UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
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 Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/locomotivehandboOOIoco 
 
BRITISH ATLANTIC TYPE LOCOMOTIVE. 
 
 Designed by J. G. Robinson, Esq., M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. Mech. Eng., Chief Mechanical Engineer, Great Central Ry. 
 
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THE 
 
 Locomotive = 
 
 = Handbook 
 
 OF 
 
 Useful Memoranda and Data. 
 
 19 0 7 . 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 bonbon : 
 
 THE LOCOMOTIVE PUBLISHING COMPANY, Ltd. 
 
 3, Amen Corner, Paternoster Row, E.C. 
 
 Calcutta : u The Indian Railway Gazette io, D acre's Lane. 
 New York : The Derry Collar d Co 109, Liberty Street. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 -J 
 
 e 
 
 O' 
 
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 Ip' 
 
 o( 
 
 CO 
 
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 c/> ‘ 
 o 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Diagram of British Atlantic type locomotive, and reference 
 
 2 
 
 Engine Diagrams 
 
 
 9 
 
 Speed table 
 
 
 IO 
 
 Temperature notes 
 
 
 ii 
 
 Economy of fuel from hot feed 
 
 
 12 
 
 Locomotive Fuel Table 
 
 
 12 
 
 Diagram of tractive power 
 
 
 13 
 
 Locomotive engine driving 
 
 
 14 
 
 Firing locomotives 
 
 
 18 
 
 Engine failures . . 
 
 
 41 
 
 Expansion of steam 
 
 
 75 
 
 Diagram showing work in the cylinders 
 
 
 76 
 
 Lubrication, etc. 
 
 
 78 
 
 National code of headlights 
 
 
 91 
 
 Boiler dirt and scale 
 
 . . 
 
 93 
 
 Sanding the rails 
 
 
 95 
 
 Driving a single . . 
 
ENGINE DIAGRAMS-Series No. 
 
ENGINE DIAGRAMS -Series No. 
 
9 
 
 ENGINE DIAGRAMS. 
 
 'T f HE preceding full page diagrams show at a 
 glance what is taking place in the cylinders 
 of a locomotive when the regulator is open, and 
 engine in full gear in forward and backward 
 positions. 
 
 By observing the changing colors on different 
 diagrams for each position the change of con- 
 ditions in the cylinders when the engine is 
 reversed can be easily seen. 
 
 The colors adopted are red for live steam, which 
 is entering from the steam chest ; cross lined red 
 for steam expanding in the cylinders after the point 
 ot cut off has been reached. Blue represents the 
 exhausting steam, and cross lined blue the locked up 
 steam, which is shut in the cylinder by the port 
 being closed, and compressed by the advancing 
 piston. 
 
 Each diagram shows only one cylinder and 
 engine, but by taking each second diagram together 
 — viz., the first and third, second and fourth and so 
 on — the two engines are easily observed. If the 
 locomotive is a right handed one — i.e ., if the right 
 hand crank leads the left hand one— the top 
 diagrams of each two is the right hand engine. If, 
 however, the engine is left handed — t\e.; with left 
 hand crank leading — the top diagrams will be the 
 left hand engine, and the bottom one the right 
 hand. 
 
 The fore going eccentric and rod on each 
 diagram are drawn in full lines, and the back 
 going eccentric and rod are in dotted lines. 
 
TO 
 
 SPEED. 
 
 SECONDS PER MILE IN MILES PER HOUR. 
 
 Seconds 
 per Mile. 
 
 Miles 
 per Hour. 
 
 Seconds 
 per Mile. 
 
 Miles 
 per Hour. 
 
 Seconds 
 per Mile. 
 
 Miles 
 per Hour. 
 
 ' 24 
 
 150 
 
 47 
 
 76.6 
 
 70 
 
 5 i -4 
 
 25 
 
 H 4 
 
 48 
 
 75 
 
 7 i 
 
 5 °-T 
 
 26 
 
 138-5 
 
 49 
 
 73’4 
 
 72 
 
 50 
 
 27 
 
 1 33*3 
 
 50 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 49 - 3 - 
 
 28 
 
 128.5 
 
 5 i 
 
 70.6 
 
 74 
 
 48.6. 
 
 29 
 
 124. 1 
 
 52 . 
 
 69.2 
 
 75 
 
 48 
 
 30 
 
 120 
 
 53 
 
 67.9 
 
 76 
 
 47-3 
 
 3 i 
 
 116.1 
 
 54 
 
 66.7 
 
 77 
 
 46.7 
 
 32 
 
 112.5 
 
 55 
 
 65-5 
 
 78 
 
 46.I 
 
 33 
 
 109. 1 
 
 56 
 
 & 4-3 
 
 79 
 
 45-6 
 
 34 
 
 105.9 
 
 57 
 
 63.1 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 102.8 
 
 58 
 
 62.1 
 
 81 
 
 44.4 
 
 36 
 
 100 
 
 59 
 
 6l 
 
 82 
 
 43 -? 
 
 37 
 
 97-3 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 83 
 
 43-3 
 
 38 
 
 94-7 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 84 
 
 42.8 
 
 39 
 
 92.3 
 
 62 
 
 58.1 
 
 85 
 
 42 . J 
 
 40 
 
 90 
 
 63 
 
 57 -i 
 
 86 
 
 41.8- 
 
 4 * 
 
 87.8 
 
 64 
 
 56.2 
 
 87 
 
 41.4 
 
 42 
 
 85-7 
 
 65 
 
 55-3 
 
 88 
 
 40.9 
 
 43 
 
 83-7 
 
 66 
 
 54-5 
 
 89 
 
 4O.4 
 
 44 
 
 81.8 
 
 67 
 
 53-7 
 
 90 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 80 
 
 68 
 
 52.9 
 
 9 i 
 
 39-5 
 
 46 
 
 0° 
 
 69 
 
 52.1 
 
 92 
 
 39-1 
 
1 1 
 
 TEMPERATURE NOTES. 
 
 Approximate Temperature of a Fire as indicated by its appearance . 
 
 Red, just showing 
 
 . . about 
 
 1000° F. 
 
 ,, dull.. 
 
 • • • • >» 
 
 1300° F. 
 
 ,, bright 
 
 . . . . , , 
 
 j8oo° F. 
 
 Orange, deep 
 
 ,, 
 
 2000° F. 
 
 ,, bright .. 
 
 ,, 
 
 2200° F. 
 
 Yellow 
 
 • • • • ff 
 
 2400° F. 
 
 White 
 
 . . . . , , 
 
 2600° F. 
 
 Intense White Heat, as of a furnace ,, 
 
 2800° F. 
 
 Approximate Tempe?‘ature of a Journal as 
 
 indicated by 
 
 appearance when heated. 
 
 Faint Yellow 
 
 
 at 430° F. 
 
 Straw 
 
 
 45 °° F - 
 
 Full Yellow 
 
 
 >, 470 ° F. 
 
 Brown Yellow 
 
 
 ,, 490° F. 
 
 Brown, turning to Purple 
 
 
 ,, 510° F. 
 
 Purple 
 
 
 „ 53 °° F. 
 
 Bright Blue 
 
 
 ,, 550 ° F. 
 
 Full Blue 
 
 
 „ 560° F. 
 
 Dark Blue 
 
 
 „ 6oo° F. 
 
 “White metal” melts at 450° F. 
 Brass melts at 1,650° F. 
 
 Approximate Temperature of Steam as shown by the Gauge 
 on a Locomotive up to 200 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 50 lbs. per sq. in. . . 
 
 298° F. 
 
 150 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 100 ,, 
 
 >> 
 
 338° F. 
 
 160 ,, ,, 
 
 no ,, 
 
 
 344 ° F. 
 
 170 
 
 120 
 
 ,, 
 
 350° F. 
 
 180 ,, ,, 
 
 T 3 ° 
 
 j » • • 
 
 356° F. 
 
 19 ° 
 
 14 ° 
 
 n • • 
 
 360° F. 
 
 200 ,, ,, 
 
 366° F. 
 37 °° F. 
 375 ° F. 
 380° F. 
 384° F. 
 388° F. 
 
 Water freezes and becomes ice at 32° F., it reaches its maximum 
 density or contracts to its minimum compass at about 39 0 F., hence 
 ice always floats and pipes and chambers, such as sight feed lubri- 
 cators, reservoirs, etc., are liable to be fractured or burst when their 
 contents become frozen. 
 
 An imperial gallon of fresh water weighs 10 lbs. and a cubic foot 
 contains 6J gallons. 
 
 A cubic foot of fresh water at 32. o° F. weighs 62.418 lbs. 
 
 ,, „ 39 - 1 ° F. „ 62.425 ,, 
 
 » ,, „ 62.0° F. „ 62.355 „ 
 
 r, ,, ,, 212.0° F. ,, 59.760 ,, 
 
12 
 
 ECONOMY IN FUEL 
 
 Secured by Feeding a Boiler with Heated Water. 
 
 Temperature of cold water assumed to be 6o° F. and the boiler 
 pressure from 140-200 lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 If heated to — The approximate gain in fuel will be — 
 
 ioo° F 
 
 150° F 
 
 200° F 
 
 250° F. (by the aid of exhaust injector) 
 
 Over 3 per cent. 
 „ 8 „ 
 
 » 12 
 » 16 
 
 THE VALUE OF FUEL. 
 
 The chief components of any fuel useful for the generation of 
 heat are carbon and hydrogen, and as these when effectually con- 
 sumed with the requisite proportion of oxygen give off known 
 quantities of heat, it is easy to ascertain the heating value of any 
 fuel from its chemical analysis. 
 
 For the combustion of 1 lb. of carbon, 2.66 lbs. of oxygen are 
 required, and as atmospheric air contains but 23 per cent, of the 
 latter, it follows that nearly 12 lbs. of air are required for the con- 
 sumption of 1 lb. of carbon. 
 
 1 lb. ( f hydrogen requires 8 lbs. of oxygen, or, approximately, 
 35 lbs. of air. In actual practice twice this is usualiy allowed to 
 compensate for the fact that so much of the air admitted through 
 the firegrate does not get intimately incorporated with the fuel. 
 
 The following table gives approximate values for the < hief 
 locomotive fuels. As the actual efficiency of every sample of coal 
 will vary, only the “general” figures are given, which is sufficient 
 for purposes of comparison. 
 
 Approx. Evaporation. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Theoretical 
 
 Actual 
 
 Grade of Coal. 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 lbs. of water 
 
 on a 
 
 Average Samples. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Sulphur, 
 Ash, &c. 
 
 per lb. of Locomotive 
 fuel. lbs. 
 
 Welsh 
 
 92 
 
 3-5 
 
 4-5 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 Yorkshire . . 
 
 79 
 
 5 -o 
 
 16.0 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 Lancashire . . 
 
 76 
 
 5 -o 
 
 19.0 
 
 I2 i 
 
 7 i 
 
 Scotch 
 
 80 
 
 5 -o 
 
 15.0 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 90 
 
 2-5 
 
 7-5 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 India 
 
 60 
 
 3.0 
 
 — 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 Australia . . 
 
 68 
 
 2-5 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 H 
 
 S. Africa . . 
 
 50 
 
 3 -o 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
3 
 
 DIAGRAM OF TRACTIVE POWER 
 OF LOCOMOTIVES. 
 
 Tractive Power of Locomotives per Pound of Mean 
 Effective Pressure. 
 
 Diameter of Driving Wheels in inches. 
 
 From the “Locomotive Engineer’s Pocket Book published by 
 The Locomotive Publishing Co Ltd., price One Shilling . 
 
14 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVING. 
 
 *pEW trades or professions can be learned by 
 simply reading treatises on them — least of all, 
 perhaps, engine driving. This is evident from the 
 scarcity of literature which deals directly with the 
 subject. There are certain well-known books which 
 deal with the art in some way, but on the whole 
 locomotive engine driving, from a driver’s point ol 
 view, has not inspired many pens, not because it is 
 not sufficiently interesting, but owing to the great 
 difficulty of conveying by writing just what a driver 
 wants to know. 
 
 There is no difficulty about describing the 
 mechanical details of an engine and giving valuable 
 information on the best known methods of dealing 
 with them. For example, this is admirably done 
 in “ The Locomotive of To-day,” but the actual 
 handling of the engine on the road is quite a 
 different matter. Ask any driver how he can judge 
 where to shut off steam and where to apply the 
 brake so as to stop at the right place at any given 
 station under different conditions of weather, load, 
 etc. In all probability he will look at you with a 
 bewildered air and reply, “I don’t know,’* notwith- 
 standing the fact that he has done it himself for 
 twenty or more years without a single failure. He 
 will brighten up at once, however, when he thinks 
 of an alternative, and invites you to go and see for 
 yourself how he does it. He cannot tell you, but 
 he can show you. Unless you have had considerable 
 experience on the footplate, you will be just as wise 
 after the demonstration as you were before it. 
 
 Few people think how lonely a driver must be 
 when on the road. He stands for hours looking 
 through the window of the cab while signal after 
 signal passes across his vision, and he must, with- 
 

 out fail, detect one out of hundreds which is only 
 different in colour from all the rest. Should he 
 not obey that one the probability is that in a very 
 short time the whole country will be apprised of his 
 mistake by the proclamation of newspaper bills. 
 
 Seldom does a word pass between the driver and 
 fireman on the road, unless something unusual 
 happens, and even then it is only what is necessary 
 that is said. Apart from the noise in the cab, 
 which makes conversation difficult, each has his 
 duties to attend to, and these take up his whole 
 attention. The fireman is so busy attending to the 
 fire, water and lubrication that he has no time for 
 anything else except to look out for signals as 
 much as he can. Any neglect on the part of the 
 fireman or an error in judgment in firing heavy 
 expresses lands the driver in difficulties for steam 
 supply. The driver s anxiety on this score is well 
 seen by the frequency with which he steals a glance 
 at the water and pressure gauges. In fact he 
 hardly ever takes his eyes off the lookout window 
 for any other purpose. 
 
 A driver actually feels as if he were a part of the 
 complete machine. He can almost instantly detect 
 anything unusual, He can smell a hot bearing 
 and feel the breakage or displacement of any part, 
 even if it should not be so serious as to cause him 
 to stop. When anything of the kind does unfor- 
 tunately happen, the drivers anxiety is seriously 
 increased. His business is to land his train safely, 
 and if possible up to time. The loss of one minute 
 is recorded against him, and he must be prepared 
 to account for it. Any trivial excuse will not be 
 accepted as justifying loss of time, and he knows 
 it. On that account slowing down or stopping are 
 the very last things he thinks about, and after all 
 the responsibility rests with him ; he has no time 
 for consultation, even if a consultant were available. 
 He must act at once. 
 
6 
 
 Enginemen will generally face any kinds of 
 weather without concern, with one exception. Ask 
 any driver what tries his nerves most, and without 
 hesitation he will answer in monosyllable— “ Fog/’ 
 
 During fog he has scarcely anything to guide 
 him except ghostly shadows of signals, and these 
 he must sometimes count as he goes along. If he 
 loses his reckoning he is in great suspense till he 
 passes some familiar landmark, such as a bridge, 
 cutting, station, or something which he can 
 recognise from sound. Sometimes for hours he has 
 to stand with his face projecting past the side ot 
 the cab, straining his eyes till they ache, in the 
 vain attempt to pierce the impenetrable fog. 
 Under such conditions is it surprising if he utters 
 a word of thankfulness on reaching the end of his 
 journey in safety. 
 
 There is absolutely nothing written which will 
 help a driver to learn the road or to distinguish 
 signals. The colours, position of arms, and a few 
 more points are well and clearly defined. All 
 signalling is carried out on certain general 
 principles, but the peculiarities of different junctions 
 and crossings cause these general methods to be 
 modified so frequently that few standing rules can 
 be framed for precise guidance on all occasions. 
 
 Locking and interlocking of points and signals 
 are so thoroughly carried out now that the risk of 
 mistake by a signalman has been reduced to a 
 minimum. In fact, about the only mistake he can 
 now make is that of allowing one train to follow 
 another before the section is clear. 
 
 On the other hand the driver has so far received 
 neither help nor check to his reading of the signals, 
 so that an overlook or mistake on his part is quite 
 as possible now as it was 30 years ago. Mary 
 attempts have been made to invent a reliable 
 mechanical system by means of which a train could 
 be stopped in the case of a driver passing a signal 
 
1 7 
 
 at danger. None of these has proved so successful 
 as to induce railway companies to adopt them. 
 
 In order to become a first class driver a man 
 must almost live on the engine till he becomes like 
 a part of it, and he must run over the line till he 
 knows it so well that he could tell where he is and 
 at what speed he is running at any moment, even if 
 blindfolded. This is actually the condition in 
 which some men are to-day. They know every 
 yard of the road, with signals, loops, junctions, and 
 all the rest, between Carlisle and London, a distance- 
 of some 300 miles. 
 
 Unimpaired faculties, good sound robust consti- 
 tution, steadiness of habits along with patience and 
 perseverance, are all essential for the making of 
 such an engine driver. And with it all the driver 
 is a very modest man. He has no gold braid, no 
 glittering brass buttons, and none of the objection- 
 able airs which the wearers of those fine clothes so 
 often possess. 
 
 The guard can always be seen fussing about as 
 if the whole train, driver and all, belonged to him 
 He walks up to the driver, asking his name with 
 quite an authoritative air. “ Brown " or “ Jones," as. 
 the case may be, is all the answer, unless it should be 
 some out-of-the-way name, when the driver spells 
 it. It is the guard's duty to tell the driver what 
 load he has on, and should it exceed the stipulated 
 amount he may ask, “ Can you take 'em alone ?'* 
 “Try," comes the laconic reply, and that is all 
 there is about it. 
 
 The passengers see the guard, and no doubt 
 ^admire him sufficiently, but while they settle them- 
 selves comfortably in a corner behind a newspaper, 
 with never a doubt about being landed safely at 
 their destination, they seldom think of the two pairs 
 of eyes at the front end upon which everything 
 depends. 
 
i8 
 
 FIRING LOCOMOTIVES AND CARE OF 
 THE BOILERS. 
 
