/3 /4 C UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Bureau of Agricultural Economics f UTILIZATION OF COTTON AND OTHER MATERIALS IN FERTILIZER BAGS By R. J. Cheatham, Senior Cotton Technologist, and Robert B. Evans, Junior Agricultural Economist Washington, D. C. January 1939 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2013 http ://arch i ve . org/detai Is/f ertbagsOOu n it TTtlLIZAl'IOl* 01 COTTON AO OTHER MATERIALS IN FERTILIZER BAGS By H, J. Cheatham, Senior Cotton Technologist, and Robert B. Bvaas, Junior Agricultural Economist 1/ CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Methods of obtaining information 2 Fertilizer and the fertilizer industry 4 Types of bags used 6 Use of cotton in fertilizer bags 12 Use of other types of fertilizer bags 14 Factors influencing the use of- cotton fertilizer bags 18 Demand for fertilizer bags 18 Comparative cost of cotton and other bags 19 Fertilizer manufacturers' opinion of cotton brgs 21 Summary and conclusions 24 INTRODUCTION Cotton's dominant position in the textile field is due to its economic and technological advantage in thousands of uses to which it has been adapted. In many of these it is in constant competition with other materials. Price changes, technological improvements, arid other factors sometimes strengthen its position in such uses and sometimes weaken it. Cotton is apparently becoming of increasing importance in the manufacture of fertilizer bags. Fragmentary evidence has indicated for some time that in- creasing numbers of cotton bags are being used in the fertilizer industry. The study here reported upon was made to obtain a quantitative knowledge of the trend and present position of cotton as a bagging material for fertilizer and to ascer- tain the factors determining its use for this purpose. It is hoped that informa- tion and conclusions applicable to other uses of cotton may be derived from this study. 1/ Acknowledgement is made of the assistance rendered by the National Fertilizer Association, and by members of the fertilizer and bag industries, whose co- operation made possible the completion of this survey and report. Certain staff members of the Bureau of Chemistry and Soils and the Bureau of Agricul- tural Economics also assisted. - 2 - It is estimated that during 1 Q 37 the equivalent of slightly less than 20,000 bales of cotton wr.s used in the manufacture of fertilizer "bags. Although this is scarcely more than a fraction of total cotton production, a study of this use is warranted for nore than one reasor. First, most individual uses of cotton are comparatively snail. Second, 10 or 12 years ago the use of cotton for ferti- lizer "bags was almost unknown. Third, although at present only about 12 percent of the fertilizer tonrage is packaged in cotton bags, if the entire tonnage were packaged in cotton hags, it is estimated that as nuch as 135,000 bales of cotton would be required annually. The potential utilization of cotton in this field is, therefore, of considerable importance. It is estimated that more than 116 million bags, representing a value of between 8 and 9 million dollars, were reqaired fcr packaging fertilizer during 1937. Of this total, approximately 19 million bags', valued at about $1,500,000 were made of cotton. As fertilizer is used most extensively during the spring, involving a large number of bags, a good part of the production of textile-bag factories dur- ing the winter months goes to the fertilizer industry. METHODS OF OBTAINING IKF02MAII0N To procure original data on the use of cotton and other types of bags by fertilizer nanuf acturers, questionnaires were sent to 773 manufacturers listed by the National Fertilizer Association, representing the entire fertilizer indus- try. They were asked to supply information on the number and types of bags used at each of their 920 plants during 1937, to give their opinion as to the compara- tive advantages of the various types of bags, and to furnish certain other data. Usable returns from 409 of the total of 920 commercial plants manufactur- ing fertilizers were received. These plants packaged in bags, during 1937, 4,518,796 tons of fertilizer, or an estimated 57 percent of the total consumption of fertilizer during that year. The number of plants reporting in the various sections of the country, and the gross tonnage represented in their reports, are shown in table 1. The information is presented according to the sectional or geographic grouping usually followed in the presentation of statistics on the production and use of fertilizer. In addition, considerable use has been made of information contained in a similar report entitled "Cotton Bags in the Fertilizer Industry", issued in^ 1927-28 2/. Supplementary information on the manufacture and use of fertilizer contained in various official and trade publications has also been used. 2/ "Cheat ham, ~?.7 J.~ Cotton~b~gs in the fertilizer industry, 5 pp. (Processed.) u. s. Department of Agriculture, 1328. - 3 - Table 1.- Plants Manufacturing fertilizer, plants included in survey, fertilizer consumption, and tonnage included in survey, "by geographic divisions of the United States, 1937 Geographic division : Plants included Tonnage included in : in survey • _ _ survey : Total Fertilizer •Percentage :plants - Total •Percentage • consumption Total of total : 1/ of total consumption plants 2/ : Number : Number Percent 1,000 1,000 Percent tons tons : 110 57 52 1,157 588 51 : 70 41 59 ! 870 674 78 9 6 67 119 7 6 • 505 208 41 4,181 2,566 61 • 145 55 38 1,535 650 42 : 81 : 42 : 52 f 296 133 45 : 920 : 409 : 44 8,158 4, 619 57 North Atlantic (New England States, N. Y. , H. J. , Pa. ) . East North Central (Ohio, Ind. , Hi. , Mich. , Wise. ) West North Central (Minn. , Iowa, Mo. , N. D. , S. P. , Net). , Kans.) South Atlantic (Del. , Md. , Va. , N. C. , S. C. , G a . , Pla. ) South Central ( Ky. , Tenn. , Miss. , Ark. , La. , Tex. ) . Western (Mont. , Idaho, Wyo. , Colo. , N. M. , Ari z. , Utah, Nev. , Wash. , Oreg. , Calif. ) 1/ Including 7 concentrated superphosphate plants operated commercially. 