Please handle this volume with care. The University of Connecticut Libraries, Storrs ■» " » » » ■^"^■^ » » » _J ML 161.T28 Essentials in music history, 3 T1S3 DDfl7Tlfl7 5 CO H n C3N H to 00 COOKSON MUSIC LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT STORRS. CONNECTICUT .S^i^ ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY From the "National Geographic Magazine," Washington, D. C. Copyrighted 191: A STATUETTE OF EROS PLAYING ON HIS LYRE (height, 42 centimetres) ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY BY THOMAS TAPPER LECTURER AT NEW YORK UNIVERSITY AND AT THE INSTITUTE OF MUSICAL ART, OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK AND PERCY GOETSCHIUS INSTRUCTOR AT THE INSTITUTE OF MUSICAL ART, OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1914 ,,S225?iJ' MUSIC LIBRARY UN^ERSfTY OF CONNECTICUT Copyright, 1914, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS TO FRANZ KNEISEL In This Book is a gift from r^Irs. F.S. Wardwell / PREFACE The object of this work is to present, as the title states, the essential facts in the history of music. To the text, which aims to accompHsh this, illustrations have been added that are intimately related to the sub- ject-matter of the chapters in which they appear. It is hoped that the book will appeal to the music-lover as a simple and naturally consecutive recital of the growth of the art of music as one distinct manifestation of the development of human thought. But it is also intended that the volume shall interest and benefit the student. For the purposes of individual or classroom instruction the book will be found to provide sufficient material for one year's work. When time and opportu- nity permit of collateral reading and research, suitable texts may be selected from the lists given in Chapter XLII (page 329 et seq.) A bibliography of the subject of music history and its collaterals (aesthetics, biography, and criticism) will be found in Chapter XLII. This list of titles constitutes a practical basis for the formation of a private or school library. For the excellence of this list, and the privilege of including it in this volume, the authors are indebted to Mr. Frank H. Marling, of New York City. In Chapter XLIII there will be found selected exami- nation papers in music history set by various schools and colleges. These will provide the student with the best viii PREFACE evidence as to the requirements in such tests. They may also be taken as models for the preparation of orig- inal examination papers. In the preparation of this work the authors have en- joyed access to authoritative sources in English, French, and German, and are particularly indebted to the fol- lowing authorities: Geschichte der Musik of A. W. Ambros, A. von Dommer, Franz Brendel, Emil Naumann, August Reissmann. John Hawkins, General History of Music. Charles Burney, General History of Music. W. J. von Wasielew- ski, Geschichte der Instrumentalmusik im i6. Jahrhuiidert. F. J. Fetis, Biographie universelle des musiciens. Gustav Schillmg, U^iiversal Lexicon der Tonkunst. Carl Engel, Music of the Most Ancie7it Nations and Musical Instru- ments. Sir George Grove, Dictio?iary of Music and Musi- cians. Oscar Bie, Das Klavier und sein Meister. J. B. Weckerlln, Les Cha^isons populaires du pays de France. Dr. A. Mohler, Geschichte der alten und mittelalterischen Musik. Hermann Ritter, Allgemeine Encyklopddie der Musik Geschichte. New York, September, 1914. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction i II. Music of the Chinese, Hindus, and Egyptians 7 III. MtTsic of the Israelites and Islamites 16 IV. Music of the Greeks and Romans . . 23 V. Music of the Early Christian Church 33 VI. First Experiments in the Association of Parts 43 VII. Guido's Successors — Mensural Notation 52 VIII. Music of the People. Troubadours, Minstrels 61 IX. Music of the People. Minnesingers and Meistersingers 68 X. Music OF the People. Strolling Players, Folk Songs, Instruments 79 XL Rise and Progress of Artistic Music. Earliest Schools of Counterpoint . 88 XII. The Dutch School of Counterpoint . 98 XIII. The Influence of the Dutch School . 106 XIV. Orlando di Lasso 114 XV. Pierluigi da Palestrina. Italian Schools. England 121 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XVI. The Music of the Protestant Church. The German Chorale 130 XVII. Rise of the Dramatic Style of Music. Oratorio and Opera in Italy . . . 141 XVIII. Early Era of Oratorio in Germany . 152 XIX. Development of an Independent In- strumental Style. The Organ . . . 160 XX. Instrumental Music. The Clavichord, Harpsichord, and other Keyboard Instruments 170 XXI. Cultivation of the Clavichord Style. Other Instruments. The Primary Orchestra 179 XXII. Dramatic Music in Italy. Later Era . 190 XXIII. The Opera in France and England in THE Seventeenth and Eighteenth Cen- turies 198 XXIV. The Opera in Germany 207 XXV. George Frederick Handel 216 XXVI. JoHANN Sebastian Bach. Comparison of Bach and Handel 221 XXVII. Operetta AND Opera in Germany. Gluck. Mozart as Opera Composer .... 230 XXVIII. Progress and Perfection of the Instru- mental Style. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach and Joseph Haydn 239 XXIX. Mozart as Instrumental Composer. His Immediate Successors 246 XXX. Ludwig van Beethoven 252 XXXI. Franz Schubert 258 CONTENTS xl CHAPTER PAGE XXXII. Romantic School of Opera in Germany. Carl Maria von Weber. Opera in Other Countries 265 XXXIII. Romantic School of Instrumentai Music. Felix Mendelssohn .... 274 XXXIV. Robert Schumann 279 XXXV. Frederic Chopin 284 XXXVI. The Hyper-Romantic School. Hector Berlioz. Franz Liszt 287 XXXVII. Richard Wagner 294 XXXVIII. Johannes Brahms 299 XXXIX. Reference Lists of Musical Celebrities OF THE Nineteenth Century .... 303 XL. The Present Era 315 XLI. Music in America 321 XLII. The Essentials of a Music Library . 329 XLIII. Examination Papers in Music History, Set by Schools and Colleges . . . 353 Index 361 ILLUSTRATIONS A Statuette of Eros Playing on His Lyre Frontispiece PACE Negrite Playing a Nose Flute 3 Primitive Musical Instruments 5 The Chinese Tscheng (Cheng) 7 The Chinese Gong, or Tamtam 8 The Chinese King 9 The Chinese Ch'in, or Kin 9 A Bengalee Girls' Band at School lo The Vina ii The Serinda ii The Music of a Funeral I2 Harp-Player 13 Small Egyptian Harp 13 Double-Pipe, Rhythmical Accompaniment of the Hands, the Harp, and Two Tambouras 13 Harp of Thirteen Strings 14 Dancing to the Crotola IS The Sistrum 17 Cymbals 17 The Psaltery 17 The Shophar, or Ram's Horn 19 Hebrew Coins Showing the Lyre 19 An Oriental Lute 20 French Rebec 22 Music at the Panathenaean Festival 24 A Music Lesson 25 Greek Musical Notation 27 xm xiv ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Greek Cithara 28 Greek Lyre 28 Greek Lyre 29 Greek Cithara 29 Roman Instruments 31 Roman Drums 31 Signal Horn 31 Roman Flutes 32 St. Ambrose 35 Neuma Notation of the Tenth Century 38 Neuma Script, Eleventh Century 40 Primitive Organ 41 Crwth 41 Lyre 43 A Tenth-Century Harp 45 Psaltery 46 Guido of Arezzo and Bishop Theodal with the Monochord . . 48 Organistrum 51 A Class in Music 54 An Organ of the Tenth Century 58 Antiphonarium 59 A Three-String Vielle 62 Instrumental Performer 64 Vielle 65 Organ with Bellows Worked by Levers 67 The Singing Contest at the Wartburg 69 Heinrich von Meissen, called Frauenlob 72 Hans Sachs 73 Manuscript by Hans Sachs 74 The Crusader "]"] Dudelsack Player 80 ILLUSTRATIONS xv PAGE Strolling Players 8i Instrumental Musicians 86 Military Instruments of the Middle Ages 87 From the "Margarita Philosophica" 100 Ti tie-Page to a Work by Hermann Finck 107 Adrian Willaert 108 Jans Pieters Sweelinck 112 Orlando di Lasso 115 Palestrina 122 Palestrina's Birthplace 123 Title-Page of the Wittemberg "Sacred Song Book" (Tenor Part), 1524 132 Ludwig Senfl 136 Hans Leo Hassler 137 Johann Hermann Schein 139 Stage Setting of Shakespeare's "Henry IV," at the Red Bull Theatre, London, 1600 142 An Italian Parody 148 Alessandro Scarlatti 149 Domenico Scarlatti 150 Heinrich Schiitz 154 Theorbo (to the left), Chitarrone (centre), Archlute (to the right) 155 Angel with Lute 157 Sigismundus Theophilus Staden 158 Musical Instruments of the Early Sixteenth Century .... 161 A "Book" Organ 162 Fourteenth-Century Organ 163 Early Portative Organ 164 Organ of the Early Seventeenth Century 165 Girolamo Frescobaldi 166 Primitive Spinet, about 1440 171 A Clavichord, 1440 171 xvi ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Italian Spinet 172 Dulcimer 173 Upright Harpsichord 174 Cristofori Piano 176 Fran9ois Couperin 180 J. Ph. Rameau 182 Johann Kuhnau 185 Antonio Stradivari 188 Nicolo Piccini 193 Giovanni Paesiello 194 Agostino Steffani 196 Zingarelli, Sarti, Tritto, Paisiello 197 Jean Baptiste Lully 199 One of the Twenty-Four "Violons du Roy" 200 Fran9ois Joseph Gossec 202 Andre Danican 204 Henry Purcell 205 Carl Heinrich Graun 208 Joh. Ad. Hasse 209 Faustina Hasse 209 Johann Mattheson 214 George Frederick Handel 217 Facsimile of a Music Transcript by Handel 219 Bach's Birthplace, Eisenach, Thuringia 222 Johann Ambrosius Bach 223 Johann Sebastian Bach 224 Wilhelm Friedmann Bach 225 Johann Adam Hiller 231 Carl von Dittersdorf 232 G. Benda 232 J. F. Reichardt 233 ILLUSTRATIONS xvii PAGE Christoph Willibald Gluck 233 W. A. Mozart 236 Joseph Haydn 241 Philipp Emanuel Bach 242 Silhouette Portrait of Joseph Haydn 243 Leopold Mozart, 1759 247 Mozart 247 Muzio Clementi 249 Johann Nepomuk Hummel 250 Beethoven Medallion 253 Johann Georg Albrechtsberger 254 Franz Schubert 259 Antonio Salieri 260 Schubert's Clavier 262 Schubert's Birthplace, Vienna 263 Heinrich Marschner 266 Carl Maria von Weber 267 Etienne Mehul 269 Luigi Cherubini 270 Giacomo Meyerbeer 271 Jules Massenet 271 Giuseppe Verdi 272 Modeste Mussorgski 273 Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 275 Mendelssohn's Jagers Abschied 278 Robert Schumann 280 Clara Schumann 281 Frederic Chopin 285 Hector Berlioz 288 Franz Liszt 290 Richard Wagner 295 xviii ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Johannes Brahms 300 Joachim Raff 305 Carl Reinecke 306 Peter Cornelius 306 Anton Rubinstein 307 Camille Saint-Saens 308 Pieter Ilyitch Tschaikowsky 308 A Group of Russian Composers 309 Anton Dvorak 310 Edward Grieg 31° Edward Elgar 311 Cesar Franck 316 Gustave Charpentier 317 Richard Strauss 317 Lowell Mason 322 Theodore Thomas 3^4 Leopold Damrosch 325 Stephen C. Foster 327 F. J. Fetis 331 Edward Dickinson 333 Philip Spitta 33^ Otto Jahn 338 Carl Glasenapp 339 Henry E. Krehbiel 34° W. J. Henderson 34^ James Huneker 34^ E. Hanslick 344 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Of the practice of music before the dawn of civiHsa- tion we know nothing. Of its practice by primitive peoples of to-day we have the records and observations of travellers and explorers; these, while of interest from the ethnological point of view, are totally without value in their bearing upon what the critic and music lover recognise as music. Neither the ancient nations nor ex- isting primitive tribes have contributed anything to the art of music, as we practise it, that is in the slightest degree significant. The history of music, then, must deal primarily with what we recognise as its artistic product. Of this prod- uct we have the exact written and printed record in music itself, extending back only a few hundred years. All attempts at presenting the music of ancient nations in our present-day notation are pure conjecture. From the theoretical treatises that have come down to us, some of them amazingly elaborate and detailed, it is impossi- ble to determine what tone successions and combinations "fell with delight upon the ear." In the Bible, in Plato's Republic, in the A^iahasis of Xenophon, music is referred to in terms that indicate how important a part it must have pla3'ed in daily life. But the tones which Jubal produced from the "organ," the "ancient songs" that the Greek children sang in school, the martial strains that cheered the Ten Thousand, the songs of the sailors 2 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY of the ^gean Sea are gone for ever. What we do know of rnusic in ancient times is that it was given an hon- oured place both in domestic and ceremonial Hfe, but of the music itself not the faintest echo can reach us. It may be surmised that the first vague expressions of musical impulse were the vocal utterances of elementary emotional states that have existed from the beginning of human life on the earth. These utterances were not what we should now accept as music; they were differ- entiated but little, if at all, from the tones of birds and animals. It was not until human self-consciousness was considerably developed that these utterances began to proceed from an inner emotional impulse and became to some extent the more or less appropriate reflection of a definite phase of conscious feeling — of an intelli- gence capable of defining the necessary structural co-ordi- nation and refinement of detail. It may be safely assumed that none of the so-called music of ancient and of primitive races was elevated very far above the purely physical or animal utterance. However, we cannot believe that the ancient Egyptians, Chinese, Hindus, Israelites, and Greeks were indifferent to music. They regarded it with great interest and ap- parently held it in veneration. They wrote many trea- tises about it; each nation developed a theory of music quite different from that of the others, and some of these theories are surprisingly profound and thorough. But despite any evidence we can find to the contrary they were lifeless theories which, apparently, were not and could not be put to practical use. Of the three fundamentals of music, melody, rhythm, and harmony, the ancient and primitive peoples undoubt- edly attached far the greatest importance to rhythm. Their melodies were almost certainly artificial and de- void of what we recognise as true musical feeling. Of harmony there is nowhere among any of the records of the ancient nations the slightest trace; and undoubt- INTRODUCTION edly for the reason that harmony is that element of mu- sic which can be born of nothing less than a conscious and definite apprehension of tone relationship, not alone in a mathematical but essentially in an emotional sense. The sometimes too credulous and enthusiastic inter- pretations of these ancient writings on music must, there- fore, be viewed with caution and accepted with consider- able reserve. Up to the be- ginning of the Christian era there exists no positive evi- dence of any, even the most primitive, systems of tone combination. The melodies that may have existed were not recorded in a form that admits of reproduction, and no one now knows how they sounded. Judging from the subtle conditions which regu- late our modern melody and from the attitude and actual musical attainment of the overwhelming majority of music listeners even in our enlightened age, it must be concluded that these ancient melodies could have been no more than fragments of tone succession, with no more in- herent evidence of tone sense than might be expected of the rudest natural instinct. Rhythm was probably the most completely system- atised element in ancient music; for the rhythmic sense is not only aroused by the movements of the body but is in- herent in the vital mechanism of the body itself. Rhythm is a physiological fact to which the primitive mind must respond, by nature and necessity, more quickly than to From the "National Geographic Magazine," Washington, D. C. Copyrighted 191 2. NEGRFTE PLAYING A NOSE FLUTE 4 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY any other less material impulse. Hence the well-nigh universal practice of the dance either as spontaneous expression of pleasure or as an integral part of cere- monial performance. The probably rational, regular, and varied rhythmic forms found ready expression upon the drums and other instruments of percussion which apparently abounded among ancient peoples, and most prominently among those known to have been the least emotional. The profusion of musical instru- ments, both wind and string, which might bias our cor- rect judgment of the musical culture of the older na- tions, is more than likely but one further proof of the essentially inartistic nature of their music; for the di- rect and fundamental expression of real feeling is vocal. It is not until the emotional impulse has passed that we turn to the less direct and more mechanical reproduc- tion upon an instrument, of that which is vocally ex- pressed. Instrumental utterance is opposed to vocal, precisely as physical manifestations are consequent upon emotional states, and the nations which in early days possessed the largest inventory of musical instruments were probably the ones which had the crudest and most elementary perception of music as a truly emotional vehicle. Further, the undoubted existence of a well-developed and, in its way, logical music theory, the volumes of essays and treatises upon music, such as are found among ancient peoples, are not conclusive evidence that real music, in any artistic sense, actually existed. They do prove, however, the universal susceptibility of the human mind and soul to the mysterious power of music. These ancient peoples felt the influence of tone without really knowing much that was vital about it, just as one may feel electricity without possessing the remotest knowl- edge of what it is, and yet be able to write voluminously about the sensations and conjectures it stimulates. Hence, it is more than likely that music as the art of INTRODUCTION 5 tone combination, based upon the natural laws of tone relation, was totally unknown to any one of the ancient races before the Christian era; that their musical practices were at first but little different from purely elementary emotional utterance, and even when advanced and systematised were still crude in the extreme; and Copyrighted by Underwood & Underwood. PRIMITIVE MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (central Africa) that possibly the best, most natural, and instinctively musical expressions were those of the Egyptian, Indian, Greek, or Hebrew toiler who could not help lightening his task — ^just as the unsophisticated toiler of the pres- ent age does — by some sort of vocal expression that may have been akin to song and which may have crystallised into recognisable forms, repeated and handed down as possible types of the melodies which were used in the services of the early Christian church. From the fact that many of the ancient nations ascribe the invention of music to a god are we made aware of its great antiquity. Its origin is thus accounted for in 6 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY many mythologies. The scientists, turning from these reverential and poetic attempts at explaining the remote and uncertain, have disposed of the question in ways widely at variance with one another. The naturalist Charles Darwin presented the hypothe- sis that both melody (tones) and rhythm (movement) were first acquired by the male progenitors of the race for the sole purpose of attracting the opposite sex.* Herbert Spencer has advanced the theory that "song employs and exaggerates the natural language of the emotions," that "vocal music, and by consequence all music, is an idealisation of the natural language of pas- sion." Richard Wallaschek, whose Primitive Music is a most noteworthy contribution, advances this opinion: "It is with music as with language; however far we might de- scend in the order of primitive people, we should prob- ably find no race which did not exhibit at least some trace of musical aptitude and sufficient understanding to turn it to account." f * Charles Darwin, Descent of Man, vol. II, chap. 19. t Primitive Music, chap. I. CHAPTER II MUSIC OF THE CHINESE, HINDUS, AND EGYPTIANS Far from treating music with indifference, the ancient Chinese regarded it as worthy of scientific observation and study. They wrote many treatises on the subject, the oldest of which appeared in the eleventh century B. C. Such historic records as we possess indicate that their conception and practice of music were dull and lifeless. Thev seem never to have discovered its artistic and THE CHINESE TSCHENG (CHENG) emotional possibilities, even as contained within their fairly definite scale form. This scale — pentatonic, or five-toned — was without the minor second interval and may have resembled somewhat the modern Scotch scale.