 ' | t O get good results from any fuel it is advisable to 
 become acquainted with the elementary prin- 
 ciples of combustion and fire in accordance with 
 them. The heating properties of different coal are 
 given in the table on page 12, and from this a com- 
 parison may be made as to the value of that in use on 
 any particular railway. Roughly, coal of ordinary 
 quality requires some 20-lb. of atmospheric air per 
 lb. to ensure good combustion, and on the proper 
 admission and admixture of this with the com- 
 bustible elements of the fuel depend the results 
 obtained. Naturally with different grades of coal 
 the methods of firing must be varied to suit; with 
 “ hard ” steam coal (Yorkshire, Durham, etc.) a thin 
 fire replenished at frequent intervals with small 
 charges will ensure most steam, whilst with “ soft ” 
 coal (Welsh) a heavy thick fire can be built up and 
 relied upon for satisfactory generating power. 
 
 In a thick fire of hard coal the air drawn 
 through the grate is first brought into contact with 
 that portion of the coal lying on the bars, with the 
 consequence that this lower layer burns briskly — 
 giving off heat which is partially absorbed by the 
 upper layers of “ green ” coal, the lighter and 
 volatile constituents of which are distilled off, pro- 
 ducing smoke, a dull fire, and little steam. With 
 poor quality coal the formation of clinker is con- 
 siderably assisted by heavy firing, and it is desirable 
 to run with as light a fire as possible when using 
 inferior fuel. 
 
 Failure in maintaining steam may be attributed 
 to the engine being overworked, owing to the 
 weight or booked speed of the train being in excess 
 
i9 
 
 of the engine's capabilities, any difficulty in this 
 direction, however, should, if possible, be anticipated 
 before commencing the trip. The tubes should be 
 properly cleaned so as to get all the possible heat- 
 ing effect from them, and the fire should be clear 
 and bright without clinker, to obstruct the air 
 passing through the firebars and deaden the fire. 
 The boiler should be well filled with water, and the 
 steam pressure raised to just below" blowing -off 
 point before the starting time of the train, so that all 
 the energy possible is ready for the work. 
 
 When the engine pulls out of the station the fire- 
 door should not be opened nor the injectors worked 
 until the train is moving fairly fast, and the expan- 
 sion gear is notched up into approximately its run- 
 
 ning position. If necessary a little more fire may be 
 put on then, from four to six shovelsful, the coal 
 being broken up to about the size of cobbles and 
 well spread over the bars, with a larger proportion at 
 the sides and corners, whence it will gradually shake 
 down into the centre of the firegrate. The coal 
 being broken up will more readily ignite and give 
 off heat than if put on in large lumps. 
 
20 
 
 Whilst on the run the coal should be thrown in at 
 regular intervals with due regard to the road, keep- 
 ing the fire thin about the centre of the grate, and 
 thicker along the sides and at the back ; a good 
 plan is to make a complete circuit of the firebox 
 in from three to four applications. The diagram 
 (Fig. 1) illustrates this — starting with the back of 
 the f grate, two shovelsful would be thrown into the 
 corners A A 7// , at the next opening of the door two 
 to B B ; , then C C 7 , D D 7 and E, winding up with 
 A 7 A y/ ; the round of a large grate being performed 
 with more shovelsful per firing than a smaller one. 
 
 Want of Steam may be due to carelessness on 
 the part of the fireman by firing too heavy or putting 
 large lumps of coal on an already nearly dead fire, 
 so that it takes some time to ignite, or by allowing 
 clinker to accumulate upon the bars. The formation 
 of this latter may sometimes be traced to the ash- 
 pan being nearly full of cinders, which obstruct the 
 passage of air. 
 
 As already mentioned, coal, if put on in excessive 
 quantities, will not burn at once, because when 
 first thrown into the firebox it absorbs a large 
 quantity of heat, swells, cracks and gi\es off gas 
 before igniting. If the fire is not hot enough to 
 raise the coal to this point rapidly it will continue 
 to give off gas for some time, with the result of im- 
 perfect combustion, smoke ; this latter will cause 
 soot to be deposited in the tubes, which in turn will 
 retard the passage of the heated gases generated 
 by the fully ignited fuel and absorb some of the 
 heat. On the other hand, dulness in steaming may 
 be due to air inlets in the smokebox, through bad 
 joints, etc., partially destroying the vacuum there, 
 and detracting from the draft upon the fire. 
 Another cause may be in the blast pipe and 
 chimney not being perfectly true or central with 
 each other, so that the full effect of their correct 
 combination is lost. This is indicated by the smoke 
 
and steam striking on one side of the chimney, 
 and can be accurately proved in the shed by wiping 
 the interior of the base of the chimney round with 
 a piece of oily waste and noting the appearance 
 after the exhaust of a beat or two has passed through. 
 These defects cannot be rectified by the driver, but 
 should be at once booked when detected, so that 
 they may be put right by the shed staff, as a good 
 “steamer” will never be secured until they are. To 
 counteract the deficiencies in steam production as 
 much as possible the feed must be “nursed,” and 
 only applied at favourable times, and the driver must 
 take every opportunity to economise in consumption 
 of steam on down grades and other points where 
 power can be saved. 
 
 If all precautions are taken, and it is found 
 impossible to keep up the pressure and water level, 
 then it may be assumed that the load is too great 
 for the engine with its small reservoir of steam to 
 draw from. This trouble is one that will not be so 
 common in the future as it has been in the past, the 
 tendency being to build the boilers of new loco- 
 motives ot a size more in accord with the power 
 they are expected to develop. 
 
 It is a common expedient, if an engine will not 
 steam well to brick up the smokebox and so 
 decrease its cubical capacity, the blast then has a 
 much sharper and “biting” action on the fire, 
 increasing the rate of combustion ; if such a de- 
 crease in capacity, however, be carried too far, 
 small pieces of unconsumed coal from the firebox 
 will be drawn through the tubes and thrown from 
 the chimney, thus wasting fuel as well as endanger- 
 ing property adjacent to the railway from fires 
 caused by the “ sparks.” The continual lifting of 
 the fire by a sharp “cutting” blast will w r ear away 
 the plates of the firebox above the level of the 
 surface of the fire, and the tubes also will be badly 
 scored, especially if of copper or brass. 
 
22 
 
 It should be the desire of every engineman to run 
 with as soft a blast as is consistent with good 
 steaming properties, anything sharper than necessary 
 for this whether produced by reducing the size of the 
 smokebox or contracting the blast pipe outlet is to 
 be deprecated. The latter expedient, the reduction 
 of the blast outlet will seriously affect the coal bill 
 as it increases the back pressure, and, therefore, the 
 amount of work the engine will have to do ; steam 
 will be wasted in simply overcoming the resistance 
 to escape which that imprisoned in the cylinders 
 encounters after it has done its work. 
 
 The firegrate should receive careful attention 
 on every possible occasion, especially on shed days ; 
 any burnt or bent bars should be removed and new 
 ones put in to replace them. All the air spaces 
 between the firebars should be as uniform as possible 
 and not too large, as in this latter case the ashes 
 that fall through into the ashpan will be larg'e 
 and represent unconsumed fuel. The sides, front 
 and back ends of the grate should be looked to, and 
 the bars at these places fitted in “snugly.” to 
 prevent as much as possible the access of larg'e 
 volumes of cold air there ; the firebox plates, owing 
 to the presence of water on the other side of them, 
 are much below the temperature at which coal is 
 ignited, and as all the air that enters must be raised 
 to the proper heat before it assists in combustion, it 
 follows that air should be prevented from impinging 
 upon the side plates before it has chemically com- 
 bined with the coal and fire, and proper combustion 
 has taken place. Some engineers carry this idea 
 to its logical conclusion, and make the sides and 
 both ends completely air-tight by fixing dead plates 
 round the edge of the bars, rigorously excluding all 
 air from entering there. 
 
 The proper height for the bars is another important 
 matter which is often slighted, a little difference in 
 this will often affect the steaming powers of an engine 
 
23 
 
 considerably. It is generally conceded that the 
 rear of the grate should be higher than the front, 
 a slight slope allowing the fire to shake down as 
 the engine runs ; this keeps the fire on the move, 
 the air spaces clean and retards the formation ot 
 clinker. When the bars slope, care should be taken 
 in firing, and the back end, especially at the corners, 
 should be well supplied with coal, or otherwise cold 
 air will enter, with the bad effects already men- 
 tioned. 
 
 Some coal contains ingredients which form clinker 
 when it is burnt ; this is a melting together ot 
 various foreign matters, and to this the ash, etc., 
 adheres, making a covering which sticks to the 
 bars and prevents air from the ashpan having 
 access to the fire, this will cause loss of steam, 
 and in extreme cases melting of the bars them- 
 selves. When coal of this nature is used, a few 
 flint stones, large enough to remain upon the bars 
 and not fall through to the ashpan, should be 
 sprinkled over the fire before commencing the day's 
 work ; this is a good precaution, as then if clinker 
 does form it adheres to the stones instead of to 
 the bars, and can be broken up and more easily 
 lifted out of the firedoor by means of the “ slice." 
 
 The Ashpan should be cleaned out as often as 
 required, and a day's work should always be com- 
 menced with an empty ashpan, otherwise failure is 
 courted. Air cannot get to the firebars freely enough 
 to keep them cool if the ashpan is filled up, and con- 
 sequently they melt or bend, the temperature of the 
 contents of the firebox being considerably above the 
 melting point of cast-iron ; the bars are only kept in 
 a solid state by the proximity and inrush of cold air. 
 When the dampers are shut the ashpan should be 
 as nearly as possible air-tight ; for, although this 
 feature is not so important as in the smokebox, 
 there are occasions when a tight ashpan is of 
 assistance, as for instance, if the fire is dropped 
 
2 4 
 
 and it is necessary to move the engine whilst hot, 
 especially if it has to pass over a cold pit, the 
 closing of the damper-doors will prevent cold air 
 from entering the hot firebox and causing leakages 
 there, as already described. 
 
 When running, the firedoor and dampers should 
 be so regulated that proper proportions of air 
 .should be admitted both above the fire as well as 
 below the firebars, in order to obtain good com- 
 bustion. The amount admitted at the firedoor will 
 vary considerably with the grade of coal burned; 
 the more bituminous samples requiring most. 
 
 The firebox sides and top, more often the latter, 
 and the roof stay bolts will frequently become coated 
 with a hard deposit, when small coal which has 
 been well watered whilst in the bunker is burnt ; 
 this deposit also accumulates in the firebox ends of 
 the tubes and over the whole of the tubeplate, the 
 trouble being intensified when no brick arch is used. 
 This substance can be cleaned off roughly with 
 the “ slice/' and the tube ends pricked out with the 
 tube pricker, the roof being roughly cleaned with 
 the same tools, but when the engine is in the shed 
 and comparatively cool, time spent in the firebox to 
 thoroughly clean the plates will not be wasted and 
 be amply repaid when the engine is running. 
 
 The Tubes will have soot deposited in them as 
 they tend to extinguish the flames of the fire owing 
 to their restricted area, and also on account of their 
 reduced temperature from the water surrounding 
 them rapidly conducting the heat away. The soot 
 should be cleaned out as often as necessary by 
 means of tube rods, long pieces of wire from J to § 
 of an inch in diameter, with a suitable handle 
 formed at one end and a series of holes at the other, 
 through these holes pieces of spunyarn or preferably 
 unravelled Manilla rope of about six inches in 
 length are threaded ; the rod itself is long enough 
 to conveniently go through the tubes, so that when 
 
25 
 
 It is passed through — all soot, etc , is cleaned out, 
 either into th -i firebox at one end or the smokebox 
 at the other. The reason for the preference for 
 Manilla rope is that it is stiffer and will therefore 
 brush better than spunyarn, which soon becomes 
 
 dead/' The larger the tubes to be swept the more 
 strands of rope will be needed, and consequently the 
 more holes will be required in the rod end. 
 
 If the blower is kept on whilst the tubes are being 
 swept, the soot will be carried upwards, and so 
 clear of the operator ; soot can be much more easily 
 removed when the boiler is hot than when cold. 
 
 Steam or air jets are also used for cleaning 
 tubes, the former has the objection, however, that 
 when the tubes are long and the boiler cool a 
 portion of the steam condenses and forms water 
 which combines with the soot and stops the tubes 
 at the ends farthest from that in which the jet is 
 inserted. Scrapers are also used to a limited 
 extent on tubes of large diameter. 
 
 As already mentioned, a Smokebox that is 
 not perfectly air-tight is likely to give trouble, it 
 not attended to. Often the men who build up the 
 smokebox are not careful enough to fit the plates 
 together properly, thinking that a rough job like a 
 smokebox can be finished anyhow, this is decidedly 
 a mistake, for any leakages which admit air, not 
 only impair the vacuum created by the blast, and 
 so minimise its effect on the fire, but also allow the 
 plates near the leaks to be burnt away, as air entering* 
 there causes combustion of the fine ashes drawn 
 through the tubes. 
 
 If leaks are near the bottom of the smokebox, as 
 at the joints of the tube-plate with the cylinders, 
 and the side plates with the frames, especially at 
 the corners which are likely to be faulty fits, the 
 best remedy is to get a bucket full of heavy cement 
 or fire-clay and thickly coat these parts with it, this 
 will generally effectually prevent access of air, and 
 
26 
 
 will also preserve the plates. A layer of bricks and 
 fire-clay over the top of the cylinders is also a pre- 
 caution, as it prevents the ashes drawn through the 
 tubes from coming in actual contact with the metal. 
 Cylinders have often to be renewed by being too 
 thin on top, not owing to wear in the bore by the 
 piston, but to being corroded away by the combus- 
 tion and chemical action of ingredients of the 
 ashes. 
 
 Leaky Tubes are often caused by bad firing or 
 heavily forcing the engine. The former malpractice 
 causes leakage by reason of the varying temperature 
 of the firebox ; when the fire is thin and bright, 
 intense heat is given off but after a heavy charge 
 of coal has been put in, a great reduction of tempera- 
 ture ensues. The tubes are affected by this before 
 the tubeplate, as they are so much thinner and 
 more closely in contact with the gases, consequently 
 they contract and leave minute spaces between their 
 circumference and the holes in the tubeplates 
 through which water is forced. When a boiler is 
 liable to this defect great care should be taken with 
 it ; the fire should be kept well alight and brightly 
 burning, and very small charges of coal put on at 
 each firing, the fire-door being* kept as far as 
 possible in the working position, and restored after 
 each one or two shovelfuls of coal are introduced. 
 
 When entering a tunnel or terminal station, when 
 the damper will have to be shut, partially, if not 
 entirely, the above precautions should be carefully 
 observed, and a medium bright fire, not too large, 
 but sufficient to prevent the access of cold air to 
 the tubes maintained. When tubes are leaking 
 badly, bran put into the water-tank and allowed to 
 work into the boiler with the water is often effective 
 in mitigating the trouble but when this is done 
 great care should be taken with the injectors, and 
 they should both be operated and kept in good 
 working order, as if one only is used the other may 
 
have its waterways clogged with the bran and 
 then refuse to work when required. 
 
 Should a tube burst and allow the water to escape, 
 it is necessary to stop it up entirely. This is usually 
 done by means of cast-iron tube plugs, a supply of 
 
 which are always 
 carried on the engine; 
 these are driven into 
 each end of the de- 
 fective-tube. In such 
 a contingency both 
 injectors should be 
 kept on, so that the 
 water level may be 
 maintained as far as 
 possible, and the 
 steam pressure re- 
 duced in the boiler, 
 then the blower op- 
 ened so that the 
 steam and water may 
 be drawn towards, 
 the smokebox and 
 away from the fire- 
 box end of the tube, 
 which should always, 
 be plugged first be- 
 cause it is the more 
 awkward to get at, 
 and also because it 
 is desirable to pre- 
 serve the fire ; after- 
 wards the smokebox 
 end can be dealt with. 
 When the plugs have entered the tube ends, a 
 few sharp blows should be administered to 
 keep them in place, but care must be exercised 
 to see that the tube end is not driven from 
 its seating in the tubeplate at the same time,. 
 
28 
 
 or a much more serious defect will be caused. It is 
 not desirable to stand directly in front of a plug that 
 is being driven in, as the steam and water pressure 
 in the tube may drive it out again with considerable 
 force. If, owing to the escaping steam, it is difficult 
 to see the defective tube in the firebox, a piece of 
 lighted oily waste placed on the brick arch may 
 help, but if the “blow” is bad and this will not 
 keep alight, it will be necessary to go to the smoke- 
 box end and put a tube-cleaning rod into the leaky 
 tube, which can be usually seen from that end, push 
 it through to the firebox, and then insert the plug 
 into that hole the rod appears in. Fig. 2 shows a 
 section through a locomotive boiler, and indicates 
 the method in which these plugs are put in — that at 
 the firebox end by means of the “plugging iron,” 
 •and that of the smokebox by hand. 
 
 If the leak is so bad that it is not possible to tem- 
 porarily remedy it, and the engine is some distance 
 away from a station whence assistance can be ob- 
 tained, it will be necessary to work home and the fire 
 must be taken out or smothered by throwing* in 
 ballast or earth, and when the temperature and 
 pressure have fallen, the fireman must get into the 
 firebox, put in the plug by hand and fix it ; the 
 fire can then be re-lighted and the engine proceed 
 on its journey. If no proper plugs are upon the 
 engine a piece of wood cut to fit tightly in the tube 
 will do if it is driven well into the tube, for all that 
 projects from the end will naturally be burnt off. 
 The bursting of tubes is not nearly so common an 
 occurrence now as it was in the early days of rail- 
 roading, owing to the universal use of weldless and 
 solid drawn tubes for locomotive boilers. 
 
