Iwued November 27, 1907. 
 
 S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— FARMERS' INSTITUTE LEOTURJJ 8. 
 
 . TRUE, Director. 
 
 SYLLABUS 
 
 OF 
 
 ILLUSTRATED LECTURE 
 
 ON 
 
 FARM ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 BY 
 
 ELMINA T. WILSON, C. E., 
 
 Formerly Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Iowa State College. 
 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 
 
 1907. 
 

1039 Ishiu.'<i November 27, 1900. 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS— FARMERS' INSTITUTE LECTURE 8. 
 
 A. C. TRUE, Director. 
 
 SYLLABUS 
 
 OF 
 
 ILLUSTRATED LECTURE 
 
 ON 
 
 FARM ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 BY 
 
 ELMINA T. WILSON, C. E., 
 
 Formerly Assistant Professor of Civil Engineering, Iowa State College. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1907. 
 
PRI:I ; AT<)RY NOTE 
 
 This syllabus of a lecture upon farm architecture! by Elmina T. 
 Wilson, C. E., formerly assist ant professor of civil engineering, Iowa 
 State College, is accompanied by 48 views illustrating this topic 
 The sjdlabus and views have been prepared for the purpose of aiding 
 farmers' institute lecturers in their presentation of this subject 
 before institute audiences. 
 
 The numbers in the margins of the pages of the syllabus refer to 
 similar numbers on the lantern slides and to their legends as given 
 in the Appendix; those in the body of the text refer to the list of 
 authorities and references, page 19. 
 
 In order that those using the lecture may have opportunity to 
 fully acquaint themselves with the subject, references to its recent 
 literature are given in the Appendix. 
 
 John Hamilton. 
 Fanners Institute Specialist. 
 
 Recommended for publication. 
 A. C. True, Director. 
 
 Publication authorized. 
 
 James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 Washington, D. C, August 28, 1907. 
 
FARM ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 By Elmina T. Wilson, C. E. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 To the construction of buildings a civilized community View - 
 devotes a very large share of its available resources, and once 
 constructed these buildings exert a constant influence on all 
 who dwell in and about them. Whatever may be the charac- 
 ter of public buildings, provided for occasional visitations 
 by the people, the good or bad character of the homes where 
 people eat, rest, and sleep may be said to practically deter- 
 mine the character and happiness of their occupants. (Ref. 
 1, p. 10.°) 
 
 Health and happiness in the home are not marketable com- 
 modities, but profit would nevertheless result indirectly from 
 such household investment as would provide healthier condi- 
 tions and insure a healthier population. Increased vitality 
 means not only diminished doctor bills but increased use- 
 fulness. 
 
 There is no attempt to say that these are the "best" houses; 
 they are houses that seemed representative and typical of 
 American country-house building. These houses are safe 
 models and guides for prospective builders. While the price 
 varies, each house has strong and absolutely simple main lines. 
 The attempt has not been made to make a wide display in the 
 matter of expense, but rather to obtain tasteful architecture 
 at the minimum expense. 
 
 Within the restriction imposed by money available for 
 building, there is little opportunity for ornament and enrich- 
 ment. Our houses must depend for their beauty upon graceful 
 proportions, well-grouped windows, good color, and textures. 
 No building, unless well proportioned, can be saved by orna- 
 mentation. Jig-saw ornament, mill-made brackets, cornices, 
 moldings and railings, tower and cupola tacked to the house 
 corner, where they mean nothing decoratively and serve no 
 useful purpose, should be avoided. 
 
 a See list of references, p. 19. 
 (3) 
 
PLASTER HOUSES. 
 
 •**■ Exterior cement plaster is a most promising substitute for 
 wood. It furnishes one of the most satisfactory backgrounds 
 for vines and shrubs, and is in harmony with almost any nat- 
 ural setting. This material offers an inexpensive exterior sur- 
 facing when compared to brick or stone, and will make a more 
 durable, a warmer, and more attractive exterior than clap- 
 boards or shingles, although it will cost more than these. 
 Three coats of plaster and the labor of application are more 
 expensive to put on than clapboards or shingles, but the con- 
 stant painting required by the wooden exteriors will help to 
 equalize the cost. Success depends upon first-class work- 
 manship and materials. (Ref. 2, p. 58.) 
 
 Formerly most of the exterior plaster work was used in con- 
 nection with half-timber construction or on gables, but this 
 
 1 house shows broad, simple surfaces unbroken by timber. The 
 architect is Miss Lois L. Howe, of Boston, and the house has 
 received a severe test from New England weather conditions. 
 
 This house, as seen from the plan, need not be built all at 
 once. The first construction could stop wdth the hall, and a 
 
 2 very livable home would be secured. The two additional 
 rooms on each floor could be added wiien more room was 
 needed. Porches are built over the entrances, but a brick- 
 paved terrace is substituted for the customary lengthy ve- 
 randa. This terrace can be covered with vines or an awning 
 in summer, and the sunshine will not be shut out in the winter. 
 
