of his subject, whether they belong to himself or others, 
 with the greater force and power of expression. 
 
 The human voice has been observed to possess three distinct tones, and these are 
 distinguished as “ high, low and middle pitch.” Of these the one most used is the 
 middle, for the reason that it is the tone which we naturally are accustomed to in com- 
 mon discourse, and is therefore, from its frequent exercise, generally stronger. It must 
 also be apparent that being easier to rise or fall from it to a higher or lower key, it ought, 
 with few exceptions, to be the one we should adopt when not excited by any particular 
 passion — as, for instance, in calm narration, descriptive statement or moral reflection. 
 
 Now, it cannot have escaped the notice of even the most casual observer that the 
 instant the mind, even in ordinary conversation, receives the impression of any particular 
 emotion the voice becomes inflected, either upward or downward, to the higher or lower 
 portion of its register, its range being determined by the force or intensity of that emo- 
 tion. There is a higher, sharper and shriller tone attained by rage , and a deeper one by 
 sorrow. It is therefore expedient that a just appreciation and a skillful adaptation of 
 these tones should be attended to. 
 
 Having already noticed the first of these, its quality and character, on proceeding to 
 the high pitch, we shall find that it is the proper key of all the more impulsive passions 
 or elevated feelings. To it belong rage, threatening, denunciation, invective, joy and 
 exultation, and, indeed, all eager and animated speech in general ; while, on the contraryj 
 grief, melancholy, veneration, deep thought, serious reflection, hate and suppressed pas- 
 sion belong to the low pitch. 
 
 It is necessary, however, to observe that there is a great distinction between the 
 terms high and low , and loud and soft , for these are often confounded. This latter, it 
 should be clearly understood, merely signifies the degree of force or volume of sound it 
 may be deemed necessary to use in the same key, and answers precisely to the forte and 
 piano in music, whilst the former intimates a change of key altogether. Pitch, therefore, 
 is independent of foice, though force may add frequently to the effect of pitch . 
 
 Few voices are so perfect as not to require some sort of education in order to enable 
 them to compass with facility an extensive range into either the higher or lower keys, 
 and on extraordinary occasions it may even be necessary to touch on the extremes of 
 either. This can only be effected by practice. Therefore, as in the directions concern* 
 
ELOCUTION. ON GESTURE. 
 
 677 
 
 ing articulation we stated that by reading slowly and pronouncing every syllable clearly 
 and distinctly in the middle tone, that particular pitch would be greatly strengthened, we 
 venture to recommend that the self-same process be diligently and perseveringly applied 
 in the same manner to the other two — viz.: without reference to the sense of the passages 
 to be read, but to the sound, and the compass and power of the voice in the higher and 
 lower portions of its register will be much extended. The student should, in addition to 
 this exercise, carefully select and read aloud such scenes or passages as require these 
 particular pitches, and adapt them accordingly ; and more especially those in which the 
 particular passion they indicate appears to intensify or culminate, so as to go through all 
 the gradations of either without abruptly leaping, as it were, from one pitch to another. 
 
 ON GESTURE. 
 
 [NDER this head is included the whole deportment of the body, in ordei 
 that it may be justly adapted to the nature and emotions of the subject 
 pronounced. The disposition of the limbs, the movements of the hands, 
 the carriage of the head, and even the movements of the eyes and direc- 
 tion and expression of the countenance altogether. For every passion, 
 emotion or sentiment has some attitude, look or movement peculiar to itself; any incon- 
 gruity, therefore, either by vague, awkward or unsuitable and inconsistent gesture not 
 only frustrates the intention of the speaker, but in many instances becomes ridiculous 
 and absurd ; for the object of public speaking is either to instruct, to please or to per 
 suade ; and how can either of these objects be attained if the orator be devoid of pro- 
 priety, force or grace ? 
 
 Cicero calls action “ the language of the body,” and further observes : * It is action 
 
 alone that governs in speaking, without which the best orator is of no value, and is often 
 defeated by one in other respects much his inferior.” And, indeed, the orators of Greece 
 and Rome appear to have attached the utmost importance to this particular department 
 of elocution ; for not only were they accustomed to employ persons whom they called 
 “ phonasci,” whose office was to teach the modulations of the voice, but also others foi 
 special instruction as to voice and gesture combined ; the latter being generally eminent 
 and experienced actors selected from their theatres ; and in fact, by this practical method 
 it was that they attained that high degree of excellence of which we have so many 
 records. 
 
 The first thing to be considered, and one of infinite importance, both to the 
 orator or reciter, since much value must ever be attached to first impressions, is the man 
 ner in which he presents himself before the assembly it is his purpose to address. This, 
 of course, depends in some manner on the nature ot his subject, and in this the aspect 
 or countenance of the speaker bears no inconsiderable part. Thus, for instance, a sedate 
 expression at once implies a mature consideration of the argument about to be advanced, 
 and communicates insensibly an idea of its importance. And on the contrary, a cheer- 
 ful air raises the expectation of being entertained with a pleasant and agreeable dis- 
 course. But above ail, a wandering look, an air of levity, or a haughty, superciliov. ; man 
 
678 
 
 ELOCUTION. ON GESTURE. 
 
 ner, which either fails to excite respect or else begets distaste, must be carefully avoided 
 Nor at the same time is a dejected appearance pleasing, unless the subject to be delivered 
 is of a melancholy nature. 
 
 Face the audience, avoiding altogether a sidelong attitute, let the feet be firmly 
 planted, yet not close together, but with one advanced, the body resting on the other, 
 erect, not too stiff, but easily and flexibly adapting itself to the motion of the head and 
 hands ; avoiding, however, anything approaching to a wavering motion, such as we are 
 told by Cicero a Roman orator called Curio was addicted to, and for which he became 
 the subject of a friend’s joke, who once asked, “ Who is that talking out of a boat?' 
 
 A judicious management of the eyes, in awakening and insuring a continued atten- 
 tion, also deserves notice. They should be neither wandering nor altogether fixed or 
 staring, but generally gentle and moderate in their motions, and directed in turn to 
 different portions of the audience, as if engaging each in common discourse. 
 
 In considering the movements of the arms and hands it should be well understood 
 that, to insure a graceful action r all angularity must be strictly avoided ; and, therefore, 
 this rule cannot be too carefully impressed upon the mind, viz. : That all motion must 
 proceed from the shoulder , and not from the extremity of the fingers , and that the elbow 
 should never be suffered to incline to the body ; nor should the hands assume a rigid and 
 constrained appearance in the disposition of the fingers , by being held open and fiat , as if 
 about to administer a sound “ box on the ear ,” or spread abroad like a bunch of radishes , 
 or crookedly contracted like the claws of a crab ; but moderately opened, let the index , 
 or first finger, lightly press the middle one, the other two inclining gently inward towards 
 the palm. This must, of course, be understood as referring to the hands in a state of 
 repose ; and when used in a temperate and unimpassioned address they contribute to that 
 simplicity and grace— -and,, at the same time, dignity — that should at all times character- 
 ize the movements and bearing of the orator. Under the influence of the passions, 
 indeed, they assume other forms ; and most infinite is their use and variety : “ Greater , 
 indeed? as Quintilian justly observes, u than can well be expressed, for they are almost equal 
 to our words . Do not we desire with them , promise, call, dismiss, threaten, beseech , detest, 
 fear, inquire, deny ? Do not they express joy, sorrow, doubt, confusion, penitence, measure, 
 plenty, number, and time ? Do not they excite, restrain, prove, admire and shame ? That in 
 so great a variety of speech among all nations and countries, this seems to me the common 
 language of mankma and it is not only proper but needful that either hand occasionally 
 should be used indiscriminately, as the principal gesture, or the position of the person 
 addressed, may require ; and sometimes distinctively the left hand alternates its office 
 with the right. 
 
 Rarely — very rarely indeed — should the hands be raised above the eyes or extended 
 beyond the range ot vision, the action of the right generally commencing on the left side 
 and terminating on the right side ; and vice versa, the same rule applies to the movement 
 of the left hand. The stroke which marks the emphatic word must descend on that 
 word alone at the instant of its utterance. The movement of the arm and hand also 
 should be sustained and suspended through the duration of a passage, and terminate 
 precisely with it : and we may very well conceive this timing of the gesture to be the 
 probable if not the actual meaning of Shakspeare when, in his direction to the players. 
 
ELOCUTION ON GESTURE. 
 
 679 
 
 he says, “Suit the action to the word — the word to the action for it can hardly be believed 
 that he alluded to descriptive or appropriate action simply, such as raising the hand when 
 appealing to heaven, or sinking it when speaking of the earth. And, in mentioning 
 Shakspeare, it will scarcely be necessary to remind the student of his remarks concern 
 ing sawing the air, which is nothing more than the incessant repetition of the obnoxious 
 straight-lined description of action before noticed. 
 
 Having spoken of the indiscriminate use of both hands, it is proper to add that 
 neither should be used invariably alone. 
 
 Nothing can appear more ungraceful, not to say ridiculous, than to see one hand 
 (either the right or left) constantly in motion, while the other hangs uselessly by the side, 
 as if it had no sympathy in the discourse. The fact is, that either hand should accom- 
 modate itself to and support the action of the other. 
 
 It should be perfectly understood, that no art depends so much on constant and 
 almost unremitting practice as elocution, and the appropriate gesture that should attend 
 it. Neither grace nor facility can possibly be otherwise attained ; theory alone is worse 
 than useless, and even the best instructions must, without it, entirely and invariably fail. 
 The best mentor that a young orator or reciter can appeal to, in this indispensable private 
 practice, is the looking-glass . Much, however, has been said by way of dissent from this 
 opinion, but certainly without mature consideration of the subject. 
 
 It has been objected, for instance, that an earnest speaker must, from the impulse of 
 nature, use appropriate action ; but it we grant this, it by no means follows that it will 
 be graceful , and it is the combination of the natmal with the graceful that alone makes 
 the perfect orator \ 
 
 Besides, are there no Bad Habits to be corrected ? We daily see that such have 
 been contracted by men who enjoy a reputation as speakers, yet doubtless they are influ- 
 enced by the impulses of nature; such, for instance, as nodding with the heady pocketing 
 the hands , trifling with the dress , placing the arms a-kimboy tucking them behind, ducking 
 the body or jerking it , leanmg on tabley crossing the legs , standing sideways or with the feet 
 together y fixing the eyes on the ceiling or opposite wall, exaggeration of action or constant 
 repetition of it . Many more might be instanced, but these will serve for the present pur- 
 pose, as they cannot have escaped the notice of any acute observer interested in the sub- 
 ject of public oratory. 
 
 Now as good habits are full as easy to be acquired as those of an opposite descrip- 
 tion, though the latter, in the process of being got rid of, present a somewhat greater 
 difficulty, yet the means of their acquisition is very similar, viz. : constant repetition. If 
 therefore, the rules laid down for appropriate and graceful action are studied assiduously 
 and frequently in the faithful reflections of the mirror, those principles will become so 
 impressed on the mind of the student, as ever after to influence his bearing and general 
 style of gesture, and that too without stiffness or artificiality ; for it is not for a moment 
 pretended that the action which he may then consider appropriate must of necessity be 
 precisely the same he is called upon to use when speaking or reciting in public. This 
 exercise aims alone at the acquisition of grace and ease by the appeal to his own judg- 
 ment, which this practice will habitually confirm, and ever after influence the involuntary 
 gestures that arise from the emotions of his mind. It is probable that the action may 
 
680 
 
 ELOCUTION. ON READING VERSE. 
 
 differ — may take a wider sweep, a more extended character — may be more elevated or 
 depressed, slower or more abrupt : it matters not ; it will bear the impress of his genera 2 
 study, and manifest itself in force, expression, and grace. 
 
 ON READING VERSE. 
 
 LTHOUGH the rules laid down in the preceding chapters apply alike to 
 poetry and prose, a few observations on the reading of rhymed verse may 
 not be out of place. 
 
 There are many excellent readers of prose who entirely fail to distin- 
 guish the equable and harmonious flow of sound which distinguishes 
 poetry from ordinary unmeasured composition. These are devoid of what a musician 
 would call “ear,” and hence their delivery of rhymed couplets becomes tame and insipid, 
 familiar and commonplace, and too frequently degenerate into mere “sing-song,” utterly 
 beneath the dignity of inspired verse. 
 
 Perhaps one of the greatest difficulties felt by every professor of elocution in teach- 
 ing youth to recite poetry, is the almost universal inability of the pupil to understand 
 and grasp the meaning of the poem. Unless the author be thoroughly appreciated and 
 his intention, not only expressed but implied, mastered, the natural emotion (and con- 
 sequently the proper inflexions and varieties of voice) cannot possibly arise, and, if not, 
 how can they be expressed save by a studied, stilted, and artificial style ? It is, perhaps* 
 not saying too much to aver that only a poet can read poetry properly : at any rate only 
 those who are perfectly imbued with the poetic feeling can do so. Given all these qu ffifica- 
 tions, and action, voice, and gesture will follow naturally and spontaneously ; the electric 
 fire will flash from the speaker to his audience, enthusiasm will be kindled, and a result 
 that only true genius can achieve will be accomplished. 
 
 The great secret in reading poetry is to exercise the art that conceals art, or 
 rather the art that seems to heighten and improve nature and to subdue it, so that it is 
 never apparent that the speaker is delivering the words ot others. To the hearers it 
 should be as though the speaker were giving the utterances of his own heart, and his 
 own brain, an impulsive and involuntary outpouring excited by existing and surrounding 
 circumstances. It was thus Shakspeare wrote, assisted by no rule, his guiding power 
 being only his exquisite sense of the fitness of all things. It was thus that Edmund 
 Kean produced his finest effects, — not from calculation, but from knowledge, impulse, and 
 appreciation, lit by the light that was within him. 
 
 But in our schools and colleges teaching must begin before experience has ripened. 
 All that can be done is to apply certain rules, and these, if diligently attended to, will 
 have so far forwarded the work of perfection at which all may arrive when the mind 
 comes to maturity. We would premise that it is essential in all cases that the master 
 should fully explain to the pupil the subject, the meaning, and all the surroundings of the 
 poem or extract he is about to teach. 
 
 The rules for the delivery of poetry may be thus briefly stated. 
 
ELOCUTION. HOW TO SIMULATE THE PASSIONS. 
 
 681 
 
 1. In all cases it is better to commence a poem in a simple, natural, and easy sty^ 
 warming with the subject as the poet becomes passionate or emotional. 
 
 2. If the poetry be written correctly, every word should have the same accent as in 
 prose, but as many of our best poets have accented words that change their accent when 
 used as verbs or nouns alike, it is better to sacrifice the sense to the sound rather than 
 the rhythm of the poem should be destroyed. 
 
 3. The article the must never be strongly accented in reading or reciting verse. 
 
 4. Elisions, so frequently found in our earlier poets, must seldom or never be attend- 
 ed to in reading verse — thus in “ gen’rous” the dropped “ e” must be sounded as in 
 “generous.” 
 
 5. The end of every line in poetry must be delicately marked, care being taken not 
 to interfere with the intimate or remote connection subsisting between the subsequent 
 lines. 
 
 6. The rhetorical pauses should oe taken at the commencement, and never in the 
 middle of a poetic foot. 
 
 7. A simile ought to be read in a lower tone of voice than the portion o! the poem 
 which precedes it. 
 
 HOW TO SIMULATE THE PASSIONS IN THE RECITAL OF 
 
 HEROIC VERSE. 
 
 HUS far the rules we have laid down apply to poetry generally, but as the 
 simulations of the passions enter largely into the recital of heroic verse, 
 it will be necessary to enter briefly into this branch of the subject. 
 
 “ How are we to acquire that peculiar quality of sound that indicates 
 the passion we wish to express ?” The answer is easy : tf< By feeling the 
 passion which expresses itself by that peculiar quality of sound.” The simulation of the 
 passions may be obtained by imitation — that is, by observing and noting in the memory 
 the various tones and gestures which accompany them when they arise or are indulged 
 in by others, so that we may dispose ourselves to feel them mechanically, and improve 
 our expression of them when we are called on to read or recite the particular pieces in 
 which they occur; for by the imitation of the passions, we meet them, as it were, half 
 way. 
 
 1. Tranquillity. — This may be expressed by the composure of the countenance 
 and a general repose of the whole body, without the exertion of any one muscle. The 
 countenance open, the forehead smooth, the eyebrows arched, the mouth nearly closed, 
 and the eyes passing with an easy motion from object to object, but not dwelling too long 
 on one. Care must be taken to distinguish it from insensibility. 
 
 2. Cheerfulness adds a smile to tranquillity, and opens the mouth a little more. 
 
 3. Mirth requires a laughing, joyous style of delivery ; but buffoonery and grimace 
 must be avoided, or the audience will laugh at and not with the speaker, who should let 
 his subject-matter set his audience laughing before copying their example. 
 
682 
 
 ELOCUTION. HOW TO SIMULATE THE PASSIONS. 
 
 4. Raillery puts on the aspect of cheerfulness ; the tone of voice should be 
 sprightly. 
 
 5. Irony is expressed by the sneer, which is ironical approbation. A satirical tone 
 of voice, look and gesture should accompany it. 
 
 6. Joy radiates the countenance with smiles, and lights up, as it were, the whole 
 frame. Walker recommends “ clapping the hands,” “raising the eyes to heaven,” and 
 “ giving such a spring to the body as to make it attempt to mount up as if it could fly ” — 
 but all such extravagances must be avoided. 
 
 7. Delight. — The tones, gestures and looks are the same as joy, but less forcible 
 and more permanent. 
 
 8. Love must be approached with the utmost delicacy ; it is best expressed by a 
 deep, impassioned, fervent tone ; the right hand may be pressed over the heart, but the 
 “ languishing eyes ” recommended by some authors borders too closely on burlesque. A 
 steady, respectful gaze on the assumed object of affection may be permitted. 
 
 9. Pity may be denoted by an expression of pain on the countenance and a com* 
 passionate tenderness of the voice. The mouth open, and a gentle raising and falling of 
 the hands and eyes, as if mourning over the unhappy object. 
 
 10. Hope erects and brightens the countenance, spreads the arms with the hands 
 open, as to receive the object of its wishes. The voice is plaintive and inclining to 
 eagerness. 
 
 11. Hatred draws back the body as to avoid the hated object ; the hands at the 
 same time spread out, as if to keep it off. The pitch of the voice is low, but harsh, 
 chiding and vehement. 
 
 12. Anger expresses itself with rapidity and harshness — and sometimes with inter- 
 ruption and hesitation, as if unable to utter with sufficient force. Rage and Fury are 
 exaggerations of this passion. 
 
 13. Reproach requires the contracted brow and the curled lip ; the voice is low and 
 the whole body expressive of aversion. 
 
 14. Fear is one of the most difficult and elaborate passions to simulate. The breath 
 must appear quick and short ; the voice trembling and weak ; the body as if shrinking 
 from danger. When attended with terror and consternation, one foot is drawn back as 
 if putting itself into a posture for flight. 
 
 15. Sorrow. — Countenance dejected, eyes cast down, arms hanging loose, the voice 
 plaintive and interrupted by sighs. 
 
 1 6. Remorse. — Head hangs down, the voice low and harsh. 
 
 17. Despair can only be touched by an accomplished actor. The amateur should 
 attempt nothing beyond reading or reciting the oassage, depicting it in a deep and 
 solemn tone. 
 
 18. Surprise may be expressed by the mouth and eyes being wide open ; the voice 
 in the upper pitch. Wonder, Amazement and Admiration come under this head. 
 
 19. Pride assumes a lofty look ; the eyes well open, the words uttered in slow, stiff 
 affected style. 
 
ELOCUTION. HOW TO SIMULATE THE PASSIONS. 
 
 683 
 
 20. Confidence — Courage. — In both the head is erect, the breast projected, the 
 countenance clear and open, the voice loud, round and not too rapid. Boasting exagger- 
 ates these by noise and blustering. 
 
 21. Perplexity, with which may be classed Irresolution and Anxiety, requires 
 an expression of thoughtful consideration ; the motions of the body are restless, the 
 pauses long, the tone of the voice uneven. 
 
 22. Vexation expresses itself with looks of perplexity ; the tones are sharp and 
 broken ; the hands restless. 
 
 23. Envy. — Envy arises from a mixture of joy, sorrow and hatred ; it sometimes 
 assumes a mocking tone. 
 
 24. Malice sends flashes from the eyes and closes the teeth. The voice is expressed 
 as in anger. 
 
 25. Jealousy displays itself in such a variety of forms that it may embrace any of 
 the foregoing ; the text of the author will discover which. 
 
 26. Modesty bends the body forward, and has a placid, downcast countenance ; the 
 tone of voice is low. 
 
 27. Shame turns away the face from the beholders, casts down the eyes ; the voice 
 is confused and faltering. 
 
 28. Gravity. — The posture of the body and limbs is composed and without much 
 motion ; the speech slow and solemn, the tone without much variety. 
 
 29. Admonition assumes a grave air, bordering on severity ; the voice assumes the 
 low tone, bordering on the monotone. 
 
 30. Reproof puts on a stern aspect and roughens the voice ; it is sometimes ac- 
 companied by threatening gestures. 
 
 A number of other examples might be given, but the pupil who has mastered the 
 above will scarcely need further instruction. 
 
 USEFUL HINTS. 
 
 the opportunity is afforded you, try the acoustic properties of the 
 in which you are to recite beforehand. You will thus ascertain the 
 r pitch on which to commence. 
 
 :. If the room be large and resonant, be careful to speak slowly, 
 ;ng time- for the voice to travel ; otherwise the words will become 
 jumbled, run one within another, and indistinctness will result. The attention with 
 which you are listened to will soon convince you if you are heard or not. 
 
 3. Never read in public a piece with which you are previously unacquainted ; you 
 must, in order to give the proper emphasis to the lines before you, be acquainted with 
 what is to follow. At least one perusal of the piece you are called on to read should be 
 insisted on. 
 
 4. To preserve the voice, bathe and gargle the throat morning and evening, using 
 cold water. As a rule, muffling up the throat is relaxing and injurious, but it is advisa- 
 
684 
 
 ELOCUTION. HOW TO SIMULATE THE PASSIONS. 
 
 ble to do so when going from a warm room into the cold air. Keep the mouth closed 
 until you have walked some time or reached home, and you may then speak at 
 pleasure. 
 
 5. If you have to read or recite for some time you may just moisten the lips with 
 cold water, but avoid drinking it in any quantity. 
 
 6. Never speak through a confirmed hoarseness, if it can be avoided. If your voice 
 is out of order a new-laid egg beaten up with a teaspoonful of the compound tincture of 
 cinnamon may be taken with advantage, but avoid all nostrums for the voice ; many of 
 them contain opium, and will ultimately and permanently injure it. For nervousness a 
 couple of teaspoonfuls of sal volatile in a wineglass of water will be found useful. Spirits 
 or spirits-and-water cause a dryness of the tongue, and will only increase your mis- 
 fortune. 
 
 7. The student would do well to while away an hour sometimes in a sculpture gallery, 
 and afterwards endeavor to realize the attitudes he has there observed. But all action 
 must be suggested by the sense of the production which he is delivering, and any move- 
 ment that does not naturally arise out of it is inconsistent and erroneous. If you feel a 
 poem and deliver it with energy, you will be sure to give action which is not very inap- 
 propriate, and redundancies and awkward peculiarities are best got rid of by practising 
 before a judicious friend. True purity and dignity of action is a collection of 
 
 “ Nameless graces which no methods teach. 
 
 And which a master’s hand alone can reach,” 
 
 and which nothing but a long experience and correct taste can impart. 
 
 8. Conversational dialogues are among the most effective means of breaking up 
 monotonous and mechanical tones, and are cf great service in facilitating the acquisition 
 of an appropriate style 01 reading. 
 
 9. Modulation should never be resorted to for the sake of variety ; it should always 
 be subservient to the sense , for it is the province of modulation to mark changes of 
 sentiment, changes in the train of strength, and parenthetical clauses. 
 
 10. The management of passion in accordance with the character that is represented 
 to labor under it, its natural sentiments, its fluctuations and its combinations must be 
 intuitively present to the mind of the dramatic author. The person who acts a character 
 has, in some respects, a minuter and more delicate task to perform, as he must watch 
 over every tone, look and gesture, and keep them in consistency with the situation of 
 the person represented. There is a smile of benignity, of love, of contempt; there is a, 
 smile of innocence and of guilt; of dignity and of silliness; there is the smile of the 
 peasant and that of the king. To vary the expression of passion, so as to preserve it in 
 keeping with the character, to exhibit inferior and incidental passions as modified by a 
 dominant one, are the attainments of a great actor, who, in his delineations, is not always 
 assisted by the composition of the dramatist. 
 
EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 How dear to my heart are the scenes of my child- 
 hood, 
 
 When fond recollection recalls them to view, 
 
 The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild- 
 wood, 
 
 And all the loved spots that my infancy knew. 
 
 The widespreading pond and the mill that stood by it. 
 
 The bridge and the rock where the cataract fell ! 
 The house of my father, the dairy-house by it, 
 
 And e’en the rude bucket that hung in the well. 
 
 THE AUCTIONEER. 
 
 The auctioneer, then, in his labor began, 
 
 And called out aloud, as he held up a man, 
 
 “How much for a bachelor? Who wants to buy?” 
 
 In a twink every maiden responded, “ I I ! n 
 
 In short, at a hugely extravagant price, 
 
 The bachelors all were sold off in a trice, 
 
 And forty old maidens — some younger, some older— 
 Each lugged an old bachelor home on her shoulder. 
 
 Hood. 
 
 SPEECH OF CAIUS GRACCHUS. 
 
 O Rome, my country 1 O my mother, Rome ’ 
 
 Is it to shed thy blood I draw my sword ? 
 
 To fill thy matrons’ and thy daughters’ eyes 
 With tears, and drain the spirits of thy sons ? 
 
 Should I not rather turn it ’gainst myself, 
 
 And, by the timely sacrifice of one. 
 
 Preserve the many? They will not let me do it } 
 They take from the rule of mine own acts, 
 
 And make me freedom’s slave ! What ! is it so ? 
 Come, then, the only virtue that is left me, — 
 
 The fatal virtue of necessity. 
 
 Upon them ! — 
 
 Give them stout hearts, ye gods ! to enable them 
 To stand the flashing of their tyrants’ swords ; 
 
 Deaf to the din of battle let them be ; 
 
 Senseless to wounds, and without eyes for blood ; — 
 That for this once they may belie themselves, 
 
 Make tyranny to cower, and from her yoke 
 Lift prostrate Liberty, to fall no more. 
 
 J. Sheridan Knowles. 
 
 HAMLET’S INSTRUCTION TO THE PLAYERS. 
 
 This passage from the inimitable Shakspeare, is 
 not only a grand exercise for practice, but it is also 
 an epitome of the whole theory of elocution, and is 
 most valuable for the suggestions which it affords 
 
 the student of oratory. It is worthy the closest 
 attention and study. 
 
 Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it 
 to you, — trippingly on the tongue; but if you 
 mouth it, as many of our players do, I had as lief 
 the town-crier spake my lines. Nor do not saw the 
 air too much with your hand thus, but use all 
 gently ; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I 
 may say, whirlwind of your passion, you must 
 acquire and beget a temperance, that may give it 
 smoothness. Oh ! it offends me to the soul, to hear 
 a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to 
 tatters, — to very rags,— to split the ears of the 
 groundlings ; who, for the most part, are capable of 
 nothing but inexplicable dumb show and noise, f 
 would have such a fellow whipped for o’erdoing 
 Termagant : it out- Herods Herod. Pray you, 
 
 avoid it. 
 
 Be not too tame neither, but let your own discre- 
 tion be your tutor. Suit the action to the word, 
 the word to the action ; with this specicl observance 
 — that you o’erstep not the modesty of nature : for 
 anything so overdone is from the purpose of play- 
 ing ; whose end, both at the first and now, was, and 
 is, to hold, as ’twere, the mirror up to nature ; — to 
 show virtue her own feature ; scorn her own image} 
 and the very age and body of the time, his form and 
 pressure. Now this, overdone or come tardy off, 
 though it make the unskillful laugh, cannot but 
 make the judicious grieve ; the censure of which 
 one, must, in your allowance, o’erweigh a whole 
 theatre of others. Oh ! there be players, that I have 
 seen play, and heard others praise, and that highly, 
 not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the 
 accent of Christians, nor the gait of Christian, 
 pagan, or man, have so strutted and bellowed, that 
 I have thought some of Nature’s journeymen had 
 made men, and not made them well, — they imitate 
 nature so abominably. 
 
 And gleaming and streaming an d steaming and beam 
 ing, 
 
 And rushing and flushing and brushing and gushing, 
 And flapping and rapping ana? clapping and slapping, 
 And curling and whirling and purling and twirling. 
 Retreating and beating and meeting and sheeting. 
 Delaying and straying and playing and spraying, 
 Advancing am/ glancing and prancing and dancing, 
 Recoiling, turmoiling and toiling and boiling, 
 
 And thumping and flumping and bumping- and jump, 
 ing. 
 
 And dashing- and flashing and splashing and clashing. 
 
686 
 
 ELOCUTION. EXERCISES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 had so never ending, but always descending, 
 Sounds an d mo lions for ever an d ever are blending, 
 All at once am/ all o’er, with a mighty uproar/ 
 had this way the water comes down at Lodore. 
 
 HAMLET TO HIS MOTHER. 
 
 Look here upon this picture, and on this ; 
 
 The counterfeit presentment of two brothers. 
 
 See what a grace was seated on this brow : — 
 Hyperion’s curls ; the front of Jove himself ; 
 
 An eye like Mars’, to threaten and command j 
 A station like the herald Mercury, 
 
 New-lighted on a heaven-kissing hill ; 
 
 A combination, and a form, indeed, 
 
 Where every god did seem to set his seal, 
 
 To give the world assurance of a man. 
 
 This was your husband. Look you now what folr 
 lows : 
 
 Here is your husband ; like a mildewed ear, 
 
 Blasting his wholesome brother. Have you eyes? 
 Could you on this fair mountain leave to feed, 
 
 And batten on this moor? Ha ! have you eyes? 
 
 You cannot call it love, for at your age 
 The heyday in the blood is tame, it’s humble, 
 
 And waits upon the judgment ; and what judgment 
 Would step from this to this? 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 CATILINE’S DEFIANCE. 
 
 Banished from Rome ! What’s banished but set 
 free 
 
 From daily contact with the things I loathe? 
 
 “ Tried and convicted traitor !” Who say's this? 
 Who’ll prove it, at his peril, on my head ? 
 
 Banished ? I thank you for’t. It breaks my chain! 
 I held some slack allegiance till this hour ; 
 
 But now my sword’s my own. Smile on, my lords ! 
 I scorn to count what feelings, withered hopes, 
 Strong provocations, bitter, burning wrongs, 
 
 I have within my heart’s hot cells shut up, 
 
 To leave you in your lazy dignities. 
 
 But here I stand and scoff you : — here I fling 
 Hatred and full defiance in your face. 
 
 J. Sheridan Knowles. 
 
 MACBETH’S SOLILOQUY. 
 
 If it were done, when ’tis done, then ’twere well 
 It were done quickly. If the assassination 
 
 Could trammel up the consequence, and catch, 
 With his surcease, success ! That but this blow 
 Might be the be-all, and the end-all, here — 
 
 But here, upon this bank and shoal of time, 
 
 We’d jump the life to come. But, in these cases, 
 We still have judgment here, that we but teach 
 Bloody instructions, which, being taught, return 
 To plague the inventor. This even-handed justice 
 Commends the ingredients of our poisoned chalice 
 To our lips. He’s here in double trust : 
 
 First, as I am his kinsman and his subject,— 
 
 Strong both against the deed ; then, as his host, 
 Who should against his murderer shut the door, 
 Not bear the knife myself. Besides, this Duncan 
 Hath borne his faculties so meek, hath been 
 So clear in his great office, that his virtues 
 Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against 
 The deep damnation of his taking-off ; 
 
 And Pity, like a naked, new-born babe, 
 
 Striding the blast, or heaven’s cherubims 
 Horsed upon the sightless couriers of the air, 
 
 Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye, 
 
 That tears shall drown the wind. 
 
 I have no spur 
 
 To prick the sides of my intent, but only 
 Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself, 
 
 And falls on the other side. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 Imagine yourself a Demosthanes, addressing the 
 most illustrious assembly in the world upon a point 
 wherein the fate of the most illustrious nations de- 
 pended. How awful such a meeting ! How vast the 
 subject ! Is a man possessed of talents adequate to 
 the great occasion? Adequate! Yes, superior. 
 With what strength of argument, with what powers 
 of fancy , with what emotions of heart , does he 
 assault and subjugate the whole man, and at once 
 captivate his reason, his imagination, and his pas- 
 sions ; to effect this must be the utmost effort of 
 the most improved state of human nature. Not a 
 faculty he possesses is here unemployed. Notwith- 
 standing the diversity of minds in such a multi- 
 tude, by the lightning of eloquence they are melted 
 into one mass ; the whole assembly, actuated in one 
 and the same way. become, as it were, but one man, 
 and have but one voice. The universal cry is. Let 
 us march to PHILIP— let us fight for our LIBER 
 TIES — let us conquer, or DIE t 
 
THE ELOCUTION OF THE PULPIT. 
 
 CANNCT forbear regretting here that a matter of such vast importance to 
 preaching as delivery should be so generally neglected or misunderstood- 
 A common apprehension prevails, indeed, that a strict regard to these 
 
 rules would be deemed theatrical ; and the dread, perhaps, of incurring 
 
 this imputation is a restraint upon many. But is it not possible to obtain 
 a just and expressive manner, perfectly consistent with the gravity of the pulpit, and yet 
 quite distinct from the more passionate, strong and diversified action of the theatre? 
 And is it not possible to hit off this manner so easily and naturally as to leave no room 
 for just reflection ? An affair this, it must be owned, of the utmost delicacy ; in which 
 we shall probably often miscarry, and meet with abundance of censure at first . But still, I 
 imagine, that through the regulations of taste, the improvements of experience, the cor- 
 rections of friendship, the feelings of piety, and the gradual meilowings of time, such an 
 elocution may be acquired as is above delineated ; and such as, when acquired, will make 
 
 its way to the hearts of the hearers through their ears and eyes, with a delight to both, 
 
 that is seldom felt ; while, contrary to what is commonly practised, it will appear to the 
 f ormer the very language of nature, and present to the latter the lively image of the 
 preacher's soul Were a taste for this kind of elocution to take place it is difficult to say 
 how much the preaching art would gain by it. Pronunciation would be studied, an ear 
 would be formed, the voice would be modulated, every feature of the face, every motion 
 of the hands, every posture of the body would be brought under right management. A 
 graceful and correct and animated expression in all these would be ambitiously sought 
 after ; mutual criticisms and friendly hints would be universally acknowledged ; light 
 and direction would be borrowed from every quarter and from every age. The best 
 models of antiquity would in a particular manner be admired, surveyed and imitated. 
 The sing-song voice and the see-saw gestures, if I may be allowed to use those expres- 
 sions, would, of course, be exploded ; and in time nothing would be admitted, at least 
 approved among performers but what was decent, manly and truly excellent in the kind, 
 Even the people themselves would contract, insensibly, a growing relish for such a man- 
 ner ; and those preachers would at last be in chief repute with all, who followed nature, 
 overlooked themselves, appeared totally absorbed in the subject, and spoke with real pro- 
 priety and pathos, from the immediate impulse of truth and virtue. 
 
 Rev. James Fordyce. 
 
EXTRACTS FROM LORD CHESTERFIELD UPON ELOCUTION 
 
 AND ORATORY. 
 
 UE ELOCUTION. — What then does all this mighty art and mys- 
 tery of speaking in parliament amount to ? Why, no more than this; 
 That the man who speaks in the House of Commons, speaks in that 
 house, and to four hundred people, that opinion upon a given subject 
 which he would make no difficulty of speaking in any house in England, 
 round the fire or at table, to any fourteen people whatsoever ; better judges, perhaps, 
 and severer critics of what he says than any fourteen gentlemen of the House of Com- 
 mons. 
 
 I have spoken frequently in Parliament, and not always without some applause ; and 
 therefore I can assure you, from my experience, that there is very little in it The ele* 
 gancy of the style and the turn of the periods make the chief impression upon the hear- 
 ers. Give them but one or two round and harmonious periods in a speech, which they 
 will retain and repeat, and they will go home as well satisfied. 
 
 The first thing you should attend to is to speak whatever language you do speak 114 
 its greatest purity and according to the rules of grammar, for we must never offend 
 against grammar, nor make use of words which are not really words. This is not all ; 
 for not to speak ill, is not sufficient ; we must speak well, and the best method ot attain* 
 ing to that is to read the best authors with attention, and to observe how people of lash 
 ion speak, and those who express themselves best ; for shopkeepers, common people 
 footmen and maid-servants all speak ill. 
 
 Oratory. — The business of oratory is to persuade people ; and you easily feel that 
 to please people is a great step towards persuading them. You must then, consequently, 
 be sensible how advantageous it is for a man who speaks in public, whether it be in Par- 
 liament, in the pulpit or at the bar (that is, in the courts of law), to please his hearers so 
 much as to gain their attention, which he can never do without the help of oratory. If 
 is not enough to speak the language he speaks in its utmost purity and according to the 
 rules of grammar, but he must speak it elegantly ; that is, he must choose the best and 
 most expressive words, and put them in the best order. He should likewise adorn what 
 he says by proper metaphors, similes and other figures of rhetoric; and he should en- 
 liven it, if he can, by quick and sprightly turns of wit. 
 
 Enunciation — Eloquence. — Your figure is a good one; you have no natural de- 
 fect in the organs of speech ; your address may be engaging, and your manner of speak- 
 ing graceful, if you will ; so that if they are not so, neither I nor the world can ascribe it 
 to anything but your want of parts. What is the constant and just observation as to all 
 actors upon the stage ? Is it not that those who have the best sense always speak the 
 best, though they may happen not to have the best voices? They will speak plainly, 
 distinctly, and with the proper emphasis, be their voices ever so bad. Had Roscius 
 
ELOCUTION. ARTICULATION, USE OF ORATORY. 
 
 689 
 
 spofcen quick , thick and ungracefully , I will answer for it that Cicero would not have 
 thought him worth the oration which he made in his favor. Words were given us to 
 communicate our ideas by, and there must be something inconceivably absurd in uttering 
 them in such a manner as that either people cannot understand them, or will not desire 
 to understand them. I tell you truly and sincerely that I shall judge of your parts by 
 your speaking gracefully or ungracefully. If you have parts, you will never be at rest 
 till you have brought yourself to a habit of speaking most gracefully ; for I aver that it is 
 in your power. 
 
 Articulation. — Y ou will take care to open your teeth when you speak ; to articu- 
 late every word distinctly, and to beg of Mr. Harte, Mr. Eliot or whoever you speak to, 
 to remind and stop you if ever you fall into the rapid and unintelligible mutter. You 
 will even read aloud to yourself, and tune your utterance to your own ear ; and read at 
 first much slower than you need to do in order to correct yourself of that shameful trick 
 of speaking faster than you ought. 
 
 Oratory and Hard Work. — Demosthenes, the celebrated Greek orator, thought 
 it so absolutely necessary to speak well that, though he naturally stuttered and had weak 
 lungs, he resolved, by application and care, to get the better of those disadvantages. Ac- 
 cordingly, he cured his stammering by putting small pebbles in his mouth ; and strength* 
 ened his lungs gradually by using himself every day to speak aloud and distinctly for a 
 considerable time. He likewise went often to the seashore in stormy weather, when the 
 sea made most noise, and there spoke as loud as he could, in order to use himself to the 
 noise. 
 
 Use of Oratory. — Your trade is to speak well, both in public and in private. 
 The manner of your speaking is full as important as the matter, as more people have ears 
 10 be tickled than understandings to judge. Be your productions ever so good, they wilt 
 be of no use it you stifle and strangle them in their birth. The best compositions of 
 Corelli, if ill executed and played out of tune, instead of touching, as they do when well 
 performed, would only excite the indignation of the hearers, when murdered by an un- 
 skilful performer. But to murder your own productions, and that coram populo t is a 
 Medean cruelty , which Horace absolutely forbids. Remember ot what importance De- 
 mosthenes and one of the Gracchi thought enunciation ; read what stress Cicero and 
 Quintilian lay upon it ; even the herb -women at Athens were correct judges of it. Ora- 
 tory with all its graces, that of enunciation in particular, is full as necessary in our gov- 
 ernment as it ever was in Greece or Rome. No man can make a fortune or a figure in 
 this country without speaking, and speaking well in public. 
 
 Speak Well. — Recite pieces 01 eloquence, declaim scenes of tragedies to Mr. 
 Harte as if he were a numerous audience. If there is any particular consonant which 
 you have a difficulty in articulating, as I think you had with the R f utter it millions and 
 millions of times, till you nave uttered it right. Never speak quick till you have first 
 ‘earned to speak well. In short, lay aside every book and every thought that does not 
 directly tend to this great object, absolutely decisive of your future fortune and 
 figure. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF 
 
 1 2,000 
 
 SYNO 
 
 ORDS 
 
 IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 
 Words having the same meaning are called synonyms. In writing or expressing 
 oneself it is very essential to use different words conveying the same idea, so that a rep- 
 etion may not occur in the same sentence. Correct : Her company at this time was 
 very acceptable ; agreeable in manners, pleasing in address , she was a most welcome 
 visitor. Incorrect : Her company at this time was very acceptable ; acceptable in man- 
 ners, acceptable in address, she was a most acceptable visitor. 
 
 There are many dictionaries of synonyms which contain only one synonym to each 
 word, such as abridge, abbreviate. In this work you will find the following synonyms 
 with the word : abridge, abbreviate, diminish, curtail, restrict, condense, compress. In 
 fact such works are abridged, abbreviated, diminished, curtailed, restricted, condensed and 
 compressed to such an extent that they are of little value. The reader will find in this 
 work a full alphabetical list of words, and in many instances as many as twelve or more 
 synonyms to each word. It has been our aim to make one of the most complete lists of 
 words ever issued. 
 
 ABACK, backward, back. 
 
 Abaft, sternward, aft, behind. 
 
 Abandon, desert, leave, relinquish, discon- 
 tinue, cease, quit, renounce, give up, sur- 
 render, forego, forswear. 
 
 Abandonment, leaving, desertion, derelic- 
 tion, renunciation, defection. 
 
 Abase, depress, reduce, humble, degrade, 
 disgrace, humiliate, dishonor. 
 
 Abasement, degradation, depression, dis- 
 grace, dishonor, humiliation. 
 
 Abash, confuse, confound, discompose, 
 shqme, humiliate, mortify, humble. 
 
 Abate, moderate, decrease, diminish, termi- 
 nate, remove. 
 
 Abbreviate, abridge, shorten, reduce, con- 
 dense, compress. 
 
 Abdicate, relinquish, resign, vacate, re- 
 nounce, quit. 
 
 Aberration, rambling, illusion, hallucina- 
 tion, insanity. 
 
 Abet, aid, help, instigate, encourage, pro- 
 mote, countenance. 
 
 Abettor, confederate, helper, assistant, 
 accessary, encourager, associate, com- 
 panion. 
 
 Abhorrence, loathing, hatred, horror, detes- 
 tation, dislike, distaste, disgust. 
 
 Abhorrent, odious, detestable, hateful, 
 abominable, revolting. 
 
 Abiding, continuing, permanent, constant 
 
 Ability, power, force, capacity, talent, skill, 
 dexterity, faculty, qualification. 
 
 Abject, low, mean, base, worthless, despi- 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 691 
 
 cable, vile, contemptible, servile, misera- 
 ble, slavish. 
 
 Abjure, forswear, renounce, disclaim, re- 
 voke, retract. 
 
 Abnormal, unusual, strange, unnatural, ex- 
 ceptional. 
 
 Abolish, repeal, revoke, cancel, invalidate, 
 obliterate, destroy, subvert, overthrow. 
 
 Abominate, loathe, detest, hate. 
 
 Aboriginal, primeval, native, first, original. 
 
 Abortion, miscarriage, failure, downfall, de- 
 feat. 
 
 Abound, plentiful, swarm, revel. 
 
 About, concerning, respecting, with respect 
 to, relative to, nearly, almost, near. 
 
 Abridge, abbreviate, diminish, curtail, re- 
 strict, condense, compress. 
 
 Abridgment, abbreviation, abstract, syn- 
 opsis, outline, digest. 
 
 Abrupt, broken, precipitous, steep, craggy, 
 sudden, unexpected, hasty, harsh. 
 
 Abscond, run away, depart, decamp. 
 
 Absent, not present, elsewhere, thought- 
 less. 
 
 Absolute, complete, entire, unconditional, 
 arbitrary, despotic, authoritative. 
 
 Absolve, set free, liberate, clear, pardon, 
 forgive. 
 
 Abstain, forbear, stop, desist, discontinue, 
 avoid. 
 
 Abstemious, temperate, self-denying, sober. 
 
 Abstruse, hidden, intricate, difficult, pro- 
 found, deep. 
 
 Abundance, sufficiency, plenty, copious- 
 ness, plentitude. 
 
 Abundant, plentiful, copious, lavish, ample. 
 
 Abuse, ill-treat, misuse, injure, upbraid, vil- 
 ify, insult, defame, slander. 
 
 Accede, consent, acquiesce, coincide, ap- 
 prove. 
 
 Accelerate, hasten, hurry, despatch. 
 
 Accept, receive, take, admit. 
 
 Acceptable, agreeable, pleasing, welcome. 
 
 Acceptation, meaning, significance. 
 
 Access, admission, approach, admittance. 
 
 Accession, increase, augmentation, addi- 
 tion. 
 
 Accident, casualty, contingency. 
 
 Acclamation, applause, exultation, joy, 
 cheering, triumph. 
 
 Acclivity, ascent, rise, incline. 
 
 Accommodate, adapt, adjust, serve, supply. 
 
 Accompany, attend, escort. 
 
 Accomplice, confederate, accessory, abet- 
 tor. 
 
 Accomplish, execute, effect, perform, 
 achieve, consummate, complete, bring 
 about. 
 
 Accomplished, finished, completed, exe- 
 cuted, skilled, talented, polished. 
 
 Accord, concede, admit, allow, grant. 
 
 Accordingly, conformably, agreeably, suit- 
 ably, consequently. 
 
 Accost, speak to, salute, greet, hail. 
 
 Accountable, responsible, liable, amenable, 
 punishable. 
 
 Accredited, authorized, commissioned, con- 
 fidential, trusted. 
 
 Accumulate, collect, heap up, gather, bring 
 together, hoard. 
 
 Accumulation, heap, collection, mass. 
 
 Accuracy, precision, fidelity, nicety. 
 
 Accurate, correct, unerring, precise, just, 
 actual. 
 
 Accusation, charge, impeachment, imputa- 
 tion, arraignment. 
 
 Accuse, charge, impeach, censure, impute. 
 
 Acerbity, tartness, sharpness, acrimony, bit- 
 terness. 
 
 Achieve, accomplish, perform, execute, 
 gain, win, attain, finish. 
 
 Achievement, feat, exploit, deed, attain- 
 ment. 
 
 Acknowledge, admit, confess, avow, grant, 
 concede. 
 
 Acquaint, inform, tell, apprise, disclose, 
 make known, notify, divulge. 
 
 Acquiesce, agree, consent, comply, concur. 
 
 Acquire, gain, procure, obtain, realize, 
 earn. 
 
 Acquirement, attainment, qualification, ac- 
 complishment. 
 
 Acquit, absolve, discharge, release. 
 
 Acrimonious, sharp, biting, harsh, sar- 
 castic. 
 
 Acrimony, asperity, tartness, sourness, bit- 
 terness. 
 
 Act, do, perform, effect, make, work, per- 
 sonate. 
 
 Action, deed, achievement, feat, exploit. 
 
 Actor, player, performer, comedian, tra- 
 gedian. 
 
 Acumen, shrewdness, cleverness, sagacity. 
 
 Actual, real, positive, genuine. 
 
 Actuate, impel, instigate, induce, prompt 
 
 Adage, proverb, maxim, motto. 
 
692 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Adapt, suit, fit, adjust, arrange, conform. 
 
 Add, cast up, increase, enlarge, extend, 
 join. 
 
 Addicted, attached, accustomed. 
 
 Addition, accession, increase, enlargement, 
 extension. 
 
 Additional, extra, more. 
 
 Address, skill, ability, tact, dexterity, inge- 
 nuity. 
 
 Adduce, present, offer, advance. 
 
 Adept, proficient, experienced, practiced. 
 
 Adhere, cleave, cling, unite, fix, join. 
 
 Adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion. 
 
 Adherent, follower, partisan, pupil. 
 
 Adhesion, attachment, fidelity, devotion. 
 
 Adieu, good-by, au revoir , farewell, leave- 
 taking. 
 
 Adjacent, near to, adjoining, contiguous, 
 bordering. 
 
 Adjourn, prorogue, postpone, delay. 
 
 Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, append- 
 ency. 
 
 Adjust, set right, accommodate, adapt, ar- 
 range, settle. 
 
 Administer, serve, supply, afford, contri- 
 bute. 
 
 Admirable, striking, surprising, wonderful. 
 
 Admonition, warning, notice, caution. 
 
 Adopt, assume, appropriate, choose. 
 
 Admire, wonder at, approve, love, esteem, 
 praise, commend, applaud. 
 
 Admit, allow, permit, acknowledge, own, 
 grant, avow, suffer, concede, accept. 
 
 Admonish, advise, forewarn, caution, coun- 
 sel, reprove, rebuke. 
 
 Adore, worship, idolize, love, hallow, praise, 
 reverence, glorify. 
 
 Adroit, dexterous, skillful, expert, profi- 
 cient, clever. 
 
 Adulterated, impure, debased, vitiated, de- 
 teriorated, spurious. 
 
 Advancement, progress, progression, im- 
 provement, propulsion, preferment, pro- 
 motion. 
 
 Advantage, benefit, good, profit, avail, gain, 
 interest, utility, service. 
 
 Advantageous, beneficial, profitable, ser- 
 viceable, useful. 
 
 Adventure, chance, hazard, casualty, inci- 
 dent, occurrence, event. 
 
 Adventurous, bold, enterprising, daring, 
 rash. 
 
 Adversary- energy, opponent assailant. 
 
 Adverse, opposed to, opposite, conflicting. 
 
 Adversity, misfortune, affliction, calamity, 
 disaster. 
 
 Advertise, publish, announce, notify, pro- 
 claim, circulate. 
 
 Advertisement, notice, announcement, pro- 
 clamation. 
 
 Advice, counsel, warning, information, in- 
 struction. 
 
 Advise, inform, acquaint, instruct, admon- 
 ish, warn, counsel, notify, deliberate. 
 
 Advisedly, deliberately, designedly, dis- 
 creetly. 
 
 Advocate, counsel, defender, upholder. 
 
 Advocate, propose, maintain, support. 
 
 Aerial, light, etherial, volatile. 
 
 Affable, courteous, polite, sociable, gentle. 
 
 Affair, matter, business, subject. 
 
 Affecting, touching, moving, pathetic, ten- 
 der, impressive, exciting. 
 
 Affectionate, tender, attached, devoted. 
 
 Affirm, swear, testify, asseverate, tell, de- 
 clare, assert, aver. 
 
 Affirmation, asseveration attestation, aver- 
 ment, declaration. 
 
 Afflict, grieve, distress, trouble, torment. 
 
 Affluence, wealth, riches, opulence. 
 
 Affray, * contention, altercation, wrangle, 
 contest. 
 
 Affright, frighten, terrify, appall, overawe. 
 
 Affront, wrong, insult, offence, outrage. 
 
 Afraid, timid, timorous, faint-hearted. 
 
 Afterward, hereafter, subsequently, ulti- 
 mately. 
 
 Age, time, date, generation. 
 
 Aged, old, elderly. 
 
 Agency, instrumental, influence. 
 
 Aggregate, total, complete. 
 
 Aggregate, amass, accumulate. 
 
 Aggression, encroachment, assault, attack, 
 offence. 
 
 Aggressive, attacking, assailing. 
 
 Aggrieve, injure, wrong. 
 
 Agitate, convulse, disturb, stir, move, 
 shake. 
 
 Agitate, perturbation, emotion, tremor. 
 
 Agonize, distress, rack, excruciate, pain. 
 
 Agony, anguish, pang, suffering, woe. 
 
 Agreeable, gratifying, pleasant, pleasing, 
 amiable. 
 
 Agreement, concurrence, coincidence, con- 
 tract, bargain. 
 
 Aid, help, assist, co-operate, relieve, succor. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS, 
 
 693 
 
 Ailing, unwell, ill, sick, diseased, indis- 
 posed, poorly. 
 
 Aim, direct, point, level, aspire. 
 
 Aim, intent, purpose, design, aspiration. 
 
 Air, look, cast, manner, address, bearing, 
 deportment. 
 
 Alacrity, quickness, willingness, briskness. 
 
 Alarm, affright, fright, terror, dismay. 
 
 Alert, watchful, vigilant, active, brisk. 
 
 Alienate, estrange, wean, disaffect. 
 
 Alike, similar, same, identical, twin, equal. 
 
 Aliment, food, sustenance, nourishment, 
 victuals. 
 
 Alive, living, existing, existent, breathing, 
 subsisting, safe. 
 
 All, entire, full, complete, perfect. 
 
 Allay, appease, assuage, soothe, calm, com- 
 pose, alleviate, soften, moderate. 
 
 Allege, say, declare, affirm, assert, state, 
 maintain, advance. 
 
 Allied, connected, related, leagued, joined, 
 confederated, alike, kindred. 
 
 Allow, permit, suffer, tolerate, admit, con- 
 cede, authorize, sanction, yield. 
 
 Allowance, grant, stipend, wages, salary, 
 recompense. 
 
 Allude, hint, insinuate, intimate, imply, 
 suggest. 
 
 Allure, entice, seduce, attract, tempt, decoy, 
 inveigle. 
 
 Alluring, attractive, enticing, inviting, 
 tempting. 
 
 Almighty, God, Jehovah, the Supreme Be- 
 ing, the Infinite, the Eternal. 
 
 Alone, solitary, lone, sole, single, retired. 
 
 Also, in addition, likewise, moreover. 
 
 Alter, change, make, different, vary, modify. 
 
 Alteration, change, variation, modification, 
 shifting. 
 
 Altercation, quarrel, dispute, controversy, 
 dissension, variance. 
 
 Although, though, yet, but, still, notwith- 
 standing. 
 
 Altogether, totally, wholly, entirely, utterly, 
 completely. 
 
 Always, ever, continually, constantly. 
 
 Amazed, astonished, surprised. 
 
 Amazement, astonishment, wonder, sur- 
 prise. 
 
 Ambiguous, doubtful, dubious, equivocal, 
 uncertain. 
 
 Ambitious, aspiring, soaring. 
 
 Amenable, answerable, accountable, liable. 
 
 Amends, satisfaction, equivalent 
 
 Amend, mend, better, correct, rectify, im< 
 prove, repair. 
 
 Amiable, lovely, pleasing, charming, en- 
 gaging, fascinating. 
 
 Amicable, friendly, sociable, social, amiable, 
 cordial. 
 
 Ample, full, p t entiful, copious, abundant, 
 complete, spacious. 
 
 Amuse, entertain, please, divert, enliven, 
 recreate. 
 
 Amusement, pleasure, diversion, recreation, 
 pastime, sport. 
 
 Analogy, resemblance, comparison, simi- 
 larity. 
 
 Ancestors, forefathers, ancestry, predeces- 
 sors. 
 
 Ancient, old, antiquated, antique, aged. 
 
 Anger, enrage, incense, exasperate, irritate. 
 
 Angry, enraged, incensed, raging, furious, 
 passionate. 
 
 Anguish, pain, distress, suffering, woe, tor- 
 ture, torment. 
 
 Animate, quicken, enliven, exhilarate, cheer, 
 revive, inspirit, inspire. 
 
 Animation, life, vivacity, spirit, liveliness, 
 exhilaration, sprightliness, buoyancy. 
 
 Annals, chronicles, records. 
 
 Annex, add, attach, append, subjoin. 
 
 Annihilate, destroy, annul extinguish. 
 
 Announce, make known, publish, adver- 
 tise. 
 
 Annoy, vex, tease, chafe, molest, incom- 
 mode. 
 
 Annul, revoke, abolish, abrogate, repeal, 
 cancel. 
 
 Anomalous, irregular, abnormal, eccentric. 
 
 Antagonism, animosity, enmity, opposition. 
 
 Antagonistic, hostile, opposite, adverse. 
 
 Anterior, preceding, previous, prior. 
 
 Antipathy, aversion, repugnance, opposi- 
 tion, hatred, antagonism. 
 
 Anxiety, care, solicitude, attention, intent- 
 ness, eagerness. 
 
 Apathetic, insensible, impassive, insensi- 
 ble, indifferent. 
 
 Apocryphal, uncertain, unauthentic, legen- 
 dary. 
 
 Apparent, visible, clear, plain, transparent. 
 
 Appeal, refer, invoke, call upon. 
 
 Appease, pacify, quiet, calm, compose, 
 soothe. 
 
 Appellation, name, denomination. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 691 
 
 Appended, added, joined, affixed. 
 
 Applaud, praise, extol, commend, approve. 
 
 Appoint, ordain, depute, order, constitute. 
 
 Apportion, distribute, allot, appropriate. 
 
 Approbation, approval, concurrence, assent, 
 consent. 
 
 Approval, assent, approbation. 
 
 Apt, suitable, pertinent, prompt, ready, 
 quick. 
 
 Arbitrary, despotic, imperious, domineer- 
 ing. 
 
 Arbitrator, arbiter, judge, umpire, referee. 
 
 Argue, discuss, dispute, debate. 
 
 Arouse, stir up, awaken, excite, stimulate. 
 
 Arrange, put in order, place, assort, clas- 
 sify. 
 
 Arrant, notorious, flagrant, heinous, mon- 
 strous. 
 
 Array, rank, order, disposal, disposition. 
 
 Array, range, place, draw up, dress, deck 
 
 I out. 
 
 Arrogance, assumption, haughtiness, pride, 
 loftiness. 
 
 Artifice, trick, stratagem, deception, cheat, 
 imposture, delusion, 
 
 Artless, fair, honest, ingenuous, frank, can- 
 did. 
 
 Ascend, climb, mount, rise, scale. 
 
 Ascendency, superiority, authority, sway. 
 
 Ask, request, entreat, solicit, demand. 
 
 Aspect, appearance, complexion, feature, 
 air, look, mien. 
 
 Asperse, accuse falsely, malign, slander, 
 traduce, defame, scandalize. 
 
 Assemble, congregate, collect, gather, 
 mustqr. 
 
 Assent, consent, accede, adquiesce, comply. 
 
 Assert, declare, aver, protest, maintain. 
 
 Assign, adduce, allege, advance, bring for- 
 ward, appoint. 
 
 Assist, help, aid, co-operate, relieve, succor. 
 
 Associate, colleague, ally, partner, coadju- 
 tor. 
 
 Association, company, society, partnership, 
 companionship. 
 
 Assuage, compose, pacify, allay, soothe, 
 conciliate. 
 
 Assume, arrogate, usurp, appropriate. 
 
 Assurance, confidence, certainty, conscious- 
 ness. 
 
 Athletic, stalwart, powerful, brawny, mus- 
 cular. 
 
 Atrocious, villainous, notorious, monstrous. 
 
 Attack, assault, encounter, charge. 
 
 Attach, subjoin, annex, connect, stick. 
 Attachment, affection, devotion, fondness, 
 love. 
 
 Attend, accompany, escort. 
 
 Attentive, careful, intent, wistful. 
 
 Attire, dress, apparel, garments, clothes. 
 Attitude, posture, gesture, gesticulation, 
 action. 
 
 Attractive, winning, charming, fascinating. 
 Audacious, assuming, forward, presumptu- 
 ous. 
 
 Augment, increase, enlarge, extend. 
 August, majestic, noble, dignified. 
 Auspices, protection, favor, influence. 
 Auspicious, fortunate, favorable, propitious. 
 Authoritative, commanding, swaying, im- 
 perative. 
 
 Authority, weight, force, domination. 
 Authorized, empowered, commissioned. 
 Auxiliary, assistant, helping, furthering. 
 Avail, profit, use, benefit, service, utility. 
 Avarice, covetuousness, greediness. 
 Avocation, employment, calling, business. 
 Avow, declare, acknowledge, recognize. 
 Awaken, arouse, stir up, excite. 
 
 Awkward, rough, clumsy, unpolished. 
 Awry, crooked, bent, curved, inflected. 
 
 BAD, wicked, evil, unsound. 
 
 Baffle, defeat, discomfit, bewilder. 
 
 Balmy, fragrant, sweet-scented, perfumed. 
 Baneful, hurtful, destructive, pernicious. 
 Banquet, feast, fete, entertainment. 
 Barbarous, savage, brutal, cruel, inhuman. 
 Barely, hardly, merely, scantily, scarcely. 
 Bargain, agreement, convention, compact. 
 Base, low, mean, groveling, ignoble. 
 
 Battle, conflict, contest, fight. 
 
 Bear, sustain, support, carry, maintain, con- 
 vey. 
 
 Bearing, manner, deportment, behavior, 
 Beastly, brutish, brutal, sensual. 
 
 Beau, sweetheart, wooer, lover, suitor. 
 Beautiful, elegant, beauteous, handsome, 
 fair, pretty. 
 
 Becoming, befitting, comely, proper. 
 Beginning, commencement, outset, open- 
 ing. 
 
 Beguile, amuse, deceive, mislead. 
 
 Blamable, culpable, reprehensible, censur- 
 able, faulty. 
 
 Blame, censure, reprove, condemn. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 695 
 
 Bland, soft, gentle, mild, kind, gracious. 
 
 Blameless, innocent, guiltless, faultless, 
 spotless, stainless, sinless. 
 
 Blast, blight, destroy, wither, shrivel. 
 
 Blatant, noisy, bellowing, vociferous, clam- 
 orous. 
 
 Blemish, stain, sully, spot, blur, tarnish, mar, 
 soil, injure. 
 
 Blend, mix, mingle, commingle, combine, 
 fuse, merge. 
 
 Blind, sightless,' eyeless, ignorant. 
 
 Blockhead, simpleton, numskull, ignoramus. 
 
 Bloodshed, butchery, slaughter, massacre. 
 
 Blot, stain, spot, foul, discolor, pollute, blur, 
 tarnish, sully. 
 
 Blow, stroke, knock, shock, misfortune, cal- 
 amity. 
 
 Bluff, surly, blustering, swaggering, brusque 
 bullying, coarse, discourteous. 
 
 Blunt, dull, pointless, obtuse, coarse, un- 
 civil. 
 
 Blustering. See Bluff. 
 
 Boasting, bragging, vaunting, bravado, vain- 
 glory. 
 
 Bode, forebode, foreshadow, foreshow, por- 
 tend, augur. 
 
 Bodily, corporal, corporeal, material, phy- 
 sical. 
 
 Boisterous, noisy, turbulant, violent, furi- 
 ous, impetuous. 
 
 Bold, daring, courageous, brave. 
 
 Booty, plunder, pillage, spoils, prey. 
 
 Border, brink, margin, confine, brim. 
 
 Bore, perforate, pierce, penetrate. 
 
 Boundless, unbounded, unlimited, in- 
 finite. 
 
 Bountiful, liberal, munificent, generous, 
 abundant. 
 
 Branch, bough, limb, shoot, off-shoot, twig, 
 sprig, spray. 
 
 Brand, stigmatize, denounce, disgrace. 
 
 Brave, courageous, fearless, dauntless, bold. 
 
 Brawny, muscular, sinewy, athletic, stal- 
 wart, powerful, robust. 
 
 Break, burst, rend, sever, shatter, crack, 
 fracture, demolish, destroy. 
 
 Brevity, shortness, conciseness, terseness. 
 
 Brief, short, concise, succinct, condensed, 
 terse. 
 
 Bright, clear, shining, sparkling, gleaming, 
 radiant, brilliant. 
 
 Brilliant, splendid, glittering. 
 
 Brisk, lively, active, quick, agile, nimble, 
 
 Broil, affray, fray, feud, quarrel, brawl. 
 
 Brittle, fragile, frail, frangible. 
 
 Broad, wide, large, extensive, expanded, 
 ample, spacious. 
 
 Broken-hearted, inconsolable, comfortless, 
 forlorn, sorrowful. 
 
 Brotherhood, fraternity, association, society, 
 fellowship. 
 
 Brotherly, fraternal, kind, affectionate, ten- 
 der. 
 
 Bruise, contuse, break, crush, bray, pound. 
 
 Brutal, cruel, inhuman, unfeeling, merciless, 
 ruthless, savage, brutish, beastly. 
 
 Brutish, stupid, irrational, gross. 
 
 Build, erect, construct, make, raise. 
 
 Bullying, blustering, overbearing, bluff. 
 
 Bulwark, bastion, rampart, fortress, citadel, 
 fortification. 
 
 Burden, load, cumber, encumber, overlay. 
 
 Burdensome, weighty, ponderous, cumber- 
 some, grievous, oppressive, troublesome. 
 
 Burial, sepulture, interment, entombment. 
 
 Burlesque, mockery, parody, caiicature, 
 farce, travesty, mimicry. 
 
 Burning, hot, fiery, ardent, glowing, fervent. 
 
 Burst, break, rend, split, explode, disrupt. 
 
 Bury, inter, inhume, entomb, hide, conceal. 
 
 Business, employment, calling, vocation, 
 occupation? trade, profession. 
 
 But, except, excepting, notwithstanding. 
 
 By and by, soon, before long, presently, 
 shortly. 
 
 Bystander, looker-on, spectator, beholder, 
 observer. 
 
 CABAL, faction, combination, political in- 
 trigue, plot, confederacy. 
 
 Calamitous, ill-fated, fatal, hapless, unlucky. 
 
 Calculate, compute, reckon, estimate. 
 
 Call back, recall, recant, retract. 
 
 Calling, employment, business, vocation, 
 work, occupation, profession, pursuit. 
 
 Callous, hardened, obdurate, unfeeling, in- 
 sensible, apathetic, cruel. 
 
 Calumniate, slander, traduce, vilify, malign, 
 asperse, defame, libel. 
 
 Calumnious, slanderous, defamatory scur- 
 rilous, abusive. 
 
 Cancel, obliterate, efface, blot out, annul, 
 abolish, repeal, rescind, abrogate, nullify. 
 
 Canvass, sift, examine, discuss, solicit, ap- 
 ply for. 
 
 Capable, able, competent, qualified, efficient. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Capableness, competence, capacity, ability. 
 
 Capacious, roomy, ample, spacious, wide, 
 extensive. 
 
 Caprice, whim, humor, freak, fancy, crotchet, 
 vagary. 
 
 Capricious, whimsical, fanciful, freakish, 
 fickle, fitful. 
 
 Captious, critical, cynical, petulant, cross, 
 irritable. 
 
 Captivity, bondage, subjection, slavery, im- 
 prisonment. 
 
 Care, anxiety, solicitude, concern, trouble, 
 heed. 
 
 Careful, thoughtful, attentive, watchful, 
 cautious. 
 
 Careless, heedless, negligent, regardless, 
 listless. 
 
 Carnage, slaughter, massacre, bloodshed. 
 
 Carnal, fleshy, sensual, worldly, impure, 
 lustful. 
 
 Carol, warble, sing, chirp, chant. 
 
 Carousal, revel, festivity, banquet. 
 
 Carriage, walk, bearing, behavior, deport- 
 ment, conduct, vehicle, conveyance. 
 
 Carry, bear, convey, transport, sustain. 
 
 Carry on, conduct, manage, transact, regu- 
 late. 
 
 Carry through, accomplish, complete, con- 
 summate. 
 
 Case, occurrence, circumstance, plight, pre- 
 dicament. 
 
 Cash, money, coin, specie, currency. 
 
 Cast, mould, figure, aspect, character, man- 
 ner, look, mien. 
 
 Cast, throw, fling, hurl, pitch, project, con- 
 struct. 
 
 Cast down, disheartened, discouraged, 
 downcast, melancholy. 
 
 Casualty, accident, fortuity, chance, occur- 
 rence, misfortune. 
 
 Catch, overtake, grasp, seize, capture, 
 clutch. 
 
 Cause, reason, incentive, inducement, in- 
 citement, impulse. 
 
 Cause, occasion, induce, provoke, incite. 
 
 Cautious, careful, prudent, vigilant. 
 
 Cavity, hollow, chasm, opening. 
 
 Cede, surrender, relinquish, quit, forego. 
 
 Celebrate, commend, applaud, extol. 
 
 Celebrated, famous, renowned, illustrious, 
 glorious. 
 
 Celerity, quickness, speed, rapidity, ve- 
 locity. 
 
 Celestial, heavenly, divine, godlike, angelic. 
 
 Censure, blame, reprove, reprehend. 
 
 Certain, sure, unquestionable, unfailing. 
 
 Certify, testify, vouch, declare. 
 
 Cessation, intermission, rest, pause, discon- 
 tinuance. 
 
 Chafe, fret, irritate, gall, vex, chagrin. 
 
 Champion, leader, chieftain, head. 
 
 Chance, accident, fortune, casualty, nazard, 
 luck. 
 
 Change, alter, transform, exchange, barter. 
 
 Change, variety, alteration, alternation, vi- 
 cissitude. 
 
 Changeable, variable, unsteady, undecided, 
 wavering, hesitating, restless, fitful, ca- 
 pricious. 
 
 Character, cast, description, nature, dispo- 
 sition, reputation. 
 
 Characteristic, peculiar to, sign of, feature, 
 lineament. 
 
 Characterize, name, designate, denominate, 
 describe. 
 
 Charge, accuse, impeach, arraign, incuk 
 pate. 
 
 Charge, care, custody, ward, trust, manage- 
 ment, cost, price, expense, account, fee, 
 bill, assault, shock. 
 
 Charity, kindness, benignity, beneficence, 
 benevolence. 
 
 Charm, enchant, fascinate, bewitch, enrap- 
 ture, captivate. 
 
 Chary, wary, careful, cautious, prudent. 
 
 Chasten, chastise, correct, punish. 
 
 Chat, chatter, prattle, prate, babble, gossip. 
 
 Cheat, defraud, gull, dupe, trick, beguile, 
 deceive, delude. 
 
 Cheat, deception, imposture, fraud, delu- 
 sion, artifice, deceit, trick. 
 
 Check, curb, restrain, repress, control, coun- 
 teract, reprove, rebuke. 
 
 Cheer, exhilarate, animate, inspire, glad- 
 den, comfort, solace. 
 
 Cheerfulness, gayety, sprightliness, merri- 
 ment, mirth, liveliness, vivacity. 
 
 Cheerless, comfortless, disconsolate, incon- 
 solable, desolate, forlorn. 
 
 Cherish, nourish, nurture, nurse, foster, 
 sustain. 
 
 Chief, principal, supreme, paramount, 
 leader. 
 
 Choice, rare, select, option. 
 
 Choose, prefer, select, elect, call, pick. 
 
 Circuitous, roundabout, tortuous, tiresome. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 G97 
 
 Circumspection, caution, watchfulness, vig- 
 ilance. 
 
 Circumstance, situation, condition, posi- 
 tion, fact, incident. 
 
 Civil, polite, complaisant, affable, courteous, 
 obliging, well-bred. 
 
 Civilize, polish, humanize, cultivate, refine. 
 
 Clamor, outcry, fuss, noise, hubbub, up- 
 roar. 
 
 Clandestine, hidden, secret, private. 
 
 Clause, stipulation, proviso, term, article. 
 
 Clear, absolve, acquit, liberate, deliver, re- 
 lease, set free, unbind. 
 
 Clear, apparent, palpable, visible, plain, ev- 
 ident, manifest, unmistakable, distinct. 
 
 Clearly, obviously, distinctly, explicitly. 
 
 Clemency, mercy, mildness, mitigation. 
 
 Clever, skillful, expert, adroit. 
 
 Climb, scale, mount, soar, ascend. 
 
 Cling, hold, stick, adhere, attach. 
 
 Cloak, mask, veil, cover, blind. 
 
 Close, conclude, shut, end, terminate, finish. 
 
 Clothes, garments, vestments, dress, attire, 
 array, raiment, vesture, drapery. 
 
 Cloudy, dim, obscure, dusky, indistinct. 
 
 Clutch, grasp, lay hold on, catch, seize, 
 
 g r |P- 
 
 Coalition, union, alliance, confederacy, 
 league, combination. 
 
 Coarse, rough, rude, rugged, gruff, harsh. 
 
 Coincide, agree, correspond, concur. 
 
 Coincidence, concurrence, correspondence, 
 agreement. 
 
 Colleague, fellow, compeer, companion. 
 
 Collect, gather, assemble, muster. 
 
 Collected, composed, placid, calm, serene. 
 
 Colossal, large, gigantic, huge, enormous, 
 vast. 
 
 Combat, engagement, conflict, contest, 
 fight, action, battle. 
 
 Combat, oppose, resist, withstand, thwart. 
 
 Combination, alliance, union, league. 
 
 Comely, becoming, decent, seemly, agreea- 
 able, graceful. 
 
 Comfortless, cheerless, forlorn, disconso- 
 late. 
 
 Comic, funny, laughable, droll, ludicrous. 
 
 Commence, begin, enter upon. 
 
 Commend, praise, applaud, extol, recom- 
 mend. 
 
 Commendable, praisewothy, laudable. 
 
 Comment, observation, remark, elucida- 
 tion. 
 
 Commerce, dealing, trade, traffic, inter- 
 course. 
 
 Commit, perpetrate, intrust, confide, con- 
 sign. 
 
 Commodious, convenient, useful, suitable. 
 
 Communicate, make known, divulge, dis- 
 close. 
 
 Communication, intercourse, correspond- 
 ence, commerce. 
 
 Community, society, commonwealth, social 
 state. 
 
 Companion, comrade, partner, ally, associ- 
 ate, confederate. 
 
 Company, association, society, assembly, 
 assemblage, audience, auditory, corpora- 
 tion, troop. 
 
 Comparison, simile, similitude, illustra- 
 tion. 
 
 Compassion, pity, commiseration, sympa- 
 thy. 
 
 Compassionate, kind, merciful, clement, 
 gracious. 
 
 Compel, force, constrain, enforce, oblige. 
 
 Compendious, brief, short, succinct, con- 
 cise. 
 
 Compensate, recompense, make amends, 
 remunerate. 
 
 Competent, able, capable, efficient, quali- 
 fied, fitted. 
 
 Competitor, candidate, rival, aspirant. 
 
 Complaint, malady, disease, distemper, dis- 
 order. 
 
 Complex, compound, complicated, involved, 
 intricate. 
 
 Complexion, aspect, appearance, feature, 
 lineament. 
 
 Complicated, complex, compound, involved. 
 
 Compliment, praise, flatter, adulate, ap- 
 plaud. 
 
 Composed, calm, serene, sober, serious, 
 placid, imperturbable. 
 
 Composure, tranquillity, serenity, sedate- 
 ness, self-possession. 
 
 Compound, composite, complex. 
 
 Compound, mix, combine, intermingle. 
 
 Comprehend, comprise, include, embrace 
 grasp, see, understand, perceive. 
 
 Comprise, include, contain, embody. 
 
 Comprehensive, broad, wide, extensive, ca- 
 pacious. 
 
 Compress, condense, reduce. 
 
 Comprise, include, comprehend, embrace. 
 
 Compromise, settle, involve, endanger. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Compunction, remorse, regret, sorrow. 
 
 Comrade, companion, associate, partner, 
 ally, mate. 
 
 Conceal, hide, secrete, cover, screen, dis- 
 guise, dissemble. 
 
 Concede, yield, surrender, grant, admit. 
 
 Conceit, vanity, egotism. 
 
 Concert, concord, harmony, musical enter- 
 tainment. 
 
 Concise, short, brief, curt, laconic, terse. 
 
 Conclude, end, close, terminate, finish, de- 
 cide, determine. 
 
 Conclusion, termination, result, end, close, 
 inference, deduction, decision. 
 
 Conclusive, decisive, final, definitive, indis- 
 putable. 
 
 Concourse, crowd, throng, assemblage. 
 
 Condemn, blame, censure, reprove, disap- 
 prove. 
 
 Conduct, management, behavior, deport- 
 ment, demeanor. 
 
 Confess, admit, grant, concede, acknowl- 
 edge, avow. 
 
 Confidence, faith, trust, belief, assurance, 
 courage. 
 
 Conflict, contest, struggle, fight, battle. 
 
 Confound, amaze, perplex, bewilder, stupefy, 
 dumbfound. 
 
 Confound, confuse, blend, mix, intermingle. 
 
 Confront, encounter, resist. 
 
 Confused, involved, complex, embarrassed, 
 abashed. 
 
 Confusion, misrule, turmoil, commotion, 
 anarchy. 
 
 Confute, disprove, refute. 
 
 Conjure, beseech, implore, entreat. 
 
 Connect, join, link, unite. 
 
 Connection, affinity, relationship, kindred, 
 kinsman. 
 
 Conquer, subjugate, surmount, overthrow. 
 
 Conscientious, equitable, upright, high- 
 minded. 
 
 Consent, assent, concurrence, acquiescence. 
 
 Consequence, weight, effect, result, issue. 
 
 Consider, reflect, deliberate, regard, weigh. 
 
 Considerate, reflective, circumspect, atten* 
 tive. 
 
 Consideration, deliberation, reflection, con- 
 templation. 
 
 Consistent, congruous, accordant, agree- 
 ing. 
 
 Console, solace, encourage. 
 
 Conspiracy, intrigue, plot, treason. 
 
 Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness. 
 Constant, steady, continual, perpetual, faith- 
 ful, true. 
 
 Consternation, amazement, astonishment, 
 terror. 
 
 Constitution, frame, temper, temperament, 
 character. 
 
 Constrain, compel, force, oblige, coerce, 
 drive. 
 
 Construct, build, form, compose, erect. 
 Consume, destroy, absorb, burn, devour. 
 Consummate, finish, accomplish, execute. 
 Contain, enclose, embrace, comprise. 
 Contemptuous, scornful, disdainful, inso- 
 lent. 
 
 Contend, strive, compete, cope, argue, main- 
 tain. 
 
 Content, satisfied, contented, pleased. 
 Contention, strife, bickering, dissension. 
 Contest, strife, conflict, combat, fight. 
 Contiguous, touching, adjacent, adjoining. 
 Contingency, chance, possibility, event, oc- 
 currence. 
 
 Continuation, continuance, duration, per- 
 petuation. 
 
 Continue, stay, remain, persevere, persist 
 Contortion, distortion, twisting, writhing. 
 Contract, abridge, abbreviate, compress. 
 Contract, agreement, covenant, compact. 
 Contradict, confute, refute, oppose. 
 Contrition, repentance, penitence, remorse. 
 Contrivance, device, scheme, plan. 
 
 Control, curb, repress, guide, manage. 
 Controversy, quarrel, strife, contention. 
 Convenient, adapted, suitable, fitted. 
 Converse, talk, speak, discourse. 
 
 Converse, opposite, reverse, contrary, coun- 
 ter. 
 
 Convert, change, alter, turn, transform. 
 Convey, transport, transfer, remove. 
 Conviction, assurance, belief. 
 
 Convivial, festal, jovial, social. 
 
 Cool, not warm, collected, calm, dispassion- 
 ate. 
 
 Copy, transcribe, imitate. 
 
 Cordial, sincere, warm, hearty, heartfelt. 
 Correct, right, true, accurate, faultless. 
 Correspondent, answerable, suitable. 
 Counsel, counselor, attorney, lawyer. 
 Counterfeit, forged, spurious, sham, feign, 
 simulate. 
 
 Couple, pair, brace. 
 
 Courage, bravery, spirit, valor, heroism. 
 
A DICTIOM akY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 699 
 
 Course, way, road, route, passage, race. 
 Courtesy, civility, urbanity, politeness. 
 Covert, secret, disguised, hidden, concealed. 
 Covetousness, stinginess, avarice, parsi- 
 mony. 
 
 Cowardice, fear, timidity, poltroonery. 
 Cowardly, dastardly, pusillanimous, timor- 
 ous. 
 
 Craftsman, artificer, mechanic, workman. 
 Crafty, artful, cunning, wily, tricky, sly, 
 subtle. 
 
 Crave, ask, solicit, implore, pray. 
 
 Crazy, insane, mad, demented. 
 
 Credulity, gullibility, simplicity. 
 
 Crest, top, summit, apex, crown. 
 
 Crew, company, gang, set. 
 
 Crime, offense, misdeed, felony. 
 
 Criminal, felon, malefactor, culprit. 
 Criminate, charge, implicate, accuse, ar- 
 raign, impeach. 
 
 Criticise, examine, scan, discuss. 
 
 Criticism, stricture, animadversion. 
 
 Cross, irritable, peevish, snappish. 
 Crotchety, freakish, wayward. 
 
 Cruel, barbarous, inhuman, brutal, hard- 
 hearted. 
 
 Cultivate, till, promote, foster. 
 
 Cunning, crafty, artful, tricky. 
 
 Cupidity, avarice, covetousness. 
 
 Curb, restrain, hold, check. 
 
 Curiosity, rarity, wonder. 
 
 Curious, inquiring, inquisitive, prying, 
 rare. 
 
 Curse, execration, imprecation, denuncia- 
 tion. 
 
 Cursory, summary, hasty, slight. 
 
 Curtail, shorten, abbreviate, contract. 
 Custody, keeping, guardianship, care. 
 Custom, usage, practice, habit. 
 
 Cut, sever, sunder, shear. 
 
 Cutting, sharp, bitter, sarcastic, stinging, 
 severe. 
 
 DALLY, delay, dawdle, fondle. 
 
 Damage, injury, loss, mischief. 
 
 Damp, moderate, slack, dishearten. 
 
 Danger, peril, risk, hazard. 
 
 Dare, brave, hazard, risk, defy, challenge. 
 Daring, bold, courageous, fearless. 
 
 Dash, cast, throw, drive, rush. 
 
 Date, time, age, period. 
 
 Daunt, frighten, intimidate, appall. 
 Dauntless, valiant, fearless, intrepid. 
 
 Dawn, gleam, begin, rise. 
 
 Dead, deceased, defunct, departed, heavy, 
 unconscious. 
 
 Deadly, mortal, fatal, destructive. 
 
 Dealing, trade, traffic, intercourse. 
 
 Dear, costly, expensive, beloved. 
 
 Debase, lower, degrade, impair. 
 
 Debatable, doubtful, uncertain, disputable. 
 
 Debate, discuss, contend, dispute, contro- 
 vert. 
 
 Debauch, corrupt, pollute, defile, ravish. 
 
 Decay, wasting away, decadence. 
 
 Decayed, rotten, corrupt, unsound, decom- 
 posed. 
 
 Deceit, deception, cheat, trick, delusion, 
 fraud. 
 
 Deceitful, deceptive, fallacious, fraudulent. 
 
 Decent, becoming, respectable, decorous. 
 
 Decide, determine, settle, resolve. 
 
 Decipher, unravel, solve, unfold, explain. 
 
 Decision, judgment, determination, conclu- 
 sion. 
 
 Decisive, conclusive, convincing, decided. 
 
 Declamatory, rhetorical, high-sounding. 
 
 Declaration, ordinance, profession, asser- 
 tion, affirmation. 
 
 Declare, aver, state, affirm, express, pro- 
 fess. 
 
 Decorum, propriety, decency, dignity, or- 
 der. 
 
 Decoy, allure, entice, tempt, seduce. 
 
 Decrease, diminish, decline, curtail, re- 
 duce. 
 
 Decree, order, law, ordinance, manifesto, 
 decision, proclamation, verdict. 
 
 Decrepit, enfeebled, superannuated, infirm. 
 
 Decry, disparage, depreciate, detract. 
 
 Deem, consider, think, believe, suppose. 
 
 Deep, low, sagacious, penetrating, design- 
 ing, mysterious. 
 
 Deface, disfigure, deform, spoil. 
 
 Defame, slander, vilify, asperse, traduce. 
 
 Default, failure, defect, want, absence. 
 
 Defeat, conquer, overcome, overpower, over- 
 throw, rout. 
 
 Defect, flaw, fault, blemish. 
 
 Definite, exact, correct, determined. 
 
 Deformity, ugliness, hideousness, mons- 
 trosity. 
 
 Defray, liquidate, pay, discharge. 
 
 Degenerate, deteriorate, decline, retro- 
 grade. 
 
 Degree, grade,, extent, measure, quantity. 
 
700 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Dejected, dispirited, gloomy, desponding. 
 Deliberate, consider, meditate, consult. 
 Deliberate, purposed, intentional, designed. 
 Delight, enjoyment, pleasure, happiness, 
 transport, ecstacy, gladness, rapture, 
 bliss. 
 
 Demonstrate, prove, show, illustrate. 
 
 Deny, refuse, reject, contradict. 
 
 Depart, leave, quit, start, retire. 
 Department, section, division, office, branch. 
 Deprive, strip, bereave, rob, divest. 
 
 Depute, appoint, commission, charge, in- 
 trust. 
 
 Derision, scorn, contempt, disrespect. 
 Derivation, origin, source, cause. 
 
 Describe, draw, portray, explain, illustrate. 
 Desecrate, profane, misuse, abuse, pollute. 
 Desert, wild, waste, solitude, void. 
 
 Deserve, merit, earn, win. 
 
 Design, delineation, sketch, cunning, art- 
 fulness. 
 
 Desist, cease, stop, drop, abstain. 
 
 Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken. 
 Despair, hopelessness, despondency, des- 
 peration. 
 
 Desperate, daring, audacious, determined. 
 Destination, intention, design, consign- 
 ment. 
 
 Destine, purpose, intend, design, devote. 
 Destructive, hurtful, noxious, injurious. 
 Desultory, rambling, loose, unmethodical, 
 unsettled. 
 
 Detail, particularize, enumerate, specify. 
 Detect, discover, descry, unmask, expose. 
 Deter, warn, dissuade, discourage, terrify. 
 Detract, lessen, deteriorate, diminish. 
 Develop, amplify, expand, enlarge. 
 
 Device, artifice, expedient, contrivance. 
 Devious, tortuous, circuitous, distorted. 
 Devoid, void, wanting, destitute c 
 Devolve, impose, place, charge, befall. 
 Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, given. 
 Devotion, piety, devoutness, dedication, 
 love. 
 
 Dictate, prompt, enjoin, order, command. 
 Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, over- 
 bearing. 
 
 Die, expire, depart, perish, decline. 
 Difference, discord, dissent, estrangement, 
 variety. 
 
 Difficult, arduous, troublesome, intricate, 
 perplexing. 
 
 Digest, arrange, dispose, classify, study. 
 
 Diffuse, discursive, prolix, diluted. 
 
 Dignified, exalted, noble, lofty, grand. 
 
 Dignify, exalt, advance, elevate, honor, 
 adorn. 
 
 Dilapidation, ruin, decay, downfall. 
 
 Dilate, widen, expand, enlarge, swell. 
 
 Dilatory, slow, procrastinating, loitering. 
 
 Diligence, assiduity, application, care, heed, 
 industry. 
 
 Diminish, reduce, contract, curtail, re- 
 trench. 
 
 Diplomatic, clever, politic, sagacious. 
 
 Dire, dreadful, dismal, horrible, fearful. 
 
 Direct, regulate, control, command. 
 
 Dirty, unclean, foul, filthy, soiled. 
 
 Disadvantage, injury, damage, prejudice, 
 hurt. 
 
 Disarrange, disorder, disturb, displace. 
 
 Discern, observe, recognize, discriminate, 
 perceive. 
 
 Discernible, visible, conspicuous, palpable. 
 
 Discharge, dismiss, discard, acquit, release. 
 
 Discipline, training, instruction, order, con- 
 trol, punishment. 
 
 Disclose, discover, confess, divulge. 
 
 Disconcert, disturb, defeat, upset, discomfit 
 
 Disconsolate, desolate, forlorn, melancholy, 
 unhappy. 
 
 Discover, reveal, disclose, unearth, invent, 
 ascertain, discern. 
 
 Discredit, disbelieve, distrust, disgrace. 
 
 Discreet, prudent, cautious, wary. 
 
 Disdain, contempt, scorn, haughtiness. 
 
 Disease, complaint, malady, sickness. 
 
 Disgrace, dishonor, discredit, reproach, 
 shame, infamy. 
 
 Disguise, conceal, cloak, dissemble. 
 
 Disgusting, loathsome, sickening, distaste- 
 ful, revolting. 
 
 Dishonest, unfair, fraudulent, deceitful, 
 cheating, deceptive. 
 
 Dishonor disgrace, ravish, pollute. 
 
 Dislike, displeasure, distaste, repugnance, 
 aversion. 
 
 Dismal, gloomy, lonesome, sorrowful, mel- 
 ancholy 
 
 Disobedient, undutiful, refractory, unruly. 
 
 Disorder, confusion, disease, complaint. 
 
 Disorderly, irregular, lawless, unruly. 
 
 Disown, disclaim, deny, ignore, repudiate 
 
 Display, show, exhibit, parade. 
 
 Displease, offend, vex, anger irritate. 
 
 Disposition, temper, inclination , humor. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 70f 
 
 Dispute, debate, controversy, discussion, 
 quarrel. 
 
 Disregard, neglect, slight, overlook, de- 
 spise. 
 
 Disreputable, disgraceful, dishonorable. 
 
 Dissolute, licentious, wanton, vicious. 
 
 Distance, interval, remoteness, space. 
 
 Distant, remote, separate, indistinct, ob- 
 scure. 
 
 Distasteful, disagreeable, offensive, repug- 
 nant. 
 
 Distinct, clear, plain, different, separate. 
 
 Distinguished, conspicuous, famous, re- 
 nowned, illustrious. 
 
 Distribute, share, apportion, diffuse, scatter. 
 
 Distrust, doubt, suspicion, disbelief, mis- 
 giving. 
 
 Disturb, agitate, confuse, annoy, trouble, 
 plague, vex, worry. 
 
 Diversion, sport, amusement, pastime, re- 
 creation. 
 
 Divine, Godlike, sacred, heavenly. 
 
 Dogmatic, positive, authoritative, arro- 
 gant. 
 
 Dominion, power, rule, sway, territory, em- 
 pire. 
 
 Doom, sentence, judgment, condemnation, 
 destiny, verdict. 
 
 Doubt, uncertainty, suspense, indecision, 
 distrust. 
 
 Dread, fear, terror, horror, dismay. 
 
 Dress, clothes, attire, apparel, costume. 
 
 Drill, train, teach, discipline, exercise. 
 
 Drive, urge on, impel, compel, guide, di- 
 rect. 
 
 Droll, odd, queer, whimsical, funny, com- 
 ical. 
 
 Drowsy, sleepy, stupid, torpid. 
 
 Dubious, doubtful, equivocal, uncertain. 
 
 Dunce, numscull, dullard, simpleton. 
 
 Dutiful, obedient, duteous, submissive. 
 
 Dwell, inhabit, reside, lodge, sojourn, linger. 
 
 EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, impa- 
 tient. 
 
 Earn, acquire, win, gain, achieve. 
 
 Earnest, ardent, serious, grave. 
 
 Ease, calm, alleviate, allay, appease. 
 
 Eccentric, irregular, singular, odd. 
 
 Eclipse, shade, overcast, cloud. 
 
 Economical, sparing, saving, provident, 
 thrifty. 
 
 Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin. 
 
 Educate, teach, train, instruct, develop. 
 
 Efface, blot out, obliterate, wipe out, cancel. 
 
 Effect, consequence; result, execution, ope- 
 ration. 
 
 Efficient, effectual, competent, capable. 
 
 Eliminate, drive out, expel, eject, cast out. 
 
 Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, 
 cheer. 
 
 Embrace, clasp, hug, comprise, compre- 
 hend. 
 
 Eminent, distinguished, conspicuous, fa- 
 mous. 
 
 Encircle, embrace, encompass, surround, 
 
 Enclose, fence in, confine, circumscribe. 
 
 Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault. 
 
 End, result, conclusion, upshot, extremity, 
 sequel. 
 
 Endanger, imperil, peril, hazard, jeopard- 
 ize. 
 
 Endless, everlasting, perpetual, deathless, 
 undying. 
 
 Endorse, superscribe, ratify, confirm. 
 
 Endurance, continuation, duration, forti- 
 tude. 
 
 Endure, last, continue, support, bear, sus- 
 tain, suffer. 
 
 Energetic, effectual, efficacious, powerful, 
 binding. 
 
 Energy, force, vigor, efficacy, potency, 
 strength. 
 
 Engagement, word, promise, battle, action, 
 combat. 
 
 Engross, busy, occupy, engage, monopo- 
 lize. 
 
 Engulf, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, 
 entomb, overwhelm. 
 
 Enjoyment, pleasure, gratification. 
 
 Enlarge, increase, extend, augment. 
 
 Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, 
 inform. 
 
 Enmity, animosity, hatred, hostility. 
 
 Enormous, colossal, huge, vast, immense, 
 prodigious. 
 
 Enough, sufficient, plenty, abundance. 
 
 Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, cap- 
 tivate. 
 
 Entangle, perplex, embarrass, inveigle, im- 
 plicate. 
 
 Enterprise, adventure, undertaking, effort, 
 attempt. 
 
 Entrance, entry, inlet, ingress, porch, pop 
 tab 
 
 Entrance, charm, enchant, fascinate. 
 
702 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Entrap, catch, insnare, entangle. 
 
 Entreat, beg, crave, solicit, beseech, im- 
 plore. 
 
 Enumerate, tell over, relate, narrate, re- 
 count. 
 
 Envy, jealousy, suspicion, grudging. 
 
 Epitome, abridgment, abstract. 
 
 Equal, companion, peer, compeer. 
 
 Equal, uniform, alike, adequate. 
 
 Equitable, just, fair, honest, impartial, rea- 
 sonable. 
 
 Erring, misguided, misled. 
 
 Especially, specially, mainly, chiefly. 
 
 Estate, domain, lands, property, posses- 
 sions. 
 
 Esteem, appreciate, respect, regard, rever- 
 ence, venerate. 
 
 Estimate, value, measure, calculate. 
 
 Evasion, shift, subterfuge, prevarication. 
 
 Event, occurrence, adventure, issue. 
 
 Ever, always, eternally, everlastingly, ever- 
 more, incessantly. 
 
 Everlasting, endless, infinite. 
 
 Evidence, testimony, proof, declaration. 
 
 Evil, wicked, unfair, mischief, harm. 
 
 Evince, argue, prove, evidence, demon- 
 strate. 
 
 Exaggerated, overstated, heightened, en- 
 larged. 
 
 Exceed, excel, surpass, transcend. 
 
 Excellence, superiority, perfection. 
 
 Except, unless, save, saving. 
 
 Excessive, unreasonable, immoderate, inor- 
 dinate, extravagant. 
 
 Exchange, change, commute, interchange. 
 
 Exclusive, sole, only, alone. 
 
 Excuse, plea, justification, pretense, pre- 
 text, pretension. 
 
 Execrable, abominable, hateful, accursed. 
 
 Execute, accomplish, fulfil, effect, complete, 
 finish. 
 
 Exemption, immunity, freedom, privilege. 
 
 Exercise, exertion, practice, use, employ- 
 ment. 
 
 Exercise, exert, practice, use. 
 
 Exhale, emit, give out, evaporate. 
 
 Exhaust, spend, drain, empty, consume. 
 
 Exile, banishment, expulsion, ostracism. 
 
 Exist, live, remain, continue, endure. 
 
 Exonerate, clear, discharge, absolve, justify. 
 
 Exorbitant, extravagant, excessive, immod- 
 erate, extortionate. 
 
 Expand, open, unfold, diffuse, dilate, extend. 
 
 Expectation, hope, confidence, trust. 
 
 Expect, anticipate, foresee, wait for. 
 
 Expedient, fit, necessary, essential, requi- 
 site. 
 
 Expel, eject, exclude, dispossess, displace, 
 excommunicate. 
 
 Expert, skilled, experienced, clever, dexter- 
 ous, adept. 
 
 Expiration, close, termination, cessation, 
 completion. 
 
 Expire, die, perish, decease. 
 
 Explanatory, descriptive, elucidatory. 
 
 Explicit, express, plain, definite, posi- 
 tive. 
 
 Explore, search, examine, view, investi- 
 gate. 
 
 Express, declare, assert, indicate, denote, 
 represent, signify. 
 
 Expunge, obliterate, efface, erase. 
 
 Exquisite, delicate, choice, delicious, per 
 feet, matchless. 
 
 Extend, reach, enlarge, amplify, expand 
 increase. 
 
 Extensive, wide, spacious, capacious, ex- 
 panded. 
 
 Exterminate, eradicate, destroy, annihilate. 
 
 Extol, laud, eulogize, praise, celebrate. 
 
 Extort, exact, wrest, wring, despoil. 
 
 Extract, elicit, select, cite, quote. 
 
 Extraordinary, remarkable, wonderful, unu- 
 sual, strange. 
 
 Extravagance, waste, prodigality, wasteful- 
 ness. 
 
 FACE, meet, brave, oppose, encounter. 
 
 Facetious, jocose, jocular, humorous. 
 
 Falsehood, untruth, story, lie, falsity. 
 
 Fame, reputation, glory, renown, honor. 
 
 Family, household, house, lineage, ances- 
 try, race. 
 
 Fanciful, ideal, fantastical, whimsical. 
 
 Fancy, imagination, notion, conceit. 
 
 Farming, tillage, agriculture, culture. 
 
 Farthest, extreme, remotest, utmost. 
 
 Fashion, form, mould, shape, fit. 
 
 Fashion, custom, manner, mode, form. 
 
 Fatal, deadly, mortal, inevitable. 
 
 Favor, benefit, kindness, civility, grace. 
 
 Fearless, brave, bold, courageous, dauntless, 
 daring, gallant. 
 
 Fearful, afraid, timid, nervous, timorous. 
 
 Feeling, emotion, sentiment, sensation, 
 sensibility. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 703 
 
 Feign, pretend, simulate, dissemble, in- 
 vent. 
 
 Felicity, bliss, blessedness, blissfulness. 
 
 Ferocious, ravenous, voracious, cruel, in- 
 human. 
 
 Fertile, teeming, productive, rich, luxu- 
 riant. 
 
 Fervid, glowing, impassioned, fervent, 
 warm. 
 
 Festal, festive, convivial, joyous. 
 
 Feud, fray, affray, quarrel, dispute. 
 
 Fickle, unstable, inconstant, restless, vari- 
 able. 
 
 Fiction, romance, invention, falsehood. 
 
 Fidelity, faithfulness, honesty, integrity. 
 
 Fierce, furious, violent, savage. 
 
 Fight, action, engagement, combat, con- 
 flict, contention. 
 
 Figure, image, emblem, type, symbol, 
 shape. 
 
 Fill, satisfy, content, store, stuff. 
 
 Filthy, dirty, dingy, unclean, gross. 
 
 Final, ending, ultimate, conclusive, decis- 
 ive. 
 
 Finical, overnice, foppish, spruce. 
 
 Finish, complete, perfect, conclude. 
 
 Firm, fast, steadfast, solid, strong, robust, 
 decided. 
 
 First, foremost, leading, earliest. 
 
 Fitful, fickle, inconstant, restless, impul- 
 sive. 
 
 Fitted, suited, adapted, qualified, compe- 
 tent. 
 
 Fix, fasten, tie, link, settle, establish. 
 
 Flagrant, glaring, enormous, atrocious. 
 
 Flashy, showy, gaudy, tawdry. 
 
 Flat, level, even, insipid, spiritless, life- 
 less. 
 
 Fleeting, temporary, transient, transitory, 
 short-lived. 
 
 Fleetness, quickness, swiftness, speed, ra- 
 pidity. 
 
 Flexible, pliable, supple, yielding. 
 
 Flight, flying, soaring, fleeing. 
 
 Flimsy, slight, weak, shallow. 
 
 Fling, hurl, throw, cast. 
 
 Flood, deluge, overflow, submerge. 
 
 Flourish, thrive, prosper, wave. 
 
 Fluent, flowing, voluble, ready, smooth. 
 
 Fluster, agitate, excite, confuse. 
 
 Foe, enemy, opponent, adversary. 
 
 Foible, failing, fault, weakness. 
 
 Fold, wrap, envelop. 
 
 Follow, chase, copy, obey, observe. 
 
 Folly, foolishness, silliness, nonsense, ab- 
 surdity. 
 
 Fondness, affection, love, attachment. 
 
 Fool, idiot, simpleton, buffoon, clown. 
 Foolish, senseless, simple, irrational, pre- 
 posterous, ridiculous. 
 
 Footing, foothold, standing, condition. 
 Forbid, prohibit, interdict. 
 
 Forbidding, repulsive, offensive.- 
 Forcible, strong, powerful, vigorous, ener- 
 getic, impressive. 
 
 Foregoing, antecedent, anterior. 
 
 Foreign, strange, extraneous, alien. 
 Forerunner, harbinger, precursor, herald. 
 Foresight, forethought, forecast, premedita- 
 tion. 
 
 Form, ceremony, observance, fashion, ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Form, make, create, produce, arrange. 
 Formal, precise, exact, stiff, methodical. 
 Formidable, terrible, fearful, shocking. 
 Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearless- 
 ness. 
 
 Forward, advance, promote, prefer. 
 
 Foul, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. 
 Fractiousness, snappishness, peevishness, 
 petulance. 
 
 Fragile, brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. 
 Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, remains. 
 Free, release, deliver, rescue, liberate, eman- 
 cipate, exempt. 
 
 Freedom, liberty, independence. 
 
 Fresh, new, novel, recent, modern. 
 
 Fretful, peevish, petulant, fractious. 
 
 Fright, alarm, dismay, consternation, panic. 
 Frighten, scare, affright, dismay, terrify. 
 Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty. 
 
 Front, face, confront, encounter. 
 
 Froward, cross, untoward, captious, frac- 
 tious. 
 
 Frugal, provident, economical, saving. 
 Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive. 
 Frustrate, defeat, foil, disappoint.. 
 
 Fulfil, accomplish, effect, complete. 
 
 GALE, storm, tempest, gust. 
 
 Gallant, gay, splendid, brave, courageous, 
 heroic. 
 
 Garrulous, babbling, talkative, chattering. 
 Gaudy, showy, glittering, bespangled. 
 Gaunt, emaciated, spare, lean, thin. 
 
 Gay, merry, jolly, sprightly, cheerful. 
 
704 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Generation, origination, race, stock, off- 
 spring. 
 
 Generous, noble, magnanimous, liberal, 
 munificent, bountiful. 
 
 Genial, cheering, cordial, hearty, merry. 
 Genteel, polished, well-bred, graceful, po- 
 lite. 
 
 Gentle, amiable, placid, meek, tender, soft. 
 Germinate, sprout, bud, shoot, vegetate. 
 Gesture, gesticulation, action. 
 
 Ghost, spectre, spirit, apparition, vision. 
 Gibe, jeer, mock, deride. 
 
 Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless. 
 
 Gift, donation, benefaction, alms, gratuity, 
 boon, faculty. 
 
 Gird, belt, encircle, enclose, encompass. 
 Girdle, belt, brace, band. 
 
 Give, bestow, grant, confer, furnish. 
 
 Glad, delighted, gratified, elated, joyful. 
 Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, radiate. 
 Glitter, show, brightness, brilliance. 
 
 Gloom, cloud, cloudiness, dulness, sadness. 
 Glorious, illustrious, famous, celebrated 
 distinguished, noble, exalted. 
 
 Godly, holy pious, devout, righteous, di- 
 vine. 
 
 Good, virtuous, upright, just, excellent. 
 Good-humored, good-natured, cheerful, 
 amiable. 
 
 Goodly, excellent, comely, pleasant, desira- 
 ble. 
 
 Goodness, virtue, benevolence, excellence, 
 value. 
 
 Grace, favor, mercy, pardon. 
 
 Graceful, comely, elegant, beautiful, lovely. 
 Grade, rank, standing, degree. 
 
 Gradual, slow, regular, progressive. 
 Grandeur, pomp, magnificence, display. 
 Ground, rest, base, establish. 
 
 Group, assembly, assemblage, collection, 
 clump. » 
 
 Grow, increase, expand, advance. 
 
 Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, aversion. 
 Gruff, rough, rugged, rude, harsh. 
 Guarantee, warrant, secure, verify. 
 
 Guard, shield, security, defence, sentinel. 
 Guardian, protector, conservator, preserver. 
 Guess, conjecture, surmise, reckon, fancy. 
 Guide, lead, direct, regulate, manage. 
 Guise, manner, aspect, mien, habit, dress. 
 
 HALT, rest, falter, limp, hobble. 
 
 Hand, operative, workman, artisan 
 
 Handle, manage, use, wield, feel. 
 
 Happy, prosperous, successful, fortunate. 
 Harass, distress, perplex, worry, vex. 
 Hardened, hard, unfeeling, insensible. 
 Harm, evil, misfortune, mischief, injury. 
 Harsh, severe, rigorous, gruff, rugged, 
 Hasten, accelerate, quicken, expedite, 
 hurry. 
 
 Hasty, quick, rash, excitable, fiery. 
 
 Hate, detest, abominate, loathe, dislike. 
 Hateful, detestable, execrable, abominable. 
 Havoc, destruction, desolation, devasta- 
 tion. 
 
 Hazard, risk, dare, adventure. 
 
 Headstrong, obstinate, stubborn, forward. 
 Heal, cure, remedy, reconcile. 
 
 Healthy, hearty, hale, sound, strong. 
 
 Hear, hearken, overhear, listen. 
 
 Help, aid, assist, succor, relieve. 
 
 Heroic, brave, bold, intrepid, gallant. 
 Hesitate, falter, pause, scruple. 
 
 Hidden, secret, mysterious. 
 
 Hide, conceal, disguise, screen. 
 
 Hideous, grim, grisly, horrible. 
 
 High, tall, elevated, proud. 
 
 Hint, suggest, intimate, insinuate. 
 
 Hire, pay, salary, wages. 
 
 Honest, honorable, virtuous, sincere. 
 Hope, expectation, trust, confidence. 
 Horrible, dreadful, awful, fearful, terrific. 
 Horror, terror, dread, fright, dismay. 
 Horse, steed, courser, charger. 
 
 Huge, bulky, large, great, immense, stu- 
 pendous. 
 
 Humane, kind, tender, merciful, benevo- 
 lent. 
 
 Humanity, kindness, tenderness, benevo= 
 lence, humanitary, human race. 
 
 Humble, lower, mortify, degrade, debase. 
 Humor, temper, mood, caprice, drollery, 
 fun. 
 
 Hurl, fling, cast, throw, sling. 
 
 Hurry, hasten, speed, quicken. 
 
 Hurtful, mischievous, noxious, detrimen- 
 tal, prejudicial. 
 
 IGNOMINIOUS, mean, shameful, dis- 
 honorable, infamy, reproach. 
 
 Ill will, enmity, hatred, antipathy. 
 
 Illegal, unlawful, illegitimate. 
 
 Illiterate, unlearned, untaught, uninstruct- 
 ed. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 705 
 
 Illness, sickness, indisposition, disorder. 
 
 Illustrious, celebrated, noble, eminent, re- 
 nowned. 
 
 Image, likeness, picture, representation. 
 
 Imagine, conceive, fancy, apprehend, think. 
 
 Imbibe, absorb, swallow up, consume. 
 
 Imbolden, inspirit, animate, encourage. 
 
 Immediate, pressing, instant, proximate. 
 
 Immense, enormous, huge, prodigious, im- 
 measurable. 
 
 Immodest, shameful, indecent, indecorous. 
 
 Immure, imprison, confine, incarcerate. 
 
 Impart, bestow, give, communicate, reveal, 
 discover. 
 
 Impartial, just, equitable, unprejudiced. 
 
 Impassioned, glowing, fiery, impetus, spir- 
 ited. 
 
 Impel, move, incite, instigate, encourage, 
 embolden, stimulate. 
 
 Imperfect, defective, faulty, incomplete. 
 
 Imperfection, deficiency, defect, fault, 
 failing. 
 
 Impertinent, unmannerly, meddling, intru- 
 sive, officious. 
 
 Impetuous, violent, furious, boisterous, 
 passionate. 
 
 Impious, irreverent, profane, godless, 
 wicked. 
 
 Imposing, impressive, striking, command- 
 ing^ grand. 
 
 Imposition, cheat, fraud, imposture. 
 
 Impotent, powerless, unable, weak, help- 
 less, enfeebled. 
 
 Impression, imprint, sentiment, sensation. 
 
 Improvement, progress, proficiency, ad- 
 vancement. 
 
 Improvident, careless, incautious, impru- 
 dent. 
 
 Impudence, confidence, insolence, rude- 
 ness. 
 
 Impudent, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, 
 insolent. 
 
 Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. 
 
 Imputation, blame, censure, reproach, 
 charge. 
 
 Inability, weakness, incapacity,. 
 
 Inanimate, lifeless, dead, defunct, inert, ex- 
 tinct. 
 
 Incapable, unable, inadequate, incompe- 
 tent. 
 
 Incapacity, disability, inability, incompe- 
 tency. 
 
 Incessant, unceasing, continual, perpetual. 
 
 Incident, event, occurrence, circumstance. 
 
 Incidental, accidental, casual, contingent. 
 
 Inclement, severe, harsh, rigorous, stormy. 
 
 Include, embrace, contain, comprehend, 
 hold, inclose. 
 
 Incoherent, unconnected, loose, inconse- 
 quential. 
 
 Incommode, inconvenience, annoy, molest, 
 disturb. 
 
 Incompetent, incapable, unable, insuffi- 
 cient. 
 
 Incomplete, imperfect, defective. 
 
 Increase, extend, advance, heighten, expand, 
 raise, enhance, magnify. 
 
 Increase, augmentation, accession, enlarge- 
 ment, addition, growth. 
 
 Indecent, improper, indelicate, immodest. 
 
 Indicate, show, mark, denote, designate. 
 
 Indifferent, apathetic, unconcerned, care- 
 less. 
 
 Indigence, poverty, want, destitution, pri- 
 vation. 
 
 Indignation, displeasure, anger, exaspera- 
 tion, wrath. 
 
 Indiscriminate, promiscuous, confused, un- 
 distinguishing. 
 
 Indispensable, necessary, essential, requi- 
 site. 
 
 Indisputable, undoubted, sure, certain, in- 
 fallible. 
 
 Indistinct, confused, uncertain, indiscrimin- 
 ate, imperfect. 
 
 Indolent, idle, lazy, listless, inactive. 
 
 Induce, persuade, influence, move, actuate, 
 prompt. 
 
 Industrious, diligent, laborious, assiduous, 
 busy. 
 
 Ineffectual, fruitless, useless, unavailing, 
 ineffective. 
 
 Inequality, disparity, inadequacy. 
 
 Inert, inactive, passive, indolent. 
 
 Inevitable, unavoidable, certain, irresisti- 
 ble. 
 
 Infamous, shameful, ignominious, disgrace- 
 ful. 
 
 Infect, pollute, contaminate, corrupt. 
 
 Infectious, contagious, pestilential, catch- 
 ing. 
 
 Inference, deduction, conclusion, conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Infidelity, distrust, incredulity, disbelief 
 
M 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Infinite, illimitable, unlimited, immense. 
 Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled. 
 
 Inflame, anger, enrage, incense, aggravate, 
 exasperate. 
 
 Inform, tell, report, acquaint, apprise. 
 Information, advice, counsel, instruction. 
 Infringe, invade, intrude, break, violate. 
 Infuse, instil, implant, inspire, impart. 
 Ingenuous, candid, generous, open, frank, 
 sincere. 
 
 Inhuman, cruel, savage, barbarous, ruth- 
 less. 
 
 Injurious, hurtful, pernicious, deleterious. 
 Injustice, wrong, iniquity, grievance. 
 Inquiry, investigation, examination, inter- 
 rogation. 
 
 Inquisitive, prying, curious, peering. 
 
 Insane, deranged, delirious, demented. 
 Inscribe, dedicate, devote, impress. 
 
 Inside, interior, within, inland. 
 
 Insipid, dull, tasteless, vapid, lifeless. 
 
 Insist, persist, persevere, urge. 
 
 Insnare, entrap, decoy, allure, entoil, en- 
 tangle. 
 
 Inspect, examine, overhaul, supervise. 
 Instability, mutability, fickleness. 
 
 Instigate, animate, incite, stimulate, en- 
 courage. 
 
 Instil, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. 
 
 Instruct, teach, educate, enlighten, initiate. 
 Instruction, advice, counsel, information- 
 education. 
 
 Instrument, tool, implement, medium. 
 Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping. 
 Insurrection, rebellion, revolt, sedition. 
 Integrity, uprightness, honesty, entirety. 
 Intellect, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, 
 talent, genius. 
 
 Intelligent, understanding, instructed. 
 Intelligible, clear, obvious, plain. 
 Intemperate, excessively, immoderate, 
 drunken. 
 
 Intend, design, purpose, contemplate. 
 Intercede, interpose, mediate, plead. 
 Intercourse, connection, commerce, inti- 
 macy. 
 
 Interdict, forbid, prohibit, debar. 
 
 Interest, concern, profit, benefit, share. 
 Interior, internal, inward, inner, inside. 
 Interpretation, explanation, sense, exposi- 
 tion, solution. 
 
 Intimacy, fellowship, familiarity, friend- 
 ship. 
 
 Intimate, familiar, friendly, conversant. 
 
 Intimate, suggest, insinuate. 
 
 Intimidate, alarm, frighten, affright, brow, 
 beat. 
 
 Intoxicated, drunk, muddled, tipsy 
 
 Intoxication, drunkenness, inebriation, in- 
 ebriety. 
 
 Intrigue, conspiracy, artifice, ruse, amour, 
 love affair. 
 
 Intrinsic, genuine, real, true, inherent. 
 
 Introduce, present, make known, usher in. 
 
 Introduction, presentation, preface, pre- 
 lude. 
 
 Introductory, preliminary, preparatory. 
 
 Intrude, obtrude, infringe, trespass. 
 
 Intrust, confide, commit, consign. 
 
 Invalidate, nullify, make void, overthrow, 
 vacate. 
 
 Invaluable, inestimable, priceless, pre- 
 cious. 
 
 Invasion, incursion, irruption, inroad. 
 
 Invective, railing, abuse, sarcasm. 
 
 Inveigle, entice, delude, seduce. 
 
 Invent, contrive, frame, fabricate, forge, 
 feign. 
 
 Inventor, creator, author, originator. 
 
 Inventory, schedule, register. 
 
 Invert, reverse, overturn, overthrow. 
 
 Investigation, examination, research, scru* 
 tiny, inquiry. 
 
 Inveterate, confirmed, chronic, deep- 
 rooted. 
 
 Involve, include, implicate, compromise, 
 complicate. 
 
 Inward, internal, inner, interior. 
 
 Irony, satire, sarcasm, ridicule. 
 
 Irregular, unnatural, unsystematic, disor- 
 derly, erratic. 
 
 Irreligious, profane, godless, impious. 
 
 Irresistible, resistless, all-powerful, mighty. 
 
 Irresolute, wavering, vacillating, unde- 
 termined. 
 
 Irritable, excitable, irascible, fretful, peev- 
 ish, 
 
 Issue, emerge, proceed, rise, spring, ema 
 nate. 
 
 JUDGMENT, discernment, sagacity, sen* 
 tence, decision. 
 
 Judicious, discerning, wise, sage. 
 
 Junction, union, alliance, connection. 
 
 Justify, excuse, exonerate, defend. 
 
 Justness, accuracy, correctness. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Jut, project, protrude, bulge. 
 
 KEEN, sharp, penetrating, cutting. 
 
 Keep, retain, detain, preserve, maintain. 
 Key, explanation, translation, solution. 
 Kill, murder, assassinate, slay. 
 
 Kind, thoughtful, gentle, meek, tender, 
 indulgent. 
 
 Kindred, affinity, relatives, related. 
 
 LABOR, work, task, exertion, duties. 
 Lame, crippled, halt, defective, imperfect 
 Lament, bewail, bemoan, regret, grieve 
 for. 
 
 Language, speech, tongue, expression, dic- 
 tion, dialect. 
 
 Languid, exhausted, flagging, faint, spii> 
 itless. 
 
 Large, great, vast, immense, bulky. 
 Lascivious, lustful, lewd, wanton. 
 
 Lash, whip, scourge, beat, bind. 
 
 Lasting, enduring, durable, abiding, per- 
 manent, perpetual. 
 
 Laud, praise, applaud, extol, magnify, 
 commend. 
 
 Lazy, indolent, slothful, sluggish, idle. 
 Lead, conduct, precede, induce, influence. 
 Leader, chief, director, head, guide. 
 Leading, chief, principal, governing. 
 
 Lean, incline, bend, slope. 
 
 Leap, jump, spring, bounce. 
 
 Learned, scholarly, versed, knowing. 
 Learner, scholar, student, pupil, beginner. 
 Legend, marvellous story, fable, fiction. 
 Legitimate, lawfully, begotten, fairly de- 
 duced. 
 
 Level, horizontal, plain, smooth, flat. 
 Levity, lightness, flightiness, vanity. 
 Liable, exposed, subject, responsible. 
 Liberal, noble-minded, bounteous, plenti- 
 ful, munificent. 
 
 Lie, falsehood, falsity, fabrication. 
 
 Life, existence, vitality, vivacity, activity. 
 Light, bright, whitish, easy, not difficult, 
 slight. 
 
 Likeness, similarity, representation, pic- 
 ture, portrait. 
 
 Liking, fondness, inclination, partiality. 
 Limit, bound, boundary, border, confine. 
 Lineage, descendants, race, ancestry, fam- 
 ily. 
 
 Listen, hearken, hear, heed. 
 
 Listless, careless, heedless, indifferent. 
 
 Y07 
 
 Literature, learning, letters, literary works 
 Little, small, dwarf, tiny, slight. 
 
 Live, exist, subsist, dwell. 
 
 Livelihood, living, support, sustenance. 
 Lively, vigorous, active, quick, spirited. 
 Loose, unfastened, unrestrained, slack, im 
 definite, dissolute, licentious, wanton. 
 Loss, damage, detriment, injury, priva 
 tion. 
 
 Lot, fate, destiny, fortune. 
 
 Loud, noisy, clamorous, vociferous. 
 
 Love, affection, regard, attachment. 
 Lovely, pleasing, charming, amiable, 
 
 MAD, wild, frantic, furious, rabid. 
 Madness, insanity, lunacy, mania, frenzy 
 Magnanimous, dignified, noble, exalted ? 
 lofty. 
 
 Magnificence, splendor, grandeur. 
 Magnitude, greatness, size, bulk. 
 
