51 X. ■** C_0 c o ^>o I CI ^i^vS^ ~2I O v~v"\^ vo o o O ^"N ' Gift of the Panama Canal Museum Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http://archive.org/details/engineerOOaver Copyright, Harris & Ewlng", Washington, I). O. COLONEL GEORGE WASHINGTON GOETHALS, THE BUILDER OF THE PANAMA CANAL, Who might he classed as the most absolute despot on earth, although a benevolent one, and the squarest boss a man ever worked for. He is a thorough engineer, a righteous judge, and a stern executioner rolled into one. He realizes that man is but human, and for simple infractions of the rules, is always ready to give the offender another chance, but there will be no second time. A man of prodigious memory, quick to grasp details be they trivial affairs of every day life, or questions of moment; an ear for every one, and the friend of all. The American Nation owes much to the men who rendered yeoman service on the Isthmus; they cannot be too highly re- warded. It owes much to that peerless leader, George Washington Goethals, who, for over six long years has kept the goal steadily in sight, who has never, for a single instant, permitted his de- termination to waver, who has fought inch by inch until every obstacle has been overcome, and who, through his forceful personality and sense of justice, has compelled the admiration of every- one with whom he has come in contact. Col. Goethals was made a Major-General March 4, 1915. IHE GREATEST ENGINEERING FEAT IN THE WORLD AT PANAMA Authentic and Complete Story of the Building and Operation of the Great Waterway — the Eighth Wonder of the World. With a Graphic Description of the Panama - Pacific International Exposition the Official Celebration of the Completion of America's Triumph at Panama, the Gigantic Undertaking Successfully Carried Out under the Supervision of COL. GEORGE W. GOETHALS, U. S. A. By RALPH EMMETT AVERY TRAVELER, AUTHOR AND LECTURER Edited by WILLIAM C. HASKINS of THE CANAL RECORD Profusely Illustrated With Photographs in Half-tone and Color. LESLIE. JUDGE COMPANY NEW YORK LATIN AMERICAN COLLECTION yfvjIVFPQITV OP PI OP1HA Special Revised and Enlarged Edition Copyright, 1915, by Ralph E. Avery COPYRIGHT. MCMXIII. BY RALPH E. AVERY Dedicated to the Men of Brain and Brawn of Our Country, Whose Matchless Skill and Inspiring Courage Made the Dream of Ages a Reality in the Construction of the Panama Canal SUNRISE, SUNSET AND MOONLIGHT SCENES ON PANAMA BAY. During February and March the moon is particularly bright, due to the clear atmosphere which prevails in the height of the dry season. On certain brilliant evenings it is possible to read in the moonlight. The cloud effects are perfect and the rainbows magnificent. One of the prettiest effects, which happens but rarely, is a rainbow at night. FOREWORD HE eighth wonder of the world, the crowning achievement of man's greatest undertaking is the construction of the Panama Canal by the Government of the United States. Doubtless for centuries to come the world-wonders of the Panama Canal will be told in story and in picture, but the eloquence of the theme itself will never be ex- hausted while reverence for mighty deeds finds lodg- ment in the hearts of men. Recognizing as much as one man could the magni- tude and importance of the work being performed on the Isthmus, the Author for almost two years dwelt among the activities of this gigantic enterprise, and in these pages authentically presents to the reader his chronicles of the step-by-step progress of the construc- tion from beginning to completion, as well as the suc- cessful installation of the world's majestic Avaterway from ocean to ocean. The successful opening on February 20, 1915, of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, in celebration of the completion of the world's most stupendous achievement — the Panama Canal — has called for and received in this work a graphically writ- ten and illustrated detailed account of this great con- temporaneous event. Clothed as it is in a beauty of typography and art illustrations in keeping with the grandeur of the subject it treats, the publishers feel assured of the book's cordial reception on the part of an appreciating public. TO THE PUBLISHERS . I have taken much pleasure in looking over and examining your handsomely illustrated book giving the storv of "THE GREATEST ENGINEERING PEAT IN THE WORLD AT PANAMA." The Panama Canal is indeed the greatest engineer- ing work of modern times and is of tremendous interest to the American people on account of it's commercial and military value . Commercially, it shortens the voyage between the eastern and western coasts of our own country and brings us in nearer contact with South America. This will have a ' tendency to bind the two continents, North and South America, into closer commercial, relations. For the world at large, it will establish a new trade route for all countries and, make the Caribbean Sea a new Mediterranean. Prom the naval standpoint, it will prove to be a great means of National Defense to us because it will prac- tically double the efficiency of our fleet. The history of such an important undertaking should be familiar to every American, both young and old, and I would commend the attractive and condensed form in which you have placed the large amount of information in your illus- trated book as well worthy of favorable consideration by the public. Yours very truly, Karoh27th1915 - f^i 5h*^ ^ FROM CONGRESSMAN GEORGE EDMUND FOSS. FORMERLY CHAIRMAN OF THE NAVAL COMMIT. TEE IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, U. S. A. CONTENTS PAGE FOREWORD CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 9 Early Discoverers — The First Settlement — Discovery of the South Sea — Balboa's Unfortunate End — Settlement of Old Panama — Spain's Power Spreads — Period of the Great Trade — The Scotch Bubble. CHAPTER II. RAIDS OF THE BUCCANEERS 21 Drake's Expedition — Fall of Old Panama — Other Attempts. CHAPTER III. PROPOSED CANAL ROUTES 28 Tehuantepec — Atrato River and Tributaries — Calidonia — San Bias — Nicaragua — Panama. CHAPTER IV. THE PANAMA RAILROAD 32 First Work on the Panama Railroad — Completion of the Enterprise — Early Rates Nearly Prohibitive — Establishment of Steam Ship Service — Concessionary Rights and Privileges — Changes in Ownership — The New Main Line — Busiest Short Line in the World. CHAPTER V. THE FRENCH FAILURE 45 DeLesseps, Promoter — Procuring the Concession — DeLesseps' Plan — Inaugurating the Work — French Labor Force — LaFolie Dingier — The Sick Poorly Cared for — The Crash — The Second or New Company — French Aid to American Project. CHAPTER VI. THE AMERICAN TRIUMPH 69 Organization of the Canal Commission — Taking Possession, Change in Chief Engineer — The New Com- mission — Commission Again Reorganized — The Purchasing End. CHAPTER VII. MAKING THE ISTHMUS HEALTHFUL 80 The Fight on the Mosquito — Cleaning House — Results Have Justified the ( lost — Rigid Quarantine Maintained. CHAPTER VIII. AN ARMY OF WORKERS 95 Getting the Force Together — Keeping the American Employes Contented — Plant — Monthly ( 'ost of Allow- ances — Feeding and Clothing the < anal Army — The Canal Zone — The Postal Service — Postal Savings Bank, a Popular Institution — Zone Customs Service — The Zone "Dry" — Keeping Order — Guarding Against Fires — Educational Facilities — The Law Department — Paying the Canal Force — Accounts — No Graft. CHAPTER IX. CONSTRUCTING THE LOCK TYPE CANAL. . 135 The Canal a Water Bridge — The Dam at Gatun — Gatun Spillway — Gatun Lake — Dams on the Pacific Side. — The Locks — Guards Against Accidents — How the Locks Were Built — Making the Dirt Fly — Dredging — Cutting Through the Divide — Across the Isthmus in a Hydrobiplane — 70,000,000 Pounds of Dynamite — Slides, Eloquent Argument Against Sea Level Project. CHAPTER X. AUXILIARY PLANS AND PROJECTS 213 Acquisiton of Private Lands — Tolls — Protecting the Canal — Fort Grant Military Reservation — Fort Amador Military Reservation — Fort Sherman Military Reservation — Fort Randolph Military Reservation — Fort De Lessens Military Reservation — Breakwaters — Lighting the Canal — Port Facilities — Dry Docks — Permanent Repair Shops — Government Coal and Fuel Oil Business — Private Coal and Fuel Oil Storage — Bonded Warehouses — New Floating Equipment — Permanent Villages and Buildings — Permanent Organization — Wire- less Communication — Beautifying the Canal — Permanent Administration Building, Balboa — Cost of the Canal. CHAPTER XI. FUTURE CANAL TRAFFIC 247 CONTENTS— (Continued) PAGE CHAPTER XII. REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 258 The Panama Flag — National Hymn of the Republic of Panama — The Reconstruction Period — "The Land of the Cocoanut Tree" — Government is Progressive — Revenues — National Currency — Public Improvements — Free Public School System — Panama Richly Endowed by Nature — The People — The Indians of Panama — The Guaymies — The Chocoes — Ancient Civilization of Chiriqui — Sightseeing — Bathing — Panama Hats — Canal Zone Souvenir Stones — The Panama Lottery — Panama to Hold National Exposition. CHAPTER XIII. THE LAND DIVIDED— THE WORLD UNITED 313 Destruction of the Dikes — Letting Water Into Culebra Cut — "Gamboa is Busted" — Gatun Locks, the First in Actual Operation — The First Practical Lockage — First Lockage at Pacific End — From the Sea to Culebra Cut — Earthquakes — Making a Passage Through Cucaracha Slide — Secretary Garrison's Visit — The Official Opening — First Boat Through the Canal. CHAPTER XIV. THE MONUMENTAL TASK COMPLETED 336 CHAPTER XV. PANAMA-CALIFORNIA EXPOSITION.... 343 CHAPTER XVI. PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION 347 ILLUSTRATIONS IN FOUR COLORS Colonel George Washington Goethals Facing Title Page The Famous Flat Arch in the Ruins of Santo Domingo Church, Panama City One of the Driveways in Ancon Hospital Grounds Culebra Cut, Looking North From Gold and Contractor's Hills One of the Great Locks of the Canal Under Construction A Typical Street in the Native Village at Chorrera, Panama A Group of Cuna Cuna Indians, Panama Tug Gatun, First Boat Passing Through Gatun Locks, Sept. 26, 1913. . . . Map of the Canal and the Canal Zone and Interesting Facts and Figures . . . HE history of the Panama Canal begins with the search for a western waterway to the Indies, and for fame and gold, by those hardy adventurers who followed in the wake of Columbus. These men, fresh from the Moorish wars, and equipped for a struggle with Italy which did not come to pass, looked for new fields to conquer. Nothing suited them better than the discovery of a New World peopled by heathens waiting to be converted by the sword to the Christian faith, after their gold, of which they seemed to have plenty, was stripped from them to fill the empty coffers of Spain. This search by the followers of Columbus was fairly successful, so far as fame and gold were concerned and, although no direct water route was found to the Indies to the west, it naturally led to the settlement of the Isthmus of Panama, the narrow strip of land separating the two great oceans and forming the connecting link between North and South America. The establishment of settlements on both coasts and the short distance between them, led to the building .of crude roads and trails for the early mule trains. These trails led to the construction of a railroad, and the railroad to a ship canal, for trade follows settlers, and water is the natural highway between nations. The story of the Isthmus is, therefore, in a measure, the evolution of transportation routes. EARLY DISCOVERERS The first European to sail along the coast of Panama was Rodrigo de Bastidas, who sailed from Cadiz in October, 1500, and first touched the continent near the island of Trinidad, and from there went west as far as Nombre de Dios. With him on that voyage was Vasco Nunez de Balboa, who, later, was to discover the great South Sea, and Juan de la Cosa, who had sailed with Columbus on his second voyage and was considered one of the most able mariners of his day. Columbus sailed from Cadiz on his fourth and last voyage in search of a passageway to the Indies in May, 1502. On this voyage he skirted the shores of Honduras and Costa Rica, to Almirante Bay and Chiriqui Lagoon on the coast of Panama. At the latter place he was told by the Indians that, if he [9] J^AM-D piVIDED — qTlB WOI5LL>D> TTKITED would continue his course to the east, he would soon come to a narrow place between the two seas, and this led him to believe that his search for a strait was nearing success; that he would soon pass into the Indian Ocean and thence around the Cape of Good Hope to Spain, surpassing the achievement of Vasco de Gama, the Portuguese, who had already sailed around Africa (1497- 1498) in his search for a water route to the Indies. Columbus continued on his way and passed the site of the present city of Colon at the Atlantic entrance to the Canal, and on November 2, 1502, arrived at a harbor 18 miles northeast, which he named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. He stayed there a week stormbound, and then continued on past Nombre de Dios, thus overlapping the voyage of Bastidas. He gave up his unsuccessful search for a strait eventually, and took to the more prac- tical work of hunting for gold. His attempt to found a colony at the mouth of the Rio Belen, southwest of Colon, failed, and on May 1, 1503, he sailed from the shores of the Isthmus. He died on May 20, 1506, still believing that he had discovered the eastern shores of Asia. This belief was shared by all the early voyagers until the dis- covery of the Pacific Ocean in 1513. THE FIRST SETTLEMENT Statue of Columbus and Indian Girl. Pre- sented to General Mosquera of Colombia in 1868, by the Empress Eugenie, and afterwards turned over to Count DeLesseps. Now occu- pies a commanding position on Cristobal Point. After the unsuccessful attempt of Columbus to found a settlement in Castilla del Oro (Golden Castile), as the Isthmus was termed, two colonizers were sent out by King Ferdinand. One of these, Diego de Nicuesa, a Spanish nobleman, more fitted for the court than for a command in the wilderness, was given control of all the land between Cape Gracias a Dios, Nicaragua, and the Gulf of Uraba, or Darien, the eastern limit of the present Republic of Panama. The other was Alonso de Ojeda, who accompanied Columbus on his second voyage, and in addition had made two trips to the continent independently. Ojeda was placed in charge of the land east and south of the Gulf of Uraba called Nueva Andalucia. Both of these expeditions outfitted and sailed from Santo Domingo in November, 1509. Associated with Ojeda were Juan de la Cosa, as lieutenant in the future government, and a lawyer named Bachelleer Enciso, who furnished most of the money to equip the expedition. It was arranged that Enciso should remain at Santo Domingo to collect recruits and supplies, procure another ship, and join Ojeda later at the proposed colony. Ojeda landed near the present city of Cartagena, Colombia, founded in 1531. Here he attacked and overcame the Indians with a part of his force, [ 10 ] CTKB TyAN-D DIVIDED —C7TKE: WOBLkD> TTKITED but in following up his victory, his men became scattered, and all those who had landed were killed, with the exception of himself and one other. Among the killed was the veteran Juan de la Cosa. Ojeda then entered the Gulf of Uraba and founded the town of San Sebastian on the eastern shore, but was soon compelled to return to Santo Domingo to obtain men and supplies. He left the new colony in charge of his lieutenant, Francisco Pizarro, famous in his- tory as the conqueror and despoiler of Peru, with the understanding that if he did not return within 50 days the colonists should decide among themselves the best course to follow. He finally reached Santo Domingo, after suffering ship- wreck and many hardships on the island of Cuba, and found that Enciso had departed long before with abundant supplies for. the colony, but he was unable to recruit another force to follow. Pizarro and his men, suffering for lack of food, waited anxiously and in vain for the return of Ojeda, and then abandoned the colony and sailed for Cartagena. Here they found Enciso with reinforcements and provisions. With Enciso was a stowaway in the person of Vasco Nunez de Balboa. Enciso insisted on Pizarro and his men returning with him to San Sebastian. On their arrival, they found the settlement destroyed by Indians. They were without food, and at the suggestion of Balboa, who had sailed along these shores with Bastidas, they crossed the Gulf of Uraba, where it was reported the Indians were less warlike and provisions could be obtained. It was necessary, however, for them to defeat a band of Indians under a powerful chief named Cemaco, who disputed their landing, but they obtained the much needed supplies, and founded the settlement of Santa Maria de la Antigua, the first on the Isthmus. They were now in the territory which had been assigned by the King to Nicuesa and, consequently, had no right there. The ambitious Balboa took advantage Columbus Island where Christopher Columbus stopped to repair and scrape the bottom of his ships before proceeding on to Spain. \ 11 1 T^AM-D piVIDED ~CTHE WOBJ^_ TTNITED of this circumstance and the fact that Enciso was disliked by his men, for the reason that he allowed no private trading with the Indians, to depose him, and asked Nicuesa to come and take charge of the colony. November 2, 1502, Columbus arrived at this harbor, 18 miles northeast of Colon, -which he named Porto Bello, signifying beautiful port. Rock for the concrete used in the locks at Gatun was obtained at this point. Nicuesa had already sailed from Santo Domingo, taking along with him about 700 colonists. During the voyage, a terrific storm arose, wrecking some of his ships and causing the loss of 400 lives. In the tempest the ships became separated; some of them reached the coast at the mouth of the Belen River, and others the mouth of the Chagres River. After collecting his men, Nicuesa left the Belen River, and after doubling Manzanillo Point shortly landed, saying: "We will remain here in the name of God." This was the site of the town of Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. During American canal times, the sand for the concrete in Gatun Locks was obtained here, and in 1910 and 1911, the sand dredge cut through the hulks of two old ships, believed to be relics of the days of Nicuesa. The dredge pumps also drew up bullets and other small articles. Nicuesa's situation was desperate, as he was without arms or provisions, but fortunately there arrived shortly his lieutenant Colmenares, who brought supplies, as well as information concerning the new settlement at Antigua. Nicuesa declared his intention of going there and taking all the gold found by Ojeda's men as rightfully belonging to him. News of his intention reached Antigua before he did and, on his arrival, he was met by an armed mob, secretly urged on by Balboa, which cast him adrift in a leaky brigantine along with 17 followers who had remained faithful to him. They were never heard of again. Of the two expeditions, one was now left at Antigua, and of the two men sent by the King of Spain to colonize the mainland, both were gone. Balboa the stowaway ruled in Darien, March 1, 1511. DISCOVERY OF THE SOUTH SEA The first move Balboa made on finding himself in charge of the colony was to secure his position by persuading Enciso and those who had led the mob in [ 12 ] <^THE Tv\N-D DIVIDED CTTHB WO;^g^_IINJTED the attack on Nicuesa to return to Spain. Knowing that they would immedi- ately go to the King and ask that he be dispossessed, he started in to obtain the gold which he knew the King thought more of than all else, and to make new discoveries which would help his cause. The gold he obtained from the Indian chiefs of the Darien . It was made the price of peace, and Balboa showed his shrewdness by making allies of the Indians after he had obtained their treasure. Such an alliance he made with Careta, the cacique of Coyba, who after his village had been sacked by the Spaniards, left with Balboa one of his daughters as a hostage. Balboa accepted the Indian maiden, of whom he became very fond and, although thev were never married according to the Christian rites, she considered herself his wife. Balboa started from Antigua on September (>, 1513, to cross the Isthmus and find the great sea to the south, of which the Indians, knowing the cupidity of the Spaniards, had told him glowing tales of the riches of the great race of people which inhabited its shores. Fighting the different tribes which he met on the way, subduing and making friends with them, on September 25, he reached a hill in Darien from which it was said the South Sea could be seen. Halting his men, Balboa made the ascent alone, and was the first European to gaze upon this heretofore unknown ocean. Six days later, September 29, 1513, four hundred years ago, he waded into the ocean and took possession in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. This was in the Gulf of San Miguel, so named for the reason that it was discovered on St. Michael's Day. He also performed a similar ceremony when he reached a point of land at the entrance to the gulf. Balboa subdued the local Indian chiefs, who gave him presents of gold and also many pearls from the Pearl Islands a few miles off the shore, and confirmed the rumors of a powerful and rich nation to the south. The Pearl Islands, so A family of Indians, Darien. [ 13] JiAM-D piVIDED (THB WOCLDD, TTKITED named by Balboa, could be plainly seen, but he did not visit them at that time on account of the roughness of the sea and the frailty of the available Indian canoes. He named the largest of the islands, Isla Rica, which is now known as San Miguel, or Rev Island. Nombre de Dios, the oldest existing settlement on the Isthmus. Sand was obtained here for the cement used in the Gatun Locks. Balboa returned triumphant to Antigua after an absence of about four months. His messenger telling of his great discovery did not reach the King, unfortunately, until after that monarch, listening to Enciso's complaints, had sent out a new governor to take charge of the colony. balboa's unfortunate end The new governor was named Pedro Arias de Avila, commonly called "Pedrarias the Cruel," which nickname he won in the New World by his method of extorting gold from the Indians. With Pedrarias was Hernando de Soto, who was later to discover the Mississippi River, and Diego de Almagro, who was to become the partner of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru. Unlike Balboa, Pedrarias did not try to make friends with the Indians, but in many instances repaid the hospitality which they extended to him as a friend of Balboa with the utmost treachery, destroying their villages, killing women and children, and selling those who survived into slavery. He undid what Balboa had been in a fair way of accomplishing, that is, the settlement of Darien, for the In- dians were everywhere aroused and repaid cruelty with cruelty as often as an opportunity was presented. Pedrarias strove to establish a line of posts for communication between the two oceans in accord- ance with the ideas of Balboa, but Shrines are common along the waysides and at without success. The first of these the entrance to villages, but this one has been was located On the Atlantic Coast placed in a hollow tree. The photographer dis- , , , . " ^ covered it near Gorgona. at a place named Santa Cruz. r ii i T^Slffi-v-PIVIDED CTpHE: WOJ^^P, In the meantime, the King had recognized Balboa's discovery with a commission as Adelantado of the South Seas and Viceroy of the Pacific coast, an empty title, as he was subject to the orders of Pedrarias. Pedrarias, jealous of Balboa's achievement, held up this commission and kept Balboa fighting for his liberty in the court of Antigua on trumped up charges. Finally Balboa made an alliance with Pedrarias by promising to marry one of his daughters, who was at that time in Spain, and went a few miles up the coast to a place called Acla, between Antigua and Santa Cruz, where he established a settlement and had timbers cut and shaped which could be readily built into ships with which to explore the new sea which he had discovered. These timbers were carried across the Isthmus by Indian slaves and were set up in San Miguel Bay. While at the Pearl Islands, from where he made several short cruises, Balboa heard of the coming of a new governor to supersede Pedrarias. Think- ing this governor might be hostile to his plans, he sent messengers to Antigua to see whether or not he had arrived. If he had, he instructed the messengers to return without allowing their presence to become known, and he would then leave on his voyage of discoverv before orders for his recall could be delivered. His messengers went to Antigua and !*■£'- rx ■~~ &\ -* v r iv jm - ■W^.< fci A wayside cross, or shrine. Some of these are very old. found Pedrarias still in charge, for the new governor had died on his arrival. One of them, however, told Pedrarias that Balboa was contemplating treachery and the founding of an independent colony on the Pacific coast. The bitterness and jealousy Village of San Miguel on Rey Island, one of the larger of the Pearl Island Group. [ 15 ] Jv\M-D piVIDED — crrHE: WQBUD, TTKITED of Pedrarias for Balboa again came to life, and he sent Francisco Pizarro, who was later to finish the work Balboa had planned to do, to bring him back to Acla. At Acla, Balboa was given a mockery of a trial for treason, and was beheaded with four companions in the latter part of 1517. Second only to the discovery of the South Sea was the demonstration of the practicability of an Isthmian transit. SETTLEMENT OF OLD PANAMA Pedrarias seeing the advantage of a settlement on the new ocean as an outfitting station for future exploring expeditions, crossed the Isthmus and, on August 15, 1519, founded Panama, situated about five miles east from the new city. The name "Panama" is supposed to have come from an Indian word meaning a place abounding in fish, and tradition relates that the town was built on the site of an Indian fishing village. In the same year the Atlantic port was transferred to Nombre de Dios, directly north of old Panama, and a few years later Antigua and Acla were abandoned to the Indians. Some of the interior villages have no jails stout enough to hold a prisoner, so the stocks are resorted to. On September 15, 1521, the settlement at Panama was made a city by royal decree, and the first bishopric in the Americas was removed there from Antigua. The new governor sent out, opportunely for Pedrarias, died on his arrival, as did several others who followed, and Pedrarias ruled until the arrival of Pedros de los Rios, who took charge on July 30, 1526. Before his arrival, Pedrarias took refuge in Nicaragua where he had already established a settle- ment. Spain's power spreads Following this period in Isthmian history many parties set out inland to explore the country, and outposts were located in the provinces of Chiriqui and Veraguas. These explorations were made in accordance with the desires of Charles V, who took a great interest in the exploration of the South Sea and the discovery of a strait connecting it with the Atlantic Ocean. After he came to, the throne of Spain in 1516, he charged the governors of his American colonies to examine the coast line from Darien to Mexico for a possible waterway. In accordance with this policy, Gil Gonzales de Avila was sent out from [ 16 cr?lB |v\ND DIVIDED <^THK WQRL>D, TTHITED Spain in 1521, with instructions to make a search along the coast for the western opening of a strait. Gonzales dismantled and transported his ships across the Isthmus and rebuilt them on the Pacific side. In January, 1522, he sailed from Panama bay and went as far as the Bay of Fonseca, where he landed and discovered Lake Nicaragua. On this voyage Gonzales met men sent out on similar service by Cortez, who, later, established a transit route across the Isth- mus of Tehuantepec in Mexico, following pretty closely the present railroad. This route was started in much the same manner as the one across Darien, through the necessity of transporting suitable lumber from the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus to build ships with which to explore the Pacific coast. When Pedrarias learned of the discovery of Lake Nicaragua, he immediately laid claim to it, and as the country was rich in gold, established a city at Granada Old Fort at Porto Bello. near the shores of the lake after subduing the Indians. In 1529, Captain Diego Machuca thoroughly explored the lake and discovered its eastern outlet, the San Juan River. Sailing down this stream he finally reached the Atlantic Ocean, and sailed along the coast until he arrived at Nombre de Dios, thus opening up another route across the American Isthmus. The first extensive explorations to the south were the voyages of Pizarro and Almagro in 1524, which ended in the conquest of Peru. In 1527, an expedition sailed up the Rio Grande, carried their canoes across the divide at Culebra to a tributary of the Chagres, down which they sailed to its mouth, thus going over the present Canal route. PERIOD OF THE GREAT TRADE Permanent settlements were now located at Nombre de Dios and at Panama, and between these two points was established a paved trail or "royal [ 17 ] T^AM-D piVIDED C7TKB ^ORDg^n^Il™ highway," for the commerce across the Isthmus at that time was steadily on the increase, making Panama a place of mercantile importance. In 1534, a route by water for boats and light draft vessels was established from Nombre de Dios along the coast and up the Chagres River to the head of navigation at Cruces. From Cruces there was another trail to the city of Panama. Over these trails pack trains carried on the trade, the river being used in the wet seasons, and when the attacks of the Indians and Cimaroons, (negro slaves, who rebelled and were outlawed), became too frequent on the overland trail. This trade consisted of gold and ornaments stripped from the temples of the Incas, gold from the mines of Darien and Veraguas on the Isthmus, silver from Bolivia, pearls, and also wool, indigo, mahogany, dye woods, cocoa, and tobacco, all bound for Spain, for which the colonists received clothing and food- The three ancient bells of Cruces. This town was one of the oldest on the Isthmus, and was the head of navigation on the Rio Chagres before the days of the railroad. Abandoned in 1913 on account of its being in the lake area. stuffs in return. For nearly two hundred years the trails from Panama to the towns of Nombre de Dios and Porto Bello were the richest trade routes in the world. Some of this trade even originated across the Pacific in the Philippines and the Indies. Later, after the period of the great trade, 1550-1750, and up to the time of the Panama railroad, the part water and part overland trail from the mouth of the Chagres to Cruces, 34 miles, and thence to Panama, 18 miles, was used by the colonists when California and Oregon were opened to settle- ment, and by the gold seekers in California in the days of '49. After Nombre de Dios was destroyed in 1597 by Sir Francis Drake, the royal port was changed to Porto Bello, 17 miles to the southwest. This change was beneficial, as Nombre de Dios was always unhealthful, while Porto Bello had a better harbor and was nearer to the mouth of the Chagres and Panama. [ 18 ] CTHJE; TvAN-P . DIVIDED — CTVlEj WO EkPi Porto Bello became one of the strongest fortified of the Spanish settlements in the New World. Here, came the Spanish galleons once a year to collect the King's treasure, and to bring supplies for the colonists, and here, each year, on the arrival of the ships, the merchants would congregate to take part in a big fair which was held during the annual visit of the fleet. The town is situated on a bay about a mile and a half long by 2,500 feet wide, and the ruins of five of the six forts which guarded it, as well as an old custom house, can still be seen, although partly covered with jungle growth. One of the six forts was on the side of the hill on the opposite side of the bay from the old town and where the Isthmian Canal Commission has been quarry- ing rock for the past four vears for Canal work, and it was dug away by steam- shovels. After Porto Bello became the royal port on the Atlantic, the Chagres Mouth of the Chagres River. The old fort on the left and one of the turrets on the right. River and the Cruces trail came into general use as a highway, although there was also an overland road, and to protect this route from pirates who were becoming bold enough to attack fortified towns, Fort San Lorenzo was built in 1601 at the river mouth. THE SCOTCH BUBBLE England lost its opportunity in 1698-1700 to gain a foothold in the Isthmian trade by failing to lend its aid to the colonization scheme of ^Yilliam Patterson, a Scotch financier, who had already founded the Bank of England. Patterson's plan, which eventually cost about 2,000 lives and $100,000 in money, was designed to break up the monopoly of the British East India Company in the Oriental trade by founding a colony on the shores of Darien, and opening up a free trade route across the Isthmus from Acla to the Gulf of San Miguel, over the same route taken by Balboa nearly 200 years before. Permission for the [ ™) CTHB TvAN-P , DIVIDED -^CT -aEL^ ypg^B, TTXITED formation of the company with this end in view was obtained from King William. His approval, however, was later withdrawn at the instigation of the East India Company, when it realized that its monopoly was in jeopardy, and instructions were issued to the governors of the British colonies in the West Indies and North America to withhold any aid to the Scots who had already departed for Darien. The opposition of the East India Company forced the new project to return all the money subscribed for stock in England, and to raise the necessary funds in Scotland only. On November 1, 1698, three ships and two tenders containing 1,200 men reached the Darien from Leith, and founded the town of New Edinburgh on the Gulf of Calidonia, near Acla. Here they were welcomed by the San Bias Indians who saw in them future allies against the Spaniards. But the Scots had no intention of fighting, much to the disappointment of the Indians, although they must have known that their invasion would be resisted by the Spaniards. The first expedition managed to stay eight months, during which time their numbers were sadly reduced by sickness and famine. On June 20, 1699, two hundred and fifty survivors, with Patterson who had gone out to the colony as a volunteer, and whose wife and son had died there, left for New York, which place they reached on August 13. Meanwhile, the company at home, not knowing of the abandonment of the colony, sent out a second band of 300 recruits. This party arrived at New Edinburgh on August 13, the same day that their predecessors reached New York. Finding the half-completed Fort St. Andrew deserted, they immediately left for Jamaica with the exception of a few men who insisted upon remaining. A third expedition consisting of four ships and 1,300 men was sent out from Scotland, and reached New Edin- burgh on November 30, although rumors of the failure of the first attempt had been received. At last the Spaniards determined to oust the invaders who, unable to accomplish much on account of internal bickerings, the opposition of England, and a high death rate, sent out a fleet of ships from Cartagena on February 25, 1700, to invest the port by sea, while a land force blockaded it in the rear. On March 31, after many sorties against the Spanish forces, the colonists surrendered and were allowed to depart with honors. The colony had been reduced to about 360 persons, and these were so sick and feeble that it is said the Spaniards had to help them aboard their ships and set the sails for them. 'A Nation given to the world, A giant's task begun, Show what our Uncle Sam can do In an orbit of the sun. O great indeed is our Uncle Sam And his greatness ne'er shall cease! For greatest of all his conquests won, Are his victories of peace! " — Gilbert. [20] PAIN monopolized the early trade with its colonies and this policy eventually lost its control of the countries of Central and South America. The first direct result was the entering of English, French and Dutch free traders and later, buccaneers and pirates, all of whom ranged up and down the coast of the Spanish Main preying upon commerce and even attacking the fortified towns. Up to the time Sir Henry Morgan became Governor of Jamaica, after the sack of Panama in 1671, there was very little difference between free traders, privateers, buccaneers and pirates, their object being the same, — the easy acquisition of gold and other loot by preying upon the commerce of Spain. From 1550 to 175Q, the Isthmian trade route was open to such attacks. After the sack of Panama, however, England endeavored to put a stop to piracy in the West Indies (Jamaica was the outfitting station for many ships sailing under commissions granted by the governor who received a share in the spoils), and after that time the pirates were hunted as a common enemy, and they in turn preyed upon the shipping of all nations. The result of the depredations of these freebooters finally forced Spanish shipping to give the waters of the Indies a wide berth, and to take the longer route through the Straits of Magellan to the colonies on the Pacific, although this trade was already beginning to decline, partly through the failure of the colonies to develop after the easily won treasures of the Incas began to give out, and partly through the decadence of Spain as a sea power. The free traders, who finally developed into pirates, were generally welcomed by the colonists, unofficially, as Spain was not a manufacturing country and was unable to supply their needs, and because it was greatly to their benefit to obtain goods of a better quality upon which no taxes had been paid to the King. The traders were forbidden entry into the ports, and were com- pelled to smuggle their goods in at convenient points along the coast and in secret harbors. The custom of treating these men as pirates when caught, naturally led them to protect themselves and, when the opportunity offered, to retaliate in kind, and they finally became buccaneers or pirates in name as well as in fact. The name buccaneer was given to the free traders by the f 21 j CTHB TiANP DIVIDED GTn& WORlJgJ_NITED boucaniers, men engaged in supplying them with smoke-cured meat for their voyages. drake's expedition The first Englishman to make his name feared by the Spanish in the West Indies was Sir Francis Drake. In 1568, Sir John Hawkins, with an English fleet, entered the harbor _ ~~ ~ . --.fV:| of Vera Cruz, Mexico, to trade «^K££ with the Spaniards. He was re- ceived by the officials of the port in a friendly manner and invited to anchor. As soon as his ships were anchored under the guns of the forts, he was attacked and all his ships destroyed, with the exception of two which managed to escape, one belonging to himself and the other to his cousin Francis Drake. Drake returned to England and endeavored to obtain satisfaction for his losses through his govern- ment, but was unable to do so. He then decided to collect his own indemnity by attacking Spanish shipping as he had been attacked. He obtained Letters of Marque from Queen Elizabeth, and, in 1571-1572, made two preliminary voyages to the West Indies, principally to pre- pare for future raids and to learn how the Spaniards handled the golden harvest from Peru. In 1572, he re- turned with two ships, in the holds of which were stored the parts of three small sailing boats, and on July 29, having put the boats together, he attacked and captured Nombre de Dios where the King's treasure house was at that time located. He would have made a rich haul of the gold waiting for the arrival of the fleet from Spain had he not been wounded in the assault on the town. Drake then made his headquarters on the coast, and made many forays on shipping, even taking ships from under the guns of Cartagena. With the help of the Indians, who since the days of Pedrarias were always ready to help the enemies of Spain, and of the Cimaroons (as escaped negro slaves who had banded together in the jungle and waged continual war on the Spanish pack trains were called), he crossed the Isthmus to the Pacific, in time to see a Peru- vian plate fleet riding at anchor in the bay of Panama. He planned to ambush the pack train carrying the treasure from this fleet near Yenta Cruz, or Cruces, but failed to obtain any gold, the Spaniards aware of his presence, sending a train of mules bearing provisions in advance. He captured and sacked Cruces but, as this was merely a stopping place for the pack trains, he procured very little booty. Another ambush outside of Nombre de Dios was more successful, his men taking away all the gold they could carry and burying [22] Sir Henry Morgan. CTHB IyANP DIVIDED— crrnE^ WOGLkD, ttkited several tons of silver in the vicinity. In 1573, he returned to England and started to organize a fleet to go to the Pacific, but John Oxenham who had been with him when he crossed the Isthmus, forestalled him in his desire to be the first Englishman to sail upon those waters. John Oxenham crossed the Isthmus in 1575, with the help of the Indians, over the same route traversed by Balboa, and launched a small boat on the Pacific. He stayed in the vicinity of the Pearl Islands taking several small Spanish prizes, and finally captured one of the treasure galleons from Peru. Oxenham and his crew were finally captured by the Spaniards and put to death. Drake returned to the West Indies on November 15, 1577, sailed through the Straits of Magellan, swept the west coast of South America as far north as California, without attacking the city of Panama, crossed the Pacific, passed around the Cape of Good Hope and landed in England in 1580, having gone completely around the world. In 1595, he again returned to the Isthmus, and, with Sir John Hawkins, captured and burned Nombre de Dios, and started across the Isthmus to attack the city of Panama, but the Spaniards had barri- caded the royal road so effectively that the English gave up the attempt. They went to Porto Bello instead, and just previous to the attack on that place, January 28, 1596, Drake died and was buried at the mouth of the bay. Drake's example was followed by William Parker, who attacked and sacked Porto Bello in 1602. From the time of Drake, Porto Bello had little rest from attack; its forts were rebuilt only to be again destroyed. FALL OF OLD PANAMA Henry Morgan was one of the first of the pirates to attack the mainland. In June, 1668, he plundered Porto Bello, and at that time sent a message to h~ » ■ ^>fc»fc> -r^xgfik.'