* Subsequently this scale of five tones was extended to seven and embraced a compass of two octaves. The musical traditions of the Chinese and their prin- cipal applications of the art were associated with religion and a curiously ponderous symbolism. The following tone succession, which is said still to be sung annually in the temple in honour of the departed, is one of the oldest known melodies: *The tone succession was probably this: -o &- -«? ^- ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY d: =1 t=\-=^- V%¥=S=\ 2:ze: tzzt: -(2- ^—^1 '-a- ttzz^zd :=1=q= -^- -s^- i t^ It will be observed that this melody is based upon the five-tone scale. The slurs are here added to indicate the THE CHINESE GONG, OR TAMTAM regular and metrical structure, which is noteworthy; so, too, is the key-note instinct; the prevailing tone at be- ginning, middle, and end being F. Despite these evi- dences of something akin to genuine musical instinct, the melody is clumsy and untuneful. There exists nowhere in Chinese music the slightest trace of tone combination in a harmonious sense. They have always used a large number and variety of instru- ments; most of them, however, in keeping with their CHINESE, HINDU, AND EGYPTIAN 9 primitive conception of sound, were nois}^ instruments of percussion, whose chief office it was to mark the rhythm. Their principal instruments are the gong, or tamtam, the king, the tscheng, and the ch'in (or kin). THE CHINESE KING Sharply contrasted with Chinese musical practice was, and is, the musical life of the Hindustani. The Hindus put the same m3^sterious and poetic construction upon CHINESE CH'IN, OR KIN music that pervades their entire thought and civiHsation. At the present day Hindu music displays a noteworthy quality of theoretic and practical development, but there is no proof that this was the case in ancient times. Music appears to have been always greatly prized and extensively employed, and not exclusively in connec- tion with religious customs but also in public and pri- vate life. lO ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Hindu musical theory was extremely extensive and thorough. The Hindus based their practice upon a suc- cession of seven tones, which is singularly like our modern major scale. To these seven tones they gave melodious names, which were abbreviated in singing to the first syllable, resulting in the following series: Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni (Sa). This significant analogy with the modern system of Guidonian (and subsequent) syllables — Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti (Do) (see Chapter VI) — and the coincidence A BENGALEE GIRLS' BAND AT SCHOOL (they are playing the VINA, AN INSTRUMENT OF GREAT ANTIQUITY) of the Hindu scale with our scientifically established major scale seem chiefly to vindicate the unity of human thought when guided by true, natural instinct. The seven-tone Hindu scale was divided into twenty- two so-called struti, or quarter-tones. But, as there should be twenty-four quarter-tones within the octave, their theory betrays a palpable error, which must be, and doubtless is, corrected in practice. Very numerous examples of Hindu melody have been collected and noted down, chiefly by English explorers. That many of them should exhibit musical charm and natural melodious expression may be due to the fact that they are of recent date and have been influenced to some extent by modern European musical culture. There CHINESE, HINDU, AND EGYPTIAN ii is no proof that the}^ possess great antiquity. The rhyth- mic structure is interesting and natural and the forms are S3^mmetrical. The melodies are transmitted orally from teacher to scholar, and thus their preservation depends chiefly upon memory and tradition. Nevertheless, the Hindus use a THE VINA primitive sort of musical notation by letters, declared by the distinguished historian Fetis to be the oldest in ex- istence. Five tones of the scale are designated by the consonants which appear in their names and the other two by the short vowels a and i: long vowels denote double time-values; and all other directions are given, THE SERINDA partly by a number of curved lines and partly by ad- joined words. The musical instruments of the Hindus were not nu- merous, but appear to have been (or, at least, are at the present day) possessed of genuine musical quality and in- genious mechanism. The two most characteristic instru- 12 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY ments are the vina and the serinda. The vina is a cyUndrical tube three to four feet in length; the reso- nance is produced by two hollow gourds attached, one at each end, on the under side. The strings are plucked (as in playing the modern banjo) with a sort of metal thimble. The tone is clear, resonant, and agreeable. The serinda is much like our violin; it has three strings THE MUSIC OF A FUNERAL (from a tomb at Thebes) and is played with a bow. Great antiquity is ascribed to it, so that it may be regarded as the oldest progenitor of our group of violins. The music of the Egyptians is believed to be of great antiquity. Of its character in ancient times nothing is known; but the conjecture, based upon the numerous instruments they possessed, seems reasonable that their practice of music was extremely extensive. The multi- tude of pictures on the walls of Egyptian tombs afford an insight into the life, religious and private, of the people, and everywhere proofs abound of the degree and manner of their musical occupations. There we find de- picted harps of all shapes and sizes, numerous varieties of l3Ares and of single and double flutes. These instru- ments are manipulated in many instances by large bod- CHINESE, HINDU, AND EGYPTIAN 13 ies of musicians, while singers of both sexes stand near. Music accompanied almost every religious and social function: the sacrifice, the dance, the dirge, and the festival. Most prominent among their instruments is, everywhere, the harp, to which they gave the HARP-PLAYER (MEMPHIS) melodious name tebunJ. The Greeks ascribe the invention of the flute to the Egyptians. small Egyptian harp Egyptian music was, doubtlessly, of the same primitive, crude character as that of other ancient nations. Sir Edward William Lane collected a number of Egyptian melodies in 1836, claimed by them to be of extremely remote origin, but they afford no re- liable clew to the character of early Egyptian music. The melodies are based upon a tetrachord, or four-tone DOUBLE-PIPE, RHYTHMICAL ACCOMPANIMENT OF THE HANDS, THE HARP, AND TWO TAMBOURAS 14 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY scale — the same primitive series which, constituting the basis of all Greek musical theory and practice, found its way into the subsequent systems of early European musical scholars. {:: •zzfjut F=1===: The rhythmic formation of these (modern) Egyptian tunes is very regular and interesting, though simple. This, however, is no proof of similar perfection of their ancient forms, for the influence of European music can- not have failed to reach these, as it has all other semi- HARP OF THIRTEEN STRINGS CHINESE, HINDU, AND EGYPTIAN 15 civilised races. Here, again, not the remotest reference to or indication of a harmonic S3^stem can be found. And no system of notation was ever known to them or used by them. The Egj^ptians possessed many forms of musical instru- ments; among them the double pipe, the tamboura, the crotola, and a great variety of harps. DANCING TO THE CROTOLA CHAPTER III MUSIC OF THE ISRAELITES AND ISLAMITES Because of their relation to the Christian religion our interest and sympathy are more intimately aroused and deeply touched by the history of the ancient Hebrews than by that of any contemporaneous race. And, there- fore, is our curiosity greater and the disposition to attach unusual importance to their music stronger than that impelled by the historic accounts of music among other nations of antiquity. It is generally assumed that in former times music attained a comparatively high degree of significance and perfection among the children of Israel. In probable consequence of this it had a very direct bearing upon the music of the early Christian church, quite as im- portant, in fact, as that which w^as exerted by the well- preserved musical theory of the Greeks, if, indeed, not more so. Both Hebrew poetry and Hebrew music seem to have served from the beginning no other purpose whatever than to extol Jehovah and to proclaim and emphasise divine ideas and ideals. The Old Testament abounds in passages which refer not only to the office of music as employed in the temple service and on other festival occasions, but they indicate in detail the manner of its treatment and the instruments to be employed. Many instances attest this: Miriam's Song of Triumph; the welcome of King Saul with the sound of psalters and tabret, lute, and cyther; and the ovation to David upon his return from the overthrow of the PhiHstines. While in other countries at this early period music i6 THE ISRAELITES AND ISLAMITES 17 was chiefly a secular amusement, it expressed in Israel the impulse to higher and truer development in the service of a fervent religious belief. Most conspicuous among the historic names in early Jewish history is that of David. He it was who founded the temple music, confirmed the privileges of the Levites, and conferred definite authority upon the musical divisions of the tribe. Himself an ardent lover of music, he seldom ap- pears in Bible narrative to act or speak without the THE SISTRUM CYMBALS THE PSALTERY accompaniment of music in some form — either he per- forms upon the harp himself or he directs the musical practices of his followers. Of the nature of ancient Hebrew melody no definite conception can be formed, but it is safe to conjecture that, from its uses and associations, it must have been solemn and dignified of character, possibly something akin to the monotonous chant, within narrow compass, established by Pope Gregory in the early service of the Christian church. The religious chants must certainly have evinced less rhythmic vitality than were native to their festival, secular, and martial melodies. These must have been more vigorous and rhythmically diversified. Of harmony there is, even among so significant a people, not the re- motest evidence. The Hebrew mode of singing in the temple and syna- gogue was probably antiphonal or alternating, either be- ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY tween priest and congregation, or precentor and choir, or between groups of singers. This is impHed by many passages in scriptural poetry, especially in the Psalms. For instance, in the thirty-eighth Psalm, which consists wholly of responsive lines, we find this example of an- tiphonal worship: Priest. — "O Lord, rebuke me not in Thy wrath," Congregation. — "Neither chasten me in Thy hot displeasure;" Priest. — "For Thine arrows stick fast in me," Congregation. — "And Thy hand presseth me sore." The Hebrew form of scale was, no doubt, one of four tones, the tetrachord, which seems to have been univer- sal in ancient times. A melodic fragment like the fol- lowing, still used in the synagogue and declared to be of extreme antiquity, indicates the application of the tetra- chord : -ft — — - Hear ye, Is - ra - el, the Lord most m ho - ly, He lone your God." Some historians have surmised that the tones to be used with a line of text were indicated by the accents of Hebrew script. Whether this conjecture be true or not, there is no evidence of any other method of notation. While Hebrew instruments were very numerous, they were primitive and imperfect. In the one hundred and fiftieth Psalm (3-6), nearly the whole ** orchestra" is enumerated: 3. Praise Him with the sound of the trumpet: praise Him with the psaltery and harp. 4. Praise Him with the timbrel and dance: praise Him with stringed instruments and organs. THE ISRAELITES AND ISLAMITES 19 5. Praise Him upon the loud cymbals: praise Him upon the high- sounding cymbals. 6. Let everything that hath breath praise the Lord. Praise ye the Lord. The most Important instrument was the shophar or ram's horn: "The shophar is especially remarkable as THE SHOPHAR, OR RAM'S HORN being the only Hebrew instrument which has been pre- served to the present day in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown, as in time of old, at the Jewish New Year's festival, according to the command of Moses." * HEBREW COINS SHOWING THE LYRE In Arabia and Persia music was, and is, employed in a totally different manner from that prevalent among the ancient Hebrews. The love of the Islamites for mu- Carl Engcl, The Music of the Most Ancient Nations. 20 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY sic, and their natural gifts, are very remarkable and, presumably, always have been. But the history of their music is of comparatively recent date and presents, for that reason, pronounced artistic traits suggestive of a more modern culture that can only have been modelled after and influenced by the refined European condition of the musical art. The musical theory of the Islam- ites is one of astonishing logical exactness, elaborateness, and thor- oughness. It seems to lack nothing but that correct natural premise which, secured and adopted by the thoughtful musical scholars of the Christian church in the Middle Ages, was destined to develop with scientific certainty into the per- fected art of our day. But the basis of Islamitic musical theory was too vague and imaginative for snch evolution. Though closely allied to nature in a poetic sense, it was not so in the practical application which they made of it. The musical practice of the Islamites was not asso- ciated with religion, as among the Jews, but was ex- plicitly prohibited by Mohammed as a dangerous enemy and rival of holiness. In consequence, the tones of the voice and of the lute, which survived or defied this pro- hibition, found refuge and welcome with the nomadic Bedouins in the lonely retreats of the desert and there throve under the strong natural impulses of these wild singers and players. The basis of their theory was a scale of seven tones, corresponding to the modern major scale in all but the last (highest) interval, which was a whole step instead of AN ORIENTAL LUTE THE ISRAELITES AND ISLAMITES 21 a half step, like, for example, the D major scale with C natural instead of C sharp. This tone range was divided into seventeen parts, each whole step representing three while the two half steps remained undivided. Scientific musicians are compelled to admit that this produces a scale form of greater richness and, in some respects, of greater acoustic accuracy than even our modern modes. But the Arabs contented themselves with the mere math- ematical speculation possible within the tone group and have made no truly artistic use of it. The tone-thirds create the impression of dragging the voice, possibly a trifle less vaguely than the struti of the Hindus. This marked peculiarity of Oriental singing and playing is also found in southern Europe, modern Greece, Naples, and Andalusia. Arab rhythms are for the most part vague and monotonous, but in many instances sin- gularly free, energetic, and effective. Arabian melodies, however, possess very positive charm; those in use at the present time, of which some may be fairly old, are quaint, romantic, tuneful, symmetrical in structure, rhythmically natural and interesting, and to some extent positively beautiful. I^L ,2\i:M iliimCTft'^^^^B^^ ^^ ivv;^lin.'^|flvliiijiH.^i^^^l^if The tunes of the Turks are far less perfect and refined; they are sensual, revel in indistinct, blurred tones and vague phrases, are often singularly wild and indefinable, and adorned, even overloaded, with a profusion of fan- tastic coloratures and ostensible embellishments. The most significant point of contact, however, between the music of these races and the art of to-day rests in 22 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the instruments which they used and, probably, to a large extent invented. In this connection, their relation to the modern orchestra and their influence upon it is extremely important. Our lutes, mandolins, and guitars; our oboes, kettle-drums and snare-drums, are all of direct Arabian origin; and, although the violin traces its devel- opment partly from northern Europe and Hin- dustan, it is, nevertheless, true that the adop- tion of the Arabian rebec by the troubadours contributed most largely to the cultivation and spread of this important instrument. The Arabian rebec, called originally rebab or rabab, is a kind of viola which found its way into Europe as early as the eighth or ninth century. The Crusaders brought it from the Orient in the twelfth century. That this instrument persisted in Europe is shown by the accom- panying illustration of a French rebec of the sixteenth century. The chief instrument of the Arabs is the lute, called by them el'eud or el'aoud (meaning "wood of the aloe"), whence the Spanish de- rivative laudo. The important family of wood instruments, popular in European bands in the ^ceJtur™ sixteenth century under the name pommer or bombard, is practically identical with the Arabian zamar. Our present oboe is the equivalent of the discant (small- est) pommer; the bassoon is the bass pommer. No other Oriental race has evinced so marked a pre- dilection for instrumental music as the Arabs. Their wealth of instruments is well-nigh fabulous, numbering no fewer than one hundred and thirty varieties, not in- cluding a large number of brass and percussion instru- ments and thirty others mentioned in their writings but unknown to us. CHAPTER IV MUSIC OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS For many and obvious reasons, the music of the ancient Greeks has always been regarded by historians with far greater interest than that accorded to any other contemporaneous nation. The undisputed supremacy of their culture in literature, sculpture, architecture, and the sciences made the scholars of subsequent ages eager to draw upon the stores of Greek learning. Their pro- found musical theories have repeatedly been reverted to by the pioneers of musical art and science during the Christian era, even as late as the fifteenth century, as presumably the most trustworthy basis and guide to fur- ther development. And while this has proved, on the whole, to be a fallacy (because Greek- theories of music were, after all, but little if any more correct than those of other ancient races), it is, nevertheless, true that many of their basic principles did survive to influence the sub- sequent organisation of the true art-material, probably because of the inevitable coincidence of natural instinct, to some fundamental extent in all ages. Thus we dis- cover a close relation between our modern scale and the tetrachord system of the Greeks; and many musical terms have descended to us from Greek theory, either directly or by way of their Latin equivalents. In Greece we find, for the first time in history, music treated as an object of beauty and of artistic potential- ity in itself. With this people It was used not merely to regulate the dance, to enliven the festival, or to sol- emnise the sacrifice; nor was it regarded alone as a me- 23 24 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY dium of personal expression, but as a thing of abstract beauty in itself, a fruitful subject for philosophical and mathematical speculation. From the Greeks we have the name: Mus-ik, the art of the muses.* But the Hellenic mind ran to plastic forms, and there- fore, with all their marvellous artistic endowment, the MUSIC AT THE PANATHEN.EAN FESTIVAL Greeks were not able to comprehend the true mission of music, the wholly unplastic art, nor to contribute to its development in the proper direction. Still, the reverence and love for music displayed by the Greeks were great. The art pervaded their lives, mj^thical and material. Apollo led the muses with his symboHc lyre. With him was Dionysus, the god of loud, rushing music; then came demigods, human heroes, and mighty epic poets: Orpheus, who subdued the demons of the underworld; Thamyris, who boldly challenged the muses to a contest; Linos, Hymenaeus, and Homer. And so on, to the humbler shepherds, reapers, and workers of fields and vineyards, who lightened their labour with strains that were doubtless a truer expression of human * With the Greeks, "music was never dissociated from poetry, and hence, in later times, mental education broke up into two parts: music proper and let- ters. These might be regarded either as arts or sciences. As arts, they were used to purify the soul; as sciences, to instruct or enlighten it." — Thomas Davidson, The History of Education, p. 94. THE GREEKS AND ROMANS 25 feeling than anything that could be suggested by the com- plex and highly developed theories of greater minds. The first important musical authority in Greek history was Terpander (c. 680 B. C.)