 Maintain, assert, hold, support, sustain. 
 Maintenance, living, livelihood, subsist 
 ence. 
 
 Majestic, dignified, noble, stately. 
 
 Make, create, form, shape. 
 
 Malady, ailment, disease, disorder, sick 
 ness. 
 
 Malediction, curse, imprecation, anathema 
 Malefactor, criminal, culprit, convict. 
 Malice, spite, grudge, pique. 
 
 Malicious, virulent, wicked. 
 
 Management, direction, superintendent 
 Manager, director, supervisor, overseer. 
 Mangle, lacerate, mutilate, hack. 
 
 Mania, madness, insanity, rage. 
 
 Manifest, show, reveal, exhibit. 
 
 Manifest, clear, evident, open, plain. 
 Manifold, various, sundry, several. 
 
 Manly, vigorous, manful, brave, fearless, 
 noble, masculine. 
 
 Manner, way, method, style, habit, custom, 
 air, look, appearance. 
 
 Mannerly, gentlemanly, civil, polite. 
 Margin, edge, border, brink, limit. 
 
 Mark, sign, symbol, character, impression, 
 symptom, track, badge. 
 
 Masculine, manly, vigorous, brave, cour- 
 ageous. 
 
 Massacre, carnage, slaughter, butchery. 
 Massive, bulky, weighty, heavy. 
 
 Master, director, ruler. 
 
 Master, overpower, overcome, conquer 
 Masterly, skilful, clever, expert. 
 
708 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Matchless, unequaled, peerless, incompara- 
 ble, inimitable. 
 
 Matrimony, marriage, wedlock, wedding. 
 Matter, material, affair, business, concern, 
 question, subject. 
 
 Mature, ripe, perfected, ready, mellow, fit. 
 Maudlin, silly, sickly, sentimental. 
 Mawkish, loathsome, squeamish. 
 
 Maybe, perhaps, possibly, perchance. 
 Meagre, poor, barren, lank, emaciated, 
 gaunt. 
 
 Mean, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, stingy. 
 Mean, intend, signify, design, purpose, in- 
 dicate. 
 
 Meaning, signification, import, sense. 
 Meddlesome, meddling, officious, obtru- 
 sive. 
 
 Memory, remembrance, retention, recollec- 
 tion. 
 
 Menace, threat, threatening. 
 
 Mend, repair, correct, improve, better, rec- 
 tify. 
 
 Menial, servant, domestic, hireling. 
 
 Mental, intellectual, metaphysical, ideal. 
 Merchant, trader, tradesman, dealer. 
 Merciful, compassionate, tender, humane, 
 gracious. 
 
 Merciless, cruel, unfeeling, unmerciful. 
 Mercy, leniency, clemency, tenderness. 
 Merriment, mirth, jollity, conviviality. 
 Merry, jovial, mirthful, joyous, lively, 
 sprightly. 
 
 Method, manner, process, regularity, sys- 
 tem, rule. 
 
 Middling, ordinary, moderate, tolerably. 
 Might, power, strength, force, ability. 
 Mighty, powerful, potent, strong, valiant. 
 Migratory, roving, wandering. 
 
 Mild, meek, gentle, tender. 
 
 Mind, intellect, understanding. 
 
 Mindful, heedful, observant, attentive. 
 Mingle, mix, amalgamate, confuse. 
 Minister, clergyman, parson, preacher. 
 Minute, slight, particular, exact. 
 Miscellany, mixture, diversity, variety. 
 Miscreant, caitiff, villain, knave, ruffian. 
 Miserable, wretched, unhappy, distressed. 
 Miserly, niggardl}', avaricious, covetous. 
 Misfortune, calamity, disaster, mishap. 
 Misguide, mislead, beguile, deceive. 
 Mistake, err, fail, misconceive. 
 
 Misty, murky, dark, dim, obscure, cloudy. 
 Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate. 
 
 Mix, mingle, blend, intermix. 
 
 Mob, crowd, concourse, throng. 
 
 Mode, method, process, course, means. 
 Moderate, temperate, sober, abstinent. 
 Moderation, temperance, sobriety. 
 Moreover, besides, furthermore, likewise 
 Morning, morn, dawn, sunrise. 
 
 Morose, gloomy, sullen, surly. 
 
 Mortify, humiliate, humble, annoy. 
 
 Mostly, mainly, chiefly. 
 
 Motive, incentive, impulse, cause, reason. 
 Mouldy, musty, mildewed. 
 
 Mount, arise, rise, ascend, climb. 
 
 Mourn, lament, grieve, bewail. 
 
 Mournful, sad, sorrowful, grievous, piteous* 
 Move, impel, incite, induce, instigate. 
 Moving, affecting, touching, impressive. 
 Much, abundant, considerable, ample, plen- 
 teous. 
 
 Multitude, crowd, throng, host. 
 
 Murmur, mutter, complain, repine. 
 Muscular, strong, stalwart, athletic, lusty. 
 Muster, collect, rally, gather, assemble. 
 Mutable, variable, inconstant, unsteady, 
 fickle. 
 
 Mutinous, insurgent, seditious, riotous. 
 
 NAME, appellation, designation, title, rep- 
 utation, character, fame, credit. 
 
 Narrate, tell, recount, describe, enumerate* 
 Narrow, bigoted, illiberal, confined. 
 
 Nasty, filthy, unclean, impure, indecent. 
 Nation, people, community, state. 
 
 Native, real, genuine, mother. 
 
 Naturally, consequently, necessarily. 
 Nausea, qualm, sea-sickness, loathing, aver- 
 sion. 
 
 Neat, nice, spruce, trim, pure. 
 
 Necessary, needful, expedient, essential. 
 Need, necessity, poverty, indigence, pen- 
 ury. 
 
 Needless, unnecessary, useless. 
 
 Needy, poor, indigent, destitute. 
 
 Negligent, neglectful, heedless, careless, 
 thoughtless. 
 
 Neighborhood, vicinity, nearness, prox- 
 imity. 
 
 Nerve, firmness, courage, force, pluck, res- 
 olution. 
 
 Nettle, sting, aggravate, provoke, enrage. 
 Niggardly, miserly, griping, avaricious, 
 saving. 
 
 Nigh, near, close, adjacent. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 . 709 
 
 Nimble, active, quick, agile, swift, alert, 
 brisk, lively. 
 
 Nobility, rank, dignity, greatness, aristoc- 
 racy. 
 
 Noise, outcry, clamor, din, uproar, tumult. 
 
 Nonsense, folly, absurdity, trash. 
 
 Nonsensical, absurd, silly, foolish, prepos- 
 terous. 
 
 Notable, remarkable, signal, striking, no- 
 torious. 
 
 Notable, busy, diligent, careful. 
 
 Note, mark, token, remark, observation, 
 comment. 
 
 Notify, publish, announce, acquaint, com- 
 municate. 
 
 Notion, opinion, belief, sentiment, impres- 
 sion. 
 
 Nourishing, nutritious, nutritive. 
 
 Nourishment, food, nutriment, aliment, sus- 
 tenance. 
 
 Noxious, hurtful, deleterious, baneful, un- 
 wholesome. 
 
 OBEDIENT, submissive, dutiful, respect- 
 ful. 
 
 Object, aim, purpose, design. 
 
 Object, oppose, contravene, impeach. 
 
 Obligation, duty, favor, contract, bond. 
 
 Oblige, compel, bind, engage, force. 
 
 Obloquy, censure, odium, reproach, abuse, 
 disgrace. 
 
 Obnoxious, offensive, hateful, unpopular. 
 
 Obscene, lewd, indecent, indelicate, dis- 
 gusting. 
 
 Obscure, dim, cloudy, indistinct, unknown, 
 humble, unintelligible. 
 
 Observance, performance, ceremony, solem- 
 nity, rite, custom. 
 
 Observe, notice, watch, perceive, respect, 
 regard. 
 
 Observer, beholder, spectator, by-stander. 
 
 Obsolete, disused, antiquated, ancient. 
 
 Obstacle, obstruction, difficulty, check, bar- 
 rier. 
 
 Obvious, evident, manifest, clear, open, ap- 
 parent. 
 
 Occasion, need, opportunity, opening, rea- 
 son, cause. 
 
 Occult, secret, unknown, invisible, dark, 
 mysterious. 
 
 Occupation, profession, business, trade, vo- 
 cation, calling. 
 
 Occurrence, event, affair, adventure. 
 
 Odd, whimsical, queer, peculiar, droll, un- 
 even, unmatched. 
 
 Odor, smell, scent, perfume, fragrance. 
 
 Offence, injury, wrong, insult, outrage, in- 
 
 ■ dignity, crime. 
 
 Offend, displease, anger, irritate, shock, 
 pain. 
 
 Off-hand, unpremeditated, extempore, un- 
 studied. 
 
 Office, duty, employment, business, ser- 
 vice, post. 
 
 Officer, functionary, official, director. 
 
 Officious, obtrusive, intermeddling, inter- 
 fering. 
 
 Omission, failure, oversight, neglect, de- 
 fault. 
 
 Omnipotent, almighty, irresistible. 
 
 Onerous, laborious, oppressive, toilsome, 
 responsible. 
 
 Onset, assault, attack, charge, encounter. 
 
 Open, unshut, free, frank, unreserved, gen- 
 uine, barefaced, undisguised. 
 
 Opportune, seasonable, timely, proper. 
 
 Opportunity, occasion, chance, opening. 
 
 Oppose, combat, hinder, resist, contradict. 
 
 Oppressive, heavy, cruel, severe, unjust. 
 
 Opprobrious, abusive, insulting, offensive, 
 shameful. 
 
 Opprobrium, disgrace, odium, infamy, igno- 
 miny. 
 
 Option, choice, preference, election. 
 
 Oration, address, speech, discourse. 
 
 Ordain, appoint, consecrate, prescribe. 
 
 Ordinance, decree, law, statute, edict. 
 
 Ordinary, common, vulgar, plain, conven- 
 tional, habitual, usual. 
 
 Organization, structure, form. 
 
 Orifice, aperture, opening. 
 
 Origin, commencement, original, rise, 
 source, cause. 
 
 Original, first, primary, pristine, primeval, 
 peculiar. 
 
 Originate, create, spring, issue, proceed. 
 
 Ostensible, manifest, visible, outward, col- 
 orable. 
 
 Outcast, reprobate? vagrant, vagabond. 
 
 Outcry, cry, clamor, noise, scream. 
 
 Outdo, exceed, excel, surpass. 
 
 Outlandish, strange, foreign, alien. 
 
 Outline, sketch, plan, draft. 
 
 Outrage, injury, insult, offence. 
 
 Outward, outer, external, exterior. 
 
710 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Overcome, overthrow, crush, conquer, van- 
 quish. 
 
 Overjoyed, enraptured, delighted. 
 
 Overlook, oversee, survey, review, excuse, 
 pardon. 
 
 Overreach, cheat, swindle, outwit, circum- 
 vent. 
 
 Overruling, governing, controlling, supe- 
 rior. 
 
 Oversight, inspection, supervision, neglect, 
 mistake, error. 
 
 Overweening, conceited, haughty, egotisti- 
 cal. 
 
 Overwhelm, drown, overcome, overpower, 
 subdue, crush. 
 
 Own, possess, hold, acknowledge, admit? 
 confess, allow. 
 
 PAIN, agony, distress, suffering. 
 
 Painstaking, attentive, laborious, diligent. 
 
 | Paint, color, represent, delineate. 
 
 Palid, pale, wan, whitish, faint. 
 
 Palpable, clear, distinct, plain, evident. 
 
 Palpitate, flutter, paint, throb. 
 
 Paltry, pitiful, mean, sorry, despicable. 
 
 Panegyric, eulogy, encomium, praise, 
 
 Pang, throe, anguish, pain, distress. 
 
 Pant, palpitate, gasp, throb, long. 
 
 Parallel, equal, like, similar. 
 
 Parsimonious, stingy, niggardly, miserly. 
 
 Parson, clergyman, curate, minister. 
 
 Part, separate, divide, sever, disunite. 
 
 Partial, biassed, prejudiced, limited. 
 
 Particular, singular, exact, punctual. 
 
 Particularly, primarily, especially, chiefly. 
 
 Partisan, supporter, follower, disciple. 
 
 Partner, colleague, associate, sharer. 
 
 Party, confederacy, faction, clique, league. 
 
 Passage, journey, road, route, channel, 
 clause. 
 
 Passion, emotion, vehemence, impetuosi- 
 ty, love, affection. 
 
 Passive, inactive, unresisting, submissive, 
 patient, resigned. 
 
 Pastime, amusement, recreation, sport, 
 
 P>ay : 
 
 Pathetic, touching, affecting, moving. 
 
 Paucity, fewness, lack, deficiency. 
 
 Pay, wages, compensation, salary, recom- 
 pense. 
 
 Peace, quiet, calm, rest, harmony. 
 
 Peevish, touchy, captious, fractious, fretful, 
 
 K petulant. 
 
 Pellucid, translucent, lucid, transparent, 
 clear. 
 
 Penalty, fine, forfeiture. 
 
 Pendant, protruding, hanging, drooping. 
 
 Penetrate, pierce, fathom, reach. 
 
 Penetration, insight, sharpness, acuteness, 
 discrimination. 
 
 Penurious, sparing, niggardly, stingy. 
 
 Penury, poverty, beggary, destitution, pri- 
 vation. 
 
 People, populace, mob, nation, tribe, race. 
 
 Perception, seeing, sensibility, sensation, 
 apprehension. 
 
 Peremptory, absolute, arbitrary, despotic, 
 imperative. 
 
 Perfect, complete, finished, mature, ripe. 
 
 Perfidious, faithless, treacherous, unfaithful. 
 
 Performance, act, exploit, work, enterprise. 
 
 Perilous, dangerous, hazardous, insecure. 
 
 Period, time, date, era, epoch, end. 
 
 Permanent, durable, abiding, enduring.^ 
 steadfast, constant. 
 
 Pernicious, destructive, ruinous, baneful. 
 
 Perpetual, constant, continuous, eternal 
 incessant, ceaseless. 
 
 Perplex, embarrass, confuse, bewilder, en- 
 tangle. 
 
 Persecute, oppress, harrow, afflict, annoy. 
 
 Pertain, belong, appertain, concern. 
 
 Pertinacious, obstinate, stubborn, deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Pervade, diffuse, spread, permeate. 
 
 Perverse, awkward, cross, petulant, peevish, 
 stubborn. 
 
 Pestilential, infectious, pernicious, noxious, 
 baneful, destructive, deadly. 
 
 Petition, prayer, supplication, request. 
 
 Phantom, apparition, spectre, ghost. 
 
 Philanthropic, charitable, kind, benevolent. 
 
 Physical, material, corporeal, natural. 
 
 Pierce, penetrate, drill. 
 
 Piety, religion, holiness, devotion, godli- 
 ness. 
 
 Pillage, rapine, spoil, plunder, booty. 
 
 Pillar, column, shaft, support. 
 
 Pine, droop, languish, fade, wither, decay. 
 
 Pious, holy, godly, religious. 
 
 Piquant, smart, keen, biting, harsh, cutting. 
 
 Pique, spite, grudge, resentment. 
 
 Pity, compassion, sympathy, mercy. 
 
 Placid, gentle, peaceful, quiet, calm, mild. 
 
 Plague, tease, worry, torment, tantalize, 
 molest. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 711 
 
 Plan, design, drawing, scheme, project, 
 contrivance, stratagem. 
 
 Plaudit, applause, acclamation, approba- 
 tion. 
 
 Plausible, apparently, specious, ostensible. 
 
 Play, amusement, recreation, diversion, 
 game, scope, opportunity. 
 
 Plead, argue, apologize, vindicate, exoner- 
 ate, justify. 
 
 Pleasant, agreeable, delightful, delicious, 
 satisfactory, cheerful, merry. 
 
 Pleasing, agreeable, gratifying, pleasant. 
 
 Pleasure, comfort, enjoyment, satisfaction, 
 delight, joy, rapture. 
 
 Plentiful, plenteous, abundant, ample, pro*- 
 fuse. 
 
 Plenty, enough, abundance, profusion. 
 
 Pliable, pliant, flexible, supple, docile. 
 
 Plodding, drudging, laborious. 
 
 Plot, scheme, conspiracy, stratagem, com- 
 bination. 
 
 Plot, devise, frame, contrive, conspire. 
 
 Pluck, courage, mettle, spirit, nerve. 
 
 Plump, round, fat, chubby, fleshy. 
 
 Plunder, pillage, booty, spoil. 
 
 Plunge, immerce, dive. 
 
 Ply, practise, exercise, work. 
 
 Poignant, sharp, keen, biting, severe, in- 
 tense. 
 
 Pointed, sharp, marked, severe. 
 
 Policy, system, management, prudence, 
 cunning. 
 
 Polish, brighten, burnish, refine. 
 
 Polite, polished, refined, accomplished, 
 courteous, courtly. 
 
 Pollute, corrupt, contaminate, soil, infect, 
 deprave. 
 
 Pomp, parade, display, splendor, grandeur, 
 show, ceremony. 
 
 Popular, prevailing, current, favorite, liked. 
 
 Portend, foreshow, betoken, augur, threat- 
 en, indicate. 
 
 Position, locality, situation, spot, gesture, 
 attitude. 
 
 Practice, custom, usage, exercise. 
 
 Praise, applause, exaltation, honor. 
 
 Praiseworthy, laudable, honorable, com- 
 mendable. 
 
 Prank, freak, trick, escapade. 
 
 Prate, tattle, chatter, prattle, gossip. 
 
 Preamble, preface, introduction. 
 
 Precarious, doubtful, dubious, unsettled, 
 perilous. 
 
 Precedence, priority, pre-eminence, prefer 
 ence. 
 
 Precept, command, injunction, direction, 
 law, doctrine. 
 
 Preceptor, teacher, instructor, schoolmas- 
 ter. 
 
 Precipitous, abrupt, rash, dangerous. 
 
 Precise, accurate, correct, particular, ex- 
 plicit. 
 
 Precision, exactness, accuracy, nicety. 
 
 Precursory, premonitory, preceding. 
 
 Predatory, marauding, ravenous, rapacious, 
 greedy. 
 
 Predict, foretell, prophesy, forecast, fore- 
 shadow. 
 
 Predilection, preference, fondness, preju- 
 dice. 
 
 Pre-eminent, superior, supreme noble. 
 
 Prefer, select, advance, further. 
 
 Preference, choice, precedence. 
 
 Preferment, promotion, exaltation. 
 
 Pregnant, teeming, replete, fruitful, with 
 child. 
 
 Premature, too hasty, rash, untimely. 
 
 Premeditation, forethought, deliberation. 
 
 Premium, reward, recompense, bounty, 
 prize. 
 
 Prepare, qualify, furnish, provide, adapt, 
 arrange. 
 
 Preponderate, overbalance, outweigh, pre- 
 vail. 
 
 Prepossessing, winning, charming. 
 
 Present, nigh, immediate, instant, current. 
 
 Presentiment, foreboding, foretaste, fore- 
 thought. 
 
 Presently, shortly, immediately, directly. 
 
 Preserve, save, defend, protect, maintain. 
 
 Preside, direct, control, superintend. 
 
 Presume, infer, think, conjecture, believe. 
 
 Presumptuous, presuming, forward, arro- 
 gant, bold, rash, foolhardy. 
 
 Prevail, predominate, obtain, succeed. 
 
 Prevailing, prevalent, ruling, ascendant. 
 
 Prevalence, influence, custom, power. 
 
 Prevaricate, quibble, cavil, equivocate. 
 
 Prevent, impede, thwart, obviate, hinder, 
 obstruct. 
 
 Previous, preceding, foregoing, anterior. 
 
 Prey, food, victim, spoil, ravage. 
 
 Price, cost, expense, value, worth. 
 
 Pride, arrogance, haughtiness, vanity, self 
 esteem, loftiness. 
 
 Prim, precise, formal, stiff, priggish. 
 
713 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Primary, first, earliest, original, primeval. 
 
 Princely, royal, stately, august, noble. 
 
 Principal, chief, leading, first, highest, su- 
 preme. 
 
 Priority, precedence, preference. 
 
 Pristine, primitive, original, infantine. 
 
 Privacy, solitude, seclusion, retreat, se- 
 crecy. 
 
 Privation, loss, bereavement, destitution, 
 poverty. 
 
 Prize, assess, value, appraise. 
 
 Probability, chance, appearance. 
 
 Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty, 
 integrity. 
 
 Proceed, move, advance, pass. 
 
 Procession, caravan, cavalcade, cortege. 
 
 Proclaim, announce, publish, advertise, 
 utter. 
 
 Proclamation, announcement, decree, no- 
 tice. 
 
 Proclivity, proneness, tendency, inclina- 
 tion. 
 
 Prodigy, wonder, monster, miracle. 
 
 Produce, give, cause, show, exhibit, extend, 
 prolong. 
 
 Produce, product, fruit, effect, consequence, 
 amount. 
 
 Production, origination, formation, pro- 
 duct. 
 
 Profane, impious, irreligious, impure, god- 
 less, irreverent. 
 
 Profession, business, trade, occupation, 
 calling, employment. 
 
 Proffer, offer, propose, volunteer. 
 
 Proficiency, improvement, skill, dexterity. 
 
 Proficient, skilful, competent, trained. 
 
 Profit, gain, benefit, service, use. 
 
 Progress, progression, movement, improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Prohibit, check, repress, prevent, forbid. 
 
 Project, scheme, device, design. 
 
 Project, cast, throw, shoot, discharge, hurl. 
 
 Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, 
 leading. 
 
 Promiscuous, mixed, mingled, indiscrimin- 
 ate. 
 
 Promise, word, engagement, pledge. 
 
 Promptitude, readiness, promptness, ac- 
 tivity. 
 
 Promulgate, announce, advertise, proclaim, 
 declare. 
 
 Pronounce, speak, utter, deliver, enunci- 
 ate. 
 
 Proof, evidence, testimony, trial, experi- 
 ment. 
 
 Prop, maintain, sustain, support, stay. 
 Propagate, circulate, diffuse, disseminate. 
 Propriety, fitness, justness, decorum. 
 Prorogue, adjourn, postpone, delay. 
 Prosecute, continue, persevere, persist, 
 carry. 
 
 Prospect, landscape, perspective, scene, 
 hope. 
 
 Prosper, succeed, grow rich, thrive. 
 Protection, preservation, guard, shelter. 
 Protest, assert, affirm, declare, assure. 
 Protract, prolong, continue, delay, defer. 
 Protrude, project, bulge. 
 
 Proud, vain, lofty, arrogant, assuming, 
 haughty. 
 
 Prove, examine, demonstrate, establish, 
 verify. 
 
 Proverb, maxim, aphorism, saying, by- 
 word. 
 
 Provide, procure, prepare, furnish, supply, 
 arrange. 
 
 Provident, cautious, thrifty, prudent. 
 Provoke, irritate, exasperate, incite, tanta- 
 lize. 
 
 Prowess, courage, heroism, fearlessness. 
 Puerile, youthful, boyish, childish, silly. 
 Punctilious, formal, precise. 
 
 Pure, unmixed, unspotted, unsullied. 
 Purify, clarify, clear, cleanse. 
 
 Purloin, steal, pilfer, filch. 
 
 Purport, tenor, sense, meaning. 
 
 Purpose, design, intention, view. 
 
 Purpose, propose, intend, mean. 
 
 Pursue, chase, track, prosecute. 
 
 Push, thrust, impel, drive. 
 
 QUAIL, flinch, quake, tremble. 
 
 Quaint, fanciful, whimsical, singular. 
 
 Quake, shake, tremble, shudder. 
 Qualification, capacity, fitness, capability. 
 Qualified, fitted, competent, suitable. 
 Qualify, prepare, capacitate, enable. 
 Quality, property, peculiarity, character, 
 temper. 
 
 Quandary, puzzle, perplexity, uncertainty. 
 Quantity, amount, sum, portion, part, di- 
 vision. 
 
 Quarrel, altercation, broil, dispute, disa- 
 greement, variance. 
 
 Quarrelsome, pugnacious, fiery. 
 
 Quarter, region, district, locality 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 713 
 
 Quash, crush, suppress, nullify, cancel. 
 
 Queer, strange, singular, quaint, whimsi- 
 cal. 
 
 Queil, crush, subdue, repress, suppress, 
 overpower. 
 
 Quiescence, rest, repose, quiet, quietude, 
 silence. 
 
 Quiet, calm, compose, still, hush, pacify. 
 
 Quiet, calm, tranquil, peaceable, silent, gen- 
 tle, inoffensive. 
 
 Quit, leave, relinquish, abandon, forsake, 
 resign. 
 
 Quite, altogether, completely, wholly, en- 
 tirely. 
 
 Quotation, citation, extract, passage. 
 
 Quote, cite, adduce, note, repeat, allege. 
 
 RACK, strain, torture, agonize. 
 
 Racy, pungent, spicy, spirited, lively, vi- 
 vacious. 
 
 Radiance, brightness, splendor, brilliance, 
 glare. 
 
 Radiant, beaming, lustrous shining, spark- 
 ling. 
 
 Radiate, shine, gleam, sparkle. 
 
 Radical, fundamental, original, inherent, 
 constitutional. 
 
 Raiment, clothing, dress, garments, ap- 
 parel. 
 
 Raise, elevate, heighten, increase, exalt, 
 collect. 
 
 Ramble, jaunt, tour, excursion, strolling. 
 
 Rampant, luxuriant, wanton, rank, furious. 
 
 Rancid, sour, fetid, tainted, musty. 
 
 Rancor, malignity, malice, enmity, bitter- 
 ness, grudge. 
 
 Random, chance, casual, accidental. 
 
 Ransom, emancipate, free, liberate, re- 
 deem. 
 
 Rant, empty, declamation, boasting. 
 
 Rapidity, speed, haste, celerity, fleetness, 
 quickness, despatch. 
 
 Rapture, ecstacy, transport, bliss. 
 
 Rare, scarce, uncommon, unusual. 
 
 Rascal, scoundrel, rogue, scamp, vaga- 
 bond. 
 
 Rash, hasty, precipitate, venturesome, 
 thoughtless, reckless, careless. 
 
 Rashness, precipitation, hastiness, indis- 
 cretion. 
 
 Rate, appraise, estimate, appreciate, scold, 
 abuse. 
 
 Raving, distracted, furious, angry. 
 
 Ravish, transport, enchant, charm, violate, 
 abuse. 
 
 Ready, prepared, prompt dexterous. 
 
 Real, literal, practical, positive, certain, 
 true. 
 
 Realize, accomplish^ achieve, effect, gain. 
 
 Rear, elevate, erect, breed, raise. 
 
 Reason, motive, design, proof, cause, pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Reason, deduce, trace, infer, conclude. 
 
 Reasonable, intelligent, wise, judicious, 
 fair, right. 
 
 Rebuff, repulse, rebuke, reprove, scold. 
 
 Recant, recall, retract, revoke. 
 
 Receipt, reception, admission, discharge. 
 
 Receive, accept, admit, entertain. 
 
 Reception, receiving, receipt, admission. 
 
 Reciprocal, mutual, alternate, interchange- 
 able. 
 
 Recital, recitation, narrative, statement. 
 
 Recite, relate, tell, repeat, rehearse. 
 
 Reckless, heedless, regardless, careless. 
 
 Reckon, calculate, enumerate, count. 
 
 Recognize, acknowledge, confess, concede, 
 remember. 
 
 Recollect, remember, think of, recall. 
 
 Recompense, compensate, repay, redeem, 
 remunerate. 
 
 Recount, relate, rehearse, describe, enu- 
 merate. 
 
 Recover, regain, reclaim, repair, recruit, re- 
 store. 
 
 Recreant, cowardly, dastardly, fearful, 
 false. 
 
 Recreation, pastime, play, amusement, 
 game. 
 
 Rectitude, justice, integrity, virtue. 
 
 Redress, remedy, repair, abatement, re- 
 lief. 
 
 Reduce, lessen, diminish, lower, shorten, 
 curtail, conquer. 
 
 Redundant, unnecessary, excessive, luxu- 
 riant. 
 
 Reference, regard, relation, allusion. 
 
 Referring, respecting, regarding, about, 
 relative to. 
 
 Refined, polite, polished, genteel. 
 
 Reflect, consider, think, ponder, reprove. 
 
 Refuge, asylum, protection, sanctuary, 
 shelter. 
 
 Refund, reimburse, repay, return, restore. 
 
 Refuse, dregs, dross, scum, rubbish. 
 
 Refute, disprove, falsify, negative. 
 
714 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Regain, recover, retrieve, get back. 
 
 Regardless, needless, unmindful, reckless, 
 inconsiderate. 
 
 Regret, grief, sorrow, repentance, remorse. 
 
 Regular, orderly, systematical, customary, 
 ordinary, periodical. 
 
 Reject, refuse, cast, aside, renounce, repu- 
 diate. 
 
 Rejoice, delight, gladden, triumph. 
 
 Related, kindred, connected, allied. 
 
 Relation, narration, recital, narrative, ac- 
 count, relative. 
 
 Relatives, relations, kindred, kinsmen. 
 
 Relax, slacken, loosen, soften. 
 
 Release, let go, disengage, liberate. 
 
 Relevant, pertinent, appropriate, applicar 
 ble. 
 
 Relieve, ease, help, succor, alleviate. 
 
 Religious, devotional, godly, holy, sacred. 
 
 Relinquish, give up, forego, forsake, aban- 
 don, renounce. 
 
 Relish, taste, flavor, appetite, enjoyment. 
 
 Reluctant, unwilling, averse, loath, disin- 
 clined. 
 
 Remain, continue, last, abide, sojourn, 
 wait. 
 
 Remedial, healing, curative, corrective. 
 
 Remedy, relief, redress, reparation, spe- 
 cific. 
 
 Remembrance, memory, recollection, me- 
 morial, token, memento. 
 
 Remit, abate, resign, concede, surrender, 
 pardon. 
 
 Remorse, compunction, penitence. 
 
 Remorseless, unrelenting, relentless, cruel, 
 merciless. 
 
 Remote, distant, secluded, foreign, indi- 
 rect. 
 
 Remove, transfer, withdraw, suppress, eject, 
 oust. 
 
 Remuneration, payment, recompense, re- 
 ward, salary, wages. 
 
 Renounce, disown, reject, abjure, abandon, 
 forsake. 
 
 Renowned, celebrated, famous, illustrious. 
 
 Repeal, revoke, abolish. 
 
 Repine, murmur, grumble, complain, envy. 
 
 Reply, answer, response, rejoinder. 
 
 Report, announce, communicate, relate, 
 circulate. 
 
 Represent, paint, sketch, delineate, play. 
 
 Representative, agent, deputy, proxy. 
 
 Reproach, blame, upbraid, rebuke, re- 
 prove. 
 
 Reprobate, villain, miscreant, castaway. 
 
 Reproduce, propagate, imitate, copy. 
 
 Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly. 
 
 Reputable, creditable, honorable, respecta- 
 ble. 
 
 Request, beseech, entreat, demand. 
 
 Requite, reward, compensate, recompense^ 
 repay. 
 
 Reserve, modesty, reservation. 
 
 Resident, occupant, dweller, tenant. 
 
 Resign, relinquish, abandon, abdicate. 
 
 Resist, oppose, check, hinder. 
 
 Resolute, determined, decided, steady, con* 
 stant. 
 
 Resound, echo, re-echo, ring, respond. 
 
 Resources, means, material, expedients. 
 
 Respect, regard, prefer, venerate. 
 
 Respectable, good, laudable, esteemed,, 
 fair. 
 
 Rest, repose, slumber, quiet, peace, tran- 
 quillity. 
 
 Restive, obstinate, stubborn, uneasy. 
 
 Result, termination, conclusion, conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Retain, keep, restrain, detain, engage. 
 
 Retaliate, repay, revenge, requite. 
 
 Retard, impede, obstruct, detain. 
 
 Retire, leave, depart, recede, retreat. 
 
 Retirement, privacy, retreat, solitude. 
 
 Retort, reply, answer, repartee. 
 
 Retreat, departure, asylum, refuge, haunt, 
 den. 
 
 Retrench, reduce, abbreviate, contract, 
 economize, 
 
 Reveal, disclose, show, expose, publish. 
 
 Revel, feast, luxuriate, banquet, wallow. 
 
 Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital. 
 
 Revengeful, spiteful, resentful, vindictive. 
 
 Reverence, honor, respect, veneration. 
 
 Review, retrospect, survey, revisal. 
 
 Revile, calumniate, slander, reproach, scan- 
 dalize. 
 
 Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, animate. 
 
 Reward, recompense, remuneration, 
 bounty. 
 
 Rhetorical, declamatory, oratorical, spir- 
 ited. 
 
 Rich, wealthy, plentiful, abundant, fertile, 
 fruitful, superb. 
 
 Ridicule, mock, deride, chaff, sneer at* 
 banter. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 715 
 
 Ridiculous, laughable, comical, absurd, 
 grotesque, droll. 
 
 Rifle, ransack, despoil, fleece, pillage, plun- 
 der. 
 
 Right, straight, direct, awful, correct, just, 
 fair. 
 
 Rightly, fairly, correctly, properly. 
 
 Rigid, inflexible, severe, strict, unyield- 
 ing, stern, harsh. 
 
 Riot, tumult, disturbance, confusion, fray, 
 mutiny. 
 
 Rise, arise, ascend, climb, break forth. 
 
 Rise, fountainhead, origin, beginning, ele- 
 vation. 
 
 Risible, laughable, ludicrous, comical. 
 
 Risk, hazard, peril, venture, dare. 
 
 Road, thoroughfare, highway, path. 
 
 Roam, ramble, wander, stray. 
 
 Roar, bellow, yell, resound, vociferate. 
 
 Robbery, plundering, larceny, depredation. 
 
 Robust, vigorous, stout, lusty, healthy, sin- 
 ewy, muscular. 
 
 Rogue, rascal, villain, scoundrel, swindler, 
 sharper. 
 
 Romantic, wild, extravagant, sentimental. 
 
 Room, chamber, boudoir, space, scope. 
 
 Root, origin, foundation, bottom. 
 
 Round, circular, complete, plump, smooth. 
 
 Rouse, wake up, awaken, excite, provoke, 
 animate. 
 
 Rout, overthrow, defeat, scatter. 
 
 Route, road, course, march, direction. 
 
 Rove, ramble, roam, range, stroll. 
 
 Rubbish, debris, litter, refuse, trash, non- 
 sense. 
 
 Rude, rough, imperfect, rugged, coarse, un- 
 polished, awkward, clumsy. 
 
 Rueful, woful, piteous, doleful, grievous, dis- 
 mal. 
 
 Ruin, destruction, shipwreck, desolation, 
 defeat, mischief. 
 
 Ruinous, destructive, pernicious, wasteful. 
 
 Rule, govern, manage, direct, command. 
 
 Rule, government, mastery, regulation, law, 
 authority, method, system. 
 
 Ruling, reigning, controlling, dominant, 
 prevalent. 
 
 Run, hasten, hurry, speed, race, scamper. 
 
 SAFE, unharmed, secure, certain, reliable, 
 substantial. 
 
 Sagacious, shrewd, discerning, wise, pru- 
 . dent, discriminating, intelligent. 
 
 Salary, wages, hire, remuneration. 
 
 Salient, remarkable, prominent, projecting. 
 
 Salubrious, healthful, healing, sanitary. 
 
 Salutation, address, welcome, congratula* 
 tion. 
 
 Sample, specimen, model, example. 
 
 Sanative, sanitary, wholesome, healing. 
 
 Sanction, confirm, countenance, encourage, 
 support. 
 
 Sarcasm, satire, irony, ridicule, mockery. 
 
 Satisfaction, gratification, recompense, re- 
 muneration, contentment. 
 
 Satisfy, please, gratify, gorge. 
 
 Saucy, impertinent, impudent, insolent, 
 flippant. 
 
 Savage, cruel, inhuman, brutal, merciless, 
 bloodthirsty, fierce. 
 
 Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, traduce, 
 defame, slander. 
 
 Scanty, pinched, insufficient, slender, 
 meagre. 
 
 Scarce, uncommon, unique, wanting, unu- 
 sual. 
 
 Scatter, spread, disseminate, disperse. 
 
 Scorn, contempt, disdain, mockery. 
 
 Scraggy, lean, thin, skinny. 
 
 Scrap, bit, fragment, piece, morsel. 
 
 Scribe, penman, writer, copyist. 
 
 Scrupulous, strict, conscientious, precise. 
 
 Scurrilous, abusive, reproachful, opprobri- 
 ous, foul. 
 
 Seaich, inquiry, examination, research, 
 pursuit. 
 
 Seasonable, opportune, convenient, suita- 
 ble. 
 
 Seclusion, privacy, retirement, secrecy, re- 
 treat, separation. 
 
 Secondary, second, inferior, under, subor- 
 dinate. 
 
 Secret, hidden, concealed, unknown, pri- 
 vate, sly. 
 
 Security, safety, protection, guarantee, de- 
 posit. 
 
 Sedate, grave, serious, composed, calm, 
 quiet. 
 
 Sedative, composing, soothing, assuasive. 
 
 Sedition, insurrection, rebellion, revolt, 
 mutiny, riot. 
 
 Seduce, mislead, entice, corrupt, deprave, 
 attract, decoy. 
 
 Sedulous, industrious, indefatigable, assid* 
 uous, constant, persevering. 
 
716 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 See, perceive, observe, witness, discern, dis- 
 cover, understand. 
 
 Seek, trace, solicit, examine, discover, de- 
 tect. 
 
 Seemly, becoming, decent, decorous, 
 < ^mely. 
 
 Seize, catch, grasp, snatch, capture, arrest. 
 
 Self-conceit, vanity, self-esteem, egotism. 
 
 Self-willed, headstrong, stubborn, wilful. 
 
 Selfish, greedy, sordid, mean, mercenary, 
 illiberal. 
 
 Send, despatch, forward, diffuse, impel. 
 
 Sensation, perception, impression, senti- 
 ment, feeling. 
 
 Sense, understanding, reason, judgment, 
 consciousness, wisdom, import. 
 
 Senseless, unconscious, unreasonable, fool- 
 ish, nonsensical. 
 
 Sensible, reasonable, intelligent, judicious, 
 sound, aware. 
 
 Sentence, decision, judgment, decree, pass- 
 age, phrase. 
 
 Sentiment, thought, feeling, susceptibility, 
 emotion, conviction. 
 
 Separate, distinct, disconnected, disjoined, 
 severed, 
 
 Serene, calm, undisturbed, tranquil, peace- 
 ful. 
 
 Serious, grave, solemn, earnest, important. 
 
 Serve, assist, help, attend, minister. 
 
 Service, employment, use, benefit, utility. 
 
 Servile, slavish, cringing, menial, low, 
 sneaking. 
 
 Shadowy, obscure, cloudy, gloomy, myste- 
 rious, uncertain. 
 
 Shake, convulse, tremble, quiver, shiver. 
 
 Shallow, superficial, flimsy, simple. 
 
 Sham, pretence, humbug, imposture. 
 
 Shame, disgrace, dishonor, infamy. 
 
 Shame, abash, humiliate, disgrace. 
 
 Shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, outra- 
 geous, dishonorable. 
 
 Shape, form, fashion, mould, cast, model. 
 
 Sharp, sarcastic, keen, shrewd, discerning, 
 penetrating. 
 
 Shelter, cover, harbor, asylum, sanctuary, 
 security. 
 
 Shine, give light, glow, glitter, sparkle, 
 radiate. 
 
 Shining, brilliant, bright, splendid, illus- 
 trious. 
 
 Shock, offend, disgust, dismay, terrify. 
 
 ; bhort, brief, concise, compendious, succinct. 
 
 Show, exhibition, spectacle, display, pre- 
 tence. 
 
 Showy, gorgeous, pompous, ostentatious, 
 pretentious. 
 
 Shrill, piercing, thrilling, acute, sharp. 
 
 Shun, avoid, keep clear of, evade, elude. 
 
 Sight, seeing, vision, show, spectacle. 
 
 Sign, mark, proof, symbol, signal, badge, 
 omen. 
 
 Significant, expressive, forcible, weighty, 
 momentous. 
 
 Signify, mean, express, declare, intimate. 
 
 Sin, wickedness, crime, ungodliness, evil. 
 
 Sincere, unvarnished, genuine, true, frank, 
 candid. 
 
 Single, unmarried, singular, particular, in- 
 dividual. 
 
 Sinister, unfair, dishonest, evil, unlucky. 
 
 Sink, decline, decrease, suppress, sub- 
 merge. 
 
 Size, greatness, magnitude, largeness, di 
 mension. 
 
 Slacken, loosen, unbind, moderate. 
 
 Slander, defame, asperse, calumniate 
 abuse. 
 
 Slaughter, bloodshed, carnage, butchery. 
 
 Sleepy, sluggish, lazy, somnolent. 
 
 Slender, small, trivial, slight, slim, thin. 
 
 Slippery, smooth, unsafe, deceptive. 
 
 Slothful, sluggish, lazy, idle. 
 
 Slovenly, loose, negligent, disorderly. 
 
 Small, little, slight, inconsiderable, unim 
 portant. 
 
 Smart, sharp, severe, quick, keen, acute, 
 witty. 
 
 Smooth, level, plain, polished, insinuating. 
 
 Smother, suppress, strangle, choke, suffo- 
 cate. 
 
 Snarling, snappish, crabbed, peevish. 
 
 Sneak, skulk, lurk, crouch, cringe. 
 
 Sneer, scoff, gibe, mock, jeer, taunt. 
 
 Snub, rebuke, reprimand, humiliate, mor- 
 tify. 
 
 Sober, temperate, calm, reasonable, self- 
 
 possessed, serious. 
 
 Sociable, social, genial, friendly, convivial, 
 conversible. 
 
 Society, association, fellowship, company, 
 community, corporation. 
 
 Soft, flexible, yielding, docile, gentle, ten- 
 der. 
 
 Soften, mollify, mitigate, abate, moderate 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 717 
 
 Sojourn, dwell, reside, abide, rest. 
 
 Solace, comfort, consolation, sympathy. 
 
 Solemn, grave, formal, sacred, religious, 
 devotional. 
 
 Solicit, beseech, beg, petition, ask, urge, 
 importune, invite. 
 
 Solicitous, desirous, uneasy, earnest, care- 
 ful. 
 
 Soon, shortly, early, promptly. 
 
 Soothe, appease, relieve, calm, quiet. 
 
 Sorrow, affliction, grief, sadness, mourning. 
 
 Sort, species, quality, condition, character. 
 
 Soul, spirit, life, intellect, courage. 
 
 Sour, acid, sharp, harsh, morose, peevish. 
 
 Source, origin, spring, original, commence- 
 ment. 
 
 Sparkle, shine, gleam, flash. 
 
 Speak, talk, converse, discourse, pronounce, 
 
 Special, particular, peculiar, specific, dis- 
 tinctive. 
 
 Specify, designate, mention, determine, 
 state. 
 
 Specimen, sample, model, pattern, instance. 
 
 Spectacle, display, exhibition, scene, repre- 
 sentation, pageant. 
 
 Spectator, observer, witness, beholder. 
 
 Speculate, meditate, consider. 
 
 Sphere, ball, globe, circuit, department. 
 
 Spirit, breath, life, soul, ghost, courage, 
 temper. 
 
 Spirited, lively, sprightly, buoyancy, cour- 
 ageous. 
 
 Splendid, brilliant, showy, magnificent, 
 glorious, illustrious. 
 
 Spontaneous, voluntary, willing. 
 
 Short, diversion, amusement, recreation, 
 pastime. 
 
 Spot, speck, blemish, reproach, place. 
 
 Spotless, unspotted, unsullied, pure, inno- 
 cent. 
 
 Spread, cover, overlay, circulate, propagate, 
 disseminate. 
 
 Spruce, trim, smart, neat, dandified. 
 
 Spurious, counterfeit, false, fictitious, 
 forged. 
 
 Spurn, reject, disdain, scout, scorn. 
 
 Squeeze, press, pinch, embrace, oppress. 
 
 Staid, steady, grave, sedate, demure. 
 
 Stain, dye, color, blemish, spot, shame. 
 
 Steady, firm, fixed, constant. 
 
 Steal, purloin, pilfer. 
 
 Steep, abrupt, hilly, craggy. 
 
 Stigma, mark, infamy, disgrace. 
 
 Still, peaceful, serene, quiet, calm. 
 Stimulate, spur, animate, encourage. 
 Stingy, close, mean, sparing. 
 
 Stipend, remuneration, pay, wages, salary. 
 Stipulate, bargain, contract, engage. 
 
 Stoop, bend, yield, condescend. 
 
 Stop, close, seal, arrest, check, hinder. 
 Store, stock, supply, hard, provision, trea- 
 sury. 
 
 Stormy, boisterous, blustering, roaring. 
 Stout, robust, vigorous, stalwart. 
 
 Stranger, foreigner, alien. 
 
 Stratagem, deception, imposture, delusion, 
 plan, device. 
 
 Strength, power, might, authority, force. 
 Strengthen, fortify, re-enforce, consolidate. 
 Strenuous, vigorous, vehement, ardent. 
 Strict, correct, exact, stringent, severe. 
 Striking, marvellous, admirable, astonish- 
 ing. 
 
 Strip, despoil, rob, rifle. 
 
 Strive, labor, contend, contest, endeavor. 
 Strong, powerful, fortified, robust. 
 Structure, construction, building, edifice. 
 Stubborn, unbending, hard, obstinate, 
 headstrong. 
 
 Studious, thoughtful, careful, attentive. 
 Stupid, stolid, heavy-headed. 
 
 Sturdy, robust, strong, muscular. 
 
 Subdue, conquer, overcome, overpower. 
 Subject, matter, question, material. 
 Sublime, elevated, lofty, majestic, grand, 
 noble. 
 
 Substance, matter, material, body, mean- 
 ing, import. 
 
 Substantial, material, true, solid, massive. 
 Subtle, artful, cunning, crafty, shrewd. 
 Subtract, withdraw, take away, remove. 
 Succeed, prosper, thrive, flourish, follow. 
 Success, good fortune, prosperity, victory. 
 Successful, fortunate, lucky, happy. 
 Succor, assist, support, comfort, alleviate. 
 Sudden, unexpected, hasty, quick, rash. 
 Suffer, tolerate, allow, let, permit, support, 
 sustain. 
 
 Sufficiency, competence, enough, plenty, 
 abundance. 
 
 Suggest, intimate, insinuate, allude to, pro* 
 pose. 
 
 Suit, petition, action at law, cause, court* 
 ship, wooing 
 
 Suitable, fitting, becoming, agreeable, ap- 
 propriate, proper, convenient 
 
718 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Sulky, cross, morose, fretful, ill-tempered. 
 
 Summary, abstract, abridgment, digest, 
 resume. 
 
 Sumptuous, costly, expensive, princely 
 
 Sunder, part, separate, divide, sever. 
 
 Sundry, several, divers, various. 
 
 Superb, magnificent, elegant, grand, splen- 
 did, princely. 
 
 Superfluous, superabundant, useless, unne- 
 cessary. 
 
 Superior, higher, surpassing. 
 
 Superlative, highest, greatest, extreme, 
 consummate. 
 
 Supine, indolent, listless, negligent, inat- 
 tentive, careless. 
 
 Supple, flexible, compliant, fawning. 
 
 Supplicate, pray, beseech, implore. 
 
 Support, foundation, assistance, influence, 
 patronage, food. 
 
 Support, sustain, uphold, befriend, help, 
 promote, cherish, defend, suffer. 
 
 Suppose, presume, imagine, conceive, re- 
 gard, think. 
 
 Suppress, repress, crush, overpower, re- 
 strain, conceal, stifle, smother. 
 
 Surly, morose, ill-natured, splenetic, 
 gloomy. 
 
 Surpass, exceed, excel, outdo, eclipse, 
 surmount. 
 
 Surprising, astonishing, unexpected, extra- 
 ordinary. 
 
 Surrender, yield, relinquish, resign, aban- 
 don. 
 
 Surreptitious, underhand, unauthorized, 
 fruadulent. 
 
 Surround, encompass, encircle 
 
 Survey, examine, inspect, overlook, super- 
 intend. 
 
 Suspense, doubt, uncertainty, indecision, 
 solicitude. 
 
 Suspicious, mistrustful, doubtful, question- 
 able. 
 
 Sustain, maintain, support, nourish, com- 
 fort, relieve. 
 
 Swallow, absorb, imbibe, consume, devour, 
 exhaust. 
 
 Swamp, marsh, morass, slough. 
 
 Swarm, cluster, multitude, crowd. 
 
 Sway, influence, authority, rule, power, 
 supremacy. 
 
 Sweet, pleasing, agreeable, pure, fresh, fra- 
 grant, lovely. 
 
 Swell, expand, increase, enlarge, distend. 
 
 Swirt, rapid, speedy, quick, nimble, prompt. 
 
 Synonymous, equivalent, tantamount, iden- 
 tical. 
 
 System, method, regularity, rule. 
 
 TACT, address, skill, faculty, discrimina- 
 tion, judgment. 
 
 Taint, contaminate, stain, sully, corrupt, 
 pollute. 
 
 Take, catch, seize, accept, receive, capture. 
 
 Tale, story, fiction, romance, legend. 
 
 Talent, gift, endowment, ability, genius, 
 cleverness. 
 
 Talk, speech, chat, gossip, discourse, report. 
 
 Tangle, snarl, insnare, complicate. 
 
 Tantalize, tease, torment, provoke, irritate. 
 
 Tardy, dilatory, sluggish, slow, behind- 
 hand, reluctant. 
 
 Tarnish, soil, dull, stain, blemish, taint. 
 
 Tarry, await, loiter, delay, linger, remain, 
 continue. 
 
 Taunt, reproach, censure, sneer, scoff. 
 
 Teach, instruct, educate, train, inform, en- 
 lighten, advise. 
 
 Tedious, slow, dilatory, wearisome, irksome, 
 sluggish. 
 
 Teeming, fertile, pregnant, fruitful, full. 
 
 Tell, number, count, mention, communi- 
 cate, ascertain. 
 
 Temerity, audacity, rashness, heedlessness. 
 
 Temper, irritability, disposition, tempera- 
 ment, constitution. 
 
 Temperate, moderate, sober, calm, sedate. 
 
 Tempest, gale, storm, hurricane, tumult, 
 excitement. 
 
 Tempestuous, violent, boisterous, stormy, 
 windy. 
 
 Temporal, worldly, terrestrial, secular. 
 
 Tenacious, retentive, adhesive, stubborn. 
 
 Tend, incline, lean, aim, contribute, con- 
 duce. 
 
 Tender, delicate, feeble, gentle, mild, indu) 
 genh 
 
 Tenderness, softness, delicacy, sensibility, 
 kindness. 
 
 Tenet, doctrine, opinion, principle, dogma. 
 
 Tenor, course, intent, purport, character 
 stamp. 
 
 Tension, strain, force, stretch. 
 
 Term, boundary, limit, condition. 
 
 Terminate, limit, close, complete, finish, 
 conclude. 
 
 Terrible, awful, dreadful, fearful, shocking, 
 horrible. 
 
 Terrify, frighten, alarm, scare. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 719 
 
 Territory, domain, country, region. 
 
 Terse, compact, concise, forcible, energetic. 
 
 Test, proof, standard, criterion, experience, 
 experiment. 
 
 Testify, depose, affirm, swear, attest, wit- 
 ness, confirm. 
 
 Testimony, evidence, proof, confirmation, 
 affirmation. 
 
 Testy, peevish, irritable, fretful, petulant, 
 fractious. 
 
 Thankful, grateful, obliged, beholden. 
 
 Theft, thievery, stealing, robbery, depreda- 
 tion. 
 
 Theme, subject, topic, discourse. 
 
 Theory, speculation, assumption, doctrine, 
 supposition. 
 
 Thick, compact, crowded, muddy, turbid, 
 stupid. 
 
 Thin, slender, small, fine, lean, diluted, 
 watery. 
 
 Think, meditate, consider, reflect, contem- 
 plate, conceive. 
 
 Thorough, complete, entire, perfect, pow- 
 erful. 
 
 Thought, conception, imagination, medita- 
 tion, reflection, deliberation. 
 
 Thoughtless, inconsiderate, inattentive, 
 careless. 
 
 Thorny, prickly, troublesome, harassing. 
 
 Threatening, menacing, impending. 
 
 Thrifty, careful, prudent, economical. 
 
 Thrive, prosper, increase, flourish, be suc- 
 cessful, succeed. 
 
 Throng, crowd, assemblage, concourse, 
 swarm. 
 
 Thrust, push, drive, force, press. 
 
 Thwart, cross, oppose, frustrate, defeat. 
 
 Tide, current, stream, course, movement. 
 
 Tidings, intelligence, report, information. 
 
 Tie, bind, restrain, oblige, secure. 
 
 Time, duration, season, period, age, date. 
 
 Timely, seasonable, opportune, judicious. 
 
 Timid, timorous, afraid, dastardly. 
 
 Tinge, flavor, taste, dye. 
 
 Tint, shade, color, stain, complexion. 
 
 Tiny, small, diminutive. 
 
 Tippling, drinking, swilling. 
 
 Tipsy, drunk, intoxicated, inebriated. 
 
 Tire, exhaust, iatigue, weary, harass. 
 
 Token, mark, sign, note, symptom, indica- 
 tion. 
 
 Tone, style, manner, pitch. 
 
 Tongue, speech, language, talk, discourse. 
 
 Top, summit, head, crown, surface. 
 
 Topic, subject, theme, question, matter. 
 Torment, tease, worry, persecute, pain. 
 Torpid, benumbed, dull, stupid, sluggish. 
 Torpid, heaviness, laziness. 
 
 Torrid, parching, scorching, sultry. 
 
 Tough, strong, hard, firm. 
 
 Tour, excursion, ramble. 
 
 Tow, draw, haul, pull. 
 
 Trace, derive, follow, pursue, track. 
 
 Track, way, path, trace, trail. 
 
 Trade, commerce, occupation, employment, 
 office. 
 
 Traduce, slander, vilify, calumniate, ma- 
 iign. 
 
 Train, educate, instruct, drill. 
 
 Traitorous, treacherous, false, faithless, per- 
 fidious. 
 
 Trammel, shackle, clog, chain. 
 
 Transact, perform, conduct, manage. 
 Transaction, negotiation, occurrence. 
 Transcend, exceed, excel, eclipse. 
 Transcendent, superior, surpassing, match- 
 less, peerless. 
 
 Transfer, convey, remove, transmit, assign. 
 Transgress, violate, infringe, offend, tres- 
 pass. 
 
 Transient, transitory, fleeting, passing, 
 temporary, momentary. 
 
 Trappings, ornaments, decorations. 
 
 Trash, dross, trifles, nonsense, 
 
 Travel, journey, excursion, voyage. 
 Treacherous, faithless, treasonable, false- 
 hearted, insidious. 
 
 Treasure, riches, wealth, stock, store. 
 Tremendous, dreadful, awful, fearful. 
 Tremulous, trembling, quivering, vibrating. 
 Tribulation, affliction, grief, distress, mis- 
 ery. 
 
 Tribute, tax, duty, custom, contribution. 
 Trick, fraud, cheat, stratagem, guile, impo- 
 sition. 
 
 Triumphant, elated, victorious, exultant. 
 Trivial, trifling, frivolous, unimportant. 
 Trouble, distress, agitate, annoy, grieve, 
 oppress. 
 
 Trouble, affliction, distress, grief, tribula- 
 tion. 
 
 Troublesome, tiresome, irksome, grievous. 
 Troublous, trying, troublesome, afflictive. 
 Truant, idling, loitering, shirking. 
 
 Trust, confidence, reliance, expectation, 
 charge, credit. 
 
720 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 
 Trustworthy, faithful, honest, reliable. 
 
 Truth, reality, veracity, faithfulness, fidel- 
 ity- 
 
 Tuition, training, teaching, discipline. 
 
 Tumid, swollen, distended, inflated, 
 
 Tumult, uproar, commotion, disturbance, 
 excitement. 
 
 Tumultuous, disorderly, disturbed, con- 
 fused, riotous. 
 
 Turn, revolve, whirl, change, alter. 
 
 UMBRAGE, offense, displeasure, dissatis- 
 faction. 
 
 Umpire, referee, arbitrator, judge. 
 
 Unadvised, thoughtless, indiscreet, incon- 
 siderate. 
 
 Unaffected, unshaken, real, natural, simple. 
 
 Unalterable, changeless, stable, permanent. 
 
 Unanimity, accord, agreement, concord. 
 
 Unanswerable, unquestionable, undeniable. 
 
 Unassuming, unpretending, modest, hum- 
 ble. 
 
 Unbelief, disbelief, distrust, free-thinking. 
 
 Unblemished, pure, spotless, unspotted. 
 
 Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute. 
 
 Unceasing, continual, perpetual, everlast- 
 ing. 
 
 Uncertain, dubious, questionable, ambigu- 
 ous, indistinct. 
 
 Uncivil, discourteous, disrespectful. 
 
 Unconcerned, careless, indifferent. 
 
 Uncouth, strange, clumsy. 
 
 Understanding, knowledge, intellect, judg- 
 ment, reason. 
 
 Undertake, set about, engage in, promise. 
 
 Undisturbed, unmolested, tranquil, peace- 
 ful, serene, unruffled. 
 
 Unequal, uneven, insufficient, ill-matched. 
 
 Unequalled, matchless, unparalleled, unri- 
 valed. 
 
 Unfaithful, faithless, false, perfidious, dis- 
 loyal. 
 
 U nfavorable, unpropitious, inauspicious, dis- 
 couraging. 
 
 Unfeeling, insensible, cruel, hard-hearted. 
 
 Unfeigned, undisguised, clear, sincere. 
 
 Unfit, improper, inappropriate, unqualified. 
 
 Unfit, disable, disqualify. 
 
 Unfitness, incapacity, disqualification, in- 
 competency. 
 
 Unfold, expand, display, disclose, unbosom. 
 
 Unfortunate, unlucky, unsuccessful, un- 
 happy, miserable. 
 
 Unfrequented, unvisited, uninhabited, de* 
 serted. 
 
 Unfriendly, unkind, disobliging, unfavora- 
 ble, ungenial. 
 
 Ungrateful, thankless, unthankful, disa- 
 greeable. 
 
 Uunhappy, afflicted, painful, deplorable, 
 unfortunate. 
 
 Unite, join, connect, attach. 
 
 Unity, concord, agreement, harmony. 
 
 Unmistakable, clear, plain, evident, man- 
 ifest. 
 
 Unnecessary, needless, useless. 
 
 Unpardonable, unjustifiable, inexcusable. 
 
 Unpleasant, disagreeable, offensive. 
 
 Unprecedented, unexampled, unrivalled, 
 unequaled. 
 
 Uphold, maintain, sustain, support, vindi- 
 cate. 
 
 Upright, perpendicular, erect, just, honor- 
 able. 
 
 Uprightness, honesty, fairness, goodness, 
 honor. 
 
 Uproar, tumult, row, disturbance. 
 
 Urbanity, politeness, courtesy, courteous- 
 ness. 
 
 Urge, instigate, stimulate, press, induce, 
 solicit. 
 
 Usage, custom, fashion, practice. 
 
 Use, employ, exercise, occupy, practice. 
 
 Useful, advantageous, serviceable, helpful. 
 
 Useless, unserviceable, profitless. 
 
 Usual, common, accustomed, habitual. 
 
 VAGRANT, wanderer, beggar, vaga< 
 bond. 
 
 Vague, unsettled, undetermined. 
 
 Vain, useless, fruitless, empty. 
 
 Valiant, brave, valorous, courageous. 
 
 Valid, weighty, strong, powerful. 
 
 Valor, courage, bravery, heroism. 
 
 Valuable, precious, estimable. 
 
 Value, reckon, appreciate, estimate. 
 Vanish, disappear, fade, melt. 
 
 Vanity, conceit, affectedness. 
 
 Vanquish, defeat, conquer, subdue, dis- 
 comfit. 
 
 Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant. 
 Variance, disagreement, dissension. 
 Variation, change, diversity, deviation. 
 Variety, difference, diversity, change. 
 
 Veil, screen, mask, cover, disguise. 
 

 A DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 
 
 Velocity, swiftness, quickness, fleetness. 
 Venture, speculation, chance. 
 
 Verbal, spoken, literal, unwritten. 
 
 Verdict, judgment, decision, answer. 
 
 Verge, border, brim, brink, margin. 
 Versatile, unsteady, changeable, unfixed, 
 wavering. 
 
 Versed, skilled, practised, conversant. 
 Version, interpretation, reading. 
 
 Vex, worry, tease, harass annoy. 
 
 Vice, iniquity, guilt, depravity, wickedness. 
 Vicious f depraved, corrupt, debase, im- 
 pure. 
 
 Victim, sacrifice, prey. 
 
 Victorious, conquering, successful. 
 
 View, scene, prospect, survey, landscape, 
 aspect. 
 
 Vigorous, robust, healthy, strong, powerful. 
 Vilify, debase, degrade, slnnder, decry, de- 
 fame. 
 
 Villain, rascal, scoundrel, ruffian. 
 
 Vindicate, justify, uphold, support. 
 
 Violate, infringe, injure, abuse, ravish, de- 
 bauch. 
 
 Violence, fury, rage, vehemence. 
 
 Violent, outrageous, raving, passionate. 
 Virgin, maid, maiden, damsel, maidenly, 
 pure, untouched, fresh. 
 
 Vision, sight, apparition, delusion, dream. 
 Visionary, delusive, imaginary, fanciful, im- 
 practicable, romantic. 
 
 Vital, living, necessary, essential, indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 Vitiate, taint, corrupt, spoil. 
 
 Vivacious, lively, sprightly, brisk, merry. 
 Vivid, lively, animated, stirring, striking, 
 clear. 
 
 Vocation, calling, trade, occupation, business 
 profession, office. 
 
 Volume, book, work, bulk, capacity, dimen- 
 sions. 
 
 Vouch, attest, assure, warrant, promise. 
 Vouchsafe, condescend, grant, concede. 
 Vulgar, common general, rude, coarse, 
 vjle. 
 
 WAIT, await, abide, remain, tarry. 
 
 Waive, forego, relinquish. 
 
 Wake, awaken, arouse, excite, kindle. 
 Wakeful, sleepless, watchful, observant. 
 Wander, stroll, ramble, stray. 
 
 Wandering, vagrant, roving, strolling. 
 Want, need, lack, desire, wish. 
 
 721 
 
 Want, poverty, penury. 
 
 Wanton, licentious, unbridled, dissolute, 
 loose. 
 
 Warm, affectionate, attached, devoted. 
 Weal, prosperity, welfare, well-being. 
 Wealth, plenty, abundance, mammon, lucre. 
 Weary, exhaust, fag, harass. 
 
 Weep, cry, sob, lament, bewail. 
 
 Well-bred, well-mannered, polite. 
 
 Weight, gravity, burden, load, conse- 
 quences. 
 
 Welcome, agreeaoie, pleasing, gratifying. 
 Welfare, prosperity, success, happiness. 
 Win, gain, procure, achieve, accomplish. 
 Winning, fascinating, attractive, charming. 
 Wisdom, sagacity, prudence, discretion, 
 knowledge. 
 
 Wise, sagacious, judicious, discreet, pru- 
 dent, skilled, clever. 
 
 Wit, understanding, intellect, imagination. 
 Witchcraft, enchantment, sorcery, magic. 
 Wonder, surprise, astonishment, amaze- 
 ment, marvel, prodigy, miracle. 
 Wonderful, wondrous, surprising, astonish- 
 ing. 
 
 Wonderful, marvellous, wondrous, amaz- 
 ing. 
 
 Work, employment, business, occupation. 
 Workman, craftsman, artificer, journeyman, 
 operative. 
 
 Worry, plague, tease, torment. 
 
 Wrath, passion, exasperation, indignation. 
 Wrathful, angry, infuriated, raging. 
 Wreathe, twist, interweave, enfold. 
 
 Wreck, debris, ruins, rubbish. 
 
 Writhe, twist, wrench, wring, wriggle. 
 Wrong, incorrect, erroneous, unsuitable. 
 Wrong, abuse, oppress, aggrieve. 
 
 Wrongful, unjust, unfair, dishonest. 
 
 Wry, twisted, distorted. 
 
 YEARN, long for, desire, crave. 
 
 Yearly, per annum. 
 
 Yet, nevertheless, notwithstanding. 
 
 Yield, give in, concede, relinquish. 
 
 Yoke, couple, connect, associate. 
 
 Youth, youngster, boy, lad. 
 
 ZEAL, ardor, fervor, warmth, energy. 
 Zealot, fanatic, visionary c 
 Zenith, height, summit. 
 
 Zest, relish, flavor, gusto, gust, pleasure* 
 enjoyment. 
 
WILLIAM PITT, EARL OF CHATHAM. 
 
 Born at Bocounoc, Cornwall, Eng., Nov. 15, 1708. Educated at Eaton and Trinity 
 College, Oxford. Entered Parliament, 1735. First took prominent part in debates, 
 I 74 1 - Returned to the next Parliament. Appointed one of the joint Vice-Treasurers 
 for Ireland, Feb. 22, 1746 ; Paymaster-General, May 6, and Secretary of State, Dec., 
 1756. Resigned in following April, but recalled by the King, June 11, and became 
 Premier. Resigned Oct. 1761, receiving a pension for the lives of himself, wife and son. 
 Attempts were made in 1763, 1765, 1766, to bring him into the cabinet again, and in Aug. 
 1766, he consented to form a new Ministry. His memory is precious to Americans, 
 because of his declaration in 1766, that the Kingdom had no right to levy a tax upon the 
 Colonies, and his steadfast opposition *o all measures repressive to the Colonists. Died 
 May 11, i’7-7§. 
 
Literary Department. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 Selections prom the Best Authors, 
 
 RHETORICAL, DRAMATIC AND CLASSIC 
 
Literary Department. 
 
 / 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS FROM CELEBRATED 
 ORATORS AND AMERICAN PATRIOTS. 
 
 THE TRUE GRANDEUR OF NATIONS— BY CHARLES SUMNER. 
 
 Boston , July 4, 1845. 
 
 N our age there can be no peace that is not honorable ; there can be no war 
 that is not dishonorable. The true honor of a nation is to be found only 
 in deeds of justice, and in the happinesss of its people, all of which are 
 inconsistent with war. In the clear eye of Christian judgment vain are 
 its victories ; infamous are its spoils. He is the true benefactor and alone 
 worthy of honor who brings comfort where before was wretchedness; who dries 
 the tear of sorrow ; who pours oil into the wounds of the unfortunate ; who feeds 
 the hungry and clothes the naked ; who unlooses the fetters of the slave ; who does 
 justice ; who enlightens the ignorant ; who enlivens and exhalts, by his virtuous genius 
 in art, in literature, in science, the hours of life ; who, by words or actions, inspires a love 
 for God and for man. This is the Christian hero ; this is the man of honor in a Chris- 
 tian land. He is no benefactor, nor deserving of honor, whatever may be his worldly re- 
 nown, whose life is passed in acts of force ; who renounces the great law of Christian 
 brotherhood ; whose vocation is blood ; whotriumps in battle over his fellow-men. Well 
 may old Sir Thomas Browne exclaim, “ the world does not know its greatest men ; ” for 
 thus far it has chiefly discerned the violent brood of battle, the armed men springing up 
 from the dragons teeth sown by Hate, and cared little for the truly good men, children 
 of love, Cromwells guiltless of their country’s blood, whose steps on earth have been as 
 noiseless as an angel’s wing. 
 
 It is not to be disguised that these views differ from the generally received opinions 
 of the world down to this day. The voice of man has been given to the praise of military 
 chieftains, and the honors of victory have been chanted even by the lips of woman. The 
 mother, while rocking her infant on her knees, has stamped on his tender mind, at that 
 age more impresible than wax, the images of war ; she has nursed his slumbers with its 
 melodies ; she has pleased his waking hours with its stories, and selected for his play- 
 
726 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 things the plume and the sword. As the boy advances to youth he is fed, like Achilles, 
 not only on honey and milk, but on bear’s flesh and lion’s marrow. 
 
 And when the youth becomes a man, his country invites his services in war, and 
 holds before his bewildered imagination the highest prizes of honor. For him is 
 the pen of the historian and the verse of the poet. His soul swells at the thought that he 
 also is a soldier ; that his name shall be entered on the list of those who have borne arms 
 in the cause of their country. 
 
 It is not strange then that the spirit of war still finds a home among us ; nor that its 
 honors are still regarded. This fact may seem to give point to the bitter philosophy of 
 Hobbes, who held that the natural state of mankind was war, and to sustain the exulting 
 language of the soldier in our day, who has said : “ War is the condition of this world- 
 
 From man to the smallest insect, all are at strife ; and the glory of arms, which cannot 
 be obtained without the exercise of honor, fortitude, courage, obedience, modesty and 
 temperance, excites the brave man’s patriotism, and is a chastening correction of the 
 rich man’s pride.” 
 
 Who has told you, fond man ! to regard that as a glory when performed by a nation, 
 which is condemned as a crime and a barbarism, when committed by an individual ? We 
 are struck with horror, and our hair stands on end, at the report of a single murder ; we 
 think of the soul that has been hurried to its final account ; we seek the murderer ; and 
 the law puts forth all its energies to secure his punishment. Viewed in the clear light of 
 truth, what are war and battle but organized murder ; murder of malice aforethought ; in 
 cold blood: through the operation of an extensive machinery of crime; with innumerable 
 hands ; at incalculable cost of money ; through subtle contrivances of cunning and skill ; 
 or by the savage brutal assult ? Was not the Scythian right, when he said to Alex- 
 ander, “ Thou boastest, that the only design of thy marches is to extirpate robbers ; thou 
 thyself art the greatest robber in the world.” The various modes which have been pro- 
 posed for the determination of disputes between nations are Negotiation, Arbitration* 
 Meditation and a Congress of Nations, all of them practicable and calculated to secure 
 peaceful justice. Let it be said, then, that war is a necessity, and may our country aim 
 at the true glory of taking the lead in the recognition of these as the only proper modes of 
 determining justice between nations. Such a glory, unlike the earthly fame of battles* 
 shall be immortal as the stars, dropping perpetual light upon the souls of men. 
 
 EDWARD EVERETT ON THE CHARACTER OF LA FAYETTE. 
 
 ERE have been those who have denied to La Fayette the name of a 
 great man. What is greatness ? Does goodness belong to greatness, 
 and make an essential part of it ? Is there yet enough of virtue left in 
 the world to echo the sentiment that 
 
 “ ’Tis phrase absurd to call a villain great ? ” 
 
 If there is, who, I would ask, of all the prominent names in history has run through 
 such a career with so little reproach, justly or unjustly bestowed ? Are military courage 
 and conduct the measure of greatness ? La Fayette was intrusted by Washington with 
 all kinds of service — the laborious and complicated, which required skill and patience ; 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 727 
 
 the perilous, that demanded nerve — and we see him keeping up a pursuit, effecting a 
 retreat, out-manoeuvring a wary adversary with a superior force, harmonizing the action 
 of French regular troops and American militia, commanding an assault at the point of 
 tne bayonet ; and all with entire success and brilliant reputation. Is the readiness to 
 meet vast responsibility a proof of greatness ? The Memoirs of Mr. Jefferson show us 
 that there was a moment in 1789 when La Fayette took upon himself, as the head of 
 the military force, the entire responsibility of laying down the basis of the revolution. 
 Is the cool and brave administration of gigantic power a mark of greatness ? In all the 
 whirlwind of the revolution, and when, as commander-in-chief of the National Guard, an 
 organized force of three millions of men, who, for any popular purpose, needed but a 
 word, a look, to put them in motion— and he their idol — we behold him ever calm, col- 
 lected, disinterested, as free from affectation as selfishness, clothed not less with humility 
 than with power. Is the fortitude required to resist the multitude pressing onward 
 their leader to glorious crime a part of greatness ? Behold him the fugitive and the 
 victim, when he might have been the chief of the revolution. Is the solitary and 
 unaided opposition of a good citizen to the pretensions of an absolute ruler, whose power 
 was as boundless as his ambition, an effort of greatness ? Read the letter of La Fayette 
 to Napoleon Bonaparte, refusing to vote for him as consul for life. Is the voluntary 
 return in advancing years to the direction of affairs at a moment like that, when, in 
 1815, the ponderous machinery of the French empire was flying asunder — stunning, 
 rending, crushing thousands on every side — a mark of greatness ? Contemplate La 
 Fayette at the tribune, in Paris, when allied Europe was thundering at its gates, when 
 Napoleon yet stood in his desperation and at bay. Are dignity, propriety, cheerfulness, 
 unerring discretion in new and conspicuous stations of extraordinary delicacy, a sign of 
 greatness? Watch his progress in this country in 1824 and 1825 ; hear him say the 
 right word at the right time in a series of interviews, public and private, crowding on 
 each other every day for a twelvemonth, throughout the Union, with every description 
 of persons, without ever wounding for a moment the self-love of others, or forgetting 
 the dignity of his own position. Lastly, is it any proof of greatness to be able, at the 
 age of seventy-three, to take the lead in a successful and bloodless revolution — to change 
 the dynasty — to organize, exercise and abdicate a military command of three and a half 
 millions of men — to take up, to perform and lay down the most momentous, delicate and 
 perilous duties without passion, without hurry, without selfishness ? Is it great to dis- 
 regard the bribes of title, office, money — to live, to labor and suffer for great public 
 ends alone — to adhere to principle under all circumstances — to stand before Europe and 
 America conspicuous for sixty years, in the most responsible stations, the acknowledged 
 admiration of all good men ? 
 
 There is not throughout the world a friend of liberty who has not dropped his 
 head when he has heard that La Fayette is no more. Poland, Italy, Greece, Spain, 
 Ireland, the South American republics — every country where man is struggling to 
 recover his birthright — has lost a benefactor — a patron — in La Fayette. But you, young 
 men, at whose command I speak, for you a bright and particular loadstar is hencefor- 
 ward fixed in the front of heaven. What young man that reflects on the history of 
 La Fayette — that sees him in the morning of his days the associate of sages, the friend 
 of Washington — but will start with new vigor on the path of duty and renown ? 
 
728 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 BRUTUS TO THE EOMAUS. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 E patient till the last. Romans, countrymen, and lovers ! hear me for my 
 cause ; and be silent, that you may hear ; believe me for mine honor, and 
 have respect to mine honor, that you may believe ; censure me in your 
 wisdom, and awake your senses, that you may the better judge. If there 
 be any in this assembly, any dear friend of Caesar’s, to him I say that 
 Brutus’ love to Caesar was no less than his. If then that friend demand why Brutus 
 rose against Caesar, this is my answer, — Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved 
 Rome more. Had you rather Caesar were living, and die all slaves , than that Caesar 
 were dead, to live all free men ? As Caesar loved me, I weep for him ; as he was fortu- 
 nate, I rejoice at it ; as he was valiant, I honor him ; but as he was ambitious, I slew 
 him. There is tears, for his love ; joy, for his fortune ; honor, for his valor ; and death, 
 for his ambition. Who is here so base that would be a bondman ? If any, speak ; for 
 him have I offended. Who is here so rude, that would not be a Roman ? If any, speak ; 
 for him have I offended. Who is here so vile that will not love his country ? If any, 
 speak ; for him have I offended. I pause for a reply. * * * Then none 
 
 have I offended. I have done no more to Caesar than you shall do to Brutus. The 
 question of his death is enrolled in the Capitol ; his glory not extenuated, wherein he 
 was worthy ; nor his offences enforced, for which he suffered death. * * * 
 
 Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony ; who, though he had no hand 
 in his death, shall receive the benefit of his dying, a place in the commonwealth ; as 
 which of you shall not ? With this I depart ; that, as I slew my best lover for the 
 good of Rome, I have the same dagger for myself, when it shall please my country to 
 need my death. 
 
 FAREWELL TO THE ARMY— GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 Princeton , November 2, 1783. 
 
 E United States in Congress assembled, after giving the most honorable 
 testimony to the merits of the federal armies, and presenting them with 
 the thanks of their country for their long, eminent and faithful services, 
 having thought proper by their proclamation bearing date the 18th of 
 October last, to discharge such part of the troops as were engaged for 
 the war, and to permit the officers on furlough to retire from service, from and after to- 
 morrow ; which proclamation having been communicated in the public papers for the 
 information and government of all concerned, it only remains for the Commander- 
 in-Chief to address himself once more, and that for the last time, to the armies of 
 the United States (however widely dispersed the individuals who composed them may 
 be), and to bid them an affectionate, a long farewell. 
 
 But before the Commander-in-Chief takes his final leave of those he holds most 
 dear, he wishes to indulge himself a few moments in calling to mind a slight review of 
 the past. He will then take the liberty of exploring with his military friends their future 
 prospects, of advising the general line of conduct which, in his opinion, ought to be pur- 
 sued ; and he will conclude the address by expressing the obligations he feels himself 
 under for the spirited and able assistance he has experienced from them, in the perform- 
 ance of an arduous office. 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 729 
 
 A contemplation of the complete attainment (at a period earlier than could have 
 been expected) of the object, for which we contended against so formidable a power, can- 
 not but inspire us with astonishment and gratitude. The disadvantageous circumstances 
 on our part, under which the war was undertaken, can never be forgotten. The singular 
 interposition of Providence in our feeble condition were such as could scarcely escape 
 the attention of the most unobserving ; while the unparalleled perseverance of the 
 •armies of the United States, through almost every possible suffering and discouragement 
 or the space of eight long years, was little short of a standing miracle. 
 
 It is not the meaning nor within the compass of this address to detail the hardships 
 peculiarly incident to our service, or to describe the distresses, which in several instances 
 have resulted from the extremes of hunger and nakedness, combined with the rigors of 
 an inclement season ; nor is it necessary to dwell on the dark side of our past affairs. 
 Every American officer and soldier must now console himself for any unpleasant cir- 
 cumstances which may have occurred by a recollection of the uncommon scenes of which 
 he has been called to act no inglorious part, and the astonishing events of which he has 
 been a witness ; events, which have seldom, if ever before, taken place on the stage of 
 human action ; nor can they probably ever happen again. For who has before seen a 
 disciplined army formed at once from such raw materials ? Who that was not a witness 
 could imagine that the most violent local prejudices would cease so soon, and that men, 
 who came from the different parts of the continent, strongly disposed by the habits of 
 education to despise and quarrel with t^ach other, would instantly become but one patri- 
 otic band of brothers ? Or who that was not on the spot can trace the steps by which 
 such a wonderful revolution has been effected, and such a glorious period put to all our 
 warlike toils ? 
 
 It is universally acknowledged that the enlarged prospects of happiness, opened by 
 the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, almost exceed the power of de- 
 scription. And shall not the brave men, who have contributed so essentially to these 
 inestimable acquisitions, retiring victorious from the field of war to the field of agricul- 
 ture, participate in all the blessings which have been obtained ? * * * * 
 
 The Commander-in-Chief conceives little is now wanting, to enable the soldiers to 
 change the military character into that of the citizen, but that steady and decent tenor 
 of behavior, which has generally distinguished, not only the army under his immediate 
 command, but the different detachments and separate armies through the course of the 
 war. From their good sense and prudence he anticipates the happiest consequences ; 
 and, while he congratulates them on the glorious occasion, which renders their services 
 in the field no longer necessary, he wishes to express the strong obligations he feels him- 
 self under for the assistance he has received from every class and in every instance. He 
 presents his thanks in the most serious and affectionate manner to the general officers, 
 as well for their counsel on many interesting occasions, as for their ardor in promoting 
 the success of the plans he had adopted ; to the commandants of regiments and corps, 
 and to the other officers, for their great zeal and attention in carrying his orders promptly 
 into execution ; to the staff, for their alacrity and exactness in performing the duties of 
 their several departments ; and to the non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, 
 for their extraordinary patience and suffering, as well as their invincible fortitude in 
 
730 
 
 SPEECHES AND kHEtOKicAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 action. To the various branches of the army, the General takes this last and solemn 
 opportunity of professing his inviolable attachment and friendship. He wishes more 
 than bare professions were in his power ; that he were really able to be useful to them all 
 in future life. He flatters himself, however, they will do him the justice to believe, that 
 whatever could with propriety be attempted by him has been done. 
 
 And being now to conclude these his last public orders, to take his ultimate leave in 
 a short time of the military character, and to bid a final adieu to the armies he has so 
 long had the honor to command, he can only again offer in their behalf his recommen- 
 dations to their grateful country, and his prayers to the God of armies. May ample jus- 
 tice be done them here, and may the choicest of Heaven’s favors, both here and hereaf- 
 ter, attend those, who, under the Divine auspices, have secured innumerable blessings 
 for others. With these wishes and his benediction, the Commander-in-Chief is about to 
 retire from service. The curtain of separation will soon be drawn, and the military scene 
 to him will be closed forever. 
 
 RESIGNATION OF COMMISSION— GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 New York , December 23, 1783. 
 
 R. President : The great events on which my resignation depended, 
 
 having at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my sincere 
 congratulations to Congress, and of presenting myself before them to sur- 
 render into their hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the in- 
 dulgence of retiring from the service of my country. 
 
 Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and pleased with 
 the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming a respectable nation, I resign, 
 with satisfaction, the appointment I accepted with diffidence ; a diffidence in my abili- 
 ties to accomplish so arduous a task, which, however, was superseded by a confidence in 
 the rectitude of our cause, the support of the Supreme Power of the union, and the 
 patronage of Heaven. 
 
 The successful termination of the war has verified the most sanguine expectations , 
 and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received 
 from my countrymen, increases with every review of the momentous contest. 
 
 While I repeat my obligations to the army in general, I should do injustice to my 
 own feelings, not to acknowledge, in this place, the peculiar services and distinguished 
 merits of the persons who have been attached to my person during the war. It was im- 
 possible the choice of confidential officers to compose my family could have been more 
 fortunate. Permit me, sir, to recommend in particular those who have continued in the 
 service to the present moment as worthy of the favorable notice and patronage of Con- 
 gress. 
 
 I consider it as an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official life, 
 by commending the interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God, 
 and those who have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping. 
 
 Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theatre of action ; 
 and, bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body, under whose orders I have long 
 acted, I here offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public 
 life. 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 731 
 
 DANIEL WEBSTER’S REPLY TO HAYNE. 
 
 The Senate , January 2 6, 1830. 
 
 R. President : When the mariner has been tossed, for many days, in 
 
 thick weather, and on an unknown sea, he naturally avails himself of the 
 first pause in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his lati- 
 tude and ascertain how far the elements have driven him from his true 
 course. Let us imitate this prudence, and before we float farther refer 
 to the point from which we departed, that we may at least be able to conjecture where we 
 now are. Mr. President, in carrying his warfare, such as it was, into New England, the 
 honorable gentleman all along professes to be acting on the defensive. He desires to 
 consider me as having assailed South Carolina, and insists that he comes forth only as 
 her champion and in her defence. Sir, I do not admit that I made any attack whatever 
 on South Carolina. Nothing like it. The honorable member, in his first speech, ex- 
 pressed opinions in regard to revenue and some other topics, which I heard both with 
 pain and surprise. I told the gentleman that I was aware that such sentiments were en- 
 tertained out of the government, but had not expected to find them advanced in it ; that 
 I knew there were persons in the South who speak of our Union with indifference, or 
 doubt, taking pains to magnify its evils and to say nothing of its benefits ; that the 
 honorable member himself, I was sure, could never be one of these ; and I regretted 
 the expression of such opinions as he had avowed, because I thought their obvious ten- 
 dency was to encourage feelings of disrespect to the Union and to weaken its connec- 
 tion. 
 
 I understand the honorable gentleman from South Carolina to maintain that it is a 
 right of the State legislatures to interfere whenever, in their judgment, this government 
 transcends its constitutional limits, and to arrest the operation of its laws. 
 
 I understand him to maintain this right as a right existing under the constitution, 
 not as a right to overthrow it, on the ground of extreme necessity, such as would justify 
 violent revolution. 
 
 I understand him to maintain an authority, on the part of the States, thus to inter- 
 fere, tor the purpose of correcting the exercise of power by the general government, of 
 checking it, and of compelling it to conform to their opinion of the extent of its power. 
 
 I understand him to maintain that the ultimate power of judging of the constitu- 
 tional extent of its own authority is not lodged exclusively in the general government 
 or any branch of it ; but that, on the contrary, the States may lawfully decide for them- 
 selves, and each State for itself, whether, in a given case, the act of the general govern- 
 ment transcends its power. 
 
 I understand him to insist that, if the exigency of the case, in the opinion of any 
 State government, require it, such State government may, by its own sovereign author- 
 ity, annul an act of the general government which it deems plainly and palpably uncon- 
 stitutional. 
 
 This is the sum of what I understand from him to be the South Carolina doctrine. 
 a propose to consider it and to compare it with the constitution. Allow me to say, as a 
 preliminary remark, that I call this the South Carolina doctrine, only because the gentle- 
 
732 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 man himself has so denominated it. I do not feel at liberty to say that South Carolina, 
 as a State, has ever advanced these sentiments. I hope she has not, and never may. 
 That a great majority of her people are opposed to the tariff laws is doubtless true. That 
 a majority, somewhat less than that just mentioned, conscientiously believe these laws 
 unconstitutional, may probably also be true. But that any majority holds to the right 
 of direct State interference, at State discretion, the right of nullifying acts of Congress 
 by acts of State legislation, is more than I know, and what I shall be slow to believe. 
 
 So, sir, I understand the gentleman, and am happy to find that I did not misunder- 
 stand him. What he contends for is, that it is constitutional to interrupt the administra- 
 tion of the Constitution itself, in the hands of those who are chosen and sworn to 
 administer it, by the direct interference, in form of law, of the States, in virtue of their 
 sovereign capacity. The inherent right in the people to reform their government I do 
 not deny ; and they have another right, and that is, to resist unconstitutional laws with- 
 out overturning the government. It is no doctrine of mine, that unconstitutional laws 
 bind the people. The great question is, whose prerogative is it to decide on the consti- 
 tutionality or unconstitutionality of the laws ? On that the main debate hinges. I say 
 the right of a State to annul a law of Congress cannot be maintained but on the ground 
 of the unalienable right of man to resist oppression ; that is to say, upon the ground of 
 revolution. I admit that there is an ultimate violent remedy, above the Constitution, 
 and in defiance of the Constitution, which may be resorted to, when a revolution is to be 
 justified. But I do not admit that, under the Constitution, and in conformity with it, 
 there is any mode in which a State government, as a member of the Union, can interfere 
 and stop the progress of the general government, by force of her own laws, under any 
 circumstances whatever. 
 
 I profess, sir, in my career hitherto, to have kept steadily in view the prosperity and 
 honor of the whole country, and the preservation of our Federal Union. It is to that 
 Union we owe our safety at home and our consideration and dignity abroad. It is to that 
 Union that we are chiefly indebted for whatever makes us most proud of our country. 
 While the Union lasts, we have high, exciting, gratifying prospects spread out before us, 
 for us and our children. Beyond that I seek not to penetrate the veil. God grant that, 
 in my day at least, that curtain may not rise. God grant that on my vision never may 
 be opened what lies behind. When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the last 
 time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining on the broken and dishonored frag- 
 ments of a once glorious Union ; on States dissevered, discordant, belligerent ; on a land 
 rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! Let their last feeble 
 and lingering glance, rather, behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known and 
 honored throughout the earth, still full high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming in 
 their original lustre, not a stripe erased or polluted, not a single star obscured — bearing 
 for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as, What is all this worth ? nor those other 
 words of delusion and folly, Liberty first, and Union afterwards ; but everywhere, spread 
 all over in characters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over the 
 sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, 
 dear to every true American heart — Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and in- 
 separable ! 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 733 
 
 EULOGY ON WEBSTER —BY RUFUS CHOATE. 
 
 Dartmouth College , July , 27, 1853. 
 
 T would be a strange neglect of a beautiful and approved custom oi the 
 schools of learning, and of one of the most pious and appropriate 
 of the offices of literature, if the college in which the intellectual life 
 of Daniel Webster began, and to which his name imparts charm and 
 illustration, should give no formal expression to her grief in the common 
 sorrow : if she should not draw near, of the most sad, in the procession of the bereaved 
 to the tomb at the sea, nor find in all her classic shades, one affectionate and grateful leaf 
 to set in the garland with which they have bound the brow of her child, the mightiest de- 
 parted. Others mourn and praise him by his more distant and more general titles to 
 fame and remembrance ; his supremacy of intellect, his statesmanship of so many years, 
 his eloquence of reason and of the heart, his love of country incorruptible, conscientious, 
 and ruling every hour and act ; that greatness combined of genius, of character, of man- 
 ner, of place, of achievement, which was just now among us, and is not, and yet lives still 
 and forever more. You come, his cherished mother, to own a closer tie, to indulge an 
 emotion more personal and more fond — grief and exultation contending for mastery, as 
 in the bosom of the desolated parent, whose tears could not hinder him from exclaiming, 
 “ I would not exchange my dead son for any living one of Christendom.” 
 
 Many places in our American world have spoken his eulogy. To all places the ser- 
 vice was befitting, for his renown, is it not of the treasures of the whole country ? To 
 some it belonged with a strong local propriety to discharge it. In the halls of Congress 
 where the majestic form seems ever to stand and the tones to linger, the decorated scene 
 of his larger labors and most diffusive glory ; in the courts of law, to whose gladsome 
 light he loved to return — putting on again the robes of that profession, ancient as 
 magistracy, noble as virtue, necessary as justice, in which he found the beginning of his 
 honors ; and in Faneuil Hall, whose air breathes and burns of him ; in the commercial 
 cities, to whose pursuits his displomacy secured a peaceful sea ; in the cities of the in- 
 land, around which his capacious public affections, and wise discernment, aimed ever to 
 develop the uncounted resources of that other, and that larger, and that newer America ; 
 in the pulpit, whose place among the higher influences which exalt a state, our guide in 
 life, our consolation in death, he appreciated profoundly, and vindicated by weightiest ar- 
 gument and testimony, of whose offices it is among the fittest, to mark and point the 
 moral of the great things of the world, the excellency of dignity, and the excellency of 
 power passing away as the pride of the wave — passing from our eye to take on immor- 
 tality ; in these places, and such as these, there seemed a reason beyond, and other, than 
 the universal calamity, for such honors of the grave. But if so, how fit a place is this, 
 for such a service. We are among the scenes where the youth of Webster awoke first 
 and fully to the life of the mind. We stand, as it Were, at the sources, physical, social, 
 moral, intellectual, of that exceeding greatness. 
 
 It was while Mr. Webster was ascending through the long gradations of the legal 
 profession to its highest rank, that by a parallel series of display on a stage, and in parts 
 totally distinct, by other studies, thoughts and actions, he rose also to be at his 
 death the first of American statesmen. The last of the mighty rivals was dead before 
 
734 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 fiim and he stood alone. Give this aspect also of his greatness a passing glance. His 
 public life began in May, 1813, in the House of Representatives in Congress, to which 
 this state had elected him. It ended when he died. If you except the interval between 
 his removal from New Hampshire and his election in Massachusetts, it was a public life 
 of forty years. By what political morality and by what enlarged patriotism, embracing 
 the whole country, that life was guided, I shall consider hereafter. Let me now fix your 
 attention rather on the magnitude and variety and actual value of the service. Consider 
 that from the day he went upon the Committee of Foreign Relations, in 1813, in the time of 
 war, and more and more, the longer he lived and the higher he rose, he was a man whose 
 great talents and devotion to public duty placed and kept him in a position of associated 
 or sole command ; command in the political connection to which he belonged, command 
 in opposition, command in power, and appreciate the responsibilities which that implies 
 what care, what prudenee, what mastery of the whole ground — exacting for the conduct 
 of a party, as Gibbons says of Fox, abilities and civil discretion equal to the conduct of an 
 empire. Consider the work he did in that life of forty years — the range of subjects invest- 
 igated and discussed , composing the whole theory and practice of our organic and ad- 
 ministrative politics, foreign and domestic, the vast body of instructive thought he pro- 
 duced and put in possession of the country ; how much he achieved in Congress as well 
 as at the bar, to fix the true interpretation, as well as to impress the transcendent value 
 of the constitution itself, as much altogether as any jurist or statesman since its adoption. 
 
 But it is time that this eulogy was spoken. My heart goes back into the coffin there 
 with him and I would pause. I went — it is a day or two since — alone, again to see the 
 home, which he so dearly loved, the chamber where he died, the grave in which they laid 
 him — all habited as when 
 
 “ His look drew audience still as night, 
 
 Or summer’s noontide air.” 
 
 The great mind still seemed to preside ; the great presence to be with you ; you 
 might expect again to hear the rich and playful tones of the voice of the old hospitality. 
 Yet a moment more, and all the scene took on the aspect of one great monument, in- 
 scribed with his name and sacred to his memory. And such it shall be in all the future 
 of America. The sensation of desolateness, and loneliness, and darkness, with which you 
 see it now, will pass away ; the sharp grief of love and friendship will become soothed ; 
 men will repair thither as they are wont to commemorate the great days of history ; the 
 same glance shall take in, and the same emotions shall greet and bless the Harbor of the 
 Pilgrims and the tomb of Webster. 
 
 THE CONSEQUENCES OF SECESSION— HENRY CLAY. 
 
 Senate Chamber , February 6, 1850. 
 
 IR : This union is threatened with subversion. I want, Mr. President, 
 to take a very rapid glance at the course of public measures in this 
 Union, presently. I want, however, before I do that, to ask the Senate 
 to look back upon the career which this country has run since the adop- 
 tion of this constitution down to the present dav. Was there ever a 
 nation upon which the sun of heaven has shone that has exhibited so much of 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 735 
 
 prosperity ? At the commencement of this Government our population amounted to 
 about four millions. Our territory was limited chiefly and principally to the border upon 
 the Atlantic ocean and that which includes the southern shores of the interior lakes of 
 our country. 
 
 Our country now extends from the northern provinces of Great Britain to the Rio 
 Grande and the Gulf of Mexico on one side, and from the Atlantic ocean to the Pacific 
 on the other side — the largest extent of territory under any government that exists on 
 the face of the earth, with only two solitary exceptions. Our tonnage, from being noth- 
 ing, has risen in magnitude and amount so as to rival that of the nation who has been 
 proudly characterized “ the mistress of the ocean.” We have gone through many wars — 
 wars, too, with the very nation with whom we broke off in 1776, as weak and feeble col- 
 onies, and asserted our independence as a member of the family ot nations. And, sir, 
 we came out of that struggle, unequal as it was — armed as she was at all points, in con- 
 sequence of just having come out of her long struggles with other European nations, and 
 unarmed as we were at all points, in consequence of the habits and nature of our 
 country. 
 
 Sir, our prosperity is unbounded — nay, Mr. President, I sometimes fear that it is in 
 the wantonness of that prosperity that many of the threatening ills of the moment have 
 arisen. Wild and erratic schemes have sprung up throughout the whole country, some 
 of which have even found their way into legislative halls ; and there is a restlessness ex- 
 isting among us which I fear will require the chastisement of Heaven to bring us back 
 to a sense of the immeasurable benefits and blessings which have been bestowed upon 
 us by Providence. At this moment — with the exception of here and there a particular 
 department in the manufacturing business of the country — all is prosperity and peace 
 and the nation is rich and powerful. Our country has grown to a magnitude, to a power 
 and greatness, such as to command the respect, if it does not awe the apprehensions, of 
 the powers of the earth, with whom we come in contact. 
 
 Mr. President, I am directly opposed to any purpose of secession or separation. I am 
 for staying within the Union, and defying any portion of this Confederacy to expel me or 
 drive me out of the Union. I am for staying within the Union and fighting for my 
 rights, if necessary, with the sword, within the bounds and under the safeguard of the 
 Union. I am for vindicating those rights, not by being driven out of the Union harshly 
 and unceremoniously by any portion of this Confederacy. Here I am within it, and here 
 I mean to stand and die, as far as my individual wishes and purposes can go — within it 
 to protect my property and defend myself, defying all the powers on earth to expel me or 
 drive me from the situation in which I am placed. And would there not be more safety 
 in fighting within the Union than out of it ? Suppose your rights to be violated, suppose 
 wrong to be done you, aggressions to be perpetrated upon you, can you not better vindi- 
 cate them — if you have occasion to resort to the last necessity, the sword, for a restora- 
 tion of those rights — within, and with the sympathies of a large portion of the popula- 
 tion of the Union, than by being without the Union, when a large portion of the pop- 
 ulation have sympathies adverse to your own? You can vindicate your rights within 
 the Union better than if expelled from the Union, and driven from it without ceremony 
 and without authority. 
 
736 
 
 * SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 Mr. President, I have said what I solemnly believe, that dissolution of the Union and 
 war are identical and inevitable ; that they are convertible terms ; and such a war as it would 
 be following a dissolution of the Union! Sir, we may search the pages of history, and 
 none so ferocious, so bloody, so implacable, so exterminating — not even the wars of Greece, 
 including those of the Commoners of England and the revolutions of France — none, 
 none of them all would rage with such violence, or be characterized with such bloodshed 
 and enormities as would the war which must succeed, if that event ever happens, the dissolu- 
 tion of the Union. And what would be its termination ? Standing armies, and navies, 
 to an extent stretching the revenue of each portion of the dissevered members, would 
 take place. An exterminating war would follow — not, sir, a war of two or three years’ 
 duration, but a war of interminable duration — and exterminating wars would ensue un- 
 til, after the struggles and exhaustion of both parties, some Philip or Alexander, some 
 Caesar or Napoleon, would arise and cut the Gordian knot, and solve the problem of the 
 capacity of man for self-government, and crush the liberties of both the severed portions of 
 this common empire. Can you doubt it ? 
 
 Look at all history — consult her pages, ancient or modern — look at human nature ; 
 look at the contest in which you would be engaged in the supposition of war following 
 upon the dissolution of the Union, such as I have suggested; and I ask you if it is pos- ( 
 sible for you to doubt that the final disposition of the whole would be some despot tread- 
 ing down the liberties of the people — the final result would be the extinction of this last 
 and glorious light which is leading all mankind, who are gazing’ upon it, in the hope and 
 anxious expectation that the liberty which prevails here will sooner or later be diffused 
 throughout the whole of the civilized world. Sir, can you lightly contem- 
 plate these consequences ? Can you yield yourself to the tyranny of passion, amid the 
 dangers which I have depicted in colors far too tame of what the result would be if that 
 direful event to which I have referred should ever occur ? Sir, I implore gentlemen, I 
 adjure them, whether from the South or the North, by all that they hold dear in this 
 world — by all their love of liberty — by all their veneration for their ancestors — by all 
 their regard for posterity — by all their gratitude to Him who has bestowed on them such 
 unnumbered and countless blessings — by all the duties which they owe to mankind — and 
 by all the duties which they owe to themselves, to pause, solemnly to pause at the edge 
 of the precipice, before the fearful and dangerous leap is taken into the yawning abyss 
 below, from which none who ever take it shall return in safety. 
 
 Finally, Mr. President, and in conclusion, I implore, as the best blessing which 
 Heaven can bestow upon me, upon earth, that if the direful event of the dissolution of 
 this Union is to happen, I shall not survive to behold the sad and heart-rending spectacle. 
 
 KOSSUTH’S FAREWELL TO HIS COUNTRY. 
 
 [Louis Kossuth, ex-Governor of Hungary, was born in 1807. The events of his life belong to history 
 rather than literary biography.] 
 
 AREWELL, my beloved country! Farewell, land of the Magyar! Fare- 
 well, thou land of sorrow ! I shall never more behold the summits 
 of thy mountains. I shall never again give the name of my country 
 to that cherished soil where I drank from my mother’s bosom the milks 
 of justice and liberty. Pardon, oh ! pardon him who is henceforth con- 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 737 
 
 demned to wander far from thee, because he combated for thy happiness. Pardon one 
 who can only call free that spot of thy soil where he now kneels with a few of the faith- 
 ful children of conquered Hungary ! My last looks are fixed on my country, and I see 
 thee overwhelmed with anguish. I look into the future ; but that future is overshadowed. 
 Thy plains are covered with blood, the redness of which pitiless destruction will change 
 to black, the emblem of mourning for the victories thy sons have gained over the 
 sacrilegious enemies of thy sacred soil. 
 
 My country, it is not the iron of the stranger that hath dug thy grave ; it is not the 
 thunder of fourteen nations, all arrayed against thee, that hath destroyed thee ; and it is 
 not the fifteenth nation, traversing the Carpathians, that has caused thee to drop thy 
 arms. No ! thou hast been betrayed — thou hast been sold, my country ; thy death sen- 
 tence hath been written, beloved of my heart, by him whose love for thee I never dared 
 to doubt. Yes, in the fervor of my boldest thoughts I should have almost as soon 
 doubted of the existence of the Omnipotent, as have believed that he could ever be a 
 traitor to his country. Thou hast been betrayed by him into whose hands I had but a 
 little space before deposited the power of our country, which he swore to defend, even 
 to the last drop of his heart’s blood. He hath done treason to his mother ; for the glit- 
 ter of gold hath been for him more seductive than that of the blood shed to save his 
 country. Base gain had more value in his eyes than his country, and his God has aban- 
 doned him, as he had abandoned his God for his allies of hell. 
 
 My principles have not been those of Washington ; nor yet my acts those of TelL 
 I desired a free nation, free as man cannot be made but by God. And thou art fallen ; 
 faded as the lily, but which in another season puts forth its flower still more lovely than 
 before. Thou art dead ; for hath not thy winter come on? but it will not endure so long 
 as that of thy companion under the frozen sky of Siberia. No. Fifteen nations have 
 dug thy tomb. But the hosts of the sixteenth will come to save thee. Be faithful, as 
 thou hast been even to the present. Lift up thy heart in prayer for the departed ; but 
 do not raise thy own hymn until thou hearest the thunders of the liberating people echo 
 along thy mountains, and bellow in the depth of thy valleys. 
 
 Farewell, beloved companions! Farewell, comrades, countrymen! May the 
 thought of God and may the angels of liberty forever be with you. I will proclaim you 
 to the civilized world as heroes ; and the cause of a heroic people will be cherished by 
 the freest nation on earth, the freest of all free people. 
 
 Farewell, thou land dyed with the blood of the brave ! Guard those red marks, they 
 will one day bear testimony on thy behalf. 
 
 And thou, farewell, O youthful monarch of the Hungarians! Forget not that my 
 nation is not destined for thee. Heaven inspires me with the confidence that the day 
 will dawn when it shall be proved to thee even on the ruined walls of Buda. 
 
 May the Almighty bless thee, my beloved country ! Believe, hope and love ! 
 
 THE REV. NEWMAN HALL ON THE DIGNITY OF LABOR. 
 
 HAT a concurrent testimony is given by the entire universe to the 
 dignity of toil. Things inanimate and things irrational combine with 
 men and angels to proclaim the law of Him who made them all. The 
 restless atmosphere, the rolling rivers and the heaving ocean, nature’s 
 vast laboratory never at rest; countless agencies in the heavens 
 
738 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 tbove and in the earth beneath, and in the waters under the earth ; the unwearied sun 
 coming forth from his chamber, and rejoicing as a strong man to run a race ; the change 
 ful moon, whose never-slumbering influence the never-resting tides obey ; the planets, 
 never pausing in the mighty sweep of their majestic march ; the sparkling stars, never 
 ceasing to show forth the handiwork of Him who bade them shine ; the busy swarms of 
 insect life ; the ant providing her meat in the summer and gathering her food in the har- 
 vest ; the birds exuberant in their flight, pouring forth the melody of their song ; the 
 beasts of the forest rejoicing in the gladness of activity ; primeval man amid the bowers 
 of Eden ; paradise untainted by sin, yet honored by toil ; fallen man, with labor still 
 permitted him, an alleviation of his woe, and an earnest of his recovery ; redeemed man, 
 divinely instructed, assisted, encouraged, honored in his toil ; the innumerable company 
 of angels, never resting in their service, never wearied in their worship ; the glorious 
 Creator of the universe, who never slumbereth or sleepeth ; all, all, bear testimony to the 
 dignity of labor. 
 
 Working men ! walk worthy of your vocation ! You have a noble escutcheon ; dis- 
 grace it not l There is nothing really mean and low but sin ! Stoop not from your 
 lofty throne to defile yourselves by contamination with intemperance, licentiousness, or 
 any form of evil. Labor allied with virtue may look up to heaven and not blush, while 
 all worldly dignities, prostituted to vice, will leave their owner without a corner of the 
 universe in which to hide his shame. You will most successfully prove the honor of 
 toil by illustrating in your own persons its alliance with a sober, righteous and godly 
 life. 
 
 If, while thus laboring on earth, you anticipate the rest of heaven, and can say, as 
 did a poor man once, who, when pitied on account of his humble lot, said, taking off his 
 hat, “ Sir, I am the son of a King, I am a child of God, and when I die angels will carry 
 me from this Union Workhouse direct to the Court of Heaven.” Oh ! when I have 
 shown you such a spectacle, I will ask : “ Is there not dignity in labor ? ” 
 
 BENJAMIN DISRAELI ON THE DEATH OF WELLINGTON. 
 
 j]HE Chancellor of the Exchequer rose, and while the House lent him its 
 deepest attention, spoke as follows : 
 
 “ The House of Commons is called upon to-night to fulfil a sorrowful, 
 but a noble duty. It has to recognize, in the face of the country and of 
 the civilized world, the loss of the most illustrious of our citizens, 
 and to offer to the ashes of the great departed the solemn anguish of a bereaved nation. 
 The princely personage who has left us was born in an age more fertile of great 
 events than any period of recorded time. Of these vast incidents the most con- 
 spicuous were his own deeds, and these were performed with the smallest means, 
 and in defiance of the greatest obstacles. He was, therefore, not only a great man, 
 but the greatest man of a great age. Amid the chaos and conflagration wnich 
 attended the end of the last century there rose one of those beings who seem oorn 
 to master mankind. It is not too much to say that Napoleon combined the imperial 
 ardor of Alexander with the strategy of Hannibal. The kings of the earth fell before 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 739 
 
 his fiery and subtle genius, and at the head of all the power of Europe he denounced 
 destruction to the only land that dared to be free. The providential superintendence of 
 this world seems seldom more manifest than in the dispensation which ordained that the 
 French Emperor and Wellesley should be born in the same year ; that in the same year 
 they should have embraced the same profession ; and that, natives of distant islands, 
 they should both have sought their military education in that illustrious land which each 
 in his turn was destined to subjugate. During the long struggle for our freedom, our 
 glory, I may say our existence, Wellesley fought and won fifteen pitched battles, all 
 of the highest class, concluding with one of those crowning victories which give a color 
 and aspect to history. During this period that can be said of him which can be said of 
 no other captain — that he captured three thousand cannon from the enemy and never 
 lost a single gun. The greatness of his exploits was only equalled by the difficulties 
 he overcame. He had to encounter at the same time a feeble Government, a factious 
 Opposition and a distrustful people, scandalous allies, and the most powerful enemy in. 
 the world. He gained victories with starving troops, and carried on sieges without 
 tools ; and, as if to complete the fatality which in this sense always awaited him, when 
 he had succeeded in creating an army worthy of Roman legions, and of himself, this 
 invincible host was broken up on the eve of the greatest conjuncture of his life, and he 
 entered the field of Waterloo with raw levies and discomfited allies. 
 
 “ But the star of Wellesley never paled. He has been called fortunate, for fortune 
 is a divinity that ever favors those who are alike sagacious and intrepid, inventive and 
 patient. It was his character that created his career. This alike achieved his exploits 
 and guarded him from vicissitudes. It was his sublime self-control that regulated his 
 lofty fate. It has been the fashion of late years to disparage the military character. 
 Forty years of peace have hardly qualified us to be aware how considerable and how 
 complex are the qualities which are necessary for the formation of a great general. It is 
 not enough to say that he must be an engineer, a geographer, learned in human nature, 
 adroit in managing mankind ; that he must be able to perform the highest duties of a 
 minister of state and sink to the humblest offices of a commissary and a clerk ; but he has 
 to display all this knowledge and he must do all these things at the same time, and under 
 extraordinary circumstances. At the same moment he must think of the eve and the 
 morrow — of his flanks and of his reserves ; he must carry with him ammunition, pro- 
 visions, hospitals ; he must calculate at the same time the state of the weather and the 
 moral qualities of man ; and all these elements, which are perpetually changing, he must 
 combine amid overwhelming cold or overpowering heat — sometimes amid famine — often 
 amid the thunder of artillery. Behind all this, too, is the ever-present image of his 
 country, and the dreadful alternative whether that country is to receive him with cypress 
 or laurel. But all these conflicting ideas must be driven from the mind of the military 
 leader, for he must think — and not only think — he must think with the rapidity of light- 
 ning, for on a moment more or less depends the fate of the finest combination, and on a 
 moment more or less depends glory or shame. Doubtless, all this may be done in an 
 ordinary manner by an ordinary man ; as we see every day of our lives ordinary men 
 making successful Ministers of State, successful speakers, successful authors. But to do 
 ail this with genius is sublime. Doubtless, to think deeply and clearly in the recess of a 
 
740 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 Cabinet is a fine intellectual demonstration, but to think with equal depth and equal 
 clearness amid bullets is the most complete exercise of the human faculties. Although 
 the military career of the Duke of Wellington fills so large a space in history, it was only 
 a comparatively small section of his prolonged and illustrious life. Only eight years 
 elapsed from Vimeira to Waterloo, and from the date of his first commission to the last 
 cannon-shot on the field of battle scarcely twenty years can be counted. After all his 
 triumphs he was destined for another career, and, if not in the prime, certainly. in the 
 perfection of manhood, he commenced a civil career scarcely less eminent than those 
 military achievements which will live for ever in history. Thrice was he the ambassador 
 of his Sovereign to those great historic congresses that settled the affairs of Europe ; 
 twice was he Secretary of State ; twice was he Commander-in-Chief, and once he was 
 Prime Minister of England. His labors for his country lasted to the end. A few 
 months ago he favored the present advisers of the Crown with his thoughts on the Bur- 
 mese War, expressed in a state paper characterized by all his sagacity and experience ; 
 and he died the active chieftain of that famous army to which he has left the tradition of 
 his glory. 
 
 “ There was one passage in the life of the Duke of Wellington, which should hardly 
 be passed unnoticed on such an occasion, and in such a scene as this. It is our pride 
 that he was one of ourselves ; it is our pride that Sir Arthur Wellesley sat upon these 
 benches. Tested by the ambition and the success of ordinary men, his career here t 
 though brief, was distinguished. He entered Royal Councils and held a high ministerial 
 post. But his House of Commons success must not be measured by his seat at the 
 Privy Council and his Irish Secretaryship. He achieved a success here which, the great- 
 est ministers and the most brilliant orators can never hope to rival. That was a parlia- 
 mentary success unequaled when he rose in his seat to receive the thanks of Mr. Speaker 
 for a glorious victory ; or, later still, when he appeared at the bar of this house, and 
 received, Sir, from one of your predecessors, in memorable language, the thanks of a 
 grateful country for accumulated triumphs. There is one consolation which all English- 
 men must feel under this bereavement. It is, that they were so well and so completely 
 acquainted with this great man. Never did a person of such mark live so long, and so 
 much in the public eye.” 
 
 LORD BROUGHAM’S SPEECH ON THE REFORM BILL. 
 
 E stand in a truly critical position. If we reject the bill through feai 
 of being thought to be intimidated, we may lead the life of retirement 
 and quiet, but the hearts of the millions of our fellow-citizens are gone 
 forever ; their affections are estranged ; we, and our order and its 
 privileges, are the objects of the people’s hatred, as the only obstacles 
 which stand between them and the gratification of their most passionate desire. 
 The whole body of the aristocracy must expect to share this fate, and be exposed to feel- 
 ings such as these. For I hear it constantly said the bill is rejected by all the aristocracy. 
 Favour, and a good number of supporters, our adversaries allow it has among the people; 
 the ministers, too, are for it ; but the aristocracy, say they, are strenuously opposed to it. 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 741 
 
 J broadly deny this assertion. What ! my lords, the aristocracy set themselves in a mass 
 against the people ; — they who sprang from the people — are inseparably connected with 
 the people — are supported by the people — are the natural chiefs of the people ? They 
 set themselves against the people, for whom peers are ennobled, bishops consecrated, 
 kings anointed, — the people, to serve whom Parliament itself has an existence, and the 
 monarchy and all its institutions are constituted, and without whom none of them could 
 exist for an hour ? This assertion of unreflecting men is too monstrous to be endured. 
 As a member of this House, I deny it with indignation— -I repel it with scorn, as a cal- 
 umny upon us all. And yet there are those who, even within these walls, speak of the 
 bill augmenting so much the strength of the democracy as to endanger the other orders 
 of the state ; and so they charge its authors with promoting anarchy and rapine. Why 
 my lords, have its authors nothing to fear from democratic spoliation ? The fact is, that 
 there are members of the present cabinet who possess, one or two of them alone, far 
 more property than any two administrations within my recollection ; and all of them 
 have ample wealth. I need hardly say, I include not myself, who have little or none. 
 But even of myself I will say, that whatever I have depends on the stability of existing , 
 institutions ; and it is as dear to me as the princely possessions of any amongst you- ’ 
 Permit me to say, that in becoming a member of your House, I staked my all on the: 
 aristocratic institutions of the state ; I abandoned certain wealth, a large income, and 
 much real power in the state, for an office of great trouble, heavy responsibility, and 
 very uncertain duration. I say, I gave up substantial power for the shadow of it, and. 
 for distinction depending upon accident. I quitted the elevated situation of representa- 
 tive of Yorkshire, and a leading member of the Commons. I descended from a position 
 quite lofty enough to satisfy any man’s ambition, and my lot became bound up in the 
 stability of this House. Then, have I not a right to throw myself on your justice, and 
 to desire that you will not put in jeopardy all I have now left ? 
 
 But among the awful considerations that now bow down my mind, there is one 
 which stands pre-eminent above the rest. You are the highest judicature in the realm ; 
 you sit here as judges, and decide all causes, civil and criminal, without appeal. It is a 
 judge’s first duty never to pronounce sentence, in the most trifling case, without hearing. 
 Will you make this the exception ? Are you really prepared to determine, but not to 
 hear, the mighty cause upon which a nation’s hopes and fears hang ? You are ! Then 
 beware of your decision ! Rouse not, I beseech you, a peace-loving, but a resolute peo- 
 ple — alienate not from your body the affections of a whole empire. As your friend, as 
 the friend of my order, as the friend of my country, as the faithful servant of my sover- 
 eign, I counsel you to assist with your utmost efforts in preserving the peace, and uphold- 
 ing and perpetuating the constitution. Therefore I pray and I exhort you not to reject 
 this measure. By all you hold most dear — by all the ties that bind every one of us to 
 our common order and our common country, I solemnly adjure you— I warn you— I im- 
 plore you — yea, on my bended knees, I supplicate you — Reject not this bill ! 
 
742 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 PATRICK HENRY’S ADDRESS TO THE ASSEMBLY OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 F WE wish to be free, -if we wish to preserve inviolate those inestimable 
 privileges for which we have been so long contending, if we mean not 
 basely to abandon the noble struggle in which we have been so long 
 engaged, and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon until 
 the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained, we must fight — I 
 repeat it, Sir, we must fight 1 An appeal to arms, and to the God of hosts, is all 
 that is left us ! 
 
 They tell us, Sir, that we are weak — unable to cope with so formidable an adversary, 
 But when shall we be stronger ? Will it be the next week, or the next year ? Will it be 
 when we are totally disarmed, and when a British guard shall be stationed in every house ? 
 -Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction ? Shall we acquire the means of 
 effectual resistance by lying supinely on our backs, and hugging the delusive phantom of 
 hope until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot ? Sir, we are not weak, if we 
 make a proper use of those means which the God of nature hath placed in our power. 
 Three millions of people, armed in the holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as 
 that which we possess, are invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. 
 Besides, Sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides over 
 the destinies of nations, and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. The 
 battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone ; it is to the vigilant, the active, -the brave. Besides, 
 Sir, we have no election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire 
 from the contest ; there is no retreat but in submission and slavery. Our chains are 
 forged ; their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston : the war is inevitable, and 
 let it come ; I repeat, it, Sir — let it come ! It is in vain, Sir, to extenuate the matter. 
 Gentlemen may cry peace, peace ! but there is no peace ! The war is actually begun ! 
 The next gale that sweeps from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding 
 arms ! Our brethren are already in the field ! why stand we here idle ! What is it that 
 gentlemen wish ? What would they have ? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be 
 purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not 
 what course others may take ; but as for me — give me liberty, or give me death ! 
 
 LORD CHATHAM’S PROTEST AGAINST THE AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 ( William Pitt , Earl of Chatham .) 
 
 RISE, my lords, to declare my sentiments on this most solemn and seri- 
 ous subject. It has imposed a load upon my mind, which, I fear, nothing 
 can remove ; but which impels me to endeavor its alleviation, by a free 
 and unreserved communication of my sentiments. 
 
 In the first part of the address I have the honor of heartily con- 
 curring with the noble earl who moved it. No man feels sincerer joy than I do ; none 
 can offer more genuine congratulation on every accession of strength to the Protestant 
 succession. But I muse stop here. My courtly complaisance will carry me no further. 
 I will not join in congratulation on misfortune and disgrace. I cannot concur in a blind 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 743 
 
 and servile address, which approves, and endeavors to sanctify, the monstrous measures 
 which have heaped disgrace and misfortune upon us. This, my lords, is a perilous and 
 tremendous moment ! It is not a time for adulation. The smoothness of flattery can- 
 not now avail, cannot save us in this rugged and awful crisis. It is now necessary to 
 instruct the throne in the language of truth. We must dispel the delusion and the 
 darkness which envelop it : and display, in its full danger and true colors, the ruin that 
 is brought to our doors. 
 
 My lords, this ruinous and ignominious situation, where we cannot act with success, 
 nor suffer with honor, calls upon us to remonstrate in the strongest and loudest language 
 of truth, to rescue the ear of Majesty from the delusions which surround it. The des- 
 perate state of our arms abroad is in part known. No man thinks more highly of them 
 than I do. I love and honor the English troops. I know their virtues and their valor. 
 I know they can achieve anything except impossibilities ; and I know that the conquest 
 •of English America is an impossibility. My lords, you cannot conquer America. What 
 is your present situation there ? We do not know the worst ; but we know that in three 
 ■campaigns we have done nothing and suffered much. You may swell every expense, and 
 every effort, still more extravagantly ; pile and accumulate every assistance you can buy 
 or borrow ; traffic and barter with every little pitiful German prince that sells and sends 
 his subjects to the shambles of a foreign prince ; your efforts are for ever vain and impo- 
 tent ; doubly so from this mercenary aid on v/hich you rely. For it irritates, to an incu- 
 rable resentment, the minds of your enemies, to overrun them with the mercenary sons of 
 rapine and plunder ; devoting them and their possessions to the rapacity of hireling cru- 
 elty. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed 
 in my country, I never would lay down my arms — never — never — never ! 
 