. Section of wall and Spanish cannon, with embrasure, in old fort at Porto Bello. f 23 1 JiAN-D piVIDED -^crrRE WORkD> TTKITED the Governor of Panama that he would return in a short time to take that city. As he promised, he returned to the Isthmus two years later, sent an advance force, which attacked and captured Fort San Lorenzo at the mouth of the Chagres, placed a garrison there and at Porto Bello, and started up the Chagres and overland with 1,200 men, the Spaniards retreating lief ore him. It took the Englishmen nine days to make the journey, and they suffered greatly for want of food as the Spaniards in their retreat on Panama laid waste to the country. Panama was captured on January 28, 1671. Before the city fell fire broke out and the place was entirely ruined. Morgan was accused of having set fire to the town, but it was more likely that it was caused by a spark blown into an open powder magazine, which had been ordered destroyed by the Governor, Don Juan Perez de Guzman. However, Morgan stayed in the ruins nearly a month, collecting booty, and also plundered the neighboring islands and the surrounding country. He then returned to San Lorenzo, and sailed to Jamaica with the largest share of the booty, leaving his companions to leave the Isthmus as best they could. The attack on Panama was made when England was at peace with Spain, and the British Government was forced to suppress buccan- eering in Jamaica on account of the storm of protest aroused. Morgan was made Lieutenant-Governor of Jamaica, was later knighted and became governor of the island, in which capacity he did good work in suppressing piracy. His appointment would appear to have been made by the King on the theory that it takes a thief to catch a thief. OTHER ATTEMPTS Although Drake and Morgan were no longer feared, the Isthmus was not yet free from the raids of numerous other pirates, French and English, who Wall of the old fort at Porto Bello, showing entrance, and watch tower. [ 24] Jv\N-D DIVIDED ^CT-HE WQUIjD, TTXITED attacked Porto Bello, crossed the Isthrnus, and raided up and down the coast of the Pacific. Captain John Coxon plundered Porto Bello in 1679, and in the following year crossed the Isthmus to the Pacific in company with Captain Richard Sawkins, Bartholomew Sharp, Peter Harris and Edmund Cook, hfe4^&t ^ m m vw ' • 1 A ~ 1 i i > ■ i 3 1 - 2 - - ' ' Scene in the village of Chagres at the mouth of the river of that name. accompanied by over 300 men. They crossed the Isthmus of Darien, guided by the Indians, in April, 1680, and attacked Santa Maria, an outpost on the Tuyra River. Not finding the expected gold at Santa Maria, they voyaged in canoes and in two barks, captured by Captains Sharp and Cook, to Panama. Arriving off Panama, they were attacked by three Spanish ships near the island of Perico. In the fight which ensued on April 23, 1680, the English were victorious, but thev failed to attack the citv owing; to a disagreement between themselves as to who should be leader, although they stayed in the vicinity many days picking up prizes. Captain Sawkins was killed later in an attack on the mining town of Pueblo Nuevo, in the Province of Veraguas. Captain Coxon had already left with his men to recross the Isthmus to the boats left on the Atlantic, and Captain Harris died from wounds received in the battle of Perico, leaving Captains Sharp and Cook to continue their voyages in the South Sea. Captain Sharp returned to England where he was tried for piracy, but escaped hanging on account of lack of evidence. From 1680 to 1688, pirate raids wiped out every settlement on the Pacific coast of Darien. In 1688, England became the ally of Spain, and the pirates ceased operations for the time being. War broke out between England and Spain in 1738, and in 1739 Porto Bello was again captured and destroyed by Admiral Edward Vernon of the British Navy. In 1740, Vernon captured Fort San Lorenzo, and in 1742, he again took Porto Bello and prepared an assault on the new city of Panama against which a fleet was going around the Horn under command of Captain Anson. However, Vernon's men began to fall sick, so he gave up the attempt [ 25 ] ,^BF£i DGE^qyj: rgrqw$»£> The tower is the most important remaining evidence of the greatness of the first city of Panama, destroyed by Morgan in 1671. It is located about six miles southeast of Panama City. The wealth of Peru was transported over the old masonry bridges centuries ago. [26] CTHB TvAND . DIVIDED crpnE: WO BULjg>U KITED on Panama and went to Cartagena instead, at which place he met with a decisive defeat. Anson learning of this event, left to attack Manila and the new city of Panama was again saved. The last of the Spanish galleons from Peru during the latter part of 1739 Pile of cannonballs at Fort San Lorenzo, used by the early Spaniards in resisting the attacks of the buccaneers. found upon its arrival at Panama that Porto Bello was being attacked by Admiral Vernon, so it returned to Guayaquil and sent its treasure to Cartagena over the trail from Quito to Bogota. Thus the commerce of the Spanish galleons across the Isthmus ceased, and the gradual decay of the towns on the Isthmus wherein lived the merchants and traders set in. 'From sacked Porto Bello redhanded they came, All bloodstained from conquest unworthy the name, To the mouth of the Chagres, where, high on the hill, San Lorenzo kept guard, to plunder and kill Its devoted defenders, who courageously fought For homes, wives and children, accounting as naught Their lives held so precious, so cherished before, Could they drive the fierce pirates away from their shore. Three days they repulsed them, but to find every night The foe still upon them in ne'er-ending fight. Their arms could not conquer the powers of hell ! San Lorenzo surrendered — ingloriously fell ! Burned, famished and bleeding from many a wound, They lay while their stronghold was razed to the ground." Gilbert. [ 27] HE project of connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific has attracted the attention of the civilized world since the discovery of the Isthmus. In the years 1534 to 1536, studies were made under the direction of the then governor of Panama, Pascual Andagoya, in compliance with a royal decree, dated February 20, 1534, for a ship canal across the Isthmus by cutting from the Chagres River to the headwaters of the Rio Grande, but the idea was abandoned on account of the excessive cost. With a revival of interest in the subject, many routes were suggested and many surveys were made at different points where the width of the American Isthmus was found to be favorable, or where rivers and lakes were found that might be utilized as a possible passageway. Of the many routes proposed, it has been found that the one across Nicaragua, utilizing the San Juan River and Lake Nicaragua, and that at Panama along the line of the Panama railroad, utilizing the valley of the Chagres River and the Rio Grande, are the only practicable ones. Of the others, those which gained the most attention and which were given the most study were across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in Mexico, and three in Panama, the Darien, or Atrato River, the San Bias, and the Calidonia Bay routes, TEHUANTEPEC The Tehuantepec route, where the Spaniards under Cortez, after the conquest of Mexico, built a road across the Isthmus, is the best location, geo- graphically, for a canal, it being so much closer to the Pacific and Gulf ports of the United States, while the distance from New York is practically the same as from Panama. However, the summit level at this point was found to be in the neighborhood of 700 feet and very broad, and it is doubtful if a sufficient supply of water could be obtained for it even if it could be materially lowered by exca- vation. When the French were at work on the Panama project, Captain James B. Eads selected this place for the location of a ship railway with large cars to transport ships from one ocean to the other. This never got beyond the "scheme" stage, although at that, time it was considered practicable by engineers. [ 28 ] JEL TvANP DIVIDED— crrHB WOBJkDi TTKITED There is now an ordinary standard-gage railroad engaged at this point in carrying transcontinental freight. ATRATO RIVER AND TRIBUTARIES Various projects have been proposed to utilize the Atrato river, which flows almost directly north about 200 miles into the Gulf of Darien, at the point where the Isthmus joins the continent of South America, and several of its tributaries, which approach the Pacific coast very closely. There is an Indian legend that canoes can be carried for a short distance from the headwaters of the Atrato to another river flowing into the Pacific. The Atrato is a silt-bearing river and has a considerable fall, and is not in itself adapted to the use of ocean-going ships. It would necessitate continual dredging for a hundred miles to canalize it, and a cut through the continental divide much greater than the Cut at Culebra. The streams flowing into the Pacific are little more than mountain torrents. On this account this route has not been considered with as much favor as the more northerly ones. There is a widely circulated story that King Philip III, in the period 1616 to 1619, issued an edict at the request of Pere Acosta forbidding further consideration of the project on the ground that the will of God was made manifest by the fact that He had created an isthmus instead of a strait, and that it would be impiety for man to put asunder what God had joined. Probably a more reasonable objection was that a ship canal would make the Spanish colonies too easily accessible to their enemies. The policy of King Philip was adhered to for over 200 years after his death in 1698. CALIDOXIA The Calidonia route is where Balboa crossed to the Pacific in 1513, and is the one which William Patterson chose in 1698 for a line of transit across the Isthmus to control the trade of the Pacific with the east. This route starts from Calidonia Bay on the Atlantic where Patterson's colony of New Edinburgh was located, to San Miguel Bay on the Pacific. At first this appears to be an ideal location for a ship canal on account of the short distance, 35 miles, between the two oceans. It was advocated by Dr. Edward Cullen of Dublin in 1850. He claimed that the summit level on this line was not over 150 feet. It was partly explored by Air. Lionel Grisborne, an English engineer, in 1852, and he reaffirmed the claim of Dr. Cullen. Later explorations, among them those of Lieutenant Isaac G. Strain, U. S. N., in 1854, and by the United States Darien expedition in 1870, failed to confirm this low altitude. It was found that the summit level is at least 1,000 feet above the sea. Although the Isthmus is very narrow at this point, the excavation required is so great that it was proposed to build a tunnel 4.2 miles long through the mountains through which ships might pass. This project has long been considered impossible. SAX BLAS The San Bias route from the Gulf of San Bias to the Bavano River, which flows into the Pacific about 15 miles from the Pacific entrance of the present canal, is across the narrowest part of the Isthmus, the distance being about 30 miles from shore to shore. The distance from the Atlantic tidewater to tide- water in the Bavano River is about two-thirds of that distance. This route was explored under the direction of Mr. Frederick M. Kelley in 1857, and subse- quently by an expedition under Commander Thomas Oliver Self ridge, Jr., [ 29 ] qrnB Jv\N-D DIVIDED-— ^THB WOBLkD, JTKITED U. S. N., in 1870. The difficulty here, as on the Calidonia route, lies in the height of the summit, to cross which tunnels from eight to ten miles long were also proposed. The result of all these explorations and surveys resulted in the conviction that no other route compared in practicability with that of Panama and Nica- ragua. NICARAGUA This route, utilizing Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River, which flows out of it into the Atlantic, was used as an isthmian transit by the Spaniards as early as 1529. It became the subject of investigation as a possible Canal route in 1825, when the newly federated state of Central America advised the United States that it would encourage any such project by Americans. Several surveys were made, but no construction work was attempted. In 1850-1852 an American, O. W. Childs, organized a company under an agreement with Nicaragua, and established a transit route, partly by water and partly by stage road. This transit company also made surveys for a ship canal along this route. It forfeited its concession in 1858 without doing any work on the proposed canal. Later surveys were made by the United States under Commander E. P. Lull, and in 1889 canal construction was begun when the Maritime Canal Company of Nicaragua, composed of Americans, was formed under a concession from Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Financial difficulties, however, stopped the work and the company failed in 1893. For some years after efforts were made to induce the United States Government to finance the project, with the result that, in 1895, Congress provided for a board of engineers to ascertain the feasibility and cost of a canal at this point. This board, appointed by President Cleveland, consisted of Colonel William Ludlow, U. S. A., Civil Engineer M. Swinging bridge, Chame. r 30 1 CTFiB TyANP . DIVIDED —D> TTKITEP Granada to build the road, and the Panama Railroad Company, with a capital- ization of $1,000,000, was incorporated under a charter granted in the state of New York. Aspinwall, in the same year, obtained from Congress a contract for carrying United States mail by steamer from Panama to California and Oregon, as a part of his railroad scheme. A similar mail contract authorized by Congress on the Atlantic side, New York and New Orleans to Chagres, was obtained at the same time by Mr. George Law. As soon as the concession was obtained from New Granada, Mr. Stephens, accompanied by Mr. J. L. Baldwin, an engineer, went over the proposed route for the road and, finding a summit pass of a little less than 300 feet, decided that High trestle for embankment fill. The new line was built on a 95-foot level and across the lowlands of the Gatun Lake region a number of long and high trestles for embankment fills, some of them 90 feet high, had to be built. [ 33 ] Jv\N-D DIVIDED CTTHB WORk>D> TTKITED it was feasible. In the early part of 1849, a party of engineers in charge of Colonel G. H. Hughes of the United States Topographical Corps, was sent to locate the line. Finding a summit ridge of 287 feet, a line was laid out not exceeding 50 miles in length from ocean to ocean, with the Atlantic terminus on Navy Bay, as Limon Bay was formerly called, and with the Pacific terminus in Panama City. A contract was then entered into with two experienced contractors, Colonel Geo. M. Totten and John C. Trautwine, for the construction of the line. These men decided upon Gorgona, on the Chagres river, 31 miles from Colon, as the base of operations toward Panama, thinking that material could be easily landed there by boat. However, the river was so low in the dry season and so swift in the rainy season that light draft steamers were found out of the question Loading dirt train for trestle fill. for the transportation of railroad material. At the same time the increasing rush to the California gold fields by way of the Isthmus, made river transporta- tion and the cost of labor prohibitive, and the contractors begged the company to release them from their obligation. This the company did, and, deciding to undertake the construction work itself, retained Messrs. Totten and Traut- wine in its service. FIRST WORK ON THE PANAMA RAILROAD Clearing on Manzanillo Island began in May, 1850. This was a low swampy plot of land of about 600 acres separated from the mainland by a narrow arm of the sea, and is the site of the present city of Colon. Although clearings had been made, residence upon the island was impossible and for the [ 34 ] lB Tv\N-D DIVIDED — ^crrHB WPg^fi TINJTED first few months the men engaged in making the surveys, and the laborers brought from Cartagena, Colombia, were obliged to live on board an old brig anchored in the bay. When this became overcrowded, as additions were made to the force, it was supplemented by the hull of a condemned steamboat. The village of Aspinwall was founded on February 2, 1852, but on account of Colombia's refusal to recognize the name, it was later rechristened Colon, in honor of Columbus. The first seven miles of the road was through an extensive swamp, covered with jungle, and the surveyors were compelled to work in water and slime up to their waists. In a short time the entire force suffered with malarial fever, and great difficulty was experienced in obtaining sufficient laborers. Irishmen were brought from the United States, negros from Jamaica, and natives from the adjacent tropical countries, and fever made inroads on all of them. The importation of Chinese coolies was tried, and nearly 1,000 of that race were Scene on the Panama railroad, near El Diablo, Ancon Hill in the distance. Corozal-Ancon wagon road on the left. brought from China. Native hill rice, tea, and opium were supplied them, but within a few weeks disease broke out among them, and, many becoming melancholy, are said to have committed suicide, so that inside of 00 days scarcely 200 able-bodied remained. The high mortality of these Chinese laborers, probably helped develop the story that each of the ties on the original Panama railroad represented the life of a laborer. The facts in the case make the story ridiculous. There were at least 150,000 cross-ties in the original road, including sidings and yards, while the largest number of employes at any one time was not over 7,000, and the road was completed in four years. According to the most authentic records, the total mortality during the construction period was about 1,200. Added to the difficulties of maintaining a labor force, was the necessity of bringing nearly all food and supplies from New York, a distance of nearly 2,000 miles. By the first of October, 1851, the track had been laid as far as Gatun, and f 35 ] ' Tv\N-D . piVIDED ~^- united dividend of 52A per cent, was declared, but this not only represented the earnings for that year, hut also included the assets and surplus on hand at that time. EARLY RATES NEARLY PROHIBITIVE The following table of rates, placed in effect when the road was first opened in 1855, remained in force for 20 years, and following the company's policy, were intended to be prohibitive at first, on the theory that they would be lowered when the company had had an opportunity to improve its line, will explain in a measure the large profits made on this road which cost about $170,000 a mile to build : Fare, Panama to Colon, lst-class Fare, Panama to Colon, 2d-class Charge for baggage Freight rate, lst-class Freight rate, 2d-class Freight rate, 3d-class 1885 $25.00 10.00 .10 perlb. 3.00 percwt, 2.00 percwt 1.00 percwt, 1003 $5.00 2.25 .02 perlb. .40 per cu. ft. 1.20 percwt. .80 per cwt. 1907 $2.40 1.45 .02 per lb. .50 percwt. .44 percwt. .32 percwt. At the present time the first-class passenger fare is $2.40, with 150 pounds of baggage free; second-class, half of that rate. ESTABLISHMENT *OF STEAMSHIP SERVICE In 1856, the company established a steamship service between Panama and San Jose de Guatemala, thus opening up the rich coffee country of Central The Panama Railroad operates a steamship service with a fleet of six vessels plying between New York and Colon, two of which were purchased in 1908 for the carrying of cement. This is the Panama, one of the passenger steamers. [ 38] CTHJB TvAN-D . DIVIDED ~—Gm& WOBUkD, TTKITED America. This line continued until October, 1872, when it was taken over by the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. At one time the road had a line of its own between San Francisco and Panama, but this was withdrawn in 1902. In 1893, the present Panama Railroad Steamship Line was established between New York and Colon, and there are now six ships in this service, the Ancon, Cristobal, Panama, Colon, Allianca and Advance, although the two former vessels purchased in 1908 are owned by the Canal Commission, and have been used mainly in transporting cement to the Isthmus. CONCESSIONARY RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES The terms of the original concession granted by the Government of New Granada provided, among other things, the exclusive privilege of building a railroad on the Isthmus of Panama; that no undertaking for the opening of a canal to connect the two oceans would be permitted without the consent of the railroad company; that the railroad company should have the exclusive privilege of building wagon roads across the Isthmus and the use of the Chagres for steamer travel, and the exclusive privilege of the use of the ports at the two termini for the anchorage of vessels, and for the loading and unloading of cargo. This concession was to remain in force 49 years from the day of the road's completion, subject to the right of New Granada to take possession at the expiration of 20 years upon the payment of $5,000,000, or at the expiration of 40 years upon the payment of $2,000,000. The provisions of the contract were modified several times, but its exclusive features remained practically the same. In 1807, it was renewed for 99 years on payment of $1,000,000 in cash, and an annual payment of $250,000 guaranteed to New Granada. The railroad also obligated itself to extend the road to the islands in the bay of Panama. This extension of the contract for 99 years was secured 12 years after the opening of the road by Colonel Totten, when it was realized that New Granada would surely raise the necessary $5,000,000 to obtain the road after 20 years of opera- tion, a road costing $8,000,000 to build and, at that time paying 24 per cent on a capitalization of $7,000,000. Two years later, 1869, the Union Pacific was completed across the American continent, with a consequent decline of California trade across the Isthmus. The loss of this trade would have been offset by the trade of Central and South America, had the company seized the opportunity, but its policy, apparently, was to make all it could there and then let the future take care of itself. In 1868, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company withdrew its line of steamers from the Isthmian transit, and sent its ships to England via the Strait of Magellan, and transferred its repair shops and coaling station from the island of Taboga to Callao, Peru. It was forced to do this by the shortsighted policy of the railroad's directors who refused to ratify a traffic agreement profitable to both, which had been tentatively drawn up, giving the company where freight originated the right to make a through charge to be divided equally between the three carriers, the railroad and the steamship lines on either side of the Isthmus. The steamship company took most of its trade with it and an • idea of what was lost to the railroad can be obtained from the fact that, in 1874, it had 54 steamers, with a total of 124,000 tons, in operation between Valparaiso and Liverpool. Only its smaller boats were sent to Panama, and these merely to act as feeders to the main line on their return south. This policy of offering no encouragement to steamship lines also forced the Panama, New Zealand [39] The headquarters of the Panama Railroad are located at Colon. The new line runs on the east side of the canal and is 47.11 miles long. It was completed on May 25, 1912, at a cost of $8,984,922.18. [40] CTHE, TvAN-D . DIVIDED —cn\& WORkg>_TINJTED and Australian Steamship Company to give up its attempt to inaugurate a monthly service via Wellington to Sydney, connecting with the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, operating between Southampton and Colon. In spite of this policy of taking more than the trade could stand, the railroad continued to pay dividends, but it would undoubtedly have done a much more profitable business had it endeavored to help, instead of oppressing the growing trade of Central and South America. CHANGES IN OWNERSHIP When the French operations were begun in 1881, the French Canal Company found that in order to build a canal it would first have to gain the consent of the railroad or to purchase it. The latter plan was followed, and in June of that year, 68,888 of the 70,000 shares were obtained for a little over $20,000,000 or two and one-half times what the road had originally cost to build. In addition to the amount expended for shares, bonuses paid brought the total cost to a little over $25,000,000. When the United States, on May 4, 1904, took over the affairs of the New French Canal Company, they came into possession of these shares, and obtained the remainder, 1,112 shares, by private purchase at a cost of $157,118.24, or an average price of $140.00 per share. The entire stock of the Panama Railroad and Steamship Company is now owned by the United States, with the exception of one share transferred to each of the directors to enable them to qualify under the articles of incorporation. The Chairman and Chief Engineer of the Isthmian Canal Commission is also President of the Panama Railroad Company. Since it has become a government-owned corporation, the road has become secondary to the Canal work, although it is still a common carrier, and carries The railroad station at Gatun, which is the only station of a permanent type so far constructed, except at Colon and Panama City. f 41 1 CTKB Tv\NP DIVIDED ^THE WpRI^TNITgD Old Washington Hotel, showing statue of the Panama Railroad founders, Henry Chauncey, Wm. H. Aspinwall and John L. Stephens. A new modern hotel has taken the place of the old one. about 70,000 tons of commercial freight a month, which is about one-half of the total amount, the balance being handled for the company and for the Canal work. When the road was turned over by the French it was found to be in a neglected condition, with obsolete equipment and rolling stock. Since that time terminal wharves, equipped with modern cargo cranes, have been con- structed, terminal yards, warehouses and machine shops provided, new and powerful locomotives, 12 of which are oil burners, larger cars for passengers and freight put into service, heavier rails laid, bridges strengthened to enable them to carry the heavier equipment, and the whole line double-tracked. Permanent reinforced concrete stations have been built at Colon, Gatun and Panama, and a modern concrete hotel, the Washington, costing upwards of $650,000 has been constructed on Colon beach. THE NEW MAIN LINE The relocated, or new main line of the railroad runs on the east side of the canal for its entire length of 47.11 miles. From Colon to Mindi, 4.17 miles, and from Corozal to Panama, the old location was used, but the remaining 40 miles are new road. From Gatun, the line skirts the north shore of the lake for about four miles, and then turns south, crossing the eastern arm of the lake on a high trestle fill at an elevation of 95 feet above sea level. Near Caimito, the road approaches the canal again, and parallels it to Gamboa. Originally, it was planned to carry the road through Culebra Cut on a 40-foot berm, 10 feet above the water level, but slides caused the abandonment of the project, and it was built on a high level around Gold Hill instead. Its highest point is 271 [ 42] CTHE TiAN-P .divided q^BE: WOBIjgULr feet above sea level near LaPita, and where the continental divide is crossed, opposite Culebra, the height is 241 feet. From the south end of Culebra Cut at Paraiso, the railroad runs practically parallel with the canal to Panama. Where the road crosses the Gatun River, near Monte Lirio, a steel girder bridge with a lift span has been erected to permit native sailing craft to pass into the east arm of the lake, and at Gamboa, the Chagres River is crossed with a steel girder bridge one-quarter of a mile long. At Miraflores, the road passes through a tunnel 736 feet long. The new line was completed on May 2,5, 1912, at a cost of $8,984,922.18, but passenger trains were not run over it for its entire length until September 2, 1913, when the former crossing at Gamboa dike was abandoned on account of the rise of Gatun Lake. On that date a new schedule was placed in effect, whereby the main line trains run all the way from Colon to Panama on the east side of the canal, and the towns on the west bank are served with a shuttle train service from Panama to Bas Obispo, the present terminus of the old double- track line. The shuttle trains now cross the canal, near Paraiso on a trestle bridge, but as this will have to be removed to permit the navigation of the canal, a wooden pontoon bridge will be built in the same locality of sufficient width for a single track and a roadway for vehicles. This is not intended for a permanent crossing but only to such time as the villages on the west bank of the canal can be abandoned. South of Corozal, a change will be made in the road which will have the effect of placing the new town of Balboa on the main line, with its terminus at Panama as at present. The railroad possesses modern passenger terminals at both ends. The one in Colon is of concrete block construction, and was opened on July 23, 1909. It is not particularly attractive from an architectural standpoint. The new station in Panama, costing about $100,000, was completed in the latter part of 1913. The only other station of a permanent type so far constructed is at Gatun, built in 1909. I frr IE II ii'i»« ■ I«»'i is |! I!! I lilt The new Hotel Washington at Colon. Cost about $500,000. Operated by the Panama Railroad. [ 43 ] CTHE TW\NP . DIVIDED ^THE WOB^D, TTMITED The total mileage of the road, exclusive of sidings, is 58.79, as follows: Main line, 47.11 miles; Pedro Miguel to Bas Obispo, 9.12 miles, and Panama to Balboa 2.56 miles. BUSIEST SHORT LINE IN THE WORLD During the years 1911-1912 the road carried 777,121 first-class passengers, and 1,980,550 second-class passengers, an increase of over 300,000 for the year. During the fiscal year just closed, the passenger traffic is expected to show material increase due in part to the increased tourist travel. Freight amounting to 1,871,076 tons was transported over the railroad during 1911-1912, divided as follows: Per cent. Through commercial freight 36.80 Local and I. C. C. freight 49.93 Local commercial freight 10.37 Panama Railroad Company's freight 2.90 The net revenue from its operation was $1,997,280.80. The steamship line, on the other hand, has not paid as an investment, except as a feeder for the railroad, and for the benefit of the Isthmian Canal Commission. It has had a steady freight and passenger traffic, but the cargoes have consisted principally of canal supplies, and the passengers have been mostly employes of the Canal Commission and railroad, who are carried at a reduced rate. The net deficit from the operation of the steamship line for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912, was $305,742.85. With the completion of the canal it is possible that the road will be electri- fied, obtaining the necessary power from the hydroelectric plant at Gatun spill- way, and will be devoted almost entirely to local traffic. This traffic will, no doubt, be considerable, for Colon and Panama will always be important cities. New Panama railroad passenger terminal in Panama, just completed. [ 44 ] HE French attempt to construct a waterway across the Isthmus was foredoomed to failure because the project fell into the hands of promoters and speculators. A contributory cause was the very high sick and death rate among- the French employes on the Isthmus. This added greatly to the cost of administration and resulted in an unstable labor force. Many of the best engineers left the Isthmus after short service, or died, and these constant changes made it difficult to pursue any regular plan to keep up an effective organization to carry on the work. The company had to pay high wages and offer special inducements to persuade men to take the chance of one in five of surviving an attack of yellow fever which they were liable to contract. Had the work been in charge of a rich and powerful government, public opinion would not have allowed the work to have been carried on at such an appalling cost of life. When the enterprise was started the method of transmission of malaria and yellow fever was unknown, and, even if the French had taken the sanitary precautions prevailing at that time, they could not have stamped out these two fevers which gave the Isthmus the reputation of being the most unhealthy place in the world for a white man. As a private corpora- tion, it could not enforce sanitary regulations had it desired to do so, for, unlike the United States, it did not acquire absolute jurisdiction over the Canal strip, but was at the mercy of the Colombian courts. Other causes were extravagance, which naturally developed into graft, for the supply of money which came flowing into the coffers of the company from eager investors beguiled by the name of De Lesseps seemed inexhaustible; the lack of suitable machinery, the want of preparation, and misguided leader- ship. All these mistakes have served as warning signals to the Canal Com- mission, so that the failure of the French has contributed, in a' large measure, to the success of the Americans. I)K LESSEPS PRO.MOTKR The first French Canal Company, La Societe International du Canal Interoceanique, inaugurated the undertaking with an exclusive concession from Colombia, but with an incomplete survey of the proposed work, and an esti- mate of cost and time placed much too low. The necessarv monev was [ 45 ] CTHB TvAN-P . DIVIDED cmB WQB^gLTTNJTED Count Ferdinand de Lesseps. His name will always be linked with the great enterprise as it was under his direction and control that the work first took definite form. obtained from the French middle classes, who were induced to part with their savings through the magic name of Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had just brought to a successful close his great work at Suez, and who was placed at the head of the new enterprise. De Lesseps was honest and sincere, but he was an old man, somewhat blinded by his pre- vious good fortune, and, therefore, easily deluded. He was enthusiastic over the idea of a canal connecting the Atlantic with the Pacific, and made himself and others believe that the work could be accomplished more quickly and much easier than the Suez. His ability as a missionary made him valu- able to the promoters, for the difficulties of the work across the Isthmus, as com- pared with the work at Suez should have been apparent even to the layman. He was not an expert engineer; it did not require any engineering ability, but merely imagination, to see the practica- bility of cutting a sea level channel through the low desert region of upper Egypt, while at Panama, a hilly and Former headquarters of De Lesseps, Cristobal, now used by the Canal Commission. [46] CTHE Tv\NP . DIVIDED CTTiE, WQ^P^JTINJTED rock country had to be traversed, torrential streams diverted, and a tidal basin constructed, problems which the world's foremost engineers have differed in the solution. And yet De Lesseps sincerely believed that he was to achieve a second triumph, and much easier than his first. (The Suez Canal was opened in 1869, took ten years to build, and cost about $100,000,000, or a million dollars a mile. This low cost was due to the fact that the cut was made through a stretch of level sand, and Said Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, a large stock- holder in the enterprise, practically forced his subjects to work on the project in much the same manner as Rameses of old) . PROCURING THE CONCESSION The concession for the privilege of constructing the Canal was obtained from Colombia in May, 1876, by General Stephen Ttirr, a Hungarian, who had become acquainted with De Lesseps when the latter was planning his work at Suez, and who was later incited by the Frenchman's success in an effort to duplicate the feat at Panama. He organized a provisional company in France and sent an engineering party to the Isthmus in November, 1876, to make explorations and surveys. The party was in charge of Lieutenant Napoleon Bonapart Wyse, of the French Navy, a brother-in-law of General Ttirr, and at that time only 23 years of age. The first expedition was only partly successful, several of its