UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Class Bo©k 
 
 Volume 
 
 vr\ 
 
 Ja 09-20M 
 
 AlTGEll) HAtL STACKS 
 
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Class 
 
 Book Volume 
 
 Ja 09-20M 
 
MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 IN 
 
 FORGE AND MACHINE WORK, 
 
 With Figured Drawings of Methods and Exercises 
 Used in the Fowler Shops of 
 Kansas University. 
 
 By FRANK E* WARD, 
 
 Superintendent of Fowler Shops and Shop Instrue 
 tion, Instructor in Machin^Work and 
 Mechanical Methods ancf Practi^. 
 

 Copyright 1901 by 
 
 Hudson-Kimberly Publishing Co., 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
'\AiVT.eele.f ^ ~ ' 
 
 0 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This little book outlines the student’s actual 
 
 /ork in the Fowler Shops of the University of 
 lansas. It is written by a practical mechanic, trained 
 
 formerly Superintendent of the Bates Machine Com- 
 pany; it is written in the spirit and language of 
 the machine shop ; it is written after a twelve-years 
 experience with young men in this University. 
 
 The Fowler Shops were founded for two pur- 
 poses. First: To train young engineers in correct 
 
 inethods of machine practice. Second : To develop 
 
 the individual manual skill nece^ssary for the modern 
 engineer. It is the purport of this book to outline a 
 method to accomplish both. 
 
 It is not the only method, and perhaps not the 
 best, but it has proven a successful method. 
 
 With this brief introduction, I desire to express 
 my appreciation of Mr. Ward’s ability and his consci- 
 entious instructorship of young men. 
 
 the rolling-mills and machine shops of Joliet, and 
 
 cT 
 
 Lucien I. Beake, 
 Director Fowler Shops. 
 
 3^- 
 

PREFACE. 
 
 After twelve years’ experience as instructor in 
 forge and machine work, and with previous training 
 in practical work as machinist and foreman of machin- 
 ists, the writer is prompted to put this book in print 
 for four reasons : 
 
 I. To place in book form the various blue-prints 
 and sketches which have been used and approved as 
 the most desirable course to give on the subjects 
 named, and these arranged to conform with the lim- 
 ited time which the student has for work. 
 
 II. To give in written form much general instruc- 
 tion which otherwise must be verbal. 
 
 III. To show the application of each step in the 
 work, and to give other similar methods that could be 
 used under varied conditions. 
 
 IV. To produce a well-bound pocket-book, to be 
 carried by the student to the shop or room for refer- 
 ence, so that all may be well prepared to work. 
 
6 
 
 MAmAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 Shop Ethics* 
 
 The first and most important lesson for the 
 beginner is to learn to work harmoniously with others, 
 who have equal rights and privileges. And the fol- 
 lowing suggestions will help those who try to do 
 right. 
 
 I. Talk but little, and only about your own 
 work. Pass no remarks about others' troubles and 
 take no special notice of them, unless requested. 
 
 II. Borrow no private tools and be neat and con- 
 siderate with the tools for general use, Check out 
 special tools from the tool-room, and return them as 
 soon as you can conveniently. Tock up your pri- 
 vate tools only. 
 
 III. Be prompt to begin work and work faith- 
 fully until quitting time. 
 
 IV. Keep your tools picked up and everything 
 clean and in good order, so that when you leave you 
 will not be called back. 
 
 V. Be deliberate and thoughtful. Much work is 
 spoiled by hasty workmen. Your instructor can help 
 a thoughtful student. 
 
 VI. Do not tire your eyes by close watching of 
 the fire or of moving parts of machinery. Use calipers 
 for close measurements, thus measuring by touch 
 instead of sight. The most skillful workmen meas- 
 ure to within one-thousandth of an inch by touch 
 with their calipers. 
 
FORCE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 7 
 
 VII. Prepare to get dirty and learn to use hot 
 water and soap on your face and hands. Take off 
 your good clothes and put on overalls. Relish and 
 make a business of your work. 
 
 VIII. Owing to the demand for the use of ma- 
 chine tools and forges, the instructor will not hold 
 them for regular men beyond a reasonabie time, say 
 fifteen minutes, and will then turn them over to 
 students doing extra work, on application. 
 
 Studcnt^s Equipment of Private Tools. 
 
 Each student makes a deposit of three dollars 
 
 with the Treasurer of the University for the above 
 equipment, which is valued as follows : 
 
 Key for clothes locker $0.25 
 
 Key for tool drawer 25 
 
 Five tool- room checks 25 
 
 Freshman Tools. 
 
 1 — 9" scale 35 
 
 1 — 4" Starrett’s hair-spring calipers 65 
 
 1 — 4" Starrett’s double-blade square. . . 1.25 
 
 Sophomore and Junior Tools. . 
 
 1 — 6" spring' tempered scale 85 
 
 1 — 6" Starrett’s hair- spring calipers... 1.00 
 1 graduated center gauge 40 
 
 Files are provided when needed. Steel to make 
 lathe tools is given to F^reshmen. These tools are 
 numbered and are used^ all through the course in 
 
8 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 machine work, but are retained with all private tools 
 at the end of each year. 
 
 • The tool-room checks are given in exchange for 
 tools of .special use, such as drills, reamers, and taps. 
 The check is forfeited when the tool is not returned 
 on time or at night, and when tools are lost or broken 
 carelessly the amount is taken from the deposit. 
 However, with very few exceptions, the deposit has 
 been all refunded. 
 
 The keys should be placed on a ring with a brass 
 tag bearing the owner’s name. 
 
 Apply at the office for lost articles. 
 
FORGE AFD MAGHIlS^E WORK. 
 
 9 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Forging and Tempering* 
 
 When the stndent enters upon this work, it is 
 assumed that he has no knowledge of the subject 
 at all. Sometimes those who have previously worked 
 at forging find it difficult to put avSide their first 
 impressions and to take up better methods. 
 
 There are several ways to do every piece of 
 work, but there is always the best way. A student 
 who is deficient in mechanical ability can rarely 
 discern the best ; one way appears to him about as 
 good as another ; he adopts a certain order because 
 he is told to do so ; when his work is compared with 
 good work, he sees no great difference ; he does not 
 see that an eighth of an inch more or less does any 
 harm, or that 80 degrees or 100 degrees is not as good 
 as 90 degrees. One side of the anvil is the same as 
 the other, and he has but little command of motion. 
 
 When work is started right, every serious, well- 
 balanced student does passably well in it. It is a 
 mistake to insist upon excellence in everything ; a 
 partial failure in a single direction should not prevent 
 his going on in the course. Instead of trying to force 
 
10 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 all into the same mold, it is our duty to give each full 
 liberty of growth, and yet keep to our standard of 
 requirements. 
 
 All who attempt to make forgings should remem- 
 ber that the art of forging has been recognized 
 through all ages as a trade worthy of the life-work of 
 many of the world’s best men. And what we do 
 with iron by heat and hammer will be good or bad, 
 according to our skill and patience. All that is done 
 must be with eyes, hands, and judgment. 
 
 The operations of a forge shop involve a personal 
 knowledge of four things : 
 
 1. How to heat the piece to be operated upon. 
 
 2. How to hold it. 
 
 3. How to strike it. 
 
 4. The kind of metal and the effect of the work 
 and heat upon the metal. 
 
 !• How to Heat* 
 
 The fire on a forge should receive constant atten- 
 tion, but this does not mean constant poking or 
 watering; but rather to the contrary. 
 
 The coal used in these shops is the best to be 
 had for the purpose, and will do effective work. It is 
 not entirely consumed until it becomes a white ash 
 or clinker. The first thing to do is to separate the 
 partly burned coal or coke from the ash; this is easy 
 
FORGE AFlD MACHINE WORK. 
 
 11 
 
 when the coke has not been poked and broken up 
 into small pieces. 
 
 Start a fire with wood shavings and put some of 
 the coke upon the fire, making a small heap in the 
 center. Then pack damp coal around to keep in the 
 blast, and use the remainder of the coke to feed the 
 fire, for it is comparatively free from gas. When 
 more coke is needed, the banks on the side can be 
 used if coked, and new banks made, or fresh coal can 
 be put close to the fire and allowed to blaze for a 
 while until it is partly coked. The whole secret of a 
 clean fire lies in coking the fine coal into lumps the 
 size of a walnut, and allowing them to so remain until 
 used up. To do this, great care must be exercised in 
 the use of the blast; shut it off to save a good fire and 
 be careful not to use so much blast as to blow large, 
 lumpy, sparks out which mix with the coal on top of 
 the forge, which keep it from coking, and give the 
 coal a lifeless appearance. The forges are provided 
 with shakers to shake out the fine ashes without 
 disturbing the banks of coal. Team to be econom- 
 ical with coal for your own good. A fire well banked 
 should last five hours on light work. 
 
 In regulating the fire it should not be much hot- 
 ter than the desired temperature (heat); excessive 
 heat will overheat exposed small points. 
 
 If the fire is properly kept, a very small amount * 
 of blast will do the work except in large welding; too 
 much air cools the metal. 
 
12 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 The fire should be so arranged that the metal can 
 be placed horizontal and covered and yet be easily 
 vSeen, if the coke is large. See that there is plenty of 
 coke under the metal. If the blast does not come 
 through, take a small rod and stick it straight down 
 to the tuyere and close to the metal; this hole will be 
 all that is needed: never should the fire be poked 
 over. Turn the work over without removing it. 
 Give the fire time to do the heating; keeping your 
 mind on the next operation, so no time is lost while 
 the metal is hot. 
 
 There are three periods of degrees of heat which 
 the writer wishes to make use of to illustrate the 
 proper heat for metal. The first is called a low heat, 
 which is before the metal begins to scale. The sec- 
 ond, or high heat, extends to the point where the 
 scale melts and begins to drop into the fire, if not 
 turned, and to fly out into sparks. The third heat is 
 a welding heat. 
 
 Each one of these heats is variable within the 
 limits mentioned; but the student must soon learn to 
 use the heat desired within these limits. Too often 
 finished work is heated to a high heat — thus causing 
 a scale to be removed and leaving it rough and (so 
 called) burnt. So the low heat is used on metal that 
 is finished and that should not be scaled. Metal is 
 bent, shaped, and steel is hardened at this heat. 
 
 The high heat is used where metal is to be forged 
 
FORGE A.YD MACHINE WORK. 
 
 13 
 
 and can afterwards be finished by the hammer when 
 it cools to a low heat. 
 
 The welding heat is used to weld all metals, re- 
 fine iron, for upsetting, or when a great amount of 
 forging is to be done on iron or soft steel. 
 
 IL How to Hold* 
 
 The hand holding the tongs or rod must be in- 
 timately related with the hammer and anvil. The 
 height will tend to keep the work straight if it is kept 
 turning; or if it be held too high or too low, it will 
 crook the work so it cannot be turned. In some 
 cases it should be turned after each hammer blow; 
 this is done partly by the wrist and partly by rolling 
 in the hand. 
 
 IIL How to Strike* 
 
 A 2-pound hammer is mostly used for this 
 work with a 125-pound anvil; the face of both are 
 slightly rounded. Hold the hammer firmly while 
 directing blow, but the muscles of the arm should be 
 relaxed to allow the hammer to rebound. Avoid a 
 pushing movement and hunching the shoulders. 
 Keep nearly erect, moving the back and shoulders but 
 little; stand within easy reach of the anvil. 
 
 The end of the hammer that has a straight or 
 cross pein is used to spread metal — a sphere can 
 
14 
 
 MAlS^VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 be made into a flat ellipse or oval by scoring it with 
 this cross-pein to spread it one way more than the 
 other, while the smooth face would tend to make the 
 outline circular. The round edge of the anvil is for 
 the same purpose. Forgings should be hammered 
 hard enough to cause the ends and sides to bulge 
 out. If the hammering is too light, the outside only 
 will be stretched and internal cracks started, which 
 will develop in bending or hardening. To accomplish 
 this it is best to keep a forging square when pos- 
 sible and change it to a round or flat when nearly to 
 the size. 
 