 But, my lords, this barbarous measure has been defended, not only on the principles 
 of policy and necessity, but also on those of morality ; for, said Lord Suffolk, “it was 
 perfectly justifiable to use all the means that God and nature put into our hands!” 
 
 I am astonished ! — shocked 1 to hear such principles confessed — to hear them 
 avowed in this House, or in this country ; principles equally unconstitutional, inhuman, 
 and unchristian ! 
 
 My lords, I am old and weak, and at present unable to say more ; but my feelings 
 and indignation were too strong to have said less. I could not have slept this night in 
 my bed, nor reposed my head on my pillow, without giving this vent to my eternal abhor- 
 rence of such preposterous and enormous principles. 
 
 DANIEL WEBSTER AT THE CENTENARY CELEBRATION OF 
 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 \Daniel Webster , one of the greatest statesmen and orators , was born in 1782; died 1852.] 
 
 RISE, gentlemen, to propose to you the name of that great man, in 
 commemoration of whose birth, and in honor of whose character and 
 services we are here assembled I am sure that I express a sentiment com- 
 mon to every one present when I say, that there is something more than 
 ordinarily solemn and affecting upon this occasion. We are met to 
 testify our regard for him, whose name is intimately blended with whatever belongs 
 
744 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 most essentially to the prosperity, the liberty, the free institutions, and the renown of 
 our country. That name was of power to rally a nation, in the hour of thick-thronging 
 public disaster and calamities ; that name shone, amid the storm of war, a beacon light 
 to cheer and guide the country’s friends ; its flame, too, like a meteor, to repel her foes. 
 That name, in the days of peace, was a loadstone, attracting to itself a whole people’s con- 
 fidence, a whole people’s love, and the whole world’s respect ; that name, descending 
 with all time, spread over the whole earth, and uttered in all the languages belonging 
 to the tribes and races of men, will forever be pronounced with affectionate gratitude by 
 every one in whose breast there shall arise an aspiration for human rights and human 
 liberty. 
 
 We perform this grateful duty, gentlemen, at the expiration of a hundred years from 
 his birth, near the place so cherished and beloved by him, where his dust now reposes, 
 and in the capital which bears his own immortal name. 
 
 A true lover of the virtue of patriotism delights to contemplate its purest models ; 
 and that love of country may be well suspected which affects to soar so high into the 
 regions of sentiment as to be lost and absorbed in the abstract feeling, and becomes too 
 elevated, or too refined, to glow either with power in the commendation or the love of 
 individual benefactors. All this is immaterial. It is as if one should be so enthusiastic 
 a lover of poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton ; so passionately attached to 
 eloquence as to be indifferent to Tully and Chatham ; or such a devotee to the arts, in 
 such an ecstacy with the elements of beauty, proportion, and expression, as to regard the 
 masterpieces of Raphael and Michael Angelo with coldness or contempt. 
 
 Gentlemen, we are at the point of a century from the birth of Washington ; and 
 what a century it has been ! During its course the human mind has seemed to proceed 
 with a sort of geometric velocity, accomplishing more than had been done in fives or 
 tens of centuries preceding. Washington stands at the commencement of a new era, 
 as well as at the head of the New World. A century from the birth of Washington has 
 changed the world. The country of Washington has been the theatre on which a great 
 part of that change has been wrought ; and Washington himself a principal agent by 
 which it has been accomplished. His age and his country are equally full of wonders, 
 and of both he is the chief. 
 
 If the prediction of the poet, uttered a few years before his birth, be true ; if indeed 
 it be designed by Providence that the proudest exhibition of human character and human 
 affairs shall be made on this theatre of the Western World ; if it be true that 
 
 u The first four acts already past, 
 
 A fifth shall close the drama with the day ; 
 
 Time’s noblest offspring is the last,” 
 
 how could this imposing, swelling, final scene be appropriately opened ; how could its 
 intense interest be adequately sustained, but by the introduction of just such a character 
 as our Washington. 
 
 Washington had attained his manhood when that spark of liberty was struck out in' 
 his own country, which has since kindled into a flame, and shot its beam over the 
 earth. In the flow of a century from his birth, the world has changed in science, in arts, 
 in the extent of its comme^ca, in the improvement of navigation, and in all that relates 
 to the civilization of man. 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 745 
 
 DANIEL WEBSTER ON CRIME ITS OWN DETECTOR. 
 
 ENTLEMEN : This is a most extraordinary case. In some respects it 
 has hardly a precedent anywhere — certainly none in our New England 
 history 0 An aged man, without an enemy in the world, in his own 
 house, and in his own bed, is made the victim of a butcherly murder, for 
 mere pay. Deep sleep had fallen on the destined victim, and on all be- 
 neath his roof. A healthful old man, to whom sleep was sweet — the first sound slumbers 
 of the night hold him in their soft but strong embrace. 
 
 The assassin enters through the window, already prepared, into an unoccupied apart- 
 ment; with noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half lighted by the moon ; he winds 
 up the ascent of the stairs, and reaches the door of the chamber. Of this he moves the 
 lock, by soft and continued pressure, till it turns on its hinges ; and he enters and beholds 
 his victim before him. The room was uncommonly light. The face of the innocent 
 sleeper was turned from the murderer ; and the beams of the moon resting on the gray 
 locks of his aged temple, showed him where to strike. The fatal blow is given, and the 
 victim passes, without a struggle or a motion, from the repose of sleep to the repose of 
 death ! It is the assassin’s purpose to make sure work ; and he yet plies the dagger, 
 though it was obvious that life had been destroyed by the blow of the bludgeon. He 
 even raises the aged arm, that he may not fail of his aim at the heart, and replaces it 
 again over the wounds of the poniard ! To finish the picture, he explores the wrist for 
 the pulse! he feels it, and ascertains that it beats no longer! It is accomplished— the 
 deed is done ! He retreats — retraces his steps to the window, passes through as he came 
 in, and escapes. He has done the murder ; no eye has seen him, no ear has heard him i 
 the secret is his own, and he is safe ! 
 
 Ah ! gentlemen, that was a dreadful mistake. Such a secret can be safe nowhere. 
 The whole creation of God has neither nook nor corner where the guilty can bestow it 
 and say it is safe. Not to speak of that Eye that glances through all disguises, and be- 
 holds everything as in the splendor of noon, — such secrets of guilt are never safe ; 
 “ murder will out.’ P True it is that Providence hath so ordained, and doth so govern things 
 that those who break the great law of Heaven, by shedding man’s blood, seldom succeed 
 in avoiding discovery. Especially in a case exciting so much attention as this, discovery 
 must and will come, sooner or later. A thousand eyes turn at once to explore every man, 
 every thing, every circumstance, connected with the time and place ; a thousand ears 
 catch every whisper ; a thousand excited minds intently dwell on the scene ; shedding 
 all their light, and ready to kindle the slightest circumstance into a blaze of discovery. 
 Meantime the guilty soul cannot keep its own secret. It is false to itself — or rather it 
 feels an irresistible impulse of conscience to be true to itself — it labors under its guilty 
 possession, and knows not what to do with it. The human heart was not made for the 
 residence of such an inhabitant ; it finds itself preyed on by a torment which it dares not 
 acknowledge to God or man. A vulture is devouring it, and it asks no sympathy or as- 
 sistance either from heaven or earth. The secret which the murderer possesses soon 
 comes to possess him ; and like the evil spirits of which we read, it overcomes him, and 
 leads him whithersoever it will. He feels it beating at his heart, rising to his throat, and 
 demanding disclosure. He thinks the whole world sees it in his face, reads it in his 
 
746 
 
 SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 eyes, and almost hears its workings in the very silence of his thoughts. It has become 
 his master ; — it betrays his discretion : it breaks down his courage ; it conquers his pru- 
 dence. When suspicions, from without, begin to embarrass him, and the net of circum- 
 stances to entangle him, the fatal secret struggles with still greater violence to burst 
 forth. It must be confessed ; it will be confessed ; there is no refuge from confession 
 but in suicide, and suicide is confession. 
 
 SPARTACUS TO THE GLADIATORS. 
 
 E call me chief ; and ye do well to call him chief who for twelve long 
 years has met upon the arena every shape of man or beast the broad 
 empire of Rome could furnish, and who never yet lowered his arm. Ij 
 there be one among you who can say that ever, in public fight or private 
 brawl, my actions did belie my tongue, let him stand forth and say it. If 
 there be three in all your company dare face me on the bloody sands, let them come 
 on. And yet I was not always thus — a hired butcher, a savage chief of still more 
 savage men . My ancestors came from old Sparta, and settled among the vine-clad 
 rocks and citron groves of Syrasella. My early life ran quiet as the brooks by which I 
 sported ; and when, at noon, I gathered the sheep beneath the shade, and played upon 
 the shepherd’s flute, there was a friend, the son of a neighbor, to join me in the pastime. 
 We led our flocks to the same pasture, and partook together our rustic meal. One 
 evening, after the sheep were folded, and we were all seated beneath the myrtle which 
 shaded our cottage, my grandsire, an old man, was telling of Marathon and Leuctra, and 
 how, in ancient times, a little band of Spartans, in a defile of the mountains, had with- 
 stood a whole army. I did not then know what war was ; but my cheeks burned, I knew 
 not why, and I clasped the knees of that venerable man, until my mother, parting the 
 hair from off my forehead, kissed my throbbing temples and bade me go to rest and think 
 no more of those old tales and savage wars. That very night the Romans landed on our 
 coast. I saw the breast that had nourished me trampled by the hoof of the war-horse — 
 the bleeding body of my father flung amidst the blazing rafters of our dwelling. To-day 
 I killed a man in the arena ; and, when I broke his helmet-clasps, behold, he was my 
 friend. He knew me, smiled faintly, gasped and died ; — the same sweet smile upon his 
 lips that I had marked, when, in adventurous boyhood, we scaled the lofty cliff to pluck 
 the first ripe grapes, and bear them home in childish triumph ! I told the praetor that 
 the dead man had been my friend, generous and brave ; and I begged that I might bear 
 away the body, to burn it on a funeral pile, and mourn over its ashes. Ay ! upon my 
 knees, amid the dust and blood of the arena, I begged that poor boon, while all the as- 
 sembled maids and matrons, and the holy virgins they call Vestals, and the rabble, 
 shouted in derision, deeming it rare sport, forsooth, to see Rome’s fiercest gladiator turn 
 pale and tremble at the sight of that bleeding piece of clay ! And the praetor drew back 
 as I were pollution, and sternly said : “ Let the carrion rot ; there are no noble men but 
 Romans.” And so, fellow-gladiators, must you, and so must I, die like dogs. O, Rome ! 
 Rome ! thou hast been a tender nurse to me. Ay ! thou hast given to that poor, gentle, 
 timid shepherd lad, who never knew a harsher tone than a flute-note, muscles of iron and 
 a heart of flint ; taught him to drive the sword througn plaited mail and links of rugged 
 brass, and warm it in the marrow of his foe : — to gaze into the glaring eyeballs of the 
 
SPEECHES AND RHETORICAL SELECTIONS. 
 
 74? 
 
 fierce Numidian lion, even as a boy upon a laughing girl ! And he shall pay thee back ; 
 until the yellow Tiber is red as frothing wine, and in its deepest ooze thy life-blood lies 
 curdled ! 
 
 Ye stand here now like giants, as ye are ! The strength of brass is in your toughened 
 sinews ; but to-morrow some Roman Adonis, breathing sweet perfume from his curly 
 locks, shall with his lily fingers pat your red brawn, and bet his sesterces upon your 
 blood. Hark ! hear ye yon lion roaring in his den ? ’Tis three days since he has tasted 
 flesh ; but to-morrow he shall break his fast upon yours, — and a dainty meal for him ye 
 will be ! If ye are beasts, then stand here, like fat oxen, waiting for the butcher’s knife I 
 If ye are men, follow me ! Strike down yon guard, gain the mountain passes, and then 
 do bloody work, as did your sires at old Thermopylae! Is Sparta dead ? Is the old Gre- 
 cian spirit frozen in your veins, that you do crouch and cower like a belabored hound 
 beneath his master’s lash? O, comrades! warriors! Thracians! if we must fight, 
 let us fight for ourselves ! If we must slaughter, let us slaughter our oppressors ! If we 
 must die, let it be under the clear sky, by the bright waters, in noble, honorable battle! 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM CLASSIC AUTHORS. 
 
 A GLASS OF COLD WATER, 
 
 John B. Gough. 
 
 HERE is the liquor which God the eternal brews for all his children ? 
 Not in the simmering still, over smoky fires choked with poisonous gases, 
 and surrounded with the stench of sickening odors, and rank corruptions, 
 doth your Father in heaven prepare the precious essence of life, the pure 
 cold water. But in the green glade and grassy dell, where the red deer 
 wanders, and the child loves to play ; there God brews it. And down, low down, 
 in the deepest valleys, where the fountains murmur and the rills sing ; and high 
 upon the tall mountain tops, where the naked granite glitters like gold in the sun ; 
 where the storm-cloud broods, and the thunder-storms crash ; and away far out on 
 the wild, wild sea, where the hurricane howls music, and the big waves roar ; the chorus 
 sweeping the march of God : there he brews it — that beverage of life and health-giving 
 water. And everywhere it is a thing of beauty, gleaming in the dew-drop ; singing in 
 the summer rain ; shining in the ice-gem, till the leaves all seem turned to living jewels ; 
 spreading a golden veil over the setting sun ; or a white gauze around the midnight moon, 
 sporting in the cataract; sleeping in the glacier; dancing in the hail-shower; 
 folding its bright snow curtains softly about the wintry world ; anrl waving the many- 
 
748 
 
 SELECTIONS IN PROSE. 
 
 colored iris, that seraph’s zone of the sky, whose warp is the rain-drop of earth, whose 
 woof is the sunbeam of heaven ; all chequered over with celestial flowers, by the mystic 
 hand of refraction. 
 
 Still always it is beautiful, that life-giving water ; no poison bubbles on its brink ; its 
 foam brings not madness and murder ; no blood stains its liquid glass ; pale widows and 
 starving orphans weep no burning tears in its depths ; no drunken, shrieking ghost from 
 the grave curses it in the words of eternal despair ; speak on my friends would you ex- 
 change it for demon’s drink, alcohol ? 
 
 THE DEATH OF PAUL DOMBEY. 
 
 By Charles Dickens. 
 
 NE night he had been thinking of his mother, and her picture in the draw- 
 ing-room down stairs, and had thought she must have loved sweet 
 Florence better than his father did, to have held her in her arms 
 when she felt that she was dying ; for even he, her brother, who had 
 such dear love for her, could have no greater wish than that. The 
 train of thought suggested to him to inquire if he had ever seen his mother ; for 
 he could not remember whether they had told him yes or no, the river running very 
 fast, and confusing his mind. “Floy, did I ever see mamma?” “No, darling, why?” 
 “ Did I never see any kind face, like mamma’s, looking at me when I was a baby, Floy?” 
 he asked, incredulously, as if he had some vision of a face before him. “ Oh yes, dear !” 
 “ Whose, Floy ? ” “Your old nurse’s; often.” “And where is my old nurse ?” said 
 Paul. “ Is she dead too ? Floy, are we all dead, except you ? ” 
 
 There was a hurry in the room, for an instant — longer, perhaps ; but it seemed no 
 more — then all was still again ; and Florence, with her face quite colorless, but smiling, 
 held his head upon her arm. Her arm trembled very much. “ Show me that old nurse. 
 Floy, if you please ?” “ She is not here, darling. She shall come to-morrow.” — “Thank 
 
 you, Floy ! ” 
 
 “ And who is this ? Is this my old nurse ?” said the child, regarding with a radiant 
 smile a figure coming in. Yes, yes! No other stranger would have shed those tears at 
 sight of him, and called him her dear boy, her pretty boy, her own dear blighted child. 
 No other woman would have stooped down by his bed, and taken up his wasted 
 hand and put it to her lips and breast, as one who had some right to fondle it. N6 other 
 woman would have so forgotten everybody there but him and Floy, and been so full of 
 tenderness and pity. “ Floy, this is a kind, good, face.” said Paul. “ I am glad to see it 
 .again. Don’t go away, old nurse ! Stay here ! ” 
 
 “ Now lay me down,” he said ; “and, Floy, come close to me, and let me see you ! ” 
 Sister and brother wound their arms around each other, and the golden light came 
 streaming in, and fell upon them, locked together. “ How fast the river runs, between 
 its green banks and the rushes, Floy ! But it’s very near the sea. I hear the waves ! 
 They always said so.” Presently he told her that the motion of the boat upon the stream 
 was lulling him to rest. How green the banks were now, how bright the flowers grow- 
 ing on them, and how tall the rushes ! Now the boat was out at sea, but gliding smoothly 
 on ; and now there was a shore before them. Who stood on the bank ? He put his 
 hands together, as he had been used to do a-t his prayers. He did not remove his arms, 
 
SELECTIONS IN PROSE. 
 
 749 
 
 to do it ; but they saw him fold them so behind her neck. “ Mamma is like you, Floy ; 
 I know her by the face ! But tell them that the print upon the stairs at school is not 
 divine enough. The light about the head is shining on me as I go ! ” 
 
 The golden ripple on the wall came back again, and nothing else stirred in the room. 
 The old, old fashion ! The fashion that came in with our first garments, and will last 
 unchanged until our race has run its course, and the wide firmament is rolled up like a 
 scroll. The old, old fashion — Death ! O, thank God, all who see it. for that older 
 fashion yet, of Immortality ! And look upon us, angels of young children, with regards 
 not quite estranged, when the swift river bears us to the ocean ! 
 
 THE DEATH OF LITTLE NELL. 
 
 Charles Dickens. 
 
 HEN morning came, and they could speak more calmly on the subject 
 of their grief, they heard how her life had closed. 
 
 She had been dead two days. They were all about her at the 
 time, knowing that the end was drawing on. She died soon after day- 
 break. They had read and talked to her in the earlier portion of the 
 night, but as the hours crept on she sunk to sleep. They could tell, by what she faintly 
 uttered in her dreams, that they were of her journeyings with the old man ; they were 
 of no painful scenes, but of people who had helped and used them kindly, for she often 
 . said “ God bless you!” with great fervor. Waking, she never wandered in her mind 
 but once, and that was of beautiful music which she said was in the air. God knows. 
 It may have been. 
 
 Opening her eyes at last, from a very quiet sleep, she begged that they would kiss 
 her once again. That done, she turned to the old man with a lovely smile upon her face 
 — such, they said, as they had never seen, and never could forget — and clung with both 
 her arms about his neck. They did not know that she was dead, at first. 
 
 She had spoken very often of the two sisters, who, she said, were like dear friends 
 to her. She wished they could be told how much she thought about them, and how she 
 had watched them as they walked together by the river side at night. She would like 
 to see poor Kit, she had often said of late. She wished there was somebody to take her 
 love to Kit. 
 
 * * * * * * 
 
 And anon the bell — the bell she had so often heard, by night and day, and listened 
 to with solemn pleasure almost as a living voice — rang its remorseless toll, for her, so 
 young, so beautiful, so good. Decrepit age, and vigorous life, and blooming youth, and 
 helpless infancy, poured forth — on crutches, in the pride of strength and health, in the 
 full blush of promise, in the mere dawn of life— to gather round her tomb. 
 
750 
 
 SELECTIONS IN PROSE. 
 
 ON THE FATE OF ROBERT BURNS. 
 
 Thomas Carlyle, 
 
 ONTEMPLATING the sad end of Burns — how he sank unaided by any 
 real help, uncheered by any wise sympathy — generous minds have some* 
 times figured to themselves, with a reproachful sorrow, that much might 
 have been done for him ; that, by counsel, true affection and friendly 
 ministrations, he might have been saved to himself and the world. But 
 it seems dubious whether the richest, wisest, and most benevolent individual could have 
 lent Burns any effectual help. 
 
 We have already stated our doubts whether direct pecuniary help, had it been offered, 
 would have been accepted, or could have proved very effectual. We shall readily admit, 
 however, that much was to be done for Burns ; that many a poisoned arrow might have 
 been warded from his bosom ; many an entanglement in his path cut asunder by the 
 hand of the powerful ; light and heat, shed on him from high places, would have made 
 his humble atmosphere more genial ; and the softest heart then breathing, might have 
 lived and died with fewer pangs. Still we do not think that the blame of Burns’s failure 
 lies chiefly with the world. The world, it seems to us, treated him with more, rather 
 than with less kindness than it usually shows to such men. It has ever, we fear, shown 
 but small favor to its teachers: hunger and nakedness, perils and reviling, the prison, 
 the poison-chalice, the Cross, have, in most times and countries, been the market-price 
 it has offered for wisdom — the welcome with which it has treated those who have 
 come to enlighten and purify it. Homer and Socrates, and the Christian Apostles, 
 belong to old days ; but the world’s martyrology was not completed with these. Roger 
 Bacon and Galileo languished in priestly dungeons; Tasso pines in the cell of a mad 
 house; Camoens dies begging on the streets of Lisbon. So neglected, so “ persecuted 
 they the Prophets,” not in Judea only, but in all places where men have been. We reckon 
 that every poet of Burns’s order is, or should be a Prophet and Teacher to his age ; that 
 he has no right to expect kindness, but rather is bound to do it ; that Burns, in particu- 
 lar, experienced fully the usual proportion of goodness ; and that the blame of his failure 
 as we have said, lies not chiefly with the world. Where then does it lie ? We are forced 
 to answer, with himself : It is his inward not his outward misfortunes, that brings him 
 to the dust. 
 
 CHARACTER OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 
 
 Charles P. Phillips . 
 
 E is fallen! We may now pause before that splendid prodigy, which 
 towered amongst us like some ancient ruin, whose frown terrified the 
 glance its magnificence attracted. 
 
 Grand, gloomy, and peculiar, he sat upon the throne, a sceptered 
 hermit, wrapt in the solitude of his own originality. 
 
 A mind bold, independent, and decisive — a will, despotic in its dictates — an energy 
 that distanced expedition, and a conscience pliable to every touch of interest, marked the 
 outline of this extraordinary character — the most extraordinary, perhaps, that, in the 
 annals of this world, ever rose, or reigned, or felL 
 
ROBERT EMMET’S SPELtii FROM THE DOCK. 
 
 751 
 
 Flung into life in the midst of a Revolution that quickened every energy of a people 
 who acknowledged no superior, he commenced his course a stranger by birth and a 
 scholar by charity ! 
 
 With no friend but his sword, and no fortune but his talents, he rushed into the lists 
 where rank and genius had arrayed themselves, and competition fled from him as from 
 the glance of destiny. He knew no motive but interest ; he acknowledged no criterion 
 but success ; he worshipped no god but ambition, and with an eastern devotion he knelt 
 at the shrine of his idolatry. Subsidiary to this, there was no creed that he did not pro- 
 fess, there was no opinion that he did not promulgate ; in the hope of a dynasty, he up- 
 held the crescent ; for the sake of a divorce, he bowed before the cross ; the orphan of 
 St. Louis, he became the adopted child of the Republic: and with a parricidal ingrati- 
 tude, on the ruins both of the throne and the tribune he reared the fabric of his des- 
 potism. 
 
 But if his fortune was great, his genius was transcendent ; decision flashed upon his 
 counsels ; and it was the same to decide and to perform. To inferior intellects, his com- 
 binations appeared perfectly impossible, his plans perfectly impracticable ; but in his 
 hands simplicity marked their development, and success vindicated their adoption. 
 
 His person partook the character of his mind — if the one never yielded in the 
 cabinet, the other never bent in the held. 
 
 ROBERT EMMET’S SPEECH FROM THE DOCK. 
 
 It was late at night — after nine — and Emmet had been standing at the bar 
 all the long, weary day. His counsel applied for an adjournment till morning. The 
 request was peremptorily refused. Then the clerk of the crown went through the 
 form used on such occasions, and asked the prisoner at the bar what he had to say 
 why judgment of death and execution should not be awarded against him according to 
 law. And then the young man, stepping to the front of the dock, spoke that death- 
 less oration which takes captive both the heart and the mind of all who read it, and 
 which, though there were nothing else linked with his name, would preserve the mem- 
 ory of Emmet through numberless cycles yet to come. We give in full, with the inter- 
 ruptions that impeded its delivery, this 
 
 “SPEECH FROM THE DOCK.” 
 
 “ My Lords — I am asked what have I to say why sentence of death should not 
 be pronounced on me, according to law. I have nothing to say that can alter your 
 predetermination, nor that it will become me to say, with any view to the mitigation 
 of that sentence which you are to pronounce, and I must abide by. But I have 
 that to say which interests me more than life, and which you have labored to destroy. 
 I have much to say why my reputation should be rescued from the load of false 
 accusations and calumny which has been cast upon it. I do not imagine that, seated 
 where you are, your mind can be so free from prejudice as to receive the least impres- 
 
752 
 
 ROBERT EMMET’S SPEECH FROM THE DOCK. 
 
 sion from what I am going to utter. I have no hopes that I can anchor my character 
 in the breast of a court constituted and trammeled as this is. I only wish, and that is 
 the utmost that I expect, that your lordships may suffer it to float down your memories 
 untainted by the foul breath of prejudice, until it finds some more hospitable harbor to 
 shelter it from the storms by which it is buffeted. Was I only to suffer death, after 
 being adjudged guilty by your tribunal, I should bow in silence, and meet the fate that 
 awaits me without a murmur ; but the sentence of the law which delivers my body to 
 the executioner, will, through the ministry of the law, labor in its own vindication tc ' 
 consign my character to obloquy ; for there must be guilt somewhere, whether in the 
 sentence of the court or in the catastrophe, time must determine. A man in my situa- 
 tion has not only to encounter the difficulties of fortune, and the force of power over 
 minds which it has corrupted or subjugated, but the difficulties of established prejudice. 
 
 The man dies, but his memory lives. That mine may 
 not perish, that it may live in the respect of my coun- 
 trymen, I seize upon this opportunity to vindicate my- 
 self from some of the charges alleged against me. 
 When my spirit shall be wafted to a more friendly port 
 — when my shade shall have joined the bands of those' 
 martyred heroes who have shed their blood on the scaf- 
 fold and in the field in the defense of their country and 
 of virtue, this is my hope — I wish that my memory and 
 name may animate those who survive me, while I look 
 down with complacency on the destruction of that 
 perfidious government which upholds its domination by 
 blasphemy of the Most High — which displays its power 
 over man, as over the beasts of the forest — which sets 
 man upon his brother, and lifts his hand, in the name 
 of God, against the throat of his fellow who believes 
 or doubts a little more or a little less than the government standard— a government 
 which is steeled to barbarity by the cries of the orphans, and the tears of the widows 
 it has made.” 
 
 [Here Lord Norbury interrupted Mr. Emmet, saying “ that the mean and wicked 
 enthusiasts who felt as he did were not equal to the accomplishment of their wild 
 designs.”] 
 
 “ I appeal to the immaculate God — I swear by the Throne of Heaven, before 
 which I must shortly appear— by the blood of the murdered patriots who have gone 
 before me— that my conduct has been, through all my purposes, governed only by the 
 conviction which I have uttered, and by no other view than that of the emancipation ot 
 my country from the superhuman oppression under which she has so long and too 
 patiently travailed ; and I confidently hope that, wild and chimerical as it may appear, 
 there is still union and strength in Ireland to accomplish this noblest of enterprises. Of 
 this I speak with the confidence of intimate knowledge, and with the consolation that 
 appertains to that confidence. Think not, my lords, I say this for the petty gratification 
 of giving you a transitory uneasiness. A man who never yet raised his voice to assert a 
 
ROBERT EMMET’S SPEECH FROM THE DOCK. 
 
 753 
 
 lie will not hazard his character with posterity by asserting a falsehood on a subject so 
 important to his country, and on an occasion like this. Yes, my lords, a man who does 
 not wish to have his epitaph written until his country is liberated, will not leave a 
 weapon in the power of envy, or a pretense tc impeach the probity which he means to 
 preserve, even in the grave to which tyranny consigns him.” 
 
 [Here he was again interrupted by the court.] 
 
 “Again I say, that what I have spoken was not intended for your lordship, whose 
 situation I commiserate rather than envy — my expressions were for my countrymen. 
 If there is a true Irishman present, let my last words cheer him in the hour of his afflic. 
 tion.” 
 
 [Here he was again interrupted. Lord Norbury said he did not sit there to hear 
 treason. ] 
 
 “ I have always understood it to be the duty of a judge, when a prisoner has been 
 convicted, to pronounce the sentence of the law. I have also understood that' judges 
 sometimes think it their duty to hear with patience, and to speak with humanity ; to 
 exhort the victim of the laws, and to offer, with tender benignity, their opinions of the 
 motives by which he was actuated in the crime of which he was adjudged guilty. 
 That a judge has thought it his duty so to have done, I have no doubt ; but where is 
 the boasted freedom of your institutions — where is the vaunted impartiality, clemency, 
 and mildness of your courts of justice, if an unfortunate prisoner, whom your policy, 
 and not justice, is about to deliver into the hands of the executioner, is not suffered to 
 explain his motives sincerely and truly, and to vindicate the principles by which he 
 was actuated? My lords, it may be a part of the system of angry justice to bow a 
 man’s mind by humiliation to the purposed ignominy of the scaffold ; but worse to me 
 than the purposed shame, or the scaffold’s terrors, would be the shame of such foul and 
 unfounded imputations as have been laid against me in this court. You, my lord, are 
 a judge ; I am the supposed culprit. I am a man ; you are a man also. By a revolu- 
 tion of power we might change places, though we never could change characters. If I 
 stand at the bar of this court and dare not vindicate my character, what a farce is your 
 justice ! If I stand at this bar and dare not vindicate my character, how dare you 
 calumniate it? Does the sentence of death, which your unhallowed policy inflicts on 
 my body, condemn my tongue to silence and my reputation to reproach ? Your execu- 
 tioner may abridge the period of my existence ; but while I exist I shall not forbear 
 to vindicate my character and motives from your aspersions, and, as a man to whom 
 fame is dearer than life, I will make the last use of that life in doing justice to that 
 reputation which is to live after me, and which is the only legacy I can leave to those 
 I honor and love, and for whom I am proud to perish. As men, my lords, we must 
 appear on the great day at one common tribunal ; and it will then remain for the 
 Searcher of all hearts to show a collective universe who was engaged in the most vir- 
 tuous-actions, or swayed by the purest motives — my country’s oppressor, or” 
 
 [Here he was interrupted, and told to listen to the sentence of the law.] 
 
 “ My lords, will a dying man* be denied the legal privilege of exculpating himsell 
 in the eyes of the community from an undeserved reproach, thrown upon him during 
 his trial, by charging him with ambition, and attempting to cast away for a paltry con 
 
754 
 
 ROBERT EMMET’S SPEECH FROM THE DOCK. 
 
 sideration the liberties of his country ? Why did your lordships insult me ? Or rather, 
 why insult justice, in demanding of me why sentence of death should not be pro- 
 nounced against me ? I know, my lords, that form prescribes that you should ask the 
 question. The form also presents the right of answering. This, no doubt, may be. 
 dispensed with, and so might the whole ceremony of the trial, since sentence was 
 already pronounced at the castle before the jury was empaneled. Your lordships 
 are but the priests of the oracle, and I insists on the whole of the forms.” 
 
 [Here Mr. Emmet paused, and the court desired him to proceed.] 
 
 “I am charged with being an emissary of France. An emissary of France! and 
 for what end? It is alleged that I wished to sell the independence ofimy country; 
 and for what end? Was this the object of my ambition? And is this the mode by 
 which £ tribunal of justice reconciles contradictions ? No; I am no emissary ; and my 
 ambition was to hold a place among the deliverers of my country, not in power nor in 
 profit, but in the glory of the accomplishment. Sell my country’s independence to 
 France ! and for what ? Was it for a change of masters? No, but for my ambition. 
 O my country! was it personal ambition that could influence me? Had it been the 
 soul of my actions, could I not, by my education and fortune, by the rank and consid- 
 eration of my family, have placed myself among the proudest of your oppressors? 
 My country was my idol. To it I sacrificed every selfish, every endearing sentiment ; 
 and for it I now offer up myself, O God! No, my lords; I acted as an Irishman, 
 determined on delivering my country from the yoke of a foreign and unrelenting 
 tyranny, and the more galling yoke of a domestic faction which is its joint partner and 
 perpetrator in the patricide — from the ignominy existing with an exterior of splendor 
 and a conscious depravity. It was the wish of my heart to extricate my country from 
 this doubly riveted despotism — I wished to place her independence beyond the reach 
 of any power on earth. I wished to exalt her to that proud station in the world. 
 Connection with France was, indeed, intended, but only as far as mutual interest would 
 sanction or require. Were the French to assume any authority inconsistent with the 
 purest independence, it would be the signal for their destruction. We sought their 
 aid — and we sought it as we had assurance we should obtain it — as auxiliaries in war, 
 and allies in peace. Were the French to come as invaders or enemies, uninvited by the 
 wishes of the people, I should oppose them to the utmost of my strength. Yes! 
 my countrymen, I should advise you to meet them upon the beach, with a sword ii? 
 one hand and a torch in the other. I would meet them with all the destructive fury 
 of war. I would animate my countrymen to immolate them in their boats, before 
 they had contaminated the soil of my country. If they succeeded in landing, and if 
 forced to retire before superior discipline, I would dispute every inch of ground, burn 
 every blade of grass, and the last intrenchment of liberty should be my grave. What 
 I could not do myself, if I should fall, I should leave as a last charge to my country- 
 men to accomplish ;• because I should feel conscious that life, any more than death, is 
 unprofitable when a foreign nation holds my country in subjection. But it was not as 
 an enemy that the succors of France were to land. I looked, indeed, for the assistance 
 of France : but I wished to prove to France and to the world that Irishmen deserved 
 to be assisted — that they were indignant at slavery, and ready to assert the independ- 
 
ROBERT EMMET’S SPEECH FkoM THE DOCK. 
 
 755 
 
 cnee and liberty of their country ; I wished to procure for my country the guarantee 
 which Washington procured for America — to procure an aid which, by its example, 
 would be as important as its valor ; disciplined, gallant, pregnant with science and 
 experience ; that of a people who would perceive the good, and polish the rough points 
 of our character. They would come to us as strangers, and leave us as friends, after 
 sharing in our perils and elevating our destiny. These were my objects ; not to receive 
 new task-masters, but to expel old tyrants. It was for these ends I sought aid from 
 France; because France, even as an enemy, could not be more implacable than the 
 enemy already in the bosom of my country.” 
 
 [Here he was interrupted by the court.] 
 
 “ I have been charged with that importance in the emancipation of my country as 
 to be considered the key-stone of the combination of Irishmen ; or, as your lordship 
 expressed it, ‘the life and blood of the conspiracy.’ You do me honor overmuch ; you 
 have given to the subaltern all the credit of a superior. There are men engaged in 
 this conspiracy who are not only superior to me, but even to your own conceptions of 
 yourself, my lord — men before the splendor of whose genius and virtues I should bow 
 with respectful deference, and who would think themselves disgraced by shaking your 
 blood-stained hand.” 
 
 [Here he was interrupted.] 
 
 “ What, my lord ! shall you tell me, on the passage to the scaffold which that 
 tyranny of which you are only the intermediary executioner has erected for my mur- 
 der, that I am accountable for all the blood that has and will be shed in this struggle 
 of the oppressed against the oppressor — shall you tell me this, and must I be so very 
 3 . slave as not to repel it? I do not fear to approach the Omnipotent Judge to answer 
 for the conduct of my whole life ; and am I to be appalled and falsified by a mere 
 remnant of mortality here ? By you, too, although if it were possible to collect all the 
 innocent blood that you have shed in your unhallowed ministry in one great reservoir 
 your lordship might swim in it.” 
 
 [Here the judge interfered.] 
 
 “ Let no man dare, when I am dead, to charge me with dishonor ; let no man 
 attaint my memory by believing that I could have engaged in any cause but tljat of 
 my country’s liberty and independence ; or that I could have become the pliant min- 
 ion of power in the oppression and misery of my country. The proclamation of the 
 provisional government speaks for our views ; no inference can be tortured from it to 
 countenance barbarity or debasement at home, or subjection, humiliation, or treachery 
 from abroad. I would not have submitted to a foreign oppressor, for the same reason 
 that I would resist the foreign and domestic oppressor. In the dignity of freedom, I 
 /would have fought upon the threshold of my country, and its enemy should enter only 
 by passing over my lifeless corpse. And am I, who lived but for my country, and who 
 have subjected myself to the dangers of the jealous and watchful oppressor and the 
 bondage of the grave only to give my countrymen their rights and my country her 
 independence, am I to be loaded with calumny, and not suffered to resent it? No' 
 God forbid ! ” 
 
 Here Lord Norbury told Mr. Emmet that his sentiments and language disgrace*. 
 
756 
 
 ROBERT EMMET’S SPEECH FROM THE DOCK. 
 
 his family and his education, but more particularly his father, Dr. Emmet, who was a 
 man, if alive, that would not countenance such opinions. To which Mr. Emmet 
 replied : — 
 
 “ If the spirits of the illustrious dead participate in the concerns and cares of those 
 who were dear to them in this transitory life, O ever dear and venerated shade of my 
 departed father ! look down with scrutiny upon the conduct of your suffering son, and 
 see if I have, even for a moment, deviated from those principles of morality and patri- 
 otism which it was your care to instill into my youthful mind, and for which I am 
 now about to offer up my life. My lords, you are impatient for the sacrifice. The 
 blood which you seek is not congealed by the artificial terrors which surround your vic- 
 tim — it circulates warmly and unruffled through the channels which God created for 
 noble purposes, but which you are now bent to destroy for purposes so grievous that 
 they cry to heaven. Be yet patient ! I have but a few more words to say — I am 
 going to my cold and silent grave — my lamp of life is nearly extinguished — my race is 
 run — the grave opens to receive me, and I sink into its bosom. I have but one request 
 to ask at my departure from this world, it is — THE CHARITY OF ITS SILENCE. Let no 
 man write my epitaph ; for as no man who knows my motives dare now vindicate 
 them, let not prejudice or ignorance asperse them. Let them and me rest in obscurity 
 and peace, and my tomb remain uninscribed, and my memory in oblivion, until other 
 times and other men can do justice to my character. When my country takes her 
 place among the nations of the earth, then and not till then , let my epitaph be written. 
 I have done.” 
 
 People of the present day who find their feelings overmasteringly swayed on 
 reading an imperfect report of Robert Emmet’s last speech — for none but imperfect 
 reports have come down to us — can hardly form even a faint conception of its tremen- 
 dous effect upon those who heard it — officials, civil and military, every one — as in firm 
 clear tones, the voice rising and falling in harmonious cadences, it came from the dock 
 in the dim, candle-lit court ; the foredoomed prisoner’s slight figure, clothed in black, 
 moving rapidly to and fro, or bending and rising under the weight of his emotions ; 
 the projecting serious brow more solemn than ever, the pale somber face lit up with a 
 spiritual beauty, and the eyes flashing with a light that seemed to cleave the semi- 
 darkness as his indignant glances sought the bloated visage of Norbury. Even that 
 eternal disgrace to the judicial bench seems to have had the less demoniacal part of his 
 nature touched, for in passing sentence he exhibited an emotion never previously dis- 
 played by him on any similar grave occasion. But, all the same, he decreed Emmet’s 
 doom in due form, and appointed the following day for the execution. 
 
 The temporary scaffold erected in front of St. Catherine’s Church in Thomas-street 
 was formed chiefly of empty barrels with boards laid across them. Two upright posts 
 supported a transverse beam from which the rope depended. A single loose plank 
 beneath the rope, and some eight or nine feet from the ground, was the station the 
 condemned man was to occupy for a few brief minutes. Nothing more easy of ascent 
 than a ladder led up to it. The whole was fenced round with an imposing display oi 
 military forces. When Emmet arrived at the foot of the structure his arms were tied 
 and in consequence it became necessary to aid him in ascending the ladder, but his 
 
SELECT PIECES FOR RECITATION. 
 
 757 
 
 step was quick and firm, and free from every trace of fear. A Protestant clergyman 
 attended him. The victim of the law spoke a few words from the scaffold to those 
 around — “ I die in peace, and with sentiments of universal love and kindness toward 
 all men.” His silver tones pierced the ears not only of the crowd which swayed in 
 silent wrath behind the soldiery, but of the many who far down the street on either 
 sides thronged the windows. Then the black cap was drawn over his face, and ahand« 
 kerchief put into his hand, the fall of which was to have been the signal for the execu- 
 tioner; but that functionary dispensed with any such formality, and unexpectedly 
 tilted over one end of the plank. In an instant the body of Robert Emmet was dang- 
 ling at the end of a rope. One convulsive movement passed through the frame, and 
 then all was still. The lamp of his life was extinguished. 
 
 FROM THE PENS OF FAMOUS AUTHORS. 
 
 THE DESERTED VILLAGE. 
 
 Oliver Goldsmith. 
 
 f WEET Auburn ! loveliest village of the plain. 
 Where health and plenty cheered the labor- 
 ing swain. 
 
 Where smiling spring its earliest visit paid, 
 And parting summer’s lingering blooms delayed; 
 Dear lovely bowers of innocence and ease, 
 
 Seats of my youth, when every sport could please ; 
 How often have I loitered o’er thy green, 
 
 Where humble happiness endeared each scene ! 
 
 How often have I paused on every charm, 
 
 The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm; 
 
 The never-failing brook, the busy mill; 
 
 The decent church that topped the neighboring hill; 
 The hawthorn bush, with seats beneath the shade, 
 For talking age, and whispering lovers made’ 
 
 How often have I blessed the coming day, 
 
 When toil remitting lent its turn to play, 
 
 And all the village train, from labor free, 
 
 / Lead up their sports beneath the spreading tree : 
 While many a pastime circled in the shade, 
 
 The young contending as the old surveyed; 
 
 And many a gambol frolicked o’er the ground, 
 
 And sleights of art, and feats of strength went round. 
 And still, as each repeated pleasure tired, 
 Succeeding sports the mirthful band inspired; 
 
 The dancing pair that simply sought renown, 
 
 By holding out to tire each other down; 
 
 The swain, mistrustless of his smutted face, 
 
 While secret laughter tittered round the place; 
 
 The bashful virgin’s sidelong looks of love, 
 
 The matron’s glance that would those looks .e 
 prove — 
 
 These were thy charms, sweet village ! sports like 
 these, 
 
 With sweet succession, taught e’en toil to please. 
 
 Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening’s close. 
 Up yonder hill the village murmur rose; 
 
 There, as I passed, with careless steps and slow, 
 The mingling notes came softened from below; 
 
 The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung. 
 
 The sober herd that lowed to meet their young; 
 
 The noisy geese that gabbled o’er the pool. 
 
 The playful children just let loose from school; 
 
 The watch-dog’s voice that bayed the whispering 
 wind, 
 
 And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind; 
 These all in sweet confusion sought the shade, 
 
 And filled each pause the nightingale had made. 
 
 Near yonder copse, where once the garden smiled, 
 And still where many a garden flower grows wild; 
 There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
 The village preacher’s modest mansion rose. 
 
 A man he was to all the country dear, 
 
 And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 
 
 Remote from towns he ran his godly race, 
 
 Nor e’er had changed, nor wished to change, htft 
 place; 
 
 Unskillful he to fawn, or seek for power, 
 
 By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour; 
 
758 
 
 THE DESERTED VILLAGE. 
 
 Far other aims his heart had learned to prize, 
 
 More bent to raise the wretched than to rise. 
 
 His house was known to all the vagrant train; 
 
 He chid their wanderings, but relieved their pain. 
 The long remembered beggar was his guest, 
 
 Whose beard descending swept his aged breast; 
 
 The ruined spendthrift, now no longer proud, 
 Claimed kindred there, and had his claims allowed; 
 The broken soldier, kindly bade to stay, 
 
 Sat by his fire, and talked the night away; 
 
 Wept o’er his wounds, or tales of sorrow done, 
 Shouldered his crutch, and showed how fields were 
 won. 
 
 Pleased with his guests, the good man learned to 
 glow, 
 
 And quite forgot their vices in their woe; 
 
 Careless their merits or their faults to scan, 
 
 His pity gave ere charity began. 
 
 Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, 
 
 And even his failings leaned to virtue’s side; 
 
 But, in his duty prompt at every call, 
 
 He watched and wept, he prayed and felt for all. 
 And, as a bird each fond endearment tries. 
 
 To tempt her new-fledged offspring to the skies; 
 
 He tried each art, reproved each dull delay. 
 
 Allured to brighter worlds, and led the way. 
 
 Beside the bed where parting life was laid. 
 
 And sorrow, guilt, and pain, by turns dismayed. 
 
 The reverend champion stood. At his control 
 Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul! 
 Comfort came down the trembling wretch to raise. 
 And his last faltering accents whispered praise. 
 
 At church, with meek and unaffected grace, 
 
 His looks adorned the venerable place; 
 
 Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, 
 
 And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray. 
 
 The service past, around the pious man, 
 
 With steady zeal, each honest rustic ran; 
 
 Ev’n children followed with endearing wile, 
 
 And plucked his gown, to share the good man's 
 smile. 
 
 His ready smile a parent’s warmth expressed. 
 
 Their welfare pleased him, and their cares distressed; 
 To them his heart, his love, his griefs, were given, 
 But all his serious thoughts had rest in heaven. 
 
 As some tall cliff that lifts its awful form, 
 
 Swells from the vale, and midway leaves the storm. 
 Though round its breast the rolling clouds are spread 
 Eternal sunshine settles on its head. 
 
 Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way, 
 With blossomed furze unprofitably gay, 
 
 There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule. 
 
 The village master taught his little school. 
 
 A man severe he was, and stern to view ; 
 
 I knew him well, and every truant knew. 
 
 Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace, 
 
 The day’s disasters in his morning face ; 
 
 Full well they laughed, with counterfeited glee, 
 
 At all his jokes, for many a joke had he; 
 
 Full well the busy whisper, circling round, 
 Conveyed the dismal tidings when he frowned: 
 
 Yet he was kind; or, if severe in aught, 
 
 The love he bore to learning was in fault. 
 
 The village all declared how much he knew; 
 
 ’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too; 
 
 Lands he could measure, terms and tides presage, 
 And even the story ran that he could gauge ; 
 
 In arguing too, the parson owned his skill. 
 
 For e' en though vanquished, he could argue still : 
 While words of learned length, and thundering 
 sound, 
 
 Amazed the gazing rustics ranged around; 
 
 And still they gazed, and still the wonder grew 
 That one small head could carry all he knew. 
 
 But past is all his fame : the very spot 
 Where many a time he triumphed, is forgot. 
 
 Near yonder thorn that lifts its head on high. 
 Where once the sign-post caught the passing eye, 
 Low lies that house where nut-brown draughts in« 
 spired. 
 
 Where gray-beard mirth and smiling toil retired; 
 Where village statesmen talked with looks profound 
 And news much older than their ale went round. 
 Imagination fondly stoops to trace 
 The parlor splendors of that festive place ; 
 
 The whitewashed wall, the nicely-sanded floor, 
 
 The varnished clock that clicked behind the door; 
 The chest, contrived a double debt to pay, 
 
 A bed by night, a chest of drawers by day; 
 
 The pictures placed for ornament and use, 
 
 The Twelve Good Rules, the Royal game of Goose* 
 The hearth, except when winter chilled the day. 
 With aspen boughs, and flowers, and fennel gay; 
 While broken tea-cups, wisely kept for show 
 Ranged o’er the chimney, glistened in a row. 
 
 Yes, let the rich deride, the proud disdain 
 These simple blessings of the lowly train ; 
 
 To me more dear, congenial to my heart. 
 
 One native charm, than all the gloss of art : 
 Spontaneous joys, where Nature has its play, 
 
 The soul adopts, and owns their first-born sway; 
 Lightly they frolic o’er the vacant mind, 
 
 Unenvied, unmolested, unconfined: 
 
 But the long pomp, the midnight masquerade. 
 
 With all the freaks of wanton wealth arrayed. 
 
 In these, ere triflers half their wish obtain. 
 
 The toiling pleasure sickens into pain; 
 
 And, even while fashion’s brightest arts deco? 
 
 The heart distrusting asks— if this be joy? 
 
SELECT PIECES FOR RECITATION. 
 
 759 
 
 THE POET AND THE POSE. 
 
 John Gay. 
 
 [John Gay, one of the most genial, gentle, and 
 worthiest of poets and dramatists, was born at Barn- 
 stable, England, in 1668. He came of a good fam- 
 ily ; and both parents dying when he was but six 
 years of age, he was apprenticed to a silk-mercer in 
 London. Disliking the drudgery of a retail store, 
 he obtained the cancelling of his indentures, and 
 devoted himself to literature. He published “ Rural 
 Sports,” a descriptive poem, which he dedicated to 
 Pope, through life his admirer and friend. In 1714 
 He published his “Shepherd’s Week,” a pastoral, 
 and obtained the post of secretary to Lord Claren- 
 don on his appointment of Envoy-Extraordinary to 
 Hanover; in 1727 his “Beggars’ Opera” came out, 
 ran for sixty-two successive nights, and not only 
 became the rage at the time, but has remained ever 
 since one of the most popular pieces ever produced 
 on the British stage. He soon amassed 3000/ by his 
 writings. This he determined to keep “entire and 
 sacred,” being at the same time received into the 
 house of his early patrons the Duke and Duchess of 
 Queensbury. Here he amused himself by adding to 
 his “ Fables.” He died suddenly, of fever, Decem- 
 ber 4, 1732, aged 44, and was buried in Westminster 
 Abbey.] 
 
 HATE the man who builds his name 
 On ruins of another’s fame; 
 
 Thus prudes, by characters o’ethrown. 
 Imagine that they raise their own; 
 
 Thus scribblers, covetous of praise, 
 
 Think slander can transplant the bays. 
 
 Beauties and bards have equal pride. 
 
 With both all rivals are decried; 
 
 Who praises Lesbia’s eyes and feature, 
 
 Must call her sister “awkward creature;” 
 
 For the kind flattery’s sure to charm, 
 
 When we some other nymph disarm. 
 
 As in the cool of early day, 
 
 A poet sought the sweets of May, 
 
 The garden’s fragrant breath ascends. 
 
 And every stalk with odor bends, 
 
 A rose he pluck’d, he gazed, admired, 
 
 Thus singing as the muse inspired: 
 
 “Go, rose, my Chloe’s bosom grace! 
 
 How happy should I prove, 
 
 Might I supply that envied place 
 With never-fading love! 
 
 There, Phcenix-like. beneath her eye, 
 
 Involved in fragrance, burn and die! 
 
 Know, hapless flower, that thou shalt find 
 More fragrant roses there, 
 
 1 see thy withering head reclined 
 
 With envy and despair : 
 
 One common fate we both must prove. 
 
 You die with envy, I with love,” 
 
 “ Spare your comparisons,” replied 
 An angry rose, who grew beside. 
 
 “ Of all mankind you should not flout us; 
 
 What can a poet do without us? 
 
 In every love-song roses bloom; 
 
 We lend you color and perfume. 
 
 Does it to Chloe’s charms conduce 
 To found her praise on our abuse? 
 
 Must we, to flatter her, be made 
 To wither, envy, pine, and fade?” 
 
 HOW THEY BROUGHT THE GOOD 
 NEWS FROM GHENT. 
 
 Robert Browning. 
 
 SPRANG to the stirrup, and Joris, and he; 
 
 I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all 
 three; 
 
 “Good speed!” cried the watch, as the gate- 
 bolts undrew; 
 
 “ Speed!” echoed the wall to us galloping through; 
 Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, 
 
 And into the midnight we galloped abreast. 
 
 Not a word to each other; we kept the great pace 
 Neck by neck, stride by stride, never changing our 
 place; 
 
 I turned in my saddle and made its girths tight, 
 Then shortened each stirrup, and set the pique right. 
 Rebuckled the cheek-strap, chained slacker the bit. 
 Nor galloped less steadily Roland a whit. 
 
 *Twas moonset at starting; but while we drew near 
 Lockeren, the cocks crew, and twilight dawned clear; 
 At Boom, a great yellow star came out to see; 
 
 At Diiffield, ’twas morning as plain as could be; 
 
 And from Mechelen church-steeple we heard the half- 
 chime, 
 
 So Joris broke silence with “Yet there is time!” 
 
 At Aershot up leaped of a sudden the sun, 
 
 And against him the cattle stood black every one, 
 To stare through the mist at us galloping past. 
 
 And I saw my stout galloper Roland at last, 
 
 With resolute shoulders, each butting away 
 The haze, as some bluff river headland its spray. 
 
 By Hasselt, Dirck groaned ; and cried Joris “Stay 
 spur! 
 
 Your Ross galloped bravely, the fault’s not in her, 
 We’ll remember at Aix” — for one heard the quick 
 wheeze 
 
 Of her chest, saw her stretched neck and staggering 
 knees, 
 
760 
 
 SELECT PIECES FOR RECITATION. 
 
 And sunk tail, and horrible heave of the flank. 
 
 As down on her haunches she shuddered and sank. 
 So we were left galloping, Joris and I, 
 
 Past Looz and past Tongres, no cloud in the sky; 
 The broad sun above laughed a pitiles laugh, 
 
 *Neath our feet broke the brittle bright stubble like 
 chaff ; 
 
 Till over by Dalhem a dome-spire sprang white, 
 
 And “Gallop,” gasped Joris, “for Aix is in sight!” 
 
 “How they’ll greet us!” and all in a moment his 
 roan 
 
 Rolled neck and crop over, lay dead as a stone; 
 
 And there was my Roland to bear the whole weight 
 Of news which alone could save Aix from her fate, 
 With his nostrils like pits full of blood to the brim, 
 And with circles of red for his eye-socket’s rim. 
 
 Then I cast loose my buff-coat, each holster let fall. 
 Shook off both my jack-boots, let go belt and all. 
 Stood up in the stirrup, leaned, patted his ear, 
 Called my Roland his pet-name, my horse without 
 peer; 
 
 Clapped my hands, laughed and sang, any noise, 
 bad or good, 
 
 Till at length into Aix Roland galloped and stood. 
 
 And all I remember is, friends flocking round 
 As I sat with his head ’twixt my knees on the ground, 
 And no voice but was praising this Roland of mine, 
 As I poured down his throat our last measure of 
 wine, 
 
 Which (the burgesses voted by common consent) 
 Was no more than his due who brought good news 
 from Ghent. 
 
 Witty and Humorous Poems. 
 
 HEBE SHE GOES — AJ$D THEBE SHE 
 GOES. 
 
 James Nack. 
 
 f wo Yankee wags, one summer day. 
 
 Stopped at a tavern on their way. 
 
 Supped, frolicked, late retired to rest, 
 
 And woke to breakfast on the best. 
 
 The breakfast over, Tom and Will 
 Sent for the landlord and the bill; 
 
 Will looked it over; — “Very right — 
 
 But hold! what wonder meets my sight? 
 
 Tom! the surprise is quite a shock!” 
 
 “ What wonder ? where?” — “The clock, the clock!” 
 
 Tom and the landlord in amaze 
 Stared at the clock with stupid gaze. 
 
 And for a moment neither spoke; 
 
 At last the landlord silence broke — 
 
 “ You mean the clock that’s ticking there? 
 
 I see no wonder, I declare: 
 
 Though maybe, if the truth were told, 
 
 ’Tis rather ugly, somewhat old; 
 
 Yet time it keeps to half a minute; 
 
 But, if you please, what wonder’s in it ?" 
 
 “ Tom, don’t you recollect,” said Will, 
 
 ** The clock at Jersey, near the mill, 
 
 The very image of this present, 
 
 With which I won the wager pleasant 7* 
 
 Will ended with a knowing wink — 
 
 Tom scratched his head and tried to think. 
 
 “ Sir, begging pardon for inquiring,” 
 
 The landlord said, with grin admiring 
 “ What wager was it ?” 
 
 “ You remember 
 
 It happened, Tom, in last December, 
 
 In sport I bet a Jersey Blue 
 That it was more than he could do 
 To make his finger go and come 
 In keeping with the pendulum, 
 
 Repeating till the hour should close, 
 
 Still — ‘ Here she goes — and there she goes /’ 
 
 He lost the bet in half a minute.” 
 
 “ Well, if I would the deuce is in it !’ 
 Exclaimed the landlord; “try me yet, 
 
 And fifty dollars be the bet.” 
 
 “Agreed, but we will play some trick 
 To make you of the bargain sick!” 
 
 “ I’m up to that!” 
 
 “ Don’t make us wait — 
 “Begin — the clock is striking eight.” 
 
 He seats himself, and left and right 
 His finger wags with all its might, 
 
 And hoarse his voice, and hoarser grows, 
 
 With — “ Here she goes — and there she goes I” 
 
 “Hold !” said the Yankee, ‘plank the readyJ* 
 The landlord wagged his finger steady 
 While his left hand as well as able, 
 
 Conveyed a purse upon the table. 
 
 “ Tom! with the money let’s be off!” 
 
 This made the landlord only scoff; 
 
 He heard them running down the stair, 
 
 But was not tempted from his chair; 
 
 Thought he — “The fools! I’ll bite them yet! 
 So poor a trick shan’t win the bet.” 
 
 And loud and long the chorus rose 
 Of — ‘ ‘ Here she goes — and there she goes /” 
 
 While right and left his finger swung. 
 
 In keeping to his clock and tongue. 
 
SELECT PIECES FOR RECITATION. 
 
 761 
 
 His mother happened in to see 
 
 Her daughter; “Where is Mrs. B ? 
 
 When will she come, do you suppose, 
 
 Son ?” 
 
 ‘ * Here she goes — and there she goes f” 
 
 “ Here! — where?” — the lady in surprise 
 His finger followed with her eyes : 
 
 “ Son! why that steady gaze and sad ? 
 
 Those words — that motion — are you maa ? 
 
 “ But here’s your wife, perhaps she knows. 
 
 And” — 
 
 “ Here she goes — and there she goes /” 
 
 His wife surveyed him with alarm, 
 
 And rushed to him and seized his arm; 
 
 He shook her off and fro and fro 
 His finger persevered to go. 
 
 While curled his very nose with ire 
 That she against him should conspire; 
 
 And with more furious tone arose 
 
 The — * * Here she goes — and there she goes f* 
 
 “ Lawks!” screamed the wife, “ I’m in a whirl! 
 Run down and bring the little girl; 
 
 She is his darling, and who knows 
 But ” 
 
 “ Here she goes — and there she goes f* 
 
 * Lawks! he is mad! What made him thus 
 Good Lord! what will become of us? 
 
 Run for a doctor— run, run, run — 
 
 For Doctor Brown and Doctor Dun, 
 
 And Doctor Black and Doctor White, 
 
 And Doctor Grey, with all your might!” 
 
 The doctors came and looked and wondered, 
 
 And shook their heads and paused and pondered. 
 Then one proposed he should be bled — 
 
 * No, leeched, you mean,” the other said— 
 
 “ Clap on a blister!” roared another — 
 
 “No! cup him” — “No! trepan him, brother.” 
 
 A sixth would recommend a purge — 
 
 The next would an emetic urge — 
 
 The eighth, just come from a dissection, 
 
 His verdict gave for an injection; 
 
 The last produced a box of pills, 
 
 A certain cure for earthly ills : 
 
 “ I had a patient yesternight,” 
 
 Quoth he, “ and wretched was her plight, 
 
 And as the only means to save her. 
 
 Three dozen patent pills I gave her; 
 
 And by to-morrow I suppose 
 That”— 
 
 ‘ ‘ Here she goes — and there she goes /” 
 
 “ You are all fools!” the lady said— 
 
 “ The way is just to shave his head. 
 
 Run! bid the barber come anon,” 
 
 4 * Thanks, mother!” thought her clever son; 
 rt You help the knaves that would have bit me, 
 
 Bui all creation shan’t outwit me!” 
 
 Thus to himself while to and fro 
 His finger perseveres to go, 
 
 And from his lips no accent flows 
 But — “ Here she goes — and there she goes P* 
 
 The barber came — “ Lord help him! what 
 A queerish customer I’ve got; 
 
 But we must do our best to save him — 
 
 So hold him, gemmen, while I shave him!” 
 
 But here the doctors interpose — 
 
 “ A woman never” — 
 
 “ There she goes /” 
 
 “A woman is no judge of physic, 
 
 Not even when her baby is sick. 
 
 He must be bled” — “No, no, a blister”— 
 
 ‘A purge, you mean” — “ I say a clyster”— 
 
 “No, cup him”— “Leech him”— “Pills! Pills 
 Pills !” 
 
 And all the house the uproar fills. 
 
 What means that smile? what means that shiver? 
 The landlord’s limbs with rapture quiver, 
 
 And triumph brightens up his face— 
 
 His finger yet shall win the race; 
 
 The clock is on the stroke of nine — 
 
 And up he starts — “ ’Tis mine! ’tis mine!” 
 
 “ What do you mean V 
 
 “ I mean the fifty; 
 
 I never spent an hour so thrifty — 
 
 But you who tried to make me lose, 
 
 Go, burst with envy, if you choose! 
 
 But how is this ? where are they ?” 
 
 “Who?” 
 
 " The gentlemen — I mean the two 
 Came yesterday — are they below ?” 
 
 “ They galloped off an hour ago.” 
 
 “Oh, purge me! blister! shave and bleed! 
 
 For, hang the knaves, I’m mad indeed!” 
 
 THE SWEET COUNTBY COUSINS, 
 
 dear to the heart are the sweet country 
 cousins, 
 
 When dog-days of summer begin to draw 
 near, 
 
 When bricks have grown hot and when sunstrokes by 
 dozens 
 
 Fill body with anguish and bosom with fear! 
 
 The green waving fields and the sweet smelling 
 breezes, 
 
 The ’scaping from turmoil to quiet and calm. 
 
 The rich, creamy milk which the ready hand seizes, 
 Aud e’en the brown cousins who live on the faran 
 
763 
 
 SELECT PIECES 
 
 The plain country cousins, the uncultured cousins, 
 The sweet country cousins who live on the farm. 
 
 The sweet country cousins; oh, aren’t they a treas- 
 ure ? 
 
 How handy to have at the vacation time! 
 
 And paying one’s board is a too costly pleasure, 
 When all can be had without spending a dime. 
 How pleasant to live on rich cream and ripe berries. 
 Fresh golden-hued butter and cakes light and 
 warm, 
 
 Free use of the horses, the carts and the wherries. 
 
 Of sweet country cousins who live on the farm! 
 The plain country cousins, the uncultured cousins. 
 The sweet country cousins who live on the farm! 
 
 How dear are the sweet country cousins in summer! 
 
 How fragrant the meadow, romantic the down! 
 
 But straightway your faces begin to grow glummer 
 At thoughts of their visit next winter in town. 
 
 The theatre, the concert, the lectures, the money 
 Expended in tickets! the thought gives a qualm; 
 The sequel of summer is not quite so funny — 
 
 Why don’t the sweet cousins remain on their farm ? 
 The brown-visaged cousins, the great awkward 
 cousins, 
 
 The clodhopper cousins should sta}*- on their farm, 
 
 THE QUAKER AND THE ROBBER. 
 
 Samuel Lover. 
 
 f TRAVELER wended the wilds among, 
 
 With a purse of gold and a silver tongue; 
 His hat it was broad, and all drab were his 
 clothes, 
 
 For he hated high colours —except on his nose; 
 
 And he met with a lady, the story goes. 
 
 The damsel she cast him a merry blink, 
 
 And the traveler was nothing loth, I think ! 
 
 Her merry black eye beamed her bonnet beneath, 
 And the Quaker he grinn’d, for he’d very good 
 teeth; 
 
 And he asked, “Art thou going to ride on the heath ?” 
 
 I hope you’ll protect me, kind sir,” said the maid, 
 “As to ride this heath over I am sadly afraid; 
 
 For robbers, they say, here in numbers abound. 
 
 And I wouldn’t for anything I should be found: 
 
 For between you and me I have five hundred pound.” 
 
 “ If that is thine own, dear,” the Quaker said, 
 
 M I ne’er saw a maiden I sooner would wed; 
 
 And I have another five hundred just now. 
 
 FOR RECITATION. 
 
 In the padding that’s under my saddle-bow; 
 
 And I’ll settle it all upon thee, I vow!’ 
 
 The maiden she smiled, and the rein she drew, 
 
 “ Your offer I’ll take though I’ll not take you!” 
 
 A pistol she held to the Quaker’s head — 
 
 34 Now give me your gold or I’ll give you my lead— 
 His under the saddle, I think you said.” 
 
 And the damsel ripp’d up the saddle-bow. 
 
 And the Quaker was ne’er a Quaker till now; 
 
 And he saw by the fair one he wish’d for his bride, 
 His purse drawn away with a swaggering stride, 
 
 And the eye that looked tender now only defied. 
 
 “ The spirit doth move me, friend Broadbrim,” quotfe 
 she, 
 
 v To take all this filthy temptation from thee; 
 
 For mammon deceives, and beauty is fleeting. 
 Accept from thy maiden a right loving greeting, 
 
 For much doth she profit by this happy meeting. 
 
 “And hark, jolly Quaker, so rosy and sly, 
 
 Have righteousness more than a lass in your eye; 
 Don’t go again peeping girl’s bonnets beneath. 
 Remember the one you met on the heath: 
 
 Her name’s Jimmy Barlow — I tell to your teeth.” 
 
 “Friend James,” quoth the Quaker, “ pray listen to 
 me. 
 
 For thou canst confer a great favor, d’ye see! 
 
 The gold thou hast taken is not mine, my friend. 
 But my master’s — and truly on thee I depend 
 To make it appear I my trust did defend. 
 
 “ So fire a few shots through my coat here and there 
 To make it appear ’twas a desperate affair.” 
 
 So Jim he popp’d first through the skirts of his coat. 
 And then through his collar, quite close to his throat; 
 “ Now once through my broadbrim,” quoth Ephraim, 
 “ I vote.” 
 
 “ I have but one brace,” said bold Jim, “ and they’re 
 spent, 
 
 And I won’t load again for a make-believe rent.” 
 “Then,” said Ephraim, producing his pistols, “just 
 give 
 
 My five hundred pounds back, or, as sure as you 
 live, 
 
 I’ll make of your body a riddle or sieve.” 
 
 Jim Barlow was diddled — and though he was game. 
 He saw Ephraim’s pistol so deadly in aim, 
 
 That he gave up the gold, and he took to his scrapers; 
 And when the whole story got into the papers, 
 
 They said that the thieves were no match for the 
 Quakers. 
 
THE YOUNG PEOPLES’ RECITER, 
 
 COMPRISING SHORT SELECTIONS IN POETRY FROM THE BEST AUTHORS. 
 
 THE CRY OF THE CHILDREN. 
 
 Elizabeth Barrett Browning. 
 
 RUE,” say the children, “it may happen 
 That we die before our time. 
 
 Little Alice died last year — the grave is shapen 
 Like a snowball, in the rime. 
 
 We looked into the pit prepared to take her — 
 
 Was no room for any work in the close clay ; 
 
 From the sleep wherein she lieth none will wake her, 
 Crying, ‘ Get up little Alice ! it is day.” 
 
 If you listen by that grave, in sun and shower, 
 
 With your ear down, little Alice never cries ! — 
 
 Could we see her face, be sure we should not know 
 her, 
 
 For the smile has time for growing in her eyes ! ” 
 
 THE SALE OF THE PET LAMB. 
 
 Mary Howitt. 
 
 THOUSAND flocks were on the hills, a 
 thousand flocks and more, 
 
 Feeding in sunshine pleasantly, — they were 
 the rich man’s store : 
 
 There was the while one little lamb beside 
 a cottage door ; 
 
 A little lamb that rested with the children ’neath 
 the tree, 
 
 That ate, meek creature, from their hands, and 
 nestled to their knee : 
 
 That had a place within their hearts, one of the 
 family. 
 
 But want, even as an armed man, came down upon 
 their shed : 
 
 The father labor’d all day long that his children 
 might be fed, 
 
 And, one by one, their household things were sold 
 to buy them bread. 
 
 That father, with a downcast eye, upon that thresh- 
 old stood, 
 
 Gaunt poverty each pleasant thought had in his 
 heart subdued. 
 
 “ What is the creature’s life to us ? ” said he ; “ ’twill 
 buy us food.” 
 
 Therefore, most sorrowful it was those children 
 small to see, 
 
 Most sorrowful to hear them plead for the lamb so 
 piteously : 
 
 ** Oh ! mother dear, it loveth us ; and what beside 
 have we ? ” 
 
 “ Let’s take him to the broad green hill ! ” in his 
 impotent despair, 
 
 Said one strong boy : “ let’s take him off, the hills 
 are wide and fair ; 
 
 I know a little hiding place, and we will keep him 
 there.” 
 
 Oh vain ! they took the little lamb, and straightway 
 tied him down, 
 
 With a strong cord they tied him fast, and o’er the 
 common brown, 
 
 And o’er the hot and flinty roads, they took him to 
 the town. 
 
 Oh ! poverty is a weary thing, ’tis full of grief and 
 pain : 
 
 It keepeth down the soul of man, as with an iron 
 chain ; 
 
 It maketh even the little child with heavy sighs com*" 
 plain. 
 
 “WE ARE SEVEN.” 
 
 William Wordsworth 
 
 MET a little cottage girl, 
 
 She was eight years old she said J 
 Her hair was thick with many a curl. 
 
 That clustered round her head: 
 
 She had a rustic woodland air, 
 
 And she was wildly clad : 
 
 Her eyes were fair, and very fair t 
 Her beauty made me glad: 
 
 “ Sisters and brothers, little maid, 
 
 How many may you be?” 
 
 “ How many? seven in all,” she said. 
 
 And wondering looked at me. 
 
 “And where are they ? I pray you tell.* 
 
 She answered, “ Seven are we : 
 
 And two of us at Conway dwell. 
 
 And two are gone to sea ; 
 
 Two of us in the churchyard lie, 
 
 My sister and my brother ; 
 
 And in the churchyard cottage I 
 Dwell near them with my mother.” 
 
 “You say that two at Conway dwell. 
 
 And two are gone to sea : 
 
 Yet ye are seven — I pray you, tell 
 Sweet maid, how this may be.'* 
 
704 
 
 THE YOUNG PEOPLES' RECITER. 
 
 Then did the little maid reply, 
 
 “ Seven boys and girls are we. 
 
 Two of us in the churchyard lie, 
 
 Beneath the churchyard tree.’* 
 
 “ You run about my little maid. 
 
 Your limbs they are alive ; 
 
 If two are in the churchyard laid. 
 
 Then ye are only five.” 
 
 “ Their graves are green, they may be seen 
 The little maid maid replied ; 
 
 44 Twelve steps or more from my mother’s door. 
 And they are side by side. 
 
 44 My stockings there I often knit, 
 
 My kerchief there I hem, 
 
 And there upon the ground I sit--* 
 
 And sing a song to them. 
 
 44 And often after sunset sir, 
 
 When it is light and fair, 
 
 I take my little porringer, 
 
 And have my supper there. 
 
 44 The first that died was sister Jane, 
 
 In bed she moaning lay, 
 
 Till God released her of her pain j 
 And then she went away. 
 
 44 So in the churchyard she was laid j 
 And when the grass was dry, 
 
 Together round her grave we played. 
 
 My brother John and I. 
 
 44 And when the ground was white with snow, 
 And I could run and slide, 
 
 My brother John was forced to go, 
 
 And he lies by her side.” 
 
 44 How many are you, then,” said I, 
 
 “ If they too are in heaven ? ” 
 
 Quick was the little maid’s reply, 
 
 44 Oh, master, we are seven . 0 
 44 But they are dead ; those two are dead I 
 Their spirits are in heaven ! ” 
 
 ’Twas throwing words away : for still 
 The little maid would have her will. 
 
 And said, “ Nay, we are seven ! ” 
 
 THE MAY QUEEN. 
 
 TENNYSON. 
 
 OU must wake and call me early ; call me 
 early, mother dear, 
 
 To-morrow ’ill be the happiest time of all the 
 glad New-year : 
 
 Of all the glad New-year, mother, the maddest, 
 merriest day : 
 
 For I’m to be Queen o’ the May, mother— I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May. 
 
 I sleep so sound all night, mother, that I shall never 
 wake. 
 
 If you do not call me loud when the day begins to 
 break : 
 
 But I must gather knots of flowers, and buds and 
 garlands gay. 
 
 For I’m to be Queen o’ the May mother — I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May. 
 
 As I came up the valley whom think ye should 
 
 I see, 
 
 But Robin leaning on the bridge beneath the hazel 
 tree ? 
 
 He thought of that sh^rp look, mother, I gave him 
 yesterday, — 
 
 But I’m to be Queen o' the May, mother — I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May. 
 
 He thought I was a ghost^ mother, for I was all in 
 white, 
 
 And I ran by him without speaking, like a flash of 
 light. 
 
 They call me cruel-hearted, but I care not what they 
 say. 
 
 For I’m to be Queen o’ the May, mother — I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May. 
 
 They say he’s dying all for love, but that can never be: 
 
 They say his heart is breaking, mother, — what is that 
 to me? 
 
 There’s many a bolder lad ’ll woo me any summer 
 day, 
 
 For I’m to be Queen o’ the May, mother — I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May. 
 
 The night-winds come and go, mother, upon the 
 meadow grass, 
 
 And the happy stars above them seem to brighten as 
 they pass ; 
 
 There will not be a drop of rain the whole of the 
 livelong day, 
 
 And I’m to be Queen o’ the May mother — I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May. 
 
 So you must wake and call me early, call me early, 
 mother dear, 
 
 To-morrow ’ill be the happiest time of all the glad 
 New-year : 
 
 To-morrow ’ll be of all the year the maddest, merriest 
 day, 
 
 For I’m to be Queen o’ the May, mother — I’m to be 
 Queen o’ the May 
 
RELIGIOUS PIECES FOR LITTLE ONES. 
 
 765 
 
 THE BEGGAR MAID. 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 « ER arms across her breast she laid : 
 
 She was more fair than words can say : 
 Barefoooted came the beggar maid 
 (L)' Before the King Cophetua. 
 
 In robe and crown the king stept down, 
 
 To meet and greet her on her way : 
 
 ** It’s no wonder,” says the lords, 
 
 ,4 She is more beautiful than day.” 
 
 As shines the moon in clouded skies, 
 
 She in her poor attire was seen ; 
 
 One praised her ankles, one her eyes, 
 
 One her dark hair and lovesome mien. 
 
 So sweet a face, such angel grace, 
 
 In all that land had never been. 
 
 Cophetua sware a royal oath, 
 
 ‘ c This beggar maid shall be my queen.** 
 
 THE SEA. 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 I(^^REAK, break, break, 
 
 On thy cold gray stones, O Sea! 
 
 And I would that my tongue could utter 
 if The thoughts that arise in me. 
 
 O well for the fisherman’s boy, 
 
 That he shouts with his sister at play ! 
 
 O well for the sailor lad, 
 
 That he sings in his boat on the bay z 
 And the stately ships go on 
 To their haven under the hill ; 
 
 But O for the touch of a vanish’d hand. 
 And the sound of a voice that is still ! 
 
 Break, break, break, 
 
 At the foot of thy crags, O Sea ! 
 
 But the tender grace of a day that is dead 
 Will never come back to me. 
 
 THE SAILOR BOY. 
 
 Adelaide A. Proctor. 
 
 Y Life you ask of? why, you know 
 Full soon my little Life is told ; 
 
 It has no great joy or woe, 
 
 For I am only twelve years old. 
 Ere long I hope 1 shall have been 
 On my first voyage, and wonders seen. 
 Some princess I may help to free 
 From pirates on a far-off sea ; 
 
 Or, on some desert isle be left, 
 
 Of friends and shipmates all bereft. 
 
 LAZY BONES. 
 
 -BONES, Lazy-bones, why are you here I 
 e school-bell has rung twenty minutes of 
 near ; 
 
 Doy who wont work always turns out a 
 fool — 
 
 Lazy-bones, Lazy-bones, hurry to school. 
 
 Lazy-bones, Lazy-bones, taking your nap ; 
 You’re not very tidy, just look at your cap ! 
 
 A careless lad’s certain to grow up a fool — 
 Smarten up, Lazy-bones hurry to school. 
 
 Religious Pieces 
 
 for Little Ones 
 
 TO RECITE AT 
 
 SUNDAY SCHOOL ENTERTAINMENTS AND CHRISTMAS FESTIVALS. 
 
 HOW OFTEN I OFFEND. 
 
 HEN I am justly blamed, 
 
 Oh let me not reply, 
 
 But of my many faults ashamed. 
 To God for pardon cry. 
 
 If God should judge me now 
 For ail that I have done — 
 
 The thought is dreadful ! let me bow 
 Before his blessed Son. 
 
 To Thee, O Christ ! I look, 
 
 And for Thy mercy pray — 
 
 Thy blood alone can blot the book, 
 
 And take my sins away ? 
 
 THE BURYING GROUND. 
 
 HE tender flowers beneath the beam 
 Their opening petals spread, 
 
 And sweetly they look down and smile 
 Upon the peaceful dead. 
 
RELIGIOUS PIECES FOR LITTLE ONES. 
 
 And like a flower that from a grave 
 Extracts its lowly birth, 
 
 My grateful soul desires to bloom 
 On this dark mound of earth. 
 
 Her root should in the tomb.be fix’d, 
 Where Jesus deign’d to sleep ; 
 
 And beams of grace should shine on her 
 And dews of mercy weep ; 
 
 Till angels come to bear away 
 The trembler on their wing 
 And plant her by Thy glorious throng 
 My Father and my King. 
 
 THE BABY. 
 
 HE parents’ lip may sweetly plead 
 For babes, unconscious what they need, 
 Who know not wrong from right ; 
 But children, who can read and pray 
 Must for themselves seek out the way. 
 
 And make it their delight. 
 
 The blessed Jesus, once like you. 
 
 From infancy to childhood grew, 
 
 From childhood up to youth ; 
 
 He knows your heart, He knows your 
 thought. 
 
 Oh, pray to Jesus to be taught 
 In wisdom, faith, and truth ! 
 
 Thus by Thy grace, O Lord, 
 
 True wisdom would I learn. 
 
 In every page throughout thy Wort* 
 
 Its fullness to discern. 
 
 Each promise there bestow’d 
 Is in rich bounty given, 
 
 To bloom above the narrow road. 
 
 And shade my path to heaven. 
 
 MY SHEPHERD. 
 
 F Jesus be my Shepherd still. 
 When the last hour shall come. 
 The stroke that doth my body kill, 
 Will bear my spirit home ; 
 Death cannot make my soul afraid, 
 
 If Jesus light me through the shade.. 
 
 And when deliver’d from the tomb, 
 
 By Jesus led, I go, 
 
 To where His own rich pastures bloom. 
 And living waters flow ; 
 
 Oh, how shall I delight to see 
 
 The Shepherd-King who died for me ! 
 
 No prowling wolf can enter there, 
 Where His redeemed dwell ; 
 
 To sin, and death, and pain, and care, 
 
 I shall have bid farewell ; 
 
 And through eternity abide, 
 
 Rejoicing by my Shepherd’s side. 
 
 ALL THAT MOVE AND BREATHE. 
 
 V^.OOK to the heavens above, 
 
 To earth that smiles beneath, 
 
 And read Jehovah’s power and love 
 On all that move and breathe 
 
 The ocean, land, and sky, 
 
 Are leaves in one vast book ; 
 
 His glorious hand is ever nigh, 
 
 Tis seen where’er we look. 
 
 The acorn at my feet, 
 
 Hid in its dusty bed, 
 
 Shall burst forth from its low retreat. 
 
 And shade the path I tread. 
 
 WHERE LIVING WATERS FLOW. 
 
 I Y soul is come of heavenly birth, 
 f^And why should sinful joys of earth 
 ^ Confine its spreading wing ? 
 While, sounding from the distant 
 skies, 
 
 Thy gracious summons bid me rise, 
 
 My Saviour and my King! 
 
 I fain would come — I’d break away 
 From this dull, heavy load of clay. 
 Leave sin and death below. 
 
 And lay me at thy beauteous feet. 
 In that green pasture’s fair retreat. 
 Where living waters flow. 
 
RELIGIOUS PIECES FOR LITTLE ONES. 
 
 767 
 
 DRIVE THE NAIL. 
 
 x&X 
 
 S TRIVE the nail aright, boys, 
 
 ( Hit it on the head ; 
 
 Strike with all your might, boys. 
 
 Ere the time has fled. 
 
 jLessons you’ve to learn, boys — 
 
 Study with a will ; 
 
 They who reach the top, boys, 
 
 First must climb the hill. 
 
 Standing at the foot, boys, 
 
 Gazing at the sky ; 
 
 How can you get up, boys. 
 
 If you never try ? 
 
 Though you stumble oft, boys, 
 
 Never be downcast ; 
 
 Try and try again, boys, 
 
 You’ll succeed at last. 
 
 Always persevere, boys, 
 
 Though your task is hard ; 
 
 Toil and happy trust, boys. 
 
 Bring their own reward. 
 
 Never give it up boys ; 
 
 Always say you’ll try ; 
 
 You will gain the crown, boys, 
 
 Surely, by-and-by. 
 
 THE BOY WHO COULD NOT LIE. 
 
 f HERE was once a young Virginian, 
 and a princely boy was he. 
 
 Yet he sprang not from a princely line, 
 nor was of high degree ; 
 
 But clear blood mantled in his cheek — the 
 light flashed from his eye, 
 
 \nd his presence was right noble, for he 
 never told a lie. 
 
 Now his home was near a forest, filled with 
 lofty branching trees, 
 
 And his wont had been to try his knife, boy- 
 fashion upon these. 
 
 We may think that he, not seldom too, had 
 snapped the brittle toy, 
 
 Before his father found a hatchet and bought 
 it for his boy. 
 
 Who so proud as our young woodman now ? 
 his soul is full of glee, 
 
 He will try his keen-edged tool at once upon 
 the nearest tree ; 
 
 So he hies him round his father’s house and 
 waves his axe in air, 
 
 Then, in evil hour, he spies a favorite pear- 
 tree planted there. 
 
 Oh ! the mischief in that bold, bright eye! 
 the mischief in that arm ! 
 
 For the noble tree is ruined ere he feels the 
 least alarm. 
 
 Yet no one saw the ruin wrought, and he 
 soon can run away ; 
 
 He may choke his fault in silence, light the 
 burden where it may* 
 
 But the boy was better than his thought. 
 His father saw the tree : 
 
 ‘Who has done all that mischief there T 
 with angry voice cried he ; 
 
 His son struggled for a moment, — ’twas sc 
 easy to deny ; 
 
 Then, summoning true courage, said, ‘ Sir, 
 I cannot tell a lie.’ 
 
 Oh, I wish all could see his father’s chang- 
 ing features now ; 
 
 He forgot his much-prized tree when he 
 read the boy’s brave brow. 
 
 Then he clasped him in his arms and said 
 (fit words for son and sire), — • 
 
 ‘I would rather lose a thousand trees than 
 have my son a liar.’ 
 
 So the fearless boy grew up to be a noble* 
 fearless man ; 
 
 Match his worth and brave deeds for free- 
 dom as often as you can 1 
 
 That will be a glorious age indeed which of 
 patriots yield us one, 
 
 Who achieved such lasting glory as heroic 
 Washington ! 
 
 Home Book for Children of all Ages , 
 
DIALOGUES 
 
 ACTING AND DRAMATIC EXERCISE 
 
 SOLILOQUIES AND ADDRESSES, 
 
 From Celebrated Classic Authors. 
 
 The student who carefully studies the following selections and endeavors to produce 
 the feelings expressed by imagining himself in the position of the original character, with 
 judicious practice, can train himself to reproduce them with proper effect. They will be 
 found valuable in cultivating dramatic power, will interest the family circle and enter- 
 tain all who hear him. They are taken from the writings of the greatest dramatists the 
 world has ever known, and are models for all time. The ambitious youth of the present 
 day need not fear to attempt them, as thousands of others have done before him. 
 
 BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. 
 
 Cas. That you have wronged me doth appear in 
 this — 
 
 You have condemned and noted Lucius Pella, 
 
 For taking bribes here of the Sardians ; 
 
 Wherein my letters (praying on his side, 
 
 Because I knew the man) were slighted of. 
 
 Bru. You wronged yourself to write in such a 
 case. 
 
 Cas. In such a time as this, it is not meet 
 That every nice offense should bear its comment. 
 
 Bru. Yet let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 
 Are much condemned to have an itching palm j 
 To sell and mart your offices for gold, 
 
 To undeservers. 
 
 Cas. I an itching palm J 
 You know that you are Brutus that speak this, 
 
 Or, by the gods, this speech were else your last ? 
 Bru. The name of Cassius honors this cor- 
 ruption, 
 
 And chastisement doth therefore hide its head. 
 
 Cas. Chastisement 1 
 
 Bru. Remember March, the ides of March re- 
 member! 
 
 Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake ? 
 
 What villain touched his body, that did stab, 
 
 And not for justice ? What ' shall one of us, 
 
 That struck the foremost man of all this world. 
 
 But for supporting robbers ; shall we now 
 Contaminate our fingers with base bribes, 
 
 And sell the mighty space of our large honors, 
 
 For so much trash as may be grasped thus? 
 
 I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, 
 
 Than such a Roman. 
 
 Cas. Brutus, bay not me ! 
 
 I’ll not endure it ; you forget yourself 
 To hedge me in ; I am a soldier, I, 
 
 Older in practice, abler than yourself 
 To make conditions. 
 
 Bru. Go to , you are not, Cassius. 
 
 Cas . I am J 
 
 Bru. I say you are not. 
 
 Cas. Urge me no more; I shall forge' myself — 
 Have mind upon your health — tempt me no farther? 
 Bru. Away, slight man s 
 Cas. Is’t possible ? 
 
 Bru. Hear me, for I will speak. 
 
 Must I give way and room to your rash choler? 
 
 Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? 
 
 Cas . O gods ! ye gods ! must I endure all this t 
 Bru. All this? ay, more. Fret till your Droud 
 heart break ; 
 
 Go, show your slaves how choleric you are 
 And make your bondmen tremble. Must I budget 
 Must I observe you ? Must I stand and crouch 
 Under your testy humor ? By the gods, 
 
 You shall digest the venom of your spleen, 
 
 Though it do split you ; for, from this day forth 
 I’ll use you for my mirth, yea, for my laughter. 
 When you are waspish. 
 
 Cas. Is it come to this ? 
 
 Bru. Y ou say you are a better soldier ; 
 
 Let it appear so ; make your vaunting true, 
 
 And it shall please me well. For mine own part, 
 
 I shall be glad to learn of noble men. 
 
 Cas. You wrong me every way — you wrong me, 
 Brutus ; 
 
 I said, an elder soldier, not a better ; 
 
 Did I say better ? 
 
 Bru. If you did, I care not. 
 
 Cas. When Caesar lived, he durst not thus have 
 moved me. 
 
 Bru. Peace, peace ; you durst not so have 
 tempted him. 
 
 Cas. I durst not ? 
 
 Bru. No. 
 
 Cas. What ! durst not tempt him ? 
 
 Bru. For your life you durst not. 
 
709 
 
 DIALOGUES FOR ACTING AND DRAMATIC EXERCISE. 
 
 Cas. Do not presume too much upon my love ; 
 
 I may do that I shall be sorry for. 
 
 Bru. You have done that you should be sorry for. 
 There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats ; 
 
 For I am armed so strong in honesty, 
 
 That they pass by me as the idle wind. 
 
 Which I respect not. I did send to you 
 
 For certain sums of gold, which you denied me j 
 
 For I can raise no money by vile means. 
 
 I had rather coin my heart, 
 
 And drop my blood for drachmas, than to wring 
 From the hard hands of peasants, their vile tras'h, 
 By any indirection. I did send 
 To you for gold to pay my legions, 
 
 Which you denied me ; was that done like Cassius ? 
 Should I have answered Caius Cassius so? 
 
 When Marcus Brutus grows so covetous, 
 
 To lock such rascal-counters from his friends, 
 
 Be ready, gods, with all your thunderbolts, 
 
 Dash him to pieces ! 
 
 Cas. I denied you not. 
 
 Bru. You did. 
 
 Cas. I did not , he was but a fool. 
 
 That brought my answerback. — Brutus had rived my 
 heart. 
 
 A friend should bear his friend’s infirmities. 
 
 But Brutus makes mine greater than they are. 
 
 Bru. I do not, till you practice them on me. 
 
 Cas. You love me not 1 
 Bru. I do not like your faults. 
 
 Cas. A friendly eye could never see such faults. 
 Bru. A flatterer’s would not, though they do ap- 
 pear as huge as high Olympus. 
 
 Cas. Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come * 
 Revenge yourself alone on Cassius, 
 
 For Cassius is weary of the world ; 
 
 Hated by one he loves — braved by his brother— 
 Checked like a bondman — all his faults observed. 
 Set in a note-book — learned and conned by rote, 
 
 To cast into my teeth — O, I could weep 
 My spirit from mine eyes ! — There is my dagger. 
 
 And here my naked breast ; within, a heart 
 Dearer than Plutus’ mine, richer than gold 
 If that thou be’st a Roman, take it forth. 
 
 I that denied thee gold, will give my heart ; 
 
 Strike as thou didst at Caesar ; for I know, 
 
 When thou didst hate him worst, thou lovedst him 
 better. 
 
 Then ever thou lovedst Cassius. 
 
 Bru. Sheathe your dagger ; 
 
 Be angry when you will, it shall have scope { 
 
 Do whai you will, dishonor shall be humor. 
 
 O Cassius ! you are yoked with a lamb. 
 
 That carries anger as the flint bears fire j 
 Which, much enforced, shows a hasty spark, 
 
 And straight is cold again. 
 
 Cas. Hath Cassius lived 
 To be but mirth and laughter to his Brutus, 
 
 When grief and blood ill-tempered vexeth himr 
 
 Bru. When I spoke that, I was ill-tempered too. 
 
 Cas. Do you confess so much ? Give me your 
 hand. 
 
 Bru. And my heart too. 
 
 Cas. O Brutus ! 
 
 Bru. What’s the matter ? 
 
 Cas. Have you not love enough to bear with me, 
 When that rash humor which my mother gave me. 
 Makes me forgetful? 
 
 Bru. Yes, Cassius; and henceforth, 
 
 When you are over-earnest with your Brutus, 
 
 He’ll think your mother chides, and leave you so. 
 
 PRINUE ARTHUR AND HUBERT! 
 
 [Shakespeare.] 
 
 UBERT. Heat me these irons hot ; and 
 look thou stand 
 
 Within the arras ; when I strike my fool 
 Upon the bosom of the ground, rush forth 
 And bind the boy, which you shall find 
 with me, 
 
 Fast to the chair. Be heedful. Hence, and watch. 
 
 First Attendant. I hope your warrant will bear 
 out the deed. 
 
 Hub. Uncleanly scruples! Fear not you ; look 
 to’t. 
 
 £ Exeunt Attendants. 
 
 Young lad, come forth ; I have to say with you. 
 
 Enter Arthur. 
 
 Arth. Good morrow, Hubert. 
 
 Hub. Good morrow, little prince. 
 
 Arth. As little prince (having so great atitie 
 To be more prince) as may be. You are sad, 
 
 Hub. Indeed, I have been merrier, 
 
 Arth. Mercy on me. 
 
 Methinks nobody should be sad but I, 
 
 Yet I remember, when I was in France, 
 
 Young gentlemen would be as sad as night, 
 
 Only for wantonness. By my Christendom, 
 
 So I were out of prison, and kept sheep, 
 
 I should be merry as the day is long ; 
 
 And so I would be here, but that I doubt 
 My uncle practices more harm to me ; 
 
 He is afraid c£ me, and I of him, 
 
 Is it my fault that f was Geffrey’s son P 
 
 No, indeed, is’t not. And I would to heaven 
 
 I were your son, so you would love me, Hubert. 
 
 Hub. If I talk to him with hia innocent prate. 
 
 He will awake my mercy, which lies dead t 
 Therefore I will be sudden and despatch. [Aside. 
 
770 
 
 DIALOGUES FOR ACTING AND DRAMATIC EXERCISE. 
 
 Art.. Are you sick, Hubert ? You look pale to- 
 day ; 
 
 In sooth, I would you were a little sick, 
 
 That I might sit all night and watch with you. 
 
 I warrant I love you more than you do me. 
 
 Hub. His words do take possession of my 
 bosom. 
 
 Read here, young Arthur. Showing a paper. 
 
 How now, foolish rheum ! {Aside. 
 Turning dispiteous torture out of door ! 
 
 I must be brief, lest resolution drop 
 
 Out at mine eyes, in tender womanish tears. 
 
 Can you not read it ? is it not fair writ ? 
 
 Arth. Too fairly, Hubert, for so foul effect. 
 
 Must you with hot irons burn out both mine eyes? 
 Hub. Young boy, I must 
 Arth. And will you ? 
 
 Hub. And I will. 
 
 Arth. Have you the heart? When your head did 
 but ache, 
 
 vl knit my handkerchief about your brows 
 (The best I had, a princess wrought it me), 
 
 And I did never ask it you again ; 
 
 And with my hand at midnight held your head ; 
 
 And, like the watchful minutes to the hour, 
 
 Still and anon cheer’d up the heavy time, 
 
 Saying, What lack you? and, Where lies your grief ? 
 Or, What good love may I perform for you ? 
 
 Many a poor man’s son would have lain still. 
 
 And ne’er have spoke a loving word to you ; 
 
 But you at your sick service had a prince, 
 
 Nay, you may think my love was crafty love. 
 
 And call it cunning. Do, an’ if you will ; 
 
 If heaven be pleased that you must use me ill, 
 
 Why, then you must. Will you put out mine eyes ? 
 These eyes that never did, nor never shall, 
 
 So much as frown on you ? 
 
 Hub. I have sworn to do it, 
 
 And with hot irons must I burn them out. 
 
 Arth Ah ! none but in this iron age would do it. 
 The iron of itself, though heat red-hot 
 Approaching near these eyes, would drink my tears, 
 And quench his fiery indignation, 
 
 Even in the matter of mine innocence, 
 
 Nay, after that, consume away in rust, 
 
 But for containing fire to harm mine eye. 
 
 Are you more stubborn-hard than hammer’d iron ? 
 An’ if an angel should have come to me, 
 
 And told me Hubert should put out mine eyes, 
 
 I would not have believed no tongue but Hubert’s 
 Hub. Come forth ! {Stamps. 
 
 Re-enter Attendants, with cords , irons , etc. 
 
 Do as I bid you.’ 
 
 Arth. Oh ! save me, Hubert, save me ! My eyes 
 are out 
 
 Even with the fierce looks of these bloody men. 
 
 Hub. Give me the iron, I say, and bind him 
 here. 
 
 Arth. Alas ! what need you be so boisterous 
 rough ? 
 
 I will not struggle, I will stand stone still. 
 
 For Heaven’s sake, Hubert ! let me not be bound 
 Nay, hear me, Hubert ; drive these men away. 
 
 And I will sit as quiet as a lamb ; 
 
 I will not stir, nor wince, nor speak a word, 
 
 Nor look upon the iron angerly. 
 
 Thrust but these men away, and I’ll forgive you 
 Whatever torment you do put me to. 
 
 Hub. Go, stand within ; let me alone with him. 
 First Attendant. I am best pleased to be from such a 
 deed. 
 
 {Exeunt Attendants. 
 Arth. Alas ! I then have chid away my friend? 
 He hath a stern look, but a gentle heart. 
 
 Let him come back, that his compassion may 
 Give life to yours. 
 
 Hub. Come, boy, prepare yourself. 
 
 Arth. Is there no remedy? 
 
 Hub. None but to lose your eyes. 
 
 Arth. Oh ! heaven ! that there were but a mote 
 in yours, 
 
 A grain, a dust, a gnat, a wandering hair — 
 
 Any annoyance in that precious sense ; 
 
 Then, feeling what small things are boisterous there. 
 Your vile intent must needs seem horrible. 
 
 Hub. Is this your promise? Go to! hold your tongue. 
 Arth’ Hubert, the utterance of a brace of 
 tongues 
 
 Must needs want pleading for a pair of eyes. 
 
 Let me not hold my tongue ; let me not, Hubert I 
 Or, Hubert, if you will, cut out my tongue. 
 
 So I may keep mine eyes. O ! spare mine eyes ; 
 Though to no use, but still to look on you ! 
 
 Lo ! by my troth ! the instrument is cold, 
 
 And would not harm me. 
 
 Hub. I can heat it, boy. 
 
 Arth. No, in good sooth ; the fire is dead with 
 grief, 
 
 Being create for comfort, to be used 
 In undeserv’d extremes. See else yourself; 
 
 There is no malice in this burning coal ; 
 
 The breath of heaven hath blown his spirit out, 
 
 And strewed repentant ashes on his head. 
 
 Hub. But with my breath I can revive it, boy. 
 Arth. And if you do, you will but make it blush. 
 And glow with shame of your proceedings, Hubert 
 Nay, it perchance will sparkle in your eyes, 
 
 And, like a dog that Is compelled to fight, 
 
 Snatch at his master, that doth tarre him on. 
 
 All things that you should use to do me wrong, 
 Deny their office ; only you do lack 
 
DIALOGUES FOR ACTING AND DRAMATIC EXERCISE. 
 
 771 
 
 That mercy which fierce fire and iron extend, 
 Creatures of note for mercy-lacking uses. 
 
 Hub . Well, see to live ; I will not touch thine 
 eyes 
 
 For all the treasure that thine uncle owes. 
 
 Yet am I sworn, and I did purpose, boy, 
 
 With this same very iron to burn them out. 
 
 Arth. Oh ! now you look like Hubert ! All this 
 while you were disguis’d. 
 
 Hub. Peace ! no more. Adieu ! 
 
 Your uncle must not know but you are dead ! 
 
 I’ll fill these dogged spies with false reports. 
 
 And, pretty child, sleep doubtless and secure, 
 
 That Hubert, lor the wealth of all the world, 
 
 Will not offend thee. 
 
 Arth. Oh ! heaven. I thank you, Hubert ! 
 
 Hub. Silence ! no more. Go closely in with me. 
 Much danger do I undergo for thee. 
 
 PKIULI AND JAFFIEE. 
 
 Thomas Otway. 
 
 Pri. No more ! I’ll hear no more ! Begone, 
 and leave me. 
 
 Jaff. Not hear me ! By my sufferings but you 
 shall : 
 
 My lord, my lord ! I’m not that abject wretch 
 You think me. Patience! where’s the dis- 
 tance 
 
 Throws me back so far, but I may boldly speak 
 In right, tho’ proud oppression will not hear me ! 
 Pri. Have you not wrong’d me ? 
 
 Jaff. Could my nature e’er 
 Have brook’d injustice, or the doing wrong, 
 
 I need not now thus low have bent myself 
 To gain a hearing from a cruel father. — 
 
 Wrong’d you ? 
 
 Pri. Yes, wrong’d me. In the nicest point. 
 
 The honor of my house, you’ve done me wrong. 
 When you first came home from travel, 
 
 With such hopes as made you look’d on 
 By all men’s eyes, a youth of expectation, 
 
 Pleased with your seeming virtue I received you : 
 Courted and sought to raise you to your merits : 
 
 My house, my table, nay, my fortune, too, 
 
 My very self was yours: you might have used me 
 To your best service. Like an open friend 
 I treated, trusted you, and thought you mine. 
 
 When, in requital of my best endeavors, 
 
 You treacherously practised to undo me : 
 
 Seduced the weakness of my age’s darling, 
 
 Mv only child, and stole her from my bosom. 
 
 Jaff. ’Tis to me you owe her : 
 
 Childless you had been else, and in the grave 
 Your name extinct ; no more Priuli heard of. 
 
 You may remember, scarce five years are past 
 Since in your brigantine you sail’d to see 
 The Adriatic wedded by our duke : 
 
 And I was with you. Your unskilful pilot 
 Dash’d us upon a rock ; when to your boat 
 You made for safety ; enter’d first yourself ; 
 
 The affrighted Belvidera, following next, 
 
 As she stood trembling on the vessel’s side, 
 
 Was by a wave wash’d off into the deep ; 
 
 When instantly I plunged into the sea, 
 
 And buffeting the billows to her rescue, 
 
 Redeem’d her life with half the loss of mine. 
 
 Like a rich conquest in one hand I bore her. 
 
 And with the other dash’d the saucy waves, 
 
 That throng’d and press’d to rob me of my prize. 
 
 I brought her : gave her to your despairing arms . 
 Indeed, you thanked me ! but a nobler gratitude 
 Rose in her soul ; for from that hour she loved me, 
 Till for her life she paid me with herself. 
 
 Pri. You stole her from me, like a thief you stole 
 her 
 
 At dead of night ; that cursed hour you chose 
 To rifle me of all my heart held dear. 
 
 May all your joys in her prove false, like mine ! 
 
 A sterile fortune and a barren bed, 
 
 Attend you both ; continual discord make 
 Your days and nights bitter and grievous still ; 
 
 May the hard hand of a vexatious need 
 Oppress and grind you : till at last you find 
 The curse of disobedience all your portion ! 
 
 Jaff. Half of your curse you have bestowed in 
 vain ; 
 
 Heaven hath already crown’d our faithful loves 
 With a young boy, sweet as his mother’s beauty : 
 May he live to prove more gentle than his grandsire, 
 And happier than his father ! 
 
 Pri. No more. 
 
 Jaff. Yes, all ; and then — adieu for ever] 
 
 There’s not a wretch that lives on common charity 
 But’s happier than me ; for I have known 
 The luscious sweets of plenty ; every night 
 Have slept with soft content about my head, 
 
 And never waked but to a joyful morning : 
 
 Yet now must fall : like a full ear of corn, 
 
 Whose blossom ’scaped, yet’s wither’d in the riper* 
 ing. 
 
 Pri. Home, and be humble ; study to retrench* 
 Discharge the lazy vermin in thy hall, 
 
 Those pageants of thy follv .• 
 
 Reduce the glittering trappings of thy wife 
 To humble weeds, fit for thy little state ; 
 
 Then to some suburb cottage both retire ; 
 
 Drudge to feed loathsome life ; get brats, and 
 starve. 
 
 Home, home, I say. \Exit . 
 
 Jaff. Yes, if my heart wvuld let me — 
 
772 
 
 DIALOGUES FOR ACTING AND DRAMATIC EXERCISE. 
 
 This proud, this swelling heart ; home I would go, 
 But that my doors are hateful to my eyes, 
 
 Fill’d and damm’d up with gaping creditors. 
 
 I’ve now not fifty ducats in the world ; 
 
 Yet still I am in love and pleased with ruin. 
 
 Oh ! Belvidera ! — Oh ! she is my wife — 
 
 And we will bear our wayward fate together — 
 
 But ne’er know comfort more. 
 
 NOKYAL AND GLENALVON. 
 
 The Rev. John Home. 
 
 Glenalvon. His port I love : he’s in a proper 
 mood 
 
 To chide the thunder, if at him it roar’d. [Aside. 
 Has Norval seen the troops ? 
 
 Norval. The setting sun 
 With yellow radiance lighten’d all the vale ; 
 
 And, as the warriors moved, each polish’d helm, 
 Corslet, or spear, glanced back his gilded beams. 
 The hill they climb’d, and halting at its top, 
 
 Of more than mortal size, towering, they seem’d 
 An host angelic clad in burning arms. 
 
 Glen . Thou talk’st it well ; no leader of our host 
 In sounds more lofty talks of glorious war. 
 
 Norv. If I should e’er acquire a leader’s name, 
 My speech will be less ardent. Novelty 
 Now prompts my tongue, and youthful admiration 
 Vents itself freely, since no part is mine 
 Of praise pertaining to the great in arms. 
 
 Glen. You wrong yourself, brave sir; your mar- 
 tial deeds 
 
 Have rank’d you with the great. But mark me, 
 Norval : 
 
 Lord Randolph’s favor now exalts your youth 
 Above his veterans of famous service. 
 
 Let me, who know these soldiers, counsel you. 
 
 Give them all honor ; seem not to command ; 
 
 Else they will hardly brook your late sprung power, 
 Which nor alliance props nor birth adorns. 
 
 Norv. Sir, I have been accustom’d all my days 
 To hear and speak the plain and simple truth ; 
 
 And, though I have been told that there are men 
 Who borrow friendship’s tongue to speak their 
 scorn, 
 
 Yet in such language I am little skill’d, 
 
 Therefore I thank Glenalvon for his counsel, 
 Although it sounded harshly. Why remind 
 Me of my birth obscure? Why slur my power 
 With such contemptuous terms? 
 
 Glen. I did not mean 
 
 To gall your pride, which I now see is great. 
 
 Norv. My pride ! 
 
 Glen. Suppress it, as you wish to prosper. 
 
 Your pride’s excessive. Yet, for Randolph’s sake, 
 
 I will not leave you to its rash direction. 
 
 If thus you swell and frown at high-born men, 
 
 Will high-born men endure a shepherd’s scorn ? 
 Norv. A shepherd’s scorn ? 
 
 Glen. Yes ! if you presume 
 To bend on soldiers these disdainful eyes, 
 
 As if you took the measure of their minds, 
 
 And said in secret, you’re no match for me ; 
 
 What will become of you ? 
 
 Norv. Hast thou no fears for thy presumptuous 
 self? 
 
 Glen. Ha ! dost thou threaten me ? 
 
 Norv. Didst thou not hear ? 
 
 Glen. Unwillingly I did : a nobler foe 
 Had not been questioned thus ; but such as thee— 
 Norv. Whom dost thou think me ? 
 
 Glen. Norval. 
 
 Norv. So I am — 
 
 And who is Norval in Glenalvon’s eyes? 
 
 Glen. A peasant’s son, a wandering beggar boy ; 
 At best no more, even if he speaks the truth. 
 
 Norv. False as thou art, dost thou suspect my 
 truth ? 
 
 Glen. Thy truth ! thou’rt all a lie ; and false as 
 guile 
 
 Is the vainglorious tale thou told’st to Randolph. 
 
 Norv. If I were chain’d unarm’d, or bed-rid old, 
 Perhaps I should revile ; but, as I am, 
 
 I have no tongue to rail. The humble Norval 
 Is of a race who strive not but with deeds. 
 
 Did I not fear to freeze thy shallow valor 
 And make thee sink too soon beneath my sword, 
 
 I’d tell thee — what thou art ; I know thee well. 
 
 Glen. Dost thou not know Glenalvon, born to 
 command 
 
 Ten thousand slaves like thee ? 
 
 Norv. Villain, no more. 
 
 Draw and defend thy life. I did design 
 To have defied thee in another cause : 
 
 But heaven accelerates its vengeance on thee. 
 
 Now for my own and Lady Randolph’s wrongs ! 
 
 Lord Ran. [Enters.') Hold, I command you both. 
 The man that stirs makes me his foe. 
 
 Norv. Another voice than thine 
 That threat had vainly sounded, noble Randolph. 
 Glen. Hear him, my lord, he’s wondrous cone 
 descending ; 
 
 Mark the humility of Shepherd Norval! 
 
 Norv. Now you may scoff in safety. 
 
 [Sheathes his sword , 
 
 Lord Ran. Speak not thus, 
 
 Taunting each other, but unfold to me 
 The cause of quarrel ; then I judge betwixt you. 
 Norv. Nay, my good lord, though I revere you 
 much, 
 
 My cause I plead not, nor demand your judgment 
 I blush to speak, I will not, cannot speak 
 
SOLILOQUIES AND ADDRESSES 
 
 773 
 
 The opprobrious words that I from him have borne. 
 To the liege lord of my dear native land 
 I owe a subject’s homage : but even him 
 And his high arbitration — I’d reject. 
 
 Within my bosom reigns another lord ; 
 
 Honor, sole judge and umpire of itself. 
 
 If my free speech offend you, noble Randolph, 
 Revoke your favors, and let Norval go 
 Hence as he came, alone, but not dishonor’d ! 
 
 Lord Ran . Thus far I’ll mediate with impartial 
 voice : 
 
 The ancient foe of Caledonia’s land 
 Now waves his banner o’er her frighted fields. 
 Suspend your purpose till your country’s arms 
 Repel the bold invader ; then decide 
 The private quarrel. 
 
 Glen . I agree ^o this, 
 
 Norv . And I. 
 
 Glen, Norval, 
 
 Let not our variance mar the social hour \ 
 
 Nor wrong the hospitality of Randolph. 
 
 Nor frowning anger, nor yet wrinkled hate, 
 
 Shall stain my countenance. Smooth thou thv 
 brow, 
 
 Nor let our strife disturb the gentle dame. 
 
 Norv . Think not so lightly, sir, of my resent- 
 ment. 
 
 When we contend again, our strife is mortal 
 
 OTHELLO’S ADDRESS TO THE 
 SENATE. 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 OST potent, grave, and reverend signiors, 
 My very noble and approved good mas- 
 ters, — 
 
 That I have ta’en away this old man's 
 daughter, 
 
 It is most true ; true, I have married her > 
 
 The very head and front of my offending 
 Hath this extent, no more. Rude am I in my 
 speech. 
 
 And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace ; 
 
 For since these arms of mine had seven years pith. 
 Till now some nine moons wasted, they have used 
 Their dearest action in the tented field ; 
 
 And little of J^his great world can I speak. 
 
 More thampertains to feats of broil and battle } 
 
 And, therefore, little shall I grace my cause 
 In speaking for myself. Yet, by your gracious 
 patience, 
 
 I will a round, unvarnished tale deliver 
 Of my whole course of love ; what drugs, what 
 charms, 
 
 What conjuration, and what mighty magic 
 
 (For such proceeding I af\ charged withal), 
 
 I won his daughter. 
 
 I do beseech you. 
 
 Send for the lady to the Sagittary, 
 
 And let her speak of me before her father; 
 
 If you do find me foul in her reporL 
 The trust, the office, I do hold of you 
 Not only take away, but let your sent~rce 
 Even fall upon my life. 
 
 Ancient, conduct them : you best kiKw *k place 
 And, till she come , as truly as to heaven 
 I do confess the vices of my blood. 
 
 So justly to your grave ears I’ll present 
 How I did thrive in this fair lady’s love, 
 
 And she in mine. 
 
 Her father loved me ; oft invited me ; 
 
 Still questioned me the story of my life, 
 
 From year to year ; the battles, sieges, fortune 
 That I have passed, 
 
 I ran it through, even lrom my boyish days. 
 
 To the very moment that he bade me tell it. 
 Wherein I spoke of most disastrous chances ; 
 
 Of moving accidents by flood and field ; 
 
 Of hair-breadth ’scapes i’ the imminent dead! 
 breach ; 
 
 Of being taken by the insolent foe 
 And sold to slavery ; of my redemption thence^ 
 And portance. in my traveller’s history 
 (Wherein of antres vast, and deserts idle, 
 
 Rough quarries, rocks, and hills whose heads toucl 
 heaven, 
 
 It was my hint to speak), such was the process • 
 And of the Cannibals that each other eat, 
 
 The Anthropophagi, and men whose heads 
 Do grow beneath their shoulders. These things t< 
 hear 
 
 Would Desdemona seriously incline ; 
 
 But still the house affairs would draw her thence; 
 Which ever as she could with haste despatch. 
 
 She’d come again, and with a greedy ear 
 Devour up my discourse ; which I observing, 
 
 Took once a pliant hour, and found good means 
 To draw from her a prayer of earnest heart. 
 
 That I would all my pilgrimage dilate, 
 
 Whereof by parcels she had something heard. 
 
 But not intentively; I did consent, 
 
 And often did beguile her of her tears, 
 
 When I did speak of some distressful stroke 
 That my youth suffered. My story being done. 
 
 She gave me for my pains a world of sighs : 
 
 She swore, — In faith, ’twas strange, ’twas passing 
 strange ; 
 
 ’Twas pitiful, ’twas wondrous pitiful — 
 
 She wished she had not heard it ; yet she wished 
 That heaven had made her such a man ; she thanked 
 me, 
 
774 
 
 SOLILOQUIES AND ADDRESSES. 
 
 And bade me, if I had a friend that loved her. 
 i should but teach him how to tell my story. 
 
 And that would woo her. Upon this hint I spake : 
 She loved me for the dangers I had passed. 
 
 And I loved her that she did pity them. 
 
 This only is the witchcraft I have used t 
 Here comes the lady, let her witness it. 
 
 HOTSPUR’S ACCOUNT OF THE FOP. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Y liege, I die deny no prisoners. 
 
 But i remember, when the fight was done. 
 When I was dry with rage and extreme 
 
 toil. 
 
 Breathless and faint, leaning upon my sword, 
 
 Came there a certain lord, neat, trimly dress’d, 
 Fresh as a bridegroom, and his chin, new reap’d, 
 Show’d like a stubble-land at harvest home. 
 
 He was perfumed like a milliner ; 
 
 And ’twixt his finger and his thumb he held 
 A pouncet-box, which ever and anon 
 He gave his nose. — 
 
 Ana still he smil’d and talk’d ; 
 
 And as the soldiers bore dead bodies by. 
 
 He call’d them “ untaught knaves, unmannerly. 
 
 To bring a slovenly, unhandsome corse, 
 
 Betwix^ the wind and his nobility.” 
 
 With many holyday and lady terms 
 He question’d me } among the rest, demanded 
 My prisoners, in your majesty’s behalf. 
 
 I then, all smarting with my wounds, being cold. 
 
 To be so pestered with a popinjay. 
 
 Out of my grief ana mj impatience. 
 
 Answered neglectingly — I know not what — 
 
 He should or he should not * for he made me mad 
 To see him shine so brisk and smell so sweet. 
 
 And talk so like awaiting gentlewoman 
 Of guns, and drums, and wounds (Heaven save the 
 mark !) 
 
 And telling me the sovereign’st thing on earth 
 Was parmaceti for an inward bruise ; 
 
 And that it was great pity (so it was) 
 
 This villainous saltpetre should be digged 
 Out of the bowels of the harmless earth. 
 
 Which many a good tall fellow had destroyed 
 So cowardly ; and but for these vile guns 
 He would himself have been a soldier. 
 
 This bald, disjointed chat of his, my lord, 
 
 I answered indirectly as I said 
 And, I beseech you, let not this report 
 Come current for an accusation 
 Betwixt my love and your high majesty. 
 
 THE PROGRESS OF LIFE. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 f LL the world’s a stage, 
 
 And all the men and women merely 
 play’rs ; 
 
 They have their exits and their entrance-. 
 
 And one man in his time plays many parts j 
 His acts being seven ages. First the infant, 
 
 Muling and puking in the nurse’s arms, 
 
 And then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel 
 And shining morning face, creeping like snail 
 Unwillingly to school. And theft the lover 
 Sighing like furnace, with a woful ballad 
 Made to his mistress* eyebrow. Then a soldier 
 Full of strange oaths, and bearded like the pard. 
 Jealous in honor, sudden and quick in quarrel. 
 Seeking the bubble reputation 
 
 Ev’n in the cannon’s mouth. And then, the justice 
 In fair round belly, with good capon lin’d, 
 
 With eyes severe, and beard of formal cut, 
 
 Full of wise saws and modern instances ; 
 
 And so he plays his part. The sixth age shifts 
 Into the lean and slipper’d pantaloon, 
 
 With spectacles on nose and pouch on side ; 
 
 His youthful hose, well sav’d, a world too wide 
 For his shrunk shank ; and his big manly voice, 
 Turning again toward childish treble, pipes 
 And whistles in his sound. Last scene of all, 
 
 That ends this strange eventful history, 
 
 Is second childishness and mere oblivion, 
 
 Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans ev’rything. 
 
BY WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
 I never heard 
 
 Of any true affection, but 'twas nipt 
 
 With care, that, like the caterpillar, eats 
 
 The leaves of the spring’s sweetest book, the rose. 
 
 Middleton . 
 
 is a common practice with those 
 who have outlived the susceptibil- 
 ity of early feeling, or have been 
 brought up in the gay heartless- 
 ness of dissipated life, to laugh at 
 all love stories, and to treat the 
 tales of romantic passion as mere fictions of novel- 
 ists and poets. My observations on human nature 
 have induced me to think otherwise. They have 
 convinced me, that however the surface of the char- 
 acter may be chilled and frozen by the cares of the 
 world, or cultivated into mere smiles by the arts of 
 society, still there are dormant fires lurking in the 
 depths of the coldest bosom, which, when once en- 
 kindled, become impetuous, and are sometimes 
 desolating in their effects. Indeed, I am a true be- 
 liever in the blind deity, and go to the full extent of 
 his doctrines. Shall I confess it ? — I believe in 
 broken hearts, and the possibility of dying of dis- 
 appointed love. I do not, however, consider it a 
 malady often fatal to my own sex; but I firmly be- 
 lieve that it withers down many a lovely woman into 
 an early grave. 
 
 Man is the creature of interest and ambition. His 
 nature leads him forth into the struggle and bustle 
 of the world. Love is but the embellishment of his 
 early life, or a song piped in the intervals of the acts. 
 He seeks for fame, for fortune, for space in the 
 world’s thought, and dominion over his fellow men. 
 But a woman’s whole life is a history of the affec- 
 tions. The heart is her world : it is there her ambi- 
 tion strives for empire ; it is there her avarice seeks 
 for hidden treasures. She sends forth her sympa- 
 thies on adventure; she embarks her whole soul in 
 the traffic of affection; and if shipwrecked, her case 
 is hopeless — for it is a bankruptcy of the heart. 
 
 To a man the disappointment of love may occa- 
 sion some bitter pangs : it wounds some feelings of 
 tenderness — it blasts some prospects of felicity; but 
 he is an active being — he may dissipate his thoughts 
 in the whirl of varied occupation, or may plunge 
 into the tide of pleasure; or, if the scene of disap- 
 pointment be too full of painful associations, he can 
 shift his abode at will, and taking as it were the 
 wings of the morning, can “ fly to the uttermost parts 
 of the earth, and be at rest.” 
 
 But woman’s is comparatively a fixed, a secluded, 
 and meditative life. She is more the companion of 
 her own thoughts and feelings; and if they are turn* 
 ed to ministers of sorrow, where shall she look fof 
 consolation ? Her lot is to be wooed and won; and 
 if unhappy in her love, her heart is like some for- 
 tress that has been captured, and sacked, and aban- 
 doned, and left desolate. 
 