 Various other parts of the boiler, particularly 
 stays and joints in the structure itself, may give 
 trouble by leaking*, and if these defects are in the 
 barrel or any other portion it is quite out of the 
 engineman's power to remedy them, and the troubles 
 
29 
 
 should be at once reported for attention. Defects 
 of this nature in the internal firebox, however, may 
 be partially counteracted by the same careful firing- 
 that is beneficial when leaky tubes are encountered. 
 
 Engines should be moved as little as possible 
 with their own steam whilst hot, and after the fire 
 has been dropped, for a large body of cold air will 
 be drawn through the tubes by the blast, causing 
 leakage there by contraction. For the same reason 
 the injectors should never be put on after removal 
 of the fire. 
 
 Leakage at the Stays is often caused by accu- 
 mulation of dirt or scale inside the boiler, which pre- 
 vents the water from having access to the plates and 
 stays, and causes local overheating and consequent 
 leakage ; frequent washing out should lessen the 
 possibilities of this, but if it continues the stays, 
 require caulking at their inside ends. 
 
 Priming, or the mixture of a large proportion 
 of water with the steam as it leaves the boiler, is. 
 a very trying and sometimes dangerous trouble. 
 It may be due to the water level being too high,, 
 bringing the surface of the water too near the 
 place at which the steam is drawn off. The remedy 
 in this case is obvious : carry a lower water level. 
 Priming is, however, more often a result of the 
 unsuitability of the water carried, greasy or dirty 
 water will cause it, and it will occur if the water 
 is not changed frequently. It can sometimes be 
 partially cured by adding a small quantity of 
 petroleum to the water in the tender, but this must 
 be done cautiously, or it will cause the tubes to 
 leak. 
 
 The best way to reduce the priming when running* 
 is to close the regulator as nearly as possible, thus, 
 leaving only a small outlet for the steam (wire- 
 drawing it, as it is termed). This has the effect of 
 throwing back the moisture, and when the surface 
 of the water in the boiler has settled down, the 
 
30 
 
 regulator is gradually and steadily opened to the 
 required amount. The regulator handle should 
 not be moved too suddenly at any time, but special 
 care must be exercised when the boiler has a 
 tendency to prime. 
 
 Scum Cocks are sometimes fitted at about the 
 w r ater level, then the surface of the water which 
 contains some of the lighter bodies liable to cause 
 priming can be blown off at suitable intervals. The 
 same result can be secured when no scum cocks are 
 fitted by filling the boiler as full as possible, and 
 blowing off hard at the safety valves, lifting them 
 slightly for this purpose. Any surplus water can 
 afterwards be let out at the blow off cock until the 
 proper level is reached. When an engine is running 
 with water that is liable to prime, the level of the 
 top of the water, as shown by the water gauge, 
 cannot be entirely depended upon, as it will fall 
 very considerably when the regulator is closed ; 
 care should therefore be taken not to run with it so 
 low that the firebox crownplate will be uncovered 
 when steam is shut off. Priming is dangerous, as 
 the water works into the cylinders, and being non- 
 compressible is liable to break the covers, pistons, 
 etc., unless released from the cocks and even if 
 nothing breaks, it strains the working parts of the 
 motion. 
 
 The Injector Feed will, with a heavy train, 
 have to be kept on almost continually in order to 
 maintain the necessary water level in the boiler. It 
 should be noted here that it is always easier to keep 
 up a constant water level and steam pressure than 
 to raise them again if once allowed to fall. 
 
 The refusal of the injectors to work is a common 
 complaint on locomotives in service. It is often due 
 to priming, for steam highly charged with water 
 will not operate injectors. When, however, the 
 failure is not traceable to this cause the injector 
 should be examined, and the small cock usually 
 
3i 
 
 fitted at the delivery end of it opened to let the 
 water out of the delivery pipe ; this may enable 
 the injector to start. The cock is shown at A, 
 Fig. 3. If steam blows out of this cock when open 
 it is a sign that the valve in the clack box fitted on 
 the boiler, shown at B, is sticking up, and this must 
 be closed before the injector will start. A few taps 
 with a hammer, or preferably a block of wood, will 
 often cause it to fall into its place. In the event of 
 both injectors absolutely refusing to act and no 
 remedies avail, so that water cannot be fed into the 
 boiler, it is advisable to proceed very cautiously with 
 the engine so that the water level may not fall too 
 
 low, procure assistance, and come off the train 
 into a siding clear of the main line. The fire 
 should then be thrown out to allow the engine 
 to cool down, and when the pressure has fallen, 
 take off the cap of each clackbox and examine the 
 valve, remove the obstruction if there be one, re- 
 place the valve, and if sufficient water is left in the 
 boiler to safely do it, raise steam again and work 
 Tome. 
 
 An injector that repeatedly refuses to work or 
 hies off frequently should be booked to be examined, 
 as it is probable some of the cones inside require 
 attention if loose or badly worn, or if they are not in 
 
32 
 
 their proper positions a good working injector cannot 
 be secured. Many injectors are now made with a 
 clackbox in combination, and are fitted with a stop- 
 cock, by closing which any part of the injector can 
 be examined whilst the boiler is under steam. This 
 type of injector is usually fitted to the firebox front, 
 and has an internal delivery pipe leading to the 
 boiler barrel, which must be kept free from deposit. 
 
 After repeated trials at starting an injector it will 
 become heated to the temperature of the steam, and 
 it will be necessary to allow it to cool down by 
 allowing the feed to run through it before it can be 
 4 4 coaxed 5 * into feeding the boiler ; with the last-named 
 type fitted to the firebox front, a handfull of waste 
 and a bucket of cold water will sometimes overcome 
 the difficulty. 
 
 REGULATORS will often work very stiffly, which 
 can be traced to the packing in the stuffing box 
 upon the front being too tight, and to a want of 
 lubrication there. It is a good plan to have a hole 
 in the top of the gland, through which oil can be 
 fed to the packing. The valve faces also get dry 
 and cause the valves to work badly. This can be 
 prevented by putting a little oil in the water tank 
 and allowing the injectors to feed it into the boiler, 
 but this must be carefully done as already noted. 
 A lubricator is sometimes fitted on the dome for 
 oiling the valve faces. 
 
 Failure of regulators of the slide-valve type, due 
 to breakage, is most likely to occur at the pin joint 
 upon the arm of the rod lifting the valves, or to the 
 joint connecting the valves to the lifting rod. If 
 the former fails and the valves cannot be lifted, 
 they will both close the ports, and consequently 
 the engine cannot be moved, causing a total 
 stoppage. If, however, the top joint fails, and the 
 small valve only will open the ports (in most cases 
 the larger valve alone has a lip at the top prevent- 
 ing it from falling off the face when uncoupled) the 
 
33 
 
 train can still be moved, if not too heavy, and when 
 it is necessary to stop, as the regulator cannot be 
 closed, the engine can be put into mid-gear, or even 
 reversed if necessary. The brakes can also be 
 applied, and the cylinder cocks opened to prevent 
 steam accumulating in the cylinders. If when 
 running there should be any risk of the engine be- 
 coming unmanageable, the best procedure is to let 
 the steam pressure down, and so reduce the power. 
 
 Water Gauge Glasses should be well looked 
 after, as the bursting of one may prove an awkward 
 accident even if the column is provided with a pro- 
 tector the automatic valves fail to act. This con- 
 tingency should, therefore, be anticipated when 
 possible, generally the glass wears thin at the edges 
 of the gland nuts, and it should be taken out and 
 replaced by a new one before it becomes dangerous. 
 It is advisable for drivers to carry one or two spare 
 glasses with them cut to correct length, so that 
 when breakage occurs a new one may be put in 
 without loss of time. 
 
 In putting in a New Glass the top nut of the 
 fitting should be taken out and the old glass re- 
 moved, an operation much easier to perform if the 
 glass is not broken ; if ordinary hemp packing is 
 used, it should be taken out and the passage for the 
 new glass cleared, the latter must then be put in 
 from the top, a short piece of wood of about the 
 same diameter as the glass being introduced above 
 and the top nut screwed down on to it. This will 
 hold the glass down and prevent any of the packing 
 working under it and partially blocking up the 
 waterway of the column, which might cause a false 
 water level to be shown in the glass. When the 
 top and bottom glands are repacked the piece of 
 wood should be removed and top nut replaced. If 
 cones are used for packing, as they often are, 
 the operation is much simplified, as the gland nuts 
 will simply have to be slacked back, the old glass 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 taken out and the new one put in, the glass being 
 held down as before until the glands are screwed up. 
 
 In making the screw joint at the top, or, in fact, 
 any screwed joint, red lead should not be used, as 
 it sets hard and increases the risk of breaking the 
 fittings should these have to be hurriedly dis- 
 connected ; a little tallow or, failing that, oil should 
 alone be used. 
 
 It is good policy for the driver himself to examine 
 the water gauges and see that they are in good 
 working order, by occasionally disconnecting them 
 and cleaning the inside valves and the steam and 
 waterways. He is one of the most likely persons 
 to be scalded if they should fail when running, and 
 therefore one of the most interested ; if the cleaning 
 is systematically done it will not be found a 
 troublesome task. Attention is especially necessary 
 when the columns are of the automatic shut-off 
 kind, as scale from the water may clog up the 
 moving parts, and then should the glass burst they 
 will not act. 
 
 The Test Cocks, which are always fitted in 
 addition to the gauge column, should also receive 
 attention, the plug being taken out and oiled 
 frequently, otherwise it is likely to set fast in the 
 body and the handle be broken off before it can 
 be moved. Slacking back about once a week will 
 prevent this, and then when required they will be 
 found in good working order, and the knowledge 
 that they are so will prevent a great deal of anxiety. 
 
 A Blowing Joint on the front tubeplate where 
 the elbow for the steam pipe to the cylinders is fixed 
 is a very bad defect, as it destroys the effect of the 
 blast upon the fire, and when this happens it is 
 desirable to keep the blower on to tend to draw the 
 steam away from the tube ends and help maintain 
 a good draft. 
 
 The best precaution against failure from any of 
 the causes above-mentioned are to carefully examine 
 
35 
 
 the boiler and fittings before each trip, and to exer- 
 cise constant watchfulness during the running, and 
 as far as possible remedy small defects before they 
 reach dangerous proportions. 
 
 The Various Strains put upon the structure of 
 the boiler by varying steam pressures and consequent 
 temperatures are considerable, and in order to 
 guard against them, the pressure should be kept as 
 nearly as possible uniform, and the water level the 
 same ; if the latter is allowed to fall and the steam 
 pressure to rise, to be subsequently reduced by the 
 injection of a large quantity of cold water, the 
 sudden lowering of temperature which ensues will 
 cause the joints of the boiler to be unduly strained. 
 
 Opening the firehole door, when there is but a 
 thin fire on the bars, and whilst the blower is on, 
 or the regulator open will cause a considerable 
 draft of air through the tubes, and contract 
 them in their holes in the tube-plate and cause 
 leakage. 
 
 The Cleaning of the inner surfaces of the boiler 
 is of great importance if it is desired to add to its 
 efficiency and life. The efficiency is increased by 
 the removal of scale, as then the heat is more 
 effectually transferred through the plates from the 
 fire to the water, whilst the life of the boiler is pre- 
 served by the absence of scale and deposit on the 
 inside, they being non-conductors of heat, whose 
 presence prevent the conveyance of the heat to the 
 water which should protect the plates and keep 
 them comparatively cool. 
 
 Periodical Cleaning out of the boiler is most 
 necessary and should be carefully and thoroughly 
 done,, the interval between these washings out 
 varies very considerably in different localities ; the 
 quality of the water used largely determines the 
 periods, some water being so good as to make little 
 or no deposit, whilst some is so bad that if the 
 boiler is left for but a short time without removal of 
 
36 
 
 the dirt, the heating surfaces would be almost use- 
 less, whilst liability to damage by overheating 
 would increase. 
 
 The usual method of detaching scale and re- 
 moving it from the inner surfaces of a locomotive 
 boiler, always more or less inaccessible, is by means 
 of ; jets of water directed through the plug-holes 
 provided in various places for the purpose, a clean- 
 ing rod of steel wire is inserted in an adjacent hole 
 to that into which the water jet is directed, and by 
 
 being continually worked about it loosens the scale, 
 and the water carries it away to the lowest point of 
 the boiler, round the firebox foundation ring, whence 
 it is finally removed through the plugs or hand- 
 holes provided there. 
 
 The usual positions for MUD PLUGS are shown in 
 Fig. 4. In the front, or smokebox tube-plate, there 
 are generally two just above the top row of tubes. 
 
37 
 
 one on each side of the centre clear of the blast- 
 pipe at A, sometimes two others among the tubes 
 as at B, and two more along the last row of tubes 
 near the bottom of the boiler barrel as at C. In 
 the back-plate of the boiler three or four are placed 
 along the level of the top of the copper box as at D, 
 others at the sides of the copper box as at E, and 
 several round the bottom of the firebox, just above 
 the foundation ring, the positions at F.F. being the 
 most common ; all these are varied a little on 
 different engines to make them more easy of access. 
 
 In localities where large quantities of dirt and 
 scale are formed, mud-holes or hand-holes larger 
 than the plugs are provided through which it is 
 possible to get out the larger pieces of scale. The 
 usual positions for these are at H.H., and in cases 
 where hand-holes are used the mud-plugs at K are 
 not put in. 
 
 Some engines, especially those fitted with Bel- 
 paire boxes, have two or three plugs situated on 
 each side of the outer firebox, at the level of the top 
 of the inner box as at F, for the direction of a cross 
 jet of water as well as those injected longitudinally. 
 
 The size of the mud plugs vary, but are com- 
 monly from about i J-in. at the smaller end, enlarg- 
 ing* to i|-in. diameter at the larger, threaded with 
 a tapering thread, so that as the holes' and plugs 
 wear the holes may be enlarged a little by means 
 of a taper tap, and another portion of the plug* used. 
 A square head provides for the use of a spanner to 
 screw them home. 
 
 As the thickness of the boiler plate does not allow 
 for many threads to be formed at the plug holes, a 
 patch is often studded on to the boiler. This has a 
 boss with a hole tapped through, and when it is 
 worn the patch is removed and another put on. 
 
 Washing Out. — When a boiler requires washing* 
 out, it should be allowed to cool down before run- 
 ning the water off, otherwise the plates will be 
 
38 
 
 strained by the sudden contraction ; when it is suffici- 
 ently cooled the water should be allowed to escape 
 by the blow-off cock, placed at the level of the top 
 of the foundation ring either upon one side or at 
 the front or back of the firebox, as found most 
 convenient on the particular engine. 
 
 If, for any reason, it is found necessary to 
 quickly cool an engine, a good way is to let all the 
 steam blow out through the various steam cocks, 
 then take out one of the top mud plugs and insert the 
 nozzle of the wash-out pipe ; open the blow-off cock 
 slightly, and as the hot water escapes at the bottom, 
 allow cold water to enter at the top, the hot will then 
 be quickly, yet gradually, replaced by cold, and the 
 boiler is cooled without unduly straining it. 
 
 When the plugs are removed the nozzle of the 
 hose pipe is inserted in each hole in turn and 
 water injected through it, the cleaning rod being* 
 worked through an adjacent hole at the same time. 
 Commencing at the plugholes along the top of 
 the firebox, the highest point, the dirt is dislodged 
 from it first, then the sides of the firebox are dealt 
 with, and finally the front tube plate, washing the 
 dirt down among the tubes until it accumulates at 
 the bottom of the barrel ; from there it is driven 
 towards the firebox, down the sides of which it falls 
 ready for removal. A final wash all round in the 
 same order is desirable, and then the foundation 
 ring is cleared and all dirt that has accumulated 
 there removed through the mud or hand holes. 
 
 After washing out all the plugs must be replaced 
 and screwed home tight, except one of the top ones ; 
 here the nozzle of the hose pipe is inserted and the 
 boiler filled up with water ready for lighting the fire. 
 
 Care should be taken in screwing up all the plugs 
 before lighting* up, as it is very dangerous to attempt 
 to tighten them when steam has been raised. 
 
 Any plug that does not fit tightly in the hole but 
 allows steam to blow past should be taken out and 
 
39 
 
 the hole retapped to renew the thread, otherwise the 
 blowing steam will make luture tightness still more 
 difficult, as it wears away the thread. 
 
 Four Nozzles are usually required to properly 
 wash out a boiler — three ^straight ones, one short A, 
 Fig. 5, one medium, B, one long, C, and one bent, 
 D. The medium one is used for the top and sides 
 of the box, and in all holes requiring a straight jet; 
 the short one for holes in which the longer one 
 cannot be put, and for filling up the boiler ; whilst 
 the bent one is used for directing a jet along 
 the back plate. The long straight jet is only used 
 when the tubes are “ sifted.” The operation of 
 
 
 J 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mm 
 
 
 W*~ " 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 “sifting” consists in the removal of several of the 
 tubes in order that dirt and scale which has evaded 
 the usual cleaning operations, and has got thickly 
 embedded among them, may be cleared out. 
 
 The nozzles illustrated are attached in turn to a 
 flexible hose pipe which fs coupled at one end to a 
 water hydrant, and has at the other a screw thread 
 to accommodate them. 
 
4 o 
 
 In the washing out operations above described the 
 water used is assumed to be delivered at the pressure 
 of the main, merely a few pounds, but in many 
 sheds, plant is provided by means of which the water 
 is forced at a pressure of some 60 lbs. per sq. in., and 
 then the removal of scale is much more effectually 
 performed. 
 
 The more modern method of washing out is to use 
 hot water at ioo lbs. pressure, a permanent steam 
 pipe being provided in the shed for supplying boiler 
 steam to injectors fitted to carry the water through 
 flexible hose pipes to the nozzles, and delivering it 
 at high pressure and temperature. 
 
 The advantage of using hot water is that the 
 scale is more readily removed by it than it is by 
 cold, and no detrimental effect is produced on the 
 boiler if this is hot when being washed out. 
 