 IV. The Kind of Metal, 
 
 and the effect on it should be the constant study. 
 
 Iron during making is melted in a puddle and 
 taken out in layers, and its flber is lengthwise like 
 that of wood. By hammering it cold, until it cracks, 
 the grain will show to be like wood. When a good 
 piece of iron is broken, it will show a grain like 
 broken wood. So we can not hammer iron much at 
 a “low heat” until it is refined by welding the grain 
 close together. This is done while forging, and 
 iron forging should not be performed otherwise; for 
 the fibers are sure to show when the forging is 
 formed or bent into shape. 
 
 Norway iron is tougher than American iron and 
 is very desirable where refining by forging is impos- 
 
FORGE Al^D MAG HIRE WORK. 
 
 15 
 
 sible. A smith can use poor iron and refine it by 
 welding and make sound forgings. 
 
 Mild Stkkl is treated to an air blast while a n?ol- 
 ten mass, which renders it homogeneous or fiberless. 
 It will not split like iron or wood when hammered 
 cold. It is often put in parts of machinery because 
 it is tough, stiff, and cheaper than the Norway iron. 
 It is not hardened with heat and water; so the test to 
 distinguish it from crucible steel is to try to harden 
 it. This should always be done at the start to save 
 trouble later. 
 
 Crucible Steel will harden readily by heat and 
 water. It is melted while made in an air-tight pot. 
 Various grades and uses are given this steel; the 
 lower grades are used in machinery where special 
 hard stiff steel is needed, and the higher grades are 
 called Tool Steel and used for fine cutting tools. The 
 test for the various grades is their ability to hold a 
 cutting edge and their performance in actual use. So 
 the smith is careful to notice the brand on every bar; 
 and must have a knowledge of the nature of each 
 brand. One brand only of crucible steel is used here, 
 and we call this Tool Steel to give it a shop distinction. 
 
 To summarize, the metals used are — 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Norway Iron, 
 
 Machinery Steel, and 
 Tool Steel. 
 
16 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 The preceding notes will hardly be fully com- 
 prehended until demonstrated by practice and used 
 as Reference in the work that follows. 
 
 The beginner should spend about three hours in 
 preparation for the prescribed course, hammering on 
 cold iron until he is able to turn it over and pound on 
 all sides with force and evenness. Take a scrap of 
 round iron and draw it out square and turn it back 
 and weld it into a flat bar; then twist it. Forge a 
 cone on the end and spread it with the cross-pein into 
 an oval or heart-shaped flat (see A, Fig. 1). If the iron 
 splits or gets diamond shape or is rough when com- 
 plete, it is your fault— try again, and study to correct 
 your mistakes and to overcome troubles. 
 
 Twenty of the following exercises are required 
 of each student in forging. ^ 
 
 No. 1 . (Fig. 1.) I. Figure the length of iron 
 required to make it out of a 54 round bar. II. Heat 
 to a welding heat on the point. III. Hammer the 
 
FORGE AFD MACHINE WORK, 
 
 17 
 
 point to size first and finish while still at a low heat. 
 IV. Cut off* on the hardy while warm. 
 
 Use your left hand skillfully, to keep it straight. 
 The point must be free from splits. All must be done 
 at one heat. Three trials will be given. 
 
 % 
 
 No. 2 . (Fig. 2.) Stock given, ^"x^"x4" iron. 
 
 I. Forge taper like the sketch and square up the 
 ends with the hammer. 
 
 Noth. — Avoid splitting, and pits caused by 
 scaling where not hammered ; show smooth, straight 
 and symmetrical hammer-work ; test with straight- 
 edge; make cross-lines show distinctly. Use the square 
 iron tongs. Have a small fire. 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■V.J 
 
 
 
 ■e 'y ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 No. 3 . (Fig. 3.) Stock given, j^"x^"x4" iron. 
 I. Figure the length of x. 
 
18 
 
 MAmAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 II. Place A on sharp corner of anvil and forge 
 like sketch ; hammer on the straight sides. 
 
 Noth. — Avoid flaws at A, caused by changing 
 its position on the anvil. Caliper often. Scale 
 reduces the size of the iron. 
 
 
 No. 4. (Fig. 4.) Bent Ring. Figure the length 
 of 3/^" Rd. iron at the center as indicated (see A). 
 Stock given. 
 
 I. Bend over 1^" mandrel. 
 
 Note. — Use a low heat. Do not flatten the ends. 
 
 No. 5. (Fig 4.) Ring Handle. Figure length 
 of Rd. iron (x+2") as indicated (see B). Stock 
 given. 
 
 I. Dress ends and bend as indicated over round 
 corner of the anvil. 
 
 II. Bend on 1" mandrel. 
 
 Note. — K eep it free from scars. 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 19 
 
 No. 6, (Fig. 5.) Staple. Figure length of }(" 
 Rd. iron to be given. 
 
 I. Draw Out square points and bend over horn 
 and use side of hardy to straighten. 
 
 Note. — Use welding heat on points, and low 
 heat to bend center. Cool points in water. Must be 
 free from marks. 
 
 I. After a good eye is made and approved, cut 
 the stock 5" long from center of eye. 
 
 II. Forge and bend hook to be right after twist - 
 
 is made. . ‘ 
 
20 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 - - 
 
 III. Twist at low heat. 
 
 Note;. — Study carefully the heating. 
 
 No. 8. (Fig. 7.) Exercise, Use extra length of 
 
 Norway iron. ^ - ;; ■ 
 
 I. Draw on round corner of anvil (see A). " 
 
 II. Make offset at D by upsetting (see B). . " 
 
 III. Bend over horn. , 
 
 IV. Cut and forge point. * 
 
 Noth. — Avoid nicks at D; make C sharp. 
 
 /■/>. 8 
 
 No. 9. (Fig. 8.) Exercise. Use extra length' C" 
 of Norway iron. 
 
 I. Upset round head plenty long. Use set 
 mer and heading tool to shoulder up at A. 
 
 II. Start the octagon’at B with fullers ; ham-^’|^ 
 
 mer to gauge. " ' 
 
 III. Draw round part to gauge. 
 
 ham-v y| 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK,, 
 
 21 
 
 IV. Cut and draw point. 
 
 Note. — Strike hard on the end to avoid the cup 
 at the end. Keep it central. Everything must be 
 hammered. Take measurements from the end to 
 avoid variation. 
 
 • No. !©• (Fig. 9.) UpsetBolts. Stock, Rd. 
 Norway iron. 
 
 I. Upset bolt head by hammering on end and 
 finishing in heading tool. 
 
 II. Make one square head and one hexagon head 
 
 bolt. 
 
 Note. — Keep it always central, avoid getting the 
 head too short, which causes cracks under the head. 
 Keep top round. 
 
22 
 
 MAl^UAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 k — 
 
 No. 11. (Fig. 10.) Knee Forging. Stock,^^"x^" 
 x8" Norway iron. 
 
 I. Upset in center and bend as indicated (see A). 
 
 II. Continue bending by upsetting (see B). 
 Notk. — N icks on the inside will become cracks. 
 
 Avoid drawing out sides on the anvil when not 
 desired. Use trysquare on outside. 
 
 /7y. // 
 
 No. 12. (Fig. 11.) Chain Links. Stock, 3 pcs. 
 ^"x'7" Rd. Norway iron. 
 
FORGE ARD MACHINE WORK. 23 
 
 I. Upset ends and scarf inside corners slightly 
 (see A), 
 
 II. Weld in a clean fire, two links; put all to- 
 gether when welding the third. 
 
 Not£^.— M ake weld at end of links; leave it heavy 
 at weld and round. 
 
 No, 13. (Fig. 12.) Welded Bolt. Stock for ring, 
 iron; for bolt, 4" of } 4 " Rd. iron. 
 
 I. Bend and cut ring on hardy (see A). 
 
 II. Upset bolt iV" about long. 
 
 III. Put on the ring and weld it square as you go. 
 Put in heading tool for squaring end. 
 
 Note. — Take the welding heat slow, to give the 
 center time to heat. One heat is enough for the head 
 in (III.); leave a fillet under head, if possible. 
 
24 
 
 MAl^VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 No. 14 . (Fig- 13-) Stock of iron and machinery 
 steel varied in size and shape by the instructor. 
 
 I. With the iron, upset and scarf the ends and 
 weld by heating both ends at once and laying to- 
 gether on the anvil and weld with the hammer. If 
 you are slow and only get them stuck — heat again 
 and then weld. (See A.) 
 
 II. With machinery steel upset and fork one 
 end as in B and put together tight before placing in 
 the fire for a welding heat. 
 
 Noth. — Much time should be spent at this exer- 
 cise. Have a clean fire. Too much blast and shallow 
 fires often .spoil a welding heat, as it drives the dirt 
 onto the metal. Upset enough to have plenty in 
 welding and still keep the metal full size. Strike 
 hard when welding the center. 
 
 Notes on Tool Steel. 
 
 Tool Steel is made from the best material and 
 should not be carelessly used. In heating, the fire 
 should be well coked and not hotter than needed to 
 bring the steel to the desired heat; internal strain is 
 caused by fast heating. 
 
 There is no need of scaling the steel to heat it 
 throughout; it is well to take time, and yet not best 
 to soak the steel in the heat after it is hot. 
 
 Heavy pounding, when evenly distributed, is a 
 benefit to hot steel. To do this, it is best to keep the 
 forging square at first and change to the desired 
 
FORGE A1!^D machine WORK, 
 
 25 
 
 shape when near its completion. Thin flats should 
 not be hammered on edge, and often we cut off the 
 edge rather than shatter the grain by pounding on a 
 thin edge. In making small tools like a scratch-awl, 
 it is possible to keep the steel hot by hammering. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering* 
 
 The simple method of hardening steel in water 
 and tempering by heating to the desired color is the 
 only method that we have found necessary for any 
 tool that is used in the machine shop. But we use 
 only good steel of a uniform grade — well forged. 
 
 If the instructor will perform the following ex- 
 periment before the class it, will be of great benefit: — 
 Take a new bar of Tool Steel, equal in quality to the 
 Crescent Extra, say 3/^"x^"xl2", and brighten one 
 side with a file and file notches in one corner, say 
 apart, for reference. Now heat this bar nearly the 
 full length so that one end is a welding heat and have 
 the heat gradually diminish to a black, taking no- 
 tice where the red and black seem to unite. Plunge 
 this rod straight down into soft water, and when 
 cool, take a fine file and notice the following. First: 
 — On the side where the original scale is left you can 
 scratch it. This proves that the scale is oxide of 
 iron and will not harden. Second: — Test carefully 
 
 the hardness and you will find it hard all along the 
 part that was heated up to the point where there 
 seemed to have been no color; and that within 
 
26 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 of the end of the hardened steel zV is soft. This is a 
 valuable part of our test. (A) Steel will not moder- 
 ately harden — it is either .hard or soft. (B) Hardened 
 steel is a constant and a basis to work from in tem- 
 pering; just as we reckon the degrees of Centigrade 
 from the freezing-point. (C) It is not necessary to 
 heat steel enough to scale it in order to harden it. 
 Our best tools can be finished before hardening. 
 Third: — Break the bar up into small pieces and exam- 
 ine the grain of each piece. The over-heated parts 
 will be coarse-grained and brittle; but it will improve 
 as the place is approached where but little heat was 
 given it in hardening. Also notice that all the water- 
 cracks are found in the part that was very hot. 
 
 In conclusion: The lowest heat that will harden 
 
 tool steel is the best. 
 
 Note. — It is necessary to harden annealed steel 
 twice before it becomes hardened. 
 
 Hardened steel is too hard and brittle for most 
 purposes; so that it is necessary to soften it a little 
 by heat, to suit the varied needs. This process is 
 called tempering. 
 