2/ Tonnage included in survey is grouped according to place of manufacture, where- as total consumption of fertilizer is grouped according to place of consump- tion. As some areas produce more than they consume, the two are not strictly comparable. But the bag-use characteristics indicated by manufacturers in a given district should also be representative of the fertilizer consumed in that area, as three-fourths of the fertilizer tonnage is consumed within 150 miles of its point of production. _ 4 - MTILIZEH AND THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY Fertilizer may "be defined "broadly as any material which, if added to the soil, will result in a better growth of crops. Only commercial fertilizers, or fertilizers that enter commerce, were included in this study. Although animal manures, fish, hones, arid other .materials have been mixed with the soil from the earliest tines, their extexisive use has "become establish- ed only during the last 100 years. Chemical salts, which contain plant- food elements, were not used as fertilizer by European and .American farmers generally until about 50 years ago Zj . The commercial fertilizer industry of today may be said to have had its beginning with the first manufacture of superphosphate in England in 1843. Super- phosphate, which is now the most extensively used fertilizer material, is made by treating phosphate rock wi : th sulphuric acid so as to make the phosphorus con- tent more readily available to plants. Importation of Chilean sodium nitrate, another leading fertilizer material, began about the same time and the firsi; use of potash salts, a third ba.sic material, occurred a.ccut 1875. In the United States, 'the first commercial fertilizers were manufactured about 1850. By 1856, production had increased to 20,000 tons; and by 18C3 to 50,000 tons. The rapid progress of the fertilizer industry thereafter is shewn by table 2. Table 2.- Fertilizer consumption in the United States, for specified years from 1380 to 1937 Year , Consumption \ Year ' , Consumption : 1, 000 tons : : 1,000 tons 1880 : 1,150 • : 1931 : 6,306 1890 : 1,950 r 1932 : 4,336 1900 : 2,200 : 1933 : 4,871 1910 : 5,452 : 1934 ■ 5,548 1920 : ' 7,177 : 1935 : 6,221 1930 : 8,163 : 1936 : 6,838 : : 1937 : 8,158 1/ 1/ Preliminary. Does not include T. V. A ;oroduction. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Compiled from reports of the National Fer- tilizer Association. According to latest available information 4/, about 33 percent of the total reported fertilizer consumption in the United States consists of the direct application or use on the farm of unmixed fertilizer materials such as superphos- phates, organic and inorganic nitrogen, and potash salts. These materials arc 3/ - ColTings, "Gil bo art H. "Commercial fertilizers: Their sources .arid use. F. 1. Philadelphia, P. Bl olds ton's Son Co., Inc. 1934. 4/ Ross, W. H. , and toehring, A. L. Mixed fertilizers. In Soils and men, Year- book of Agriculture, 1938. pp. 522-545. U. S. lenartment of Agriculture, 1938. - 5 - sometimes packaged in bags at the source of supply and are sometimes handled in "bulk until bagged by local fertilizer manufacturers or handlers. Potash salts, for example, are usually handled in "bulk until packaged by the local manufac- turers; "but a small proportion is "bagged at the source of supply, both here and in Europe. Another material, Chilean sodium nitrate, is usually imported in bulk and bagged at the port of entry, more than 93 percent being bagged by the importing agency. Other fertilizers, such as calcium cyanamide, are necessari- ly bagged by the producers because of certain characteri sties of the product, such as hygroscopic qualities or fineness of grain. Mixed fertilizers are made by mixing suitable fertilizer materials in the right proportions to give the desired grade or analysis formula. In the smaller plants, the materials are manipulated with simple implements for hand labor, like wheelbarrows, portable screens, a.nd small mixing machines. In the larger plants, the equipment consists of bins for holding materials and mixtures; electrically operated shovels, cars, and elevators for excavating the fertilizers and trans- porting them from place to place; mechanically driven crushing, grinding, screen- ing, ammoniating. and mixing equipment; and automatic machines for weighing the fertilizer, sewing the bags into which it is weighed, and loading the bags into freight cars 5/ . In both types of plants, the materials used are generally re- ceived and handled in bulk up to the final preparation for the consumer. In mixed-fertiliser plants, it is a common practice to prepare and keep in stock what is called dry base goods. This consists of a mixture of super- phosphate and ammonium sulpha.te with or without other materials such as potash salts. The ammonium sulphate reacts with the superphosphate, and the mixture is allowed to stand for a time so that setting may occur. When an order is re- ceived for a mixed fertilizer, the base goods are crushed, passed through a 5-mosh screen, mixed with a suitable proportion of other materials to give the desired grade, and finally placed in bags for shipment. Using this procedure, it is not necessary to keep more than a small supply of bagged fertilizer on hand. The remaining two- thirds of the fertilizer consumed consists of mixed fertilizers or mixtures of two or more fertilizer materials. About 63 percent of the fertilizer used in this country consists of mixtures in which the three plant foods — nitrogen, phosphorous, and potash — are present, and an addi- tional 4 percent contains two of then. At present, 913 plants are manufacturing mixed fertilizers; 191 of these also produce superphosphate. Because of the bulkiness of their product and the varying plant-food requirements of the different sections, these plants are well distributee, throughout the consuming area, which is mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the country (table l). In addition, a large number of plants engaged in manufacturing such materials as ammonium sulphate, sodium nitrate, and potash salts, (or in processing animal and vegetable products) contribute their output wholly or in part to the fertilizer industry. Included in this group are the plants manufacturing concentra.ted or triple superphosphate, like the one operated by the Government at Muscle Shoals. Besides domestic production, considerable Quantities of fertilizer ma- terials are imported, including sodium nitrate from Chile and potash salts from Germany and Prance. 