> to whom improvement of the lyre and the duplication of the tetrachord are ascribed. Pythagoras (c. 540 B. C.) was probably the first to apply mathematics to music and to establish the basis of the first musical system. For this reason Py- thagoras and his followers were known as canonists, as they thus determined all music practice and theory by *'rule." Pythagoras was followed, about two centuries later, by Aristoxenos {b. 354 B. C), a man of more im- aginative and progressive disposition, who advanced the natural but reasonable suggestion that the ear (the personal judge) and not the rule, or intellec- tual critic, should be the sole guide. He and his school were, there- fore, known as harmo- nists. The hypothesis of Py- thagoras was: "All is number and concord. Numbers direct and maintain the harmony of the universe. Num- bers form also the foun- dation of musical effects. What we hear In the vibration of a string in motion is a number; In music, numbers become resonant; numbers determine the pitch of tones and their Interval relations to one another." The less mathematical and more philosophical Aristox- enos says: "The soul is the tension of the body; and, A MUSIC LESSON 26 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY as with stretched strings in harmony and song, so vari- ous vibrations, according to the nature and shape of the body, are produced, hke unto musical tones." Plato says of music: "It, hke the other arts, should serve the common weal; it is false and reprehensible to declare that music exists for pleasure only. . . . Music should inspire with love for what is good and pure. . . . Bad music is more pernicious than any other evil." These utterances seem to indicate deep insight into the actual purposes and effects of music. But we must not forget that they may have had far greater poetical than practical significance, because that which they called music was a theory, of vaguely apprehended possibilitieSy but not a practical fact — not in any sense that which modern music is, a vehicle of emotional expression. The thorough and mathematically exact theory of Greek music was based wholly upon the tetrachord — a four-tone succession, in progressive pitches, always con- taining two whole-step, and one half-step, intervals. Of these tetrachords they distinguished three species, ac- cording to the location of the half step, at the bottom (Dorian), in the middle (Phrygian), or at the top (Lyd- ian) of the row of tones. Thus: Dorian Phrygian Lydiak These tetrachords were later duplicated, or, rather, interjoined, so that the seven-tone scale resulted. In the case of the Lydian mode, this corresponded exactly to the modern major scale excepting that it began with the fifth tone (dominant) instead of with the key-note. Thus: Lower tetrachord =^E=^^ "25 —^^^ . Upper tetrachord I THE GREEKS AND ROMANS 27 The complete Greek scale ultimately consisted of four Dorian tetrachords extending from B in the bass to A above middle C, To this was added one tone (A) at the lower end, which was called the added tone. Each tetrachord had its specific name; so, too, had each sep- rb TOTE mm GREEK MUSICAL NOTATION arate tone, indicative partly of its position in its tetra- chord and partly of its position on the lyre. Out of this extended scale group seven modes or octave systems were derived, varying simply in accordance with the starting- point chosen. The Greeks distinguished diflPerent voice registers (topoi); a tonos, something apparently similar to our key, and determining transpositions from one mode to another; a diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic genus. They made many other distinctions which, though often singularly vague and to all appearances purely theoreti- 28 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY cal, prove the earnestness with which they carried out their mathematical speculations. The Greek rhythmic systems were highly developed, chiefly, to be sure, in re- lation to Greek poetry, the prosodic measures of which were the universal basis of all subsequent forms. Greek melodies were possibly somewhat more natural than those of other ancient races, but more than likely crude, lifeless, and wholly incapable of development. Of GREEK CITHARA GREEK LYRE harmony, in the modern sense, they possessed not the remotest knowledge. Greek notation consisted entirely of letters. The manner of singing was almost certainly a com- promise between speech and song, a sort of recitative. The poet may have struck a few introductory notes upon his lyre or cithara before beginning his declamation. He may have accentuated certain syllables, may possibly have ventured an occasional embellishment, and, no doubt, carried the voice up or down in keeping with the dram- atic inflections of the epic, along the line of the adopted tetrachord or modus. The chorus, which plays so important a part in Greek tragedy, consisted of male singers. They were directed by a leader, called koryphaeus, who used, instead of a conductor's baton, clattering shoes and marked the time by walking about. THE GREEKS AND ROMANS 29 Compared with the great number of instruments used by the Egyptians and Hebrews, those of Greece appear almost insignificant. Their whole store is summed up in two Instruments: the lyre (and related cithara) and the flute (single and double). Many passages in the works of Greek writers attest the manner and method by which music was performed. Thus we read {Odyssey^ book I) : GREEK LYRE GREEK CITHARA Now when the wooers had put from them the desire of meat and drink, they minded them of other things, even of the song and dance: for these are the crown of the feast. And a henchman placed a beauteous lyre in the hands of him who was minstrel to the wooers despite his will. Yea, and as he touched the lyre he lifted up his voice in sweet song. Again {Odyssey, book IV) : And among them a divine minstrel was singing to a lyre, and as he began the song two tumblers in the company whirled through their midst. Throughout the Anabasis martial music and music of the dance are frequently mentioned. And when the trumpeters gave the signal, they presented arms and advanced. (Book I, chap. II.) As the sacrifices appeared favourable, all the soldiers sang the pasan and raised a shout. (Book IV, chap. III.) 30 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY In the sixth book of the Anabasis the following descrip- tion of a dance with music is given: As soon as the libations were over, and they had sung the paean, two Thracians rose up, and danced in full armour, to the sound of a pipe; they leaped very high, and with great agility, and wielded their swords; and at last one struck the other, in such a manner that every one thought he had killed him (he fell, however, artfully), and the Paph- lagonians cried out; the other, having despoiled him of his arms, went out singing the Sitalces; while other Thracians carried off the man as if he had been dead; though indeed he had suffered no hurt. After- ward some iEnians and Magnesians stood up, and danced what they call the Carpaean dance, in heavy arms. The nature of the dance was as follows: one man having laid aside his arms, sows, and drives a yoke of oxen, frequently turning to look back as if he were afraid. A robber then approaches, and the other man, when he perceives him, snatches up his arms and runs to meet him, and fights with him in de- fence of his yoke of oxen (and the men acted all this keeping time to the pipe); but at last the robber, binding the other man, leads him off with his oxen. Sometimes, however, the ploughman binds the rob- ber, and then, having fastened him to his oxen, drives him off with his hands tied behind him. Next came forward a Mysian, with a light shield in each hand, and danced, sometimes acting as if two adversaries were attacking him; sometimes he used his shields as if engaged with only one; sometimes he whirled about, and threw a somersault, still keeping the shields in his hands, presenting an interesting spectacle. At last he danced the Persian dance, clashing his shields together, sinking on his knees, and rising again; and all this he performed in time to the pipe. After him some Mantineans, and others of the Arcadians, coming forward and taking their stand, armed as handsomely as they could equip themselves, moved along in time, accompanied by a pipe tuned for the war-movement, and sang the paean, and danced in the same manner as in the processions to the gods. The Paphlagonians, looking on, testified their astonishment that all the dances were performed in armour. The Mysian, observing that they were surprised at the ex- hibition, and prevailing on one of the Arcadians, who had a female dancer, to let her come in, brought her forward, equipping her as handsomely as he could, and giving her a light buckler. She danced the Pyrrhic dance with great agility and a general clapping followed. . . . This was the conclusion of the entertainment for that night. When Xenophon had assured Seuthes of the friendship of himself and of his associates, "some people came in THE GREEKS AND ROMANS 31 that played on horns, such as they make signals with, and trumpets made of raw ox-hides, blowing regular tunes, and as if they were playing on the magadis." * P- TRUMPET ROMAN INSTRUMENTS TUBA CORNEA In Rome the purpose of music differed vastly from that pursued by the Greeks, and its character was defined accordingly. The Romans recognised in music neither a medium of emotional utterance nor an object of serious investigation, but chiefly an auxiliary of the dance and ROMAN DRUMS SIGNAL HORN of their extravagant theatrical performances. It served no higher purposes and was limited to the voluptuous practices of a degenerate people. * Magadis, a pipe that gave forth a shrill, powerful tone. 32 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Their principal instrument was the flute, though they also possessed the lyre and cithara of the Greeks and used the straight metal tuba and the rounded buc- cina mainly in their wars or at imposing public festivals. Ovid, speaking from personal observation, calls song, cithara, and lyre enervating. Quintilian indignantly con- demns the licentious music of his day. St. Jerome de- ROMAN FLUTES clares: "A Christian maiden should not know what a flute or a lyre is, or for what they are used." But Epictetus, the philosopher, observed a fact about music that will probably remain true for all time: "And the learning of a carpenter's trade is very griev- ous to an untaught person who happens to be present, but the work done declares the need of the art. But far more is this seen in music, for if you are by where one is learning it will appear the most painful of all in- structions; but that which is produced by the musical art is sweet and delightful to hear, even to those who are untaught in it." * * The Encheiridion of Epictetus, book I, chap. VI. CHAPTER V MUSIC OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH The momentous religious awakening which ushered in the era of Christianity provided wholly new conditions, signally auspicious for the development of music. With the advent of spiritual ideals and impulses, the true power and mission of music became recognisable, and before long there evolved for the first time in human history the possibility of directing this power into its most sig- nificant channels. The regenerated soul, longing for a medium of expression for its new hopes and feelings, found no other form of utterance so peculiarly qualified as music for this spiritual experience. The early Christian congregations were, therefore, im- pelled to sing, as well as to pray; and what they sang could scarcely have been altogether new, but was prob- ably appropriated from the existing traditions of the Jewish church. The first Christian melodies were pos- sibly such remnants of actual Hebrew chants as might have been preserved; or they were derived from other familiar sources unknown to the historian. The hymn sung by the Saviour and his disciples at the Last Supper, as recorded in the scriptures, must surely have been an old Hebrew melody. There is also evidence that Greece furnished melodic material for the early Christian church, especially for the Greek branch. It is more than likely that the method of singing was antiphonal (responsive). Philo, a Jewish chronicler of the first century, is authority for the statement that the psalms and hymns were sung by alternate male and fe- 33 34 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY male choirs (among the Therapeutae, an IsraeHtic sect in Alexandria). At all events, some such mode of alternat- ing song must have been the original type of the antiph- onal chant which subsequently became so general in the Christian church. Both sexes joined in singing; but instruments of every kind were prohibited for a long time. St. Ambrose (333-397 A. D.) is regarded as the founder of the music of the Catholic Church. The first attempts to organise and establish a system of musical service are identified with his name. St. Ambrose was a great lover of music and a hj^mn writer of such eminence that the term Ambrosian was applied to all hymns writ- ten in his characteristic prosodic measure, and even be- came a general synonym for all ecclesiastic hymns of that epoch. LUX BE ATA (Hymn by St. Ambrose). ;eiSE^ :t=t: 1^=0 lux be - a - ta Trl - ni - tas Et prin i=.: m -r—t- ^jrrn^ :[i^=t= t: -pt (Z. ci - pa - lis u - ni - tas! Jam sol re - ce - dit ig - ne - us In - funde di - bus. THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 35 The Ambrosian chant or intonation was, no doubt, recitative in style; the rhythm was marked as in speak- ing, while the voice re- mained mostly upon one tone, excepting at the cadences (the end of the lines or verses), where either a rising or falling inflection was made. (Hence, cadence from cado, cadere, to fall.) There was yet no system of musical no- tation; the tones were indicated by letters only, as among the earlier Greeks. St. Ambrose classified his intonations accord- ing to the following four modes, borrowed, pre- sumabl}^, from the Greek theory; these are known as the Ambrosian ecclesiastic tones or authentic modes: From "I'Histoire du Bas-Empire," tome II. ST. AMBROSE TETRACHORD TETRACHORD I. d-e^-g' a-b^-d 2. €-¥-G-k B^-D-E 3- F-G-A-B> C-D-E-F 4. G - A - B-C D - E-F - 1 -G In the third of these modes the usual tone B gave a succession of three whole steps (the tritone), which was not permitted in a system based upon the tetrachord, in which, as in Greek theory, one of the intervals should be 36 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY a half step. To remove this error the pitch of the tone B was lowered a half step when this tetrachord was used, and this change was indicated by altering the form of the letter from the usual square B (p) to a round B (b). The square ^ denoted the "hard" melodic interval (the tone used in all other modes); the round b, the "softer" interval, now known as b-flat. These forms of the letter B are the forerunners of our modern tf and b.* It must not be forgotten that at this time music was limited to melody alone. Harmony, or anything ap- proaching the idea of independent parts, was still wholly unknown. In course of time a more perfect system became desir- able, and the efforts to bring this about seem to have centred next in Gregory, surnamed the Great (born about 540 A. D.; pope from 590 to 604), who is credited with having reformed and reorganised the liturgical and musical service of the Catholic Church. The music he established was called the Gregorian chant. All of the intonations belonging to his liturgy were noted (in letters only) in a book called the Antiphonaryy which, bound by a chain to the altar of St. Peter's church in Rome, was to remain an inviolable guide for the music of the Roman Church for all time. For this reason every chant it contained was known as a cantus firmus (fixed chant). The name cantus planus (plain chant) was given to some of them, that were sung in tones of uni- form length. The distinction between the Ambrosian and Gregorian manner of singing appears to have rested largely upon the rhythm, which, in the former, was apparently far more natural and animated, conforming to an unconstrained declamation of the text. The Gregorian chant, on the contrary, held less strictly to the natural rhythm of the * Progressive forms of the flat in musical notation: THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 37 KSTlL A J SCM JiTRlil- U£K WATif fST NOBIS /•.fr A.^** ^^ n ^4 y> i f ^-^ ^-^ />" n . jt: II 7 J*- '" " -^ ■-^. < .y'-: 4 From the " Antlphonarium of St. Gregory" (Monastery of St. Gall, A. D. 790). 38 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY words; the spondee metre (all long syllables) was held to be most consistent with the solemnity of sacred song and better adapted for the participation of a large uni- son choir. Further, the Gregorian chant was no longer strictly syllabic (a tone for each syllable); not only were two or more tones often sung to one syllable, but at times a whole melodic group accompanied a single vowel. Gregory increased the number of modes to eight by adding four subordinate ones, known as plagal, to the four authentic modes of Ambrose. The plagal modes differed from the authentic only in that they proceeded from dominant to dominant (fifth step) instead of from key-note to key-note.* Thus: Tone I, authentic: D-e-f-g-A-b-c-D. Tone I, plagal: A-b-c-D-e-f-g-A. Besides notation in letters there was another system of which Gregory, and perhaps earlier writers, are known to have made some use. This was the so-called neuma script (from pneuma, breath) and was said to have been invented by a monk, St. Ephraem, as early as the fourth century, in which case it would probably have been ; m NEUMA NOTATION OF THE TENTH CENTURY known to Ambrose also. It was, at all events, the first device for indicating musical sounds ever invented that proved to be capable and worthy of development, and it was the fundament of the subsequent mensural system, the direct forerunner of our modern musical notation. This neuma script (also known as the nota romana) consisted of fourteen small characters: * See Karl Eduard Schelle's Die pdpstliche Sdngerschulc in Rom (1872). THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 39 which were gradually combined and multiplied to about forty.* The neumas did not indicate any particular tone or time-value, but merely the rising, falling, sustaining, or inflecting of the voice in a general way. They were, consequently, mnemonic rather than strictly notational. Finally — possibly as early as the seventh century — some conscientious copyist hit upon the simple expedient of drawing a line to guide him in placing his neumas accurately and neatly above the text. This probably purely accidental device was soon turned to account as a means of fixing the pitch of the tones themselves. The first line was fixed for the middle F of the bass and was identified by the corresponding letter (F or ^), from which, in a roundabout way, the present sign of the F clef (•^i or ^:) has been derived. f Shortly afterward — about the ninth century — a second line was added, representing the fifth tone above F (that is, C), also marked with its letter (!