 For exterior plastering the w r ood framing is built in the 
 usual manner and then covered with metal, wire, or latticed 
 
 3 wood lath. (Ref. 3, p. 1.) The careful treatment of the 
 plaster around window frames is essential. The flashing must 
 be carried in behind the lathing. In half-timber construction 
 a key must be provided for the mortar to prevent open joints. 
 (Ref. 3, p. 13.) For fireproof construction the reinforced con- 
 crete dwelling is less expensive than the one made of brick or 
 stone. Metal meshwork or steel rods are used to take all ten- 
 sile stresses, and all compression is taken by the concrete. 
 (Ref. 4, p. 647.) 
 
 SHINGLE HOUSES. 
 
 4 This house, the property of Mr. Spiers, of Pasadena, Cal., 
 furnishes an interesting example of a shingle house with a 
 gambrel roof. 
 
 Its quiet surfaces and long lines rest the eye. The walls and 
 roof are covered by California redwood shingles, w T hich have 
 
been dipped in oil and thus given a deep rich brown. The View - 
 foundation and chimneys are of dark-red brick. The large 
 outside chimney forms the "feature" of the design, expressing 
 as it does the idea of cheerful open fires within. Although 
 designed for a suburban lot, it would be even more suitable 
 for a country site. 
 
 Shingles make a warmer house than siding, there being three 
 thicknesses of wood at all points, while with wood siding there 
 is practically but one thickness. Wall shingles are applied 
 the same as on roofs, but a greater exposure is permissible. 
 They are usually laid 5 or 6 inches to the weather. 
 
 COTTAGES. 
 
 Where a cottage is desired, the lines should be horizontal, 5 
 
 giving a low and snug effect. (Ref. 5, pp. 1-9.) The founda- 
 tion and chimneys of this cottage are built of field stone ham- 
 mered off to form beds, with exterior surface left rough. To 
 build a chimney of this character, flue linings of vitrified tile 
 should be used to prevent flames penetrating to the woodwork 
 in case of loss of mortar from a joint in the stonework. The 
 walls are of extra wide clapboards, left rough, and stained with 
 creosote shingle stain before putting in place. The roof is of 
 cedar shingles dipped in linseed oil, to which a small amount 
 of red lead has been added, just enough to give a rich red- 
 brown color with age. 
 
 The plan formed of a simple rectangle gives the most room 6 
 
 for the least expense of any form of house. The bedroom 
 fireplaces may be omitted. However, a fireplace is most 
 desirable, as it solves the problem of ventilating the room. 
 The hot-water boiler is located in the bathroom, thus helping 
 to heat the room as the temperature of the water rises. 
 
 The interior finish is a good grade of soft wood, painted in 
 kitchen, bath, and bedrooms, and stained elsewhere. The 
 walls are of sand-finished plaster. The windows are divided 
 into small panes of glass, which keeps the whole in scale, 
 besides being a means of economy. 
 
 PLANNING THE HOUSE. 
 
 In selecting a design the idea should be to build a house 
 which is suited to its location and the surrounding country. 
 This house at Magnolia, Mass., is very attractive and home- 7 
 
 like. It is the kind of a house that the "children's children" 
 will delight to call "The Old Homestead." The simple out- 
 line is not only economical; it is dignified as well. The bed- 
 
rooms, although within the roof space, arc amply ventilated 
 
 by (I* »niicr and gable windows, and lose very little in height, 
 the pitch of the roof being fairly Bharp. 
 
 Do not be in too great haste to begin to build. Take plenty 
 of time in which to prepare the preliminary studies upon which 
 your working drawings are to he made. The logical order of 
 procedure in designing any building is to first work out the 
 ground plan, then the elevation, although the general scheme 
 
 8 of the building as a whole must he kept in mind. A sym- 
 metrical plan makes the most comfortable and satisfactory 
 house. Those parts of the house most used or enjoyed should 
 have the pleasant exposure. Each room should be arranged 
 to receive, conveniently, its furniture. 
 
 A finished first-floor level about 2 feet 8 inches above the 
 general finished grade will insure a well-lighted cellar. The 
 cellar floor should he water-tight and the foundations well 
 drained. (Ref. 6, p. 13.) 
 
 Furnaces appear to he gaining favor for warming houses of 
 moderate size. If a good furnace of sufficient size is properly 
 located and well put up there will he no cause for complaint. 
 (Ref. 7, p. 3S.) The hot-air pipes should be as short as the 
 
 9 location of the registers will permit. The registers of the 
 lower floor are often placed in the floor for convenience in 
 piping, but the wall register is the best and should be used 
 wherever possible. The cold-air pipe should be amply large 
 and provided with a damper near the cold-air window. This 
 cold-air connection to the furnace should always be directly 
 at the rear. (Ref. 3, p. 36.) The advantage of the furnace 
 system of heating is its direct supply of fresh air. A combi- 
 nation hot-air and hot-water system which furnishes warm air 
 to a number of rooms and direct radiators to others is very 
 efficient, but more expensive. 
 
 A hot-water system is similar in construction and operation 
 to one designed for steam. Tt is regarded by many per- 
 
 10 as the best method for heating residences. The water rises 
 from the heater in the cellar to the radiators and is returned 
 to the base of the heater, the change of temperature causing 
 the circulation. The two-pipe system i> more economical of 
 fuel, but more expensive to install than the overhead system. 
 (Ref. 8, p. 821.) 
 