 To ascertain that all the scale is removed, a good 
 plan is to take a piece of greasy waste, light it and 
 fix it to the end of a rod long enough to reach to all 
 the places visible through the plug holes, this can be 
 inserted at the different holes, and if moved about 
 all the interior can be seen, and scale not removed 
 detected ; this precaution is especially necessary 
 along the firebox sides as dirt is liable to accumulate 
 on the stays, and if not removed local overheating 
 is likely to occur, and leaky stays result. 
 
4i 
 
 ENGINE FAILURES AND REMEDIES. 
 
 TY/HEN” taking charge of an engine, and before 
 leaving the shed, it is necessary that the 
 driver should personally see that everything is in 
 good working order about it, and that it is supplied 
 with fuel and water, and has a full equipment of 
 tools. The different oil cups should be correctly 
 adjusted and filled with lubricant, and all the visible 
 parts of the motion carefully examined. 
 
 At the end of the day's work, too, all repairs, etc., 
 that may be required, or any defects noticed during 
 the run, should be entered in the shed-book 
 appointed for the purpose, so that they may receive 
 proper attention before the engine goes out again. 
 
 With the most careful examination, however, 
 there will always be liability to failure in service, 
 owing to hidden flaws, weaknesses or breakdowns ; 
 for instance, priming may, as has already been 
 mentioned, cause damage to various parts of the 
 cylinders and strain the motion generally, whilst 
 slipping, especially if sand be applied to the rails 
 When the wheels are rapidly revolving and the 
 regulator open, may cause the motion, coupling’ 
 rods, etc., to be very severely strained, even to 
 beyond the point they are capable of resisting, and 
 then breakage or failure is almost certain to ensue. 
 
 Before considering these mishaps and failures, or 
 actually dealing with any specific defect, a few 
 words should be given upon the relative positions 
 of the various parts of the motion with regard to 
 each other. This will be convenient for reference, 
 and enable many points *to be more easily explained. 
 
 Taking an inside cylindered engine, it being the 
 more common type in this country, with the 
 
42 
 
 cylinders placed between the frame-plates, the con- 
 necting rods are connected to the cranks, of which 
 two are formed upon the driving axle. 
 
 These CRANKS are set so that one of them is a 
 quarter of a turn in advance of the other ; then 
 when one piston is at the end of its stroke and 
 cylinder, with its crank upon the dead centre, and 
 exerting no turning effect, the other one is at about 
 the centre of its stroke, and its crank is in the 
 position for exerting the maximum power, thus 
 each crank in turn performs its share in the rotation 
 of the driving-wheels. It is by the position of the 
 two cranks in regard to each other that it is possible 
 to tell whether an engine is right or left-handed. 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 When a crank axle is revolved away from the 
 observer, if that crank upon his right is a quarter of 
 a turn in advance of that upon his left, the crank is 
 said to be a “ right-handed" one ; if, however, that 
 upon his left is in advance of that on his right by a 
 quarter turn, it is termed “ left-handed." Fig. i 
 illustrates a right-handed crank, and Fig. 2 a left- 
 handed one. 
 
 It does not affect the working of an engine 
 whether the cranks are right or left-handed, but it 
 does modify the relative positions of the parts of 
 the motion when a driver sets his engine to “ try 
 her over.” For convenience of reference names 
 and numbers are given to the various positions of 
 
43 
 
 the cranks during their revolutions. These names 
 may vary somewhat on different railways, but those 
 given herein are fairly common. 
 
 When an engine stands with one piston in its 
 extreme front position, or end of its stroke, the 
 crank that is coupled to it is said to be on its “ front 
 centre ” ; when the piston has moved to the opposite 
 end of the cylinder, the crank is on its “ back 
 centre 55 ; when the crank is exactly midway between 
 the front and back centres and uppermost it is said 
 to be on its “ top centre / 5 and when below on its 
 “ bottom centre . 55 These four positions divide the 
 revolution into four equal parts, and are termed 
 “ centres . 55 When the crank is halfway between 
 front and bottom centres it is on its “ bottom front 
 
 quarter , 55 midway between bottom and back on its 
 “ bottom back quarter , 55 between back and top upon 
 its “top back quarter , 55 and when midway between 
 top and front centres on its “ top front quarter . 55 
 The distance between each adjacent centres is thus 
 sub-divided into two portions, and the path circle 
 into eight equal parts. These terms are, of course, 
 purely conventional, and are merely used for con- 
 venience of reference. 
 
 The Positions are numbered as follows : — For 
 right-handed engines : When the R crank is upon 
 the front centre and the L crank upon the top, the 
 revolution is assumed to commence, and this is 
 
44 
 
 termed the u first” position; turning an eighth of 
 a revolution the R crank reaches the “ bottom front 
 quarter/’ the L being upon the “top front quarter/’ 
 the “ second” position, and so on. Each eighth of 
 a turn gives a “ position.” Fig. 3 shows a right- 
 handed crank in each of the positions. 
 
 In a left-handed engine the same positions of the 
 R hand-crank are taken, but the L hand-crank will 
 be half a revolution in advance of the L hand-crank 
 of the right-handed engines. Thus, in the “ first” 
 position the R crank is on the front and the left 
 upon the bottom ; “ second” position R crank is on 
 “ bottom front quarter,” L crank is on “ bottom 
 back quarter,” and so on. 
 
 The Coupling or Side Rods are placed exactly 
 opposite the cranks upon the same side of the 
 •engine. In Fig. 3 the small circles denote the 
 positions of the coupling-rod pins, those in full lines 
 being' the left-hand side, exactly opposite the F 
 inside crank, and those dotted on the right-hand 
 pins being opposite the R inside crank. 
 
 The Location of the Slide Valves can be easily 
 found on consideration, and as the connecting and 
 piston rods upon each side of the engine are always 
 of the same length, it follows that the position of 
 the crosshead will indicate the position of the piston 
 connected to it. Thus, if the R crosshead is at the 
 centre of the stroke, the R piston will also be at the 
 centre of its stroke, etc. As the steam is admitted 
 to the steam chest it is by the aid of the slide valves 
 allowed to enter the port at one end of the cylinder, 
 and force the piston to the opposite end, the slide 
 valve at the same time providing, by means of its 
 cavity for the escape of any steam to the blast pipe 
 which may be on the other side of the piston. As it 
 moves along the valve opens the other port to steam, 
 and connects the first-mentioned one to exhaust; 
 thus the piston is alternately driven to and fro in the 
 cylinder, imparting motion to the driving wheels. 
 
FRONT. 
 
 45 
 
 TOP 
 
 BOTTOM. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 BACK, 
 
4 6 
 
 By the foregoing the ports open to steam can be 
 easily ascertained. Thus, if the R crank is on the 
 top centre, the R piston will be in about the centre 
 of its stroke, and the L crank will be on the back 
 centre, a dead position as far as any rotation of the 
 crank axle by it is concerned, and the R crank will 
 therefore have to do all the moving of the axle. If, 
 no\y, the reversing gear is put into the “fore” 
 position, this crank must be pulled over towards 
 the cylinder to revolve the wheels in the proper 
 direction, and as the steam has to be admitted 
 behind the piston, the back port must be open to 
 steam. If it is desired to move backwards, the lever 
 is shifted into “back" gear and steam admitted 
 through the front port to move the piston towards 
 the back of the cylinder. If the lever is put into 
 “mid" gear the slide valve occupies a position 
 midway between these two extremes and closes the 
 ports. During these movements the L valve has 
 not been shifted nearly so much as the R one has ; 
 in fact, only the difference by which the lead varies 
 when in “full" and “mid" gears. In engines 
 fitted with Joy’s gear and other motions where the 
 lead is constant the valve would not be moved 
 at all. 
 
 When the wheels have turned half a revolution 
 and the L crank is on the top centre, the L valve 
 will have greatest travel, and the R valve will simply 
 vary as the lead varies. These positions of the 
 valves will be further referred to in the description 
 of “ blows " from failures. 
 
 The Defects to Cylinders most likely to 
 occur in working, either from priming, wear or 
 other causes, are breakages of the port bars or 
 bridges between the steam and exhaust ports and 
 passages ; these are liable to crack or break, either 
 by reason of faulty lubrication or broken valves, 
 which may catch them in working. The cylinders 
 themselves may break or crack in places when 
 
47 
 
 worn thin, generally along the top, where the 
 smokebox ashes, etc., accumulate and destroy the 
 metal. Covers, pistons and rods, valves, spindles 
 and stuffing boxes will also get broken or blow, and 
 these parts being fairly accessible, they are com- 
 paratively easy to see ; but the failures inside the 
 cylinders and steam chest which are not visible 
 without disconnecting the covers, etc., have to be 
 detected by noticing the beats the steam makes 
 when escaping up the blast pipe. 
 
 When steam is admitted to the steam chests of 
 simple engines, and the engine is in working order, 
 for each revolution of the driving wheels four beats 
 will be given ; these should follow each other regu- 
 larly, with a correct interval between. Where 
 instead of four equal beats, say three beats and a 
 roar, or “ blow/' is given, it maybe at once assumed 
 that some internal part of the mechanism has be- 
 come defective, and by observing the position of the 
 cranks when the blow is given, the particular defect 
 may be located. 
 
 If when an engine is running, and during the 
 whole time the regulator is open, a “blow” is given 
 up the chimney in addition to the four distinct 
 beats, it is an indication that the faces of one or 
 both of the valves are bad, so that steam passes the 
 port bar and so up the exhaust pipe. To ascertain 
 which valve is at fault the engine should be set in 
 the “first” position (R crank on front L crank on 
 top) and lever put in mid-gear. This will test the 
 L valve, as its ports should be closed in this posi- 
 tion ; on opening the cylinder cocks if any steam 
 blows out of those on the left side it proves the L 
 Valve to be defective. To test the R valve put 
 engine in “third” position, R crank on top, and a 
 blow out of R cylinder cocks proves the R valve 
 defective. 
 
 Such defects, unless very serious, should not be 
 .sufficient to make it necessary to give up a train, but 
 
4 8 
 
 they should be booked at the shed, so that the valve 
 or valves maybe examined and renewed if desirable. 
 The engines of some railways . have a few holes 
 drilled in the back of the flange of the valves to the 
 depth that the flanges are allowed to wear, so that 
 when too thin they blow before breakage, and inti- 
 mate it is time to have them renewed. 
 
 Should a serious defect present itself which 
 necessitates the uncoupling or disconnecting of one 
 side of the engine, it should be located by the 
 engineman, if possible, before stopping, from ob- 
 servation of the beats and blows, and he should 
 then be able to stop his engine in such a position 
 that he can conveniently uncouple the necessary 
 attachments and disconnect the broken or defective 
 member, without wasting valuable time in examining 
 and testing valves and pistons ; a broken piston* 
 for instance, would give two beats and two blows 
 for each revolution of the crank, and there should 
 be no difficulty in ascertaining upon which side of 
 the engine the damage exists. 
 
 If, whilst the engine is moving slowly, notched 
 up in its running position with steam on, a b ow is 
 given as the R crank passes the front centre, and 
 continues until it reaches about the bottom centre* 
 followed by an ordinary beat, then as the R crank 
 reaches the back centre another blow, continuing* 
 until the crank passes the top, followed by an 
 ordinary beat, it proves that the R piston is defec- 
 tive, allowing the steam to pass, because the R 
 valve opens the R front port to steam as the crank 
 is at the front, and there should only be a beat 
 from the left hand side, if a heavy blow is com- 
 menced it is caused by the lead steam passing by 
 the piston, and escaping directly up the chimney 
 through the back port and the cavity of the valve. 
 When the point of cut-off is reached the front valve 
 is closed to steam and the blow stops ; then, as the 
 back port is opened the steam blows by the piston* 
 
49 
 
 through the front port to the blast pipe, as before. 
 If the blow is given when the L crank is in the 
 positions indicated it of course follows that it is the 
 L piston that is at fault. 
 
 The magnitude of blows will, as a rule, be suffici- 
 ent to indicate whether they are caused by a badly 
 broken piston head, or from leaky or defective 
 piston rings only. If they are very serious, and a 
 broken piston is feared, it will be Ipest to uncouple 
 the broken side, as pieces of the broken head may 
 become detached and catch in the ports^ or get 
 between the portion of the piston remaining attached 
 to the piston rod, and one or the other of the end 
 covers, and break them. Leaky rings, however, 
 need not necessarily cause a failure, and if possible 
 the run should be continued unless a convenient 
 depot is reached for changing engines ; the trouble 
 however, should be booked and the rings put into 
 proper working order before the engine again 
 comes out. 
 
 If it is necessary to uncouple, the slide valve 
 should be closed first, when possible, as otherwise 
 if the regulator leaks at all steam may accumulate 
 in the cylinder and move the piston when the con- 
 necting rod is uncoupled from the crosshead, and 
 cause injury to the men working on it, or do 
 damage to the engine, but the methods of doing 
 this work will be left until the blows have been 
 dealt with. 
 
 Supposing a blow is detected and cannot be 
 traced when running, the engine should be put into 
 a siding where no delay is caused to traffic, etc., 
 and the valves and pistons tested by steam. There 
 are two methods of setting the engine for doing this 
 work, both having their advocates, the first is with 
 the cranks on the centres, and the second with the 
 cranks on the quarters. The former method tests one 
 side of the engine at a time, and the latter one end, 
 that is front or back end of cylinders, etc. 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 The best positions for testing on the centres are 
 the first position for trying the L hand side, and the 
 third position for trying the R hand side, because 
 in these the side that is not being examined has its 
 crank upon the front centre, for as it is usual to set 
 all the rods in the motion a little short, to allow for 
 expansion when heated, and also for the engine 
 settling upon the springs, there is more likelihood 
 of an ample lead being provided at the front end 
 than at the back, so that the port at the front end 
 is not closed in any position of the lever. 
 
 For testing on the quarters the best positions are 
 the second for testing the front end, and the sixth 
 for testing the back end, as then the small ends are 
 in a straight line across the engine, and lay exactly 
 side by side, so that by observing them it is easier 
 to set the cranks as near as possible in the right 
 positions. 
 
 A defective piston can best be determined by a 
 blow up the blast pipe rather than by escape from 
 the cylinder cocks, as the tendency for the steam 
 passing by the piston is to go up the blast pipe by 
 way of the port at the opposite end of the cylinder 
 in preference to passing through the small hole in 
 the cylinder cock; when examining blows from 
 leaky or defective valves, port bars or faces, how- 
 ever, there is often a saving in time by using the 
 cocks in order to locate the defect. 
 
 Method of Setting on Centres. — Set the 
 engine in first position, R crank on front centre, L 
 crank on top centre, and put the brakes hard on so 
 that the engine cannot move, put lever into fore 
 gear and open the regulator a little and a blow is 
 given up the chimney, on pulling up the lever into 
 mid gear this stops, but if this commences again as 
 back gear is reached it indicates that the L piston 
 is defective and allows steam to pass it, as before 
 described ; if however the blow is not given in both 
 fore and back gear, open the cylinder cocks and 
 
5 1 
 
 observe them as well as the chimney and see which 
 the steam blows out of as the lever is moved. If 
 the blow up the chimney is given in fore, but not 
 in back gear, and steam blows out of L back cock 
 in fore gear, but not in back gear, the left back port 
 bar is defective, and allows steam to pass direct 
 from the steam chest to the exhaust port as long as 
 the slide valve leaves the back port open to steam, 
 and the blows from the left back cock stopping as 
 the valve closes, proves that the valve is not at fault. 
 If, however, the blow is given from the left back 
 cock in both fore and mid gear, but not in back 
 gear, the back lap of left valve is defective, and does 
 not close the port to steam. If no blow is given up 
 the chimney in fore and mid gear, but there is one 
 in back gear, and no blow from the cylinder cocks 
 on left-hand side in mid gear, the left front port bar 
 is at fault. If there is a blow in mid gear from left 
 front cock it proves that the front lap of left valve 
 is bad and allows steam to pass by it when the port 
 should be closed. If a blow up the chimney is given 
 in all positions of the gear it proceeds from some 
 defect in the other side of the engine, and gets 
 through the opening for lead upon that side, and 
 herein lies the advantage of setting the engine with 
 the crank of the side not being tested upon the front 
 centre, for, then if there is a difference in the lead at 
 either end of the cylinder, it is more likely to be 
 noticeable there, the port being always open, other- 
 wise, if the lead was less, and became still less as 
 mid gear was reached, and if the engine had been 
 set in the fifth position with R crank upon the back 
 centre, it would be possible to have a blow in fore 
 gear and none in back gear, then it would be 
 feasible to attribute it to a defective front port bar, 
 whereas the actual fault might be a leaky R piston, 
 for the engine might have lead in fore gear but not 
 in back gear. Such an error would not be so likely 
 to occur if the piston was placed at the front end, as 
 
52 
 
 then if the lead was greater an error in the setting 
 of the valves would not be so noticeable, and 
 would not materially interfere with the blows. 
 
 If a blow is given all round, or if a defect is known 
 to exist by reason of blows, given when running, 
 yet none is noticed in the above position, the cause 
 of it has not been located, and the engine should 
 be set in the third position R crank on bottom 
 centre, L crank on front centre, the lever put into 
 fore gear, and a little steam applied ; then, if the 
 blow is given up the chimney and stops as mid gear 
 is reached, commencing again as back gear is 
 approached, the R piston is defective. If the blow 
 is given up the chimney in fore, but not in mid or 
 back gear, and there is no blow from R front cock 
 in mid gear, the R front port bar is at fault. If, 
 however, the blow is from the R front cock in mid 
 gear, the front lap of R valve is defective. 
 