•. > the original of the modern C clefs). J The F line was red, the C line either yellow or green. Later, a black line, for the tone A, was placed between these, at first dotted but later continuous. Thus the musical staff was gradually formed; and it grew until a few centuries later it became the so-called great staff of * See Plain Song, by the Rev. Thomas Helmore. ' T py <^/P ): ):]; yy » rf- iC l! < • : ^. ee-c c C, e C C C p |:|!p l i M tj 40 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY eleven lines — our present G and F staves with the C line between. Singing-schools for the study of the Gregorian intona- tions were established not only in Rome but also in Gaul, Britain, and Germany. But these were not the . r ^ . ^F ^ •^/^ ^ J ^^ . HE \^ m •^ ' m -^ ^ l{_y c^-vc-i^e >He -ui go C^e-ct aut "nT" NEUMA SCRIPT, ELEVENTH CENTURY first; the significance of music as a vital factor of ecclesi- astic life was early recognised and its use and cultiva- tion received serious attention almost from the begin- ning. The first school of song mentioned is that of Pope Sylvester, established in Rome some time between 314 and 355. Later schools are ascribed to Pope Hilarius (461-468) and others. The influence of the Gregorian system upon the artistic development of ecclesiastic mu- sic extended, undiminished, over a period of a thousand years (from 600 to 1600 A. D.), and to the present day it constitutes the basis of all Roman CathoHc musical ceremony and service. The music of the people remained entirel}^ independent, and exerted in Gregory's time — and even long after — no vitalising influence upon that of the church. All serious and, in a sense, artistic music of the early and Middle Ages found its home, its place of nourishment and grad- THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 41 ual systematic evolution, within the church, where it was revered and cherished as an integral part of all holy life. The duration of the Gregorian style of ecclesiastic song may be bounded by the years 590 A. D., when Gregory acceded to the pon- tificate, and 900 A. D., when the first experiments in combined melody were ventured. PRIMITIVE ORGAN (museum at arles) The instruments of this era were a primitive church organ and, among the people, the harp, rota or crwth, large and small hurdy-gurdy, psaltery, and a few others. This period is almost identical with that in which Anglo-Saxon poetr}^ flourished (650-825 A. D.) and led into the reign of King Alfred (871-901). The great Anglo-Saxon epic, Beowulf, and the cycles of Caedmon and Cyne- wulf belong here. About 600 A. D. St. Augustine became the teacher, to the Anglo-Saxons, of the Christian religion. King Alfred, distinctly an edu- cator of his people, prepared many books for their use. CRWTH (ninth century; 42 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY The early poetry of the land that afterward was known as England "was made current and kept fresh in the memory of the singers. The kings and nobles often at- tached to them a scop, or maker of verses. . . . The banquet was not complete without the songs of the scop. While the warriors ate the flesh of boar and deer and warmed their blood with horns of foaming ale, the scop, standing where the blaze from a pile of logs disclosed to him the grizzly features of the men, sang his most stir- ring songs, often accompanying them with the music of a rude harp." * Comparatively little mention is made in Beowulf of the practice of music in the stirring scenes that centred in Hrothgar's great hall. "... light-hearted laughter loud in the building Greeted him daily; there was dulcet harp-music, Clear song of the singer." In Beowulf s Reminiscences: "... the riders are sleeping, The knights in the grave; there's no sound of the harp-word. "f * History of English Literature, R. P. Halleck. t Beowulf, translated by John Lesslie Hall, Ph.D. CHAPTER VI FIRST EXPERIMENTS IN THE ASSOCIATION OF PARTS The time was come when those who revered music and beheved in its wider power grew impatient of the nar- row and monotonous mode of unison singing. Faint pre- sentiments of harmonic possibil- ities may have moved them. The growing richness and might of the church, its extension in many di- rections, may have created a de- sire for ampler expression. Cer- tain it is that in the first decade of the tenth century, if not earlier, attempts were made to combine — or, rather, to multiply — the vocal parts. This was the most momentous step in all the range of music history, for it pointed out the only method of extending and amplifying the resources of musi- cal expression; it was the only progressive movement which could surmount the barrier and continue on the way to positive development. Music had gone as far as it was possible for it to advance along the avenues it had followed hitherto; it had reached the final stage on the road of single melody; in its pro- gress it had arrived at the point which permitted no further exploitation unless some new path could be found. It may have been, and more than likely was, an accident 43 LYRE (ninth CENTURYJ 44 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY which led into the open road, though, no doubt, the guardians of the music of the church were constantly searching and watching for a revelation which their daily musical experiences inclined them to forecast. But they could not know or foresee to what end this possibly ac- cidental association of parts would lead. Nothing else could have unlocked the vast treasure-house of musical potentiality — could have started the process of evolution that has led to the truly marvellous art of our day. The individual associated with the new movement was Hucbald, or Ubaldus, a learned Benedictine monk in the convent of St. Amand, in the French Netherlands, who lived from 840 to 930. Whether or not Hucbald originated these novel experiments of increasing the one- voice (unison) mode of singing the Gregorian intonations to a more ample body of two or more simultaneous melo- dies, or merely assisted in systematising them, is not known. But we do know that he was a profound Greek scholar, familiar with Greek musical theory, and inclined to adopt certain of its precepts. This is attested by two kinds of notation emplo3^ed by him, and by his applica- tion of the ancient Greek names to the Gregorian modes, though, for some unexplained reason, in reversed order. Another (third) variety of notation is ascribed to Huc- bald, which, though not destined to survive, is never- theless noteworthy. It consisted in placing the syllables T ta T li/ \ lus\ T Ec\ Israx / in quo \ 0/ no\ S ce\ re/ he do/ on"^ X T ve/ est. T In modern notation: il5 Vir 9-f9- ±=[1: :^t: -h-+- Ec - ce ve - re Is - ra - e - li - ta in quo do - lus non est, A SYSTEM OF NOTATION EMPLOYED BY HUCBALD THE ASSOCIATION OF PARTS 45 of the text in the spaces of a staff of several Hnes, whereon the intervals from space to space were indicated by the letters T (tonus, or whole step) and S (semitonium, or half step). The first attempts at com- bining melodic parts were known originally by the name of or- ganum, and later discantus (di- versus cantus). These were of two kinds; the first consisted in an unaltered succession of par- allel fifths or fourths and oc- taves. To the Gregorian melody (the cantus firmus), as lower- most part, a higher voice was added, singing exactly the same melody either in the fourth or fifth. In case the organum (or discantus) was to embrace more than two parts, one or both of these voices was doubled in the next higher octave. Thus (in modern notation) : A TENTH-CENTURY HARP I I "^'- g— ! a-G>- -f2— «)— e>- and r-r- X-- \^B '-^^9— ^ ^ — • — 0- ZZ^ -fS C^ f g - la: r-r— r- The importance of the very first experiment of this kind is apt to be exaggerated, though it is impossible to overemphasise the significance of the consequences which followed. As already intimated, the experiment itself may have been quite accidental; it may have resulted from a misinterpretation of the given directions on the part of one of the singers, which led him to sing his melody in a different interval from that of his compan- ions. Some historians explain this with convincing plau- sibility as the natural consequence of different singers (men and boys), with lower and higher voices, being com- 46 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY pelled to carry their intonations at different pitches; and the selection of the fifth, fourth, or octave would appeal to the sense of closest tone relationship as we understand it to-day. This may have happened repeatedly be- fore the quaintness of the effect was realised and its possible results appreci- ated. To the modern ear this method of multiplying parts (then called quint- ing and quarting) is re- pugnant. To those who first heard it, it was, no doubt, a welcome nov- elty. It was employed for more than a century without objection, from which fact an impression of the imperfect tone conception and sense of harmonious tone associa- tion of the times may be inferred. In itself, as a specimen of combined melodies, the organum was worth- less; but it soon led to other and more valuable results, as, for instance, the so-called secular organum, in which differ- ent intervals were used, generally in consequence of hold- ing the lower part stationary (on one tone) while the other intonated the cantus. Thus: PSALTERY (ninth century) m\ t==r t t "r i The second species, called diaphony, was of greater artistic promise. This consisted in a succession of chang- THE ASSOCIATION OF PARTS 47 ing intervals, only obtainable by the impulse of giving to each separate part a more distinct melodic movement, and of introducing other and more euphonious intervals; for example, the third: :=|: Q J 3 It did not take long to develop this into actual poly- phony, the artistic multiplication of genuine melodic parts. It is evident from this that all the music of the early era centred in melody. There was still no conception of that harmonic style (based upon chords) which is now considered the actual fundament of all musical technic. The experiments of Hucbald tended in a direct line to that style which, two centuries later, received the name of counterpoint (punctus contra punctum, note against note), a designation which it has retained ever since. But a harmonic or chord system did not take shape until the eighteenth century (Rameau, 1722. See Chapter XXI). The novel practice of diaphony was indulged in by all the singers of the time, and it is probable that it gave rise to other experiments which may have threatened the purity and integrity of the sacred intonation. It was, no doubt, necessary and fortunate for the church that a gifted and authoritative musical mind should appear at this juncture to control and conduct the new technical achievement into safe and serious channels. This authority was Guido of Arezzo {c. 995-1050), a Benedictine monk of the convent of Pomposa. Guido was such an eminent leader in musical matters that many of the important innovations of this era have been at- tributed to him, probably without foundation. It is evi- dent, however, that he was instrumental in simplifying 48 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the confused theories of his day; in perfecting the no- tation; in regulating the technic of melody combina- tions; and, most vital of all, in establishing a scale 53^5- tem which has required no significant modification to this day, agreeing as it does in all essential points with the scien- tifically demonstrated major scale of modern music. Certain it is, also, that he refined and exalted the art of ecclesiastic music to a more permanent con- dition than it had yet attained. Guido's musical in- stinct impelled him to abandon the insuffi- cient tetrachord basis of the Greeks and other ancient nations, and to adopt a sys- tem of scale formation founded upon the hexachord, or six-tone succession, zvith a half step in the middle and whole steps between the three upper and three lower tones. The hexachords, three in number, began upon G, C, and F. Thus: G-A-B^-D-E C-D-E^F-G-A F-G-A^B>-C-D For that upon F the round (soft) b already In use was necessary, on account of the central half step. The complete scale embraced twenty tones, from the GUIDO OF AREZZO AND BISHOP THEODAL WITH THE MONOCHORD THE ASSOCIATION OF PARTS 49 low bass G to the high E of the boys' voices, tones which correspond to the white keys of the modern piano key- board; or to the scale of C major, beginning with the fifth step. These were indicated by letters, there being as yet no fixed system of notation. Thus: r, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, a, b or 1S|, c, d, e, f, g, aa, bb, or ^^y cc, dd, ee. (The lowest letter is the Greek G, gamma.) For eadi hexachord (of which the whole scale com- prised seven) the so-called Guidonian syllables were adopted: Uty Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La. They were the first syllables of a six-line hymn to St. John. Each succes- sive line of this music began upon the next successive tone of the hexachord. Thus: -0-^2-0- -(g gy ■ o a .. . f : if -,&-<2- Ut queant la - xis Re - so - na - re fi - bris Mi - - ra — i=5 ^ '^?^ [-/T? ^~'n 73 1 ifij' t^

—^ the hrevis HB, and the semi- hrevis ^. Later, the minima j , the semiminima T and fusa or croma y (each half the time-value of the preceding one) were added. Among these last, the ef- fect of the stems was to divide the value of the note, as in modern notation. The relation of these characters to those of our modern notes is evident: the brevis and semibrevis correspond to our longest time-values ( [j [ [ and fy ), but written as open (white) notes, instead of black, as was the custom until about the fourteenth or early fifteenth century. These terms breve and semi- breve, and also the term minim ( ^j ) ^^e still in use in England, where the semiminim and fusa are known as crochet (J) and quaver ( -1 )• Franco of Cologne introduced triple measure into the mensural system, and gave it the name tempus perfec- tum, or perfect measure, because of its numerical coinci- 56 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY dence with the blessed Trinity, the symbol of perfection. Duple measure was called te7?iptis i7nperfectum. For the perfect {i. e., triple) division the complete, or perfect, circle ( O ) was used as metre signature; for the imperfect (duple) division the sign was a half circle, C, a character which survives in our sign for 4/4 measure and which is incorrectly supposed to indicate "common time." A great number of other distinctions were introduced until, after a time, the entire mensural system became extremely complex and existed apparently chiefly in theory, to a limited extent, onl}^ in practice. When two or more tones were to be sung to one syl- lable the notes were not slurred, as in modern usage, but were joined. The connected groups were called ligatures and were of two kinds, straight and oblique. Thus: Ligatura recta: sung Ligatura obliqua: - — .^■■'"^ sun? " ^ ^^ '^ ! ^ ^~ 1 "~ The writings of the German Franco testify to extraor- dinary progress in the growth of the art during the thir- teenth century, but are insufficient to aff"ord an accurate conception of the matters about which he speaks. He names four distinct classes of vocal music for which the discantus was used; namely, motette, cantilenis, con- ductus, and rondellis. Three of these suggest terms in modern use, but the character of the conductus can scarcely be discovered.* Soon after the days of the two Francos, mensural music appears to have flourished most vigorously in England; * See Chapter XI. GUIDO'S SUCCESSORS 57 but there is positive evidence, as will be seen, of its vi- tality and progress also in France, Belgium, the Nether- lands, Ital}^ and Germany — of course, in connection with the life and ceremonial of the Roman church. The dis- tinguished contemporaries of Franco were: Petrus de Cruce (Pierre de la Croix, about 1170). Walter Odington (about 1228). Jerome of Moravia (early part of the thirteenth cen- tury). Important achievements are ascribed to three nearly contemporaneous musical scholars in the next following generation: Marchetto of Padua (second half of the thirteenth cen- tur)^). Phillip de Vitry (Bishop of Meaux, end of the thirteenth century), Johannes de Muris (Doctor of the Sorbonne in Paris, 1 300-1 370). With the last two, especially, a new era in the development of part-music appears to have opened, for it was De Vitry, and after him De Muris, who first enunciated definite rules of contrapuntal technic and established a regular system of comparatively complex part-writing. These rules, six in number, are recognised b}^ the most refined modern theor}^ as the correct basis of all harmonic and contrapuntal writing. The following are particularly applicable: Rule 3, " Every sentence must begin and end with a perfect consonance," Rule 4. " Every dissonance must be followed by a consonance which resolves it, and not by another disso- nance." Rule 6. " Imperfect consonances (third and sixth) may follow each other in parallel direction; but parallel per- fect consonances (octave and fifth) are forbidden." These rules have retained their validity, because they were the result of correct judgment, by ear or by instinct, of the true natural laws of harmonic succession. 58 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY De Vitry and De Muris taught their new system under the name contrapunctus, though this term was origi- nally limited to music for two parts only, whence the ex- pression pu7ictus contra punctum, or note against note. Examples of the writings of the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries exist, consisting of two, three, and even four independent parts, which exhibit a remarkable degree of skill and a certain kind of stately beauty, though little or no evidence of true mu- sical feeling. In the newly found- ed capella at Avignon a singular style of three-voice psalmody came into vogue early in the fourteenth century. It was called falso hordone or jaux bourdon (English, faburden); the cantus firmus was placed in the upper part and har- monised throughout with parallel thirds and sixths, ex- cepting at the end, where a cadence was made on the eighth and fifth. An example (conjectural) is as follows: AN ORGAN OF THE TENTH CENTURY ^ jC2. T-v.^i^ -1^- %ift -■ — »■ Iw4 tncccdfe 23>rfw "Von "(TiseSinfc THE SINGING CONTEST AT THE WARTBURG ies of his kingdom. Undoubtedly, the determined influ- ence of this man exerted its effect throughout the entire social order and stimulated expression not alone in polit- ical activit}^ but in art as well. Shortly after his death there took place the famous tournament in the Wartburg in Thuringia, perpetuated in Wagner's opera Ta7uihduser. This tournament was, 70 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY however, not a musical but a poetical contest; for the minnesinger was, first of all, a poet, while his music was merely an adjunct to the verse. But this association of verse and song brought a new force to bear upon musical expression and contributed most significantly to the de- velopment of musical practice. The minnesingers who frequented royal palaces and feudal castles as honoured guests and repaid their pa- tron's hospitality with song and lay, rarely depended upon the services of an attendant jongleur, but preferred to sing and accompany themselves. A large number of their melodies have been preserved, in the notation of the time — the large Gothic note— the most of which bear rather close resemblance to the ecclesiastic intonations and are much less flowing and melodious than those of the troubadours. The following sacred hymn is strongly suggestive of the subsequent German chorale, and indi- cates one of the sources from which the chorales were undoubtedly derived: T 1 1 s, /^ :2 fe -:t=4- -2=—^ ZU-?- -(2.—(i— -A — 1 -^ — ^— -^ — <^— -?^ — -^—f— tfe P— Z^ZS_ :=t= 1 — ^ X=^^ [ — :— -(g— ' :t:=t:_ \T f> _^ _(S tiT- "7 pi- =4-| p— — H- tp= ^^ tt= •^ -^ P rfP^ g* -f^*-j te -^- PT d— 2=*- :2i=i-: Others, again, of a somewhat later date, exhibit the more genuine melodious qualities of popular song, as the following, from the second half of the thirteenth century, which is extremely regular in structure (as shown by the slurs and letters here adjoined to the notes), and indicates correct perception of the conditions of good, natural mel- ody: MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE al Fi=P= 71 I :^it -:UEi?. -^-0 ^ bl g^ -^— •- t=«=t -I 1 vl b2 lei - -1=2- iS'- f^ fy -- -/S rs* /^ -^ , 1 1 1 f3 lis ->-r- ' 1 L. L j ' ■ ' t t 1: p 1 t "Gen - e - sis the nine - and -twen - ti - eth you will find: ^ ^ -&- -^- -^ -^- -fS"- _ ^ -fN etc. V- 1 1 1 —I 1 ^— ^ f=£^ ^=^=^=^= ^~^~t :^ ^=tz=t How Ja - cob fled, from his bro-ther E - sau es - caped." The melody here selected bears, it is true, a marked and possibly not unintentional resemblance to the one 76 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY given on page 70, and both might claim to have served Richard Wagner as models for the principal figure in his Mastersinger motive: Wagner's undoubted familiarit}^ with these historic melo- dies, and the consistenc}^ of his artistic methods, preclude the notion of mere coincidence. Their historic significance lies in the evidence they afford of the stupendous progress in musical expression during the past four centuries. It must be remembered that the music activities of this period were stimulated not alone by local conditions. A potent factor that inspired the singers and makers of verse from the beginning of the twelfth century and into the thirteenth was the Crusades. This religious move- ment profoundly affected vast numbers of people. Many women and children shared in the enthusiasm to save the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. In this great movement the energy of the people found a worthy me- dium through which to express and shape itself. The order of knights that grew out of the Crusades bound themselves to chastity, poverty, and obedience. They were at once protectors of the pilgrims and of the faith that inspired their sacrifice. Religion and the valour of the soldier were combined, and so strongly did they influ- ence men that when Godfrey of Bouillon was made ruler over Jerusalem he refused to wear a royal crown where the Saviour had been crowned with thorns. All that was involved in this movement — the purpose, fidelity, and knightly character, the long marches across the continent of Europe, the mingling of many peoples MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE 11 — enriched men's minds, broadened their experience, and impelled for expression in all social activities and arts. While the momentous purpose of the Crusades was thus exerting its influence English literature was slowly form- ing itself for the significant utterances of Chaucer. Early THE CRUSADER in the twelfth century Layamons Brut, a poem of over thirty thousand lines, was written. Orm's Ormulum was written early in the thirteenth century. About 1225 the Ancren Riwle (Rule of the Anchoresses) appeared, a work described as " one of the most perfect models of simple, natural, eloquent prose in our language." * * Professor Swift. 