 The degree of heat of polished iron, brass, or steel 
 is shown by its color until it is blackened by heat. 
 For our purpose we do not care what degree Fahren- 
 heit is represented by a certain color; but we do know 
 the effect of the heat represented by a certain color 
 on a hardened piece of steel. So that tempering is 
 simply this: Harden the steel by heating it to a low 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 27 
 
 red heat and plunging into water, leaving it in until 
 it is cooled; polish it on one side and heat it by con- 
 tact with a hot piece of metal, or hot sand, until the 
 color shows that the steel has become soft enough 
 for the desired purpose. Then prevent its getting 
 softer by cooling it again. The first color noticed is 
 yellow while the steel is yet very hard, but as the color 
 darkens the steel softens; for lathe tools a straw 
 color is needed — cold-chisels a blue, screwdrivers a 
 blue-black. A color-tempering scale for various 
 tools in use can be seen on the shop wall. This 
 scale is taken from Vol. II. of Appleton’s Cyclopedia 
 of Applied Mechanics. 
 
 In tempering the cold-chisel or lathe tool, it is 
 best to heat the body part a black warm, and the 
 point to be hardened a low red heat. 
 
 Harden the part to be tempered in water and 
 when removed the wet should not dry off in steam, 
 for that indicates that the cooled part is being heated 
 very fast, from the body part v/hich is still warm. 
 While it is slowly heating, polish the point and watch 
 for the desired color which indicates a softening of 
 the steel. Redip the tempered part when desired to 
 keep the temper, but do not dip the body until it has 
 cooled beyond the point where it will harden. Skill 
 is required to have the color run slowly, by getting 
 the right amount of heat in the body to produce the 
 color. The slower the color runs the more even will 
 be the temper. 
 
28 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 When steel is to be tempered evenly all over, it 
 is first hardened all over, polished, then put in con- 
 tact with hot sand or iron until the desired color is 
 reached. 
 
 Note. — Remember that the color of polished 
 steel does not indicate its temper ; it only shows a heat, 
 and unless the whole process of tempering is known, 
 the color is of no value; the first color after harden- 
 ing is the only one of value by observation. 
 
 The above will be a foundation for extended 
 study ; and special work should be referred to the 
 instructor, whose experience and judgment are needed 
 in deciding special methods ; all of which, however, 
 involve the above principles. 
 
 Annealing* 
 
 Annealing steel is to soften it for easy cutting. 
 After heating to a low heat, put it in a lime-box, or 
 similar air-tight place, to keep it warm for some time, 
 and it will become quite soft, so that threads can be 
 cut on it. 
 
 Water Annealing is a method of softening steel 
 by heat and water. When the steel is at a point of 
 heat that is hardly seen in a dark place, it is softened 
 by water, much softer than if it were allowed to cool 
 naturally. This process is used when holes are to be 
 drilled in the end of tool steel forgings or returning 
 lathe centers. 
 
 Case Hardening is produced by the application of 
 
FORGE MACHINE V^ ORK, 
 
 29 
 
 cyanide or yellow prussiate of potash on iron or ma- 
 chinery steel while it is red-hot and immediately 
 plunged into water, which gives it a hard coat. This 
 method is used on nuts and screws for machines and 
 bicycles. The success of the operation is indicated 
 by the snap as it is plunged into the water hot. Tool 
 steel is never treated in this way. 
 
 
 F/yJV. 
 
 ‘t 
 
 
 No. 15. (Fig. 14.) Scratch'Awl. Stock, 3" of 
 
 Oct. Tool Steel. 
 
 I. Draw it out to square and 5^" long. 
 
 II. Twist it 360 degrees as indicated. 
 
 III. Draw each end to a round point yV' diam- 
 eter. Grind the point before bending down 
 
 IV. Temper to a straw color on each end. 
 
 Note. — G rinding, except on points, is not al- 
 lowed ; make corners of twist sharp with the ham- 
 mer. Show skillful hammering. 
 
 No. 16. (Fig. 15.) Center Punch. Stock, 3 
 Oct. Tool Steel. 
 
30 
 
 MAIS^VAL OF INSTRUQTION IN 
 
 I. Draw to a square point at a low heat and then 
 change to round. 
 
 II. Grind point 60 degrees and temper it dark 
 straw color. 
 
 Notk. — Show hammering, and not grinding. 
 
 No. 17. (Fig. 16.) Cold^Chisel. Stock, 6" of 
 Oct. Tool Steel. 
 
 I. Hammer by hand at low heat, keeping it 
 square for awhile, then flatten. If it is a little too 
 wide when nearly finished, grind it oflf, rather than 
 strike the thin edge and shatter the grain. 
 
 II. Grind the edge 60 degrees. 
 
 III. Temper blue and test. 
 
 Note. — N o finish by grinding allowed. 
 
 No. 18. (Fig. 17.) Diamond-point lathe tool. 
 Stock, ^"xl" Tpol Steel given. 
 
 I. Forge on corner of anvil as indicated and cut 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 31 
 
 off point so that A will be above top and higher 
 than B. 
 
 II. Grind top and front of tool. 
 
 III. Temper a straw color. 
 
 Note. — Test your stock for Tool Steel, if neces- 
 sary. Use hammer only in forging. 
 
 No.^ 19. (Fig. 18 .) Cutting^off Tool. Stock 
 given. 
 
 I. Forge with hammer, keeping AB well slanted 
 until nearly finished, then do not strike the edge. 
 
 II. Cut oflF at BC. 
 
 III. Grind carefully to leave the point wider 
 than any* other part, and sides flaring, so that it will 
 follow its own cut, made by cuttin'g edge C. 
 
 IV. Harden the top only and temper dark straw. 
 Note. — If the sides are finished carefully with a 
 
 hammer, they will need no grinding. If desired, a 
 slant DE may be given. 
 
No. 20. (Fig. 19.) Side-cutting Tool. Stock 
 given. 
 
 I. Forge this tool the same as No. 19, except the 
 cutting edge is on one side EF, so it is left full width 
 at the bottom and flares at CD. Slope AB with ham- 
 mer and cut off at CB. 
 
 II. Grind on top and side surface CD. 
 
 III. Temper top to straw. 
 
 No. 21. (Fig. 20.) Pliers, Stock, 2 pcs. >^"xl" 
 x4" Mch. Steel. 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 33 
 
 T. Test stock and hammer over corner of anvil to 
 general form (see the sketch above the drawing). 
 
 II. Finish jaw and round part, then the handles. 
 Note. — Smooth, accurate forgings are necessary; 
 leave handles smooth-hammered ; notice their cross- 
 section and position from the center line. 
 
 Every student is required to complete these pliers. 
 
 The test of ability is given in work that follows 
 where no instructions are laid out, and one's judg- 
 ment is all that is reliable. Students of different 
 courses of engineering could now do special work in 
 their own lines, under the help of the instrhctor. 
 
 Figs. 21«to^25 are'^only a few of the exercises- 
 suggested; others hiay be seen on the sample-board in 
 the shop. 
 
 f/y. 21. 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 35 
 
 I 
 
 ri 
 
 G/i /^ead /^ey 
 
 I 
 
 /=7y. 2 
 
 ir 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Bench Worfc* 
 
 Bench work consist in the use of hand tools and 
 mainly consists in filing, chipping, and drilling small 
 holes with the drill press. 
 
 No heat is used as in forging and the metal is re- 
 duced by cutting to suit the purpose for which it is 
 made. And yet the cutting done by the file and 
 chisel at the bench can not well be done by the 
 machine tools. Each has its work and usefulness. 
 
 Filing, though not hard work, requires patience 
 and attention to style of motion. In one respect, like 
 forging, it is dependent upon the eyes, hands, and 
 judgement; practice in movement is required similar 
 to that in beginning penmanship. Both hands are 
 always used in filing; the right hand is held close 
 to the side with the wrist curved so the file can 
 be moved nearly straight out from the body; the 
 
36 
 
 MAl^VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 thumb resting on top of the handle and the end of 
 the handle resting against the palm of the hand; the 
 left hand resting on top of the file, at the end, with 
 the fingers gently grasping the file so that the fore- 
 arm is at an angle of about 45 degrees with the file. 
 The vise should be within easy reach and of a height 
 to permit the forearm to be level and the body erect. 
 
 No great pressure is needed on the file in the 
 cutting stroke, for the object of good filing is to pro- 
 duce sraight work, and not to remove metal. Do not 
 raise the file oflf entire y on the return stroke, but do 
 not drag it back hard. The similarity in movement 
 is easier to maintain than a repeated routine of sever- 
 al movements. When the file is cutting, the student 
 should observe its effect without stopping the file. 
 Adjust the hand to suit, until the desired results are 
 obtained. It is necessary to change the position to 
 make the lines of the filing show plainly and cross- 
 cut each other to prevent filing uneven. 
 
 Do not file when you have no knowledge of the 
 effect. 7 
 
 The student should first take a short stroke, and 
 gradually learn the longer stroke in two or three 
 days. Use the rough file to get the work straight, 
 only using the mill file to smooth it up just at the 
 last. It is sometimes best to draw file with the mill 
 ♦ file to keep it from clogging up and scratching. 
 
 To do this, put the file cross-wise[and file both 
 ways with a short, quick, movement. Drawfiling is 
 
FORGE ARD MACHINE WORK. 
 
 37 
 
 not practical and should only be done to smoothen 
 iron. Some kinds of work need not be drawfiled, as 
 the double-cut, rough file will leave it sufficiently 
 smooth. A straight surface is more necessary than 
 a smooth surface and the former should not be sacri- 
 ficed for the latter. Test the surface with straight- 
 edge and surfape plate, or when parallel surfaces are 
 made, test with the calipers by so adjusting them 
 that they are loose in one place and tight in another, 
 for comparison. Do not depend upon the friction of 
 calipers to ascertain variations in the thickness. Take 
 off the wire edge with the file before testing. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ‘S 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 No. 1. (Fig. 26. Exercise. Stock ^"x^"x3" 
 of iron and a square nut. Kept in tool-room. 
 
 I. Practice filing on the ends of A, using the 
 edge of the file to take off* the roughness. Do no 
 drawfiling. 
 
 II. File two adjoining sides of A true and 90 
 degrees, leaving two sides black. Have your work 
 inspected by the instructor. 
 
 III. Finish the ends 93 degrees regardless of 
 length. 
 
38 MAmAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 IV. File the square surface of B true to the sur- 
 face plate. Grind off any thick scale that might be 
 on the nut; it ruins the file. 
 
 V. File two opposite sides parallel and 90 de- 
 grees from the face, making the hole central; using 
 the calipers at this place will be quite a study and 
 should be given close attention. The hair-spring 
 screw should be adjusted very freely to assist in their 
 proper use. 
 
 VI. File remaining two sides the same; making 
 both diameters equal, all angles 90 degrees. 
 
 Noth.- — By filing opposite sides in this way, no 
 great error in the angles can be made, the work will 
 check itself, an imperfect square can be detected and 
 used as well as a true square. 
 
 VII. Mark out a square hole on both sides, 
 with your scratch-awl, making the hole central. 
 
 VIII. Check out a rough square file and a par- 
 allel three-cornered file, using the latter to finish 
 filing the hole. Keep the walls of the nut parallel 
 and equal; leave the corners a little round like those 
 of the file. Use the calipers to get the walls equal 
 and thus produce a square hole. Inspection. 
 
 IX. File the black sides of A to fit in B, and 
 when driving it in lightly, you may be able to im- 
 prove the hole. A should fit into B in any way. File 
 off the corners of A so they will not quite touch. 
 
 X. Polish all exterior parts except the fitting 
 and black parts. Put the emery-cloth under the file 
 
FORGE Al^D MAG HIRE WORK. 
 
 39 
 
 and use the coarse freely to remove the file-marks 
 and polish with the fine cloth. Avoid rounding the 
 corners. 
 
 Nqtk. — You will notice the black grain of the 
 iron; do not try to work it out. 
 
 In this exercise the student should learn to file 
 just where desired and true. All who complete No. 
 1 well and file well, having a good movement, need 
 not do No. 3. 
 