 BATHROOMS. 
 
 11 The minimum size for the bathroom is 6 feet by S feet. An 
 eastern exposure is best and good ventilation should always he 
 secured. If possible the floor should be tiled or of cement 
 
 
with coved base; the walls finished in cement or hard View - 
 plaster. Linoleum, laid before the fixtures are set, makes an 
 economical and sanitary floor covering. 
 
 The essential fixtures are tub, lavatory, and water-closet. 
 A good enameled iron tub and lavatory will last a lifetime. 
 The enameled ware costs about one-half that of porcelain. 
 The best water-closet to-day is the siphon closet. This should 
 be of porcelain. The fixtures shown in this bathroom would 
 cost about SI 00. 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
 The pipes that cany the water over the house and those 
 that remove it with its accumulated waste are included in the 
 plumbing. The service pipe should enter the cellar well below 
 the frost line. (Ref. 9.) The pressure which forces the water 
 to the points where it is to be used may be procured either by 
 a pneumatic or an elevated tank. If a tank in the attic is 12 
 used a direct connection from the supply pipe to the kitchen 
 will furnish a fresher supply of water for general use. 
 
 The hot-water system shown is furnished by a boiler and 
 water-back attachment to the range. (Ref. 10, p. 13.) An 
 additional supply can be secured by installing a hot-water coil 
 in the furnace. The crackling noises in the hot-water boiler 
 and pipes are usually caused by poor circulation due to the 
 sagging of the connection between the water back and boiler, 
 or else to overheating of the water from lack of use. If a hot- 
 water faucet is left open a short time the snapping will stop. 
 
 PIPES. 
 
 The service pipe is usually of galvanized iron. Brass or 
 copper pipes are best for the hot-water system; the waste 
 pipes should be of "extra heavy" cast iron or of galvanized 
 wrought iron. The use of lead pipe should be restricted to 
 the short branches of the waste pipes. The soil pipe should 
 run as straight as possible and be continued at least 3 feet 
 above the roof. The main drain in the cellar should be kept 
 above the floor. Each fixture must have a separate connection 
 to the main soil pipe and be provided with a suitable trap. 
 All pipes should be exposed to view wherever possible, as open 
 plumbing is cleaner and more sanitary. (Ref. 11, p. 27.) 
 
 If a septic tank is used with an inlet pipe bent down below 
 the water line, this forms a trap, and the main trap shown just 
 inside the cellar walls should be omitted. A septic tank similar 
 to the one shown has been built for $23, including labor. (Ref. 
 10, p. 29.) 
 
KITCHENS. 
 PIMP. 
 
 Id The kitchen should be light, sanitary, and easily ventilated. 
 
 Tt should be well planned and supplied with up-to-date fur- 
 nishings. It should be compact without being cramped. Too 
 much room is quite as undesirable as too little. (Ref. 12, p. 4.) 
 If a coal range is used, a gasoline or oil stove should be provided 
 for use during the summer, or a combination gas and coal range 
 can be secured. A projecting curved bood of metal over the 
 range or one built of Btudding and plastered on metal lath, 
 with a ventilating thimble close to the ceiling under the hood, will 
 remove the fumes of cooking. The hot-water boiler may be set 
 on a standard or hung in a horizontal position above the range. 
 The sink should be of enameled iron or porcelain supported on 
 enameled iron brackets from the wall. It should have no wooden 
 rim or inclosure. The drain boards should be of white ash, 
 with grooves and a "drip" cut under edges of boards. If a tile 
 or cement floor is not laid in the kitchen, the best substitute is 
 a white-pine floor planed smooth and covered with linoleum 
 before the piping to the sink is connected or the molding of the 
 
 14 baseboard set. A perfectly plain trim 5 inches wide with 
 edges rounded off is most suitable for kitchen, storeroom, and 
 pantry. The cupboard shelves should be given three coats of 
 
 15 white paint, and a final coat of white enamel. A half-inch 
 space should be left between shelves and wall. Flour, sugar, 
 and meal may be kept in zinc-lined tilting bins, or the counter- 
 shelf can be hinged over a space large enough for the flour 
 barrel to be put in on rollers or a barrel swing. (Ref. 3, p. 31.) 
 It is more convenient to have a storeroom connected to the 
 kitchen than to have a large kitchen. If the refrigerator has 
 an outside door through which the ice chamber is filled in 
 warm weather, in winter this door can be left open to admit 
 the outer air for cold storage. A Berving pantry provides 
 space for the table china and helps keep the dining-room cool 
 and free from odors. The slide between the dining-room 
 sideboard and the pantry saves many steps. The lift, counter- 
 weighted so that a touch will set it in motion, carries fruit and 
 vegetables from the cellar. 
 
 FURNISHINGS. 
 
 William Morris said, " Have nothing in your homes that you 
 do not know to be useful or believe to be beautiful." Most of 
 our homes are overfurnished, crowded with useful and us< 
 things. Good furniture should have simple lines and be abso- 
 lutely free from useless ornamentation. Modeled after Colo- 
 
9 
 
 nial or Mission style, plain, strong, and tasteful, it will with- Viev> - 
 stand the hardest wear and grow more beautiful with age. 
 Color is one of the important elements in the selection of fur- 
 nishings. A room where colors of rugs, curtains, and walls 
 are inharmonious is not calculated to soothe and rest the 
 weary. An ugly room badly lighted, poorly ventilated, and 
 inadequately heated lowers the level of human life. 
 