78 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY A century or more later the Travels of Sir John Mande- ville (born 1300) appeared, "the most entertaining vol- ume of English prose that we have before 1360." f This was one of the few works of the period that found ready acceptance among the people. The reader has only to compare the following lyric, probably of the early thirteenth century, with the mu- sical quotations to comprehend that our mother tongue and the art of music were shaping themselves for a bril- liant future: " Sumer is i-cumen in Lhude sing cuccu Groweth sed and bloweth med And springeth the wde nu. Sing cuccu, cuccu." t Professor R. P. Halleck. CHAPTER X MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE. STROLLING PLAYERS, FOLK-SONGS, INSTRUMENTS At about the time when German minnesong passed over into the plebeian master song a new and by no means inconsiderable power in the development of music began to make itself felt. This power was wielded by the strolling or vagrant players and pipers who, while representing a low grade of the populace, possessed some admirable and important qualities. They were shrewd, wide-awake, often moderately well educated, and they enjoyed no small degree of favour on account of their ability to please and their readiness to serve. This class of popular music makers had existed prob- ably several centuries before music found recognition and favour among the more cultivated lovers of the art. The resemblance between these strolling players and the histrions,* or comedians, of early Latin and Greek days is suggestive and points to their possible origin. They sang all sorts of ditties, played on various instru- ments for money, especially for dancers, accompanied the bands of warriors, amused the ladies and nobles in their castles, recounted deeds of valour in rude verse, carried news from town to town, were often the secret messengers of Cupid and always the welcome merry- makers of the people.. But they were vagrant, homeless, and, on the whole, despised, even though gladly greeted on all festive occasions for the entertainment they un- faihngly provided. It was from this stratum of the com- * Histrion = a player or actor. 79 8o ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY munity, no doubt, that the troubadours engaged their assistant jongleurs or menestrels, and in that capacity they compelled somewhat greater consideration and re- spect. In Germany the strolling players began to lead a more settled existence and established corporations for the protection of their com- mon interests as early as the thirteenth century. These corporations were in time absorbed by the guild of town pipers, who enjoyed a certain distinc- tion in wealthier cities. The oldest piper guild in Europe was probably the Fraternity of St. Nicholas, founded in Vienna in 1288. After the fifteenth century they were known in many places as city trumpeters. The system of protective union spread to England and France, where similar DUDELSACK PLAYER (AFTER ALBRECHT DfjRER) corporations wete or- ganised. Every piper was subject to a " guardian of musicians," an office which existed as late as the reign of Maria Theresa and was not abolished until 1782. In France this guardian was called the king of fiddlers {roy des menestriers and, later, roy des violons). He exercised control over the pipers of his district and saw to it that "no player, whether piper, drummer, or whatsoever else he might be, should be tolerated without he be first ac- cepted and elected a member of the brotherhood." MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE 8i The strolling players exerted a significant influence upon the progress of popular poetry and music through the sacred plays which they presented. At first (to the middle of the twelfth century) the sacred comedies, called in Germany passion or Easter plays and in France mys- teries, were presented by the clergy alone, and in the STROLLING FLAYERS (C. W. DIETRICH) Latin tongue. Later on, however, vagrants began to take part in these clerical plays and even to present them wholly themselves, whereby the plays assumed in- evitably a more worldly character. But the most important and wide-spread benefits be- stowed by these humble vagrants upon the future growth and development of artistic music were derived from their interest in musical instruments and their ever-increasing dexterity in their use. With the exception of the few clerical organists, the strolling players were for many centuries the only class of musicians who cultivated the practice of instrumental music and who thus kept alive the love of playing and "fiddling," either alone or in con- certed groups, during the period when vocal music was dominant both in and out of the church. It was they /TipZik 82 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY who performed greater and more active service than any other single class of music lovers in preparing for the era of instrumental composition, signalised in later centuries by such artistic products as the symphonies of Beethoven. But besides these distinct classes of musicians, the troubadours and minnesingers, meistersingers, and stroll- ing players, who practised music in a sense as a profes- sion, there existed still another class of music lovers; namely, the people themselves. This, the largest class of all, not limited to any country or race, but common to all civilised nations, sang, untrammelled by theoreti- cal rules or conventional regulations, as their natural in- stincts prompted and as the heart impelled. In the history of European music the people's song (folk-song) attained a degree of significance second only to the ecclesiastic chant of the Gregorian era, and in cer- tain respects it may even be said to have transcended the latter in its bearing upon the general development of artistic music. For this was the genuine, intuitive ex- pression of a universal spirit, which, in its freedom, was in closer touch with nature and nature's laws than any carefully devised theory could be. In all arts, but par- ticularly in those of emotional expression, the spirit of the people always leads; and it is not until the analytic mind of the scientist obtains this revelation as a basis of research that he can formulate correct theories and es- tablish the facts out of which the refined technic of art is gradually evolved. The voice of Nature herself must first speak, through the lips of her ingenuous and uninfluenced children, before the scientist can find any- thing to interpret, to explain, and to develop into a work- ing system. It was the song of the people — not the cal- culations of the Greeks or of the mediaeval ecclesiastic scholars — that contained the vital kernel of musical de- velopment. And it was not until the people's melodies penetrated into the web of ecclesiastic counterpoint that MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE 83 the leaven was provided which engendered the hfe of a new art. This took place, not figuratively but actually, about the end of the fourteenth century; for from that time until the seventeenth century the masters of contrapun- tal technic almost invariably adopted some popular melody as thematic basis, or leading thread, for their masses and other serious works; and almost every mass of the period has its special designation according to the title of the folk-song upon or around which it was constructed. Whence these songs came no one can tell. They sprang from the special conditions of the province or race. It was easy to find a musical setting for the good-natured, often profoundly sentimental poetic eflfusions, or to cre- ate new verse for a melody which had become familiar by frequent repetition, and popular because it was true. The people cared not for the method of their coming and thought not of committing them to permanent writ- ten form, but simply sang them generation after gener- ation until some scholar, attracted by their truth and beauty, fixed them for posterity in the notation of the time. The following specimen of a German love ditty dates from the first half of the fifteenth century and is written in diamond-shaped semibreves only: 1-rT a y: =rt: ^--^^ir :ti^ '—■d — i — +- -te- MODERN VERSION, ADJUSTED RHYTHMETICALLY TO THE PROSODY OF THE VERSE 84 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY One of the oldest and most widely used melodies of France was the tune of The Armed Man {L'homme arme). It was for a long time the most popular melody among contrapuntal scholars, and it was held to be an indis- pensable condition of mastership to have written a mass upon this theme. It appears both in the major and minor mode, chiefly in the latter, in the masses of the most distinguished masters of the Netherland school, where it is found most frequently in the following form: (L'homme arme.) j(Z. jt. -(2- ^ .|22 -^2- ^ =1: bSizzi: -^.,i_^ 1 I — I \-' The majority of French folk-songs are more sprightly than this and exhibit traits that are characteristic of the French chanson of the present day. The following ap- pears in a composition of Antoine Busnois (died 1481). It was undoubtedly an ancient melody in his time: ?I3^^ (=1= =:p4 ^1 4=t=: The musical instinct of the people found frequent stimulus for expression in the popular plays of the Mid- MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE 85 die Ages, a certain class of which may be regarded as the remote but almost direct forerunners of the dra- matic forms — oratorio and opera — of the seventeenth cen- tury. The oldest plays of which record has been pre- served are two of French origin, somewhat akin to the vaudeville, both the text and music of which were com- posed by Adam de la Halle, of whom mention has already been made. The more famous of these, called Robin et Marion, was written by De la Halle for the entertainment of the court at Naples in 1285. Its popularity was so great that for over a century it was constantly performed, and the traditions of it are not yet extinct in the hearts of the peasantry, who, at Bavai, in Hainault, sing one of the songs, Robin m'aime, to this day. It runs as follows : (b) . -^ 4-*-*-* -|-^->^-Fi-'5'-Fg -(2- *— f s=^ FiNB. Si^l • , 1=^==1=1= (W -^ -^ -*— f^- :t: •-• zMiz^ Da Capo,al Fine. —I — i — I — |— ^-^ Of the instruments in use before and during this period of musical history the most venerable was the organis- trum (ninth century). It resembled an enormous guitar but was manipulated like a hurdy-gurdy, one player turning the crank while a second handled the strings. Later its size was reduced, and it appears thus in France under the names rubelle and symphonic, and in Ger- many as vielle, or leyer. The favourite instruments of the troubadours and minnesingers were the harp and the lute, the former being more common in the north, while the lute, in many varie- 86 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY ties, has always main- tained its popularity in southern countries. The theorbo, mandora, man- doline, guitar, zither, and many others are but dif- ferent forms of the lute, whose origin is traced to the el'eud of the Arabs. (See Chapter III.) The various conver- gent evolutions of the queen of stringed in- struments, the violin, through the three most musical nations of Eu- rope (France, Germany, and Italy) to its ulti- mate common form in the modern orchestra, have been shown in the following comparative table: * INSTRUMENTAL MUSICIANS FROM THE NORTH FROM THE ORIENT In France {Britain) 1. Crout, Crwth 2. Crotta, Rotta, Rote 3. Vielle, Fiddle In Italy Ribeca (Rebek, Arab.) Ribeba, Ribecchino Viola Gi 5. Violon hi, Germany Kruth Rotte Viedel, Fiedel, Fid- del Geige ("Thigh bone Guigua, Giga of a goat," which it resembled) Violine Violino The wood instruments included the flute, the muse (cornamuse, musette, bagpipes), and, most important of all, the shawm (German, schalmey; French, chalumeau). The last, a pipe with reed mouthpiece, originated among the shepherds, who constructed it in the springtime out * Emil Naumann, History of Music, MUSIC OF THE PEOPLE 87 of strips of bark and a stem of willow rind, pressed flat, as a reed. The shawm was the progenitor of a very nu- merous class of reed mstruments; notably, a complete choir of pommers, and through them the oboe and bassoon of the modern orchestra. The evolution of the oboe, like that of the violin, was influenced in no small measure by an instrument from the Orient — the zamar of the Arabs. In the military music of this period, use was made of the zamar-oboe, the pommers, trumpets, and drums, the last patterned closely after Oriental models. French chroniclers mention trumpets, tubas, clarions, horns, cor- nets, and buisines (trombones). Undoubtedly, the mu- sical instruments of Europe were enriched in variety and number by the intermingling of peoples and the exchange of their particular products during the Crusades. W'- ^■miwm MILITARY INSTRUMENTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES CHAPTER XI RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTISTIC MUSIC. EARLIEST SCHOOLS OF COUNTERPOINT From historic accounts which have been recently gathered and pubhshed, it appears certain that the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, far from being as fruitless as was supposed, were a period of ver}^ significant activity in the domain of ecclesiastic music and were, apparently, very rich in results and products. The earliest school of contrapuntal art is called, in distinction to later schools, the Old French SchooL It flourished from the end of the eleventh century, possibly a little later, until the middle of the fourteenth, and in- cluded some of the names already cited as the direct suc- cessors of Guido in connection with the advances made in notation and in the technic of melody combination. Hence it is seen to represent the formative period of con- trapuntal art; it grew immediately out of the first im- portant experiments of Guido and others, and reached a point in the progress of music where all the funda- mental principles were firmly defined and where toler- ably convincing evidences of successful and efficient work upon the superstructure were richly supplied. It was, as well, the exclusive educational source, the " facult}^," of all succeeding schools of the north. The most eminent off'shoot of the old French school was the Gallo-Belgian, whose best years were bounded by the century from 1360 to 1460. Another, somewhat earher, offshoot was the Old English School, which, how- ever, does not appear to rank as eminently as the former. Partly from the old French and partly from the Gallo- Belgian school proceeded the famous Netherland School, whose activities extended through the next following cen- RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTISTIC MUSIC 89 tur}^, from 1460 to 1560. Earlier historical books have accustomed us to regard this, the Dutch school, as the first and oldest centre of progress in composition and musical practice in Christian Europe and, therefore, in the world; but this erroneous view seems to have resulted from the superior renown of the Netherland masters, which naturally eclipsed the glory of earlier periods until the proofs of their existence and the significance of their experimental labours were shown in the manuscripts which were subsequently discovered. Furthermore, it was the Netherlanders who supplied all Europe with teachers, singers, and organisers of sing- ing-schools, and thus innocently propagated the belief that they were the prime source of all musical learning. Especially strong was the current which thus set toward the south of Europe and furnished Rome itself, as well as other Italian cities, with the rich products of northern industry and musical thought. So persistent was this emigration to the south that after the middle of the sixteenth century (about 1560) the development of artis- tic music was no longer exclusively carried on in the Neth- erlands, but ceased there almost altogether, to be contin- ued and prosecuted with new energy in Germany and, particularl)^, in Italy. A comprehensive summary of the vital steps in the evolution of artistic music, from its earliest beginnings to the dawn of the modern classic era, would present the following appearance: (a) The first crude at-l tt l u i- i • i ■ Hucbald From the ninth to tempts to associ- ^ /-. • i r a i i i , 1- Ouido or Arezzo the eleventh century- ate melodic parts j •' (b) The dawn of actual 1 ^, , y- i n i i , / Old r ranch School 1070-1370 contrapuntal art J / ji (c) Transitional Gallo-Belgian School 1370-1470 (d) The most famous 1 and successful age I Netherland or Dutch 1460-1560 of contrapuntal [ ' School science 90 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY (.) Gradual migration \ j^^jj^^ g^j^^^j 154(^1725 to the South j (Brilliant period of Italian dramatic music, 1600-1725.) The French capital, Paris (and specifically, its famous Cathedral of Notre Dame), appears to have been the cen- tre to which the crude but obviously significant ideas of melody association gravitated. Here they were held fast, subjected to systematic and persistent experimentation, and reduced to definite principles, to be conducted into straight and certain lines of development. The scholars who first made it their mission to labour upon this prob- lem were almost all organists of Notre Dame. The first of whom historic record has been preserved was Leonin, so renowned for his skill at the organ that he was called optimus organista. The still comparatively imperfect structure of that instrument in the eleventh century, the very limited technical requirements, and the primitive character of the music of his day indicate that Leonin's fame as organist must have rested upon grounds that would appear incredibly slight to us. But orga^iista is sometimes translated ''composer." Moreover, the stu- dent must not lose sight of the fact that we are still deal- ing with the very infancy of music as an art. Leonin wrote a book on organ playing, which contained compositions by himself and others. (These were not for the organ, but for vocal parts, which could be played by the organ- ist just as modern hymn tunes are played.) His succes- sor at Notre Dame was Perotin, called The Great. He was the author of numerous compositions, some of which have been preserved. From 1 1 40 to 1 1 70 appear Robert of Sabillon, Pierre de la Croix (or Cruce), and Jean de Garlande. These are said to have effected many improvements in notation and the art of singing, and De Garlande, the great peda- gogue of the old French school, wrote a thorough and scholarly treatise on mensural m^ sic. From 1 170 to 1230 appear the t vo Francos — Franco of Paris and Franco of Cologne, Walte/ Odington (England), RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTISTIC MUSIC 91 and Jerome of Moravia. Franco of Paris was twenty years or more older than his German namesake; he wrote many famous compositions and a treatise on mensural rh3^thm which would seem to establish his fame as the chief founder of the system of musical rhythm. The last period of the old French school (1230 to 1370) embraces the names of Phillip de Vitry (end of the thir- teenth century), Jean de Muris (1300-70), and Guil- laume de Machaut (1284-1369), who advanced the art of contrapuntal writing and instilled more vitality and melodic freedom into the technic of independent part- writing (see Chapter VII). De Vitry and De Muris were profound theorists and were among the first to recognise and formulate trustworthy rules of counterpoint and part-writing in general. Machaut was a poet as well as a composer. For the coronation of King Charles V he wrote a mass which is historically significant and con- tains, though still in imperfect and clumsy form, some traits of real musical beauty such as characterise the later period of Des Pres and even Lasso. The following extract from one of Machaut's composi- tions, compared with the organum of Hucbald, gives a fair conception of the progress made in the combination of melodic parts during these first four centuries of ex- ploration and experiment in a wholly untried domain of human thought. It is transcribed in a somewhat mod- ernised and more familiar notation: ;^^ ^ ^ ^ =3=5 f^^ m U- JJgl \. ^ 1 (lii)iin il'iii ^ fi^ l\^i^ i^i^R -i-,^J,^ t^j^jL 92 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY The processes of musical technic that were progres- sively active during this period