 If, when the engine is set in the first position and 
 no blow is given from the chimney in any position 
 of the lever, but on setting it in the third position a 
 blow is given up the chimney in back gear only, 
 and there is no blow from R back cock in mid gear, 
 it follows that the valve is doing its duty, and the 
 defect lies in the R back port bar ; if the blow is 
 given from the R back cock . in mid gear, it proves 
 that the back lap of R valve is defective, and not 
 covering the ports when in its middle position. 
 
 If, instead of testing the engine by setting it on 
 the centres as above described, the other method, 
 that of setting it on the quarters, is chosen, the 
 mode of procedure will be as follows : — 
 
 Set the engine in second position, R crank on 
 bottom front quarter, L crank on top front quarter ; 
 then in the sixth position, R crank on top back 
 quarter, L crank on bottom back quarter, and watch 
 the chimney and the cock blows as before. 
 
 When the engine is in fore gear, and a blow is 
 given up the chimney in both second and sixth 
 
53 
 
 positions, the R piston is at fault. If the blow is 
 given in both positions with the lever in back gear, 
 the L piston is defective. 
 
 If the chimney blow is given in fore gear in the 
 second but not in the sixth positions, it may proceed 
 either from the R front port bar or front lap of R 
 valve, and to determine exactly which of the two it 
 is, set the engine in the sixth position and put the 
 lever into back gear, and observe which cocks are 
 emitting steam ; if from the R front cock, it is the 
 front lap of R valve, but if no steam issues from 
 the cock it is the R front port bar that is defective. 
 
 When a blow up the chimney is given in forward 
 gear in the sixth but not in the second position, it 
 is the back lap of R valve, or R back port bar, and 
 these again have to be separated by testing in the- 
 second position with lever in back gear, then a blow 
 from the R back cock proves it to be the back lap 
 of R valve, but no blow from this cock determines 
 that the R back port bar is at fault. 
 
 If a blow up the chimney is given when the lever 
 is in back gear in the second but not in the sixth 
 position, either the L front port bar or the front lap 
 of L valve is defective, and to ascertain which of them 
 it is, put the lever into fore gear and the engine in 
 the sixth position, and a blow from the L front cock 
 indicates front lap of L valve defective, whilst no 
 blow from this cock shows that it is the L front port 
 bar that is causing the trouble. 
 
 If a blow up the chimney is given in the sixth 
 but not in the second position with lever in back 
 gear, it is either the L back port bar or back lap of 
 L valve, therefore put the engine in the second 
 position and lever into fore gear, and a blow from 
 the L back cock indicates the back lap of the L 
 valve, and no blow from this cock proves that the L 
 back port bar is defective. 
 
 Having located the defect by the blows, or seen 
 it it visible, and determined that it is necessary to 
 
54 
 
 uncouple the defective side of the engine and work 
 on with the other, it will be best in all cases, as 
 already observed, to disconnect the valve gear 
 and fix the slide valve in its central position, and 
 thus close the ports to steam to remove any 
 risk of danger from the piston and connecting rod 
 moving. 
 
 As VALVE GEARS vary very much in their details* 
 a ; few explanatory words are necessary on their 
 differences. Taking first the Stephenson, or shift- 
 ing link motion, it being the most common form of 
 valve gearing on locomotives ; two eccentrics for 
 each cylinder are fixed side by side upon the 
 driving axle, one for moving forwards and the other 
 for moving backwards, each of these are connected 
 by means of eccentric rods, from the straps upon 
 the eccentric sheaves to the quadrant link, the fore- 
 gear rod being attached to the top of the link and 
 the back-gear rod to the bottom of it. The quadrant 
 block, which is carried by the intermediate valve- 
 spindle, slides in the slot of the link, so that as the 
 link is lowered down, it is moved nearer to the top 
 of the link, and the fore-gear eccentric operates the 
 valve for the engine to move forward, then if the 
 link is lifted up, the bottom or back-gear eccentric 
 and rod works the valve for moving the engine 
 backwards. When the link occupies a mid-position, 
 the effect of the eccentrics neutralise each other, 
 and there is practically no movement of the valves. 
 
 In these respects all engines fitted with this form 
 of link-motion are alike, but they vary in the way 
 the link is moved and hung, and it is necessary 
 to mention these differences in order. There are 
 four different ways of arranging the parts, first the 
 link may have saddle-pins upon it at the centre 
 with the weigh-shaft above, and the swing-links 
 then reach down to these ; secondly, the saddle- 
 pins may be at the centre of the link, as in the first 
 case, but the weigh-shaft is below, and the swing- 
 
~ u> 
 
56 
 
 links then extend up to them ; thirdly with no saddles, 
 the weigh-shaft above, and the swing-links reaching 
 down to the bottom of the link and coupling on to 
 the same pin as the back-gear eccentric rods ; and, 
 fourthly, the weigh-shaft, etc., below, with the swing- 
 links coupled to the tore-gearing eccentric rod pin 
 at the top of the link. The first two methods are 
 most common, the other two, however, are often 
 met with. 
 
 The shape of the intermediate valve-spindle, and 
 the length of its slot, in which the quadrant-link 
 works, will also affect the work to be done in un- 
 coupling the valve-gear. 
 
 Assuming that the motion is arranged as in A, 
 Fig. 4, the first-mentioned method, it will be found 
 necessary to take down both the eccentric rods and 
 put the defective side out of action altogether, as 
 the slot in the intermediate valve-spindle is not 
 deep enough to allow the link to travel in it if the 
 quadrant-block is removed and the rods left up, 
 with the valve in its central position, the best way, 
 therefore, to commence the uncoupling is to first put 
 the valve in its central position, if the defective side 
 has the crank upon the top or bottom centre, this 
 can be done by putting the engine into mid-gear, 
 or if the other side is upon top or bottom centre, 
 measure the distance of its intermediate valve- 
 spindle socket from the gland and then place the 
 side to be uncoupled in the same position, when 
 the eccentric rods are off, and lock the spindle and 
 valve by “cocking” the gland, an operation per- 
 formed by slackening the nuts upon one of the gland 
 studs and tightening up those upon the other, until 
 the gland grips the rod and prevents it from 
 moving. 
 
 If it is possible to move the engine, the most con- 
 venient position for getting down the motion when 
 hung in the manner under notice is to plaxe the 
 cranks in the 8th position, as then they are as far out 
 
57 
 
 of the way as possible ; also, the eccentric strap-bolts 
 are all fairly accessible ; it will be found in most 
 cases, best to take down the straps with the rods, 
 rather than to take the rods down alone by uncoupling* 
 at the butt ends when the bolts are in very awkward 
 places, and also by removing the straps all anxiety 
 as to whether they will foul the frame-stay or fire- 
 box front when running will be obviated. 
 
 It may be easier to take out the pins through the 
 forked end of the rods and the quadrant-link first, 
 as then the rod may be moved up and down to get 
 the strap-bolts into better positions ; if so, put the 
 engine into fore-gear to get down the back-gear 
 rod, and into back-gear to get down the fore-gear 
 rod, as they will then each be further from the 
 saddles and easier to get at. Knock out the taper- 
 pins which hold the link-pins, by first closing the 
 split at the bottom carefully, then give them a 
 smart blow fairly on their points, and they should 
 fly out ; a little time spent in doing this properly is 
 not wasted, for if too hurriedly done the pins may 
 be “ burred ” over at the points and a considerable 
 amount of work caused in getting them out, unless 
 a handy pin-punch is carried by the driver. 
 
 If, on careful observation, it is possible to move 
 with the link still up, as would be the case if the 
 defect made it advisable to run with the back port 
 open to steam, then as it is only necessary to take 
 out the quadrant block, the 8th position of the 
 crank, with engine in back gear will be the best 
 one, the pins through the quadrant block being* 
 then out of the way of the saddles on the link. As 
 it is in no position possible to get a blow on the 
 inner ends of these pins to drive them out, owing to 
 the proximity of the other valve spindle, it will be 
 necessary to ease them out carefully by means of a 
 flat chisel or small “ tommy bar ” pressed against 
 the inside end of them and the other valve spindle, 
 tapping round the hole at the outer end to draw 
 
them out, in this case also patience is generally 
 found better than force. 
 
 The same remarks apply if the link is hung in 
 the SECOND manner mentioned, with weigh-shaft 
 below, except that the engine would be put into 
 fore-gear to get out the quadrant block pin, as the 
 swing links would make it impossible for them to 
 pass in back gear. 
 
 All the motion in this design is upon the driving 
 axle side, or behind the motion plate, so that the 
 crossheads are not likely to be in the way of getting 
 out any part of the valve gear, but in some cases 
 they also have to be considered. 
 
 The THIRD method of hanging the link is shown 
 at B, and if the defect is not in any part of the 
 valve motion itself the quadrant block can be taken 
 out, for the link has a long slot in which it can 
 freely move without fouling the ends of it. It will 
 be necessary to carefully watch when the swing 
 links are out of the way of the pin which has to be 
 drawn out of the quadrant block, and as the position 
 of the weigh-shaft and length of swing links vary 
 so considerably when hung in this way it is not 
 possible to give any definite position for setting the 
 engine to remove this pin. In the example drawn, 
 however, as the links are attached to the inter- 
 mediate valve spindle, which in this case also swings 
 between the slide bars and upon the cylinder side 
 of the motion plate, the crossheads must be watched, 
 or it will not be possible to draw the pins out if 
 these are in the way. 
 
 If it is found necessary to take down the rods, 
 the same position of the cranks, the 8th, when both 
 cranks are upon the top quarters, will be found the 
 most convenient to take out the eccentric strap 
 bolts. 
 
 In the FOURTH design, as illustrated at C, the 
 motion plate is carried forward to the centre of the 
 slide bars, so that the crosshead has to be out of 
 
59 
 
 the way of drawing the pin through the quadrant 
 block, the rest of the motion may, as in the last 
 example, be left up, as a long slot is provided 
 in the end of the intermediate valve spindle, which 
 in this case works through a guide fixed to the 
 motion plate. 
 
 In both the last mentioned cases it sometimes 
 greatly facilitates the getting out of the quadrant 
 block pin, to uncouple the swing links at the 
 quadrant link end first and swing them clear until 
 the quadrant block is removed, and then couple up 
 as before. This is especially the case when the 
 engine cannot be moved in order to get the link in 
 such a position that the swing* links do not cover 
 the pin. 
 
 It is extremely improbable that all the nuts upon 
 the bolts through the eccentric straps can be taken 
 off by means of spanners, especially if the engine 
 cannot be moved to place them in g'ood positions, 
 it may happen, therefore, that the hammer and 
 chisel will have to be resorted to, to slacken 
 them. 
 
 In the case of other link motions, such as Allan's 
 or Gooch's, the radius rods, from the crosshead upon 
 the valve spindle to the quadrant block can be taken 
 down or the quadrant block removed in order to put 
 them out of action. If it is found necessary to take 
 down one side entirely, the eccentric rods, bolts and 
 nuts must be taken out in the same way as above 
 described, and the valve placed centrally and 
 locked by the gland. 
 
 When Joy's radial gear is fitted there are no 
 eccentrics to be dealt with, and the easiest way to 
 disconnect is to uncouple the radius rod from the 
 crosshead upon the valve spindle, and swing that 
 end of it up out of the way by means of a piece of 
 rope to the handrail or other convenient fixture. 
 
 If it should be necessary to take down one side 
 entirely, it can be done by removing the pin in the 
 
bo 
 
 radius rod above mentioned, the pin through the 
 connecting rod, and correcting link, and that at the 
 fixed end of the anchor link below, then if the 
 motion is put into foregear, so that the slipper in 
 the curved guides can slip out, the whole of the side 
 to be disconnected will fall to the ground, and can 
 there be further taken to pieces, picked up as one, 
 or left, as determined by circumstances. 
 
 After closing the valve and locking it, the next 
 steps in the uncoupling of the engine are to get 
 down the connecting rod upon the defective side 
 and to fix the piston in a safe position. 
 
 It will be assumed that the engine being operated 
 upon has motion of the single bar type, with box cross- 
 head, small end pin with a nut upon the end of it, 
 and a solid eye to the small end of the connecting 
 rod, which has a u big end" of the common strapped 
 form, with two brasses held in position by a strap 
 passing round them and secured at top and bottom 
 of the butt end of the rod by two long bolts with 
 two nuts at the bottom of each, the brasses being 
 further held and adjusted by a long cotter. 
 
 If the defect, necessitating the disconnecting, is 
 such that the engine can be moved and placed in 
 any position so that the bolts, etc., upon both ends 
 of the connecting rod can be brought into convenient 
 places, the small end pin should be slackened, the 
 nut upon it being turned so that it can be easily 
 taken off by hand, and the pin itself knocked back 
 a little and made ready for removal. The “ big end 
 bolts should next have the nuts taken off, first re- 
 moving the cotters or split-pins, and the bolts 
 slackened by giving them a blow fairly upon their 
 small or bottom ends, as they are made taper to be 
 easily taken out ; one may be removed altogether* 
 but the other should be left in position for a time. 
 The two set screws securing the long cotter in 
 position, and the split-cotter through the bottom 
 end of it having been meanwhile removed, the 
 
6i 
 
 cotter itself should next be slackened, but not taken 
 out. 
 
 It will usually be found that the most handy place 
 for uncoupling the “big end” is either upon the front- 
 centre or the bottom front quarter, as then the nuts 
 upon the long bolts are farther from the cheeks of 
 the cranks than in any other position ; if placed, 
 however, on the centre, it should be ascertained 
 whether it is possible to get the bolts out, as the 
 height of the boiler may make it impossible for 
 them to pass when the cranks are in this position. 
 In some engines when the crosshead is towards the 
 back-end of the stroke, the small end-pin cannot be 
 drawn out owing to the valve-spindle guide and the 
 motion-plate ; this also should be noted before 
 commencing to take the parts to pieces. 
 
 The whole of the holding-gear being now in a 
 slack condition, a piece of rope which can be secured 
 to the handrail or other convenient fitting, should 
 be passed down from above and tied to the big end 
 of the rod to support it whilst the “ big end” strap is 
 being removed. The “big end” bolts may both be 
 removed, and if the crosshead is pinched forwards 
 it will draw the rod out of the fork of the “big end” 
 strap, and it can then be either held by the rope, or 
 lowered into the loop of the motion-plate, as found 
 most convenient. The “small end” pin should next 
 be taken out to allow the rod to be removed entirely ; 
 iccan be lowered to the ground by means of the 
 rope, and then picked up and secured to the foot- 
 plate for removal with the engine. 
 
 The long cotter securing the brasses in the “ big 
 end” being taken out allows the glut-plate and front- 
 brass to fall out, and on turning the strap up so 
 that the fork-ends point upwards, it and the other 
 brass in it will fall off and leave the crank-pin free. 
 The strap should have the two brasses, glut-plate, 
 long cotter and bolts replaced in their respective 
 positions, and the whole secured to the rod. 
 
62 
 
 It should be noted that in many engines it is not 
 possible to get the brasses out of the “ big end ” straps 
 until the set-screws holding the long cotter have 
 both been entirely removed, as they will not allow 
 the former to pass ; it is, therefore, best to see that 
 this is done before the cotter is removed. Further, 
 as the cheeks of the cranks will not permit the set- 
 screws to come out in most positions, it will be 
 found best generally to remove them as soon as 
 they are clear while setting the engine for getting 
 out the other bolts, etc. 
 
 The crosshead should next be moved until the 
 piston is at the extreme end of the cylinder, and 
 secured there by locking the gland upon the piston- 
 rod, and also by means of clips, when these are 
 carried upon the engine, secured by bolts to the 
 slide-bar to prevent the crosshead moving. 
 
 The cylinder cock gear upon the defective side 
 should be uncoupled and the cocks opened, so that, 
 if by any chance the valve should allow steam to 
 pass this may not accumulate behind the piston and 
 render it liable to be forced to the other end of the 
 cylinder and cause damage. 
 
 There are differences of opinion as to which end 
 of the cylinder the piston should be secured ; but all 
 things considered it is usually best to fix it at the 
 back end, as then the glands can be easily got at to 
 lock the piston-rod, and also if the steam does 
 happen to move the piston it will be forced to the 
 front end, and damage here is not nearly so serious 
 as it would be to the back end owing to there being 
 no attachments, slide-bars, etc., fixed to it, only a 
 plain cover, and this, if broken, can be easily re- 
 placed. 
 
 In the case of engines having four slide-bars and 
 a fixed pin connecting the slide-blocks, there will 
 necessarily be a strapped small end, and the mode 
 of proceeding to uncouple will be the same as 
 already described for the big end, excepting that it 
 
^3 
 
 is not, as a rule, essential to take the strap and 
 brasses off the pin, but simply release the rod by 
 taking out the bolts and leave the remainder in 
 place, putting back the bolts in their respective 
 holes, and replacing the nuts after the rod has been 
 taken out. 
 
 In the above it has been assumed that the engine 
 can be put into convenient situations, but this is not 
 always the case. Very often, indeed, it is immovable 
 in a particular position, and that one in which it is 
 not easy to get at the “ big end ” bolts, as would be 
 the case if the crank was upon the top back quarter 
 or any position near to it, then it would be almost 
 impossible, with the tools usually carried upon a 
 locomotive, to get any of the nuts off. When this 
 occurs so, uncouple the “ small end ” and drop it into 
 the loop of the motion plate where it will safely ride 
 whilst the engine is pushed along to get the bolts 
 more accessible. 
 
 It may by chance happen that the engine gets 
 set in such a position that neither end can be 
 uncoupled ; if this happens the breakdown must 
 be looked upon as a complete failure, and proceed- 
 ings taken as in the case of a broken crank axle, to 
 be detailed later. 
 