 Where good pictures are not available, use wall decorations, 
 which render pictures unnecessary — e. g., wall papers of good 
 design or some stenciled design upon kalsomined walls. Where 
 pictures are used, let the walls be plain. Do not use pictures 
 and flowered paper upon the same wall. An effective dining 
 room could have a tapestry or colonial landscape paper with 
 plain cream ceiling and white painted woodwork; chairs and 
 table should be plain, of oak or mahogany. A high narrow 
 shelf running around the room for plates or one or two hanging 
 plate racks are sufficient decoration. All curtains, covers to 
 sideboard, serving table, and the like should be washable. 
 For country houses sand-finished walls, either natural or 
 stained with good strong color, flat woodwork of yellow pine, 1 6 
 cypress, or redwood stained and rubbed, not varnished, hard- 
 wood floor stained to harmonize with trim, combine to give a 
 dignity hard to obtain in any other way. For interior finish 
 that is to be painted, use white pine or poplar, free from knots 
 and pitch. For staining or natural finish, hard pine, redwood, 
 ash, chestnut, oak, cherry or mahogany, ranking in cost in 
 about the order named, are all desirable. 
 
 The living room of to-day is almost a necessity- in family life. 1 7 
 With its books, copies of good pictures, fireplace, and com- 
 fortable chairs, it makes the thought of home more attractive 
 and the hall bedroom of a city boarding house less alluring. 
 
 Bedrooms should have hardwood floors with rugs, kalso- 
 mined or painted walls instead of paper, and brass or iron beds. 
 
 Hardwood floors should be stained and waxed or treated 
 with shellac and spar varnish. They cost very little more than 
 a floor of soft pine and require only rugs instead of carpet, thus 
 doing away with the most objectionable feature of house 
 cleaning as well as being handsomer and more sanitary. 
 
 Double floors should be used wherever possible — the under 
 floor of spruce or common fence boards. The upper or finished 
 floor should not be put in place until the plastering is thor- 
 oughly dry and the standing finish mostly in place. North 
 Carolina pine or birch floors are good and cheap, oak is better 
 but more expensive. If only one floor is used, it must be 
 matched to prevent currents of air. (Ref. 8, p. 314.) 
 
 11837— No. 8—07 2 
 
10 
 
 FIREPLACES. 
 
 A fireplace will not Furnish sufficient heat for a room in 
 winter weather, hut for spring and autumn a grate fire is all that 
 
 i- required. It Lb generally conceded that there i.s no better 
 
 means of ventilating a living room than by B grate fire and no 
 way of making a room more cheerful. (Kef. .;. p. 121.) 
 
 In recent years brick fireplaces, simply and honestly built, 
 have grown in popularity. Brick can be obtained in beautiful 
 shades varying from delicate cream to deep bronze. The ordi- 
 nary paving brick in connection with stained woodwork gives 
 excellent results. For large living rooms, charming fireplaces 
 
 18 may be made of field stone or bowlders with heavy wood shelf 
 and wood or stone brackets. In connection with interiors of a 
 more dainty or elegant character, molded woodwork and tile 
 facing may be used, or a mantle formed on Colonial lines with 
 marble, brick, or tile facing, and woodwork painted white. In 
 place of a mirror use a plaster cast or a good Japanese print set 
 flush in a permanent frame formed of narrow flat strips. 
 
 The fireplaces should be 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches wide and 2 
 feet 6 inches to 3 feet high and 20 to 30 inches deep. Cement 
 makes admirable hearths and will withstand heat quite as well 
 as tile or firebrick. (Ref. 13, p. 219.) A suitable color could 
 be mixed with the cement and the sand should have a good 
 color. A smoking fireplace is a never-ending source of discom- 
 fort. The diagram show r s how the back and throat should be 
 built; the throat forming a long narrow T passage for the flames, 
 not more than 3 or 4 inches wide. Two small steel angles or a 
 cast-iron lintel can be used to support the brick in front with 
 a bar at the back to hold the firebrick in place. 
 
 INCLOSED PORCH AND BACK DOORS. 
 
 An inclosed porch is the connecting link between the house 
 and the garden. The plan of the house can be so arranged that 
 this porch makes a convenient summer dining room. The 
 
 19 planting of the trees, shrubs, and vines should be such as to 
 give it privacy and a pleasant outlook. There is no reason why 
 a back yard should not be a pleasant place. The part of the yard 
 
 20 in daily use should be kept in a sanitary condition at least and, 
 with proper attention, it can be made very attractive. Uncut 
 
 2 1 grass, decaying vegetables, weeds, and stagnant water, to breed 
 mosquitoes, are surely unnecessary. 
 
11 
 
 RELATION OF HOUSE TO SURROUNDINGS. 
 