may be thus briefly re- viewed: The primitive two-part experiments of Hue- bald about the 3^ear 900 were known under the name of organum, or ars organandi — perhaps, though not cer- tainly, because of some connection between this mere duplication of the sacred intonation in octaves, fourths, or fifths, and the operation of the organ, which is known to have been in use already at that time and earlier. By Guido, a little later, it was called diaphony. From the beginning of the twelfth century the some- what more elaborate voice combination was called, at Paris, discantus (or diversus cantus); and about the mid- dle of the thirteenth century the term contrapunctus was adopted. These names may be regarded as indicat- ing, in a general way, the successive degrees of progress in independent part-writing, Hucbald's organum and Guido's diaphony were too primitive, on account of the preponderance of parallel movement and rhythmic uniformity of the parts, to be of any value in themselves; their significance lies in the fact that they actually separated the unison parts and thus supplied the first step toward ultimate complete in- dependence of simultaneous melodic voices, for which the name polyphony was at length adopted. The process of development up to this point and onward to the present may be tabulated in the following manner: , , ^ . -Ill f Antiquity and early (i) One-part music s ox sxmpic mtioay, < /^i • • ^ ' '^ ^ •" 1^ Christian ages. (2) Organum (Hucbald), chiefly in parallel parts, (3) Diaphony (Guido), partly oblique parts, (4) Discantus (early Parisian school), greater independence both in direction and \ Mediaeval age. rhythm of the parts, (5) Counterpoint (other northern schools also), a more general term for the constantly advancing technic of part association, ' Modern age. RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTISTIC MUSIC 93 (6) Polyphony, perfected contrapuntal 1 1 Classic aee art, ' (7) Harmony, chords, crystallised forms of tone combination, (8) Homophony, one supreme melodic part with harmonic accompani- ment, (9) Romantic, Lyric, and Dramatic styles. The origin and gradual evolution of contrapuntal art, without which all modern music is wholly unimaginable, may be traced in this wise: To the adopted cantus firmus, or ecclesiastic intonation, a discant was added, as higher part; at first as mere duplication in some perfect con- sonant interval and in plain notes of uniform value. (It seems conceivable that the term punctus contra punc- tum may have been applied even to these incipient ex- periments, inasmuch as the rhythms were necessarily identical — the mensural system not yet having been in- troduced — so that the product was literall}^ note against note and nothing more.) After a while the rhythm of the added part was animated to some degree by the addition of grace-notes or embellishments (melismas), appropri- ately called fleurettes, whence the designation contra- punctus floridus. Probably the most momentous inno- vation was the adoption of at least occasional contrary direction, in the melody of the added part, for it was not until this became a recognised and even obligatory liberty that actual independence of melody could be se- cured. To this improved product the name dechant (discantus) or duplum was given, when the composition embraced two parts only. When increased to three parts it was called a triplum, and when four parts were com- bined it was known as a quadruplum. In such larger combinations many different names were used to indicate the various parts, as tenor, contra-tenor, motet, cantus, bassus, discantus. The tenor was always that part to which the cantus was assigned (from Latin tenere, to hold); it was originally the lowermost part. 94 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY but later became the part next above the bass (lowest), as it is in the modern chorus. The discant, instead of being written out by mental calculation, is known to have been frequently improvised, with such graces or fleurettes as the singer was capable of inventing. This was so common a practice that old writers of that early period distinguished between con- trapunctus a penna (written) and contrapunctus a mente (improvised counterpoint). It was at this important juncture, when the parts began to assume greater independence both in melody and, especially, in rhythm, that a method of determining time-values became imperative, and the mensural sys- tem was devised. We have already seen how this method was evolved from the neumas, gradually enlarged and improved, until it finally developed into a system of very great complexity and difficulty. Later it was sim- plified and clarified into its present form, which, though formidable to every beginner, is nevertheless far more consistent, convenient, and perfect than the original mensural notation ever was. It is easy to imagine, and, indeed, it may be witnessed in such manuscript compositions as have been preserved from the days of the old French school, how the newly discovered art of part association progressed from one stage of freedom to another; how the art gradually gained in fluency and fulness; how it slowly but surely advanced and increased in ingenuity and complexity, until composi- tions began to appear which could claim some degree of real musical and harmonic beauty, and not only aroused the admiration of the churchmen of those early da3^s but which appeal even to our modern sense as objects both of interest and wonder. The compositions of this period appear, as has been mentioned, to have been of four distinct kinds: the motette, rondeau or rondellis, conduit or conductus, and cantilenis. The most venerable of these was the motette, RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTISTIC MUSIC 95 one of the peculiarities of which was that each of the voices generall}^ had its own text, independent of the others. It appears to have been originally a secular form, cultivated by the popular music makers, but was adopted by the writers of sacred music, with such modifications as were necessary. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it was the most popular form of musical com- position in France, whence it gradually disappeared, to thrive all the more vigorously in the Netherlands and also in some parts of Italy, a century or more later. The rondeau also originated with the people and re- mained always a secular form. It had usually one set of words sung by all the parts in common. The form of the conduit seems to have been less definite than that of the rondeau, though but little is known about it. It was generall)^, though not always, a vocal composition. From such treatises on music theory as have been handed down to us, it is apparent that the old French writers made sj^stematic use of the principal thematic devices known to modern theory, such as imitation, double counterpoint, and canon. That the principle of inversion was also familiar to them is shown in the falso bordone, of which such wide-spread use was made for many centuries and which seems to have been vir- tually a succession of chords of the sixth (Chapter VII). Much has been said of, and claimed for, the old English school, which is supposed to have been established even earlier, and to have flourished somewhat later, than that of Paris. But historic testimony of conclusive worth is meagre. The wonderful old canon, Sumer is i-cumen in (Summer is come), dating from the early part of the thirteenth century, could have emanated from no other than a master-hand of extraordinary skill; but whose hand it was cannot be shown. Besides Walter Odington, one other eminent master is mentioned as representative of the old English school, John Dunstable, but he is placed as late as the fifteenth century. 96 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Of much greater and more firmly established renown was the Gallo-Belgian School, generally regarded as the first vigorous offshoot of the old French school. The earliest distinguished name encountered in the musical histor}^ of this region is Zeelandia (about 1330-70). He was among the first to regard the intervals of the third and sixth as more attractive than the perfect consonances — fourth, fifth, and eighth — and to use the former more freely. The next master was Vincent Faugues (born 141 5), whose masses became very popular in Rome. The next and most distinguished master of the whole period was Guillaume Dufay, supposed to have been born in Hai- nault about 141 5, though there is much uncertainty about this date. His fame seems to rest more securely on his achievements as theorist and teacher than upon his com- positions. His counterpoint is still imperfect and con- strained, but contains many cunning thematic devices and occasional passages of real musical beauty. iCyt-jt, cA^^£^, -u-J »^"-^'»-V'- H S^-t^ -^TM- ^ cZc 9- _ -W- P5F Other writers of the period were Firmin Caron (about 1420-80); Regis or De Roi, Flemish Koninck, (about RISE AND PROGRESS OF ARTISTIC MUSIC 97 143 5-1485); and Antoine Busnois (born, probabl}^ in Flanders, about 1440). The last ranked almost equal to Dufay and is known to have introduced marked improve- ments in the treatment of the parts. CHAPTER XII THE DUTCH SCHOOL OF COUNTERPOINT The process of technical development in musical writing which had its significant beginning among the French organists of Notre Dame and passed from them to the scholars of the Gallo-Belgian provinces, was next taken up by the masters of the Netherland school. Here the art of contrapuntal combination advanced to a very high degree and the technic of composition reached a grade of perfection and facility far beyond that exhib- ited in the da3's of Dufay and Busnois. But it is no less true that it did not advance in a corresponding mea- sure in intrinsic musical value, but, rather, lost gradually such natural power as it had possessed, in exaggerated subtleties of purely mathematical calculation. The student must never lose sight of the fact that the products of these early centuries were not music in the sense that modern art has accustomed us to regard it. The art of true music, in the essentially elevated and re- fined sense, was not yet born. Its mission as a reflection and expression of human emotion was not yet recognised or, at most, vaguely entertained as a remote possibility. The history of music up to the beginning of the seven- teenth century (that is, until about three hundred years ago) is the story of manifold experimentation with mys- terious problems of tone combination from every con- ceivable point of attack — a searching and probing among the possibilities of tone and its associations as a new and wholly undeveloped medium of artistic creation. It was the framing of the body, so to speak, with all its ana- gS DUTCH SCHOOL OF COUNTERPOINT 99 tomic parts and ph3^sical functions, in preparation for the abode of the spirit whose presence we now know and feel but which at that time was not yet conceived. To comprehend clearly wherein all this searching and technical exploitation consisted, the student must recall the chief ph3^sical factors of musical art — melody, har- mony, rhythm, and their infinite possibilities in forms of co-operation. The most significant and salient trait of a composition is its melody, or tone line, and the product of composition is invariably a design in which the tones arrange themselves in lines which hold and lead the hear- er's consciousness from point to point, thus providing a tangible scheme which one can follow and comprehend. This linear principle of tone combination is so funda- mental and exclusive that no musical utterance, no matter how primitive or crude, can proceed from any other nat- ural impulse. It is even seen in the inartistic but at least natural musical practices of the ancient and all barbaric races, which are limited wholl}^ to the element of melody, or music formed of one single tone-succession. Of this ph3^sical propert}^ of music the earliest scholars were fully aware. For the first ten centuries of the Christian era all music, both ecclesiastic and secular, was thus limited to melody; and such systematic and scientific experimen- tation as was conducted by musically gifted men of that era was directed toward the perfection of the single line of tones. This is shown in the intonations and chants of the church and the folk-songs of the people. Then came, as we have seen, the momentous experiments with two and more tone lines at once, and the era of artistic (contrapuntal) tone association was inaugurated. From that time on, for over five hundred years, the only ob- ject of music writers appears to have been to perfect and elaborate this linear quality of music, to create more and more intricate and interesting line-designs of tone se- quence. Consequently, the music of these early centuries exhibits cunning imitations, sequences, inversions, and all loo ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the devices now included under the head of motive de- velopment or thematic manipulation; and from epoch to epoch these devices increase and multiply their intrica- cies until the most amazing examples of voice leading and voice combination result— sentences, and even entire FROM THE "MARGARITA PHILOSOPHICA" (of GEORGIUS REISCHIUS, IS03) masses, in which there is not a single tone that does not form a significant link in some chain or line of thematic sequence. That the complex of tone, as a whole, should result in a reasonably harmonious product (that is, should sound well) was the natural and by no means partic- ularly difficult consequence of respecting the laws of consonant intervals and, as we should state to-day, the laws of chord combination. DUTCH SCHOOL OF COUNTERPOINT loi But this is practicall}^ all that music was from the eleventh up to the seventeenth century — the solving of a tone problem. It is true, however, that we find occasionally infusions of true musical expression, as the possibility of the spirit dawned upon the writer, as the purely artificial and math- ematical quality of the music began gradually to fit itself for its ultimate purpose and to become a pliant means to a great and noble end. This era was the inevitable school- day period through which the art had to pass in order to discover and develop its power, to test its strength, and to come into conscious possession of resources that were ultimately to know no limit. This is its significance in music history, and from this point of view its products must be judged, with gratitude and reverence, but also with intelligence. The first eminent name in the historj' of the Netherland or Dutch school is Johannes Okeghem (or Ockenheim), called the " patriarch of counterpoint and canonic art." He was born about 1425, in Hainault, and died 1512, at Tours. He was, properly speaking, a Belgian, and he constitutes a connecting link between the Belgian and Dutch schools. The following specimen of Okeghem's writing is a sec- ular song for three voices: 3. ■ 1 ■ r I I » ^ ^ •a- "■ ITT ^^ 3-^cr. j~^\= -^^^q^Kr' -g ■\ ^^ m I02 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Almost exactly contemporaneous with Okeghem was the scarcely less renowned Hollander Jakob Hobrecht (or Obrecht) who was born 1430, at Utrecht, on the Rhine, and died in 1506, in Antwerp. Antonius Brumel, a pupil of Okeghem's (born about 1460), manifests a recognition of chord formation and a leaning toward the more com- pact harmonic style. The most eminent master of the Dutch school, and also a pupil of Okeghem, was Josquin des Pres. He was born about 1450, in Hainault, and died 1521. He may justly be ranked among the conspicuous figures in music history and as a distinguished promoter of perfect contra- puntal technic. Though charged with having carried the mathematical devices of melodic association to an exaggerated extreme, it is, nevertheless, true that every phrase Josquin des Pres wrote, be it simple or elaborate, displays evidence of true musical genius. Josquin ap- peared in Rome in 1484 as singer in the papal chapel. After the death of Pope Sixtus IV he accepted a call from the Duke of Este, and went to Ferrara; later to Paris, as premier chantre du roi of Louis XII. After a few years there he returned to his native city as provost of the cathedral, which office he held until his death. The following is from one of Josquin's masses, Pange lingua, for four parts: ^ 'g- .-:-^c| f^ J ^1.1 .4- -5-- —^ j -^^ ^ ^^ :^r L DUTCH SCHOOL OF COUNTERPOINT 103 m ± I ^^ .H j i j Jl'^ ? ^^t^^ :3^ ^^ ^ ^^ de^t/n- 'f-utj^ , Every movement in the above sentence, written four centuries ago, may be analysed in terms of modern har- mony and tonahty. Close scrutiny of each separate voice will reveal to the observant student the masterly manner in which the four independent tone lines are interwoven, and how strictly each tone drops into place in logical or thematic agreement with the figures traced by the other parts. There is a growing feeling for harmonic (chord) effects exhibited here, and in others of Josquin's works this is still more noticeable. The regularity of structure as shown in the clear-cut succession of uniform (four- measure) phrases, is not accidental. One of Josquin's most famous pupils was Nicolas Gom- bert, born in Bruges, in 1495. In 1528 he is encountered in Madrid. His compositions are characterised by ease, smoothness, and euphony, in which traits they excel even the writings of his great master. Another pupil of Josquin was Jakob Arkadelt, born about 1 514, in Holland, and one of the earliest writers of the madrigal. The following brief extract (the first period of Arkadelt's famous Ave Maria) is a striking illustration of the progress made in the harmonic style: I04 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY A-^ kt. af-ojd<^ Am.-- ■>**• /e'»uut»M^j ^p a.- t^ /^6, ^<^cU£;t. s i-i ^^ ri J 4- 5 S :fe=5= 5 J:^ There was not the least disposition on the part of these old masters to relinquish their pursuit of mathematical, contrapuntal feats; on the contrary, the devices of canon and fugue, while growing less constrained and mechanical, rather increased in intricacy. But, while the necessity of this discipline and the resulting power and dignity of the music were strictly defended, the masters seem to have become equally sensible of the need of contrast. Hence, we perceive the increasing tendency to lead the voices together, in compact chord forms, from time to time, in- stead of giving to each voice its wholly independent share in the unravelling and developing of the thematic motives. It is very singular that in this era of preponderantly mathematical music, experiments of a purely artificial, descriptive character should have become popular. Pos- sibly this application of tones to the illustration of phys- ical phenomena (battles, country fairs, forest sounds, and the like) was regarded also as a musical problem, dia- metrically opposed to the purposes of counterpoint. One of Josquin's pupils, Clement Jannequin (born about I495)> was especially noted for such tone pictures, writ- ten for voices — not for instruments, as is all descriptive music of to-day. Among his compositions were the Bat- tle of Marignano and the Paris Fair. DUTCH SCHOOL OF COUNTERPOINT 105 Another noted master of this school was Benedict Dux (or Ducis), born 1480 at Bruges, Hved in 151 5 in Ant- werp, and died about 1540. His eight-part motettes are remarkable for their dignity and beauty. In the year 1502 the art of printing music with de- tachable cast-metal types was invented by Ottavio Pe- trucci (da Fossombrone). The immense significance of this invention, which exerted a revolutionising influence upon the whole range of musical culture, can be appre- ciated only by considering the serious limitations involved in the necessary preparation of copies of music works by hand. The first book which proceeded from Petrucci's work- shop was a collection of thirty-three motettes for three parts, by Josquin, Anton Brumel, Loyset Compere, and others. His invention found many advocates, and in a short time a number of music-printing establishments sprang into existence: at Mayence (15 12), Nuremberg, Munich (1540), Leipsic, Venice (1536), Paris (1520), and Rome (1523). CHAPTER XIII THE INFLUENCE OF THE DUTCH SCHOOL Thus far the Netherlanders had ruled supreme in music and no other nation had produced masters whose influence was as great and wide-spread as theirs, or who could rival them in the significance of their achievements. Probably the only country which exhibited important activity at the same time was Germany, where two men of great and just renown are encountered as early as the days of Okeghem^namely, Heinrich Isaak and Hein- rich Finck. Isaak (born in 1450) surpassed all of his contemporaries in the composition and arrangement of secular songs. The historian Forkel says of him that " he manifested a clearness of melody, correctness and beauty of rhythm, and a freedom of harmony suggestive of the cultured art of the eighteenth century." Finck (born about 1445) was also so popular that many of his songs were republished as late as 1536.