 How many bright eyes grow dim — how many soft 
 cheeks grow pale — how many lovely forms fade 
 away into the tomb, and none can tell the cause that 
 blighted their loveliness! As the dove will clasp its 
 wings to its side, and cover and conceal the arrow 
 that is preying on its vitals, so it is the nature of 
 woman to hide from the world the pangs of wounded 
 affection. The love of a delicate female is always 
 shy and silent. Even when fortunate, she scarcely 
 breathes it to herself; but when otherwise, she buries 
 it in the recesses of her bosom, and there lets it 
 cower and brood among the ruins of her peace. 
 With her the desire of the heart has failed. The 
 great charm of existence is at an end. She neglects 
 all the cheerful exercises which gladden the spirits, 
 quicken the pulses, and send the tide of life in 
 healthful currents through the veins. Her rest is 
 broken — the sweet refreshment of sleep is poisoned 
 by melancholy dreams — “dry sorrow drinks her 
 blood,” until her enfeebled frame sinks under the 
 slightest external injury. Look for her, after a little 
 while, and you find friendship weeping over her un- 
 timely grave, and wondering that one, who but lately 
 glowed with all the radiance of health and beauty, 
 should so speedily be brought down to “darkness 
 and the worm.” You will be told of some wintry 
 chill, some casual indisposition, that laid her low;— 
 but no one knows of the mental malady which pre- 
 viously sapped her strength, and made her so easy a 
 prey to the spoiler. 
 
 She is like some tender tree, the pride and beauty 
 of the grove; graceful in its form, bright in its 
 foliage, but with the worm preying at its heart. We 
 find it suddenly withering, when it should be most 
 fresh and luxuriant. We see it drooping its branches 
 to the earth, and shedding leaf by leaf, until wasted 
 and perished away, it falls even in the stillness of 
 the forest; and as we muse over the beautiful ruin, 
 we strive in vain to recollect the blast or thunder- 
 bolt that could have smitten it with decay. 
 
 I have seen many instances of women running to 
 waste and self-neglect, and disappearing gradually 
 
THE BROKEN HEART. 
 
 176 
 
 from the earth, almost as if they had been exhaled 
 to heaven ; and have repeatedly fancied that I could 
 trace their death through the various declensions of 
 consumption, cold, debility, languor, melancholy, 
 until I reached tbe first symptom of disappointed 
 love. But an instance of the kind was lately told to 
 me; the circumstances are well known in the coun- 
 try where they happened, and I shall but give them 
 in the manner in which they were related. 
 
 Every one must recollect the tragical story of 
 
 young E , the Irish patriot; it was too touching 
 
 to be soon forgotten. During the troubles in Ire- 
 land, he was tried, condemned, and executed on a 
 charge of treason. His fate made a deep impression 
 on public sympathy. He was so young — so intelli- 
 gent— so generous — so brave — so everything that we 
 are apt to like in a young man. His conduct under 
 trial, too, was so lofty and intrepid. The noble in 
 dignation with which he repelled the charge of trea- 
 son against his country — the eloquent vindication of 
 his name — and his pathetic appeal to posterity, in 
 the hopeless hour of condemnation — all these enter- 
 ed deeply into every generous bosom, and even his 
 enemies lamented the stern policy that dictated his 
 execution. 
 
 But there was one heart, whose anguish it would 
 be impossible to describe. In happier days and 
 fairer fortunes, he had won the affections of a beau- 
 tiful and interesting girl, the daughter of a late cel- 
 ebrated Irish barrister. She lqved him with the dis- 
 interested fervor of a woman’s first and early love. 
 When every worldly maxim arrayed itself against 
 him; when blasted in fortune, and disgrace and dan- 
 ger darkened around his very name, she loved him the 
 more ardently for his sufferings. If, then, his fate 
 could awaken the sympathy even of his foes, what 
 must have been the agony of her, whose whole soul 
 was occupied by his image! Let those tell who have 
 had the portals of the tomb suddenly closed be- 
 tween them and the being they most loved on earth 
 — who have sat at its threshold, as one shut out in a 
 cold and lonely world, whence all that was most 
 lovely and loving had departed. 
 
 But then the horrors of such a grave! so fright- 
 ful, so dishonored ! there was nothing for memory 
 to dwell on that could soothe the pang of separation 
 — none of those tender though melancholy circum- 
 stances, which endear the parting scene — nothing to 
 melt sorrow into those blessed tears, sent like the 
 dews of heaven, to revive the heart in the parting 
 hour of anguish. 
 
 To render her widowed situation more desolate, 
 she had incurred Jier father’s displeasure by her un- 
 fortunate attachment, and was an exile from the 
 paternal roof. But could the sympathy and kind 
 offices of friends have reached a spirit so shocked 
 and driven in by horror, she would have experienced 
 no want of consolation, for the Irish are a people of 
 quick and generous sensibilities. The most delicate 
 and cherishing attentions were paid her by families 
 of wealth and distinction. She was led into society, 
 and they tried by all kinds of occupation and amuse- 
 ment to dissipate her grief, and. wean her from the 
 tragical story of her love'. But it was all in vain. 
 There are some strokes of calamity which scathe and 
 scorch the soul — which penetrate to the vital seat of 
 happiness — and blast it, never again to put forth bud 
 or blossom. She never objected to frequent the haunts 
 of pleasure, but was as much alone there as in the 
 depths a solitude; walking about in a sad reverie, 
 
 apparently unconscious of the world around her, 
 She carried with her an inward woe that mocked at 
 all the blandishments of friendship, and “heeded 
 not the song of the charmer, charm he never so 
 wisely.” 
 
 The person who told me her story had seen her at 
 a masquerade. There can be no exhibition of far- 
 gone wretchedness more striking and painful than 
 to meet in such a scene. To find it wandering like 
 a spectre, lonely and joyless, where all around is 
 gay — to see it dressed out in the trappings of mirth, 
 and looking so wan and woe-begone as if it had 
 tried in vain to cheat the poor heart into a moment- 
 ary forgetfulness of sorrow. After strolling through 
 the splendid rooms and giddy crowd with an air of 
 utter abstraction, she sat herself down on the steps 
 of an orchestra, and, looking about for some time 
 with a vacant air, that showed her insensibility to 
 the garish scene, she began, with the capriciousness 
 of a sickly heart, to warble a little plaintive air. She 
 had an exquisite voice; but on this occasion it was 
 so simple, so touching, it breathed forth such a soul 
 of wretchedness, that she drew a crowd mute and 
 silent around her, and melted every one into tears. 
 
 The story of one so true and tender could not but 
 excite great interest in a country remarkable for en- 
 thusiasm. It completely won the heart of a brave 
 officer, who paid his addresses to her, and thought 
 that one so true to the dead could not but prove 
 affectionate to the living. She declined his atten« 
 tions, for her thoughts were irrevocably engrossed 
 by the memory of her former lover. He, however, 
 persisted in his suit. He solicited not her tender- 
 ness but her esteem. He was assisted by her con- 
 viction of his worth, and her sense of her own des- 
 titute and dependent situation, for she was existing 
 on the kindness of friends. In a word, he at length 
 succeeded in gaining her hand, though with the 
 ' solemn assurance, that her heart was unalterably 
 another’s. 
 
 He took her with him to Sicily, hoping that a 
 change of scene might wear out the remembrance of 
 early woes. She was an amiable and exemplary 
 wife, and made an effort to be a happy one; but 
 nothing could cure the silent and devouring melan- 
 choly that had entered into her very soul She 
 wasted away in a slow, but hopeless decline, and at 
 length sunk into the grave, the victim of a broken 
 heart. 
 
 It was on her that Moore, the distinguished Irish 
 poet, composed the following lines : — 
 
 She is far from the land where her young hero sleeps, 
 And lovers around her are sighing : 
 
 But coldly she turns from their gaze, and weeps, 
 
 For her heart in his grave is lying. 
 
 She sings the wild songs of her dear native plains, 
 Every note which he loved awaking — 
 
 Ah! little they think, who delight in her strains, 
 How the heart of the minstrel is breaking! 
 
 He had lived for his love — for his country he died, 
 They were all that to life had entwined him — 
 Nor soon shall the tears of his country be dried, 
 
 Nor long will his love stay behind him! 
 
 Oh! make her a grave where the sunbeams res f. 
 When they promise a glorious morrow; 
 
 They’ll shine o’er her sleep, like a smile from the 
 west, 
 
 From her own loved island of sorrow! 
 

 
 
 
 <7~L^r7s^f 
 
 f L<m 
 
 C/Z^t^7^e^, <=>£^zr^ ce^t 
 
 f ' 
 
 ^7 &yz^s <>^>4uyzL^ s&J5>* 
 
 ^ ct^ Cc^£sr<* 
 
 ✓*' 
 
 tZsm-j 
 
 FACSIMILE OF LETTER FROM BENJAMIN FRANKLIN TO MR. STRAHAN. 
 
PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES 
 
 OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The statistics embraced in this table were communicated by the Presidents of the respective Institutions, 
 and represent their condition at the close of 1889. 
 
 College Name. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Religious 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Numb’r of 
 Instr’ctors 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 students. 
 
 Volumes 
 
 in 
 
 Library. 
 
 Number of 
 Graduates 
 since Organi- 
 zation. 
 
 Cleveland, 0 
 
 Non-Sect. ( b ). . . 
 
 71 730 
 
 25,000 
 
 ' 2,400 (« 
 
 Meadville, Pa 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 l8i 296 
 
 12,500 
 
 1,098 
 
 Amherst, Mass 
 
 Yellow Springs, 0 
 
 Congregational. 
 Unsectarian . . . 
 
 27 344 
 
 T2 2TO 
 
 53,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 14,729 
 
 3,227 
 
 Lewiston, Me 
 
 Berea, Ky 
 
 Free Baptist.. . . 
 
 l6 
 
 155 
 
 531 
 
 Non-Sect. {b).. 
 
 17 334 
 
 4,000 
 
 44 
 
 Boston, Mass 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 no 875 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,412 
 
 Brunswick, Me 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 26 
 
 261 
 
 40,000 
 
 3,915 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 
 
 Providence, R. I 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 44 
 
 800 
 
 3,000 
 
 425 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 22 
 
 285 
 
 70,000 
 
 3,355 
 
 Bryn Mawr, Pa 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 23 
 
 117 
 
 6,500 
 
 26 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 Rom. Catholic.. 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 26 
 
 IX 
 
 353 
 
 80 
 
 18,000 
 
 33 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Rom. Catholic.. 
 
 10 
 
 49 
 
 10,000 
 
 Charleston, S. C 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 Worcester, Mass 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 Waterville, Me . 
 
 Baptist 
 
 12 
 
 153 
 
 25,000 
 
 1,150 
 
 New York 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 43 
 
 L 43 i 
 
 25,419 
 
 1,348 
 
 New York City 
 
 Non-Sect, (c) . . 
 
 191 
 
 1,620 
 
 103,000 
 
 12,090 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 57 
 
 580 
 
 8,000 
 
 2,442 
 
 Mt. Vernon, la 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 24 
 
 59 6 
 
 8,500 
 
 394 
 
 Ithaca, N. Y 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 96 
 
 1,306 
 
 103,000 
 
 L 5 I 5 
 
 Lebanon, Tenn 
 
 C’mb. Pres. . . . 
 
 14 
 
 3 i 7 
 
 7,000 
 
 2,014 
 
 Hanover, N. H 
 
 C ongregati onal . 
 
 48 
 
 4 i 7 
 
 70,000 
 
 6,900 
 
 Davidson, N. C 
 
 Granville, O 
 
 Presbyterian. . . 
 Baptist 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 100 
 
 170 
 
 9,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 59 S 
 
 Greencastle, Ind 
 
 Des Moines, la 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 Baptist 
 
 53 
 
 11 
 
 908 
 
 77 
 
 12,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 20 
 
 Carlisle, Pa 
 
 Madison, N. J 
 
 Eminence, Ky 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 Methodist Epis. 
 Disciples 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 180 
 
 120 
 
 126 
 
 32.000 
 
 35.000 
 2,000 
 
 1,438 
 
 430 
 
 238 
 
 Oxford, Ga 
 
 Meth. Epis. S. . 
 
 13 
 
 229 
 
 7,000 
 
 973 
 
 Due West, S. C 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 A. R. Pres 
 
 6 
 
 75 
 
 6,500 
 
 450 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 22 
 
 508 
 
 3,871 
 
 134 
 
 Franklin, Ind. 
 
 Baptist 
 
 10 
 
 175 
 
 6,000 
 
 hi 
 
 Lancaster, Pa 
 
 Reformed D. . . 
 
 15 
 
 178 
 
 25,800 
 
 802 
 
 Greenville, S. C 
 
 Baptist 
 
 7 
 
 134 
 
 2,500 
 
 159 
 
 New York 
 
 Prot . Episcopal. 
 
 9 
 
 89 
 
 19,114 
 
 1,128 
 
 Georgetown, D. C 
 
 Clinton, N. Y 
 
 Rom. Catholic.. 
 
 61 
 
 555 
 
 45,000 
 
 i, 95 i 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 15 
 
 153 
 
 36,000 
 
 2,613 
 
 Hampden-Sidney, Va. . . 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 7 
 
 102 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 Hanover, Ind 
 
 Cambridge, Mass 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 13 
 
 155 
 
 10,000 
 
 643 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 217 
 
 2,079 
 
 360,000 
 
 18,200 
 
 Haverford, Pa 
 
 Or. Friends.... 
 
 14 
 
 111 
 
 17,900 
 
 459 
 
 Hiram, O 
 
 Disciples 
 
 15 
 
 272 
 
 5,180 
 
 114 
 
 Hiwassee Coll., Tenn. . . 
 
 Meth. Epis. S. . 
 
 4 
 
 126 
 
 2,700 
 
 
 Geneva, N. Y 
 
 Protestant Epis. 
 
 15 
 
 66 
 
 21,500 
 
 1,319 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 4 
 
 418 
 
 1,310 
 
 Bloomington, 111 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 21 
 
 433 
 
 3,500 
 
 549 
 
 Bloomington, Ind 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 25 
 
 455 
 
 12,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 |Grinnell, la 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 27 
 
 540 
 
 13,000 
 
 370 
 
 I826. 
 
 I815. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1852. 
 I863. 
 1865 . 
 
 1869. 
 1794 . 
 1854 - 
 1764. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1881., 
 
 1886. 
 
 1785. , 
 
 1888. , 
 1820. . 
 
 1847. . 
 I 754 - • 
 1821. 
 
 1857.. 
 
 1868. . 
 
 1842. . 
 
 1769. . 
 1737 - ■ 
 
 1832. . 
 
 1837.. 
 
 1865. . 
 
 1783. . 
 
 1866. . 
 
 1857 .. 
 
 1837. . 
 
 1839. . 
 
 1867. . 
 
 1844. . 
 
 1853 . ■ 
 
 1851. . 
 
 1517. . 
 1789. 
 
 1812. . 
 
 1776 .. 
 
 1827. . 
 
 1636. . 
 I 833 - • 
 
 1867. . 
 1849 . 
 
 1825. . 
 
 1867. . 
 IS 53 . ■ 
 
 1820. . 
 1847. , 
 
 Adelbert (a) 
 
 Allegheny 
 
 Amherst 
 
 Antioch 
 
 Bates 
 
 Berea 
 
 Boston University 
 
 Bowdoin 
 
 Brooklyn Polytechnic 
 
 Brown University 
 
 Bryn Mawr 
 
 Canisius 
 
 Case Sc. App’l Science 
 
 Catholic University Amer.. . . 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Clark University 
 
 Colby University 
 
 College City of N. Y 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Columbian University 
 
 Cornell 
 
 Cornell University 
 
 Cumberland University 
 
 Dartmouth 
 
 Davidson 
 
 Denison University 
 
 Da Pauw University 
 
 Des Moines 
 
 Dickinson , . . . 
 
 Drew Theological Seminary. 
 
 Eminence 
 
 Emory 
 
 Erskine 
 
 Fisk University 
 
 Franklin 
 
 Franklin and Marshall 
 
 Furman University 
 
 General Theological Sem. . . . 
 
 Georgetown 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Hampden-Sidney 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Harvard University 
 
 Haver ford 
 
 Hiram 
 
 Hiwassee 
 
 Hobart 
 
 Howard University 
 
PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 779 
 
 c 
 
 « 
 
 bo 
 
 6 
 
 1876. . 
 
 1824. . 
 
 1837.. 
 
 1826. . 
 
 1857. . 
 
 i82g. . 
 
 1847. . 
 
 1866. . 
 
 1866. . 
 
 1819. . 
 
 1863. . 
 
 1835. • 
 1834- • 
 
 1837.. 
 
 1809. . 
 
 1800. . 
 
 1857.. 
 
 1858.. 
 
 1837. . 
 
 1808. . 
 
 1867.. 
 1825. . 
 
 1855- • 
 
 1834. . 
 
 1844. . 
 
 1833. • 
 
 1870. . 
 
 1844. . 
 
 1859. • 
 
 1832. . 
 1746. . 
 
 1832. . 
 
 1853-- • 
 
 1885. . 
 
 1766. . 
 1853. • 
 
 1856. . 
 1865. . 
 
 1827. . 
 
 1872. . 
 
 1874. . 
 1847. . 
 
 1870. . 
 
 1847. . 
 
 1789.. 
 
 1856. . 
 
 1829. . 
 
 1860. . 
 
 1869. . 
 
 1850. . 
 1824. • 
 1852. . 
 
 1855.. 
 
 1884. . 
 
 * 795 -. 
 
 1836. . 
 
 1802. . 
 
 1845. . 
 
 1831. . 
 1868. . 
 
 1874. . 
 
 1831.. 
 
 1880. . 
 
 College Name. 
 
 Johns Hopkins University. . . 
 
 Kenyon 
 
 Knox 
 
 Lafayette 
 
 Lake Forest University.. 
 Lane Theological Seminary. . 
 
 Lawrence University 
 
 Lehigh University 
 
 Lincoln University 
 
 Madison University 
 
 Manhattan 
 
 Marietta 
 
 McKendree 
 
 Mercer University 
 
 Miami University 
 
 Middlebury 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Mount Union 
 
 Mount Holyoke 
 
 Mount St. Mary’s 
 
 Muhlenberg 
 
 Newton Theological Inst. . . . 
 Northwestern University. . . . 
 
 Norwich University 
 
 Notre Dame 
 
 Oberlin 
 
 Ohio State University 
 
 Ohio Wesleyan 
 
 Olivet 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Princeton (College of N.J.). . 
 
 Randolph-Macon 
 
 Roanoke 
 
 Rollins 
 
 Rutgers 
 
 Rutherford 
 
 Seton Hall 
 
 Shaw University 
 
 Shurtleff 
 
 Smith 
 
 Southwestern Bapt 
 
 State University of Iowa. . . . 
 Stevens Institute Tech ...... 
 
 St. Francis Xavier 
 
 St. John’s 
 
 St. Lawrence University .... 
 
 St. Louis University 
 
 St. Stephen’s 
 
 Swarthmore 
 
 Syracuse University 
 
 Trinity 
 
 Trinity 
 
 Tufts 
 
 Tulane University 
 
 Union 
 
 Union Theological Sem 
 
 U. S. Military Academy.. . . 
 
 U. S. Naval Academy 
 
 University of Alabama 
 
 University of California 
 
 University of Cincinnati 
 
 University City of N. Y . . . . 
 University of Denver 
 
 Location. 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Gambier, O 
 
 Galesburg, 111 
 
 Easton, Pa 
 
 Lake Forest, 111 
 
 Cincinnati, O 
 
 Appleton, Wis 
 
 S. Bethlehem, Pa 
 
 Lincoln, 111 
 
 Hamilton, N. Y. 
 
 New York City 
 
 Marietta, O 
 
 Lebanon, 111 
 
 Macon, Ga 
 
 Oxford, O 
 
 Middlebury, Vt 
 
 Monmouth, 111 
 
 Alliance, O 
 
 South Hadley, Mass. . . . 
 
 Emmettsburg, Md 
 
 Allentown. Pa 
 
 Newton Centre, Mass. . . 
 
 Evanston, 111 
 
 Norwich, Vt 
 
 Notre Dame, Ind 
 
 Oberlin, O 
 
 Columbus, O 
 
 Delaware, O 
 
 Olivet, Mich 
 
 Gettysburg, Pa 
 
 Princeton, N. J 
 
 Ashland, Va 
 
 Salem, Va 
 
 Winter Park, Fla 
 
 New Brunswick, N. J. . . 
 Rutherford Col., N. C . . 
 South Orange, N. J . . . . 
 
 Raleigh, N. C 
 
 Upper Alton, 111 
 
 Northampton, Mass. . . . 
 
 Jackson, Tenn 
 
 Iowa City, la 
 
 Hoboken, N. J 
 
 New York City 
 
 Annapolis, Md 
 
 Canton, N. Y 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Annandale, N. Y 
 
 Swarthmore, Pa 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y 
 
 Hartford, Conn 
 
 Trinity College, N. C. . . 
 
 College Hill, Mass 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 Schenectady, N. Y 
 
 New York City 
 
 West Point, N. Y 
 
 Annapolis, Md 
 
 Tuscaloosa, Ala 
 
 Berkeley, Cal 
 
 Cincinnati, O 
 
 New York 
 
 Denver, Col 
 
 Religious 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 Numb'r of 
 Instr’ctors 
 
 Number 
 
 .of 
 
 students. 
 
 Volumes 
 
 in 
 
 Library. 
 
 Number of 
 Graduates 
 since Organi- 
 zation. 
 
 , Non-Sectarian . 
 
 58 
 
 381 
 
 35,000 
 
 • 364 
 
 , Protestant Epis. 
 
 17 
 
 150 
 
 ' 20,000 
 
 589 
 
 . Non-Sectarian . 
 
 25 
 
 504 
 
 7,000 
 
 677 
 
 , Presbyterian . . . 
 
 25 
 
 309 
 
 22,000 
 
 1,288 
 
 . Presbyterian . . . 
 
 106 
 
 1,165 
 
 10,000 
 
 4,500 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 7 
 
 45 
 
 16,000 
 
 834 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 11 
 
 284 
 
 12,000 
 
 329 
 
 Protestant Epis. 
 
 33 
 
 420 
 
 79,000 
 
 375 
 
 C’mb. Pres 
 
 10 
 
 200 
 
 2,500 
 
 225 
 
 Baptist 
 
 15 
 
 137 
 
 19,000 
 
 x ,oo 7 
 
 Rom. Catholic.. 
 
 3 i 
 
 376 
 
 10,220 
 
 450 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 11 
 
 179 
 
 42,000 
 
 614 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 9 
 
 119 
 
 7,000 
 
 500 
 
 Baptist 
 
 9 
 
 207 
 
 8,000 
 
 500 
 
 Non-Sect, (b ) . . 
 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 10,000 
 
 1,009 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 116,000 
 
 x , 3 i 4 
 
 United Pres . . . 
 
 15 
 
 378 
 
 17,000 
 
 787 
 
 Methodist 
 
 18 
 
 568 
 
 3,500 
 
 1,610 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 34 
 
 275 
 
 13,000 
 
 2,070 
 
 Rom. Catholic. 
 
 25 
 
 170 
 
 10,000 
 
 Evan. Luth.. . . 
 Baptist 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 162 
 
 56 
 
 1,580 
 
 8,500 
 
 258 
 
 1,121 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 100 
 
 28,000 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 7 
 
 55 
 
 
 Rom. Catholic.. 
 
 52 
 
 683 
 
 28,500 
 
 500 
 
 Non-Sect. ( a ).. 
 
 76 
 
 1,711 
 
 36,000 
 
 2,049 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 32 
 
 415 
 
 9,300 
 
 168 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 25 
 
 972 
 
 15,000 
 
 1,321 
 
 Cong. & Pr. . . . 
 
 17 
 
 328 
 
 16,000 
 
 258 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 13 
 
 268 
 
 23,000 
 
 807 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 44 
 
 768 
 
 70,000 
 
 7,104 
 
 Meth. Epis. So. 
 
 15 
 
 194 
 
 6,000 
 
 1,030 
 
 Evan. Lutheran. 
 
 11 
 
 140 
 
 17,000 
 
 304 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 11 
 
 83 
 
 1,500 
 
 Reformed 
 
 23 
 
 190 
 
 26,000 
 
 1,593 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 6 
 
 250 
 
 5,000 
 
 137 
 
 Rom. Catholic . 
 
 18 
 
 130 
 
 5,000 
 
 Baptist., 
 
 28 
 
 400 
 
 5,000 
 
 .... 
 
 Baptist 
 
 15 
 
 209 
 
 8,500 
 
 246 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 3 i 
 
 5 ii 
 
 6,000 
 
 403 
 
 Baptist 
 
 6 
 
 127 
 
 7 , 5 oo 
 
 54 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 57 
 
 670 
 
 20,650 
 
 2,882 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 17 
 
 200 
 
 6,000 
 
 340 
 
 Rom. Catholic . 
 
 25 
 
 450 
 
 22,000 
 
 503 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 12 
 
 146 
 
 6,500 
 
 402 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 12 
 
 108 
 
 10,000 
 
 398 
 
 Rom. Catholic . 
 
 21 
 
 435 
 
 32,000 
 
 Protestant Epis. 
 
 7 
 
 78 
 
 5 , 7 oo 
 
 200 
 
 Friends 
 
 23 
 
 242 
 
 10,000 
 
 250 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 46 
 
 586 
 
 33,103 
 
 i,i 55 
 
 Protestant Epis. 
 
 *9 
 
 136 
 
 30,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 383 
 
 Meth. Epis. So. 
 
 9 
 
 106 
 
 6,200 
 
 Universalist . . . 
 
 22 
 
 142 
 
 25,000 
 
 600 
 
 Non-Sect. (< e ). . . 
 
 63 
 
 i,i 34 
 
 55,600 
 
 3,271 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 15 
 
 115 
 
 3 L 5 oo 
 
 4,870 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 10 
 
 166 
 
 59,000 
 
 1,526 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 
 289 
 
 33,000 
 
 3,330 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 62 
 
 245 
 
 30,300 
 
 i ,947 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 19 
 
 202 
 
 12,000 
 
 1,292 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 no 
 
 655 
 
 40,000 
 
 1,300 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 14 
 
 130 
 
 122 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 98 
 
 1,050 
 
 12,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 40 
 
 475 
 
 1,500 
 
 85 
 
780 
 
 PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Organized 
 
 College Name. 
 
 Location. 
 
 Religious 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 ° | 
 S J3 
 
 3 w 
 £ £ 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 students. 
 
 Volumes 
 
 in 
 
 Library. 
 
 Number of 
 Graduates 
 since Organi- 
 zation. 
 
 t8oi . . 
 
 University of Georgia 
 
 Athens, Ga 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 24 
 
 200 
 
 l6 OOO 
 
 2,100 
 
 1866. . 
 
 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 33 
 
 AO 3 
 
 12 OOO 
 
 440 
 
 1836.. 
 
 University of Kentucky 
 
 Lexington, Ky 
 
 Disciples 
 
 18 
 
 ‘tVJ 
 
 341 
 
 12,000 
 
 470 
 
 1837.. 
 
 University of Michigan 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich. .... . 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 79 
 
 2,100 
 
 70,041 
 
 9,400 
 
 1869. . 
 
 University of Minnesota 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 104 
 
 904 
 
 22,000 
 
 378 
 
 1844. . 
 
 University of Mississippi. . . . 
 
 Oxford, Miss 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 14 
 
 250 
 
 13,000 
 
 936 
 
 1840. . 
 
 University of Missouri 
 
 Columbia, Mo 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 40 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 1871. . 
 
 
 Lincoln, Neb 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 23 
 
 AI2 
 
 2 5 , OOO 
 10 OOO 
 
 
 1789.. 
 
 University of N. Carolina.. . . 
 
 Chapel Hill, N. Y 
 
 
 17 
 
 186 
 
 30,000 
 
 1,988 
 
 1878. . 
 
 University of Pennsylvania. . 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 163 
 
 1,322 
 
 60,000 
 
 
 1850. . 
 
 University of Rochester 
 
 Rochester, N. Y 
 
 Baptist 
 
 10 
 
 190 
 
 25,000 
 
 969 
 
 1804. . 
 
 University of S. Carolina. . . . 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 29 
 
 225 
 
 30,000 
 
 L975 
 
 1794. . 
 
 University of Tennessee .... 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 38 
 
 458 
 
 IO, IOO 
 
 
 1856. . 
 
 University of the South . . . 
 
 Sewanee, Tenn 
 
 Protestant Epis. 
 
 25 
 
 289 
 
 32,500 
 
 596 
 
 1883. . 
 
 University of Texas 
 
 Austin, Tex 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 15 
 
 2QJ. 
 
 6 000 
 
 134 
 
 1800 . 
 
 University of Vermont 
 
 Burlington, Vt 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 33 
 
 470 
 
 40,000 
 
 1819. . 
 
 University of Virginia 
 
 Charlottesville, Va 
 
 Non-Sectarian.. 
 
 3i 
 
 460 
 
 50,000 
 
 12,390 
 
 1867. . 
 
 University of W. Virginia. . . 
 
 Morgantown, W. Va. . . . 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 16 
 
 195 
 
 5,000 
 
 180 
 
 1848. . 
 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 Madison, Wis 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 64 
 
 725 
 
 21,000 
 
 1,648 
 
 1866. . 
 
 University of Wooster 
 
 Wooster, 0 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 41 
 
 73O 
 
 11,000 
 
 627 
 
 1875. . 
 
 Vanderbilt University 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 Meth. Epis. So. 
 
 66 
 
 6 i 3 
 
 20,000 
 
 1,070 
 
 1861. . 
 
 Vassar 
 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y. . . . 
 
 Non- Sectarian . 
 
 35 
 
 314 
 
 18,000 
 
 845 
 
 1832. . 
 
 Wabash 
 
 Crawfordsville, Ind. . . . 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 15 
 
 260 
 
 28,000 
 
 532 
 
 1834. . 
 
 Wake Forest 
 
 Wake Forest, N. C . . . . 
 
 Baptist 
 
 12 
 
 218 
 
 10 000 
 
 366 
 
 1802. . 
 
 Washington & Jefferson. . . . 
 
 Washington, Pa 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 12 
 
 250 
 
 11,000 
 
 3,502 
 
 1749. . 
 
 Washington & Lee Univ. . . . 
 
 Lexington, Va 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 16 
 
 200 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 1857.. 
 
 Washington University 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 40 
 
 450 
 
 10,000 
 
 623 
 
 1868. . 
 
 Wells 
 
 Aurora, N. Y 
 
 Presbyterian . . . 
 
 13 
 
 73 
 
 3,000 
 
 I90 
 
 1875. • 
 
 Wellesley 
 
 Wellesley, Mass 
 
 Non-Sectarian . 
 
 79 
 
 645 
 
 34.870 
 
 542 
 
 1831. . 
 
 Wesleyan University 
 
 Middletown, Conn 
 
 Methodist Epis. 
 
 23 
 
 231 
 
 28,500 
 
 L575 
 
 1852. . 
 
 Westminster 
 
 New Wilmington, Pa. . . 
 
 United Pres... . 
 
 10 
 
 256 
 
 
 800 
 
 1693. . 
 
 William and Mary. .... 
 
 Williamsburg, Va 
 
 Non-Sectarian, . 
 
 7 
 
 172 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 I7Q3 . . 
 
 William’s 
 
 Williamstown, Mass. . . . 
 
 
 24 
 
 312 
 
 27,000 
 
 3.082 
 
 1854.. 
 
 Wofford .... 
 
 Spartanburg, S. C 
 
 Methodist 
 
 7 
 
 107 
 
 6,000 
 
 307 
 
 1701. . 
 
 Yale University 
 
 New Haven, Conn 
 
 Congregational. 
 
 143 
 
 L477 
 
 200,000 
 
 14,271 
 
 (a) Formerly Western Reserve University. (b) But distinctly Christian. 
 
 (c) The President must be in the communion of the Episcopal Church. 
 
 (< d ) Organically undenominational, historically Congregational. 
 
 (e) Medical Department opened in 1834; Law Department, 1847. 
 
 CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE. 
 
 President Lewis Miller. 
 
 Chancellor John H. Vincent. I General Secretary A. M. Martin. 
 
 Principal Jesse L. Hurlburt. | Office Secretary Miss K. F. Kimball. 
 
 The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle was organized in 1878. Its purpose is to promote habits of 
 reading and study in nature, art, science, and in secular and sacred literature, in connection with the routine of 
 daily life ; to give college graduates a review of the college course ; to secure for those whose educational advan- 
 tages have been limited the college student’s general outlook upon the world and life, and to develop the habit 
 of close, connected, persistent thinking. 
 
 It endeavors to encourage individual study in lines and by text-books which shall be indicated ; by local 
 circles for mutual help and encouragement in such studies ; by summer courses of lectures and “students’ ses- 
 sions ” at Chautauqua, and by written reports of each year’s work. 
 
 Any person may join the circle upon payment of the annual membership fee, which is fifty cents. No en- 
 trance examination is necessary. Persons may enter for one year, but the full course is four years, after which 
 the graduate receives a diploma. The course of studies is directed from the centre of the circle, and may be 
 pursued at home and in the local circles. Attendance at the summer meetings at Chautauqua, N. Y., is urged, 
 but is not imperative. Applications for membership should be made to John H. Vincent, Chancellor, Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
 There are forty-five Chautauqua assemblies in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and South Africa, 
 with a membership of a half million persons. All are modelled in organization and methods upon the original 
 Chautauqua Assembly, but are independent in management. 
 
COMPENDIUM 
 
 OF 
 
 Political and Historical 
 Information. 
 
 I.— POLITICAL INFORMATION. 
 
 II.— HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. 
 

 
 
THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 
 
 Its History. — The Australian Ballot System, the professed purposes of which 
 are to secure the secrecy of the ballot and prevent the intimidation or corrupting of 
 the voter, was practically introduced into the United States in 1888 by its adoption 
 in the State of Massachusetts and also in the city of Louisville, Ky. The principle of 
 this system was embodied in the so-called Saxton bill, which passed the New York 
 Legislature in the sessions of 1888 and 1889, and was vetoed both times by Governor 
 Hill on the ground of its unconstitutionality, in that it would embarrass, hinder, and 
 impede voters in exercising the suffrage, and would, for one class of voters, the blind 
 and illiterate, destroy the secrecy of the ballot by compelling an avowal of their 
 votes as a condition of exercising the right. At the instance of Governor Hill, a 
 reformed ballot bill, or modification of the Saxton bill, and allowing unofficial as 
 well as official ballots, was introduced in the Legislature in the session of 1889, but 
 was not passed. With some modification the Saxton bill was passed at the session 
 of 1890, and became a law. 
 
 In 1889, following the example of Massachusetts, the Legislatures of Indiana, 
 Montana, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, Tennessee, Minnesota, Missouri, Michigan, and 
 Connecticut, in the order given, passed laws adopting the new system of voting. 
 Most of the laws passed adhere closely to the Massachusetts form. The Connecti- 
 cut form varied from it more than the others. In practice, at the Massachusetts 
 State election of 1889, the complete success of the new system was claimed. 
 
 The Plan in Brief. — The substantial requirements of the Australian system 
 are as follows: Ballots are to be provided at public expense; none but these ballots 
 are to be used; on them are to be printed the names of all candidates who are nom- 
 inated either by conventions or petitions a short period prior to the election; the 
 ballots are to be distributed only by sworn ballot clerks, at the polls, to voters, and 
 for actual and immediate use in voting; the voter is allowed five minutes in which 
 to retire into a booth conveniently arranged, where he secretly marks his choice of 
 candidates upon the face of the ballot, or, if he prefers, writes the name of candidates 
 of his own nomination in place of those whose names are already printed. Having 
 done this, he proceeds directly to the ballot-box, and, without exposing , the face of 
 the ballot, or communicating with any one, deposits the ballot as his vote. For the 
 benefit of the blind and illiterate, such a voter is permitted to select one of the two 
 ballot clerks, who under oath of fidelity and secrecy, assists him to mark his ballot. 
 No person can peddle or offer any ballot to another person within one hundred feet 
 of any polling place on the day of election. If any person in preparing a ballot 
 spoils it, he may successively obtain others, one at a time, not exceeding three in all, 
 upon returning each spoiled one. The ballots thus returned must be immediately 
 cancelled and preserved by the ballot clerk. 
 
782 
 
 THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 
 
 Advantages Claimed for the System.— The Rhode Island Ballot Reform 
 Association, while advocating the adoption of the Australian system, issued a state- 
 ment of the advantages which it claimed for the system, and they were presented 
 thus : 
 
 1. A secret ballot, cast as proposed in this plan, interposes the most effectual 
 preventive of the bribery of the voter ever devised. 
 
 2. A secret ballot secures the voter against the coercion or undue solicitation of 
 others, and enables the most dependent elector to vote as his conscience dictates, 
 in perfect freedom. 
 
 3. Excuse for assessments of candidates is taken away. A poor man is placed 
 on an equality with a rich man as a candidate. Money will be less of a factor in 
 politics. 
 
 4. The voter will be “ alone with his country, his conscience, and his God and 
 elections will be more than ever the intelligent and conscientious registering of the 
 popular will. 
 
 5. This method of ballot reform has been much discussed in the United States 
 for several years, and has received general favor, being recognized, after careful 
 scrutiny, as a practical and salutary measure. 
 
 Form OF Ballot. — The following shows the ordinary form of ballot as used in 
 most of the States under this system, though there are variations from it. The voter 
 places a cross (X) on the right-hand side of the name of the person for whom he 
 wishes to vote. 
 
 . For Governor, 
 
 g DAVID B. HILL, Democrat, 
 
 $ of Chemung County. 
 
 
 Cy For Mayor, 
 
 ^ HUGH J. GRANT, Democrat. 
 
 C> 
 
 
 WARNER MILLER, Republican, 
 ^ of Herkimer County. 
 
 
 § ABRAM S. HEWITT, Dem. and Cit. 
 
 
 g W. MARTIN JONES, Prohibition, 
 g of Monroe County. 
 
 
 g JOEL B. ERHARDT, Republican. 
 
 r\ 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 68 
 
 Official general 
 ballot for the First 
 election district of 
 the First Assembly 
 district in the elec- 
 tion of November 
 5, 1889. 
 
 Edw. F. Reilly, 
 County Clerk. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 2 shows the ballot after being folded in the middle lengthwise, and then 
 crosswise in such manner that the stub above the perforated line can be removed 
 without exposing the contents of the ballot. 
 
 Of Advantage to the Honest.— When he goes to the polls hereafter he will 
 get his ballot without having to fight a mob; he can scratch or paste religiously in a 
 secluded booth, and he will be able to deposit his vote with a satisfactory knowledge 
 that no one can ever know for whom he voted, and who it was he had the satisfac- 
 tion of scratching. These are some of the advantages to the honest. The disadvan- 
 tages to the corrupt are stillmore satisfactory. 
 
 The new Ballot Reform bill makes intimidation impossible, and makes bribery 
 ridiculous. The voter cannot be bulldozed, because he makes out his ballot and 
 
THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 
 
 783 
 
 deposits it when removed from all outside interference. The bribing of voters will 
 be largely given up, for the briber has no assurance whatever that the goods will be 
 delivered. If any one wishes to throw his entire factory vote in favor of certain can- 
 didates, and threatens his employees with discharge, he will now have no way of 
 knowing whether his employees obey his dictate or not, for he cannot follow them to 
 the polls and see them deposit the ballots which he has prepared. 
 
 The Wage Earner Made Independent.— Once let the wage earner step in- 
 side the rail of the sacred polling place, where neither Smith nor his manager can 
 follow, and he again becomes a free, independent citizen. Smith can fill his em- 
 ployees’ pockets with pasters a hundred feet away, but he can never know what goes 
 on within the shadow of the booth. An official ballot must be cast, and all official 
 ballots look alike. Smith’s occupation as a high toned intimidator will be gone, and 
 he will soon learn to let his men alone as to their politics. 
 
 The New Method. — The fact that every little detail of voting is plainly set 
 forth in the bills provided for this system has terrified some, who have raised their 
 voices against the plan as being too intricate and altogether incomprehensible to 
 the average mind. Mr. Gladstone once said that the purpose of government was 
 to make it as easy as possible for the good citizen to do right and as difficult as pos- 
 sible for the bad citizen to do wrong. 
 
 The New Ballot. — To begin with, the ballots are printed and distributed by 
 the City and County Governments instead of by the political parties. This is the 
 foundation of the entire system. It is this part of all ballot reform bills which is bor- 
 rowed from the Australian law, and so the scheme has come to be known as the 
 Australian ballot system. In the printing and distributing of the ballots the govern- 
 ment does not go outside of its sphere in the slightest. On the contrary, in doing 
 this the government recognizes that it is its duty to provide complete election 
 machinery, and as it has already taken upon itself the obligation of furnishing all the 
 other machinery of an election, there is no reason why it should not logically take 
 the entire burden and print and distribute the ballots. 
 
 New York System. — According to the law of 1890, each political party will 
 have its own particular ballot, so there will be a republican, democratic, possibly a 
 prohibition and a labor party ballot; possibly others, and an extra blank ballot which 
 shall contain merely the names of the offices, leaving the places for the candidates’ 
 names blank, so that the independent can make up his ticket as he chooses, electing 
 from the other regular tickets or putting in new names altogether. 
 
 There are to be two kinds of ballots — general and local. The general ballot is 
 to contain the names of candidates for national, State, and county offices. The local 
 ballot is to contain the names of candidates for city, town, and village offices. The 
 general ballot is to be paid for by the county, and the local ballot by the city or town. 
 
 The PLACE OF Voting. — The polling place is gotten up with a further view to 
 the absolute secrecy of the ballot which the voter deposits. A room is to be fitted 
 up for this especial purpose. Across one side of the room, several feet out from the 
 wall, is run a low railing, which divides the room into two parts, a sort of lobby out- 
 side the rail and the sacred polling place itself inside, within which only the voter 
 
784 
 
 THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 
 
 and the election officers can step. Close against the wall is built a long shell, which 
 is divided by board walls into many small booths, which are shut out from each 
 other so that A cannot look over and see what ticket B is making up. Put in a 
 couple of tables — one to hold the tickets and another for the ballot box; make a 
 couple of gateways in the railing, one near the door for entrance to the booths and 
 another near the ballot box for exit ; place one of the tables near each of these gates, 
 and the polling place is ready. 
 
 Nomination By Petition.— It is possible, too, under this law, to run a ticket 
 practically independent of the political factions which hold conventions and run 
 machines. Brown and Kelly and Macy and Burns and Johnson and 296 other good 
 citizens may be so disgusted with the candidates on the regular tickets that they will 
 say to themselves: “ Let us put up a decent man for mayor, and put some real 
 lawyers on the judicial bench.” If the whole three hundred unite they can send in 
 petitions in favor of a certain name, and after some little formality is gone through 
 to make certain that the petitions are genuine, the County Clerk prints the names 
 of their candidates on a ballot, and it goes before the voter on a level with the others. 
 Independent movements are harder to conduct chiefly because the machinery for 
 distributing the ballots is lacking, but the independent will now be at no disadvantage 
 in this regard, and they can hold over the regular parties this fact as a whip, making 
 them put forward honest, capable men, or else suffer from serious opposition. 
 
 If the voters of any county are seized with the idea that the politicians are pack- 
 ing the conventions and nominating assemblymen who do not in any way represent 
 the best interests of the community, they have their recourse outside of political 
 conventions under this new plan of nomination by petition. Fifty good men and 
 true can petition that their friend X be placed on the list of candidates for the 
 assembly, and when election day comes round ballots with X’s name will be placed 
 before the voters of the district. 
 
 The Stubs Will Tell the Tale. — All these provisions are hedged about 
 with guards and checks, which make it extremely difficult to commit fraud. The 
 election officials are to be chosen in a manner which will remove their appointment 
 from the regular party manipulators and machine workers, and a regular book-keep- 
 ing system has been provided to make sure that the ballots are not made away with 
 or put to any wrong use. The numbered stub serves as a guard against trickery on 
 the part of both the voter and the election officials. No trick can be worked with 
 the stub ballot, for each bears the signature of the clerk, its number is recorded 
 opposite his name, and its number when voted must tally with that which is on the 
 register as having been received by him. All the stubs are saved and filed with the 
 County Clerk in proof that for every ballot voted or destroyed there was a charge 
 made against a voter. If by accident a ballot should be torn or made useless by the 
 voter he is entitled to a new set, but the number of that new set is registered against 
 him just as was the original. 
 
 PASTER Ballots. — The act of 1890 provides that “any voter may take with 
 him into the voting booth or compartment a printed ballot of his own selection to 
 be known as a ‘paster ballot,’ containing the names of all the offices to be filled and 
 
THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 
 
 785 
 
 of the candidates therefor, for whom he desires to vote, which paster ballot may be 
 gummed on the back thereof, and the voter may paste such paster ballot on any of 
 the official ballots below the stub.” . . . “ A paster shall be so attached to the bal- 
 lot that when the ballot is folded no portion of such paster shall be visible.” 
 
 The Massachusetts Method.— All ballots and cards of instruction and the 
 delivery of them are to be at the expense of the commonwealth. The distribution of 
 them to the voter is at the expense of the city or town. Nominations, by a political 
 party having thrown at least three per cent of the entire vote cast in the State. 
 Nominations of candidates for any office to be filled by the voters of the State at 
 large, may be made by nomination papers signed in the aggregate by not less than 
 one thousand qualified voters. In electoral districts or parts of districts, nomina- 
 tions can be made by persons numbering one to every one hundred votes cast in the 
 preceding election. Certificates of nomination and nomination papers shall be filed 
 with the Secretary of State fourteen days prior to the election for which the nomina- 
 tions are made. Ballots shall be so printed as to give each voter a clear opportunity 
 to designate, by a cross (x) mark at the right of the name of each candidate his choice. 
 
 On the back and outside, when folded, shall be printed “ Official Ballot for ,” 
 
 giving the name of the place, the date of the election, and a fac-simile of the signa- 
 ture of the Secretary of State or City Clerk. Two sets of these ballots are to be sent 
 by different methods to the several cities and towns, each set to contain ioo ballots 
 for every 50, or fraction of 50 qualified voters. Compartments or shelves, at or in 
 which the voter shall be screened from observation while marking their ballots, shall 
 be provided to the number of one for every 75 voters. The voter receives one ballot 
 from the ballot clerk, and if he defaces or spoils a ballot he may receive a second or 
 a third on returning the one he has spoiled. Those who are unable to read, or from 
 blindness or other physical defect are unable to mark their ballots, upon request 
 may secure the assistance of one or two election officers who shall certify to such 
 assistance on the outside of the ballot. If a voter has not made his vote intelligible 
 to the officer or officers, his ballot shall be marked defective and not be counted. 
 
 The official ballot is the only one that can be used. 
 
DUTIES OF OFFICERS 
 
 OF THE VARIOUS 
 
 Departments of Government 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 
 
 HE Secretary of State is charged, under the direction of the Presi- 
 dent, with the duties appertaining to correspondence with the public 
 ministers and consuls of the United States, and with the representatives 
 of foreign powers ; and to negotiations of whatever character relating to 
 the foreign affairs of the United States. He is also the medium of cor- 
 respondence between the President and the chief executive of the several States ; he has 
 the custody of the great seal of the United States, and countersigns and affixes such 
 seal to all executive proclamations, to various commissions, and to warrants for pardon, 
 and the extradition of fugitives from justice. He is regarded as the first in rank among 
 the members of the Cabinet. He is also the custodian of the treaties made with foreign 
 states, and of the laws of the United States. He grants and issues passports, and exe- 
 quaturs to foreign consuls in the United States are issued through his office He pub- 
 lishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, and 
 proclamations declaring the admission of new States into the Union. He is also 
 charged with certain annual reports to Congress relating to commercial information 
 received from diplomatic and consular officers of the United States. 
 
 The Assistant Secretary of State becomes the Acting Secretary of State in 
 the absence of the Secretary. 
 
 The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the clerks, employees and busi- 
 ness of the Department. 
 
 Bureau of Indexes and Archives. — The duty of opening the mails ; preparing, 
 registering and indexing daily all correspondence to and from the Department ; the 
 preservation of the archives ; answering calls of the Secretary, Assistant Secretaries, 
 Chief Clerk, and chiefs of bureaus for correspondence, & c. 
 
 Diplomatic Bureau — In charge of the Assistant Secretaries of State. — Diplo- 
 matic correspondence and miscellaneous correspondence relating thereto. 
 
 Division A . — Correspondence with France, Germany and Great Britain, and miscel- 
 laneous correspondence relating to those countries. 
 
 Division B . — Correspondence with Argentine Republic, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, 
 Chili, Denmark, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Russia and 
 Uruguay, and miscellaneous correspondence relating to those countries. 
 
 Division C . — Correspondence with Barbary States, Bolivia, Central America, Colour 
 bia, China, Ecuador, Egypt, Fiji Islands, Friendly and Navigator’s Islands, Hawaiian 
 Islands, Hayti, Japan, Liberia, Madagascar, Mexico, Muscat, San Domingo, Siam, Society 
 Islands, Turkey, Venezuela, and other countries, not assigned, and miscellaneous corre- 
 spondence relating to those countries. 
 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
,ik. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 
DUTIES OF GOVERNMENT OFFICERS. 
 
 787 
 
 THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Secretary of the Treasury has charge of the national finances. He 
 digests and prepares plans for the improvement and management of the revenue and 
 support of the public credit ; he superintends the collection of revenue, and prescribes the 
 forms of keeping and rendering all public accounts, and making returns ; grants all warrants 
 for money to be issued from the Treasury in pursuance of appropriations by law ; makes 
 report and gives information to Congress, as required, respecting all matters referred to 
 him by them, and generally performs all such services relative to the finances as directed ; 
 controls the erection of public buildings, the coinage and printing of money, the collec- 
 tion of commercial statistics, the marine hospitals, the revenue-cutter service, the life- 
 saving service. Under his superintendence the Light-House Board discharges their 
 duties ; makes provision for the payment of the public debt, and publishes statements 
 concerning it, and submits to Congress, at the commencement of each session, estimates 
 of the probable receipts, and of the required expenditures, for the ensuing fiscal year. 
 
 The heads of Departments are two Assistant Secretaries of the Treasury, first and 
 second Comptroller, the Commissioner of Customs, the first, second, third, fourth, fifth 
 and sixth Auditors. 
 
 The Treasurer of the United States is charged with the custody of all public 
 moneys received into the Treasury at Washington, or in the sub-treasuries at Boston 
 New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, Cincinnati, St. Louis and San Francisco, 
 or in the depositories and depository banks ; disburses all public moneys upon the war- 
 rants of the Secretary of the Treasury, and upon the warrants of the Postmaster-General I 
 issues and redeems Treasury notes ; is agent for the redemption of the circulating notes 
 of national banks, is trustee of the bonds held for the security of the circulating notes 
 of national banks, and of bonds held as security for public deposits ; is custodian of 
 Indian trust funds ; is agent for paying the interest on the public debt, and for paying 
 the salaries of the members of the House of Representatives. 
 
 The Register of the Treasury has charge of the great account-books of the 
 United States, which show every receipt and disbursement, and from which statements 
 are annually made for transmission to Congress. He signs and issues all bonds, Treas- 
 ury notes, and other securities ; registers all warrants drawn by the Secretary upon the 
 Treasurer ; transmits statements of balances due to individuals after their settlement by 
 the First Comptroller, on which payment is made ; issues ships’ registers, licenses and 
 enrolments : prepares annual returns of all vessels built, lost, or destroyed ; and also 
 prepares statements of the tonnage of vessels in which importations and exportations are 
 made, with the various articles and their values. 
 
 The Comptroller of the Currency has, under the direction of the Secretary of 
 the Treasury, the control of the national banks. 
 
 The Director of the Mint has supervision of all mints and assay offices, reports 
 their operations to the Secretary of the Treasury, and prepares and lays before him the 
 annual estimates. 
 
 He prescribes regulations, approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, for the trans- 
 action of business at the mints and assay offices, the distribution of silver coin, and the 
 charges to be collected of depositors. He receives for adjustment the monthly and 
 
788 
 
 DUTIES OF GOVERNMENT OFFICERS. 
 
 quarterly accounts of superintendents and officers in charge of mints and assay offices, 
 superintends their expenditures, and the annual settlements of the operative officers, and 
 makes such examinations as may be deemed necessary. All appointments, removals 
 and changes of clerks, assistants and workmen in the mints and assay offices are sub- 
 mitted for his approval. The purchase of silver bullion and allotment of its coinage at 
 the mints are made through the office of the Director, and transfers of public moneys in 
 the mints and assay offices, and advances from appropriations for the mint service are 
 made at his request. 
 
 The other heads of departments are the Solicitor General, the Commissioner of In- 
 ternal Revenue, the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, Supervising Surgeon General, 
 Supervising Inspector General of Steam Vessels, General Superintendent of the Life 
 Saving Service. 
 
 THE WAR DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Secretary of War performs such duties as the President of the United 
 States, who is Commander in Chief, may enjoin upon him concerning the military 
 service, and has the superintendence of the purchase of army supplies, transportation, &c. 
 
 The Chief Clerk receives in the Secretary’s Office the public mail and correspond- 
 ence ; distributes, records and answers it ; keeps the accounts of appropriations and 
 estimates ; is the medium of communication between the Secretary and officers of the 
 Department, and has the general superintendence of the Department. 
 
 Military Bureaus of the War Department. — The chiefs of the military bureaus 
 of the War Department are officers of the Regular Army of the United States, and a 
 part of the military establishment, viz. : The Adjutant General, the Inspector General, 
 
 the Commissary General, the Quartermaster General, the Paymaster General, the Chief 
 of Engineers, the Chief of Ordnance, Judge Advocate General, Chief Signal Officer. 
 
 THE NAVY DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Secretary of the Navy performs such duties as the President of the United 
 States, who is Commander in Chief, may assign him, and has the general superintend- 
 ence of construction, manning, armament, equipment and employment of vessels of war. 
 
 The Chief Clerk has general charge of the records and correspondence of the Sec- 
 retary’s Office. 
 
 Naval Bureaus of the Navy Department. — The chiefs of the naval bureaus of 
 the Navy Department are officers of the United States Navy, and a part of the naval es- 
 tablishment, viz. : The Bureau of Yards and Docks, the Bureau of Navigation, the Bu- 
 
 reau of Ordnance, the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, the Bureau of Medicine and 
 Surgery, the Bureau of Construction and Repair, the Bureau of Equipment and Recruit' 
 ing, the Engineer in Chief. 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 
 
 The Secretary of the Interior is charged with the supervision of public busi- 
 ness relating to patents for inventions, pensions and bounty lands, the public lands, 
 including mines ; the Indians, education, the census, the custody and distribution of 
 public documents, and certain hospitals and eleemosynary institutions in the District of 
 Columbia. He also exercises certain powers and duties in relation to the Territories of 
 the United States. 
 
DUTIES OF GOVERNMENT OFFICERS. 
 
 789 
 
 The Assistant Secretary of the Interior performs such duties as are pre- 
 scribed by the Secretary or required by law, aiding in the general administration of the 
 affairs of the Department. In the absence of the Secretary he acts as the head of the 
 Department. 
 
 The Chief Clerk has the general supervision of the order of business in the Secre- 
 tary’s Office. 
 
 The Commissioner of Patents is charged with the administration of the patent 
 laws, and supervises all matters relating to the issue of letters patent for new and useful 
 discoveries, inventions and improvements. He is aided by an Assistant Commissioner, 
 three Examiners-in-Chief, an Examiner ot Interferences, an Examiner of Trade Marks 
 and twenty-two Principal Examiners. 
 
 The Commissioner of Pensions supervises the examination and adjudication of all 
 claims arising under laws passed by Congress granting bounty -land or pension on ac- 
 count of service in the Army or Navy during the Revolutionary War and all subsequent 
 wars. 
 
 The Commissioner of the General Land Office is charged with the survey, 
 management and saie of the public domain, and the issuing of titles therefor, whether 
 derived from confirmations of grants made by former governments by sales, donations or 
 grants for schools, railroads, military bounties, or public improvements. The Land 
 Office audits its own accounts. 
 
 The Commissioner of Indian Affairs has charge of the several tribes of Indians 
 in the States and Territories. He issues instructions to and receives reports from In? 
 spectors, Superintendents, Agents and Traders; superintends the purchase, trahsporta-. 
 tion and distribution of presents and annuities, and reports annually the relations of the 
 Government with each tribe. 
 
 Commissioner of Education. — The duties of this Commissioner are to collect such 
 .statistics and facts as shall show the progress of education in the several States and 
 Territories, and to diffuse such information respecting the management of schools and 
 school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people in the establishment and 
 maintenance of efficient school systems, and otherwise promote the cause of education. 
 
 The Superintendent of the Census supervises the taking of the census of the 
 United States every tenth year, and the subsequent arrangement, compilation and publi- 
 cation of the statistics collected. 
 
 THE POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 
 
 The Postmaster-General has the direction and management of the Post Office 
 Department. He appoints all officers and employes of the Department except the three 
 Assistant Postmasters-General, who are appointed by the President by and with the ad- 
 vice and consent of the senate ; appoints all postmasters whose compensation does not 
 exceed one thousand dollars ; makes postal treaties with foreign governments, by and 
 with the advice and consent of the President, awards and executes contracts, and directs 
 the management of the domestic and foreign mail service. 
 
 The First Assistant Postmaster-General has charge of the Appointment Of- 
 fice, which includes five Divisions, viz. : Appointment Division, Bond Division, Salary 
 
 and Allowance Division, Free Delivery Division, Blank-Agency Division. 
 
<90 
 
 DUTIES OF GOVERNMENT OFFICERS, 
 
 The Second Assistant Postmaster-General has charge of the Contract Office, 
 mail equipments, etc., including the following three Divisions : Contract Division, Inspec- 
 tion Division, Mail-Equipment Division. 
 
 The Third Assistant Postmaster-General has charge of the Finance Office, 
 &c., embracing the following Divisions : Division of Finance, Division of Postage- 
 Stamps and Stamped Envelopes, Division of Registered Letters, Division of Dead Let- 
 ters, The Superintendent of Foreign Mails, The Superintendent of the Money-Order 
 System. 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. 
 
 The Attorney-General is the head of the Department of Justice, and the chief 
 law-officer of the Government. He represents the United States in matters involving 
 legal questions ; he gives his advice and opinion on questions of law when they are re- 
 quired by the President, or by the heads of the other Executive Departments on questions 
 of law arising upon the administration of their respective departments ; he exercises a 
 general superintendence and direction over United States Attorneys and Marshals in all 
 judicial districts in the States and Territories ; and he provides special counsel for the 
 United States whenever required by any department of the Government. 
 
 He is assisted by a Chief Clerk and other clerks and employes. 
 
 The Law Clerk, who is also an Examiner of Titles, assists the Attorney-General in 
 the investigation of legal questions and in the preparation of opinions. 
 
 The Solicitor-General assists the Attorney-General in the performance of his 
 general duties, and by special provision of law, in the case of a vacancy in the office of 
 Attorney-General, or in his absence, exercises all these duties. Except when the At- 
 torney-General in particular cases otherwise directs, the Attorney-General and Solicitor, 
 General conduct and argue all cases in the Supreme Court, and in the Court of Claims, 
 in which the United States are interested ; and, when the Attorney-General so directs, 
 any such case in any court of the United States may be conducted and argued by the 
 Solicitor-General ; and in the same way the Solicitor-General may be sent by the At- 
 torney-General to attend to the interests of the United States in any State court, or else- 
 where. 
 
 The Two Assistant Attorneys-General assist the Attorney-General and the 
 Solicitor-General in the performance of their duties. One assists in the argument ot 
 causes in the Supreme Court and in the preparation of legal opinions ; the other is 
 charged with the conduct of the defense of the United States in the Court of Claims. 
 
 THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Commissioner of Agriculture is required to collect and diffuse useful in- 
 formation on subjects connected with agriculture. He is to acquire and preserve in his 
 office all information he can obtain concerning agriculture by means of books and cor- 
 respondence, and by practical and scientific experiments, the collection of statistics, and 
 other appropriate means ; to collect new and valuable seeds and plants ; to learn by ac- 
 tual cultivation such of them as may require such tests ; to propagate such as may be 
 worthy of propagation, and to distribute them among agriculturists. He is assisted by * 
 The Statistician, The Entomologist, Tne Botanist, The Chemist The Microscopist. 
 
NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON, 
 
CONCISE SUMMARY OF PARLIAMENTARY RULES OBSERVED IN ALL 
 
 DELIBERATIVE ASSEMBLIES. 
 
 Motion to adjourn 
 
 Motion to determine time to which to ad . . . 
 
 Motion to amend 
 
 Motion to amend an amendment 
 
 Motion to amend the rules 
 
 Motion to appeal from Speaker’s decision 
 
 re indecorum 
 
 Motion to appeal from Speaker’s decision 
 
 generally 
 
 Call to order 
 
 Motion to close debate on question 
 
 Motion to commit 
 
 Motion to extend limits of debate on ques- 
 tion ... 
 
 Leave to continue speaking after indeco- 
 rum 
 
 Motion that do lie on the table 
 
 Motion to limit debate on question 
 
 Objection to consideration of question. . . . 
 
 | Motion for the orders of the day 
 
 Motion to postpone to a definite time 
 
 Motion to postpone indefinitely 
 
 Motion for previous question 
 
 Questions touching priority of business. . . 
 
 Questions of privilege — 
 
 Reading papers 
 
 Motion to reconsider a debatable question. 
 Motion to reconsider an undebatable ques- 
 tion 
 
 Motion to refer a question 
 
 Motion that committee do now rise 
 
 Question whether subject shall be dis- 
 cussed 
 
 Motion to make subject a special order. . . 
 
 To substitute — in the nature of an amend- 
 ment 
 
 !m 
 
 otion to suspend the rules 
 
 Motion to take from the table 
 
 To take up question out of its proper or- 
 der 
 
 Motion to withdraw a motion 
 
 Questions of precedence of questions 
 
 Forms in which questions may be put 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 i6f 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
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 1 20 
 
 21 
 
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 ' 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 3T 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 Question undebatable ; sometimes re 
 marks tacitly allowed. 
 
 Undebatable if another question is before 
 the assembly. 
 
 Debatable question. 
 
 Limited debate only on propriety of post-’ 
 ponement. M 
 
 Does not allow reference to main ques- 
 tion. 
 
 Opens the main question to debate. 
 
 Cannot be amended 
 
 May be amended. 
 
 Can be reconsidered. 
 
 Cannot be reconsidered. 
 
 An affirmative vote on this question can- 
 not be reconsidered. 
 
 Requires two-third vote unless soecial 
 rules have been enacted. 
 
 Simple majority suffices to determine the 
 question. 
 
 Motion must be seconded. 
 
 Does not require to be seconded. 
 
 Not in order when another has the floor. 
 
 In order at any time though another has 
 the floor. 
 
 May be moved and entered on the record 
 when another has the floor, but the busi- 
 ness then before the assembly may not 
 be put aside. The motion must be made 
 by one who voted on the prevailing side, 
 and on the same day as the original 
 vote was taken. 
 
 Fixing the time to which an adjournment 
 may be made ; ranks first. 
 
 To adjourn without limitation ; second. 
 
 Motion for the Order of the Day ; third. 
 
 Motion that do lie on the table ; fourth. 
 
 Motion for the previous question ; fifth. 
 
 Motion to postpone definitely ; sixth. 
 
 Motion to commit ; seventh. 
 
 Motion to amend ; eighth 
 
 Motion to postpone indefinitely ; ninth. 
 
 On motion to strike out words ; “ Shall 
 the words stand part of the motion,” 
 unless a majority sustains the words 
 they are struck out. 
 
 On motion for the previous question, the 
 form to be observed is, “ Shall the main 
 question be now put ? ” This, if carried, 
 ends debate. 
 
 On an appeal from the Chair’s decision : 
 “Shall the decision be sustained as the 
 ruling of the house ? ” The chair is gen- 
 erally sustained. 
 
 On motion for Orders of the Da} r ; “Will 
 the house now proceed to the Orders of 
 the Day?” This, if carried, supersedes 
 intervening motions. 
 
 When an objection is raised to consider- 
 ing question : “ Shall the question be 
 considered?” objection may be made 
 by any member before debate has com- 
 menced, but not subsequently. 
 
 Note. — By studying the references to the several motions on this page, you will come to understand 
 the application of Parliamentary Law in a few moments. Examples 1, 5, 7, 10, 13, i4, 16, opposite motion 
 to adjourn, signifies to refer to the same numbers in the Explanatory column on the right 
 
GOVERNING PUBLIC MEETINGS, DEBATING SOCIETIES, ETC. 
 
 NY organization of value must be governed by a code of laws to regulate its 
 proceedings and direct its members. Therefore we give in a concise form 
 the basis of all the rules regarding such matters. The young man who 
 has carefully studied and practiced our directions for elocution and selec- 
 tions of oratory, should understand the forms of parliamentary proceeding, 
 for when he comes to engage in public meetings, or take part in debates, he will find that 
 there are well established forms and laws to be observed. 
 
 In many works the Rules and Orders of the National House of Representatives are 
 given in full, but as much therein contained have no general application, we therefore 
 propose to give, from the best authority, the fundamental principle of the same. 
 
 Parliamentary law embraces the forms and rules governing all societies, councils, 
 legislative assemblies, and meetings where there may be an honest difference of senti- 
 ment and feeling. It is most essential that there should be such a standard to govern, 
 otherwise the utmost confusion would inevitably ensue. Whatever may be the purpose 
 for which an association of men have assembled to deliberate, the only method to ascer- 
 tain and maintain the will of those present is to proceed in a way intelligible and author- 
 tative upon its members. The association must be properly constituted and duly organi- 
 sed. There must be some acknowledged standard upon which to proceed in the formal 
 conduct of matters brought before its attention. 
 
 HOW TO ORGANIZIf. 
 
 The recognized members of the body, or those about to become constituted as suclq 
 having met at the place and time designated, are called to order by some one 
 who addresses the rest. Whereupon they become quiet, and upon nomination of a tem- 
 porary chairman, he puts the motion to those gathered, and if not carried, calls for fur- 
 ther nominations. This he continues to do until a chairman is elected. 
 
 The chairman then takes charge of the meeting. 
 
 Then he proceeds in like manner until a clerk or secretary is appointed, and such 
 other officers as are deemed necessary. 
 
 In legislative and other bodies where an oath of office is required, this is adminis- 
 tered after the temporary chairman has taken his seat, by the person properly authorized 
 to perform such a service. A committee is appointed to see if there be a quorum of the 
 certified members present, who attend to this duty and report. 
 
 Whereupon, their report being adopted, they may proceed to the permanent organi- 
 zation. 
 
 The presiding officer may be designated president, speaker, chairman or moderator, 
 and his duties will be designated further on. 
 
 It is necessary that all items of business shall be fully recorded, and the first officer, 
 after the chairman is elected, is the one to perform that duty. He is termed secretary, 
 clerk or recorder, and at once enters upon his authorized duties. 
 
794 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 If it is deemed necessary to have vice-presidents, they are then elected, and all other 
 officers required to complete the organization. 
 
 If there should arise a question between rival candidates for membership, and it so 
 appears from the report upon the record of the committee, the claims of the parties may 
 be referred to the same committee, or to another, but neither claimant of them can act 
 Until the case has been disposed of in a proper manner. 
 
 The member has the right to be heard in his own behalf, but when the subject is 
 being further discussed, should in courtesy retire from the room until it is decided. 
 
 No person, not a member by actual or supposed right, is entitled to remain in 
 the room of the assembly but by its courtesy. The assembly or society may therefore 
 employ force, if necessary, to remove any person who refuses to retire upon being re- 
 quested to do so by the proper officer. 
 
 QUORUM. 
 
 This is the first important question to be settled. For in all properly organized 
 bodies there must be a specified number who are competent to act in the absence of 
 others, otherwise there might be undue haste and a want of fairness, or some things might 
 be done which would have to be undone at a subsequent meeting. This number, termed 
 a quorum, is determined by constitutional law, by custom or general understanding. In 
 the last instance, a majority of all the authorized members constitute a quorum. If at 
 any time it is ascertained that there is not a quorum present, the business must be sus- 
 pended, and if the body has not the power to compel the attendance of members, an ad- 
 journment must be taken. Less than a quorum may be called to order and adjourn 
 from time to time. 
 
 DECISION OF QUESTIONS. 
 
 A majority of those present and voting is required to decide a question or constitute 
 an election in most cases. In legislative assemblies one-fourth or one-fifth may order a 
 call of the yeas and nays. It usually requires two-thirds or four-fifths to change the 
 standing rules and orders. In some xBases, by expressed provision, where there are more 
 than two candidates, a plurality elects. But even then, since the president and secretary 
 are essential to the organization, it is best that they receive a majority of all the votes, 
 otherwise they might be removed at any subsequent meeting by the rival parties combin- 
 ing for a new election. 
 
 THE DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS OF OFFICERS. 
 
 The President should call the assembly to order at the hour appointed. Present 
 the business in its regular order. Entertain and put all motions properly made by mem- 
 bers, and announce the result. Receive and submit to the assembly all reports of com- 
 mittees. Appoint all committees, unless otherwise ordered. Decide upon all points of 
 order, subject to an appeal to*the house. He has the precedence in speaking to a point 
 of order. Enforce obedience to the rules. Preserve order and decorum. Sign all bills, 
 orders and other papers when directed so to do. It is fyis duty to represent impartially 
 the will of the assembly. He may call to the chair any member he chooses to act in his 
 temporary absence, but this appointment does not extend beyond the same meeting. 
 
 The president may remain sitting while reading documents to the house, but to put 
 motions or to speak to a point of order, he ought to stand. 
 
PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 795 
 
 Vice President. — If the body have a vice-president, the duties of the chair de- 
 volve upon him in the absence of the president. If there be no vice-president, and the 
 president be absent when the time to which body adjourned has arrived, then the secre- 
 tary may so announce, and the members proceed to the choice of a president pro tem- 
 pore, who acts until the president arrives. 
 
 Secretary. — To make a full and impartial record of all the proceedings. To sign 
 all orders and other papers, singly or in conjunction with the president, when required. 
 To read all papers before the house when ordered by the presiding officer. To call the 
 roll of members, and note the yeas and nays when a call is directed. To inform all com- 
 mittees of their appointment, and transmit to them all papers and other business sub- 
 mitted by the house, and to guard carefully all the documents, papers and records of the 
 house, and have them at hand for easy reference. To make a minute of all business in- 
 troduced, even if not brought to a vote. 
 
 He ought to stand when reading or calling the roll of members. 
 
 If there be no assistant secretary, in his absence a secretary pro tempore must be 
 appointed. 
 
 ORDER OF BUSINESS. 
 
 Business is submitted by a member who makes a motion on his own responsibility, 
 or introduces matter from one who is not a member. This latter may be in the nature 
 of a communication of fact pertaining to the assembly, or a request desiring something 
 from it. The former are resolves, orders, bills for enactment, & c. 
 
 They are all designated motions until the vote is passed. Any member wishing to 
 be heard must rise from his seat, address the president, and wait until he has been recog- 
 nized in form by the chair. When two or more rise at the same time, the chair should 
 recognize the one whose voice he first heard. An appeal to the house may be made, and 
 the question for the house to decide is : If the member recognized by the chair has the 
 right to speak first. 
 
 When a member has obtained the floor he may then state his business. 
 
 The president has a right to demand that all principal motions shall be reduced to 
 writing. 
 
 A request coming from a person not a member must be in the form of a memorial or 
 a petition. The petition is presented by a member who endorses upon the back the 
 name of the petitioner and the subject matter contained therein, in concise form. 
 The petition should be couched in respectful language, and signed By the petitioner in 
 his own hand. The member presents it in person, moving its reference to the proper 
 committee ; or in case there is no committee, then some one may move that it be received. 
 If carried, it is then read by the clerk and proper action taken. Incidental motions, for 
 example, to postpone, to lay on the table, to adjourn, &c., need not be reduced to writing. 
 
 As a general rule, a motion should receive a second from another member than the 
 one introducing it. Questions of privilege and some others do not require a second 
 while a motion for the previous question must receive more than one second, usually 
 one-fifth of the members present and voting. 
 
 A motion having been made and properly seconded, the president rises in his place 
 and submits it in form. It is then in order before the house either to speak upon, or to 
 Lake such action as they choose. 
 
79G 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 It is then the property of the assembly, and can be withdrawn only at the will of the 
 members. After the motion has been put to the house, no other motion can be submit- 
 ted, except such as have the precedence. 
 
 The presiding officer should state the motion, or cause it to be read, as often as re- 
 quested for the information of any member. 
 
 SECONDARY MOTIONS. 
 
 When the assembly are prepared for the question in hand, there is nothing to be 
 done but to take a direct vote upon it. If, for any reason, they are not ready to proceed 
 to a discussion on the main issue, there have been adopted several forms of motions, 
 which are termed subsidiary or secondary motions, in order to meet the requirements in 
 the case. 
 
 A motion to indefinitely postpone is one designed to defeat the object altogether. 
 
 If the subject is worthy of consideration, the house may postpone to a time stated, 
 or lay it upon the table, or refer to a committee. 
 
 If prepared for immediate consideration of the question in a modified form, a motion 
 to amend may be entertained. If further debate is regarded as unnecessary, a call for 
 the previous question, may be moved. 
 
 According to the rules and orders of Congress, motions take precedence in the fol- 
 lowing order: ist. To adjourn. 2d. To lie on the table. 3d. For the previous question. 
 4th. To postpone to a day certain. 5th. To commit or amend. 6th. To postpone in- 
 definitely. These are upon the main questions before the house. 
 
 TO ADJOURN. 
 
 A motion to adjourn is always in order and undebatable, nor subject to amendment 
 when another question is before the house. If the vote to adjourn is not carried, the 
 same motion cannot be renewed until some other business has been performed, as read- 
 ing the journal, a call for yeas and nays. An adjournment signifies to the time of the 
 next session. When the motion to adjourn is the main question, it may be amended by 
 stating a definite time. 
 
 QUESTION OF PRIVILEGE. 
 
 When the prerogatives of the house or one of its members have been infringed upon, 
 the discussion of this by the member aggrieved, or another, takes precedence of all ques- 
 tions, save that to adjourn. When this is settled, the house returns to the business thus 
 interrupted. 
 
 THE ORDER OF THE DAY. 
 
 When business has been postponed to a definite time, stated hour and day, or has 
 been assigned for that time, a motion to “ proceed to the order of the day/ 5 when the time 
 arrives, takes precedence of the consideration of other questions, save the two last men- 
 tioned. If the order of the day has been reached in the regular routine of business be- 
 fore the hour arrives, and has been disposed of, it cannot be revived by such a motion. 
 But if the order of the day has not been reached on the day assigned, then it can only 
 be brought up in the regular routine, or de novo , excepting when the body, by proper 
 action, have decided otherwise. 
 
 
 
PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 79 ? 
 
 POINTS OF ORDER. 
 
 Whenever a violation of the established rules and laws occurs, any member may 
 “ rise to a point of order ; ” the question then under consideration is suspended. The 
 presiding officer says : “ The member will state his point of order.” He then proceeds 
 to state it, and the president decides upon it. • If the decision of the chair is not satisfac- 
 tory to any member, he may appeal from the decision of the chair. The question for the 
 president to put is, “ Shall the decision of the chair be sustained ? ” This question may 
 be debated, but not the former. The president has the first right to be heard. When 
 decided by vote, the house returns to the interrupted business, and resumes at the 
 point where they left off. 
 
 THE PREVIOUS QUESTION. 
 
 When it is desired to prevent further discussion, a motion for the previous question 
 may be made, and must be put by the chair. It is usual to require a second for this from 
 more than one — one-fifth or less of the members. And the chair asks, Does the house 
 second the call for the previous question ? ” The form of putting the motion when the 
 second has been called is this, “ Shall the main question be now put ? ” Upon this 
 speeches, limited in time and confined to reasons for putting or not putting the previous 
 question, are allowed in some assemblies. If the vote is in the affirniative, the question 
 is then put. 
 
 TO LIE ON THE TABLE. 
 
 When there is business deemed of greater interest, or there is a desire to wait tu- 
 coming of a member who has especial connection with the matter or for any other reason 
 a motion to lie on the table may be made. This has the precedence of a motion to post- 
 pone, a call for the previous question, to amend or commit, or to indefinitely postpone. 
 When carried, it disposes of all other motions connected with the subject for the present. 
 
 TO POSTPONE. 
 
 A motion to postpone indefinitely, may be amended to postpone to a certain time. 
 This may be further amended by substituting another date. 
 
 The affirmation of a motion to indefinitely postpone finally disposes of the subject, 
 and unless a motion to reconsider be carried at this or the next session, it cannot come 
 before the assembly again. 
 
 TO REFER TO A COMMITTEE. 
 
 This motion if affirmed, carries all the papers and motions connected with it from 
 the control of the house for the time being. It may be amended by a change in the 
 names of each or all of the members of the committee. 
 
 ON AMENDMENTS. 
 
 * When a motion has come before the house in a regular form, the mover cannot 
 amend it but by general consent. If objected to he may gain consent by a regular 
 motion and affirmative vote. When a motion has come into possession of the house by 
 being seconded, and stated in regular form, the mover has no more control over it than 
 any other member. 
 
 Blanks may be left for dates or sums of money, or number of persons, &c., which 
 
798 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 are to be filled by the sense of the house, then the vote on the latest date, highest sum, 
 or number of two or more moved to be inserted, must be put first. 
 
 An amendment must refer to the question at issue, and not be an attempt to intro- 
 duce new, or rejected business in this form. The part of the motion must be stated, and 
 the effect that the substitution will have upon it if amended. An amendment to an 
 amendment may be introduced, but no subsequent one. The first question to be decided 
 is upon the amendment to the amendment. If this is approved, then upon the amend- 
 ment as amended. If approved, then upon the motion, (bill, order, or report) as amended. 
 
 ADDITION, SEPARATION AND DIVISION. 
 
 If two matters pertaining'to the same subject are of such a character as to be incor- 
 porated in one, the usual way of procedure is to reject one and incorporate it with the 
 other as an amendment to it. If there are two distinct propositions in a motion or sub- 
 ject matter brought up for action, any member may call for a division of the question, and 
 each can be put upon its merits without jeopardizing the whole. But in either of the 
 above cases it is better to refer to a committee with instructions. 
 
 STRIKING OUT— INSERTING. 
 
 When a motion to “ strike out” a part of the original matter has failed, then it cannot . 
 be renewed, but a motion “ to strike out” the same or a part and other words may be 
 made. \ 
 
 If a motion to insert certain words has been lost, it is not permissible to move to 
 insert the same words but to insert the same or a part of them together with other words, 
 giving it a new or modified intent, can be made. Suppose a motion be made to strike 
 out an entire section or paragraph, then those who desire to have the section or para- 
 graph in another form will vote not to strike out, for if the motion is carried the section 
 cannot afterwards be amended. 
 
 READING OF PAPERS 
 
 Any member has a right to demand the reading of a paper which he wishes brought 
 for action before the house, but he cannot claim the right to read any matter foreign to 
 the subject, without leave, by a vote or general consent. 
 
 All papers connected with a subject matter go naturally to the committee having 
 that matter in charge. If objection is raised to the reading of any paper, the question 
 jof its being read must be decided as any other incidental question. 
 
 SUSPENSION OF RULES. 
 
 If a proposed proceeding is desirable, but conflicts with a standing rule, it is proper 
 to move a suspension of that rule, and that must be put to the house before the main 
 question. In most assemblies, a two-thirds or three-fourths vote is required. 
 
 MODIFICATIONS OF SECONDARY MOTIONS. 
 
 These motions cannot be applied to one another, for it would lead to interminable series 
 of such motions e. g. A motion to commit, to amend a main question, or to postpone, 
 cannot be subject to a motion for the previous question, nor a motion for the previous 
 
PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 799 
 
 question committed or postponed. But a motion to postpone or commit an original 
 amendment may be amended, but is not subject to a motion for the previous question* 
 
 RIGHTS AND DUTIES IN DEBATE. 
 
 When any member desires to address the house, he rises in his seat, addresses the 
 chair, and when recognized, has the right to the floor against any and all other members, 
 unless a member rises to a point of order in reference to the subject. The point of order 
 being decided in favor of the person having the floor, he may go on. If a member has 
 valuable information to impart to the house he may interrupt the speaker, or to correct a 
 vital mistake in point of fact, otherwise interruptions of any kind are not in order. The 
 rule in regard to the speaker standing, may be waived, when circumstances require. 
 
 If a speaker yields the floor in courtesy to another member with the understanding 
 that he is to receive it again, this cannot be enforced by the house, but is generally 
 conceded. 
 
 The name of a member must not be spoken in debate, but he must be mentioned 
 as the “ gentleman on my right,” or “left,” or in any courteous term. 
 
 The general rule holds that the President shall not participate as such, in the 
 debates of the house, but he may give valuable information, or speak to a vital fact 
 within his knowledge, decide points of order, and on appeal, may speak in defense of his 
 decision. In other matters when he wishes to speak he calls some one to the chair and 
 takes the floor as any member would do. 
 
 When the President rises in his place to speak, he has the precedence of any other 
 member, although he has no right to interrupt a speaker who has the floor ; this, of 
 course, does not preclude him from calling the member to order, or to interrupt when the 
 hour of adjournment has arrived. 
 
 All members who wish, have a right to be heard, but in speaking must confine their 
 remarks to the subject, or motion in hand. He must not use indecent language against 
 the action of the house, nor impeach the motives of any member, nor to attack with 
 threatening gestures, words, or actions, the person of any member. The nature of a 
 proposition or measure not finally disposed of may be commented upon in severe terms, 
 and be no reflection upon the assembly. The consequences or nature of a proposition 
 may be the subject of the most intense criticism, and denounced in severe terms without 
 being any reflection upon the member or committee introducing it. 
 
 It is often difficult for the presiding officer to decide whether a certain line of 
 remarks are pertinent to the main question, sometimes while the main question remains 
 the same, the introduction of a secondary question, such as to amend, to commit, &c., 
 are those which are for immediate consideration, and the speaker must speak to them dis- 
 tinctly and not on the general merits of the measure. 
 
 Unless otherwise provided, no member can speak to the same question more than 
 once, but he is not limited in time of that speaking,. He can, however, speak upon all 
 secondary motions affecting the main issue and upon the report of a committee concern- 
 ing the matter, though it be the same in substance. After all who wish to speak have 
 availed themselves of the privilege, he may speak a second time with consent of the house 
 
800 PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 t 
 
 He may, however, correct a mistake or make clear a fact, if any other speaker has mis- 
 understood or misinterpreted it, when such a member yields to him the floor for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The methods of preventing tedious or unnecessary debate are three : ist, the previ- 
 ous question, as already explained. 2d, a rule that all debate shall cease at a specified 
 time. 3d, a rule limiting the speakers in time. These rules are enforced by the Presi- 
 dent announcing the arrival of the limit in each case. 
 
 DECORUM IN DEBATE 
 
 It is the duty of the President to preserve order and decorum during debate, and see 
 that every speaker has the uninterrupted attention of all who wish to hear him. Hissing, 
 spitting, coughing or any noise intentionally made to interrupt him is a breach of deco- 
 rum. And if the repeated calls to order of the President are not heeded, he may call 
 the offender by name. The person whose name has been so called has a right to explain 
 or apologize, and then he must leave the room until such time as the house shall pass 
 upon his offense. If the Presiding Officer finds that the house at any time does not 
 sustain him in his efforts to preserve order and decorum, he is at liberty to pass them 
 by without notice. 
 
 When disorderly words are used in debate, the member who complains of them must 
 state what he thought them to be, or the sense in which he took them. If the complaint 
 be not regarded so trivial as to cause unnecessary delay, the President calls for the 
 offending member to repeat what he said and the clerk writes it down. If the member 
 complaining does not assent to this version of the remarks then the sense of the house 
 must be taken as to what the speaker really said, and this is to be regarded as the offense 
 committed. Then if the offender wishes to explain or apologize he may do so, otherwise 
 the house must decide then and there in the premises, and inflict the penalty. When no 
 notice has been taken of the offensive words at the time, if the member finishes his 
 speech, or any new business intervenes, the question of a breach of decorum or order 
 cannot be raised. 
 
 ON VOTING. 
 
 A proposition submitted by a member becomes then a “ motion.” When stated in 
 form by the chair, “a question.” When passed upon by the house, a “vote,” “ resolution,” 
 “order.” The main object of the chair is to ascertain to a certainty the sense of the 
 house upon the matter and he does it in this way : “ On motion of,” &c., or, “ It is moved 
 by and seconded, that,” &c., “ As many as are in favor of the motion say aye,” (or “ Raise 
 your right hands.”) When this has been done, he says, “ As many as are opposed to the 
 motion say nay,” (or “ Raise your right hands.”) If the chair cannot decide, he then 
 calls for a rising vote. If still in doubt he may ask the members to stand until counted 
 (on each side in turn,) or to pass between two authorized tellers who count them. 
 
 Any member has a right to doubt the decision of the chair, and then a divison is 
 made. 
 
 When there is an equal number of votes for and against, the President casts the 
 deciding vote. 
 
 When the yeas and nays are ordered, each member present as his name is called, 
 
PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 801 
 
 must respond yea or nay, unless he is excused by the house. Until the final decision 
 of the vote, any member has a right to change his vote, or if not present when his name 
 was called, to ask that it be so called. But he must not interrupt the regular order ot 
 calling to do so. 
 
 RECONSIDERATION. 
 
 While the general rule holds that the vote of an assembly is the final decision upon 
 that subject, yet to relieve from embarrassment and inconvenience, which the strictest 
 enforcement of this rule might occasion, there has come to be used in all parliamentary 
 bodies the right to reconsider. The time to which this right is limited is usually desig- 
 nated by some standing rule. In the absence of such a rule, the motion can be made 
 only at the meeting in which the vote was taken or the next succeeding one. 
 
 The motion to reconsider must be made and seconded by members who voted in the 
 majority, and if carried by a vote of the house, the subject matter is open for debate or 
 action, as if it had not before been voted upon, and the motion last affecting it is before 
 the house. 
 
 ON COMMITTEES. 
 
 They are standing or select committees. The standing committee has charge of 
 all matters pertaining to the general subject for which it was appointed, and is not dis- 
 charged until it reports that it has acted on all matters presented to it. A special com- 
 mittee is discharged when the report on the specific matter brought before it is received. 
 
 Committees are appointed by the chair, by ballot, or by nomination, as the assem- 
 bly agrees. 
 
 When chosen by ballot, it may be done by voting singly on each name, or by com- 
 bining them on one ballot. 
 
 Unless otherwise provided, the first-named member is chairman of the committee 
 and calls the first meeting. The committee has a right to appoint times and places for 
 subsequent meetings, in the absence of other directions. They are to act upon papers 
 presented to them, or may originate papers bearing upon the subject with which they are 
 entrusted and no other. 
 
 In their deliberation they are to be governed by the same rules and orders as the 
 body appointing them, so far as they appertain. They have a right to alter and trans- 
 pose or otherwise modify any paper submitted to them, making full report of the same. 
 
 REPORTS OF COMMITTEES. 
 
 Reports should be made in writing, and this is done by the chairman or some au- 
 thorized member. The question first considered is upon receiving the report of the 
 committee. Then the matter embraced in the report is before the house. It should 
 then be adopted. 
 
 There may be, a minority report, but this is received only by courtesy, and read by 
 the clerk of the house along with the majority report. It can be considered only upon a 
 motion to substitute the report of the minority in place of that of the majority. 
 
 The matter in the report of the committee may be recommitted for further consider- 
 ation, and then comes before them as if they had never seen it. 
 
802 
 
 PARLIAMENTARY LAW. 
 
 COMMITTEE OF THE WHOLE. 
 
 Upon motion and second the assembly may be resolved into committee of the 
 whole on any designated subject. If such motion is affirmed, the president names 
 the member who is to act as chairman. Usually, by courtesy, he is accepted by the 
 house, although the committee of the whole has a right to appoint its chairman. 
 When it has completed its deliberations some member moves that, “The committee 
 of the whole do now rise,” and if affirmed, the president resumes the chair, and the 
 chairman of the committee of the whole reports progress, asks to sit again, and the 
 house resumes business. 
 
 The following restrictions govern a committee of the whole: I. It can entertain 
 no motion for the previous question. 2. They cannot adjourn. 3. Any member 
 may speak as often as he pleases. 4. They cannot refer matters to another com- 
 mittee. 5. It has no authority to punish breaches of order. 6. The president of 
 the assembly is a member of the committee of the whole, and has a right to speak. 
 
 ON COUNTING A QUORUM. 
 
 THE RULING OF HON. T. B. REED, SPEAKER OF U. S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, 
 
 JANUARY 30, 1890. 
 
 The Clerk announces the members voting in the affirmative as 
 161 and 2 who voted in the negative. The Chair, thereupon, 
 having seen the members present, having heard their names 
 called in their presence, directed tbe call to be repeated, and, 
 gentlemen not answering when thus called, the Chair directed a 
 record of their names to be made, showing the fact of their pres- 
 ence as bearing upon the question which has been raised, namely, 
 whether there is a quorum of this House present to do business 
 or not, according to the Constitution of the United States; and 
 accordingly that question is now before the House, and the Chair 
 purposes to give a statement, accompanied by a ruling, from which 
 an appeal can be taken if any gentleman is dissatisfied therewith. 
 
 There has been for some considerable time a question of this 
 nature raised in very many parliamentary assemblies. There has 
 been a great deal of doubt, especially in this body, on the subject, 
 and the present occupant of the chair well recollects a proposition 
 or suggestion made ten years ago by a member from Virginia, 
 Mr. John Randolph Tucker, an able constitutional lawyer as 
 well as an able member of this House. That matter was some- 
 what discussed and a proposition was made with regard to putting 
 it into the rules. The general opinion which seemed to prevail 
 at that time was that it was inexpedient so to do, and some men 
 had grave doubts whether it was proper to make such an amend- 
 ment to the rules as would count the members present and not 
 voting as a part of the quorum as well as those present and vot- 
 ing. The evils which resulted from the other course were not 
 then as apparent, and no such careful study had been given to the 
 subject as has been given to it since. 
 
 That took place in the year 1880. Since then there have been 
 various arguments and various decisions by various eminent 
 gentlemen upon the subject, and these decisions have very much 
 cleared up the question, which renders it much more apparent 
 what the rule is. One of the first places in which the question 
 was raised was in the senate of the State of New York. The 
 present governor of New York was the presiding officer, and 
 upon him devolved a duty similar to that which has devolved 
 upon me to-day. He met that duty in precisely the same manner. 
 The question there raised was the necessity, under their constitu- 
 tion, of three-fifths constituting a quorum for the passage of 
 certain bills, and he held that that constitutional provision as to a 
 quorum was entirely satisfied by the presence of the members, 
 even if they did not vote, and accordingly he directed the 
 recording officer of the senate to put down the names as a part of 
 the record of the transaction ; that is, to put down the names of 
 the members of the senate who were present and refused to vote 
 in precisely the manner in which the occupant of this chair has 
 directed the same thing to be done. That decision would be re- 
 garded as in no sense partisan, at least as the Chair cites it. 
 
 There has also been a decision in the State of Tennessee, where 
 the provisions of the law require a quorum to consist of two- 
 
 thirds. The house has ninety-nine members, of which two- 
 thirds is sixty-six. In the Legislature of 1885 the house had 
 ninety-nine members, of which two-thirds was sixty-six. A regis- 
 tration bill was pending which was objected to by the Republican 
 members of the house. Upon the third reading the Republicans 
 refused to vote, whereupon the speaker, a member of the other 
 party, directed the clerk to count as present those not voting, and 
 declared the bill as passed upon this reading. < 
 
 These two decisions, made, the first in 1883, and the other in 
 the year 1885, seem to the present occupant of the chair to cover 
 the ground ; but there is an entirely familiar process which every 
 old member will recognize, which, in the opinion of the Chair, is 
 incontestable evidence of the recognition at all times of the right 
 to regard members present as constituting a part of a quorum. It 
 has been almost an every-day occurrence at certain stages of the 
 session for votes to be announced by the Chair containing obviously 
 and mathematically no quorum ; yet if the point was not made 
 the bill has always been declared tp be passed. Now, that can 
 only be upon a very distinct basis, and that is, that everybody 
 present silently agreed to the fact that there was a quorum 
 present, while the figures demonstrated no quorum voting. 
 
 There is no ground by which under any possibility such a bill 
 could be passed constitutionally, unless the presence of a quorum 
 is inferred. It is inferred from the fact that no one raised the 
 question, and the presence was deemed enough. 
 
 Now, all methods of determining a .vote are of equal value. 
 The count by the Speaker or Chairman, and the count by tellers, 
 or a count by the yeas and nays, are all of them of equal validity. 
 The House has a right, upon the call of one-fifth of the members, 
 to have a yea-and-nay vote, and then upon that the question is 
 decided ; but the decision in each of the other cases is of precisely 
 the same validity. 
 
 Again, it has always been the practice in parliamentary bodies 
 of this character, and especially in the Parliament of Great 
 Britain, for the Speaker to determine the question whether there 
 is or is not a quorum present by count. It is a question that is a 
 determination of the actual presence of a quorum, and the deter- 
 mination of that is intrusted to the presiding officer in almost all 
 instances. So that when a question is raised whether there is a 
 quorum or not, without spec al arrangement for determining it, it 
 would be determined on a count by the presiding officer. Again, 
 there is a provision in the Constitution which declares that the 
 House may establish rules for compelling the attendance of 
 members. If members can be present and refuse to exercise their 
 function, to wit, not be counted as a quorum, that provision would 
 seem to be entirely nugatory. Inasmuch as the Constitution 
 only provides for their attendance, that attendance is enough. 
 If more was needed the Constitution would have provided for 
 more. The Chair thereupon rules that there is a quorum present 
 within the meaning of the Constitution. 
 
ORGANIZATION OF 
 
 LITERARY AND DEBATING SOCIETIES. 
 
 HOW TO CALL PUBLIC MEETINGS. 
 
 HENEVER a number of persons have agreed to organize an association 
 for mutual improvement in declamation and debate, they assemble at 
 some place, and time announced, and after electing a chairman and secre- 
 tary, one of those present arises and says : “ I move that a committee 
 of five (or any number) be appointed by the chair, to draft and present 
 a Constitution of a Debating Society.” If there is a majority in favor the committee 
 is appointed, the mover being the chairman by courtesy. 
 
 It is their duty to report as early as possible, at least at the next meeting. Some- 
 times the report is prepared in anticipation of the time. It should be brief and concise, 
 covering all needful points. It should be considered and adopted section by section^ 
 and afterwards as a whole. 
 
 FORM FOR CONSTITUTION. 
 
 The young people of Hampton being desirous to form a Society for mutual im- 
 provement in elocution, literature and forensic discussion, and to afford entertainment 
 for their friends and the public, have formed an association for the above named pur- 
 poses, and adopted the following 
 
 CO^TSTITTJTIOIT. 
 
 ARTICLE I.— NAME. 
 
 This Society shall be called the Philorhetorian Society of Hampton, Mass. 
 
 ARTICLE II.— OBJECT. 
 
 The object of this Society shall be the mutual improvement of its members 
 in elocution, literary effort, and forensic disputations. All questions having a political 
 or sectarian bearing being excluded. 
 
 ARTICLE III.— MEMBERSHIP. 
 
 Sec. i. Any person of good, social standing, eighteen years of age, may Decome 
 a member of this Society, upon being proposed by a member, and a majority vote at any 
 regular meeting of the Society, and paying the fee hereinafter named. 
 
 Sec. 2. Any person may become an honorary member upon a unanimous vote of 
 all the members present, at any regular meeting. He shall be entitled to all the rights 
 of membership except holding office, serving on committees, and voting. 
 
 ARTICLE IV.— OFFICERS. 
 
 The Officers of this Society shall be a President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasu- 
 rer, Corresponding Secretary and Critic. The office of Secretary and Treasurer may be 
 vested in the same person. 
 
804 
 
 HOW TO ORGANIZE A LITERARY AND DEBATING SOCIETY; 
 
 ARTICLE V. — DUTIES OF OFFICERS. 
 
 Sec. i. It shall be the duty of the President to preside at alll meetings of the 
 Society ; call the members to order at the hour to which they stand adjourned; decide all 
 questions of order; enforce impartially, the by-laws, constitution and rules of order; 
 appoint all committees unless otherwise ordered ; draw upon the Treasurer for all 
 monies, to be expended upon vote of the Society; see that the several officers are in 
 their stations and attend to their respective duties; examine and announce all ballots, 
 and attend to all other duties appertaining to his office. He shall not vote except in case 
 of a tie, nor speak in debate while in the chair, nor make nor second a motion of any 
 kind. He shall appoint two disputants upon each side of a question, one person to pre- 
 sent a select reading, one to give a declamation, and one to present an original essay or 
 composition. These appointments to be made at least two weeks before the meeting at 
 which they are to take part. 
 
 Sec. 2. It shall be the duty of the Vice President to preside in the absence of the 
 President, and when he is engaged in debate, and to perform all other duties pertaining 
 to the chair. 
 
 Sec. 3= The Secretary shall keep a full and impartial record ot the proceedings ol 
 the meetings of the Society, a record of the names and residence of members in a book 
 prepared for that purpose, call the roll of officers and members at each meeting, noticing 
 the absentees, count all votes when desired by the President, keep in a separate book, a 
 record of all questions debated, the names of the disputants and the decisions of the 
 questions and of all the other exercises of each meeting. He shall report the names 
 of all delinquents, the fines, dues and assessments unpaid by each, at least once in three 
 months. 
 
 SeCo 4. It shall be the duty of the Corresponding Secretary to inform all absent 
 members of their appointment to perform any duty, at least two weeks before the time 
 the part is to be performed. Also each person elected a member, and conduct all corres- 
 pondence in behalf of the Society. 
 
 Sec. 5. It shall be duty of the Treasurer to keep a just and accurate account of all 
 monies received by him for the Society ; also of all dues, arrearages, fines and assess- 
 ments imposed, and of all expenditures and disbursements, by order of the President 
 He shall notify each member monthly of his dues, fines, &c., and collect the same. At 
 the first meeting in each month, he shall report to the Secretary the names of all who 
 are in arrears for more than one month last passed. 
 
 Sec. 6. It shall be the duty of the Critic to judge of the literary merit of all who 
 are appointed to take part in such exercises. For this purpose he shall carefully observe 
 the words, manner and gestures of each person, notice all mistakes in grammar, of pro- 
 nunciation, and present a written criticism at each meeting of the literary exercises of 
 the preceding meeting. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. — ELECTIONS. 
 
 Sec. 1. All officers of the Society shall be elected by ballot to serve for three 
 months. 
 
 Sec. 2. The election shall be held at the first regular meeting in January, April, 
 July, and October of each year, and shall not be re-elected for a second succeeding term. 
 
HOW TO ORGANIZE A LITERARY AND DEBATING SOCIETY. 
 
 805 
 
 Sec. 3. No person shall be eligible to the office of President alter the first term fol- 
 lowing the adoption of this Constitution, who has not previously held the office of Vice- 
 President, nor to any office unless he has been a member at least one full month. In case 
 of a vacancy in any office, that vacancy may be filled at the next subsequent meeting, 
 and the officer elected to fill the unexpired term may take his seat immediately. 
 
 Sec. 4. All elections shall be by a majority of all the votes legally cast. 
 
 ARTICLE VII.— REMOVAL FROM OFFICE. 
 
 Any officer absenting himself from his office for three successive meetings, except 
 on account of sickness or unavoidable absence from town, shall be removed and his office 
 declared vacant by a two-thirds vote at the next meeting. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII.— COMMITTEES. 
 
 All committees shall be appointed by the chair, unless otherwise ordered. They 
 shall consist of a Question Committee of three members, to whom shall be referred all 
 questions for debate. A Prudential Committee of five members, who shall have charge 
 of the rooms of the society, subject to the orders of the Society ; warming, lighting, and 
 cleaning the same. 
 
 ARTICLE IX.— AMENDMENTS. 
 
 This Constitution can be altered, changed, amended, or repealed by a two-thirds 
 vote of all the members present, at any regular meeting, a notice of such proposed amend- 
 ment or repeal being given at least two weeks before such vote is taken. 
 
 BY-LAWS. 
 
 ARTICLE I.— MEETINGS. 
 
 The regular meetings of this Society shall be held on Wednesday evening of each 
 week, commencing at half-past seven o’clock during the months of October, November, 
 December, January, February and March. The hour of meeting for the remaining 
 months shall be fixed by the vote of the Society. 
 
 At the request of any three members the President may call a special meeting by 
 giving notice thereof at the regular meeting next preceding. 
 
 ARTICLE II.— QUORUM. 
 
 Nine members shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 
 
 ARTICLE III.— MEMBERSHIP. 
 
 Sec. 1. A candidate for membership must be proposed by a member at a regular 
 meeting, stating name, age, residence, and that the person proposed is desirous to 
 become a member. 
 
 Sec. 2. The Society shall then vote upon the name proposed, and if two-thirds 
 vote in the affirmative he is elected. 
 
 Sec. 3. Every candidate shall be initiated, sign the Constitution, By-Laws of the 
 Society, agreeing to support the same, before he can become entitled to the right of 
 membership. 
 
806 
 
 HOW TO ORGANIZE A LITERARY AND DEBATING SOCIETY. 
 
 ARTICLE IV.— FEES, DUES, ASSESSMENTS. 
 
 An initiation fee of fifty cents will be required of all gentlemen, and twenty-five 
 cents of all ladies, and quarterly dues of twenty -five cents of all members. Any mem- 
 ber neglecting to perform the duties to which he is assigned by the President, unless he 
 gives an excuse satisfactory to the Society, shall be subject to a fine of twenty -five cents. 
 Any member neglecting or refusing for one full month to pay the dues or fines imposed 
 upon him may be debarred from all rights of membership, by a majority vote of those 
 present. 
 
 ARTICLE V.— INITIATION OF MEMBERS. 
 
 The following form of affirmation shall be required of each person wishing to become 
 a member of this Society: “I promise to conform to the Constitution, By-Laws and 
 Rules of Order of the Philorhetorian Society, and promise to do all in my power to pro- 
 mote its interests so long as I shall remain a member thereof.” 
 
 ARTICLE VI.— APPEAL. 
 
 Any member has a right to appeal from the decision of the chair, and if his appeal 
 is seconded, both asserting that the decision of the chair is incorrect, this being done in 
 courteous and parliamentary form, the Society may take into consideration the appeal 
 and decide the question at issue between the chair and the member. 
 
 ARTICLE VII.— INAUGURATION OF OFFICERS. 
 
 The following pledge shall be required of each Officer, before entering upon the dis- 
 charge of his duties : “ I promise to fulfill to the best of my knowledge and ability, the 
 duties of the office to which I have been elected, until my successor shall be elected and 
 installed.” 
 
 ARTICLE VIII.— RESIGNATION. 
 
 A resignation of membership may be made in writing at least two weeks before ac- 
 tion is taken, but there shall be no consideration by the society until all arrearages, if 
 any, have been paid. 
 
 ARTICLE IX.— ON OFFENCES. 
 
 Any member using indecorous, indecent or rude language to the chair or any other 
 member, continued and intentional disregard of the constitution and by-laws of the 
 society, or being guilty of improper conduct prejudicial to the good order, reputation or 
 interest of the society, may be expelled or suspended. The motion for such action must 
 be made at least at two regular meetings before the vote is taken. The member to be 
 affected having the right to be heard in his own defence. A three-fourths vote of mem- 
 bers present shall be necessary to expel or suspend. Any member expelled shall not be 
 proposed for membership again until at least three months have passed. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The meetings of this society shall be governed by the principles of parliamentary 
 law as published in this volume, Cushing’s Manual, or Warrington’s Manual, in all cases 
 not in conflict with the foregoing constitution and by-laws. 
 
HOW TO ORGANIZE A LITERARY AND DEBATING SOCIETY. 
 
 8<P 
 
 ARTICLE XL— ORDER OF EXERCISES. 
 
 The following order of exercises should be observed, viz.: 
 
 1. Calling to order. 
 
 2. Reading minutes of last meeting.. 
 
 3. Calling roll. 
 
 4. Proposition for membership. 
 
 5. Election of members. 
 
 6. Election of officers. 
 
 7. Reports of committees. 
 
 8. Report of secretary. 
 
 9. Report of treasurer. 
 
 10. Literary exercises, consisting of: 
 
 (1) Report of critic. 
 
 (2) Oration or essay. 
 
 (3) Declamation. 
 
 (4) Debate. 
 
 (5) Select reading or recitation. 
 
 (6) Verbal report of critic. 
 
 DRAFTING RESOLUTIONS AND PETITIONS. 
 
 In societies, churches and all organizations to which papers are referred for action 
 there is a correct form in which they should be drafted to insure their receiving the 
 attention which is due them. There should be no rhetorical display, or use of unneces- 
 sary language, but the subject matter should be stated in a concise, deliberate and intel- 
 ligent way. 
 
 There should be no coldness in the language used in certain forms of resolutions, 
 such as resolutions on the bereavement or death of a member, &c. 
 
 It is customary to preface the resolution with “ Whereas,” setting forth the reason 
 for the action, and following with “ Therefore, resolved ; ” but this is not always essen- 
 tial. A request to an official or a body, having power to receive it and grant the request, 
 should be addressed in respectful form. In cities where requests for the widening of a 
 street, the setting of a street lamp, & c., are to be made to the common council, a written 
 form can easily be obtained of the city clerk. 
 
 FORMS FOR RESOLVES. 
 
 THANKS TO THE OFFICERS AT CLOSE OF THEIR TERM. 
 
 Resolved \ That the thanks of this body be extended to the Hon. John Smith for the 
 efficient, courteous and impartial manner in which he has discharged the delicate duties 
 of chairman during his term of office. 
 
 Resolved , Tha,t the thanks of this body be extended to Phillip Jones, Esq., the clerk 
 of this body, and to each and all of the other officers, for their kind deportment and 
 faithfulness in the discharge of the duties pertaining to their several offices during the 
 meetings of this body. 
 
 RESOLUTIONS ON THE DEATH OF A MEMBER. 
 
 Whereas, The late Charles Brown, Esq., a member of this body, has been removed 
 from our midst by death, it is, 
 
 Resolved , That by his death we have lost a valuable member, whose wise counsels, 
 extensive information and courteous manner had won our esteem and admiration. 
 
 Resohedy That the sympathy of this body be conveyed to the widow and family of 
 our deceased fellow member, committing them, in this hour of their bereavement, to the 
 kindly consolations of Him who doeth all things well. 
 
808 
 
 HOW TO CALL AND CONDUCT A PUBLIC MEETING. 
 
 Resolved ’ That a copy of these resolutions, suitably engrossed and signed by the presi- 
 dent and secretary of this body, be transmitted to the widow of the late Charles Brown, Esq* 
 
 Resolved ’ That these resolutions be spread on the journal of this society. 
 
 FORM FOR A PETITION TO THE STATE LEGISLATURE. 
 
 To the Hon. the Senate and House of Representatives in Legislature assembled : 
 
 We, the undersigned, citizens and property holders of the town of Hampden, State 
 of Maine, do set forth and pray your honorable body to grant (Here follows a concise 
 statement of fact and the request made, closing) And as in duty bound your petition- 
 ers will ever pray. 
 
 PETITION TO THE GOVERNOR FOR THE PARDON OF A CONVICT. 
 
 To the Hon. James R. Buckingham , Governor , &c.: 
 
 We, the undersigned, citizens of the town of' Medford, State of Massachusetts, would 
 respectfully set forth (Here follows a full statement of fact), and, therefore, we 
 would humbly pray that he be set at liberty. 
 
 And as in duty bound would ever pray. 
 
 HOW TO CALL AND CONDUCT A PUBLIC MEETING. 
 
 Whenever the citizens of a certain city, town or county wish to assemble for the 
 purpose of giving expression to a common sentiment or taking concerted action upon a 
 matter for the common good, they have a right to meet at any time or place where they 
 ’tan be gathered. When there has been no previous organization, there are certain forms 
 to be observed in reference to the organization which will facilitate in accomplishing the 
 object in view= 
 
 To illustrate the matter, suppose a number of respectable citizens of Kennebec 
 county, Maine, wish to call such a meeting to consider the subject of taxation, they issue 
 such a notice as the following, either in the papers or by means of posters, circulars. & c.: 
 
 NOTICE. 
 
 The citizens of Kennebec county, irrespective of party, who believe that there should 
 be a revision of the laws governing taxation in this State, are requested to meet in 
 Granite Hall, Augusta, on Wednesday, the 22D Day of March, at io o’clock a. 
 m., to confer upon the subject, and appoint a committee to represent them before the 
 next session of the Legislature, and such other business as may appertain thereto. 
 
 Signed by a number of respectable property holders. 
 
 N. B. — Honorable Solon Chase, William H. McCuliis and others will address the 
 meeting. 
 
 When the time has arrived at which the meeting was called, it is best to wait a half 
 hour or more beyond it to make allowances for differences in watches, &c. Some one 
 who is well known to be actively connected with the movement — one of those signing the 
 call — will rap on the desk to attract the attention of all, and say : “ The hour having 
 arrived, gentlemen will please come to order.” When it is quiet he says : “ I move that 
 the Hon. Wm. T. Johnson be appointed chairman. All in favor of that will please say 
 aye.” After the response, he says : “ All opposed will say nay.” And if it appears to 
 be carried, he will vacate the place for Hon. Mr. Johnson, who takes charge, observing 
 the forms of parliamentary law as set forth in this volume. 
 
CONSTITUTION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 E, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union^ 
 establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common 
 defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty 
 to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution 
 for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Sect. I. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
 United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 Sect. II. — i. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen 
 every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State 
 shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
 State Legislature. 
 
 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained the age of 
 twenty-five years, and have been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who 
 shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States 
 which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which 
 shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
 bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all 
 other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first 
 meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
 years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall 
 not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one represen- 
 tative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be 
 entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts , eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations 
 one ; Connecticut , five ; New York , six ; New yersey , four ; Pennsylvania , eight ; Dela- 
 ware, one ; Maryland y six ; Virginia , ten ; North Carolina , five ; South Carolina f five ; 
 Georgia , three. 
 
 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive 
 authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and 
 shall have the sole power of impeachment 
 
810 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Sect. III.- — -i. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators 
 from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall 
 have one vote. 
 
 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, 
 they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the Sena- 
 tors of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second 
 class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the 
 sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen 
 by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the 
 executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the 
 Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
 
 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, 
 and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but 
 shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore in 
 the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President ot 
 the United States. 
 
 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for 
 that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
 States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted without 
 the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from 
 office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the 
 United States ; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to in- 
 dictment, trial, judgment and punishment according to law. 
 
 Sec. IV. — 1. The times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and 
 Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the 
 Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the 
 places of choosing Senators. 
 
 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and such meeting shall 
 be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 Sec. V. — 1. Each house shall be judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of 
 its own members ; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but 
 a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
 attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each house 
 may provide. 
 
 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for 
 disorderly behavior, and. with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish 
 the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas 
 and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth 
 of those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 811 
 
 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the 
 other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the 
 two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec. VI. — 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for 
 their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States- 
 They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the peace, be privileged from 
 arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or 
 returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be 
 questioned in any other place. 
 
 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be 
 appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been 
 created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no 
 person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house dur- 
 ing his continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. VII.— 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other 
 bills. 
 
 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate 
 shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he 
 approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house 
 in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, 
 and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall 
 agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house ; 
 and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases 
 the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays ; and the names of the 
 persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journals of each house re- 
 spectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
 excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like man- 
 ner as if he had signed it, unless Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return ; in 
 which case it shall not be a law. 
 
 3. Every order, resolution or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate and House 
 of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be pre- 
 sented to the President of the United States, and before the same shall take effect shall 
 be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed 
 in the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. VIII. — The Congress shall have powei — 
 
 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises ; to pay the debts and pro- 
 vide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties* 
 imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. 
 
 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. 
 
 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and 
 with the Indian tribes. 
 
 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of 
 bankruptcies, throughout the United States. 
 
812 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the stand* 
 ard of weights and measures. 
 
 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of 
 the United States. 
 
 7. To establish post offices and post roads. 
 
 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited 
 times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and 
 discoveries. 
 
 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court. 
 
 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and 
 offences against the law of nations. 
 
 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning 
 captures on land and water. 
 
 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be 
 for a longer term than two years. 
 
 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 
 
 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
 forces. 
 
 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, 1 suppress 
 insurrections, and repel invasions. 
 
 16. To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing 
 such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to 
 the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
 militia, according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 
 
 1 7. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not 
 exceeding ten miles square) as may by cession of particular States, and the acceptance 
 of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like 
 authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which 
 the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards and other 
 needful buildings. And, 
 
 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execu- 
 tion the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the govern- 
 ment of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. IX. — 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States, 
 now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior 
 ( to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed on 
 such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, 
 in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 
 
 3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 
 
 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census 
 or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 5. No taxor duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference 
 shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 813 
 
 those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be obliged to enter, ckar t 
 or pay duties in another. 
 
 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations 
 made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all 
 public money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person hold- 
 ing any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
 accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, 
 prince or foreign state. 
 
 Sec. X. — 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant 
 letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but 
 gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post 
 facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on im- 
 ports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection 
 laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any state on imports or 
 exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall 
 be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the con- 
 sent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, 
 enter into any agreement or compact with another state or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of 
 delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Sec. I. — 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States 
 of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with 
 the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 
 
 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a 
 number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which 
 the state may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person 
 holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 3. [Annulled. See Amendments, art. 12.] 
 
 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on 
 which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United 
 States. 
 
 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the 
 time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; 
 neither shall any person be eligible to that-office who shall not have attained the age of 
 thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 6 . In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, 
 or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on 
 the Vice President; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, 
 resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what officer 
 shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be 
 removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
814 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation which 
 shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been 
 elected ; and he shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the 
 United States, or any of them. 
 
 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or 
 affirmation : 
 
 “ I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President 
 of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the 
 constitution of the United States.” 
 
 Sec. II. — 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of 
 the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual 
 service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal 
 officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of 
 their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
 offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
 treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and 
 by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other pub- 
 lic ministers, and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the 
 United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall 
 be established by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such 
 inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in 
 the heads of departments. 
 
 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the 
 recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their 
 next session. 
 
 Sec. III. — He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of 
 the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge neces- 
 sary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either 
 of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjourn- 
 ment, he may adjourn them to such time' as he shall think proper ; he shall receive am* 
 bassadors, and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully exe- 
 cuted ; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. IV. — The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States, 
 shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or 
 other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 Sec. I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme 
 court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and 
 establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices 
 during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation 
 which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. II. — 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 815 
 
 under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall 
 be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, and other public min- 
 isters, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies 
 to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more states! 
 between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens of different states ; 
 between citizens of the same state, claiming lands under grants of different states, and 
 between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those 
 in which a State shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In 
 all other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
 both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Con- 
 gress shall make. 
 
 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and 
 such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; 
 but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such a place or places as 
 the Congress may by law have directed. 
 
 »Sec. III. — 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war 
 against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person 
 shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt 
 act, or confessions in open court. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; but no 
 attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of 
 the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Sec. I. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records 
 and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may. by general laws, 
 prescribe the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and 
 the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec. II. — 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immu- 
 nities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony or other crimes, who shall flee 
 from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority 
 of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having juris- 
 diction of the crime. 
 
 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping 
 into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from 
 such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such ser- 
 vice or labor may be due. 
 
 Sec. III. — 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union, but nc 
 new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any 
 State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the 
 consent of the Legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the Congr ess. 
 
816 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regu- 
 lations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and 
 nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
 United States, or of any particular State. 
 
 Sec. IV. — The United States shall guaranty to every State of this Union a republi- 
 can form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and, on applica- 
 tion of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), 
 against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
 propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of 
 two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 
 in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in 
 three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the 
 Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in 
 the ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its consent, shall be de- 
 prived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this 
 Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under 
 the confederation. 
 
 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in 
 pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of 
 the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State 
 shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary 
 notwithstanding. 
 
 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the sev- 
 eral State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
 and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitu- 
 tion ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
 trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establish- 
 ment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth 
 day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, 
 and of the Independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness where- 
 of, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 81 ? 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 John Langdon, 
 Nicholas Gilman. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham, 
 Rufus King. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Wm. Samuel Johnson, 
 Roger Sherman. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 William Livingston, 
 David Brearley, 
 William Patterson, 
 Jonathan Dayton. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 Thomas Mifflin, 
 Robert Morris, 
 
 George Clymer, 
 Thomas Fitzsimons, 
 Jared Ingersoll, 
 
 James Wilson, 
 Gouverneur Morris. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 George Read, 
 Gunning Bedford, Jr., 
 John Dickinson, 
 Richard Bassett, 
 Jacob Broom. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 James McHenry, 
 Attest : WI 
 
 Dan’l of St. Thos. Jenifer, 
 Daniel Carroll. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 John Blair, 
 
 James Madison, Jr. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 William Blount, 
 
 Rich. Dobbs Spaight, 
 Hugh Williamson. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 John Rutledge, 
 
 Charles C. Pinckney, 
 Charles Pinckney, 
 
 Pierce Butler. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 William Few, 
 
 Abraham Baldwin. 
 
 A JACKSON, Secretary. 
 
 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 Art. I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or pro- 
 hibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; 
 or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a 
 redress of grievances. 
 
 Art. II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, 
 the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 Art. III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with- 
 out the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed 
 by law. 
 
 Art. IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and 
 effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no war- 
 rants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particu- 
 larly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 Art. V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous 
 crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in 
 the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service, in time of war or public 
 danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy 
 of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be witness against him- 
 self, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law ; nor shall' 
 private property be taken for public use without just compensation. • 
 
 Art. VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
 and public trial by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have 
 been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
 Informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
 
818 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to 
 have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 
 
 Art. VII. — In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ; and no fact, tried by jury, 
 shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States than according to the 
 rules of the common law. 
 
 Art. VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 Art. IX. — The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be con- 
 strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 Art. X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, nor 
 prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. 
 
 Art. XI. — The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
 to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States 
 by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 
 
 Art. XII. — i. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for 
 President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the 
 same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
 President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President ; and they shall 
 make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as 
 Vice President, and of the number of votes for each ; which lists they shall sign and cer- 
 tify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the 
 president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Sen- 
 ate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be Presi- 
 dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no 
 person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest number, not 
 exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representa- 
 tives shall choose immediately by ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, 
 the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote , 
 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
 states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House 
 of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall 
 devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice Presi- 
 dent shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability 
 •of the President. 
 