 The most common failures that would render 
 uncoupling necessary are broken piston heads 
 or rods, often due to the presence of water in the 
 cylinders, broken or bent connecting rods, broken 
 straps, broken crossheads, etc. ; it does not follow, 
 however, that any of these occurring will make dis- 
 connecting absolutely essential. For instance, if 
 the piston rod broke through the cotter hole at the 
 crosshead end, the piston being driven forward 
 with sufficient effort to break the front cover and 
 become firmly jammed there, as is very likely to be 
 the case if the crosshead was of the single bar type, 
 it would not foul anything. All that would be 
 necessary to be done in this case would be to close 
 
b 4 
 
 the valve, if any long distance has to be travelled 
 to the shed in steam, or let the whole remain if 
 there is only a short space intervening ; of course, in 
 this latter case there would be a great loss of steam 
 with considerable noise as it escapes through the 
 broken front end. 
 
 If the crosshead is of the four bar type, or any 
 other that has a loose centre that would drop when 
 the piston rod is removed, it would in most cases be 
 necessary to take down the connecting rod as it 
 would be likely to foul the motion plate if it were 
 left in position. 
 
 It is usually best to uncouple for a broken piston 
 head, as the broken and detached pieces may work 
 through the ports, and the slide valve fouling them 
 will cause a much more serious failure ; pieces may 
 also get between that part that remains on the rod 
 and the ends of the cylinder, and do further damage. 
 Generally speaking, however, the boss of the piston 
 pulls out of the disc, which remains otherwise 
 intact or breaks up into several small pieces ; as it 
 is impossible to ascertain this for certain by casual 
 observation, it is best to uncouple at once. 
 
 A broken connecting rod, if at the “ small end/' will 
 render disconnecting necessary, excepting in a few 
 cases where the motion plate is situated well back 
 towards the crank, so that the rod will safely ride in 
 the loop of it, when it can be left up ; as the risk 
 of catching in the plate and doing serious damage 
 is great, however, this is not recommended. 
 
 When the “Big End" Strap or the Rod itself 
 near to it gives way as the piston is moving towards 
 the front end, the small end of the rod will then remain 
 connected to the small end pin, and will generally 
 safely lodge in the motion plate, a piece of wood 
 wedged between the back of the crosshead and the 
 motion plate adds to the security in preventing the 
 former from moving. The “ big end " and strap will 
 have to be taken off the crank pin, as they would, it 
 
65 
 
 left up, be liable to damage the front of the firebox 
 or under side of the boiler ; the valve in this case 
 should be shut. 
 
 When working with one side of the engine only 
 drivers should carefully see that they do not stop 
 with the working crank upon its dead centre, as 
 then it will not be possible to start again with steam 
 without resorting to pinch bars under the wheels 
 to commence movement, which is, to say the least 
 of it, a very troublesome proceeding. 
 
 One Broken Coupling Rod will necessitate the 
 taking down of both in all cases, because if one rod 
 is left up and the driving wheels happened to slip, 
 a severe strain would be thrown on it and the crank 
 pins, or when the crank pin upon the second wheel 
 of the one pair was upon either its front or back 
 centre, there would be no turning effect transmitted, 
 and the rod and crank pins would be liable to 
 breakage. 
 
 It is not desirable, in all cases, to take down the 
 coupling rods when the connecting rod upon one 
 side has been disconnected, for by doing this the 
 engine is partially unbalanced, and therefore will 
 not run so easily as it would do if they were left up, 
 and more power would be required to move it. 
 
 Breakage of Coupling Rods in service will 
 generally be found to be at or near the centre of 
 their length, whilst failures of the crank pins usually 
 occur when the engine is starting a train. 
 
 If the engine has lour wheels coupled, and a rod 
 or pin breaks, both rods will have to be removed, 
 and the engine worked as a single driver, but if it 
 has six or more wheels coupled together, there are 
 always joints in the rods, either in the leading or 
 trailing length, or at the driving journal, to allow of 
 the necessary vertical flexibility, and whichever 
 length of the rod breaks it must be taken down as 
 well as the corresponding length upon the other 
 side, and the engine worked as a four coupled. 
 
 5 
 
bb 
 
 If the rods are jointed in the leading length, and 
 the leading crank pin, or the leading length of rod 
 breaks, it will be necsssary to take down the leading 
 length upon the other side of the engine, uncoupling 
 at the joint, but if the trailing length or driving 
 or trailing crank pin broke, the whole of the rods 
 upon each side must come down. 
 
 When, however, the joint is in the trailing length, 
 it will be exactly the reverse, and a defect to the 
 trailing end will necessitate uncoupling the trailing 
 wheels only, whilst one to the leading end will dis- 
 able the whole. When the bush on the driving 
 crank pin forms the knuckle joint, it is usually 
 forced into the rod end by hydraulic pressure, and it 
 is not possible for drivers to remove it; in such 
 the whole of the rods will have to come down for 
 any failure. 
 
 It is not always necessary to give up a train, when 
 the engine has to be uncoupled, for with a moderate 
 load it can usually be worked on, at least to a station 
 where a change of engines can be arranged. 
 
 Putting sand, or allowing it to run, upon only one 
 rail as the engine is starting a train or slipping, is 
 often the cause of bent or broken side rods, as it 
 puts very unequal strains upon them. 
 
 A Broken or Lost Spring will usually make 
 it necessary to give up a train, as it is not safe to 
 run at speed under these circumstances, but it 
 depends upon the position of the defect as to whether 
 the engine is unable to run at all, or not ; for in- 
 stance, if the axle that has a lost spring is one which 
 has four bearings upon it, and one of the inside 
 springs was defective, as most engines carry less 
 weight upon the inside spring it would not necessi- 
 tate giving up the train, whereas failure to one of 
 the outside springs would be more serious. 
 
 If a spring upon an engine with only two bearings 
 upon each axle, breaks or is lost, it will be necessary 
 to stop running and get into a siding, where no 
 
67 
 
 delay will be caused to traffic, and by means of a 
 jack placed under the buffer beam or frame, lift up 
 the defective part until the distance from the top of 
 the axlebox is an equal distance from the hornblock 
 to that upon the other side of the engine then, a 
 distance piece having been put in to keep it so, it 
 will be safe to move the engine slowly home, or to 
 some place where a new spring can be secured. 
 
 When it is found necessary to lift up one end of 
 the engine in this way, the jack is first taken to the 
 opposite end of the engine, and placed under a con- 
 venient part of the frame, the weight of the engine 
 is next taken and distance pieces put between the 
 top of the boxes and the hornblocks, after which 
 the jack is put under the opposite end and the lifting 
 more easily performed than if no blocks were 
 placed at the other end to form a fulcrum ; the 
 lifting at one end, without taking this precaution, 
 will be a much longer job, since the engine will 
 settle upon the springs at the other end and necessi- 
 tate a lift of double the distance before the weight of 
 the engine is taken up. 
 
 The Breakage of an Axle in service will, in 
 most cases, cause a complete failure, though occasion- 
 ally it may be possible to work home. Assuming 
 that the leading axle of a six-wheeled engine has 
 broken, it will be necessary to telegraph for the break- 
 down van and a trolly ; on arrival, the latter will be 
 placed under the leading end to keep the weight 
 of the engine from the defective axle altogether. 
 Blocks should be placed between the bottom of the 
 axle boxes and the hornstays, before the lifting 
 on to the temporary truck or trolly is performed, 
 so that the disabled wheels and axle may be raised 
 with the framing of the engine, until they are clear 
 of the rails, in this condition the engine may be 
 safely drawn home to have its defects remedied. 
 
 The foregoing remarks will also apply in the case 
 of the trailing wheels of a six- wheeled engine. 
 
68 
 
 The method of procedure with a broken crank 
 axle on an engine of this type would be somewhat 
 as follows : first take down the coupling rods, 
 and then uncouple the driving springs on both 
 sides by removing the centre pins, taking care to 
 ascertain beforehand whether the springs are hung 
 by links at the ends ; in some engines they only 
 press upon wearing plates, and the removal of the 
 centre pin will allow them to fall together, and 
 then if the operators are not prepared for this they 
 are liable to injury. In order to remove the centre 
 pin proceed as before suggested, place distance 
 pieces between the top of the axle boxes at one end 
 of the engine, and then lift at the other end on the 
 fulcrum so made, until the weight is raised from the 
 driving spring when the pins at the centre can be 
 knocked out : turning the pins half round in the 
 holes will often make the removal easier ; unless this 
 is done, the shoulders which may have become 
 worn on them will catch at the edges. 
 
 When lowered, the engine will rest upon the 
 leading and trailing wheels alone, their own weight 
 and that of the driving axle only remaining on the 
 driving wheels. When the engine is down on the 
 rails, remove the distance-pieces first mentioned, 
 and take the jack to the driving wheels and lift 
 them up clear of the rails altogether, placing blocks 
 between the bottom of the axle-boxes and the horn- 
 stays for them to ride on. This lifting can be done 
 either by lifting the wheels and axle as a whole, by 
 going beneath and placing the jack under the centre 
 of the axle, or it can often be best done by putting 
 the jack under the outside of the boss of the wheel, 
 or, below the crank-pin on one side, and when that 
 is blocked up safely go to the other side and treat 
 it in a similar way ; either of these methods can be 
 followed according to the build of the engine, and 
 accessibility of the various parts concerned. 
 
 In the case of an engine which has leading and 
 
69 
 
 trailing carrying wheels, with four-coupled wheels 
 in the centre, the end-wheels would have to be 
 treated as described, and also the driving wheels, 
 but the intermediate wheels could be put out ot 
 action by being lifted in a similar way to the 
 drivers, taking off the rods and lifting the wheels 
 clear of the rails ; the engine could then work 
 home in steam if it was necessary or desirable 
 to do so. 
 
 Broken Tyres can be treated in a similar way 
 to defective axles, but this depends to a certain 
 extent upon the method adopted for fastening 
 them to the wheels ; when studs through the rim are 
 used, they will often be broken by the tyre spring- 
 ing open when fractured, and are then unsafe, but 
 if rings with lips projecting into recesses in the tyre 
 and wheel rim are employed they are much safer 
 and will hold the tyre to its place even if it is. 
 broken. In any case it is not advisable to work a 
 train with fractured tyres on the engine. 
 
 A Broken Eccentric Strap, should it be one 
 of the back-gear straps and the engine is running 
 forwards, will not always necessitate the taking 
 down of the fore-gear strap on the same side, but 
 the defective strap and rod only. It will be quite 
 safe then to run in fore gear ; the beats will not, 
 however, be true, the valve movements being very 
 erratic owing to being coupled up at one end only. 
 If it should be necessary to reverse the engine and 
 run backwards it can still be done without un- 
 coupling, but as the eccentric rod actuating the 
 valve will be at the top of the link and out of action, 
 movement will not be communicated to the valve 
 at all on the majority of engines, and this will 
 simply remain stationary. It will be necessary to see 
 that the valve, which has only a fore-gear rod coupled 
 to it, is in its central position, so that the ports upon 
 that side may be shut ; care should also be used to 
 avoid stopping with the crank upon the other side 
 
on either its front or back centre, for then the engine 
 will be unable to start when required. 
 
 Failures to the Fore-Gear Rod or Strap may 
 be dealt with in a similar way, that is, if the 
 engine is working in back-gear with the fore- 
 gear rod removed. Both valves will operate but with 
 irregular beats, and if the engine is reversed into 
 fore-gear, the valve upon the defective side must be 
 placed centrally, and the engine worked on one 
 side only as above described. 
 
 It is not advisable to run fast with an engine in 
 the above condition, as the fork of the eccentric rod 
 as well as the quadrant link is liable to be damaged 
 and a low speed should therefore be maintained. It 
 the defect is such as to make it advisable to take 
 down both eccentric straps and close the valve, it 
 will not be necessary to remove the connecting rod 
 on that side, but the cylinder should have plenty of 
 lubrication as it will be running dry whilst no 
 steam is admitted to it. 
 
 Shifting Eccentric Sheaves when required 
 to be refastened can be secured by means of the set 
 screws which are usually provided to assist the keys 
 in holding them in position on the axle. When no 
 set screws are employed there are no means by 
 which a shifted sheave can be temporarily refixed 
 and the gear upon that side had better be taken 
 down and the valve closed ; the connecting rod can 
 remain up as before. 
 
 Failure of the Quadrant Link will necessitate 
 taking down both the eccentric rods connected to it 
 and closing the valve. If one of the suspension 
 links supporting the quadrant link breaks, or as is 
 more common, especially in those engines which 
 have but one support to each link, the saddle pin 
 upon the quadrant link siezes and breaks off, it can 
 be left if the engine does not have to travel fast ; 
 if it does and it is necessary to notch up, it will be 
 best before starting the engine to lift the link upon 
 
7i 
 
 the defective side into about its running position. 
 This can be found by putting the lever into the 
 pre-arranged position and measuring the distance 
 between the top of the quadrant block and the 
 quadrant link upon the unaffected side, and then 
 putting the one to be secured into a similar position, 
 placing a piece of wood of the required thick- 
 ness between the block and link, so that the cut- 
 off shall be correct in running. When starting the 
 train, which should only be attempted when delay 
 would be caused by giving it up, the lever must be 
 put into full gear. Then, of course, as only one side 
 is coupled to it, the engine will give two heavy 
 beats and two light ones per revolution, but when 
 the lever is moved into its running position the 
 engine will beat “ square." 
 
 If it is necessary to reverse and run backwards 
 with an engine crippled in this manner the link 
 must be lifted up still higher, and a longer distance 
 piece inserted between the quadrant block and link, 
 and kept in as long as it is required to run back- 
 wards. 
 
 A Broken Arm upon the Reversing Shaft 
 supporting either link will require similar treatment 
 to above, but if the arm breaks which is connected 
 to the reversing rod, and upon which both sides 
 depend, then both quadrant links will have to be 
 otherwise supported in their required positions. 
 This can be done if the shaft is fitted with adjust- 
 able bearings at the ends by tightening up the caps 
 of these, and so holding the shaft. If necessary one 
 cap can be slacked back and a piece of tin or other 
 convenient substance inserted and the cap screwed 
 up so that the shaft may be gripped and held. A 
 broken reversing rod requires a similar remedy. 
 
 Should the Reversing Shaft Seize in its bear- 
 ings, or any other defect happen to the controlling 
 gear so that it becomes immovable, the engine can be 
 reversed by uncoupling the suspension links at the 
 
ends connected to the arms of the reversing shaft, and 
 raising or lowering the quadrant links into their 
 required position, and securing these there by means 
 of blocks of wood in the links as before described. 
 
 A Broken Valve Spindle, if outside the gland, 
 will render necessary the uncoupling of the valve 
 gear either by taking down both eccentric rods or 
 by removing the quadrant blocks as described 
 earlier, the valve can then be secured in its central 
 position by causing the gland to grip the broken 
 spindle. If the fracture is inside the steam chest 
 and the spindle is carried through the front cover 
 and fitted with a gland there, this may be utilized 
 for the same purpose, and the valve will be secured. 
 But on engines having no front spindles the valve 
 cannot be held safely without taking off the cover 
 of the steam chest and wedging the valve in the 
 required position. This procedure is especially 
 necessary on those engines having the two valves 
 working back to back in a common steam chest 
 between the cylinders, as the disconnected valve not 
 being held in any way to its face would be likely to 
 get between the working one and the steam chest 
 cover, and so cause serious trouble. Except in 
 those cases where time is of little moment, it will 
 be usually best to consider a valve spindle broken 
 inside the steam chest a complete failure, unless the 
 engine has separate steam chests where, of course, 
 there is no fear of the perfect valve catching the 
 defective one. In the other contingency the steam 
 acting upon the back of the loose valve may keep 
 it to its face, and thus close all the ports. Whilst 
 it does this it will be good policy not to close the 
 regulator so that the steam chest may be kept full of 
 steam and the valve kept up, the engine being stopped 
 by reversing the gear and applying the brakes. 
 
 If the slide valve has a badly Broken Lap and 
 it is necessary to disconnect the valve gear, after 
 the rods are removed, put the defective valve in 
 
73 
 
 such a position that it covers the exhaust and one 
 steam port, leaving the other open. The cylinder 
 cocks must be used to test when the closed port is 
 tight by opening them and admitting a little steam 
 to the steam chest. In this class of mishap it is 
 necessary to uncouple the connecting rod upon the 
 defective side and take it down, pushing the piston 
 to the end of the cylinder and fixing it there. Care 
 should be taken to fix the piston at the opposite end 
 of the cylinder to the open port, as steam will have 
 free access to the cylinder at that end, and if the 
 piston were by any chance left there, it would 
 probably be projected with great force to the other 
 end of the cylinder and cause breakage. 
 
 If instead of the lap the Crown or Cavity ot 
 the valve is broken nothing can be done, and a 
 complete failure must be reported. The engine will 
 have to be drawn home by another, for any steam 
 admitted to the steam chest would have a direct 
 outlet to the exhaust port and blast pipe through 
 the broken valve. 
 
 Tools — Havingsofardealtwith most ofthedefects 
 and breakdowns which are liable to occur in run- 
 ning, a few words will be said upon the tools carried 
 upon an engine. 
 
 Every driver should see that he has the full com- 
 plement of tools upon his engine before leaving the 
 shed. The equipment varies on different railways, 
 but there should certainly be spanners of such sizes 
 to fit all the nuts and bolts of the motion. When a 
 suitable opportunity occurs and the engine is stand- 
 ing over a pit, it will not be lost time for the engine- 
 man to try his spanners over these nuts, so that the 
 proper implements to do any uncoupling work maybe 
 readily selected when the necessity suddenly arises. 
 
 The practice of selecting the handiest tools will 
 also help to locate the best places in which to set 
 
74 
 
 the engine for working upon it when taking down, 
 or securing any defective part. 
 
 In addition to the regular tools supplied it is a 
 good principle to take a few extra things. The 
 pocket knife every engineman should carry should 
 have a good stout blade well sharpened as it will 
 be found useful in cutting the pieces of wood re- 
 quired for some of the remedies outlined. A few 
 pieces of wood of handy size, say i-in. square by 6-in. 
 long, will often come in useful. As an instance of 
 the convenience of such we might note that if the 
 cylinder cocks happened to catch some obstruction 
 on the line left by platelayers and were broken off, a 
 piece sharpened at one end can be driven into the 
 hole left by the cock to prevent the escape of steam, 
 a very necessary precaution when such a mishap 
 arises, as unless the hole is stopped up the steam 
 blowing down on to the ballast will throw it up into 
 the motion, and soon entirely disable the engine. 
 