 Call on instructor to inspect each of the ten oper- 
 ations if desired. Always start right and keep right. 
 
 The drill press is very easy to manage in the 
 work that follows. The work is clamped in the vise 
 or clamp. Do not try to hold work by hand until 
 your experience will insure success. The drills and 
 the countersinks are checked out of the tool- room. 
 75-degree countersinks for screws and rivets have 
 an octagon shank. Grind your own drills on the 
 face of the grindstone, holding the cutting edge up 
 and parallel with the axis of the stone and keep it 
 parallel while rounding the heel off for clearance. 
 Make the lips the same length by measurement; but 
 no special gauge is needed for the drills used in the 
 work here given. 
 
 Lard oil is found in the large cans and is used 
 in drilling wrought iron or steel, but very little is. 
 needed; about three drops placed on the drill about 
 one inch above the work while the drill is cutting 
 
40 
 
 MAl^^UAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 will be all that is needed in drilling holes in }("' 
 plates. 
 
 Use the fastest or first speed for holes up to 
 the second for holes to the third from 
 to the fourth from ff" to for all metals ex- 
 cept tool steel. 
 
 Be careful in using the self-feed, it is quite fast 
 for small drills. The drill should be fed enough to 
 cause the chips to curl. Do not allow the drill to 
 slip and harden the surface to be cut. Have waste 
 handy and keep work clean. 
 
 No. 2 , (Fig. 27.) Varified Exercise. 
 
 I. Cut oflF the stock ^"xl^"x3" from a bar of 
 
 iron. / 
 
 II. File ends long for convenience in 
 
 measuring. 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 41 
 
 III. Mark the rectangle and holes to be drilled 
 by pricking the centers with center-punch, then 
 scribe the circles with dividers kept in the tool-room. 
 Put four prick punch-marks on each circle to locate 
 them permanently. 
 
 IV. Hold the work in the drill clamp and start 
 the drill cutting, but before it cuts full size, compare 
 the outline of the drill with the circle on the work. 
 If it is not true, it must be moved by punching a hole 
 in the countersink with the center-punch, which will 
 cause the drill to cut more on that side. The drill 
 does not always follow its point and must be thus 
 changed. After drilling and countersinking the 
 holes, 
 
 V. Cut out the rectangle; hold in vise and cut 
 center with your chisel so you can get the file started. 
 Chip towards the metal. 
 
 VI. File inside to measurement. Do no pol- 
 ishing. 
 
 No. 3, (Fig. 28.) Quiz. Time given is three 
 to four hours. Stock, section of steel shaft 1 
 long, from tool-room. 
 
 
42 
 
 MA^AL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 I. File a true hexagon; file sides AB perfect, 
 then CD parallel to AB, and EF last, using calipers to 
 check errors. Use the special blade of the square. 
 Make perfect as you go. Polish. 
 
 No. 4, (Fig. 29.) Exercise in Close Drilling, 
 
 I. Cut the stock off of bar of iron. 
 
 II. File ends. 
 
 III. Lay off and scribe holes in one plate as in 
 No. 2. 
 
 IV. Start all the holes with the drill. Then 
 clamp both together in drill vise and drill through all 
 the holes; countersink one plate as indicated. Clean 
 well and have them inspected. 
 
 V. Rivet the plates together reversed. Make 
 the rivets of Norway Iron }(" longer than the 
 holes. Use the round pein of the hammer to fill up 
 the countersink and both hammer and rivet-set on 
 the rounded ends. Pound enough to head it well, 
 but not to split the plates. 
 
FORGE Al^D MACHi:S[E WORK, 
 
 43 
 
 Noth. — L et the riveting be purely hammering 
 and do not file or chip the heads. 
 
 No. 5. (Fig. 30.) Key Filing* Stock >^"x^"x3" 
 Mich. Steel from bar or Fig. 25. Keys are parallel 
 and close fitting on the sides; they taper about 
 to the foot on top or side which touches the hub only. 
 The widths are made to suit a stock size bar of steel 
 nearest in size to one quarter the diameter of the 
 shaft. But little or no filing is needed on the sides, 
 the bottom is made straight and the top may be made 
 rounding or any shape to fit the taper of the hub 
 when in its place very tight. 
 
 I. File key to size by measurement so that it 
 will partly enter into its place. 
 
 II. Drive it in lightly, well oiled. File bright 
 spots, and repeat until the bright part extends full 
 length and width; leaving projecting to be driven 
 in tight at a future time. 
 
 III. File ends like the sketch. Polish ends only. 
 
 Note.—No draw-filing is needed on this key 
 
 until at the last touch; file lengthwise with rough 
 file. This work requires about two hours. Find hub 
 and key drift in tool-room. 
 
44 
 
 MAIS^VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 No. 6. Surface Plate. — Stock given from spe- 
 cial soft cast iron. ^ 
 
 This exercise introduces chipping with the stu- 
 dent’s own chisel and scraping to a true surface. 
 
 I. In chipping have your chisel about thick; 
 ground 60 degrees. Do not take off more than }i" 
 cut at a time. Use a 1^ -pound hammer, gripping 
 the handle about 9" from the head; swing it over the 
 shoulder steadily and evenly, using a movement from 
 arm and wrist. Soft “feeling” taps are not allowed. 
 Hold the chisel loosely and cut toward the center to 
 avoid breaking off the edges of the iron. Take oflF 
 two cuts. 
 
 II. Chip the edges to complete a square. 
 
 III. File with the rough file t6 surface plate. 
 The edge of the file can be used to advantage. 
 
 IV. In scraping, grind the scraper as straight as 
 possible on the side of a smooth wheel; whet it on an 
 oilstone until very true. Scrape quite heavy at first, 
 to keep the metal rough until nearly level. Then 
 shorten up the stroke with care to finish well, chang- 
 ing the position often to prevent making vibrations 
 and grooves. When finished, it should touch about 
 half its surface on a dry test surface plate ; all the 
 corners and edges must touch. 
 
 Be careful to have no dust between the plates, 
 and put one drop of oil on and rub the test-plate with 
 the hand to get the oil off and insure a clean surface. 
 
FORGE AiYi) MACHINE WORK. 
 
 45 
 
 V. Scrape the edges true; frost them by making 
 irregular spots at regular intervals. 
 
 Notk.^ — In cutting your plate out of a large plate 
 of cast-iron, drill a series of holes around it, that will 
 cause it to break out easily. 
 
 Scraping is the finish given to all planed work of 
 machine tools and engines where true surfaces are 
 needed. Scraped surfaces wear well. Take pride in 
 your chisel. 
 
 Insert a brass name-plate in the edge, if you 
 desire. 
 
 Wearing a glove on the left hand while chipping 
 is considered wise and good taste. 
 
 Chipping an offset on the edges held by the vise 
 will prevent the plate slipping down. Cut cross wise 
 the vise. Use the heavier vise. 
 
 No. 7. (Fig. 31.) Inside Calipers. Stock, Tool 
 
 Steel. 
 
 I. Cut stock out on the shears ; cut close to the 
 line and do not have unnecessary filing. 
 
/ 
 
 46 MA1\ VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 II. Drill }(" hole and file edges like sketch A. 
 
 III. Bend points in forge shop. 
 
 IV. File and polish sides like sketch B; free 
 from scratches. See that the joint around the hole is 
 parallel and well surfaced. 
 
 V. Put together with washers kept by the in- 
 structor. See that the machinery steel pin fills the 
 hole in the legs tight. Leave on each end for 
 riveting. The washers are made concave to spring 
 and take up the wear. Oil the joints. File off* the 
 rivet smooth and rounding, polish by hand and then 
 polish to a circular polish by use of the drill-press 
 and a small piece of emery-cloth stretched over a 
 stick held in the clamp. 
 
 VI. File the sides of the legs tangent to the end 
 curves, when legs are at 90 degrees. 
 
 VII. Stamp your name on the inside, if desired. 
 
 Noth. — U se calipers in IV. 
 
FORGE MACHINE WORK. 
 
 47 
 
 No. 8. (Fig. 32.) Side^cutting Pliers. Stock, 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 The student is expected to show taste in making 
 these pliers, in things that can not be shown well 
 here. Bvery student is required to finish them as in- 
 dicated below. 
 
 I. Mark the center line and circles for boring 
 and locate permanent marks with the pick-punch. 
 
 II. Drill hole by resting the forging on a 
 level strip of iron in the clamp. See that the pliers are 
 smooth on the bottom side. 
 
 III. Forge a pin-drill from stock kept in the 
 tool-room, finish to size by filing, and temper dark 
 straw. Make it as large as possible to suit the pliers. 
 
 IV. Countersink each piece to exact depth, 
 using a parallel block to bore on. Return drill as 
 soon as possible, so others can make one. 
 
 V. File carefully to fit them together; file jaw 
 to the center line. Teave shoulders as indicated to 
 open to. 
 
 VI. Make cutters as indicated, of tool steel stock 
 kept in the tool-room. Fit them to each jaw, making 
 the dovetail part to suit a three-cornered file. Allow 
 some for shrinking in tempering. File cutting 
 edges 60 degrees and in line with the corner of the 
 jaw, as indicated; score the jaws with a file. Run a 
 
 drill through the hole while the pliers are together, 
 so the pin will not bind. 
 
48 
 
 MA^AL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 VII. Gase-harden the jaws and temper the 
 cutters to a straw-color. 
 
 VIII. Oil well and rivet together, striking the 
 rivet lightly to head it without swelling th^ body. 
 When finished, loosen the rivet over a hole. 
 
 Note. — A well-forged pair of pliers needs no 
 bright finish on the handles. Polish around the jaws. 
 Stamp your name on the inside of the handles, which 
 will prove the maker. Test the cutters with an 8-d. 
 wire nail. 
 
 T" 
 tc* 
 
 /i 
 
 A. 
 
 r/j.3S. 
 
 No. 9. (Fig. 33.) Ratchet drilling. The ratchet- 
 drill is a tool used to drill holes by hand where the 
 power-drill cannot be used. The '‘old man” is the 
 frame-work that is put up to hold the “ratchet” and 
 drill. 
 
 I. Forge a drill out of stock kept in tool-room. 
 Temper to dark straw-color. Finish by grinding on 
 the stone. 
 
 II. The iron given by the instructor to be drilled 
 can be clamped in the vise and the “old man” clamped 
 on to it. 
 
 III. Use no oil on the drill when drilling cast 
 iron. Place your thumb so the edge of the drill 
 touches it as they pass when turning; if one side 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 49 
 
 swings out more than the other, your drill point is 
 not central and will cut too large. Grind true. The 
 rounded edges at A will be a benefit in this respect. 
 
 NoTiE. — This exercise can be done in two hours. 
 Students who have previously done this work, and 
 who can pass an oral examination upon the subjects, 
 are excused from Nos. 9, 10, and 11. 
 
 No. 10. Pipe^cutting. This work is intended 
 merely to show the method of cutting small pipe by 
 hand. 
 
 The nominal measurement of pipe is taken on 
 the inside. The thread is cut taper of to 1 ft , 
 and should be tight on the end of the pipe and never 
 allowed to go in to the shoulder of the thread. Cut the 
 thread to fit the fittings (ells and tees) and adjust the 
 die to suit. The marks on the die for standard size 
 may not be correct. Cut all at one cut, using lard oil; 
 the pipe should just come through the die. Be sure 
 the guide fits well. 
 
 - , I. Cut one thread on a 1" pipe. 
 
 II. Cut it off three inches long for a nipple. 
 
 III. Cut threads on the other end by holding the 
 nipple in a holder. File off the burrs and give it a 
 neat appearance. This is a short exercise. 
 
 No. 11. Babbitting. Provisions are made to 
 babbitt two boxes which are made in halves. 
 
 I. Cut out the babbitt, running a narrow (cape) 
 chisel lengthwise through the babbitt at the bottom. 
 Clean out the retaining-holes. 
 
50 
 
 MA^^UAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 II. Support the shaft on blocks so that it is 
 central with the parting. 
 