 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice President shall be the 
 Vice President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
 and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Sen- 
 ate shall choose the Vice President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
 necessary to a choice. 
 
 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligi- 
 ble to that of Vice President of the United States. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 819 
 
 Art. XIII. — i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment 
 for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
 States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 
 
 Art. XIV. — i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to 
 the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they 
 reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or 
 immunites of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of 
 life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its 
 jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States according to their 
 respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding 
 Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors 
 for President and Vice President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the 
 executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is 
 denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and 
 citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebel' 
 lion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion 
 which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizen 
 twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of Presi- 
 dent and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or 
 under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as 
 an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an exec- 
 utive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, 
 shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort 
 to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove 
 such disability. 
 
 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including 
 debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrec- 
 tion or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State 
 shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
 against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; biU 
 all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of 
 this article. 
 
 Art. XV. — 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be de- 
 nied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color, or pre- 
 vious condition. 
 
 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 
 
Declaration of Independence. 
 
 In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 
 BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES, IN CONGRESS 
 
 ASSEMBLED. 
 
 .A. X)E0T-.^_TU^VTI03Sr. 
 
 HEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
 to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another f 
 and to assume among the powers ol the earth the separate and equal sta- 
 tion to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a 
 decent respect for the opinions of mankind requires that they should 
 declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : — that all men are created equal ; that they 
 are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, 
 liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are insti- 
 tuted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that 
 whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends it is the right of 
 the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its founda- 
 tion on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem 
 most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
 governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and 
 accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while 
 evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are 
 accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the 
 same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, 
 it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future 
 security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the 
 necessity which constrains them to alter their former system of government. The his- 
 tory of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpa- 
 tions, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these 
 states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public 
 good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, 
 tinless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so sus- 
 pended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, 
 unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a 
 right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and 
 distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing 
 them into compliance with his measures. 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 821 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firm- 
 ness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; 
 whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at 
 large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the danger 
 cf invasion from without and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose 
 obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage 
 their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for 
 establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices and 
 the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers, to 
 harass our people and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of 
 our legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil 
 power. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitu- 
 tion and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended 
 legislation, — 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they 
 should commit on the inhabitants of these States : 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences : 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establish- 
 ing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at 
 once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
 colonies : 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering funda- 
 mentally the forms of our governments: 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power 
 to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging 
 war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the 
 lives of our people. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the 
 works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty 
 and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
 head of a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms 
 against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall 
 themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on 
 
822 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of war- 
 fare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most 
 humble terms ; our petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince 
 whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be 
 the ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned 
 them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrant- 
 able jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigra- 
 tion and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, 
 and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usur- 
 pations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, 
 too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must therefore 
 acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold 
 the rest of mankind, enemies in war — in peace, friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General 
 Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of 
 our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these 
 colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, and of right 
 ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to 
 the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great 
 Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent States, 
 they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
 and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do.. And for 
 the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Provi- 
 dence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor 
 
 Signed by order and in behalf of the Congress. 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK, President. 
 
 Attested, Charles Thompson, Secretary. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 /osiah Bartlett, 
 William Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Richard Stockton, 
 John Witherspoon, 
 Francis Hopkin-son, 
 John Hart, 
 Abraham Clark. 
 
 Thomas Stone, 
 
 Charles Carroll,, of Carrolltor 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 
 
 Samuel Adams, 
 
 John Adams, 
 
 Robert Treat Paine, 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, &C. 
 
 Stephen Hopkins, 
 William Ellery. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Robert Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 George Clymer, 
 James Smith, 
 George Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 George Ross. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Benjamin Harrison, 
 Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Samuel Huntington, 
 William Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 William Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 
 John Penn. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 William Floyd, 
 Philip Livingston, 
 Francis Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Caesar Rodney, 
 George Read, 
 Thomas M’Kean. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
 Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Samuel Chase, 
 William Paca, 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 George Walton. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON’S INAUGURAL ADDRESS, 
 
 New York , April 30, 1789. 
 
 I can never 
 
 ELLOW Citizens of the Senate and of the House of Represent- 
 atives — Among the vicissitudes incident to life, no event could have 
 filled me with greater anxieties than that, of which the notification was 
 transmitted by your order, and received on the fourth day of the present 
 month. On the one hand, I was summoned by my country, whose voice 
 lear but with veneration and love, from a retreat which I had chosen with 
 
 the fondest predilection, and, in my flattering hopes, with an immutable decision as the 
 asylum of my declining years ; a retreat which was rendered every day more necessary 
 as well as more dear to me, by the addition of habit to inclination, and of frequent inter- 
 ruptions in my health to the gradual waste committed on it by time ; on the other hand, 
 the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to which the voice of my country called me, be- 
 ing sufficient to awaken, in the wisest and most experienced of her citizens, a distrustful 
 scrutiny into his qualifications, could not but overwhelm with despondence one who, in- 
 heriting inferior endowments from nature, and unpractised in the duties of civil adminis- 
 tration, ought to be peculiarly conscious of his own deficiencies. In this conflict of 
 emotions, all I dare aver is, that it has been my faithful study to collect my duty from a 
 just appreciation of every circumstance by which it might be affected. All I dare hope 
 is, that if, in executing this task, I have been too much swayed by a grateful remem- 
 brance of former instances, or by an affectionate sensibility to this transcendent proof of 
 the confidence of my fellow-citizens, and have thence too little consulted my incapacity 
 as well as disinclination for the weighty and untried cares before me, my error will be 
 palliated by the motives which misled me, and its consequences be judged by my coun- 
 try, with some share of the partiality in which they originated. 
 
 Such being the impressions under which I have, in obedience to the public sum- 
 mons, repaired to the present station, it would be peculiarly improper to omit, in this 
 first official act, my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being, who rules over the 
 universe, who presides in the councils of nations, and whose providential aids can supply 
 every human defect, that His benediction may consecrate to the liberties and happiness 
 of the people of the United States, a government instituted by themselves for these es- 
 sential purposes, and may enable every instrument employed in its administration, to 
 execute, with success, the functions allotted to his charge. In tendering this homage to 
 the Great Author of every public and private good, I assure myself that it expresses your 
 sentiments not less than my own ; nor those of my fellow-citizens at large less than 
 either. No people can be bound to acknowledge and adore the invisible hand which 
 conducts the affairs of men, more than the people of the United States. Every step by 
 which they have advanced to the character of an independent nation, seems to have been 
 distinguished by some token of providential agency. And, in the important revolution 
 just accomplished, in the system of their united government, the tranquil deliberations 
 and voluntary consent of so many distinct communities, from which the event has 
 resulted, cannot be compared with the means by which most governments have been 
 established, without some return of pious gratitude, along with an humble anticipation 
 of the future blessings, which the past seems to presage. These reflections, arising out 
 of the present crisis, have forced themselves too strongly on my mind to be suppressed. 
 You will join with me, I trust, in thinking that there are none under the influence of 
 which the proceedings of a new and free government can more auspiciously com- 
 mence. 
 
824 
 
 Washington’s inaugural address. 
 
 By the article establishing the executive department, it is made the duty of the 
 President “to recommend to your consideration, such measures as he shall judge neces- 
 sary and expedient.” The circumstances under which I now meet you, will acquit me 
 from entering into that subject farther than to refer you to the great constitutional char- 
 ter under which we are assembled ; and which, in defining your powers, designates the 
 objects to which your attention is to be given. It will be more consistent with those 
 circumstances, and far more congenial with the feelings which actuate me, to substitute, 
 in place of a recommendation of particular measures, the tribute that is due to the tal- 
 ents, the rectitude and the patriotism which adorn the characters selected to devise and 
 adopt them. In these honorable qualifications, I behold the surest pledges, that as, on 
 one side, no local prejudices or attachments, no separate views nor party animosities, 
 will misdirect the comprehensive and equal eye which ought to watch over this great 
 assemblage of communities and interests — so, on another, that the foundations of our 
 national policy will be laid in the pure and immutable principles of private morality ; and 
 the pre-eminence of a free government be exemplified by all the attributes which can win 
 the affections of its citizens, and command the respect of the world. 
 
 I dwell on this prospect with every satisfaction which an ardent love for my country 
 can inspire ; since there is no truth more thoroughly established than that there exists, 
 in the economy and course of nature, an indissoluble union between virtue and happi- 
 ness — between duty and advantage — between the genuine maxims of an honest and 
 magnanimous policy and the solid rewards of public prosperity and felicity — since we 
 ought to be no less persuaded that the propitious smiles of Heaven can never be ex- 
 pected on a nation that disregards the eternal rules of order and right which Heaven 
 itself has ordained — and since the preservation of the sacred fire of liberty, and the des- 
 tiny of the republican model of government, are justly considered as deeply, perhaps, 
 as finally staked, on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American 
 people. 
 
 Besides the ordinary objects submitted to your care, it will remain with your judg- 
 ment to decide how far an exercise of the occasional power delegated by the fifth article 
 of the Constitution is rendered expedient, at the present * uncture, by the* nature ct ob- 
 jections which have been urged against the system, or by the degree of inquietude which 
 has given birth to them. Instead of undertaking particular recommendations on this 
 subject, in which I could be guided by no lights derived from official opportunities, I shall 
 again give way to my entire confidence in your discernment and pursuit of the public 
 good. For I assure myself that, whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might 
 endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await 
 the future lessons of experience, a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and 
 a regard for the public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the 
 question, how far the former can be more impregnably fortified, or the latter be safely and 
 more advantageously promoted. 
 
 To the preceding observations I have one to add, which will be most properly ad- 
 dressed to the House of Representatives. It concerns myself, and will therefore be as 
 brief as possible. 
 
 When I was first honored with a call into the service of my country, then on the eve 
 of an arduous struggle for its liberties, the light in which I contemplated my duty, re- 
 quired that I should renounce every pecuniary compensation. From this resolution I 
 have in no instance departed. And being still under the impressions which produced it, 
 I must decline, as inapplicable to myself, any share in the personal emoluments, which 
 may be indispensably included in a permanent provision for the executive department ; 
 and must accordingly pray that the pecuniary estimates for the station in which I am 
 placed may, during my continuation in it, be limited to such actual expenditures as the 
 public good may be thought to require. 
 
 Having thus imparted to you my sentiments, as they have been awakened by the 
 
Washington’s farewell address. 
 
 825 
 
 occasion which brings us together, I shall take my present leave, but not without resort- 
 ing once more to the benign Parent of the human race, in humble supplication, that since 
 He has been pleased to favor the American people with opportunities for deliberating in 
 perfect tranquillity, and dispositions for deciding with unparalleled unanimity on a form 
 of government for the security of their union and the advancement of their happiness, so 
 His divine blessing may be equally conspicuous in the enlarged views, the temper- 
 ate consultations and the wise measures on which the success of this government 
 must depend. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL ADDRESS, 
 
 United States , September 17, 1796. 
 
 RIENDS and Fellow-Citizens — The period for a new election of a 
 citizen to administer the executive government of the United States being 
 not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be 
 employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that im- 
 portant trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a 
 more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprize you of the resolu- 
 tion I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those, out of whom 
 
 a choice is to be made. 
 
 I beg you, at the same time, to do me the justice to be assured that this resolution 
 has not been taken without a strict regard to all the considerations appertaining to the 
 relation which binds a dutiful citizen to his country ; and that, in withdrawing the tender 
 of service, which silence in my situation might imply, lam influenced by no diminution 
 of zeal for your future interest ; no deficiency of grateful respect for your past kindness ; 
 but am supported by a full conviction that the step is compatible with both. 
 
 The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in the office to which your suffrage! 
 have twice called me, have been a uniform sacrifice of inclination to the opinion of duty, 
 and to a deference for what appeared to be your desire. I constantly hoped that it would 
 have been much earlier in my power, consistently with motives which I was not at liberty 
 to disregard, to return to that retirement from which I had been reluctantly drawn- 
 The strength of my inclination to do this previous to the last election, had even led to 
 the preparation of an address to declare it to you ; but mature reflection on the then per- 
 plexed and critical posture of our affairs with foreign nations, and the unanimous advice 
 of persons entitled to my confidence, impelled me to abandon the idea. 
 
 I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as internal, no longer ren- 
 ders the pursuit of inclination incompatible with the sentiment of duty or propriety, and 
 am persuaded, whatever partiality may be retained for my services, that, in the present 
 circumstances of our country, you will not disapprove my determination to retire. 
 
 The impressions, with which I first undertook the arduous trust, were explained on 
 the proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust, I will only say, that I have, with 
 good intentions, contributed towards the organization and administration of the govern- 
 ment the best exertions of which a very fallible judgment was capable. Not uncon- 
 scious in the outset of my inferior qualifications, experience in my own eyes, perhaps still 
 more in the eyes of others, has strengthened the motives to diffidence of myself, and 
 every day the increasing weight of years admonishes me more and more that the shade 
 
828 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 of retirement is as necessary to me as it will be welcome. Satisfied, that, if any circuit 
 stances have given peculiar value to my services, they were temporary, I have the conso- 
 lation to believe, that, while choice and prudence invite me to quit the political scene, 
 patriotism does not forbid it. 
 
 In looking forward to the moment, which is intended to terminate the career of my 
 public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the deep acknowledgment of that 
 debt of gratitude, which I owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has con- 
 ferred upon me ; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me ; 
 and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attachment, 
 by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If bene- 
 fits have resulted to our country from these services, let it always be remembered to your 
 praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that under circumstances in which the 
 passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead, amidst appearances some- 
 times dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often discouraging, in situations in which not un- 
 frequently want of success has countenanced the spirit of criticism, the constancy of your 
 support was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of the plans by which they 
 were effected. Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall carry it with me to my grave 
 as a strong incitement to unceasing vows that Heaven may continue to you the choicest 
 tokens of its beneficence ; that your union and brotherly affection may be perpetual, that 
 the free constitution, which is the work of your hands, may be sacredly maintained ; that 
 its administration in every department may be stamped with wisdom and virtue ; that, in 
 fine, the happiness of the people of these States, under the auspices of liberty, may be 
 made complete, by so careful a preservation and so prudent a use of this blessing, as will 
 acquire to them the glory of recommending it to the applause, the affection, and adoption 
 of every nation, which is yet a stranger to it. 
 
 Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude tor your welfare, which cannot end 
 but with my life, and the apprehension of danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me, on 
 an occasion like the present, to offer to your solemn contemplation and to recommend to 
 your frequent review, some sentiments, which are the result of much reflection, of no in- 
 considerable observation, and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of 
 your felicity as a people. These will be offered to you with the more freedom, as you 
 can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting friend, who can possibly 
 have no personal motive to bias his counsel. Nor can I forget, as an encouragement to 
 it, your indulgent reception of my sentiments on a former and not dissimilar occasion. 
 
 Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your hearts, no recom- 
 mendation of mine is necessary to fortify or confirm the attachment. 
 
 The unity of government, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to you. 
 It is justly so, for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence, the support 
 of your tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your prosperity, of that 
 very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to forsee that, from different 
 causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many artifices employed, to 
 weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth, as this is the point in your political 
 fortress against which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most con- 
 stantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of infinite mo- 
 ment that you should properly estimate the immense value of your national union to your 
 collective and individual happiness ; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual and im- 
 movable attachment to it ; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the pal- 
 ladium of your political safety and prosperity ; watching for its preservation with jealous 
 anxiety ; discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any 
 event be abandoned ; and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt 
 to alienate any portion of our country from the rest, or to enfeeble the sacred ties which 
 now link together the various parts. 
 
 For this you have every inducement of sympathy and interest Citizens, by birth or 
 
Washington’s farewell address. 
 
 827 
 
 choice, of a common country, that county has a right to concentrate your affections. The 
 name of American, which belongs to you, in your national capacity, must always exalt 
 the just pride of patriotism, more than any appellation derived from local discriminations. 
 With slight shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, habits and 
 political principles. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together; the 
 independence and liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels, and joint efforts of 
 common dangers, sufferings and successes. 
 
 But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves to your sensi- 
 bility, are greatly outweighed by those which apply more immediately to your interest. 
 Here every portion of our country finds the most commanding motives for carefully 
 guarding and preserving the union of the whole. 
 
 The North, in an unrestrained intercourse with the South, protected by the equal 
 laws of a common government, finds in the productions of the latter great additional re- 
 sources of maritime and commercial enterprise and precious materials of manufacturing 
 industry. The South, in the same intercourse, benefiting by the agency of the North, 
 sees its agriculture grow and its commerce expand. Turning partly into its own chan- 
 nels the seamen of the North, it finds its particular navigation invigorated; and while 
 it contributes, in different ways, to nourish and increase the general mass of the national 
 navigation, it looks forward to the protection of a maritime strength, to which itself is 
 unequally adapted. The East, in a like intercourse with the West, already finds, and in 
 the progressive improvement of interior communications by land and water, will more 
 and more find, a valuable vent for the commodities which it brings from abroad or man- 
 ufactures at home. The West derives from the East supplies requisite to its growth and 
 comfort, and, what is perhaps of still greater consequence, it must of necessity owe the 
 secure enjoyment of indispensable outlets for its own productions to the weight, influ- 
 ence and the future maritime strength of the Atlantic side of the Union, directed by an 
 indissoluble community of interest as one nation. Any other tenure by which the West 
 can hold this essential advantage, whether derived from its own separate strength, or 
 from an apostate and unnatural connection with any foreign power, must be intrin- 
 sically precarious. 
 
 While, then, every part of our country feels an i immediate and particular interest in 
 union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find in the united mass of means and efforts 
 greater strength, greater resource, proportionably greater security from external danger, 
 a less frequent interruption of their peace by foreign nations ; and, what is of inestima- 
 ble value, they must derive from union an exemption from those broils and wars between 
 themselves, which so frequently afflict neighboring countries not tied together by the 
 same governments, which their own rivalships alone would be sufficient to produce, but 
 which opposite foreign alliances, attachments and intrigues would stimulate and embit- 
 ter. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the necessity of those overgrown military estab- 
 lishments, which, under any form of government are inauspicious to liberty, and which 
 are to be regarded as particularly hostile to republican liberty. In this sense it is that 
 your union ought to be considered as a main prop of your liberty, and that the love of 
 the one ought to endear to you the preservation of the other. 
 
 These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting and virtuous 
 mind, and exhibit the continuance of the Union as a primary object of patriotic desire. 
 Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere ? Let 
 experience solve it. To listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal. We 
 are authorized to hope that a proper organization of the whole, with the auxiliary agency 
 of governments for the respective subdivisions, will afford a happy issue to the experi- 
 ment. It is well worth a fair and full experiment. With such powerful and obvious mo- 
 tives to union, affecting all parts of our country, while experience shall not have demon- 
 strated its impracticability, there will always be reason to distrust the patriotism of those 
 who in any quarter may endeavor to weaken its bands. 
 
628 
 
 WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 In contemplating* the causes which may disturb our Union, it occurs as a matter of 
 serious concern that any ground should have been furnished lor characterizing parties 
 oy geographical discriminations, Northern and Southern, Atlantic and Western ; whence 
 designing men may endeavor to excite a belief that there is a real difference of local in- 
 terests and views. One of the expedients of party to acquire influence within particular 
 districts is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts. You cannot shield 
 yourselves too much against the jealousies and heartburnings which spring from these 
 misrepresentations ; they tend to render alien to each other those who ought to be bound 
 together by fraternal affection. The inhabitants of our western country have lately had 
 a useful lesson on this head ; they have seen, in the negotiation by the Executive, and 
 in the unanimous ratification by the Senate, of the treaty with Spain, and in the univer- 
 sal satisfaction at that event throughout the United States, a decisive proof how un- 
 founded were the suspicions propagated among them of a policy in the General Govern- 
 ment and in the Atlantic States unfriendly to their interests in regard to the Mississippi ; 
 they have been witnesses to the formation of two treaties, that with Great Britain, and 
 that with Spain, which secure to them everything they could desire, in respect to our 
 foreign relations, towards confirming their prosperity. Will it not be their wisdom to 
 rely for the preservation of these advantages on the Union by which they were pro- 
 cured ? Will they not henceforth be deaf to those advisers, if such there are, who would 
 sever them from their brethren and connect them with aliens. 
 
 To the efficacy and permanency of your Union a government for the whole is indis- 
 pensable. No alliances, however strict, between the parts can be an adequate substitute; 
 they must inevitably experience the infractions and interruptions which all alliances in 
 all times have experienced. Sensible of this momentous truth, you have improved upon 
 your first essay by the adoption of a Constitution of Government better calculated than 
 your former for an intimate Union, and for the efficacious management of your common 
 concerns. This Government, the offspring of our own choice, uninfluenced and unawed r 
 adopted upon full investigation and mature deliberation, completely free in its principles, 
 in the distribution of its powers uniting security with energy, and containing within it- 
 self a provision for its own amendment, has a just claim to your confidence and your 
 support. Respect for its authority, compliance with its laws, acquiescence in its meas- 
 ures, are duties enjoined by the fundamental maxims of true liberty. The basis of our 
 political systems is the right of the people to make and to alter their constitutions of 
 government. But the constitution which at any time exists, till changed by an explicit 
 and authentic act of the whole people, is sacredly obligatory upon all. The ver}' idea 
 of the power and the right of the people to establish government presupposes the duty 
 ot every individual to obey the established government. 
 
 All obstructions to the execution of the laws, all combinations and associations, un- 
 der whatever plausible character, with the real design to direct, control, counteract or 
 awe the regular deliberation and action of the constituted authorities, are destructive 01 
 this fundamental principle, and of fatal tendency. They serve to organize faction, to 
 give it an artificial and' extraordinary force; to put in the place of the delegated will of 
 the nation the will of a party, often a small but artful and enterprising minority of the 
 community; and, according to the alternate triumphs of different parties, to make the public 
 administration the mirror of the ill-concerted and incongruous projects of faction, rather 
 than the organ of consistent and wholesome plans digested by common councils and 
 modified by mutual interests. 
 
 However combinations or associations of the above description may now and then 
 answer popular ends, they are likely, in the course of time and things, to become potent 
 engines by which cunning, ambitious and unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert 
 the power of the people, and to usurp for themselves the reins of government ; destroy- 
 ing afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion. 
 
 Towards the preservation of your government and the permanency of your present 
 
Washington’s farewell address. 
 
 829 
 
 happy state, it is requisite, not only that you steadily discountenance irregular oppo- 
 sitions to its acknowledged authority, but also that you resist with care the spirit of 
 innovation upon its principles, however specious the pretexts. One method of assault 
 may be to effect, in the forms of the constitution, alterations which will impair the en- 
 ergy of the system, and thus to undermine what cannot be directly overthrown. In all 
 the changes to which you may be invited, remember that time and habit are at least as 
 necessary to fix the true character of governments as of other human institutions ; that 
 experience is the surest standard by which to test the real tendency of the existing com- 
 stitution of a country ; that facility in changes, upon the credit of mere hypothesis and 
 opinion, exposes to perpetual change from the endless variety of hypothesis and opinion ; 
 and remember especially that for the efficient management of your common interests, in 
 a country so extensive as ours, a government of as much vigor as is consistent with the 
 perfect security of liberty is indispensable. Liberty itself will find in such a govern- 
 ment, with powers properly distributed and adjusted, its surest guardian. It is, indeed, 
 little else than a name where the government is too feeble to withstand the enterprises 
 of faction, to confine each member of the society within the limits prescribed by the 
 laws, and to maintain all in the secure and tranquil enjoyment of the rights of person 
 and property. 
 
 I have already intimated to you the danger of parties in the State with particular 
 reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a 
 more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful 
 effects of the spirit of party generally. 
 
 This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the 
 strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all govern- 
 ments, more or less stifled, controlled or repressed ; but in those of the popular form it 
 is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly their worst enemy. 
 
 The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of 
 revenge natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated 
 the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. But this leads at length to a 
 more formal and permanent despotism. The disorders and miseries which result gradu- 
 ally incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in the absolute power of an 
 individual ; and sooner or later the chief of some prevailing faction, more able or more 
 fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own elevation 
 on the ruins of public liberty. 
 
 Without looking forward to an extremity of this kind (which nevertheless ought not 
 to be entirely out of sight), the common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party 
 are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise people to discourage and re- 
 strain it. 
 
 It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administra- 
 tion. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, kindles the 
 animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It 
 opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the 
 government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and will of 
 one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. 
 
 There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the admin- 
 istration of the government, and serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. This within 
 certain limits is probably true ; and in governments of a monarchical cast patriotism 
 may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party. But in those of 
 the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encour- 
 aged. From their natural tendency it is certain there will always be enough of that 
 spirit for every salutary purpose. And, there being constant danger of excess, the effort 
 ought to be by force of public 'opinion to mitigate aud assauge it. A fire not to be 
 quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, in- 
 stead of warming, it should consume. 
 
830 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 It is important, likewise, that the habits of thinking in a free country should inspire 
 caution, in those intrusted with its administration, to confine themselves within their re- 
 spective constitutional spheres, avoiding in the exercise of the powers of one department 
 to encroach upon another. The spirit of encroachment tends to consolidate the powers 
 of all the departments in one, and thus to create, whatever the form of government, a 
 real despotism. A just estimate of that love of power, and proneness to abuse it, which 
 predominates in the human heart, is sufficient to satisfy us of the truth of this position. 
 The necessity of reciprocal checks in the exercise of political power, by dividing 
 and distributing into different depositories, and constituting each the guardian of 
 the public weal against invasions by the others, has been evinced by experiments 
 ancient and modern ; some of them in our country and under our own eyes. To pre- 
 serve them must be as necessary as to institute them. If, in the opinion of the people, 
 the distribution or modification of the constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, 
 let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the constitution designates. But 
 let there be no change by usurpation ; for, though this, in one instance, may be the in- 
 strument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. 
 The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or tran- 
 sient benefit, which the use can at any time yield. 
 
 Of all the dispositions and habits, which lead to political prosperity, religion and 
 morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patri- 
 otism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest 
 props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, 
 ought to respect and cherish them. A volume could not trace all their connections with 
 private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked, Where is the security for property, 
 tor reputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oaths, which are the 
 instruments of investigation in courts of justice ? And let us with caution indulge the 
 supposition, that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be con- 
 ceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and ex- 
 perience both forbid us to expect, that national morality can prevail in exclusion of reli- 
 gious principle. 
 
 It is substantially true, that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular gov- 
 ernment. The rule, indeed, extends with more or less force to every species of free gov- 
 ernment. Who, that is a sincere friend to it, can look with indifference upon attempts to 
 shake the foundation of the fabric ? 
 
 Promote, then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffu- 
 sion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public 
 opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. 
 
 As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public credit. One 
 method of preserving it is, to use it as sparingly as possible ; avoiding occasions of ex- 
 pense by cultivating peace, but remembering also that timely disbursements to prepare 
 for danger frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel it ; avoiding likewise 
 the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vigorous ex- 
 ertion in time of peace to discharge the debts, which unavoidable wars may have occas- 
 ioned not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burden which we ourselves ought to 
 bear. The execution of these maxims belongs to your representatives, but it is necessary 
 that public opinion should co-operate. To facilitate to them the performance of their 
 duty, it is essential that you should practically bear in mind that towards the payment of 
 debts there must be revenue ; that to have revenue there must be taxes ; that no taxes 
 can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and unpleasant ; that the intrin- 
 sic embarrassment, inseparable from the selection of the proper objects (which is always 
 a choice of difficulties), ought to be a decisive motive for a candid construction of the con- 
 duct of the government in making it, and for a spirit of acquiescence in the measures for 
 obtaining revenue, which the public exigencies may at any time dictate. 
 
 Observe good faith and justice towards all nations ; cultivate peace and harmony 
 
Washington’s farewell address. 
 
 831 
 
 with all* Religion and morality enjoin this conduct ; and can it be that good policy does 
 not equally enjoin it ? It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and at no distant period, 
 a great nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people 
 always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence. Who can doubt that in the course 
 of time and things the fruits of such a plan would richly repay any temporary advantages 
 which might be lost by a steady adherence to it ? Can it be that Providence has not 
 connected the permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue ? The experiment, at least, 
 is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature. Alas ! is it rendered 
 impossible by its vices ? 
 
 In the execution of such a plan, nothing is more essential than that permanent, invet- 
 erate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others, should 
 be excluded ; and that in place of them, just and amicable feelings towards all should be 
 cultivated. The nation which indulges towards another an habitual hatred, or an habit- 
 ual fondness, is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to its animosity or to its affection, 
 either of which is sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interest. Antipathy in 
 one nation against another disposes each more readily to offer insult and injury, to lay 
 hold of slight causes of umbrage, to be haughty and intractable, when accidental or trif- 
 ling occasions occur. Hence, frequent collisions, obstinate, envenomed and bloody con- 
 tests. The nation, prompted by ill-will and resentment, sometimes impels to war the gov- 
 ernment, contrary to the best calculations of policy. The government sometimes partici- 
 pates in the national propensity, and adopts through passion what reason would reject ; 
 at other times, it makes the animosity of the nation subservient to projects of hostility 
 instigated by pride, ambition, and other sinister and pernicious motives. The peace 
 often, sometimes perhaps the liberty, of nations has been the victim. 
 
 So likewise a passionate attachment of one nation for another produces a variety of 
 evils. Sympathy for the favorite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common 
 interest in cases where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one the enmities 
 of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels and wars of the latter, 
 without adequate inducement or justification. It leads also to concessions to the favorite 
 nation of privileges denied to others, which is apt doubly to injure the nation making the 
 concessions, by unnecessarily parting with what ought to have been retained, and by ex- 
 citing jealously, ill-will, and a disposition to retaliate, in the parties from whom equal 
 privileges are withheld. And it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who 
 devote themselves to the favorite nation), facility to betray or sacrifice the interests of 
 their own country, without odium, sometimes even with popularity, gilding, with the ap- 
 pearances of a virtuous sense of obligation, a commendable deference for public opinion, 
 or a laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption 
 or infatuation. 
 
 As avenues to foreign influence in innumerable ways, such attachments are particu- 
 larly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent patriot. How many opportuni- 
 ties do they afford to tamper with domestic factions, to practice the arts of seduction, to 
 mislead public opinion, to influence or awe the public councils 1 Such an attachment of 
 a small or weak towards a great and powerful nation dooms the former to be the satellite 
 of the latter. 
 
 Against the insidious wiles of foreign influence (I conjure you to believe me, fellow- 
 citizens) the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly awake, since history 
 and experience prove that foreign influence is one of the most baneful foes of republican 
 government. But that jealousy, to be useful, must be impartial ; else it becomes the 
 instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead of a defence against it. Exces- 
 sive partiality for one foreign nation, and excessive dislike of another, cause those whom 
 they actuate to see danger only on one side, and serve to veil and even second the arts 
 of influence on the other. Real patriots who may resist the intrigues of the favorite are 
 
832 
 
 WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS. 
 
 liable to become suspected and odious ; while its tools and dupes usurp the applause and 
 confidence of the people to surrender their interests. 
 
 The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is, in extending our 
 commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. So far 
 as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith. 
 Here let us stop. 
 
 Europe has a set of primary interests which to us have none, or a very remote re- 
 lation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are 
 essentially foreign to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to impli- 
 cate ourselves by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary 
 combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. 
 
 Our detached and distant situation invites and enables us to pursue a different 
 course. If we remain one people, under an efficient government, the period is not far 
 off when we may defy material injury from external annoyance ; when we may take such 
 an attitude as will cause the neutrality we may at any time resolve upon to be scrupu- 
 lously respected ; when belligerent nations, under the impossibility of making acqui- 
 sitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provocation ; when we may choose 
 peace or war, as our interest, guided by justice, shall counsel. 
 
 Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation ? Why quit our own to stand 
 'apon foreign ground ? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Eu- 
 rope, entangle our* peace and prosperity in the toils of European ambition, rivalship, 
 interest, humor or caprice ? 
 
 It is our true policy to steer clear oi permanent alliances with any portion of the 
 foreign world ; so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it ; for let me not be un- 
 derstood as capable of patronizing infidelity to existing engagements. I hold the maxim 
 no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always the best policy, 
 t repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their genuine sense. But, in 
 my opinion, it is unnecessary and would be unwise to extend them. 
 
 Taking care always to keep ourselves, by suitable establishments, on a respectable 
 defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emergen- 
 cies. 
 
 Harmony, liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended by policy, humanity 
 and interest. But even our commercial policy should hold an equal and impartial hand, 
 neither seeking nor granting exclusive favors or preferences, consulting the natural 
 course of things, diffusing and diversifying by gentle means the streams of commerce, but 
 forcing nothing ; establishing, with powers so disposed, in order to give trade a stable 
 course, to define the rights of our merchants, and to enable the government to support 
 them, conventional rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual 
 opinion will permit, but temporary, and liable to be from time to time abandoned or 
 varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate; constantly keeping in view that 
 it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favors from another ; that it must pay 
 with a portion of its independence for whatever it may accept under that character ; that, 
 by such acceptance, it may place itself in the condition of having given equivalents for 
 nominal favors, and yet of being reproached with ingratitude for not giving more. There 
 can be no greater error than to expect or calculate upon real favors from nation to nation. 
 It is an illusion, which experience must cure, which a just pride ought to discard. 
 
 In offering to you, my countrymen, these consels of an old and affectionate friend, 
 I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impression I could wish ; that they 
 will control the usual current of the passions, or prevent our nation from running the 
 course, which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations. But, if I may even flatter 
 myself, that they may be productive of some partial benefit, some occasional good ; that 
 they may now and then recur to moderate the fury of party spirit, to warn against the 
 mischiefs of foreign intrigue, to guard against the impostures of pretended patriotism ; 
 
WASHINGTON’S FAREWI LL ADDRESS. 
 
 833 
 
 this hope will be a full recompense for the solicitude for your welfare, by which they have 
 been dictated. 
 
 How far in the discharge of my official duties, I have been guided by the principles 
 which have been delineated, the publie records, und other evidences of my conduct must 
 witness to you and to the world. To myself, the assurance of my own conscience is, that 
 I have at least believed myself to be guided by them. 
 
 In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe, my proclamation of the 22d of 
 April, 1793, is the index of my plan. Sanctioned by your approving voice, and by that 
 of your Representatives in both Houses of "Congress, the spirit of that measure has 
 continually governed me, uninfluenced by any attempts to deter or divert me from it. 
 
 After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could obtain, I was 
 well satisfied that our country, under all the circumstances of the case, had a right to 
 take, and was bound in duty and interest to take, a neutral position. Having taken it, I 
 determined, as far as should depend upon 1*% to maintain it, with moderation, persever- 
 ance and firmness. 
 
 The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it is not necessary 
 on this occasion to detail. I will only observe, that, according to my understanding of 
 the matter, that right, so far from being denied by any of the belligerent powers, has 
 been virtually admitted by all. 
 
 The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without anything more, 
 from the obligation which justice and humanity impose on every nation, in cases in which 
 it is free to act, to maintain inviolate the relations of peace and amity towards other 
 nations. 
 
 The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be referred to your 
 own reflections and experience. With me a predominant motive has been to endeavor to 
 gain time to our country to settle and mature its yet recent institutions, and to progress 
 without interruption to that degree of strength and consistency, which is necessary to 
 give it, humanly speaking, the command of its own fortunes. 
 
 Though, in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am unconscious of inten 
 tional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I 
 may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be I fervently beseech the 
 Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me 
 the hope, that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence ; and that, after 
 forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incom- 
 petent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of 
 rest. 
 
 Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent love 
 towards it, which is so natural to a man, who views in it the native soil of himself and 
 his progenitors for several generations ; I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat, 
 in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in 
 the midst of my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of good laws under a free govern- 
 ment, the ever favorite c bject of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual 
 :ares, labors, and dangers. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 United States, September 17th, 1796. 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AT INDEPENDENCE HALL, 
 
 Philadelphia , February 21, 1861. 
 
 AM FILLED with deep emotion at finding myself standing here in this 
 place, where were collected together the wisdom, the patriotism, the devo- 
 tion to principle from which sprang the institutions under which we live. 
 You have kindly suggested to me that in my hands is the task of restor- 
 ing peace to the present distracted condition of the country. I can say in 
 return, sir, that all the political sentiments I entertain have been drawn, so far as I have 
 been able to draw them, from the sentiments which originated in and tverp given to the 
 world from this hall. I have never had a feeling, politically, that did not spring from the 
 sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence. I have often pondered over 
 the dangers which were incurred by the men who assembled here, and framed and adopted 
 that Declaration of Independence. I have pondered over the toils that ^vere endured by 
 the officers and soldiers of the army who achieved that independence. I have often in 
 quired of myself what great principle or idea it was that kept this confederacy so long 
 together. It was not the mere matter of the separation of the colonies from the mother- 
 land, but that sentiment in the Declaration of Independence which gave liberty, not 
 alone to the people of this country, but, I hope, to the world, for all future time. It was 
 *that which gave promise that in due time the weight would be lifted from the shoulders 
 of all men. This is the sentiment embodied in the Declaration of Independence. Now. 
 my friends, can this country be saved upon that basis ? If it can, I will consider myself 
 one of the happiest men in the world if I can help to save it. If it cannot be saved upon 
 that principle, it will be truly awful. But if this country cannot be saved without giving 
 up that principle, I was about to say I would rather be assassinated on this spot than 
 surrender it. Now, in my view of the present aspect of affairs, there need be no blood- 
 shed or war. There is no necessity for it. I am not in favor of such a course ; and I 
 may say in advance that there will be no bloodshed unless it be forced upon the govern- 
 ment, and then it will be compelled to act in self-defence. 
 
 My friends, this is wholly an unexpected speech, and I did not expect to be called 
 upon to say a word when I came here. I supposed it was merely to do something 
 towards raising the flag — I may, therefore, have said something indiscreet. I have said 
 nothing but what I am willing to live by, and, if it be the pleasure of Almighty God, 
 die by. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
 
 March 4, 1861. 
 
 ELLOW Citizens of the United States — In compliance with a cus- 
 tom as old as the government itself, I appear before you to address you 
 briefly, and take in your presence the oath prescribed by the Constitution 
 of the United States to be taken by the President “before he enters on 
 the execution of his office.” 
 
 : consider it necessary at present for me to discuss those matters of admin- 
 istration about whicfi there is no special anxiety or excitement. 
 
 Apprehension seems to exist, among the people of the Southern States, that by the 
 
 I do 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
 
 835 
 
 accession of a republican administration their property and their peace and personal 
 security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such 
 apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed 
 and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of 
 him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare 
 that “ I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery 
 in the states where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no in- 
 clination to do so.” Those who nominated and elected me did so with full knowledge 
 that I had made this and similar declarations, and had never recanted them. And more 
 than this, they placed in the platform for my acceptance, and as a law to themselves and 
 to me, the clear and emphatic resolution which I now read : 
 
 Resolved , That the maintenance inviolate of the rights of states, and especially the right of each state 
 to order and control its own domestic institutions according to its own judgment exclusively, is essential to 
 the balance of power on which the perfection and endurance of our political fabric depend, and we denounce 
 the lawless invasion by armed force of the soil of any state or territory, no matter under what pretext, as 
 among the gravest of crimes. 
 
 I now reiterate these sentiments ; and, in doing so, I only press upon the public 
 attention the most conclusive evidence of which the case is susceptible, that the property, 
 peace, and security of no section are to be in anywise endangered by the now incoming 
 administration. I add, too, that all the protection which, consistently with the Constitu- 
 tion and the laws, can be given, will be cheerfully given to all the states, when lawfully 
 demanded, for whatever cause — as cheerfully to one section as to another. 
 
 There is much controversy about the delivering up of fugitives from service or labor. 
 The clause I now read is as plainly written in the Constitution as any other of its pro- 
 visions : 
 
 No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in 
 consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be deliv- 
 ered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 
 
 It is scarcely questioned that this provision was intended by those who made it fot 
 the reclaiming of what we call fugitive slaves ; and the intention of the lawgiver is the 
 law. All members of Congress swear their support to the whole Constitution — to this 
 provision as much as any other. To the proposition, then, that slaves, whose cases 
 come within the terms of this clause, “ shall be delivered up,” their oaths are unanimous. 
 Now, if they would make the effort in good temper, could they not, with nearly equal 
 unanimity, frame and pass a law by means of which to keep good that unanimous oath ? 
 
 There is some difference of opinion whether this clause should be enforced by 
 national or by State authority ; but surely that difference is not a very material one. 
 If the slave is to be surrendered, it can be of but little consequence to him, or to others, 
 by which authority it is done. And should any one, in any case, be content that his 
 oath shall go unkept, on a mere unsubstantial controversy as to how it shall be kept? 
 
 Again, in any law upon the subject, ought not all the safeguards of liberty known 
 in civilized and human jurisprudence to be introduced, so that a free man be not, in any 
 case, surrendered as a slave ? And might it not be well, at the same time, to provide 
 by law for the enforcement of that clause in the Constitution which guarantees that 
 “the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens 
 in the several States ? ” 
 
 I shall take the official oath to-day with no mental reservation, and with no purpose 
 to construe the Constitution or laws by any hypercritical rule. And while I do not 
 choose now to specify particular acts of Congress as proper to be enforced, I do suggest 
 that it will be much safer for all, both in official and private stations, to conform to and 
 abide by all those acts which stand unrepealed, than to violate any of them, trusting to 
 find impunity in having them held to be unconstitutional. 
 
836 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
 
 It is seventy-two years since the first inauguration of a President under our national 
 Constitution. During that period, fifteen different and greatly distinguished citizens 
 have, in succession, administered the executive branch of the government. They have 
 conducted it through many perils, and generally with great success. Yet, with all this 
 scope for precedent, I now enter upon the same task for the brief constitutional term of 
 four years, under great and peculiar difficulty. A disruption of the Federal Union, here- 
 tofore only menaced, is now formidably attempted. 
 
 I hold that, in contemplation of universal law, and of the Constitution, the union of 
 these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental 
 law of all national governments. It is safe to assert that no government proper ever had 
 a provision in its organic law for its own termination. Continue to execute all the 
 express provisions of our national government, and the Union will endure forever — it 
 being impossible to destroy it, except by some action not provided for in the instrument 
 itself. 
 
 Again, if the United States be not a government proper, but an association of 
 States in the nature of contract merely, can it, as a contract, be peaceably unmade by 
 less than all the parties who made it ? One party to a contract may violate it — break it, 
 so to speak ; but does it not require all to lawfully rescind it ? 
 
 Descending from these general principles, we find the proposition that, in legal con- 
 templation, the Union is perpetual, confirmed by the history of the Union itself. The 
 Union is much older than the Constitution. It was formed in fact, by the articles of 
 association in 1774. It was matured and continued by the Declaration of Independence 
 in 1776. It was further matured, and the faith of all the then thirteen States expressly 
 plighted and engaged that it should be perpetual, by the articles of confederation in 1778. 
 And, finally, in 1787, one of the declared objects for ordaining and establishing the Con- 
 stitution was “to form a more perfect Union.” 
 
 But if destruction of the Union, by one, or by a part only, of the States, be law- 
 fully possible, the Union is less perfect than before, the Constitution having lost the vital 
 element of perpetuity. 
 
 It follows, from these views, that no State upon its own mere motion, can lawfully 
 get out of the Union ; that resolves and ordinances to that effect are legally void ; and 
 that acts of violence within any State or States, against the authority of the United 
 States, are insurrectionary, or revolutionary, according to circumstances. 
 
 I, therefore consider that, in view of the Constitution and the laws, the Union is 
 unbroken, and to the extent of my ability I shall take care, as the Constitution itself 
 expressly enjoins upon me, that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the 
 States. Doing this I deem to be only a simple duty on my part ; and I shall perform it, 
 so far as practicable, unless my rightful masters, the American people, shall withhold the 
 requisite means, or, in some authoritative manner, direct the contrary. I trust this will 
 not be regarded as a menace, but only as the declared purpose of the Union that it will 
 constitutionally defend and maintain itself. 
 
 In doing this there need be no bloodshed or violence ; and there shall be none, 
 unless it be forced upon the national authority. The power confided to me will be used 
 to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and 
 to collect the duties and imports ; but beyond what may be but necessary for these 
 objects, there will be no invasion, no using of force against or among the people any- 
 where. Where hostility to the United States in any interior locality shall be so great 
 and universal as to prevent competent resident citizens from holding the federal offices, 
 there will be no attempt to force obnoxious strangers among the people for that object. 
 While the strict legal right may exist in the government to enforce the exercise of these 
 offices, the attempt to do so would be so irritating, and so nearly impracticable withal, I 
 deem it better to forego, for the time, the uses of such offices. 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 837 
 
 The mails, unless repelled, will continue to be furnished in all parts of the Union. 
 So far as possible, the people everywhere shall have that sense of perfect security which 
 is most favorable to calm thought and reflection. The course here indicated will be fol- 
 lowed, unless current events and experience shall show a modification or change to be 
 proper, and in every case and exigency my best discretion will be exercised, according to 
 circumstances actually existing, and with a view and a hope of a peaceful solution of the 
 national troubles, and the restoration of fraternal sympathies and affections. 
 
 That there are persons in one section or another who seek to destroy the Union at 
 all events, and are glad of any pretext to do it, I will neither affirm nor deny ; but if there 
 be such, I need address no word to them. To those, however, who really love the Union* 
 may I not speak ? 
 
 Before .entering upon so grave a matter as the destruction of our national fabric* 
 with all its benefits, its memories, and its hopes, would it not be wise to ascertain pre- 
 cisely why we do it ? Will you hazard so desperate a step while there is any possibility 
 that any portion of the ills you fly from have no real existence ? Will you, while the 
 certain ills you fly to are greater than all the real ones you fly from — will you risk the 
 commission of so fearful a mistake ? 
 
 All profess to be content in the Union, if all constitutional rights can be maintained. 
 Is it true, then, that any right, plainly written in the Constitution, has been denied ? I 
 think not. Happily the human mind is so constituted that no party can reach to the 
 audacity of doing this. Think, if you can, of a single instance in which a plainly writ- 
 ten provision of the Constitution has ever been denied. If, by the mere force of num- 
 bers, a majority should deprive a minority of any clearly written constitutional right, it 
 might, in amoral point of view, justify revolution — certainly it would if such a right were a 
 vital one. But such is not our case. All the vital rights of minorities and of individuals 
 are so plainly assured to them by affirmation and negations, guarantees and prohibitions 
 in the Constitution, that controversies never arise concerning them. But no organic law 
 can ever be framed with a provision specifically applicable -to every question which may 
 occur in practical administration. No foresight can anticipate, nor any document of 
 reasonable length contain, express provisions for all possible questions. Shall fugitives 
 from labor be surrendered by national or by state authority ? The Constitution does not 
 expressly say. May Congress prohibit slavery in the territories ? The Constitution does 
 not expressly say. Must Congress protect slavery in the territories? The Constitu- 
 tion does not expressly say. 
 
 From questions of this class spring all our constitutional controversies, and we 
 divide upon them into majorities and minorities. If the minority will not acquiesce, the 
 majority must, or the government must cease. There is no other alternative ; for con- 
 tinuing the government is acquiescence on one side or the other. If a minority in such 
 case will secede rather than acquiesce, they make a precedent which, in turn, will divide 
 and ruin them ; for a minority of their own will secede from them whenever a majority 
 refuses to be controlled by such minority. For instance, why may not any portion of a 
 new confederacy, a year or two hence, arbitrarily secede again, precisely as portions of 
 the present Union now claim to secede from it ? All who cherish disunion sentiments 
 are now being educated to the exact temper of doing this. 
 
 Is there such perfect identity of interests among the States to compose a new 
 Union, as to produce harmony only, and prevent renewed secession? 
 
 Plainly, the central idea of secession is the essence of anarchy. A majority held in 
 restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with 
 deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a 
 free* people. Whoever rejects it, does, of necessity, fly to anarchy or to despotism. 
 Unanimity is impossible ; the rule of a minority, as a permanent arrangement, is wholly 
 inadmissible ; so that, rejecting the majority principle, anarchy or despotism, in some 
 form, is all that is left. 
 
838 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
 
 I do not forget the position assumed by some, that constitutional questions are cg 
 be decided by the Supreme Court; nor do I deny that such decisions must be binding, 
 in any case, upon the parties to a suit, as to the object of that suit, while they are also 
 entitled to very high respect and consideration in all parallel cases, by all other depart- 
 ments of the government. And while it is obviously possible that such decisions may 
 be erroneous in any given case, still, the evil effect following it being limited to that par- 
 ticular case, with the chance that it may be overruled, and never become a precedent for 
 other cases, can better be borne than could the evils of a different practice. At the same 
 time, the candid citizen must confess that if the policy of the government upon vital 
 questions affecting the whole people, is to be irrevocably fixed by decisions of the 
 Supreme Court, the instant they are made in ordinary litigation between parties in per- 
 sonal actions, the people will cease to be their own rulers, having to that extent practi- 
 cally resigned their government into the hands of that eminent tribunal. 
 
 Nor is there in this view any assault upon the Court or the Judges. It is a duty 
 from which they may. not shrink to decide cases properly brought before them, and it is 
 .no fault of theirs if others seek to turn their decisions to political purposes. One section 
 of our country believes slavery is right, and ought to be extended, while the other be- 
 lieves it is wrong, and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute. 
 The fugitive slave clause of the Constitution, and the law foi die suppression of the for- 
 eign slave-trade, are each as well enforced, perhaps, as any law can ever be in a commu- 
 nity where the moral sense of the people imperfectly supports the law itself. The great 
 body of the people abide by the dry legal obligation in both cases, and a few break over 
 in each. This, I think, cannot be perfectly cured ; and it would be worse, in both cases, 
 after the separation of the sections than before. The foreign slave-trade, now imperfectly 
 suppressed, would be ultimately revived, without restriction, in one section ; while 
 fugitive slaves, now only partially surrendered, would not be surrendered at all by 
 the other. 
 
 Physically speaking, we cannot separate. We cannot remove our respective sections 
 from each other, nor build an impassable wall between them. A husband and wife may 
 be divorced and go out of the presence and beyond the reach of each other, but the dif- 
 ferent parts of our country cannot do this. They cannot but remain face to face, and 
 intercourse, either amicable or hostile, must continue between them. It is impossible, 
 then, to make that intercourse more advantageous or more satisfactory after separation 
 than before. Can aliens make treaties easier than friends can make laws ? Can treaties 
 be more faithfully enforced between aliens than laws can among friends ? Suppose you 
 gp to war, you cannot fight always ; and when, after much loss on both sides, and no gain 
 on either, you cease fighting, the identical old questions, as to terms of intercourse, are 
 again upon you. 
 
 This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit it. Whenever 
 they shall grow weary of the existing government, they can exercise their Constitutional 
 right of amending it, or their revolutionary right to dismember or overthrow it. I can- 
 not be ignorant of the fact that many worthy and patriotic citizens are desirous of having 
 the National Constitution amended. While I make no recommendation of amendment, 
 I fully recognize the rightful authority of the people over the whole subject, to be exer- 
 cised in either of the modes prescribed in the instrument itself ; and I should, under ex- 
 isting circumstances, favor, rather than oppose, a fair opportunity being afforded the 
 people to act upon it. I will venture to add, that to me the convention mode seems pref- 
 erable, in that it allows amendments to originate with the people themselves, instead of 
 only permitting them to take or reject propositions originated by others, not especially 
 chosen for the purpose, and which might not be precisely such as they would wish to 
 either accept or refuse. I understand a proposed amendment to the Constitution — which 
 amendment, however, I have not seen — has passed Congress, to the effect that the Fed- 
 eral Government shall never interfere with the domestic institutions of the States, in- 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN’S FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS. 
 
 839 
 
 eluding that o± persons held to service. To avoid misconstruction of what I have said, 
 I depart from my purpose not to speak of particular amendments so far as to say that, 
 holding such a provision now to be implied Constitutional law, I have no objections to 
 its being made express and irrevocable. 
 
 The chief magistrate derives all his authority from the people, and they have con- 
 ferred none upon him to fix terms for the separation of the States. The people them- 
 selves can do this also if they choose ; but the executive, as such, has .nothing to do with 
 it. His duty is to administer the present government as it came to his hands, and to 
 transmit it, unimpaired by him, to his successor. 
 
 Why should there not be a patient confidence in the ultimate justice of the people ? 
 Is there any better or equal hope in the world ? In our present differences, is either 
 party without faith of being in the right ? If the Almighty Ruler of Nations, with His 
 eternal truth and justice, be on your side of the North, or on yours of the South, that 
 truth and that justice will surely prevail, by the judgment of this great tribunal of the 
 American people. 
 
 By the frame of the government under which we live, the same people have wisely 
 given their public servants but little power for mischief, and have with equal wisdom pro- 
 vided for the return of that little to their own hands at very short intervals. While the 
 people retain their virtue and vigilance, no administration, by any extreme of wickedness 
 or folly, can very seriously injure the government in the short space of four years. 
 
 My countrymen, one and all, think calmly and well upon this whole subject. Noth- 
 ing valuable can be lost by taking time. If there be an object to hurry any of you in 
 hot haste to a step which you would never take deliberately, that object will be frustrated 
 by taking time ; but no good object can be frustrated by it. Such of you as are now 
 dissatisfied, still have the old Constitution unimpaired, and, on the sensitive point, the 
 laws of your own framing under it ; while the new administration will have no immedi- 
 ate power, if it would, to change either. If it were admitted that you who are dissatis- 
 fied hold the right side in the dispute, there stili is no single good reason for precipitate 
 action. Intelligence, patriotism, Christianity, and a firm reliance on Him who has never 
 yet forsaken this favored land, are still competent to adjust, in the best way, all our 
 present difficulty. 
 
 In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the moment- 
 ous issues of civil war. The government will not assail you. 
 
 You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. You have no 
 oath registered in Heaven to destroy the government ; while I shall have the most sol- 
 emn one to “ preserve, protect and defend ” it. 
 
 I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies. 
 Though passion may have strained, it must not break our bonds of affection. 
 
 The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battle-field and patriot grave 
 to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the 
 chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels 
 of our nature. 
 
 ^EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION.- — Abrafanj Lincoln.^ 
 
 Washington , yanuary I, 1863. 
 
 EREAS, on the 22d day of September, in the year of our Lord one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the Pres- 
 ident of the United States, containing, among other things, the following, 
 to wit : — 
 
 That on the first day of January, in the year of ur Lord one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any states or desig- 
 nated part of a state, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
 
840 
 
 THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. 
 
 States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free ; and the Executive Government of the 
 United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and 
 maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, 
 or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. 
 
 That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, 
 designate the states and parts of states, if any, in which the people thereof respectively 
 shall then be in rebellion against the United States ; and the fact that any state, or the 
 people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the 
 United States, by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified 
 voters of such state shall have participated, shall in the absence of strong countervailing 
 testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such state, and the people thereof, are not 
 then in rebellion against the United States. 
 
 Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of 
 the power in me vested as commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States 
 in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United 
 States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this 
 first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty- 
 three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed for the full period 
 of one hundred days from the day first above mentioned, order and designate, as the 
 states and parts of states wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebel- 
 lion against the United States, the following, to wit: 
 
 Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jeffer- 
 son, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, 
 Ste. Marie, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the City of New Orleans), Mississippi, 
 Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the 
 forty-eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkely, 
 Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including 
 the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are for the present left 
 precisely as if this proclamation were not issued. 
 
 And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare 
 that all persons held as slaves within said designated states and parts of states are, and 
 henceforward shall be, free ; and that the Executive Government of the United States, 
 including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the free- 
 dom of said persons. 
 
 And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all vio- 
 lence, unless in necessary self-defence ; and I recommend to them that, in all cases when 
 allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 
 
 And I further declare and make known that such persons, of suitable condition, will 
 be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, sta- 
 tions, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. 
 
 And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Con- 
 stitution upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind, and 
 the gracious favor of Almighty God- 
 in testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the Uni- 
 ted States to be affixed. 
 
 Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our Lord 
 r L -| one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the independence of the Uni- 
 *■ * ■-* ted States the eighty* seventh. 
 
 By the President : 
 
 William H. Seward, Secretary of State. 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
POLITICAL MAXIMS FROM CARDINAL DE RETZ. 
 
 SELECTED BY THE EARL OF CHESTERFIELD . 
 
 T is often madness to engage in a conspiracy ; but nothing is so effectual 
 to bring people afterwards to their senses, at least for a time. As in such 
 undertakings, the danger subsists, even after the business is over ; this 
 obliges to be prudent and circumspect in the succeeding moments. 
 
 A middling understanding, being susceptible of unjust suspicions, is 
 consequently, of all characters, the least fit to head a faction. As the most indispensa- 
 ble qualification in such a chief is, to suppress, in many Dccasions, and to conceal in all, 
 even the best grounded suspicions. 
 
 The greatest powers cannot injure a man’s character, whose reputation is unblem- 
 ished among his party. 
 
 We are as often duped by diffidence, as by confidence. 
 
 There are, at times, situations so very unfortunate, that whatever is undertaken must 
 be wrong. Chance, alone, never throws people into such dilemmas ; and they happen 
 only to those who bring them upon themselves. 
 
 It is more unbecoming a minister to say, than to do, silly things. 
 
 The advice given to a minister, by an obnoxious person, is alway: thought bad. 
 
 It is as dangerous, and almost as criminal, with princes, to have the power of doing 
 good, as the will of doing evil. 
 
 Timorous minds are much more inclined to deliberate than to resolve. 
 
 Flexibility is the most requisite qualification for the management of great affairs. 
 
 It is more difficult for the member of a faction to live with those of his own party, 
 than to act against those who oppose it. 
 
 Violent measures are always dangerous, but when necessary, may then be looked 
 upon as wise. They have, however, the advantage of never being matter of indifferency; 
 and, when well concerted, must be decisive. 
 
 There may be circumstances, in which even prudence directs us to trust entirely to 
 chance. 
 
 Every thing in this world has its critical moment ; and the height of good conduct 
 consists in knowing and seizing it. 
 
 Profligacy, joined to ridicule, form the most abominable and most dangerous of all 
 characters. 
 
 Weak minds never yield when they ought. 
 
 Variety of sights have the greatest effect upon the mob, and also upon numerous 
 assemblies, who, in many respects, resemble mobs. 
 
 Examples taken from past times have infinitely more power over the minds of men, 
 than any of the age in which they live. Whatever we see, grows familiar ; and perhaps 
 the consulship of Caligula’s horse might not have astonished us so much as we are apt 
 to imagine. 
 
 Weak minds are commonly overpowered by clamor. 
 
 We ought never to contend for what we are not likely to obtain. 
 
84S 
 
 POLITICAL MAXIMS FROM CARDINAL DE RETZ. 
 
 The instant in which we receive the most favorable accounts, is just that wherein 
 we ought to redouble our vigilance, even in regard to the most trifling circumstances. 
 
 Nothing lowers a great man so much, as not seizing the decisive moment of raising 
 his reputation. This is seldom neglected, but with a view to fortune : by which mistake, 
 it is not unusual to miss both. 
 
 The possibility of remedying imprudent actions is commonly an inducement to com- 
 mit them. 
 
 Every numerous assembly is a mob ; consequently everything there depends upon 
 instantaneous turns. 
 
 Whatever measure seems hazardous, and is in reality not so, is generally a wise 
 
 one. 
 
 Irresolute minds always adopt with facility whatever measure can admit of different 
 issues, and consequently do not require an absolute decision. 
 
 In momentous affairs, no step is indifferent. 
 
 There are times in which certain people are always in the right. 
 
 Nothing convinces persons of weak understanding so effectually as what they do 
 not comprehend. 
 
 Those who head factions have no way of maintaining their authority, but by prevent- 
 ing, or quieting discontent. 
 
 A certain degree of fear produces the same effects as rashness. 
 
 In affairs of importance, the choice of words is of as much consequence, as it would 
 be superfluous in those of little moment. 
 
 During those calms which immediately succeed violent storms, nothing is more diffi 
 cult for ministers than to act properly ; because, while flattery increases, suspicions are 
 not yet subsided. 
 
 The faults of our friends ought never to anger us so far as to give an advantage tc 
 our enemies. 
 
 The talent of insinuation is more useful than that of persuasion ; as every body is 
 open to insinuation, but scarce any to persuasion. 
 
 In matters of a delicate nature, all unnecessary alterations are dangerous ; because 
 odious. 
 
 The best way to compel weakminded people to adopt our opinion is to frighten 
 them from all others, by magnifying their danger. 
 
 We must run all hazards, where we think ourselves in a situation to reap some 
 advantage, even from the want of success. 
 
 Irresolute men are diffident in resolving upon the means, even when they are deter- 
 mined upon the end. 
 
 It is never allowable in an inferior to equal himself in words to a superior, although 
 he may rival him in actions. 
 
 Every man whom chance alone has, by some accident, made a public character, 
 hardly ever fails of becoming, in a short time, a ridiculous private one. 
 
 The greatest imperfection of men is, the complacency with which they are willing 
 to think others not free from faults, of which they are themselves conscious. 
 
 Experience only can teach men not to prefer what strikes them for the present mo- 
 ment, to what will have much greater weight with them hereafter. 
 
MAXIMS, BY THE EARL OF CHESTERFIELD. 
 
 843 
 
 In the management of important business, all turn to raillery must be more carefully 
 avoided than in any other. 
 
 In momentous transactions, words cannot be sufficiently weighed. 
 
 The permanency of most friendships depends upon the continuity of good fortune. 
 
 Whoever assembles the multitude will raise commotions. 
 
 I have taken the trouble of extracting and collecting, for your use, the foregoing 
 Political Maxims of the Cardinal de Retz, in his Memoirs. They are not aphorisms of 
 his invention, but the true and just observations of his own experience, in the course of 
 great business. My own experience attests the truth of them all. Read them over with 
 attention. — Lord Chesterfield. 
 
 MAXIMS, BY THE EARL OF CHESTERFIELD. 
 
 PROPER secresy is the only mystery of able men ; mystery is the only 
 secrecy of weak and cunning ones. 
 
 A man who tells nothing, or who tells all, will equally have nothing 
 told him. 
 
 If a fool knows a secret, he tells it because he is a fool ; if a knave 
 mows one, he tells it wherever it is his interest to tell it. But women, and young men, 
 are very apt to tell what secrets they know, from the vanity of having been trusted* 
 Trust none of these, whenever you can help it. 
 
 Inattention to the present business, be it what it will ; the doing one thing, and 
 thinking at the same time of another, or the attempting to do two things at once, are 
 the never-failing signs of a little, frivolous mind. 
 
 A man who cannot command his temper, his attention, and his countenance, should 
 not think of being a man of business. The weakest man in the world can avail himself 
 of the passion of the wisest. The inattentive man cannot know the business, and con- 
 sequently cannot do it. And he who cannot command his countenance, may e’en as 
 well tell his thoughts as show them. 
 
 Distrust all those who love you extremely upon a very slight acquaintance, and with- 
 out any visible reason. Be upon your guard, too, against those who confess, as their 
 weaknesses, all the cardinal virtues. 
 
 In your friendships, and in your enmities, let your confidence and your hostilities 
 have certain bounds ; make not the former dangerous nor the latter irreconcilable. There 
 are strange vicissitudes in business ! 
 
 Smooth )T)ur way to the head through the heart. The way of reason is a good one, 
 but it is commonly something longer, and perhaps not so sure. 
 
 Spirit is now a very fashionable word : to act with spirit, to speak with spirit, means 
 only to act rashly, and to talk indiscreetly. An able man shows his spirit by gentle 
 words and resolute actions ; he is neither hot nor timid. 
 
 When a man of sense happens to be in that disagreeable situation, in which he is 
 obliged to ask himself more than once, What shall I do f he will answer himself, Nothing. 
 When his reason points out to him no good way, or at least no one way less bad than 
 
844 
 
 MAXIMS, BY THE EARL OF CHESTERFIELD. 
 
 another, he will stop short and wait for light. A little busy mind runs on at all events^ 
 must be doing ; and, like a blind horse, fears no dangers, because he sees none. 
 
 Patience is a most necessary qualification for business ; many a man would rathei 
 you heard his story than granted his request. One must seem to hear the unreasonable 
 demands of the petulant, unmoved, and the tedious details of the dull, untired. 
 
 It is always right to detect a fraud and to perceive a folly, but it is often very wrong 
 to expose either. A man of businees should always have his eyes open ; but must often 
 seem to have them shut. 
 
 It is hard to say which is the greatest fool, he who tells the whole truth or he who 
 tells no truth at all. Character is as necessary in business as in trade. No man can 
 deceive often in either. 
 
 A difference of opinion, though in the merest trifles, alienates little minds especially 
 of high rank. It is full as easy to commend as to blame a great man’s cook, or his 
 tailor ; it is shorter, too ; and the objects are no more worth disputing about than the 
 people are worth disputing with. It is impossible to inform, but very easy to displease 
 them. 
 
 A cheerful, easy countenance and behavior are very useful at court ; they make fools 
 think you a good-natured man, and they make designing men think you an undesigning 
 one. 
 
 There are some occasions in which a man must tell half his secret in order to con- 
 ceal the rest ; but there is seldom one in which a man should tell it all. Great skill is 
 necessary to know how far to go and where to stop. 
 
 Good breeding carries along with it a dignity that is respected by the most petulant. 
 Ill breeding invites and authorizes the familiarity of the most timid. No man ever said 
 a pert thing to the Duke of Marlborough. No man ever said a civil one (though many a 
 flattering one) to Sir Robert Walpole. 
 
 Knowledge may give weight, but accomplishments only give lustre ; and many more 
 people see than weigh. 
 
 Most arts require long study and application, but the most useful art of all, that of 
 pleasing, requires only the desire. 
 
 It is to be presumed that a man of common sense, who does not desire to please, 
 desires nothing at all, since he must know that he cannot obtain anything without it. 
 
 A skilful negotiator will most carefully distinguish between the little and the great 
 objects of his business, and will be as frank and open in the former as he will be secret 
 and pertinacious in the latter. 
 
 He will, by his manners and address, endeavor, at least, to make his public adver- 
 saries his personal friends. He will make even a merit of giving up what he could not 
 or would not carry, and sell a trifle for a thousand times its value. 
 
 If ever the volto sciolto and the pensieri stretti are necessary, they are so in these 
 affairs. A grave, dark, reserved and mysterious air has fcemim in cornu. An even, easy, 
 unembarrassed one invites confidence, and leaves no room for guesses and conjectures. 
 
 The reputation of generosity is to be purchased pretty cheap ; it does not depend so 
 much upon a man’s general expense as it does upon his giving handsomely where it is 
 proper to give at all. A man, for instance, who should give a servant four shillings 
 would pass for covetous, while he who gave him a crown would be reckoned generous ; 
 so that the difference of those two opposite characters turn upon one shilling. A man’s 
 character, in that particular, depends a great deal upon the report of his own servants ; a 
 mere trifle above common wages makes their report favorable. 
 
POLITICAL DUTIES, 
 
 OR HOW TO SUCCEED IN PUBLIC LIFE 
 
 BY SENATOR EDMUNDS. 
 
 [Senator Edmunds in Christian Union.] 
 
 Dear Sir — Yours of the 15th was received, but the press of my public occupations 
 hdi prevented my attending to the matter until now. I inclose replies to the question 
 you suggest. 
 
 1. Ought a young man to plan for himself a political career, or ought, in America, no man to enter 
 politics except as he is drawn or driven into them by circumstances ? 
 
 I think a young man ought not to plan for himself such a career, in the sense of 
 making it the object of his life to hold office in the government of a republic. The true 
 theory is that no man has a right to be elected or appointed to office, but that the whole 
 body of the community has a right to select and choose those citizens for office whom they 
 think to be the best, or the best obtainable. And the same principle holds good in cases 
 in which the appointing power is lodged in the hands of a Governor, head of a department, 
 or a President. Every man, young and old, ought to be always a politician in the best sense 
 of the term ; that is, one who is familiar with that branch of ethics which relates to the 
 practical creation and execution of laws to the greatest advantage of the whole mass of 
 the people, with a due regard always to the rights of minorities and individuals. But he 
 who makes it his mission in life to be the one to be chosen to make or execute the laws 
 is necessarily either a constant office-seeker or office-holder, or both ; and he becomes, in 
 most instances, justly liable to the suspicion that he is inspired by selfishness and not by 
 patriotism. In such a case, even if it be that it is country first and himself last that he 
 wishes to serve, his usefulness is greatly impaired ; for confidence in our rulers is no 
 small element in good and successful government. 
 
 A young man’s life object should therefore be, I think, to pursue a private calling, 
 and with that to cultivate the largest possible acquaintance with public affairs and the 
 principle on which they should be conducted ; to always participate in elections, and to 
 leave public honors and responsibilities to seek him, and not he them. 
 
 2 . "What kind of preparation may a man make for a political career ; what line of studies should he 
 pursue ; and what is likely to be the practical value of the so-called schools of political philosophy? 
 
 *f he is not to be what we have already spoken of as undesirable — a life-long office- 
 seeker — a young man would not of course make any special preparation for a political 
 career. The same studies that would make him best fitted to discharge his political du- 
 ties as a private citizen, and best fit him to prosecute and protect his private business 
 and other private rights, would, in general, be most useful for him should he be called to 
 assist in administering the government. 
 
 Besides the simple scholarly attainments almost indispensable to the carrying on 
 of any business, an accurate knowledge of the history and constitutions of his own State 
 and of the United States, of the laws of civilized countries on the subjects of education, 
 crime and punishment, taxation, marriage and divorce, pauperism and other general sub- 
 jects of social science, and of the broad principles and application of what is called public 
 law would cover the largest part of the subjects with which he would have to deal as a 
 legislator or an administrative officer. It hardly need be said that, if he were to be called to 
 ^judicial station, special and exhaustive study of the law in details, together with a knowl* 
 
846 
 
 POLITICAL DUTIES, OR HOW TO SUCCEED IN PUBLIC LIFE. 
 
 edge of its actual practice, would be indispensable. The so-called schools of political 
 philosophy would, to a mind not already trained to logical and discriminating thought 
 and experience in the practical working of affairs, be more likely in most instances to 
 mislead than to teach truly. 
 
 3. Is it possible for a man, under ordinary circumstances, to succeed in political life without manipu- 
 lating caucus and conventions, and entering into political bargains to secure political influence and to con- 
 trol nominations and conventions ? 
 
 This, in regard to elective places, practically depends very much upon the condition 
 of society in the particular community in which the voting power is to make the choice. 
 If the majority (or in case of existing divisions of parties, a considerable portion) of the 
 voting power be ignorant, prejudiced or vicious, the probability of the election of the fit- 
 test is naturally small, and the chance of the election of any really good candidate of any 
 party or of no party is at the minimum. Ignorance of public affairs is not of itself so 
 great an evil as the others, for many honest, ignorant persons are quite wise enough to know 
 that good government is best for them, and to know the best persons to intrust with the 
 duty of securing good government are the men whom they know to be of high standing 
 for capacity and uprightness. But a community in which the people, or a considerable 
 number of them, are corrupt is in bad case indeed. The State or city, in which the con- 
 trolling votes are for sale, either for ready money or tc be paid for with places or legisla- 
 tive jobs, is probably worse for being under a republican form of government than if it 
 were deprived of self-government entirely. Fortunately such cases are not frequent ; 
 but when they exist it is not easy to come to an office without using the methods named 
 in your question. But even then, if the honest citizens will persist, in spite of party nom- 
 inations, in voting against all candidates believed to be bad men, the evil is likely to be 
 cured in time. Parties and caucuses are indispensable means for united effort as well for 
 good citizens as for bad ones ; for success cannot be attained without a concentration of 
 the power of those who think alike as to measures of men. But in the greater number of 
 the States and communities of this country real and permanent success in political life does 
 not, I think, require or admit either manipulations or bargains. The people of a republic 
 (if we are to have faith in the value of free institutions) must be supposed to prefer capa- 
 city, honor, candor and independence in their public, servants rather than intrigue and 
 self-seeking ; and, if so, the long-run must prove here, as in everything else, that honesty 
 is the best policy. 
 
 4. ' What is the function of the politician or statesman in a free republic like that of America? In what 
 sense is he a teacher, in what a representative, and in what a leader of public sentiment? 
 
 I think his function is as a citizen to be informed as to what are the best measures 
 for the public good and the best men to effectuate them, and on proper occasions to give his 
 fellow citizens the benefit of his knowledge and experience. As a lawmaker or executor 
 he ought to know and do much the same things. If he be truly a politician and states- 
 man, he must be a teacher in all that he says and does about public affairs. He is a 
 representative in so far as his views and actions are acknowledged to be the exponents of 
 a public opinion already formed, and he is a leader in so far as his character, his capacity 
 and his proposed action command the confidence of his countrymen, and, indeed, some- 
 times when his proposed action does not ; for he may be in advance of public sentiment, 
 or he may see clearly and have the courage to do what at the moment is quite opposed 
 to popular opinion ; and if the event justifies him, he has vindicated his title to all your 
 question implies. There is perhaps no one thing so valuable to the right progress of civ- 
 ilized society as the courage of sincere individual opinion ; and as it regards public 
 affairs, the man who tries honestly to form an accurate conclusion, and bravely to main- 
 tain and advance it, without counting the number of his adversaries, will fulfill the best 
 mission of a citizen, and will be, whether in public or private station, the true politi- 
 cian, often the real statesman, the best teacher and the noblest leader. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
» V ? ‘ ‘ 
 
 UNITED STATES WEATHER SIGNALS. 
 
 Indicates clear or J air 
 weather. 
 
 Cautionary against a wind veloc- 
 ity that will be dangerous to all 
 classes of vessels, that t\, vjhen a 
 velocity of 33 miles an hour is 
 expected vjithin too miles of the 
 station where hoisted. 
 
 Indicates rain or snow. 
 
 Always refers to 
 temperature. 
 
 Cold Wave Flag : indicates 
 a sudden and decided fall in 
 temperature. 
 
 Direction signal above cautionary 
 signal when easterly winds are 
 expected, and below for westerly 
 winds. 
 
 Black stripe above white when 
 northerly winds are exfected, and 
 below for southerly winds. 
 
 Wind direction signal. 
 
 Storm fag hoisted alone indicates that the probable direction 
 of wind is doubtful. 
 
 North-west. 
 
 
 11 ' South west. 
 
 I 
 
 On shore wind signal , only dis 
 
 played at lake stations. North-east. 
 
 Cold wave, followed by Clear or fair , colder. Warmer, rain or snow, 
 
 rain or snow, succeeded by 
 fair weather. 
 
 Warmer, Jair weather , fol- 
 lowed by rain or snow. 
 
THE WORK OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES WEATHER 
 BUREAU AND ITS VALUE. 
 
 United States Signal Service and its Code. 
 
 The fact that from eighty-five to eighty-nine per cent of the predictions sent out 
 by this branch of the Service has been verified, speaks volumes in its favor. Since 
 the system of cautionary signals was instituted in this country, there has been a 
 marked saving to life and property, and the annual loss to vessel property alone has 
 decreased from $2,586,781 to less than $500,000, while the loss per ton has gone down 
 from $3.63 to 76 cents. 
 
 It is well-nigh impossible to estimate the value the daily weather reports sent 
 out by the bureau have been to the great agricultural interest of the country. In 
 the sugar-growing States, in the. cotton and tobacco belts, and for the stock-raisers 
 of Texas, the reports of impending cold waves have aided the farmers and breeders 
 of the South, and have accrued to the benefit of the whole land, ft has come to so 
 great a degree of accuracy, that the sailor, the merchant, the tourist, and all classes 
 whose business or pleasure is affected by changes in the weather, look for the daily 
 reports and govern themselves to as great extent as may be by their predictions. 
 
 The American Signal Service exercised a great influence in the organization and 
 establishment of an International Service by which it is possible to obtain a com- 
 plete series of scientific and trustworthy observations throughout the entire civilized 
 world. The late Admiral Fitzroy, an eminent modern meteorologist, has very 
 pertinently said : “Every prudent person will combine observation of the elements 
 with such indications as he may obtain from instruments, and will find that the more 
 accurately the two sources of fore-knowledge are compared and combined, the more 
 satisfactory their result will prove.” 
 
 WEATHER SIGNALS. 
 
 On March 1st, 1887, a new system of weather signals was introduced by the 
 United States Signal Office <5f the War Department, and have since been in use at 
 all the stations of the service. The flags adopted for this purpose are four in nunv 
 ber, and of the form and dimensions indicated below. 
 
848 
 
 THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU AND ITS VALUE. 
 
 Number I, white flag six feet square, indicates clear or fair weather. 'Number 
 2, blue flag six feet square, indicates rain or snow. Number 3, black triangular 
 flag four feet at the base and six feet in length, always refers to temperature. When 
 placed above Numbers 1 or 2 it indicates warmer weather; when placed below Num- 
 bers 1 or 2 it indicates colder weather; when not displayed, the indications are that 
 the temperature will remain stationary, or that the change in temperature will not 
 vary more than 4 0 in winter or 6° in summer from the temperature of the same hour 
 of the preceding day. Number 4, white flag six feet square, with black square in 
 centre, indicates the approach of a sudden and decided fall in temperature. This 
 signal is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours in advance of the cold wave. It 
 is not displayed unless a temperature sufficiently low to produce frost is expected. 
 When Number 4 is displayed, Number 3 is always omitted. 
 
 When displayed on poles, the signals are arranged to read downward ; when dis- 
 played from horizontal supports, a small streamer is attached to indicate the point 
 from which the signals are to be read. 
 
 INTERPRETATION OF DISPLAYS. 
 
 No. I, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary temperature. 
 
 No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary temperature. 
 
 No. 1, with No. 3 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. 
 
 No. 2, with No. 3 above it, indicates warmer weather, rain or snow. 
 
 No. 1, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, cold. wave. 
 
 No. 3, with Nos. 1 and 2 below it, indicates warmer, fair weather, followed by 
 rain or snow. 
 
 STORM, CAUTIONARY, AND WIND-DIRECTION SIGNALS. 
 
 A red flag with a black centre indicates that the storm is expected to be of 
 marked violence. A yellow flag with a white centre indicates that the winds ex- 
 pected will not be so severe, but well-found, seaworthy vessels can meet them without 
 danger. The red pennant indicates easterly winds — that is, from the northeast 
 to south inclusive, and that generally the storm-centre is approaching. If above 
 cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast quadrant are more probable ; if 
 below, winds from southeast quadrant. The white pennant indicates westerly winds; 
 that is, from north to southwest inclusive, and that generally the storm-centre has 
 passed. If above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northwest quadrant are more 
 probable; if below , winds from southwest quadrant. 
 
 Practical Rules for Judging of the Weather. — When the wind chan-- ■ 
 from south to north through the west, it causes a rise in the barometer and a fad 
 in the thermometer. Therefore in winter, look for heavy snowfall; in the spring 
 sleet showers, and in the summer for thunder storms; afterward it will be colder. 
 
THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU AND ITS VALUE. 
 
 849 
 
 When the wind shifts from north to northeast the barometer will be high, and 
 we may expect clear weather. In the winter it will be intensely cold, with clear, 
 crisp air. The wind will change to east, and thin, whitish clouds will cover the sky. 
 The south wind and falling snow may be expected. If the barometer continues to 
 fall rapidly, we may expect the snow to change to rain, and a thaw sets in. 
 
 When the sky changes from clear to overcast, the commencement of that change 
 is indicated by fine, streaky cirrus clouds gradually becoming cirrus-stratus with a 
 uniform coating throughout. The equatorial current seen from beneath, gives rise 
 to the cirrus clouds which mark its progress. The water condensing from vapor 
 becomes at once solid, so that these high clouds are not vapor, but are composed of 
 minute particles of ice. These changes occasion the halos around the sun and moon 
 by the refraction of light. When these appearances accompany a falling barometer 
 we may be sure that wet weather is coming. 
 
 When a moist wind succeeds a “ long spell ” dry weather, with northerly and 
 easterly winds, the dust which has collected in the air becomes damp and sinks to 
 the ground. After this the air is very clear, distant objects appear quite near, and 
 distant sounds are more distinct. This is regarded as a sure sign of rain. 
 
 As a quite general rule, the rain comes from the westward, therefore a clear 
 sunset is an indication that there is no rain in that quarter, and is a sign of fair 
 weather. 
 
 The French proverb, “ If the weather clears up at night, it will not last when 
 day breaks,” has a philosophical explanation in this. When the sun goes down the 
 air ceases to ascend, the clouds sink and are dissolved in the warmer strata below 
 them, but the moisture is still held in suspense in the air, so that the clearness of the 
 night is delusive, and it will probably rain after the air is again warmed by the rising 
 sun. 
 
 Rains that come suddenly are seldom of long duration, but when the air be- 
 comes thick gradually and the sun or moon and stars grow dimmer in luster, we may 
 expect a rain lasting a few hours. This dimness of the heavenly bodies is one of the 
 surest signs of very rainy weather. 
 
 When the rain sets in for an hour or two before sunrise, it is likely to clear away 
 before noon, but when the rain commences an hour or two after sunrise, look for 
 rain all that day. 
 
 If a rainbow is seen after a long drought, it is a sign of continued rain; if after a 
 period of wet weather, it is a promise that it will be fair for some time. When a 
 rainbow breaks up, or dissolves all at once, it is an indication that the weather will 
 be serene and settled. 
 
- 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 VICTORIA SQUARE, MONTREAL. 
 
Dominion of Canada. 
 
 BY LIEUT. COL. WILLIAM WHITE, 
 
 Chief Secretary to the Postal Department of the Dominion of Canada . 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 HE Constitution of the Dominion of Canada is contained in the Act of 
 the Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland, assented to on the 29th of 
 March, 1867, and known as the “British North America Act, 1867.’" 
 This act provides for the union at any time, to be fixed by Royal Procla- 
 mation, within six months of the passing thereof, of the Provinces of 
 Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, under the name of the Dominion of Canada^ 
 and for the division of the Dominion thus constituted into four Provinces — Canada 
 being divided into two Provinces to be called Ontario and Quebec ; Ontario to consist 
 of that part of Canada formerly known as Upper Canada, and Quebec to comprise that 
 part which formerly constituted the Province of Lower Canada. Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick to have the same limits as at the passing of the act. A census is required by 
 the act to be taken by Provinces in 1871 and every tenth year thereafter. 
 
 Provision is also made for the admission to the Dominion of the Provinces or Colo- 
 nies of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, Rupert’s Land and the 
 North West Territory, on addresses to the Queen in Council from the Parliament of 
 Canada and the respective Legislatures. 
 
 THE EXECUTIVE GOVERNMENT and authority of and over Canada is de- 
 clared to be continued and vested in the Queen ; being administered, however, by a 
 Governor-General on behalf and in the name of the Queen. 
 
 The Governor-General is aided and advised in the government of Canada by a 
 Council, styled the Queen’s Privy Council for Canada, to be chosen by the Governor- 
 General and to be sworn in as Privy Councilors. There is no limit to the number of 
 Privy Councilors. No inconvenience, however, arises from this extension of number, as 
 with the exception of such of them as are called Cabinet Ministers, the Privy Council* 
 ors are not summoned to advise the Governor-General upon affairs of State. The 
 Cabinet Ministers, or the ministry, as they are usually termed, are those privy council- 
 ors who as Heads of Departments actually conduct the business of the country ; when, 
 from any cause, they cease to be members of the ministry they cease to be active mem- 
 bers of the Privy Council, merely retaining the title, which they retain for life. The 
 Governor-General has, however, the power to remove a Privy Councilor. The term* 
 
 “ Governor in Council,” is construed as referring to the Governor-General acting by and 
 with the advice of the Queen’s Privy Council for Canada. 
 
852 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 The Queen can authorize the Governor-General to appoint a Deputy or Deputies to 
 exercise during pleasure such powers, authorities and :unctions as he may assign to him 
 or them. 
 
 The command of all naval and military forces in Canada is vested in the Queen ; 
 but actually devolves upon the Ministers of Marine and Militia, and in the case of the 
 militia is usually entrusted to an officer having the rank of Major-General in her 
 Majesty’s regular army. 
 
 Ottawa is declared to be the seat of the Government of 'Canada until the Queen 
 otherwise directs. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE POWERS. — There is one Parliament for the Dominion of Can° 
 ada, consisting of the Queen (represented by the Governor-General), an Upper House 
 styled the Senate, and the House of Commons. 
 
 The Privileges, Immunities and Powers, held, enjoyed and exercised by the Senate 
 and House of Commons, and by the members thereof respectively, are defined from time 
 to time by the Parliament of Canada, but are never to exceed those held, enjoyed and 
 exercised at the time of the passing of the British North America Act by the British 
 House of Commons and its members. 
 
 There must be a session of the Parliament of Canada at least once in every year. 
 
 The Senate consisted at the time of confederation of seventy -two members, but 
 since the admission of British Columbia, Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island, the 
 number has been increased to seventy-six, in accordance with the provisions of the act. 
 
 A Senator must be thirty years of age, a subject of the Queen by birth or naturali- 
 zation, reside in the Province for which he is appointed, aud be possessed of real prop- 
 erty worth four thousand dollars. 
 
 The first Senators were appointed by Warrant, under the Queen’s Royal Sign Man- 
 ual, and their names were inserted in the Proclamation of Union. Senators are now 
 appointed by the Governor-General, in the Queen’s name, under the Great Seal of 
 Canada. The Queen may, on the recommendation of the Governor-General, add three 
 or six additional members to the Senate, but if this addition be made, subsequent vacan- 
 cies are to remain unfilled, unless by the same special authority, until the normal number 
 is again reached. The total number of Senators is limited to seventy-eight, and if New- 
 foundland join the Confederation the number may then be eighty -two. 
 
 A Senator is appointed for life ; but he can resign by writing under his hand ad- 
 dressed to the Governor-General. The Speaker of the Senate is appointed by the 
 Governor-General. Fifteen Senators must be present to enable the Senate to transact 
 "business. Questions are decided by a majority. The Speaker has a vote, and a tie is 
 %eld to be a decision in the negative. 
 
 The House of Commons, at the time of Confederation, consisted of one hundred 
 and eighty-one members — eighty -two for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, nineteen for 
 Nova Scotia and fifteen for New Brunswick. 
 
 • The House of Commons is called together by the Governor-General by summons 
 under the Great Seal. 
 
 The several Provinces of the Dominion are divided into Electoral Districts, each of 
 which returns one member. The representation of the Provinces is readjusted by the 
 
CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 8&S 
 
 Parliament of Canada after each decennial census, according to rules laid down by the 
 British North America Act — the Province of Quebec always retaining sixty-five mem- 
 bers, and the other Provinces in proportion to their respective population as compared 
 with Quebec. 
 
 All bills for imposing taxes or appropriating revenue must originate in the House of 
 Commons, and must be first recommended by message from the Governor-General. 
 
 Bills passed by the Senate and Commons require the assent of the Queen, which is 
 given by the Governor-General in Her Majesty’s name. The Governor-General has the 
 power to withhold the Queen’s assent or to reserve bills for the signification of the 
 Queen’s pleasure. 
 
 The Governor-General is required to transmit to one of Her Majesty’s principal 
 Secretaries of State an authentic copy of every act to which he has assented in the 
 Queen’s name ; and Her Majesty in council may disallow any such act within two years 
 from the date of its receipt by the Secretary of State, and the official announcement of 
 such disallowance by the Governor-General shall annul the act. 
 
 A bill reserved for the signification of the Queen’s pleasure has no force unless 
 assented to by the Queen in council within two years from the date upon which it was 
 presented to the Governor-General for the Queen’s assent. 
 
 EACH PROVINCE OF THE DOMINION has a Lieutenant-Governor, who is 
 appointed by the Governor-General, under the Great Seal of the Dominion. 
 
 A Lieutenant-General holds his office during the pleasure of the Governor-General, 
 But he is not removable within five years from his appointment except for cause assigned, 
 which must be communicated to him in writing within one month after the order for 
 removal is made, and also by message from the Governor-General to the Senate and 
 House of Commons within one week thereafter, if Parliament is then sitting , if not, 
 then within one week of the commencement of the next session. 
 
 The salaries of the Lieutenant-Governors are fixed and provided by the Parliament 
 of the Dominion. 
 
 The members of the Executive Councils of the Provinces are appointed by the 
 Lieutenant-Governor of those Provinces. The expression, Lieutenant-Governor in 
 Council, means the Lieutenant-Governor acting by and with the advice of his Executive 
 Council. 
 
 The Governor-General in Council has power to appoint an administrator during the 
 absence, illness or inability of a Lieutenant-Governor. 
 
 The seats of the respective Provincial Governments are — of Ontaria, the city of 
 Toronto ; of Quebec, the city of Quebec ; of Nova Scotia, the city of Halifax ; of New 
 Brunswick, the city of Fredricton ; of Prince Edward Island, the city of Charlottetown ; 
 of British Columbia, the city of Victoria ; of Manitoba, the city of Winnipeg. The. Ex- 
 ecutive Government of any Province has power to change the seat of government of such 
 province. 
 
 LEGISLATIVE POWER IN THE SEVERAL PROVINCES. 
 
 In Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia the Legislature consists of the Lieuten- 
 ant-Governor and a House of Assembly. 
 
854 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF CANADA. 
 
 In Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, the Legisla- 
 ture consists of the Lieutenant-Governor, or Legislative Council and a House of As- 
 sembly. 
 
 Each Province regulates the election of the members of Assembly and fixes the 
 limits of the Electoral Districts. The Legislative Councils, in the Provinces in which 
 they exist, are governed by the same rules and have nearly the same powers and privi- 
 leges within their respective provinces as the Senate of the Dominion. 
 
 The provisions respecting taxation and revenue which govern the House of Com- 
 mons apply equally to Provincial Legislative Assemblies — and the power of assent to 
 bills, disallowance of acts and signification of pleasure on bills reserved, also apply sub- 
 stituting the Lieutenant-Governor for the Governor-General, the Governor-General for 
 the Queen, and the Secretary of State for Canada for Her Majesty’s Principal Secretary 
 of State. 
 
 The Legislative authority of the Parliament of Canada extends to all matters con- 
 nected with : 
 
 1. The Public Debt and Property. 
 
 2. The Regulation of Trade and Commerce. 
 
 3. The raising of money by any mode or system of taxation, 
 
 4. The borrowing of money on the Public Credit. 
 
 5. The Postal Service. 
 
 6. The Census and Statistics. 
 
 7. Militia, Military and Naval service and Defense. 
 
 8. The fixing of and providing for the salaries and allowances of Civil and other 
 officers of the Government of Canada. 
 
 9. Beacons, Buoys, Lighthouses, and Table Island. 
 
 10. Navigation and Shipping. 
 
 11. Quarantine and the establishment and maintenance of Marine Hospitals. 
 
 12. Sea Coast and Inland Fisheries. 
 
 13. Ferries between a Province and any British or Foreign country, or between two 
 Provinces. 
 
 14. Currency and Coinage. 
 
 15. Banking, incorporation of banks, and issue of paper money. 
 
 16. Savings Banks. 
 
 17. Weights and Measures. 
 
 18. Bills of Exchange and Promissory Notes. 
 
 19. Interest. 
 
 20. Legal tender. 
 
 21. Bankruptcy and Insolvency. 
 
 22. Patents of Invention and Discovery. 
 
 23. Copyrights. 
 
 24. Indians, and lands reserved for the Indians. 
 
 25. Naturalization and aliens. 
 
 26. Marriage and Divorce. 
 
 27. Criminal Law (except constitution of Courts). 
 
 28. Penitentiaries. 
 
POSTAL SERVICE. 
 
 855 
 
 29. Such classes ol subjects as are expressly excepted in the enumeration of the 
 classes of subjects by this act, assigned exclusively to the Legislatures of the Provinces. 
 
 The principal matters left to the control of the Provincial Legislatures are the 
 amendment of their respective Constitutions ; direct taxation for Provincial purposes ; 
 Raising Money on Provincial Credit ; Provisional Civil Service ; Public Lands ; Prisons 
 and Reformatories, Asylums, Hospitals (except Marine) and Charities ; Municipal Insti- 
 tutions ; Shop and Tavern Licenses ; local works ; Solemnization of Marriage ; Property 
 and civil rights ; Administration of Justice and power to enforce Provincial laws by fine 
 or imprisonment ; Education subject to existing privileges ; Agriculture and Immigra- 
 tion subject to general powers of the Parliament of Canada. 
 
 The Judges of the Superior, District and County Courts in the respective Provinces 
 are appointed by the Governor-General, and their salaries are fixed and paid by the Par- 
 liament of Canada. 
 
 Judges of the Superior Courts hold office during good behavior, but may be re- 
 moved on joint address from the Senate and House of Commons to the Governor-General. 
 
 Ample provision is made in the British North America Act for the adjustment of 
 the liabilities of the respective Provinces.. 
 
 The creation of a Consolidated Revenue Fund is also provided for — from which 
 fund the salary of the Governor-General, fixed at ten thousand pounds sterling per an- 
 num, is to be paid. 
 
 Every member of the Senate, House of Commons, Provincial Legislative Council or 
 Assembly, is required to take the oath of allegiance before he can take his seat. 
 
 Either the English or the French language may be used in debate in the Parliament 
 of Canada, and in the two Houses of the Legislature of Quebec. 
 
 Acts of the Parliament of Canada and of the Legislature of Quebec shall be printed 
 and published in both the English and French languages. 
 
 POSTAL SERVICE. 
 
 The Canadian Post-Office is under the control of a Postmaster-General, who is 
 always a member of the Privy Council and also of the Cabinet or Ministry, assisted by a 
 Deputy Postmaster-General. 
 
 The next principal officer is the Secretary, who has general control of the corres- 
 pondence and supervision of the Dead Letter, Postage Stamp and Printing and Supply 
 Branches. The Secretary also attends to the carrying into effect of all appointments. 
 These are made by the Postmaster-General, except when the person appointed becomes 
 thereby a member of the permanent Civil Service, in which case the appointment is 
 made by the Governor-General in council. The making of contracts for conveyance of 
 the mails and general supervision of the mail service belongs also to the Secretary’s Branch 
 
 The other principal officers are the Accountant, who looks after the collection of the 
 revenue and makes all payments for Post-Office service ; the Superintendent of the 
 Money Order and Savings Bank branches, and the Cashier. 
 
 The accounts of the Post-Office are audited by the Auditor-General, an officer of 
 the Finance Department, who is responsible directly to Parliament for the performance 
 of his duties. 
 
RATES OF POSTAGE. 
 
 HE RATE OF POSTAGE upon letters passing by mail within the 
 Dominion of Canada is three cents per half ounce. This rate applies 
 to all closed packages except parcels for the transmission of which special 
 provision is made. 
 
 Newspapers and periodicals printed and published in Canada, and 
 mailed by the publishers at the Post-office of the place in which they are published, 
 and addressed to regular subscribers or news dealers in Canada, resident elsewhere 
 than at the place of publication, are transmitted by ipail free of postage. This regu- 
 lation applies also to newspapers sent from the office of publication to regular sub- 
 scribers in the United States. 
 
 On all newspapers and periodicals posted in Canada, other than those addressed 
 from the office of publication, to regular subscribers or news agents in the Dominion, in- 
 cluding all newspapers and periodicals published less frequently than once a month, the 
 rate is one cent per four ounces, which must be prepaid by postage stamp. 
 
 The rate upon newspapers delivered from the office at which they are mailed is one 
 cent each, to be paid by postage stamp. 
 
 Transient newspapers are liable to a rate of one cent per four ounces. 
 
 Publishers of newspapers and periodicals in Canada are allowed to enclose in copies 
 of their papers sent to subscribers within the Dominion, subscription accounts and re- 
 ceipts for subscription, without rendering them liable to any additional postage. 
 
 On miscellaneous matter, comprising pamphlets, occasional publications, printed cir- 
 culars, prices current, handbills, book and newspaper manuscripts, printers’ proof-sheets, 
 whether corrected or not, maps, prints, drawings, engravings, lithographs, photographs, 
 botanical and entomological specimens, sheet music, documents wholly or partly printed 
 or written, such as deeds, insurance policies, militia and school returns, the rate is one 
 cent per four ounces. Limit of length of packet, 24 in. ; width, 12 in. ; weight, 4 lbs. 
 
 On book packets, which may contain any number of separate books or publications, 
 maps or prints, drawings, engravings or lithographs, one cent per four ounces. 
 
 Patterns or samples of merchandise or of goods for sale, not exceeding twenty-four 
 ounces in weight, may be posted in Canada for transmission to any place within the 
 Dominion on prepayment by postage stamp of a rate of one cent per four ounces. Pat- 
 terns and samples must be so put up as to be easily examined by the officers of the 
 Post-office, and there must be no writing or printing upon or in any packet, except the 
 address of the person for whom it is intended, the address of the sender, a trade mark or 
 number, and the price of the articles. 
 
 Parcels, closed at the ends and sides, and not exceeding five pounds in weight, 
 may be forwarded by mail to any place within the Dominion. The rate is six cents per 
 four ounces. No letter must be enclosed. The limit of size is two feet in length and one 
 foot in width. 
 
 All letters and other mailable matter addressed to, and sent by, the Governor-Gen- 
 eral or his Secretary are free of postage ; and also all correspondence addressed to 01 
 from the Public Departments at the seat of Government (Ottawa), and to or from mem- 
 bers of the Parliament of Canada when in session. 
 
RATES OF POSTAGE. 
 
 857 
 
 Books sent to or from the Library of Parliament are free of postage. 
 
 The fee for registration of letters is two cents, which must be prepaid by registration 
 stamp (postage stamps will not be accepted). The registration fee upon parcels and 
 patterns or stamps is five cents, to be paid by registration stamp. No letter, parcel or 
 pattern will be accepted for registration unless the postage is fully prepaid by postage 
 stamp. 
 
 Postage stamps of the value of ic., ic., 2c., 3c., 5c., 6c., 10c., I2ic. and 15c. each are 
 issued by the Post-Office Department for sale to the public by postmasters and licensed 
 stamp venders. 
 
 Registration stamps, value 2c. and 5c. Post cards ic. each. Postal Union cards 
 2c. each. Reply cards 2c. each. Post bands or wrappers four for 5c., and stamped en- 
 velopes, ic. and 3c. are also issued by the Department, for sale to the public. 
 
 Request letters, that is letters having printed thereon a request from the sender that 
 the letter, if not delivered or called for within a certain time, may be returned to his 
 address, are returned direct to the sender by the postmaster at the office to which they 
 are addressed. 
 
 Letters or packets containing any explosive, dangerous or destructive substance or 
 liquid, or any matter or thing likely to injure any letter or other mailable matter, or the 
 person of any officer or servant of the post-office ; or glass, leeches, fish or fruits, or any 
 obscene or immoral books, pamphlets or print picture or engraving, cannot be sent by 
 mail. 
 
 The Postmaster-General has the sole and exclusive privilege of conveying, collect- 
 ing, receiving, sending and delivering letters within Canada. Any other person who 
 who may collect, convey or deliver any letter is liable to a fine oi twenty dollars. 
 
 A letter once posted becomes the property of the person to whom it is addressed, 
 and must be forwarded according to its direction. On no account can it be returned to 
 the writer. 
 
 Postmasters cannot be required to deliver a letter or parcel until all postage due 
 thereon is paid. They are not permitted to give any information respecting correspond- 
 ence passing through their offices. 
 
 A postmaster is not legally bound to furnish change. 
 
 Money Orders are issued at all the principal post-offices in Canada on every other 
 Money Order office in Canada, and also on Money Order offices in the United Kingdom, 
 United States, British India and Newfoundland. 
 
 RATES OF COMMISSION ON CANADIAN MONEY ORDERS. 
 
 COMMISSION ON MONEY ORDERS. 
 
 On Money Orders drawn by any Money Order Office in Canada on any other 
 Money Order Office in the Dominion, is as follows : 
 
 Over $40, if not exceeding $60, . . 30c. 
 
 “ 60, “ “ 80, . . 40c. 
 
 “ 80, “ “ 100, . . 50c. 
 
 No single Money Order, payable in the Dominion of Canada, can be issued for 
 more than $100 ; but as many of $100 each may be given as the remitter requires. 
 
 If not exceeding $ 4 , ... 
 
 2 C. 
 
 Over $4 “ 
 
 “ 10, ... 
 
 5 c. 
 
 “ 10 “ 
 
 “ 20, ... 
 
 IOC. 
 
 “ 20 “ 
 
 “ 40 ... . 
 
 20c. 
 
858 
 
 DIGEST OF CANADIAN LAW. 
 
 Not more than one Order under $100 may be issued to the same person in the sant 
 day, drawn on the same place in favor of the same payee. 
 
 On Money Orders payable in the United Kingdom, Newfoundland, and the United 
 States : 
 
 If not exceeding $10, . . . ioc. Over $30 if not exceeding $40, . . 40c. 
 
 Over $10 “ “ 20, . . • 20c. “ 40 “ “ 50, . . 50c. 
 
 “ 20 “ “ 30, . . . 30c. 
 
 Money Orders on the United Kingdom, Newfoundland, the United States, and 
 British India, are drawn in Canada currency, and may be had for any sum not in excess 
 of #50 ; but postmasters are at liberty to issue several of $50 each, if required by the 
 remitter. 
 
 The commission charged on Money Orders payable in British India is : 
 
 If not exceeding $10, . . 30c. Over #25 if not exceeding 35, .. 90c. 
 
 Over $10 “ “ 25, . . 60c. “ 35 “ “ 50, . . $1.20 
 
 POST-OFFICE SAVINGS BANKS. 
 
 Savings Bank business is transacted at about three hundred ol the principal post- 
 offices in the Provinces of Ontario and Quebec, where deposits of one dollar or of any 
 number of dollars, will be received from any depositor, provided the deposits made by 
 such depositor, in any year ending 30th June, do not exceed three hundred dollars (ex- 
 cept under special cases to be specially authorized by the Postmaster-General), and pro- 
 vided the total amount standing in such depositor’s name in his ordinary deposit account 
 do not exceed $1,000 exclusive of interest. 
 
 The direct security of the Dominion is given by the statute for all deposits made 
 
 No interest will be allowed on any sum over and above one thousand dollars in an 
 ordinary deposit account. 
 
 DIGEST OF CANADIAN LAW- 
 
 ROVINCE OF NEW BRUNSWICK.— All deeds must be made in 
 writing, signed and sealed, — a scroll will not answer, — and be attested by 
 at least one witness. The deed is proved by the affidavit of this witness 
 engrossed on a “ memorial,” giving a digest of the principal points of the 
 deed. This must be under the hand and seal of the grantor or grantee, 
 and must be permanently recorded with the Registrar of the County where the property 
 is located. Within the Province , the affidavit which proves the execution of the deed 
 may be taken on the aforesaid memorial before the registrar, or his deputy, or before 
 any judge or commissioner of the Court of the Queen’s Bench for the Province, or any 
 judge of a County Court. Outside of the Province , the proof of any legal instrument, 
 such as deeds, wills and conveyances, may be made before the Mayor or Chief Magis- 
 trate of any city, borough, or town corporate in the United Kingdom; or in a foreign 
 country before the Mayor, or any Consul or vice-Consul of Great Britain resident therein. 
 They must be recorded in the County where the property is situate, and bind land 
 
DIGEST OF CANADIAN LAW. 
 
 859 
 
 according to priority ot registration. A wife must join her husband in a deed in selling 
 his estate, thereby relinquishing right of dower, and he must join with her to sell her 
 separate estate to make the transfer valid. 
 
 Chattel Mortgages are valid and must be registered. 
 
 Bills of Sale require to be registered in the record office. 
 
 The wearing apparel, bedding, kitchen utensils and tools of his trade or calling, to 
 the value of one hundred dollars, of any debtor, are exempt from levy or sale under 
 execution. The homestead act exempts the owner to the value of $600 from attachment 
 for debt, also household effects to the value of $60. 
 
 The Statutes of Limitation are : On unsealed contracts, six years ; sealed contracts, 
 or judgments, twenty years. Apart payment or written acknowledgment renews a claim. 
 The jurisdiction of the Courts is: Magistrates to $20 ; County Courts, from $20 to 
 $ 200 ; Supreme Court, all above $200. A party in action may be a witness in his own 
 behalf. The rights of married women are real and personal estate belonging to her before 
 or acquired after marriage, except such as she has received from her husband, shall be 
 held by her alone, and be exempt from her husband’s debts. If she lives separate and 
 apart from her husband, she can dispose of it as if unmarried, otherwise he must join 
 her in conveying it away. The legal rate of interest is six per cent., but any rate may be 
 agreed upon by the parties. 
 
 PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. — A deed must be written, signed and sealed, — a scroll 
 will not answer, — and be attested by two witnesses. The process of proving the deed 
 and its execution is the same as in the Province of New Brunswick. 
 
 A chattel mortgage is not valid as against the rights of third parties (if the goods 
 remain with the grantor) unless said instrument is filed in the office of the Clerk of the 
 County in which the property is situate, and it shall cease to be valid as against cred- 
 itors, if not refiled before the expiration of the first year, together with a statement 
 exhibiting the interest of the mortgage in the property thereby claimed. Every chattel 
 mortgage must be accompanied with an affidavit of the mortgagee, sworn before a Com- 
 missioner of the Court of Queen’s Bench or Common Pleas, that the mortgagor is justly 
 and truly indebted to the mortgagee in the sum mentioned in said mortgage, and that it 
 was executed in good faith and for the express purpose of securing the payment of the 
 money so justly due, and not for the purpose of protecting the goods and chattels men- 
 tioned therein against the creditors of the mortgagor — and in case of an absolute sale, 
 that the sale is bo 7 ia fide and for good consideration ( naming the sum) and not for the 
 purpose of holding the goods against the creditors of the bargainor, or it is void as 
 against creditors. 
 
 The law exempts from attachment, furniture, tools and implements of trade to $60 ; 
 farm stock, free grants and homesteads in certain districts. 
 
 The Statutes of Limitation are : Contracts, notes and unsealed instruments, six years ; 
 sealed contracts, mortgages, judgments and to recover land, ten years ; to recover wild 
 land, under certain conditions, twenty years Part payment or a written acknowledg- 
 ment revives any claim. The jurisdiction of Division Courtis limited to $100. A wit- 
 ness may testify in own interest. A stay of execution can be granted only on appeal. 
 The rights of married women : Every one married since May 4th, 1859, without marriage 
 
860 
 
 DIGEST OF CANADIAN LAW. 
 
 settlement, may hold all her real and personal estate, except that received trom him 
 during coverture, free from her husband’s debts or control. Husband nust icin j 
 wife in conveying her estate. The legal rate of interest is six per cent., but any rate 
 can be agreed upon by parties interested. 
 
 PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. — The law of deeds is similar to that in the. other 
 provinces. A small quantity of furniture, food, cattle, fuel, tools of trade and other 
 articles is exempt from attachment for debt. The Statute of Limitations are: For wages 
 of farm hands and domestics, one year ; teachers, for tuition, board, etc., two y-ears ; 
 commercial claims, general contracts, bills of exchange and notes, five years ; contractors 
 warranty, or recession of contract, ten years ; mortgages and judgments, thirty years. 
 The jurisdiction of “ Circuit Court,” corresponding to justices’ court in the United 
 States: In country districts, $200 ; in Montreal and Quebec, $100. Witness cannot 
 testify in his own behalf, but may be called by adversary. The rights of married women : 
 As a rule, the wife retains in her own right all the improvable property owned by her at 
 time of marriage, unless modified by ante-nuptial contract ; the same is true of her hus- 
 band’s property, they constituting two estates. There is a third estate, called the com- 
 munity, which consists of all movables brought in or acquired by each, and is under the 
 control of her husband. The legal rate of interest is six per cent., but any rate may be 
 agreed upon. 
 
 PROVINCE OF NOVA SCOTIA.— The law in regard to deeds , wills and convey- 
 ances corresponds to that of New Brunswick. The necessary wearing apparel of debtor 
 and his family, with bedding, the tools of trade and one stove and last cow are exempt 
 from attachment. Statutes of Limitation : All unsealed contracts, six years ; sealed con- 
 tracts and judgments, twenty years ; after six years no arrears of dower, rent or interest 
 can be recovered. Claims are revived by part payment or acknowledgment in writing. 
 The jurisdiction of Courts as follows : Magistrates, under $20 ; County Courts, from $20 
 to $200 ; Superior Court, all above $200. The lights of married women: All personal 
 property, unless trusteed for her sole benefit, becomes the property of her husband, but 
 cannot convey independent of husband. The legal rate of interest is six per cent. A 
 married woman cannot accept a succession to property without the consent of her hus- 
 band. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. — Deeds, wills and conveyances. The law in regard to 
 these is similar to that in Ontario. 
 
 The wearing apparel of a debtor and that of his family, their beds and bedding, and 
 household utensils, not exceeding together the value of ten pounds, and the tools and 
 implements of the trade of such debtor, not exceeding the value of ten pounds, are exempt 
 from seizure. 
 
 Rights of Married Women: Real estate of a married woman maybe enjoyed by 
 her for her separate use. Wages and earnings of a married woman are her own property, 
 free from her husband’s control or debts. A married woman may insure, for her sole 
 benefit, her own life, or, with his consent, that of her husband. A married woman may 
 hold stock and keep in her own name a bank account. Where no stipulation for a 
 definite rate of interest has been made, Court may award any just rate, not exceeding 
 one per cent, per month. Jurisdiction of County Courts limited to $500, but any suit 
 for f20 or upwards may be brought in the Superior Court. 
 
II— HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF 
 THE WORLD. 
 
 FROM THEIR FORMATION TO THE PRESENT TIME. 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 The History of this country as a separate government begins in 1821 when a 
 Republic was instituted on the Platte River, having the city of Buenos Ayres as its 
 chief capital. This continued a precarious existence with many changes in its gov- 
 ernment, until the formation of the Argentine Republic by the union in a Confedera- 
 tion of the Provinces of Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, Entre Rios, and Santa Fe. Gen- 
 eral Rosas was elected president in 1833, but in an unsuccessful attempt to compel 
 Paraguay and Uruguay to unite in the confederation, he became involved in a quar- 
 rel with the more powerful government of Brazil. He was compelled to flee to Eng- 
 land in 1852. There has been almost a continual contest of factions up to the present 
 time, in which the material interests of the country have greatly suffered. 
 
 It is a federal Republic having fourteen Provinces with a combined area as large 
 as all Central and Western Europe. Its soil is a rich alluvial deposit of four or five 
 feet, formed by the decay of the luxuriant growth of ages. Its constitution is mod- 
 eled upon that of the United States. The ministry is responsible to Congress, and 
 an adverse vote of the two Houses requires the appointment of a new cabinet. For- 
 eign and native-born inhabitants have the same standing before the law. The area 
 of the Republic is 1,619,500 square miles. Dr. Miguel Juarez Celman became President 
 October 12, 1886, and Dr. Carlos Pelegrini succeeded him August 18, 1890. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 The official designation of this country since 1867 has been “The Austro-Hun- 
 garian Monarchy.” This kingdom has been gradually built up of several distinct 
 countries and provinces annexed from time to time. There are seven different races 
 making up its population. The present reigning sovereign is Francis Joseph, Em- 
 peror, who ascended the throne December 2d, 1848. He is a lineal descendant of 
 Count Rudolph of Hapsburg, Switzerland. This founder of the present dynasty 
 greatly distinguished himself at home and was raised to the imperial throne in 1273, 
 and crowned Emperor of Germany. At his death the duchy of Austria was given 
 to his eldest son, Albert, and still remains in that branch of the family. 
 
 Rudolph was a wise and beneficent ruler ; his successors did not inherit his genius, 
 
864 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 but they acquired increased territory and power, generally by marriages of policy. 
 Charles Fifth of Germany and First of Spain was the most powerful monarch of the 
 Austrian house. He came in possession of the throne of Spain after the death of 
 his brother Ferdinand who had been king of that country. The growing opposition 
 to the increasing power of the Austrian provinces was a prominent factor which led 
 to the Thirty Years' War which devastated all Germany. This closed with the peace 
 of Westphalia in 1648, securing the independence of the German states. 
 
 Maria Theresa, wife of Francis of Lorraine, and daughter of Charles VI., suc- 
 ceeded to the crown in 1748 upon the death of her father without male issue. Fred- 
 erick the Great, king of Prussia, at once seized upon the province of Silesia and 
 began the Seven Years’ War which ended in 1763 with the cession of Silesia to 
 Prussia. 
 
 Joseph II., an able monarch, succeeded Maria Theresa to the throne. He added 
 Galicia, taken from Poland and the Bukowina from Turkey, to his realm. He was 
 too radical in his reforms and would have accomplished more if he had been more 
 conservative in his policy. He died lamented by the Austrians and most of the 
 Germans. During the convulsions that shook all Europe under the Emperor Napo- 
 leon, Austria sank to the level of a second-rate power, but after the downfall of that 
 monarch she rapidly rose to her former position, for her acquisitions in Italy and 
 elsewhere made up for her losses in the Low Countries. 
 
 Francis II. surrendered the title of Emperor of Germany in 1806 and assumed 
 that of Emperor of Austria. His son, Ferdinand I., succeeded him. A fearful revo- 
 lution broke out in March 1848 which led to his abdication in favor of his son Francis 
 Joseph I., the present emperor. In a war with Italy this emperor has lost Lombardy 
 and Venice which are now annexed to Italy. Francis Joseph has since busied him- 
 self and his government entirely in a policy of extensive internal improvement and 
 in that view his administration is perhaps the best that Austria has ever had. In 
 1868 he took the title of Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. He was crowned 
 King of Hungary June 8th, 1867. 
 
 The empire is divided into five countries called kingdoms. The capital and 
 largest city is Vienna. One-fourth of the inhabitants of the empire speak German 
 as their native tongue. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 The Romans knew this country as Gallia Belgica and the people as Celts. While 
 under the reign of the Franks in the fifth and sixth centuries, through irruptions from 
 the north, the preponderating element became German. Then the country became 
 divided into a number of independent duchies, free cities and counties, the chief of 
 them being the county of Flanders. When the male line of the Counts of Flanders 
 became extinct in 1385, their possessions passed to the Dukes of Burgundy, who 
 quickly obtained the whole of the Netherlands. Austria obtained possession of the 
 Netherlands in 1477 by the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with Maximilian. He 
 was followed by his son, Philip, who married Joanna, the daughter of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella of Spain, in 1496. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 865 
 
 Holland gained her independence; but the southern portion of the Netherlands, 
 or Belgium, remained under the rule of Spain. Belgium became a distinct kindgom 
 after it had been ceded to Isabella, daughter of Philip, and her husband, the Archduke 
 Albert, in 1598. But he died in 1621, without issue, and the country fell again to 
 Spain. 
 
 The treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, assigned Belgium to Austria; but in the war of 
 the Austrian succession she fell to the hands of France. By the peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle the territory was restored to Austria. 
 
 She revolted from the Austrian yoke in 1790, and the provinces formed them- 
 selves into an independent state under the name of United Belgium, but was very 
 quickly subdued. An end was put to Austrian rule in the war with France by the 
 battle of Fleurus, in 1794. 
 
 A union was again effected with Holland in 1815, under Prince William Frederick 
 of Nassau. But Belgium revolted in 1830, and chose for his ruler Leopold, Prince of 
 Saxe-Coburg, in 1831. He died in 1865, and was succeeded by the present ruler, King 
 Leopold II. Under the mild government of this king, Belgium has materially pros- 
 pered, until she has become one vast workshop. Manufactures and agriculture re- 
 ceive prominent attention, and the government promotes education, establishing 
 numerous primary and other schools. The government is a constitutional hereditary 
 monarchy, with a legislature consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
 The members of the lower house are elected by citizens who pay twenty florins or 
 more annually in direct taxes. The chief and capital city is Brussels. 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 After the Spanish conquest of Peru with other portions of South America, this 
 country was known as Upper Peru. It was a part of the viceroyalty of Buenos 
 Ayres in 1767. General Simon Bolivar made it a independent Republic in 1825, 
 and it was named in his honor. Gen. Sucre was elected president for life, but he 
 accepted it for only two years. During this brief period, repeated insurrections 
 arose, and in 1828 the president with his army was driven from La Paz, and Santa 
 Cruz was chosen president. A war arose with Bolivia on one side and Peru and 
 Chili on the other which continued for three years, when Santa Cruz was defeated 
 and exiled. Gen. Velasco was elected provisional chief. 
 
 The Bolivians revolted against this new government and installed Gen. Ballivan 
 with supreme power. Repeated revolutions and insurrections occurred until 1866, 
 when Maria Melgarijo proclaimed political amnesty, gave the people a revised con- 
 stitution and was acknowledged as dictator. In 1871 President Morales was elected, 
 and at once a civil government took the place of the military sytsem. Effort was 
 made to build up the credit of the country and lift from it the great burden of for- 
 eign debt. Aniceto Arce acceded to office of president, August 1st, 1888. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 Brazil was a colony of Portugal for three hundred years after its discovery by 
 Pedro Alvarez Cabral in 1500. Frequent attacks were made upon the country by - 
 
866 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the Dutch, and many important settlements were seized by them during the seven- 
 teenth century, but the Portuguese finally drove them out 1654. Gold and diamonds 
 were discovered in the first part of the eighteenth century, which increased the wealth 
 of the land. Agriculture, however, has been the chief industry of the people. The 
 exportation of coffee, which began to be cultivated about 1750, has been a great 
 source of income to the people and revenue to the government. 
 