 Half a dozen pieces of hardwood (say 2-in. square 
 by 6-in. long) will do for packing up the axleboxes or 
 quadrant links if any of the defects mentioned arise, 
 but, if these are not carried, rail keys may be found 
 to answer. Slide bar clips should be provided, but 
 if not, one or two pieces of wood about 3-in. square 
 and long enough to fit between the crosshead and 
 cylinder on the motion plate should be carried so as 
 to secure the crosshead if required when uncoupled. 
 
 Some rope or spun yarn and a piece of india- 
 rubber insertion for temporarily making a joint or 
 stopping a troublesome blow, and a few blank 
 washers of copper or tin will often be found useful, 
 as also will a few J-in. bolts from 2-in. to i-ft. long, 
 with a selection of washers of various sizes. 
 
 Taper or split pins to fit the motion, etc., should 
 never be omitted from the tool box, nor a piece of 
 copper wire and a pricker of about in. diameter 
 by about i-ft. long pointed ht one end for cleaning 
 out oil holes, etc. 
 
75 
 
 EXPANSION OF STEAM AND WORK IN THE 
 CYLINDERS. 
 
 TJIGH pressure steam, not in contact with water, 
 possesses certain properties of expansion which 
 are defined by well-known natural laws, and to 
 economise in its consumption in the cylinders these 
 features have been utilised to secure maximum 
 service from any determined volume of steam 
 taken 
 
 The diagram on the following page shows in an 
 elementary manner the “ cycle of work " in a 
 cylinder of a locomotive during one stroke of the 
 piston. 
 
 The circle represents one revolution of the driving 
 wheel, and the crank is to be seen inside this. On 
 the circle is marked the position the slide valve 
 occupies at corresponding points in the stroke of 
 the piston ; the vertical projecting lines connect 
 these with the diagram below, which illustrates by 
 its area the amount of useful work performed by the 
 steam admitted to the cylinder during two-thirds of 
 the complete stroke of the piston. 
 
 Commencing with “ admission/' the point at 
 which steam is allowed to enter the cylinder just 
 before the crank reaches its “ dead centre." the 
 valve will occupy the position A. The valve con- 
 tinues to move and open the port until mid-travel 
 is arrived at, when it returns and cuts off the 
 admission of steam at the determined point marked 
 (in this case about 66 per cent, or two-thirds of the 
 stroke) B. The steam imprisoned in the cylinder 
 continues to drive the piston by virtue of its ability 
 to expand, and still exerts considerable effective 
 
7 6 
 
 /Idmissio. 
 
 Curve showing distribution Xy 
 of Steam in cylinder 
 
 Atrncspheric Line 
 
 Vaiye at mid- travel 
 
 Valve at mid- traveL 
 
77 
 
 pressure when the point of release is reached ; here 
 the valve opens to exhaust, and the cylinder is 
 emptied by the return stroke of the piston. The 
 “ back pressure ” or resistance to movement of the 
 piston is shown by the base line of the diagram 
 immediately above the atmospheric line drawn to 
 illustrate the condition of affairs which would exist 
 if the cylinder had its end open to the atmosphere. 
 C and D show the position of the valve at mid- 
 travel. 
 
78 
 
 LUBRICATING, CARE OF CYLINDERS, 
 ENGINE, &c. 
 
 T^HE proper Lubrication of the various running 
 parts of a locomotive is of paramount impor- 
 tance, and, as the cause of many failures and delays 
 is to be directly traced to a want of care or know- 
 ledge of the subject, it is desirable it should receive 
 due attention on the part of those concerned. 
 
 To reduce the friction between any moving bodies 
 in contact some lubricating substance is required, 
 if this is not supplied and the faces run dry, a con- 
 siderable generation of heat will result, expanding 
 the different parts in all directions until either the 
 softer metals used in the construction are melted, or 
 the harder ones become attached to each other or, 
 as more commonly expressed, “sieze.” Should 
 this occur to any large member, such as an axlebox, 
 it will doubtless cause a stoppage until the defect is 
 remedied. With the smaller parts — pins, etc. — 
 breakage will occur, and awkward results may 
 ensue. As an instance, the saddle pin on the side 
 of the quadrant link might “ sieze ” and break off, 
 allowing the link to drop down into full foregear. 
 
 When oil is introduced as a Lubricant it forms 
 a thin film between the faces of the moving parts 
 rubbing on each other, and prevents the metals of 
 which they are composed from actually touching. 
 The quality of oil for use as a lubricant depends 
 upon its power to form this film, and one that will 
 remain longest without being squeezed out is the 
 best ; this property can only be satisfactorily de- 
 monstrated by tests in a suitable machine. 
 
 Two kinds of oil are usually supplied for loco- 
 motives, one for the machinery, motion, axleboxes, 
 etc., and the other for the slide valves and pistons. 
 
79 
 
 For the first a mixture of vegetable and mineral 
 oils is commonly employed, the composition being 
 varied for the different seasons of the year. Rape 
 oil is considered a good lubricant for this purpose, 
 but if used alone is expensive, hence the more 
 general adoption of petroleum oils. For the second 
 purpose, mineral oils will stand much higher tem- 
 peratures than either vegetable or animal, and the 
 adoption of higher pressures of steam has practically 
 made the employment of heavy petroleum oils for 
 the lubrication of valves and valves and pistons all 
 but universal. Should rape oil or tallow be used 
 the ports and steam channels will be found to 
 become coated with a thick hard deposit, which 
 must be periodically burnt off or the passages will 
 become too small to allow the necessary steam to 
 pass for maintaining the efficiency of the engine. 
 With Mineral Oil this trouble occurs to a less 
 extent, as it is only when the engine is running 
 with the regulator shut and the reversing lever in 
 opposite gear that such oil will be vaporised by 
 the hot gases drawn into the steam chest from the 
 smokebox. 
 
 Many enginemen still express their belief in the 
 employment of Tallow as the best lubricant for 
 the cylinders. This may be partly due to its solid 
 appearance and nature when cold, which leads to 
 the impression that it will remain longer to act as 
 a lubricating medium in the steam chest and 
 cylinders. A little consideration, however, will 
 prove the fallacy of this reasoning, as it will be 
 observed that if tallow is put into a kettle and this 
 is placed upon the ledge over the firehole door the 
 tallow will melt and will form a liquid less viscous 
 than the rape oil, and considerably more volatile. 
 
 A little tallow put into* oil cups or axleboxes will 
 often be beneficial, as it will mix with the oil and 
 thicken it so that it will not syphon out so fast, but 
 this must be done sparingly, otherwise the oil may 
 
8o 
 
 be thickened to such an extent that the trimmings 
 will not act, and heated bearings will result. 
 
 Graphite or Blacklead is also open to a 
 similar objection : used moderately it is beneficial, 
 but it has a tendency to cause the parts upon which 
 it has been used to rust, and therefore when an en- 
 gine on which blacklead has been employed is about 
 to be laid off, the surfaces should be well greased. 
 
 The Oil Cups provided at the various points 
 where lubrication is required are either forged or 
 cast upon the bearings, etc., or made separate and 
 screwed in. These should be large enough to hold 
 sufficient oil for the longest trip that the engine is 
 likely to make. 
 
 The Trimmings for these cups are usually made 
 of worsted, held by means of copper wire, and are 
 formed in various ways. Two kinds are used, called 
 respectively “plug” and “tail” trimmings, the 
 worsted in the former being made long enough for 
 the ends to come nearly level with the top of the 
 syphon pipe standing up in the cup, whilst the 
 worsted in the other kind is left long enough to 
 reach over the top of the pipe down to the bottom 
 of the oil well, whence it lifts the oil by capillary 
 attraction into the pipe, and thus gives delivery to 
 the wearing surface. 
 
 Plug Trimmings are used on all those parts of 
 the engine having reciprocating or rotary motion 
 as their movement whilst running will be sufficient 
 to agitate the oil in the cup, and lift its surface to 
 enable some to pass the trimming by percolation to 
 the bearing. 
 
 All the other parts of the engine that have no 
 independent movement apart from the running, 
 such as axleboxes, slide bars, glands, etc., will re- 
 quire tail trimmings, as there is no motion sufficient 
 to lift the oil to the level of the tops of the syphon 
 pipes. 
 
 The distance from the top of the oil pipe to the 
 
8 1 
 
 bearing will determine the length of the wire and 
 worsted forming the trimmings, and to ascertain 
 this a piece of wire should be inserted into the hole 
 in the latter, its length taken and the trimming 
 made about \ an inch shorter than this, so that the 
 bottom of the wire will clear the journal. The 
 quantity of worsted required will depend upon the 
 size of the oil hole, consistency of the oil to be used, 
 and the amount of movement that the part receives, 
 as, for instance, the big end plug will require to be 
 a thicker one than that made for the small end, if 
 the holes are of a similar size, as the amount ot 
 movement is so different. The exact size depends 
 so much upon the oil used and the work that the 
 engine has to do that it is impossible to give a more 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. io. 
 
 definite rule for this, and it must therefore be left to 
 experience gained from actual trial. Note should 
 be taken of the number of strands used whenever a 
 new trimming is made, so that when the most satis- 
 factory size is found it can always be worked to. 
 Trimmings may then be made and kept in readiness 
 to replace any of those in service, so that should 
 it suddenly be found necessary to renew one no 
 delay or anxiety will be caused as to the working 
 of the new one. 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 All wick trimmings require to be occasionally 
 removed, wiped and replaced. There will then be 
 no uncertainty as to their satisfactory working. 
 
 In Fig. io one method of making a plug trimming 
 suitable for the lubrication of a coupling rod is 
 drawn. A piece of copper wire is cut off of a suit- 
 able length and bent at the centre to encompass the 
 desired number of strands of worsted of the necessary 
 length. These are secured by twisting the wire to 
 form a stem long enough to reach to the required 
 depth in the oil tube, the upper ends of the wire 
 being spread out as at A. The cap of the oil cup 
 is unscrewed and the trimming inserted in the 
 
 pipe until the fork of the wire rests upon the top of 
 the syphon pipe, and so prevents the trimming 
 from working down when the engine is running. 
 The extreme ends of the wire can be given an 
 upward bend, so that when the cap is put on it 
 bears upon them and holds the trimming firm. 
 There is a slight recess left in the top ot the oil 
 pipe by making the trimming a little short, and 
 into this the oil is thrown at each revolution of the 
 crank pin when the engine is running ; of course no 
 oil will be used when it is standing. 
 
83 
 
 A Piece of Cane or Cork is screwed into the 
 hole in the cap, and this being slightly porous 
 allows the slow admission of air to the cup to 
 replace the oil used. In cups with a spring button 
 instead of the cane a small hole is usually drilled 
 through the button for the same purpose. 
 
 A tail trimming for stationary oil caps is illus- 
 trated at Fig. 1 1. The wick is in this case secured 
 by the copper wire in a slightly different way. The 
 
 wire is cut oft and bent over to form a loop, and the 
 twist continued until it is sufficiently long to reach 
 to about £ of an inch from the bearing. Here it 
 takes the worsted, which is secured by about two 
 or three more turns of the wire ; it will then be as 
 shown at the left. The loop formed at the top then 
 acts in the oil cup exactly as the spread ends in the 
 
«4 
 
 last example, and forms a convenient means for 
 withdrawing the wick when necessary, The tails 
 are made just long enough to reach to the bottom 
 of the cup ; more than this is not desirable, as it 
 would only take take up room required for oil. 
 
 A Trimming for an Axlebox is made in a 
 similar way, but the tails are left much longer, as 
 the oil receptacle is larger and shallower, and so 
 the worsted must spread out more to come in 
 contact with the oil. In the keep below the journal 
 either a pad of horsehair and waste or sponge is 
 put. This is to collect the oil that works down and 
 prevent it from being lost, and as the pad presses 
 against the journal it well oils it as it revolves. 
 Both these are illustrated in Fig. 12. 
 
 Another neat way of making a trimming is shown 
 at Fig. 13. The copper wire is first twisted as at 
 A, then strands of worsted are passed round it as 
 shown at B, until the required size is obtained, the 
 two ends of the worsted being left at the top. The 
 copper wire is given two or three twists at the top 
 and bottom to firmly secure the worsted, and the 
 two ends are cut off flush, as at C, if it is desired to 
 make a plug trimming ; but if a tail one is required 
 the ends may be left a little longer to reach down 
 and form a syphon as at D. 
 
 Instead of the wick trimmings some engines 
 have a bent pin which hangs over the top of the oil 
 pipe and collects the oil as the cup moves about, 
 and allows it to fall down the pipe to the bearing. 
 Others have a screw plug through the top cover, 
 forming a valve to close the oil pipe ; the amount 
 that this plug is screwed up is the opening allowed 
 for the oil to pass and collect on the plug, from which 
 it drops down the oil pipe, as in the last case. 
 
 When examining a locomotive both before and 
 after a trip, particular attention should be given to 
 the oil cups, to see that none of the covers or the 
 cups themselves that are screwed in the various 
 
85 
 
 parts are loose ; the latter if not tight are liable to 
 come out and be lost, or by getting into the moving 
 parts of the engine cause damage. The cups should 
 be periodically cleaned out, all dirt and deposit 
 being removed, as this not only helps to spoil the 
 Oil, but takes up room which should be occupied by 
 it. 
 
 Lubrication of the slide valves and 
 pistons is effected by different forms of lubricators 
 working under steam pressure, and each of these 
 will have special points for the engineman's atten- 
 tion. In the Roscoe or “ displacement ” lubricator, 
 largely employed for the steam chests, the delivery 
 
 of oil is regulated by means of a small screw valve 
 provided at the passage which forms both steam 
 inlet and oil outlet ; the condensed water is drawn 
 off from the valve at the bottom of the lubricator 
 and fresh oil is introduced through the filling hole 
 at the top. When charging this form of lubricator 
 care should be taken to avoid filling the reservoir 
 too full or there is a possibility of it refusing to act ; 
 the best test of its working is to open the draw-off 
 cock and ascertain if water or oil issues ; if the 
 latter, then the lubricator cannot be working 
 
86 
 
 properly, for no condensation of steam and conse- 
 quent displacement of oil has taken place ; reduc- 
 tion of the quantity of oil in the reservoir will 
 probably put matters right if no more serious 
 reason for inaction exists. In very cold and frosty 
 weather it may be desirable to protect the lubricator, 
 if placed in a very exposed position, by wrapping 
 it in sacking or spun yarn, or housing it in wood ; 
 the cause of its non-operation at these times may 
 be found in the fact that the steam is condensed in 
 the branch pipe before it enters the lubricator body 
 and runs back down the pipe to the steam-chest in 
 the form of water ; further, the oil may become 
 congealed by the intense cold forming a mass too 
 thick for the water to penetrate ; in either case, 
 warming the lubricator body will probably enable 
 the circulation to commence and so overcome the 
 difficulty. 
 
 The “ suction ” type of lubricator used for the 
 pistons will not be found to work properly if 
 allowed to get too hot. It is liable to this failure 
 when fitted to the front cylinder covers with a flap 
 to close them in ; raising the flap to allow a circu- 
 lation of air for cooling will restore the proper feed- 
 ing of oil. When fitted to the back covers these 
 lubricators will supply oil for the piston rods as 
 well as the pistons, and they are best placed if 
 attached to the frames with connecting pipes to 
 deliver the oil to the cylinders. 
 
 On engines of recent construction the lubrication 
 of both valves and pistons is effected by sight 
 feed lubricators conveniently placed in the cab, in 
 these the oil is displaced by the condensation of a 
 small steam supply, and some of the remarks on the 
 working of the “ Roscoe lubricator equally apply. 
 Each make of “ sight feed ” may have its peculi- 
 arities, and therefore it is only possible to point out a 
 few of the chief and characteristic faults and failures. 
 There are very few of these devices which are not 
 
8 ; 
 
 more or less affected by the opening and closing of 
 the regulator, and it might be here stated that the 
 one which is least influenced in this respect is the 
 one which lends itself most to the engineman's 
 favour, for nothing can be more exasperating than 
 a continual rushing to the lubricator to shut it down 
 and prevent the oil “ running away ” every time the 
 regulator is closed. An important detail in this 
 control of the flow of oil is to be found in the small 
 nipple usually placed in the delivery pipe at its 
 outer extremity, and when a particular “ sight 
 feed ” developes a sudden propensity to allow the 
 oil to “ run away ” after it has been in service some 
 time working regularly and without trouble, an 
 examination of this passage should be made, and if 
 found worn and enlarged it should be replaced by 
 a new and finer nipple. 
 
 When a double sight-feed lubricator is used its 
 mode of working is precisely similar, but it has 
 two regulators, sight glasses, etc. ; one of these 
 usually supplies oil to the steam chest, and the 
 other oil to the cylinders, the lubricator often being 
 marked to this effect, so that the enginemen may 
 know where it is delivering oil. The sight glass 
 nearest the weather board is usually the one 
 selected for the steam chest, as it is less liable to be 
 affected by the weather in this position, especially 
 when the engine is required to run backwards ; 
 there is, however, no rule as to this, and when an 
 engineman has a doubt as to the part each feeds, a 
 good way of settling the matter will be to close the 
 regulating valves on the lubricator, and to uncouple 
 one of the pipes at its connection to the cylinders 
 or steam chest, and watch this whilst the fireman 
 slightly opens one of the regulating valves of the 
 lubricator ; if oil issues from the pipe uncoupled it 
 indicates that the valve opened controls the supply 
 to this point. 
 