members falling victims to disease. Wyse was again sent out in the spring of 1878 with Lieutenant Armand Reclus, also of the French Navy. On this trip he obtained a new concession, approved May 18, 1878, in the name of the association presided over by General Ttirr, which modified and extended the former one, so as to give the promoters the exclusive privilege of building a canal across the Isthmus anywhere within the United States of Colombia. This concession was to remain in force 99 years, provided the necessary per- mission was obtained from the Panama Railroad Company which held a The old port of Colon in 1884, during the early French days. This photograph was taken with a wet plate, a relic of photography. [ 47] CpFIB Tv\N-P . DIVIDED ^crrne WPgjyD, TIKITED Cristobal street scene in the French days. The scenes of the old French days have changed with newer ideas. This section is now filled with roomy houses and quarters for the canal employes and I. C. C. manufacturing plants. monopoly of the Isthmian route. Work was to be begun not later than 1883, and was to be completed within 12 years, with an extension of six years in case the original term proved too short. Although Wyse went over not more than two-thirds of the distance from Panama to Colon, he submitted what were supposed to be complete plans and a statement of cost for a sea level canal between the two points, following the line of the Panama railroad. These plans and estimates were submitted to an international engineering congress which was convened in Paris, May 14-29, 1879, in accordance with the terms of the concession, with Ferdinand de Lesseps at its head. These plans were the basis of a decision by the congress in favor of a sea level canal, following the route of the Panama railroad, by way of the pass at Culebra, using the valley of the Chagres river on the Atlantic side, and the valley of the Rio Grande on the Pacific side of the continental divide. It is pertinent to note that in this congress, consisting of 136 delegates from France, Germany, the United States and other countries, only 42 were engineers, while the remainder were promoters, politicians, speculators, and personal friends of De Lesseps. The Wyse concession and plans were "shoved through," approved, and turned over to La Societe International du Canal Interoceanique, commonly known as the first French Canal Company, for a consideration of $2,000,000. This was the first "step in the dark," taken by the company. DE LESSEPS' PLAN. De Lesseps made two visits to the Isthmus, the first in December, 1879, and the second in 1886, remaining for about two months on each occasion. On his first visit he was accompanied by his wife, three of his children, and an international technical commission, consisting of nine members. At one of the [48 j TTKITED numerous receptions and banquets tendered him, he said: "There are only two great difficulties to be overcome, the Chagres River, and the deep cutting at the summit. The first can be surmounted by turning the headwaters of the river into another channel, and the second will disappear before the wells which will be sunk and charged with explosives of sufficient force to remove vast quantities at each discharge." The engineering commission, after a superficial study of the route and former incomplete surveys, in a report submitted February 14, 1880, estimated the cost at $168,600,000. The engineering congress estimated the cost at $214,000,000. On February 20, De Lesseps reduced this estimate to $131,600,- 000, and again on March 1, without apparent reason, to $120,000,000. The proposed sea level canal was to have a uniform depth of 29.5 feet, a bottom width of 72 feet, and a width on the water line of about 90 feet, and involved excavation estimated at 157,000,000 cubic yards. The engineering congress estimated seven or eight years as the time required to complete the work. De Lesseps, with his usual optimism, reduced the time to six years. To control the floods of the Chagres River, various schemes were proposed, the principal one being the construction of a dam at Gamboa, a little below Cruces, and the construction of channels to the sea to carry the impounded water away from the canal. On account of the great difference in the tides of the two oceans, a maximum of two and one-half feet in the Atlantic and 21 feet in the Pacific, a tidal basin or lock was to have been built at the Pacific entrance. (The high tide on the Pacific side is due to the fact that the Bay of Panama is funnel-shaped). No work was ever accomplished on either of these two Front Street, Colon, during the flourishing French days, with the pay car at the old depot. [49] ■■" A group of views of Balboa and the canal entrance and operations, during the days of both the First and Second French Companies. The wharf was the first constructed by the French. The one-sided dump cars shown in the top picture are now obsolete. [ 50] CTHE, TvMSL-P DIVIDED- TTMITED projects. A dam at Gamboa was found later to be impracticable, and the problem of the diversion of the Chagres River was left to some future time. INAUGURATING THE WORK On January 1, 1880, the ceremony of breaking the ground was to have been performed by De Lesseps at the mouth of the Rio Grande, about three miles west of Panama city. The boat bearing a party of ladies and gentlemen who were to take part was delayed in starting, with the result that it could not get within two or three miles of the shore on account of the ebbing tide. This, however, did not dampen the ardor of the versatile Frenchman, as the arrival of the steamer in the entrance of the river mouth was considered by him a sufficient beginning. The first blow was thereupon struck with a pick in a box of earth upon the deck of the steamer, while the observers aided their imagina- Limon Bay in the busy French days. tion by copious draughts of champagne. On January 10, 1880, De Lesseps, with another party of civil and church dignitaries, went to Culebra to witness the first blast. Accounts differ as to this event. Tracy Robinson, the oldest American on the Isthmus, states in his book on Panama, that the blast never came off, and as he was present, he ought to know. On the other hand, the "Star and Herald" of the day following gives a circumstantial account of the affair, ending with: "The mine had been carefully laid in an exceedingly hard and compact formation of basalt at a few feet below the summit, and charged with 30 kilograms of explosive. The operation was performed with complete success, and immense amount of solid rock being hurled from its original position." No photographs of the incident are extant. Actual excavation work did not commence in Culebra Cut until some time [51] PIVIDED gTHB WORkE>> TTKITED The pick and shovel brigade. later. "The Bulletin du Canal Interoceanique," published by the company for the benefit of the stockholders, of February 1, 1882, states: "The first work in the great cut of the maritime canal was formally inaugurated today (Jan. 20, 1882), at Empire in the presence of the dignitaries of the state, the leading citizens of the city and a great assemblage of the people. The first locomotive has arrived at the newly opened excavation. The city of Panama is celebrating the event with a great fete." De Lesseps left Colon for the United States on February 22, 1880, for the purpose of interesting Americans in the undertaking. Although he was received with a great deal of enthusiasm everywhere, he was unable to dispose of the stock which he had thoughtfully reserved. Americans were interested in a canal, but not in a canal under French control. He then proceeded on a similar tour of Europe, where he was more successful from a pecuniary point of view. The first issue of stock, 600,000 shares of $100 each, was subscribed twice over, mostly taken in France. These shares were distributed among 100,000 persons, indicating the great Frenchman's popularity with the people of his country. In 1888, when the company failed, the total subscriptions, stocks and bond issues, had reached $393,505,100, and the shareholders numbered 200,000. Two years of feverish preparation followed which witnessed the making of hasty surveys, the bringing together of machinery and a labor force, and the erection of quarters and hospitals. The actual construction work was let to a firm of French contractors, Couvreaux & Hersent, but they soon realized the difficulties of the undertaking and withdrew from the last part of their contract. FRENCH LABOR FORCE There seems to have been little difficulty experienced in obtaining a labor force, which in 1888, numbered about 20,000 men. Nine-tenths of these were [52] TvAN-D , DIVIDED —^q^RE: WQB.kP^IINJTEP negroes from the West Indies, and many of them held clerical and other similar positions. The white employes, mainly from France, were treated with extreme generosity. Economy was an unknown factor in the administration of affairs of the first company. The average pay of a clerk was $125 per month, and of a division chief from $200 to $300 per month. After two years' service, five months vacation, with free traveling expenses to and from France, were granted. The hours of labor for the clerical force was from 8 to 11 a. m., and 2 to 5 p. m., six hours a day. Free quarters, furniture, bedding, lamps, kitchen utensils, etc., were provided. As there was no system of accounting in vogue, many did quite a profitable business in the buying and selling of the company's furniture. This was merely one of the petty forms of graft in vogue, however. Enormous salaries were paid to the directors, engineers, and other officers on the Isthmus. The director-generals lived in a house that cost $100,000, now used as the American Legation in Panama City; they received $50,000 a year, and when they went out on the work they were allowed $50 a day additional. One of the private cars in which they rode cost $42,000. LA FOLIE DINGLER There formerly stood on an artificial terrace on the western slope of Ancon Hill a building that commanded ready attention from passersby on the road from Panama to La Boca, now Balboa. It was the prospective home of M. Jules Dingier, probably the foremost director-general of the first French com- pany, prospective, because he never occupied it. Work on the mansion was begun shortly after he came to the Isthmus in February, 1883, and the cost including the grounds is said to have been about $.50,000. For many years La Folie Dingier, built for M. Julius Dingier in the first French Company's days, but never oc- cupied by him. The experience of M. Dingier on the Isthmus constitutes one of the saddest incidents in French canal history. His son, daughter and wife all contracted the dreaded yellow fever and died. [ 53 ] CTHE Tv\N-D DIVIDED- cm\& WOUkP, TTKITED The village of Empire in the old French days. The French began their first excavation in the cut near this point in 1882. it had been called La Folie Dingier, or Dingier' s Folly. The experience of M. Dingier on the Isthmus constitutes, perhaps, one of the saddest incidents in French canal history. Stories of the fatal effect the climate of the Isthmus was said to have on foreigners reached France, but Dingier scoffed at these reports. "I am going to show them," he is credited with having said, "that only drunkards and the dissipated contract yellow fever and die." In this spirit he brought with him to the Isthmus, his wife, son, and daughter. His son, who was made director of posts, shortly fell victim to yellow fever and died. Dingier subsequently went to France on leave of absence, and upon the return of himself and family to the Isthmus, his daughter met with the fate of his son. On his return from a second trip to France, his wife also sickened and died from the same fell disease. Dingier later relinquished his post and went back to France a man broken in mind and body. At the time the American Government took possession, La Folie Dingier had fallen into partial decay. Needed repairs The French at work in the Canal at Cucaracha, 1885, just around the point from Gold Hill. 1 . r >4 1 , piVIDED — ^TBElJNC Canal between Empire and Culebra, showing the French method of excavation, in 1888. were made and for several years the building was utilized as a detention station for the quarantine service. It was sold in 1910 for $5 L 2», and removed to make way for quarry work on the side of Ancon Hill. During the period of greatest activity there were probably 2,000 Frenchmen on the Isthmus, all non-immune to yellow fever. Life was a gamble and, with no suitable social diversion, they naturally resorted to the only forms of amuse- ment available, the saloons, gambling rooms, and houses of ill-repute. Colon and Panama became 'the Mecca of the parasites of society, the non-workers who live on vice, with the result that an efficient labor force could not be kept long- under such conditions, and it was continually changing. In the center of the Cut at the end of the first French Company's days, 1889. The first French Company operated from 1881 to 1889. [55] CTHJB TvANP DIVIDED— TTKITED As compensation to the Republic of Panama, the United States paid $10,000,000, and agreed to make an annual payment of $250,000, to begin nine years after the date of the treaty. These annual payments commenced in February, 1913. J ORGANIZATION OF THE CANAL COMMISSION The first meeting of the Isthmian Canal Commission was held in Washing- ton, D. C, on March 22, 1904, with the following members appointed by the President: Rear- Admiral John G. Walker, Chairman; Major-General George W. Davis, U. S. A., William Barclay Parsons, C. E., William H. Burr, C. E., Benjamin H. Harrod, C. E., Ewald Grunsky, C. E., and Frank J. Hecker. On May 9, 1904 Ex-President Roosevelt, by Executive Order, placed the immediate supervision of its work, both in the construction of the canal and in the exercise of such governmental powers deemed necessary under the treaty with Panama in the Canal Zone, in the hands of the Secretary of War, William H. Taft. The full Commission first arrived on the Isthmus on April 5, and estab- lished temporary headquarters in the old De Lesseps residence in Cristobal. A thorough study was made of the plans and methods of work as carried on by the French, in which work it was assisted by Maj. William M. Black and Lieutenant Mark Brooke, U. S. Corps of Engineers, and by M. Renaudin, the resident representative of the New Panama Canal Company. From this examination it was found that new and extended surveys would be necessary before any of the problems of location and construction could be settled, so the first step of the Commission on its return to the United States on April 29, was the organization of engineering parties. Five of these were organized, the first leaving for the Isthmus about the middle of May, and the others shortly after. Surveys and investigations were made by these parties of the proposed harbor improvements of Colon, the proposed dams for the control of the Chagres River at Gatun, Bohio and Gamboa, and the design of water works and sewers for the cities of Colon and Panama. TAKING POSSESSION CHANGE IN CHIEF ENGINEER The United States represented by Lieutenant Brooke, U. S. A., took possession of the French canal property on May 4, 1904, and operations were continued with the same employes and laborers, about 700, that had been left by the French company, for work had been continuous in Culebra Cut from the beginning in 1881, except for a few years, in order to hold the franchise. Although neither the equipment nor the organization of this force was adequate, it was considered advisable to maintain it for the time being and to gradually introduce necessary changes in the organization and in the equipment. Lieutenant Brooke remained in charge of this work until the arrival of Major-General Davis, who was appointed Governor of the Isthmus on May 8, 1904, and arrived on May 17. On the day of his arrival it was announced to the inhabitants of the Canal Zone that the territory had been occupied by the United States of America. This was a little bit too precipitate for the Pana- manians who had been accustomed under the French regime to much speech- making, feasting, and champagne drinking when any undertaking was put into operation, so they protested to the State Department, to the end that, to their minds, more fitting ceremonies were later indulged in. Governor Davis was also placed in temporary charge of the construction work until the Chief [ 72 ] **"""ai Ex- President Theodore Roosevelt L Ex- President William HTaft (XL p President Woodrow Wilson ^ The chroniclers of history for all time will associate the names of Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson with the world's greatest undertaking, — the construction of the Panama Canal. Students of the subject will doubtless concede that to Theodore Roosevelt should be accorded the distinction of inaugurating the enterprise, to his successor, former President Taft should belong the honor of four years of faithful service in carrying forward the stupendous work so encouragingly begun, and to President Woodrow Wilson falls the duty of installing the splendid success which the re- sources, perseverance and indomitable courage of American citizenship have rendered possible. \ 7-A 1 CTf\E, Tv\ND DIVIDED CT1\E WORL>D, TTKITED Engineer, Mr. John F. Wallace, entered upon his duties on June 1, 1904. Mr. Wallace resigned as Chief Engineer on June 25, 1905, after serving one year, and was succeeded by Mr. John F. Stevens on July 20, 1905. Mr. Wallace, who had become dissatisfied with the working methods of the first Commission was made a member of the Commission under an Executive Order dated April 1, 1905, which reorganized it, and gave to him full control in the department of construction and engineering. This reorganization was brought about by the Secretary of War who, by direction of the President in March, 1905, requested the resignations of the commissioners, which were at once tendered. It was believed that this change would make a more effective force for doing the required work, and do away with the long delays occasioned in purchasing material and supplies and in the accomplishment of work by government "red tape" which had become so irksome to Mr. Wallace. His resignation shortly after this change, six days after his return to the Isthmus from Washington, was hard to understand, but it is possible that the question of health entered considerably into his decision, for it was at this time that the first outbreak of yellow fever among the Americans had occurred and the first victim was Mrs. Frank Seager, the wife of Mr. Wallace's private secretary. THE NEW COMMISSION The new Commission created under the above mentioned Order consisted of the same number of members, seven, but full power was practically vested in three members who were placed in charge of the three executive departments created. One department was under the direction of the Chairman of the Commission, Theodore P. Shonts, and took charge of the fiscal affairs, the purchase and delivery of material and supplies, the accounts, bookkeeping, and audits, and the commercial operations in the United States of the Panama railroad and steamship lines, with headquarters in Washington; another, under the Governor of the Zone, Charles E. Magoon, which looked after the ad- ministration and enforcement of law in the Zone, the sanitation of the Canal Zone and the cities of Panama and Colon, and the custody of all supplies and construction necessary for sanitary purposes, and the third, under the Chief Engineer, John F. Wallace, which had charge of the work of construction, the custody of all supplies and plant on the Isthmus and the practical operation of the railroad on the Isthmus with special view to its utilization in the Canal construction work. An executive committee of not less than three members, a majority of whom constituted a quorum was also created to act in place of the full com- mission, which had heretofore only met quarterly, during the intervals between meetings, in order to secure the uninterrupted course of the work. This executive committee met twice a week in the office of the Governor on the Isthmus until it was abolished on November 17, 1906. The new department of Government and Sanitation was placed in charge of Mr. Charles E. Magoon, as a member of the Commission, vice Major-Gen- eral Geo. W. Davis, who returned to the United States on May 9, 1905, in ac- cordance with instructions received from the Secretary of War, on account of failing health. When General Davis left the Isthmus he turned the work over to Col. W. C. Gorgas, the Chief Sanitary Officer, who acted as Governor until May 25, when Governor Magoon assumed the duties of his office. The new Commission now consisted of seven members, as follows: Chair- [ 74 ] SOME OF THE MEN ON THE BIG JOB. (1.) Hezekiah A. Gudger, Chief Justice of the Canal Zone Supreme Court. (2.) Frank Feuille, Counsel and Chief Attorney of the Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Rail- road. (3.) H. A. A. Smith, Examiner of Accounts. (4.) A. S. Zinn, Resident Engineer in the Central Division, who has been identified with the work in Culebra Cut since 1906. (5.) Henry Goldmark, designing engineer, in charge of the lock gates of the Canal. (6.) T. B. Monniche, designing engineer, in charge of the emergency dams of the locks. (7.) John H. McLean, Disbursing Officer of the Isthmian Canal Commission. (8.) Capt. Robert E. Wood, U. S. A., Chief Quartermaster of the Isthmian Canal Commission. (9.) W. G. Comber, Resident Engineer of the Sixth (Dredging) Division. (10.) Capt. Charles W. Barber, Chief of Canal Zone Police. (11.) C. E. Weidman, Chief of the Fire Department. (12.) Tom M. Cooke, Chief, Division of Posts, Customs, and Revenues. (13.) Lieut. Col. Eugene T. Wilson, Subsistence Officer. (14.) George M. Wells, Resident Engineer, Department of Municipal Engineering. (15.) Harry O. Cole, Resident Engineer, Fifth Division. [ 75 ] JvAN-D .piVIPED— q-HE WOBLkD, TTKITED man, Theodore P. Shonts, Charles E. Magoon, also Governor of the Canal Zone, Rear- Admiral Mordecai T. Endicott, Brigadier-General Peter C. Hains, U. S. A. (retired), Col. Oswald H. Ernst, U. S. A., Benjamin M. Harrod, and John F. Wallace, also Chief Engineer. COMMISSION AGAIN REORGANIZED On November 17, 1906, the commission was again reorganized by Execu- tive Order in order to promote harmony and to secure results by more direct methods and a centralization of power. In order to do this, the following departments were created under the new organization: Chairman, Chief Engineer, General Counsel, who took over the duties of the Governor, Chief Sanitary Officer, General Purchasing Officer, General Auditor, Disbursing Officer, and Manager of Labor and Quarters. On September 25, 1906, Gov. Charles E. Magoon, was transferred to administer affairs in Cuba, and was succeeded by Richard Reid Rogers the General Counsel in Washington on November 19, 1906. While Mr. Rogers was in Washington, Mr. H. D. Reed acted as head of the department on the Isthmus until the arrival of Mr. Jo. C. S. Blackburn who was appointed as Head of the Department of Civil Administration on April 1, 1907. On April 2, 1907, the authority of the Governor, or Chief Executive of the Canal Zone, was transferred by order of the Secretary of War to the Chairman's office, so from that time the Chairman and Chief Engineer has in reality been Governor of the Canal Zone also. Mr. Shonts resigned effective March 4, 1907, and the resignation of General Hains, Major Harrod, and Rear-Admiral Endicott, were accepted on March 16, 1907. Finally, Mr. Stevens resigned effective April 1, 1907. The resignation of Mr. Stevens was as great a surprise as that of Mr. Wallace. According to the report current at the time, the chief engineer became alarmed over the possibility of awarding the contract for the construction of the canal to the Oliver-Bangs combination, and wrote a letter to the President, setting forth that the canal organization had been pretty well perfected; that more dirt had been taken out during the previous 30 days than had ever been taken out before in the same length of time; that he did not care to share the work of building the canal with anyone, nor be hampered with men less familiar with the subject than himself. He intimated that if his wishes were not complied with he would quit. The letter is said to have caused ex-President Roosevelt something of a shock, but with .his characteristic spontaneity of action, he cabled acceptance of the "resignation." In order to get competent men who were used to working under Govern- ment regulations and orders, and who would "stick," ex-President Roosevelt resorted to the Army, with the result that three officers of the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., the Chief of the Bureau of Yards and Docks, U. S. N., an officer of the Medical Corps, U. S. A., and two civilians were appointed in their places, thus practically abandoning the plan of carrying on the work under civilian direction. Under this new organization a combination of the positions of Chairman and Chief Engineer was effected, and the creation of the Department of Sanitation, distinct from Civil Administration was made. It was also required that the commissioners take their station on the Isthmus and thus be in direct touch [70 ] A u o •5s 0) u 2 c « >> —- - *" V <% in S3 "O M a u « ■o c u a 3. c ~ O >> c o ^ c o r S "5b *> — = c . «» _ U .s- .2 J= "3 e u - - .c [77] CTHE, TvAN-P DIVIDED— GTTKEj WQBJyB-IJNJTED with the work under their charge. This new commission assumed its duties on April 1, 1907, and consisted of the following: Col. Geo. W. Goethals, U. S. A., Chairman and Chief Engineer; Col. D. D. Gaillard, U. S. A., Head of Department of Excavation and Dredging; Lieut.- Col. Wm. L. Sibert, U. S. A., Head of Department of Lock and Dam Construc- tion; Col. W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., Chief Sanitary Officer; Civil Engineer H. H. Rousseau, U. S. N., Head of Department of Municipal Engineering, Motive Power and Machinery and Building Construction; Jackson Smith, Manager, Labor, Quarters and Subsistence; Jo. C. S. Blackburn, Head of Department of Civil Administration; Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Secretary. The personnel of the above commission has remained unchanged with three exceptions. Jackson Smith resigned on September 15, 15)08, and the depart- ment of labor and quarters is now a part of the Quartermaster's Department under direction of Captain R. E. Wood, U. S. A., and the Subsistence Depart- John F. Wallace, first Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal. He entered upon his duties June 1, 1904, and resigned June 25, 1905. John F. Stevens, second Chief Engineer. He was appointed July 20, 1905, and resigned April 1, 1907, Col. Geo. W. Goethals, taking his place. Copyright, Clinedinst, Washington, 1). C. ment under direction of Major Eugene T. Wilson, U. S. A., as a separate depart- ment. Mr. Jo. C. S. Blackburn resigned, effective December 4, 1909, and was succeeded on May 13, 1910, by Mr. Maurice H. Thatcher, Mr. Rousseau acting as Head of the Department during the interval. Mr. Thatcher resigned, effective on June 14, 1913, and was succeeded by Mr. Richard L. Metcalfe, the present head of the department. The Departments of Excavation and Dredging and Lock and Dam Construction were abolished and, on July 1, 1908, became the Atlantic Division, under Colonel Sibert, having charge of the dredging operations in the Atlantic entrance, and the lock, dam and spillway work at Gatun, and the General Division, under Colonel D. D. Gaillard, which has charge of the excavation in the Culebra Cut section. On July 15, 1908, the Pacific Division was organized and charged with the lock, dam and spillway work at Pedro Miguel and Mira- flores, and the dredging work in the Pacific entrance under Mr. S. B. William- son, Division Engineer. Upon the resignation of Mr. Williamson on December [ 78 ] CTHJB TyAN-D DIVIDED cm\E WOBLkD> TTKITED 12, 1912, the Pacific Division was abolished and its work was placed under the immediate charge of the Chief Engineer, as the Fifth Division of the Department of Construction and Engineering. On May 1, 1913, the dredging work of the Atlantic and Pacific Divisions was consolidated under Mr. W. G. Comber, Resident Engineer, forming the sixth Division of the Chief Engineer's office. The Department of Municipal Engineering, Motive Power and Machinery, and Building Construction, was abolished on August 1, 1908, and became a part of the Department of Construction and Engineering with Mr. Rousseau, Assistant to the Chief Engineer in charge. The present commission consists of the following members: Colonel Geo. W, Goethals, U. S. A., Chairman and Chief Engineer; Colonel H. F. Hodges, U. S. A., Assistant Chief Engineer (Appointed July 14, 1908, vice Jackson Smith); Civil Engineer H. H. Rousseau, U. S. N., Assistant to the Chief Engineer; Colonel D. D. Gaillard, U. S. A., Division Engineer, Central Division; Lieutenant-Col. Win. L. Sibert, U. S. A., Division Engineer, Atlantic Division; Colonel W. C. Gorgas, U. S. A., Chief Sanitary Officer; Richard L. Metcalfe, Head of Department of Civil Administration; Joseph Bucklin Bishop, Secretary. Of these eight men, Colonel Gorgas is the only one who has been in the service since the inauguration of the work. Colonel Gaillard left the Isthmus on August 9, 1913, on special leave of absence, suffering from a nervous break- down, due to his long service on the Isthmus, and it is probable that he will not return. THE PURCHASING END The Commission maintains an office in Washington in charge of Major F. C. Boggs, U. S. A., who fills the positions of Chief of Office, and General Purchasing Officer. The work is apportioned among the following divisions: General Office, Disbursing Office, Office of Assistant Examiner of Accounts, Appointment Division, Correspondence and Record Division, and Purchasing Department. The Appointment Division has to do with filling requisitions for American employes, and during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 2,065 persons were tendered employment on the Isthmus in grades above that of laborer. Of this number, 1,183 accepted and were appointed, covering 59 different positions. The purchasing branch was organized on August 15, 1907, and placed under the supervision of the Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., with an officer of the Corps of Engineers in charge. Additional offices for the purchase of materials are maintained at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco. Medical and hospital supplies are purchased through the Medical Supply Depot of the Army in New York. Nearly all supplies are purchased under contract by means of advertising for bids and making awards thereon, and all material is carefully inspected before shipment, although the right is reserved of making final inspection on the Isthmus. As an illustration of the work of this department, a total of 7,087 orders were placed during the last fiscal year to the value of $12,335,973.12. [79 ] ^lAKINGTHElSfflMWEALTHFUL HE high mortality among employes encountered by the builders of the Panama railroad and by the French during their operations indicated that, to keep a suitable working force on the Isthmus, the Canal Zone, and the cities of Panama and Colon would have to be made healthy. Realizing this, one of the first divisions of the canal work to be established was that of sanitation under Col. W. C. Gorgas, who, prior to his arrival on the Isthmus, had successfully stamped out yellow fever and sub- stantially reduced the high malaria rate in Havana, Cuba. This division was at first a part of the Department of Government of the Canal Zone, but, on account of the importance of the sanitary work it was later made a distinct and separate department. That its work under the direction of Colonel Gorgas has been entirely successful, may at this day, be readily seen. Instead of a SDest hole with an unsavory reputation as "a white man's graveyard," the [sthmus has become a winter resort for an increasing number of tourists each year. Not only was it necessary to free the Isthmus from pestilence in order that the canal work might be accomplished, but it was just as necessary that it be kept in that condition for all time. Dr. Ronald Ross of the British Army in India is credited with the discovery, through successive experiments in 1898, that the Anopheles mosquito is the germ-carrier for malaria. This mosquito bites an infected person and carries the germ to other persons. In the same way another species of mosquito, the Stegomyia, was found to be responsible for yellow fever. The theory of yellow fever transmission by mosquitoes was exploited as early as 1883, by Dr. Carlos Finlay of Havana. The definite and indisputable test was made in July, 1900, at Quemados, Cuba, by four members of the United States Army Medical Corps, who had been appointed as a commission for the study of the disease. These four men were Doctors Walter Reed, Jesse W. Lazear, James Carroll, and Aristides Agramonte. One of these men, Dr. Lazear who allowed himself to be bitten by an infected mosquito, died from the resulting attack of yellow fever. Dr. Carroll also contracted yellow fever during the experiments, but recovered. A reward of $200 was offered to encourage volunteers, and of the many enlisted men who took part in the experiments, the first to present them- selves were John R. Kissinger and John J. Moran, both of whom stated that \ 80 1 CLEANING DRAINAGE DITCH L! / IjP^'^ ^^^^^ rc Sf?EEO^ G a METHOD OF OILING ^ ■ & Every square foot of swamp was a breeding place for mosquitoes. Draining swamps, sub- soiling and burning grass, are some of the methods used in the prevention of mosquito breed- ing. The man in the upper picture is shown burning grass which grows along the open ditches and drains. In the lower picture he is shown spraying larvacide on the grass. SI cpflB TyAN-D DIVIDED C fHE W QgJfeg»_I I liJTgg they would undergo the experiment only on condition that they should receive no reward for such service. They both contracted the fever and recovered; Moran is now in the employ of the Commission on the Isthmus. After ex- tensive experiments, the mosquito trans- mission theory came to be fully accepted by experts on tropic diseases. By this knowledge the work on the Isthmus was greatly simplified. The prophylactic method of fighting yellow fever and reducing malaria was found to be in the extermination of the mosquito as far as possible, and screening dwel- lings against them. As soon as wire netting could be brought to the Isthmus all buildings in the Canal Zone were properly screened. The destructive methods consist in the draining of low places, removal of vegetation, in the damp shade of which mosquitoes breed, and the killing of larvae by oiling pools and streams that could not be drained. At the outset, Colonel Gorgas was hampered by the failure of the Com- mission in Washington to realize the immediate necessity for large expenditures ) j N A HP i K i%^ i^lSL Btt^K^L j| ^K^K^K^K^Kr. w~~- vl fci'V-- ^i ' H jj^Pflr A mosquito disguise, which took first prize in the masquerade contest in Panama Carnival of 1904. The genus Stegomyia mosquito, male and female. The female on the left, the male in the center and the larva on the right. The species has distinctive markings, and the harp-shaped design near the head is found on no other mosquito. The male does not bite, and is, therefore, harmless; it is the female that causes all the trouble. [82 ] It took months of labor, and sortie after sortie, before the mosquito horde began to thin. A gang of about 900 natives was at one time engaged with ladders and paste, sealing all the crevices in the houses in Panama, prior to fumigation. Streets were paved, a water system installed, and a general clean-up was made. [ 83 ] CTHE, Tv\N-D DIVIDED cm& WOELDD, TTXITED 4^flfc?Z inwjwry ■■p*=v; ** 58 ^ - The quarantine station on Culebra Island in Panama Bay. Owing to the fact that the Isthmus is hemmed in on both sides, by plague-infected ports, the most rigid precautions are observed, and steamers from these ports are held in quarantine, unless they have been seven days at sea. for the purpose of exterminating the mosquito. This was later remedied, and the purse strings were loosened. An outbreak of yellow fever among the recently unacclimated Americans began in December, 1904, and lasted until December, 1905. During the epidemic there were in all 246 cases and 34 deaths. Of this number, 134 of the cases and all of the deaths were among canal employes. The constantly increasing headway made by the disease in the early months of 1905 caused a panic among the employes. A great many of them left the Isthmus as soon as they could obtain accommodations on the overcrowded steamships. This was an object lesson, and resulted in a partial suspension of actual canal construction work until the eradication of yellow fever was effected. In addition to a rigid quarantine, a relentless fight was waged against the mosquito, with the result that the last case of yellow fever occurred in May, 1906, two years after the work started. THE FIGHT ON THE MOSQUITO When a case of yellow fever was reported or found by one of the corps of Colon Hospital, on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus. It stands on the sea beach, and some of the wards are built over the water. [ 84 1 The above comparison of — before and after paving — is not exaggerated. When the Ameri- cans took charge of the work many of the streets in Colon and Panama City were veritable bogs in the rainy season. Now, both cities compare favorably in clean, well paved streets, with others of their size. [85] CmE Tv\N-D DIVIDED— CTTKE/ WOl^D^JJ^rn^D inspectors in the course of a house-to-house search for cases, the patient was immediately taken to the hospital and placed in a room protected by screening. The next step was the thorough fumigation of the house from which the patient had been removed, in order to kill any infected mosquitoes that might remain. Finally an endeavor was made to locate and fumigate the source of infection. When the epidemic of 1905 was at its height, the plan of fumigating every house in the cities of Panama and Colon, whether or not there had been cases of yellow fever in them, was carried out. The native residents at first submitted to the fumigation with poor grace, as they are immune and could not see the necessity The Dispensary at Ancon. Dispensaries and Field Hospitals are maintained at all the important Canal Zone settlements for first aid treatment. for it. Later, they became more reconciled, but complaints were numerous. There is now pending in Congress a claim for $50,000 to cover damages due to a fire in the Malambo district of Panama in the spring of 1905, which is claimed to have been started by the overturning of a fumigating oven. The fight against the Anopheles, the malaria-carrying mosquito, has been continuous, for it is next to impossible to eliminate it entirely. This species, unlike the Stegomyia, is strong on the wing and is, therefore, able to enter the cities and villages after breeding in the swamps and stagnant pools in the out- skirts. To counteract this as much as possible, miles of drainage ditches have been constructed in the vicinity of the canal towns; small streams are kept cleaned out to facilitate the flow of water; swamps have been filled in and grass and rank vegetation kept cut. Regulations are also enforced against allowing [86] The Government operates two main hospitals. One at Ancon and the other at Colon. The Ancon Hospital is the larger and best equipped, with a reputation in the Tropics second to none. It was begun by the French in 1883, but many improvements have been made by the Americans. [87] X)AMD piVlDED — q^HKj\ ( \rom^jQjNjrr^n There are 47 wards in the Ancon Hospital, and this is the interior of one of them. The white American employes, European laborers and the negroes, are cared for in separate wards. There are private wards also, and one for charity cases. The Canal Commission furnishes free medical treatment to all of its employes. any water receptacles, like tin cans, etc., being thrown into the bush where they might fill during a rainstorm and make ideal breeding places for the mosquito larvae. Such possible breeding places as cannot be eliminated by draining and filling are sprayed with a form of oil, called larvaecide, which destroys the mosquito larvae as they come to the surface of the water to breathe. In spite of all these efforts there are many cases of malaria, but the number has been rapidly reduced, and the type of disease has been reduced from a virulent to a comparatively mild type. While the mortality from malaria was never so high as other forms of tropic disease, Colonel Gorgas always considered it one of the most important on account of the heavy sick rate. Medicinally, the disease is treated by quinine, many thousands of pounds of which have been used in the hospitals and issued from the dispensaries maintained in each canal zone village. & CLEANING HOUSE While a war of extermination was being waged against the mosquito,' it was also absolutely necessary to clean house, especially in the cities of Panama and Colon. The latter place, the site of which was partly a tidal swamp, had to be filled in. Proper sewer systems were installed in both cities, where none existed before, unless the open drains in the streets, filled with refuse and other filth, could be called sewers. Suitable water systems also had to be introduced, for up to July 4, 1905, the supply of water was drawn from the cisterns which were allowed to fill during the rainy seasons, or from wells, and afterward peddled from door to door by the aguadores or water cartmen. When the water was turned on, all cisterns were closed. Likewise the streets which became virtually mud holes in the rainy season were properly paved with brick or graded. A method of garbage disposal was also provided, for up to this time [ SS j CTHE, TvAN-EL. DIVID ED -— g^H^^^O^^D, IQ^ITED buzzards were the only scavengers. Now, the streets are kept swept and the garbage is collected every night from especially designed containers which every householder is supposed to have. It is then transported to low swampy places in the outskirts of the cities where it is burned, the ashes being used as a fill. In the Canal Zone, garbage is usually destroyed at incinerating plants. In Panama and Colon the collection is made by the health department of the Canal Commission. All the street, sewer and water improvements in these cities done by the engineering department of the Canal Commission will be paid for by the Republic of Panama from its water rates, on the amortization plan. The money advanced by the United States, about $3, 500, 000, is to be repaid in 50 years from July 1, 1907, but at the present rate of payment, settlement will have been made much sooner. The villages in the Canal Zone along the line of the Canal were not so filthy as Panama and Colon, but were without sewer and water systems. Since then several reservoirs have been constructed, and all houses are connected with sewer systems. Macadam roads have gradually replaced trails; garbage is collected daily and properly disposed of; grass and other tropic vegetation is kept cut down in the vicinity of dwellings, and well-kept gardens and hedges make the construction villages appear like model towns. Strict sanitary regulations are enforced in all the Canal Zone towns, as well as in the cities of Panama and Colon, and each place has its sanitary inspectors, or inspector. RESULTS HAVE JUSTIFIED THE COST With cleanliness alone, however, the high sick and death rate could not be materiallv reduced. The successful war on the mosquito, which was started Along the coast a few miles from Panama City, is a Leper colony of 24 persons, called Palo Seco. This is the colony house and surroundings. The lepers are well treated, and have all the creature comforts furnished free by the Government, and spend a part of their time growing veg- etables for their own consumption. [89 ] Jv\N-D PIVIDED crrHB WORLjD, TTKITED by Colonel Gorgas when the engineers were busy constructing water works and sewers, has freed the Isthmus of its reputation as a pest hole, and has made its sick and mortality rate compare favorably with cities in the United States, or any other parts of the civilized world. The following tables indicate the effec- tiveness of the preventive work of sanitation on the Isthmus: Comparative Statement of Death Rates Among Canal Employes on the Isthmus of Panama Under the Original French Company for 1884, the Year the Maximum Number of Employes were Working, and the American Commission, 1904 to 1912, Inclusive. Total for nine years. Year. Average No. of Employes. No. of Deaths, Disease Only. Death Rate per 1,000 Disease Only. Lives Saved. 