* In France and Spam, also, musicians of eminence ap- peared; and Italy, particularly, was beginning to reas- sert her musical power and preparing to become during the succeeding epoch the new centre of music history. But this shifting of the centre of musical activity was due, after all, almost entirely to the steady emigration of the northern masters to these southern countries. The *Hermann Finck, author of Practica musica (1556), thus refers to his great- uncle, Heinrich Finck: "Extant melodias, in quibus magna artis perfectio est, compositse ab Henrico Finckio; cuius ingenium in adolescentia in Polonia excultum est, et postea Regia liberalitate ornatum est." (Melodies are ex- tant, composed by Heinrich Finck, which show great skill; as a boy he was educated in Poland, later by royal favor (liberality) he was enabled to con- tinue his training.) (See illustration on page 107.) 106 INFLUENCE OF THE DUTCH SCHOOL 107 roots of the vigorous musical growth which spread its branches over all Europe were firmly embedded in the soil of Belgium and Holland; from this mighty centre all the lines of musical progress took their start, and all that music has since become may be traced to this source. The Netherlanders did not stay at home. Their rov- ing disposition, probably stimulated by the strong sea- TITLE PAGE TO A WORK BY HERMANN FINCK ("PRACTICA MUSICA," I556) faring activity of that age and people, the overproduc- tion of fertile musical minds, and the natural demand for their efficient services throughout Catholic Christen- dom — these and other impulses led many of them away from home, and thus they became the cause of the dis- semination of their knowledge all over musical Europe. This migratory tendency is observable as far back as Okeghem himself, who spent the greater part of his ca- reer in Paris; and also in Josquin des Pres, who was ac- tive in Rome, Ferrara, and Paris. Clement Jannequin, though a native of Flanders and a pupil of Josquin, spent io8 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY his life in France. Gombert chose Madrid for his artis- tic home and obviously greatly influenced the methods of Spanish and Portuguese composers. Alexander Agricola, a Belgian and pupil of Okeghem, is encountered in Spain. The great teacher and theorist Johannes Tinc- toris went from the Netherlands to Naples. And so the emigration continued and increased until the Netherlands were depleted of their musical master minds and gradually lost their historic importance. Among those who wandered south to Italy was the eminent Adrian Willaert. He was born at Bruges, in Flanders, in 1480, studied law in Paris, went to Rome about 1516, shortly afterward to Ferrara, and finally to Venice, where he remained as chapelmaster in St. Mark's Cathe- dral until his death, in 1562. Willaert is accredited with being the first to use a larger number of parts, namely, six, seven, and even more, and he is supposed to be the originator of the double chorus. In his compositions a decided advance in tonal beauty is discernible, owing partly to his more extensive employment of the plain chord style. He contributed to the rapidly growing ten- dency to simplify the choice and treatment of harmonic material and to cultivate a more refined manner of ar- tistic secular composition. Willaert's most significant re- lation to the history of music consists probably in the ADRIAN WILLAERT AFTER AN ENGRAVING BY ANTONIO GARDANO (VENICE, 1559) INFLUENCE OF THE DUTCH SCHOOL 109 fact that he was the originator, or, at least, the most powerful promoter of the madrigal — a secular form which he exalted to a truly artistic rank about 1530 and which rapidly attained to a high degree of popularity. Prior to this the most prevalent form of composition was the sa- cred motette, which, growing out of the religious chant, was severe in character, strictly thematic and contra- puntal, and provided the scholar the opportunity to dis- pla}^ his learning and skill in canonic and imitatory voice combination. In consequence of this rigidit}^ of char- acter the motette became distasteful to the Italians, who then, as now, evinced that predilection for pure, smooth, unconstrained melody which has become the na- tional physiognomy of their music. The madrigal was intended and destined to satisfy the desire for a style of vocal music which, both in words and melody, was of a less scholastic and more popular type. It was, originally, a simple shepherd's song and took its name from mandra, a flock, and mandriale, a shepherd. After a while it lost this primitive character- istic and pursued a more general development. The text, usually secular, consisted of twelve or fifteen lines of un- equal length set, most commonly, for five voices. The composer's aim therein was not, as hitherto, the scholarly manipulation of independent contrapuntal parts, but to reflect the sentiment of the text as accurately as possible. The adoption of some foreign theme, or cantus firmus, was completely abandoned, and the imitations and other thematic details were treated with much freedom. These qualities of the madrigal led, necessarih^, to a less severe application of all the established musical factors; chromatic progressions became very common; both the rhythm and the melody were more free and striking; novel and ingenious harmonic movements were invented; descriptive passages were introduced; and greater vari- ety in the whole method of thought and execution was the inevitable result. For more than two centuries the no ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY madrigal was cultivated and produced in incredible num- bers by all the masters of note; it became universally popular and exerted a most important influence upon the development of a freer and more attractive style of composition. Besides the madrigal, the secular music of this period embraced a number of other popular forms, chiefly of Italian origin: the frottola, a short, merry street song; the vilanella, a peasant's song; the maggiolata (May song); ballata (dance song); barcaruola, a boat song, or barcarole. The following fragment from one of Willaert's four- part vocal sentences will give a general idea of his mode of composition. It also illustrates the extent to which the harmonic style had already begun to supersede that of the intricate contrapuntal era: ^ it ^S "i^-pit^U ^ t7 m 4^ -^ -s- U^' u tVt^ ^£ jjJJTU. j ^ =^=j= e ^ gF^=^ '1 i i ^ 4=F^ Tf^=^ ^i ^JJi' g J ^ ^ ^^ rf'cMajiU -^^ __ci ^ ca_ ^^^ ij- ks. ^ ^ Two of Willaert's most celebrated pupils were the great Italian theorist Giuseppe Zarlino of Cremona and INFLUENCE OF THE DUTCH SCHOOL III the composer Cyprian De Rore; the latter was born in 1516, in Mecheln, died 1565 at Parma. De Rore wrote al- most exclusively works of secular character and is noted as one of the first to adopt and cultivate the chromatic progression. This was as great an innovation as the harmonic style introduced in such an original and strik- ing manner by Richard Wagner a half century ago, or by Richard Strauss still more recently, and might have led to a far more speedy development of harmonic free- dom had De Rore possessed the genius to follow it up, or his age been more ready to receive it. An example of the astonishing effects he produced is seen in the follow- ing passage from one of his four-part vocal motettes. C^Ry. /3 aui^ t»tn.cA»-C IC^ ■ <^«-»-«.4l*>». Q^^ From a long list of more or less musically gifted men who contributed original chorale melodies to the new church service during the first half of the sixteenth cen- tury, the most important were Hans Kugelmann, Philip Melanchthon, Hermann Finck, and Nikolaus Hermann. Of greater significance in music history, however, was the activity which almost immediately began among the more learned musicians, in applying their scholarship to the elaboration of these church melodies. The first to 136 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY supply the chorales with more artistic harmonisation and contrapuntal adornment was Johann Walther, a faith- ful ally of Luther in his ambition to reform the church service. Walther was born in 1496 in Thuringia. In 1524 he is mentioned as Ph.D. and bass singer in the choir of the Prince of Saxony. In this year, also, he published the first monu- ment of Protestant music, the Geystliche Gesangk Btichleyn (see p. 132), upon the perfec- tion and enlargement of which he spent the rest of his life. He died in 1570. Of far greater talent and scholarship was Lud- wig Senfl, born the latter part of the fifteenth cen- tury at Zurich, and at one time pupil of Hein- rich Isaak in Innsbruck. He died about 1555. Senfl promoted the technic of rhythm very materially in his contrapuntal treatment of the chorale. Georg Rhau (1488-1548), noted not only as collector and publisher but also as composer, issued, in 1544, one hundred and twenty-three tunes for the schools (Gemeindeschulen) which contained some of his own melodies. These composers still followed the old custom of plac- ing the melody proper in the tenor voice. It was soon recognised that this location in an inner register not only robbed the melody of its intended efi'ect, but added to the diflSculty of appropriately simple harmonisation; and it was, therefore, not long before the chorale-air gravitated to the uppermost (soprano*) register where it properly belonged. One of the most earnest advocates of this im- * Soprano, from sopra, above. LUDWIG SENFL MUSIC OF THE PROTESTANT CHURCH 137 portant innovation was Luke Osiander, who endeavoured to give, in every direction, a more natural and appropri- ate form to the choral service. His arrangements of the chorale, therefore, all place the melody in the so- prano, where the congregation could more readily re- HANS LEO HASSLER cognise it and more easily participate in its singing; his harmonies are always simple, consisting chiefly of con- sonant triads. Another advocate of this more practical style was Seth Calvisius (born in Thuringia, 1556; died as cantor at the church of St. Thomas, in Leipsic, in 161 5). Of greater distinction and scholarship was Hans Leo Hass- ler, born at Nuremberg in 1564. At the age of twenty he went to Venice to study with the elder Gabrieli. The following year he returned to Augsburg. Hassler's cho- rale elaborations are based upon the triads, but dissolved in the separate voices into melodious tone lines of real musical beauty and significance. 138 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY tJ: i-^ ^ ^^ Probably the most popular of all the German masters of the sixteenth century was Johannes Eccard, born in 1553; from 1 571 to 1574 pupil of Lasso in Munich; then in Venice, 1578 in Augsburg, 1604 in Konigsburg, and in 1609 in Berlin, where he died in 161 1. His chorale work is distinguished for its clearness and dignity; in it the intention of imparting distinctive character to the in- dividual lines of the chorale begins to manifest itself in a striking manner. The first writer who undertook, with definite purpose, to introduce the then newly cultivated florid Italian melodic style into German music was Michael Praetorius, born in 1 571 in Thuringia. He laboured in many directions to promote the spread of the best style of church music. Besides a very large number of compositions, he also contributed to the literature of music, historic and the- oretic. His most famous book is the Syntagma musicum, a treasure of historic information and a theoretical trea- tise of very great value. The following illustrates his adoption of the florid style then in vogue in Italy, in the presentation of a chorale: MUSIC OF THE PROTESTANT CHURCH 139 Other noteworthy advocates of this fusion of German sturdiness with ItaHan grace and rhythmic Hfe were Erhard Bodenschatz, Johann Cruger, and Melchior Franck. The immediate successor of Praetorius was Heinrich Schiitz, the most gifted musical genius of his century (born 1585) and the most eminent forerunner of Sebas- tian Bach. Under the tuition of that distinguished represen- tative of the new ItaHan style, Giovanni Gabrieli, Schiitz had entered so fully into the spirit of Italian music that he was able to combine German choral song and Italian florid melody far more intimately and vitally than Praetorius had done. Two of his successors, Jo- hann Hermann Schein and Andreas Hammerschmidt, seem to have been actuated by a desire to restore the chorale and its manipulation to a style of melodic and harmonic presentation more in keeping with its original simplicity and sternness. It is evident that music owes to the Protestant church service the development of the harmonic form of com- position and of the chord conception of tone association, so significant in the further advances and ultimate power of the art. The Italians, both in their sacred and secu- lar writings, had unquestionably made important and far- reaching use of the compact harmonic method, but Ger- many was, nevertheless, destined to become the nation (and chiefly by its congregational manner of musical worship in simple choral song) through which this most pregnant and forcible mode of part-writing was to evolve into a distinct phase of musical technic and music history. JOHANN HERMANN SCHEIN 140 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Up to this time the development of music as an art was centred in and fostered by the church. But ecclesi- astic influence and tribute had now reached their end, and the scene of further action is shifted completel)^ from the church to the people. Music ceased for a time al- most altogether to be a sacred art and became essen- tially and practically a secular art. With the freedom of religious thought and the expansion of human enlighten- ment in all directions, came new desires and new ten- dencies, and these provided new means of expression for themselves. Music shared this spirit of freedom and began to be applied to its greater mission of reflecting the broader human — not alone the religious — emotions of the universal spirit of mankind. CHAPTER XVII RISE OF THE DRAMATIC STYLE OF MUSIC ORATORIO AND OPERA IN ITALY The drama and the instinct of dramatic representa- tation are as old as humanit3^ Dramatic plays have been a popular and an instructive means of amusement in all ages. In Germany the open-air (outdoor) plays constituted a popular recreation in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries and were conducted and performed by churchmen themselves for a time. The profession of player was quite as distinct then as now. Thus arose those Latin pla3^s, or dramas, called ludi or mysteria. Later, songs were added to these in the native tongue and emphasised by the crowd of spectators who joined in their singing. The subject-matter of the sacred plays or mj'steries was invariably biblical, and the occasions of their performance were usually the chief holy days of the Christian calendar — Christmas, Easter, Passion week, and Whitsuntide — which the)" served to celebrate. The musical portions were originally very unimportant; the interspersed songs were sung by a chorus — the final one usually b}" all present; the dialogue was either simply spoken, or recited in the monotonous manner of the church intonations. In England, mysteries, miracle-plays, and moralities were extant from the earliest days of Christian histor}^ down to the end of the fifteenth century; and they were also very popular in France, Spain, and Italy. Many French mysteries still exist which date back to the four- teenth and some even to the eleventh century. 141 142 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY The nation that was destined first to impart a higher and more definite artistic aim to these rude dramatic presentations was Italy, especially as concerns the office that music was to perform in them. After the biblical drama had degenerated and almost completely disappeared, a kind of dramatic masquerade or play, of secular charac- ter, and often of great magnificence and pomp, came into vogue in Ferrara, Florence, and Rome, and proved to be a strong agency in awaken- ing general mterest m the more refined drama. The first pla}^ of this kind possessed of some real merit is said to have been a version of Orpheus, by Politianus (end of the fifteenth century). Its chief factor was the spoken dialogue, between the different sections of which choruses in motette or madrigal form were introduced. Not the faintest idea of a vocal solo or recitative yet existed, nor were they known until the following century. Shortly after this the sacred drama experienced a sort of resurrection in Italy. A devout priest, Philip Neri (born 1515), founded, about 1551, a hall of prayer at Florence in which he and his followers assembled for divine worship and meditation. In the course of the fol- lowing seventeen years this circle had become so firmly organised and had so increased in numbers and influ- wrA%fm^^M-^^Pv<_o yt-c, y»-«^/ i. J. J. r -^ ^^ m ^ ^<:<.cC:i,/iJmJ.) ^Lx^ /6'.i^P'( J J ^ — 1 ^ J 1 ?7 ^ ^'.1 ^5 -,*-£. - -/l^ , ^ ^ i^ ^W^ V- w s -^-^^^^ w^. ' ^=^ 6 b»Z '^ i' What influence all of these tendencies toward more vital dramatic and emotional expression necessarily ex- erted upon the instrumental portions of the early opera will be shown in Chapter XVIII. Peri's Eurydice was accompanied by a clavicembalo (early form of the piano- forte), a chitarrone (largest lute), a lira grande, and a large lute — behind the scenes. The musical dramas, produced in astonishing number, were performed in difl^erent cities and became immensely popular. In 1637 Venice already possessed a permanent 148 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY public theatre. Every composer of note devoted him- self more or less earnestly to the novel style of compo- sition, among whom the most significant were: From 1635 to 1660, Claudio Monteverde, Benedetto Ferrari, Francesco Cavalli, Marc Antonio Cesti. (l) SCARLATTI, (2) TARTINI, (3) MARTINI, (4) LOCATELLI, (5) LANZETTI, (6) CAFARELLl's CAT SINGING AN ITALIAN PARODY From 1660 to 1680, Molinari, Giovanni Legrenzi, Gio- vanni Freschi. From 1680 to 1700, Francesco Righi, Giovanni Ruggieri, Alessandro Stradella, Alessandro Scarlatti, Atillo Ariosti. At about the same time that the Greek tragedy was adopted for dramatic treatment, the comedy also began to flourish. An Italian literar}^ authority names Vecchi's Amfipaniasso as the first comic opera; it was per- formed in 1594 at Modena and introduced the droll characters of the popular farce, Pantalon, Harlequin, Brigella. One of the most eminent promoters of sacred dramatic music was Giacomo Carissimi, of whose life less is known than of his works. Carissimi was born 1604 at Marino, THE DRAMATIC STYLE OF MUSIC 149 near Rome; he was chapelmaster in Apollinare church in Rome; flourished in the years 1635-74, ^^'^ hved to a ripe old age. His contemporaries speak of him as one of the progressive spirits of the day. As far as is known, he did not compose a single opera, but he nevertheless contributed to the perfection of the dramatic form by his significant achievements in the aria and recitative, in a style of composition known as the chamber cantata. This form was one of the first results of the influences which the development of the dramatic style naturall}^ exerted upon the older forms of composition. Carissimi was a master of the old-school counterpoint, but he applied his skill and solidity of technical treatment to the new forms, and imparted to them the necessary stability of struc- ture and greater seriousness of purpose. He it was who ex- tended and defined the essen- tial outlines of the melodic de- signs, either as solo-aria or duet, for all time, by moulding them according to the forms of popular song — in rounded phrases and periods, with distinct cadential limits, and the "recurrences," which were not only a recognised ele- ment of perspicuous design in the lays of the minnesingers, but constitute the vital basis of musical form throughout the classic period to our own day. One of Carissimi's most famous followers In the sacred dramatic forms was Alessandro Stradella (1645-81), a composer and singer of great popularity. The most brilliant period of old Italian opera was in- augurated by Alessandro Scarlatti (the elder, father of the still more famous Domenico Scarlatti). He lived about 1659-1725, a native of Naples and a pupil of Carissimi. ALESSANDRO SCARLATTI 150 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY His first opera, Vonesta negVamore, was produced at Rome. He returned to Naples as chapelmaster, where he spent the remainder of a Hfe of almost incredible ver- satility and wide-spread artistic usefulness. Scarlatti, the elder, was the tutor of "half of Italy and Germany," and as singer and vocal teacher he is regarded as the founder of modern dramatic vocalism, just as Ca- rissimi was of the cham- ber aria and sacred aria. The arias of Scarlatti are firmly moulded in the form of two parts (sec- tions) with a third as da capo. His overtures were distinguished from those of French composers in consisting of a grave (slow) movement be- tween two allegro sec- tions — a design known as the Italian overture. From the birth of Philip Neri (1515) to the death of Claudio Mon- teverde (1643) the dra- matic element in music evolved to a truly re- markable degree. It was developed in the works of Carissimi and applied in the early Italian operas of Alessandro Scarlatti. The advent of the two important forms, opera and oratorio, occurred at a time of great activity in Italy: Michael Angelo laboured for fifty years as sculptor, painter, architect, and poet. Leonardo da Vinci died in 1 5 19 and Correggio in 1534. The Council of Trent met in 1545 and remained officially active until 1563; one of its most notable achievements was the purification of church DOMENICO SCARLATTI THE DRAMATIC STYLE OF MUSIC 151 music by prohibiting the use of secular melodies as cantus firmus. (See Chapter XV.) Contemporaneous with these activities were the early colonisations on the continent of America. De Soto dis- covered the Mississippi in 1539. St. Augustine, the old- est town in the United States, was founded by Menen- dez and his followers in 1565. Champlain, "a gentleman of France," founded the city of Quebec in Canada in 1608. The following year, Hudson sailed up the river that now bears his name. A few years earlier, 1603, James I issued letters patent to the Virginia Company, and in 1607 Jamestown (Vir- ginia) was settled. The Mayflower brought the Puritans (Independents) to what became Plymouth in 1620. In 1636 Harvard College was founded. 