 III. Putty up around the ends; cement the putty 
 to the box and shaft with fingers, but be careful not 
 to crowd it in under. Put card-board covers on the 
 parting, leaving large vents and pouring holes. 
 
 IV. Add a little babbitt to what was taken out 
 and melt slowly in a ladle until a soft stick will 
 smoke when touched to it. Pour into the box as 
 fast as it will take it; keep the face at a safe distance. 
 
 V. Take out the shaft and scrape the sides of 
 the babbitt so the shaft will lie on the bottom and 
 turn easily. Boxes should never touch hard on the 
 sides. 
 
 VI. Put the shaft back and put the cap in place 
 with liners of card-board between, to be removed or 
 reduced when necessary to take the up wear. Putty 
 up the ends, leave vents, and put a high pouring- 
 spout of putty on top. Pour as before. 
 
 VII. Scrape the cap, drill oil-holes and cut oil- 
 grooves. 
 
 VIII. Increase or reduce the liners so that the 
 cap can be tightened and still have the shaft a 
 neat fit. 
 
 The cap and box are sometimes poured at the 
 same time with liners between, cut to allow the 
 metal to pass and still easily break and allow them 
 to separate. 
 
 Note — Consult the forge instructor about melt- 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE MORE, 
 
 51 
 
 ing the babbitt. Only certain forges are used for 
 this purpose. 
 
 It is often necessary to warm the shaft to keep 
 the metal from chilling in rough waves. Some- 
 times a thin layer of paper on the shaft will insulate 
 it and cause the metal to run smooth. Oil is used 
 for this purpose. In babbitting solid boxes, white 
 lead put on the shaft as a paint will insure good 
 work and give room for removing the shaft, which is 
 done at once.. 
 
 This completes the work given on this subject 
 at this time. 
 
 The study of construction of machinery by hand 
 in a technical way is given in the class-room later. 
 But the student is asked to study the Appendix with 
 a view to using correct names for some of the com- 
 mon articles in the shop. 
 
 Students who have time and who stand well in 
 their classes are given use of the wood tools and 
 may make things of their own design, if the design 
 is approved by the instructor. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Machine Tool Work* 
 
 The work of machine tools consists in cutting 
 the metal by tools which give it geometrical forms 
 and shapes. 
 
 The machine tool is an instrument of great pre- 
 
52 
 
 MAl^UAL OF IFfBTRVCTIOFl IN 
 
 cision, yet good work will not be performed unless it 
 is intelligently operated. 
 
 The writer does not wish to exhaust the capacity 
 of machine tools or any one of them, nor to take up 
 in detail each feature of every tool; but rather to 
 show the operations of lathe-work, which will be 
 uniformly taught and similar, until sufficient knowl- 
 edge is obtained to enable the student to branch out 
 to other tools and perform special work which will 
 be put to some good use, either by itself or collect- 
 ively in the machinery which is built by the students. 
 
 The lathe is constructed and operated on very 
 simple principles and becomes more and more com- 
 plex in its results the more it is used and studied. 
 It is capable of doing the most of the work in build- 
 ing machinery and the student is expected to devote 
 the most of his time to the study of the lathe; not only 
 to manipulate the various movements with judg- 
 ment, but rather to produce true work under all con- 
 ditions, and make good fits. 
 
 . The student is given a 14"x6 ft. engine lathe to 
 study and look over with a view to answering the 
 following questions to the instructor: What is the 
 
 live spindle? Tail-stock spindle? How are the cen- 
 ters extracted? When is each center considered true? 
 What is the chuck; faceplate (how removed); back- 
 gear; single gear; lead-screw and half-nut; straight- 
 and cross feed; compound-rest? 
 
 The following general terms are used: '‘Rough- 
 
FORGE AFD MACHINE WORK. 
 
 53 
 
 ing-cut,” is to cut the metal to nearly its desired size 
 or a cut for removing metal only. ‘‘Finishing-cut,” 
 for finishing. “Facing,” is cutting cross-wnse. True- 
 ing-up,” is to place the work in the lathe true with 
 the parts which can be turned but little, or not at all. 
 “Centering,” is to put the cone bearings in the work 
 for the centers. “Drilling,” is done with a drill; 
 “boring,” with a tool; “reaming,” with a reamer; 
 “threading,” or to cut thread, should always be done 
 with a single-pointed tool. 
 
 The modern method of standardization is used 
 more in lathe-work than any work of the shop. 
 Standard reamers are provided which are used to 
 ream holes after boring, to produce a standard hole. 
 Standard plugs and collars are kept in the tool-room 
 which conform with the reamers in size. The workmen 
 use the plugs to compare with size of the work, and 
 the collars (called gauges) to make the final test of 
 size. 
 
 The cutting speed varies slightly with different 
 metals and depths of cut. Fifteen to twenty feet per 
 minute will be the limits. Very often, time can be 
 saved by an increase of the feed rather than the speed 
 of the metal. For 1" round iron and steel use the 
 slowest single- gear speed. Close observers soon 
 learn to judge the speed by the passing metal. Spots 
 should be easily seen. 
 
 The lathes are oiled once a week, by a man in 
 charge. The student is expected at the start of each 
 
54 
 
 MAl^UAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 day to clean ofif the V slides for the carriage, .and odl .. 
 them with machine oil; then see that the change 
 gear are disengaged and the lead-screw free from the 
 half-nut. Turn the lathe by hand to be sure of no 
 other trouble. Be careful in the use of feeds to be 
 sure there are no obstructions. Never stop and leave 
 a lathe with a feed connected. When stopping a cut, 
 always stop the feed before stopping the lathe. 
 
 Use lard oil sparingly v/hen cutting-off, drilling 
 holes and cutting threads. 
 
 Use water on wrought-iron and steel to take a 
 smooth cut; add 2 grains of sal-soda to keep it from 
 rusting. 
 
 Nothing need be used on a roughing-cut unless 
 it is very heavy, and then water is applied to keep 
 the tool from smoking. 
 
 Never use lard oil for turning. 
 
 The cutting- off tool should not be used at a 
 greater distance from the chuck than 1^ times the 
 diameter of the iron cut. The metal is liable to bend 
 at a greater distance. ^ ^ 
 
 The only tools that must be placed level with 
 the center are those that go to the center, like the 
 cutting-off and side tools. The diamond-point should 
 be above the center to give it a freer cutting angle 
 (called “more rake”) and to make it nearly tangent to 
 the metal and lessen the liability of breaking the 
 point off. However, should the tool become tangent, , 
 the tool will crowd away and then dip in again, malaF 
 
FORGE MAGEF^E WORK. 
 
 rs 
 
 ing the surface corrugated at irregular intervals. In 
 grinding, be careful to keep the tool in its original 
 shape so it can be placed above the center and not be 
 tangent; grind the cutting edge as shown in Fig. 17. 
 
 Every student must use his own tools. When 
 they are used up, forge them again. 
 
 No. 1 . I. Put on the 4>jaw chuck; chuck a bar 
 of 1" Rd, iron allowing 1^" to project. After grind- 
 ing the cutting-off tool as in Fig. 18, practice cutting 
 off the rod into pieces long. Use lard oil, drop 
 at a time, every third turn, but in the proper place. 
 See that the disks are cut true. Have them inspected. 
 
 II. Cut down the bar as small as possible with 
 one cut of the diamond point. Using the self-feed; cut 
 off two disks from the cylinder thus turned; they 
 should be reduced to at least. Inspection. 
 
 III. Cut off stock for No. 2, long. 
 
 IV. Chuck this piece again; drill centers in the 
 ends. First start a countersink for the drill by use 
 of a special tool on the tool-board. Second, drill 
 a hole, deep. Third, countersink 60®, with 
 a half-center, to diameter. 
 
 Noth. — In IV. use the fastest speed. The chuck 
 jaws can be set close by the rings on the face, and 
 still closer by trueing up after starting by the mark 
 of chalk. When once set, they need not be changed 
 if only two jaws are moved. The independent-jaw 
 chuck is used for lathes, because it can be screwed 
 very tight, also it is adjustable to the unevenness of 
 
56 
 
 MAmAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 the work. In this work tighten it all you can; it 
 will not break. If the work is loose in the chuck? 
 there is trouble at once. 
 
 Study ypuf work; be deliberate. 
 
 No. 2 . In preparing the lathe for this work, 
 remove the cfiuck by using the back-gear to give 
 power, and a block of wood between a jaw and lathe 
 bed. The single -gear /can then be replaced on the 
 slowest speed and the lathe run backwards. Hold 
 the chuck firmly by hand to keep it from striking 
 the bed.. Do not turn the chuck over on its back, 
 for' the chips will fall into the thread and cause 
 trouble. Start the face-plate by hand; never while 
 the lathe is running. 
 
 The center hole must be cleaned out and the 
 sleeve cleaned inside and outside, and the center 
 cleaned. Dirt in these places causes the center to 
 be out of true, and the work to be excentric, which 
 will be noticed where the cuts meet. 
 
 The centers are all kept true by grinding and 
 will be true in their place when properly cared for. 
 The live center is tested while running, with the 
 work in place withouf-a dog; hold it from turning by 
 hand and put a tool close to it; if a movement is not 
 observed, it is true. 
 
 Strictly speaking, it is impossible to keep this 
 center perfectly true and yet remove it at will The 
 lathe-hand who knows this can so do his work * that 
 
 k 
 
57 
 
 FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 the effect will not be injurious if the excentricity is 
 but little. 
 
 The tail-stock center is not always left just 
 where it should be, but each student is responsible 
 for his own work. A mark is placed on the slide to 
 assist in setting it straight, but the surest method is 
 to observe the results of the tool on the work. After 
 taking a cut, draw the tool across and scratch^ line 
 to see that the tool has cut properly, then caliper the 
 work to test it for straight. To move the center, 
 loosen the main bolt before adjusting the screws. 
 After a straight trial cut has been taken, the lathe is 
 ready for the finishing cut. This is not as difficult 
 as might be expected. 
 
 Always make these tests before starting your 
 work of the day; running the tool along close to a 
 finished job will be all that is necessary, generally 
 speaking. 
 
 I. With the work on centers, dog in place, face 
 up the ends with the side tool (Fig. 19) making the 
 1 mgth 6". To cut off the burr that is left close to 
 the center, either back off the center to make room 
 for the side tool or put the 60° half-center in as a 
 center, which will allow the tool to do the desired 
 work. 
 
 RuIvK. — T he ends must always be faced to the 
 length, the first thing, on every piece of work. 
 
 Do not attempt to do any work on centers with- 
 
58 
 
 MAlSfVAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 out facing the ends on centers properly drilled; the 
 ends cannot be faced true in the chuck. 
 
 II. ' Take roughing cut to diameter. 
 
 The diamond point should have a flat on the 
 point about wide to prevent cutting ridges. 
 
 III. Turn the shaft to using soda water 
 for a finish- Compare the size with the plug or 
 gauge, kept, in tool-room, allowing about .001" for 
 polishings Do not try to take a number of very 
 fine cuts, r 
 
 IV. Place the belt on the fastest speed and 
 loosen the center. Polish by holding the emery- 
 cloth in the hand; caliper often to find where polish- 
 ing is needed to allow the collar gauge to fit neatly. 
 Inspection. 
 
 Noth. — No filing is allowed. It is a failing of 
 most students to polish too much where not needed. 
 In case the first piece is spoiled, the chuck need not 
 be ^replaced to cut off a new piece. Saw it off and 
 locate the centers by a punch, test by chalking on 
 centers, then drill, on centering machine or drill 
 press. This way is the most practical way of center- 
 ing where stock is to be removed. 
 
FORGE A.VZ) MACE IN E WORK, 
 
 f9 
 
 No. 3. (Fig- 34.) Stock used, No. 2. 
 
 This exercise is intended to give the student 
 practice in close measurement and detail work from 
 a sketch. None but first-class work will be accepted. 
 