5/ See footnote 3, page 4. - 6 - TYPES OF BASS USED Regardless of type or analysis, practically all fertilizer products are shipped and scld to the ultimate consumers in "bags. The fact that fertilizer is applied, as a rale, only during the planting season and in relatively small quantities, has precluded the development of methods for handling it in "bulk on the average farm. As Orgs have "been the cheapest suitable package, they have "been the type of container used almost exclusively. A few cartons, boxes, and kegs have "been employed for specialty fertilizers, however, and wooden barrels were used for a time in the potato sections of Maine, "bat these are of minor importance. Always, most of the fertilizer bags have been made of burlap. Until about 1225; cotton bags for fertilizer, with g. few exceptions, were used only experimentally or temporarily under unusual circumstances. But following the low prices for cotton of 1926, bags made of cotton fabric were introduced com- mercially and have since increased steadily in use. particularly in the Southern States. Paper bags also have been introduced as containers for fertilizer. Al- though mixed fertilizers ^ero not packaged in paper bags on a commercial scale until about 193.3, mu? ti-wall paper bags are reported to have been in use for packaging special forms of fertilizer for the last 10 years and for agricultural lime and limestone for thu last 30 years. A survey of the fertilizer industry in 1927--28 showed that approximately 98 percent of all fertilizer tonnage reported was packaged in burlap bags and about 2 percent in cotton, By 1937, cotton bags had increased to 12 percent of the total, and burlap had decreased to 82 percent. Paper bags, unreported in 1927-28, were used for packaging 6 percent of the reported tonnage in 1937 (table 3). Table 3.- Proportion 2 - O - QC CO o u Z Ul N > — Ld I- X oj Ld cr o a UJ co < t- -i or Ld Id CT U. _) D _l < Ld cr z < < I CO H o < CO 33 Ld Z < o t- \— CO t- O _) o < QC I Z • UJ — o H CC CO o Ld U. I- < I- Ld Ld cr x o cr — 2 D CO z o o 1/) Ld CO cr Ld < H < CO Id cj cr < CJ co cr • Ld CO Ld cr CJ o - CO u_ Id X H Ld O < t- z z — < 2 -J O H Q < 11 I a. to © ui c t- 2 < — I- C/3 tv o o ui ac V- Ui — a z ac D O u z < Q Z Z — 3 2 o O Q. a i O a o x z I u. o O Id o z o - z 3 Q O UJ 0. CO I 3 t- V£> V) — a < o so z < OC SJ - n a - z -J 3 - O H 0- 0C I Ui If) u. cv Q UI DC K ki U. Ui DC a. Ui CK < CO a < CD Q Z 3 O 0. o 0, Ui co to V -J H Ui CO > O If) - 2 OJ w — Z UI ui ac H- Ui X I Ui s Ui (- to CO J « O UJ to 2 Ui Ui or ui Z 5 _l » UI < a n Z 3 U. 3 O O UI a. « K ! < Z O Ui o to — o oe < UJ CO a a z . . UI 3 Ui Z O N - CL — Z I -I 1 o - > O H t- oj ce Ul UI z « u. — CO Z UI Nl 3 < CO K CO *> CO _l UJ < I- DC < J- H- Z CO UI o o — I I- I- Z GC < o _l z >~ •< I- CO X < H UJ 3 O Ui 05 I I CO a z o • a. cm cc l 3 O UI O o 0C U. CM 3 o u. ••> — O Ui U. u Ui z or < < I- X z K- - Z I- — a Ui z u O X — UI H — CO to o o < a. co Table 7.- Proportion of total fertilizer tonnage packaged in specified sizes of bags, by geographic divisions, United States, 1937 : Size of_bag_(p_ounds_carried}_ geographic division : 200 167 125 100 Other Total : Percent Percent percent percent Percent percent North Atlantic : 3 20 20 52 5 100 East North Central . . . : l/ l/ 85 14 1 100 West North Central . ..: - 33 62 5 100 South Atlantic : 80 8 2 10 - 100 South Central : 24 - 15 61 - 100 Western : - - - 99 1 100 United States : 43 7 18 26 1 100 1/ Less than 0.5 percent. USE OP COTTON IN FERTILIZER BAGS It is estimated that about 18 million new cotton bags were used for pack- aging fertilizer in 1937. Nearly three-fourths of these were of 100-pound capaci- ty, and the remainder were largely of 125-pound and 200-pound capacity. No new 167-pound cotton bags were reported, but a small number of cotton bags of 50-pounc or less capacity were used. In addition, it was estimated that approximately 762,000 second-hand cotton bags were used (table 8). Table 8.- Estimated fertilizer tonnage packaged in cotton and number of cotton bags used, United States, 1937 Tonnage Lined l~[ Bags used Size of bags : Unlined : Unlined ! Lined_l_/_ (pounds carried) New Second- : New New ! Second- New hand : hand 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 ! tons tons tons : bags bags bags 200 : 375 i 2/ ! 3,752 3 167 : 3 i 35 125 : 70 : 1,114 100 : 651 : 35 8 13,021 ! 704 165 50 : 1 l : 2 : 30 20 ! 61 Lurs than 50 3/ 2J 1 16 109 Total : 1,097 ! 39 : 11 : 17,933 762 335 lJ '"<-' V^ n S inside liner of paper or other material. 2/ Lc'ob than 0.5 percent. 3/ Ascumod to average 25 pounds in estimating bags used. - 13 - Practically all cotton "bags used for fertilizer are made from osnaburg, which is one of the coarsest plain- woven cotton materials commercially available The typical 100-pound cotton fertilizer bag, for example, is made from osnaburg that is 36 inches wide, averaging 2.85 linear yards to the pound. This material is cut into pieces 39 inches long, which are folded and sewed with cotton twine to form the completed bag. Other sizes of bags are made similarly with varying specifications (table 9). Osnaburgs used for this purpose are estimated to con- stitute roughly 10 percent of the total production of osnaburg. Table 9.- Standard dimensions of cotton f ertili zer- bags and kind and amount of osnaburg required, United States, 1937 Osnaburg used Bag capacity Width Linear yards. Gut Osnaburg required for ^pounds carried) to p_ound si ze liLPOOJjags ' Inches Yards Inches Square Pounds : yards 200 ' .: 40 2.05 ! 52 : : 1,605 • 704 125 ' : 36 2.85 : 42 1,167 409 100 36 2.85 39 1,083 380 The osnaburg fabric used in manufacturing these bags is usually woven from cotton yarns spun from mixtures of comparatively low-grade, short- staple cotton and cotton waste. Incomplete reports from the cotton-textile industry indicate that the relative proportion of each of these materials used varies considerably, some kinds of osnaburg being manufactured from raw cotton principally, and others containing only cotton waste. In general, however, yarns used in osnaburgs for fertilizer bags contain both materials in about equal quantities. On the basis of specifications shown in table 9, it is estimated that nearly 22 million square yards of osnaburg, weighing approximately 8 million pounds, were used in the form of cotton fertilizer bags during 1937. Allowing 14 percent for waste in the manufacturing process and 5 percent for non-cotton content, it may be concluded that about 19,000 bales (478 pounds net) of raw cot- ton and cotton waste were used in the manufacture of this material (table 10). In addition to fabric, it is estimated that approximately 94,000 pounds of cotton sewing twine were required to sew and close the cotton fertilizer b ags used in 1937. .Allowing for 15 percent waste in manufacture, this quantity of twine would require the utilization of approximately 232 bales of raw cotton and cotton waste. As cotton twine is also used for sewing burlap fertilizer bags, an additional 318,000 pounds of twine, representing 782 bales of cotton, would also have been used. This is exclusive of a considerable quantity of cotton twine used in closing these bags. - 14 - Table 10.