 The architectural treatment of the grounds is inseparably Viev> - 
 connected with the architectural effect of the house. Every 
 place possesses certain advantages as to location, view, expo- 
 sure, the character and situation of the trees, and the like, 
 which calls for a particular means of emphasizing its good 
 points and of evading or concealing its bad points. Many a 
 busy home maker has sighed over some bare and ugly spot 
 around the otherwise satisfactory home and wished for time 
 and means to improve it. Here and there is one who sees what 
 is necessary to be done; the ashes and tin cans are removed, the 
 ground spaded, shrubs, vines, flowers, and grass are assigned to 22 
 their proper places, walks are built of concrete, brick, or cinders, 
 and the final result is a lawn and garden worthy of the names. 
 The garden should be planned to open off from the part of the 
 house most commonly used so as to be but one of the rooms into 
 which you step out of another. More use should be made of 
 the garden. Apart from the pleasure of gathering and caring 
 for the flowers and vegetables, there is the pleasure of living in 
 the open air. 
 
 The garden should be inclosed by a hedge or a vine-covered 
 fence and the flowers should succeed each other according to 23 
 the season. 
 
 Seats, which should always be simply formed and pro- 
 tected from the weather by a } 7 early coat of paint or varnish, 
 may be conveniently placed for resting where the outlook is 24 
 most pleasing. A seat of barrel staves will be found extremely 
 comfortable, the curves of the wood adapting themselves well 
 to the body. 
 
 The paths bordered with flowers or low shrubs should lead 
 straight to the house, ending in an arbor which will serve to 25 
 screen the kitchen or enlarge the piazza and tie the house to the 
 garden. 
 
 Pump shelters, back porches, and entrance porticoes may 
 be greatly improved in appearance by the addition of vines. 
 
 When the house is not supplied with a bathroom and a 
 privy is used, have the walk leading to it sheltered from view 
 and weather and the building itself neat and well placed. If 26 
 a dry-earth closet is used it may be located very near to the 
 house. (Ref. 10, p. 22.) 
 
 GENERAL PLAN. 
 
 It is a common error to give little forethought to the placing 
 of the buildings in their relation to each other, to disregard the 
 
l l 2 
 
 vuw. outlook from the house, and to take do care in tree planting or 
 
 27 to do no planting whatever. A complete and appropriate lay- 
 out .should be the starting point, and time spent in planning 
 an estate will result in economy and beauty when the place is 
 subsequently developed. If poorly planned it means a con- 
 tinued process of tearing down and reconstructing. 
 
 DAIRY AND POWER HOUSE. 
 
 The building in which the milk is handled should be entirely 
 separate from the one in which the cows are kept, as great 
 cleanliness is essential in the handling of milk and other dairy 
 products, nothing absorbing impurities more readily. (Ref. 
 
 28 14, p. 12.) The building should be well ventilated and so con- 
 structed as not to be readily affected by changes in tempera- 
 ture. The windows should be so arranged that the sunshine 
 may be freely admitted at least once a day. Provision should 
 be made on the ground floor for cooling the milk rapid h' and 
 for the separator and churn, the cellar being used for refriger- 
 ation and storage. The floors and walls should be of tile or 
 composite material, so that a hose may be turned upon them 
 and all thoroughly cleaned. The cellar w^alls may be faced with 
 enameled brick. 
 
 This power house forms a part of the same building but 
 
 29 entirely separated from the dairy. The transmission of power 
 to the various machines of the farm is accomplished by 
 using a dynamo in connection with the gasoline engine, so that 
 motors are located at the various points where pow T er is desired. 
 The house and buildings may be lighted by use of the same 
 plant. (Ref. 13, p. 303.) 
 
 POULTRY HOUSES. 
 
 A poultry house should be isolated from other buildings 
 where practicable, built on dry, porous soil, convenient of 
 
 30 access, and kept free from vermin. The house should be warm, 
 dry, and well ventilated, having foundation of concrete, brick, 
 or field stone grouted with cement, extending below frost line. 
 
 A cheap and efficient house can be made of two thicknesses 
 of rough inch lumber put on 2 by 4 studs vertically, with tarred 
 building paper between. The inner layer of boards should 
 first be put in place, the tar paper placed on the outside of 
 these, with well lapped joints held in place by lath and nails, 
 then the outside layer, covering the cracks with ordinary lath 
 for battens. The air space between the boards makes a house 
 warm in winter and cool in summer. The roof should be 
 
13 
 
 sheathed with rough boards placed close together, covered View - 
 with tar paper, and shingled. (Ref. 13, p. 192.) A good 
 width for a poultry house is from 10 to 14 feet, length as 
 required. The building should face the south and have plenty 
 of small, low windows, so as to admit sunshine to the floor. 
 A ventilator should be placed on the highest point of the roof, 
 with adjustable openings, so that the temperature of the house 
 may be regulated in winter. Perches should be low, not more 
 than 30 inches from floor, with a smooth, removable platform 
 underneath to facilitate cleaning. Drinking troughs shoidd 
 be in the alley separated from the house by slats. (Ref. 15, 
 pp. 9-18. 
 
 The posts for runways may be 12 feet on centers. Common 
 rough boards may be used for base, which should be 24 inches 
 high, above which 2-inch mesh poultry netting 36 inches wide 
 should be used, making a 5-foot fence. 
 