 I. Turn as in No. 2 to fit gauge. Inspection. 
 
 II. Round the end by changing the position of 
 the side-tool, leaving a series of small flats that can 
 be easily polished off. Use water. This can be 
 done by eye only; the curve is regular, not a round 
 corner. 
 
 III. Cut out groove roughly with the diamond 
 point; then finish the part with cutting-off tool, 
 the face with a left-hand side-tool, and the fillet with 
 a round nose tool. Make the fillet so a rod will 
 lie in the proper place. 
 
 In finishing cylinders, tapers or a face, a tool 
 point carried by the lineal movement of the slides 
 gives the best results. But when roundings or fillets 
 are made, the operator must depend upon the shape 
 of the tool point and the sight to get the required 
 shape. 
 
 IV. Place the dog on the finished end with 
 brasses which are in tool-room. Set the lathe ap- 
 proximately for the desired taper by pleasuring the 
 offset of the tail-stock. This offset is figured by use 
 of similar triangles. Draw line CB' through the 
 center and parallel to the taper side. Then AB will 
 equal and A' B' is the desired measurement. 
 Then CA : CA' :: AB : A'B'; substituting we have 
 
60 
 
 J/iyPAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 ^/g/_^A><_A^_|« moving the tail-stock 
 
 w A 
 
 and roughing off the taper, before finishing, set the 
 tool at the end and cut to the right size. Loosen 
 the center and move the tool over past the line AB, 
 replace center, and notice the position of the tool 
 when at AB. Move the tail-stock if necessary and 
 try again. The latter method is the surest and can 
 always be used. It is modified by placing a scale 
 between the tool and the work as a constant, re- 
 moving or replacing at will, without loosening the 
 center. 
 
 A special gauge is provided for a final test for 
 taper and size. To test a taper, put on three longi- 
 tudinal lines with chalk, and exert a side pressure 
 while turning about one-third around, back and forth. 
 The chalk will not be rubbed off all around, where 
 the fit is loose. Inspection. ^ 
 
 Note. — Unless the tool for turning taper is level 
 with the center, the results will not be as expected. 
 
 V. Polish at high speed, keeping all the corners 
 distinct. The round end can be polished crosswise, 
 by hand, to remove the ridges, then polished on 
 centers. 
 
 [m: 
 
 ¥-~ 
 
 
 
 
 .JiT. 
 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 61 
 
 . No. 4 . (Fig. 35.) Stock used is ^ Rd. Machin- 
 ery Steel. 
 
 This exercise is given to show the spring of the 
 metal away from the tool. 
 
 In turning No. 3 the work was quite stiff and no 
 diflSculty of this kind was experienced except by 
 close observation; and too often the tool is ground 
 very wide on the point in order to make it cut 
 smooth. A wide tool is a detriment to true work; it 
 increases the amount of linear pressure and causes 
 the work to spring away from the tool. 
 
 In No. 4 the diamond point is used and must be 
 ground so that it has only flat surface on the 
 point, and even then the shaft will spring away from 
 the tool and the tool must be fed in by hand to keep 
 the shaft parallel. 
 
 Take the front corner of the tool off with an oil- 
 stone; have a sharp cutting edge. 
 
 I. Saw the stock off and drill the centers after 
 they are located to suit the bends that may exist in 
 the shaft. It is better to have it true in the center 
 than on the ends; the ends can easily be turned while 
 the middle will spring away from the tool and make 
 it hard to be turned true. 
 
 II. Remember to face the ends. 
 
 III. Take two roughing cuts from both ends, 
 leaving to finish. Follow the tool with calipers 
 and feed the tool in as the shaft springs away. 
 
62 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 IV. Regrind the tool and take the finish cut in 
 the same way, using soda-water. 
 
 V. Use a 10" mill file to smooth off the steps 
 or irregularities. ‘‘Speed up” and loosen the center 
 and oil it. Hold the file to point 10 degrees to the 
 right of a right angle, and push it slowly ahead. 
 
 ^Touch the shaft lightly and evenly. Galiper often. 
 Filing is not done to remove metal that could be 
 turned; it is done to smoothen work. Yet it is very 
 impractical and there is liability of filing the shaft 
 out of round. 
 
 VI. Polish to fit gauge, and measure the 
 center part. 
 
 Noth. — Finish without filing if possible. The 
 speed for this is faster than that for No. 2. 
 
 The following rest is used to follow the tool, but 
 is not needed at this time. It is especially adapt- 
 ed to cutting square top thread, after the shaft is 
 finished. 
 
 />> S6 
 
FORQE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 63 
 
 Diameter 
 of Screw. 
 
 Number of Threads 
 per Inch. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11 
 
 ¥' 
 
 V' 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11 
 
 ¥' 
 
 n" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11 
 
 ¥' 
 
 n" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11 
 
 1 // 
 
 2 
 
 n" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11 
 
 
 n" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11 
 
 1" 
 
 21"- 
 
 1 // 
 
 2 
 
 12 . 
 
 ¥' 
 
 %" 
 
 1 // 
 
 12 
 
 
 W' . 
 
 ¥' 
 
 12 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11" 
 
 1 // 
 
 12 
 
 1 // 
 
 o 
 
 n" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 12 
 
 V' 
 
 2 " 
 
 7 // 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 ¥' 
 
 ¥' 
 
 7 // 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 ¥' 
 
 IV' 
 
 1 6 
 
 14 
 
 ¥' 
 
 U" 
 
 7 // 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 ¥' 
 
 If" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 16 
 
 i" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 ¥' 
 
 16 
 
 V' 
 
 1" 
 
 ¥' 
 
 16 
 
 ¥' 
 
 1 
 
 ¥' 
 
 16 
 
 ¥' 
 
 U" 
 
 
 16 
 
 ¥' 
 
 11" 
 
 No. 5. (Fig. 36.) Cutting thread with a single 
 tool in the lathe is the only way to get the work true, 
 and it is often just as necessary to have true threads 
 on a piece of work as to have the remainder true. 
 The student should be able to cut thread with ease 
 and certainty; he is expected to make 18 of the 
 screws given in the list selected by the instructor, 
 and should be able to cut one perfect screw every 
 
64 
 
 MAmAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 hour without spoiling any. These are standard 
 screws with 60 -degree threads, which should not be 
 quite sharp; the screw is turned a little small to 
 allow for a slight flat on top; small for a screw 
 is about right. 
 
 The smooth part ‘"A” is made the size of the 
 threads also. The head is made of square iron or 
 bright rods, larger than the size of the screw. 
 The ends are slightly beveled to preserve the threads. 
 
 Use the chuck and keep the work up close, put 
 the head of the long screws in the chuck and draw 
 them out to cut off behind the head. If a center is 
 used, be careful to drill the center properly. 
 
 See that the head is faced square. 
 
 Grind the thread tool by the center gauge, a little 
 sharper if anything. Set the tool by the gauge and 
 level with the center. 
 
 In placing the change gears in position, make all 
 screws secure and yet allow the idler to have play so 
 you are certain the teeth are not crowded together. 
 
 Use lard oil in cutting. Withdraw the tool be- 
 fore stopping or reversing the lathe. Replace it again 
 before starting the cut. The cross-feed handle can 
 be replaced to its former position by observation of 
 the marks on the micrometer. Adjust the desired 
 depth of cut with the compound rest. 
 
 When cutting heavy at first, the tool lags back 
 longitudinally by reason of the strain, so that the 
 front side only will cut when taking light finishing 
 
FORGE AiYD MAGHIEE WORK, 
 
 65 
 
 cuts. This leaves the one side of the thread rough 
 and the tool must be moved by a light blow on the 
 side, so it will cut on both sides. 
 
 In cutting long, slim screws, it is best to move 
 the tool and cut on one side at a time. 
 
 In this work the ends will be largest, due to the 
 spring. 
 
 The screw gauge should fit close and turn by 
 hand. 
 
 File off* the burrs at both ends. 
 
 The head can be rounded by slhnting the tool 
 after the head is partly cut off*. Put on water for a 
 finish just as it drops off*. 
 
 Fig. 37 shows a method for rounding the heads 
 where the first is not successful. The holder is made 
 in the chuck each time it is used and should not be 
 removed till all the screws are finished. A tool can 
 be ground to round off the head in one operation. 
 
 The commercial standard for the number of 
 thread per inch is as follows: 
 
 bize ol Screw 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 
 
 I 7 
 T6 
 
 1 * 
 
 ! * 
 
 % 
 
 i 
 
 
 Thread per iuch. 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 |14 
 
 |l2' 
 
 'll 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 Sometimes 13 threads per inch are used for 
 screws and bolts. 
 
 Common bolts are made ^ 2 !' above the size be- 
 cause of the roughness of the iron. So there is a 
 distinction between bolt taps and hand taps. All 
 screws are made for the hand tap size, which is even 
 
66 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 size. The hardened and polished nuts used in ma- 
 chine construction are hand tap or standard size. 
 The blanks are cold punched.^ 
 
 No. 6 . It is here intended to give a problem in 
 thread-cutting similar to that which is found in prac- 
 tice, and show one of many such schemes. 
 
 Pipe=cutting can be done to an advantage in an 
 engine lathe; by chucking one end of the pipe on the 
 inside, so that threads can be cut on the outside; 
 allowing the long end to extend out over the lathe, 
 resting on rollers or blocks, which are firmly fastened 
 to the lathe. 
 
 The student, however, will be given a pipe that 
 is of convenient length. The pipe-center can be used 
 to support the end. 
 
 ^ Chuck the pipe as above mentioned, leaving 
 
 34^'' or at the end thread tool. Cut off* a 
 
 nipple to length given'^by th%instructor.^ 
 
 comgpund rfetdo cut taper to 1 
 ft. :on the end in the chuck, ..and^. turn the end to 
 meastire one of the following sizes, 2i|", 4|J", 
 
 which represent the various sizes of 
 pipe. Be cautious in measuring not to spring the 
 calipers. The cut should be run out until it cuts 
 half of the black away. 
 
 When setting the compound rest, measure from 
 the side to a straight-edge held up from the edge of 
 the carriage. Set it to 6". 
 
 Take notice of the speed. 
 
FORGE Als^D MAG EIRE WQRK. 
 
 67 
 
 III. The compound rest is only used to give 
 
 the pipe the desired taper .a,nd can not be used in 
 cutting threads. , 
 
 Cut the thread by starting the tool in while the 
 lathe is turning, and gradually feed in as it advances 
 along the taper, until the thread is sharp and evenly 
 cut. Use one side of the tool at one time while fin- 
 ishing. File off burrs. All pipe above 2" have 8 
 threads per inch. 
 
 Do not leave unfinished work in the chuck until 
 the next shift come on. 
 
 IV. Cut the thread on the other end in the sahte'"' ' ^ 
 way. Start the lathe on single gear and set it 
 
 by eye. The thread can be excentric slightly, but 
 must be true longitudinally. Set the end in the 
 chuck first, then strike it with a hammer to true up 
 the thread. 
 
 Notks on Cutting Thread. — When the lead- 
 screw has the same thread per inch as the thread to be 
 cut, the lathe need not be reversed and the tool will be 
 right at any place. It 'can be returned by use of 
 the half-nut. When the thread on both are not the 
 same, the tool can be moved just 1" or 2" in this way. 
 When both threads can be divided by 2, then the 
 tool will come right every along the lead-screw. 
 
 To do this the lathe must be stopped and the distance 
 measured, but it soon becomes an easy method and is 
 very useful in cutting a long threap at a slow speed. 
 
 Figuring the number of teeth in the gear on the 
 
68 
 
 MAl^VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 Spindle and on the lead screw is a very simple opera- 
 tion. They are inversely proportional; t. e.y the 
 spindle gear is to the lead- screw gear as the number 
 of threads per inch on the lead-screw is to the num- 
 ber of threads to be cut. The unknown gear is usu- 
 ally the one on the lead-screv/. When compounded 
 gears are introduced between these two gears, the 
 drivers are multiplied together and considered as a 
 spindle gear and the driven as a lead-screw gear. 
 When one or a series of idlers are placed between, no 
 change is made in the proportion. 
 