- Estimated number of new cotton fertilizer bags used in the United States in 1937, and approximate fabric and cotton equivalents New bags FiOuival pnt t»w cot.— Size of bag used : Equivalent fabric ton and cotton waste (pounds carried) ! 1/ 2/ : 3/ Thousands 1,000 • 1,000 ! Bales Square yards .Pounds 200 I 3, 752 : 6,022 2,643 : 6,137 125 : 1,113 ! 1,300 : : 456 : 1,059 100 13,186 : 14,280 5,011 : 11,635 50 • 9X : ! 71 :' . 20 i - . 47 Less than 50 4/ : 126 ; 54 : 11 : 25 Total 18,268 21 J? 27 8 J. 41 : 18^903 if Based on tonnage estimates derived from survey. Includes lined bags. 2/ Using dimensions and fabric weights given in table 9 for 100-, 125-, and 200- pound sizes, and the following for the smaller sizes: 50-pound bag, 36-inch, 3.50 yard osnaburg, cut 28 inches. 25-pound bag, 40-inch, 5.00 yard sheeting (split), cut 31 inches. 3/ Allowing 14 percent for waste in manufacture of osnaburg s and sheeting and a non-cotton content of 5 percent of the weight of the cotton. (Pounds fabric x 1. 11 = Bales) 478 4/ Averaging 25 pounds. USE OF OTHER TYPES 0E FERTILIZER BAGS B urlap bags .- Although the use of cotton bags has increased considerably, burlap has always been used for packaging fertilizer to a far greater extent than any other type of bag. Fertilizer manufacturers and users have grown accustomed to it and have developed the particular methods of handling that are best adapted to it. When other types of bags are used for the first time by manufacturers, they are sometimes at a disadvantage in comparison until new handling techniques have been developed. By far the greatest number of burlap bags are made of a 10-ounce burlap construction, which is a fabric weighing 10 ounces per linear yard cf material 40 inches in width. This weight of material is used for all common sizes. Bur- laps weighing 9 ounces, 10-1/2 ounces, and 11 ounces per linear yard of 40-inch width material are also used to some extent. In the aggregate, it is roughly estimated that 100 million linear yards of all constructions are used in burlap fertilizer bags in a year like 1937. This yardage is equivalent to approximate- ly 12 percent of the total estimated consumption of burlap in the United States. More than half of the fertilizer tonnage packaged in burlap during 1937 was put up in 200-pound bags. Considerable numbers of 125-pound and 100-pound burlap bags were also used. In addition to new unlinod bags, there was an ex- '. •...:•/•; ot' both second-hand burl a r bags and t urlap bar":' carrying inside liners of paper or other materials (table 11). - 15 - Table 11.- Estimated fertilizer tonnage packaged in "burlap and number of burlap bags used, United States, 1937 Tonnage Bags used Size of bags lined l/ Lined If (pounds carried) Unlined Unlined b jcona- oeco ijCl— New iiand New New hand New 1, 000 1, 000 1,000 1,000 1,000 -i Ann tons tons tons bags : bags bags 200 • 2, 601 226 536 : 26,010 2 ; 259 5,362 167 : 508 69 3 6,095 825 35 125 • 1.214 16 13 19,432 249 : 212 100 662 254 : 346 ; 13,233 5,079 6,926 50 : 4 : 2/ 1 163 12 18 Less than 50 3/ 3 1 193 1 36 Odd sizes 4/ : 16 39 227 550 Total : 5,008 604 900 65, 358 8,975 12,589 1/ Bags lined inside with paper or other materials. 2/ Less than 500 tons. 3/ Assumed to average 25 pounds in estimating bags used. 4/ More than 50 pounds. Burlap bags have been used so much chiefly because they are suitable con- tainers that have been available at a price usually considerably below that of other types of bags ; especially in the larger sizes. They are usually strong, particularly in resistance to tearing, but they are not so attractive in appear- ance as cotton bags, nor do they generally have as high a salvage value. Pape r bags .- Paper bags are increasingly more important in the fertilizer field, although only a small percentrge of the fertilizer tonnage is as yet pack- aged in them. So far. they seem to have offered little competition to cotton bags, as they are used chiefly in certain northern sections where cotton is littl used. They are almost unknown in those sections of the South where cotton bags are important. Paper fertilizer bags are manufactured from natural kraft paper and usual- ly consist, of from 1 to 4 walls or plies. Tnere are two types, valve and open- mouth, ranging in capacity from 125 pounds downward. Open-mouth bags are avail- able for closing by either sewing or pasting. Recent improvements in the method of filling both types have increased the use of these kinas of bags. Paper bags possess the advantages of being attractive, affording protec- tion against sifting, and being easy to empty. They have tne disadvantage of being more easily broken than fabric bags and they are not available in the larger sizes. They sell at a price considerably below that of burlap or cotton bags cf the same size, but they have comparatively little salvage value and so it is doubtful whether they have any ultimate advantage in net cost. - 16 - Table 12.- Estimated fertilizer tonnage packaged in paper l/ and number of paper bags used, United States, 193? oize oi Dags ^poLLncis carried.; Tonnage Bags used 1, 000 tons 1,000 bags 125 1 13 100 j : 489 : 9,774 50 2 : 100 Less than 50 2/ : 4 300 Odd sizes 3/ : 4 93 Total 500 10^280 1/ Approximately 37,000 paper containers other than bags, such as car- tons and cannisters, are estimated to have been used. All were of less than oO-ncunds c ar>aci «y. 2/ Assumed to average 25 pounds in estimating bags used. 3/ More than 50 ponnds. S econd-hand bags .- Nearly 600,000 tons of fertilizer, mere than 7 percent of the total consumption, were packaged in second-hand bags in 1937. These bags were used chiefly in the seaboard areas, the largest proportionate number on the Pacific coast. No quantitative evidence is available relative to the trends in the use of second-hand bags, hat limited information indicates that approximate- ly the same number has been us-jd from year to year. The availability of second-hand bags is evidently rather important in determining the type of bags used in a particular section. If there is a large supply, as in some of the port areas, there will be a large use of this type of bag for fertilizer with a consequent diminished use of new bags. The number of each kind used depends, of course, on the relative prices of the two, with due allowance for the superiority in strength and appearance of the new bag and the evaluation of these qualities by fertilizer purchasers. Practically all of the second-hand bags used in 1937 were made or burlap. These bags had previously been used for a variety