 When Napoleon I. overthrew Portugal and proclaimed that “the house of Bra- 
 ganza ” had ceased to reign, that royal family came to Brazil, and upon the downfall 
 of the French emperor in 1815, Brazil was raised to the rank of a kingdom. The 
 king, Joam VI., sailed for Portugal in 1821, leaving his son, Prince Pedro, as regent 
 of Brazil. Pedro was proclaimed emperor the following year, and a constitution was 
 given to the country. The emperor Pedro II., succeeded his father upon the abdi- 
 cation of the latter in 1831. Don Pedro II. reigned until November 15th, 1889. His 
 long reign of fifty-eight years had been marked by many internal improvements and 
 a broadening of commercial relations with the rest of the world. The slave trade 
 had been abolished, slavery was gradually becoming extinct, and the country had 
 gradually and surely risen in prosperity and civilization. The emperor and empress 
 were present at the opening of the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876. 
 They also visited Europe and returned to Brazil the following year. The commerce 
 was in a flourishing condition. Large subsidies were paid to lines of steamers run- 
 ning to Europe and North America ; free schools were supported by government, 
 and in some of the provinces, of which there were twenty, education was compulsory. 
 By a royal decree, issued in 1867, the Amazon with its tributaries draining in Brazil 
 alone an area of 800,000 square miles, was open to the commerce of the world. An 
 important colony of German immigrants under the fostering care of the emperor was 
 established on the Rio Grande do Sul. A republic was declared in November, 1889. 
 General M. D. Da Fonseca became President November 15, 1890. A reciprocity treaty 
 concluded with the United States, February, 1891. 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 This portion of North America was discovered by a French navigator named 
 Jacques Cartier, in 1534. He took possession in the name of his sovereign, and re- 
 turned. In the following year he ascended the St. Lawrence and gave it the name 
 which it now bears on account of having entered it upon the festival of that saint. 
 The chief tribes of Indians inhabiting the region were the Hurons and Iroquois. In 
 1609 another French navigator, Champlain, further explored the country and estab- 
 lished the city of Quebec. This was captured by the English in 1629, but the treaty 
 of St. Germain-en-Laye, in 1632, restored it to the French. The early colonists had 
 frequent wars with the hostile Iroquois who lived south of the lakes, but were at 
 peace most of the time with the other tribes. In 1689 an English fleet under Ad- 
 miral Phipps made an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec. A French colony was es- 
 tablished at Detroit, and La Salle discovered the Mississippi about this time. The 
 treaty of Utrecht gave the valley of the St. Lawrence and of the Mississippi to the 
 French (1713), but ceded the remaining portions of Canada to England. The Seven 
 Years’ War with the British colonies arose from the vagueness of description in this 
 treaty concerning the boundaries. Quebec was captured by Gen. Wolfe in 1759, and 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 867 
 
 Montreal by Gen. Amherst, in 1760. The treaty of Paris, in 1760, ceded the whole of 
 Canada to the English. 
 
 This new territory was called the Province of Quebec and was ruled by a council 
 of seventeen, appointed by the king. It continued so until 1791, when it was divided 
 into two provinces, each having a separate government, Upper and Lower Canada. 
 During the war between the United States and Great Britain in 1812, the Indians of 
 the northwest under the Shawnee chief, Tecumseh, were defeated at the battle of 
 Tippecanoe. But he renewed hostilities, and the English and their Indian allies 
 inflicted severe losses and suffering upon the Americans. An invasion of Canada by 
 the latter in the beginning of the war, followed by another attempt in 1813, most sig- 
 nally failed. But they were more successful in their naval engagements on the Great 
 Lakes. Com. Perry defeated and destroyed the British squadron on Lake Erie, 
 August 4th, 1813, and Com. MacDonough dispersed a strong fleet on Lake Cham- 
 plain, September nth, 1814. 
 
 Insurrections which broke out in 1837-1838, which arose from a defective sys- 
 tem of government, were unsuccessful, but drew the attention of the home govern- 
 ment to the matter, and in 1841 the two provinces were united under one adminis- 
 trative system. The provincial Parliament sat at Montreal until 1849, when the 
 excitement arising from the introduction of a bill to indemnify persons for loss of 
 property during the insurrection incensed the populace to such an extent that they 
 dispersed the Parliament and burnt the buildings. Then the Parliament met alter- 
 nately at Toronto and Quebec every four years till 1859, when Ottawa was made 
 the sole capital. 
 
 A confederation of the provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick 
 was formed in 1867, to be known as the Dominion of Canada. In 1870 the new gov- 
 ernment paid the Hudson Bay Company a consideration in money and land for the 
 transfer of their domain, but a part of the people in this territory attempted to resist 
 the new order of things and establish a provisional government. But the Red River 
 Rebellion, as it was called, was suppressed and the authority of the Dominion estab- 
 lished without bloodshed. 
 
 British Columbia entered the confederation in 1871, and Prince Edwards Island 
 in 1873. There are at present seven provinces and several territories embraced in 
 the Dominion of Canada. The government of Canada is Federal, centered at Ottawa 
 for the whole Dominion, while the seven provinces and the Northwest territories have 
 their respective local legislatures. The head of the Federal Government is the Gov- 
 ernor-General, appointed by the Queen of Great Britain, who holds office for five 
 years, his salary being paid by the Dominion Government. 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 This country was under a despotic form of government for a number of years 
 after successfully throwing off the yoke of Spain; but in 1833 a new constitution was 
 adopted. The prosperity of the people has been developed and there have been no 
 serious party disturbances, as in some of the other South Amercian republics. 
 A well-arranged revised code of laws was enacted under the administration of 
 
868 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 President Moutt in 1856; a chamber of commerce and banks of deposit and discount 
 were established soon after at Valparaiso, and treaties with the United States, France, 
 and Great Britain were negotiated. 
 
 In the trade between the powers of Chili and Bolivia, the former country im- 
 posed a line of duties upon the latter to which exceptions were taken by Peru, and 
 there arose a war between her and Chili. This was decided in favor of the last ; 
 a portion of Peru was seized and a large money indemnity was demanded. After a 
 long series of negotiations peace was formally declared, resulting in the loss to Peru 
 of a valuable portion of her sea-coast. The public credit stands well, for the gov- 
 ernment promptly meets its engagements. The population is rapidly increasing and 
 immigration is fostered, and that from Germany is successfully promoted. 
 
 It is a country of mountains, subject to frequent earthquakes, having every vari- 
 ety of climate and vegetation. The coast is level, extending back to the Andes, 
 which rise far above the line of perpetual snow. The highest peak of this range 
 in Chili rises to 22,427 feet above the sea-level. Don Jose Manuel Balmeceda, the 
 president, was inaugurated September 18th, 1886. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 The mythology of China gives the empire a duration of seven thousand years, 
 but the compilation of Confucius commences with the reign of Yaou, in the year 
 2356 B.C. Brusen claims that the systematic history of China goes only as far back 
 as 1991 B.C. A few dates prior to that point can be fixed with tolerable certainty. 
 The “great Yu ” who has been called “the Charlemagne of the East,” added south- 
 ern China to the domain of the Shen-Su dynasty. He caused the channel of the 
 Hoang-Ho to be changed, and thus drained the great plain in northern China and 
 made it habitable. The next emperor of any note was Shee (Chi) Hoang-Ti — other- 
 wise called Ching Wang — who is the national hero. He reigned from 246 to 210 B.C. 
 His capital was fixed at Chang-gan. He united the divided empire, expelled the 
 Moguls or Tartars, built roads and canals, and caused the Great Wall to be erected 
 along the entire northern boundary of his empire. 
 
 A new line, called the Han dynasty, came to rule the country a few years after 
 the death of this great emperor. This line held the throne for two centuries and 
 was followed by the Eastern Han dynasty. The art of printing was known and 
 practised in China as early as 201 B.C. The Buddhist religion was introduced from 
 India in 65 A.D. The kingdom became divided and was governed by three mon- 
 archs in 220 A.D. It was reunited in 590 by the power of Zang Keen. 
 
 Marco Polo lived seventeen years in China, and returned to England in 1295, 
 and published the first authentic account of the country to Europe. The kingdom 
 has been rent with civil war and protracted contests with the Moguls. Sometimes 
 one and sometimes another party was in the ascendancy. In 1232 Kublai Khan, the 
 Mogul king, overcame all China. The reigns of his successors were disturbed by 
 native insurrections till 1368, when the son of a common Chinese laborer, Choo Yuen> 
 Chang, was proclaimed emperor. The “ Ming” dynasty which he founded lasted till 
 1649, when the Manchoo Tartars obtained the throne and began the dynasty which 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 869 
 
 still (1890) holds the throne. This is said to be the twenty-sixth dynasty which has 
 ruled in China. The empire was long closed to foreigners, but in 1537 the Portu- 
 guese got a foothold at Macao which they have held to this day. This was ceded 
 to Portugal by the treaty of 1862. The Dutch and Spanish merchants early found 
 a way to trade with the Chinese by the way of the Eastern Colonies of the two coun- 
 tries. The English made several attempts to open their trade, but not till 1700 did 
 they succeed, when Canton was opened to them. The overland trade from Russia 
 was opened in 1727 and the first American consul was permitted to live in Canton 
 in 1802. 
 
 Hostilities with Great Britain in 1839 on account of the opium trade, resulted in 
 the opening of five “ treaty ports ” to European commerce. The number has since 
 been increased to twenty-two. England exacted an indemnity of $6,000,000 and 
 the cession of Hong-Kong to that country. A rebellion waged from 1850 until 
 finally quelled in 1864. It was led by Tao-Kwang, a man of humble birth, who an- 
 nounced himself as sent by Heaven to drive out the Tartars. In 1852 he had suc- 
 ceeded in establishing himself as emperor under the title of Teen Wang, a Heavenly 
 King. The French and English troops occupied Canton for four years, and by their 
 aid the rebellion was crushed. They, however, extorted a large indemnity and 
 opened Pekin as a residence for foreign ambassadors. The rebel emperor committed 
 suicide and the old Tartar dynasty was restored. 
 
 A Mohammedan rebellion began the same year with the Tae Ping rebellion 
 (1850) and was more successful, for it led to the establishment of an independent 
 government in the province of Yun-nan in 1868, but this has since been reduced to 
 Chinese rule. 
 
 Anson Burlingame, formerly United States minister to China, at the head of a 
 Chinese embassy, visited Europe and the United States and effected a treaty of 
 amity and commerce between that government and the United States in 1867. A 
 governmental university was established at Pekin in 1868. In 1870 a massacre of 
 foreign and native Christians took place at Tien-Tsin. In 1875, the first railroad was 
 opened. 
 
 The young emperor was born August 15th, 1871, and proclaimed January 22d, 
 1875 on the death of Tung-Chi. His mother, the empress-regent is Tse-Hi. The 
 emperor, Kwang Hsu is the ninth in succession from Aisin Gioro the Munchoo con- 
 queror in 1644. 
 
 The empress-regent had final decision in matters of state, but Prince Kung, the 
 uncle of the emperor, was for twenty-three years the director of the foreign policy. 
 When the Tonquin war arose with France, he was too old and infirm to press an aggres- 
 sive policy and Prince Chun was appointed in his place. He prepared for a long 
 war; threw 150,000 men into Formosa, fortified the frontier and made a stubborn 
 resistance to the French. At last a treaty was signed with France, in which China 
 agreed to open four places on the frontier for trade. All in all, the Chinese ob- 
 tained the advantage for the first time over the foreigners. 
 
 The emperor came of age February 7th, 1887, yet the empress-regent continued 
 to hold the royal prerogative to some extent. The emperor’s father, although pre- 
 
870 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 eluded by Chinese law from holding any official position, has for some years been a 
 leading statesman. The American government in 1882 passed a law prohibiting the 
 immigration of Chinese for ten years, and other countries had enacted laws oppres- 
 sive to the Chinese residents. In August, 1866, a high commission of three was sent 
 from China to inquire into the alleged wrongs inflicted upon their countrymen in 
 foreign parts. By a strange oversight on the part of the Chinese negotiators the sev- 
 eral treaties with other governments allowing them to establish consulships in China, 
 did not accord reciprocity rights to the Chinese, and in consequence no Chinese con- 
 suls were appointed. The British government consented to the appointment of a 
 consul at Singapore. The Dutch promised to have matters righted in their colonies, 
 The consent of the Spanish government was granted, but was quickly withdrawn 
 when the Spanish colonies objected. 
 
 An American syndicate, headed by Mr. Wharton Barker of Philadelphia, re- 
 ceived a charter in 1887 from the Chinese government, giving it the privilege of es- 
 tablishing the American system of banking and coinage, also a scheme for introduc- 
 ing railroads and telegraphs of the American type; as well as the addition of a 
 postal service and telephone lines. The English and French resisted this, and after 
 the report of the High Commission upon the condition of their countrymen in 
 foreign countries, the provisional charter was withdrawn. A Chinese embassy waited 
 on the Pope at the Vatican in March, 1887, an< ^ concessions were made which re- 
 sulted in a new policy toward native Christians in China. The governors of the 
 provinces were directed to issue proclamations “ calling on the people to live at 
 peace with the Christians, and explaining that the Christian religion teaches men to 
 do right and aims to make them better citizens, and that the converts are no less 
 Chinamen because they are Christians, and have the same duties and are entitled to 
 the same protection as their neighbors.” Anti-Christian riots broke out at Chung- 
 King, and a wealthy Christian named Lo was arrested for having killed several as- 
 sailants. He was sentenced to death and the French minister reluctantly interfered, 
 but Lo was beheaded. Then an imperial order was issued requiring all foreign 
 missionaries to obtain passports from their own governments. The German, Italian, 
 and other governments issued passports for the Roman Catholic missionaries from 
 those countries. 
 
 COLOMBIA. 
 
 The United States of Colombia is the official designation of the country, and 
 since the formation of the provisional republic of the United States of Brazil, 
 with the United States of America, these three form the A, B, C of American re- 
 publics. The republic of Colombia formerly consisted of Venezuela, New Granada, 
 and Ecuador, but this was dissolved in 1830 by the secession of the states and the 
 forming of independent republics. New Granada retained the name of Colombia. 
 Bolivar, the first president, proved a poor statesman and upon his assuming the dic- 
 tatorship the people revolted from his despotism. He died in 1830, and at once the 
 government divided up into factions, which continued their quarrels until Guzman 
 Blanco, a liberal president, conquered his opponents. Under the administration of 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 871 
 
 this judicious ruler, the country greatly prospered. Later on there arose internal 
 discussions, and a complication with the United States of America, which was ad- 
 justed. Rafael Nun ez assumed the office of president, August 18th, 1884. A new 
 constitution was adopted in 1886, changing the form of the government in minor de- 
 tails. An extradition treaty with the United States was signed in Bogota, May 
 7th, 1888. 
 
 CONGO FREE STATE. 
 
 Henry M. Stanley, who had led an expedition for the relief of Livingstone, the 
 great African explorer, reached the highest point attained by the latter in the month 
 of November, 1876, after a long journey of 350 miles in ten days. This point was 
 Nyangwa on a river called by Mr. Livingstone the Lualaba. His men had transported, 
 in sections, the little vessel, “ The Lady Alice.’’ Following the course of the river for 
 three weeks he met many obstacles arising from the unwillingness of the natives to 
 aid him. But despite all the difficulties arising from hostile encounters with savage 
 tribes, the climatic disabilities, and the scourge of small-pox which reduced his forces, 
 he proceeded down the river for nine hundred miles. At this point a new danger 
 threatened Stanley. He and his men were on the point of starvation and determined 
 to apply to the chief of a neighboring village for food. The chief proved to be 
 friendly, and in reply to the question as to the name of the river, answered : 11 A Ku- 
 ta — ya Kongo." The great geographical problem was solved. The Lualaba of Liv- 
 ingstone and the Congo were one and the same river. The mouth of the Congo was 
 reached in August, 1877, after following the river for 1,750 miles. 
 
 The King of Belgium, Leopold II., became deeply interested in the questions 
 connected with the discovery and opening of this region of Africa to commerce of 
 the world. Under his patronage, “The International African Association” was in- 
 stituted, having for its avowed aim the union and co-operation among the persons 
 and societies interested in the subject. This was formed in 1877 by representatives 
 from Belgium, Germany, France, Switzerland, Spain, the United States, and the Neth- 
 erlands. It was determined to open up a line of stations along the Congo, and east- 
 ward from Lake Tanganyika to the Indian Ocean. The scheme does not claim for 
 its main purpose to engage in any commercial enterprises, but to be purely scientific, 
 geographical, and philanthropic for the benefit of travellers of every nationality, mis- 
 sionaries of any faith, legitimate traders of any kind who may claim the hospitality 
 and necessary assistance afforded at any station. Seventy-nine treaties have been 
 made with as many independent chiefs, covering the sovereignty of 2,000 miles of the 
 Congo and its tributaries. Twenty-two stations have been established along the 
 lower Congo to the equator, a distance of seven hundred miles. Early in 1879, Stan- 
 ley proceeded once more to Africa, accompanied by aa able corps of men of different 
 nationalities. He set his forces at work building roads, erecting stations, and other 
 works of engineering, which soon set the tides of civilization toward the interior. 
 Eleven months were taken for this work as far as Stanley Pool. Here he caused 
 a large dwelling-house, a brick store-house, and huts for his servants to be built. In 
 the month of July, 1881, he reached the lake where the waters of the Congo become 
 
872 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 navigable to find that the French explorer, M. de Brazza, had gained from the chief 
 Mukoko a treaty ceding the sovereignty of the northern shore of the lake to France. 
 Out of this fact arose the correspondence which resulted in the International Con- 
 ference, on the condition of the Congo region in its relation to the Western Powers 
 of Europe. This convened at Berlin in November, 1884. 
 
 The Congo Free State was established by the general act of this conference 
 signed by the representatives of the several governments, February 26th, 1885. The 
 state was declared neutral and free trade with it and the rest of the basin of the 
 Congo was granted to all nations. A period of twenty years was reserved in which 
 to decide whether freedom of entry should be maintained or not. The State was 
 put under the sovereignty of King Leopold II. of Belgium. The articles of conven- 
 tion signed with Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, and Portugal 
 define the exact boundaries of the Congo Free State. Its estimated area is 1,056,- 
 200 square miles, and its population 27,000,000. The survey of a railroad from the 
 Atlantic Coast to Stanley Pool was finished in 1888. The transport and sale of fire- 
 arms on the upper Congo and its tributaries was prohibited by the decree of Novem- 
 ber, 1888. The question of the frontier between the Congo Free State and the 
 French possessions was settled in the summer of the same year by the evacuation of 
 the French post of Kundja. Henry M. Stanley was appointed Governor, June 18, 1890. 
 
 COREA. 
 
 Corea, the “ Hermit Nation,” though holding a kind of feudal relation to China, 
 Is yet an independent nation. The natives are Mongolians. In artistic tastes they 
 are allied to the Japanese, but in religious sentiment to the Chinese. They hold the 
 religion of Confucius with an intermixture of native superstition. The government 
 is an unmitigated despotism, the king having the power of life and death over all his 
 subjects. It is considered high treason to touch his majesty with an iron instrument, 
 and in 1800 the reigning king died from a simple abscess which might have been 
 cured but for the fact that no one dared apply the lancet. Foreigners have been 
 rigidly excluded from the country. Roman Catholic missionaries, however, suc- 
 ceeded in entering during the early part of the nineteenth century, and in 1830 ap- 
 pointed a vice-apostolic for Corea; but the last European was expelled in 1866. By 
 a treaty with Japan, a resident minister of that country was permitted at the capital 
 Siool in 1875, and three open ports were established. Similar concessions were 
 granted to the United States by treaty signed May 22d, 1883. 
 
 COSTA RICA. 
 
 This is one of the five independent republics — the others being Honduras, Nic?' 
 ragua, San Salvador, and Guatemala — which constitute what is geographically called 
 Central America. Cental America includes the entire territory lying between the 
 Atlantic and Pacific Oceans extending from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the 
 Isthmus of Darien. The latter isthmus is assigned to South America as a part of 
 New Granada, and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to Mexico. These five states men- 
 tioned were in a federal compact from 1832 to 1839 an d have often since attempted 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 875 
 
 to restore their union, but with indifferent success. At the present they each hold 
 independent diplomatic relations with the United States of America. Costa Rica 
 is the most southerly and is divided into six provinces. It has a president, two vice- 
 presidents, and four ministers. The Congress of Deputies is elected for four years. 
 Its president, General Don Bernardo Soto, was inaugurated March 12th, 1885. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 The history of Denmark becomes authentic in the early part of the tenth cen- 
 cury, although as early as the eighth the Danes were well known for their skilfully- 
 planned expeditions for plunder and piracy on the seas. Their repeated invasions 
 of England, their attempts upon Scotland, and their subjugation of Normandy dem- 
 onstrate this fact. But the history of the century prior to the tenth is so involved 
 in myth and fable as to be entirely untrustworthy. 
 
 Canute the Great landed on the shores of England and became king of that 
 country as well as of Denmark, in 1018. The Danish dynasty in England ended in 
 1042. Only a very few of the sovereigns of this kingdom during the middle ages 
 displayed any distinguished ability. The most remarkable of them, perhaps, Valde- 
 mar II. (1272), conquered Holstein and Pomerania. He led a successful crusade 
 against the pagans of Esthonia. The national standard consisting of a white cross 
 on a blood-red field was first unfurled in this war. 
 
 By the treaty of Colmar in 1397, the three kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and 
 Denmark were united in one. This union was the most important event for Den- 
 mark in the middle ages. But Sweden, under the able leadership of Gustavus Vasa, 
 asserted her independence and the compact was broken in 1523. When Holland 
 was engaged in that bloody contest with England under Cromwell, the Dictator, 
 Denmark formed an alliance with the Dutch republic. The middle of the seven- 
 teenth century saw a protracted struggle between Denmark and Sweden, resulting in 
 the loss to the Danes of several islands which fell to Sweden. A second war between 
 these countries terminated in 1720, with no advantage to Denmark. 
 
 The bombardment of Copenhagen by the English fleet, commanded by Lord 
 Nelson, took place in 1801. In 1807 Napoleon threatened to compel Denmark to 
 join him in his war against England, but the latter power sent an army and fleet to 
 the Baltic and compelled the Danes to surrender their entire naval forces. The 
 treaty which followed this war compelled Denmark to cede the whole of Norway to 
 Sweden, but gave her the province of Lauenburg and a money indemnity in ex- 
 change. 
 
 The next noticeable point of Danish history is the revolt of the duchies of 
 Schleswig and Holstein upon the accession of Frederick VII. to the throne, in 1848. 
 This was subdued after a continued struggle of two years. When Frederick VII. 
 died without male issue, Prince Christian of Glucksburg was proclaimed king by the 
 ministry at Copenhagen and was crowned king under the name of Christian IX. 
 The Duke of Augustenburg assumed the title of Frederick VIII. in Schleswig, and 
 Germany came to his aid. The Danes were compelled to accept the terms of the 
 peace of Vienna (1864), by which Christian IX. renounced all claims to Lauenburg, 
 
874 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Schleswig, and Holstein. Notwithstanding her reverses at war, Denmark has pros- 
 pered to a wonderful degree and her material fortunes have been continually increas- 
 ing. The present kingdom comprises the peninsula of Jutland on the European con- 
 tinent and a group of islands in the Baltic Sea. Christian IX., the present king, as- 
 cended the throne November 15I1, 1863. 
 
 ECUADOR. 
 
 The first inhabitants of this country were Indians and it became known as the 
 Kingdom of Quito. It was a part of the Peruvian Empire when that kingdom fell 
 into the hands of the Spaniards. It was a viceroyalty of Spain from 1553 to 1822, 
 when, after many unsuccessful attempts, beginning with 1809, the people conquered 
 their independence and became a part of the United States of Colombia. When this 
 confederation was dissolved in 1833, Ecuador established an independent republic. 
 An earthquake destroyed the capital Quito in 1858. Intense internal feuds convulsed 
 the country until Garcea Moreno overthrew the existing government in 1869, and 
 made himself president. Dr. Antonio Barrero was chosen president in 1875 upon the 
 assassination of Moreno. A variety of events occurred until Antonio Florez became 
 president June 20th, 1888, who still holds that office, 1890. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 The home of the Ptolemies and the Pharaohs, the cradle of the sciences and the 
 land of ancient wonders! Of her earliest history but little is known. The building of 
 her most ancient cities and the construction of her magnificent monuments, attest 
 the antiquity of a civilization lost in the halo of myth and uncertainty. At the date 
 2700 B.C., Menes, the first king known to authentic history, was upon the throne 
 of a powerful kingdom and reigned until Egypt became a part of the Persian Empire. 
 Herodotus, the father of history, tells us there were three hundred and thirty kings 
 divided into thirty-six dynasties. This monarch, Menes, built the city of Thinis or 
 This, and Memphis. Nothing especially worthy of mention occurs until the fourth 
 dynasty, or the time of the pyramid builders The Great Pyramid, that of Cheops, 
 a king of this dynasty, is assigned to this period. A work which is the ripe thought 
 of Egyptian literature was written, or at least ascribed, to Ptah-hotep, of the fifth 
 dynasty. The great truncated pyramid, now called Pharaoh’s Seat, was built by the 
 last king of the fifth dynasty. 
 
 From the sixth to the eleventh dynasty, inclusive, is a chasm unmarked by monu- 
 mental or other record. The great artificial reservoir, Lake Moeris, was constructed 
 by a king of the twelfth dynasty, called Amenemhat III. This receives the waters 
 of the river Nile by a canal whenever an inundation spreads over the land. 
 
 The Shepherd Kings, a rude and barbarous race, ruled the land for five hundred 
 and eleven years, when they were driven out by a Theban ruler named Misphragem- 
 thosis. Then Thebes was made the capital of Egypt. Then succeeded a long line 
 of Pharaohs, the greatest personage of whom was Rameses II. 
 
 He is called by the Greeks, Sesostris the Great. Those vast and magnificent 
 buildings which are scattered through Egypt and Nubia, were erected in his reign and 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 875 
 
 their construction occupied the greater part of it, giving him the chief place among 
 the building Pharaohs. The whole of Western Asia and much of the adjacent re- 
 gions of Europe yielded to his sway. Osirtesen I. is supposed by many to be the 
 Pharaoh who received Joseph and made him the chief ruler of Egypt. After him 
 came Amenoph III., who constructed the vocal Memnon which stands to this day. 
 The most approved chronology ascribes the Hebrew exodus to the time of Meneph- 
 thah in the year 1480 B.C. 
 
 Egypt became an Assyrian province in 672 B.C. by the invasion of Esarhaddon. 
 the son of Sennacherib, whose expedition was more fortunate than that of his father. 
 This foreign yoke rested on the people for one hundred years, but was finally broken 
 by Psammetichus, a king of the twenty-sixth dynasty, who restored independence 
 to the land. Egypt was conquered by the Persians and remained under that empire 
 for nearly a century from 525 B.C. Egyptian rule was established to be again over- 
 thrown, and completely subjugated by Artaxerxes in 340 B.C. Thus for 3,000 years 
 there had been a continued line of kings, but since then, for more than 2,000 years 
 the prophecy of the Jewish seer has been proven true, “There shall be no more a 
 prince in the land of Egypt.” Not one native prince has been seated on the throne 
 of the Pharaohs. 
 
 Alexander the Great added Egypt to his kingdom and founded the city called 
 by his name which was destined to become one of the greatest commercial and literary 
 centres of the world. When his vast empire at his death was divided among his 
 generals, Egypt fell to the lot of Ptolemy Soter. He also became master of Phoeni- 
 cia and Judea. The Alexandrian Library and Museum were built during his reign, 
 and also the Pharos, or white marble light-house, one of the seven wonders of the 
 world. Ptolemy Philadelphus succeeded him, under whom the arts and sciences 
 greatly flourished. The commerce of the east was largely attracted into his king- 
 dom. Ptolemy III. was the last of the great Macedonian kings of Egypt. He was 
 surnamed the Benefactor. All his relations with Rome were friendly, though he 
 was suspicious of the Roman ambition of conquest. He crossed the Euphrates and 
 overcame Asia as far as Babylon. The great school at Alexandria was the resort of 
 the wisest men in all the world. These three Ptolemies raised Egypt to the height 
 of her civilization. From Rome and Athens came a long list of noted men to per- 
 fect themselves in their various lines of study. 
 
 The ten succeeding Ptolemies were so weak and injudicious that their reigns are 
 unmarked by anything of consequence. Ptolemy XII. was the father of Cleopatra 
 and Ptolemy. He decreed that at his death the sister and brother should rule 
 jointly and at full age he should marry her. These instructions were indorsed by 
 the Roman Senate, but Cleopatra being fired with ambition to reign alone, went to 
 war with her husband, and aided by Julius Caesar, became sole mistress of Egypt. 
 She sided with Brutus and Cassius in their war with the Triumvirate after the death 
 of Caesar. Mark Antony was ensnared by her wiles at their interview in Cilicia and 
 the direst consequences resulted therefrom. He followed her to Egypt, wasted his 
 time, and dissipated his strength in voluptuousness, involved himself in a war which 
 occasioned his final overthrow and ruin. Then he expired in the arms of the queen, 
 
876 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 having committed suicide; and she, failing to ensnare Octavius by her charms, that 
 she might not be led a captive to Rome and subjected to the degradation of his tri- 
 umph, killed herself by the means of a poisonous asp. Thus became extinct the 
 proud race of the Ptolemies, two hundred and ninety-three years after the death of 
 Alexander the Great. This was in the year 30 B.C. Egypt then fell to the position 
 of a prefectorate of Rome, who held sway for three centuries over the degraded 
 country. 
 
 Zenobia, the widow of Odentatus, Prince of Palmyra, claimed that she was a 
 lineal descendant from the kings of Macedon. After a victorious campaign she was 
 acknowledged as Queen of Egypt. But her reign was brief, for soon afterward her 
 forces were routed and the Roman power again held sway, A.D. 270. 
 
 The Christian religion spread very rapidly in Egypt, and after Constantine made 
 it the religion of the empire (312 A.D.), there arose contests between the Christians 
 and the pagans in which much biood was shed. The Christians were victorious, and 
 Justinian, the emperor, raised an orthodox archbishop of Alexandria to the prefect- 
 orship of Egypt. For ten years, from 616 A.D.. the Persians held the country as a 
 conquered province, when it again fell into the hands of the Romans. 
 
 The divisions which arose among the Christians left the country an easy prey 
 to the Mohammedan Arabs, who invaded it in 640. The Arians and orthodox Chris- 
 tians had long been engaged in bloody feuds, and the oppressed people being dissatis- 
 fied with the Emperor Heracletus, made but feeble resistance. Amroo, a general of 
 the Caliph Omar, effected the conquest of Egypt in December 640 A.D. Alexandria 
 was captured and its immense library was destroyed. This loss to the literature of 
 the world was irreparable, and the act of vandalism which caused it without a par- 
 allel in the history of the world. 
 
 Eygpt was ruled by Mohammedan viceroys for two hundred years, the Coptic 
 religion gave way to that of the Koran. A new Arab state was in process of forma- 
 tion in North Africa by a faction of Mohammedans known as Fatimites which re- 
 nounced the sovereignty of the caliph of Bagdad. Egypt became a part of this state 
 in 970; Cairo was built and became the capital. The Fatimite dynasty held sway 
 for two centuries. Saladin, whose name is famous as the most powerful opponent of 
 the Crusades, became ruler and proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria. This 
 change from the Fatimite dynasty came about in consequence of civil dissensions 
 which broke out during the reign of Caliph Adhed (a.D. i i 7 i), the last of his line. 
 This war terminated by the aid of the Sultan of Damascus. He appointed one of 
 his generals, the uncle of Saladin, Grand Vizier of Egypt, who held the office only 
 two months, and died leaving his nephew as his successor, with the result mentioned 
 above. 
 
 Saladin died in 1193 and his vast domain was partitioned among his many sons. 
 An unsuccessful crusade against Egypt was led by Louis IX., the Pious, in 1248. 
 This French king was taken prisoner by the Saracens. The Mamelukes overthrew 
 the Saracen power in 1250, and assumed the control of government. Then the Per- 
 sians, under Selim I., conquered 1517, and Egypt was ruled by a pasha as a viceroy- 
 alty of Persia for two hundred years. It was under this government when the French 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 877 
 
 invasion under Napoleon I., in 1798, occurred. Thirty-five thousand men were con- 
 veyed by sea to Alexandria where they effected a landing in July, 1798. The Mame- 
 lukes were defeated at the battle of the Pyramids, July 23d; Cairo was captured the 
 next day. The entire conquest of the country was very soon accomplished. Bona- 
 parte left General Kleber in command of the Fench forces when he returned to 
 France in July, 1799. This general was soon after assassinated and his successor 
 was defeated by the combined forces of England and Persia. The French evacuated 
 Egypt in 1801, and the country was left to the command of the sultan. 
 
 Mahomet Ali, who was a Macedonian, having distinguished himself in the Turk- 
 ish armies, was made Pasha of Egypt in 1804. He caused a wholesale massacre of 
 Mamelukes in 1811. He was nominally a vassal of the Turkish sultan, but he at- 
 tained almost absolute control of the country. Under his rule, schools and colleges 
 were founded, commerce and manufactures fostered, and European civilization was 
 rapidly introduced. His design seems to have been to obtain the independent sov- 
 ereignty of Egypt. He invaded and conquered Syria in 1830, and during another 
 attempt at conquest in 1839, would have taken Constantinople but for the interven- 
 tion of the European powers. But by the peace effected in 1841 he was compelled 
 to accept the viceroyalty of Egypt under the sultan of Turkey. In this treaty the 
 government of Egypt was confirmed to Mahomet Ali and his lineal descendants in 
 a direct line by the payment of an annual tribute to the sultan. Ibrahim, an adopted 
 son, was made pasha in 1848 by the Turkish sultan because Mahomet Ali had be- 
 come imbecile. Ibrahim died the same year and was succeeded by Abbas Pasha as 
 regent, who proved himself a fanatical Mohammedan, and repealed many of the 
 reforms which had been instituted by his predecessors. He was in turn succeeded 
 by Said Pasha, a younger son of Mahomet Ali, who reigned from 1854, to January, 
 1863. 
 
 The public acts of Said Pasha were characterized by prudence and good govern- 
 ment. Many internal improvements marked his reign, and the great encouragement 
 which he gave to the Suez Canal caused one of its termini to be named in his honor, 
 Port Said. Ismail Pasha followed him in 1863. His lavish expenditures brought 
 the government to the verge of financial ruin, although he instituted many reforms, 
 encouraged industries, and aided education. In November, 1875, he sought 
 assistance from England and upon investigation he was deposed, had to abandon 
 Egypt, and take refuge in Italy. It was during the administration of Ismail that the 
 title of pasha was changed to Khedive, implying a higher degree of power. Every 
 inch of land in Egypt was mortgaged to bondholders, and the interest on the foreign 
 loans could not be paid. Under this heavy pressure the newly exalted Khedive ab- 
 dicated August 8th, 1879. 
 
 The eldest son of Ismail was made Khedive on the above date, but he was help- 
 less to accomplish much in the distressed condition of the public and private finances. 
 The native Egyptians, upon whom the whole burden of taxation rested, became uneasy. 
 Foreigners held all positions of profit and emolument. A riot occurred in Alexan- 
 dria in June, 1882, in which many foreigners were killed. Arabi Pasha, a general in 
 the Khedive’s army, revolted. England demanded the return of order, but the sul- 
 
878 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD 
 
 ran evaded the request. Arabi continued to fortify Alexandria after Sir Garnet 
 Wolseley and Admiral Seymour had demanded him to discontinue his operations. 
 When it was too late he agreed to dismantle the forts, but the English fleet bom- 
 barded the city July nth, 1882, and after two hours’ firing, silenced the forts. A 
 short invasion of Egyptian territory by the English, led by Sir Garnet Wolseley, re- 
 sulted in the complete restoration of order. The province of the Soudan was an- 
 nexed to Egypt, but the people of this new acquisition rose in revolt in 1883 against 
 the Egyptian rule. General Gordon was sent from England to take command. 
 
 An English army of occupation remained in Egypt, officered partly by English 
 and partly by native officers. As late as December, 1886, the English had head- 
 quarters at Assouan with advanced post at or near Wady Halfai. The rebels had 
 not carried out their threats to invade Lower Egypt, but were carrying on their war- 
 fare in a desultory manner. The English forces were withdrawn from the Soudan 
 in 1887. 
 
 Mohammed Tewfix Pasha, the present Khedive of Egypt, came to that office 
 August 8th, 1879, an d has been sustained by the aid of England in his position to 
 the present time. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 In the fifth century a German tribe called Salian Franks conquered nearly all that 
 vast territory included between the ocean on the north and west, the river Rhine 
 on the east, and the Alps and Pyrenees Mountains on the south-west and south. At 
 this point begins the history of France. King Clovis established his capital at Paris 
 in 507, and by his judicious reign laid the foundations of a great nation. He founded 
 the Merovingian dynasty, so-called from his grandfather Merowig. This line reigned 
 with authority until the death of Dagobert I., in 638, who left his infant sons, Ega 
 and Pepin, under the guardianship of two “ mayors of the palace.” These mayors 
 of the palace became the real rulers of France under the “ sluggard kings,” as the 
 descendants of Dagobert were called. 
 
 Charles Martel, the hammer, so-called from having “ hammered ” the Saracens in 
 one of the decisive battles of the world at Tours and Poictiers in October, 732. 
 Pepin, his son, was consecrated as king in 752 by a decree of the Pope Zacharias, and 
 thus began the Ca^iowig'ian dynasty — so named from the illustrious son of Charles 
 MarKl. The latter left his kingdom to his sons at his death, but two years later 
 Charlemagne became the sole ruler. This mighty monarch conquered Lombardy 
 and northern Spain, subdued the Saxons, drove back the Avars in Hungary and 
 ruled from the Eider and the Baltic to the Ebro and the Mediterranean, and from 
 the Atlantic to the Theiss. When he had accomplished this he was crowned by the 
 Pope as Emperor of the West, 800. He did all that lay in his power for the civiliza- 
 tion and Christianization of this immense empire until his death in 814, but these 
 assumed national types in the different parts of the territory. As a result at the 
 death of his son and successor, Louis le Debonnaire, by the treaty of Verdun in 843, 
 the separate kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy were constituted. France 
 was limited to nearly the same amount of territory which she now possesses. The 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 879 
 
 name, France, occurs in history for the first time about at this point. The Carlo- 
 vingian dynasty now begins its decline and finally terminates in 987, giving place to 
 a feudal monarchy. The vassals of the king, Louis V., at this date neglected the 
 claims of his son who had sworn allegiance to the German emperor, and chose in his 
 stead Hugh Capet, Duke of France. Fie was the founder of the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 The house of Capet ruled from 987 to 1328, and a collateral branch, the house 
 of Valois, from that date to 1589. The consolidation of the royal power or the firm 
 establishment of the feudal monarchy was the problem to be wrought out by the 
 Capetian dynasty. The crusades to rescue the Holy Land from the Saracens gave 
 vent to the romantic spirit of the feudal lords, the Pope was used as an ally to the 
 crown and even the Reformation was employed to aid the king against the nobles, 
 but when it proved inimical to the royalty it was crushed. The wars with England 
 and Austria had for their aim the establishment of absolute monarchy. Increased 
 powers were given to the cities, but provision was taken that “ the third estate ” 
 could not check the rising power of the king, and the nobility itself was made an ad- 
 junct to the throne. The spirit of French nationality was early developed and con- 
 spicuously displayed itself in the long and severe struggles which France sustained 
 with England, Germany, and other European powers. 
 
 Louis VI. (1 108-1 137) waged a long war with Henry I. of England over Normandy 
 which, by the Norman invasion of England, seemed to be lost to him, and though 
 the French vassals held a loose alliance with their sovereign, they furnished 200,000 
 men at one call for the defence of France. He was a very judicious ruler and abol- 
 ished serfdom in his realm and formed the contiguous cities into corporations, thus 
 by his example compelling his neighbors to pursue the same course. Philip Augus- 
 tus (1180-1223) took the first successful steps toward a centralization of power. He 
 instituted a chamber of peers of six secular and six ecclesiastical members, and ac- 
 knowledged the right of appeal from the feudal lords to the royal court. He con- 
 quered at one battle, that of Bouvines, 1214, the provinces of Normandy, Maine, 
 Touraine and Poitou, which he added to his domain. Philip III. (1270-1285), by 
 negotiation secured Toulouse and Venaissin, while Philip IV. (1285-1314) obtained, 
 by his marriage, the povinces of Navarre, Champagne, and Brie. He convoked the 
 general estates where the burghers for the first met side by side, and voted with the 
 nobility and the clergy in 1302. When the house of Valois began its dynasty, in 
 1328, under Philip VI., a nephew of Philip IV., the English king, Edward III., set 
 up his claim to the throne of France as the grandson of Philip IV., and the long and 
 bitter wars between the two nations began only to end with the surrender of Calais 
 and the relinquishment of the English to all claim upon the throne. These wars 
 lasted for one hundred years and left the two national contestants well-nigh bank- 
 rupt. But when Joan d’Arc, Maid of Orleans, aroused the patriotism of the French 
 and carried Charles VII. to Rheims to be crowned in 1429, the people clustered 
 about their king with wonderful enthusiasm, in spite of all the corruption and inca- 
 pacity which had marked the kings of France for a century. Louis XI. (1461-1483), 
 Catharine de Medici, the real mistress of France during the reign of her three sons, 
 F'rancis II. (1559-1560), Charles IX. (1560-1574), and Henry III. (1574-1579) were 
 
880 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 profligate and tyrannical, but they served to make royalty feared and respected by 
 the people. Charles IX. caused the leaders of the Protestant party to be massacred 
 on St. Bartholomew’s day in 1572, and Henry III. had all the leaders of the Catholic 
 party murdered, one by one, while he was in power. 
 
 In 1589, Henry IV. ascended the throne, the first of the Bourbon dynasty. 
 Then the royal power stood victorious and almost alone. Louis XIII. reigned from 
 1610 to 1643, under whom the Cardinal Richelieu made the royal power exalted and 
 solemn. Then came the long reign of Louis XIV., from 1643 to 1715. During the 
 early part of his reign France was prosperous and maintained a leading place in 
 European affairs. Commerce flourished, industrial activity was on every hand, the 
 army and navy were efficient, and the royal treasury was full. Turenne, Conde, and 
 Luxembourg made the French arms famous, and added new provinces to the royal 
 domain. Other kings strove to imitate the prodigal luxuriance and lust of the French 
 court. A long list of noted names made the French literature to be recognized and 
 respected by other nations. The true character of this monarch came to be exhib- 
 ited later in life. The mistress of Louis XIV. was under Jesuitical influence, and 
 persuaded him to revoke the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The guarantee of religious 
 freedom, given in 1598 to the Protestants by Henry IV., was taken from them. 
 Thousands of the most industrious and intelligent people were driven from France. 
 Some of the largest manufacturing interests were stopped, and the public revenue 
 impaired to such an extent as to cripple the treasury. 
 
 But the profligate monarch heeded not the condition of things. He continued 
 to build stupendous edifices and maintain a gorgeous court, and his expenditures 
 seem to increase with the decrease of the public revenue. The war which he began 
 in 1689 and continued for nine years was unsuccessful, and that from 1700 to 1713 
 was an utter and disastrous failure from first to last. He died in 1715 leaving France 
 burdened with an enormous debt, a demoralized court, and a discontented people. 
 But the people did not know the reason of their discontent. 
 
 The two reigns of Louis XV. (1 7 1 5-1774) and of Louis XVI. (1774-1793) taught 
 the people the prolific cause of their discontent and precipitated the crisis which 
 came in the bloody revolution and the “ Reign of Terror.” Among the causes lead- 
 ing to this crisis may be mentioned these : the nobility and the church estates were 
 relieved from taxation; the public offices were made a source of revenue by their 
 sale, while the holding of office entailed the right of nobility. The nobility came to 
 number 1 in every 250 of the inhabitants, and these were exempt from military duty 
 as well as taxation. The third estate, therefore, had the entire burdens of produc- 
 tion, taxation, and defence upon it alone, and at the same time was hampered by the 
 most absurd and rigorous laws that political economy ever knew. 
 
 At last the tornado broke and startled the world with its violence. The reign 
 of terror, too horrible for details, ended in 1795 by the convention which decieed a 
 new constitution, giving the executive power to five persons, termed the Directory. 
 The people of Paris were not pleased with this and the sections and National Guard 
 were eager to compel the convention to yield to their wishes; but Barras, commander 
 of the regular forces, made a young Corsican officer commander of the Tuileries, and 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 881 
 
 he settled the matter with grape shot, October 4th, 1795, putting an end to the most 
 fearful and shocking revolution that ever convulsed any nation. 
 
 From this time the young officer who ended the Reign of Terror, became the 
 real master of France, and French history became greatly changed by the person- 
 ality and genius of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was in France until June 18th, 1815, 
 and she needed such a master to bring her out of the troublous times upon which 
 she had fallen. In Napoleon’s first campaign, with a force one-half as large as his 
 contestants, he drove the Austrians out of Italy. In the second, he forced the treaty 
 of Campo Formio by which France gained Milan, Mantua, Bologna, Modena, and 
 all of the Austrian Netherlands, October, 1797. In the next two years his forces 
 had taken Egypt, planted the tricolor of France on the gates of Gaza, won one vic- 
 tory over the Turks, at Mont Tabor, and another at Aboukir, in Egypt. 
 
 In the mean while the internal affairs of France at home under the Directory 
 had not equalled her military success abroad. Two hundred thousand men entered 
 the field by conscription: the wars had everywhere been successful and the French 
 arms seemed invincible. In spite of the great indemnities exacted from Belgium, 
 Germany and Italy, the public funds were exhausted and the Directory could not 
 pay its debts. It declared the state bankrupt and reduced its obligations to one-third 
 their original amount. Affairs were unsettled at La Vendee and the government 
 resorted to extreme measures. The royalists returned and commenced anew their 
 intrigues. Napoleon heard of the disordered condition of affairs and secretly left 
 Egypt, returned to France, and on the 9th of November, 1799, overthrew the Direc- 
 tory and seized the reins of government for himself. 
 
 He caused a new constitution to be adopted with a consulate, under which he 
 became the “ First Consul.” His elevation to this office took place December 27th, 
 1799. In the spring of the following year he crossed the Alps, and fell upon the 
 Austrians, defeating them at Marengo, compelling them to cede Belgium and the 
 left bank of the Rhine to France. Then followed Austerlitz, Jena, Wagram, which 
 added new lustre to the French name. 
 
 In 1802 Napoleon was declared First Consul for life, and May, 1804, he was pro- 
 claimed by the Senate Emperor of France. He was crowned Emperor of Italy in 
 May, 1805. The French arms carried all before them on land, but her naval forces 
 were not so successful, for the fleet was destroyed by Lord Nelson. Josephine, the 
 wife of Napoleon, was divorced, and he married Maria Louisa, Archduchess of Aus- 
 tria, in 1809. Under his brilliant career as consul and emperor, the frontier of France 
 was removed to the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea. Vast treasures were poured into 
 the exchequer, and the rest of Europe lay at her feet. Then came the disastrous 
 campaign into Russia. By the burning of Moscow, to save it from falling into his 
 hands, and by the starvation and cold which wasted away his noble army of 500,000 
 men, he was left at the mercy of the allied forces who fell upon him before he could 
 recover; he was forced to abdicate April 4th, 1814. But ten months later, having 
 effected an escape from the island of Elba, he landed in France, quickly raised an 
 army and fought the battle of Waterloo, in which he suffered a final defeat and was 
 subsequently sent to St. Helena as a prisoner by England. Here he died May 5th, 
 (1821. 
 
882 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Then came the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in 1815, which lasted to 1830, 
 including the reigns of Louis XVIII. and Charles X. The exile of this family for 
 twenty eventful years had left bitter memories for them, and after the reaction, their 
 rule was characterized by arbitrary and despotic measures. A revolution again de- 
 posed them July 25th, 1830. Louis Philippe, who established the Orleans dynasty, 
 followed, but although he was shrewd he could not quell the restless rising of the 
 French spirit. Another revolution, in 1848, compelled him to flee, under an as- 
 sumed name, to England, where he died two years later. 
 
 A republic, again followed by anarchy, until Louis Napoleon, a nephew of 
 Bonaparte, was elected president, December, 1848. He was re-elected for ten years 
 in December, 1851, and one year after was proclaimed emperor under the title of 
 Napoleon III. He turned his energies to the beautifying of Paris and the prosper- 
 ity of France, and the administration of his government had a generally beneficent 
 effect. But his fatal error was in declaring war with Prussia in 1870, which ended 
 in the humiliation of France at Sedan, and the deposition of the emperor three days 
 thereafter, September 4th, 1870. 
 
 The French republic was re-established, and M. Thiers was chosen president, 
 May, 1871. It seemed as if France would be unable to rally from the enormous bur- 
 den which Germany had put upon her: the loss of the provinces, of one-fifth of 
 Lorraine and all of Alsace, and the payment of a war indemnity of one billion dollars. 
 To the utter astonishment of the whole world, this vast amount was provided for, one 
 and a half years before it became due under the terms of the treaty. 
 
 The presidency of M. Thiers and his successor, M. MacMahon, were rendered 
 stormy enough by the plots and counterplots of Royalists, Legitimists, Orleanists, 
 Bonapartists, and Communists ; but the administration of M. Grevy, who was inducted 
 into office January 30th, 1879, was calmer and less unsettled. President Grevy was 
 re-elected December 28th, 1885, and held office until he resigned in December, 1887. 
 The National Assembly chose as his successor M. Sadi Carnot, formerly Minister of 
 Finance, who still holds that office (1890). 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 The history of the German Empire begins in 843, when the treaty of Verdun 
 stipulated that Germany should be forever separated from France, but Lorraine was 
 left between them to be a perpetual cause of discord. 
 
 Prior to this the Germans were divided into a number of independent states 
 with no bond of union save a common tongue. The signification of the word Ger- 
 man is war-man, and Germania has been the prolific source of warriors of undoubted 
 courage since the days when her soldiers were chosen by Caesar for his imperial 
 guard, until the realization of the fond dream of a thousand years, when William I. t 
 King of Prussia, was proclaimed Emperor of Germany by his princes in the palace 
 of Versailles, January 18th, 1871. 
 
 Caesar defeated the Germans in 58 B.C., and 48 B.C., and enrolled many of them 
 in his army. In the year 9 A.D., Hermann, called by the Romans Arminius, defeated 
 and totally annihilated the forces of Quintillius Varus in the Teutoburger Wald. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 883 
 
 and may truly be said to have won the independence of the German tribes. From 
 then until the time of Pepin, the German tribes were independent of any foreign 
 power. This ruler greatly increased his dominions, but in 755 A.D., he gave Lom- 
 bardy to Pope Stephan III. This was the commencement of the temporal power of 
 the Church. 
 
 Charlemagne, than whom as a man and a monarch the world has seen no superior, 
 was the son and successor of Pepin. Of him Hallam has truly said, “ He stands 
 alone like a beacon upon the waste, or a rock in the broad ocean.” He was a giant 
 in size, over seven feet high; of mild temper, with a just and liberal disposition; a 
 close student encouraging the arts, learning, and commerce. No less than fifty-six 
 expeditions were made by this monarch for the conquest of other countries. In 
 the year 800 he was crowned by Pope Leo II. as emperor of the “ Holy Roman 
 German Empire,” which embraced all Europe then known. 
 
 The Karlings were the descendants of this emperor, but they made no great 
 impress upon the page of history. The lasFof this line was Charles III., surnamed 
 “the Fat”; he was deposed in 888. France had become a separate kingdom in 843, 
 and when Charles III. was deposed, the final separation of the German empire took 
 place. 
 
 The separate states came to have more power and the empire was scarcely more 
 than a name. The crown was made elective. The P'ranks elected their own duke, 
 Conrad I., king of Germany, and he was acknowledged by all the other tribes ex- 
 cept Lorraine, which fell to France. But Conrad failed to consolidate the empire 
 and at his death the Saxons and Franks elected Henry I., Duke of Saxony, for king 
 (912-936). He established the throne on a firm basis, lessened the power of the 
 dukes, improved the military discipline of the realm, and laid the foundation of the 
 kingdoms of Saxony and Prussia. 
 
 But his son, Otto the Great, who succeeded him, did more to increase the jDower 
 of Germany by defeating the Slavs, the Huns, and the Danes. He died in 973, after 
 a reign of thirty-eight years. After him came three emperors of the Saxon house : 
 Otto II., Otto III., and Henry II., but the royal power then diminished and the 
 Pope, at Rome, became dictatorial in the affairs of Germany. With Conrad II. 
 (1024-1039) the Franconian or Salic dynasty commenced and continued until 1125, 
 when it came to an end in the person of Henry V. The last-mentioned monarch lost 
 more for Germany than had been gained by his ancestors. He was forced by the 
 papal party to sign the Concordat of Worms, in 1122. 
 
 The Saxon Lothaire reigned from 1125 to 1137 and left his possessions to the 
 House of Guelph. On his death the powerful House of Hohenstauffen came to the 
 German crown. During the Crusades, Germany took a conspicuous part in the en- 
 terprises and her emperors find prominent mention in history. One of them, Fred- 
 erick (Barbarossa, or red beard) was third on the list and ruled with a master hand. 
 He reigned from 11 52-1 190, and tried to extend the boundary of his empire without 
 success, but overcame the internal disturbances at home, and “was a terror to evil- 
 doers and a protector to them who do well.” He died while on a Crusade in Asia- 
 His son, Henry VI., reigned only seven years. Then arose a contention between 
 
884 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the Houses of Hohenstauffen and of Guelph. The Pope favored the latter, and Otto 
 was given the crown, but not satisfying the papal power he was superseded by Fred* 
 erick II. (1212-1250). In his reign he subdued the Danes and Prussia was conquered 
 by the Teutonic Order, but he was obliged to contend against the Church all his life. 
 After him came two foreign princes and then an interregnum which lasted until 1273. 
 Rudolph I. ascended the throne, restored order and at the battle in which Othokar 
 II. was killed, he won the duchy of Austria, and founded the Hapsburg dynasty 
 which still reigns in that country. Albert I. (1298-1308) oppressed Switzerland and 
 in consequence the Swiss Confederation was formed. After him there followed 
 Henry VII. of Luxembourg who held the crown five years, then Ludwig of Bavaria 
 (1314-1347). He made the election of emperor independent of papal interference. 
 Charles IV. (1347-78) established the first university in Germany in 1348, and pub- 
 lished the “ Golden Bull ” by which the election of a German king by seven electors 
 was finally settled. A period of contentions between factions and different houses 
 followed with varying success, until the House of Hapsburg again came to the throne 
 in the person of Albert II. (1438-1439). Thirteen kings of this line ruled in Ger- 
 many until 1740. 
 
 In this period Luther, the Reformer, preached, and a diet convened at Augsburg 
 in 1518 condemned him as a heretic. The Diet of Spires, 1529, issued a decree in 
 which the ban of the empire was added to the excommunication of the pope. The 
 protest of Luther and his friends gave rise to the name of Protestant. The Thirty 
 Years’ War began in 1518, in which the Danes, Swedes, and French espoused the 
 cause of the Protestants, and Austria and Spain that of the Catholics. The real ob- 
 ject of the French was to check the growing power of Austria, and that of Sweden 
 to extend her domain. The war left an equal freedom in Germany to both the 
 Protestant and Catholic religions. By the peace of Westphalia (1648) much terri- 
 tory was lost by France and Sweden; the German principalities were released to a 
 great extent from the influence of the emperor, and Switzerland and the Netherlands 
 were made independent States. Under Leopold I., Germany sank to a low estate, 
 but the Kingdom of Prussia was formed with Frederick I. as king, 1701. Two great 
 wars were in progress in Europe; one in the north that brought Russia to the front 
 at the expense of Sweden, and touched Germany on her north-eastern frontier, but 
 the other, the war of the Spanish succession, was fought chiefly on her soil. By the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French lost the Netherlands in 1748. Three years 
 before this, Francis I., husband of “King” Maria Theresa, was elected Emperor of 
 Germany and held the crown from 1745 to 1765. 
 
 Meanwhile Frederick the Great of Prussia had prepared for a mighty struggle 
 which is called the Seven Years’ War. Austria was allied with France, Sweden, and 
 Russia to curb the rising power of the new kingdom, but they were compelled to 
 make peace with Prussia at Hubertsburg, February 15th, 1763. The advantage of 
 this peace was all on the side of Frederick the Great. 
 
 The French Revolution which changed the political aspect of all Europe, came 
 in the reign of Francis II., Emperor of Austria and Germany (1792-1806). Germany 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 885 
 
 was in the six coalitions against France, and most bitterly was she made to suffer 
 while the power of Napoleon lasted. 
 
 In 1806 Francis abdicated as German Emperor, and was afterward called Francis 
 
 I. of Austria. In that year the “ Rhinebund ” was formed by a confederation of na- 
 tive princes. This was under the protectorate of Napoleon. Prussia declared war 
 against France in the same year, but was speedily subdued with a loss of one-half of 
 her possessions, keeping the other half only on the hardest conditions. 
 
 After the defeat and overthrow of Napoleon at Waterloo, June 18th, 1815, the 
 Germans secured back their territory as it existed at the beginning of the Revolu- 
 tion. Hanover was raised to a kingdom; Weimar, Mecklenburg, and Aldenburg, 
 grand duchies. Lubeck, Hamburg, and Frankfort were made free cities. The Ger- 
 man Empire was not restored, but a confederation was formed. This did not 
 accomplish much for the nation as a whole. Austria had the greater military influ- 
 ence until, as the result of wise discipline, Prussia recovered from her great disasters 
 in the Napoleonic wars, and began to take the lead. 
 
 Count Bismarck, prime minister of Prussia, opened a quarrel with Austria when 
 he saw that his country was ripe for war. Austria was taken at great disadvantage, 
 and after a short but decisive contest retired from the German confederation. Prussia 
 gained Hanover, Hesse Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort. The North German Con- 
 federation accepted the leadership of Prussia. The two countries of Holstein and 
 Schleswig had been wrested from Denmark in 1864; and now, 1866, Austria was 
 humbled and Prussia was at the head of Germany. 
 
 The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) resulted in the unity of Germany and the 
 restoration of tjie German Empire, the very thing which the French desired to pre- 
 vent, and for which purpose they began the war. William I. had ruled Prussia as 
 regent under his brother from 1857 to 1861. Then he was crowned king, and at the 
 close of the war with France, received the title of Emperor of Germany. Bismarck 
 was raised to the dignity of a prince. The Empefor William I. died March 9th, 
 1888, at the age of ninety-one. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Frederick, who will be known in history as Em- 
 peror Frederick I. of Germany and King Frederick III. of Prussia. He was suffer- 
 ing from a cancer of the throat, and died from that malady June 15th of the same 
 year. His son William II. became emperor, and on June 1 8th, 1888, issued his pro- 
 clamation in which “ he promised to be a just and mild prince, to foster piety and the 
 fear of God, to protect peace, to promote the welfare of his country, and to be a 
 helper of the poor and oppressed, and a true guardian of the right.” On November 
 22d he opened the Reichstag with great pomp, and made a speech in which he said, 
 “ The confidence shown to me and my policy warrants me that I and my allies and 
 friends will, with God’s help, succeed in maintaining the peace of Europe.” He had 
 previously visited his allies, the sovereigns of Austria and Italy, and also Alexander 
 of Russia. 
 
 King Hubert of Italy visited Berlin, May 2ist-28th, 1889, and Emperor William 
 
 II. visited England, August ist~7th. The Emperor of Austria came to Berlin August 
 
886 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 I2th-i6th, and the Czar of Russia, the I2th-i6th of the same month.. The German 
 emperor and empress visited Constantinople November 2d~5th, of the same year. 
 
 Prince Bismarck seemed to have the full confidence of the young emperor dur- 
 ing the first year of his reign, but in the second year, the relations became strained, 
 and Bismarck lost the position which he had held under three emperors, and retired 
 to private life. The emperor and empress visited England in August, 1890. 
 
 OR 
 
 EAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The union of England and Scotland was finally established on the 1st of May, 
 1707, and the history of Great Britain properly commences at that date. Prior to 
 this, their histories run in independent channels. Great Britain, so called to distin- 
 guish it from lesser Britain or the Bretagne, is the largest island in Europe. It em- 
 braces England, Scotland, and Wales. Its greatest length is 608 miles, and greatest 
 width 325. The peace of the realm was disturbed for years after the union, by the 
 intrigues for the restoration of the Pretender, the representative of the exiled Stuarts. 
 Queen Anne, who was the sovereign at the time of the union, was succeeded by 
 the Elector of Hanover in 1713. He took the title of George I. The Whigs under 
 the leadership of Walpole had the ascendency, and an uprising in favor of the Pre- 
 tender, encouraged by the Earl of Mar in Scotland, and the Earl of Derwentwater 
 in England, was promptly quelled in 1715. A commercial crisis, involving thousands 
 of persons in financial ruin, known as the South Sea Bubble, burst upon the country 
 in 1720. George II. came to the throne in 1 727, and Walpole still continued as prime 
 minister. He was forced into a war with Spain on account of an illicit trade car- 
 ried on by the British with South America. This war terminated disastrously for 
 Great Britain. The War of t&e Austrian Succession involved the government in the 
 contest. The battle at P'ontenoy at which the French were victorious, completely 
 paralyzed the efforts of England. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle left the contestants, 
 as far as territory was concerned, just as they had previously been. A second at- 
 tempt made to win the throne by Prince Charles Edward Stuart had been completely 
 crushed at Culloden in 1746. In the Seven Years’ War on the Continent, Great Bri- 
 tain took sides with Prussia. She was unfortunate in Europe, for 40,000 men under 
 the Duke of Cumberland surrendered in Hanover, but Clive drove the French out of 
 India and saved that vast empire for his monarch. Wolfe defeated the French at 
 Quebec, and Canada was made a British province. 
 
 George III. became king in 1760 and died in 1820. His reign was a long one, 
 covering a most eventful period. The war with France and Spain terminated in 
 1783 with a large acquisition of colonial territory to Great Britain. The appoint- 
 ment of Pitt, Earl of Chatham, to the prime ministry, allayed the bitter dissatisfac- 
 tion among the people which had been caused by the Tory government. It was 
 under King George III. that the United States achieved her independence. An at- 
 tempt to tax the American Colonies led to an open rupture with the home govern- 
 ment, which lasted for seven years and ended in the establishment of the new republic. 
 Fox, Burke, and Sheridan were conspicuous statesmen of this period, but the younger 
 Pitt, who held office until his death in 1806, takes the preeminence. He declared 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD 
 
 887 
 
 war agairtst France in 1793 for no real cause except that he was opposed to repub- 
 licanism. It has been said that this war ended only with the battle of Waterloo 
 (1815). To this period belongs the war with the United States in 1812. An Irish 
 rebellion which was an incident of the war with France, was finally quelled. The 
 naval battles of Cape St. Vincent, Aboukir, and Trafalgar (1805) shed lustre upon 
 the British flag. Vittoria and Waterloo upon the land were great victories. The 
 almost incessant war had burdened the country with an immense national debt, and 
 caused great distress to the laboring classes. Most severe measures were enacted 
 to suppress the discontent arising among them. 
 
 The mind of George III. had been naturally infirm, and after several attacks of 
 insanity, in 1811 the Prince of Wales became regent. The entire period of his long 
 reign was one of great commercial and literary activity. He died at length at Wind- 
 sor, January 29th, 1820. 
 
 With the accession of George IV. an era of reform set in. Commercial measures 
 of relief and great practical benefit were introduced by Huskisson and Canning, 
 and an act emancipating the Catholics was passed in 1829. The conquest of Aracan 
 and the Tenasserim provinces, the slo^but healthy growth of liberal ideas, and above 
 all, the advance in the physical sciences during this reign, made the short period one 
 of marked prosperity. William IV. became king in 1830, and the British reformers 
 increased in influence. A Whig government was called to office with Earl Grey as 
 prime minister after the Tories had held office for fifty years. Under their admin- 
 stration the Parliamentary Reform bill was passed. The abolition of slavery was 
 decreed in 1834, and the Poor Law was amended for the better. William IV. died 
 in 1837, and was succeeded by Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent. The promi- 
 nent statesmen of her long and eventful reign form a long list of illustrious names, 
 among which we mention Sir Robei^flpLeel, Lord John Russell, the Earl of Derby, 
 Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, and Disraeli. Cobden and Bright have been the most 
 able advocates of free trade. Their united efforts brought about the abolition of 
 the Corn Laws, and the removal of restrictions upon trade and commerce. The grad- 
 ual broadening of the elective franchise, the Irish Land act of 1870, the act disestab- 
 lishing the English Church in Ireland (1874), and that creating school boards, have 
 been among the most important Parliamentary measures enacted in modern time. 
 The two great wars have been that with Russia, 1854 (in which occurred the siege of 
 Sebastopol), and the Indian Mutiny (1857). There have been minor wars in China, 
 Abyssinia, Ashantee, Egypt, Soudan, etc. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 The Heroic Age extended from 1384 B.C. to 1184 B.C. At the latter date the siege 
 of Troy took place. These heroes were regarded as of divine descent, superior to 
 ordinary men in mental and physical qualities. Hercules is the national hero, and 
 his labors represent the triumph of mind over physical and moral evils, the attainment 
 of wealth and power. Theseus displays the establishment of civil government in 
 Attica ; Minos, the triumph of law and social order ; Jason and the Argonauts, the pro- 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 gress of commerce. The Trojan War as sung by Homer in the “Iliad” and “Odyssey” 
 is only a vivid portraiture of the manners and customs of early Greece and a decrip* 
 tion of the contest between Greek and Oriental civilization. The Hellenes were 
 divided into Dorians, yEolians, Ionians, and Achaeans, each taking the name respect- 
 ively from Dorus and Aiolus, the sons of Helen, and Ion and Achaeus, the sons of 
 Xanthus, who was the third son of Helen. There is a suspicion that the early history 
 of Greece has been written backward. That is to say, that myth and fable have been 
 invented to fit the required data prior to the dawn of authentic history. 
 
 The state of Greece at the beginning of history was not unlike that of the feu- 
 dal ages in Europe. The king ruled in his own state, and his authority was not lim- 
 ited by any law, but he was held in check by the council of chiefs. The assembly 
 met to hear the decrees of the king and chiefs. The people were divided into three 
 classes — the nobles, rich and powerful ; the freemen, some of whom possessed estates ; 
 and the slaves. The Achaeans were the most warlike during the heroic age. The 
 two most important states of Greece were Attica and Laconia, better known from 
 the name of their capitals, Athens and Sparta. The other states were simply inde- 
 pendent cities for the most part. Sparta was the type of a Grecian oligarchy as 
 Athens was that of democracy. Between these two extremes there was every type 
 of government. Sometimes one was in ascendency and sometimes the other. 
 
 Sparta owed her supremacy in Greece to the political and military institutions 
 of Lycurgus, who flourished from 850 to 776 B.C. They were then a mere handful of 
 men, hemmed in by enemies and obliged to be soldiers. The laws of Lycurgus and 
 the severe gymnastic and military training to which the Spartan youth were inured, 
 made them almost irresistible when they came to actual war. This discipline en- 
 abled them to conquer Messinia, Arcadia, and Argus. Lycurgus induced his coun- 
 trymen by a most rigid oath to obey his laws until his return, and then disappeared 
 forever. The Spartans regarded him as divine and worshipped him. 
 
 Sparta and Athens were great rivals for supremacy, one taking the lead and then 
 the other, except when a third State came to the front. The Athenians desired a 
 code of laws, and Draco, a man of undoubted integrity and wisdom, wrote one so 
 severe and exacting that it did not accomplish the desired result. After a period of 
 anarchy Solon, one of the wise men of Greece, reformed these laws, but during his 
 absence of ten years the former abuses were renewed. Soon after the return of 
 Solon, Pisistratus assumed the chief power and held it, with two intervals of banish- 
 ment, until his death. Hippius, the son of this tyrant, was driven away and applied 
 to the Persian king for assistance. Athens refused to reinstate him at the request 
 of Darius. Then came the first Persian invasion, previous to which Darius sent two 
 heralds to the cities of Sparta and Athens to demand earth and water as a sign of 
 submission. The heralds were cast, one into a well and the other into a ditch, and 
 told “ to take their earth and water there.” A vast army and numerous fleet began 
 the invasion. On the plains of Marathon the Athenian general Miltiades, with 60,000 
 warriors and some troops from Platea defeated the Persian army, took some of their 
 ships, and set others on fire (490 B.C.) 
 
 A second invasion under Xerxes the Great was made ten years later, when 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 889 
 
 Leonidas, a Spartan prince, with 6,000 chosen men, held the narrow pass of Ther- 
 mopylae for two days, and was betrayed by a traitor who, on the third day, led the 
 enemy to his rear by another pass. The little band was defeated, and the Persians 
 hurried on to Athens, took, and destroyed the city. But about this time the Grecian 
 fleet captured and sank thirty of the enemy’s vessels, and later came the news of the 
 destruction and dispersion of the entire Persian fleet at Salamis. Thereupon the 
 Persian monarch hastened back to the Hellespont, to find his bridge broken down. 
 He was obliged himself to cross in a small fishing vessel, quite differently from his 
 pompous entrance into Europe. 
 
 The following spring the Persian general was defeated and lost his life in a battle 
 near the city of Platea, in which the Greeks gained a signal victory over a superior 
 number. The combined forces of Athens and Sparta won this and another victory 
 on the same day, the latter being a naval victory over the Persian fleet at Mycale. 
 These were led respectively by Pausanius and Aristides. 
 
 When the invasion had been repelled, there arose a quarrel concerning the re- 
 building of Athens, which threatened to break out in civil war. This terror was hap- 
 pily overcome by the discretion of Themistocles and Aristides. The confederated 
 forces made an expedition which emancipated all the cities of Cyprus from the Per- 
 sian dominion, and resulted in the capture of the rich city of Byzantium. But the 
 immense wealth contaminated the purity and simplicity for which the Greeks had 
 hitherto been distinguished. Pausanius was convicted of treason; Themistocles for 
 being accessory to the treachery, was banished; but Aristides the Just gained the 
 most distinguished reputation for patriotism and integrity. He was for a long time 
 the custodian of the public treasury, but at his death did not leave property enough 
 to defray the expenses of his funeral. 
 
 Cimon, the son of Miltiades, was a man of great wisdom and integrity. He 
 won decisive victories over the Persians by sea and land. The wealth he acquired 
 in these victories was expended in beautifying his native city of Athens. Athens now 
 attained the height of her grandeur and power with a population of 200,000. Pericles, 
 a rival of Cimon, caused his banishment, but after five years he was recalled from 
 his unmerited exile and died in a war with Cyrus. Pericles, however, held a wonder- 
 ful influence over the people, and had almost sovereign power in a free State. He 
 died 429 B.c. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War was a long and sanguinary struggle between Sparta and 
 Athens, involving the other Grecian states, begun 431 B.C., and ended in 403 B.C. 
 Sparta completely humbled Athens and left her with depleted treasury and demol- 
 ished walls, without navy and without men. 
 
 About this time Socrates, the wisest and best of the Greeks, was put to death, 
 having been accused of infidelity to the gods, and corruption of the Grecian youths. 
 But at once the Athenians were deeply moved by the great injustice which they had 
 done him, and a statue was erected to his memory. 
 
 The celebrated Anabasis or flight of the ten thousand, occurred about 401 B.C. 
 Cyrus the Younger led an expedition against his brother Artaxerxes, and was de- 
 feated at the battle of Cunaxa. The Greeks under Xenophon who formed a part 
 
890 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the defeated, were led back, consuming fifteen months on the journey. The dis- 
 tance in going and returning was 3,450 miles. 
 
 After the downfall of Athens, Sparta held the supremacy in Greece, the other 
 states furnishing their quota of troops for the army. Agesilaus, the chosen leader 
 of the Spartan forces, gained a victory over the Persians, but the other states re- 
 volted, and in the end a treaty was effected with the Persians dishonorable to Greece, 
 by the terms of which she became a Persian province. It is said that Agesilaus was 
 heavily bribed by the Persians to betray his country. 
 
 A war between Sparta and Thebes in 379 B.C. was concluded by the victory of 
 the latter in 362 B.C. in which the Theban commander, Epaminondas, lost his life. 
 The rising state of Macedonia, on the north, was coming into notice. Philip, the king, 
 had won several victories over the Grecian states and finally they all yielded to him. 
 In Athens, Demosthenes, the world’s most celebrated orator, in vain used all his ability 
 and influence against the Macedonian. Alexander, the son of Philip, ascended the 
 throne in 336 B.C., after the assassination of his father by a noble of Macedon. The 
 brilliant victories of this monarch in Greece, Persia, Syria, Egypt, and more distant 
 countries, earned for him the title of “ the Great.” 
 
 The city of Alexandria was founded by, and named after the Macedonian con- 
 queror. He married Roxanna, daughter of King Axertes, marched into and sub- 
 dued India. On arriving at Susa in 325 B.C., he contracted two Asiatic marriages. 
 He sought a remedy for his grief at the death of his friend, Hephaestion, commander 
 of his horse, in excessive intemperance, and died at the early age of thirty-one, in the 
 thirteenth year of his reign. The crown of Alexander was given to his illegitimate 
 brother, Aridaeus, but Roxanna giving birth to a son, who received the name of his 
 father, Alexander, he shared the kingdom under a regency. Soon, however, the vast 
 Macedonian empire was divided between the four generals of the army, and the sov- 
 ereigns, Alexander and Aridaeus, being put to death, every branch of his family be 
 came extinct thirty-eight years after the death of Alexander the Great. 
 
 Internal commotions and continued revolutions between the States left Mace- 
 don and all Greece an easy prey to the Romans, who first reduced Macedon to a 
 province and soon annexed all the other States to the immense Roman empire. It 
 remained in this condition until the division of that great empire in 395 A.D., when 
 it fell to the Byzantine, or Eastern empire. It remained as such up to the time the 
 Latin princes conquered and divided the Eastern empire in the eleventh century. 
 
 On the fall of Constantinople under Moslem power in 1453, Greece came under 
 the yoke of the conqueror, and remained so until 1687, when Athens was taken by 
 the Venetians and held by them for a short time. In 1718 all Greece again groaned 
 under Moslem rule, and continued under this cruel tyranny for more than a hun- 
 dred years. A patriotic uprising of the Greeks in 1821 led to a struggle with the 
 Turks which, after a series of achievements and glorious exploits, watched with deep 
 interest and sympathy by other nations, ended in the independence of the nation. 
 England. France, and Russia aided in this consummation by winning the naval vic- 
 tory at Navarino, October 20th, 1827. 
 
 The presidency of Greece was assumed by the Count Capo d’lstria in 1828, but 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 891 
 
 when the allied powers agreed to make Greece an independent kingdom, the crown 
 was offered to several persons. Count Capo d’Istria was assassinated at Nauplia, 
 October, 1831, which event induced the protecting powers to settle the affair of 
 Greece. Otto, second son of Louis of Bavaria, was chosen as king, and this choice 
 being solemnly ratified by the Greek people, the young prince, scarcely eighteen 
 years old, arrived at the capital of Greece, Nauplia, in 1833. He remained here, 
 under a regency, until 1835, when at the age of twenty he took control of the gov- 
 ernment and removed the capital to Athens. 
 
 A constitution was demanded by the people who, led by the garrison, surrounded 
 the palace of Otto on the night of September 14th, 1843. The king summoned a 
 national assembly in November of the same year, and after continued discussions a 
 constitution was adopted and submitted to the king, March 14th, 1844, and signed 
 by him two days afterward. Thus, without the shedding of blood the people gained 
 a constitutional government. In October, 1863, while the king and queen were away 
 for a ten days’ pleasure trip, Greece decided to exchange rulers, and upon their re- 
 turn, the royal pair were forbidden to land. They were transferred by a British man- 
 of-war to Venice, and thence they proceeded to their early home. 
 
 An election by universal suffrage resulted in the almost unanimous choice of 
 Prince Alfred, second son of Queen Victoria, as constitutional king. But, the three 
 allied powers having stipulated that no one of the royal family of either should sit 
 upon the Grecian throne, they declared the throne still vacant, and by another pro- 
 tocol offered the crown to Prince George of Denmark. He accepted it under certain 
 conditions, which were acceded to; and in October, 1863, arrived in Athens to take 
 possession, and was crowned on the 31st of that month, before he had become eigh- 
 teen years of age. A new constitution was adopted in 1864 and sworn to by the king 
 November 28th. The young king was married October 27th, 1867, to Her Royal 
 Highness Olga, daughter of Duke Constantine and niece of Alexander II. of Russia. 
 The heir apparent is Prince Konstantinos, Duke of Sparta, born August 2d, 1868. 
 
 GUATEMALA. 
 
 One of the five independent republics of Central America. The confederation 
 continued from 1832 to 1839, since which Guatemala has had a representative near 
 the government at Washington. A constitution adopted October 2d, 1859, was mod- 
 ified December nth, 1879. President General Rufino Barrios was elected May 9th, 
 1873. His term of office was prolonged for four years by a decree of the Constitu- 
 tional Assembly, October 23d, 1876, and he was re-elected for another term, March 
 15th, 1880. President Barrios had earnestly desired and labored for a federation of 
 the five states. On the 28th of February, 1885, he issued a proclamation declaring 
 “ the union of Central America as one republic.” He counted on the alliance of 
 Salvador and Honduras, but the smaller states were suspicious of the greater influ- 
 ence of Guatemala. In the disturbances which arose the President lost his life, April 
 2d, 1885. Zoldiver, President of Salvador, telegraphed to General Barillas, who had 
 assumed the presidency of Guatemala, proposing the very thing he had resisted under 
 the late president, because he had found out that his course had rendered him un- 
 
892 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 popular in his own state. But nothing could be done until after an election to fill 
 the vacancy caused by the death of Barrios, and Zoldiver at once abandoned his 
 country, leaving Gen. Figueroa to take his place. 
 
 Gen. Manuel L. Barillas was elected president at the election of 1886, and was 
 inaugurated March 16th, 1886. An attempt against his life the same year was frus- 
 trated. Reform measures affecting education, commerce, and the general interests 
 of the people, were enacted. Treaties with other powers were formed, and prosperity 
 with great increase of population ensued. 
 
 HAWAII. 
 
 The Hawaiian group of islands was discovered by a Spaniard in 1542, and cor- 
 rectly located by another Spaniard in 1567, but long before this one or two Spanish 
 ships had been wrecked at Hawaii and the survivors had married with the natives. 
 Their descendants may be traced at the present day and are called Kekea . The 
 English navigator, Captain Cook, landed on these islands in 1778. He sailed for the 
 American coast, and returned to meet the king Kamehameha I., who was then a young 
 man. Captain Cook was killed in a quarrel provoked by his abuse of the friendship 
 of the islanders, February 14th, 1779. In 1790 Kamehameha was attacked by the king 
 of the other part of the island, and after defeating him became king of the whole. 
 Then he invaded and conquered all the other islands but two, which were to become 
 his upon the death of their king. Vancouver came in 1792 and again in 1819. At 
 the last visit he introduced cattle into the islands. 
 
 After a long and successful reign, resulting in bringing the whole group under 
 his sway, Kamehameha I. died and left his throne to his son, who took his name. 
 Kamehameha II., aided by the widow of his father, Kaahumanu, abolished the taboo 
 system and overthrew the idols. The American missionaries came soon after and 
 introduced a written language in 1820. In 1823 the king and queen visited England, 
 where they both died, and Kaahumanu, the premier, ruled as regent for nine years, 
 until the younger brother of the late king came of age. Kamehameha III. began 
 his rule in 1833, and in 1839 Commander Laplace of the French war frigate obtained, 
 under threats of war, civil and religious freedom for the Catholic missionaries and 
 their converts, who had been subjected to severe persecutions since 1827. The king 
 gave his people a civil constitution in 1840. In 1846, by signing the famous Land 
 Act, he renounced the royal claim to a large portion of land and provided for its 
 conveyance to the people. Free suffrage was granted as a civil right. This wise 
 and progressive king died December 15th, 1854, and was succeeded by Kamehameha 
 IV. He enjoyed a quiet and prosperous reign of nine years and was followed by 
 his brother, Lot Kamehameha. He forcibly abrogated the constitution and enacted 
 a new one, limiting the right of suffrage by a property qualification. He beautified 
 the capital, Honolulu, with fine public buildings, and after a period of commercial 
 prosperity died without an heir in 1872. Lulalilo, a high chief, was elected king after 
 an interregnum of four weeks. He died without issue February 4th, 1874. 
 
 February 12th the legislature elected Kalakaua king with the determined oppo- 
 sition of the late Queen Emma, which led to a riot and the partial destruction of the 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 893 
 
 legislative hall. Order was restored by the intervention of the English and Ameri* 
 can war-ships. 
 
 The independence of the Hawaiian Islands was acknowledged by the United 
 States in 1829 and 1843, by Belgium in 1844, and by Great Britain and France later 
 in the same year. Kalakaua visited the United States in 1876, and in 1881 made a 
 tour of the world. He made a great display at his coronation in 1883, and his other 
 extravagances ran the government in debt. The royal palace cost twice the amount 
 estimated; the celebration of the king’s birthday and the funeral of a relative cost 
 vast amounts of money. The purchase of Gatling guns to fortify the palace, and a 
 steamer fitted up as a man-of-war for his use swelled the amount, and with many 
 other expenses brought the treasury to the verge of bankruptcy. This brought 
 about a revolution in 1887, when a new constitution was extorted from the king, 
 making the office of noble an elective instead of a royal one, they to be elected for a 
 term of six years; and the king solemnly swore not to interfere with any election or 
 influence political action. Many among the natives thought that the king had been 
 badly used and that the constitution which he was forced to sign, and the oath taken 
 by him under threats of violence, were not binding. The old constitution prescribed 
 the method by which it could be amended, and that was by the vote of two successive 
 legislatures. The king, however, contented himself with vetoing certain acts passed 
 by the legislature which had been elected under the new constitution. He conveyed 
 all his property interests to trustees to pay his royal debts, amounting to $250,000. 
 The King died at San Francisco, Cal., January 20, 1891. 
 
 HAYTI. 
 
 The republic of Hayti lies in the western or French part of the island of the 
 same name. The old Carribean meaning of the word is mountainous. It was the 
 second place which Columbus visited in America and the site of the first European 
 colony, which was called, in honor of the Spanish queen, Isabella. The first negro 
 slaves were brought here in 1522. The native Indian population had dwindled from 
 2,000,000 to 21,000 in 1 7 1 1, and it is doubtful if any of their descendants now exist. 
 The French came in 1630 and grew so rapidly that their settlement was formed into 
 an independent Department in 1714. The Spaniards tried in vain to drive them 
 from the island, and by the Treaty of Ryswick France held the western part of the 
 island, but the boundary was not definitely fixed until 1777. The free colored pop- 
 ulation demanded to be put on an equal footing with the whites in 1790, and organ- 
 ized an army to enforce their demands. The whites defeated them and put their 
 leaders to death. But in 1791 the assembly granted the demand, and order was ap- 
 parently restored. The same year, however, the slaves rose in insurrection and the 
 colony was rent by civil war. The Spaniards and English interfered and the French 
 commissioners in retaliation declared all the population free and equal. They ap- 
 pointed Toussaint l’Overture commander of the black army. The English and Span- 
 ish were driven out, and by the Treaty of Basle in 1795 the Spanish part of the island 
 was ceded to France. L’Overture restored order and prosperity, but was treacher- 
 ously captured and sent to Paris by the order of Napoleon, who sent a fleet under 
 General Leclerc to restore slavery to St. Domingo. The gallant captive died a 
 
•394 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 prisoner soon after, but Dessalines, who succeeded him as leader, was also a vigorous 
 and sagacious man. The French were compelled to give up their attempt and cap< 
 itulated to the English fleet January ist, 1804. St. Domingo declared itself a free and 
 independent republic, and Dessalines was chosen governor for life, but October 8th 
 he violated his oath and proclaimed himself emperor of Hayti. He was assassinated 
 in 1806. The eastern part of the island was given back to Spain and the western 
 portion or Hayti was left at the mercy of rival factions for some years. In 1822 
 Boyer united the whole island in one government, and France acknowledged its in- 
 dependence in 1825. In 1842 Boyer was expelled, and the east set up a republic by 
 itself, and Hayti was left to factional feuds. Soulonque was elected president of 
 Hayti in 1847, assumed the title of emperor two years later, and was deposed and 
 exiled in 1858, when a republic was again established. Two presidents were ex- 
 pelled in turn, but the third, Nissage-Saget, restored peace and order. Gen. Salo- 
 men was elected in 1879 for seven years. He put down an attempted rebellion and 
 was re-elected for seven years more, June 2d, 1888. President Salomen expelled 
 two of his generals, Marrigat and Legitime; this was followed by a general uprising, 
 and the president abdicted and left the country. Then a rival contest between Gen. 
 Hippolyte and General Legitime continued, in which the latter was brought into 
 conflict with the United States on accont of the seizure of an American vessel, and 
 the provisional president, Legitime, had to recede from his position. August 22d, 
 1889, he abandoned Hayti and left his rival, General Florvil Hippolyte as president. 
 
 HONDURAS. 
 
 The name is from the Spanish Honduras , and reminds the reader of the difficulty 
 which the earlier navigators experienced in finding a chance to anchor along the 
 coast. Columbus discovered this land on his fourth voyage, August 14th, 1502. It 
 flourished as a Spanish colony until 1823, when it threw off the foreign yoke and 
 joined the confederation mentioned above. Since 1839 ^ h as been like the other 
 states in Central America, independent. The present constitution was adopted in 
 1880. President Louis Bogran was elected in 1883 and re-elected in 1887, holding 
 the office for a term of four years. Treaties of commerce and amity are in operation 
 with Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States. Silver mining is a 
 prolific source of revenue to the government. Lines of steamers ply between the 
 coast and the bay islands, and the country is prosperous. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 The history of the middle ages commences with the year 476, when the Em* 
 pire of Rome fell. The history of Italy from this point is not so much that of one 
 compact kingdom as of a number of cities and states, each of which presents a special 
 and glorious record. The barbarians under Alaric had destroyed Rome and under 
 Attila had overcome Aquileia. The city of Venice was established by the fugitives 
 who had escaped from the latter city. Odoacer, of the tribe of Heruli, was the first 
 king after the conquest. He was slain in 493, and Theoric, king of the Eastern 
 Goths, who had vanquished him, established a monarchy. This was soon broken up 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 895 
 
 by the Greeks, who added it to the Empire of the East in 553. The Lombards 
 ruled from 568 to 774. The temporal power of the popes began in this period, 
 when Astolph gave the papal states to Pope Stephen III., 754. This gift was con- 
 firmed by Charlemagne, who had made war upon the Lombards and put their king- 
 dom to an end. Charlemagne was crowned by the pope Emperor of the Holy 
 Roman Empire in 800, and died in 814. The successors of this wise and good 
 monarch were weak and unable to check the power of the nobles. The last of them, 
 Charles the Fat, died in 888, and the nobles contended over a successor, and one of 
 them, Berengarius I., Marquis of Friuli, gained the supremacy in 894. Under his 
 rule and that of two successors, the condition of Italy was unhappy in the extreme. 
 Civil war and invasion, corruption and barbarism put an end to the first period of 
 Italian history — that of conquest and feudalism. 
 
 The second period is that of communism and the republics. In northern Italy, 
 the free communes, after long and sanguinary struggles with the German emperors 
 and the pope, finally won the Peace of Constance, 1183, which conformed the tri- 
 umph of the free cities. ‘In the south of Italy the republican spirit was smothered, 
 first by the invasion of the Normans, and then by the Swabians. Frederick II., a 
 Swabian king, with the aid of Pope Innocent IIP, was able to take the crown from 
 Otto IV., but the pope turned against him and instigated the formation of a second 
 Lombard league. Frederick II., however, defeated this combination against him at 
 Cartenova, 1239. Frederick died in 1250, and the papal power vented its hatred 
 against his descendants. Charles of Anjou, at the invitation of Pope Urban IV., put 
 an end to the Swabian dominion in Italy in 1268. The French rule was short. 
 Then followed internal disturbances — the free cities contended for the dominion, 
 and for the commerce upon the seas destroyed each other. The states contended 
 together. Lombardy was rising to superiority, and a general decline of patriotism 
 followed. 
 
 Then came the period of decadence. The lack of military spirit left Italy com- 
 pletely at the mercy of her internal and foreign foes. This lasted for two hundred 
 years. During this time Italy was reduced to a very low level politically — nothing 
 but the glory of her literature and art remained. The Turk was establishing a Mos- 
 lem kingdom in Europe. The discovery of America and the establishment of the 
 Spanish colonies were diverting commerce from the old channels. But worst of all 
 were the religious contentions and bloody persecutions which made these centuries 
 one long night of terror to Italy. She became the battle-ground on which the am- 
 bition and intrigues of foreign princes found a theatre for display. But during the 
 seventeenth century, when the ancient states of Italy were at their lowest state, the 
 House of Savoy was displaying increasing splendor, under the three Charles Emman- 
 uels and Victor Amadeus. 
 
 To these princes, aided by the popular heroes, Pietro Mecca and Picasso, belonged 
 the honor of inspiring the spirit of the regeneration of Italy. In the Wars of Succes- 
 sion, and especially of the Austrian succession, they vindicate the glory of Italy and 
 gave the signal for the awakening of a renewed national life. But a long period of 
 stormy war and bloody contention was passed through before the end. 
 
896 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 Sardinia became a kingdom in 1720, and in 1772 Savoy and Nice were taken by 
 France with force of arms. Then came the Wars of the Republic and of the First Erm 
 pire. Napoleon crossed the Alps and became master of Lombardy, invaded the terri- 
 tory of the pope, and extorted tribute. He won the battle of Montenotte, 1796, of Cal- 
 diera, Arcole, and caused the fall of Venice in 1797. The battle of Novi and of Ma- 
 rengo were fought and won in 1800. With the downfall of the emperor came the Treaty 
 of Vienna, but by its terms Italy was ignored for the Holy Alliance. Secret soci- 
 eties were formed, insurrections broke out at Naples and Piedmont in 1820, and a 
 national uprising, inspired by the French Revolution of 1848, had for its object the 
 expulsion of the Austrians. Venice drove out the Austrian garrison; Charles Albert, 
 King of Sardinia, took sides with the popular party and invaded Lombardy, won a 
 few minor victories, but was defeated. Milan and Venice once more fell to the Aus- 
 trians. Charles Albert granted a constitution to his realm. In the mean while a re- 
 bellion broke out in the papal states. Garibaldi led his victorious army into Rome, 
 and a Republic was formed. His holiness the pope retired to Galta, where he 
 joined the exiled king of Naples. There was a revolution in Tuscany, and the Sar- 
 dinians took opportunity from this to drive the Austrians out of Italy, but were 
 defeated. 
 
 Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emanuel II. A French 
 army captured the city of Rome July 2d, 1849, and his holiness returned to the 
 Vatican in April, 1850. In 1853, by the aid of the French the Austrians were ex- 
 pelled from Lombardy, after their defeat at Magenta and Solferino by the French, 
 under General MacMahon. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia but Venetia remained 
 to Austria. The royal army was defeated in Sicily, and Garibaldi proclaimed dic- 
 tator, i860. By a popular vote Naples and Sicily were annexed to Sardinia. At 
 the close of the short war between Austria and Prussia, 1866, Venetia was ceded to 
 Italy. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French force had to be withdrawn 
 from Rome, where it had been kept for the safety of the pope since 1850. Victor 
 Emmanuel seized this opportunity and entered Rome, September 20th, 1870, and 
 Rome became the capital of united Italy. At the death of Victor Emmanuel in 1878, 
 Humberto was crowned as king. Pope Leo XIII. was raised to the pontificate 
 of Rome on the death of Pius IX., which latter event occurred February 7th, 1878. 
 
 JAPAN, 
 
 This is perhaps the most interesting country, to the American reader, of all the 
 Asiatic countries. The first authentic information which the Europeans had with 
 Japan was in 1541, when three Portuguese merchants were wrecked upon the coast 
 of Kiusiu. The firearms which they possessed made such an impression upon the 
 Japanese as to find mention in their national calendar. These Portuguese returned 
 to the Island Kingdom of the East two years later, and brought with them some 
 Jesuit missionaries. This brought the country into the notice of Europe. 
 
 The history of Japan, prior to this date, as chronicled by the native historians, 
 shows one unbroken line of monarchs, or mikados, from 667 B.C., and the advance of 
 the nation in civilization and the arts. The conquest of Corea and the negotiations 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 89 *? 
 
 with China and the detailed steps of their progress are too many to chronicle in the 
 brief space allotted to this subject. Francis Xavier came to Japan in 1549, and re- 
 mained two years. He departed disheartened at the outlook for missionary work, 
 A military chieftain called Nobu Nanga, who attained regal power under the Mikado, 
 wielded the sway for twenty years from 1557. He led a crusade against the Bud- 
 dhists, whose religion had been established in Japan for a thousand years, and many 
 of their priests were massacred, and their temples overthrown. At the same time for 
 selfish purposes, the Shiogoon, as this chieftain was termed, encouraged the Jesuits, 
 who rose to favor and power, until in 1581 they claimed to have in Japan 200 churches 
 and not less than 150,000 Christians. When this man died the Jesuit power began 
 to wane. The immense treasure which he had collected was given away and squan- 
 dered in three days by a man who had been his servant and then his chief military 
 assistant, Akitchi-mitsu-hide. He arose to the military position held by his former 
 master. After changing his name a number of times, in 1585 he received from the 
 emperor the family name of Toyotomi. When he thought that his plans were ma- 
 ture he ordered the Jesuits to quit the country. In 1586, he took Nagasaki and 
 made it a royal town. The threat against the Jesuits was not carried out, but four 
 missionaries of the Order of St. Francis came in 1592. In 1596 a comet was visible, 
 and an earthquake occurred in this country. The people thought that these events 
 foretold the death of the Shiogoon; he caused twenty-six of the Jesuits to be cruci- 
 fied and ordered the rest to be sent home in their ships. The beginning of the sev- 
 enteenth century saw the rise of Iyeyas Mikawa-no-Kami to power. He treated his 
 enemies with kindness and granted a general amnesty to all except the chief, who 
 was beheaded. He removed the capital to Yeddo, promulgated a code of one hun- 
 dred laws to govern his successors, who he hoped would be of his family, in their 
 office. These laws have had a great influence ever since, and his hopes to a great 
 extent were realized. An interval of two hundred years of peace succeeded his 
 reign. The Jesuits were again accused of intrigue and sedition, and in 1636 he 
 ordered the image of the Saviour, which was inscribed on the copper coin, to be dese- 
 crated by trampling it under foot. An edict had been issued against the Jesuits in 
 1614, but was not carried out with any success until fifteen years later. In 1666 a 
 new decree of banishment against the Roman Catholic Church was promulgated and 
 two years after an order forbidding the erection of Buddhist temples. These are 
 still in force. 
 
 In 1639 the Portuguese and Spanish were driven out of the land. The Church 
 of Rome made an unsuccessful attempt to regain Japan in 1709, and a number of 
 attempts were made by the foreign powers to effect an entrance for commerce, but 
 the Japanese opposed all such overtures. According to native records, ten visits 
 were made by foreign ships from 1637-1826, inclusive. Commodore Brindle, of the 
 American navy, arrived at Nagasaki in 1846, and Com. M. C. Perry came in 1853. 
 The latter effected a treaty which opened Japan to commerce. Sir James Stirling, 
 an admiral of the British navy, concluded a treaty with Japan for England the next 
 year. In 1858 Japan announced to the other powers that she had treaty relations 
 with the American, Dutch, English, Portuguese, and Russian nations. The last of 
 
898 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 the Shiogoons who really held any power died in 1 866. In the following year an 
 unsuccessful attempt to be recognized as Shiogoon was made by Yoshi-hisa, but the 
 spiritual emperor, who was a lineal descendant of the Mikados, was received as the 
 true and only ruler of Japan. Thus the dual government of the empire came to an 
 end. 
 
 This Mikado died in 1867, leaving a son fifteen years of age as his successor. 
 Mutso Nito is at present (1890) upon the throne. 
 
 The advance and civilization of Japan for the last thirty years have been the 
 marvel of history. Their record reads like the tales of romance, and find no parallel. 
 
 In i860 treaties were signed with Holland and Prussia. In 1862, an embassy was 
 sent to the western nations, consisting of thirty-five members. They came to the 
 United States. In 1863, a retrograde movement resulted in the destruction of the 
 Legation House of the English and American governments for which Japan was 
 forced to pay a large indemnity to those nations. In 1870 the new government of the 
 empire, which had been successfully established at home, began with renewed zeal the 
 work of reform. Young noblemen were sent to foreign countries to be educated. 
 Diplomatic relations were established with the United States, Great Britain, Russia, 
 Germany, Austria, and France. In 1872, the great embassy led by Tomomi Iwakura 
 came to the United States and Europe. The old Japanese calendar was changed 
 to conform with the one used by all Christendom, save Russia. Western customs 
 were adopted; railroads and telegraphs were introduced, and Japan, with rapid 
 strides, was taking her place in the great family of nations. The great questions of 
 taxation and revenue are in process of successful settlement; a currency similar to 
 that of the United States has been established. The Japanese are going ahead with 
 the genius allied to that of “the universal Yankee nation.” The United States has 
 returned the money indemnity taken from Japan in 1863, and the greatest cordiality 
 exists between the two nations. The first Japanese parliament was opened November 1, 
 1890. 
 
 LIBERIA. 
 
 • 1 
 
 Was established as an independent state in 1847. It was founded by the Ameri- 
 can Colonization Society in 1820. It stretches from the Sherboro River to the Pedro, 
 a distance of 600 miles along the Atlantic coast of Africa. The American Baptist 
 Society sent missionaries to the native tribes in 1835. The president of the repub- 
 lic is elected for two years; the senators for four, and representatives for two. The 
 first president was Joseph J. Roberts, who served for four terms — from 1848-1856. 
 Hilary R. W. Johnson has served in that office since 1884 to the present time. The 
 official language is English. The capital is Monrovia. A lively trade in sugar, cot- 
 ton, ivory, camwood, palm oil, and native fruits is carried on with Europe and 
 America. The constitution follows that of the United States quite closely. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 From the time of the final conquest of Mexico by Cortez in 1521, for three cen- 
 turies the history of Mexico presents little for the general historian to record. There 
 were no foreign wars and no internal disturbances worthy of note. The pure Cas- 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 899 
 
 tilians who inhabited the country were regarded as foreigners, but they usurped the 
 positions of trust and emolument. The great landed estates and commercial posts 
 were in their possession. The revolution against the Spanish Colonial Government 
 after eleven years of contest culminated in the independence of Mexico, in 1821. 
 The natives having gained the victory ruined the aristocracy, and finally expelled all 
 Spaniards from Mexico in 1829. The earliest independent government, that of the 
 Liberator Iturbide, was intended only as a change of masters, but Spain refused to 
 permit one of its princes to take the crown, and Iturbide was declared emperor. 
 Santa Anna declared a republic in 1822, and in 1824 a constitution was adopted 
 after that of the United States. This was too radical, and the laws passed were too 
 far-sweeping and resulted in thirty years of contention and dictatorship. The fifth 
 dictatorship of Santa Anna was overthrown in 1855, and the next year a constitution 
 was adopted which, with some minor amendments, is still in force. The war of re- 
 form (1857-1860) and the French intervention (1861-1867) were two desperate 
 struggles against the corrupt national church, the army, and the conservative aris- 
 tocracy, who were the privileged classes. The Austrian Archduke Maximilian was 
 seated upon the throne of Mexico by the intervention of France for three years (1864- 
 1867), but was overcome and put to death. In both these contests the master 
 spirit who led the native forces was the Indian statesman, Benito Juarez. He was 
 president from 1857 to his death in 1872. His chief was the Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, who succeeded him in the presidency. The 
 present incumbent is Porfirio Diaz, who was proclaimed by the Mexican Congress 
 as elected September 26th, 1884. 
 
 THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 The Netherlands or Low Countries formerly denoted all the vast plains which 
 border on the North Sea and extend to the foot of the Vosges and the Ardennes. 
 The present kingdom of the Netherlands came to be a power among the states of 
 Europe after the long War of the Spanish Succession (1648). By the peace of West- 
 phalia the independence of the Seven Provinces was acknowledged by Spain. Its 
 progress for a hundred years was most remarkable. It crushed the Spanish power, 
 checked the Portuguese, kept down the English, and acquired great possessions in 
 America and the East Indies. The Dutch Admiral, Van Tromp, gained a naval vic- 
 tory at Goodwin Sands, November 29th, 1652. He sailed along the English coast 
 with a broom at his mast head, as a token that he had swept the Channel. In 1667 a 
 Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames and blockaded London. While they held in their 
 grasp the commerce of the seas, they made great achievements in art and science, 
 and gained the applause of the entire world. They were almost the only people in 
 Europe to resist the arrogance of Louis XIV. of France. In a contest with Eng- 
 land in 1782, the Netherlands lost their supremacy on the seas, and the internal dis- 
 turbances of two rival parties left an easy path for Napoleon, who permitted the 
 United Provinces to form a constitution, but changed it as often as the whim took 
 him. William V. fled to England, and the republic was formed May 16th, 1795. 
 In 1806 Napoleon made his brother, Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, and in 1810 
 
900 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 annexed it to France. The Treaty of Vienna again erected the kingdom of Holland, 
 and joined Belgium with it. The kingdom of Belgium was made independent of it 
 again in 1830. Since 1848, when the great revolutions swept over Europe, the 
 Netherlands have been peaceful, prosperous, and progressive. In that year some 
 modifications in the constitution were enacted. There has been some unimportant 
 conflict in the colonies, but nothing to affect the home government. King William 
 III. came to the throne in 1849. He died November 23, 1890, and his daughter, 
 Wilhelmina, born August 31, 1880, became Queen under the regency of her mother, 
 Emma, daughter of George Victor, of Waldeck. 
 
 NICARAGUA. 
 
 An independent republic of Central America since the dissolution of the con- 
 federation with the other four states in 1839, h as been the scene of continual revolu. 
 tion and counter-revolution. It would serve no good purpose to detail these con. 
 tests. She has been brought into prominence only through various schemes for the 
 building of a ship passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Her population, industry, 
 and commerce are declining. The English and American governments have been 
 interested in the proposed canal. A concession was made to a United States com- 
 pany, called the “Vanderbilt Concession,” in 1849, which was annulled in 1856, to be 
 renewed the next year. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between the United States and 
 Great Britain in 1850 declared that neither country should maintain exclusive con- 
 trol of the projected canal. This treaty is still in force. The original company to 
 which concessions had been granted was replaced by the Central American Transit 
 Company. In 1862 the Nicaraguan government confiscated the property, but through 
 the intervention of the United States government it was returned. In 1868 the 
 property was again seized and sold for debt, and in 1869 President Grant was re- 
 quested to intervene for the recovery of the property and damages. Upon the fail- 
 ure of the scheme to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, the old project 
 was renewed, and a New York company received, in March, 1887, the exclusive right 
 of way through the territory of the Republic of Nicaragua, for the purpose of con- 
 structing a canal. The United States had caused the route to be twice surveyed, and 
 the cost has been estimated at $65,000,000. The entire length is 169.8 miles,' but of 
 this only 28.9 miles has to be dug. In May, 1887, important concessions were ob- 
 tained by the payment of $100,000 in American gold. With proper restrictions, the 
 canal is declared to be neutral to belligerents during the ninty-nine years that Nica- 
 ragua binds itself not to grant concessions to a rival canal or railroad company. A 
 valuable concession has been obtained by the company from Costa Rica on a sim- 
 ilar basis. The president of Nicaragua, Dr. Sacasa, took his office August 1st, 1889. 
 
 ORANGE FREE STATE. 
 
 A small independent republic in the eastern part of South Africa. It was 
 founded by the Boers who quitted Cape Colony in 1836 and subsequently established 
 a republic. Its president, F. W. Rietz, took that office January, 1889. Its capital 
 is Bloemfontein. 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 901 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 A nominal republic, but since 1870 really under the control of Brazil. It was; 
 discovered in 1526 by Sebastian Cabot. Asuncion was colonized seventy-three 
 years before Jamestown, in Virginia, and was never broken up. The Jesuits were 
 expelled from the country in 1767. The independence of the country from Spain 
 was gained in 1811. Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez Francia became absolute dictator, 
 and died in 1840. His will was law, and when he died Paraguay was without a gov- 
 ernment. Lopez in some way obtained for himself the power, and ruled until his 
 death in 1862. He was followed by another man of the same name who died in 
 1870. The Paraguans were well-nigh annihilated in the wars which had occurred,, 
 and Brazil was called upon to interfere. The country is hopelessly and irretrievably 
 insolvent, her debt to Great Britain being $15,000,000. In 1870 a constitution 
 was adopted, modelled after that of the United States. An attempt to compromise 
 the British debt was made in 1885. Juan G. Gonzalez became President Sept. 25, 1891. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 When the Spaniards came to Peru they found a high state of civilization among 
 two kindred native races. These were then united under the Incas in one kingdom. 
 A small band of Spanish adventurers headed by Pizarro and Almagro plundered and 
 conquered Peru in 1531-33. The Inca Atahuallpa was put to death, and his half- 
 brother placed on the throne as nominal emperor. Pizarro was made Marquis of 
 Peru by the King of Spain. He founded Lima. In a contest with his associate in; 
 1541 he was killed. The Spanish retained possession of the country until 1821, when 
 it was declared independent after a successful invasion by General Jose de San Matin 
 who had previously liberated Chili. He was. made Protector of Peru but soon re- 
 signed, and General Bolivar was received as dictator. Bolivar retired to Colombia 
 in 1825 and a republican government was formed. A Peru-Bolivian confederation 
 was formed in 1836, which lasted only three years. Civil wars and numerous changes 
 of constitutions followed. Slavery was abolished in 1855. A war with Spain in 1866 
 for the Chincha Islands arose and Peru had as her allies the sister Republics of Chili, 
 Bolivia, and Ecuador. In 1875 there was a failure in the supply of guano, which had 
 been a source of revenue to the State, and in consequence the credit of Peru in Europe 
 fell so low as to result in great financial depression. A war with Chili began in 1879, 
 and resulted in the loss of the southern province and the occupation of Lima by the 
 Chilians. By the influence of the invaders, F. Garcia Calderon was chosen president 
 at Lima, July 10th, 1881, but he was soon taken prisoner, and Admiral Lezardo Mon- 
 tero was put into his place. General Caceres, the present incumbent, was elected in 
 1886. A treaty of amity and commerce with the United States was concluded No- 
 vember 7, 1888. Remigio Morales Bermudez became President, August 10, 1890. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 The national history of Portugal begins about 1095, when Henry, son-in-law of 
 Alphonso V., King of Leon and Castile, received the territory after the expulsion 
 
•902 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 of the Moors. Henry called himself Count of Portugal at first, but after the success, 
 ful battle of Ourique in 1139, in which he extended his domain to the Tagus, he as- 
 sumed the title of king. The kingdom of Portugal was 'about the same in size in 
 1253 as it is to-day, but it began to assume a greater importance in European affairs, 
 and in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had reached the height of prosperity and 
 power. This had been brought about by their scientific knowledge, practical experb 
 ence, extent of their commerce, and the spirit of discovery. In 1500 Lisbon was the 
 commercial centre of the world, and for fifty years Portugal was one of the great 
 powers of Europe, 
 
 In the reign of John III. (1521-57), the Jesuits introduced the Inquisition 
 into the country, and there soon followed a national decline. In 1578, King Sebas- 
 tian and his entire army were overwhelmed by the Moors in the battle of Kassrel- 
 Kebir, and his dynasty became extinct two years after. 
 
 The military and financial power of the country was broken, and it passed into 
 the hands of Philip II. of Spain. In the wars of the Netherlands all its colonies were 
 swept away. It reconquered its independence in 1640, and John IV. of Braganza 
 was placed on the throne. He reigned from 1640 to 1656. The country began a 
 rapid and prosperous advance once more, but again the Jesuits, during the long reign 
 of Maria I., which extended from 1 777 to 1816, came to have influence and brought 
 disaster on the country. Napoleon of France compelled the royal family to flee, 
 and they went to Brazil in November, 1807. England succeeded in bringing back 
 the dynasty to the throne by the treaty of Cintra, August 30th, 1808. The finances 
 of the country were depressed, and its trade held by London monopolies. John VI., 
 returned from Brazil in 1821, but before he landed in Portugal was compelled to sign 
 a liberal constitution. Brazil became a separate kingdom in 1821, under Dom Pedro, 
 son of John VI. 
 
 Maria II. reigned from 1826 to 1853, and was succeeded by Pedro V., who reigned 
 until 1861. He was followed by Louis I., who died October 18th, 1889, and Charles 
 I. became king. The liberal constitution forced from John VI., was replaced by one 
 in 1826; this was altered in 1852, and further amended in 1885. The Cortez, or 
 National Assembly, consists of a Chamber of Peers of 162 members, and a Chamber 
 of Deputies of 173 members. The Constitution of 1885 provides for the gradual abo- 
 lition of hereditary peerage, and in its place, the appointment of one hundred peers 
 for life only by the king, and for fifty elective peers. 
 
 ROUMANIA or ROMANIA. 
 
 This country claims to be a completely independent State under the Treaty of 
 Paris in 1856 and the Convention of Paris in 1858. Her statesmen claim that the 
 annual contribution to the Porte is not a tribute to Turkey, but a compensation for 
 the obligation which Turkey has assumed to defend Roumanian soil. Turkey denies 
 this, and in 1872 the question of sovereignty was discussed with bitterness. In 1881 
 the Chief of State who is hereditary ruler in the male line of the House of Hohenzol 
 lern, assumed the title of King. The constitution is very liberal, giving freedom of 
 conscience and ©f the press to all. Carl I. was king. In absence of heirs to his 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 903 
 
 body he chose Prince Frederick of Hohenzollern to be his successor. An unsuccess- 
 ful attempt was made upon the life of the prince minister, M. Brattano, September 
 16th, 1886, which led to the mobbing of the only opposition paper in Bucharest. 
 The irritating policy of the Austro-Hungarian Government strengthened the pro- 
 Russian party, but the boundary dispute between Roumania and Austro-Hungary 
 was settled by a mixed commission in April, 1887. This added about 32,000 
 square miles of territory to the kingdom. Although legally in force, no foreign 
 power had exercised consular jurisdiction since her independence up to 1890. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 The dawn of the modern history of the Russian Empire may properly be set at 
 1612, when the founder of the present dynasty ascended the throne, having been 
 elected thereto by the “boyars,” or noblemen. The previous period of their struggle 
 to form a fixed government among nomadic tribes which by degrees settled in rather 
 a chaotic condition upon the plains, is without sufficient data to be authentic. Michael 
 Feodororich Romanoff, the first Czar, was the ancestor of Peter the Great. The 
 latter ascended the throne in 1689. He moulded the empire to his will, advanced 
 his people in civilization, and made his empire a power in European affairs. There 
 are numerous anecdotes of the first visit which Peter made to the western nations 
 before he came to the throne, which are still current, showing how Russia was regarded 
 by them. When he came to power the other countires had but little knowledge of 
 or appreciation for the Russians. He saw that to become an influential nation in 
 Europe he must extend his dominions to the great seas, establish seaports, and con- 
 struct a navy. In 1696, he took Azof from the Turks and held it firmly in spite of 
 military misfortunes. He thoroughly drilled and equipped his army and made ready 
 to attack Sweden. The army suffered a fearful defeat in 1700, but three years after- 
 ward, while the Swedes were engaged in war in Poland, he conquered the shores of 
 the Gulf of Finland and founded St. Petersburg, which he made his capital. By the 
 Peace of Nystad, November 1st, 1721, he added large territories to his realm. Two, 
 years after saw him in possession of the Caspian Sea. Internal improvements kept 
 pace with extent of empire. Canals were dug, schools were founded, roads built, 
 and manufactures established. Skilful mechanics, engineers, artists, and scholars 
 were invited to visit Russia, and engaged at good prices. He died February 8th, 
 1725, but left the spirit and policy of his reign as a legacy to his successors. 
 
 Catherine I. ruled from 1725 to 1727; Peter to 1730; Anne to 1741; Elizabeth 
 to 1762. Elizabeth founded the first Russian university at Moscow. These all car- 
 ried forward the policy of their great predecessor, but under Catherine II. there was 
 a most decided advance. Peter the Great had assumed the dignity of Emperor of 
 Russia after the Peace of Nystad, but Catherine II. had trouble in getting the powers 
 to acknowledge her right to the title of empress. She waged successful wars with 
 Sweden, Persia, and Turkey; conquered the crown from the latter, and by her mar- 
 vellous diplomatic ability acquired Courland and the half of Poland. These achieve- 
 ments gained great influence for her in Europe. She induced a tide of healthful im- 
 . migration into her realm. Her son, Paul I., reigned for five years (1796-1801), and 
 
904 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 continued the intercourse which had begun with Europe. Alexander I., his suc- 
 cessor, held the throne for twenty-four years, and under him Russia became not only a 
 great power but the real arbiter in the political affairs of Europe. He divided the 
 world with Napoleon, giving him the western portion and he kept the east. A 
 rupture with the French emperor led to the invasion of Russia, the burning of Mos- 
 cow, and the destruction of the French army. In 1814 Alexander I. was regarded 
 as the liberator of Europe, but his character suddenly seemed to change; he founded 
 the Holy Alliance and was the chief support of the reaction. He died in 1825 and 
 left the throne to his brother, Nicholas I., who reigned until 1855. The empire pros- 
 pered under him and the nations under his rule became Russianized, and the national 
 spirit greatly advanced. The Crimean War broke out, and in consequence of French 
 and English intervention, resulted in the loss to Russia of control of the Black Sea. 
 Alexander II., came to the throne while the war was in progress. He was of a pro- 
 gressive turn, and in 1861, serfdom was abolished. But the emperor had awakened 
 the intense opposition of the old Russians, and the severe measures of repression 
 which he employed gave increasing influence to the spirit of nihilism. He was 
 assassinated in 1881, and Alexander III. became emperor. 
 
 SALVADOR. 
 
 This is the smallest of the independent republics of Central America, and since 
 the dissolution of the confederacy in 1839, h as h a d an unimportant history as far as 
 internal affairs are concerned. Its capital is San Salvador, and for that reason the 
 country is better known by that name. 
 
 SAMOA. 
 
 The prominence given to Samoan affairs in diplomatic correspondence and by 
 the press, warrants us in giving a short history of recent events in that kingdom. It 
 comprises the Samoan or Navigator Islands. In 1873 the foreign residents induced 
 the ten chiefs to form one government under the joint reign of two kings. The com- 
 merce of the islands was in the control of American and English merchants. In 
 1875, Steinberger, a secret agent of a German company, instigated one of the kings 
 to make war upon the other, and Malietoa made himself sole king, choosing Steinberger 
 as prime minister. This man was removed and banished as soon as the king saw his 
 real design, and the Germans then took sides with his rival, Tupua. But a majority 
 of the people were loyal to the newly established king, and by aid of the Americans 
 he was fully established as king. The port of Pango Pango was assigned to the 
 United States as a coaling station, with extra territorial jurisdiction by a treaty, signed 
 January 17th, 1878. Similar treaties were subsequently made with Germany and 
 England. The Germans continued their intrigue and interference with Samoan 
 affairs. Tamasese was set up as king by German aid, and in 1866 Admiral Knorr 
 was sent with a squadron to Samoa. He visited and saluted the rebel as king. The 
 real king asked the American Consul to proclaim a protectorate over the kingdom. 
 In August, 1887, four German ships of war arrived at Apia. On the 23d of that 
 month the king was requested to pay an indemnity of $12,000 for cocoanuts alleged ^ 
 
THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 905 
 
 to have been stolen, and two days later Tamasese was proclaimed as king by the Ger- 
 mans. But the British and American consuls protested. Still the Germans arrested 
 Malietoa and carried him as a state prisoner to Hamburg, in 1888. The English 
 recognized Tamasese as king de facto , but the United States had no communication 
 with him. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 Christianity was introduced into Sweden under the reign of Eric IX., who died 
 in 1160. After him there was war between two rival families, which continued for 
 ninety years. A new dynasty ascended the throne in 1266 and held possession for 
 nearly a hundred years. Then follow a succession of internal and foreign disturb- 
 ances, chiefly of a religious nature, until Charles IX., a zealous Protestant, overcame 
 his uncle, who was of the Catholic faith. Charles IX. reigned from 1600 to 1611, and 
 left the throne to his son, Gustavus Adolphus, the renowned king and general, who 
 was a strong defender of the Protestants. He took a conspicuous part in the Thirty 
 Years’ War, and was the dangerous enemy of Austria. Charles X. and Charles XI., 
 who followed him, succeeded in regulating the relations of Sweden to the other Euro- 
 pean countries around her. But the highest point of her glory was reached, for under 
 Charles XII. she received such disaster as crippled her for a hundred years. Two 
 parties arose in 1720 and continued to distress the country — the Hats and the Caps. 
 The king was left almost without influence in the middle of the eighteenth century. 
 In the Seven Years’ War Sweden joined France, but gained little by the alliance. 
 Sweden never regained her position in the political affairs of Europe. Although 
 Bernadotte, a French marshal who refused to join Napoleon against England and led 
 a Swedish army in alliance with Russia in 1813, became Crown Prince, ascended the 
 throne in 1818 as Charles XIV., and recovered Norway from Denmark, his govern- 
 ment failed to confer any lasting benefit upon the country. He died March 8th, 
 1844, and was succeded by his son Oscar I., who had a weak and vacillating policy. 
 The constitutional reform promised by Oscar was not carried into effect until his 
 son Charles XV. came to the throne. It was granted in 1866. The latter was 
 followed by his son Oscar II., a weak but obstinate character. 
 
 Norway protested against the disposal made of her in 1814 so strongly that she 
 is not now a province of Sweden but a separate kingdom under the same ruler. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 The first Swiss league was formed in 1291 and became the nucleus of the twenty- 
 two Cantons of the present time. The House of Hapsburg was instituted by the Duke 
 Zahringen, Protector of the “ Lands, ”as the first Cantons of Switzerland were called. 
 The Swiss attempted to free themselves from the tyranny of this house. The league 
 of 1291 was renewed in 1313, after the Swiss victory over the Austrians at Morgarten. 
 The battle of Sempach was fought in 1336, in which the Austrians were defeated. 
 The Austrian power was overcome entirely in the years 1412-31. In the same 
 century the Swiss were obliged to fight a number of battles with foreign foes — at St. 
 Jacobs in 1444, at Granson and Morat in 1476. The Thirty Years’ War was very 
 
906 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE WORLD. 
 
 disastrous to Switzerland, but the Peace of Westphalia left her independent of Ger- 
 many. During the long reign of Louis XIV. of France, disorder prevailed among 
 the Swiss, and in the time of the revolution and empire she was the battleground for 
 foreign armies. By the Convention of Vienna her independence was guaranteed, 
 since which time she has been peaceful and prosperous. A constitution voted by the 
 people in 1874 looks toward a centralization of power. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 The first notice of Turkey in history is found in 800. The Turks are of Tartar 
 origin. Mohammed II. conquered Constantinople in 1453 and made it the capital 
 of his empire. His grandson Selim I. took Syria and Egypt, and .Soliman the Mag- 
 nificent seized Hungary and extended his domain eastward. In 1683 the Turks 
 were driven out of Austria and Hungary by the Polish king, John Sobieski. Austria,. 
 Venice, and Poland were permitted to have back in 1699 the territory which had 
 been wrested from them by Turkey. Russia and Turkey were at conflict almost 
 continuously during the eighteenth century, to the great detriment of Turkey. 
 Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania had gained a semi-independence in the early 
 part of the nineteenth century. Greece won her independence in 1829 by the aid 
 of Russia, France, and England. 
 