 ICE HOUSE. 
 
 In building an ice house the main object is to secure isola- 
 tion of the ice by surrounding it with an adequate amount of 
 nonconducting material. The house should have double walls 
 packed with sawdust, a drain at the bottom to carry off water 
 without admitting air, and a ventilator at peak of roof to 
 allow vapors to pass out. There should be no windows, and 
 the door should be as nearly air tight as possible. 
 
 BARNS. 
 
 A sanitary and conveniently arranged barn costs but little 
 more than one unsuited to animal life. The conditions gov- 
 erning the planning are very similar to those for a house, i. e., 
 fresh air, sunlight, good drainage, and protection against sud- 
 den changes of temperature. The winter ventilation can be 
 provided for by one or more flues so arranged as to allow the 
 foul air to enter them near the floor line and to pass out through 
 ventilators on the roof, the fresh air coming in near the 
 ceiling. (Ref. 20, p. 29.) 
 
 Within the last few years a number of very sanitary barns 
 have been built of reinforced concrete. This material is proof 
 against fire, water, and vermin, needs no painting, little repair- 
 ing, and is cool in summer and warm in winter. View 31 31 
 shows a group of concrete barns on a large stock farm near 
 White Plains, N. Y. The barns have been designed and 
 built to obtain the best possible results with the least expendi- 
 ture of labor in the handling of the stock. The cow stables 
 
14 
 
 (the end of one is shown at the right of the picture) have walls, 
 
 floors, and curved roof of concrete. The walls are hollow, and 
 in them is Installed the "King system of ventilation." Each 
 
 wing is arranged for forty cows. The Uh^\ troughs arc cast in 
 concrete, with a water inlet at one end and outlet at the other, 
 so thai they may he easily flushed oat. The stalls are made 
 of 1',-inch galvanized pipe and fittings benl to shape and 
 anchored in the concrete. The cows are fastened from each 
 side by chains to a leather collar. The windows swing on 
 their lower v-A^o<, and open into iron cheeks. Tracks hung 
 from the roof on either side behind the stalls are used for the 
 manure carriers which run through the end doors and dump 
 into carts. Modern sanitation requires that the cows he kept 
 apart from the feed and the manure apart from the cows. 
 The concrete roofs are covered with a tar felt, washed over 
 with tar and covered with slag, to make them water-tight. 
 In the floors a layer of felt and tar was placed for a damp 
 course. The feed room and grain storage room are at the 
 junction of the two wings and the hay barn connects with 
 these. The ha}* barn, feed rooms, and silos have concrete 
 walls and shingle roofs. The silos have proved perfectly sat- 
 isfactory. Another example of reinforced concrete construc- 
 
 32 tion is the stable built for Dr. N. B. Van Etten, of Xew York 
 City. The walls, floors, and roof are no thicker than required 
 when of wood, but are fireproof, and moisture does not collect 
 on the inside of the walls, although no air space was left. Any 
 part of the stable can be cleaned by turning on water with a 
 hose. 
 
 Concrete is made of cement, sand, and broken stone, gravel, 
 or washed cinders. (Ref. 16, pp. 1-0.) Wooden forms are 
 
 33 constructed, and the cement filled into the spaces required. As 
 
 34 the work progresses the lower courses become set and the lum- 
 ber of the forms can be removed and used over again. (Ref. 14, 
 p. 219.) The work must be carried on carefully and intelli- 
 gently, but it is not a difficult form of construction. The suc- 
 cess of the building depends upon the faithfulness and care of 
 the workmen. After the forms have been removed the surface 
 can be given a mortar facing, it can be tooled to remove the 
 outer skin of mortar in which the form marks exist, or it can be 
 washed with an acid preparation to remove the cement and 
 expose the particles of sand and stone, then with an alkaline 
 solution to remove all free acid, finally giving it a thorough 
 cleansing with water. (Ref. 17. pp. G5, 99.) A pebble-dash 
 surface can be secured by using large rounded pebbles in the 
 concrete and when the forms are removed brushing the cement 
 
15 
 
 and sand from around the face of the gravel with steel brushes, View - 
 leaving about half of the pebbles exposed. After about 
 twenty-four hours the brushing can be carried on most suc- 
 cessfully. (Ref. 18, p. 643.) 
 
 In planning the barn, provision should be made for growth 
 of both crops and animals. This can be accomplished either 
 by building for the future or by so arranging the plan that an 
 additional bay can be added with little change in the present 
 building. Greater comfort and better results will be obtained 
 from barns not over 35 feet wide than if built wider. If these 
 are arranged to partly surround a court open to the south they 
 will prove very satisfactory. 
 
 The barn should be built to store abundance of provender; 
 hence the mow should be without crossties through the middle 
 to obstruct the hay fork, the trusses being placed about 16 feet 
 on centers. It is often found convenient to have a barn for 35 
 hay with the stock barns grouped around it. The practice of 
 scattering buildings over the farm has been found more incon- 
 venient and expensive than to group them near each other, as 
 all the buildings are more or less dependent. Scattered build- 36 
 mgs add much to the labor of doing the work. 
 