of purposes, depending on the section. In the South Atlantic States, 200-pound inside burlap coffee bags were used to a considerable extent, as were 100-pound burlap rav>- sugar bags on the Pacific coast. Use of flour bags in the North Atlantic States was reported. In all sections, manufacturers used whatever second-hand bags were available at local stores, farms, and industries. These bags were generally gathered by bag dealers, cleaned out by blowers, repaired, turned, and baled before being offered to the fertilizer packers. In addition, bags in which ingredients had been received by fertilizer mixers were often refilled with the finished fertilizer. Some ferti- lizer manufacturers repurchased their own bags from consumers, but this practice wan limited. Bags were reported to have been used as many as three, four, or five times. - 17 - The great advantage of second-hand bags is their comparatively low cost. Dealers report that they are priced 25 to 50 percent "below the price of new hags, depending on type, condition, locality, and otner factors. Some of the "better grade second-hand hags can he printed with the name and brand of the manufacturer "but, in general, they may he said to be not so suitable in apperrance as new b ags. One or two fertilizer nanuf acturers reported that some second-hand bags, made from heavier fabrics than those generally used, are stronger, and have a higher saLvage value than some new bags, but this is also an exception to the rule. Estimated percentages of the total fertilizer tonnage packaged in second- hand b?.gs in the different sections in 1957 are as follows: 7/ Section Percent North Atlantic 10 East North Central 8/ West North Central South Atlantic 7 South Central 4 Western 45 United States 7 Special types of bags .- Many types of fertilizer are of such a nature chemically and physically that to find a suitable container for them has consti- tuted a real problem for both the fertilizer and the bag industries. Some ferti- lizer products ere deliquesce it, and so must be protected against moisture. Others are powdered so fine that special precautions must be token against sifting. Still others contain free acid that deteriorates bags. These difficulties have been met, in part by changing the nature of the product and in part by devising special con- tainers. To combat the free acid sometimes found in superphosphate and other pro- ducts, bags are often sprinkled inside with ground limestone, or are treated with a solution of sodium silicate, paraffin, or some similar substance 9/. In addi- tion, bags that are lined with asphalt- impregnated paper sheets were developed for this purpose about 20 years ago and are now used extensively. This type of bag is generally known as the "W.P.P.L." or water-proof paper-lined bag, and is also used extensively for products that require protection against moisture such as Chilean nitrate of soda. To prevent siftirg and dusting out of seme fertilizer products, "loose- lined" bags containing a paper bag inserted inside the fabric outer bags have been employed. 7/ Two of the three fertilizer manufacturers in Puerto Rico report that 99 per- cent of their tonnage was bagged in second-hand bags in 1937 — 79 percent in 200- pound burlap bags, 21 percent in 100-pound bags. 3/ Less than 0.5 percent. 9/ Collings, Gilbeart H. Commercial fertilizers: Their sources and use. p. 166. Philadelphia, P. Blakiston's Son and Co., Inc. 1934. - 18 - According to the survey, approximately 10 percent of all the fertilizer consumed in the United States during 193V was packaged in fabric hags of these types. Practically all of these- were of "burlap constructions, although a small number of similar cotton "ergs were reported. There was some use of paper hags carrying special, liners, "but as these were not reported separately in tne survey the number is not known, Limited evidence indicates that the use of specially lined bags in the fertilizer industry ha,s been declining in recent years. Improvements in the physical and chemical qualities of several fertilizer products have been made, which eliminate the need for the protection given by these linings. One is the practice of treating superphosphate mixtures with ammonia, a development of re- cent years, which is reported to have greatly reduced the rotting of fertilizer bags 10/. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE USE OF C0TT01I FERTILIZER BAGS Demand for Fertiliz er Bags The extent of the market for cotton fertilizer bags is determined by the demand for fertilizer containers of all types and by the competitive relation be- tween cotton fertilizer bags and other kinds of containers that may be used to fill this demand. As practically .11 fertilizer ici packaged in bags, the number required by the fertilizer industry depends upon the tonnage of fertilizer manu- factured — if changes in the sizes cf bags are overlooked. Factors influencing the use of fertilizer are consequently the factors determining the number of fer- tilizer bags us&c. Ove:: a long period of time, the most important of these are the plant-food deficiencies developing in. the soils and the technological, develop ments that make possible the furnishing of these plant foods through the applicat- ion of chemical fertilizers. At present, 65 percent of all the fertilizer con- sumed in the United Stales is used by States on the Atlantic seaboard where farm- ing has been carried on over a relatively long period. On the other hand, tho use of fertilizer in many States of the Middle West is. as yet, negligible. But it is gradually increa.sing in this area, whereas it tends to remain more constant along the eastern seaboard. Another important factor in gauging the total demand for fertilizer bags is the increasing concentration of commercial fertilizers. Except in 1957, the gross tonnage of fertilizer u^ed each year since 1931 has been less than that used in 1920. But plant-food content, or concentration of fertiliser had rapid- ly increased, being 24 percent greater in 1936 than in 1920. In effect, a con- siderably greater quantity of fertilizer plant food is therefore being used with- out a corresponding increase in bag consumption. TZhilc it is probable tha.t the tendency to increase the concentration of fertilizers will continue, it i3 not entirely certain that this change will be accompanied by the use of fewer bags. Economies in bagging and in shipping costs resulting from increased concentration should widen the market of the present fer- tilizer iPor.ufacturing centers somewhat. It Is also probably reasonable to expect some expansion of fertilizer consumption in certain Midwestern and Western sec- tions as soils are gradually depleted. 