 The Crimean War with Russia closed in 1856, in which France and England 
 sided with Turkey. A revolt took place in the Danubean Provinces in 1875, anc ^ 
 Russia took part in aid of the insurgents. The provinces secured their independence, 
 and Russia gained large possessions in Asia. Turkey and her relations with Egypt 
 have received attention under the history of Egypt. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 See “ Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Men and Women/' “American Au- 
 thors and Literature,” “ Valuable State Papers,” “ Duties of Officers of Government,” 
 and “Outlines of History — United States,” in other parts of this work. 
 
 A sketch of the United States is not presented here, as it would necessarily be so 
 brief, within the space permitted, as to be of little value to readers of our own country. 
 Therefore we refer them to the articles mentioned above, which cover the ground in 
 detail and will prove more useful and interesting to the general reader. 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 The first settlement was made in this country of Spanish Jesuits in 1622. There 
 was much contention with the Portuguese who wished to make the River Platte the 
 boundary of Brazil, but the Spanish gained the control of the country in 1724. It 
 continued a province of Spain until the War of Independence broke out in 1811, but 
 the Portuguese again interfered in annexing it to Brazil in 1821. A new revolution 
 broke out in 1825, and the independent Republic of Uruguay was established, which 
 was acknowledged by Brazil in 1828. The existing constitution was adopted in 1830. 
 Montevideo is the capital. The unsettled character of the population has made 
 this period of freedom very pernicious to the prosperity of the country. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 
 
 ENGLISH AUTHORS AND LITERATURE. 
 
 The name of each author, the dates of his birth and death, as far as could be ascertained, the title of the work by which he 
 is best known. The names are arranged under three heads : Imagination ; Fact ; Speculative and Scientific. The first include* 
 the Poets and Novelists ; the second the writers on History, Geography, and other matters of exact detail ; the third, those who 
 treat of Philosophy and Science. This division cannot be perfect, for an author is often celebrated in various departments of 
 knowledge. His name will here be found in the division which includes his best known productions. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 600 Coedman, Saxon Poems. 
 
 849 — 901 Alfred* Saxon Poems; Translations, etc. 
 
 Robert of Gloucester, Chronicle in 
 
 Verse. 
 
 —1352 Lawrence, Minot, Historical Poems. 
 
 1 326— 1396 Jno. Barbour, “ The Bruce* 
 
 28 — 1400 Geof. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales. 
 
 1465 — 1530 Wm. Dunbar, “ Thistle and Rose .* 
 
 7 5 — 1522 Ga win Douglas, Translation 0/ Virgil, 
 
 80 — 1535 Thos. Moore, “ Utopia .* 
 
 —1565 Jno. Heywood, Drama. 
 
 —1546-7 Earl of Surrey, Poems. 
 
 1553—1598 Edm’d Spenser, Faery Queen . 
 
 54 — 1586 Philip Sidney , Arcadia. 
 
 64 — 1616 William Shakespeare, Dram 
 74 — 1637 Ben. Jonson, Drama. 
 
 76 — 1625 Jno. Fletcher, Drama. 
 
 86—1615 F. Beaumont, Drama. 
 
 1608 — 1674 Jno. Milton, “ Paradise Lost.* 
 
 12 — i 688 Sam’l Butler, “ Hudibr as .” 
 
 28 —i 688 John Bunyan, Pilgrim's Progress. 
 
 31 — 1701 Jno. Dryden, Tragedy ; Satire ; “ Virgil* 
 40 — 1715 Wm. Wycherly, u Country Wife;* 
 Comedy. 
 
 51—1685 Thos. Otway, Tragedy. 
 
 55 — 1692 Nathaniel Lee, The Mad Poet ; Drama 
 60 — 1731 Jos. Addison, “ Spectator ; * "Cato* 
 64—1721 Matthew Prior, Poems. 
 
 * — 1729 R. Steele, Drama ; “ Tattler .* 
 
 67—1745 Jonathan Swift, Satire; Tales. 
 
 71 — 1757 Colley Cibber, Poet Laureate. 
 
 74 — 1748 J. Watts, Hymns. 
 
 81 — 1765 Edw’d Young, Night Thoughts. 
 
 88 — 1744 Alex. Pope, Poetry. 
 
 — 1732 John Gay, “ Beggars' Opera;* Fable*, 
 90—1762 M. W. Montague, Letters. 
 
 96—1758 Allan Ramsay, “ The Gentle Shepherd." 
 98 —1743 Rich’d Savage, Poems. 
 
 I7OO—1748 Jas. Thomson, " Seasons.* 
 
 7 — 1754 H. Fielding, “ Tom Jones* etc. 
 
 13— 1768 Lawrence Sterne, “ Tristram Shandy?' 
 16 — 1771 Thos. Gray, Elegies ; Odes. 
 
 — 1779 D. Garrick, Drama. 
 
 20 — 1771 T. Smollett, Novels. 
 
 21 — 1770 M. Akensid Pleasure of Imagination" 
 31 — 1774 O. Goldsmith, Vicar of Wake, field. 
 
 — 1800 Wm. Cowper, Poems. 
 
 35 — 1805 Jas. Beattie, Poems. 
 
 43—1825 Anna Barbauld, Tales. 
 
 45 — 1833 Hannah More, Sacred Dramas. 
 
 51 — 1816 R. B. Sheridan, Drama. 
 
 52— 1842 Frances Burney (Mad. D’Arblay), 
 
 “ Evelina." 
 
 1754—1832 Geo. Crabbe, Poems . 
 
 56 — 1833 Wm. Sotheby, Poems ; Translations. 
 
 — 1851 Harriet Lee, Canterbury Tales. 
 
 59 — 1796 Robt. Burns, Poems. 
 
 - — — 1808 J. Home, Drama. 
 
 60 — 1844 If 111 ' Beckford, Vathek ; Romance. 
 
 62— 1851 Joanna Baillie, Drama; Passions. 
 
 63 — 1855 Sam. Rogers, Pleasures 0/ Memory. 
 
 64— 1823 Ann Radcliffe, Novels. 
 
 —1845 Regina Maria Roche, Children 0/ tht 
 Abbey ; No 7 /els. 
 
 67—1849 Maria Edgeworth, Moral Tales ; Nov ' 
 els. 
 
 70 — 1850 W111. Wordsworth, Poems. 
 
 71 — 1832 Sir Walter Scott, Ivanhoe; Poems. 
 
 —1854 J as. Montgomery, Poems. 
 
 72— 1834 Sam’l Coleridge, Ancient Mariner ; 
 
 Poems; Essays. 
 
 —1835 James Hogg, Poems; Tales. 
 
 — 1844 Hy. F. Cary, Translation 0/ “ Dante.* 
 
 74— 1843 Rob’t Southey, Poems. 
 
 75 — 1834 Clias. Lamb, Poems ; “ Essays of Elia." 
 — 1817 Jane Austin, “ Priae and Prejudice 
 —1864 Walter Savage Landor, Poems. 
 
 76— 1850 Jane Porter, “ Scottish Chiefs." 
 
 77— 1844 Thos. Campbell, “ Pleasures of Hope?* 
 
 79 — 1852 TllOS. Moore, Poems ; Irish Melodies. 
 
 80 — 1863 Frances Trollope, “ The A bbess ." 
 
 84 — 1859 Leigll Hunt, Poems ; Essays. 
 
 —1862 Jas. Sheridan Knowles, “ Leo, or the 
 Gypsy." 
 
 85 — i 8 o 6 Hy. Kirke White, Poems. 
 
 86 — 1859 Thos. De Quincey, Confessions of an 
 
 Opium Eater. 
 
 87— 1874 Bryan Waller Procter (Barry 
 
 Cornwall), Dramas ; Poems. 
 
 88— 1824 Geo. Lord Byron, Poems. 
 
 — 1841 Theo. E. Hook, Novels. 
 
 — 1845 H. Barham, “ Ingoldsby Legends .* 
 
 89— 1855 Mary Russell Mitford, Poems. 
 
 90 — 1866 Jno. Kcble, Christian Year. 
 
 91— 1823 Chas. Wolfe, Burial of Sir J. Moore. 
 
 92 — 1843 F. Marryatt, Peter Simple ; Sea Novels. 
 
 93— 1822 Percy Bysshe Shelley, Poems. 
 
 94— 1835 Felccia Hcmans, Poems. 
 
 —i860 Anna Jameson, Female Characters of 
 Shakespeare ; Art. 
 
 96 — 1821 John Keats, Poems. 
 
 97 — i 868 Sam’l Lover, “ Rory O' More?* 
 
 98 Wm. Carleton, Irish Stories. 
 
 — 1845 Thos. Hood, “ Song of the Shirt :* Poem* 
 99 — 1827 Robert Pollok, Course of Time. 
 
 llaric A. Watts, Poems. 
 
908 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX 
 
 IMAGINATION. — Continued. 
 
 1800 — 1842 John Banirn, Irish Novels. 
 
 Catharine St. Clair, Beatrice. 
 
 1 — 1860 G. P. It. James, Novels. 
 
 2— 1839 Latitia E. Landon (Mrs. McLean), 
 
 Poems. 
 
 Anna Maria Hall, Sketches of Irish 
 
 Character. 
 
 3 — 1857— Douglas Jerrold, Mrs. Caudle's Lee - 
 
 tures ; Drama. 
 
 4— 1879 Mary Howitt, Poems. 
 
 5 W. H. Ainsworth, “ Rookwood" Novels . 
 
 —1881 B. Disraeli (Beaconsiield), Vivian 
 Grey ; Novels. 
 
 —1873 Sir E. G. E. L. Bui wer (Lord Lyt« 
 
 ton), “ The Caxtons." 
 
 6 — 1844 Jno. Sterling, Poems: Tales : Essays. 
 
 7 — 1877 Sam’l Warren, Ten Thousand a Year. 
 
 8 — 1861 Chas. Jas. Lever, Charles O'Malley ; 
 
 Novels. 
 
 — 1879 Hon. Mrs. Norton, The Undying One ; 
 Poems. 
 
 9 — 1861 Eliz. Barrett Browning, Aurora 
 
 Leigh ; Poems. 
 
 Jno. S. Backie, Laws and Legends of 
 
 Greece. 
 
 10 Martin Farquhar Tupper, Prover- 
 
 bial Phil. 
 
 500 Gildas, Conquest of Britain. 
 
 67 2 — 735 Bede, Eccl. History of England. 
 
 900 Ethelwood, History of Great Britain. 
 
 1100 Geoffrey of Monmouth, History of 
 
 Britain. 
 
 1143 William of Malmesbury, History of 
 
 Britain. 
 
 1181 John of Salisbury, Life of Becket. 
 
 Henry of Huntington, Chronicles ’of 
 
 England. 
 
 Gervase of Canterbury, History of 
 
 England. 
 
 — 1259 Matthew Paris, History of England. 
 
 1328 Nicholas Trivetli, History of Physic; 
 
 Theology. 
 
 1372 J110. Maunderville, Travels. 
 
 — — Jno. Fordun, Chronicles of Scotland. 
 
 — 1400 Andrew of Wyntoun, Chronicles 
 
 Scotland. 
 
 1506 — 1582 Geo. Buchanan, History of Scotland. 
 
 1 7—1587 J. Fox, Book of Martyrs. 
 
 . Sir. T. North, Trans, of Plutarch. 
 
 — *- — 1547 T. Hulls, Houses of York and Lancaster . 
 52 — 1617 W. Balelgll, History of the World. 
 93—1683 Izaak Walton, Biography. 
 
 1608 — 1661 Tlios. Fuller, History ; Biography- 
 — 1673 Clarendon, History of Rebellion. 
 
 23—i682 Sir W. Petty, Statistics. 
 
 29 — 1700 Win . Temple, History. 
 
 — 1700 B. Brady, History of England. 
 
 32—1703 Sam’l Pepys, Diary. 
 
 43—1737 John Strype, Eccl. History. 
 
 —1715 Gilbert Burnet, “ History of His Times? 
 83 — 1750 C. Middleton, Life of Cicero , etc. 
 86—1754 Thos. Carte, History of England. 
 
 181 0 Alfred Tennyson, Poems. 
 
 11—1863 W. M. Thackeray, Vanity Fair Nov- 
 els. 
 
 12 Robert Browning, Poems. 
 
 —1881 Chas. Dickens, Sketches by Boz Novels. 
 13 — 186s W. E. Aytoun, “ Lays of Scot. Cav." 
 
 chas. Mackay, Life and Lib. in Amer' 
 
 ica ; Poems. 
 
 16 P. J. Bailey, Festus. 
 
 17 Eliza Cook, /Vmi. 
 
 19— 1875 Chas. Kingsley, Alton Locke. 
 
 20 — 1880 Marian Evans (Geo. Eliot), Daniel 
 
 Deronda. 
 
 22—1865 Elizabeth C. Gaskell, Mary Barton. 
 24—1855 Charlotte Bronte (Currer Bell), 
 
 “ Jane Eyre ;" Novels. 
 
 25 W. Wilkie Collins, Woman in White ; 
 
 Novels. 
 
 Adelaide Anne Procter, Legends; 
 
 Lyrics ; Poems. 
 
 26 Dinah Maria Mulock, Jno. Halifax , 
 
 Gentleman. 
 
 28 Gerald Massey, Poems. 
 
 31 Edward Robert Bui wer Lytton 
 
 (Owen Meredith), Lucille. 
 
 32 Edwin Arnold, “ The Light of Asia." 
 
 41 Wm. Black, “ Princess of Thule." 
 
 FACT. 
 
 — 1763 Nathaniel Hook, History of Rome. 
 
 1703 — 1767 Jno. Swinton, History of Antiquity. 
 9—1778 Eordli y tt leton, History ; Poems ; Divin- 
 ity. 
 
 —1784 Sam’l Johnson, Lives of Poets ; Diet. 
 
 11 — 1776 David Hume, Hist, of England ; Essays 
 1776 Jas. Granger, Biography ; History 0} 
 
 England. 
 
 12— 1786 Jonas Han way, Travels in the East. 
 26 — 1790 John Howard, Prisons of Europe. 
 28—1790 Tlios. Warton, History of England ; 
 
 Poetry. 
 
 — — — 1797 H. Walpole, Authors' Letters. 
 
 23 — 1780 W. Blackstone, Laws of Eng. 
 
 —1790 Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 28—1793 John Hunter, Medicine. 
 
 30 — 1802 J. Moore, Society; Manners. 
 
 — 1794 Jas. Bruce, Travels. 
 
 —1797 Edmund Burke, Oratory; Ref. on Fr. 
 Rev. 
 
 32— 1807 John Walker, English Diet. 
 
 33— 1804 Jos. Priestley, Metaphysics ; Chem. 
 
 37 —1794 E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of Roman. 
 
 Empire. 
 
 38—1822 W. Herscliel 9 Astronomy. 
 
 40 — 1795 J . Boswell, Biography. 
 
 —1818 Sir Philip Francis,’ Alleged authox 
 of Letters of Junius. 
 
 —1837 John Latham, Ornithology. 
 
 43 —1820 Sir Jos. Banks, Nat. Hist. 
 
 44 — 1797 J. Milner, Church History. 
 
 1814 Clias. Burney, History of Music. 
 
 44 — 1827 W.Mitford, History of Greece. 
 
 47—1836 John Gillies, Hist, of An. Greece 
 49 —i 8 o 6 Chas. Jas. Fox, History. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 aos 
 
 F ACT. — Continued. 
 
 17 £9—1834 Alexander Clialmers, Biog. ; Diet. 
 63—1815 Jas. Forsyth, Travels in Italy. 
 
 —1845 Henry John Todd, New Ed. Johnson's 
 Diet. 
 
 65— 1832 Sir Jas. Mackintosh, Ethics ; Philos- 
 
 ophy. 
 
 —1836 Wm. Taylor, Hist. German Poetry. 
 
 66— 1848 Isaac Disraeli, Hist.: Curiosities of Lit- 
 68—1847 Sharon Turner, Sacred History of Aw 
 
 glo-Saxons. 
 
 70— 1842 T. D. Fosbroke, Topography ; Archeol- 
 
 ogy- 
 
 71 — 1851 John Lingard, Hist, of Eng. 
 
 77 — 1836 Sir W. Gell, Topography ; Antiquities. 
 
 78 — 1859 Henry Hallam, Const. Hist, of England, 
 
 79— 1853 Sir William Bentliam, Irish A ntiquco • 
 
 rian Researches. 
 
 —1861 Jno. Lord Campbell, Lives of Lord- 
 Chancellors and Chief-Justices. 
 
 —1868 Henry Lord Brougham, Col. Policy; 
 Hist. Mem. Pol. Phil. 
 
 82 — 1830 Jas. Bennell, Geography. 
 
 88—1861 Sir Francis Palgrave, Hist, of Anglo- 
 Saxons. 
 
 89 J. Payne Collier, Works of Shakespeare, 
 
 9O—1849 Pat. Frazier Tytler, Hist, of Scotland. 
 —1855 Sir Edward Parry, A retie Regions. 
 
 — 1860 Wm. Mure, Hist, of Greek Literature. 
 
 91 Chas. Knight, History of England. 
 
 — 1868 H. H. Milman, History of Christianity, 
 
 92 Sir A. Allison, Hist, of Europe. 
 
 —1855 Sir T. £. Mitchell, A ustralia. 
 
 94 — 1854 Jno. G. Lockhart, Life of Sir W. Scott. 
 — 1871 Geo. Grote, History of Greece. 
 
 95— 1842 Thos. Arnold, History of Rome. 
 
 — 1882 Thos. Carlyle, Life of Schiller. 
 
 98— 1875 Sir J. G. Wilkinson, A nc't Egyptians. 
 
 99— 1860 Sir Charles Fellows, Travels in Asia- 
 
 Minor. 
 
 1800 — 1859 Thos. Lord Macaulay, Essays; His- 
 tory of England. 
 
 1800 — — Wm. Chambers, Book of Scotland. 
 
 1 — Sam’l Carter Hall, I reland : Its Scenery, 
 
 etc. ; Art Journal. 
 
 —1875 Jno. Timbs, Laconics ; Year Book oj 
 Facts. 
 
 2 — — Bob’t Chambers, Traditions of Edin- 
 burgh. 
 
 —1876 Harriet Martineau, Hist, of England. 
 
 4— 1854 John Kitto, Hist, of Bible 
 
 Sir J as. E. Tennent, Hist, of Mod. Gr. 
 
 —1872 Sir Hy. Lytton Bulwer, Historical 
 
 Characters. 
 
 5— 1875 Earl Stanhope (Lord Mahon), Hist, 
 
 of England. 
 
 —1874 Agnes Strickland, Queens of England; 
 Letters of Mary, Queen of Scotts. 
 
 7 W. F. Ainsworth, All Around the 
 
 World. 
 
 8 Chris. Wordsworth, Piet. Dis. and 
 
 Hist. 
 
 9 Mrs. Cowden Clarke, Com. to Shakes- 
 
 peare. 
 
 Jno. Hill Burton, Hist, of Scotland. 
 
 10 — 1877 Thos. Wright, Queen Elizabeth and Her 
 Times. 
 
 12 Sir Geo. Grey, Dis. in Australia. 
 
 Sir E. S. Creasy, Fifteen Decisive Battles. 
 
 of the World. 
 
 — 1843 Jno. Foster, Life of Goldsmith. 
 
 17 Austin Hy. Layard, Nineveh and its 
 
 Remains. 
 
 —1873 David Livingstone, Missionary Trav- 
 els in South A frica. 
 
 18 J. A. Froude Hist, of England. 
 
 21 J. O. Halliwell, Diet. ; Life of Shak. 
 
 Wm. Hepwortli Dixon, Jno. How- 
 ard , a Memoir. 
 
 22— i 862 Hy. T. Buckle, Hist . of Cir. in Eng. 
 
 3 0 J u stin McC ar thy, History of Our Own 
 
 Times. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 • — 804 Alcuin, Theology ; History ; Poetry. 
 
 ~ — — 883 I. Scott Erigena, Nature of Things. 
 
 —1150 Robert Pulleyn, Theology. 
 
 ■ Ralph Glanville, Laws. 
 
 Robert Grosteste, Nat. Phil. 
 
 . — - — 1245 Alexander Hales, Aristotelian . 
 
 • — 1256 John Holiwood, A sir on. ; Mat K. 
 
 1214 — 1292 Roger Bacon, Chem.; Optics. 
 
 Walter Burleigh, Philosophy. 
 
 1324 — 1384 John Wycliffe, Theo. ; Trans, of Bible, 
 
 — 1400 Jno. Fortescuc, Laws of Eng. 
 
 1475 — 1555 H. Latimer, Sermons. 
 
 1515—1568 Roger Ascliem, “ The Schoolmaster'' 
 22 — 1570 J. Jewel, Divinity. 
 
 40 — 1603 W. Gilbert, “ On the Loadstone ." 
 50-1634 Edw’d Coke, Law. 
 
 60 - 1626 Francis Bacon, Philosophy : Hist. 
 
 76 ^ 1639 Rob’t Burton, Anat. of Melancholy. 
 
 78 ' 1657 Wm. Harvey, Circulation. 
 
 88 1679 Tlios. Hobbes, Metaphysics. 
 
 — r677 Jeremy Taylor, Divinity. 
 
 1615 — 1691 R. Baxter, Saints' Rest. 
 
 1 7—1683 Algernon Sidney, Government 
 20 — 1706 J. Evelyn, “ Sylva." 
 
 30 — 1694 J. Tillotson, Sermons. 
 
 32—1704 John Locke, Metaphysics. 
 
 42— 1719 Isaac Newton, “ Principia." 
 
 Bl — 1740 R. Bentley, Divinity ; Philology. 
 72—1751 Lord Boling-broke, Politics; Lit. 
 92—1752 Bishop Butler, Divinity. 
 
 94—1773 Earl of Chesterfield, Letters. 
 
 — — — 1740 Eph. Chambers, Cyclopedia. 
 
 1701 — 1751 P. Doddridge, Divinity. 
 
 3— 1791 Jno. Wesley, Divinity. 
 
 —1758 Jonathan Edwards, On the Will. 
 
 4 — 1757 D. Hartley, Observations on Man. 
 9—1779 W. Warburton, Theology. 
 
 10 — 1796 T. Reid, Metaphysics. 
 
 16— 1795 F. Balguy, Divinity. 
 
 17 — 1797 Horace W^alpole, Cat. of Noble Authors. 
 23—1792 Sir J. Reynolds, Art. 
 
 43— 1805 Wm. Paley, Theology . 
 
»iO 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. — Continued. 
 
 1746 — 1794 Sir Wm. Jones, Persian Grammar. 
 
 47 — 1822 John Aikin, “ Evenings at HomeN 
 
 48— 1819 John Playfair, Euclid's Geometry. 
 
 49— 1836 Sir Chas. Wilkins, Oriental Lit. 
 55—1826 Jno. Flaxman, Sculpture. 
 
 59 — 1838 Jno. Jamieson, Diet, of Scot. Lan. 
 
 60 — 1832 Adam Clarke, Oriental Lit.: Bible Com . 
 
 61 — 1834 Wm. Carey, Trans, of Scrip. ; East. Lan. 
 
 63 — 1831 Jno. Abernethy, Physiology ; Surgery. 
 — 1820 Jno. Bell, Anatomy. 
 
 64 — 1831 Rob’t Hall, Apology for the Freedom of 
 
 the Press. 
 
 66 — 1844 Jno. Dalton, Chemistry. 
 
 —1832 Sir Jno. Leslie, Physics. 
 
 68—1840 Sir Anthony Carlisle, Anatomy ; Sur* 
 
 gery. 
 
 —1841 Sir Astley Cooper, Surgery. 
 
 TO— 1847 Theo. Chalmers, Theo.. Met., Pol. y atsS 
 
 Soc. Econ. 
 
 71—1845 Sydney Smith, Politics ; Essays. 
 
 73— 1836 Jas. Hill, Pol. Econ.: Hist, of India . 
 
 74— 1844 Francis Bailey, Astronomy. 
 
 — 1851 Geo. Dunbar, Greek Lexicon. 
 
 75 — 1861 Sir Howard Douglass, Mil. and No* 
 
 val Defenses. 
 
 78— 1829 Sir Humphrey Davy, Chemistry. 
 
 —1849 Anthony Todd Thomson, Materia 
 
 Medica. 
 
 — 1857 Andrew lire, Chem. Diet, of Arts and 
 
 Manufactures. 
 
 —i860 Alex. Fletcher, Theology. 
 
 79 — 1851 Geo. Crabbe, Diet, of Synonyms. 
 
 81 — 1844 John Abercrombie, Met. Theo. 
 
 83 — 1862 Sir B. C. Brodie, Influence of Brain on 
 Heart. 
 
 86— 1850 Edw’d Bic-kersteth, Scripture Help. 
 
 — 1860 Horace H. Wilson, Sanskrit Law. 
 
 87— 1863 Archbishop Whately, Bampton Lee - 
 
 tures ; Logic. 
 
 88 — 1829 Thos. Fredgold, Building: Engineer • 
 
 ing. 
 
 —1856 Sir Wm. Hamilton, Metaphysics. 
 
 — 1858 Geo. Combe, Phren. Const' n of Man. 
 —1876 Jos. Bosworth, Elements of A nglo-Sax* 
 ons. 
 
 92 
 
 93—1865 
 
 94 
 
 95—i866 
 
 97 — 1874 
 
 1800 — 1873 
 1 
 
 2—1856 
 
 4 — 1852 
 
 5 
 
 1873 
 
 —1863 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 — 1882 
 —1882 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 — 1874 
 
 15 
 
 15 — 1854 
 
 1 6 — 1853 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 25 -- 
 
 Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Calculus; As- 
 tronomy. 
 
 M. D. Hill, Jurisprudence. 
 
 Sir Chas. Fastlake, P.R.A., Fine 
 
 Arts. 
 
 Mich. Farrady, Chem. Manipulations. 
 Wm. Whewell, Bridgewater Treatise 
 on Astronomy. 
 
 Andrew Combe, Physiology Applied to 
 Health. 
 
 Thos. Guthrie, Gospel in Ezekiel. 
 
 G. B. Airy, Gravitation. 
 
 Hugh Miller, Geology. 
 
 Nicholas Wiseman, Doct. and Practice 
 
 of Catholic Church. 
 
 Jno. Dalrymple, Anatomy of the Eye. 
 Sam’l Wilberforce, Sermons ; Life of 
 
 Wm. Wilberforce. 
 
 Jno. Stuart Mill, Logic; Political 
 
 Economy. 
 
 Sir G. C. Lewis, Authority in Matters 
 
 of Opinion. 
 
 B. C. French, Notes on the Miracles. 
 Jas. Ferguson, Prin. Beauty and Art. 
 W. E. Gladstone, State and Church. 
 Chas. Darwin, Origin of Species. 
 
 Sir H. C. Rawlinson, Philology. 
 Alex. W. Crawford (Lord Lind- 
 say), Christian Arts. 
 
 R. G. Latham, Var. of Mankind. 
 
 W. B. Carpenter, Prin. of Physiology. 
 Edwin Lankester, Natural History. 
 Wm. Smith, Diet, of Gr. and Rom. Ant. 
 Arthur Stanley, Sinai and Palestine » 
 Pub. 1856. 
 
 Edward Forbes, Geology; Nat. Hist. 
 F. W. Robertson, Sermons. 
 
 Jno. Ruskin, Modern Painters. 
 
 Sain’l Smiles, Self-Help , Pub. 1859 . 
 Herbert Spencer, Sociology. 
 
 Arthur Cayley, Math. ; Terminology. 
 Matthew Arnold, God and the Bible j 
 Poems. 
 
 Tlios. W. Huxley, Physiology. 
 
 \ 
 
AMERICAN AUTHORS AND LITERATURE. 
 
 The name of each author, the dates of his birth and death, as far as could be ascertained, the title of the "work by which he 
 Is best known. The names are arranged under three heads : Imagination ; Fact ; Speculative and Scientific. The first includes 
 the Poets and Novelists ; the second, the writers on History, Geography, and other matters of exact detail ; the third, those who 
 treat of Philosophy and Science. This division cannot be perfect, for an author is often celebrated in various departments of 
 knowledge. His name will here be found in the division which includes his best known productions. 
 
 IMAGINATION. 
 
 1612 — 167a Anne Bradstreet, The Tenth Muse. 
 1737—1791 Frances Hopkinson, The Battle of the 
 Kegs. 
 
 55 — 1812 Joel Barlow, Columbia Poems. 
 
 79—1843 Frances S. Key, Star Spangled Banner. 
 —1843 "W • Allston, Elijah in the Desert. 
 
 83—1859 Washington Irving, Sketch Book. 
 85—1842 S. Woodworth, The Old Oaken BucktL 
 87—1879 Bich’d Hy. Dana, Buccaneer. 
 
 —1858 Eliza Leslie, A Young Lady' s Vicissitudet 
 
 89 — 1841 Jas. A. Hillhouse, The Judgment. 
 —1865 Hannah F. Gould, The Mother's 
 
 Dream. 
 
 —1851 Jas. Fen. Cooper, Sea Stories. 
 
 90 — 1867 Fitz-Green Halleck, “ Marco Boz- 
 
 zaris." 
 
 91— 1865 Mrs. L. H. Sigourney, Moral Pieces. 
 
 92— 1852 Jno. Howard Payne, “ Home , Sweet 
 
 Home?' 
 
 93 — 1876 Jno. Neal, Keep Cool , Brother Jonathan. 
 
 94 Caroline Gilman, Oracle from the 
 
 Poets. 
 
 —1878 Wm. Cullen Bryant, “ Thanatopsis .** 
 95 — 1820 Jos. R. Brake, The A merican Flag. 
 
 4 —1856 Jas. G. Percival, The Mind; Poems. 
 
 —1870 Jno. P. Kennedy, HorseShoe Robinson. 
 
 —1868 Daniel P. Thompson, The Green 
 Mountain Boys. {Other Poems. 
 
 — 1845 Mrs. Maria G. Brooks, Esther , and 
 96 — 1828 Jno. G. C. Brainard, Poems and Son- 
 nets. 
 
 97—1852 Wm. Ware, A urelian and Julian. 
 
 99—1867 Catherine M. Sedgwick, Ridgewood 
 Novels. 
 
 1800 — 1856 Caroline L . Hentz, The Moorish Bride . 
 
 2— 1864 Geo. P. Morris, Woodman , Spare that 
 
 Tree. 
 
 3 — — Will. J. Thoms, Lays and Legends. 
 Maria J. McIntosh, Meta Gray. 
 
 4 — 1864 Nathaniel Hawthorne, Scarlet Letter. 
 
 6— 1863 Emma C. Embury, Constance Latimer . 
 
 — — Wm. G. Simms, The Wigwam and th 4 
 
 Cabin. 
 
 —1884 Chas. F. Hoffman, Grapslaer. 
 
 — — Jno. G. Whittier, Voices of Freedom. 
 
 7— 1882 Hy. W. Longfellow, Hiawatha. 
 
 — — Tlieo. S. Fay, The Countess Ida. 
 
 —1848 Jos. C. Neal, Charcoal Sketches. 
 
 —1862 Cornelius Conway Felton, On Liter* 
 
 ature and A rt ; Poets and Poetry of Europe. 
 
 8— 1850 Seargent S. Prentiss, The Dying Year. 
 —1867 Nathaniel P. Willis, Sacred Poems. 
 
 9 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Guardian 
 
 A ngels. 
 
 11 h— 1858 Robert T. Conrad, Conrad of Naples. 
 
 1811 — 1849 Edgar Allen Poe, Raven ; The Bells. 
 —1881 Alfred B. Street, The Indian Pass. 
 
 — 1850 Francis S. Osgood, The Happy Release.. 
 
 1 2 Harriet Beecher Stowe, “ Uncle Tom's 
 
 Cabin;" Novels. 
 
 — — Augustus C. Thompson, Songs in the 
 
 Night. 
 
 —1888 Cephus G. Thompson, The Mother's 
 
 Prayer. 
 
 13— 1878 Sarah H. Whitman, Hours of Life. 
 
 — 1886 Ann Stephens, Fashion and Famine. 
 
 14 — 1880 Epes Sargent, The Bride of Gensa; 
 
 The Priestess. 
 
 15— 1852 Mrs. Eliz. Stuart Phelps, Sunny - 
 
 Side ; Tell-Tale. 
 
 —1850 Eleanor W. Lee, Wife of Leon ; Poems, 
 
 16 — 1887 Jno. G. Saxe, Progress ; Poems; Satires. 
 
 17 — 1877 Catharine A. Warfield, Esther How- 
 
 ard's Temptation. 
 
 18 — 1885 Susan Warner, The Wide , Wide World. 
 
 Annie Warner, The Other Shore. 
 
 —1877 Eliz. F. Ellet, Evening at Woodlawn. 
 
 — — Emma D. E. South worth, The De 
 
 serted Wife ; Thirty-five Novels. 
 
 19 W. W. Story, Poems. 
 
 —1870 Anna C. Ritchie, Sketches and Essays. 
 
 — — Walt Whitman, iMmc/Graw. 
 
 — — Thos. W. Parsons, The Magnolia 
 
 Poems. 
 
 — — Chas. A. Dana, Household Book of Poe- 
 
 try. 
 
 Jas. Russell Lowell, Bigelow Papers. 
 
 22 Donald G. Mitchell, Reveries of a 
 
 Bachelor. 
 
 —iZjz Thos. B. Read, Wagoner of the Alle- 
 
 ghanies. 
 
 —1890 Wm. T. Adams (Oliver Optic), 
 
 Stories. 
 
 23 Mrs. Sarah J. Lfppincott, Greenwood 
 
 Leaves j Poems . 
 
 24 — 1880 Estelle A. Lewis, The Child of the Sea. 
 Chas. G. Leland, Sunshine in Thought. 
 
 Adeline D. Whitney, Odd and Even . 
 
 25 Wm. A. Butler, Nothingto Wear ; Law- 
 
 yer and Client. 
 
 —1873 Caroline Chestro, The Foe in the House- 
 hold. 
 
 —1878 Bayard Taylor, Jno. Godfrey's Fortune, 
 
 27 Jno. T. Trowbridge, Cudjo's Cave. 
 
 28—1861 Theo. Wintlirop, Cecil Dreeme. 
 
 — 1863 Alice B. Haven, No Such Word as Fail. 
 
 29 Chas. Dudley Warner, My Summer 
 
 in the Garden. 
 
 30 Mary A. Dodge (Gail Hamilton), 
 
 Woman's Wrongs; The Battle of the Books 
 
912 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 IMAGINATION. — Continued. 
 
 1831 E. Eggleston, The Hoosier Schoolmaster. 
 
 —1865 Mortimer M. Thompson, Doesticks. 
 33 — 1889 Louisa M. Alcott, “ Old Fashioned 
 Girl." 
 
 Edward. C. Stedman, Victorian Poets. 
 
 35—1867 Chas. F. Brown (Artemus Ward), 
 
 Humorous. 
 
 Sam’l L. Clemens (Mark Twain), 
 
 Innocents A broad. 
 
 — — Louise C. Moulton, Some Women's 
 Hearts. 
 
 1835 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 Harriet E. Spofford, N. E. Stories. 
 Margaret Freston, Beechen Brook. 
 Jno, J. Platt, Nuts at Washington. 
 
 T. Bailey Aldriclt, Prudence Palfrey. 
 William I>. Howells, No Love Lost. 
 Francis Brete Harte, Heathen Chi- 
 nee; Flip; Poems. 
 
 C. H. Miller (Joaquin), Song of the 
 
 Sierras; The Danites. 
 
 Henry James, Portrait of a Lady. 
 
 MissE. Stuart Plielps, “ Gates Ajar 
 
 FACT. 
 
 1652 — 1730 Sam. Sewall, Description of New Haven. 
 
 7 1 — 1753 William Stephens, Journals in Georgia. 
 1727 — 1795 Ezra Stiles, Settlement of Bristol. 
 
 32 — 1799 Geo. Washington, Farewell Address. 
 
 35 — 1826 Jno. Adams, Canon on Feudal Law. 
 
 36 — 1799 Patrick Henry, Orations and Speeches. 
 
 38— 1820 Benjamin West (. Painter ), Life. 
 
 39— 1823 William Bartram, Travels and Obs. 
 
 44— 1775 Josiah Quincy, Jr., Boston Port Bill. 
 
 45— 1826 Lindley Murray, English Grammar. 
 —1813 Benjamin Rush, Diseases of the Mind. 
 
 50 — 1813 Theophilus Parsons, Comm, on Law. 
 52 — 1816 Gouveneur Morris, Law and Practice. 
 — 1835 Nathan Bane, Ordinance of 1787. 
 
 54 — 1829 John Jay, Federalist. 
 
 55 — 1789 John Ledyard, Travels in Africa. 
 
 — 1832 Hannah Adams, Hist, of New Eng. 
 
 57— 1804 Alexander Hamilton, Federalist. 
 
 58 — 1843 Noah Webster, Dictionary. 
 
 59 — 1836 William Kawle, On Constitution of U.S. 
 
 63 — 1847 James Kent, Comm, on Law. 
 
 64 — 1846 Theodore B wight, Life of J ejferson. 
 
 — 1836 Edw’d Livingston, Penal Law. 
 
 70 — 1838 James Gould, Pleading in Civil Action . 
 
 72— 1834 Wrn. Wirt, Life of Patrick Henry. 
 
 78— 1849 A. T. Thomson, Medical Depository. 
 
 79 — 1845 Jos. Story, Comment' s on the Constitution. 
 — 1860 Jas. K. Paulding, Bulls and Jonathans. 
 
 80 — 1840 Timothy Flint, Hist, of Western States. 
 —1859 Richard Rush, Legal Works. 
 
 — 1865 Hannah F. Lee, Luther and His Times. 
 82 — 1852 Baniel Webster, Reply to Hay ne. 
 
 — 1858 Thos. H. Benton, Thirty Years in U. 
 S. Senate. 
 
 — *862 Chas. J. Ingersoll, War of 1812. 
 
 8 3 — 1858 Bennett Tyler, Hist, of N. E. ; Theology . 
 84 — 1866 J. E. Worcester, Dictionary. 
 
 — 1851 Nathaniel B. Tucker, Constitutional 
 
 Law. 
 
 66—1867 Lucius M. Sargent, Life of Dexter. 
 
 89 — 1866 Jared Sparkes, Writings of Geo. Wash — 
 
 ington. 
 
 —1873 Ricli’d S. Storrs, Life of Sait? I Green • 
 — 1855 Win. C. Redtield, Theory of Storms. 
 
 93 — 1861 Sam’l G. Goodrich, History and Travel. 
 — 1879 Hy. C. Carey, Political Economy. 
 
 94— 1875 Nathan Sargent, Life of Clay. 
 
 95 — 1876 Wm. R. Sprague, Life of Timothy 
 
 Dwight. 
 
 —1865 Joshua R. Giddings, The Rebellion. 
 
 96— 1859 Wm. H. Prescott, Hist, of U. S. 
 
 —1856 Zadoc Thompson, Hist, of Vermont. 
 
 — 1866 Theo. B wight, Life of Garibaldi. 
 
 1797—i882 Theophilus Parsons, Law of Con- 
 tracts. 
 
 98 — 1868 Waddy Thompson, Recollections of 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 99— 1832 Rob’t C. Sands, Life of Paul Jones. 
 
 1800 Geo. Bancroft, Hist, of the U. S. 
 
 1 — 1872 W illiam H. Seward, Life of J. Q. 
 
 Adams. 
 
 —1876 Sam’l G. Howe, Greek Revolution. 
 
 —1872 Chas. A. Lee, Dictionary of Medicine. 
 
 2 — 1881 Geo. Ripley, Appleton's Cyclopcedia. 
 
 Jno. C. Redpath, Hist, of the U. S. 
 
 3 Jno. G. Morris, Exposition of the Gospels. 
 
 —1882 Ralph Waldo Emerson, The Conduct 
 
 of Life. 
 
 4— 1852 Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Orations and 
 
 Speeches. 
 
 —1876 Isaac F. Redtield, Legal Works. 
 
 5— 1877 J. S. C. Abbott, Life of Nap. ; Hist, of 
 
 Russia. 
 
 —1852 Jno. L. Stephens, Incidents of Travels. 
 
 6— 1883 Stephen Alexander, Solar Eclipse. 
 
 7— 1871 Samuel H. Taylor, Classical Study. 
 —1865 Rich’d Hildreth, Theory of Legislation. 
 —1873 Louis Agassiz, Researches on Fossil 
 
 Fishes. 
 
 8— 1889 Jefferson Bavis, Civil War. 
 
 —1879 Geo. S. Hilliard, Six Months in Jail. 
 
 10 Asa Gray, Elements of Botany; How 
 
 Plants Grow. 
 
 — 1877 Jno. S. Hart, Prose Writers of A?nerica ; 
 Am. Lit. 
 
 Jno. O. Sargent, Improvement in Naval 
 
 Warfare. 
 
 —1873 James Brooks, Seven Months Around 
 
 the World. 
 
 11— 1872 Horace Greeley, History of Rebellion. 
 —1884 Wendell Phillips, Speeches in Faneuil 
 
 Hall. 
 
 —1879 EliliU Burritt, Speeches and Lectures. 
 
 — 1859 Theo. Sedgwick, Measure ef Damages. 
 
 12— 1867 I110. H. Alexander, Inter. Coinage : 
 
 Weights and Measures. 
 
 —1883 Alexander H. Stephens, Constitution- 
 al View of Civil War. 
 
 13 — — Jas. Dwight Sana, Geology ; Journal 
 
 of Science. 
 
 14— 1877 Jno. L. Motley, Dutch Republic. 
 
 —1873 Jas. R. B rod bead, History of New 
 
 York State. 
 
 15— 1882 Rich. Hy. Bana, Jr., Inter. Law. 
 —1881 Edw. Joy Morris, The Turkish Empire. 
 
 16 — 1874 Jos. Hatcn, Mental and Moral Phil. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL INDEX, 
 
 913 
 
 F ACT. — Continued. 
 
 1816 — — Geo. Lewis Prentiss, Life of Dr. 
 Skinner : Biographies. 
 
 Win. S. Tyler, Hist. A mherst College. 
 
 17 — 1862 Henry 1 >. Tlioreau, The Maine Woods • 
 — 1886 Jno. B. Gough, Life and Reminiscences. 
 18 — 1879 Caleb Cushing, Manual: Treaty of Ge- 
 neva. 
 
 19 Fordyce Barker, On Perpetual Diseases. 
 
 Chas. J. Steele, Hist, of U. S. San. Com. 
 
 OI—1889 Tlieo. D. Woolsey, Inter. Law; Com- 
 munism and Socialism. 
 
 21 — 1872 Jas. Hadley, Greek Grammar ; Essays. 
 Philological and Critical. 
 
 22 James Parton, Life of Aaron Burr : 
 
 Andrew Jackson; Biographies. 
 
 Rick. Grant wilite, Every-Day Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 1823 Francis Parkman, Conspiracy Of Pon- 
 
 tiac. 
 
 24 Geo. Wm. Curtiss, Potiphar Papers: 
 
 Nile Notes. 
 
 —1864 Thos. Starr King, White Hills. 
 25—1870 Wintlirop Sargent, Life of Andre. 
 
 27 Wm. Dwight Whitney, Ph ilosophical 
 
 Works. 
 
 29 — 1867 Henry Timrod, Journalist Essays and 
 Sketches. 
 
 31 Mary L. Booth, Uprising of a Great 
 
 People ; Results of Slavery. 
 
 33 James Redpath, Life of John Brown. 
 
 35 George F. Barker, Text Book on Chem- 
 
 istry. 
 
 Moses C. Tyler, Hist, of Am. Lit.: 
 
 Brownville Papers. 
 
 SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 
 
 t #05—1776 Jotham Parsons, u Sixty Sermons etc. 
 6—1790 Benj. Franklin, Electricity ; Philos. 
 
 29 — 1824 Chas. Tomson, Four Evangelists. 
 
 30 — 1807 Samuel West, Liberty and Necessity. 
 
 35 — 1819 Stephen West, On Moral Agency. 
 
 37 — 1789 Sam’I H. Parsons, Antiquities of the 
 West. 
 
 51 — 1836 James Madison, Ancient and Modern 
 Confederacies. 
 
 64 — 1845 Henry Ware, Evidences of Christianity. 
 
 71 — 1858 Robt. Owen, New Views of Society. 
 
 72 — 1825 Archibald Alexander, Evidences of 
 
 Christianity ; Moral Science. 
 
 75 — 1836 Lyman Beecher, Views on Theology. 
 80 — 1870 Nathaniel Willis, Theological Articles. 
 
 83 — 1827 Edw’d Payson, Theological Works. 
 
 — 1850 Jno. C. Calhoun, Treatise on the Na- 
 ture of Government. 
 
 84 — 1869 William Allen, Junius Unmasked : 
 
 Christian Sonnets. 
 
 88—1852 Francis Burkman, The Offering of 
 ■Suffering. 
 
 91 — 1871 Geo. Ticknor, History of Spanish Lit- 
 erature. 
 
 — 1858 Sam’I Gilman, Pleasures of Student Li fr. 
 — 1875 Chas. Sprague, Ode of Speculation. 
 
 93— 1879 Hy. C. Carey, Political Economy. 
 
 94 — 1865 Edw’d Everett, Orations and Speeches. 
 — 1864 Nathaniel West, The Ark of God. 
 
 — 1843 Hy. Ware, Jr., Life of Our Saviour. 
 
 — 1844 James Marsh, Spirit of Hebrew Poetry. 
 
 96 — 1859 Horace Mann, Slavery ; Letters ; 
 
 Speeches. 
 
 — 1859 Geo. Bush, New Church Repository ; Life 
 of Mohammed. 
 
 97 — 1843 Hugh S. Eegaree, Essays on Roman 
 
 Literature. 
 
 yf 600 — 1885 Daniel D. Wliedon, Onthe Will; Com- 
 mentary on the New Testament. 
 
 —1871 Rob’t J. Brecken bridge, Popism in 
 the United States. 
 
 I-1864 Mrs. C. M. Kirkland, Home Beauty ? 
 Holidays A broad. 
 
 —1877 Rob’t Dale Owen, The Debatable Land. 
 — 1882 Geo. P. Marsh, Man and Nature. 
 
 — 1877 Asa D. Smith, The Christian Ministry. 
 — — Eliz. O. Smith, Woman and Her Needs. 
 
 1801 — 1876 Rich. Fuller, Baptism and Communion. 
 —1859 Jas. W. Alexander, Thoughts on 
 
 Preaching. 
 
 6—1878 Nehemiah Adams, On the Unitarian 
 Faith ; A S. Side View of Slavery. 
 
 8 Geo. B. Cheever, God Against Slavery. 
 
 9 Samuel Tyler, Dissertation on Baconian 
 
 Phils. 
 
 10 — 1870 Edward Tomson, Moral Essays . 
 
 —1850 Margaret Fuller, Women of the Nine- 
 teenth. Century. 
 
 — 1860 Theo. Parker, Sermons and Essays. 
 
 11 — 1874 Chas. Sumner, True Grandeur of Na- 
 
 tions. 
 
 12 — 1880 Sam’I Osgood, Mile Stones in Life ; Stu- 
 
 dents' Life. 
 
 Thos. M. Clark, Early Discipline of the 
 
 Church. 
 
 13 Hy. Ward Beecher, Star Papers; One 
 
 Half of the Life of Christ. 
 
 —1871 Hy. T. Tuckerman, Book of the Art- 
 ists. 
 
 14 Sam’I Harris, Kingdom of Christ on 
 
 Earth. 
 
 Daniel Kirkwood, Comets and their 
 
 Origin. 
 
 1 5—1890 Jos. Cummings, Moral Philosophy. 
 
 — 1877 Henry B. Smith, The Relation of Faith 
 and Philosophy. 
 
 18 — 1869 Frederick S. Cozzens, Sfarrowgrass 
 
 Papers. 
 
 1 9 — 1879 J os. P. Thompson, The Holy Comforter. 
 
 20 — 1881 Erast us O. Haven, Pillars of Truth; 
 
 Rhetoric. 
 
 21 — 1880 Gilbert Haven, Pilgrim's Wallet ; Ser- 
 
 mons. 
 
 Rich. S. Storrs, Constitution of Human 
 
 Soul. 
 
 23—1858 Thos. Iiitke Harris, A rcana of Chris- 
 tianity ; The Great Republic. 
 
 24 Thos. Preston, Ark of the Covenant. 
 
 29 Albert L. Rawson, The Divine Origin 
 
 of the Bible. 
 
 32 Moncure D. Conway, The Rejected 
 
 Stone : The Golden Hour. 
 
 35 Wm. H. Wood, Articles in Bibliotheca 
 
 Sacra. 
 
HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 FROM 3800 , B. C. TO 1890 A. D. 
 
 OUTLINED IN 
 
 CONTEMPORANEOUS AND CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. 
 
 2800—3 B.C. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 2200— The Hia Dynasty founded ; First Historical 
 Period. 
 
 571— CONFUCIUS born. 
 
 •CHALDEA, ASSYRIA, AND 
 BABYLONIA. 
 
 2234— First authentic date; beginning of Chaldean 
 astronomy. 
 
 1850— Assyria conquered. 
 
 1500— Arabians conquer Chaldea; a new dynasty 
 established. 
 
 .1250— Assyria absorbs Chaldea, or Early Babylonia. 
 
 1 1 50— Babylon (NEBUCHADNEZZAR I.) invades 
 
 Assyria. 
 
 820— Babylon becomes subject to Assyria. 
 
 750 — Babylon regains independence 
 709 — Babylon conquered bv SARGON of^Assyria.; 
 625 — Independence of Babylon; SARDANAPA- 
 LUS burns himself and palace. 
 
 598 — NEBUCHADNEZZAR conquers the Jews and 
 takes away King JEHOIAKIM. 
 
 587— Jerusalem surrenders. 
 
 539— BELSHAZZAR king of Babylon. 
 
 538— CYRUS turns the course of the Euphrates and en- 
 ters Babylon, which becomes subject to Persia. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 .2717— Thurite Dynasty founded. 
 
 2122— Hieroglpyhics invented. 
 
 2120— Pyramids built. 
 
 1822— Egyptian alphabet invented. 
 
 1707 — JOSEPH and family in Egypt. 
 
 1707 — 1491— Egyptian bondage. 
 
 1491— Departure of the Hebrews, 
 
 781— Saite Dynasty founded. 
 
 686— Egypt divided between twelve kings. 
 
 610— One hundred and twenty thousand men lOtt io 
 attempt to cut Suez Canal. 
 
 535— Egypt subject to CYRUS the Great, 
 
 THE HEBREWS. 
 
 1 996— Birth of ABRAHAM. 
 
 I 729— JOSEPH sold. 
 
 1571 -MOSES boro. 
 
 . i 191 —Exodus from Egypt. 
 
 : 5 -5 1 The nation led into Canaan by JOSHUA. 
 
 1413 — To 1136 b.c. the Hebrews undergo six period* 
 of bondage. 
 
 1015-Death of DAVID. 
 
 1012— SOLOMON begins the Temple. 
 
 975— Death of SOLOMON; Ten Tribes revolt; 
 
 kingdom of Israel established. 
 
 971 — The Egyptians pillage Jerusalem. 
 
 901 — Syrians besiege Samaria. 
 
 741— Jerusalem besieged. 
 
 721— Ten Tribes carried into captivity ; their kingdom 
 destroyed. 
 
 710— Judaea invaded by Assyrians ; one hundred and 
 eighty-five thousand Assyrians slain in the 
 night by the Destroying Angel. 
 
 SYRIA. 
 
 1040— King DAVID subdues the Syrians. 
 
 975— Independence of Syria recovered at death 
 of SOLOMON. 
 
 901— Syrians defeated in war with the Israelites. 
 892— Syrians besiege Samaria. 
 
 740— Syria subject to Assyria. 
 
 604— NEBUCHADNEZZAR subdues Syria. 
 
 596— Syria under Persia for nearly three centuries. 
 333— ALEXANDER the Great conquers Syria. 
 
 323 — A Dynasty founded by SELEUCUS I. 
 
 300 — Antioch becomes the capital. 
 
 246 — Egypt conquers Syria. 
 
 198— Independence regained. 
 
 170— Jerusalem captured by ANTIOCCUS EP- 
 PHANES. 
 
 65— Syria becomes subject to Rome. 
 
 57— Many devastated cities restored. 
 
 47— The liberties of the cities confirmed by JU- 
 LIUS CAESAR. 
 
 PHOENICIA. 
 
 2800— Phoenicia said to be peopled by the children 
 
 of ANAK. 
 
 1497— AGENOR first historical king of Phoenicia. 
 1060— Tyre the leading city. 
 
 870— The Assyrians conquer Phoenicia. 
 
 850— Carthage founded. 
 
 723— Invasion bv Assyrians. 
 
 587— Invasion by Babylonians. 
 
 536— The country subdued by CYRUS the Great. 
 466— Defeated by the Greeks while aiding Persia| 
 battle of Eurymedon. 
 
 352— Be volt from the Persians. 
 
 331— The country subdued by ALEXANDER 
 323— Annexed to Egypt. 
 
 63— Absorbed in the province of Syria. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 915 ' 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Persian history enveloped in fable until the 
 time of CYRUS the Great. 
 
 642 — CYAXARES founds Kainite Dynasty. 
 
 640— Scythians subjugate the country. 
 
 559 — CYRUS founds a mighty empire. 
 
 543 — Asia Minor annexed. 
 
 538 — Babylon conquered by CYRUS. 
 
 525 — Egypt conquered by CAMBYSES. 
 
 508 — DARiUS subdues Macedon and Thrace. 
 
 492 — Greece invaded by MARDONIUS, who is de- 
 feated. 
 
 485— Reign of AHASUERUS (XERXES I.). 
 
 465— Death, of XERXES I.; ARTAXERXES reigns. 
 449— Persians defeated at Salamis by Greeks. 
 
 425— XERXES II. reigns. 
 
 401 — CYRUS rebels; he is defeated and slain. 
 
 394— Persians and Athenians defeat Spartans. 
 
 351— Sidonians revolt and burn their city. 
 
 3 3 1— Persians defeated by ALEXANDER the Great. 
 330— Assassination of DARIUS III.; Persia made 
 part of the Macedonian empire. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 185 6 — Kingdom of Argos founded. 
 
 1493— CADMUS founds Thebes. 
 
 1453— Olympic games introduced. 
 
 1313— Kingdom of Mycenae founded. 
 
 1193— Trojan War. 
 
 884— Legislation of LYCURGUS at Sparta. 
 
 7 7 6 — Earliest authentic date in Greek history the 
 Olympiads commence. 
 
 743 — Sparta victorious in Messenian wars. 
 
 683 — CREON becomes first archon of Athens. 
 
 621— Draconian laws. 
 
 590 — The Seven Wise Men of Greece flourish. 
 
 560— PISISTRATUS tyrant of Athens. 
 
 499 — Ionian War ; the rebellion put down. 
 
 492 — MARDONIUS, witha Persian fleet, wrecked. 
 490— Second Persian invasion; battle of Marathon | 
 
 Persians defeated by the Greeks. 
 
 480-Third invasion of Persians under XERXES j 
 battles of Artimesium, Thermopylae and Sala» 
 mis. 
 
 479— Battles of Mycale and Plataea. 
 
 477— Athens becomes chief Greek State. 
 
 464— Third Messenian war ; Sparta defeats Messenla. 
 445— Thirty years truce between Athens and Lace- 
 demonia. 
 
 443— HERODOTUS flourishes. 
 
 440— PERICLES defeats the Samians. 
 
 431— Peloponnesian War, ending in the defeat of 
 Athens by the Spartans. 
 
 41 5 — Invasion of Sicily by the Athenians. 
 
 400 — Death of SOCRATES ; retreat of the Ten 
 Thousand under XENOPHON. 
 
 395 — Corinthian War begins ; Corinth. Athens, Ar- 
 
 gos, Thebes and Thessaly against Sparta. 
 
 388 — PLATO founds Athenian Academy. 
 
 387— Close of Corinthian War. 
 
 385— Sparta subdues the Olynfftians. 
 
 378— Union of Thebes and Athens against Sparta. 
 372— Treaty between Athens, Sparta and the Allies. 
 356— Third Sacred War. 
 
 346— Athens makes peace with Macedon. 
 339-Fourth Sacred War, between PHILIP of Mace- 
 don and the Athenians. 
 
 338- Battle of Chaeronea; PHILIP victorious. 
 
 336— Accession of ALEXANDER the Great. 
 
 335— Athens submits to ALEXANDER. 
 
 323 — Samian War; ANTIPATER victorious. 
 
 300 — Athenian democracy restored. 
 
 268 — ANTIGONUS of Macedon takes Athens. 
 
 211 — Treaty concluded with the Romans against 
 PHILIP V. of Macedon. 
 
 200— The Allies attack Macedon and defeat PHILIP. 
 
 196— Greece declared free from Macedon. 
 
 146 — Greece becomes a Roman province. 
 
 86 — Sylla besieges and reduces Athens. 
 
 21— AUGUSTUS CAESAR founds confederacy ot 
 Laconian cities. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 753— Rome founded by ROMULUS (legendary) 
 
 716— Assassination of ROMULUS. 
 
 715— NUMA POMPILIUS king. 
 
 615 — The Capital begun in honor of Jupiter, Juno and 
 Minerva. 
 
 578— First coinage. 
 
 566— First census, eighty-four thousand seven hundred 
 inhabitants. 
 
 534— SERVIUS assassinated by his daughter TULLIA ; 
 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS reigns. 
 
 510— Rape of LUCRETIA; the Tarquins banished; 
 
 republic founded ; L. JUNIUS BRUTUS and 
 L. TARQUINIUS COLLATINUS consuls. 
 
 501— TITUS LAERTIUS dictator. 
 
 494— Patricians secede ; tribunes of the people 
 appointed. 
 
 493— Independence of the Latins. 
 
 491— CORIOLANUS banished. 
 
 489 — The Volscians and CORIOLANUS besiege 
 Rome. 
 
 488— CORIOLANUS withdraws at his mother’s en- 
 treaty ; the Volscians slay him. 
 
 -184 — First Agrarian law proposed. 
 
 471— Election of plebeian magistrates given to the 
 Comitia Tributa. 
 
 458— CINCINNATUS dictator; defeats the ^Equi. 
 
 457— Decemviri govern (Council of Ten) ; they in- 
 stitute the Ten Tables (Code of Laws). 
 
 449— VIRGINIUS kills his daughter VIRGINIA to 
 save her from CLAUDIUS ; decemvirate abol- 
 ished. 
 
 440— Terrible famine in Rome. 
 
 407— The Volscians defeat the Romans. 
 
 396— The dictator CAMILLUS captures Veii. 
 
 391 — CAMILLUS impeached and exiled. 
 
 390— Battle of Allia ; Romans defeated ; Rome burnt. 
 
 389— Gauls expelled and city rebuilt. 
 
 3 7 6 — Civil war between patricians and plebeians ; law 
 passed that one consul should be plebeian. 
 
 362— CURTIUS leaps into a gulf to save Rome. 
 
 350— The Gauls defeated. 
 
 343— Fifty Years’ War with Samnites. 
 
 340— War with Latins; Romans victorious. 
 
 332— Treaty with ALEXANDER the Great. 
 
 321 — Romans terribly defeated by Pontius. 
 
 312— The Via Appia completed (a great military road). 
 
 295— QUINTUS FABIUS defeats the Etruscans, Gauls 
 and Samnites. 
 
 266— All Italy subject to Rome. 
 
 264— First Punic War ; Carthage disputes Rome’s em- 
 pire. 
 
 256— Naval victory over the Carthaginians by REG* 
 ULUS. 
 
 250— REGULUS slain at Carthage. 
 
916 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 Rome. — Continued. 
 
 241— End of First Punic War ; Sicily a Roman prov- 
 ince. 
 
 225— Invasion of Gauls ; Gauls defeated. 
 
 218— Second Punic War; HANNIBAL defeats SCIP- 
 IO. 
 
 211— FLA MIN IUS defeats HANNIBAL. 
 216—Battle of Cannae; Romans defeated. 
 
 202— SCIPIO AFRICANUS defeats HANNIBAL. 
 201— End of Second Punic War. 
 
 191— PHILIP of Macedon defeated. 
 
 192 — War -with ANTIOCHUS of Syria; peace con- 
 
 cluded b.c. 188 . 
 
 1 68— Battle of Pydna ; PERSEUS killed and Macedon 
 subject to Rome. 
 
 149— Tliird Punic War ; SCIPIO invades Africa. 
 
 146 — Cartilage destroyed. 
 
 134— Servile War; Sicilian slaves rebel ; conquered 
 and slain b.c. 132 . 
 
 121— Civil War; CAIUS GRACCHUS killed. 
 
 1 1 1- Jugurtliini War. 
 
 106— JUGURTHA defeated and Numidia subjected. 
 
 1 02— Servile War in Sicily. 
 
 101— MARIUS and CATULLUS defeat the Cimbri. 
 91— Social War ; the Marsians, at first successful, are 
 defeated b.c. 89 . 
 
 88— Mithridatic War. 
 
 81— Civil War between SYLLA and MARIUS ; MA- 
 
 RIUS slain. 
 
 82— SYLLA becomes dictator. 
 
 19-Abdication of SYLLA. 
 
 14— SPARTACUS leads revolt of the slaves, b.c. 71 . 
 63 — Conspiracy of CATILINE suppressed by 
 CICERO. 
 
 60— First Triumvirate ; JULIUS CAESAR, POM- 
 PEY and CRASSUS. 
 
 58— CICERO banished ; CAESAR invades Gaul. 
 
 48— Battle of Pharsalia; CAESAR defeats POM- 
 PEY. 
 
 46 — CAESAR becomes dictator ; suicide of CATO. 
 44— Assassination of JULIUS CAESAR. 
 
 43— Second Triumvirate ; OCTAVIUS, ANTONY 
 and LEPIDUS ; CICERO put to death. 
 
 42— Battle of Philippi ; defeat and death of BRU- 
 TUS and CASSIUS. 
 
 41— War between ANTONY and OCTAVIUS end 
 ed by marriage of ANTONY and OCT AVIA. 
 32— Civil War of ANTONY and OCTAVIUS. 
 
 31— Defeat and death of ANTONY. 
 
 21 — OCTAVIUS becomes emperor under title of AU- 
 GUSTUS CAESAR. 
 
 15— Pantheon erected. 
 
 4-BIRTH of JESUS CHRIST. 
 
 GAUL (France and Germany). 
 
 Very little is known about the Gauls until the 
 time of JULIUS CAESAR (Gauls in Germany 
 and France 587 b.c.). 
 
 340— Gauls in Greece. 
 
 283— Gauls conquer Roman arm# at Aretium. 
 
 219— Gauls near Delphi. 
 
 241— Gauls attacked by EUMENES and ATTALUS. 
 109-101— War with Romans. 
 
 58 — War with CAESAR Begins. 
 
 51— Gaul subjugated ; Gaul a province of Rome. 
 11-3 — Teutons and Cimbri invade Gaul. 
 
 ALBION (Britain). 
 
 st Believed to have been a part of the Continent ; 
 English Channel dug by King UTOPAS (Bru- 
 tus), the Colonizer, whose name the island bear- 
 eth (legendary). The Bri tains were known as 
 Celts ; Druidism exists ; the priests called 
 Druids.” 
 
 55 — JULIUS CAESAR invades Britain ; Roman laws 
 and customs introduced. 
 
 ERIN (Ireland). 
 
 NEMEDH is said to have come to Ireland 2,000 
 b.c. He was followed by the Firbolgs ; they 
 by the Twatha de Danans, and they by the 
 Milesians of Scoti (legendary). During this 
 period there is no authentic history of Ireland, 
 although it was inhabited by a people in a good 
 degree of civilization. 
 
 FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO 1200 A.D. 
 
 GREECE (A Province of Rome) 
 
 52— Tlie Apostle PAUL in Athens; Nero in Greece. 
 122— HADRIAN in Greece. 
 
 Remained under the dominion of Rome unth 
 476 (overthrow of the Western Empire). 
 
 262 — Tlie Goths invade Greece. 
 
 261— The Herculi invade Greece and are repulsed by 
 DEXIPPUS. 
 
 395 — ALARIC I. invades Greece. 
 
 442— ATTILA ravages Thrace and Macedon. 
 
 415 — THEODORIC, the Ostrogoth, lays waste Thessa- 
 ly and Thrace. [sian. 
 
 502— Greece devastated by CHARBADES, the Per- 
 581— Slavonians overrun Greece. 
 
 EGYPT (A Province of Rome). 
 
 Ill— Revolt against Rome. 
 
 213 — AURELIAN regains possession. 
 
 288 — ACHILIUS revolts in Upper Egypt. 
 
 291— Alexandria captured by DIOCLETIAN, who 
 subdues the revolt. 
 
 319— Pagan worship prohibited and their famous tem 
 pies destroyed. 
 
 395— Becomes a province of the Eastern Eihpire 
 
 ROME. 
 
 14-Death of AUGUSTUS j TIBERIUS the em 
 peror. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 917 
 
 Rome. — Continued. 
 
 37— CALIGULA. 
 
 41— CLAUDIUS. 54— NERO. 
 
 68— GALBA and NERO. 
 
 69— OTHO, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN emperors. 
 
 79— TITUS. 81— DOMITIAN. 
 
 96— NERVA. 
 
 98— TROJAN. 
 
 117— HADRIAN emperor. 
 
 138— ANTONINUS PIUS emperor. 
 
 161— MARCUS AURELIUS and LUCIUS VERUS 
 emperors. 
 
 1 69— VERUS dies. 
 
 180— COMMODUS. 
 
 185— ORIGEN born. 
 
 193— Disorders in Rome. 
 
 194— SEVERUS sole emperor. 
 
 202— Christians persecuted. 
 
 211— CARACALLA and GETA joint emperors. 
 
 21 2— GET A murdered. 21 7— MACRINUS emperor. 
 21 8— ELAGABALUS. 
 
 222— ALEXANDER SEVERUS. 
 
 231— Persian war. 
 
 233 — SEVERUS triumphs. 
 
 235— MAXIMIAN murders SEVERUS. 
 
 238— Four emperors. 
 
 244— GONDIAMUS murdered; PHILIP the Arabian. 
 
 249— DECIUS emperor. 
 
 250 — First invasion of the Goths. 
 
 251— GALLUS emperor. 254— VALERIAN. 
 
 259— Goths take Trapesus. 
 
 260— GALLIENUS sole emperor. 
 
 268— CLAUDIUS emperor. 
 
 269— Defeats the Goths. 
 
 270— AURELIUS emperor ; defeats the Goths. 
 
 275— TACITUS emperor. 276— PROBUS. 
 
 277— Defeats the Alemanni. 282— CARUS. 
 
 284— DIOCLETIAN. 
 
 292 — CONSTANTINE and GALERIUS ; division of 
 the empire. 
 
 298— Defeat of NARSES. 
 
 306— CONSTANTINE the great emperor. 
 
 307— Revolts of MAXENTIUS. 
 
 312— Death of MAXENTIUS and success of CON 
 STANTINE. 
 
 323 — CONSTANTINE sole emperor. 
 
 325— First general council of the Church at Nicea. 
 
 326 — Arian controversy. 
 
 336— ARIUS dies. 
 
 3 3 7-CONST ANS and CONSTANTINE II. joint em- 
 perors. 
 
 338-Death of EUSEBIUS. 
 
 347— Synod of Sardica. 
 
 361— JULIAN emperor. 
 
 362— Religious toleration. 
 
 363— JULIAN killed ; Persian war. 
 
 375— Invasion of the Huns. 
 
 390— Suppression of Paganism. 
 
 410 — Rome sacked by the Huns. 
 
 451 — The Ostrogoths overrun Italy. 
 
 475— THEODORIC the Ostrogoth lays waste Thessaly 
 
 and Thrace. 
 
 476— O DO ACER captures Rome and establishes the 
 
 kingdom of Italy. 
 
 489— Ostrogoths return. 
 
 493 — THEODORIC founds the Ostrogothic kingdom 
 ol Italy, Hungary and South Germany. 
 
 529 — The Justinian Code promulgated. 
 
 552— Ostrogoths expelled. 
 
 568— NARSES, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 
 from Germany. 
 
 590— GREGORY, the great pope of Rome. 
 
 596 — The Lombards overrun Italy. 
 
 N. B. — Ancient History ends with the over- 
 throw of the Western Empire in 476~ 
 
 GAUL (France and Germany). 
 
 9— VARUS and the Roman Legion destroyed by 
 HERMAN, the German hero. 
 
 14-16— Campaigns of GERMANICUS successful. 
 
 70 — CIVILIS surrenders. 
 
 79— Death of SABINUS and his wife. 
 
 The land occupied by over forty different 
 
 TRIBES. 
 
 214 — First contact of the Romans with the Germans 
 of the Upper Rhine. 
 
 263 — The Franks invade Gaul. 
 
 273 — AURELIAN in Gaul; battle of Chalons-sur- 
 Marne. 
 
 277 — PROBUS makes an expedition into Gaul; the 
 Franks settle here about this time. 
 
 305— The Franks defeated by CONSTANTIUS. 
 
 355— The Franks take Cologne ; JULIAN named pre* 
 feet of Transalpine Gaul. 
 
 357 — JULIAN defeats six German kings. 
 
 370 — The Saxons land in Gaul. 
 
 376— Huns settle in France. 
 
 382 — ALARIC king of Gaul. 
 
 413 — GONDICARIUS founds the kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy. 
 
 420 — PHARAMOND begins the kingdom of the Franks. 
 
 426 — ALLIUS defeats the Franks on the Rhine. 
 
 438— The Franks get a permanent foothold. 
 
 451— Battle of Chalons. 
 
 458 — CHILDERIC, king of the Franks, deposed. 
 
 462 — The Ripurian Franks take Cologne. 
 
 463 — CHILDERIC recalled by the Franks. 
 
 486 — CLOVIS I. defeats the Romans. 
 
 496— Baptism of CLOVIS. 
 
 507— CLOVIS defeats and slays ALARIC II. and 
 founds the kingdom of the Franks. 
 
 511— CLOVIS died in Paris, leaving his kingdom to his 
 four sons. 
 
 558— CLOT AIRE, his son, unites the kingdom. 
 
 561 — CLOTAIRE dies ; the kingdom is again divided!. 
 
 581— Paris mostly destroyed by fire. 
 
 656 — CLOVIS II. king of France. 
 
 687— THIERY defeated by PEPIN. 
 
 681 — MEBROUIN, the la§t of the Merovingian kings, 
 assassinated. 
 
 714— CHARLES MARTEL duke of France. 
 
 732 — Battle of Poitiers ; Franks gain victory over 
 Saracens. 
 
 739— Provence conquered by CHARLES MARTEL. 
 
 747— CARLOMAN abdicates the throne of France. 
 
 768— CHARLEMAGNE and CARLOMAN govern 
 France and Germany. 
 
 771— CHARLEMAGNE sole ruler. 
 
 774— Italy annexed after defeating the Lombards. 
 
 778— Beginning of the age of chivalry ; CHARLE** 
 MAGNE invades Spain. 
 
 785— Saxons subdued ; embrace Christianity. 
 
 799— CHARLEMAGNE subdues Avas. 
 
 800 — CHARLEMAGNE crowned at Rome emperor <4 
 
 the West. 
 
918 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 43 — CLAUDIUS in Britain. 
 
 47 — London founded by the Romans. 
 
 61— Insurrection of BOADICEA. 
 
 78 — AGRICOLA in Britain. 
 
 84 — AGRICOLA sails around Britain. 
 
 120— HADRIAN in Britain. 
 
 1 21— Hadrian’s Wall built. 
 
 139— Conquest of LOLLIUS URBICUS in Britain' 
 Wall of ANTONINUS built. 
 
 1 83-Success of ULPIUS MARCELLUS. 
 
 208 -Expedition of SEVERUS to Britain. 
 
 211— SEVERUS dies at York. 
 
 296 — Britain recovered by CONSTANTINE. 
 
 306— CONSTANTINE dies at York. 
 
 367-9— THEODOSIUS in Britain. 
 
 396 — HONORIUS invited to Britain to fight the Scots 
 and Piets. 
 
 402-1 8— Tlie Romans gradually retire from Britain. 
 429-49 — The Saxons and Angles are called in to ait 
 the natives in their wars. 
 
 455—' The Angles drive the Britons into Wales. 
 
 457— The Saxon Heptarchy. 
 
 477— The second Saxon invasion. 
 
 491 — The kingdom of Sussex. 
 
 495 — The third Saxon invasion. 
 
 506-542— Beign of King ARTHUR (legendary). 
 519 — The kingdom of Wessex established by CERDIC. 
 527— Fourth Saxon invasion ; Essex established. 
 547— Northumbria established as a kingdom. 
 565— ETHELBERT king of Kent. 
 
 577— West Saxons defeat the Britons. 
 
 586— Kingdom of Mercia founded. 
 
 597— ST. AUGUSTINE arrives. 
 
 603— Bernieia invaded by the Scots; invaders ex- 
 pelled. 
 
 642— Mercians defeat Bernicians. 
 
 678— The last king of the Britons. 
 
 68 5— Britons driven into Wales and Cornwall by 
 the Saxons. 
 
 687 — Wessex and Sussex united. 
 
 694— Kent ravaged by West Saxons. 
 
 155— Insurrection in Mercia. 
 
 156— Ravina annexed to the see of Rome by PEPIN. 
 T 8 7— Danes land in England. 
 
 323— Essex annexed to Wessex. 
 
 825 — Kent and Northumbria annexed to Wessex. 
 
 827 — EGBERT becomes king of all England. 
 
 871 — ALFRED defeated by the Danes at Merton. 
 878— ALFRED the Great driven out of England. 
 890— ALFRED the Great promulgates a code and 
 founds the University of Oxford. 
 
 901— Death of ALFRED. 
 
 920— Mercia annexed to Wessex by Edward. 
 
 937— ATHELSTANE becomes chief king. 
 
 979 — EDWARD the Martyr murdered. 
 
 |002 — Danes massacred in England. 
 
 |003 — ETHELRED flees to Normandy. 
 
 1013— England conquered by SWEYN. 
 
 1016 — England divided between CANUTE and ED- 
 
 MUND IRONSIDES. 
 
 101 7— CANUTE, the Dane, sole king. 
 
 1042— The Saxon dynasty restored. 
 
 1051— GODFREY of Kent rebels. 
 
 1066— WILLIAM of Normandy conquers England; bat- 
 tle of Hastings. 
 
 1070 — Feudal system introduced. 
 
 1086- Census completed ; Doomsday book. 
 
 1 100— HENRY I. grants a charter restoring Saxon laws 
 
 1106— HENRY deteats ROBERT and gams Normandy, 
 
 1135 — Civil war between STEPHEN and Empress 
 MAUDE, HENRY’S daughter. 
 
 1147 — MAUDE defeated and goes to France. 
 
 1154— HENRY II. the first Plantagenet. 
 
 1162— Constitutions of Clarendon. 
 
 1 1 70— THOMAS-A-BECKET murdered. 
 
 1 1 72— Ireland conquered. 
 
 1 1 77— For the administration of justice, England divid- 
 ed in six circuits. 
 
 1 1 8 1— Digest of English laws. 
 
 1 189— Massacre of Jews in London. 
 
 1191 — RICHARD joins the crusades. 
 
 1194 — RICHARD Cceur de Lion imprisoned in Ger- 
 many ; ransomed for three hundred thousand 
 pounds. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Occupied by the two Celtic races of Piets and 
 Scots, the chief seat of the latter being Ireland. 
 The Scots’ original seat in Northern Britain was 
 in Argyle, which they acquired by colonization 
 or conquest before the end of the fifth century. 
 
 503— FERGUS arrives in Scotland from Ireland and 
 founds a kingdom. 
 
 562- ST. COLUMBA lands in Scotland; CONAL, 
 great-grandson of FERGUS, king of the British 
 Scots, succeeded by his nephew AIDEN. 
 
 68 5 — Scots under some kind of subjection to the king 
 of Northumbria ; recover independence on the 
 defeat and death of King EGFRID in battle 
 with the Piets at Nechtansmere. 
 
 836 — KENNETH, son of Alpine, descendant of FER- 
 GUS and AIDEN, is king ; in Northern Britain 
 Scots acquire predominance by a revolution. 
 
 881 — Danes overrun Scotland ; Piets and Scots grad- 
 ually coalesce into one people. 
 
 933 — ATHELSTANE of England ravages Scotland ; 
 
 battle of Brunan-burh ; CONSTANTINE, the 
 king, escapes ; his son is killed. 
 
 953— CONSTANTINE dies ; a portion of the Cambrian 
 kingdom restored to MALCOLM by EDWARD 
 of England. 
 
 1039— MACBETH murders DUNCAN I. 
 
 1041— Danes driven out. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 During the first and second centuries Ireland is 
 governed by native kings. There were four 
 petty kingdoms, Ulster, Connaught, Munster, 
 and Leinster. Over these there was a principal 
 king who had his residence at Tara. The an- 
 cient religion was Druidism. 
 
 227— CORMAC ULLA king at Tara. 
 
 266— CORMAC ULLA abdicates the throne and is 
 killed by the Druids for being in secret a Chris- 
 tian. After him came a long line of little note. 
 
 322— FIACHA SRAEBHTINE slain by the three Col- 
 las. He was succeeded by kings of no impor- 
 tance. 
 
 378— CRIMTHAN poisoned by his sister ; NIAL, of the 
 nine hostages, succeeds him, and after him 
 DATHI, who was killed while crossing the 
 Alps. 
 
 387— ST. PATRICK born in Gaul. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 919 
 
 I reland. — Continued ’ 
 
 403 — ST. PATRICK taken to Ireland as a prisoner, 
 and after seven years is liberated. 
 
 432— He returns to convert the Irish people. 
 
 438— He reforms the laws and customs ; the compila- 
 tion of the Brehon Code. 
 
 493— Death, of ST. PATRICK. 
 
 503 — CONAIRE II. reigning in Ireland. 
 
 504 — MUIRCHEATACH the first Christian king. 
 554— Destruction of Tara. 
 
 556— Death of DAMAID. 
 
 566 93-Reign of HUGH II. 
 
 624 — DONALD II. began to reign. 
 
 640— CONAL and KILLACT. 
 
 656— DERMID and BLATHMAC. 
 
 663— SHANASAGH. 
 
 669— KINFALA. 
 
 673— FINACTA. 
 
 693 — LOINGSECT. 
 
 701— COMGAL. 
 
 708— FEARGHUL. 
 
 7 1 8— Battle of Almhaim ; king killed. 
 718-733-Three kings; HUGH V. 
 
 739— DONALD I. 
 
 759— NEAL FEARSAGH. 
 
 776-797— DONOGH I. 
 
 797— HUGH VI. 
 
 802-830 — Repeated raids of the Danes and Scandi- 
 navians for plunder. 
 
 819— CORNOR II. 
 
 833 — Dublin taken by Danes ; continual war. 
 
 845— MALACHY I. 860— HUGH VII. 
 
 8 7 7— FL ANN of Shannon. 8 8 3— NEAL III. 
 
 893— Dublin recovered by the Irish. 
 
 912- Invasion of the Northmen. 
 
 913 — Dublin taken by them. 
 
 916— DONOGH, son of FLANN SINNA ; repeated 
 repulses of the Danes. 
 
 94£— CONGAL, who was killed by the Danes in 954; 
 
 he was succeeded by DONNEL O’NEIL, and 
 he by MALACHY II. 
 
 948— Danes converted to Christianity. [AN. 
 
 990-1 001- War between MALACHY Il.Jand BRI- 
 1001— BRIAN deposes MALACHY II. 
 
 1010 — Deace with the Danes. 
 
 1012 — Another invasion of the Northmen. 
 
 1013 — Defeat of the Northmen ; Danish power broken. 
 1018 — War of the succession, which lasted till the time 
 
 of STRONGBOW. There were in this time 
 seven crownless kings. 
 
 1095— Pestilence in Ireland. 
 
 1 101— North of Ireland devastated by MORTOUGH. 
 Ill 4— MORTOUGH resigns. 
 
 Ill 8 — RORY O’CONNOR died. 
 
 1 1 41 -Massacre by DERMOD MAC DURROUGH. 
 1166— DERMOD in England to seek aid. 
 
 1169 — English land in Ireland ; marriage of STRONG- 
 BOW with EVA. 
 
 1 171 — HENRY of England lands in Ireland. 
 
 1 1 72 — Ireland conquered by the English. 
 
 1 1 75— The decree of the council of St. Michael ; Irish 
 king pays tribute to England. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 843— The treaty of Verdun; the sons of Louis divide 
 ihe empire ; Germany a separate kingdom. 
 
 934 — HENRY I. defeats the Danes. 
 
 951 — OTHO invades Italy. 
 
 962 — OTHO the Great emperor ; union with Italy. 
 
 982 — OTHO III. defeated by Saracens and Greeks. 3 
 996— OTHO III. makes German empire elective. 
 1002-1123 — Quarrel between the pope and emperor 
 concerning investiture of bishops. 
 
 1042 — HENRY I. conquers Bohemia. 
 
 1073 — HENRY IV. disputes the pope’s title. 
 
 1075 — HENRY humbled by the pope. 
 
 1077— He submits and does penance at Canossa. 
 
 1 08 1— Italy invaded by HENRY IV. [made pope. 
 1084 — Pope deposed ; Rome captured and Clement III, 
 1090— HENRY IV. takes Mantua. 
 
 1147 — CONRAD III. joins the crusades; army destroyed. 
 1 1 54-1 1 77— Wars between Italic republics and 
 FREDERICK I. 
 
 1162— Milan destroyed by FREDERICK I. 
 
 1167 — FREDERICK I. takes Rome ; Italian league. 
 1176 — FREDERICK I. (Barbarosa) defeated by the 
 Lombard league. 
 
 1 190— Order of Teutonic Knights established ; death of 
 
 BARBAROSA. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 830 — LOUIS, the Debonnair, imprisoned in France. 
 843 — A separate kingdom. 
 
 848— Independence of Brittany. 
 
 851 — Northmen make an incursion into France. 
 858— Kingdom of Navarre established. 
 
 875 — CHARLES the Bald becomes emperor. 
 
 888 — Paris attacked by Northmen. 
 
 911 — Death of LOUIS the Child; extinction of the 
 
 Carlovingian dynasty. [Normandy. 
 
 912— ROLLO, the Northman, created Robert, duke of 
 939 — HUGH CAPET, of Paris, subdued by Louis IV. 
 978 — OTHO II. invades France. 
 
 1098 — War between France and England. 
 
 1185 — Amiens and Valois annexed to France. 
 
 1189— England, France and Germany unite in third 
 crusade ; siege of Acre. 
 
 1191 — Artois annexed to France. 
 
 OTHER NATIONS. 
 
 600— Italy overrun by Sclavonians. 
 
 611 — Persian conquest m Syria, Egypt and Asia Mi 
 
 nor ; Rome besieged by them. 
 
 612 — Persecution of Jews in Spain. 
 
 614 — Jerusalem captured by Persians. 
 
 622- Medina entered by MOHAMMED ; the Hegira 
 630 — MOHAMMED acknowledged as prophet. 
 
 632 — He dies ; Mohammedanism spreads to Persia. 
 
 638 — Saracens conquer Syria. 
 
 640— Alexandrian library burned. 
 
 653 — The Saracens take Rhodes. [Italy. 
 
 666 — CONSTANS II. defeated by the Lombards id 
 668— Saracens besiege Constantinople. 
 
 672— Saracens driven out of Spain, 
 
 678— Bulgaria founded in Northern Greece. 
 
 697— ANAFESTO first doge of Venice. [Bulgarians. 
 
 71 1— Arabs invade Spain ; Eastern Empire ravaged by 
 
 712 — Arabs establish an empire in Spain. 
 
 716 — Gothic monarchy founded in Greece. 
 
 720— Saracens defeated at Constantinople. 
 
 730 — Emperor LEO excommunicated by Pope 
 GREGORY II., who died 731. 
 
 791 — ALFONSE, the, Chaste, reigns in Spain ; independ- 
 ence of Christians established. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 Other Nations. — Continued. 
 
 §07— War between Peloponnesians and slaves. 
 
 43-4— Spain ravaged by the Northmen. 
 
 46— Rome sacked by the Saracens. 
 
 50— RUSSIC establishes the Russian monarchy. 
 
 65— Constantinople attacked by Russians. 
 
 67 — Rassillian dynasty established at Constantino* 
 pie. 
 
 69— (Ecumenical council at Constantinople (Latin 
 Church). 
 
 79— (Ecumenical council of Greek Church. 
 
 90— Eastern empire conquers Rome. 
 
 96— Rome captured by Germans. 
 
 907— The Russians receive tribute from Constantino* 
 pie. 
 
 88 — VLADIMIR of Russia embraces Christianity. 
 1015— Russia divided at death of VLADIMIR. 
 
 19 — Moors enter Spain. 
 
 26— Kingdom of Castile founded. 
 
 35 — Kingdom of Aragon founded. 
 
 1037— Leon and Castile united. 
 
 40— Eastern Empire regains Sicily and loses Servia. 
 43— Russians defeated at Constantinople. 
 
 65 — Turks capture Rome. 
 
 95 — Portugal becomes a separate power. 
 
 96 — The first crusade begins. 
 
 99— GODFREY DE BOUILLON takes Jerusalem. 
 104— Capture of Acre. 
 
 06 — Mila a free republic. 
 
 22— Treaty of Worms between emperor and pope. 
 39 — Portugal becomes a kingdom. 
 
 43— Moors repelled in Spain. 
 
 46-8— Second crusade ; France and Germany de- 
 feated ; Greece plundered. 
 
 59— Wars of Guelphs and Ghibellines. 
 
 72 — Great conquests by SALADIN. 
 
 83 — Peace of Constance; free cities established in 
 Italy. 
 
 87— Jerusalem taken by SALADIN. 
 
 91 — Kiugdom of Cyprus founded ; Acre captured ; 
 Jerusalem open to pilgrims. 
 
 FROM 1200 A.D. TO THE TIME OF THE FRENCH REVO- 
 LUTION. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1204— Loss of Normandy. 
 
 8— Papal interdict of England. 
 
 1 5 — Magna charta. 
 
 62-68 — War of the barons. 
 
 65— First regular parliament. 
 
 83— Union of England and Wales. 
 
 87 — Jews banished. 
 
 1308, 5 15, ’25 — Wars with barons. 
 
 50— Order of the Garter. 
 
 56 — First book written in English. 
 
 62 — English made the language of the realm. 
 
 80— Translation of the Bible by WYCLIFFE. 
 
 81 — WAT TYLER’S insurrection put down. 
 
 85— Death of JNO. WYCLIFFE. [English. 
 
 88 — Rattle of CHEVY CHASE between Scots and 
 
 97 — Lollards or Wycliffites persecuted. 
 
 99— Order of the Bath. 
 
 1400— Death of CHAUCER and FROISSART. 
 
 1— Rebellion in Wales ; the PERCIES and GLEN- 
 DOWERS defeated. [England. 
 
 22 — HENRY VI. proclaimed king of France and 
 55 — Wars of the Roses commenced. 
 
 61— HENRY VI. deposed by EDWARD IV. 
 
 71— First printing press established by WILLIAM 
 CAXTON. 
 
 83 — Murder of EDWARD V. in the Tower ; RICH- 
 ARD III. usurps the throne. 
 
 85-Death of RICHARD III. on Bosworth field; 
 
 HENRY VII. succeeds. 
 
 87 — Institution of Star Chamber. 
 
 92- HENRY VII. sells the sovereignty of France. 
 
 94- -Lollards persecuted. 
 
 9 8- -Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck. 
 
 1509 -HENRY VIII. marries CATHERINE of Aragon. 
 13— Invasion of England by JAMES IV. of Scot- 
 land ; Scots defeated. 
 
 29-Fall of Cardinal WOLSEY. 
 
 33— F'ENRY VIII. marries ANNE BOLEYN. 
 
 34— Papal supremacy denied. 
 
 1536 — ANNE BOLEYN executed; HENRY marries 
 Lady JANE SEYMOUR. 
 
 37— Lady JANE SEYMOUR dies. 
 
 38— Monasteries suppressed. 
 
 40 — HENRY marries ANNE of Cleves ; is divorced 
 
 and marries CATHERINE HOWARD. 
 
 42— Execution of CATHERINE HOWARD. 
 
 43— HENRY marries CATHERINE PARR. 
 49-Execution of Lord SEYMOUR. 
 
 52— Execution of SOMERSET; Common Prayer 
 
 Book established. 
 
 53 — MARY reigns ; Roman Catholic religion restored ; 
 
 Lady JANE GREY proclaimed ; the duke 
 of Northumberland executed. 
 
 54— WYATT’S insurrection suppressed ; Lady JANE 
 
 GREY executed ; MARY marries PHILIP of 
 Spain ; Lord DUDLEY beheaded. 
 
 55_6— CRANMER, LATIMER and RIDLEY burned. 
 59— Church of England re-established by ELIZA- 
 88— Spanish armada defeated. [BETH. 
 
 1600 — East India Company chartered. 
 
 1 — Earl of Essex executed. 
 
 3-Death of Queen ELIZABETH. 
 
 5— Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 11— JAMES I. creates title of baronet. 
 
 14— Portuguese defeated in Bombay. 
 
 16— Death of SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 18-Execution of Sir WALTER RALEIGH. 
 
 21 — Lord BACON impeached for bribery. 
 
 25- Marriage of CHARLES I. 
 
 26— Death of BACON. 
 
 28— Assassination of duke of Buckingham. 
 
 37— Trial of JOHN HAMPDEN. 
 
 41— Execution of Earl STRAFFORD, [civil war. 
 
 42— CHARLES I. tries to arrest members of the House; 
 
 44— CROMWELL victorious at Marston Moor. 
 
 45 — Battle of Naseby ; royalists defeated ; execution 
 
 of Archbishop LAUD. 
 
 49— CHARLES I. executed ; the commonwealth. 
 
 53 — CROMWELL dissolves long parliament and be* 
 comes lord protector. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 
 m 
 
 England. — Continued. 
 
 1655 — Five years’ war with Spain. 
 
 58— Death, of CROMWELL ; succeeded by RICH- 
 
 ARD CROMWELL. 
 
 59— RICHARD resigns. 
 
 60— Restoration ; CHARLES II. returns. 
 
 62 — Act of uniformity ; church of England restored. 
 
 65 — The great plague in London. 
 
 65- 6— Dutch wars. 
 
 66— Great fire in London. 
 
 78— 9— TITUS OATES and the false popish plot. 
 
 79— Habeas corpus act passed. 
 
 80— Execution of Lord STAFFORD. 
 
 83 — Rye house plot ; Lord RUSSELL and ALGER- 
 NON SIDNEY executed. 
 
 85— MONMOUTH’S rebellion and execution. 
 
 8 8— The seven bishops tried and acquitted ; arrival of 
 the prince of Orange ; JAMES II. abdicates 
 and flees to France. 
 
 89— WILLIAM and MARY proclaimed. 
 
 92— National debt begins. [MARY. 
 
 94— Rank of England founded ; death of Queen 
 1 704-6-9— MARLBOROUGH victorious. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 1275— Wars of JOHN BALLIOL and ROBERT 
 BRUCE. 
 
 96 — Scotland subdued by the English. 
 
 97— Scotland revolts; days of WALLACE. 
 
 99— Rattle of Falkirk; Scots defeated by EDWARD I. 
 1303— EDWARD I. invades Scotland. 
 
 5— WILLIAM WALLACE executed in London. 
 
 14— EDWARD defeated by ROBERT BRUCE. 
 
 27— Independence of the Scots. 
 
 33 — EDWARD defeats the Scots. 
 
 46— Rattle of Dundee. 
 
 71— ROBERT II. first of the Stuart line in Scotland. 
 141 1— Lowlanders defeat Highlanders. 
 
 37— JAMES I. murdered. 
 
 52— JAMES II. murders DOUGLAS. 
 
 1540 — MARY proclaimed queen of Scots. 
 
 46— CARDINAL BEATON assassinated. 
 
 50-60— KNOX reformation. [France. 
 
 58 — MARY, queen of Scots, marries the dauphin of 
 
 65— Marriage of Lord DARNLEY and MARY. 
 
 66— p.IZZIO murdered by DARNLEY. 
 
 67— DARNLEY assassinated; MARY marries BOTH- 
 
 WELL ; she abdicates ; Earl MURRAY regent. 
 
 68 — MARY defeated at Langside ; escapes from pris- 
 
 on ; seeks shelter in England. 
 
 70— Murder of MURRAY ; LENNOX regent. 
 
 71 — MAR regent. 
 
 , 87— MARY executed. 
 
 1603 — JAMES VI. of Scotland becomes JAMES I. of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 4 — JAMES assumes the title of king of Great Brit- 
 ain ; the union of Scotland and England as 
 Great Britain was not formally accomplished by 
 acts of parliament until May ist in England and 
 January 7th in Scotland, 1707. 
 
 38— The Covenanters and solemn league. 
 
 39— English army withdrawn by CHARLES I. 
 
 45- -MONTROSE defeated by Covenanters. 
 
 46 — CHARLES I. takes refuge in Scotland and is 
 
 given up to parliament. 
 
 50— Execution of Montrose. 
 
 1651 — CHARLES II. crowned at Scone; escapes after 
 battle of Worcester. 
 
 61 — Duke of ARGYLE executed. 
 
 85— Rebellion and execution of ARGYLE. 
 
 8 9— Clav erho use — rebellion suppressed. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1707 — Scotland and England united as Great Britain. 
 8 — French squadron routed by Admiral BYNG. 
 10— Saclieveral’s riots. [I. 
 
 14 — Hanoverian succession begins with GEORGE 
 
 1 5 — Scotch rebellion suppressed. 
 
 19 — Ostend East India Company founded. 
 
 20— Collapse of “ South Sea Bubble.” 
 
 22— Death of Marlborough. 
 
 27— Death of Sir ISAAC NEWTON. 
 
 39 — England declares war with Spain. 
 43-Battle of Dettingen ; French defeated. 
 
 45— The youqg Pretender lands in Scotland ; defeat 
 
 of Royalists. 
 
 46 — Total defeat of Pretender at Culloden. 
 
 47— Tor d LOVAT executed. 
 
 50— Treaty of Madrid. 
 
 52 — Chronology changed ; Sept. 3d is made Sept. 
 14th. 
 
 56 — Seven Years’ War commences. 
 
 57— CLIVE victorious in India; Admiral BYNG exe- 
 
 cuted. 
 
 59— Conquest of Canada. 
 
 62— War with Spain. 
 
 63 — Peace of Paris. 
 
 65 — American stamp act ; Pretender dies at Rome. 
 73— American colonies revolt. 
 
 78— Death of Lord CHATHAM ; Irish Catholic re- 
 
 lief bill passed. 
 
 79— Siege of Gibraltar by French and Spanish ; war 
 
 renewed. 
 
 80 — War with Holland ; anti-popery riots in London 
 
 (Lord GEORGE GORDON). 
 
 81 — GORDON tried and acquitted. 
 
 82— Provisional treaty, acknowledging indepen- 
 
 dence of United States. 
 
 83— Treaty of Versailles. 
 
 88 — WARREN HASTINGS’ impeachment ; the young 
 Pretender dies at Rome. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1201— Munster laid waste by English barons. 
 
 10— King JOHN of England lands in Ireland. 
 
 13— HENRY DE LOND RES archbishop of Dublin. 
 77— THURLOUGH BRIAN treacherously slain. 
 
 81— Battle of Moyne. 
 
 1315 -Invasion of BRUCE. 
 
 16— Defeat of the Irish. 
 
 30-9 — Wars between the English. 
 
 34— Sir JNO. MORRIS sent to Ireland. 
 
 48 — Black death devastates the land. 
 
 67-Duke of Clarence viceroy. 
 
 77— Earl of March viceroy. 
 
 94— RICPIARD II. in Ireland. 
 
 1402— THOMAS, duke of Lancaster, viceroy. 
 
 4 — English defeated at Leix. 
 
 12 — Ulster devastated by the O’NEILS. 
 
 25— EDWARD MORTIMER lord deputy. 
 
 46— Fearful plague. 
 
 62 — Earl of Desmond lord deputy ; battle of Pilltown, 
 
922 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 I reland. — Continued. 
 
 1467— Earl of Desmond beheaded. 
 
 87— LAMBERT SIMNEL crowned at Dublin as ED- 
 WARD VI. 
 
 92— WARBECK plot promulgated. 
 
 1534— FITZGERALD rebels. 
 
 42 — HENRY VIII. of England takes the title of king 
 of Ireland. 
 
 79 — Irish, rebellion suppressed. 
 
 80— Admiral WINTER and Lord GREY take for- 
 
 tress of Smirwick from Italians and butcher 
 seven hundred or eight hundred prisoners. 
 
 98— O’NEIL, earl of Tyrone, rebels ; defeats English 
 
 at Blackwater. 
 
 1609— Irish driven from Ulster ; land divided between 
 English and Scotch. 
 
 41 — Ulster rebellion ; O’NEIL’S proclamation. 
 
 49— CROMWELL in Ireland ; massacre and capture 
 of Drogheda. 
 
 5 3 — Irish property confiscated by the English ; Iristl 
 transplanted beyond the Shannon. 
 
 67— Parliament of Westminster proscribe thre© 
 wild beasts — •“ wolves,” kt tories,” and “ beasts.” 
 
 90— WILLIAM III. in Ireland ; the battle of the Boyne 
 
 and defeat of JAMES II. 
 
 91 — Treaty of Limerick, which deprives JAMES of 
 
 power and bestows amnesty to all his adher- 
 1 704— Irish “ popery ” act passed. [ents. 
 
 14— Ireland loyal to GEORGE I. during the rebell- 
 ion of JAMES III. the Pretender. 
 
 23— Patent granted to WOOD to coin half pence. 
 
 28— Catholics of Ireland offer an address to King 
 
 39— Severe famine. [GEORGE II. 
 
 47 — GEORGE STONE primate. 
 
 51-3 — Disputes between the Irish and English 
 parliaments over questions of privilege. 
 
 60 — THUROT’S invasion. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Inhabited by Indian tribes. 
 
 1492 — COLUMBUS discovers West Indies. 
 
 97— JOHN CABOT and son discover North America. 
 
 99— AMERIGO VESPUCCI discovers America.; 
 1513 — BALBOA discovers the P .cific. 
 
 19— handing of Cortez in Mexico. 
 
 24 — Settlement of New France. 
 
 41— The Mississippi discovered by De Soto. 
 
 62 — Huguenots found Port Royal. 
 
 65 — MILLENDEZ founds St. Augustine. 
 
 76— FROBISHER at San Francisco bay. 
 
 79— DRAKE on the Pacific coast. 
 
 1604— Settlements in Nova Scotia. 
 
 7 — Jamestown settled. 
 
 8 — Quebec settled by CHAMPLAIN. 
 
 9— HENRY HUDSON discovers Hudson River. 
 
 14 — New York built by the Dutch (New Amster- 
 dam). 
 
 19 — Introduction of slavery in Virginia. 
 
 20— Puritans land at Plymouth. 
 
 23— Settlement of New Hampshire. 
 
 27 — Settlement of Delaware by Swedes and Dutch. 
 
 29 — French possessions in Canada seized by Eng- 
 
 lish ; Massachusetts Bay Colony. 
 
 30— Boston founded. 
 
 32— Canada restored to France ; Maryland granted 
 to Lord BALTIMORE. 
 
 35— Connecticut and Rhode Island settled. 
 
 1637— Pequot war. 
 
 38— New Haven founded. 
 
 42— Montreal founded. 
 
 44— Rhode Island chartered ; Indian massacre in 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 63 — Canada a royal government under France. 
 
 64— Elizabeth, New Jersey, settled ; North Carolina 
 
 settled ; the English take New York. 
 
 65 — Slavery introduced in North Carolina. 
 
 7 0 — English settle South Carolina. 
 
 73— Discoveries of MARQUET and JOLIET. 
 75— Ring PHILIP’S war. 
 
 80— Mississippi explored ; Charleston founded. 
 
 82 — PENN settles Pennsylvania; LA SALLE on the 
 Mississippi ; names Louisiana. 
 
 85 — Texas colonized. 
 
 89 — Ring WILLIAM’S war ; French and Indian 
 wars ; failure of Canadian expedition. 
 
 92 — Salem witchcraft. 
 
 1701— Detroit founded. 
 
 2 — Queen ANNE’S war ; treaty of French with 
 Five Nations; Massachusetts frontier ravaged. 
 1.0 — Port Royal taken and called Annapolis. 
 
 1 1 — Wreck of the expedition against Quebec. 
 
 13 — Queen ANNE’S war ends by treaty of Utrecht. 
 1 7 — Settlement of New Orleans. 
 
 32— Birth of GEORGE WASHINGTON. 
 
 33 — OGLETHORPE settles Savannah. 
 
 44 — Third intercolonial war (King GEORGE). 
 
 45 — Uouisburg conquered by PEPPERILL. 
 
 48 — Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the war. 
 
 53— Hudson Bay Company’s posts seized by 
 
 French ; WASHINGTON sent to St. Pierre. 
 
 54— French and Indian war ; DANIEL BOONE 
 
 settles Kentucky. 
 
 55— English forces commanded by General BRAD- 
 
 DOCK ; Fort Du Quesne expedition fails by de- 
 feat and death of BRADDOCK ; WASHING- 
 TON takes command. 
 
 56— 57 — Several expeditions against French fail. 
 
 58 — ABERCROMBIE takes command; English gen- 
 
 erally successful ; Fort Du Quesne taken by 
 WASHINGTON. 
 
 59— English victory at Quebec; death of WOLFE 
 
 and MONTCALM. 
 
 60 — Surrender of Montreal ; French and Indian 
 
 war ends. 
 
 63 — Canada formally annexed to British dominions: 
 
 Indian massacres. 
 
 64 — Indians seek peace ; heavy duties on colonial 
 
 imports. 
 
 65 — Stamp act passed in England; first congress at 
 
 New York ; stamp act resisted. 
 
 66— Stamp act repealed. 
 
 67— Tax on tea and other articles. 
 
 68— Massachusetts protests; General GATES in 
 
 Boston with troops. 
 
 70— Affray between citizens and troops; repeal of 
 
 taxation. 
 
 71— Governor TYRONE defeats insurgents in North 
 
 Carolina. 
 
 73— Masked men destroy the tea sent to Boston. 
 
 74— Boston port bill; second colonial congress at 
 
 Philadelphia ; issue of declaration of rights. 
 
 75 — Revolution begins; formation of colonial 
 
 union ; GEORGE WASHINGTON comman- 
 der-in-chief ; Lexington ; Bunker Hill ; Ticon- 
 deroga. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 923 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 1776 — Evacuation of Boston ; Declaration of In- 
 dependence ; American fleet captured. 
 
 77— Arrival of LA FAYETTE. 
 
 78 — English evacuate Philadelphia ; massacre of 
 
 Wyoming ; France declares war with England 
 in aid of America. 
 
 80 — ARNOLD’S treason ; ANDRE’S execution. 
 
 81 — Eirst confederate congress; Cowpens ; Eutaw 
 
 Springs , surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 
 
 82— Independence of United States acknowledged 
 
 by Holland ; in 1783 by Prussia, Spain, Den- 
 mark and Sweden ; Treaty of Paris ; peace; 
 New York evacuated ; WASHINGTON re- 
 signs. 
 
 85 — JOHN ADAMS first minister to England. 
 
 86— SHAY’S rebellion. 
 
 87 — Constitution of United States adopted. 
 
 88 — Eleven States ratify the constitution. 
 
 89— GEORGE WASHINGTON first president 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 1208 — OTHO crowned emperor at Rome. 
 
 17— Fifth crusade by Hungarians and Germans. 
 
 36 — War with the Lombard league. 
 
 45— Hansiatic league formed. 
 
 73 — RUDOLF of Hapsburg emperor. 
 
 1310 — HENRY VII. subdues Lombards. 
 
 13— FREDERICK and LOUIS V. contend for the 
 empire. 
 
 22— LOUIS V. defeats FREDERICK at Muhldorf. 
 
 26 — Turks invade Germany. 
 
 56— The 41 Golden Bull ” issued by CHARLES IV. 
 87— Division of the empire. 
 
 1410— SIGISMUND of Hungary becomes emperor. 
 
 15— JOHN HUSS burned at the stake. 
 
 16- 19— War with Prague. 
 
 35— Invention of printing by Guttenberg. 
 
 38— Pragmatic sanction; ALBERT, duke of Aus- 
 
 tria, becomes emperor. 
 
 39— Title of emperor to the house of Hapsburg. 
 
 40— FREDERICK III., who reigned from 1440-1493, 
 
 was an avaricious and indolent prince, who 
 neglected the interests of Germany for Austria. 
 
 92— Turks invade parts of Germany. 
 
 93 — Peace with France; German provinces restored. 
 99— Switzerland permanently separated from Ger- 
 many. 
 
 1517 — Reformation under LUTHER begins. 
 
 19 — CHARLES V. of Spain made emperor. 
 
 21 — LUTHER excommunicated ; diet at Worms. 
 
 22— Bible and liturgy translated by LUTHER. 
 
 27— Rome captured. 
 
 29— Diet at Spires. 
 
 30— A usburg confession. [kald. 
 
 31— Protestant princes form the league of SmaU 
 34— Anabaptists’ war; Munster captured. 
 
 36— Anabaptists suppressed. 
 
 46-Death of LUTHER. 
 
 46-5 2- War on the Protestants by CHARLES V.; 
 
 they are assisted by HENRY II. of France. 
 52— End of religious wars. 
 
 56— Abdication of CHARLES V. 
 
 64— Accession of MAXIMILIAN II. 
 
 76— RUDOLF II. reigns. 
 
 161 8— Thirty Years’ War commenced. [Palatine. 
 
 20— Battle of Prague ; total overthrow of the elector 
 
 1630-Invasion by GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS of 
 Sweden. [PHUS at the battle of Lutzen. 
 
 32- Victory and death of GUSTAVUS ADOL- 
 48— End of Thirty Year^’ War ; treaty of Westphalia. 
 56— Prussia declared independent of Poland. 
 
 Turks commit ravages in Germany during the 
 reign of LEOPOLD I. 
 
 83— JOHN SOBIESKI pf Poland defeats the Turks at 
 Vienna. 
 
 97 — War ended with France ; peace of Ryswick. 
 99— Peace with the Turks. [Prussia. 
 
 1700— The Elector FREDERICK recognized as king of 
 2 — War with France. 
 
 4 — Battle of Blenheim. 
 
 13— Peace of Utrecht. 
 
 15— War between Prussia and Sweden. 
 
 22 — The succession settled by Pragmatic Sanction. 
 26 — League between Prussia and the empire. 
 
 40 — FREDERICK the Great of Prussia ; Prussians en- 
 ter Silesia. 
 
 42— Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia. 
 
 44 — Prussia annexes Friesland. [THERESA). 
 
 45 — FRANCIS I. elected emperor (consort of MARIA 
 56— Beginning of Seven Years’ War. 
 
 62 — FREDERICK defeats Austrians in Silesia. 
 
 63— Seven Years’ War ends ; Silesia ceded to Prus- 
 
 sia. ( 
 
 69— Convention between Austria and Prussia. 
 72— Partition of Poland. 
 
 88— Turkish war. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 1209— Crusade against Albergeoise. 
 
 19— Germans defeated at Bovines. 
 
 29— Albergeoise defeated. 
 
 48— Eighth crusade under LOUIS IX. 
 
 50— Saracens capture LOUIS ; ten years’ truce. 
 68 — Ninth crusade by LOUIS IX. and prince of 
 Wales. 
 
 70 — Death of LOUIS IX. at Carthage. 
 
 80 — Massacre of Sicilians ; crusade against Aragon. 
 1302 — First convocation of States-general. 
 
 28 — House of Valvis begin to reign. 
 
 37— War with Flanders. [Cressy. 
 
 46— War with England; EDWARD victorious at 
 
 47— The English capture Calais. 
 
 56— Battle of Poitiers; eight thousand English de- 
 ’ feat sixty thousand French ; JOHN II. cap- 
 tured by the 44 Black Prince.” 
 
 58— Jacquerie insurrection. 
 
 60 — Peace of Brittany between England and France. 
 1415— Battle of Agincourt ; fifty thousand French de- 
 feated by ten thousand English. 
 
 20— Paris captured by the English ; treaty of Troyes. 
 
 29— JOAN OF ARC raises siege of Orleans. 
 
 31— TOAN OF ARC burned at Rouen. 
 
 35 — Treaty of Arras with Burgundy. 
 
 53 — End of the French and English wars. 
 
 75— Invasion by EDWARD IV. 
 
 77— Burgundy and Artois united to France. 
 
 93 — Treaty of Barcelona between France and Spaia 
 
 94— CHARLES VIIL invades Italy. 
 
 99— French seize M.lan. 
 
 1503— Spain invaded by LOUIS XII. 
 
 8 — Eeague of Cambray. 
 
 1 1 — Pope JULIUS II. forms the Holy League. 
 
 13— English invasion. 
 
924 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 
 F rance. — Continued. 
 
 1515 — FRANCIS I. invades Italy; defeats Germans, 
 Swiss and Italians. 
 
 20 — 46 Field of the Cloth of Gold.” 
 
 25 — Battle of Pavia ; defeat and capture of FRAN- 
 CIS I. 
 
 29 — Peace of Cambria. 
 
 32— Brittany annexed. 
 
 44— English, invasion. 
 
 46— Treaty of peace with England. 
 
 57 — War with Spain. 
 
 58 — Calais taken by duke of Guise. 
 
 60— Regency of CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI. 
 
 62— Massacre of Protestants ; GUISE defeats 
 
 Huguenots. 
 
 63— Siege of Orleans ; GUISE killed. 
 
 67— Battleof St. Denis. 
 
 72 — Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
 
 74— Reign of HENRY III., last of the Valois. 
 
 5 5— HENRY III. killed; HENRY IV., first of Bour- 
 
 bon line ; duke of Guise and brother killed. 
 
 90 — Battle of Ivry ; league defeated by HENRY IV, 
 93 — HENRY IV. adopts Catholicism. 
 
 98 — Edict of Nantes in favor of Protestants. 
 
 1610— RAVAILAC assassinates HENRY IV.; MA- 
 RIA DE’ MEDICI regent. 
 
 20— Navarre annexed. 
 
 24 — RICHELIEU’S administration. 
 
 28— RICHELIEU reduces Rochelle. 
 
 31 — Treaty of Cherasco (Italy). 
 
 34 — Invasion by Spaniards. 
 
 42— Heath of RICHELIEU. 
 
 43— Regency of ANNE of Austria; MAZARIN in 
 
 the ascendent. 
 
 48 — The Fronde — civil wars. 
 
 61— Death of MAZARIN. 
 
 64 — War with Holland. 
 
 68— Triple alliance— England, Holland and Swe- 
 
 den join against France. 
 
 70 — Sweden breaks alliance and joins France. 
 
 72 — Holland overrun by Cond£ and Turenne ; dykes 
 opened and expulsion of French. 
 
 78 — Peace of Nimeguen. 
 
 85 — Edict of Nantes revoked. 
 
 90— The grand alliance against France. 
 
 97— Peace of Ryswick ends war with England, Hol- 
 
 land, Germany and Spain. 
 
 98 — Spain cedes territory ; first partition treaty. 
 1701— Alliance with Spain. 
 
 2— War of the Spanish succession— England, Aus- 
 tria and Holland opposed to France and Spain. 
 
 6 — Battle of Ramifies ; French defeated. 
 
 7 — War with England, Germany and Holland. 
 
 1 3— Treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 15— Death of LOUIS XIV. 
 
 20— Collapse of Mississippi scheme of JOHN LAW. 
 
 29— Alliance of Seville with France and England. 
 
 42 — Claim of the elector of Bavaria supported by 
 
 France. 
 
 43— Battle of Dettingen ; French repulsed. [ship. 
 
 47 — Invasion of Flanders ; revival of stadtholder- 
 
 48 — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ; receives part of Flan- 
 
 ders. 
 
 56— Seven Years’ War. 
 
 57 — Attempt to kill LOUIS XV. ; treaty with Aus 
 
 tria for division of Prussia. 
 
 63— Canada ceded to England (peace of Paris). 
 66— Accession of Lorraine. 
 
 1 7 69 — Ascendency of Madame DU BARRE. 
 
 70-Dauphin marries MARIE ANTOINETTE. 
 74— LOUIS XV. dies. 
 
 76— Dismissal of TURGOT. 
 
 77 — NECKER appointed minister of finance. 
 
 78— War against England in aid of the Americas 
 
 colonies. 
 
 81— NECKER resigns. 
 
 83— Peace with Spain and England (treaty of Ver- 
 sailles). 
 
 85 — "Excitement over the diamond necklace af 
 fair.” 
 
 87 — Dispute over taxation ; assembly of notables. 
 
 88 — Recall of NECKER ; second assembly. 
 
 89— French Revolution; States-general declare them 
 
 selves a national assembly ; overthrow of Bas- 
 tile ; French Republic. 
 
 OTHER NATIONS. 
 
 1202— Fourth crusade. 
 
 3 — Constantinople taken by crusaders. 
 
 4 — Latins divide Greece. 
 
 9 — Inquisition established. 
 
 28 — Sixth crusade. 
 
 29— Ten years’ truce with the sultan ; Jerusalem re- 
 
 stored. 
 
 35 — Mongolians invade Russia. 
 
 38 — MOHAMMED I. founds Moorish kingdom of Gra- 
 
 nada. 
 
 39— Seventh crusade. 
 
 44 — Carismians seize Jerusalem. 
 
 50— Egypt ruled by Mamelukes. 
 
 51 — Rise of the Medici family in Italy. 
 
 52— ALEXANDER I. reigns in Russia. 
 
 59— Pekin built by KUBLA KHAN. 
 
 76— House of Hapsburg founded in Austria. 
 
 91— Acre taken by Mamelukes. 
 
 99— Turkish Empire established. 
 
 1300— Moscow capital of Russia. 
 
 8— Swiss revolt in Austria ; WILLIAM TELL. 
 
 21— DANTE died. 
 
 34— First doge of Genoa. 
 
 39— The Colonna rise to power in Italy. 
 
 40— War in Spain ; Moors defeated. 
 
 47— Democracy established by Rienzi. 
 
 54— RIENZI slain. 
 
 55 — Turks enter Greece. 
 
 61— Italy overrun by the Free Lances. 
 
 63— Austria possesses the Tyrol. 
 
 67— Armenia conquered by the Mamelukes. 
 
 69— Empire of TAMERLANE founded. 
 
 7 4— Death of Petrarch ; rebellion against the pope. 
 
 75- Death of BOCCACCIO.* 
 
 80— The Tartars defeated by DIMITRI II. of Russia. 
 
 90 — Loss of power in Asia by the Eastern Empire. 
 
 95 — Russia invaded by Tartars. 
 
 96— Hungarian Christians defeated by Turks. 
 1402— Turks defeated by Tartars ; BAJAZET I. cap- 
 tured. 
 
 14— Pope JOHN XXIII. deposed; council of Con* 
 
 stance. 
 
 22— AMURATH II. reunites the Ottoman empire. 
 
 25 — War between Venice and Milan. 
 
 30— AMURATH II. conquers Macedonia. 
 
 33— Lisbon capital of Portugal. 
 
 35— Birth of COLUMBUS ; war between Venice 
 
 and the Turks ; Sicily and Naples unite. 
 
 45- Birth of LEONARDO DA VINCI. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 925 
 
 Other Nations. — Continued. 
 
 1453 — MOHAMMED conquers Constantinople; end of 
 Eastern Empire ; FREDERICK III. creates 
 archduchy of Austria. 
 
 56— Hungarians repulse the Turks at the battle of 
 Belgrade. 
 
 60 — Greece conquered by the Turks. 
 
 62 — Modern Russian Empire founded by IVAN the 
 
 Great. 
 
 63— War between Turks and Venice. 
 
 74— FERDINAND and ISABELLA reign in Spain ; 
 
 birth of MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 77— Holland annexed to Austria. 
 
 79— ARAGON and CASTILE unite. 
 
 80— Mongolian power in Russia overthrown. 
 
 84 — Turks invade Spain. 
 
 88 — War between Sweden and Russia. 
 
 Q.7 — Passage to India discovered by PASCO DE 
 GAMA. 
 
 1500-2 — Spanish. Moors suppressed and compelled to 
 adopt Christianity. 
 
 1— Basle and Schaffhausen join the Swiss confed- 
 eracy. 
 
 6 — Holland under CHARLES V. of Spain. 
 
 10 — Invasion of Russia by Tartars. 
 
 12— Spain annexes Navarre. 
 
 1 7 — First foothold in China by Europeans ; Egypt 
 annexed to Ottoman Empire. 
 
 23— Italian league against France. 
 
 26— Hungarians defeated by Turkey ; Mogul dy- 
 nasty founded in India ; Bohemia and Hungary 
 united to Austria. 
 
 29— Turks oveirun Austria for a long pericd. 
 
 30— CHARLES V. of Spain conquers Italy ; progress 
 
 of the reformation in Switzerland. 
 
 40 — Ottoman power in Greece. 
 
 41 — Great Tartar invasion repelled. 
 
 44 — Confederacy joined by the Grison league. 
 
 55 — PHILIP H. of Spain governs Holland. 
 
 62 — Union of Russia and Sweden against Poland. 
 
 70 — Twenty-five thousand people massacred by 
 
 IVAN the Terrible of Russia. 
 
 71— Tartars burn Moscow • Turks defeated ; battle 
 
 of Lepanto. 
 
 72— Bebellion of WILLIAM of Orange. 
 
 76 — Peace of Ghent. 
 
 79— League of Utrecht. 
 
 80 — Portugal conquered by ALVA of Soain. 
 
 84 — WILLIAM of Orange assassinated. 
 
 85— Prince of Parma subdues southern provinces. 
 
 87 — Prince MAURICE stadt-holder. 
 
 98— Netherlands ceded to Austria. 
 
 99 — Apenzel joins the Swiss Cantons. 
 
 1601 — Alleged discovery of Australia by Portuguese. 
 
 6 — Massacre of Poles by Russians ; Dutch observe 
 Australia. 
 
 9— Independence of United Provinces. 
 