1884 17,436 1,198 68.69 1904 1905 6,213 16,512 55 412 1,046 964 381 356 381 374 325 8.84 24.96 39 . 40 24.57 8.68 7.55 7.50 7.65 6.37 422 722 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 26,547 39,238 43,891 47,167 50,802 48,876 50,893 778 1,731 2,634 2,884 3,109 2,983 3,172 18,435 Total Population of Panama, Colon and Canal Zone and Death Rates in Same. Total for nine and a half years Year. Population. Annual Average Death Rate per 1000 Lives Saved. 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 (June 30) 35,000 56,624 73,264 102,133 120,097 135,180 151,591 156,936 146,510 130,456 52.45 49.94 49.10 33.63 24.83 18.19 21.18 21.46 20.49 21.10* 142 299 1,922 3,317 4,631 4,740 4,863 4,682 4,090 28,686 *Computerl on six months' figures, but averaged for a year. Only two cases of bubonic plague have developed on the Isthmus since American occupation. These occurred in Balboa, the first in June, 1905. 90 CAMACHO RESERVOIR LAS SABANAS ROAD tmrnm Panama, Colon, and the towns in the Canal Zone were without water mains or sewers in 1904. Eight reservoirs have been built, and now water is plentiful; sewers ramify the cities, and the gar- bage is collected daily and burned. Many good roads have also been built, and the Las Sabanas road is much used by automobile and horseback riders. The United States advanced the money for this work, but Panama is to pay it back, inside of 50 years. 9] CTHE, Tv\N-D DIVIDED-— ^^jE^J^Op^p^TINJTEI) On the Mount Hope Road between Cristobal and Gatun, is Mount Hope Cemetery, once known as Monkey Hill, where thousands of French Canal employes, victims of yellow fever, lie buried. Under American supervision the cemetery has been greatly beautified. Each of its aven- ues is lined with a different kind of fruit tree. The village was immediately cleaned and disinfected, and a crusade against rats, the fleas of which are the carriers of buboinc, was started. A "rat" brigade was set at work in Panama; rat traps were issued free to all persons who wished them, and a bounty was placed on each rat delivered to the health department. In addition to the preventive work done by the Department of Sanitation, it maintains two large hospitals, one at Colon and the other at Ancon, and each settlement has a dispensary with a physician in charge. There is also main- tained a large asylum for the insane at Ancon, while at Palo Seco, a few miles east of Panama, there is an asylum for lepers. There is also a sanitarium on Taboga Island, about 12 miles out in the Bay of Panama, where convalescent white patients are given a week or more to renew fever and work-worn tissues. One of the most important things shown by the success of sanitary work on the Isthmus has been expressed by Colonel Gorgas many times, as follows: "Natives in the tropics, with the same sanitary precautions that are taken in the temperate zones, can be just as healthy and have just as small a death rate as inhabitants in the temperate zones. To bring this about no elaborate ma- chinery is necessary. The result can be attained by any community, no matter how poor, if it is willing to spend sufficient labor in cleaning, and to observe well-known rules with regard to disease. The Anglo-Saxon can lead just as healthy a life, and live just as long in the tropics as he can in his native climate." The total cost of the work of the Department of Sanitation up to the first of July, 1913, was $16,250,164.93. This seems to be an excessive cost until it is considered that this amount includes the maintenance of modern hospitals, [02 ] CTHE, Tv\N-D DIVIDED -^ ] The old French Administration Building in Panama City, used by the American engineers as their office headquarters during the first two years of Canal construction. The Administration Building at Culebra, the present engineering headquarters, containing the office of Colonel Goethals. The headquarters will be changed to Balboa as soon as the new ad- ministration building, which is now being erected there, is completed. [ 96 J CTHE, Jv\N-P DIVIDED— ctthe: WOGLkD> TTKITED considerably, the skilled mechanics about 80 per cent, during the year 1910, and that of the administrative employes about 45 per cent. During the early years, recruiting offices were opened in Europe, the West Indies and in the United States, and men representing nearly every nationality were brought to the Isthmus under contract with the Commission. Nearly all the supervisory positions, and the positions requiring skilled labor, are filled by Americans. These include the mechanics, carpenters, plumbers, steam shovel engineers and cranemen, locomotive engineers, railroad conductors, firemen, policemen, civil engineers, clerks, doctors, nurses, school teachers, etc. The clerical force, draftsmen, doctors and nurses are included in the classified civil service, but all other positions are excepted from civil service requirements. The common and unskilled laborers represent nearly every nationality. The greater part, Colonel Goethal's motor car, commonly known as the "Yellow Peril" from its color; also as the "Brain Wagon." Several of these cars have been shipped to the Isthmus, and are used by the officials in inspecting the different parts of the work. however, are negroes from the West Indies; the Spaniards, Italians and Greeks form the greater part of the European labor force. During the years 1906-7-8, there were recruited in Europe 11,300 laborers, 8,200 of which were Spaniards, 2,000 Italians and 1,100 Greeks. These men were obtained under contract, and were promised free quarters and employ- ment at 20 cents an hour for as long as the canal work should last. Their passage money was advanced to them, and was deducted from their monthly pay, so that out of a total cost of $508,770.83 for recruiting Europeans, all but $100,000 was returned from the laborers' wages. Recruiting ceased in Europe in 1908, as the supply of labor became constant through the arrival of those on the Isthmus who, having learned of the favorable working conditions, came seeking employment of their own volition. Those who did not come under The Administration Building at Ancon, containing various offices, including those of the Sec- retary of the Commission, and the heads of the Departments of Civil Administration, Sanitation and Law. The Division Engineer's office at Gatun. Gatun is the engineering headquarters for the At- lantic Division, which embraces the construction from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to in- clude the Gatun Locks and Dam. I 98 J CpHB TvANP DIVIDED-— CTVlEj WOgJkD, TTKITED contract were paid 16 cents an hour for three months, and were then raised to 20 cents an hour if their work had been satisfactory. Laborers obtained under contract will be repatriated at the expense of the Commission, but their number will not be large as, undoubtedly, many of them will find work elsewhere. The recruiting of laborers in the West Indies was carried on several years after it had ceased in Europe, the last importation of negroes from Barbados having taken place in January and February of 1913. The total number of West Indians recruited reached 30,619 at the end of 1912. Of this total, 19,444 were brought from Barbados, 5,542 from Martinique, 2,053 from Guadeloupe, 1,427 from Trinidad, and the balance distributed among the other islands of the West Indies. Recruiting of laborers was not allowed in Jamaica after 1905, in which year 47 had been brought to the Isthmus under contract. Al- Colonel Goethals" residence at Culebra. though this class of laborer was not recruited, he was well represented on the Isthmus in the labor force, for the Jamaican came of his own volition although he was required to deposit the amount of his return fare before he could leave that island. In October, 1913, about 10,000 West Indians were laid off as the dry excavation in Culebra Cut came to an end. About 5,000 of these men went into the employ of the United Fruit Company, and the balance, unable to find work elsewhere, mostly went back to their island homes. KEEPING THE AMERICAN EMPLOYES CONTENTED In addition to much higher wages than those prevailing in the United States, many inducements were offered to persuade Americans to go to the Isthmus to hll the supervisory positions. Free quarters, free medical, surgical, and hospital attendance, and six weeks' annual leave of absence with pay are [ no 1 The Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse at Gatun. The Government early discovered that to keep the employes contented, they must be given amusement; accordingly seven clubhouses were erected which are now self-sustaining. They are conducted under the auspices of the Y. M. C. A., but along broader lines than elsewhere. They furnish attractive places for the men to congregate, and the social work consists of entertainments brought from the States, as well as local dramatic, musical, minstrel and vaudeville productions. [ ioo 1 J > AM-D piVIDED > q^B WORXjB, TTKITED provided. Free transportation is also furnished new employes from the United States and also on their return after having completed two years of satisfactory service on the Isthmus. On their vacation leave, the employes are granted a reduced rate on the various steamship lines running between the Isthmus and the United States. On the Panama railroad steamships the employes' rate is $20 one way for those appointed prior to January 1, 1909; for employes ap- pointed after that date, the rate is $30; the regular rate is from $75 to $90 from Colon to New York. The problem of maintaining a constant force of Americans was not solved, however, until means were found to keep it as nearly contented as possible. To do this, it was thought necessary to encourage employes to bring their Owing to the necessity of building on the side of the hill at Ancon, many steps are required at some of the quarters, as shown in the above picture. Usually more level sites were utilized for quarters. The houses, with the surrounding shrubbery, make a beautiful scene. families to the Isthmus, and to this entl, furnished family quarters were pro- vided, with free fuel, water, and light. It is generally agreed that the com- fortable married quarters supplied by the Canal Commission has led a good many to forsake the state of single blessedness, but nearly all are wise enough to wait for an assignment before "popping the question." The demand for family quarters has always been greater than the supply, and one has to take his turn on the waiting list. If he is an old-timer and has not been out of the service since 1908, he is on what is known as the No. 1 list, and stands a fair show of getting quarters quickly. One who has been employed since 1908 goes on the No. 2 list, and there is generally several months' weary wait before his turn comes, as the total number of applicants up to the latter part of 1913 had been rarely less than 600. Some insist on bringing their families anyway, in [ ioi ] cmB TvANP DIVIDED -^C^IFiE TTNJTED Canal medal awarded white employes on the "Gold Roll" for long service. The medal is for two years' continuous service, and for each additional two years a bar is earned. The idea was suggested by ex-President Roosevelt during his visit to the Isthmus in 1906. which case, they are compelled to rent outside rooms, which are expensive and in no way compare with the comfortable Commission quarters. Family quarters are graded according to the size of an employe's salary, so much floor space to each $100 he earns, or fraction thereof. Employes receiving- $200, or over, are assigned, where possible, to one-family houses; those receiving less are quartered in two and four-family houses. The quarters, both family and bachelor, include a number of different types designated as Type 17, or Type 18, as the case may be, and were built from special designs to make them suitable for residence in the tropics. The rooms are uniformly well ventilated, and there is plenty of veranda space. Chairs, tables, beds, cook stove, refrigerator, bureau, chiffonier, sideboard, mattresses, mats, etc., are supplied free; bed linen and kitchen utensils must be obtained by the occupant. The bachelor employe has always contended, and possibly with some grounds, that he has been shown less consideration than the married employe. The Nurses have this building to themselves, called the Nurses' Home, at Ancon Hospital. \ 102 1 Each Zone settlement has buildings for bachelors commensurate with the force quartered there, furnished free by the Government. This type of quarters contains 24 rooms, with two men assigned to each. Frankly, the bachelor employe does not have the privileges his married friend has, still he manages to get along pretty well, as evidenced by the interior of his quarters. r 103 1 CTftE, Tv\ND piVIDED ^CTHB WORL>D> TTKITED In most cases, he must share his room with another, and there has been times, when three were placed in one small room. On the other hand, although he probably will not admit it, the bachelor employe has been greatly benefited by the presence of women and children in the various construction camps. It has been figured that bachelor labor costs less than that of married labor, taking into consideration the quarters assigned, allowance for fuel, light, water, care of grounds, and janitor service. A comparison follows: PLANT Married Quarters $1,800.00 Furniture 140.00 Total $1,940.00 MONTHLY COST OF ALLOWANCES Fuel (coal and kindling) $4 . 30 Light 4.20 Water 1.80 Distilled Water .50 Care of grounds, removal of garbage 1.20 Janitor service .... Total $12.00 Single $500 . 00 25.00 $525 . 00 .30 .45 .10 .15 1.25 "$2.25 Assuming a six years' service, a married man may be said to represent an expenditure of $3,000, and a single employe $750. In addition to the above, the married man also receives the benefit for his children of an excellent school system. This increased cost, however, is supposed to be offset by the stability of the married force. The visitor to the Isthmus is quick to note that he is in a new atmosphere. The bringing together of people from every part of the United States, and the consequent interchange of ideas has given birth to a spirit of tolerance, of a broadening of the mind, and has led to the abandonment in a large measure of narrow-minded prejudices embodied in the selfish thought that "My way is right, yours is bound to be wrong," a rut that people in small communities in the States are so prone to fall into. To further the feeling of contentment and to make of the Canal Zone a transplanted American community, churches and schools were organized. Church work was authorized by the Commission on October 4, 1905. There are about 40 church buildings in the Members of the Ancon Study Club. [ 104 ] A Cozy Home in the Canal Zone. Married quarters are furnished free by the Government, and fuel, light and water supplied without charge. Assignments for quarters are made by the dis- trict quartermaster, based on date of application, rate of salary, and date of entry in the service. [ 105 1 ,K J)AN-D piVIDED — — CTTMSj WQRDD> TTKITED Zone, representing nearly every Christian denomination. The greater part of these churches are owned by the Isthmian Canal Commission, which has in its employ ten chaplains, representing six different denominations. It has been the policy of the Commission to encourage church work, and it granted land and sold building material at cost for church buildings. Religious ser- vices are also held in the Commission club-houses and lodge halls. There are six Commission clubhouses, one each at Corozal, Culebra, Empire, Cristobal, Gatun, and Porto Bello. The one which was at Gorgona will be re-erected at Pedro Miguel, and a clubhouse of a permanent type is proposed for the new town of Balboa. These clubhouses were constructed and equipped by the Commission and are conducted by trained secretaries appointee! by the International Committee of the Y. M. C. A. The work was >- Mealtime at a Government kitchen for negro laborers. The negroes are served three rations a day at a total cost of 27 cents. planned to meet the needs of the men morally, educationally, and physically, and to this end reading rooms, bowling, pool and billiard rooms, gymnasium classes, educational classes, chess, checker, dramatic clubs, etc., are main- tained by them. All white employes are eligible to membership upon the payment of the regular membership dues of $10 per annum. The desire for music was also recognized by the Commission and until March 1, 1913, it maintained a first-class band of 35 pieces. The members were all employes, and they received additional pay for their services. The band was first organized in September, 1905, as a private organization, and the Commission took over its maintenance on March 27, 1907. Concerts were given weekly in the different towns in the Canal Zone. Nearly every construction village in the Zone has a Commission building which is devoted to the use of fraternal organizations, and a dozen secret organizations, as well as labor organizations, are represented on the Isthmus. [ 106 | Typical camp for European laborers. There are separate camps for each class of employes, and the American section of a Canal Zone town is entirely by itself. ■%*»* >„ JHftPI Interior of a bunk house for negro laborers. The men sleep on Standee berths, arranged in parallel rows, in three tiers. CTMB TiAN-P . DIVIDED ^THE WO^D^UJ^TTED The lodge halls are assigned free of charge for weekly meetings, and are also used for entertainments, club meetings, and dances. The Commission has encouraged baseball, tennis, rifle, and pistol clubs. A dancing club holds fortnightly balls in the Hotel Tivoli at which Isthmian society is seen at its best. This social organization recently passed through a crisis over the question of "turkey-trotting" and kindred dances. In addition to the many clubs in the Canal Zone which are more or less under the sway of the Com- mission, the employes wishing a little more freedom founded the Strangers' Club in Colon, and the University Club in Panama. These two clubs do not confine their membership to Commission employes. The "smokers" and "hops" Mess hall for European laborers. Three rations are served European silver employes for 40 cents a day. given by these two clubs are popular both in the Canal Zone and in the cities in which they are located. Following up its policy of encouraging employes to bring their families to the Isthmus, Ex-president Taft authorized the employment by the Commission of Miss Helen Varick Boswell to undertake the task of starting a social move- ment among the women in the Canal Zone. Miss Boswell arrived early in September, 1907, and when she left in October, she had organized nine women's clubs in the larger villages. The purpose of these clubs was to provide recrea- tion and social intercourse for the wives and daughters of the American em- ployes, just as the clubhouses were established as centers of recreation for the men. These nine clubs were finally affiliated with the General Federation of Women's Clubs in the United States. On April 19, 1913, the Canal Zone Federation completed six years of activity, and on that date it disbanded on account of the approaching completion of the Canal work. Several societies, designed to perpetuate the canal work, have been organ- ized. The first one of these, the Society of the Incas, limits its membership to \ 108 ] Lodge hall at Las Cascadas. All the leading secret societies are represented in the Canal Zone, and lodge halls have been erected for their use by the Government. No rental is exacted. The Zone has also a federation of women's clubs. Reading room in the University Club, Panama City. The University Club and the Strangers' Club in Colon, do not confine their membership to Government employes. I 109 1 CTHE, TvAN-D DIVIDED GTJ\& WOI3LkD, TTKITED employes who entered the service in the year 1904. Another is called the Society of the Chagres, and is composed of men who have seen six years of service. A third society has recently been organized, known as the Association of Panama Canal Builders, to which any gold employe may belong. A lunch hour scene at Gorgona shops, before they were destroyed to avoid inundation by the rise of Gatun lake. All gold employes who have served two years under the Canal Commission arc entitled to a medal. This souvenir is the outcome of the thoughtfulness of ex-President Roosevelt, who, just before he sailed from the Isthmus on November 17, 1906, said: "I shall see if it is not possible to provide for some little memorial, some mark, some badge, which will always distinguish the man who, for a certain space of time, has done his work well on the Isthmus, just as the button of the Grand Army distinguishes the man who did his work well in the Civil War." The medal is of bronze, one and one-half inches in diameter, and is made from brass, copper, and tin taken from old French scrap. On the reverse side is a bust portrait of ex-president Roosevelt, with Labor train arriving at dry dock, Cristobal. A great many employes live at a distance from their work, and are transported to and from their homes in labor trains. [110] CTHB Tv\NP . DIVIDED -^CTHB \V r ORljg^NjTED space underneath for the service record, and around the rim the words "For two years' continuous service on the Panama Canal." On the obverse is a picture of Culebra Cut with ships passing through, the Seal of the Canal Zone, a name plate, and the words "presented by the President of the United States," Interior of Mount Hope printing plant. The majority of the Canal Commission's printing, including The Canal Record, is done here. cut into the rim. A bar is awarded for each two years' additional service, and there are employes who have earned not only the medal, but three bars as well. The medals are made at the Philadelphia mint, and are distributed yearly. No duplicates are issued. The Canal Record, published weekly under the supervision of the Canal Commission, contains a resume of the progress of canal work, official circulars, social and church notes, etc. It is distributed free to all gold employes of the Commission and the Panama railroad; in fact, so widely has it become known that its circulation, between 16,000 and 17,000 weekly, extends to people inter- General storehouse at Mount Hope, near Colon, from which supplies are drawn by smaller store houses established in all the principal Canal Zone settlements. A large amount of material is required to be kept constantly on hand. [ IN I '.*>V, The Hotel Tivoli at Ancon, a picture familiar to anyone who has been on the Isthmus. It is the principal stopping place for tourists, and is owned and managed by the United States Government. Lobby of the Hotel Tivoli. One of the hotel's first guests was ex-President Roosevelt, and the suite he occupied is known as the President's suite. [112] CTTIB Tv\NP . DIVIDED cn\& WORUD, TTKITED ested in the construction of the canal in all parts of the globe. It is printed at the Canal Commission's printing plant at Mount Hope, and is under the direction of the Secretary of the Commission, Mr. Joseph Bucklin Bishop. FEEDING AND CLOTHING THE CANAL ARMY It is estimated that with employes and their dependents there were about 65,000 persons depending upon the Canal and Panama railroad work for their source of income during the height of activity, and these people had to be supplied daily with food, clothing and other necessaries. It was early realized that the demand for food and clothing could not be satisfactorily filled from local sources, for prices advanced steadily as the demand increased, so the Subsistence Depart- ment was created. This department is divided into two branches, commissary Commissary at Cristobal, oldest and largest on the Isthmus. This was operated by the Pan- ama railroad for the benefit of its employes before the United States acquired the road. A com- missary train makes an early morning daily run across the Isthmus distributing supplies to the branch commissaries. and hotel. The first commissary store was at Colon and was maintained by the Panama Railroad Company for the benefit of its employes. The com- missary division does a general merchandising business, while the subsistence end has in charge the hotels or mess halls for the American employes and messes for the laborers. It also maintains the Hotel Tivoli at Ancon, patronized chiefly by transients. About 85 per cent, of the supplies for the commissary and subsistence departments are purchased in the United States, 10 per cent, in Europe, and five per cent, in Panama. In addition to the store at Cristobal each canal village has a branch com- missary. Everything that an employe or his family usually requires, such as household goods, men's and women's clothing, groceries, meats, vegetables and fruits arc supplied. In addition to the retail stores, cold storage, ice making, coffee [ 113] Public market at Culebra. These markets are located in many of the Zone towns, where the tropical fruits and vegetables may be obtained. Ice and cold storage plant, Cristobal. Ice is sold at 40 cents per 100 pounds, and cold storage articles are cheaper, in many instances, than they are in this country from which they are im- ported. This is largely due to the system of buying in bulk and, in the case of meats, to the placing of contracts. [ H4 ] CTftE, TvAN-P . DIVIDED CT~HB WOGLkD, T1KITED roasting, ice cream and laundry plants, and a bakery are operated at Cristobal. From this point a supply train, partly composed of refrigerator cars, crosses the Isthmus each morning, stopping at the different stations along the line where ice, meats, and other perishable articles are delivered. These goods are then distributed to the houses of employes and to the mess halls and branch commissaries by the Quartermaster's Department. No cash sales are made, all payments being made by the employes in the form of coupons ranging in value from one cent to 25 cents from books issued ranging in value from $2.50 to $15. The same method of payment is used in the hotels. These books are obtained by the employes for cash at stated places, or are supplied by the time- keepers, and the amount deducted from the employes' salary at the end of the month. They are not transferable, and in order that the privilege will not be The Government hotel at Corozal, the first one erected by the Americans. These Govern- ment hotels are established in all of the Zone settlements. In them a white employe is served a bet- ter meal for 30 cents than he can usually procure for that price in this country. In one part of the dining room, employes are permitted to eat without their coats; in the other they must keep them on. abused, infractions of this rule is punishable by confiscation of the book and ten days' suspension for the first offense, and discharge for a second offense. Due to the fact that the commissaries are not run for a profit, except to cover in the cost of the various plants, improvements, etc., and to the fact that the Government buys in large quantities under favorable contracts, the con- sumers on the Isthmus have not felt the high cost of living to the extent of people elsewhere. This is especially true of beef, the price of which during 19 12 reached a point never before equalled in the United States. Witli but a few exceptions, the price of beef at the commissaries during this period was kept down to the previous price. During a single year, 0,453, 138 pounds of fresh f H5 1 The Commission laundry at Cristobal. It is equipped with up-to-date machinery and presents a busy appearance at all times. The Commission bakery at Cristobal. During a single year the bakery used 20,233 barrels of flour, producing 6,014,667 loaves of bread, 651,844 rolls and 114,134 pounds of cake. Each loaf of bread weighs 16 ounces and costs the consumer three cents. [ H6 ] CTKB J^AND DIVIDED c n^j&JWQJ3JyP> TTNJTED meat and 976,445 pounds of cured and pickled meats were brought to the Isthmus. By printing 333,658 pounds of a total of 427,683 pounds of butter bought, the commissary was able to save in the price and also present it for sale in a much better condition than when purchased in the United States already printed. The price of coffee was also saved by the commissary operating its own roasting plant. In this plant 341,780 pounds of green coffee, producing 280,909 pounds of roasted coffee have been turned out in a year. The ice plant, with a capacity of 100 tons a day, delivers ice for 40 cents a hundredweight, or 20 pounds of ice delivered at the employes' door for eight cents. Another instance of effective manufacture and distribution was the operation of the bakery which during a single year used 20,233 barrels of flour producing 6,014,- The principal street in Gorgona. This was one of the largest towns in the Canal Zone, but the buildings have all been removed as the waters of Gatun Lake will cover the original site. 667 loaves of bread, 6.51,844 rolls, and 114,134 pounds of cake. Each loaf of bread weighs 16 ounces and costs the consumer three cents. In addition, the bakery enables the employe to purchase strictly fresh bread, cakes and rolls which he would otherwise not be able to obtain. The Americans on the Zone are great ice cream eaters, for a total of 138,551 gallons valued at $110,993.68 were consumed in a single year. The ice cream which is sold for 25 cents a quart is as good as can be obtained, fresh milk and cream being imported from the United States, in refrigeration, for its manufacture. In the industrial and experimental laboratory maintained by the com- missary, extracts, talcum powder, soap, witch hazel, hydrogen peroxide, bay rum, tooth powder, and toilet preparations of various kinds are manufactured ami sold to the employes at a considerable saving in cost. The experimental [ H7 ] Tennis court, Ancon. Tennis is a favorite pastime and tournaments are held frequently. Opening game Athletic Park, Empire. The national game has held sway each dry season with at least one league made up of four or more clubs. Field meets are also held occasionally. There are several excellent bathing places on each side of the Isthmus. A large pavilion has recently been erected fronting the beach Pena Prieta, Panama Bay, to which the street cars run. Sea bathing is enjoyed at 'Xmas time the same as on the Fourth of July. I IS Jv\ND piVIDED G\-l\& WQEa^>-TIK?TgP department is maintained to insure the quality of all the goods sold in the stores. There are three classes of hotels and messes maintained where the labor force is fed, one for the white American employes where meals are served at 30 cents each, one in which Spanish laborers are served three meals for 40 cents, and one where negro laborers are served three meals for 27 cents. The food in all three cases is good and wholesome. The meals served in the American hotels, or mess halls, are substantial rather than dainty, but could hardly be duplicated in the United States for double the price charged. Although the laborers' messes serve wholesome food very cheaply, the greater part of the Spaniards prefer to eat at the little restaurants maintained near the construction camps by their fellow countrymen. The same has been true of the negroes IBiHlBBHHHB!l The residence section at Gatun. The three great twin locks near the Atlantic entrance of the Canal are located here. who had much rather live in the "bush" or in the cities of Panama and Colon where they are less restricted. During a single year the total number of meals served in the hotels was 2,075,335; the total number of rations served in European laborers' messes was 1,108,175 and the total number of rations served in the negro messes was 584,457. THE CANAL ZONE The Canal Zone does not come under the Constitution of the United States, but is governed by orders made by the President or the Secretary of AVar, and laws especially enacted by Congress. Its official seal bears the motto, "The Land Divided — The World United," and consists of a shield, showing in base a Spanish galleon of the fifteenth century under full sail coming head on between two high banks, all purpure, the sky yellow with the glow of sunset; A view of the town of Culebra from Mount Zion as it appeared several years ago. The buildings to the right along the edge of the Canal, have all been removed on account of the slides at this point. A group of four-family houses for American married employes, Empire. Large verandas are built on each side of the houses and all are screened. [ 120] CTHB Tv\ND DIVIDED GTT\E, ^ORIjD.JJ KITED in the chief are the colors of the arms of the United States. Under the shield is the motto. It was adopted in 1906 after a design of Tiffany & Co. Up to September 1, 1904, the six municipal districts in which the Canal Zone was divided were governed under the laws of Panama. On the latter date, the Canal Commission by law created five municipal districts, each with a mayor, municipal council, secretary, and treasurer. These five municipal districts were abolished April 1.5, 1907, and four administrative districts were created. On November 17, 1906, the Department of Sanitation was separated from the Government of the Canal Zone, and the latter then became the De- partment of Law and Government of the Canal Zone under Mr. Richard The Isthmian Canal Commission Chapel, Ancon. Nearly all the principal religious denomina- tions are represented in the Canal Zone, and there are upwards of 40 places of worship. The Commission employs several Chaplains. Reid Rodgers, General Counsel. This department was abolished on April 2, 1907, and the authority of the chief executive of the Canal Zone was vested in the Chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission. The Chairman, on May 9, 1907, delegated that authority to a member of the Commission, and the Presi- dent, by an Executive Order dated January 6, 1906, created the Department of Civil Administration. The work of the Department of Civil Administration, in addition to the diplomatic correspondence between the Commission and the Republic of Panama and the representatives of foreign governments in Panama, is par- titioned, as follows: Posts, customs and revenues; police and prisons; fire protection, schools and the office of the treasurer of the Canal Zone. The [ 1^1 ] School for white children at Empire. Twelve white and fifteen colored schools are main- tained. The white schools are in charge of women teachers from the United States; the colored schools are taught by male West Indians. A neon high school class, term of 1912-13. There are two high schools for advanced scholars. I 122 | Lg^IyMsi-P piVIDED GT1\& WORIjP> ttnjtep judicial branch includes a Supreme Court, three Circuit Courts, and four District Courts. Up to July 16, 1913, the Division of Public Works, which had in charge the maintenance of streets, roads, trails, water works and sewers in the Canal Zone and in the cities of Panama and Colon, and also the public markets in the Zone, was made a part of this department. On the latter date, it became merged with the newly created Division of Municipal Engineering, under the office of the Chief Engineer. THE POSTAL SERVICE The Division of Posts, Customs and Revenues, as its name implies, has charge of all post-offices in the Canal Zone, the customs service at the ports of Post Office at Ancon. Seventeen Post Offices handle the Canal Zone mail. Banks are established in all but one of them. Postal Savings Ancon and Cristobal, and the collection of taxes and license fees. It also looks after the administration of the estates of deceased and insane employes of the Commission and Panama Railroad Company. The postal service was inaugurated on June 24, 1904, under the super- vision of the Treasurer of the Zone, with Panama railroad station agents acting as postmasters in nine offices. There are now 20 offices in charge of regular postmasters appointed by the Director of Posts. From June 24, until July 17, 1904, Panama postage stamps (which were Colombian stamps surcharged "Panama"), having the words "Canal Zone" overprinted with a rubber stamp were used. The use of this rubber stamp kept stamp collectors on the lookout for mistakes in the surcharging which would tend to make the stamps valuable. On July 17, a supply of United States stamps, surcharged "('anal Zone," was put into use and, on Decembers, [ 123 ] CTHB TvAND . DIVIDED -^^TBJ^WOUJ^^ TTKITED 1904, these were replaced by the Panamanian stamp surcharged "Canal Zone," in use at the present time. Domestic rates of postage have always applied between the Canal Zone and the United States, and for this reason the postage stamps are purchased from Panama at 40 per cent of their face value Zone penitentiary. This was formerly located at Culebra, but was removed, along with many other buildings, on account of the slides. The offenders in the Canal Zone are kept busy build- ing roads. to make up the difference in the rates of the two countries, those in Panama being slightly higher. POSTAL SAVINGS BANK A POPULAR INSTITUTION A postal savings bank was authorized by Executive Order on September 8, 1911, and became effective on November 8, 1911. At the beginning of the fiscal year there were 2,402 open accounts with deposits aggregating $356,947. The depositors include citizens or subjects of 45 different nations and depen- dencies. The total amount of the deposits during this period was $1,601,616, and the total amount of withdrawals $1,312,873, an increase during the year of $288,743, which, together with the amount of deposits on July 1, 1912, of $356,947, shows a total savings deposit at the close of the fiscal year of $645,690, an approximate average of $203.11 for each of the 3,179 depositors. These accounts are practically held by employes of the Commission, the Panama Railroad Company, and the various contractors. In addition to the postal savings accounts, the money orders issued and drawn on Canal Zone post- offices payable to the remitter aggregated on June 30, 1913, $156,916.20, so that the total savings deposit during the fiscal year was really $802,606.20. In August, 1905, a registry system was established and, in June, 1906, a money order system was inaugurated. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 238,316 money orders were issued for a total of $4,883,624.13. The average amount of each order was $20.49. Of the total amount of orders sold, [ 124 ] q^FLE Tv\N-D , DIVIDED —cttke: WORyfi TIKITgg $3,917,899.30 was payable in the United States and foreign countries, and orders amounting to $965,724.83 were payable in the Canal Zone. Parcels post has not yet been introduced, and there are no letter carriers and, in these respects only, is the Canal Zone system behind the service in the United States. A count of the mail matter received and dispatched or handled in transit on the Canal Zone during the month of August, 1912, showed that 30 per cent of the total was official matter. ZONE CUSTOMS SERVICE The customs service of the Zone includes the entry and clearance of ships at the two ports, Ancon and Cristobal, the signing on and discharge of seamen, the enforcement of the Panama Chinese, Syrian and Turkish exclusion law. No customs duties are collected, as no goods are allowed to be imported at Ancon and Cristobal, except those necessary and convenient for the construction of the Canal and for the use of employes of the Commission, fuel for sale to vessels, and goods in transit. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 281 vessels entered the port of Ancon, representing a total tonnage of 553,767, and 283 vessels cleared with a total tonnage of 556,306. At Cristobal, 280 vessels entered representing a tonnage of 849,702, and 283 vessels cleared with a total tonnage of 858,703. << ,, 8 THE ZONE DRY Up to July 1, 1913, saloon licenses formed a large part of the internal revenues of the Zone. On that date the Canal Zone went "dry" in accordance with an order of the Commission, and 35 saloons went out of business. The A squad of Zone policemen. The officers and first class policemen are Americans, most of whom have seen service in the Spanish-American war. The ordinary policemen are West Indians. [ 125 ] Central fire station at Cristobal. Fire stations are maintained at all important points, their size and equipment depending on the amount of property to be protected. Canal Zone automobile fire engine. The department is equipped with two, one stationed at Cristobal, and the other at Ancon. r i26 1 CTHE TvANP DIVIDED CTVl^j WO^^J[JNJTED license fee was $1,200. On January 1, 1913, the distillation of liquor and the manufacture of rum upon which taxes had been levied was prohibited in the Canal Zone by Executive Order. The taxes now include a real estate rental tax, and miscellaneous license fees. Fines and costs also constitute a source of revenue. During the year, all leases for agricultural land and building lots not covered by revocable licenses were cancelled. As the depopulation of the Canal Zone has been carried on during the past year, the amount derived from license fees has naturally decreased. The total revenues for the year ending June 30, 1913, amounted to $283,846.31. All funds thus collected are expended for local purposes. The revenues received from the postal service are applied to the maintenance of that service, and other funds are used for the support of A typical pay day scene. Pay days occur once a month and the dates range from the first to the twelfth. White American employes are known as Gold Employes, and all others as Silver Employes. All are identified by the numbers on their metal checks. the public school system, and for the construction and maintenance of public works. KEEPING ORDER The Division of Police and Prisons was organized on June 2, 1904. Its work has been entirely successful and the Canal Zone in which representatives of nearly every nation live and are employed is remarkably free from crime. One thing which has helped to make it a moral community is the strict enforce- ment of the liquor laws and regulations, the prohibition of gambling, and public prostitution. All of these vices, however, exist in the neighboring cities of Colon and Panama, with one exception of gambling. In addition to the district jails, there is also maintained a penitentiary. Police stations are located in most of the Canal Zone villages and the force is made up of white ex-army and navy men and colored police officers who have seen service in the Jamaican constabulary. All convicts as well as district prisoners work on the public roads. The work performed by the convicts in the penitentiary nearly paid the cost of guarding, subsisting and clothing them. GUARDING AGAINST FIRES The Division of Fire Protection was organized in October, 1905, and on December 1, a fire chief was appointed. His work consisted in organizing [ 127 J CmB T^AN-P . DIVIDED CTHB WOI3JL>D,'TTXITED volunteer companies composed of Commission and Panama railroad employes. In November, 1906, the first paid company, composed of experienced firemen from the States, was established at Cristobal. The organization consists of 37 firemen in addition to a chief, assistant chief, six captains, six lieutenants, First United States Court held on the Canal Zone at Ancon. and 15 volunteer companies with a total membership of 252. The equipment includes two modern automobile fire engines, one stationed at Cristobal, and the other at Ancon. The department answers alarms in Panama and Colon when property belonging to the Panama railroad or to the United States Government is in danger, or upon the request of the Panama authorities. The Canal Zone has been remarkably free from fires, but a well organized fire system is necessary, as the Government and the Panama Railroad Company do not carry insurance on their property. The largest and most expensive fire in the Canal Zone was that when the storehouse at Mount Hope burned in 1907, with a total loss of $417,548.09. EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES The Zone public school system was organized in 1904, but no action was taken until December, 1905, when a census of children of school age, six years and over, was taken. The first school was opened at Corozal on June 2, 1906. There were 29 schools on June 30, 1913, fourteen for white children and 15 for colored children. The school year covers the period October 1 to June 30. A total of 1,369 white children and 1,580 colored children were enrolled in the schools at the close of the 1913 term. In the high school maintained for white pupils there were 93 students, seven of whom graduated. Children living in towns where there are no schools are provided with free railroad or wagon transportation to the nearest school town. At the close of the school year there [ 128 ] J>AN-D piVIDED CTTftE, WOB^JtJFJNJTED were 47 teachers employed in the schools for white children and 32 in the schools for colored children. These teachers received monthly salaries of either $90 or $110, according to their length of service. THE LAW DEPARTMENT The Department of Law of the Canal Commission has charge of all of its civil cases, as well as the government of the Canal Zone. It attends to the prosecution of all crimes and misdemeanors in the Supreme and Circuit Courts of the Zone, and its head and his assistants furnish opinions when called upon to the Chairman and Chief Engineer and the various departmental chiefs. Land matters of the Commission and the Panama railroad are under the juris- diction of the department, managed by a land agent, and in addition, the department head looks after the legal affairs of the railroad. Since the organi- zation of the Joint Land Commission, the department has represented the interests of the United States in the adjustment or claims. Judge Frank Feuille, who has held a number of important posts in the legal departments of Porto Rico, and who was connected with the Department of State and Justice in Cuba during the administration of the affairs of that island by Judge C. E. Magoon, is Counsel and Chief Attornev for the Commission and Panama railroad. His assistants are W. K. Jackson, Prosecuting Attorney, and C. R. Williams, Assistant Prosecuting Attorney. PAYING THE CANAL FORCE The Department of Disbursements has charge of the disbursements of all funds in connection with the Canal work on the Isthmus. Present Court House at Empire. The United States possesses all authority over the Canal Zone, policing the territory and holding complete judicial power. [ 129 ] lB TvAN-D DIVIDED cTTHB \jg)g^fi TTNJTED In 1904, when only the fluctuating Colombian silver currency was available for the payment of silver employes, it was customary to advertise for this money in such sums as were required. The bid which gave the best return was accepted. The premium paid varied from 117 on May 23, 1904, the date of the first sale, to 110 in August, 1904, and rose from then to 115 in January, 1905, the time the last sale was made under this plan. This made the old Colombian peso vary from $.4606 (expressed in United States values), to $.4755, it being worth $.464 at the time of the last sale. The requirements of the Dis- bursing Office at that time were much more limited than now, a total of $523,000 sufficing for expenditure from May 23, 1904, up to the time Panama money was introduced in March, 1905, an amount less than one-third of the total of one month's pay roll in 1913. During this period American employes exchanged a part of their gold for Colombian currency and paid their local obligations in that money, in that way netting a profit of about $7.50 gold on each $100 in gold exchanged. In other words he would get $215 silver for $100 in gold, and as local prices, board, etc., were based on silver, he was the gainer in the transac- tion. The situation was much simplified when the United States minted the money for the national currency of Panama, by fixing the value of the Panama peso at the ratio of two for one, but the profits on exchange were at once lost, for local prices immediately reverted to the gold basis, and employes who were formerly paying $50 silver for board, less the profit on exchange, then paid $25 gold flat. The gold payments were first made in United States paper, but this was found to be both expensive and inconvenient, for the reason that the local merchants and others shipped these bills out of the country as fast as they were brought in, as they made a cheap means of exchange. On May 1, 1905, an agreement, which had previously been made by the Secretary of War with bankers in Panama City, commonly spoken of as the "Bankers' Agreement," became effective. Under this arrangement, the Commission secured from four banking firms in Panama all the United States money necessary for the work on the Isthmus upon the payment of a premium of f of one per cent. This agree- ment expired by limitation on April 30, 1906, and was not renewed. Shipment of gold coin from the United States was then begun. On account of the export Offices of the Disbursing Officer, and of the Examiner of Accounts, Empire. [ 130 1 tax imposed by the Republic of Panama on coin, either gold or silver, this money could not be shipped out to advantage as was done in the case of bills. The bankers finally announced their willingness to receive disbursing officer's checks on the New York sub-treasury at par, in exchange for gold and silver, so 1 m * ■ ™ ''HE*, f ~;\ 11 ■ Mb Mil:, tig Wr * -',!„ T I ■•»- A Commission brake, used in carrying children to and from school. The Canal Commission lends every aid to the cause of education in the Canal Zone. When necessary to use the railroad, passes are given the pupils. that shipments of gold from the United States to the Isthmus grew less and less, and for a time ceased altogether. For a long time American employes were paid their salaries solely in gold, but with the increase in circulation of paper on the Isthmus due in part to the increase in tourist trade, and in part to the resump- tion of paper shipments from the United States, they are now frequently paid in bills. Silver employes were paid semi-monthly up to and including September, 1907, as they were unable to get credit from the Chinese merchants, from whom they made their purchases, for more than two weeks at a time. With the open- ing of the commissaries and laborers' kitchens, and the privilege accorded labor- ers of procuring commissary books and meal tickets to be charged against their time, the necessity for a double pay day each month ceased to exist, and since then there has been but one pay day monthly. Two pay offices are maintained, one at Ancon, and the other at Cristobal, and, in addition, a pay car visits all parts of the work each month. The pay day period ranges from the 1st to the U2th. At the outset some criticism developed over the lapse of time between the close of the month and the pay day for employes. This led to an investigation of practices in vogue in making payments by large employers of labor. The pay envelope method was found impracticable, likewise the signature pay roll method, although this system was tried for a month in 1905. The system [ 131 ] CTHE, TvANP piVIDED CTHE, WOB^g>--IINJTEP finally adopted and still in use, consists of certificates made out for each indi- vidual payment, duly checked and authenticated. This certificate when properly signed by the payee and witnessed by an employe who is bonded for that purpose, and presented by the payee on the pay car, or at one of the pay offices, is immediately paid the amount called for thereon. During the fiscai year ending June 30, 1913, a total of $20,524,705.75 was disbursed on the Isthmus for salaries and wages, $9,228,633.99 to gold employes of the Commission, and $11,296,071.76 to the silver employes, an average of $1,710,392.14 a month. Public bills and reimbursement vouchers paid on the Isthmus aggregated $9,035,630.18, making a grand total of $29,560,335.93 disbursed. During the same period, miscellaneous collections were deposited with the Treasurer of the United States at Washington to the amount of $3,940.- 102.82. The value of the hotel books issued by this department during the fiscal year 1912-13, was $1,305,405 in $4.80 and $15 denominations. The first disbursing officer was Lieut. Mark Brooke, who temporarily disbursed funds from an amount borrowed from the director general of the French Canal Company, as when the Americans took charge on May 4, 1904, there was not a cent with which to pay bills. He was succeeded by Paymaster Eugene C. Tobey of the United States Navy, who was later relieved by Pay- master George C. Schafer, also of the Navy. On November 23, 1905, Mr. Edward J. Williams was appointed to the position, and under him the present organization was largely perfected. Mr. Williams resigned on August 30, 1913, and was succeeded by Mr. James H. McLean. ACCOUNTS The Department of Examination of Accounts is charged with the handling of the general accounting, pay rolls, vouchers, coupon books and meal tickets, files and bonds, injury claims, contract laborers, time inspection, timekeeping, Canal Zone accounts, and inspection of accountable officers. The major portion of the funds of the Canal Zone are on deposit in Washington, with the exception of $100,000 deposited with a local bank, and on June 30, 1913, amounted to $2,168,339.62. Consideration of injury claims is one of the most important items of the department's work. A total of 7,270 claims for compen- sation for death or injury were handled from August 1, 1908 to June 30, 1913. Of the 1,850 cases disposed of during the last fiscal year (1912-13), 1,452 claims for injury, and 21 death claims, were granted. The total value of these claims, inclusive of grants made on account of meritorious sick leave, aggregated $224,071.72. The average duration of disability of cases for which injury compensation claims have been filed is 58 days, and the average estimated duration of cases in which meritorious sick leave has been granted is five days. During the period from August 1, 1908 to June 30, 1913, a total of $915,824.79 has been paid on account of injuries received by employes in course of employ- ment. NO GRAFT One of the first questions a visitor to the Isthmus asks is, "How much graft has there been ?" A good many are inclined to be skeptical when told that there have been no cases of graft on this job, and that -the would-be grafter has had but little opportunity to exercise his gift during the greater part of the canal period. It is to be supposed that the word is referred to in its larger sense [ 132 1 Balboa Hill is three hours' journey from Gorgona over a well-marked trail. From its top, a height of about 1,000 feet, both oceans may be seen on a clear day. The author is standing on The Trail which leads up the hill. 133 CTfiB TiANP . DIVIDED ^q^HB JW.QBfeg» IJNJTEP when it is said there has been no graft. There have been instances where silver foremen were charged with using their power of place by discharging some laborer who refused to give him money. In many of these cases, the charges proved to be unfounded, and, as it developed, were actuated by spite. There is no authenticated case, however, in the nearly ten years of canal work, where a case of graft with the hope of great gain in view, has been disclosed. The work is too open and above board. It would not be accurate to say that in the early days of the work, when there were no time inspectors on the job, or other safeguards imposed, there were no opportunities. But as far as the Commission employes then were concerned, they, for the greater part, regarded themselves as being placed on their honor, and the idea held. As the force was enlarged, it became more diversified in character and temperament, and elements were introduced that required watching, not for any big forms of graft, but for the milder forms, such as malingering, or more plainly speaking, loafing on the Government's time. Thus was ushered in the era of the "gumshoes," as the Commission time inspectors are generally known. The American visitor, however, when he alludes to graft refers to the pulling off of some big deal in which the Government has been "worked" to a frazzle. The Government, represented on the Isthmus by the Canal Com- mission, has never been successfully "worked," or have there been any big "rake-offs." Of course, there have been plenty of cases of plain thievery, and other forms of petty crime aimed at cheating or robbing the Government, but these have been dealt with by the law, and usually the offenders have been punished severely, for to steal from Uncle Sam is almost equivalent to murder in the second degree. Stories have been told, although the writer does not vouch for their authenticity, how some collectors on the Panama railroad during the beginning of canal construction made immense sums and were able to retire to a life of independence and ease, a state that their length of service and previous salary would scarcely warrant. The strings have been drawn much closer since then, and the opportunities for mulcting the railroad have grown beautifully less. As concerns the canal work, however, the amount of grafting has always been a negligible quantity, and this fact will forever be one of the biggest things about this big undertaking. [ 1^4 ] 1 1 HE idea of a lock and lake level canal was not a new one, for it was first suggested in the engineering congress convened in Paris in 1879, at which the French adopted the sea level plan. At this congress, Godin de Lepinay outlined the essential features of the canal as it is today, a lake level with a dam across the Chagres at Gatnn. Again, when it became evident in 1887 that the sea level canal could not be completed by the old French Canal Company, a temporary lock plan was adopted. When the United States took over the work in 1904 no plan had been determined upon. To decide this question, ex-President Roosevelt, under date of June 24, 1905, created an International Board of Consulting Engineers, consisting of 13 members as follows: Gen. George W. Davis, Chairman, Alfred Noble, one of the constructing engineers of the Soo canal; William Barclay Parsons, engineer of the New York underground system; William H. Burr, professor of engineering in Columbia college; Gen. Henry L. Abbott, army engineer, whose observations on the topography and characteristics of the canal territory were valuable; Frederic P. Stearns, hydraulic engineer of Boston; Joseph Ripley, at one time chief engineer of the Soo canal, and afterwards employed by the Isthmian Canal Commission as lock expert; Herman Schussler, Isham Ran- dolph of Chicago Drainage Canal fame; W. Henry Hunter, chief engineer of the Manchester ship canal, representing the British Government; Eugen Tincauzer, chief engineer of the canal at Kiel, representing the German Gov- ernment; Adolphe Guerard, civil engineer, representing the French Govern- ment; Edouard Quellennec, consulting engineer of the Suez Canal, and J. W. Welcker, engineer and constructor of the North Sea canal, representing the Holland Government. This board, on January 10, 1906, submitted two reports, a majority report, signed by eight members of whom five were the representatives of foreign governments, favoring a sea level canal, and a mi- nority report, signed by five members, all of whom were Americans, and in [ 135 ] r-. hf '/i ■w c a* ■w OJ ■- >• 1— 1 **- 3 ITi fl * d o « o> C H «£ a T3 +j u C 0) % x ♦J .J *- c M-* e o> c a o j- * H H a u c ■o C fl m Q, IB ox 41 ** > 01 « £ -l-l "+- fl CLl u *r -tf ■w 11 a o ID - 01 oo 3 a O ao 01 TJ 1- X 01 X fl 01 u -t- 1 X X X fl 01 •o % s 01 X m -a ^H O" c 01 <*- 9 a Oi o T3 0) E c 3 u J u x u o X fl X X 3 £ +-> 01 * c X . .-H ^ X E « it c fl 0) ■a C o> c 3 c i n E .2 c *+-! X % J* u x « ox C tr, u — o c 01 o i C > 0) o> fl "n «-» M-t H b c 4) 00 C t. fl 0* o> a 0) X h 3 X o> <** U 13 X o> > > '35 u og C u O > M C o X n 01 u 2 CA 01 o> a o 0) h bl) a> +H | 00 on E => ^ a t- o> ♦j r +- n X ^ J X OJ s 3 0) X 41 hn fl ds 0T3 >> fl 4l u > ■o 01 n o fl C n Ph > « [136 CTH& Jv\N-D piVIDED-^cn^F\B WOBIjR ITNJTED favor of a lock canal. These reports were submitted to the Isthmian Canal Commission for consideration and the latter made a report to the Secretary of War on February 5, 1906, in which all of its members with the exception of Civil Engineer Endicott, U. S. N., favored the lock plan. Mr. Stevens, at that time chief engineer, submitted a statement in favor of the lock plan, and the Secretary of War in his letter of transmittal of the reports to the President also favored it. On February 19, 1906, President Roosevelt submitted these various reports to Congress, together with a letter of recommendation in which he said: The hydraulic core, or water-tight portion of the Dam, together with the two outer walls, or toes. The toes are 1,200 feet apart at the base, and the space between is filled with an impervious mixture of sand and clay sucked up and pumped in by dredges from the old bed of the Chagres River. The toes were brought together at the top where they cap the fill. The entire Dam con- tains about 21,000,000 cubic yards of material, equally divided between dry and wet fill. The up- stream side is riprapped above the water level to minimize wave action. "A careful study of the reports seems to establish a strong probability that the following are the facts: The sea level canal would be slightly less exposed to damage in the event of war, the running expenses, apart from the heavy cost of interest on the amount employed to build it, would be less, and for small ships the time of transit would probably be less. On the other hand, the lock canal at a level of 80 feet, or thereabouts, would not cost much more than half as much to build and could be built in about half the time, while there would be very much less risk connected with building it, and for large ships the transit would be quicker; while, taking into account the interest on the amount saved in building, the actual cost of maintenance would be less. After being built it would be easier to enlarge the lock canal than the sea level canal. Moreover, [ 137 ] ^THB IiAN-P DIVIDED— ^THE, WORl^JfTNITED what has been actually demonstrated in making and operating the great lock canal, the Soo, a more important artery of traffic than the great sea level canal, the Suez, goes to support the opinion of the minority of the Consulting Board of Engineers and of the majority of the Isthmian Canal Commission as to the superior safety, feasibility, and desirability of building a lock canal at Panama." Congress on June 29, 1906, decided upon a lock canal at an elevation of 85 feet. That this was the best plan to pursue has been proved by experience with slides which added greatly to the estimated amount of excavation necessary under either plan. THE (ANAL A WATER BRIDGE The completed canal is virtually a water bridge over which ships will pass from ocean to ocean. There was no mating of the Atlantic with the Pacific when the dike at Gamboa was destroyed on Friday, October 10, 1913, and the waters of Gatun Lake were allowed to flow into Culebra Cut, for lake and Cut are, at the surface of the water, 85 feet above the level of the sea. From deep Early subsidence in Gatun Dam. This occurrence caused the sensational stories in the news- papers in the United States in 1908, to the effect that the Dam had sunk and that the foundation was unsuitable for such a massive structure. The completed Dam demonstrates that the state- ments were entirely unfounded, and that it is as effective a water barrier as the age-old hills upon which it abuts. water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific the Canal is about 50 miles long; from shore line to shore line it is about 40 miles long. It does not, as is quite generally thought, cross the Isthmus from east to west. Its general direction is from northwest to southeast, and the city of Panama at the Pacific entrance is about 22| miles southeast of Cristobal at the Atlantic entrance. Starting in the Atlantic, a vessel enters a sea level channel 500 feet wide to Gatun, a distance of seven miles, where it will be lifted by a flight of three locks, or immovable water elevators, having a combined lift of 85 feet, to the level of Gatun Lake. The lake proper to Bas Obispo, the beginning of Culebra Cut, the man-made pass through the continental divide, is about 24 miles long, and the channel through it varies from 1,000 to 500 feet in width, with a water depth [ 138 ] Experimental spillway at Gatun Dam. Like all other important features of the Canal work, experiments were made to ascertain the proper method of constructing the -work. Gatun spillway, looking from the lake. The spillway is a concrete lined opening, 1,200 feet long, 285 feet wide and is situated about midway of Gatun Dam. r 139 1 CTHE, Tv\NP DIVIDED— CTTHB WORL)D, TTNJTED from 85 to 45 feet. While in the lake a vessel may steam at full speed. The channel through Culebra Cut as far as Pedro Miguel, nine miles, narrows to 300 feet, the minimum bottom width of the Canal. At Pedro Miguel, the vessel is ready to begin the descent to the Pacific. There is a single lock here, which lowers the vessel 3()i feet to a small artificial body of water called Mira- flores Lake, which is about 1| miles long and 54§ feet above sea level. The final descent to sea level is made at Miraflores by a flight of two locks. The vessel has now passed over the bridge, and is ready to proceed through a sea level channel 81 miles to deep water in the Pacific. This channel, like the one on the Atlantic side, has a bottom width of 500 feet, but its depth is 45 feet at mean tide, instead of 41 feet. This difference in the depth of the two sea level approaches is due to the fact that it is necessary to partly counteract a maximum tidal oscillation in the Pacific of 21 feet; that in the Atlantic is but 2| feet; the mean sea level is the same in both oceans. THE DAM AT GATUN When plans for a sea level canal were under consideration, one of the hardest problems to solve was the diversion of the Chagres River. Now, Water from the lake flowing over the spillway, during the rainy season, before it was completed. The spillway will control the rise and fall of Gatun Lake. however, with a lock canal, the Chagres is the key to the situation. By placing a dam across the lower end of its valley, its water and that of its tributaries have been impounded to form Gatun Lake. The dam is, in reality, a low ridge of earth connecting the hills on either side of the valley, and looks as though it had been placed there by nature rather than by the efforts of man. It is 1| miles long, 105 feet above mean sea level, or 20 feet above the normal level of the lake, and tapers from nearly \ a mile wide at its base, to about 100 feet wide [ 140 ] o © T3T3 fi V M C . h « yJ3 £ a Si " C a o a y 95 — B y a C 01 o h y b "3 111 X » a> S >- BO., 2-^.e £? *> o £^ E ~ ^e -- y 95 « o .fi *_ Hm y j- « 5 £ u [141] Jv\N-D piVIDED ^T ^jE^J^ Q^yjD, TJNJTED at the top. It was constructed of material taken from the Canal amounting to about 21,000,000 cubic yards. The method of construction consisted in building up two parallel ridges or toes of earth riprapped with rock. Between these two ridges, suction dredges pumped sand and clay mixed with water from the bed of the Chagres river. As the water drained out of this interior fill, the clay mixture dried and hardened and formed an impervious core. In November, 1908, a portion of one of the rock toes sank into the silt and soft mud deposited in the bottom of the old French Canal Channel which passed through the site of the dam. This had been anticipated by the engin- eers on the Isthmus, but at the time it led to sensational stories in the news- papers in the United States, to the effect that the dam had sunk and that the The overflow from the spillway passing out through the old bed of the Chagres River into the Atlantic Ocean. With the lake at its maximum elevation of 87 feet, the regulating gates in the spillway will permit of the discharge of a greater volume of water than the known maximum discharge of the Chagres River during a flood. foundation was unsuitable for such a massive structure. To allay the fears aroused, President Roosevelt sent a special board of consulting engineers to the Isthmus to make an examination of the work in progress, and particularly of Gatun Dam. This engineering board, consisting of Frederic P. Stearns, Arthur P. Davis, Henry A. Allen, James D. Schuyler, Isham Randolph, John R. Freeman, and Allen Hazen, reported on February 16, 1909, that: "The design upon which work on the dam is now being prosecuted abundantly fulfills the required degree of stability and goes far beyond the limits of what would be regarded as sufficient and safe in any less important structure." It also recom- mended that the height of the dam as originally proposed be reduced 20 feet. [ 142 ] Miraf lores spillway, completed September 1, 1913. Lies between Miraf lores Locks and rising ground to the east, and forms Miraflores Lake. It also regulates the level of the lake. Hydroelectric station, Gatun spillway, under construction, showing location of penstocks. [ H3] CTFIB T^NNP DIVIDED- qTIB WOI^D, T1KITED The completed dam has demonstrated the fact that it is as effective a water barrier as the age-old hills upon which it abuts. GATUN SPILLWAY In order that the lake will not rise above 87 feet and reach the point where it would flow over the crest and endanger the dam, a spillway has been con- structed through a rock hill nearly in its center. This is a concrete-lined channel 1,200 feet long and 285 feet wide, 10 feet above sea level at the lake end and sloping to sea level at the foot. At the lake end a concrete dam has been built in the form of a crescent 808 feet long, closing the 285-foot channel. This dam is 69 feet above sea level, or 10 feet below the normal level of the lake, and at its top there are 13 concrete piers between which there are mounted 14 electrically operated gates to control the flow of water. The piers and the gates bring the height of the spillway dam to 115.5 feet above sea level, or 30.5 feet above the lake level. With these gates open the spillway will be able to discharge as high as 140,000 cubic feet of water per second, a larger amount than the maximum known discharge of the Chagres during a flood. GATUN LAKE The lake which covers an area of 163.38 square miles and contains about 183 billion cubic feet of water, saved excavating a 24-mile channel to the beginning of the cut through the continental divide at Bas Obispo. It also The penstocks at the new hydroelectric station at Gatun spillway, which, by furnishing the water to the turbines from Gatun Lake, will drive the machinery at all the locks. makes the Chagres River a most important factor in the success of the project, rather than a torrential stream that would otherwise be a menace to the Canal. The lake has a coast line of about 1,016 miles, and only about 90 square miles [ 144] View of Gatun Lake. The lake is formed by Gatun Dam, and receives the flow of the Chagres River, and several smaller streams. At its maximum height of 87 feet, it will inundate 167.4 square miles of territory, part of which lies in the Canal Zone, and part in the Republic of Panama. It will have a coast line of 1,016 miles, and will be the largest artificial body of water in the world. It covers a broad expanse from Gatun to Bas Obispo, thence is confined to the 300-foot channel in the Culebra Cut section to Pedro Miguel. During the dry season — December to May — the lake will remain about stationary, while in the rainy season, there will be a surplus. Thousands of acres of trees and jungle growth are being inundated by the rising waters of the lake. Floating islands in Gatun Lake. These are really masses of vegetation detached from the swamps by the rising waters and carried out by winds into the open water. Some of them cover half an acre in extent, and have given considerable trouble by obstructing the lock entrance. [ 145 ] CTKD Tv\N-D piVIDED -^~CTHE: WO^kB-IJNJTED of its total area is within the Canal Zone. In the rainy seasons the lake will be allowed to rise to 87 feet above sea level, and thus provide a surplus for the three or four months of the dry season when the run-off of water in the Chagres basin is low. Allowance has also been made for evaporation, seepage, leakage at the lock gates, and power consumption. With the lake at 87 feet there will be stored a little over five feet of water. That is, the lake could be lowered five feet without reducing the depth through Culebra Cut below that in the approach channel on the Atlantic side. Extensive studies over a period of many years of the rainfall and the amount of water that will flow into the lake from the Chagres River and its tributaries during the rainy seasons indicate that there will always be a sufficient supply for navigation of the Canal. The Chagres River rises in the mountains east of the Canal, is about 160 miles long, and drains a watershed 1,320 square miles in extent. Above Bas Obispo its rise is very rapid and, as it ascends, it flows through deep and narrow gorges causing a very rapid run-off of the rains, and the river has been known to rise a little over 25 feet in 24 hours. As it winds in and out of the hills in its upper reaches rapids become more numerous and difficult for the passage of the native cayucos or canoes, the only means of navigation. Going up the The spillway Gatun with the sluice gates closed. Locks and village of Gatun in the distance. river only the native boatmen, adept from long practice in poling their boats, can successfully negotiate the rapids. Above Alhajuela, the river is bordered by limestone cliffs into which the water has for ages been eating its way, forming caves and underground water courses. The towering cliffs are covered with a mass of vines and creepers wound about the trees, which have in some way found room for their roots, all covered with bright and vari-colored blossoms. [ H6 ] One of the bends in the upper Chagres River. The Chagres is the principal feeder of Gatun Lake. It rises in the mountains of interior Panama and drains 1,300 square miles of territory. During the dry season it is a quietly flowing stream, but in the rainy months it is subject to sud- den freshets, bringing down a great volume of water, which, during the year 1910, equaled one and one-half the volume of water that will be contained in Gatun Lake. To the right of this picture is shown a gauging station, one of three maintained on the river. Accurate records are kept of the river stages as well as of the rain fall. The Isthmus has two seasons; wet and dry. The greatest recorded rain fall on the Isthmus for 24 hours is 10.86 inches; for one hour 5.86 inches and for 3 minutes 2.46 inches. The small picture above shows the river during one of the floods. [ 147 ] Excavating for lock site, Gatun. kbk^^^^HH^^Mtoa.. ." •5- #Zm 3 "^wtfl 4* ■*■ ^■^' ill ■.