10/ Roos7 W.~h7 and Mohrin^,~A7 L.~ Mixed fertilizers. In Soils and mun, Yearbook of Agriculture, 1938. pp. 522-545. United States Eepartment of Agriculture, 1938. - 19 - In summary, it might "be said that the future volume of fertilizer distri- bution is very difficult to predict hut that, barring rather far reaching develop- ments one way or the other, it would seem reasonable to expect a slow but fairly constant upward trend in tonnage of plant foods applied to American farms 11/ . Over a shorter period of time, the quantity of fertilizer used is deter- mined primarily by economic as distinguished from agronomic considerations. The importance of this set of factors is illustrated in the decrease in the quantity of fertilizer used, and consequently in the number of hags required, from more than 8 million tons in 1930 to less than 4.5 million tons in 1932 (table 2). Such year-to-year fluctuations are influenced considerably by such factors as the income from last year's crops, present price prospects for crops, crop con- ditions, and prices for fertilizers. Statistical indices of farm income are probably the best available single indicator of the demand for fertilizer and of the farmer's ability to buy it. Comparative Cost of Co tt on and Other Bags The comparative cost to the user is one of the most important factors in determining the relative number of fertilizer containers that will be made of bur- lap, cotton, paper, or some other material. This cost of containers is deter- mined mainly by the cost of the fabric or material of which the bags are construc- ted, -which usually comprises about 85 percent of the sales price. Costs of cut- ting, sewing, shipping, etc., take up the remainder, the handling margin being comparatively small because of the large quantities in which fertilizer bags are handled. Regardless of type^ the cost of the bag is hardly ever more than a small fraction of the sales price of the fertilizer which it packages. This cost ranged between approximately 3 and 5 percent of the average price of fertilizer in March 1938, when fertilizer shipments for the year were at their peak (table 13). Use of special types of bags, such as water-proof paper-lined bags, re- sulted in costs somewhat higher than the quotations given. On the contrary, second-hand bags cost less. In March 1937, when prices of cotton bags were com- paratively high, the percentage of the fertilizer-sales price represented by the cost of cotton bags was 8.5 percent. Cotton-bag fabric is usually the most expensive material used in ferti- lizer-bag construction, but it is subject to greater price fluctuations than is burlap and is occasionally priced near or even below the cost of burlap. At such times, the use of cotton fertilizer bags has been particularly favored. For ex- ample, in 1926 osnaburg prices approached closely the prevailing burlap prices for a few months, and thus the first successful commercial introduction of cotton fertilizer bags was made possible. By the fall of 1927, however, osnaburg con- structions used in fertilizer bags were again priced considerably higher than the corresponding jute fabrics. Decpite this fact, cotton bags continued to be used, because of the farmers' preference for them. In 1931-32 and in 1937, the margin between cotton and burlap prices again narrowed, giving a strong stimulus toward^ 11/ O'Donnel, A. F. The fertilizer industry study, p. 176. U. S. National Re- covery Administration. Division cf Review. Work materials No. 63. Washing- ton, L. C. , 1936. (Processed.) - 20 - the use of cotton bags. As most of the "bags used during 1937 were bought before the decline in cotton prices, the increase in cotton bags used because of this last price change is not definitely known. However, several fertilizer manufac- turers reported that they were using a greater number of cotton bags in 1938 than in 1937. Prices in force during the latter part of 1933 continued to be favor- able for increased use of cotton fertilizer bags (fig. 3). Table 13.- Cost of bags required for packaging 1 ton of fertilizer, March 1938 Kind of bag used Cost of bags 1/ Dollars Bag cost as percentage of fertilizer prices 2/ Percent 100-pound cotton 1.40 5.2 100-pound burlap 1.20 4.5 100-pound paper .90 3.2 200-pound cotton 1.22 4.5 200-pound burlap .88 3.2 1/ Based on quotations of bag manufacturers for carload lots delivered in south- eastern States. 2/ Based on average retail price for fertilizer during March 1938 of $26.85, representative of prices paid by consumers in all sections of the country. Prom reports of the National Fertilizer Association. Of particular interest in a study of prices of fertilizer bags is the fact that although as heavy a burlap fabric is used for the 100-pound bag as for the 200-pound bag, an osnaburg that is considerably lighter and cheaper is used in the 100-pound than in the 200-pound bag. Weights of fabrics commonly used in these bags, expressed per linear yard of 40-inch width, are as follows: 200-pound burlap bags 10.0 oz. 100-pound burlap bags 10.0 oz. 200-pound cotton osnaburg bags ... 7.8 oz. 100-pound cotton osnaburg bags ... 6.2 oz. As the lighter fabric is lower priced, cotton bags of the smaller oapacity are priced more competitively with burlap than are those of the larger capacity. This is probably one of the reasons why cotton bags are more e xtensively u sed in those sections of the South where 100-pound bags aro customary than in areas where the 200-pound bag is the usual package. I Cotton bags of all sizes have less of a disadvantage in price than is indicated by fabric quotations, because of certain qualities of the cotton .ma- terial. Since the cotton fabric used is more closely woven, seams in cotton bags are made narrower than those in burlap bags. Since cotton fabric has a greater tendency to stretch, the bag dimensions required for holding a given quantity of fertilizer are smaller than for burlap. Because of these factors, cotton bags have a out sizo 2 inches shorter for the 200-pound size and 1 inch shorter for the 100-pound size than have burlap bags. 21 CO LU Uj. o o -~l •~J "< 2: o Q 8 o a, Uj or o CO *J i u, O Ci 2: o Q Uj ■>»: # 3 u cr ID < Q ui »o 1 CD UJ CK I UJ z »- UJ CD u. < I o z 1- UJ z o ^_ V) < 1— Q z _j UJ o 1 1 1 o D CO 3 z 3 h UJ Q < (- 3 CO UJ < H u_ O u. cr 3 CO < UJ -I (T> Q 1- u. < UJ UJ u, X co o o 1- UJ u. > oc -I u. o a. o to < z cr u. u CO UJ uj CO o Q. UJ 3 X < I < UJ H o sr UJ UJ • CJ UJ CO UJ UJ co CJ i NJ o o z (— }- • UJ CO co CO CD UJ !