 The foundations should extend well below frost line, the 
 basement posts resting directly upon the foundation piers 
 without wood sills at the grade line. The floors of all barns 37 
 and sheds should be dry and well drained. The best and most 
 economical floor for a dairy barn is of concrete. The ground 
 floor should be raised enough to give a good fall in all directions 
 from the barn. In the construction of stables for live stock, 38 
 especially milch cows, the ventilation must be proportioned 
 to the number of animals; 500 cubic feet of air space per head 
 is the least amount allowed in good designing. The stalls 
 should have a slope toward the gutter of about 2 inches in 5 
 feet. The fall of the gutter should be about 1 inch in 20 feet. 
 
 An example of good planning is shown in " Three Rivers 39 
 Farm," the home of Mr. E. W. Rollins, near Dover, N. H. An 
 arbor extends from house to barn and the garden lies at one 
 side of this arbor. The native trees have been used to give 
 shade and shelter, but are not allowed to cut off the beautiful 
 outlook over the hills and river. The barns form three sides of 
 a court, a convenient and labor-saving arrangement. The 
 location is exceptional, but the neatness of the yards and 
 buildings need not be so. 
 
 The Iowa farm shown in the next view was started a hun- 40 
 dred years or so later than the preceding, and the details have 
 not been so well looked after. The buildings have been 
 
16 
 
 dropped down on the yard with little thought for convenience. 
 The tree planting is excellent, hut no one has taken the time to 
 plant the vines and shrubs needed to soften the outlines and to 
 separate the hams from the house. 
 
 HOG HOUSES. 
 
 -1 I Houses built for the keeping or breeding of swine should he 
 
 easily cleaned, well lighted, and well ventilated, with separate 
 feeding floors and sleeping quarters. The feeding floor, located 
 in full sunlight, should he of concrete, 12 feet wide and as long 
 as required, slightly sloping, about ' inch in 12 inches, to a gutter 
 
 on one side. The feeding trough may be formed of concrete. 
 and should extend along one side and he protected by a swing- 
 ing fence from the hogs while being cleaned or filled. For the 
 sleeping quarters, the "Ring system of ventilation"' is excel- 
 
 42 lent. (Kef. 20, p. 29.) The pens, walls, and floor may be of 
 concrete, with iron doors, so that all may he kept clean. The 
 runs may be separated" by wire fences and should have a shal- 
 low concrete basin at one end, where the hogs may lie in water 
 in the hot weather. 
 
 FENCES. 
 
 A irood fence carefully built will add much to the appearance 
 of a farm. Wooden fence posts are becoming more expeii 
 and cement or iron posts are often substituted. The cement 
 posts may be made on the farm if sand and gravel can he easily 
 
 43 obtained. (Ref. 13, p. 213.) The casting of ornamental 
 shapes in concrete may be accomplished by the use of sand, 
 wood or plaster of Paris molds. The concrete fence at the 
 Gedney Farm had the posts cast in position, with grooves on 
 e;ich side, into which the rails were dropped and the grooves 
 
 44 filled with concrete. The rails, 4 by 9 inches and about 16 
 feet long, were cast in separate forms and put in place after the 
 concrete had thoroughly set. They have a '.-inch reinfon 
 rod in each corner with 1-inch stirrups every 2 feet of length. 
 
 REMODELED HOUSES. 
 
 The farm shown in this view had been "running down" for 
 a generation before taken by the present occupants. There 
 were no trees near the house, but brambles and weeds grew 
 
 45 everywhere. The untidy outbuildings were located on a steep 
 hillside covered with stones and bushes. The rickety feE 
 and general air o( untidiness are typical of a certain class of 
 farms. 
 
17 
 
 The first improvement made was to clear out the weeds and View - 
 thickets, fill the hollows, rebuild the stone walls, add a layer of 
 good soil, and seed. It was then possible to go all about the 
 buildings. The apple trees being pruned and cared for, took 
 on new beauties. Lombardy poplars were planted because 
 they are fast-growing trees. The elms and maples were trans- 
 planted while still small trees, and after five years made quite a 46 
 showing. The flower beds are massed near the house; the 
 plants against the old brick walls seem to make the house less 
 obtrusive and more a part of the landscape. The new shed and 
 terrace, although not exactly in keeping with the old house, are 
 well built, the terrace making an excellent outdoor living room 
 when covered with vines. (Ref. 19, p. 13.) 
 
 This house was not chosen because of its architectural excel- 
 lence, but to show that no matter how unpromising a house 
 may be it is possible to convert it into a comfortable home. 
 The well-kept drive and lawn give the place a prosperous look, 47 
 while the two-storied porch means solid comfort in summer 48 
 weather when inclosed with screens and utilized as dining and 
 sleeping rooms. The arrangement of the vines in front of the 
 house is very unfortunate, shutting off the view from the win- 
 dows, as they apparently do. Grown upon a trellis against the 
 corner of the house or with the rocks as a background they 
 would be excellent. 
 
 To improve the existing conditions upon a farm, development 
 of additional resources are often unnecessary; much may be 
 accomplished by a different disposition of materials already 
 at hand. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 IjAXTKRN SLIDES. 
 
 No. of 
 view. 
 
 1. Plaster house. 
 
 2, Plan for plaster house. 
 