 No. 7. (Fig- 38.) Curve Work, Lathe Handle. 
 Made from Machinery Steel stock, on centers. Se- 
 lected by the instructor. 
 
 The shape of part A can be taken from the lathe 
 handle in use. 
 
 I. Saw off and center the stock. Face the ends 
 to right length. 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 69 
 
 II. Take roughing cut all over, leaving plenty 
 for the dog on D. 
 
 III. Locate and turn places on handle as points 
 to turn the curve to. Use a broad tool to finish the 
 convex part, the ridges left can be filed off. 
 
 Use a hand tool or scraper on the concaved part; 
 put up a rest (a tool) and turn at the same speed as 
 other tools. 
 
 IV. After all the ridges are removed, polish, by 
 use of emery-cloth on a stick used as a lever over a 
 rest. Keep the emery moving to avoid cutting rings. 
 Do not put on fine cloth until all the marks are re- 
 moved. 
 
 Note. — L eave D ^^2^^ above the size and unfin- 
 ished, to be fitted. 
 
 None except first-class work will do. 
 
70 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 No. 8 . (Fig- 39.) The object of this exercise is 
 the study of cutting special thread, both inside and 
 outside. Also of details which are shown in the 
 sketch and not indicated by measurement. 
 
 The stock is 1^" Rd. Machinery Steel and a cast- 
 iron nut. Sometimes scraps are used. 
 
 This work must be neatly done; all the points 
 mentioned in the previous work must be observed. 
 
 Use the back-gear and take large cuts where pos- 
 sible; have the chips curl up nicely. 
 
 Make your own thread tools out of stock from 
 the tool' room. File it to its exact size and shape, 
 after forging. Temper to dark straw without scal- 
 ing it and it will be ready for cutting. Give special 
 attention to the clearance slant. Make it very short; 
 a long tool springs out of time and makes an irregu- 
 lar thread. 
 
 Cut the space .005" wider than the thread. The 
 sketch at D shows the tool and clearance to allow. 
 AB represents the circumference of the screw, BC 
 the travel of the tool in one turn, AC shows the slant 
 of the thread at the cutting edge. 
 
 Keep enough metal on the ends of your work so 
 the dog can be used without brass. If your dog 
 slips in cutting the thread, the tool will be broken; 
 have everything firm. 
 
 Cut square thread with light cuts so the sides 
 will be true and smooth. Finish one thread, then 
 change the half-nut of the lead-screw and cut the 
 
FORGE AED MAGEIlS^E WORK, 
 
 
 next; see that the tool is central before cutting. 
 Measure the depth with calipers wdth thin points. 
 
 As the nut will be the first inside work of the 
 student, it is well to mention a few things about 
 chuck work that will apply to all work of this kind. 
 First: True up the work, in the chuck, by the part 
 
 not finished, or that has but a little stock. Second: 
 Do the heavy cutting all over the parts to be turned 
 while in this position, before finishing any part. 
 Third: Do not remove the work from the chuck 
 
 until some parts are finished that can be used to hold 
 the work true again; /. e.^ should the outside of a 
 pulley only be finished when removed from the 
 chuck, it cannot be put back in the lathe true to bore 
 the hole, while if the hole is finished, it can easily be 
 placed on a mandrel on centers to turn off* the out- 
 side. In No. 8 the thread, counterbore and face 
 must be finished before removing ft from the chuck. 
 Then it is placed on the screw and finished outside. 
 Fourth: Take off the sand with a round nose tool 
 
 before using a drill or finishing tool. Fifth: Drills 
 
 may be used to remove metal from the holes, but 
 the boring-tool must be used to make the hole true 
 before reaming to standard size. When holes are a 
 special size, like No. 8, the reamer cannot be used, 
 but must be bored to the size with measurements 
 carefully taken with calipers. Reamers should not 
 remove more than .01". It is a good practice to set 
 the inside calipers to a gauge rather than a scale. 
 
72 
 
 MA^^UAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 In this case the insides must be set to the out' 
 side thread calipers, and a working fit made before 
 starting to cut the thread. 
 
 Cut light with the thread tool; the cast iron is 
 severe on the sharp corners. 
 
 Practice nurling on a piece of scrap before at- 
 tempting to do the nurling required. 
 
 Polish as usual. 
 
 This exercise is diflScult, but can be well made 
 b}" every student. It is of great value to the stu- 
 dent and will speak for itself when completed. 
 
 
 No. 9 , (Fig. 40.) Exercise in making a drive 
 fit, by use of outside and inside calipers. 
 
 In the previous work measurements were made 
 by comparing the size of the work with a standard 
 gauge by use of the calipers and collars. In this 
 case no comparisons are allowed and calipers only 
 are used. A hardened block of steel to which the 
 fit is made is kept by the instructor and the size 
 must be taken from it with insides, and then the out- 
 sides made to fit, and the work to the outsides. 
 
 This is an important and very practical operation 
 and will need close study. 
 
 I. Set the insides in the hole so carefully that 
 
FORGE AND 31 AC BINE WORK. 
 
 73 
 
 moisture on their points could be detected by feel- 
 ing. Keep one point still while moving the other 
 lengthwise and crosswise until the exact diameter is 
 found. Do not spring the calipers together by hold- 
 ing too tight. 
 
 II. Hold one point of each calipers together 
 and adjust the hairspring until a slight contact is 
 made on the largest size found on the insides. Hold 
 one leg only, to avoid springing. Do not lay them 
 down to do this; the largest place can not be found 
 in that way. 
 
 III. Use a scrap piece of steel and turn it in 
 the chuck like the sketch, to a drive fit with a hand 
 hammer. Leave the surface as smooth as the tool 
 will make it, and straight. The diamond-point will 
 do all the cutting. By moving it back and forward 
 lengthwise, both ends can be made. The points are 
 merely for convenience in driving. 
 
 The instructor will try the fit. Three trials will 
 be given. Most students need but two trials. 
 
 Notes. — In repair work the above method is 
 often the only one possible, and yet not every work- 
 man can make a good fit at will. 
 
 To those who inquire as to the amount to leave 
 for a drive fit, the writer will say: Make it the ex- 
 
 act size; when a work fit is made, let the insides be 
 slightly loose, in the hole. For a shrink fit, allow 
 just enough to make it impossible to drive. Driving 
 cuts off the metal, but shrinking is to enter the shaft 
 
74 
 
 MAl^UAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 loosely while the hole is expanded by heat» and no 
 metal is lost; the result is a very tight fit. Often a 
 mistake is made by leaving too much for a shrink fit> 
 which strains the metal nearly to its elastic limit. 
 
 This completes the exercise work, which usually 
 occupies two years. 
 
 The student is now given parts of work that is 
 put in some machine or tool which is in process of 
 building. The following are some things that have 
 been built from the rough in this way: An 8"xl0" 
 
 engine; 16"x6 ft. engine lathes; 20" drill presses; a 
 16" shaper; 12" emery grinders and countershafts; a 
 50,000-pound transverse testing machine. All of 
 these are in use here. Much apparatus has been 
 made for the various laboratories. 
 
 The cast-iron parts and drawings are given to be 
 machined and fitted up. All the machine tools are 
 now used as the work is carried on by the student. 
 
 It is impossible to give the needed instruction 
 here, but a few suggestions are all that can be com- 
 prehended until the actual work is done. The writer 
 has found that when the exercises have been com- 
 pleted, the student will be more careful and handle 
 other machine tools with the judgment necessary to 
 enable him to be trusted with work of the above 
 sort. 
 
 The following are a few general instructions: 
 
 I. Turn everything on centers where it is pos- 
 
FORGE A.VD MACHINE WORK. 
 
 75 
 
 sible, leaving good centers in the work when 
 finished. 
 
 II. In taking longitudinal measurements, start 
 from a finished face or center line, just as you do in 
 making the drawings. 
 
 III. Do not file cast iron to prepare it for pol- 
 ishing; the file scratches. A broad-tool finish is not 
 desirable for polishing. Do as much as possible with 
 a well-formed pointed tool. 
 
 IV. Hard cast iron can best be turned or planed 
 with self-hardening steel, ground round or nearly 
 thread tool shape, placed slightly below the center. 
 
 V. Use a driver, and not a dog, on large turn- 
 ing, such as pulleys. 
 
 VI. Small keyseats are often cut in the lathe 
 by moving the tool by the hand gear while it is held 
 in the tool post. Large ones are cut on the planer 
 or shaper. The shop equipment does not consist ot 
 a keyseater. 
 
 VII. All lathes are provided with large face- 
 plates with slots and holes for bolts. These are used 
 when work is bored or turned true with a face which 
 has been finished elsewhere. Crank boxes for en- 
 gines are bored last of all. The strap is bolted to 
 the face-plate on parallel strips. 
 
 VIII. The milling machine is provided with 
 chuck and center to hold work much the same as in 
 a lathe. A mandrel is provided for the spindle with 
 bushings and a square thread nut to use in holding 
 
76 
 
 MANVAL OF IX8TRUCTI0N IN 
 
 gears. A vise is used on small work and keyseat-^ 
 ing shafts. 
 
 All work done by the milling machine must be 
 so designed that a revolving cutter of set pattern can 
 be used, which must not be damaged in any way. 
 Hard cast iron or tool steel should be machined else- 
 where. The tool-room tender has the care of this 
 tool and should be consulted often. 
 
 IX. The tools of the planer or shaper are oper- 
 ated much the same as lathe tools, but the same dia- 
 mond-point will not do for both, owing to the great 
 slant of a lathe tool, which reduces the rake of the 
 same tool in the shaper. 
 
 It is not best to always lift up the tool on the 
 back stroke. 
 
 Some difficulty will be experienced in holding 
 the work firmly and true in the chuck-vise of the 
 shaper and planer. The jaws will spring when 
 forced, and some personal instruction is needed. 
 Parallel strips are often used to hold the work up. 
 
 In clamping work to the table of any machine, 
 see that the work touches the table or a support 
 directly under the clamp; otherwise it will spring, and 
 when released it will not be true. 
 
 Planing requires judgment in the depth of the 
 cut and style of finish. Some parts can be finished 
 with a broad tool and quick feed, but bearing sur- 
 faces must be finished by a point. 
 
 X. In drilling, always clamp a surface of the 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 77 
 
 work, if possible, to the table or angle plate, which 
 is at right angles to the table. Special instruction 
 must be given in the use of boring bars and special 
 drills. Always lay out the holes with dividers when 
 possible, and drill every hole as true as you can. 
 Drill holes for rough iron large. 
 
 XI. True shafts can be made on the grinding 
 machine, because both of the centers are dead cen- 
 ters. This is desirable for high-speed shafts, such as 
 motors and emery grinder shafts. 
 
 All kinds of hardened work can be ground true; 
 hardening causes the metal to swell in spots, which 
 give the work a change in shape. 
 
 The work on the grinders is all close work and 
 micrometer calipers are used. Many standard tools, 
 reamers, plugs and gauges, are made here. 
 
 Many machines and. tools are used which will 
 not differ greatly from those mentioned. 
 
18 
 
 MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 To find the size of drill to use for a tap: Try 
 
 the cutting end of the tap in the drill gauge and 
 select a drill that will not cut quite a full thread. 
 
 To guide a tap straight into a hole that has just 
 been drilled: Place the butt end of a small drill, 
 
 which is pointed, in the press, and hold it firmly in the 
 center of the tap while it is turned with a tap-wrench. 
 Holes smaller than can be tapped with perfect 
 safety in the lathe by allowing the drill chuck to 
 turn in the tail-spindle as a guide and hold or turn 
 the chuck and tap by hand. 
 
 To forge a square hole in the end of a bar of 
 steel: Drill a hole the circumference of which equals 
 
 the perimeter of the square desired; heat and pound 
 the square bar round. 
 
 In shops where small center drills can not be 
 used, use a slender, flat-ended punch to punch the 
 hole. 
 