 13— Accession of ROMANOFF dynasty in Russia. 
 16 — TSING dynasty founded in China (still reign- 
 ing). 
 
 21— Dutch war with Spain ; formation of the Dutch 
 West India Company. 
 
 38— Persians defeated by Turks, who take Bagdad. 
 
 39— VAN TROMP (dutch admiral) captures two Span- 
 
 ish fleets. 
 
 40— Spaniards driven from Portugal. 
 
 42 —Death of GALILEO. 
 
 IS Spain relinquishes Holland (treaty of West- 
 
 phalia) ; republic of the provinces recognized, 
 by Europe. 
 
 1652- War between Holland and England ; Admiral 
 VAN TROMP sweeps the channel. 
 
 53— BLAKE defeats DE RUYTER ; peace. 
 
 62 — Thirty thousand killed at Pekin by earthquake. 
 68— Independence of Portugal recognized ; treaty 
 of Lisbon. 
 
 72— The French acquire Pondicherry, India. 
 
 86— Bussia and Poland’s alliance against the Turks. 
 
 87 — JOSEPH I. of Austria ; Venetians capture Athens. 
 89— PETER I. 
 
 91 — Spain invaded by France allies. 
 
 95— Turks invade Hungary. [allies. 
 
 99 — Treaty of Carlowitz between Turkey and the 
 1700— Bussia defeats Sweden; first Russian frigate 
 built by PETER the Great. 
 
 3— St. Petersburg founded. 
 
 4— British take Gibraltar. 
 
 6 — Naples and Lombardy surrendered to Italy. 
 
 8 — MAZEPPA and Cossacks revolt. 
 
 9— PETER defeats CHARLES XII. of Sweden. 
 
 13— Naples ceded to Austria. 
 
 18 — Turkish supremacy re-established in Greece. 
 20 — Sardinia founded as a kingdom. 
 
 24 — Jesuits expelled from China; CHARLES V. of 
 
 Spain abdicates ; resumes power. 
 
 25 — PETER the Great dies. 
 
 30— PETER II. dies ; Romanoff dynasty extinct; 
 ANNE empress. 
 
 33— Invasion of Poland by Russia. 
 
 35 — DON CARLOS becomes king of the Sicilies. 
 
 36 — War between Spain and Portugal. 
 
 37 — Hungarian war with Turkey. 
 
 39— Treaty between Russia, Austria, and Turkey • 
 Russian rights on the Black Sea renounced | 
 Persian invasion of India ; Delhi sacked. 
 
 42— ELIZABETH empress of Russia. 
 
 45— MARIA THERESA empress of Austria. 
 
 46— French take Madras from the English. 
 
 51— CLIVE takes Arcot. 
 
 54 — Peace in India. 
 
 56— Calcutta captured by viceroy of Bengal; 
 
 Black L hole tragedy. 
 
 57 — Bussia joins in Seven Years’ War ; Prussia in- 
 
 vaded ; CLIVE takes Calcutta ; English power 
 established in India. 
 
 60 — Berlin taken by Russians and Austrians ; allies 
 enter Berlin ; Austrians defeated. 
 
 62— Devolution at St. Petersburg ; PETER III. de- 
 
 posed ; CATHARINE the Great reigns; Por- 
 tugal invaded by Spain. 
 
 63— Treaty of Madrid restores peace ; CARTERET 
 
 and WILLIS’ explorations in Australia. 
 
 64— IVAN VI. killed in prison. 
 
 67— Jesuits expelled from Spain and Mexico. 
 
 68— Turkey declares war against Russia. 
 
 70— Bebellion of ALI BEY suppressed in Egypt ; 
 insurgent Greeks, aided by Russia, are defeated 
 by Turks ; Captain COOK at Botany Bay ; 
 country named New South Wales; terrible 
 famine in India. 
 
 72 — First partition of Poland r WARREN HAST- 
 INGS governor of Bengal. 
 
 74 — Australia and New Zealand explored by Cap- 
 tain COOK. 
 
 75 -Spain resumes war with Portugal. 
 
 77— Alliance between Switzerland and France; 
 third voyage of COOK. 
 
926 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 Other Nations. — Continued. 
 
 1 778— Prince POTEMKIN prime minister of Russia. 
 
 80 — Russia, Denmark and Sweden maintain armed 
 
 neutrality ; they declare that “ free ships make 
 free goods.” 
 
 81 — Civil commotion in Switzerland; France inter- 
 
 feres. 
 
 84— Crimea ceded to Russia by the Turks. 
 
 1786— CORNWALLIS governor-general cf India upon 
 return of WARREN HASTINGS. 
 
 87— Turks defeated by Russia and Austria; wal 
 
 between Russia and Turkey. 
 
 88— Suppression of Saliot rebellion in Greece ; waj 
 
 between Russia and Sweden ; PHILLIPS, 
 first governor, founds Sidney, New South 
 Wales. 
 
 FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO 1890. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 1792 — First coalition against France. 
 
 93 — War declared. 
 
 94— Suspension of the habeas corpus act ; HOWfe 
 
 defeats French fleet. 
 
 95— Acquittal of WARREN HASTINGS. 
 
 96— Spanish war renewed ; death of BURNS. 
 
 97 — Spanish, fleet defeated; death of EDMUND 
 
 BURKE ; suspension of specie payments. 
 
 98— England, Austria and Russia coalesce against 
 
 NAPOLEON ; battle of the Nile ; suspension 
 of the habeas corpus act. 
 
 S 803— War with France. 
 
 5— Rattle of Trafalgar; Admiral NELSON de- 
 
 feats Spanish and French fleets ; NELSON dies. 
 
 6 — PITT and FOX die ; treaty of Presburg ; Austria 
 
 cedes Venice and the Tyrol. 
 
 7 — Russia joins war with Turkey ; British fleets 
 
 pass the Dardanelles ; slave trade abolished J 
 death of Cardinal STUART, the Pretender. 
 
 8— Peninsular War begins. 
 
 9— Death of Sir JOHN MOORE ; duke of Wel- 
 
 lington enters Spain ; French enter Vienna; 
 Vienna restored ; impeachment of the duke of 
 York : Walcheren expedition. 
 
 10 — Repeal of union agitated by Ireland. 
 
 11— Prince of Wales regent ; Roman Catholic board 
 
 formed by DANIEL O’CONNELL. 
 
 12— Assassination of Mr. PERCEVAL, premier, 
 
 in the house. 
 
 14— Peace with France ; treaty of Ghent. 
 
 1 5— Rattle of Waterloo ; insurrection in Ireland. 
 
 1 7— Habeas corpus act suspended. 
 
 19— Queen VICTORIA born. 
 
 20— GEORGE III. dies; GEORGE IV. on the throne. 
 
 21— Death of Queen CAROLINE; outrages in 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 22— GEORGE IV. in Scotland. 
 
 24-Death of Lord BYRON. 
 
 26— Commercial crisis. 
 
 27— Rattle of Navarino; defeat of Egyptian and 
 
 Turkish fleets. 
 
 29 — Passage of Catholic relief bill ; London riots. 
 
 30— GEORGE IV. dies ; succeeded by WILLIAM IV. ; 
 
 duke of Wellington ministry. 
 
 31— Bristol riots. 
 
 32 — Passage of English and Irish reform bills; Sir 
 
 WALTER SCOTT dies. 
 
 34- End of slavery in the British colonies. 
 
 35 — PEEL ministry. 
 
 37— WILLIaM IV. dies; VICTORIA reigns; Han 
 
 over and Great Britain separated. 
 
 38— Viscount MELBOURNE ministry. 
 
 1839— Chinese war; Lord NORBURY murdered in 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 40— VICTORIA marries Prince ALBERT. 
 
 41 — Birth of prince of Wales ; Peel ministry formed. 
 
 42— Peace with China. 
 
 44 — DANIEL O’CONNELL tried, imprisoned and re« 
 
 leased. 
 
 45— Great Irish famine; railway excitement. 
 
 46— Commercial crisis ; corn law repealed ; bread 
 
 riots in Ireland ; Russell ministry. 
 
 47 — DANIEL O’CONNELL dies; ten million pounds 
 
 granted to Irish sufferers. 
 
 48— SMITH O’BRIEN, MEAGHER, and others head 
 
 Irish rebellion ; suppressed ; leaders condemned 
 to death. 
 
 49— Sentence on leaders of rebellion commuted to 
 
 transportation. 
 
 50— Poet WORDSWORTH, Sir ROBERT PEEL 
 
 and duke of Cambridge die. 
 
 51— Great exhibition. 
 
 52— De th of THOMAS MOORE (Irish poet); duke 
 
 of Wellington dies. 
 
 53— English and French fleets in the Bosphorus. 
 
 54 — Crimean war ; crystal palace ; treaty with Uni- 
 
 ted States (fishery claims). 
 
 55— PALMERSTON ministry. 
 
 56— Peace with Russia; Chinese war ; Persian war. 
 
 67— Beginning of Indian mutiny; end of Persian 
 
 war ; commercial crisis. 
 
 58— DERBY-DISRAELI ministry. 
 
 59— PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ministry; death of 
 
 Lord MACAULAY. 
 
 60— Commercial treaty with France • peace with 
 
 China. 
 
 61— SLIDELL and MASON taken from the Trent: 
 
 death of ALBERT, prince consort. 
 
 62— International exhibition; Prince ALFRED 
 
 rejects the Greek throne ; riots in It eland. 
 
 63— Marriage of prince of Wales; death of 
 
 THACKERAY, the novelist. 
 
 65— Death of COBDEN and PALMERSTON; FeniaH 
 movement : STEVENS arrested ; escapes ; com- 
 mercial treaty with Austria ; Atlantic cable fin- 
 ished ; habeas corpus suspended in Ireland ? 
 raid of Fenians on Canada. 
 
 67— War with Abyssinia. 
 
 68 — DISRAELI ministry, Feb. 29th ; King THEO- 
 
 DORE of Abyssinia commits suicide when de- 
 feated ; Lord BROUGHAM dies; GLAD- 
 STONE ministry, Dec. 9th. 
 
 69 — Alabama claims convention rejected by United 
 
 States; Earl SPENCER becomes lord-lieutenanl 
 of Ireland ; Irish church bills in force ; earl of 
 Derby dies. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 927 
 
 Great Britain. — Continued. 
 
 1 870 — Death of CH AS. DICKENS ; Irish land bill; 
 
 treaty of Prussia and France for neutrality of 
 Belgium. 
 
 71 — Death of Sir JOHN HERSCHEL ; death of 
 GROTE ; riots in Dublin; Alabama claims; 
 treaty with United States; Alabama award; 
 commercial treaty with France. 
 
 73 — Death of BULWER (Lord LYTTON) ; Ashantee 
 war ; end of TICHBORNE trial. 
 
 75 — O’CONNELL centennial in Ireland ; queen em- 
 
 press of India. 
 
 76— DISRAELI becomes earl of Beaconsfield. 
 
 77— Duke of Marlborough becomes lord-lieutenant of 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 78 — Death, of Earl RUSSELL; earl of Leitrim shot 
 
 (in Ireland) ; Berlin conference and treaty ; 
 war in Afghanistan ; English victorious. 
 
 79— Zulu war ; total defeat and capture of CETE« 
 
 WAYO; famine in Ireland ; visit of PARNEL& 
 to United States. 
 
 80 — Afghan war continues with great vigor ; Gen. 
 
 ROBERTS in command; BEACONSFIELD 
 ministry resigns; GLADSTONE forms cabinet; 
 BRADLAUGH ejected for not taking the oath ; 
 Lord MOUNT MORRIS shot ; Boycotting prac- 
 ticed in Ireland ; PARNELL and others ar- 
 rested. 
 
 81 — Death of Lord BEACONSFIELD; coercion act 
 
 and Irish land bill passed ; many arrests ; 
 jury in PARNELL’S case disagree; PAR- 
 NELL arrested under coercion act. 
 
 82 — Earl SPENCER becomes lord-lieutenant of Ire- 
 
 land; Lord FREDERICK CAVENDISH chtef 
 secretary; assassination of the chief secretary 
 and Mr. Burke; OTTO TREVELYAN ap- 
 pointed chief secretary ; Egyptian War ends 
 with capture and exile of ARABI BEY. 
 
 83 — Trial of persons suspected of complicity with 
 
 the murder of Lord CAVENDISH; March 
 15 th, attempt to blow up the government offices 
 in Westminster. 
 
 84 — Dynamite conspiracies; extension of the elec- 
 
 tive franchise. 
 
 85 — Ministry of Lord Salisbury. 
 
 87 — Proclamation of the Irish Nat onal League. 
 
 90 — Strike of London Police and P. 0. Employees. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 1795 — Orange clubs organized. 
 
 98 — Habeas corpus act suspended ; rebellion ; battle 
 
 of Kilecullen ; rebels successful ; battle of An- 
 trim ; rebels defeated. 
 
 99— Rebellion suppressed. 
 
 1801— Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland; 
 
 habeas corpus act suspended ; EMMET’S re- 
 bellion and execution. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 1790— Deatli of BENJAMIN FRANKLIN; ALEX. 
 ANDER HAMILTON’S financial scheme. 
 
 91— Rank of United States established ; Vermont 
 
 admitted. 
 
 92 — Washington, D. C., made the capitol ; Kentucky 
 
 admitted to the Union. 
 
 42 
 
 1793 — ELI WHITNEY invents the cotton gin ; WASH- 
 INGTON’S second term. 
 
 94— Whiskey rebellion ; JAY’S treaty with Eng- 
 land. 
 
 96— Tennessee admitted ; WASHINGTON declines 
 
 a third term. 
 
 97 — JOHN ADAMS’ administration treaty with 
 
 France annulled. 
 
 98 — Naval conflicts with France. 
 
 99— Death of WASHINGTON. 
 
 1800 — Capitol removed to Washington; treaty with 
 France. 
 
 1 — JEFFERSON’S administration ; war with Tripoli. 
 
 2 — Ohio admitted. 
 
 3 — Purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 4— AARON BURR kills ALEXANDER HAMIL- 
 
 TON in a duel. 
 
 5 — Peace with Tripoli. 
 
 ©—American commerce affected by French and 
 English blockade of the coasts of each. 
 f~BURR’S trial for conspiracy ; rights of neutrals • 
 Chesapeake fired on bv Leopard-, embargo 
 on American ships ; MADISON’S administra- 
 tion. 
 
 8 — Abolition of sla^e trade. 
 
 9 — Embargo repealed ; commerce with Great Brit- 
 
 ain and France prohibited. 
 
 11— Rattle of Tippecanoe. 
 
 12 — Louisiana admitted • war with Great Brit- 
 
 ain. 
 
 13 — Commodore PERRY victorious on Lake Erie. 
 
 14 — Public buildings at Washington burned; Hart- 
 
 ford convention ; treaty of Ghent. 
 
 15 — Rattle of New Orleans; JACKSON’S victory; 
 
 peace with Great Britain ; war with Algiers. 
 
 16— Indiana admitted. 
 
 17 — MONROE’S administration ; Mississippi admitted. 
 
 18— Florida war ; Illinois admitted. 
 
 19— Alabama admitted. 
 
 20— Spain cedes Florida; Missouri compromise 
 
 Maine admitted. 
 
 21— Missouri admitted. 
 
 22 — MONROE doctrine. 
 
 24— Visit of LA FAYETTE. 
 
 25— JOHN QUINCY ADAMS’ administration. 
 
 26— Death of JEFFERSON and ADAMS ; indemnity 
 
 convention with Great Britain. 
 
 28 — Protective tariff adopted. 
 
 29 — JACKSON’S administration. 
 
 30— Treaty with Turkey. 
 
 32— New tariff law passed ; Black Hawk War. 
 
 33— South Carolina nullification suppressed by 
 
 JACKSON. 
 
 35— Seminole war. 
 
 36— Arkansas admitted ; national debt paid. 
 
 37— Michigan admitted ; VAN BUREN’S adminis- 
 
 tration ; financial crisis and panic. 
 
 39 — Ranks suspend specie payments. 
 
 41 — HARRISON’S administration ; he dies April 4 th; 
 
 TYLER’S administration ; resignation of meow 
 bers of the cabinet, except WEBSTER. 
 
 42— WEBSTER-ASHBURTON treaty with England. 
 
 44 — First telegraph line (from Washington to Balti» 
 
 more). 
 
 45 — Texas annexed ; Iowa and Florida admitted » 
 
 POLK’S administration. 
 
 45- 8 — Mexican war. 
 
 46 — North-western boundary settled. 
 
928 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN 
 
 United States. — Continued. 
 
 1848 — Treaty with Mexico ; California and New Mexi- 
 co annexed to United States (gold discovered) j 
 Wisconsin admitted. 
 
 49 — TAYLOR’S administration ; great emigration to 
 
 the gold regions ; French ambassador dismissed. 
 
 50— TAYLOR dies in office (Julygth) ; FILLMORE’S 
 
 administration ; fugitive slave bill ; California 
 admitted ; treaty with England for Panama 
 transit. 
 
 51— Congressional library burned ; KOSSUTH’S 
 
 visit. [tion. 
 
 52— Fishery dispute with England ; Japan expedi- 
 
 53 — PIERCE’S administration; international exhibi- 
 
 tion in New York. 
 
 54 — Japan treaty; anti-slavery riots in Boston ; set- 
 
 tlement of fishery question ; repeal of Missouri 
 compromise (slavery question) ; Kansas 
 troubles. 
 
 55 — Treaty with Denmark annulled. 
 
 56 — WALKER’S expedition to Nicaragua ; British 
 
 minister dismissed ; Chinese fleet destroyed by 
 Commodore ELLIOTT. 
 
 57— BUCHANAN’S administration; commercial pan- 
 
 ic ; New York riots. 
 
 5 8 — Minnesota admitted ; Atlantic cable finished. 
 
 59 — Oregon admitted ; PRESCOTT died ; Chinese 
 
 treaty ; JOHN BROWN hanged ; death of 
 WASHINGTON IRVING. 
 
 60 — WALKER shot at Honduras ; visit of the prince 
 
 of Wales ; ABRAHAM LINCOLN elected j 
 South Carolina secedes ; U. S. vessel fired on. 
 
 61 — Kansas admitted ; ten other States secede ; 
 
 West Virginia admitted ; Confederate States 
 formed (Feb. 4 th) ; DAVIS president ; LIN- 
 COLN’S administration ; Fort Sumter fired 
 upon (April 12 th) ; Civil War begins ; Bull Run 
 (July 21 st). 
 
 62— New Orleans taken (April 22 d); Antietam (Sept. 
 
 17 th); Alabama does much damage; Freder- 
 icksburg (Dec. 13 th). 
 
 63 — Emancipation proclamation Jan. 1 st ; West Vir- 
 
 ginia admitted; Gettysburg July 1 st to 3 d; 
 Vicksburg July 4 th. 
 
 64— GRANT in chief command ; capture of Atlanta 
 
 Sept. 1 st ; Nevada admitted ; SHERMAN’S 
 “ march to the sea.” 
 
 65 — Capture of Richmond ; surrender of LEE April 
 
 9 th ; LINCOLN’S assassination April 14 th > 
 JOHNSON’S administration ; end of Civil War ; 
 general amnesty May 30 th ; habeas corpus re- 
 stored. 
 
 66 — Disputes between the president and congress ; 
 
 many bills passed over his veto ; Colorado ad- 
 mitted ; Fenian raids on Canada. 
 
 67 — Nebraska admitted ; reconstruction bill ; Alas- 
 
 ka purchased. 
 
 68 — President JOHNSON impeached and acquit- 
 
 ted ; Southern States re-admitted over presi- 
 dent’s veto ; Indian troubles. 
 
 69 — A labama arbitration ; XV. amendment passed ; 
 
 GRANT’S administration. 
 
 71— Ku-Klux-Klan outrages; Corean forts de- 
 
 stroyed by Commodore PERRY ; great fire in 
 Chicago. 
 
 72— General amnesty bill ; Geneva award Alabama 
 
 claims, over fifteen million dollars. 
 
 73— Modoc war ; financial panic. 
 
 74— Resumption bill passed. 
 
 1875— Civil rights bill passed ; Colorado admitted. 
 
 76— Sioux war ; centennial exhibition ; presidentia 
 
 election in dispute, settled by electoral com- 
 mission giving HAYES one hundred and eighty 
 five votes, TILDEN one hundred and eighty- 
 four, Jan. 30 th, 1877 . 
 
 77 — HAYES’ administration ; Pittsburg railway riots. 
 7 8 — Yellow fever spread in the South ; gold at par. 
 79 — Specie resumption. 
 
 81 — GARFIELD’S administration ; CONKLING and 
 
 PLATT resign seats in senate ; GARFIELD’S 
 assassination July 2 d; dies Sept. 19 th; 
 ARTHUR’S administration. 
 
 82 — GUITEAU sentenced and hanged ; Mississippi 
 
 river overflows ; anti-Chinese bill passed ; river 
 and harbor bill passed over president’s veto ; 
 star route trials ; great democratic victories in 
 the fall elections. 
 
 83— Deatll of ex-governors MARSHALL JEWELL. 
 
 E. D. MORGAN, ISRAEL W ASHBOURNE 
 Postmaster-general T. (). HOWE, a- d Govern- 
 or A. H. STEPHENS; treaty with Corea; May 
 24 th, Brooklyn Bridge opened. 
 
 84 — Treaties with Mexico and Spain. 
 
 85 — CLEVELAND’S administration 
 
 86 — BARTHOLDI’S Statue of L berty erected on 
 
 Bedloe’s Island 
 
 89— HARRISON’S administration ; International con- 
 
 vention of American Nations ; North and South 
 Dakota, Montan , Washington. Idaho and 
 Wyoming admitted into the Union, 
 
 90 — ERICSSON’S body conveyed to Sweden in U. S. 
 
 Man-of-War Baltimore. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 1791 — Conference between the emperor and FRED- 
 ERICK the Great. 
 
 93 — Revolt of Rhenish provinces ; Prussians acquire 
 Posen and siege of Dantzic. 
 
 95 — Warsaw ceded to Prussia. 
 
 95-1803— War with France. 
 
 1801— Hanover seized by Prussians. 
 
 5 — Downfall of German empire; kingdoms of 
 
 Westphalia, Bavaria and Wirtemberg formed 
 by NAPOLEON. 
 
 6 — Confederation of the Rhine formed, with Ba- 
 
 varia and Wirtemberg at the head ; Prussia de- 
 declares war with NAPOLEON ; French en- 
 ter Berlin ; dissolution of confederation and 
 FRANCIS II. abdicates to become hereditary 
 emperor of Austria as FRANCIS I. 
 
 7 — Treaty of Tilsit between Prussia and France. 
 
 8 — Prussia abolishes serfdom. 
 
 10 — France annexes North Germany. [Prussia. 
 
 12— Austria and France conclude alliance with 
 
 13— Berlin evacuated by French; war against 
 
 France ; Silesia invaded by NAPOLEON ; NA- 
 POLEON completely defeated by the allies • 
 war of liberation ; uprising of the people ; 
 “ landwehr ” formed. 
 
 14 — Allies invade France. 
 
 15 — Congress at Vienna ; Germanic confederation ; 
 
 Prussia joins Holy Alliance. [education. 
 
 17 — Insurrection in Breslau quelled; ministry of 
 
 18 — Prussian commercial union ; Zoll-Verein. 
 
 19— Anti-revolutionary congress ; death of Mar. 
 
 shal BLUCHER. 
 
 30— Revolution in Brunswick; flight of the duke j 
 king of Saxony abdicates. 
 
 32— Poet GOETHE dies. 
 
 33- 4— Ti»c Zoll-Verein joined by other States. 
 
 44 — Discussions about the holy coat; attempted 
 
 assassination of the king. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 Germany. — Continued. 
 
 1848 — Insurrection and revolts throughout Ger- 
 many ; national assembly at Frankfort ; Berlin 
 in a state of siege ; new Russian Constitution. 
 
 49 — Assembly elects king of Prussia emperor ; he de- 
 
 clines ; Austria protests against alliance ; martial 
 law declared ; revolt in Baden suppressed. 
 
 50— Treaty of Munich ; king takes the oath to the 
 
 new constitution ; attempt to kill the king of 
 Prussia ; peace with Denmark ; Hesse-Cassel 
 entered by forces of Austria, Bavaria and Prus- 
 sia ; convention of Almutz restores peace. 
 
 51— Tl»e king visits Russia.; diet at Frankfort. 
 
 52— King re-establishes council of State. 
 
 53— Revolutionary plot in Berlin discovered. 
 
 54 — Treaty between Austria and Prussia. 
 
 56 — Prussia takes part in conference at Paris. 
 
 57— Crown Prince WILLIAM (since emperor) be- 
 
 comes regent. 
 
 58 — Marriage of FREDERICK WILLIAM (now 
 
 crown prince) to princess royal of England. 
 
 60— Hesse-Cassel constitution maintained by fed- 
 
 eral diet against Prussia. 
 
 61— Accession of WILLIAM I. 
 
 62 — National assembly at Berlin ; uniform coinage 
 
 favored ; BISMARCK prime minister. 
 
 63 — WILLIAM I. closes lower house ; German States. 
 
 except Prussia, meet at Frankfort ; plan of fed- 
 eral reform approved ; freedom of the press 
 suppressed ; Germany maintains the rights of 
 Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 64— Peace between Prussia and Denmark. 
 
 65 — Prussia and Belgium make treaty. 
 
 66 — Prussians invade Holstein ; war between 
 
 Prussia and Austria, resulting in the annexation 
 of Frankfort, Nassau and Hesse-Cassel to Prus- 
 sia ; treaty of Prague ; formation of North- 
 German confederation; Schleswig-Holstein in- 
 corporated with Prussia ; Hanover annexed to 
 Prussia. 
 
 67 — First meeting of New North German parliament; 
 
 constitution settled. 
 
 68 — Prussia passes the Rhine ; navigation treaty. 
 
 70 — War with France; Prussian parliament asks 
 
 WILLIAM I. to become emperor; he accepts, 
 and is declared emperor of Germany at Ver- 
 sailles. 
 
 71— Treaty of peace ratified. 
 
 72— Meeting at Berlin of the emperors of Germany, 
 
 Austria, and Russia ; BISMARCK resigns. 
 
 73— Treaty with France for payment of indemnity 
 
 and return of territory. 
 
 74 — Arrest of Count ARNIM for tampering with 
 
 official papers. 
 
 75— Civil marriage bill ; aid to Catholic clergy with- 
 
 drawn. 
 
 76— Czar of Russia visits Berlin. 
 
 77— Code of laws enacted. 
 
 78— Attempt on emperor’s life by HODEL, socialist, 
 
 followed by Dr. NOBELING ; emperor wound- 
 ed ; crown prince assumes the control of gov- 
 ernment ; King GEORGE of Hanover dies; 
 Berlin conference ; HODEL executed ; NO- 
 BELING suicides ; newspapers and clubs sup- 
 pressed. 
 
 — Adoption of BISMARCK’S protectionist bill; 
 meeting of BISMARCK and ANDRASSY at 
 Vienna ; code of 1877 goes into effect. 
 
 1880 — Prussia ? Saxony and Bavaria outvoted on stamp 
 duties ; S ates yield after BISMARCK iesigns ; 
 formation of new liberal party. 
 
 8 1 — German reichstag opened 
 
 82 — Extreme rights f>f emperor asserted by imperial 
 
 rescript, afterward notified by explanation. 
 
 83 — Frince CHARLES, brother of the emperor 
 
 WILLIAM I , died January 1st; silver wed- 
 di g of Crown Pri..ce FREDERICK WIL- 
 LIAM. 
 
 88 — Emperor WILLIAM I. died Ma*\ 9 ; succeeded 
 
 by FREDERICK WILLIAM, who reigned three 
 months, and was fo lowed by WILLIAM II. 
 
 89 — WILLIAM II. visits Turkey, Italy, etc. 
 
 90— The Emperor visits England. 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 1790— Titles of honor and nobility abolished. 
 
 91 — MIRABEAU dies. [royalty abolished. 
 
 92— War with Austria ; Tuileries taken by mob ; 
 
 93— LOUIS XVI. and MARIE ANTOINETTE be- 
 
 headed ; ROBESPIERRE dictator ; Reign of 
 Terror ; MURAT assassinated ; first victory of 
 NAPOLEON ; ORLEANS executed. 
 
 93— 7— War with Austria, resulting in treaty of 
 
 Campo Formio ; NAPOLEON receives Venice 
 and gives up Lombardy. 
 
 94— Fall and execution of ROBESPIERRE ; reign 
 
 of terror ends ; French invade Spain. 
 
 95 — LOUIS XVII. dies in prison ; establishment of 
 
 96 — NAPOLEON victorious in Italy. [the directory. 
 
 97— Return of NAPOLEON to Paris. [the Nile. 
 
 98 — Expedition to Egypt ; victory of NELSON at 
 
 99 — Coalition of six nations against NAPOLEON ; 
 
 NAPOLEON first consul ; Austria renews the 
 war and is defeated. 
 
 1800— Parma ceded to Spain; total defeat of the 
 Austrians. 
 
 1 — Treaty of Luneville ; loss of territory by Austria* 
 
 treaty of Madrid. 
 
 2 — NAPOLEON president of Italian republic. 
 
 4 — NAPOLEON emperor ; crowned by the pope. 
 
 5— NAPOLEON king of Italy ; battle of Austerlitz ; 
 
 allies defeated ; end of third coalition. [tion. 
 
 6— Defeat of Prussian army ; end of fourth coali- 
 
 7 — NAPOLEON and ALEXANDER meet at Tilsit ; 
 
 treaty of Spain for partition of Portugal. 
 
 8 — Demand for Spanish territory ; MURAT enters 
 
 Madrid ; FERDINAND VIII, abdicates ; JOS- 
 EPH BONAPARTE crowned king of Spain ; 
 driven from Madrid ; French victory at Du- 
 range ; NAPOLEON enters Madrid. 
 
 9 — JOSEPH returns ; defeat of French ; Spanish 
 
 defeat at Ocana ; NAPOLEON enters Vienna ; 
 treaty of Vienna ; JOSEPHINE divorced. 
 
 10— NAPOLEON marries MARIA LOUISE of Aus- 
 
 tria ; Holland annexed. 
 
 11— King of Rome born (NAPOLEON II.). 
 
 12— Russian war ; retreat from Moscow. 
 
 13 — Treaty with pope (concordat) ; alliance of 
 
 Prussia, Russia, Austria and England ; WEL- 
 LINGTON in France. 
 
 14 — Abdication of NAPOLEON I.; restoration of 
 
 Bourbon dynasty ; LOUIS XVIII. ; NAPO- 
 LEON at Elba ; treaty of Paris ; Prussians in 
 Paris. 
 
 15— NAPOLEON’S return ; empire restored ; great 
 
 alliance ; battle of Waterloo ; NAPOLEON 
 banished to St. Helena ; LOUIS XVIII. returns 
 to France ; Marshal NEY executed. 
 
 16 — BONAPARTES excluded from the throne forever. 
 
930 
 
 OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 
 
 F rance. — Continued. 
 
 1 820— Due DE BERRI assassinated. 
 
 21 — NAPOLEON dies at St. Helena. 
 
 24— LOUIS XVIII. dies; CHARLES X. reigns. 
 
 30 — Dissolution of chamber of deputies ; streets 
 
 barricaded ; revolution ; CHARLES abdicates ; 
 ORLEANS becomes LOUIS PHILIPPE I. 
 
 31— Riots in Paris. 
 
 32— NAPOLEON’S son dies. 
 
 35— Infernal machine plot. 
 
 36— LOUIS NAPOLEON’S insurrection fails. 
 
 38 — War with Mexico ; TALLEYRAND dies. 
 
 39— Insurrection in Paris. 
 
 40— LOUIS NAPOLEON imprisoned after failure of 
 
 his second attempt ; re-interment of NAPO- 
 LEON I. in the Hotel des Invalides. 
 
 42 - Deatli of the duke of Orleans. 
 
 46— Escape of LOUIS NAPOLEON. 
 
 47— AB-DEL-KHAN sui renders. 
 
 48 — Devolution ; abdication of the king; republic 
 
 proclaimed ; LOUIS NAPOLEON a member of 
 tie national assembly; Paris in a sate of 
 siege ; NAPOLEON president elect of French 
 republic 
 
 50— Death of LOUIS PHILIPPE. 
 
 51 — Coup d’etat (Dec. 2 d). 
 
 52— NAPOLEON installed as prince president; pro- 
 
 claimed as emperor (Dec. 2 d) ; NAPOLEON 
 III. 
 
 53— Hlarriage of LOUIS NAPOLEON. 
 
 54 — Treaty of Constantinople ; Crimean war — Eng- 
 
 land, France and Turkey against Russia. 
 
 56 — Birth of prince imperial. 
 
 57 — Assassination of archbishop of Paris. 
 
 58— ORSINI’S bomb. 
 
 59— War with Austria ; treaty of Zurich. 
 
 60 — Nice and Savoy ceded to France. 
 
 61— Intervention in Mexico. 
 
 64 — France agrees to leave Rome. 
 
 65— NAPOLEON III. visited at Paris by BISMARCK. 
 
 66 — Paris congress on Roumanian troubles. 
 
 67— International exhibition. 
 
 68 — Treaty with Prussia, Italy and Mecklenburg. 
 
 69 — Deatli of LAMARTINE; new constitution; 
 
 election riots. 
 
 70 — LEOPOLD’S nomination for Spanish throne 
 
 causes warlike feeling ; France requires guar- 
 antees ; Prussian war ; Germans victorious in 
 every battle but one ; NAPOLEON prisoner 
 Sept. 2 d ; Paris invested. 
 
 71 — France gives up part of Alsace and Lorraine, 
 
 and an indemnity of five milliards francs ; Paris 
 entered in triumph ; NAPOLEON deposed ; 
 outbreak of commune ; THIERS president. 
 
 73— Deatli of NAPOLEON III. at Chiselhurst; 
 
 Thiers resigns; MAC MAHON president; war 
 indemnity paid in full Sept. 5 th ; presidential 
 terms fixed at seven years. 
 
 74— Communists executed ; escape of BAZAINE. 
 
 75— New constitution. 
 
 76— Amnesty to communists. 
 
 77— Deatli of THIERS ; great Republican gains. 
 
 78— International exhibition. 
 
 79— Prince EUGENIE killed in Zululand. 
 
 80— Jesuits expelled with other orders. 
 
 81— Invasion of Tunis ; GAM BETT A premier, 
 
 82— Tiventy-two seats gained for Republicans. 
 
 1883 — Deatli of GAMBETTA, January 1 st ; General 
 CHANZY, January 4 th ; General DE VAL- 
 DAU, January 8 th; and GUSTAVE D()RE, 
 January 23 d ; manifesto of Prince NAPOLEON. 
 84 — Constitution revised ; war in Ponquin and 
 Formosa. 
 
 86 — GEN. BOULANGER becomes minister; socialistic 
 
 agitation. 
 
 87 — M. S ARDI-CARNOT elected president ; attempted 
 
 assassination of M. FERRY. 
 
 88 — Fall of <he third c binet. 
 
 89— Cabinet of M. TIRAND. 
 
 90— Flight and trial of Gen. BOULANGER. 
 
 OTHER NATIONS. 
 
 1793 — Eilglisli embassy arrives at Pekin ; Netherlands 
 invaded by France; a.liance of England and 
 Russia ; second partition of Poland. 
 
 95 — Russia, Austria and Prussia divide Poland. 
 
 98 — Egypt invaded by NAPOLEON ; republic 
 founded in Switzerland ; division of Venetian 
 States between France and Austria; Cisalpine 
 republic founded; NAPOLEONS second in- 
 vasion of Italy. 
 
 S9 -1804— English, gain accessions in India; four 
 thousand five hundred English troops defeat 
 fifty thousand natives. 
 
 1800 — Internal commotion in Switzerland; NAPO- 
 LEON crosses the Alps ; Austrians totally de- 
 feated. 
 
 1— English aid Turks; NAPOLEON draws out; 
 end of war with Spain and Portugal ; peace of 
 Amiens ; end of Spanish war ; assassination of 
 PAUL I. ; ALEXANDER I. czar. 
 
 3— Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo ; discov- 
 
 ery of Van Dieman's Land. 
 
 4— Insurrection of convicts in Australia quelled. 
 
 6 — MEHEMET pasha of Egypt ; NAPOLEON I. 
 
 crowns his brother king of Holland ; Austria 
 loses Italian possessions. 
 
 7 — Peace of Tilsit ; publication of decree of Milan. 
 
 10— English, Spanish, and French war. 
 
 11 — Massacre of Mamelukes in Egypt; MEHEM- 
 
 ET supreme. 
 
 12 — Edict against Christianity in China; Moscow 
 
 burned by Russians. 
 
 13— Holland revolted from France. 
 
 14— Free constitution in Holland ; Belgium annexed ; 
 
 dissolution of kingdom of Italy ; Lombardy and 
 Venice formed into a kingdom for Austria. 
 
 1 5— Swiss independence secured. 
 
 21 — Independence of Mexico. 
 
 22 — Independence of Greece. 
 
 23— Federal constitution in Mexico ; death of MAR- 
 
 CO BOZZARIS. 
 
 24— Burmese war begins. 
 
 25— Death of ALEXANDER I. of Russia ; NICHO- 
 
 LAS I. emperor. 
 
 27 — Turks take Athens ; foreign powers establish 
 
 independence of Greece. 
 
 28— Turko-Russtan war ; “ Sons of Liberty ” rise 
 
 in Montreal (PAPINEAU’S rebellion). 
 
 29— Slavery abolished and Spaniards expelled from 
 
 Mexico ; Russians victorious ; treaty of peace ; 
 West Australia made a province. 
 
 30— Belgium independent. 
 
 31 — MEHEMET of Egypt revolts against Turkey. 
 
 Russians in Constantinople. 
 
 32— Defeat of Turks ; Texas revolts from Mexico. 
 
 33 — General HOUSTAN (Texan war) defeats Mex- 
 
 icans ; offensive and defensive treaty between 
 Turkey and Russia. 
 
OUTLINES OF HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 931 
 
 Other Nations. — Continued. 
 
 1834 — Quadruple alliance ; DON CARLOS expelled 
 3 5— Victoria, Australia, colonized. 
 
 36— South Australia becomes a province. 
 
 36— 77 — Internal dissensions ; riots and civil wars 
 
 in Spain destroy its power. [in Spain. 
 
 37 — Melbourne founded • dissolution of monasteries 
 
 38 — French and Mexican war; slavery abolished 
 
 in India ; Afghan war. 
 
 39— 41— Opium war in China. 
 
 40— Egyptians defeated by allied powers. 
 
 41 — Treaty gives Hong Kong to the English; Up- 
 
 per and Lower Canada consolidated. 
 
 42— Second treaty between China and England ; in- 
 
 corporation of New South Wales. 
 
 43— New constitution in Greece; Sir CHARLES 
 
 NAPIER defeats ameer of Scinde. 
 
 45 — English purchase Danish possessions in India. 
 
 45— 9— Sikh wars in India. 
 
 46— Earl of Elgin governor-general. 
 
 47 — General SCOTT enters city of Mexico ; Jesuits 
 
 expelled from Switzerland ; civil war in Switz- 
 erland. 
 
 48 — British envoy ordered from Spain ; Lombardy 
 
 and Venice revolt against Austria ; Sardinia 
 annexes Lombardy ; revolution in Hungary j 
 FREDERICK I. abdicates in favor of FRAN- 
 CIS JOSEPH. 
 
 49— Austria regains Lombardy ; war between Aus- 
 
 tria and Hungary : Hungarians declare their 
 independence ; KOSSUTH declared governor 
 and defeated r annexation of Punjaub. 
 
 50— 7-Trouble between Greece and England , 
 
 Greece pays indemnity ; French and English 
 evacuate Greece ; Victoria, Australia, made a 
 province ; Bengal mutiny ; parliament houses 
 burned ; riots in Montreal. 
 
 51— Gold excitement in Australia ; ninety-six million 
 
 pounds sent to England from Australia in ten 
 years. 1851-3— Second Burmese war. 
 
 54— Siege of Savastopol and battle of Balaklava; 
 
 Canadian treaty with United States. 
 
 55— Death of NICHOLAS ALEXANDER II., em- 
 
 peror of Russia. 
 
 56 — Treaty of Holland and Japan ; amnesty to Hun- 
 
 garian rebels ; Oude annexed to British India. 
 
 57— Great Indian mutiny (see Great Britain). 
 
 58— Partial emancipat ; on of serfs in Russia. 
 
 59— War between Spain and Morocco ; VICTOR 
 
 EMANUEL declares war against Austria and 
 totally defeats her; NAPOLEON III. aids 
 Sardinia ; Queensland made a province ; Pun- 
 jaub made a presidency. 
 
 60— GARIBALDI declares himself dictator and enters 
 
 Naples ; VICTOR EMANUEL enters Naples 
 as king ; GARIBALDI resigns ; imperial coun- 
 cil meets at Vienna ; prince of Wales in Can- 
 ada. 1 861-7— French in Mexico. 
 
 61— Terrible floods in Holland ; VICTOR EMAN- 
 
 UEL king of Italy ; Austrian constitution 
 granted ; Lord MONCK governor-general of 
 Canada ; Trent excitement. 
 
 63— Slavery abolished in Dutch colonies ; emancipa** 
 
 tion of twenty-three million serfs in Russia ; 
 death of Lord ELGIN ; Sir JOHN LAW- 
 RENCE succeeds as viceroy of India. 
 
 64 — MAXIMILIAN emperor of Mexico , consolida 
 
 tion of American colonies discussed ; Confeder- 
 ate raid from Canada upon St. Albans. 
 
 1 865 — Congress of international social science at Berne, 
 
 66— Italy forms alliance with Prussia and declares 
 
 war with Austria ; Venetia ceded to Italy ; 
 great famine in Bengal ; meeting of first Domin- 
 ion (Canada) parliament ; Fenian invasion ; 
 habeas corpus suspended. 
 
 67— Execution of MAXIMILIAN; French leave 
 
 Rome ; union of English colonies as dominion 
 of Canada. 
 
 68 — BURLINGAME’S embassy from China. 
 
 69 — Suez canal opened ; oecumenical council at 
 
 Rome ; Socialist conspiracy in Russia ; purchase 
 of Hudson’s Bay territories for three hundred 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 70 — Sir SAMUEL BAKER’S expedition up the Nile; 
 
 dogma of infallibility ; Papal States proclaimed 
 part of the kingdom of Italy ; PIUS IX. ex- 
 communicates Italian government ; railroad 
 from Calcutta to Bombay ; province of Manito- 
 ba formed. 
 
 fl-Many Socialists in Russia imprisoned ; Austria 
 recognizes New German empire ; British Col- 
 umbia joins Dominion of Canada. 
 
 7®—' Telegraph cable between Austria and England ; 
 earl of Dufferin governor-general of Canada. 
 
 73— Khedive of Egypt made almost independent by 
 
 the sultan ; republic proclaimed in Spain ; Jesu- 
 its expelled from Italy ; opening of interna- 
 tional exhibition at Vienna ; Prince Edward’s 
 Island joins Dominion of Canada. 
 
 74— International postal congress at Berne; St. 
 
 Gothardis tunnel ; ALPHONSE XII. declared 
 king of Spain ; great famine in Bengal. 
 
 7 5— English obtain control of Suez canal ; Prince of 
 Wales in India. 
 
 75— 6— Insurrection in Herzegovina; Bosnia, Bul- 
 
 garia, Monienegro and Servia against Turkey. 
 
 76 — ALPHONSE enters Madrid in triumph ; Cyclone 
 
 in India, two hundred and twenty thousand 
 lives lost. 
 
 77— Terrible famine in China ; general amnesty to 
 
 rebels in Spain ; fishery award, United States 
 to pay Canada five million five hundred thou- 
 sand dollars. 
 
 77— 8— Turco-Russian war, resulting in defeat of 
 
 Turkey ; treaty of Berlin ; conference of the 
 powers. 
 
 78— PIUS IX. and VICTOR EMANUEL die ; mar- 
 
 quis of Lome governor-general of Canada. 
 
 79 — Sultan of Turkey deposes khedive, his son 
 
 TEWFIK succeeds ; Nihilists convicted in Rus- 
 sia ; international exhibition at Sidney, New 
 South Wales 'industrial exhibition in Canada; 
 massacres at Cabul. 
 
 SO— Russian troubles with China ; law for gradual 
 abolition of slavery in Cuba ; Melbourne exhi- 
 bition. 
 
 81— Slavery abolished in Egypt ; convention between 
 
 Greece and Turkey ; Thessaly ceded to Greece ; 
 ALEXANDER assassinated ; accession of AL- 
 EXANDER III.; railroad between Melbourne 
 and Sidney completed ; Canadian Pacific rail- 
 road company receive patent to build rail- 
 road from Halifax to Buzzard Inlet. 
 
 82 — American railroad companies receive exten 
 
 sivc grants of land in Mexico ; Franco-Span- 
 ish commercial treaty ; death of GARIBALDI ; 
 anti-Jewish riots in Russia ; Jews driven out ; 
 death of General SKOBELOFF. 
 
 83— Coronation of King KALAKAUA at Honolulu 
 
 February 12 th ; ukase of Russian czar appoint- 
 ing a commission to revise the laws concerning 
 Jews ; insurrections in Armenia ; Nihilists causC 
 trouble in Russia ; coronation of the czar 
 ALEXANDER III. at Moscow May 27 th 
 
TOMB OF . COLUMBUS, IN THE CATHEDRAL, HAVANA* 
 
International Conn, or the Balance of He. 
 
 By GEORGE A. BUTLER, Cashier of the National Tradesmen’s Bank, New Haven, Conn, 
 
 E misapprehension in regard to the significance of the “Balance of 
 Trade” is so general that one need offer no apology for discussing the 
 question. A true appreciation of what is implied by the term might lead 
 to better legislation. The balance of trade is not a cause, but rather an 
 effect of causes which have been at work for a long time, of which it is 
 the legitimate and inevitable result. It is the same with a drain of specie or an influx of 
 the same. I do not attach any significance to the balance of trade save that it is an in- 
 dication of causes which lie behind, to which we must look if we would ascertain and 
 understand the real forces operating to bring about a favorable or adverse balance of 
 trade, as the case may be. 
 
 These forces are well known, and the leading ones can be enumerated. They are 
 loans, interest on securities held abroad, payments for freight to foreign ships, expenses 
 of citizens residing or traveling abroad, premiums to foreign insurance companies, &c«. 
 These may be called fixed charges against a nation, and while they will vary from year 
 to year, they are permanent in their character, and must be paid whether the nation pur- 
 chases any goods abroad or not. The nation which is creditor for these items must 
 receive its pay for them without reference to what it buys or sells. 
 
 An excess oi imports does not necessarily cause a drain of specie, and if there 
 should be an outflow of it, the amount so exported could not be measured by the excess 
 of imports. If the excess of imports be large, it does not follow that the exportation of 
 specie will also be great, or that there will be any exportation of it at all. The twa hav^, 
 only incidental relations to each other, except under quite primitive conditions. It will 
 more likely be found, when the balance of trade is largely against a country, that it has 
 been contracting a debt abroad, and that it is receiving goods for its own obligations, 
 which must be paid some time in the future, at which time there will probably be 
 what is called a favorable balance of trade. Or it may be that it has been selling 
 the securities which it had held of other nations ; or it might result from the pay- 
 ment of interest on loans previously made to other nations. There are other causes, 
 but it is not now necessary to mention them. An excess of exports does not 
 necessarily bring specie into a country, and if there should be an importation of 
 it, such importation could not be measured by the excess of exports over imports. A 
 'country might have a balance of trade in its favor of many millions of dollars every year, 
 and yet not receive any specie from s-uch excess of exports. Should this be the case, it 
 would be in consequence of recent loans to other nations, or on account of purchasing 
 its own securities sold abroad years before, the proceeds of which had been received in 
 goods, and had already been consumed ; or it might be that the annual charges against 
 the country in the form of interest, foreign travel, &c., were great, and the excess of ex- 
 ports went to pay these charges. If the excess of exports is very large, it is a very good 
 indication that the country is paying for past and perhaps unwise expenditures, or else 
 that it is loaning other nations a large amount of capital for which it receives their obli- 
 
934 
 
 INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE, OR THE BALANCE OF TRADE. 
 
 gations, which must-be paid at some future time, when the tables would probably be 
 turned, and there would be an excess of imports, and the so-called adverse balance of 
 trade, though not a drain of specie. 
 
 If the transactions between nations were reduced to the mere exchange of merchan- 
 dise, there might appear to be a balance of trade though none really existed, and no 
 specie pass from one to the other. Take for an example one cargo as it leaves New 
 York. A merchant in New York sends a ship to Liverpool with a cargo, worth, and 
 which cost him, $500,000. It is sold in Liverpool at a profit of say $25,000. The mer- 
 chant would then have credit in Liverpool for $525,000. Instead of bringing home the 
 cash, he either buys goods for the amount or sells exchange on Liverpool by which some 
 other person purchases goods abroad. The position would then be as follows : The 
 
 books of the New York Custom House would show, exports $500,000, imports $525,000, 
 thus showing an adverse balance of trade when in fact there was no balance at all. The 
 sale and purchase balance each other. The country had parted with goods which were 
 worth to it only $500,000, and in return received goods which were worth $525,000. 
 The merchant gained $25,000 by the trade. Was the country the gainer or loser by the 
 transaction which gave it $525,000, for $500,000 ? 
 
 During the years 1863 to 1873 inclusive, the excess of imports of this country were 
 in round numbers $1,086,000,000. The net export of specie during the same years was 
 $673, 000,000, leaving an unsettled balance of $413,000,000; if we add to this the 
 amount spent by citizens abroad, paid for foreign freights, and interest on American 
 securities held abroad, the total of which we will estimate at $75,000,000 per annum, 
 which I think much too low, we should have the sum of $1,238,000,000, which is clearly 
 an unpaid balance against the country. It will be seen that the amount of specie exported 
 did not bear any just proportion to the “adverse balance of trade,” and if we include the 
 other charges against the country, the unsettled claims amount to the enormous sum of 
 $1,238,000,000. If there is any significance in the theory of the “balance of trade,” 
 this country should have exported $1,200,000,000 more of specie than it did in these 
 years. The only reasonable conclusion we can arrive at is, that the country got trusted 
 for this amount and that it must pay interest on it, and pay the principal sometime in 
 the future. Perhaps we shall discover when part of it was paid. 
 
 The excess of exports for the years 1876 to 1879 inclusive, was $753,000,000, and 
 during that time there was not an importation of specie, but on the contrary, we exported 
 $64,000,000, making the total net exports $817,000,000. What did we get for this great 
 amount of merchandise and specie ? Was it wines, cloth, tea, coffee, iron, or anything 
 which we could eat, drink or wear, or in any way use in the creation of new wealth ? 
 Did it bring us wealth in any of its known forms ? What has the country got to show 
 for the $817,000,000 of its products which it has parted with, and which other nations 
 have had the benefit of? We received back part of our own indebtedness, and thus 
 reduced the amount which we owed to other nations for goods purchased in the preced- 
 ing years. But we did not reduce our indebtness by the full amount of the $817,000,- 
 000; part of it went to pay interest on the securities held abroad, for the pleasure of such 
 of our people as were residing or traveling abroad, for foreign freights, & c. This large 
 amount indicates that we have been paying for goods borrowed and already consumed, 
 and that instead of bringing the country that which might be used in the creation of 
 
INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE, OR THE BALANCE OF TRADE. 
 
 935 
 
 wealth we have been merely paying some of our debts, and thus getting nearer the time 
 when the products of our own labor will bring us more of the products of other lands. 
 It indicates, also, that we have been reducing the interest charges against the country, 
 that we have been paying for the consumption of preceding years, as well as the fixed 
 charges of the present, out of the productions of the country for the past four years. 
 
 Commonly speaking the balance of trade represents the amount which a country 
 buys more than it sells, or sells more than it buys ; it has no other significance, and bears 
 no true relation to the movements of specie. If there were no transactions between nations 
 except buying and selling goods, then the balance of trade and the movements of specie 
 would be closely connected. But then the balance of trade could hardly be more than 
 nominal, for assuming that each country had only its share of metallic money, trading 
 could not go beyond the mere exchange of goods. One country could buy of the others 
 only by so much as it should sell them, and could sell to other nations only to the amount 
 which they should buy of it. 
 
 Of course, for any given time there would not be an exact exchange of goods, but 
 in the long run the sales and purchases must balance each other, for as the different 
 countries would probably not have more money than they needed to effect the exchanges 
 of internal trade, none could be spared to pay for goods purchased abroad. The effort 
 to send specie would cause a falling off of imports, and stimulate the exportation of mer- 
 chandise ; the balance would thus correct itself, and in the long run the exchange of 
 goods would be equal. 
 
 England, with her excess of imports for 1879 of ^555,000,000, and of more than 
 $700,000,000 for 1 878, is perhaps the best illustration that can be given of the fallacy 
 that the balance of trade and the movements of specie have any connection with each 
 other. This large excess of imports does not cause alarm in the breasts of British 
 statesmen, although I fear it would keep some of our own awake nights in endeavoring 
 to devise some means of averting impending danger, and would probably lead to the 
 introduction of a bill in Congress to so increase the duties as to prevent the country 
 being deluged with foreign goods. 
 
 If a country has a sound system of finance, possessing its share of metallic money, 
 and does not introduce paper currency of such a character as to displace and drive out 
 any of its specie, it will not be difficult to tell whether it ought to sell more than it buys, 
 or buy more than it sells. If it has charges against it in the form of interest, foreign 
 freight, &c., it should, and for a period of years must sell more than it buys, but if the 
 case is reversed, it will buy more than it sells. A country may buy more than it sells 
 without detriment to any of its interests, but on the contrary every interest be subserved 
 thereby. 
 
 Exchange may be against a country, and there be a drain of specie, even when the 
 exports greatly exceed the imports ; then it may truly be said that the balance of trade 
 is not a favorable one, because the excess of exports is not great enough to pay the ma- 
 turing demands against the country, and specie must be exported for that purpose. This 
 state of things may be brought about by reason that the country has more than its just 
 proportion of specie, or that the country has a paper currency that displaces the specie, 
 and causes it to go where it can find employment in its legitimate field of action. 
 
936 
 
 INTERNATIONAL COMMERCE, OR THE BALANCE OF TRADE. 
 
 It does not follow that an exportation of gold and silver is an indication of an un- 
 favorable condition of commerce. A country which produces the precious metals must 
 export a portion of such production, unless it does not exceed the needs of that country 
 to keep good its metallic circulation, and what should be needed in the arts and manufac- 
 tures. Take this country as an illustration. It has an annual production of about $75,- 
 000,000 of gold and silver ; under ordinary circumstances it would need only a portion 
 of such production. If we assume that it would not need more than one-half of its annua! 
 production for the purpose above named, there would then be $37,500,000, for which 
 there would be no use ; it would therefore be exported. If the annual charges against 
 the country in the form of interest, freight, and travel should be $100,000,000, a per- 
 fectly healthy condition of trade would require that the net exports of merchandise should 
 be somewhere near $60,000,000, and the balance, say $35,000,000 or $40,000,000 in gold 
 and silver. There would then be a favorable balance of trade, and a steady outflow of 
 specie at the same time, and in no true sense could it be said that the balance was un- 
 favorable, unless the exportation of merchandise was insufficient to prevent the outflow of 
 specie from exceeding the surplus production of our mines, thus falling upon that needed 
 for monetary purposes. All that portion of the production of our mines not needed for 
 the purposes already named, is as much a commodity for exportation as any of the other 
 products of the country, and that condition which shall cause a portion of it to go else- 
 where, is a favorable one, whether the balance of trade is in our favor or not, and no 
 outflow of specie can be unfavorable, unless it proceeds so far as to draw away that which 
 is needed to effect the internal exchanges without disturbance. If the outflow should 
 greatly draw upon the metallic circulation, unless the latter was in excess of the nation’s 
 needs, there would be an adverse condition of trade, however much the exports of merchan- 
 dise might exceed the imports. 
 
 If the finances of a country are as they should be, there need not be any anxiety 
 about the balance of trade ; it will take care of itself, without doing any harm. It is the 
 finances that should be looked after. There should be a just proportion between the pa- 
 per and the metallic money ; paper money should not be permitted to occupy the whole 
 field of circulation, nor so much of it as to reduce the amount of specie needed to a small 
 portion of the total circulation. Not only should the reserves be of specie, but there 
 should be a liberal amount circulating among the people, so that the supply will be suffi- 
 cient to meet any demand for exportation, without depleting the stock to such an extent 
 as to cause alarm, and perhaps a panic. If the country has a sound currency, the balance 
 of trade may be left to take care of itself. 
 
HISTORY OF TARIFF LEGISLATION 
 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 What IS Tariff? — The word tariff is said to be derived from the name Tarifa, 
 a Moorish town situated north of the Strait of Gibraltar. In the modern use of the 
 word it signifies a table or list of duties, drawbacks, and bounties charged or al- 
 lowed upon the importation of goods from one country, state, or city to another. 
 In the United States it is applied to that law of Congress which fixes the amount of 
 duty paid on imports. By one provision of the Constitution of the United States, 
 * f All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives, but the 
 Senate may propose, or concur with amendments, as on other bills.” Article I. 
 Sec. 7 — i. By another provision, in the next section of the same article, “All 
 duties, imports, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.” There- 
 fore the subject is one that applies to the whole country and affects the material 
 interests of all. 
 
 How to Raise Revenue. — There must of course be a sufficient amount of 
 money raised by the government to meet its legitimate expenses and carry out the 
 provisions of the Constitution. The question howto do this with the least amount of 
 friction, without laying too great a burden on the people, and, at the same time, 
 conserve the best interests of all, is a question that has puzzled our wisest statesmen, 
 and the discussion of which has given rise to great agitation in the public mind upon 
 several occasions in our history. There has been an honest division of opinion upon 
 the subject, but it has come to be the policy of the government to depend upon the 
 duties imposed upon imports for the larger amount of revenue. Direct taxation has 
 been the resort only in times of exigency like that occasioned by the War of Seces- 
 sion and foreign wars. 
 
 Tariff for Protection. — As distinguished from a tariff for revenue, a tariff 
 for the protection of home industries signifies the placing of a larger duty upon arti- 
 cles of manufacture or of production which our own citizens can furnish, in order 
 that the importing of such articles may be discouraged, and thereby the productions 
 of our own country be in greater demand. The theory is to stimulate the manufac- 
 ture of such articles and protect the manufacturer while becoming established in a 
 new enterprise, and at the same time to maintain the wages of the workingman at a 
 point where he will not be obliged to compete with the same class of foreign labor 
 at much lower wages. The advocates of a tariff for protection take the ground that 
 the duties should be so fixed upon that class of manufactured goods and farm pro- 
 ducts which can be supplied at home, as to discourage the use of like foreign 
 goods and products, and thus secure to our own people and our own producers the 
 home market, while competition among ourselves will always result in reasonable 
 
938 
 
 HISTORY OF TARIFF LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 prices to consumers of these goods and products. This policy, the advocates thereof 
 claim, will not only maintain and enlarge our own manufacturing plants, but it will 
 also foster and promote American production and diversity of American industries 
 by checking the foreign supply of those articles which can be profitably manufac- 
 tured or produced at home. 
 
 A Tariff FOR Revenue Only. — This term is self-explanatory, and refers to 
 the imposing of duties upon certain articles of a sufficient amount in the aggregate 
 to meet the usual expenditure of government, with the incidental protection which 
 may arise therefrom to the manufacture of such articles as are subject to the duties 
 imposed. 
 
 Free Trade. — This term signifies a policy of permitting the importation of all 
 manufactured goods and natural products free of any duty, and thus open our mar- 
 kets to the competition of the world. The advocates of this policy claim that a 
 tariff is a tax which the consumer pays not only upon all goods imported, but also, 
 incidentally, upon those of home manufacture and production. They maintain that 
 the price of each article is enhanced to the full amount of the duty paid upon it. 
 
 Specific and Ad valorem. — Duties imposed upon imports are of two kinds, 
 specific and ad valorem. A specific duty is so much paid upon an article for each 
 unit of measure or capacity, for example, 50 cents per yard, 10 cents per pound, 25 
 cents per barrel, etc. An ad valorem duty is the amount per cent that is paid upon 
 the article on the value at which the same is invoiced to the purchaser. Some arti 
 cles have duties in both kinds upon them. 
 
 History of Tariff Legislation. — Among the earliest questions coming be- 
 fore the First Congress in 1789 was that pertaining to the raising of revenue for the 
 Government. The public finances were in a deplorable condition. Madison brought 
 forward the matter two days after the votes for President and Vice-President had 
 been counted, and later duties were imposed upon tonnage and a tariff upon foreign 
 imports. The duties were favorable to the interests of American shipping. These 
 measures convinced the British legislators of the necessity of reciprocity in trade 
 between the two countries. A committee of Parliament proposed to ask the United 
 States to consent to the arrangement which Mr. Adams had suggested six years 
 before, and which England had with scorn rejected. The chief feature of this had 
 been reported to Parliament in 1783 by the younger Pitt, and embraced the free 
 entry into the British West India ports of vessels laden with the products of Ameri- 
 can industry, with a like concession to the West Indies of free trade with the United 
 States. But this was rejected, and the Privy Council issued orders prohibiting the 
 importation to the West Indies of the products of the United States, even in British 
 bottoms. The United States gave the subject a respectful hearing, but it was not 
 until after the War of 1812 that reciprocity treaties were signed between the two 
 countries. 
 
 During the War of 1812 the commercial interests of the United States had 
 greatly suffered, and at its close, the questions which relate to the industrial and 
 financial condition of the country assumed supreme importance. The foreign supply 
 of iron, cotton, and woollen manufactures had been cut off, and in consequence infant 
 
HISTORY OF TARIFF LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 939 
 
 industries had been attempted in these articles, to take the place of the articles for- 
 merly imported. With the return of peace, these home manufactures were threatened 
 with annihilation. Then the South, desiring the creation of a home market for her 
 staple product, cotton, demanded protection as the national policy. President Mad- 
 ison, during his first term, had recommended the passage of a protective tariff, and 
 under the leadership of Calhoun and Lowndes, of South Carolina,, Congress passed 
 the first distinctively protective tariff known in this country. This was in 1816. 
 The law had for its avowed purpose the fostering and protection of those infant 
 industries of the country which had been inaugurated by her citizens under stress of 
 the exigency arising from the war. 
 
 The Eighteenth Congress passed a tariff in 1824 extending the scope and 
 strengthening the force of the one passed eight years before. In the mean while, the 
 relation of the two sections of the country to the question of protection had materi- 
 ally changed. The cotton-growing States had gained not only the home market for 
 their staple product, but were able to export vast amounts of it to other countries. 
 Her industries were largely agricultural, while the northern and eastern States had 
 developed great manufacturing interests. There was a contest over the question of 
 the tariff in the Twentieth Congress, led by Webster, of Massachusetts, in favor of 
 high duties on the one side, and Calhoun, of South Carolina, in favor of a low tariff 
 on the other. In 1824 the policy of protection was carried to its highest extreme. 
 General Andrew Jackson was re-elected president in 1829, and in 1832 a new tariff was 
 passed. There was a convention held in the State of South Carolina which “ nulli* 
 fied ” this obnoxious tariff act and prohibited the collection of duties within the 
 State. The convention announced that any attempt to enforce such collection by 
 the general government would be deemed a dissolution of the Union. Previous to 
 this act there had been a prevalent feeling in the South that a home market for their 
 cotton was. a matter of indifference, and that the protection of cotton, iron, woollen, 
 and hempen goods in the North was much to their disadvantage. South Carolina 
 and Georgia had, in their capacity as sovereign States, protested against a tariff for 
 protection as unconstitutional. 
 
 When the “act of nullification ” was passed, President Jackson issued his famous 
 proclamation, declaring his intention to enforce obedience to the law, even, if neces- 
 sary, at the point of the bayonet. Calhoun had resigned the office of Vice-President 
 and taken his seat in the United States Senate as Senator from South Carolina. 
 Daniel Webster, in a masterly speech on the Constitution, sustained the President, 
 and South Carolina submitted under protest. Amid all the excitement of threatened 
 secession, a presidential election was held. General Jackson was sustained by the 
 country at large and re-elected. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, appeared as the cham- 
 pion of compromise and successfully carried his measure, the tariff of 1833. By this 
 law the duties of 1828 were to be reduced for a period of ten years by a sliding scale 
 until they reached a uniform rate of 20 per cent. This concession calmed the ex- 
 cited minds of the people of South Carolina, and the act of nullification was re-* 
 pealed. The revenues from the tariff and the sale of public lands, from 1828 to 1832, 
 had been far in excess of the needful expenditures of government, and what to do 
 
940 
 
 HISTORY OF TARIFF LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 with the accumulating surplus was the agitating question before the people f rom 
 1833 to 1836. In the last-mentioned year the sum of $28,000,000 from this surplus 
 was distributed to the several States according to the population of each. The fear- 
 ful financial crisis of 1837 followed and was attributed to a variety of causes, some 
 claiming that it was due to the reduction in the tariff, some that it was occasioned 
 by the rigorous policy of President Jackson in opposition to the United States Bank, 
 while his adherents claimed that it was the natural result of that spirit of speculation 
 induced by the operations of the bank. 
 
 The financial condition became the absorbing question in the campaign of 1840, 
 and upon that issue Gen. W. H. Harrison was elected President and John Tyler, Vice- 
 President. The former died when he had been in office but one month, and Mr. 
 Tyler succeeded to the office. A bill to revive the Charter of the United States 
 Bank was passed by Congress, but Mr. Tyler returned it with his veto and it there- 
 fore failed to become a law. A tariff was, however, enacted in 1842, increasing the 
 duties and affording protection to home manufactures. But the Whigs were de- 
 feated in the next presidential election, and James K. Polk became President. The 
 protective tariff of 1842 was repealed in 1846, and one with greatly reduced rates of 
 duty was enacted in its stead. The question of tariff gave way to the more absorb- 
 ing questions connected with the annexation of Texas, the spread of slavery, and 
 the war with Mexico. The tariff of 1846 remained in force until, on the last day of 
 President Pierce’s term of office, 'March 3d, 1857, a tariff, which still further reduced 
 the rates of the law of 1846, received the signature of the President. Then came the 
 financial crash of 1857, from which the country more quickly recovered than in 1837 
 and 1839. The intense excitement aroused by the discussion of the question of 
 slavery, that at last culminated in a gigantic civil war, overshadowed all other ques- 
 tions. 
 
 In the exigency of war a tariff was enacted which greatly advanced the duties be- 
 yond those of 1857. Excise laws and direct taxation of the people had to be resorted 
 to to meet the heavy drains on the National Treasury occasioned by the war. The 
 tariff of 1862 imposed duties upon imports averaging fifty per cent ad valorem. 
 After the close of the war, between the years 1869 and 1883, several tariff bills were 
 passed reducing the rates as the interests of the country seemed to warrant. The 
 direct tax was taken off and the excise duties were also removed from almost all 
 articles of necessary use. The war debt was greatly diminished by the liquidation of 
 matured bonds, and a sinking fund to meet other bonds as fast as they matured was 
 established. Still the tariff and other revenues created a growing surplus in the 
 National Treasury. This surplus, June 30th, 1888, amounted to $103,000,000. The 
 presidential campaign of 1888 was waged on the issues connected with tariff reform 
 and tariff protection. All shades of opinions were entertained, from the extreme of 
 free trade on one side, to that of high protection upon the other. In the midst of 
 the political discussion of the question by the country at large, the House of Repre- 
 sentatives of the Fiftieth Congress passed a tariff known as the “ Mills’ bill,” which 
 was amended in the Senate by the substitution of a new bill known as the “Senate 
 bill,” but did not become a law. Benjamin Harrison, of Illinois, was nominated upon 
 
HISTORY OF TARIFF LEGISLATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 941 
 
 a platform which affirmed, “ We are uncompromisingly in favor of the American 
 system of protection ; we protest against its destruction by the President and his 
 party. . . . The protective system must be maintained. Its abandonment has al- 
 ways been followed by general disaster to all interests except those of the usurer and 
 the sheriff.” The utterances of the party then controlling the executive administra- 
 tion and one House of Congress on the subject of the tariff was as follows: “The 
 Democratic party of the United States .... indorses the views expressed by Presi- 
 dent Cleveland in his last message to Congress as the correct interpretation of that 
 platform (of 1884) upon the question of tariff reform, and also indorses the efforts of 
 our Democratic representatives in Congress to secure a reduction of excessive taxa- 
 tion. . . . The Republican party controlling the Senate and resisting in both Houses 
 of Congress a reformation of the unjust and unequal tax laws which have outlasted 
 the necessities of war and are now undermining the abundance of a long peace, deny 
 to the people equality before the law and the fairness and justice which are their 
 right.” 
 
 These principles upon the tariff, as enunciated by the two great parties in their 
 appeal to the people of the United States, became the issues of the campaign of 
 1888, which resulted in the election of Mr. Harrison as President. The Fifty-first 
 Congress at an early date took up the absorbing question, and a tariff bill, known as 
 the “ McKinley bill , ” was passed by the House of Representatives, May 21st, 1890. 
 After certain modifications it passed the Senate September 30th, was signed by the 
 President and took effect October 6th, 1890. 
 
OFFICIAL CEITSXJS OF 1890 
 
 POPULATION OP THE CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES, HAVING 50,000 
 
 INHABITANTS AND OVER. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1880. 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1880 
 
 Albany, N.Y., - 
 
 94,640 
 
 90,758 
 
 Lynn, Mass., 
 
 55,684 
 
 38,274 
 
 Atlanta, Ga., 
 
 65,514 
 
 37,409 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. , - 
 
 64,586 
 
 33,592 
 
 Allegheny, Pa., - 
 
 104,967 
 
 78,682 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis., 
 
 204,150 
 
 115,712 
 
 Baltimore, Md., 
 
 435,151 
 
 332,313 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn., 
 
 164,738 
 
 46,887 
 
 Boston, Mass., - 
 
 446,507 
 
 369,823 
 
 Nashville, Tenn., 
 
 76,309 
 
 62,882 
 
 Brooklyn, N.Y., - 
 
 804,377 
 
 566,663 
 
 Newark, N.J., 
 
 181,518 
 
 136,508 
 
 Buffalo, N.Y., - 
 
 254,457 
 
 155,134 
 
 New Haven, Conn., - 
 
 85,981 
 
 62,882 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., 
 
 69.837 
 
 52,669 
 
 New Orleans, La., 
 
 241,995 
 
 216,090 
 
 Camden, N. J., - 
 
 58,274 
 
 41,659 
 
 New York, N.Y., 
 
 1,513,501 
 
 1,206,299 
 
 Charleston. S. C., - 
 
 54,592 
 
 49,984 
 
 Omaha, Neb., 
 
 139,526 
 
 30,518 
 
 Chicago, 111., 
 
 1,098,576 
 
 503, 185 
 
 Paterson, N.J. , - 
 
 78,358 
 
 51,031 
 
 Cincinati, O. , 
 
 296,309 
 
 255,139 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., 
 
 1,044,894 
 
 847,170 
 
 Cleveland, O., - 
 
 261,546 
 
 160,146 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa., - 
 
 238,473 
 
 156,389 
 
 Columbus, O., 
 
 90,398 
 
 51,647 
 
 Providence, R.I., - 
 
 132,043 
 
 104,856 
 
 Dayton, O., 
 
 58,868 
 
 38,678 
 
 Reading, Pa., 
 
 58,926 
 
 43,278 
 
 Denver, Colo., 
 
 106,670 
 
 35,629 
 
 Richmond, Va., 
 
 80,838 
 
 64,670 
 
 Des Moines, la., 
 
 50,067 
 
 22,408 
 
 Rochester, N.Y., 
 
 138,327 
 
 89,336 
 
 Detroit, Mich., 
 
 205,669 
 
 116,340 
 
 St. Joseph, Mo., - 
 
 52,811 
 
 32,431 
 
 Evansville, Ind., 
 
 50,674 
 
 29,280 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., 
 
 460.357 
 
 350,518 
 
 Fall River, Mass. , - 
 
 74,351 
 
 49,006 
 
 St. Paul, Minn.,- 
 
 133,156 
 
 41,473 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich., 
 
 64,147 
 
 32,016 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. , 
 
 297,990 
 
 233,959 
 
 Hartford, Conn., 
 
 53,182 
 
 42,551 
 
 Scranton, Pa., - 
 
 83,450 
 
 45,850 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind., 
 
 107,445 
 
 75,056 
 
 Syracuse, N.Y., 
 
 87,877 
 
 51,792 
 
 Jersey City, N.J., 
 
 163,987 
 
 120,722 
 
 Toledo, O.,- 
 
 82,652 
 
 50,137 
 
 Kansas City, Mo., - 
 
 132,416 
 
 55,785 
 
 Trenton, N. J., 
 
 58,488 
 
 29,910 
 
 Lincoln, Neb., - 
 
 55,491 
 
 13,008 
 
 Troy, N.J., 
 
 60,605 
 
 56,747 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal. , - 
 
 50,394 
 
 11,183 ; 
 
 Washington, D.C., 
 
 229,796 
 
 147,293 
 
 Lowell, Mass., - 
 
 77,605 
 
 59,475 
 
 Wilmington, Del. - 
 
 61,437 
 
 42,478 
 
 Louisville, Ky., 
 
 161,005 
 
 123,758 1 
 
 W orcester, Mass. , 
 
 84,536 
 
 58,291 
 
 POPULATION OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 [From the Official Census of 1890.] 
 
 States & Territories. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase 
 Per Cent. 
 
 States & Territories, 
 
 1890. 
 
 1880. 
 
 Increase 
 
 PerCent. 
 
 Alabama 
 
 1,513,017 
 
 1,262,505 
 
 19.84 
 
 Nebraska - 
 
 1, 058,910 
 
 452,402 
 
 134.06 
 
 Arizona 
 
 59, 620 
 
 40,440 
 
 47. 43 
 
 Nevada 
 
 45, 761 
 
 62,266 
 
 d. 26.51 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1,128,179 
 
 802, 525 
 
 40. 58 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 376, 530 
 
 346,991 
 
 8.51 
 
 California - 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 864,694 
 
 39. 72 
 
 New Jersey - 
 
 1,444,933 
 
 1,131,116 
 
 27.74 
 
 Colorado 
 
 412, 198 
 
 104,327 
 
 112. 12 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 153,593 
 
 119,565 
 
 28.46 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 746, 258 
 
 622,700 
 
 19.84 
 
 New York - 
 
 5,997,853 
 
 5,082,871 
 
 18.00 
 
 Delaware 
 
 168,493 
 
 146,608 
 
 14. 93 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 1,617,947 
 
 1,399,750 
 
 15.59 
 
 Dist. of Columbia 
 
 230, 392 
 
 177,624 
 
 29.71 
 
 N orth Dakota - 
 
 182,719 
 
 * 
 
 395.05 
 
 Florida - 
 
 391,422 
 
 269,493 
 
 45. 24 
 
 Ohio - 
 
 3,672,316 
 
 3,198,062 
 
 14.83 
 
 Georgia 
 
 1,837,353 
 
 1,542,180 
 
 19.14 
 
 Oklahoma - 
 
 61,834 
 
 t 
 
 
 Idaho - 
 
 84, 385 
 
 32,610 
 
 158. 77 
 
 Oregon 
 
 313,767 
 
 174,763 
 
 79.53 
 
 Illinois 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 3,077,873 
 
 24. 32 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 5,258,014 
 
 4,282,891 
 
 22. 77 
 
 Indiana - 
 
 2,192,404 
 
 1,978,301 
 
 10. 82 
 
 Rhode Island - 
 
 345,506 
 
 276,531 
 
 24. 94 
 
 Iowa - 
 
 1,911,896 
 
 1,624,615 
 
 17. 68 
 
 South Carolina - 
 
 1,151,149 
 
 995,577 
 
 15. 63 
 
 Kansas - 
 
 1,427,096 
 
 996,096 
 
 43.27 
 
 South Dakota - 
 
 328,808 
 
 * 
 
 234.60 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 12.73 
 
 Tennessee - 
 
 1,767,518 
 
 1,542,359 
 
 14. 60 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 1,118,587 
 
 939,946 
 
 19.01 
 
 Texas 
 
 2,235,523 
 
 1,591,749 
 
 40.44 
 
 Maine 
 
 661,086 
 
 648,936 
 
 1.87 
 
 U tah - 
 
 207,905 
 
 143,963 
 
 44.42 
 
 Maryland 
 
 1,042,390 
 
 934,943 
 
 11.49 
 
 Vermont - 
 
 332,422 
 
 332,286 
 
 0.04 
 
 Massachusetts - 
 
 2,238,943 
 
 1,783,085 
 
 25.57 
 
 Virginia 
 
 1,655,980 
 
 1,512,565 
 
 9.48 
 
 Michigan 
 
 2,093,889 
 
 1,636,937 
 
 27. 92 
 
 Washington 
 
 349,390 
 
 75,116 
 
 365.13 
 
 Minnesota - 
 
 1,301,826 
 
 780,773 
 
 66.74 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 762,794 
 
 618,457 
 
 23.34 
 
 Mississippi - 
 Missouri - 
 Montana 
 
 1,289,600 
 
 1,131,597 
 
 13.96 
 
 AYisconsin 
 
 1,686,880 
 
 1,315,497 
 
 28.23 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 132,159 
 
 2,168,380 
 
 39,159 
 
 23. 56 
 237.49 i 
 
 Wyoming - 
 
 60,705 
 
 20,789 
 
 192.01 
 
 * Two States formed from the territory of Dakota -Population in 1880, — 135,177. 
 
 \ New territory found in 1890. Total — 1890, 02,622,250—1880, 50,155,783 — Inc. per ct. 21.57. 
 
CHANGES IN THE TARIFF. 
 
 TTce, Reuters of 1890 omd 1883 Comp cured. 
 
 Mr. Durfee, clerk of the senate committee on finahee, which had charge of the bill for the 
 senate, has compiled a complete list of the changes, which is presented herewith. It has 
 been a work of great labor, requiring an expert knowledge of the tariff. The first figures in 
 each case are those of the McKinley bill; the last, — enclosed in parenthesis, thus, (2 cents), — are 
 those of the law in force since the revision of 1883. As the change in many instances has been 
 from ad valorem to specific, it will be seen that per cent, is in many cases only used in the figures 
 or the old law : 
 
 CHEMICAL SCHEDULE. 
 
 Acetic acid not exceeding 1.047 specific 
 gravity, 1£ cents a pound ; (2 cents). 
 
 Boracic acid, 5 cents a pound ; (4 cents for 
 commercial). 
 
 Chromic acid, 10 cents ; (15 per cent). 
 
 Sulphuric acid, £ cent a pound ; (free). 
 
 Tannin, 75 cents ; ($1). 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia, If cents; (20 per 
 cent). 
 
 Muriate of ammonia, § cent ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia, \ cent ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Blue vitriol, 2 cents ; (3 cents). 
 
 Chloroform, 25 cents a pound ; (50 cents). 
 
 Sulphuric ether, 40 cents ; (50 cents). 
 
 Nitrous ether, 25 cents ; (30 cents). 
 
 Oil of Cognac, $2. 50 ; ($4). 
 
 Oil of rum, $2.50 ; ($6). 
 
 Dyeing or tanning extracts, £ cent a pound 
 (20 per cent). 
 
 Extract of hemlock barZt, | cent ; (20 per 
 cent). 
 
 Gelatine, glue and isinglass, value below 7 
 cent a pound, (1£ cents) ; between 7 and 30 cents 
 a pound, (25 per cent. ) ; above 30 cents, (30 per 
 cent). Old law, glue, (20 per cent. ) ; gelatine, 
 (30 per cent. ) ; isinglass, (25 per cent). 
 
 Crude Glycerine, If cents ; (2 cents). 
 
 Refined glycerine, 4| cents ; (5 cents). 
 
 Indigo pastes or extract, f cent ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Carmined indigo, 10 cents ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Iodoform, $1.50; ($2). 
 
 Licorice, 5£ cents ; (7 cents). 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia, 4 cents ; (5 cents). 
 
 Calcined magnesia, 8 cents ; (10 cents). 
 
 Epsom salts, 3-10 cent ; (12 cents). 
 
 Morphia, 50 cents an ounce ; ($1). 
 
 Alizarine containing 50 per cent, or more 
 castor oil, 80 cents a gallon; less than 50 per 
 cent. ; castor oil. 40 cents ; all others, 30 per 
 cent. Old law, (8 cents). 
 
 Cod liver oil, 15 cents a gallon ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Cotton seed oil, 10 cents ; (25 cents). 
 
 Croton oil, 30 cents a pound ; (50 cents). 
 
 Flax or poppy seed oil, 32 cents a gallon ; 25 
 cents. Poppy seed oil (free). 
 
 Olive oil, 35 cents a gallon ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Pepperment oil, 80 cents a pound ; (25 per 
 cent). 
 
 Fish oil, 8 cents a gallon ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Opium containing less than 9 per cent, of 
 morphia and opium prepared for smoking, $1£ 
 a pound ; ($10 a pound). The old law prohibited 
 importation of opium containing less than 9 
 per cent of morphia; containing more than 
 that, crude, ($1 a pound). 
 
 Barytes, crude, $1. 12 a ton ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Barytes, manufactured, $6. 72 a ton ; (f cent 
 a pound). 
 
 Blues, 6 cents a pound ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Satin white, f cent a pound ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Chromium colors, 4f cents ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Artists’ water color paints, 30 per cent ; (25 
 per cent). 
 
 Ochre and umber, dry, \ cent; ground in oil, 
 1£ cents, (£ and 1 cent). 
 
 Ultramarine blue, 4£ cents ; (5 cents). 
 
 Varnishes, gold size or japan, 35 per cent, 
 and $1.32 per gallon ad valorem on spirit 
 varnishes. Old law, (40 per cent, on varnishes ;) 
 gold size (free) ; japan, (40 per cent). 
 
 Vermillion red, 12 cents a pound; (25 per 
 cent). 
 
 Wash blue 3 cents ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Orange mineral, 3£ cents ; (3 cents). 
 
 Phosphorus, 20 cents ; (10 cents). 
 
 Caustic, 1 cent ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Saltpeter, 1 cent ; (1£ cents). 
 
 Mercurial medicinal preparations, 35 per 
 cent. ; (50 per cent). 
 
 Sartonine and salts containing over 80 per 
 cent, of sartonine, $2. 50 a pound ; ($3). 
 
 Castile soaps, 1 \ cents a pound ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Saleratus, 1 cent ; (If cents). 
 
 Sulphate of soda, $1.25 a ton ; (20 per centX 
 
944 
 
 CHANGES 1A T HE TALI FI. 
 
 Strychnine, 40 cents an ounce ; (50 cents). 
 
 Refined sulphur, $8 a ton ; ($10). 
 
 Flowers of sulphur, $10 a ton ; ($20). 
 
 Sumac, ground, 4-10 cent a pound ; (3-10 
 cent). 
 
 EARTHS, EARTHENWARE AND GLASS- 
 WARE. 
 
 Fire brick, plain, $1.25 a ton ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Fire brick, glazed, 45 per cent. ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Tiles, from 25 to 45 per cent. ; (25 to 60 per 
 cent). 
 
 Hydraulic cement, 7 cents per 100 pounds ; 
 (20 per cent). 
 
 Lime, 6 cents per 100 pounds ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Gypsum, ground, $1 a ton ; calcined, $1.25 a 
 ton. Old law, (25 per cent, for all). 
 
 Common plain earthen or stone ware, 25 per 
 cent. ; (20 per cent. ) above ten gallons capacity. 
 
 Decorated ware of all kinds, including lava 
 tips for burners, 60 per cent. . (55 per cent). 
 
 Gas retorts, $3 each ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Glass bottles, holding from \ to i pint, 1£ 
 cents a pound ; holding less than \ pint, 50 
 cents a gross. Old law— Green and colored 
 glass, (1 cent a pound ;) flint and lime glass, (40 
 per cent). 
 
 Decorated flint, lime and pressed glassware, 
 60 per cent. ; (40 and 45 per cent). 
 
 Glass chimneys, etc. , 60 per cent. ; (40 and 45 
 per cent). 
 
 Heavy blown glass, 60 per cent.; (40 per 
 cent). 
 
 Porcelain or opal glassware, 60 per cent. ; (40 
 per cent). 
 
 Unpolished cylinder crown and common 
 window glass, from 1 3-10 to 3£ cents a pound, 
 according to size ; (1§ cents to 2§ cents). 
 
 Cylinder and crown glass, polished, 4 to 40 
 cents a square foot ; (2| to 40 cents). 
 
 Plate glass obscured in any way, shall pay 
 same duty as polished glass unsilvered (new 
 provision). 
 
 Looking glass frames, 30 per cent ; (new 
 duty). 
 
 Cast polished plate glass cyclinder crown or 
 window glass, decorated, 10 percent, additional 
 duty (new provision). 
 
 Spectacles and frames, 60 per cent. ; (25 to 45 
 per cent). 
 
 Lenses costing $1.50 gross pairs or less, 60 
 per cent. ; (45 per cent). 
 
 Painted window glass, glass windows or 
 mirrors not exceeding 144 square inches, 45 per 
 cent. ; (30 and 40 per cent). 
 
 MARBLE AND STONE. 
 
 In measuring marble slabs none shall be com- 
 puted at less than one inch in thickness (new 
 provision). 
 
 Burr stones, 15 per cent. ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Undressed building or monuemental stone, 
 11 cents a cubic foot ; ($1 a ton). 
 
 Dressed, 40 per cent. ; (20 per cent). 
 
 METALS, IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 Iron ore containing not more than 3£ per 
 cent, copper, 75 cents a ton ; ore containing 25 
 per cent, or more of sulphur, free, except on 
 the copper it contains. No deduction to be 
 made from weight of ore on account of moist- 
 ure (new provision). 
 
 Ferro manganese and ferro silicon iron in 
 pigs, 3-10 cent a pound (new provision). 
 
 Round and square iron not less than f inch 
 cross section, 9-10 cent a pound ; (1 cent). 
 
 Flat iron less than 1 inch wide and § inch 
 thick, round iron not less than 7-16 inch in 
 diameter and square iron less than f inch, 1 
 cent a pound ; (1 1-10 cents). 
 
 Round iron less than 7-16 inch and rolled iron 
 shape, 1 1-10 cents; (1 2-10 cents). 
 
 Structural iron, 9-10 cent ; (1 4-10 cents). 
 
 Plate iron or steel not thinner than No, 10, 
 valued at less than 13 cents a pound, $ to 34 
 cents a pound ; above 13 cents, 45 per cent. 
 Old law, (1£ cents if iron ; 45 per cent, steel). 
 
 Forgings of iron or steel not specially pro- 
 vided for, 2 3-10 cents, but shall not pay less 
 than 45 per cent. ; (2| cents). 
 
 Band or scroll iron, valued at 3 cents a pound 
 or less, 8 inches wide or less, 1 to 1 3-10 cents a 
 pound, according to thickness; (1 to 1 4-10 
 cents). 
 
 Hoops or ties, manufactured, 2-10 cent ad- 
 ditional ; (1 1-10 cent if iron ; if of steel, 45 per 
 cent). 
 
 Railway bars, 6-10 cent a pound; old rates 
 varied from 7-10 cent a pound to $17 a ton. 
 
 The duty on tin plate goes into effect July 1, 
 1891 ; 2 2-10 cents a pound on manufactures of 
 which tin is a part, (55 per cent). It is pro- 
 vided that if on Oct. 1, 1897, the amount of 
 plates manufactured in the United States does 
 not equal for the preceding year one-third the 
 importations, then the duty shall cease. The 
 old rate was (1 4-10 cents). 
 
 Steel ingot billets, saw plates, etc., 4-10 to 7 
 cents a pound, according to value ; (old law, 45 
 per cent, on all valued at less than 4 cents a 
 pound ; from 2 to 3J cents a pound on higher 
 values). 
 
CHANGES IN THE TARIFF. 
 
 945 
 
 Wire, smaller than No. 10 gauge, If to 
 3 cents a pound ; (1£ to 3 cents). 
 
 No article manufactured wholly or in part of 
 tin plate or hoop, bound or scroll, iron or steel, 
 shall pay a less duty than the material of which 
 it is composed (new provision). 
 
 Forgings of iron or steel or both combined. 
 1 8-10 cents a pound ; (2 cents). 
 
 Axles, 2 cents; (2i cents). When fitted in 
 wheels they shall pay the same duty as the 
 wheels. 
 
 Heavy tools, 2 \ cents ; (2£ cents). 
 
 Boiler tubes, etc., 2d cents; (2f and 3 cents). 
 
 Bolts, hinges, etc. , 2f cents ; (2| cents). 
 
 Steel card cloth, 50 cents a square foot ; all 
 others 25 cents ; (45 and 25 per cent). 
 
 Cast iron pipe, 9-10 cent a pound ; (1 cent). 
 
 Cast iron vessels, 1 2-10 cents ; (1 4-10 cents). 
 
 Castings, malleable iron, If cents ; (2 cents). 
 
 Chains, 1 6-10 to 2d cents ; If cents to 2d 
 cents ; no chain to pay less than (45 per cent). 
 
 Penknives and erasers, 12 cents to $2 a dozen 
 and 50 per cent. ; old law, (50 per cent). 
 
 Razors, $1 to $1.75 a dozen and 30 per cent.; 
 all others knives, 10 cents to $5 a dozen and 30 
 per cent. ; (35 per cent). 
 
 Files, etc. , 35 cents to $2 a dozen ; ($1. 50 to 
 $2.50). 
 
 Shotguns, $1 to $6 each and 25 per cent.; (35 
 per cent). 
 
 Revolvers, 40 cents to $1 and 35 per cent.; (35 
 per cent). 
 
 Iron or steel articles glazed with vitreous 
 glasses, 45 and 50 per cent, (new provision). 
 
 Cut nails and spikes, 1 cent a pound ; (If 
 cents). 
 
 Wire nails, 2 to 4 cents ; (4 cents). 
 
 Spikes, horseshoes, etc. , 1 8-10 cents ; (2 
 
 cents). 
 
 Cut tacks, 2 \ and 2| cents ; (2d and 3 cents). 
 
 Plates, engraved or lithographed, for print- 
 ing, 25 per cent, (new provision). 
 
 Railway splice bars, 1 cent ; (If cents). 
 
 Wood screws, 5 to 14 cents a pound; (6 to 14 
 cents). 
 
 Ingots and blooms for wheels, If cents ; (2 
 cents). 
 
 Aluminum, crude or alloy, 15 cents a pound ; 
 (free). 
 
 Bronze powder, 12 cents ; (15 per cent). 
 
 Aluminum in leaf, 8 cents a package ; (10 per 
 cent). 
 
 Copper ore, \ cent ; (2d cents). 
 
 Old copper, 1 cent ; (3 cents). 
 
 Coarse copper and cement, 1 cent ; (3d cents). 
 
 Pig copper, etc. , If cents ; (4 cents). 
 
 Free copper for the United States mint is 
 omitted in the new law. 
 
 Bullion and metal thread, 30 per cent.; (25 
 per cent). 
 
 Gold leaf, $2 apackage ; ($1. 50). 
 
 All ores containing lead, Id cents a pound on 
 the lead (new provision). 
 
 Sheet lead and shot, 2d cents ; (3 cents). 
 
 Mica, 35 per cent.; (free). 
 
 Nickel oxide or alloy, 10 cents ; (15 cents. ) 
 
 Gold pens, 35 per cent ; (12 cents a gross). 
 
 Quicksilver, 10 cents a pound ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Type metal, Id cents a pound for lead con- 
 tained ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Block tin, 4 cents ; (free unless product of tin 
 mines in the United States in any year prior to 
 July 1, 1895, shall have exceeded 5,000 tons; 
 then it shall come in free). 
 
 Chronometers, 10 per cent ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Pig zinc, If cents a pound, Id cents). 
 
 Manufactures of metal, including aluminum 
 (new provision), not otherwise provided for, 45 
 per cent. ; (40 per cent). 
 
 WOOD AND MANUFACTURES OF. 
 
 Hewn timber, etc. , 10 per cent. ; (20 per cent). 
 
 White pine, $1 a thousand ; ($2). In estimat- 
 ing board measure under this schedule no 
 deduction shall be made on board measure on 
 account of planing tongue in and grooving; 
 provided that in case any foreign country shall 
 impose an export duty upon pine, spruce, elm 
 or other logs, or upon stave bolts, shingle wood, 
 or heading blocks exported to the United States 
 from such country, then the duty upon the 
 sawed lumber herein provided for when import- 
 ed from such country shall remain the same as 
 fixed by the laws in force prior to the passage 
 of this act (new provisions). 
 
 Cedar posts, ties and poles, 20 per cent, after 
 March 1, 1891 ; (free). 
 
 Sawed cabinet woods, 15 per cent. ; ($2 a thou- 
 sand). 
 
 Veneers, 20 per cent. ; (35 cents a ton). 
 
 Pine clapboads, $1 a thousand ; ($2). 
 
 Pickets and palings, 10 per cent.; (20 per cent;. 
 
 White pine shingles, 20 cents a thousand ; all 
 others, 30 cents ; old law, (35 cents) for all shin- 
 gles. 
 
 Furniture partly finished, 35 per cent ; (30 per 
 cent). 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 The bounty of If cents on all sugars produced 
 in the United States testing above 80 and under 
 90 by the polariscope, and of 2 cents on all test- 
 
046 
 
 CHANGES IN THE TARIFF. 
 
 ing over 90, is a necessary provision. Sugars 
 below No. 16 Dutch standard in color are admit- 
 ted free ; above that grade they pay £ cent a 
 pound duty, and in addition 1-10 cent a pound 
 shall be collected on sugars above No. 16 coming 
 from any country that pays a greater export 
 bounty on refined sugars than on the raw 
 nroduct. 
 
 All machinery imported into the United 
 States between Jan. 1, 1890, and Jan. 1, 1892, 
 to be used in making beet sugar shall not pay 
 duty. 
 
 Under the old law sugars between Nos. 16 
 and 20 Dutch standard paid 8 cents a pound 
 duty ; above No. 20, 8 51-100 cents a pound ; 
 beet sugar machinery, 65 per cent. The pay- 
 ment of the bounty shall begin April 1, 1891 ; 
 provided that in March, 1891, sugars not above 
 No. 16 may be refined and stored in bond with- 
 out payment of duty. 
 
 Confectionery not specifically provided for, 
 50 per cent. ; (5 to 10 cents a pound). 
 
 TOBACCO AND CIGARS. 
 
 Cigar wrappers, $2 a pound ; if stemmed, 
 $2. 75 ; (75 cents and $1). 
 
 All other leaf, stemmed, 50 cents ; (40 cents). 
 
 Cigars, cheroots and cigarettes of all kinds, 
 $4.50 a pound and 25 per cent.; ($2.50 and 25 
 per cent). 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND 
 PROVISIONS. 
 
 Horses and mules, $30 if valued at over $150 ; 
 (30 per cent). 
 
 Cattle more than 7 years old, $10; less than 
 1 year, $24; hogs, $1.50; sheep, 75 cents and 
 $1.50; all other live stock, 20 per cent. The 
 old law made all animals dutiable at 20 per 
 cent. 
 
 The agricultural schedule contains many 
 items of small importance ; the general tend of 
 the change being ail increase on organges, 
 lemons and limes ; however, there is a decrease 
 of about 25 per cent. 
 
 SPECIAL WINES, ETC. 
 
 Spirits distilled from grain or cordials not 
 specially provided for, $2 50 a gallon ; ($2). 
 Imitation liquors shall be subject to the high- 
 est rate of duty provided for the genuine 
 articles, and in no case less than $2.50 a gallon ; 
 
 |(*1 to $2.) 
 
 Bay rum, $1.50; $1; provided that it shall 
 be lawful for the secretary of the treasury, in 
 his discretion, to authorize the ascertainment 
 
 of the proof of wines, cordials and other 
 liquors, by distillation or otherwise, in cases 
 where it is impracticable to ascertain such 
 proof by the means prescribed by existing laws 
 or regulations (new provision). 
 
 Sparkling wines, $2 a dozen per half pint ; 
 in excess of three gallons, $2. 50 a gallon. Old 
 rates were, $7, $3.50, $1.75 a dozen bottles. 
 
 Ale, porter or beer, bottled or jugged, 40 
 cents a gallon ; (35 cents). 
 
 Ginger ale, etc., imported in plain glass bot- 
 tles holding less than D pints, 13 and 26 cents 
 a dozen; if otherwise than in such bottles, 50 
 cents a gallon and same duty on coverings as if 
 imported empty ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Mineral waters and imitations of natural 
 waters, in plain bottles, containing not more 
 than one pint, 16 cents a dozen ; quarts, 25 cents ; 
 if imported otherwise, 20 cents a gallon and 
 same provisions as to coverings ; (30 per cent). 
 
 COTTON MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Yarn, 10 to 48 cents a pounds, valued under 
 $1 ; over $1 a pound, 50 per cent ; (18 to 25 cent). 
 
 The duty on cloth is laid on a basis of 2 cents 
 a square yard, not exceeding fifty threads to 
 the sqare inch, and ranges from that up to 10 
 cents a yard and 35 per cent., (a reduction of i 
 cent on the lower grades and an increase of £ 
 cent on the higher). 
 
 Cloth containing mixture of silk pays 10 cents 
 and 30 per cent. Ready made clothing, 50 per 
 cent. ; with rubber a component part, 50 cents 
 a pound, and 50 per cent. (Old rates 35 and 40 
 per cent). 
 
 Pile fabrics, 10 cents a yard and 20 per cent. ; 
 (old rates, 35 and 40 per cent). 
 
 Hose, 20 cents and 20 per cent, to $2, and 40 
 per cent, a dozen according to value ; (40 per 
 cent). 
 
 Cotton cords, 40 per cent. ; (35 per cent). 
 
 Manufactures not specially provided for, 40 
 per cent. ; (35 per cent). 
 
 FLAX, HEMP AND JUTE. 
 
 Hackled flax, 3 cents a pound ; ($40 a ton). 
 
 Hackled hemp, $50 a ton ; ($25). 
 
 Binding twine manufactured in whole or in 
 
 part of istle, manilla, sisal or lunn, 4-10 cent 
 a pound ; (2£ cents). 
 
 Cables, cordage and twine, 1£ to 3 cents ; (2£ to 
 3£ cents). 
 
 Burlaps not over 60 inches wide, 1| cents; (30 
 per cent). 
 
 Grain bags of burlap, 2 cents ; (40 per cent). 
 
 Cotton bagging and gunny cloth, 1 6-10 and 
 
CHANGES OF THE TARIFF. 
 
 947 
 
 1 8-10 cents a yard ; (1£ and 2 cents a pound and 
 
 and 4 cents a yard). 
 
 Flax gill netting, etc., 15 cents a pound and 35 
 per cent. , and 20 cents a pound and 40 per cent. ; 
 (25 percent). 
 
 Oilcloth valued at 25 cents a square yard or 
 more, 15 cents and 30 per cent. ; (40 per cent). 
 
 Yarns, 6 cents a pound valued at less than 13 
 cents ; over 13 cents, 45 per cent. ; (35 and 40 per 
 cent). 
 
 All manufactures of flax or hemp not speci- 
 fied or provided for, 50 per cent. ; provided that 
 until July 1, 1894, all such flax of more than 
 one hundred threads to the square inch shall 
 pay 35 per cent. Old law, (35 and 40 per cent). 
 
 Lace embroideries, etc. , 60 per cent. ; (30 and 
 40 per cent). 
 
 Manufactures of jute, ramie, sisal, etc., 
 valued at 5 cents a pound, 2 cents; over 5 
 cents, 40 per cent. ; (35 per cent). 
 
 WOOLS AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 Bales of wool shall be dutiable at the highest 
 rate on any class contained therein. The old 
 law made any attempted evasion of duty 
 punishable by double duty. 
 
 Wools of first and second classes shall pay 11 
 and 12 cents a pound respectively. The old 
 law made divisions of each class dutiable at 10 
 and 12 cents respectively. 
 
 Third class wool and camel’s hair, exceeding 
 13 cents value, 50 per cent.; (5 cents a pound). 
 
 Shoddy and waste, 20 cents a pound ; (10 
 cents). 
 
 Woolen rags, etc., 10 cents (new provision). 
 
 On the various manufactures of wool in 
 clothing, etc., compensatory duty has been 
 added to keep pace with the increased duty on 
 raw wool, amounting in some cases to more 
 than 100 per cent. 
 
 On carpets the duty has been increased from 
 25 to 50 per cent. 
 
 SILK AND SILK GOODS. 
 
 Silk partially manufactured from cocoons or 
 from wash silk, and not further advanced or 
 manufactured than carded or combed silk, 50 
 cents a pound ; (35 per cent). 
 
 All mauufactures containing wool or camel 
 or goat hair shall be classified as manufactures 
 of wool (new provision). 
 
 PULP, BOOKS AND PAPER. 
 
 Wood pulp, $2.50 to $3 a ton ; (10 per cent). 
 
 Tissue paper, made up or loose, 8 cents a 
 pound and 15 per cent. ; (20 per cent). 
 
 Sensitized paper, 35 per cent. ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Surface coated papers and manufactures 
 thereof and albums, 35 per cent.; (25 per cent). 
 
 Envelopes, 26 cents per 1,000 ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Blank books, 25 per cent.; (20 per cent). 
 
 Playing cards, 50 cents a pack ; (100 per 
 cent). 
 
 Manufactures of paper, 25 per cent.; (15 to 
 35 per cent). 
 
 SUNDRIES. 
 
 Bristles, 10 cents a pound ; (15 cents). 
 
 Brushes and brooms, etc. , 40 per cent. ; (25 and 
 30 per cent). 
 
 Pearl and shell buttons, 2i cents a line, but 
 ton measure, and 25 per cent. ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Ivory, bone or horn buttons, 50 per cent. ; (25 
 per cent). 
 
 Shoe buttons, valued at not exceeding 3 cents 
 a gross, 1 cent a gross ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Cork bark, 10 cents a pound. 
 
 Corks, 15 cents a pound ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Fire crackers of all kinds (no allowance for 
 tare), 8 cents a pound ; (100 per cent). 
 
 Powder valued at less than 20 cents a pound, 
 5 cents ; (6 cents). 
 
 Friction matches, 10 cents a gross box and 1 
 cent per 1,000 according to size of box ; (35 per 
 cent), 
 
 Undressed feathers, 10 per cent.; (25 per 
 cent). 
 
 Glass beads, loose, 10 per cent. ; (50 per cent). 
 
 Human hair, unmanufactured, 20 per cent. ; 
 (30 per cent). 
 
 Crinoline cloth, 8 cents a square yard ; (30 
 per cent). 
 
 Hair for mattresses, 15 per cent.; (25 per 
 cent). 
 
 Beaver hats and fine hat bodies, 55 per cent. ; 
 (20 and 30 per cent). 
 
 Jewelry, 50 per cent.; (25 per cent). 
 
 Precious stones, set, 25 per cent.; (25 per 
 cent). 
 
 Belting and sole leather, 10 per cent. ; (15 per 
 cent). 
 
 Leather suitable for conversion into manu- 
 factured articles shall pay duty according to 
 articles intended ; (30 per cent). 
 
 Kid gloves, $1.75 to $3.25 a dozen, according 
 to size; suedes, 50 per cent.; leather gloves, 50 
 per cent., with from 50 cents to $1 a dozen 
 additional, according to style ; provided that 
 all gloves respresented to be below their grade 
 shall pay $5 a dozen additional, and that no 
 gloves shall pay less than 50 per cent. The old 
 duty on these gloves was (50 per cent. 
 
 Miscellaneous manufactures show a general 
 
948 
 
 CHANGES IN THE TARIFF. 
 
 reduction of about 25 per cent, in the various 
 rates of duties. 
 
 Common tobacco pipes of clay, 15 cents a 
 gross ; (85 per cent). 
 
 Hatters’ plush, 10 per cent. ; (25 per cent). 
 
 Silk and alpaca umbrellas, 55 per cent. ; (50 
 per cent). 
 
 Umbrellas, etc., covered with other material, 
 45 per cent. ; (40 per cent). 
 
 Sticks for umbrellas, etc., plain, 85 per cent.; 
 covered, 50 per cent. ; (30 per cent). 
 
 CHANGES IN THE FREE LIST. 
 
 In the free list the following changes are 
 made : 
 
 Animals imported for breeding purposes 
 must be of pure blood of a recognized breed 
 and duly registered in the book of record 
 established for that breed. The old law ad- 
 mitted such animals on proof satisfactory to 
 the secretary of the treasury ; also the teams 
 of persons coming into the United States from 
 foreign countries. 
 
 Wild animals intended for exhibition in zoo- 
 logical collections for scientific and educational 
 purposes, and not for sale or profit, are also 
 admitted free. 
 
 The provision providing for the return free 
 of duty of articles of American manufacture 
 once sent out of the country is extended to 
 make its terms more explicit and to prevent 
 fraud. 
 
 Bolting cloths to come in free must not be 
 suitable for manufacture into wearing apparel. 
 
 Straw braids, etc., for making or ornament- 
 ing hats and bonnets duitable at 20 per cent, 
 are added. 
 
 Cotton waste, or flocks, is made free. 
 
 Precious stones other than diamonds, rough 
 or uncut, glaziers’ and engravers’ diamonds not 
 set, and watch jewels are included. 
 
 Free eggs are limited to those of birds, fish 
 and insects. 
 
 Fashion plates engraved on cotton are made 
 free. 
 
 The provision about fish which stands in the 
 old law, “Fresh for immediate consumption,” 
 reads, “Fish, the product of American fish- 
 eries, and fresh or frozen fish (excepting salmon) 
 caught in fresh waters by American vessels or 
 with nets or other devices owned by citizens of 
 the United States.” 
 
 The following are added to the free list : 
 Currants, dates, jute, jute butts, sisal grass, 
 sunn, other textile grasses, unmanufactured 
 grease, sohr orange juice, paper stock and 
 other waste, phosphate for other than fertiliz- 
 ing purposes, potash ; seeds and bulbous roots, 
 not edible ; sugars under No. 16 Dutch stand- 
 ard, and all forms of sugar and molasses below 
 that grade; tar and pitch, tobacco stems, 
 turpentine ; nickel and nickel matte, with this 
 proviso : that ores of nickel and nickel matte 
 containing more than 10 per cent of copper, 
 shall pay a duty of -£■ cent a pound on the 
 copper contained therein. 
 
 The following provisos are inserted respecting 
 the subjects named : The term “periodicals” 
 shall be understood to embrace only unbound 
 or paper covered publications, containing 
 current literature of the day and issued 
 regularly at stated periods, as weekly, monthly 
 or quarterly. 
 
 The term “regalia ” shall be held to embrace 
 only such insignia of rank, or office, or emblems 
 as may be worn upon the person or borne in 
 the hand during public exercises of the society 
 or institution, and shall not include articles of 
 furniture or fixtures, or of regular wearing 
 apparel not personal property of individuals. 
 There are numerous restrictions made in the 
 list confining the articles named to their un- 
 manufactured state iu order to enable them to 
 come within the law. All raw or unmanufac- 
 tured articles not named in the act shall pay a 
 duty of 10 per cent. All manufactured articles, 
 (20 per cent). 
 
 In nearly all the cases of change from ad 
 valorem to specific duties the change is an 
 increase as the article has declined in price 
 since the first duty was placed on it. Many 
 ingenious calculations have been made as to 
 the proportion of total imports which come in 
 free under the McKinley bill, some placing the 
 amount as high as one-half and others at less 
 than a third ; but it is impossible to estimate 
 it with any exactness, as nothing but experience 
 will show how much the import of any article 
 <will increase or decrease by reason of lowering 
 or raising the duty. The new bill contains 
 many minute provisions as to the method of 
 its administration— too numerous to cite here 
 and not interesting to the general reader. 
 
R eductions made by the Wilson Bill, as 
 amended by the Senate, and passed by 
 both Houses in 1894, as compared with the 
 McKinley Act. • 
 
 THE FOLLOWING IS A STATEMENT OF THE AVERAGE AD VALOREM RATES OF 
 
 duty of the mckinley law and senate rill, with the per cent- 
 
 AGE OF REDUCTION MADE BY THE SENATE RILL ON THE UNDERMEN- 
 TIONED ARTICLES : 
 
 Camphor, refined 
 
 Sumac, extract of 
 
 Epsom salts 
 
 Castor oil 
 
 Cod liver oil 
 
 Opium prepared for smoking. . . 
 
 Chromium colors 
 
 Ochre 
 
 Sienna 
 
 Umber 
 
 Spirits varnishes 
 
 All other varnishes 
 
 Whiting, dry 
 
 Ground in oil (putty) 
 
 White lead 
 
 Nitrate of potash 
 
 Bicarbonate of soda 
 
 Bichromate of soda 
 
 Strychnia or strychnine 
 
 Sulphur, sublimed 
 
 Sumac, ground 
 
 China, painted, etc 
 
 China, plain 
 
 Bottles, empty 
 
 Bottles, filled 
 
 Demijohns, empty 
 
 Manufactures of glass 
 
 Cylinder glass, polished, un- 
 silvered 
 
 Plate glass, unsilvered, .Qgst, etc. 
 
 Plate glass, fluted, etc 
 
 Plate glass, cast, silvered, above 
 
 24x60 
 
 Cylinder and crown glass, sil- 
 vered 
 
 Spectacle lenses 
 
 Stained or painted window 
 
 glass 
 
 Roofing slate 
 
 Iron ore 
 
 Iron in pigs, etc 
 
 Scrap iron 
 
 Scrap steel 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 Bars of rolled iron 
 
 Boiler or other plate iron or 
 
 steel 
 
 Rails of steel 
 
 Sheets of iron or steel, common 
 
 or black 
 
 Tin-plates 
 
 Tin, manufactures of 
 
 Steel ingots, etc 
 
 Wire rods 
 
 Cast-iron vessels, etc 
 
 Malleable iron castings 
 
 Hollowware 
 
 Chains 
 
 Firearms 
 
 Nails 
 
 Railway fishplates ! 
 
 Hand, back, and other saws 
 
 Screws 
 
 Wheels 
 
 Plates, rolled, braziers, cop- 
 per 
 
 Gold leaf. 
 
 Silver leaf 
 
 Lead sheets 
 
 Nickel ; 
 
 Gold pens 
 
 Penholders and parts of 
 
 Pins 
 
 McKinley. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 Reduction. 
 
 McKinley. 
 
 Senate. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 Reduction. 
 
 12.20 
 
 10.00 
 
 18.03 
 
 23 24 
 
 10.00 
 
 56.97 
 
 38.34 
 
 25.51 
 
 33.46 
 
 100.35 
 
 43.87 
 
 56.28 
 
 28.65 . 
 
 20.00 
 
 30.19 
 
 169.65 
 
 84.82 
 
 50.00 
 
 30.84 
 
 20.56 
 
 33.33 
 
 19.64 
 
 16.37 
 
 16.66 
 
 21.14 
 
 17.62 
 
 16.66 
 
 25.80 
 
 21.50 
 
 16.66 
 
 69.56 
 
 59.56 
 
 14.38 
 
 35.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 28.57 
 
 142.18 
 
 71.24 
 
 50.00 
 
 189.50 
 
 94.75 
 
 50.00 
 
 59.21 
 
 29.60 
 
 50.00 
 
 21.32 
 
 10.66 
 
 50.00 
 
 60.47 
 
 30.24 
 
 50.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 93.79 
 
 70.34 
 
 25.00 
 
 28.66 
 
 20.00 
 
 20.22 
 
 19.81 
 
 10.00 
 
 49.52 
 
 60.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 41.67 
 
 55.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 45.45 
 
 70.17 
 
 52.63 
 
 25.00 
 
 71.48 
 
 53.61 
 
 25.00 
 
 37.91 
 
 28.43 
 
 25.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 41.67 
 
 20 to 64 
 
 13 to 48 
 
 25 to 38 
 
 98 to 174 
 
 88 to 122 
 
 10 to 30 
 
 49 to 64 
 
 37 to 43 
 
 25 to 33 
 
 49.30 
 
 31.28 
 
 36.61 
 
 43.88 
 
 27.79 
 
 36.67 
 
 60.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 41.67 
 
 45.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 22.22 
 
 25.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 42.77 
 
 22 77 
 
 46.67 
 
 26 to 41 
 
 15 to 21 
 
 40.47 
 
 47.83 
 
 28.47 
 
 40.48 
 
 43.00 
 
 25 59 
 
 40.49 
 
 25 to 53 
 
 16 to 32 
 
 25 to 40 
 
 61.77 
 
 44.93 
 
 27.25 
 
 54.00 
 
 25 00 
 
 53.70 
 
 58.24 
 
 33.99 
 
 24.47 
 
 25 to 70 
 
 20 to 55 
 
 21 to 30 
 
 78.44 
 
 42.32 
 
 46.05 
 
 55.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 36.36 
 
 29 to 50 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 20 to 35 
 
 34.00 
 
 22.67 
 
 33.33 
 
 26.97 
 
 17.98 
 
 33.33 
 
 31.83 
 
 16.37 
 
 48 57 
 
 35.33 
 
 23 55 
 
 33.34 
 
 47.28 
 
 30 00 
 
 36 55 
 
 41 to 80 
 
 30.00 
 
 27 to 62 
 
 23 to 46 
 
 25 to 30 
 
 4 to 46 
 
 72.18 
 
 25.00 
 
 65.36 
 
 40.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 37.50 
 
 47 to 111 
 
 S3 to 67 
 
 28 to 40 
 
 S3. 72 
 
 41.86 
 
 50.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 42.86 
 
 44.87 
 
 30.00 
 
 33.14 
 
 77.78 
 
 30.00 
 
 61.43 
 
 36.65 
 
 18.33 
 
 50.00 
 
 23 77 
 
 14.26 
 
 40.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 16.67 
 
 30.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 16.67 
 
 30.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 16.67 
 
 Zinc in sheets 
 
 Manufactures of metal 
 
 Shooks and boxes 
 
 Casks and barrels 
 
 Clocks of wood, 
 
 Rice, cleaned 
 
 Rice, uncleaned 
 
 Honey 
 
 Oranges, lemons, and limes. . . 
 
 Comfits, sweetmeats, etc 
 
 Nuts, not shelled (almonds) . . 
 
 Nuts, shelled (almonds) 
 
 Filberts, not shelled 
 
 Peanuts, unshelled 
 
 Extract of meat 
 
 Spirits, distilled 
 
 Cotton cloth, not over 100 
 
 threads, not bleached 
 
 Ditto, bleached 
 
 Ditto, dyed, colored, etc 
 
 Exceeding 100 threads, not 
 
 bleached 
 
 Bleached 
 
 Dyed, etc 
 
 Cables, cordage, and twine... . 
 
 Bagging for cotton 
 
 Woolen yarns 
 
 Shawls, woolen, not above 40c. 
 
 per pound 
 
 Knit fabrics, not above 40c. 
 
 per pound 
 
 Blankets 
 
 Hats of wool 
 
 Flannels, not over 50c. per 
 
 pound 
 
 Silk, partially manufactured.. 
 Silk webbings, gorings, etc. . . 
 
 Silk buttons 
 
 Silk dress goods 
 
 Silk ribbons 
 
 All other silk 
 
 Writing, drawing, and other 
 
 paper 
 
 Dolls and other toys 
 
 Emery 
 
 Fire-crackers 
 
 Coal, bituminous 
 
 Slack or culm of coal 
 
 Coke 
 
 Matches 
 
 Haircloth, known as crinoline 
 
 cloth 
 
 Haircloth, known as hair 
 
 seating — 
 
 Leather, band or belting, and 
 
 sole 
 
 Leather, calfskins, japanned . 
 Leather, all not specially pro- 
 vided for 
 
 Boots and shoes 
 
 Manufactures of India-rubber 
 Umbrellas covered with silk 
 
 or alpaca 
 
 Burrstone, manufactured 
 
 Composition metal, copper 
 
 Plates of copper, not rolled, 
 
 etc 
 
 Cider 
 
 Binding twine 
 
 Paintings in oil or water 
 
 colors 
 
 Statuary 
 
 Hatters’ plush 
 
 29.19 
 
 14.59 
 
 50.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 22.22 
 
 30.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 33.33 
 
 30.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 33.33 
 
 35.00 
 
 25 00 
 
 28.57 
 
 111.85 
 
 83.89 
 
 25.00 
 
 64.19 
 
 41.08 
 
 20.00 
 
 44.83 
 
 22.42 
 
 49.99 
 
 12 to 31 
 
 12 to 32 
 
 
 35.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 14! 29 
 
 51.34 
 
 30.80 
 
 40.01 
 
 42.42 
 
 28.28 
 
 33.33 
 
 52.90 
 
 35.32 
 
 33.35 
 
 72.86 
 
 20.00 
 
 72.85 
 
 17.95 
 
 15.00 
 
 10.87 
 
 91 to 367 
 
 65 to 264 
 
 28.00 
 
 35.17 
 
 25.05 
 
 37.39 
 
 38.60 
 
 26.53 
 
 31.27 
 
 40.80 
 
 30.54 
 
 25.15 
 
 42.39 
 
 32.39 
 
 23.59 
 
 43.27 
 
 35.00 
 
 18 88 
 
 43.84 
 
 38.84 
 
 11.40 
 
 16 to 31 
 
 10 to 20 
 
 40 to 67 
 
 32.52 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 278.66 
 
 30.00 
 
 89.23 
 
 150.30 
 
 35.00 
 
 76.71 
 
 136.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 74.27 
 
 80 to 104 
 
 35 00 
 
 66 to 71 
 
 86 to 106 
 
 35.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 85 to 104 
 
 25 to 35 
 
 66 to 71 
 
 60.50 
 
 20.00 
 
 66.94 
 
 50.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 45 00 
 
 10.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 28.57 
 
 25.19 
 
 20.15 
 
 20.00 
 
 147.32 
 
 50.00 
 
 66.06 
 
 22.72 
 
 12.12 
 
 46.65 
 
 28.68 
 
 14.34 
 
 50.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 33.93 
 
 20.00 
 
 41.06 
 
 27.99 
 
 20.99 
 
 25.00 
 
 23.22 
 
 15.48 
 
 33.33 
 
 10.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 
 30.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 33.33 
 
 10 00 
 
 10.00 
 
 
 25 00 
 
 20.00 
 
 20 'oo 
 
 30.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 14.29 
 
 55.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 18.18 
 
 15.00 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 6.49 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 11.80 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 18.52 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 6.47 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 15 00 
 
 Free 
 
 100.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 Free 
 
 100 00