 < Original drawing. 
 
 .'$. Details of plaster construction. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 4. Shingle house. 
 
 5. Cottage. 
 
 Original <1 rawing. 
 
 6. Plan for cottage. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 7. House at Magnolia, Mass. 
 
 8. Plan for Magnolia house. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 9. Furnace layout for Magnolia house. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 10. Systems of hot-water heating. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 11. Bathroom. 
 
 12. Piping for hot and cold water circu- 
 
 lation. 
 Original drawing. 
 
 13. Plan and details of kitchen and 
 
 bathroom. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 14. Kitchen and gasoline stove and 
 
 heater. 
 
 15. Kitchen with range and water back. 
 
 16. Dining room. 
 
 17. Living room. 
 
 18. Designs for fireplaces. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 19. Inclosed porch. 
 
 Original photograph. 
 
 20. Back yard as it should not be. 
 
 Original photograph. 
 
 21. Back yard as it should be. 
 
 22. Summer house. 
 
 23. Garden fence. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 24. Pump shelter, portico, and seats. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 25. Rustic arbor. 
 
 No. of 
 view. 
 
 20. 
 
 27. 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 
 30. 
 
 31. 
 
 32. 
 
 33. 
 
 34. 
 
 35. 
 
 36. 
 37. 
 
 38. 
 
 39. 
 
 40. 
 41. 
 42. 
 
 43. 
 
 44. 
 
 45. 
 46. 
 
 47. 
 
 48. 
 
 Arbors and dry-earth closets. 
 Original drawing. 
 
 General plan of grounds. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 Dairy and power-house building. 
 
 Plan of dairy and power h 
 
 Original drawing. 
 Chicken and ice houses. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 Group of concrete barns. 
 
 Original photograph. 
 
 < Concrete stable. 
 
 Original photograph. 
 Reinforced concrete building in 
 process of erection. 
 Original photograph. 
 
 Construction of forms for concrete- 
 building. 
 Barn sections. 
 Original drawing. 
 
 Stock and hay barn. 
 
 Plan of barn with open court. 
 Original drawing. 
 
 General plan of barns. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 
 General view of "Three Rivers 
 
 Farm," Dover. X. H. 
 General view of an Iowa farm. 
 Frame hog house exterior. 
 
 Interior of concrete hog house. 
 Original photograph. 
 
 Designs for fences and gates. 
 
 Original drawing. 
 Concrete fence on Gedney Farm, 
 White Plains, N. Y. 
 
 Original photograph. 
 
 New England farmhouse. 
 
 New England farmhouse remod- 
 eled. 
 
 House at Manchester, Mass. 
 
 Remodeled house at Manchester, 
 Masai 
 
 (18) 
 
REFERENCES. 
 
 ' 1. American Domestic Architecture. By Stevens & Cobb. New York. 
 
 2. Architectural Review, Vol. 13, No. 4. Boston, Mass. 
 
 3. Architectural Review, Vol. 14, No. 1. Boston, Mass. 
 
 4. Country Life In America, October, 1906. New York. 
 
 5. The Model Village and Its Cottages, Bournville. By W. Alexander Harvey. 
 
 London. 
 
 6. Sanitation of a Country House. By Harvey B. Bashore. New York. 
 
 7. Furnace Heating. By William G. Snow. New York. 
 
 8. Kidder's Architectural Hand Book. 
 
 9. Modern Plumbing. Illustrated. By R. M. Starbuck. New York. 
 
 10. Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 270. 
 
 11. Sanitary Drainage of Buildings. By Wm. Paul Gerhard. New York. 
 
 12. The Healthful Farmhouse. By Helen Dodd. Boston. 
 
 13. Farm Buildings. Chicago. 
 
 14. Dairying in the South. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 151. 
 
 15. Poultry Management. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 287. 
 
 16. Cement Mortar and Concrete. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 235. 
 
 17. Treatment of Concrete Surfaces. . By Linn White. 1907. 
 
 18. Practical Hints for Concrete Construction. 1907. 
 
 19. A Remodeled Farmhouse. Chicago. 
 
 20. Ventilation of Stables. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 190. 
 
 Some other books upon farm architecture. 
 
 The Country House. By Chas. E. Hooper. New York. 
 
 Clark's Care of the House. New York. 
 
 Powell's The Country Home. New York. 
 
 Roberts' The Farmstead. New York. 
 
 House and Garden. By H. M. Bailie Scott. London. 
 
 Price & Johnson's Home Building and Furnishing. New York. 
 
 Barn Plans and Outbuildings. New York. 
 
 Modern House Plans. By S. B. Reed. New York. 
 
 Steam Heating and Ventilation. By W T m. S. Monroe. New York. 
 
 Modern Plumbing, Steam and Hot Water Heating. By J. J. Lawler. New York. 
 
 The Disposal of Household Wastes. By Wm. Paul Gerhard. New York. 
 
 American Gardens. By Guy Lowell. Boston. 
 
 Parson's How to Plant the Home Grounds. New York. 
 
 Loring & Underwood's The Garden and Its Accessories. 
 
 Home Sanitation. By the Sanitary Science Club. Boston. 
 
 (19) 
 
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