 When running with steam on, the steam chest 
 
88 
 
 should have more oil, but when running with steam 
 shut off the cylinders require the greater quantity, 
 except in those designs of engines which have the 
 slide valves on top of the cylinders. When the 
 slides are between the cylinders, or below them, 
 they drop from the faces when steam is shut off, 
 and require no lubrication. 
 
 No more oil should be supplied in any case than 
 is absolutely necessary, as it is only required to 
 cover the working faces with a thin layer ; all in 
 excess of this is waste, as it is either blown out of 
 the blast pipe with the exhaust steam, or clogs in 
 the steam passages and helps to block them up, as 
 has been mentioned before. 
 
 According to some authorities from two to four 
 drops per minute should be sufficient for engines 
 with cylinders from 16 to 18-in. diameter by 24-in. 
 stroke, with larger cylinders five to six drops per 
 minute may be required ; from this it may be 
 assumed that the quantity often passed by a sight 
 feed lubricator is somewhat excessive. 
 
 As to care of the lubricator itself, it should not 
 be allowed to get either too cold or too hot, as it may 
 refuse to work in either case, it should be thoroughly 
 cleaned out, say at three months' intervals, by 
 emptying the reservoir and filling it up with paraffin 
 oil, letting this stand for a time to allow of the 
 “gummy” deposits left by the oil being dissolved 
 and run out. The filling valve should be closed, 
 and steam blown through the lubricator to clean 
 out all deposits by the discharge valve. In 
 frosty weather the lubricator should be always 
 emptied before the engine is put away to obviate 
 the bursting of the reservoir by frost. 
 
 To start a sight feed lubricator, all the valves on 
 the lubricator itself being closed and the reservoir 
 having been previously filled with oil, the steam- 
 cock on the boiler should first be opened and then 
 that controlling admission to the lubricator slightly 
 
8 9 
 
 and carefully raised from its seat to permit of the 
 condensed water filling the sight tubes or chambers ; 
 when this preliminary requirement is fulfilled, the 
 cock can be further opened to establish a free con- 
 nection. The oil regulating valves can next be 
 opened and adjusted to the desired flow of oil, the 
 drops being counted as they ascend the sight tube. 
 All the movements should be slowly made, or a 
 violent disturbance of the oil will ensue, causing 
 the sight chambers to be filled with a milky fluid 
 which will prevent proper observation of the 
 supply. 
 
 If with all possible care and after several 
 attempts the water still clouds, the best method of 
 procedure is to close the steam-cock on the boiler, 
 empty the lubricator, fill it with water, and allow 
 this to run out, and try again. The oil should 
 never be allowed to become entirely displaced 
 from the reservoir if it can be avoided, as the whole 
 lubricator will then get too hot, and will have to be 
 allowed to stand to cool, be filled up with cold 
 water and emptied before it will work again. 
 When the lubricator is stopped, as when standing 
 in a terminal station for some time, some drivers 
 prefer to allow the steam-cock on the boiler to 
 remain open, and shut the steam regulating valve 
 on the lubricator itself, as condensed water is 
 always collected in the pipes leading to the lubri- 
 cator ; on some classes of lubricator this practice 
 gives good results. 
 
 Some patterns of lubricators have a bye-pass 
 cock separating the water in the condensing 
 chamber from that in the oil reservoir, so that in 
 re-charging with oil, by closing this cock the con- 
 densed water in the former may be kept there, 
 saving time when the lubricator is re-started. The 
 larger the condensing column the steadier a 
 lubricator is usually found to work, but obviously 
 this entails a longer interval after the steam-cock 
 
90 
 
 is opened before it commences operation, as there 
 is more space to be filled with condensed water. 
 
 The sight glasses should be examined and re- 
 placed from time to time as they get worn, and are 
 then liable to burst in service. 
 
9i 
 
 NATIONAL CODE OF ENGINE HEADLIGHTS. 
 
 A LL the main lines of British railways have adopted 
 an uniform code of engine headlights to replace 
 the various codes at one time in use, when each 
 company had its own distinctive lights. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 A list and diagram of these lights is appended, 
 which will be interesting to many readers. All the 
 lights are white, and except in the case of certain 
 Metropolitan areas the green and blue lights have 
 disappeared. 1. Express passenger trains: Two 
 lights, one over each buffer. 2. Ordinary passenger 
 trains : One light under the chimney. 3. Express 
 fish and fruit trains composed of passenger stock : 
 Two lights, one under the chimney and one over 
 the left hand buffer facing. 4. Empty coach 
 trains : Three lights, one over each buffer and one 
 
92 
 
 under the chimney. 5. Fast express goods trains, 
 and fish and meat trains, composed of goods stock : 
 Two lights, one under The chimney and one over 
 right hand buffer. 6. Express cattle, and ordinary 
 express goods trains “ Two lights, one under 
 chimney and one at the centre of the buffer beam. 
 7. Light engines, or engine and brake: One li’ght 
 over left hand buffer. 8. Through goods and 
 mineral trains : Three lights in a horizontal line 
 along the buffer beam. 9. Ordinary stopping 
 goods trains : Three lights, one under the chimney, 
 one in centre of buffer beam and one over right 
 hand buffer. 
 
 It will be noticed that special trains, which have 
 hitherto carried distinctive lights, are not provided 
 for : this may cause some confusion. It should be 
 added that the above code of lights is considerably 
 modified for the Metropolitan area. 
 
93 : 
 
 BOILER DIRT AND SCALE. 
 
 TY7HILST it is generally conceded that a thin 
 vv “ egg shell " coating of scale in a boiler and 
 on the tubes is beneficial, as it protects the metal 
 from corrosion, it is also stated by observers that a 
 deposit of an inch thick will cause an increased 
 consumption of fuel of some 20 per cent, owing to 
 the non-conducting character of the scale. A 
 covering of the heating surface to the extent of half 
 an inch thick would entail an additional consump- 
 tion of 60 per cent. All water used for feed 
 purposes, if untreated, contains a certain proportion 
 of solid matter in suspension and mineral salts in 
 solution, and although the quantity per gallon may 
 appear insignificant, this totals to a considerable 
 figure in a locomotive boiler after a day's work, as 
 when evaporated into steam the water parts with 
 practically all substances held in solution. If the 
 feed contains but 20 grains of salts, etc., per gallon 
 it means that over 6 lbs. of solid matter will be 
 deposited from every lo tons of water used. 
 Assuming a mileage of 200 miles per day with an 
 evaporation of 20 tons of water, we find that quite 
 12 lbs. of deposit will accrue, a by no means 
 insignificant quantity if allowed to remain and 
 accumulate. 
 
 The chief ingredients in boiler scale are sulphate 
 of lime and carbonate of lime and magnesia. The 
 lime salts become insoluble in hot water and are 
 precipitated as the water reaches a temperature ot 
 3io°F, which equals that of steam at 80 lbs. 
 pressure per sq. in. 
 
 Heating the feed water to a temperature ap- 
 proaching that mentioned will, it is obvious, cause 
 
94 
 
 the greater proportion to be deposited, as is 
 exemplified in the exhaust portion and receiver of 
 an exhaust iniector. 
 
 When sulphate of lime is contained in the feed 
 water to an excessive degree, petroleum has been 
 found a satisfactory agent to cause softening of the 
 scale. Refined oil, however, should be alone used, 
 as crude products may affect the plate and tubes. 
 Sight feed apparatus has been introduced to secure 
 a constant delivery of oil to the feed water delivery, 
 but on locomotives it has not been so successful as 
 on stationary boilers owing to the difficulty of secur- 
 ing a steady feed, independent of the jolting, etc., of 
 the engine. 
 
 Probably the most practical method of dealing 
 with the whole question is to employ a satisfactory 
 “ softening” apparatus, arranged to meet the exact 
 requirements of the water at each particular 
 installation. Considerable attention has been 
 lately devoted to the subject and some large plants 
 have been erected. As a check on our statements 
 as to quantity of solid matter introduced into loco- 
 motive boilers in the feed, we may mention that it 
 is stated that 70 tons of deposit are annually 
 collected in the large plant erected by the North 
 London Ry. Co., just outside the Broad Street 
 station. 
 
 The non-admittance of all this material into the 
 boilers of the engines frequenting Broad Street 
 must reflect in an economy of fuel. 
 
95 
 
 SANDING THE RAILS. 
 
 1WTANY broken coupling rods, crank pins, and 
 even crank axles owe their failure primarily 
 to the improper and reckless use of sand on the 
 rails. Employed carefully and with judgment, the 
 contents ot the sandboxes of a locomotive will often 
 make all the difference between a successful run on 
 time under adverse circumstances and a reported 
 inability to keep the running due to engine slipping, 
 loss of time in starting, etc. 
 
 Clean, sharp sand, properly dried and screened, 
 is essential ; any containing saline ingredients is 
 not to be recommended, owing to its tendency to 
 absorb moisture and clog in the sand boxes and 
 pipes. 
 
 The position chosen for the sandboxes on British 
 locomotives does not recommend itself as the best 
 for securing dry sand, but it possesses many 
 advantages for filling, etc., so long as the handling 
 of the sand is restricted to buckets. The Conti- 
 nental sandbox on the boiler barrel has been tried 
 in this country ; it was the practice for many years 
 on the North London Railway, and was adopted on 
 the first “ Mogul ” engines built for the Great 
 Eastern Railway ; only one box was required for 
 one pair of wheels, it is true, but the location 
 necessitated a high lift for the sand and often meant 
 a general sprinkling of the motion during the 
 operation of filling up, as no pneumatic arrange- 
 ments were provided, and hot bars, gudgeon pins, 
 big ends, etc., resulted. The engines built by 
 American firms for some of the English railways 
 a few years back also have one sandbox on the 
 top of the boiler. 
 
96 
 
 When an engine slips and the application of 
 sand is required the regulator should be closed 
 before the sand valves are opened. If when starting 
 away slipping is continual, the reversing gear 
 should be kept in full gear and the admission of 
 steam controlled by the regulator, whilst a 
 sprinkling of sand is applied in just that proportion 
 necessary to secure the requisite grip. The turning 
 force is more regular with the expansion links in 
 “full gear ” than when notched up, as explained in 
 the chapter entitled “ Driving a Single.” 
 
 An excess of sand means additional resistance to 
 the train, and no benefit accrues from a thick 
 coating of grit rolled down on the rail-head by the 
 wheels and often thrown round by the flanges to be 
 eventually caught by the axleboxes to heat the 
 bearings and cut the journals. 
 
 Whilst many drivers still prefer the older hand 
 worked valves, the general adoption of steam or 
 air operated devices is a feature of the modern 
 locomotive. These apparatus are certainly more 
 economical in the use of sand, and also place it 
 exactly where it is wanted, between the tread of 
 the wheel and the face of the rail. 
 
 In rough windy weather, with the ordinary hand- 
 worked sanding arrangements, but a very small 
 percentage of the sand expended is used to 
 advantage. "To remedy the trouble in this direction 
 it is usual to provide a short piece of rubber hose 
 at the end of each sand pipe, which can be adjusted 
 to close quarters with the rails when required. 
 
 Careful drivers and firemen should make sure 
 both sand valves (on each side of the engine) are 
 working well, and both boxes supplied with sand. 
 Sanding one side and not the other is not an 
 uncommon cause of broken coupling rods and crank 
 pins. 
 
 For use with the brakes, probably the hand 
 sanding gear gives best results. A plentitude of 
 
97 
 
 sand in this case adds to the resistance, and as 
 quick action is required on both sides of the train 
 nothing short of a full delivery through the sand 
 pipes will materially lessen time taken in stopping. 
 
 With coupled engines the question of which pair 
 of drivers should be sanded is a vexed one. The 
 adoption of the steam sanders has, however, 
 modified the problem, as by their use it is possible 
 to sand all the coupled wheels at one and the same 
 time, thus avoiding undue strains on the coupling 
 rods and crank pins. 
 
 On some railways it is customary to provide the 
 tenders with sandboxes, which is a good practice if 
 a suitable gear is provided to enable both rails to 
 be simultaneously sanded when required for 
 “ braking” purposes. This remark especially 
 applies when the trailing drivers of the engine have 
 steam or air apparatus operating for shunting. 
 
 Wherever the sandboxes are situated, precaution 
 is to be taken against moisture and damp ; the 
 cover should be a good fit and the bushes through 
 which the valve rods work protected by caps or 
 packing, as wet is liable to enter along the spindles 
 by capilliary attraction, and cause the sand to stick 
 just over the valves, and effectually prevent a supply 
 reaching the rails. 
 
DRIVING A “SINGLE.” 
 
 ^HE running of a “ single ” driver locomotive is 
 an art of itself, and a man unaccustomed to 
 the little vagaries of such an engine is almost sure 
 to lose time with the ordinary express train of to- 
 day. The “single” has its likes and dislikes in a 
 marked degree, and will not satisfactorily answer 
 to the rougdi and ready handling which its coupled 
 contemporary contentedly puts up with. 
 
 There are drivers on the express services who, 
 not content with putting their faith in the “ single” 
 for long fast runs, will not hesitate to take and 
 keep time with some of the heavier stopping trains, 
 which a “coupled” man would consider a good 
 load. 
 
 Slipping when starting is doubtless the chief 
 source of trouble with single driver engines, but 
 this can be avoided to a considerable extent by a 
 judicious handling of the regulator. The start 
 should be made with the regulator only, and no 
 attempt made to “ notch ” up the expansion gear 
 until the engine is well away with its load. By 
 keeping the valve motion in full gear and admitting 
 steam as required, a steadier and more even turning 
 power is communicated to the cranks, and there is 
 thus less fear of the force applied to the wheels 
 momentarily overcoming their adhesion on the 
 rails. If at the low speed at starting the steam is 
 cut off at 35 or 40 per cent, of the stroke, the pro- 
 pelling power administered by the pistons to the 
 cranks is of a more or less jerky character, and 
 slipping must ensue. 
 
 The above remarks also apply to the working of 
 a single engine when negotiating a rising grade, 
 
99 
 
 with a somewhat later cut off and the steam supply 
 “ wiredrawn " at the regulator, a “ single " will do 
 its best on a bank; the sanding should be kept 
 slightly applied over those portions where slipping 
 is most likely to occur, but here again care should 
 be exercised, as unnecessary sand on the rails will 
 add to the resistance of the train. It is as well for 
 the fireman to shut off the feed and to thicken up 
 the fire a little, preparatory to entering a risky 
 section, for in addition to causing priming, slipping 
 invariably pulls a thin fire to pieces, and steam 
 may be lost at a critical point from this if precau- 
 tions are not taken in time. 
 
 On the down grades “ let her run " is the motto 
 of the “ single " driver, and a good engine will do 
 those parts of the journey with the links practically 
 in “ mid-gear." With single slide bars it is 
 advisable to “ link up " and keep the steam on to 
 take the weight of the crossheads from the bars 
 when running fast down a favourable bank. 
 
 Generally a “ single" is more sensitive than a 
 coupled engine, and must be treated accordingly. 
 It will probably burn a few more lbs. of coal on 
 difficult sections, but these can be more than 
 regained with care on favourable stretches. 
 
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 Tables showing Properties of .Saturated Steam; Decimal Equivalents; 
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 List of Illustrations. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 1. 
 
 Modern locomotive boiler. 1 
 
 > > 
 
 2. 
 
 Locomotive boiler stays. \ 
 
 > •) 
 
 3. 
 
 Belpaire firebox. ! 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Firedoors, tubes and foundation ring joints 
 
 >> 
 
 5. 
 
 Smokeboxes, chimneys and ashpans. 
 
 
 6. 
 
 Blast pipes and steam blowers. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 Regulators. 
 
 > 5 
 
 8. 
 
 Safety valves and pressure gauges. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 Water gauges, check valves, whistles, etc. 
 
 >> 
 
 10. 
 
 Water injectors. 
 
 ) 5 
 
 11. 
 
 Exhaust steam injector. 
 
 5 > 
 
 12. 
 
 Combustion diagram. 
 
 > ) 
 
 13. 
 
 Inside cylinders. 
 
 5 1 
 
 13a. 
 
 Outside cylinders. 
 
 J ) 
 
 14. 
 
 Pistons, rods and stuffing boxes. 
 
 > J 
 
 15. 
 
 Crossheads. 
 
 ? > 
 
 16. 
 
 Connecting rod ends. 
 Slide and piston valves. 
 
 5 > 
 
 17. 
 
 > ) 
 
 18. 
 
 Stephenson or shifting link motion. 
 
 > ? 
 
 19. 
 
 Gooch or stationary link motion. ! 
 
 J) 
 
 20. 
 
 Allan or straight link motion. 
 
 ,, 
 
 21. 
 
 Joy’s valve gear. 
 
 ? 5 
 
 22. 
 
 Walschaert’s valve gear. 
 
 J J 
 
 23. 
 
 Reversing gear arrangements. 
 
 
 24. 
 
 Framing for single bogie engine. 
 
 J) 
 
 25. 
 
 Bar framing for American engine. 
 
 J ? 
 
 26. 
 
 Hornblocks, axleboxes, etc. 
 
 ? ) 
 
 27. 
 
 Wheels, axles, etc. 
 
 )> „ 
 
 28. 
 
 Springs and gear. 
 
 5> 
 
 29. 
 
 Four-wheeled bogie. i 
 
 ) ) 
 
 30. 
 
 Bissel truck and radial axleboxes. 
 
 )> 
 
 31. 
 
 Sanding gear, buffers, etc. 
 
 J ) 
 
 32. 
 
 Lubricators. 
 
 5? 
 
 33. 
 
 Six- wheeled tender. 
 
 ) * 
 
 34. 
 
 Tender details. 
 
 )> 
 
 35. 
 
 Water pick up and details. 
 
 5 J 
 
 36. 
 
 Engine brake arrangement. 
 
 ? > 
 
 37. 
 
 Condensing arrangement for tank engine. 
 Also 16 Plates and Drawings. 
 
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 INJECTORS. 
 
 A Handbook on their Theory and Application, with Hints on 
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