 Square-pointed centers (pyramids) are often used 
 in place of half-centers, and are used to cut the 
 center true when the work is forced into its proper 
 place by a tool-rest while revolving. 
 
 The cylindrical surface of work in the lathe can 
 be divided into even sections by using a tool to mark 
 the divisions and the teeth in the main gear as a 
 dividing head. 
 
FORQE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 79 
 
 The Taylor-White steel is a steel lately invented 
 that will permit the cutting speed of 150 feet per 
 minute with water. It is not yet on the market. It 
 will be used in shape similar to our self-hardening 
 steel. 
 
 The self-hardening steel which is used in tool- 
 holders on the lathe and planer can be heated by 
 grinding, but should not be put in the water while 
 hot. 
 
 The following cuts serve to illustrate and show 
 the names of the articles. 
 
 THE WOODRUFF PATE;nT SYSTEM OF KEYING. 
 
80 
 
 MAl^VAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 ThcSizmgfbf Spur Gears* 
 
 The term ^'diametral pitch’’ is used to denote the 
 relative number of teeth in connection with the diam- 
 
 diameter at the pitch circle and containing 30 teeth is 
 10 pitch. 
 
 The pitch diameter is two parts of the pitch less 
 than the whole diameter. 
 
 A wheel containing 30 teeth and of 10 pitch will 
 
 , / 30 2 \ 30~1~2 Q . - 
 
 be = o.^ in diameter on the out- 
 
 side of the blank. 
 
 Let N = Number of teeth. FormuIvA: 
 
 Tabi^e of Depth of Space of Spur Wheees. 
 
 Pitch .... 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 '5^ 
 
 4 
 
 Depth in 
 Inches.. 
 
 .108 
 
 .120 
 
 .135 
 
 .154 
 
 .180 
 
 .260 
 
 .270 
 
 359 
 
 .431 
 
 .539 
 
 eter of a wheel at the pitch circle. A wheel 3" in 
 
 P = Pitch. 
 
 D = Diameter of blank. 
 
 I. 
 
FORGE AFD MAGEMe WORK. 
 
 81 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Laf/fe~Too/ //oo/c(<>f 
 
 
 i 1 1 
 
 »■ .. 
 
 f-:' 
 
 
 S/c/e Too/\^ 
 
 /^/d/rer-Too/ /^o/dcf' 
 
 PivUG TAP. 
 
82 
 
 MAltVAL OF INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 Decimals of an Inch for Each l-64th. 
 
 h- 
 
 6l“‘* 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Fraction 
 
 
 
 
 Decimal 
 
 Fraction 
 
 
 1 
 
 .015625 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 .515625 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 .03125 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 .53125 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 .046875 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 .546875 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 .0625 
 
 1 
 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 .5625 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 .078125 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 .578125 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 .09375 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 .59375 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 .109375 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 .609375 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 .125 
 
 i 
 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 .625 
 
 I 
 
 
 9 
 
 .140625 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 .640625 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 .16625 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 42 
 
 .65625 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 .171875 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 .671875 
 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 .1875 
 
 3 
 
 TF 
 
 
 22 
 
 44 
 
 .6875 
 
 1 1 
 TF 
 
 
 13 
 
 .203125 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 .703125 
 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 .21875 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 46 
 
 .71875 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 .234375 
 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 .734375 
 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 .25 
 
 i 
 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 .75 
 
 1 
 
 
 17 
 
 .265625 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 .765625 
 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 .28125 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 .78125 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 .296875 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 .796875 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 .3125 
 
 .328125 
 
 A 
 
 
 26 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 .8125 
 
 .828125 
 
 1 3 
 1 6 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 .34375 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 .84375 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 .359375 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 .859375 
 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 .375 
 
 i 
 
 
 28 
 
 56 
 
 .875 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 390625 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 .890625 
 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 .40625 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 58 
 
 .90625 
 
 
 
 • 27 
 
 .421875 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 .921875 
 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 .4375 
 
 7 
 
 
 30 
 
 60 
 
 .9375 
 
 H 
 
 i 
 
 29 
 
 .453125 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 .953125 
 
 1 15 
 
 30 
 
 .46875 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 62 
 
 .96875 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 .484375 
 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 .984375 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 .5 
 
 i 
 
 
 32 
 
 64 
 
 1 
 
 ] 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
FORGE AND MACHINE WORK. 
 
 83 
 
 Weights of Square and Round Bars of Wrought Iron in Pounds 
 per Lineal Foot. — Kent. 
 
 Iron weighing 480 lbs. per cubic foot. For Steel add 2 per cent. 
 
 Thickness or 
 Diameter 
 in 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight of 
 Square Bar 
 One Foot 
 Long. 
 
 Weight of 
 Round Bar 
 One Foot 
 Long. 
 
 
 Thickness o*“ 
 Diameter 
 in 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight of 
 Square Bar 
 One Foot 
 Long. 
 
 Weight of 
 Round Bar 
 One Foot 
 Long. 
 
 0 
 
 1-16 
 
 .013 
 
 .010 
 
 
 1 3-4 
 13-16 
 
 10.21 
 
 J 0.95 
 
 8.018 
 
 8.601 
 
 1-8 
 
 .052 
 
 .041 
 
 
 ■ 7-8 
 
 11.72 
 
 9.204 
 
 3-16 
 
 .117 
 
 .092 
 
 
 15-16 
 
 12 51 
 
 9 828 
 
 1-4 
 
 .208 
 
 .164 
 
 
 2 
 
 13.33 
 
 10.47 
 
 5-16 
 
 .326 
 
 256 
 
 
 1-16 
 
 14.18 
 
 11.14 
 
 3-8 
 
 .469 
 
 .368 
 
 
 1-8 
 
 15.05 
 
 11.82 
 
 7-16 
 
 .638 
 
 501 
 
 
 3-16 
 
 15.95 
 
 12.53 
 
 1-2 
 
 .833 
 
 .654 
 
 
 1-4 
 
 16.88 
 
 13.25 
 
 9-16 
 
 1.055 
 
 -.828 
 
 
 5-16 
 
 17 S 3 
 
 14.00 
 
 5-8 
 
 1.302 
 
 1.023 
 
 
 3-8 
 
 18.80 
 
 14.77 
 
 11-16 
 
 1 576 
 
 1 237 
 
 
 7-16 
 
 19.80 
 
 15.55 
 
 3-4 
 
 1.875 
 
 1.473 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 20 83 
 
 16 36 
 
 13 16 
 
 2.201 
 
 1.728 
 
 
 9-16 
 
 21.89 
 
 17.19 
 
 7-8 
 
 2.552 
 
 2.004 
 
 
 5-8 
 
 22.97 
 
 18.04 
 
 15-16 
 
 2.930 
 
 2.301 
 
 
 11-16 
 
 24.08 
 
 18 91 
 
 1 
 
 3.333 
 
 2.618 
 
 
 3-4 
 
 25.21 
 
 19.80 
 
 1-16 
 
 3.763 
 
 2 955 
 
 
 13-16 
 
 26.37 
 
 20.71 
 
 1-8 
 
 4.219 
 
 3.313 
 
 
 7-8 
 
 27.55 
 
 21.64 
 
 3 16 
 
 4.701 
 
 3.692 
 
 
 15-16 
 
 28.76 
 
 22.59 
 
 14 
 
 5.208 
 
 4.091 
 
 
 3 
 
 30.00 
 
 23.56 
 
 5-16 
 
 5.742 
 
 4.510 
 
 
 1-16 
 
 31.26 
 
 24.55 
 
 3-8 
 
 6.302 
 
 4 950 
 
 
 1-8 
 
 32 55 
 
 25 57 
 
 7-16 
 
 6.888 
 
 5.410 
 
 
 3-16 
 
 33.87 
 
 26.60 
 
 1-2 
 
 7.500 
 
 5.890 
 
 
 1-4 
 
 35.21 
 
 27.65 
 
 9-16 
 
 8.138 
 
 6.392 
 
 
 5-16 
 
 36.58 
 
 28.73 
 
 5-8 
 
 8.802 
 
 6.913 
 
 
 3-8 
 
 37.97 
 
 29.82 
 
 11-16 
 
 9.492 
 
 7.455 
 
 
 7-16 
 
 39 39 
 
 30.94 
 
84 
 
 MA'NVAL OF IF STRUCT 10'S 
 
 AREAS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 1 
 
 64 
 
 .000192 
 
 .01909 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 15.9043 
 
 14 1372 
 
 1 
 
 3 S' 
 
 .000767 
 
 .09818 
 
 i 
 
 17.7206 
 
 14.9226 
 
 r« 
 
 .U03068 
 
 .19635 
 
 5 
 
 19.635 
 
 15.708 
 
 i 
 
 .012272 
 
 .3927 
 
 i 
 
 21.6476 
 
 16.4934 
 
 A 
 
 .027612 
 
 .589 
 
 
 23.7583 
 
 17.2788 
 
 I 
 
 .04W87 
 
 .7854 
 
 i 
 
 25 9673 
 
 18.0642 
 
 A r 
 
 Anm99 
 
 .98175 
 
 6 
 
 28.2744 
 
 18.8496 
 
 I 
 
 .110447 
 
 1.1781 
 
 i 
 
 30.6797 
 
 19.635 
 
 re 
 
 .15033 
 
 1.37445 
 
 4 
 
 33.1831 
 
 20 4204 
 
 4 
 
 .19635 
 
 1.5708 
 
 i 
 
 35.7848 
 
 21.2 58 
 
 tV 
 
 .248505 
 
 1.76715 
 
 7 
 
 38.4846 
 
 21.9912 
 
 t 
 
 .306796 
 
 1.9635 
 
 i 
 
 41.2826 
 
 22 7766 
 
 
 371224 
 
 2.15985 
 
 i 
 
 44.1787 
 
 23.562 
 
 i 
 
 .441787 
 
 2.3562 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 47 1731 
 
 24.3474 
 
 1 3 
 16 
 
 518487 
 
 2.55255 
 
 8 
 
 50.2656 
 
 25.1328 
 
 i 
 
 .601322 
 
 2.7489 
 
 i 
 
 53.4563 
 
 25.9182 
 
 1 5 
 
 r? 
 
 .690292 
 
 2 94525 
 
 i 
 
 56.7451 
 
 26 7036 
 
 1 
 
 .7854 
 
 3.1416 
 
 1 
 
 60.1322 
 
 27 489 
 
 i 
 
 1.2272 
 
 3 927 
 
 9 
 
 63.6174 
 
 28.2744 
 
 i 
 
 1.7671 
 
 4.7124 
 
 i 
 
 67.2008 
 
 29 0598 
 
 1 
 
 2.4053 
 
 5 4978 
 
 i 
 
 70.8823 
 
 29 8452 
 
 2 
 
 3.1416 
 
 6.2832 
 
 I 
 
 74.6621 
 
 30.6306 
 
 
 3.9761 
 
 7 0686 
 
 10 
 
 78 54 
 
 31 416 
 
 h 
 
 4.9087 
 
 7.854 
 
 J 
 
 82 5161 
 
 32.2014 
 
 i 
 
 5.9396 
 
 8 6384 
 
 f 
 
 86.5903 
 
 32.9868 
 
 3 
 
 7.0686 
 
 9.4*248 
 
 i 
 
 90.7628 
 
 33.7722 
 
 J 
 
 8.29^8 
 
 10 2102 
 
 11 
 
 95.0334 
 
 34.5576 
 
 
 9.6211 
 
 10.9956 
 
 i 
 
 99.4<»22 
 
 35.343 
 
 1 
 
 11.0447 
 
 11 781 
 
 4 
 
 103 8691 
 
 36.1284 
 
 4 
 
 12 5664 
 
 12 5664 
 
 i . 
 
 10 1 4343 
 
 36 9138 
 
 I 
 
 14 1863 
 
 13.35 » 8 
 
 12 
 
 113 098 
 
 37 6992 
 

 
 
 
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