^■"■■&er-S m ^ i. *• -.■ ----- •• f ' " ^ - - ^ Excavating for lock site, Pedro Miguel. Excavating for lock site, Miraflores. Millions of cubic yards of material had to be excavated before the locks were built. [ 148] CTHES Jv\NP DIVIDED C\-J\l^ WPEyfi TINJTED The swift moving river, the brilliant tropic foliage, and the towering cliffs, all tend to belie the Isthmian poet Gilbert's lines that: "Beyond the Chagres River 'Tis said (the story's old), Are paths that lead to mountains Of purest virgin gold; But 'tis my firm conviction, Whate'er the tales they tell, That beyond the Chagres River, All paths lead straight to hell." The Chagres has two principal branches, one (the larger), known as the Pequeni, rising in the San Bias mountains, very close to the Atlantic coast, and It was necessary to go 17 miles along the Atlantic coast to get the proper grade of rock for the concrete used in Gatun locks. Large rock for the Colon breakwater was also obtained here. This shows the rock quarry, crushing plant, and the American settlement established there on account of quarry operations. The crushed rock was loaded in barges and towed to Gatun. Sand for the concrete used at Gatun locks was obtained at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles along the coast from Colon, and was also towed to Gatun in barges. Porto Bello, signifying "Beautiful Port," is the best haven on the Atlantic Coast of Panama. the other the Indio River. Between Bas Obispo and Gatun, it has 26 branches, the largest of which are the Gatun and Trinidad rivers. In the dry season these tributaries may be regarded as negligible, but during the rainy months they, like the main river, become tropic torrents, with a volume not to be ignored. However, such floods or freshets, which are of frequent occurrence in the rainy season, would have but slight apparent effect on the lake, for it would take the greatest known flood of the Chagres nine hours to raise the level of the lake one foot. The smallest run-off of water in the basin during the past 22 years, as [ 149 ] B JyAND . DIVIDED ^^ Ta^^ yO^^B, UNJTED measured at Gatun, was that of the fiscal year 1912, which was about 132 billion cubic feet. In 1910, the run-off was 360 billion cubic feet, or a sufficient quantity to fill the lake one and a half times. The rainy season is from May to December, and during that time showers are of frequent occurrence. The average yearly rainfall on the Atlantic coast at Cristobal during 40 years of record, has been about 118 inches and at Porto Bello during four years' record, about 149 inches; at Culebra, during 20 years of record, about 83 inches, and at Ancon on the Pacific coast during a period of 13 years, about 66 inches. The maximum rainfall for 24 hours was 10.86 inches; for one hour .3.86 inches, and for three minutes, 2.46 inches. DAMS ON THE PACIFIC SIDE Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks occupy the ancient valley of the Rio Grande. Here it was necessary to construct two small earth dams, one on the The concrete operations at Gatun locks required modern handling machinery. These are the unloading cableways at Gatun docks. Rock and sand are picked up from the barges by clamshell buckets and conveyed to storage piles. west side of Pedro Miguel lock, about 1,700 feet long and 105 feet high at its crest; and the other, west of Miraflores locks, about 2,700 feet long, and 70 feet high at its crest. The Miraflores barrier consists of earth and rock toes, with an impervious core fill, and dams the Cocoli River, forming Cocoli Lake, now a part of Panama's water supply system. To the east, both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks approach close to the hills, so it was only necessary to join locks and hills by concrete walls. THE LOCKS Under the original plans, the flight of two locks at Miraflores was to have been located at Sosa Hill near the Pacific entrance. The change was made upon the recommendation of the Isthmian Canal Commission, approved on December 20, 1907, by the President, because suitable lock and dam founda- tions could not be found. In addition, the site at Miraflores is six miles [ 150 1 Sand bins and unloading cranes at Balboa. Sand for the concrete used in the Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was obtained from Punta Chame, about 25 miles along the Pacific coast from Balboa. It was towed to Balboa in barges, lifted into the bins by the unloading cranes and when needed was dumped from the bins into cars and hauled to the lock storage piles. Ancon rock crusher plant and quarry, between Panama City and Balboa, where the crushed rock was obtained for the concrete used in the Pacific locks. The side of the hill has been literally eaten away to secure the large amount of rock required. [ 151 ] A general view of the main concrete mixing plant at Gatun Locks, which houses a battery of eight 2-cubic yard mixers. Rock and sand were carried to the mixers by an electric railroad running underground to a point beneath the storage piles. The finished product was carried to the lock site by a surface electric railroad. A closer view of the same plant, which has produced as high as 3,434 cubic yards of concrete in a day of 12 hours, working 6-hour shifts. 1 52 CpKE; Jv\ND divided — q^\B wo^k^JTINJTED inland behind hills which will effectively protect them from the fire of a hostile fleet. The locks under the original plans were to have a usable length of 900 feet, width of 95 feet, and a depth over the gate sills of 41^ feet. These dimensions were increased on January 15, 1908, in compliance with the wishes of the Navy Department, to a usable length of 1,000 feet and a width of 110 feet in order to allow the passage of larger battleships at that time contemplated. The height of the lock walls is about the same as that of a six-story building. The largest of the present-day ships, the Imperator, 919 feet long, can be locked through the canal. However, most of the ships that will use the Isthmian trade route, or Eight of these cableways, four on each bank, were used to place the concrete in the lock walls. They consisted of steel towers, 85 feet high, operating on their own tracks, and supported cables, which carried the concrete buckets back and forth. that are likely to use it for many years to come, are less than 600 feet long. In fact, 95 per cent, of the vessels navigating the high seas are less than 600 feet long. For this reason, each lock is divided by intermediate gates into two chambers 400 and 600 feet long, respectively. This does not mean that the full length of 1,000 feet cannot be used if necessary, but with this division a saving in both water and time can be made in the locking of small ships. There are six double locks in the Canal, three flights of twin locks on each side of the Isthmus to lift ships from sea level to the lake level, and vice versa. They are made in pairs, in order that ships can be locked both up and down at the same time, and, in case of accident to one set, there will be no delay to traffic as the duplicate flight can be used. The usable dimensions of all are the same. Each lock is a concrete chamber with steel mitering gates at each end, and with the gates closed, ships are raised and lowered by simply admitting or withdraw- ing water. The side walls are 45 to 50 feet wide at the surface of the floor, [ 153 1 This view shows the dumping of concrete at Gatun Locks. Every move of the bucket is at the will of the man stationed in the cableway tower, who, in dumping, follows the signals of the man supervising the operation. As fast as the concrete is deposited, men, standing knee deep in the mixture, spread it out evenly. [ 154 CTHB JvANP . DIVIDED ~^ ^T^HEL^yOR^B, TIKITgD perpendicular to the face, and narrow from a point 24| feet above the floor until they are eight feet wide at the top. The center walls are 60 feet wide, approximately 81 feet high, and each face is vertical. In the six pairs of locks there have been placed approximately 4,500,000 cubic yards of concrete, re- quiring about the same number of barrels of cement. In the center wall of each set of locks, 42J feet above the floor, there is a space 19 feet wide at the bottom and 44 feet wide at the top in which there is a tunnel divided into three galleries. The lowest gallery is for drainage; the middle, for the wires for the electric current to operate the lock machinery Sunday scene on south approach wall at Gatun Locks. In order to finish a piece of work within a given time, it was frequently necessary to work the men the full seven days. installed in the center wall, and the upper is a passageway for the operators. To fill and empty the locks there are culverts extending the entire length of the center and side walls. These culverts are 18 feet in diameter and are large enough to permit the passage of a railroad train. From these large culverts there are several smaller culverts, 33 to 44 square feet in area, which extend laterally under the floor of the locks and open into them through wells. These smaller culverts would permit of the passage of a two-horse cart. The water is conveyed from the lake level through the large culverts, and thence through the small lateral culverts to the lock chamber, thus insuring an even distribution of the water over the entire area of the chamber. This reduces the disturbance when the lock is being filled or emptied, so that ships are lifted or lowered without undergoing any strain or violent pitching. The flow of water through the culverts is controlled by valves. The large culvert in the center wall com- municates with the chamber of each of the twin locks, so that water may be passed from one lock to the other of the pair, thereby effecting a saving. The average time required to fill and empty a lock is about 15 minutes, and the time f 155 1 3|M BMBF" ^^kr ■ «f. — jj^'cSnt'''d*iiT J! : . mr " \ \ 1 \\ 1 f i 'life^K ^ 'A ' z i \ XI $2& N The beginning of concrete work at Gatun Locks. Laying the floor and installing the lateral culverts. The circular holes in the floor are to admit the water to the locks, and to empty them. The floor varies in thickness from 13 to 20 feet of solid concrete, according to the character of material underlying it, and is anchored by steel rail to a depth of 10 feet. Installing the cylindrical valves for the control of the flow of water in and out of the locks. The water control system of the locks consists of rising stem or Stony gate valves, and cylindrical valves. The rising stem valves govern the flow of water in the side wall culverts, and the cylindrical valves govern the flow of water in the center wall culverts. [ 156 ] J>AM-D piVIDED cm& WORk>D> TTNJTEP of passage of a vessel through the entire canal ranges from 10 to 12 hours, according to the size of the ship, and the rate of speed at which it can travel. The lock gates are of the miter type, built of steel frame covered with steel plate, 65 feet long and from 47 to 82 feet high, according to their position in the locks. In all there are 41 gates of two leaves each. These gates weigh from 390 to 730 tons each, and, in order to reduce this weight as much as possible from the bearings and hinges upon which they swing, they are divided hori- zontally into two separate compartments. The lower compartment is water- tight, sufficiently buoyant to practically float in the water. The upper half, however, has an opening and, as the water rises in the chamber it flows into the upper half and adds sufficiently to the weight of the gate to offset the increased pressure of the water in the lock chamber. The machinery for opening and closing the gates, operated by electricity, was invented by Mr. Edward Schildhauer, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer of the canal commission. It consists of a large "bull" wheel, mounted in a horizontal position on the lock wall, to the rim of which is fastened a steel strut or arm ; this arm is also attached to the top of each gate leaf. The wheel rotates through an arc of 197 degrees, and closes or opens the gate leaf, according to the direction in which it is turned. This operation can be performed in two minutes, and it is similar to the action of a person who reaches out an arm to open or close a door. GUARDg AGAIwr ACCIDEXTS To guard against accident, the gates at the entrances to all the locks and at the lower end of the upper lock in each flight are placed in pairs, thus eliminating the chances of a ship ramming the gate which is holding back the water of the level above. These guard gates miter outward to give them added power to resist any blow which might be given to them. They are also available for use in case the gates proper become damaged, or for any reason cannot be operated. Steel forms in position for side and center wall construction. They are made of sheet steel, carried on movable towers and operated on tracks. Each tower and form weighs almost four and one-half million pounds. [ 157 1 CTHB TiANP piVIDED- gTHB WOgUD> TTKITED Ships will not be allowed to enter the locks under their own steam, but will be towed through by electric locomotives operating on the lock walls. A ship about to enter the locks will first come to a standstill alongside the approach walls where the towing locomotives, two on each wall, two forward and two aft, can attach their lines. Before the ship can enter a lock chamber it encounters a Method of constructing the 18-foot side wall culverts. Collapsible steel forms were used and after the concrete had set, were taken down in sections. fender chain which has been placed on the upstream side of all the gates of the upper locks, and in front of the guard gates at the lower end of each flight of locks, to prevent the gates from being rammed by a ship separated from the towing locomotives, or approaching the gates under its own steam. In opera- tion the chain is stretched across the lock chamber from the top of the opposing walls; when it is desired to allow a ship to pass, the chain is lowered into a groove in the lock floor, and is raised again after the ship passes. It is worked by a hydraulically operated system of cylinders, and is capable of bringing to a stop a 10,000-ton ship, running at four knots an hour, within 73 feet, which is less than the distance between the chain and the gate. In case these precautions to prevent accident to the gates fail, or in case it should be necessary to make repairs which would necessitate the shutting off of all water from the lake levels, an emergency dam of the movable type has been placed above each flight of locks. This dam is a steel truss bridge of the canti- lever type, pivoted on the side wall of the lock approach. When not in use it rests upon the side wall parallel to the channel. When required for use it is [ 158 J The handling equipment used at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was entirely different from that at Gatun. At Pedro Miguel, Berm cranes, containing the mixing machinery, were stationed at the head of the lock, with arms extending on either side, from which grab buckets were lowered to pick up sand and rock, as the case might be. The finished product was carried by these trains into the lock chambers. Many of the old French locomotives were repaired and used for this work. [ 159 ] The Chamber cranes, shown here, lifted the buckets of cement from the train and transported them to the point desired. The method of dumping by the Chamber cranes is very similar to that of the Gatun cableways, the operation being controlled by a man stationed in the cage on the trolley arm. These cranes operated on tracks, were self-propelling, and were used to advantage also in handling heavy pieces of lock machinery. Berm cranes at Miraflores Locks. With the completion of the heavy masonry work at Pedro Miguel, the cranes were moved to Miraflores Locks. The mixing cranes were slightly modified, and were stationed on the banks of the locks, instead of at the head, dumping directly into the side walls, while the chamber cranes were used solely for center wall construction. This method eliminated the necessity of concrete carrying trains to a large extent. [ 160 1 CTHE, TvANP. DIVIDED -^CTIFLE: WOBIjD) TTNJTEP swung across the channel, with its end resting on the center wall of the lock. A series of wicket girders hinged to it are then lowered with their ends resting in pockets embedded in the lock floor. The action of these girders might be compared to the dropping of the tines on a sulky rake, with the exception that the girders are hung on individual pivots. After these girders have been lowered into place, they afford runways for gates which are let down one at a time, closing the space between them. The first row of plates lowered close the channel to a height of 10 feet; another series of panels lowered brings this height to 20 feet, and so on until the channel is completely closed. With the main flow of water checked, the remainder, due to the clearance between the plates, is checked by driving steel pipes between the sides of the adjacent panels. When it is desired to gain access in the dry to the sills of these emergency dams, or to repair the lower guard gates of the locks, and the gates of the spillway dam, floating caisson gates of the molded ship type are available. When their use is required they are towed into position in the forebay of the upper lock, above the emergency dam, or between the piers of the spillway, and sunk. They are equip- ped with electric motor driven pumps for the purpose of pumping out the caissons and for unwatering the locks. The gates, fender chains, emergency dams, towing locomotives, and cul- vert valves are operated by electricity, and all but the towing locomotives will be controlled by operators stationed in a control house on the center wall from which all parts of the locks can be seen. These houses are equipped with a double control board duplicated to conform to the duplication in locks. It contains a representation, part model and part diagrammatic of the flight of locks controlled by the respective series of switches. As the operator throws the switches he can see before him, in model or diagram, the progress of the fender chains, the movement of the gates, the opening and closing of the gate This gives an idea of the height of a side wall of the locks, as compared -with a six-story building. The main operating culverts •will permit of the passage of a standard size locomotive and train of cars, while a team and wagon could travel through the lateral culverts. CROSS SECTION OF LOCK CHAMBERS AND WALLS OF LOCKS A — Passageway for operators. B — Gallery for electric wires. C — Drainage gallery. D — Culvert in center walls. E — These culverts run under the F — Walls opening from lateral lock floor and alternate with culverts into lock chamber, those from side walls. G — Culverts in sidewalls. H — Lateral culverts. [ 1G1 ] The upper picture shows the intakes in the walls where water is let in and out of the culverts. The center picture gives a view of Gatun locks under construction. In the lower picture the square concrete building in the distance is the control house from which all of the lock oper- ating machinery will be manipulated. I 162 ] CTHB Tv\ND piVIDED gTHK WOWl^J. UNITED valves, and the rise and fall of the water in the lock chambers. The system is interlocking so that certain motors can not be started in a certain direction until other motors are operated in a proper manner. HOW THE LOCKS WERE BUILT One of the most interesting sights to the canal visitor during the time construction work was in progress on the locks was the working of the concrete mixers and the cableways and cranes, now dismantled, which carried the ma- terial to the point where it was to be poured. At Gatun locks, where 2,043,763 cubic yards of concrete were placed, the assembling and the distribution of the material was done by means of industrial The first monolith completed at Gatun Locks early in 1910. These monoliths are huge blocks of concrete, which joined together, make a continuous wall almost a mile long. This is one of the outside walls, and the space has been filled in with earth and rock level with the top, where you now see the steps. [ 163 ] The upper picture shows a view looking north from Miraflores Locks. Pedro Miguel Lock in the distance, site of Miraflores Lake in between. Spillway to the right, temporary bridge for the gate contractors to the left of picture. The center picture shows a view looking south from the same lock, Ancon Hill in the distance. The lower picture presents a busy scene at the locks when the gates were under construction. [ 104 electric railways and overhead cableways. From the docks in Cristobal, the cement was carried in barges up the old French canal, which had been deepened for the purpose, to a cement storage dock at Gatun. Rock quarried and crushed at Porto Bello, about 17 miles east of Colon, and sand dredged at Nombre de Dios, about 35 miles east of Colon, was towed in barges to Gatun docks. This material was unloaded by overhead cableways, upon which grab buckets were hung, and carried to storage piles. The material was then assembled in the mixers by cars operated under the cement shed and under the sand and rock storage piles. Another electric railway carried the buckets of concrete to the bank above the lock sites. At this point the full buckets were lifted from the cars by cableways stretched across the lock site and lowered into the lock chamber where desired. There were eight of the cableways arranged in pairs, The lock walls as a whole give the visitor an idea of massive construction only. The arched sections, shown in the picture, connecting the main walls with the wing and guide walls, effect a saving in concrete and also give a symmetrical touch to the structures. each pair stretching from a steel tower 85 feet high to a similar tower on the opposite side of the locks, a distance of 800 feet. These towers were placed on trucks on which they could be moved along tracks parallel to the locks to the point desired. Besides the concrete, the cableways also handled heavy con- struction material, such as steel forms and lumber. Their capacity was six tons each, and the greatest lift 170 feet for a distance of 670 feet. For the locks at the Pacific end a distinctly different system was employed. Placement at Pedro Miguel was made by means of four cantilever cranes, two resting on tracks on the floor of each lock chamber, and two berm cranes equip- ped with two 2-cubic yard mixers in the upper forebay. Each of the chamber cranes was 95 feet high with cantilever arms, which extended to both sides from the center. Placement in the approach and wing walls was made by means of [ 165 ] nM 5 [IOC] MM C C "?3 — — gg O n 1) £ ' ta- « = t •"" a SB a y jy = c gg V '- u. u V s V 4) - a u *- -j •J ^3 X E s- _K u 9) u ■fl S — '- is W CU OB £ o K X E = "5 CJ u 75 11 .* a u 4» ox 4) jC u - — = C rs <■*- 60 » it g u g — J u CU 0> a X u ,_ c _ ■-*- j « m n 1* '— C £ OT3 M u 4» T3 X X = ei g cd n £ E ■■j 1)1 i/ X c 01 — U ■J c ^ „ G U 1) y u 4> a e — MM "J = ** ^ 2 = 'S, C c — u a -1 E in 3 u [167] CTKE, Tv\N-D DIVIDED GTftE, WORbD, TTHITESD derricks, which lifted the buckets from concrete trains which ran between the mixer and chamber cranes. When the heavy masonry work at Pedro Miguel was finished the chamber cranes were transferred to Miraflores, and operated in the same manner. The berm cranes were modified in order that they might be operated on the sides of the locks, instead of at the head. The crushed stone for the concrete of both Pedro Miguel and Miraflores locks was supplied by rail from a large quarry and crusher plant on the west side of Ancon hill near Panama. Sand was dredged at Punta Chame, on Pana- ma Bay, 23 miles west of Panama. It was hauled in barges to Balboa and there unloaded by special machinery and hauled by rail to the storage piles at the locks. MAKING THE DIRT FLY The work of excavation in the canal prism was divided into two classes, "wet" and "dry," that taken out by means of dredges, and that by steam shovels, respectively. The wet excavation, up to October 5, 1913, when water was admitted into Culebra Cut, was practically confined to the sea level Section of the north guide wall at Gatun Locks under construction. This was one of the most difficult pieces of masonry work in the whole job. The greater part of its length of 1,000 feet rests upon piles driven to solid rock. To the right is seen the east wing wall of the locks. approaches to the Canal, that at the Atlantic entrance seven miles to the locks at Gatun, and that at the Pacific entrance 8| miles to the locks at Miraflores. The largest part of the excavation, however, was accomplished by steam shovels in Culebra Cut prior to the letting in of the water of Gatun Lake and in the Chagres section. There remained on September 1, about 9,153,000 cubic yards of spoil in Culebra Cut, out of a total of 95,869,000 cubic yards. The total excavation, "wet" and "dry" for the entire canal, as originally estimated by the minority members of the Board of Consulting Engineers, was 103,795,000 cubic yards, in addition to the amount excavated by the French companies, [ 168 ] Entrance to Gatun Locks from the lake. Gatun Dam on the left and approach wall in the foreground. Approach walls 1,000 feet long, have been built at each end of all the locks, and as the name indicates, they serve as a guide to ships coming up the approach channel. Ships must come to a stop at these walls, until the locomotives which tow them through the locks make fast their lines. View of the upper gates at Miraflores Locks under construction. The first of these is com- pleted and partly swung open to full view giving an idea of their thickness. The gates are operated by electricity and may be opened or closed in one minute and 47 seconds. [ 169 ] LES J^AMD pIVIDED —CTVl& WORIjB>> TTKITED who accomplished 29,708,000 cubic yards useful under the present plans. This estimate has been increased several times on account of changes in the canal plans, to silting in the canal entrances and in the Chagres section, to slides in Culebra Cut, for the terminals at both entrances, and for the dry docks at Balboa. The last estimate made on July 1, 1913, places the grand total at 232,353,000 cubic yards, considerably more than double the amount originally estimated. When the canal is entirely completed, the excavated material would make a line of 63 pyramids, each equal in size to the Great Pyramid of Egypt. DREDGING Most of the work in the Atlantic entrance, about 53,167,000 cubic yards, was accomplished by two elevator dredges left by the French, and overhauled by the Americans, a dipper dredge of American make, and a sea-going 20-inch . jj wLh^s^f IB MSmt^Ka 1 mUF-M nHSB RBI Vrft 1 if > ' 111 1 ■ ™ ^L \ (1 * Q b « " ; ftit W? ! • 1 IE 1 i H m&: '. ' ' .1 I ' -ri. / T-sr ?^S^2!2 ^^^Said *- "" , ~, ^^^^^^^M W^P'-'* pTi ft|P : Completed sills from the lock gates. These sills, built of steel and concrete, form foundations on which the gates rest. suction dredge, also made in the United States. Where the channel ran inside the shore line two small hills were dug out by steam shovels to a depth of 41 feet, and the remainder then accomplished by the dredges. In the Pacific entrance about 61,489,000 cubic yards was accomplished by two elevator dredges of the Belgian type and two Scotch elevator dredges left by the French and overhauled by the Americans, a modern elevator dredge built in Scotland in 1911, and a sea-going 20-inch suction dredge. This latter dredge was floated into Culebra Cut in October, 1913, and is now at work taking out the remaining spoil in that section. In the Pacific entrance a large quantity of rock was encountered which was too hard for the dredges to handle. [ 170 1 The gates under construction at Pedro Miguel. The lock gates, 46 in number, two leaves to each gate, constitute one of the spectacular features of Canal construction. They are 7 feet thick, from 47 to 82 feet high, and each leaf or half gate weighs from 300 to 700 tons. They are built up of great horizontal girders weighing from 12 to 18 tons each, with vertical frame work in between, sheathed with steel plates on each side. Near view of the massive lock gates showing riveting gang on scaffold. The lower part of each gate is an air chamber, so that in using it, the gate is buoyed up by the surrounding water, reducing the weight on its hinges, and making it easier to move. To overcome the lifting effect when the lock chamber is full of water, the upper half has openings on the up-stream side which allows it to automatically fill or empty, thus equalizing the weight. [ 171 } gmg T^S^P . DiyiDEp^^g T^FiB WOD^D, TIKITED To break up this material, in addition to subaqueous blasting, a Lobnitz sub- aqueous rock breaker was used. CUTTING THROUGH THE DIVIDE The part of the canal on which the most work has been done, and which was the last to be completed, is Culebra Cut, the 9-mile section through the continental divide. Work has been nearly continuous in this section since the French started operations in 1882. It is also one of the most important and in- teresting portions of the Canal project on account of the deep cutting necessary, and the difficulties encountered on account of slides and the disposal of spoil. When the Americans took over the work in May, 1904, they found the French engaged in taking out just sufficient material to hold their concession. This Close view of completed gates at Gatun Locks. There are 46 gates in the locks which aggregate 58,000 tons in weight, and if placed end on end would make a tower about one and one-fifth miles high. The author was standing on the lock floor between the partly closed gates ■when this photograph was taken. they were doing with a few obsolete side excavators, served by small Decauville dump cars and Belgian engines. Work was continued with the equipment left by the French until it could be gradually replaced with modern steam shovels, cars and engines. The first steam shovel was placed in operation on November 11, 1904, and the last of the French excavators was discontinued on June 16, 1905. On August 1, 1905, there were 11 steam shovels at work, but they were greatly handicapped in their output as they were served by old French cars operated on lines which, as Chief Engineer Stevens said: "By the utmost stretch of the imagination could not be called railroad tracks." Work was practically stopped until proper prepa- rations could be made for handling the spoil and effecting an organization which would obtain the greatest possible results from the use of modern methods of This illustrates the size to which even the smaller features of gate construction attain, as well as the care taken in their manufacture. This steel yoke, made of vanadium, is used to connect the tops of the gates with the anchors in the walls. It weighs 14,000 pounds, and was subjected to a stress of 3,300,000 pounds before it broke. The operating mechanism of a lock gate. The Wheel is a bull wheel, which, in operating, turns through an arc, giving the connecting rod the movement of an arm in opening and shutting a door. It is 19 feet in diameter, and weighs over 35,000 pounds. [ 173 ] CTHE Tv\N-D . DIVIDED — ^THB WOELkD ^TNITED excavation. Tracks were properly laid, a proper transportation system in- augurated, and proper dumping places located before the work was resumed on a large scale in 1907. In that year 9,177,130 cubic yards were taken out, and from that time to when the maximum of 16,596,891 cubic yards was reached in 1911, there was a steady increase in the amount of material excavated as new Side view of emergency dam on east wall at Gatun Locks. In case an accident occurred to the gates, allowing a free passage of water from the 85-foot lake level, to the sea level, the dam would be swung across the lock chamber and a series of wicket girders hinged to it would be lowered with their ends resting in pockets in the lock floor. Steel gates would then be let down, one at a time, which would close the lock chamber and check the flow of water. equipment was installed. Trains of flat and dump cars, 20 to a train, drawn by 100-ton locomotives carried the spoil to be used in the dam at Gatun, the breakwater at the Pacific entrance, fills, or to dumps where it was merely wasted. As the Cut neared completion, the work became concentrated in a short section at Culebra where the deepest cutting, 272 feet, was necessary, and the number of steam shovels had to be gradually reduced. To prevent the flooding of the Cut, the canal channel was paralleled on each side from Gold Hill north to Bas Obispo, a distance of five miles, by small canals or diversions, which carried into the Chagres River the water from streams that otherwise would have flowed into the Cut and interrupted the work. To prevent the water in Gatun Lake from backing up into the cut the earthen dike which was blown up on October 10, 1913, was built. To the south of Gold Hill the water which would have flooded the Cut was carried off by the Rio Grande and an old French diversion channel. Rain water that collected in the Cut flowed north and south. At Gamboa, on the north, it was pumped through the dike, and at Pedro Miguel, to the south, it drained off through the lock wall culverts. All steam shovel work in the Cut was discontinued on September 1.5, and between that date, and October 5, 1913, when water was admitted, all equip- ment and other material, including over 36 miles of construction track, was removed. At that time there were about 30 steam shovels at work. The following table of material excavated in the Cut and for the whole canal, indi- cates the period of preparatory work, the time when the highest point of effi- [ 174 ] Section of lock wall showing the rack rail over which the towing locomotives travel. Towing locomotive in operation at Gatun Locks. These machines are designed to tow vessels through the locks. There will be two locomotives ahead towing, and two astern to retard the vessel's progress if required. In towing, they 'will not move faster than two miles an hour, but a second or return track, permits them to go back at greater speed. [ 175 ] CTHB Tv\NP DIVIDED — CTHB WO£jyD> TTKITED ciency was reached, and when the work became concentrated in the short section of Culebra Cut as the other sections neared completion: CULEBRA CUT. Year Cubic Yards 1904 243,472 1905 1,167,628 1906 2,702,991 1907 9,177,130 1908 13,912,453 1909 14,557,034 1910 15,398,599 1911 16,596,891 1912 15,028,413 1913 (to Sept. 10) 8,348,190 Totals .97,132,801 ENTIRE CANAL. Year Cubic Yards 1904 243,472 1905 1,799,227 1906 4,948,497 1907 15,765,290 1908 37,116,735 1909 35,096,166 1910 31,437,677 1911 31,603,899 1912 30,269,349 1913 (to Sept. 1) 20,937,718 209,218,030 Two makes of steam shovels were used in the excavation work, the Bucyrus and Marion, of 45, 66, 70, 90 and 105 tons, equipped with dippers ranging in capacity from If cubic yards to 5 cubic yards. In Culebra Cut, shovels with These models of Pedro Miguel Lock give a good idea of how ships will enter and pass through the locks. [ 176 ] >> a a a U c 3' 2 8 oS £H u.a J 4> u ~* Si.3 u u ga c « JJ 0) "O 9 c .ses 'i 3 O o> > o ■0 > « v. n , 4)^ oj >h 4> jfc >■ 09 a £ 4) ,d « d 4) oj 4) £ d-3 y .9 > ,!h % s o '3 .a U — r y •- y sl-2 §■3 I «^y cu CS X £2* in °|« V y — « y C *** 3 en -j 4> c u .2 y » >0* -5 y y y O » j* y "3 > — Id > -M « c o *J • « « «- « 2 rt y;-T3 ^T3 A ■ e 3 u St C y H-l 1) 0X5 c g y °-S OS > ja - « 0-2 y y « S3 » «^ is U-g a y J w S « — £ -i =. S— n •s ■£ k .- •a m^ « 4> * w u _ i< -cO« o> 5 w, -*-• ? 