- UJ a x O a Z z (- UJ z 3 ~i < h CJ> O oa cr a. _J 3 CM UJ < I _) CO CO CO 2 o < ! uj a D co X cr C\J co CO 1- UJ 3 UJ X co < < z 5 (— to CO Z o 3 a CD z < < o CO CD *- 1- CO < < Z h- cr X U. o o UJ H o IS! UJ Z f- cr Ui o o cr _J UJ i-i 1 o X |— cr u. r— H (0 o t- cr co CO UJ Q z UJ u. Q Z o o UJ 1 o z CO o • cr o 3 a. CO a. i < y- CO O UJ CD * o O O oc 1 o o 3 cr _l or o UJ u. CD UJ M o < X u_ • u. 1- _J UJ < CO u. z t- _r 3 o - 22 - Cotton bags also possess an advantage from the standpoint of shipping costs, because they are lighter in weight: 200-pound cotton fertilizer bags weigh 718 pounds per thousand as compared with 945 pounds for burlap bags of the same size; 100-pound cotton fertilizer bags weigh 380 pounds per thousand as com- pared with 630 pounds for burlap bags. Fertilizer manufacturers in some sections of the country charge extra if their product is put up in cotton bags; in other sections they do not. Along the South Atlantic coast — in Georgia, South Carolina, and adjoining States — an extra charge averaging 50 cents per ton was made for fertilizer bagged in cotton during the spring of 1938. This charge closely approximated the additional cost of cotton bags at the time, since 200-pound cotton bags were priced approximately 4 cents more each than burlap bags, at that time. In Texas, Louisiana, and Miss- issippi, most of the manufacturers reported no additional charge for using cotton bags, perhaps because the 100-pound bags used in this section were priced only about 1 cent higher each than the same size of burlap bag. Cotton ban:s make a neater package than jute bags, but it is not probable that farmers pay much attention to that when buying fertilizer. When a preference for cotton ba -s is shown, it is probably based chiefly on the salvage value of the bags after they are emptied. Available information indicates that cotton bags are put to a variety of uses on the farm and in the household and generally have a higher second-hand value than burlap. In some sections, considerable numbers of second-hand fertilizer bags are used for packaging grains and other farm products; but this is not so true of the Cotton Belt, where cotton fertilizer bags are pri- marily used. The factor of sentiment — the desire to use as much cotton as eco- nomically possible — is a factor of note. Fertilizer Manuf acturer s ' Opinio n of Cotton Bags Regardless of cost, a container must be regarded as satisfactory in some degree before it will be used at all. Moreover, if it is priced competitively with other containers, the extent of its use will be determined in considerable ~,ure by the opinion of its users. Therefore, with respect to the suitability of ft rtilizer bags mtde of cotton, there arise questions such as: What is the opinion of fertilizer manufacturers in regard to cotton bags? Do they regard them as superior or inferio"" to other types of bags and, if so, in what respects'? If the factor of cost were eliminated, which type of bag would fertilizer manufac- turers be likely to use? To secure answers to these questions, fertilizer manufacturers were asked to state which type of bag they considered "best adapted physically for handling fertilizer" and were asked to designate their choice for each of three sizes of bags — 25-pound, 100-pound, and 200-pound capacities. A tabulation of the returns reveals that although cotton bags were general- ly preferred for the 25-pound package, burlap bags were preferred by most manufac- turers for the 100-pound nnd 200-pound packages. In general, the proportion pre- ferring each typo of bag was similar to the proportion actually using it. For example, 12 pore ,-nt of the manufacturers thought that thu cotton bag was the best 200-pound package, and 9 percent of the 200-pound bags actually used wore made of cotton. Twenty-five percent of the manufacturers preferred cotton for the 100- pound package, and 26 percent of th ; bags of this size used wore made of cotton. - 23 - Cotton brigs were most generally preferred in the South Central and South Atlantic States; they were preferred by the smallest proportion of manufacturers in the North Atlantic States (table 14). Table 14.- Proportion of fertilizer manufacturers in the United States regarding burlap, cotton, or paper bags as best adapted physically for handling fertilizer, by geographic divisions, 1938 1/ reo graphic division North Atlantic East North Central West North Co: t: % South Atlantic . . , South Central .... 7/estern United States 2 5 -pound package Burlap Per- cent 33 20 2/ 22 53 13 26 Cotton C£Xjt 33 53 2/ 44 21 31 40 Paper Per- cent 33 27 2/ 34 26 56 100-p^und package Bui'lar 2 Per- cent 54 70 66 58 73 63 rer- c ©at 20 */ 30 38 1C Paper Per- cent 37 10 2/ A 4 17 12 200 -pound package Eur lap "Per- ' cent 89 100 u 88 86 l/ 88 C_otton_ Per- cent i 11 u 12 14 12 1 Based on expressions of 133 to 229 fertilizer manufacturers in the United States, 15 to 150 in each geographic division. 2/ Insufficient reports. In analyzing these preferences, a consideration of factors influencing the choices of fertilizer manufacturers is in order. The fact that nearly all manufac- turers are familiar with burl an bags, whereas many of them have never used cotton or paper bags, is of importance in this connection. There is also the possibility that some bag users were familiar with a superior grade of one type of bag and an inferior grade of another. Tore oft m, probably, the choice was the result of a comparison of types of bass with respect to the particular physic? 1 characteristics that the user considered important. To ascertain how cotton bags compare with other types with reference to some of these, fertilizer manufacturers were asked to indicate also their bag pre- ferences with respect to certain designated characteristics. Results indicate that burlap bags are generally preferred for the protection afforded to contents, for ease of sewing and handling, a-nd for resistance to handling w :ar rnd chemical de- terioration. Cot ton bags war 3 rated by most manufacturers as having the best ap- pearance and the highest salvage value. Of importance in ,x assuring the potential market for cotton bags is the fact that cotton bags were preferred with respect to all characteristics by a greater number of manufacturers than actually used them (table 15) . Table 15.- Proportion of manufacturers considering burlap, cotton, or paper bags as best with respect to specified factors, United States, 1938 Factor 25-pound size 1/ : Burlap ^Cotton. : Pap e r Burlap _Cct_ton .Paper .Eurlap_ |_C£tton : Per- : Per- Pdt».. : "ler-"" Per- Per- Per- " f Per- cent : cent . cen" 1 : cent cent cent cent cent Protection to contents 34 : 26 40 : 50 * 29 21 78 22 3ewing or closing ease 45 : 39 • 16 t 59 • 51 ' 1C : 74 26 Handling ease : 45 ! : 39 : 16 . : 65 : 27 8 81 ' 19 Re:-'r ance to handling wear' 69 i 21 : 10 60 : 13 7 1 88 ' 12 Re c - r-'.-^n e to chemical : dr.1 =r a oration : 43 14 : 38 .55 • 15 30 79 : 21 Sal-- ?.,,/.' value : 35 60 : 5 : 48 : 51 1 48 52 &pp©»y£ry.-ft : 13 : 65 : 22 22 • 63 15 27 : 73 100-pound size 2/ 2C0 -pound s ize \J l..v. l-esertir : reports from 128 to 151 nanuf acturerg for the 25-pound size and from 215 to 245 manufacturers for the 100-pound and 200-pound sizes. s\riaai:y AI© cosclusicks Practically all fertilizer products are shipped and sold to the ultimate consumers in bags, most of which are made of burlap. Following low prices for cotton in 1C26, bags of cotton, fabric were introduced commercially and have since increased steadily in importance, particularly in certain of the Southern States. In 1937, 82 percent of all fertilizer tonnage was packaged in burlap bags, 12 percent in cotton, and 6 percent in paper. Corresponding data from a survey made in 1927-23 showed 08 percent of the tonnage bagged in burlap, 2 percent in joitton, ard none in paper. Nearly 13 percent of all burlap bags used in 1937 were lift6i 7:iob paper or some other material; nearly 9 percent were second-hand. Use ;f similar cotton bags was inconsequential. Cotton bags are used more extensively than all rther types combined in Miss- isrimi, /.""ransas, Louisiana, and Texas; and they are used extensively in Alabama, Per.: , Georgia, and Virginia. Paper bac,s are most extensively used in the ?acif_c Northwest and in New York, New Jersey, and Wisconsin. Burlap bags are uoed generally elsewhere. Use of cotton bags is centered in those southern States whore 100-pound con- tainers are customary, partly because the cost differential between cotton and bur- lap r^ga in sm-.l lor for 100-pound bags than for 200-pound bags. Salvage value of used cotton ba^s and the desire to use as much cotton as economically possible are also important factors. There was considerable variation between sections of the country in sizes of bags used, owing chiefly to methods of handling fertilizer, bag supplies, and avtilubtl i'.y of second-hand bags. Two-hundred pound begs packaged 80 percent of the fertilizer tonnage in the South Atlantic States in 1937, whereas 125-pound bags peekftged 85 percent of the tonnage in the Eost North Control States. Elsewhere, 100-pound bags were most generally used. 25 - In 1937, 18 million new cotton bags were used for fertilizer, requiring 22 million square yards of osnaburg, estimated to be the equivalent of 19,000 bales of cotton. Cotton twine used in sewing fertilizer bags is estimated to have utilized an additional 1,000 bales of cotton. In addition, 100 million linear yards of burlap, or 12 percent of total ftimated consumption of burlap in the United States, were utilized in the 78 million new burlap bags used for fertilizer in 1937. Yerr--to-year demand for fertilizer and consequently for fertilizer bags is determined chiefly by economic factors such as income from last year's crops, agri- cultural price prospects, crop conditions, and fertilizer prices. Over a longer period of time, the type of farming carried on, the appearance of plant-food de- ficiencies in the soils, and the development of suitable chemical fertilizers are i - i 'ant factors. Concentration of fertilizers increased 24 percent between 19 5X) and 1936. Special bags carrying liners of paper, sometimes impregnated with asphalt, have been designed to prevent sifting, dusting, and destruction by acid. Improve- ments in the physical and chemical qualities of some fertilizer products in re- cent years have reduced the &eed for the protection given by these special types of bags. Fertiliser manufacturers thought burlap bags were the 100-pound and 200- r.ound cent iners best adapted physically for handling fertilizer, but preferred cotton b"ga for the 25-pound size. Burlap bags were preferred for protection to contents, fir sewing, closing and handling ease, and for resistance to chemical deterioration. Cot-ton bags were thought to be best from the standpoint of appear- ance and salvage value. A greater number oi manufacturers said that they pre- ferred cotton bags in reference to each factor than were actually using them. Low prices for cotton osnaburg in 1931-52 end since 1937, narrowed con- »i&er&bly the margin between the cost of burlap and cotton bags and this greatly stimulated the use of cotton bags. If present low prices for cotton bags con- tinue, additional use of them for fertilizer seems economically justifiable and fissured, especially in those sections where used cotton bags have a high salvage value. o o o o UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 3 1262 08918 7263 This report is the twenty- second of a series "by the Bureau of Agricultural Economics relating to the utilization of American cotton. Others issued are: A Partial List of Uses of American Raw Cotton Cotton Bags in the Wholesale Grocery Trade (Cut of print. See sixth publication listed) Wi rra Uses for Cotton and Its Products Cotton Bagging for Cotton Domestic Mill Consumption of American Cotton "by Grades and Staples Cotton Bags and Other Containers in the Ihclesale Grocery Trade Cotton Bags in the Fertiliser Industry Quality of the Cotton Spun in the United States (Year ending- July 31, 1528) The Use of Cotton Bags as Consumer Packages for Potatoes Cotton Consumption in power Laundries of the United States, 1928 Cotton Picking Sacks, Cotton Picking Sheets, and Tarpaulins Used on Cotton Farms of the United States Staple Length of Foreign-Grown Cotton Consumed in the United States, 1928-1931 Use of Cotton Bags and other Containers in Flour Mills of the United States - 1931 Comparative Advantages of Juto and Cotton Bagging for American Cotton Bales Use of Cotton Bags and Other Containers in Flour Mills of the United States - 1932 Effect of Certain Bale Covers on the Spinning Behavior of Cotton Cotton Fabrics for Bituminous-Surf aced Roads Cotton and Other Materials Utilized in Bags for Cement Cotton Utilized in Combed Marquisette Cotton Used in Tire Fabrics Cotton Bags and Other Containers in Flour Mills of the United States Years Ended June 30, 1933 and 1934 Utilization of Cotton and Other Materials in Fertilizer Bags The studies reported in this series are a part of a program of research of tne United States Department of Agriculture and cooperating agencies on the utilization of American cotton.