2-n « MS y > = CO, ^ S CTHE WOUkD> TTKITED 5-yard dippers were used almost entirely, and a shovel thus equipped averaged about 1,800 cubic yards per 8-hour day. A cubic yard of earth and rock weighs about 3,600 pounds, and represents about a two-horse cart load. The work done by the steam shovels would dig a canal 55 feet wide and 10 feet deep from Maine to Oregon. In transporting material to the dumping grounds three classes of cars were used — Lidgerwood flat cars with one high side with a capacity of 19 cubic yards, and Oliver and Western side dump cars, large and small, having a capacity of 17 and 10 cubic yards, respectively. To haul trains composed of 20 flat cars, 27 large dump cars, or 35 small dump cars, American locomotives were used. These trains would make an average of 1| trips daily to the dumps, an average distance one way of 11 miles. The average time consumed in unloading a train of flat cars at the dumps was from seven to 15 minutes. This Boat landing at Gatun. The structure on concrete piles to the right is a wharf where small boats that ply the lake may land their cargoes, when the lake is to its full height. was accomplished by the use of what was known as an unloading plow. The large dump cars were operated by compressed air from the locomotive, while the small dump cars were operated by hand, and the time consumed in unload- ing was from 6 to 55 minutes. The constant arrival of spoil trains on the dumping grounds made necessary a quick method of changing the construction tracks. This necessity led to the invention by W. G. Bierd, formerly superintendent of the Panama Railroad, of a track shifting machine. This machine consists of a boom, extending from a flat car out over the track in advance of the car, to which a block and tackle is attached by which the track is lifted from its bed. Another boom extending from the car at an angle with the main boom pulls the track to one side or the other. In this way track may be thrown nine feet from its original position in one operation. In addition to the unloading plow and the track shifter for the rapid hand- ling of spoil, there was also used a machine to spread the material on the dump [ 178 ] CTHB hAN-P piVIDED-^-CT ^jJE L J^ O^J^P ) _XJNJTED and keep them in a uniformly level condition. This spreader consists of a car on which has been placed a machine with steel wings, and it works exactly like an electric snow plow on the city streets in the United States, with the exception that the wings are operated with compressed air obtained from the locomotive which hauls the car over the dump. With a perfect organization, modern equipment, a well planned system of transportation, and the rapid disposal of the spoils on the dumps, the maximum possible output of the steam shovels was obtained and maintained, and many world records were made on the Isthmus in excavation work. ACROSS THE ISTHMUS IX A HYDROBIPLAXK Several attempts have been made during the past few years to cross the Isthmus in a heavier than air flying machine, but none were successful until April 27, 1913, when Robert G. Fowler, the aviator, accompanied by R. A. Duhem, photographer left the Pacific entrance to the Canal at 10 a. m., and arrived at Cristobal Point on the Atlantic side at 10:57 a. m. The route of the canal was followed closely, the aviator making a circle at Culebra, in order to obtain views of all parts of Culebra Cut. The highest altitude attained during the flight was 1,800 feet; the lowest height at which the machine flew was 400 feet. The President has since signed an Executive Order prohibiting further flights over the Canal, or to take photographs from a flying machine, without written authority of the Chief Executive of the Canal Zone. Robert G. Fowler's hydrobiplane passing over Culebra Cut. Empire suspension bridge in foreground. A rare picture. Crossing the Locks at Gatun on a bucket operated by the cableways. [ 179 ] CTH& T^AN-D . DIVIDED — crpHE: WORUD, JV. "On they struggled, ever onward, Blasting stone, and earth and men; Filling rivers with razed mountains; Filling graves with parts of men. Blood and bone are mixed with concrete, Sweat of brow and grime of toil Mark the rough-neck as he swelters, Weary 'mid the grease and oil. Weary flesh, nor fever's terrors Halt them as they onward go. Forward ! Forward ! Ever Forward ! Is the only cry they know." — John Hall. SEVENTY MILLION POUNDS OF DYNAMITE The greater part of the material excavated by the Americans in Culebra Cut before the dredges were introduced consisted of hard rock, and it was necessary to drill and blast it before it could be handled by the steam shovels. About 50,000,000 pounds, out of a total of about 70,000^000 pounds for the entire Canal was used. When it is considered that nearly three cubic yards of *-7*v< 1 '. rr'i , ';-'*v*x J* ■*fc- ^\ : The scene of a premature explosion of nearly 22,000 pounds of dynamite at Bas Obispo, December 12, 1908. About 50 men were injured and 26 were killed, among them being three Americans. Blasting operations are conducted with great care, and the heavy shots are usually fired off after the men have quit work for the day, although several of these premature ex- plosions have occurred. [ 180] Laborers loading well-drill holes with dynamite near Contractor's Hill. A small charge is first exploded, enlarging the hole at the bottom. Then the main charge, usually consisting of from 75 to 200 pounds is placed, and exploded by means of an electric light wire. A group of tripod drills at work. Churn drills are used also. All drills are operated by compressed air supplied through mains, and an average of 75 miles of drill holes is sunk each month. [ 181 1 CTHB Tv\ND DIVIDED crn& WOI5LkD> TTKITED Twelve of these magazines for storing dynamite are located at convenient points along the Canal. material are blasted for each pound of explosive used, the important part dyna- mite has played in canal construction can be readily seen. Blasting powder was not used to a great extent due to excessive moisture and water in the holes. In order to keep the steam shovels going at capacity, it was necessary to blast large areas at a time and as much as 26 tons of dynamite was used at one time. In the use of such large quantities of high explosive there have naturally been many serious accidents although extreme care was taken in the handling. The most serious accident oc- curred in the Cut at Bas Obispo on December 12, 1908, when there was a pre- mature explosion of nearly 22,000 pounds placed in 52 of the 53 holes it was in- tended to explode. The powder gang was working on the last hole when the entire charge for some un- known reason went off. The result was appalling. Twenty-six men were killed, among them being three Americans, and some 50 injured, many of them seriously. There had been a premature explosion of 26 tons a few months previous, May 22, 1908, in the Chagres section of the Canal, which is supposed to have been caused by lightning. There were few casualties, however, although there were many narrow escapes as several hundred men were in the immediate vicinity. The thing most dreaded by the steam shovel men, with the possible exception of a sudden slide of rock, was the chance of the shovel digging into a charge of dynamite which had failed to explode. An accident of this nature occurred in the Cut on October 8, 1908, with the result that five of the shovel crew were killed and several injured. A few days later another premature explosion of over 24,000 pounds in 154 holes caused the death of eight men. This latter accident was also attributed to the action of lightning upon the wires which, although con- nected with the holes, were not carry- ing any electric current at the time. To prevent such accidents as much as possible, many lectures and dis- cussions were held from time to time among the employes engaged in the handling, storage, etc., of explosives. Representatives of the Nemours-Du- Pont Powder Company, which sup- plied a large part of the blasting material, explained the making of dynamite, the right method of hand- ling, and its action under certain known conditions. As a result of these A giant blast in Culebra Cut. [ 182 ] CTHB TvANP DIVIDED q^E WOCLkD, TTKITED discussions, it was decided to use a high amperage current from an electric light plant in exploding charges of more than a dozen holes, instead of by the use of storage batteries. Under the latter method, with the holes wired in series, in- stead of in parallel, there was no certainty that all the holes had exploded after the current was turned on. In addition to the use of a strong current, the holes were placed closer together, in order that the detonation from a nearby hole would explode those which would otherwise have failed to go off. Stringent rules and regulations for the handling, storage and use of dynamite were also introduced and enforced to minimize the danger. But no rules or regulations could prevent all accidents without cooperation of the men engaged on the work. This impossibility was forcibly demonstrated in the case of a Spanish laborer who, becoming impatient at the slowness of a negro helper, started to knock the .cover off of a box of blasting caps with a machete. It is hardly necessary to say that he did not complete the work assigned to him. iflHHMpBHSUHB w/P* * In dredging operations, subaqueous or under water blasting is employed. Drill boats, like the one in the picture, sink the holes in connection with this work. In making the necessary holes for the charges, tripod and well drills, ob- taining their power from a compressed air main, were used. At one time there were as many as 377 of these drills at work in the Cut, and they were operated in batteries of from four to 12 drills. The usual depth of the hole drilled was about 27 feet, placed about 14 feet apart, and if all the drill holes necessary for the work were placed end to end, they would equal the length of the earth's diam- eter from pole to pole with 1,500 miles added. After the holes had been drilled they were widened at the bottom, or "sprung," by a small charge being exploded in them. After sufficient time had elapsed to allow the holes to cool, they were charged and wired. All blasting took place after the men had left the work for lunch or in the evening and at those times a naval engagement could be easily imagined by those living anywhere in the vicinity. At Porto Bello, where much powder was used in the quarrying of rock a series of blasts took place at one time when a British war vessel was passing close to the entrance of the harbor. Hearing what was thought to be the discharge of an Admiral's salute, the cruiser returned the supposed courtesy by dipping its flag. [ 183 ] In the Pacific entrance dynamite was employed in subaqueous blasting, two drill barges being used to make the necessary holes. In addition to break- ing up hard material for the dredges in this section, the use of dynamite under water kept many of those employed in the vicinity supplied with fresh fish for some time. Those whose employment necessitated their going out in boats considered themselves particularly fortunate. On one occasion, a private mess of Canal employes was kept supplied with fish as long as such a diet could be endured by its members. SLIDES ELOQUENT ARGUMENT AGAINST SEA LEVEL PROJECT The greatest difficulty in the excavation of Culebra Cut has been caused by slides which have from time to time precipitated great masses of earth and rock into the Canal prism burying steam shovels and dirt trains, tearing up dirt train tracks, and closing up the drainage ditch. There have been 22 slides and These have added Dreaks at different times covering from one to 75 acres Towing dynamite to the drill boat Teredo. about 25,000,000 cubic yards, or about one-quarter of the estimated total of excavation necessary in the Cut. The largest and most troublesome of these is the Cucaracha slide on the east bank of the Cut at Culebra, which started in 1887 when the French were at work. When the Americans started operations in 1905, this slide again became active and, as the Cut deepened at this point, it continued to develop. Gold Hill presents a solid rock face 482 feet above the Canal bottom between Cucaracha slide and a slide immediately north. These two slides have broken so far back that the slope on their outer edges is away from the Canal. This has led to the introduction of hydraulic monitors which are engaged in sluicing the material from the top of the slides into the valley in the rear of Gold Hill, in order to reduce the pressure from above. Another serious slide occurred on the west bank of the Canal at Culebra covering an area of 75 acres, and necessitating the removal of about 10,000,000 cubic yards of material. This slide made necessary the removal of many buildings of the village of Culebra which were situated near the edge of the Cut. There are two classes of slides. One, similar to Cucaracha, is caused by the slipping of clay and earth on a smooth sloping surface of a harder material. The other, commonly called a "break," similar to the one which involved the [ 1S4 ] CTHE, Tv\N-D . DIVIDED crn& WORLD, JTNITgD village at Culebra, is caused by the steepness of the slope and the great pressure of the superincumbent material upon the underlying layers of softer material. Besides sluicing, steam shovels excavated a great amount of material from* the tops to relieve the pressure, and the Cut was terraced to prevent a part of the material in the slides from going over into the Canal prism. Many schemes were proposed to prevent slides, one, the use of a cement gun to spray the sides of the Cut where the mass of stone became brittle and crumbled on exposure to the air, but, as Colonel Gaillard said in November, 1912: "The only successful method of treating the slides or breaks, once the material is in motion, is to dig A subaqueous blast in progress in the Pacific entrance to the Canal. As high as 10,000 pounds of dynamite are shot off in a single blast of this kind. it out and haul it away until the slide comes to rest upon reaching the angle of repose for the particular material then in motion." No difficulty is antici- pated with slides now that water has been let into the Cut as the back pressure of the water is expected to result in greater stability. What material remains in the slides in the prism will be handled by the dredges, which will continue their work until the "angle of repose" has been reached. The slides have caused an immense amount of extra excavation and many delays in the work, but they have demonstrated the fact that a sea level Canal requiring a Cut 80 feet deeper than it now is would be nearly impossible to accomplish. It is believed that the slides would have prevented the carrying out of a sea level project, except at an enormous expense. [ 185 ] 51 OLD FRENCH LADDER DREDGE *?S? — / The sea going suction dredge Culebra, shown above, with its sister vessel, the Caribbean, constitute the most expensive units in the Commission's dredging fleet. These vessels move up and down the channel, sucking up the mud and loose material, conveying it into their own hoppers. When the hoppers are filled, the vessels go out to sea and empty. The suction dredges were used to advantage in the fill at Gatun Dam. Several of the old French dredges were repaired and used by the Americans. [ 186 Suction dredge No. 82, removing silt from the channel north of Gamboa dike, was the first dredge put to work in the Gatun Lake section. This A dipper dredge at work in the Canal. The material is dumped into the barge along side the dredge, and when full the barge is towed out to sea and emptied. The Corozal, the newest and most modern ladder dredge in the Canal service. It is equipped with five yard buckets and can dig to 45 feet below mean sea level. [ 187 ] Part of Miraflores lock site and the Canal channel to the south of it were excavated hydraulically. This view shows one of the hydraulic pumps forcing the water through pipes, fitted with monitors, with a pressure of 130 pounds per square inch at the nozzle, which washes the material into pits or sumps. After the material has been loosened and washed into the sumps, centrifugal dredging pumps, shown here, force the material to the desired destination. Many acres have been reclaimed near Corozal by utilizing this excavated material. [ 188 ] ,- n m ^2* near' Cmpire^U ' > ~ * L- The upper picture shows a view of the Canal looking north from Paraiso bridge toward Gold Hill, showing work progressing in the Canal, August, 1908. The center picture is a view looking south from the same point, 1908, Ancon Hill in the distance. In the lower picture taken the same year, the Canal is shown near Empire. The suspension bridge near Empire may be seen in the distance. [ 189 '"'•ia tf B ' - "VIM! w ' Pj jW^flfi ssffl «i» i .V*-*- '"' m^j.-^ fc? — r »• Paraiso in the French days. This was the site of one of the locks in the 10-lock Canal scheme when the French were at work. On April 23, 1904, the United States made the memorable purchase at $40,000,000, and on May 4, 1904, the property was turned over to the Americans. Paraiso in the days of American occupancy, showing Ancon Hill in the distance. The cranes which are also visible, show the beginning of the work at Pedro Miguel Lock. The French had none of the big tools, up-to-date machinery, steam shovels, cranes, etc., but with the equipment which they had they took out 78,000,000 cubic yards of spoil, of which 30,000,000 cubic yards was useful to the Americans. [ 190] The Cut at Bas Obispo looking south June 30, 1910. The greater part of the excavating in this section had to be done through solid rock, and thousands of pounds of dynamite were used. It was in this section that the premature explosion occurred in 1908. Steam shovel 218 buried under fall of rock, west side of Canal, near Las Cascadas. This shovel was working on the bottom of the canal when destroyed, May 31, 1912. Several steam shovels have been destroyed in this manner and a number of men injured and killed. \ 191 1 A close view of the suspension bridge across the Canal near Empire. This bridge is used for vehicles and foot passengers, but will be taken down when the Canal is completed. There will be no bridge aross the Canal, except the pontoon bridge near Paraiso, which will be swung over against the east side of the Canal when not in use. Ninety-five ton steam shovel at work in Culebra Cut. One hundred steam shovels have been used in the Canal work. Culebra Cut is a term officially applied to that part of the Canal between Bas Obispo on the north and Pedro Miguel on the south, a distance of about nine miles. The width of the Cut is 300 feet at the bottom. [ 192 ] c . OS o - >>.e ■s o 3-g ~ > > a*- x o u " !S c l-S 4)' $ So U 4) ~S c « o u x > Q > « c ** «6 x o +* t. .2 i» o ™ « 4» D •A great many difficulties have been encountered and overcome in building the Canal. The greatest difficulty in the excavating, was due to slides and breaks, which closed the drainage ditches, upset the steam shovels, and covered the tracks. The water that was not carried off by the diversion channels, entered the Cut, necessitating pumping. f 193 ] The side of the Cut at Gold Hill, where the deepest cutting was done. When this photograph was taken the steam shovels had 30 feet further to go at this point. [ 194 ] ■ • + ■-•■•: ' vv / • •■J // vv 9 ' *-' ljjmuct ■'±^li& r ' , .■" ■ ■ ■ : /■■'■.- / J * A* a ■ *JyP5^ilHP^^ |£pr , s*. X « 41 a; « 3-5 •1 « 3 C v aS 3+5 4) 2 « u 'J V C -o U ti 4) a) « *- iv a « «j +- 3 „-£ — ► 4) I- in XI "3 U u « c 3 u XI "3 u [195] In the rainy season, two streams of considerable size originally crossed the route of the Canal in the Culebra Cut section, one of which was the Camacho River, now called the Camacho diversion. To prevent these streams from flooding the Cut, new channels were dug, paralleling the banks of the Canal, through which their flows were diverted. In this case it was necessary to dig a tunnel, which is shown above, to conduct the water through the hill. Culebra Cut looking south from Gold and Contractor's Hills taken at a time when the Cut was practically free of material brought in by Cucaracha slide. 1 96 Loaded work train crossing the high trestle over the Canal at Paraiso. This bridge, known as No. 57 l /z, is to be taken down as soon as the pontoon bridge a little above this point is constructed, as it obstructs navigation of the Canal. Section of Culebra Cut in the vicinity of Las Cascadas after completion. Various small slides have occurred all along the banks in this part of the Canal. [ 1^7 ] Completed section of Culebra Cut looking north from Cunette. Steam shovels are excavating in slide material. Bottom is to grade. Culebra Cut between Gold and Contractor's Hills after the removal of construction tracks. [ 198 ] Culebra Cut, south of Cucaracha slide, after the channel began to fill. Railroad crossing at Paraiso in the distance. ,-«*"V iA \&g£?' *^* v «aff. M^% Close view of high rock bank of Culebra Cut after the water was let in. The thin white line about midway up the bank to the right marks the ultimate water level. 199 General view of engine house and yard at Paraiso in 1906. This yard was dismantled several years ago, and yards were established at Pedro Miguel and Las Cascadas. Engine house and yard at Las Cascadas. A very busy scene was presented in the morning when a hundred or more of the engines were leaving the yard to begin their daily work of pulling dirt trains out of the Cut to the dumping grounds. [ 200 ] "3 5? oT aJ .a % c- 2 a « u 4> ir « 2 C a -C £ •5 u c +* mi; « !oS' 5 £« to 4> « « 4) 4> - Sj= 4> C &•>- 4> ■sjsa "« rt g'™ UxU ** 4> is 95 ^ I" o _■£ w 05 "O 4> o C C — s Z n 3 ^ *■" ^S 2 «u $« > e "> 4> - g a> so J3 E -Sfj £ | M| ■w O '■3 >.2<-S si 5S . u « 2 C a <" =5. § '" .2 a5i*"S ■°sS fc l S <*> c c > 2 I- « o 4> C ~ •o « - j: j: oU c u ~ S i- 2 IS 2 M< ~-2"5 £3 El e n - J- .* o' [ 201] Men shifting track. The old way before the track shifting machine was invented, and put into use. Revolving steam shovel. A few of these machines were used to advantage, but larger ones were used for the heavy work. Rock channeler at work. These machines were used in Pedro Miguel Lock, where the natural foundation was hard trap rock. They cut grooves into this rock to the required depth for the installation of the floor culverts, after which the material was blasted loose, the aim being not to disturb the rock between the culvert trenches. They were also used in the Canal near Bas Obispo where the excavation was through solid rock. [ 202 ] Locomotive cranes were a useful adjunct to the Canal work. This one is operating a clamshell bucket, so named from its resemblance to the bivalve. The American machine which moves mountains. One of the 100 steam shovels engaged in the Canal work, holding in its dipper a rock of many tons' weight. With the advent of these machines King Yardage became a household word in the Canal Zone. The American operators take a personal pride in their work, and the world's record for steam shovel excavation is said to be held on the Isthmus. [ 203 ] Excavated material is transported in several kinds of cars, one of which is the Western Dump Car, shown in the picture. In some of the cars, the body is held upright by a chain grip, which, when released, allows the body to tip, emptying the contents. Others are dumped by air. An unloading machine at work on a train of Lidgerwood flat cars. The unloader, actuated by steam from the locomotive, pulls the plow by a steel cable which coils around a drum. A man rides the plow, and signals the movements with a flag. [ 204 ] An earth spreader at work. After the cars have been unloaded, an earth spreader comes along and levels off the ground. In order to dispose of the material from the Cut, large dumps had to be established. The site of this one, known as Miraflores dump, was formerly a swamp, but it has now been built up to a height of more than 40 feet. A large amount of the excavated material was used in building the Dam at Gatun and the Naos Island breakwater on the Pacific side. The spoil from Culebra Cut has been carried all the way from five to twenty-four miles. [ 205 ] A loaded train of Lidgerwood flat cars coming out of the Cut at Pedro Miguel. During the latter part of the excavation, the Cut was at such a depth below the surrounding levels that long inclines had to be built, up which the dirt trains were pulled by two and three locomotives. Two wrecking cranes picking up a steam shovel. These machines range in capacity from 15 to 100 tons, and are kept under steam day and night, ready for any emergency in the transportation service. [ 20(5 ] Power stations are situated at various points along the Canal to furnish power to the electrically-operated machinery, as well as to light the Canal Zone settlements. The building shown in the picture is the Miraflores station which supplied power to the construction machinery at Pedro Miguel and Miraflores Locks. It is an oil-burning plant but can be converted to a steam plant at any time. Many of the industrial plants and all passenger locomotives are equipped with oil burners. The corral at Ancon. Corrals are located at all of the Zone settlements, and there are about 650 animals in the Canal service, including 377 mules. The majority of them were brought from the United States, and all hay and feed comes from the States. [ 207 ] The immense amount of machinery used on the Canal work required exceptionally complete repair facilities. This is the Gorgona shops, the largest on the Canal, where repairs 'were made to every kind of equipment, except steam shovels, from clocks to locomotives. These shops have been dismantled and moved as the waters of the Gatun Lake will cover this site. The permanent repair shops will be located at Balboa. Repair shops at Empire, showing the native village in the background. All major repairs to steam shovels were made at these shops. Steam shovels were inspected daily and the minor repairs were done in the field. 20S Many slides have developed during the latter part of the Canal work which have caused a great deal of damage and the excavation of much more material than was formerly estimated. This view shows a break on the west bank at Culebra which encroached on the village of Culebra to such an extent that it was necessary to move a large number of buildings, including the hotel and Y. M. C. A. Clubhouse. A break in the east bank of the Canal near Bas Obispo. This was caused by high water in the diversion channel, which broke through the separation wall, carrying into the Canal over 100,000 cubic yards of material, and flooding it for some distance. The disastrous effect on the railroad is clearly shown. f 209 1 This shows where the slides on either bank have encroached upon the prism of the Canal to such an extent as to almost effect a closure. Telling effects of the slide in the west bank at Culebra. Most of this has now been cleared away, and the danger of similar trouble at this point has largely passed, because of the method adopted of terracing the upper levels to relieve the weight on the banks. ■- o> JS -3 c M "3! o> ■o 3 -o 4);- .3^) .S5 K O o o ss C vi V (U >C 2ft V - <» 2 0) — t3 ca •S3 I? O ct) c a>° o e« « es 02 <*. £> "O C « .2-3 o y 3 0) O) X! 4> u « u « u 3 [211] Steam shovels working in the slide at Cucaracha. This slide showed evidence of activity as far back as 1887, when the French were at work on the Canal, and has been a source of trouble ever since. This graphically portrays the result of a slide which has nearly buried a steam shovel. Colonel Gaillard, the Division Engineer, in charge of operations in Culebra Cut said: "I know of no single thing that has done so much to complicate the engineering problems of our work or to hinder and curtail the yardage output as the slides." Colonel George W. Goethals, Chairman and Chief Engineer, said: "The only way to overcome the slides is by unremitting excavation." [ 212 J HE Panama Canal Act, which was signed by ex-President Taft on August 24, 1912, provides for the opening, maintenance, protection, and operation of the Canal, and the sanitation and government of the Canal Zone. Authority is invested in the President to carry out its provisions at such time as conditions warrant. While the law provides for the future of the Canal insofar as its needs are now apparent, it is probable that situations will eventually arise requiring its modification in some respects, but the main object, that of transferring the great enterprise from the construction to the operating stage will be attained. ACQUISITION OF PRIVATE LANDS Ex-President Taft, by Executive Order dated December 5, 1912, declared that all land and land under water within the limits of the Canal Zone were necessary for the construction, maintenance, operation, protection, and sanita- tion of the Panama Canal, and authorized Colonel Goethals to take possession of such land on behalf of the United States. In the hearings before the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals, prior to the passage, by the Senate, of the Act of August 24, 1912, Colonel Goethals went on record in favor of the de- population of the Canal Zone, and the acquisition of all private lands therein, as follows: Senator Bristow: "What would you do with the people you have got there (meaning Canal Zone), now ?" Colonel Goethals: "I would drive them all out of there." Senator Bristow: "Drive them off?" Colonel Goethals: "Yes, sir; the bulk of the people that are there now are incident to the Canal, and as the Canal work is completed I would return them to their native islands, or to Europe, wherever they came from originally." Senator Bristow: "Now, would you let this 10-mile strip grow up into jungle?" Colonel Goethals: "Yes, sir, it is the greatest safeguard the Canal can have." Senator Bristow: "You think that it would not be practicable for an enemy to secrete himself in the jungle and approach the vital parts of the Canal f 213 ] CTMB TvANP, DIVID ED q ~HB W QMiJ I j^ITED through the jungle more easily than through an inhabited country." Colonel Goethals: "I am assuming that the Canal is properly defended by the American troops, and that the necessary safeguards have been provided to prevent any such attack; under those conditions it would be impossible." Senator Bristow: ""Well, if that is impossible, then why should the in- habitants on the Zone be a menace ?" Colonel Goethals: "In that they can give information. They will clear the land and leave open spaces and enable larger forces to concentrate against us than is possible with the jungle." Article 6 of the Canal Treaty of February 26, 1904, provides that all damages caused to the owners of private lands or property of any kind shall be appraised and settled by a joint commission appointed by the Governments Joint Land Commission as organized on March 1, 1913. Left to right— Hon. Samuel Lewis, Dr. Roland P. Falkner, Mr. J. C. Luitwieler, Secretary (standing), Dr. Federico Boyd, Dr. Leo S. Rowe. of the United States and Panama, whose decisions as to such damages shall be final, and whose awards shall be paid solely by the United States. Under this provision there have been four different commissions, but the most important is the last to which was delegated the delicate task of adjudicating the remainder of the private lands in the Canal Zone in accordance with the Executive Order of December 5, 1912. The American members of this commission, Dr. Roland P. Falkner of Washington, D. C, and Dr. L. S. Rowe of the University of Pennsylvania, were appointed by ex-President Taft on January 24, 1913. The Panamanian members, appointed by President Porras of Panama, were Mr. Samuel Lewis, and Dr. Federico Boyd, both prominent in local affairs. The commission met on March 1, 1913, adopted rules of procedure, and began its hearings, which will probably not be concluded until some time in 1914. f 214 ] Visitors inspecting the work on the locks at Pedro Miguel. Thousands of tourists have visited the Canal during the last few years, including people in every walk of life from the States, as well as committees from almost every nation on the globe. 'Big Tree," a well-known landmark formerly on the banks of the Chagres River at Gorgona. Was dynamited in August, 1913, so as not to become an obstruction to navigation. [ 215 ] Tv\N-D . piVIDED -^CTTHE WQI^fe-ELIT KITED At the outset, the commission was confronted with the precedent estab- lished by former commissions, which did not recognize the rights of occupiers on lands, but dealt only with the owners. This position was abandoned by the present commission, which has made awards to the occupiers as well as to the owners. The awards appear to be uniformly satisfactory to claimants, although there has been some complaint of the delay in making settlement. Opinions have been handed down from time to time, and in the main have been favorable to the claimants. The rise of Gatun Lake made it necessary to take up the claims of private residents in that section first. This part of the work was practically completed in August, 1913, although payments of some of the awards have Jjeen held up, due to protests from the Counsel of the United States, who A group of East Indian laborers in the Canal service. Those sitting, are directly in front of an elbow in one of the great lock wall culverts. claimed that in these particular cases the commission acted without jurisdiction. The point at issue has been referred to the Attorney General of the United States for decision. It is impossible to arrive at a close estimate of the total amount to be award- ed in damages, but it may be as much as several million dollars in case all private land is purchased. The work of the commission also covers the adjudi- cation of land inundated by Gatun Lake outside the boundaries of the Canal Zone within the 100-foot contour line. Dr. Rowe resigned in September, 1913, to resume his work at the University of Pennsylvania. TOLLS In accordance with the power conferred upon him by the Canal Act of August 24, 1912, President Taft, on November 14, 1912, anticipating the [ 21G ] A sightseeing, or "rubber neck" train, which is taken over the Canal work three times each week. Every facility has been given tourists to view the operations. About 75,000 people have visited the Canal since January 1, 1910. Isthmian Elks taking a trip through the Canal April 20, 1913. Note the striking background. [ 217 ] cmB Tv\ND DIVIDED ^THB WORkD> TTKITED early opening of the Canal, proclaimed the following rates of tolls to be paid by vessels using it: 1. On merchant vessels carrying passengers or cargo, $1.20 per net vessel ton — each 100 cubic feet — of actual earning capacity. 2. On vessels in ballast, without passengers or cargo, 40 per cent, less than the rate of tolls for vessels with passengers or cargo. 3. Upon naval vessels, other than transports, colliers, hospital ships and supply ships, 50 cents per displacement ton. 4. Upon Army and Navy transports, colliers, hospital ships and supply ships, $1.20 per net ton, the vessels to be measured by the same rules as are employed in determining the net tonnage of merchant vessels. The provision exempting American vessels in the coastwise trade from the payment of tolls brought forth a protest from the British Government on the ground that it was a violation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, which provides " 'That the Canal shall be free and open to the vessels of commerce and of war of all nations on terms of entire equality, so that there shall be no discrimination against any nation in respect to the condition or charges of traffic." To many, the granting of free tolls to American ships in the coastwise trade would not seem to be discriminating against ships of foreign nations, which are not allowed by law to engage in that trade. Great Britian, however, points out that cargo intended for United States ports beyond the Canal, either from east or west, shipped on a foreign vessel, could be sent to its destination more cheaply, through the operation of this exemption, by landing it at a United States port before reaching the Canal, and then sending it on as coastwise traffic. Then, too, goods might be shipped from a port in the United States, either from east Showing group of Hindoos in khaki, puttees, and turbans, waiting to greet the visiting Shriners from the United States. [ 218 ] CTRB TyANP-> DIVIDED CTHB WOBfefi TJKITED or west, through the Canal, and then re-shipped to a foreign port. The British view, therefore, is that if it were possible to regulate the coastwise traffic so that cases similar to the above might be avoided; in other words, that only bona fide coastwise trade be benefited by the exemption, the objection would be removed. Procession of Nobles of Mystic Shrine after disembarking at Colon. A delegation of about 150 Shriners from the United States visited the Isthmus and on Sept. 1, 1913, initiated a class of 170 candidates in the locks at Miraflores. On March 5, 1914, President Wilson in a special message to congress de- manded the repeal of the objectionable clause and a bill for repeal was imme- diately introduced. After one of the hardest fought battles, noted for its lively and often acrimonious debates, the repeal act was finally passed on June 12, 1914, the text being as follows: Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America, in congress assembled, That the second sentence, jn section 5 of the act entitled, "An act to provide for the opening, maintenance, protec- tion and operation of the Panama Canal and the sanitation and government of the Canal zone," approved August 24, 1912, which reads as follows: "No tolls shall be levied upon vessels engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States," be and the same is hereby repealed. Sec. 2. That the third sentence of the third paragraph of said section of said act, be so amended as to read as follows: "When based upon net registered tonnage for ships of commerce, the tolls shall not exceed $1.25 per net regis- tered ton, nor be less than 75 cents per net registered ton, subject, however, to the provisions of article 19 of the convention between the United States and the republic of Panama, entered into November 18, 1903." Provided, That the passage of this act shall not be construed or held as a [219] gTHB hAN-D . DIVIDED — q-HE: ^\^I^^JUJ > jJTgD rj^*$ jj ^o^^^j . . .• . * } ' ' ' * jJ£i/ : . v"' '"'"- ••' v\ &2§k f i ^V' r *»•»' BKv BT ^nr" v ^*'wmT\ . •€ The Author at Slifer Park, Colon. waiver of any right the United States may have under the treaty with Great Britain, ratified February 21, 1902, or the treaty with the republic of Pan- ama, ratified February 26, 1904, or otherwise to discriminate in favor of its vessels by exempting the vessels of the United States or its citizens from the payment of tolls for passage through said Canal, or as in any way waiving, impairing or affecting any right of the United States under said treaty, or otherwise with respect to the sovereignty over or the ownership, control and management of said canal and the regulation of the conditions or charges of traffic through the same. (Approved June 15, 1914.) PROTECTING THE (ANAL One of the principal objections to Canal fortifications when Congress first took action was that the United States might be violating its treaties with Great Britain. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850 gave the United States the right to construct the Canal, but provided that the completed waterway should be M * 4 Mk H - -'J^m w$ -■ Xm ' "v-b! :, -i . .<< wEtkB--'^*/ ^sHb J*TR& •«..•■- »> W V Kr5wi/* * $*'"*' IfBI^V W&dm' WM- " V < KfiiiV y Wk£- «Sl*^* / !jK HsSvKlK'^^ilKi ■H^V'*--- mk^ : ^r^mg BaF^VI lA IBWr ; v :. K.1 &. Dm^^^wHRk^ Vo pH^OX^^^jH Bfl^cHHSw.* i x u 3MPM ^ hhIt^ IH'si rVRHfini ' ™w M mffUBuM. L llW^ 1 IT ' 1 ' ** 1' ' " r Tw" ■flr '^n[ ' I rTfllififf m IB "1 % III* ItTlF^f li PfTW gin up |W1 \itmy\ \ oyHf Fi WPSjJ ^S »H-/ i -•* *f" | Z • Cristobal Point looking out over the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. The building to the left is one of the old DeLesseps houses, now used for offices by the Canal Commission. [ 220 ] b Tv\np divided — crnn WQHJyp. ttnjted unfortified and forever remain neutral, free and open to vessels of commerce and of war of all nations on terms of equality. This treaty was abrogated in 1901 by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, now in force. This treaty also provides for the neutralization of the Canal, but no word is said as to fortifying it. The objection, if there was any, is no longer sustainable, inasmuch as Great Britain, the only nation that had any right to object, has acquiesced in the erection of forts. The other great powers have constantly recognized the right and necessity of the United States to fortify. Under the existing treaty it is necessary that the Canal be kept neutral and open on terms of equality to vessels of all nations. It has been contended that this could be accomplished much more effectively by means of an international treaty between the nations interested who would guarantee its safety in time of war as in time of peace. Such a treaty, backed by England's enormous naval power and her control of the Mediterranean and Red Seas, is the protection of the Suez Canal. A similar treaty might avail for the United States under conditions of universal peace, but universal peace has not yet been attained. Nations continue to go to war in spite of treaties, and, in the heat of conflict, frequently ignore all laws both of usage and humanity. Treaties are effective when there is power to enforce them. To maintain neutrality then, it is argued that the United States must have the power to do so, and in no better place can that power be exercised than in forts on the Canal. One of the greatest benefits the United States expects to get from the Canal is increased naval effectiveness. The Canal would naturally be the first place an enemy would endeavor to control, treaty or no treaty; and the other powers to a treaty, if there were any, would either stand aloof, or take sides in the international struggle which might result. The Canal is being built by Ameri- cans with American money and skill. If it is to remain to America, it must be protected; strength to resist is the best form of protection. To maintain neutrality is the first object of the fortifications; the second is to retain to the United States what has been accomplished by its citizens. Keeping the Canal neutral does not mean that the United States will be com- ■ x v v ■'% . 1 1 \ V f ■w / \ HH > *. I i.i 'k&k. Wall scaling contest between men of the U. S. Marine Corps and the Tenth Infantry, U. S. A. A Fourth of July event. [ 221 ] CTHE JiANP . DIVIDED — crHB WOUUP> TTXITED pelled to keep it open to a foe in pursuit of her own ships, or allow hostile ships to pass through on their way to blockade or bombard an American city. These questions have been settled to the extent that Congress has appropri- ated, up to June 23, 1913, a total of $10,676,950 for the protection of the Canal. The Government has already constructed two immense forts — one at each end of the Canal. On each of these forts is mounted one 16-inch gun — the .largest guns ever built in the world — and they were made in America. In addition there are 14-inch guns and a substantial battery of 12-inch howitzers. The 16- inch guns throw a shell weighing 2400 pounds a distance of 17 miles and will pierce any armor plate at a distance of over 11 miles. On the Pacific side the islands of Naos, Culebra, Perico, and Flamenco are being fortified and form one reservation, while, on the mainland at Balboa, a second reservation will be A military force has been maintained in the Canal Zone ever since American occupancy. This is Camp Elliott, which occupies a commanding site near Bas Obispo, the headquarters for the local detachment of the United States Marine Corps. established. On the Atlantic side there will be a fort on Margarita Point, about a mile north of Manzanillo Island, on which Colon is situated; another on Toro Point across the bay from Colon, and one on the mainland at Colon. In the neighborhood of the locks, those at Gatun, seven miles inland, and those at Miraflores and Pedro Miguel, inland nine and eleven miles, respectively, there will be located field defenses to provide against attack by landing forces. This work is being done under the direction of Lieut. George R. Goethals, the elder son of Col. George W. Goethals, the builder of the Canal. It is planned to keep on the Isthmus 12 companies of coast artillery, one battery of field artillery, four regiments of infantry, one squadron of cavalry, and one batallion of marines. The forts, and batteries comprising them, have been named, as follows: At the Pacific terminus — Fort Grant and Fort Amador, the first located on [ 222 ] ^TMB IvA£ED_„DIVIDED ^q^\E WPBfegJ 1 1JITED the group of islands in the bay, in honor of Gen. Ulysses S. - Grant, U. S. A., who died on July 23, 1885, and the second, located on the mainland at Balboa, in honor of Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, first president of the Republic of Panama, who died on May 2, 1909. At the Atlantic terminus — Fort Sherman, Fort Randolph, and Fort De Lesseps, the first, in honor of Gen. William T. Sherman, U. S. A., who died on February 14, 1881, the second, in honor of Maj. Gen. Geo. Wallace F.Randolph, U. S. A., who died September 9, 1910, and the third, in honor of Count Ferdi- nand de Lesseps, promoter of the Panama Canal, who died December 7, 1894. A street in the marine camp showing the barracks. Much work has been done by the men in beautifying the grounds, and this picture shows the result of their efforts. Fort Sherman will be located on Toro Point, Fort Randolph on Margarita Point, and Fort De Lesseps on the mainland at Colon. FORT GRANT .MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Newton, in honor of Maj. Gen. John Newton, U. S. Volunteers (Brigadier General, Chief of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died May 1, 1895. Battery Merritt, in honor of Maj. Gen. Wesley Merritt, U. S. A., who died December 3, 1910. Batten/ Carr, in honor of Brevt. Maj. Gen. Jos. Bradford Carr, (Brig. Gen. U. S. Vols.), who died Feb. 24, 1895. Battery Prince, in honor of Brig. Gen. Harry Prince, U. S. Vols. (Lieut. Col. U. S. A.), who died August 19, 1892. Battery Warren, in honor of Maj. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, U. S. Vols. (Lieutenant Colonel, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died August 8, 1882. [ 22:5 ] In 1911 the War Department decided to send a regiment of infantry to the Isthmus. This is their camp, known as Camp Otis, near Las Cascadas. m Camp life at Camp Otis. [ 224 ] CTHB TvAN-P .DIVIDED^crHB WPgfcj^T DOITED Battery Buell, in honor of Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell, U. S. Vols. (Colonel Assistant Adjutant General, U. S. A.), who died November 19, 1898. Battery Burnsidc, in honor of Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, U. S. Vols. (First Lieutenant, Third U. S. Artillery), who died September 13, 1881. Battery Parke, in honor of Maj. Gen. John G. Parke, U. S. Vols. (Colonel, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.), who died December 16, 1900. FORT AMADOR MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Smith, in honor of Maj. Gen. Charles F. Smith, U. S. Vols. (Colonel, Third U. S. Infantry), who died April 25, 1862. FORT SHERMAN MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Howard, in honor of Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard, U. S. A., who died October 26, 1909. Naos Island, one of the islands in Panama Bay belonging to the United States, which is being fortified. The island is connected to the mainland by a breakwater. Battery Baird, in honor of Brig. Gen. Absalom Baird, who died June 14, 1905. Battery Stanley, in honor of Maj. Gen. David S. Stanley, U. S. Vols. (Brigadier General, U. S. A.), who died March 13, 1902. Battery Mower, in honor of Maj. Gen. Joseph A. Mower, V. S. Vols. (Colonel, Twenty-fifth Infantry), who died January 6, 1870. Battery KUpatrick, in honor of Maj. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick, U. S. Vols. (Captain, First Artillery), who died December 2, 1881. FORT RANDOLPH MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Tidball, in honor of Brig. Gen. John C. Tidball, U. S. A., who died May 15, 1906. Battery Zalinski, in honor of Maj. Gen. Edward Lewis Zalinski, (5th U. S. Artillery), who died March 10, 1909. Battery Webb, in honor of Brevet Maj. Gen. Alexander S. Webb, U. S. A. (Lieutenant Colonel, 44th U. S. Infantry), who died February 12, 1911. [ 225 ] CTFIB UAN-P . DIVIDED -^ctthb W_O^P;J[IKITED Battery Weed, in honor of Brig. Gen. Stephen H. Weed, U. S. Volunteers (Captain, 5th U. S. Artillery), who was killed in action, July 2, 1863, at Gettys- burg, Pa. FORT DE LESSEPS MILITARY RESERVATION Battery Morgan, in honor of Brig. Gen. Charles H. Morgan, U. S. Volun- teers (Major, 4th Artillery), who died December 20, 1875. BREAKWATERS To protect Colon harbor from the violent northers which occasionally occur during the winter months, and which often made it unsafe for vessels to lie at anchor while they were in progress, and also to reduce to a minimum the amount of silt that may be washed into the Canal channel, a breakwater extending in a northeasterly direction from Toro Point has been built out into the bay. Including its shore connections it is 11,700 feet, or a little over two miles long. It is a trestle fill, and contains about 2,840,000 cubic yards Toro Point, at the Atlantic entrance to the Canal, which is being fortified. of rock. An embankment was first built up to within 15 feet of the surface of the water and the piles for the trestle were driven through this fill. From the trestle, which was double tracked for nearly its entire length, rock quarried at Toro Point and excavated from the Canal prism was dumped to form a core. This core was then armored with hard rock brought from the quarries at Porto Bello. The breakwater is 15 feet wide on the top, and is about 10 feet above mean sea level. It is proposed to build an east breakwater, about 7,000 feet long, on the opposite side of Limon Bay extending out from Coco Solo Point. On the Pacific side, a breakwater extends from Balboa to Naos Island, nearly parallel to the Canal channel, for a distance of about 17,000 feet, or a little more than three miles. Like the Toro Point breakwater, it is a trestle fill. It is practically a continuation of the Balboa dumps, and contains about 18,000,000 cubic yards of earth and rock taken from Culebra Cut. It varies from 20 to 40 [ 226 ] c c q-O §- 2 '5 I- - «n u y •w SO J; s n o « - V y .2 *- 0£_ ■S - a A 2 "2 u C 3 « (A — E <« m ~ •- — « ° v, « « s? u (» C •a 3 i/) ** V y v S B» •♦613 « 8 rt < X ^ -w U 3 <» "2 U = 3 w >• 8 1.? igc t; « o u _- M= «J C*" £ X 0- 33 « a V M « 4) .c-S c en __ .3 £ w c c j* ■£ « « §2 o-S 2c o anks, beacons have been placed, three al each angle; between [ 228 ] One of the lighting towers under con- Lighthouse at Toro Point which is main- struction. These towers will be equipped tained by the Panamanian Government, with powerful lights. [ 229 ] An avenue of lamp posts on Gatun Locks. Lighting tower in the distance. Close view of lighthouse on Gatun Locks. The Locks will be brilliantly lighted at night. The signal tower at Colon, by moonlight. [ 230 ] J^AN-D piVIDED ^CfflE WOB^fi TJNJTED these there are intermediate beacons in pairs, one on each side of the Canal. The beacons are also built of concrete. Throughout the Canal entrances, and Gatun and Miraflores Lakes, lighted buoys are placed about one mile apart to mark each side of the channel. At the Atlantic entrance there is a light and fog signal station at the end of the west breakwater, and there will be another lighthouse on the east breakwater when that is completed. Acetylene gas and electricity are used in all lights, the latter where the lights are conveniently accessible. The candlepower of the range lights will vary, according to the length of the range, from about 12,000 to 300,000 candle- power. The most powerful lights will be those marking the Atlantic and Pacific entrances, visible from 12 to 18 statute miles. Mr. W. F. Beyer, assis- The site of the proposed harbor and terminal works at Balboa. Here, immense shops, and a dry dock capable of accommodating any ship that can use the Canal locks will be built. The work on shops and harbor has been begun. tant engineer in the office of the Assistant Chief Engineer, is in charge of the work of the Lighthouse Subdivision. PORT FACILITIES The amount of traffic that will require terminal facilities after the opening of the Canal is problematical. The Canal Commission, however, has based its plans on a liberal estimate, and work is in progress on new docks at Cristobal and Balboa. The facilities at Cristobal consist of three new piers, Nos. 15, 16 and 17, with a total water frontage of 3,890 feet, in addition to 378 feet frontage at the head of the slip for small boats, and are of sufficient size to pro- vide berthage for five vessels of 10,000 tons each at one time. Dock 15, 420 feet long, is the smallest of the three, and is virtually an extension of Dock 11, built several years ago. Dock 16, 1,073 feet in length, parallels the water front [ 231 ] CTHE TiANP DIVIDED cm\& WOI^D, TTKITED at Cristobal, and is now used when the old wharves at Colon are crowded. Dock 17, 1,042 feet long, is the only one to have water frontage on both sides. Room has been left for two additional piers, but their construction will be deferred until the necessity therefor develops. All the docks are protected by a Dredges excavating in the Pacific Channel from Miraflores to the sea. mole or breakwater extending out from shore on the seaward side, marking the boundary line between Canal Zone and Panamanian waters. In Colon, the Panama railroad owns several old wharves, while the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has its own wharf which it plans to enlarge. In addition, there are Docks 13 and 14 on the French Canal, midway between Cristobal and Mount Hope, now used principally in unloading Canal supplies, and which will probably be continued in service. At Balboa, the piers for commercial use will be placed at right angles to the axis of the Canal, with their ends about 2,650 feet from the center of the 500-foot channel. They will be about 1,000 feet long and 200 feet wide, with 300-foot ■ 1^ j g|| n(g| -=*-• -JLk_ jA. k-X^-2sc ^L mt WEk-M ~^^KA^nni^sSbi fatft VCPPM 1 -.. i— Hint 1 "- .1^. ■■-»■■ V. * 2^ N •• I Excavation in the immediate foreground is for the new Balboa dry dock. Buildings under construction are the permanent shops. Beyond where the dredge is working will be the Balboa ship basin. [ 232 ] CTHB Jv\N-D , DIVIDED —^THB WQBfel^_II£iJTED slips between. The construction of one pier only will be undertaken at first, but room has been provided for four more. The old French steel wharf, 1,000 feet in length, and from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of berthing space in front of the permanent shops will be available when required. The superstructure of the piers at Cristobal and Balboa will consist of one- story steel sheds, having a clear height of 25 feet. They will cover the entire space, with the exception of about 18 feet along each side and the outer ends. The wharves adjacent to the repair shops at Balboa will not be provided with any sheds. The total enclosed floor space at the new Cristobal docks is about 218,700 square feet. The track arrangement consists of a track along each Handling cargo at Balboa. Balboa is a busy place and promises to be busier, as the perrranen k administration headquarters, dry docks, repair shops, coaling station, etc., will be located here. edge of the piers, and two depressed tracks through the center of the sheds, bringing the car floors level with the floors of the sheds. In view of the uncertainty as to the amount of freight that may be handled, it was decided to forego the installation of expensive cargo-handling machinery at the docks. At Cristobal, with a range of tide of scarcely a foot, freight requiring transfer can be handled by ships' booms, supplemented by blocks attached to elevated girders along the sides of the pier sheds. At Balboa, where the average range of tides is close to 13 feet, electric cranes will be used, in addition to a floating crane for heavy cargo. DRY DOCKS The main dry dock will be at Balboa, in accordance with the wish of the Navy Department. It will be able to accommodate any vessel that is able to [ 233 ] TTMITED pass through the Canal locks, with a usable length of 1,000 feet, an entrance width of 110 feet, and a depth over the keel blocks of 35 feet. The entrance will be closed by miter gates similar to those used on the locks. The dock will be served by a 40-ton traveling crane with a travel along both sides. For smaller vessels, an auxiliary dry dock will be provided, with a usable length of 350 feet, an entrance width of 71 feet, and a depth over the keel blocks of 13J feet. On the Atlantic side, the old French dry dock, which has a usable length of 300 feet, width of 50 feet, and a depth over the sill of 13 feet, will be continued in use. PERMANENT REPAIR SHOPS The permanent repair shops will be at Balboa, situated in the area between the dry dock and repair berth, and are designed to maintain the following Heavy repairs to the Canal marine equipment have been handled in this dry dock on the Atlantic side, and by shipways on the Pacific side at Balboa. A large dry dock is being built which will accommodate any vessel that may use the Canal. equipment: Lock, spillway, and power plant machinery; water and land equipment retained for the maintenance and operation of the Canal; rolling stock and equipment of the Panama railroad; mechanical apparatus connected with the coaling plants; fortifications; cold storage plant; wireless stations, etc.; making of repairs required by individuals and companies on the Isthmus; making of repairs required by commercial vessels, and making of such repairs as may be required by vessels of the United States Navy and vessels belonging to other governments. Work on the new shops was begun early in 1913, and will be completed about January 1, 1914. The transfer of the Gorgona shop [ 234 ] CTHB TvANP DIVIDED CT^E WOB&ILIL work and equipment to Balboa and other points, made necessary on account of the abandonment of the town of Gorgona consequent upon the rise in Gatun Lake, was effected and the old shops demolished during July and August, 1913. The new shop buildings are constructed of steel frames with roofs of heavy tile, made on the Isthmus. The sides and ends were left open for ventilation and light, protection from sun and rain being afforded by wide, overhanging eaves. All shop machinery will be electrically driven. Until future requirements are known, the marine shops at Mount Hope will be continued in service, and as Paraiso has been made dredging headquarters for the next few years, the old Floor of the new concrete lumber dock at Balboa. shop buildings at that point will be fitted up and used in making repairs to dredging equipment only. GOVERNMENT COAL AND FEEL OIL BUSINESS The main government coaling plant will be situated on the north end of an island, opposite Dock 11, at Cristobal, near the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. It will be from 1,700 to 2,000 feet in length, '300 feet wide, and will be capable of handling and storing 300,000 tons of coal. Subaqueous storage will be provided, as it has been determined that coal disintegrates less rapidly when under water than when lying exposed to the air. This plant will have railroad connection with the mainland by means of a bridge of the vertical lift type crossing the French Canal at a point between Cristobal and Mount Hope. The coaling plant on the Pacific side will be at Balboa, and will have a length of 500 feet, width of 340 feet, and water frontage of 1,300 feet. It will be capable of handling and storing 210,000 tons of coal, including 100,000 tons subaqueously. The coal-handling equipment for both plants was purchased in August, 1913, and at Cristobal consists of a system of unloading towers, stocking and re- claiming bridges, reloaders, and 10-ton automatic electric cars for conveying. [ 2.35 I AM-D piVIDED — CX-VlEj WOg^fi TTNJTESD opened. The health of one of the members of the Commission, Lieut.-Col. D. D. Gaillard became undermined in July, 1913, and he was obliged to return to the United States, at least temporarily. While no definite plans for the permanent organization have yet been announced, Colonel Goethals has stated in hearings before the Senate Committee on Interoceanic Canals that the esti- mated number of employes required for the operation of the Canal, exclusive of civil administration and sanitation, and of the military establishment, would be 2,500. The permanent organization of the Canal administration went into effect April 1, 1914; Col. George W. Goethals being appointed first governor. Colonel Goethals, as governor, will in connection with the operation of the Canal, have control and jurisdiction over the Canal Zone, and will perform all duties in connection with the civil government of the Zone, which is to be held, treated, and governed as an adjunct of the Canal. The law provides for one district court with two divisions, one including Balboa, and the other including Cristobal, each court to have jurisdiction in felony cases, and in all causes at equity, admiralty, and all cases at law involving sums exceeding $300. In addition to a district judge, there will be a marshal and district attorney, each holding office for four years. The Circuit Court of Appeals of the Fifth Circuit of the United States at New Orleans, will have jurisdiction in all appeal cases. The provision of the law requiring trial by jury has already been made operative by the President's Executive Order of July 4, 1913. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION The Darien naval radio station to be built at Caimito, a point in the Canal Zone about midway between Colon and Panama, will be one of the most power- New dock No. 16 at Colon under construction. Part of the Cristobal terminal system. [ 241 ] CTHB TvANP DIVIDED CTTLB WOgjyD> TTKITED ful in the world, and will establish direct communication between the Isthmus and Washington. In power it will be the same as the Government's station at Arlington, but in the size of its towers, it will exceed the latter. The sending and receiving radius will be nominally 3,000 miles, so that communication may be held direct with the Arlington station, instead of via Key West, as formerly. It will be able to send messages as far as Valdivia, Chile, 421 miles south of Valparaiso; to reach a vessel anywhere along the eastern coast of the United States, or midway between New York and Gibraltar; and to communicate with the island of St. Vincent, 500 miles west of Africa. There are three other wireless stations on the Isthmus, not including one at Bocas del Toro, main- tained by the United Fruit Company. These are at Porto Bello, Colon, and Balboa, and all are in charge of the Navy Department. One, or more, of these plants will probably be dismantled when the new high power station becomes available. In 1912, President Taft signed an Executive Order prohibiting the establishment of wireless stations on the Isthmus by other parties within the radius of 15 miles of any Government station. BEAUTIFYING THE CANAL The Panama Canal Act of August 24, 1912 contained the following pro- vision : "Before the completion of the Canal, the Commission of Fine Arts may make report to the President of their recommendation regarding the artistic character of the structures of the Canal, such report to be transmitted to Congress." In accordance with the above, the chairman of the commission, Mr. Along a country road. This picture vividly portrays the pretty scenery that greets the eye in traveling over some of the Canal Zone roads. [ 242 ] Jv\ND . DIVIDED — CT TBE: WPg^fi T INJTED Daniel C. French, sculptor, and the vice-chairman, Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted, landscape architect, spent a part of the month of February, 1913, on the Isthmus. Their report submitted to Congress on July 26, 1913, states in part: "The Canal itself, and all the structures connected with it impress one with A pretty scene in the outskirts of Culebra Village. a sense of their having been built with a view strictly to their utility. There is an entire absence of ornament and no evidence that the aesthetic has been considered, except in a few cases as a secondary consideration. Because of this very fact there is little to find fault with from the artist's point of view. The Canal, like the pyramids, or some imposing object in natural scenery, is impressive from its scale and simplicity and directness. One feels that any- thing done merely for the purpose of beautifying it would not only fail to ac- complish the purpose, but would be an impertinence. In such a work the most that the artist could hope to do would be to aid in selecting, as between alter- native forms of substantially equal value from the engineering point of view, those which are likely to prove most agreeable and appropriate in appearance." The report, however, made a number of suggestions calculated to improve the appearance at the Canal entrances, at the locks, in the permanent towns, and the marine and army reservations. It also strongly recommended that a memorial record of the building of the Canal be made in the form of an im- pressive inscription upon a great monumental surface on the east bank of Culebra Cut, at the point of deepest cutting, 492 feet. It favored a space 100 feet in height and somewhat more in width, severely simple in design, with lettering in Roman V-shaped letters large enough to be easily read by normal [ 243 ] T244] CTHB TiAN-P . DIVIDED —G\-l\& W^R^-IINJTED eyes across the Canal, and that the material should be concrete applied as a massive facing to the irregularly fractured trap rock of the cliff. It also suggested marking the highest point of Canal excavation on Gold Hill, immedi- ately over the proposed inscription with some form of monument. The Southern Commercial Congress made formal application of the Secretary of War, in October, 1913, for permission to place at some prominent Model showing the Atlantic entrance to the Canal and the docks at Cristobal, as they will appear when completed. point along the Canal a bronze tablet, four by six feet in size, carrying a medal- lion life size bust of the late Senator John T. Morgan of Alabama, and legend reciting his relations to the Canal idea. Permission was accorded, and the tablet was placed near the north end of Culebra Cut in November, 1913. PERMANENT ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, BALBOA The permanent Administration Building of the Canal Zone now undei construction in accordance with the design made by Austin W. Lord of New York City, formerly architect to the Commission, and Mario J. Schia- voni, former assistant architect, Culbera, under whose direction the entire plans, elevations, details, and specifications have been developed, is the result of many efforts to obtain a building suitable to the requirements as stipulated by the Chairman, and the very important requirements in providing protection against sun and rain. The architecture of Italian renaissance design, with a square column colonnade, and a second-story balcony treatment around the three exterior elevations of the building and surmounted by a somber red tile roof, will present a character very much to be desired in this climate; viz.: wide projecting eaves and deep recessed colonnades, affording excellent protection against sun and rain. [ 245 ] CTHB TvAN-D DIVIDED GTTW WO^D, T UNITED The court side, facing northeast, enclosed by the two side wings, will have plain wall surfaces, treated with pilasters and window openings of same pro- portions as on the exterior elevations, and a central wing housing the main stair motive and porte cochere entrance, the entire plan having the form of the letter E with the first floor situated 100 feet above sea level. The office areas are to be treated in a very simple manner with the walls and ceilings treated in white plaster, the floors in yellow pine, and mahogany for all woodwork. The rotunda motive, the focal point of interest, entered from both front and rear elevations, and situated between the front entrance and the main stair hall, facing the court, will be treated in a very dignified but somber renaissance style with a coffered dome, surmounting decorative paintings illustrating the various periods of canal construction in a continuous frieze and in four large panels. The rotunda will be illuminated by a dome light under a skylight, thereby producing on a minor scale the Pantheon at Rome. The walls, floor, and staircases, will be treated in a simple marble and Caen stone treatment in harmony with the balance of the work. The building will have an area of 60,000 square feet of clear office space for the three floors, plus the required areas for the rotunda motive, halls, stair- cases, toilets, exterior colonnades, and balconies. The basement, with an area of 32,000 square feet, will be used as a vault for the filing of records, maps, archives, etc. The total floor area in the building taken at grade will amount to 37,772 square feet, and the total (mean) cubic content of the entire building, 2,153,000 cubic feet. A very flexible system of electric lighting, telephone, and buzzer system has been provided for, including the permanent telephone exchange, which will be located on the third floor in one of the rear wings. Every convenience of reasonable necessity has been provided for in this building, such as fire protection, vacuum system, etc., thereby setting an example for future buildings by making this the most extensive and up-to-date steel frame and hollow concrete tile block structure that is being built on the Isthmus as a keynote for future work. COST OF THE CANAL The estimate of October, 1908, placed the cost of the Canal at $375,201,000 divided, as follows: Construction and engineering, $297,766,000; sanitation, $20,053,000; civil administration, $7,382,000; paid to the New French Canal Company, $40,000,000; paid to the Republic of Panama, $10,000,000. The appropriations made by Congress to date aggregate $338,828,273.14 for the Canal work, and $10,767,950 for fortifications. The actual expenditures to June 30, 1913 were as follows: Construction and engineering, $185,316,- 095.75; sanitation, $16,250,164.93; civil administration, $6,393,308.73; law, $44,982.27; general items, $87,866,903.70; fortifications, $3,114,357.52. Total $298,985,812.90. Since 1908, the force has increased so much in efficiency, with a corresponding decrease in unit costs, that it seems probable that $360,- 000,000 will cover not only the cost of the Canal work, but of the fortifications as well. [ 246] fUlDRE @NAL"^™ HE volume of traffic that will pass through the Panama Canal after it has been thrown open to commerce of the world is largely a matter of speculation. The importance of the new waterway from a military standpoint is easily recognizable, and in the minds of American Army and Navy experts, the probable fact that the efficiency of Uncle Sam's Navy will be about doubled, alone warrants the enormous cost which the project has entailed. In commercial circles, however, the question of the hour is "Can the Canal be made to pay ?" To ascertain the probable amount of tonnage that will use the Canal during the next few years, the United States Government, on September 1, 1911, engaged the services of the highest American authority in this line, Dr. Emory R. Johnson, professor of transportation and commerce in the University of Pennsylvania. • As special commissioner on traffic and tolls, Dr. Johnson has made an exhaustive investigation of the subject from all points of view, the results of which have been incorporated in a printed volume of 500 pages. His conclusions may be briefly summed up, as follows: "The shipping using the Panama Canal annually during the first year or two of its operation, that is, in 1915 and 1916, will amount to about 10,500,000 tons. At the end of 10 years, the tonnage will doubtless have reached 17,- 000,000 tons. The prospect is, therefore, that the Panama Canal will start with less than half the tonnage which will then be making use of the Suez Canal. Moreover, it will be a long time before the Panama Canal catches up with the Suez waterway in volume of traffic. Should the Suez tonnage continue to increase at the present rate, the volume of shipping served by the Suez route in 1925 will be double that passing through the Panama Canal. It is hardly probable that the Suez tonnage will increase at its present high rate, while it may well happen that the stimulating effect of the Panama Canal upon industry and trade has been underestimated. Eventually, at the end of two or three decades, let us say, the traffic at Panama may equal or exceed that at Suez." [ 247 1 [248} CTFIB Tv\NP . DIVIDED -^gTHB WOI3LkD> TTKITED Dr. Johnson gave publicity to the above forecast in 1912, and his frank admission that his figures may be underestimated indicates that it is not in the power of man to closely foretell the volume of traffic the Canal will attract. It is only within the past twelvemonth that steamship companies, and firms engaged in the wholesale coal and fuel oil trade, have awakened to the possi- bilities evoked by the Canal. If reports that are constantly noted in the daily press are true, nearly every company engaged in ocean transportation in this part of the world is perfecting plans for building additional ships in anticipation of the increased business the Canal will create. Since fuel oil and coal-handling facilities at the Canal termini were planned, and the policy of the Government in respect to the sale of these two commodities by individuals and companies, The tourist steamer Evangeline, the first vessel to dock at Pier 16, Cristobal, January, 1913. on the Isthmus, was outlined, there has been an unexpected amount of interest shown in this feature by firms in the United States and Europe. Applications for coal storage space had, prior to the awarding of the coal-handling ma- chinery, been so much greater than anticipated, that enlargements of the pro- posed layout in some of its essentials became imperative. Close observers of the trend of the times say that Dr. Johnson's figures are sufficiently conserva- tive. Latin-America, particularly the west coast of South America, is con- fidently counted on to contribute largely to the tonnage of the Canal. Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador, all originate a large freight traffic. The nitrate fields of Northern Chile yield an annual product of more than 2,500,000 tons, four-fifths of which goes to Europe, and the remainder to the United States; copper shipments from Peru and Bolivia are increasing annually in importance with the opening of additional mines and the construction of railroads. Rail- [ 249 ] Q o si rt s c « AM-D piVIDED gTHB WOELkD, TTNJTED road building in those countries, south of the Equator, has enjoyed a tre- mendous expansion in the last few years. Argentina has been brought in touch with Valparaiso by the Andean tunnel, and the products of the western part of that republic will, in all probability, be shipped through the Canal. The port of Valparaiso, which was almost destroyed by an earthquake in 1906, has fully recovered from its effects, and has contracted for port works costing millions of dollars in anticipation of the opening of the Canal. At present, American commerce plays but a minor role in the west coast trade, although, owing to the increasing number of American investments, the trade is improving. Germany and Great Britain have long had the lion's The Polar Ship Fram, lying at anchor in Cristobal Harbor. This boat left Buenos Aires on August 14, 1913, and reached Colon on October 3, for the purpose of passing through the Canal on its way to San Francisco. It will be one of the first vessels to make the passage. share, and it will be many years before their hold can be broken. The fault is our own. European emigrants, and representatives of European firms, went to those countries in an early day; they intermarried with the native residents, and many became citizens who afterward rose to prominence in public life. On the other hand, prior to the Spanish-American War, these countries knew few Americans, with the exception of tourists. We kept to our own borders, and established neither social nor business relations, and as for going there to live, it was not to be thought of. Moreover, the American manufacturer has in the past shown scant desire to cultivate business relations with his Latin-American neighbor; they have elected to ignore his requirements, and scoffed at his busi- ness customs. The European never commits this/au.r pas. [ 251 ] Moonlight on Limon Bay. When the rose and mauve and green have faded, the tropical moon appears, which is nowhere more effulgent than on the Isthmus. Roosevelt Avenue, the prettiest street in Cristobal, overlooking Limon Bay and the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. The beauty of this street and the outlook has been marred by the building of the docks at this point. [ 252 ] CT-RB Tv\NP . DIVIDED ^ TBEl^W O^Jj^ TTNJTED The Spanish-American War was the entering wedge; the Panama Canal affid other large projects in Central and South America requiring American brain and brawn has widened the opening, until today one will find plenty of Americans scattered all over Latin-America. A large percentage of those who Native town at Culebra. Negro village of Golden Green in middle distance, villages will be abandoned in course of time. These enlisted in the Philippine, Cuban, or Porto Rican campaigns, those who have seen service on the Panama Canal, or those who have engaged in railroad and mining work in Brazil, Peru, or Chile, never go back to the United States to reside permanently. Some of them leave the tropics with the avowed intention of never returning, but sooner or later, one will find them at a steamship office engaging passage southward bound. The lure of the tropics is not easily overcome. The Americanizing of Latin-America has only just begun; it would not have been begun yet but for those prime factors, the War and the Canal. As Americans locate in Central and South America, the call grows more and more insistent for conveniences to which they have been accustomed — American banks, clubs, newspapers, stores, and merchandise. The influence of the Latinized American is seen in the gradual improvement of conditions, all of which, while minute in detail in connection with the trade of the Canal, has a direct bearing on its future so far as it concerns traffic with South America. The Panama Canal will place the United States and Europe about on a par so far as it concerns the commerce of Australia and New Zealand. The same is true of Japan, China, and the Philippines. The short route from [ 253 ] Ij^j^P divided — cri\&*wom}E>> tinjted Europe to the Orient is by way of Suez; the short course from the Atlantic coast of the United States to Japan and most of China will be by way of Panama. A 10-knot freight steamer will be able to make the voyage from New York to Yokohama by way of Panama in 15 days' less time than it now takes by way of Suez. Hong Kong and Manila will be equally distant from New York by way of Panama or Suez. The tonnage through the Suez Canal has shown a steady growth. In 1910, it was 16,500,000 tons; in 1912, it had increased to 20,275,000 tons, representing the passage of 5,373 vessels. The Suez Company in commenting on the approaching opening of the Panama Canal said, "It does not seem likely that any considerable amount of freight between Europe and ports beyond Suez will be diverted by the Panama Canal. It is to be feared, though, that one of the results of the opening of the new route will be the attendant competition, and possibly a newborn trade between the eastern states of America, and the Far East and Oceanica." The increase in Canal traffic is not confined to the Suez, for, in July, 1913, 3,670 vessels carrying 12,278,000 tons of freight passed through the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, a larger volume than Dr. Johnson predicts for the Panama Canal during the first year or two of operation. While much has been printed to show how the freight business will be advantaged by the Panama Canal, there has been but little mention of the pas- senger traffic. It is quite certain that travelers to South America, or to the Orient, will prefer the Panama route to the long and usually tempestuous voyage around South America, or to the terrific heat of the Red Sea. The passage A street in the American settlement at Empire, showing family quarters, and about Empire is justly considered the most effective in the Canal Zone, grow here in great profusion. ( 254 ] The landscape in The short palms Jv\N-P . DIVIDED CTHE WORkD> TTKITED v ->. Main entrance to the new Hotel Washington, Colon. through the Panama Canal will afford an opportunity for the tired traveler to land, and if he so de- sires, to cross the Isthmus by rail. The Isthmus, therefore, will be a sort of clearing house for pas- senger traffic. People coming from Europe and eastern or southern United States will change there for the Orient, western United States, and western South America. The closing years of the con- struction period of the Canal has attracted a growing number of tourists, until at the present time, it is just as much a booking point for the tourist agencies as any other place of interest the world has to offer. Statistics compiled to July 1, 1913, show that about 75,000 people have visited the Canal since January 1, 1910, over one-half of that number within the past 18 months. The following table of com- parative distances will show some of the shortening of routes the Panama Canal will effect: A typical street in Cristobal. There are cocoanut palms on every street in this pretty Canal Zone settlement, while banana trees and other tropic growth adorn the grass plots in front of the houses. [ 255 ] CO H O CO O 2 > o H o o Oh > Q co" « hJ O O - o - to - H CO i-3 O o HllOOt-i'OlOOO t>t^coc©coo5eo O « 4i w a oi o f« O £— t- 00 00 -f US S» CO iq 05 >> CO "* 00 ©" os" 00 c^i-T o o OtSO-tl-NH-fH-f-fiDOOH nO(~0CnOO!S«5M»'!(H-fc«5 00Cq<}JCqO50^OSt~0>IO->i— 1 t> 00 OS' «5 «o" l~ Co" CO sf Co" O*" -<" tC co" lO* - z O OS i- — -* =o -f CO O) CO cq © 05 00 S< CO -f<" CO ■-1 -• 00 1-1 OS to tO 4> <"5> CO O* C5 so -+" co" o o 00 00i05tn00«50i-^^ci» co ■* H . ^ t*. °. * * °. °„ * °t -# «j co" of of ■* o" ©* 05" ©" oi" 00" ■f 5) l> 00 O 00 00 M t» «i!oqno_nrt»iH ■-H h co" oi co" f" 00 06" ©" 'o 00 en CO U5 1-^ t- CO OSXOJH «5 u£ co" Co" of CO" «sjf - rH 05" o" 05" 00 'J"" ^ of s la id's ■ t; c w M C3 ^ O oj c - o S 2 ■& >-J S [2501 1 a a 'Ex B ■-