15 15. Philip Neri. 1568. Monteverde born. 1570. Vincenzo Galilei (monody). 1519. DeathofLeonardodaVinci. 1534. Death of Correggio. 1539. De Soto discovered the Mississippi. 1545. Council of Trent. 1564. Michael Angelo died. 1565. St. Augustine (Florida) founded. 1590. Dramatic music by Cava- lieri. 1594. Peri's Daphne. 1597- First Italian opera at Ven- ice. 1600. Peri's Eurydice. 1603. 1604. Carissimi born. 1607. Monteverde's Orpheus. 1607. 1608. 1620. 1636. 1643. Death of Monteverde. 1643. 1659. Alessandro Scarlatti born. The Virginia Company. Jamestown, (Virginia) set- tled. Quebec founded. The Plymouth Colony. Harvard College founded. The New Haven Colony. CHAPTER XVIII EARLY ERA OF ORATORIO IN GERMANY The same spirit of dramatic expression was active in Germany, and especially in the sacred forms, even more vigorously and effectively than in Italy. Sacred plays (Passion plays and mysteria) were more common and popular in Germany than in the centre of Catholic influ- ence and at a much earlier date. At the end of the fif- teenth century they had attained such dimensions as to extend over several successive days. The number of per- sons engaged also increased in proportion; in 1498 a play was given in Frankfort with two hundred and sixty-five actors. That the German folk-song should play a significant part in these productions is self-evident; and the fact that German composers always adhered firmly to the form and style of the people's song, adopting it as the melodic and structural basis for their arias, is the prin- cipal explanation of the enormous popularity which the dramatic forms achieved in this nation. In Germany far greater interest was manifested in the sacred dramatic forms, oratorio and sacred concerto, than in the opera. As early as the middle of the six- teenth century it was the rule for every composer to write a musical setting of the Passion. One of the most celebrated works of this character was a so-called Actu Oratorio, composed by Melchior Franck and first per- formed at Coburg in 1630. It was a mixture of Latin 152 ERA OF ORATORIO IN GERMANY 153 sacred text and free poetical intermezzi, designed both to entertain and edify the hearer. This remarkable work testifies to the sharp distinction between the two prin- cipal dramatic styles, oratorio and opera, which was rec- ognised and maintained from the start. The following terzetto from the Actu Oratorio gives an impression of the progress already made in free and appropriate musi- cal expression. It is a hymn of consolation brought by three angels in a dream to Prince Gottfried: \. ^ (\ r rr r ^ ^^^ zizS. '/>A/vg>-A-<,-o--^ dt4/LC^ , e-ce-. wj, y-^ I ji- r^i I 1 r.yrrujrj^j- bri n 4 \i\\\hV'-^ 1 ^ -^ i '^--^'n w.... '^^"-'^^ j^i-% 'H'. ^s iLU-olvh n lilJJ ru^ V V i^i^^ --il^j' l-i ) J^ iII?l|iTli ^ ^ p> IJ lJ^ - I ^ n^ ^ g Partly as contemporaries and partly as successors of Schiitz, several other gifted composers appear, whose la- bours in the sacred dramatic forms were of historic sig- ERA OF ORATORIO IN GERMANY 157 nificance. Some of these have already been mentioned; Johann Hermann Schein, noted for his elaboration of the chorale in the new Italian style; Johann Rosenmiiller (died 1686); Johann Rudolf Ahle (1625-73), and his son, Johannes Georg Ahle (1650-1706). The two Ahles are considered as the two direct pred- ecessors of the great Johann Sebastian Bach and were justly noted for their suc- cess in unifying the artis- tic styles of both sacred and secular composition. Typical specimens of the new aria form are found in the writings of the younger Ahle, whose Sea- sons was very popular and famous. Further, Wolfgang Carl Briegel (born 1626), in whose oratorios the ex- periments of earlier writers begin to assume a certain degree of effec- tiveness and permanency; and Johann Sebastian! (born 1622), a composer of graceful melodies, whose Passion work is probably the first in which the new concerted style with instrumental accompaniment and interspersed verses of song was adopted. (The in- strumental accompaniment in this work consisted of two violins, four violas, the bassus continuus — -probably for bass lute — organ, lutes, theorbos, violas da gamba, and violas da braccio.) In the year 1644 a curious work appeared, in the nature of a singspiel (vaudeville or play with songs), which illus- trates the influence of the spirit of popular song, whose ANGEL WITH LUTE (albrecht durer) 158 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY significance throughout all musical tendencies in Ger- many has been pointed out. This play was called "Sa- cred Forest-ode, or recreation, entitled Seel-ezvig; the tunes composed in the Itahan manner by Sigismund Gottlieb Staden." Seel-ezvig (immortal soul) was the name of the title role and represented a nymph. Eight characters ap- peared as nymphs, shepherds, shepherdesses, the spirit of the forest, and figured in a series of partl}^ allegorical and partly real episodes, wherein Seel-ewig is be- set with divers tempta- tions from which she is successively rescued and fmally redeemed in tri- umph. The accompani- ment included three violins, three flutes, three shawns (may- flutes), a rude horn, and a theorbo for the con- tinuous bass. All these eff'orts to cultivate the dramatic style obtained a more definite aim and sup- port in Germany upon the establishment of permanent theatres. The first of these was organised at Hamburg in 1678 and was opened with a performance of a singspiel called The Created, Fallen, and Redeemed Man. The music was by Johann Theile, a pupil of Schiitz. The libretto provided for recitatives, arias in strict metre, duets, and choruses. The accompaniment was played by a spinet, bass viol, and bandora; and this body of players was em- ployed not only as accompaniment to the vocal parts, but also, as expressly specified, "now and then the viols may be heard alone, to give the singers a chance to breathe." SIGIS^lUNDUS THEOPHILUS STADEN ERA OF ORATORIO IN GERMANY 159 Dramatic music in Germany, both as evidenced by the secular (opera) and sacred (oratorio) forms, enjoyed a flourishing period during the entire seventeenth century. Tendencies in the development of the art were so directed that in the lifetime of Schiitz (i 585-1672) both these great forms were established in Germany as they were similarly established in Italy under the followers of Neri. The period was one of immense intellectual activity throughout Europe. Copernicus had a century before corrected the error of the Ptolemaic system. His bril- liant follower, Galileo (i 564-1642), worked contempo- raneously with the composers of the early schools of opera and oratorio. Descartes and Spinoza were eminent phi- losophers. The early mystery and morality plays in England had given place to the works of Shakespeare. The Puritan age in English letters was rich in a new order of literature. In 1653 Izaak Walton's Complete Angler appeared; in the same period Jeremy Taylor's Holy Living and Holy Dying was written — a book that is said to have been read by every humble cottager. Like- wise, in this period were written the plays of the two great collaborators Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher. John Milton died in 1674, ^wo years after the death of Schiitz. Pilgrim's Progress, by John Bunyan (1628-88), the greatest of all allegories, "stole silently into the world." CHAPTER XIX DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTAL STYLE THE ORGAN In the more modern periods of musical history there is a pronounced preference manifested for the instrumental style of composition. So complete is the change in atti- tude and conception, and in the supremacy of the latter class over the vocal style, that their relations to one an- other have become exactly the reverse of what they were originally. Instrumental music is commonly distinguished as absolute music because no external auxiliaries such as text, dramatic presentation, scenic illustration, and the like are employed to heighten the musical effect. Instrumental music depends exclusively upon the elemen- tal power of tone abstracted from all other elements of attractiveness; upon the force of formal symmetry and proportion; the ever-varying interaction of impressions that are of a purely musical nature. It lies, therefore, in the nature of things that this refined and genuine phase of tone expression, this last and most perfect prod- uct of artistic evolution, should have been reserved for that advanced period of art history when the conscious- ness of its capacity should have reached a higher degree of maturity. At first it was natural for human beings to restrict themselves to the use of the instrument which Nature herself provides — the human voice. The superior rank of this, and of the vocal style identified with its specific qualities and resources, was almost wholly uncontested 1 60 INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTAL STYLE i6i until as late as the middle of the sixteenth century. We have seen that the strolling players and minstrels ac- companied their vocal lays upon some rude instrument — the vielle, bagpipe, or lute; and in the church, the organ, clarion, and trombone were used at an early period for MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF THE EARLY SIXTEENTH CENTURY DESIGNED IN ISI2 the support of the vocal choir. But the instruments served no other purpose than this; nothing more was assigned to them than the duplication of the vocal parts; not before the sixteenth century is there any trace of a strictly independent instrumental conception and appli- i62 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY cation of music to be found. The earliest compositions of this character in which the instruments were used alone were but little or nothing more than an exact transcrip- tion of songs and other vocal pieces for the vielle, hurdy- gurdy, lute, or harp. A "BOOK" ORGAN The first collection of printed instrumental pieces ap- peared in 1507-08 in Venice and consisted in four books of lute pieces, chiefly dances. c^cJf^ cL> .r/^^o..>^H^ J^ t^ ^-^ ^^^'='^) 3^ nilUi^i * ^ ^ m ft 1 u. :^=^ 5 5 The next appears to have been issued in 1529 at Paris. These pieces were also for the lute and probably differed INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTAL STYLE 163 very slightly from similar vocal compositions in the usual contrapuntal style of the time. In 1589 a collec- tion of compositions w^as published at Rome, each num- ber in a threefold arrangement — for three vocal parts, for cembalo, and for the lute. With the exception of dances, a few organ pieces, and such transcriptions as the above, no compositions that From a manuscript Psalter, National Library, Paris. FOURTEENTH-CENTURY ORGAN were written expressly for instruments (without reference to vocal models) appear until the last quarter of the six- teenth century. But thereafter instrumental music made rapid advances and soon became of equal importance and popularity with the vocal style. Among the numerous but still very imperfect instru- ments of early days the organ assumed the most im- portant rank. Of its ancestry it suffices to say that it originated in the hydraulos, or "water-organ," popular with the Greeks and Romans. The word organum sig- nifies "instrument" in general. Organs were introduced into the Catholic Church about 164 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the eighth century; in England as early as the seventh; in France not until the eleventh. In Germany organ- building became an important branch of industry at the end of the ninth century, and in the tenth there were already organs of considerable magnitude in Erfurt, Mu- nich, Magdeburg, and Halberstadt. The hydraulic or- EARLY PORTATIVE ORGAN gans were superseded at about this time by those in which a number of alternating bellows produced a stead- ier wind-pressure. The pipes were placed originally in a single row; then other rows were added; and after a while the front or principal row was separated from the back rows and a different keyboard used for each. This also gave rise in time to the row of keys for the feet (about the fifteenth century), called pedals in distinction to the manuals for the hands. In the fifteenth century experiments were ventured in the imitation of other instruments, and the organ soon INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTAL STYLE 165 comprised flute, trumpet, and other stops or registers. An important improvement was made in the invention of reed-pipes, whereby it became possible to obtain greater variety and to simulate other instruments more closely. Most significant of all were the adoption of a uniform standard pitch, and the equahsed temperament (men- ORGAN OF THE EARLY SEVENTEENTH CENTURY tioned in connection with Zarlino, and the incentive to the Well-Tempered Clavichord of Bach, who was an earnest supporter of the innovation). At first the organist limited himself to the mere dupli- cation of the vocal cantus intonated by priest or choir; later he probably added a discantus of his own or played all the vocal parts. As the mechanism of the instrument was improved the resources of the organist increased, and his technical skill kept pace necessarily with these, until it was no mean accomplishment to be an organist, even in the earlier days of the great contrapuntal schools. i66 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY The advances seem to have been most rapid in the Netherlands and Germany, where organists surpassed those of Italy, notwithstanding the high esteem in which the latter were held as late as the seventeenth century. The oldest organ composi- tions which have been pre- served are said to be the works of a German, Conrad Paumann (born blind at Nuremberg; lived in the fifteenth century). In Italy organ playing flourished most vigorously in Rome and Venice. Next to the two Gabrielis, Claudio Merulo of Correggio (1533- 1604) is regarded as one of the most noted organists of GiROLAMO FRESLuiiALDi ^}'^ ^^^e. He gave a lively impetus to the technic of the organ and also to the styles of composition for the instrument; he was probably the first to give definite form to the toccata. Another eminent Italian organist was Girolamo Fres- cobaldi. This so-called "father of the true art of organ playing" was born about 1583 at Ferrara, died 1644. He is known in history as the most skilful and gifted organist of this era, and is said to have been followed from city to city by those who admired his playing. The following is a specimen of his style of composition — a toccata, in which are recognised the sturdy, massive chord effects, and also the florid, figurated style, both of which are obviously derived directly from and dictated by the vocal practices of the time: INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTAL STYLE 167 Toccata. -^V M T i ffi # ^ ^ ^ i ^ "' 1 .1 i V ^ m J>.e^ e-try-o-^^^Cc Frescobaldi's most noted successor in Italy was Ber- nardo Pasquini (163 7- 171 o). The debt which all musical Europe owed to the Neth- erland school has been repeatedly demonstrated, in con- nection with vocal music, chiefly within the church. But the influence of the Dutch masters, in providing a funda- ment for future structural growth, is evident also in the advancement of instrumental music. Both Italian and German organists derived nourishment from this source. Frescobaldi himself laid the foundation of his mastership in Flanders, where, at that time, "organ playing attained eminent standing. Flanders, Holland, and Brabant gave many fine organists to the world, and were, so to speak, the nursery of this class of musicians," A large number of celebrated German musicians re- ceived their organ training directly from an eminent Am- i68 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY sterdam master, Jan Pieters Sweelinck (himself a pupil of Zarlino). Foremost among these was Samuel Scheldt, one of the earliest to promote the art of organ playing. Scheldt was born at Halle in 1 587, and was, therefore, very nearly contemporaneous with Frescobaldi and with Hein- rich Schiitz. He was famous for his treatment of the chorale, which was far more animated and elaborate than that of earlier writers, and he aimed at the greatest pos- sible richness of harmony and accuracy of expression. Another eminent German organist and composer, Jo- hann Jacob Froberger (born at Halle in 1605; died 1667), was a pupil of Frescobaldi. He is noted for his achieve- ments in the fugue form, rescuing it from neglect and imparting vitality to it (modernising it, from the stand- point of his day). The fundamental details of the fugue were still more firmly established and the character of this important instrumental form more definitely devel- oped by a German organist of fame, Johann Pachelbel (born at Nuremberg in 1653; died 1706 as organist of the St, Sebaldus church in that city). In his works, full of originality and alert imagination, the fetters of the old ecclesiastic mode are broken and the two universal modes, major and minor, assert themselves as the only natural and legitimate tonalities. The subjects of Pachelbel's fugues are of a distinctly instrumental character and indicate an advance in the freedom and richness of mu- sical conception. Thus: -m^lxaj'i INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTAL STYLE 169 Two other German organists of this period are worthy of mention: Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707) and Nicolas Bruhns (1666-97), both of whom made valuable con- tributions to the organ literature of the seventeenth cen- tury. To our modern ears these works sound dry and are not calculated to hold the interest, but it is easy to understand the admiration they excited in their day as models of symmetry, animation, and originality. CHAPTER XX INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC THE CLAVICHORD, HARPSICHORD, AND OTHER KEYBOARD INSTRUMENTS Of no less significance and far greater popularity than the organ were the clavichord and the virginal, the two chief varieties of stringed instruments with a manual or keyboard, the forerunners of the pianoforte. The two were distinguished to some slight extent in outward con- struction, but chiefly in the manner of tone production. In the clavichord the strings were struck from below by flat, metal pegs, called tangents, inserted at the farther end of the wooden strips or levers whose front end formed the keys of the manual. In the square virginal (also called spinet) and in the triangular-shaped harpsichord (clavicymbal, cembalo, French clavecin) the strings were snapped by short, thin points of quill driven into the side of the wooden lever. From this quill (Latin spina) the name spinet was derived. The virginal was a trifle smaller than the spinet. These instruments, being smaller and more easily con- structed than the organ, and simpler in their manipula- tion, served the purposes of entertainment and instruction far better than the latter, and were, therefore, naturally calculated to become more popular. The organ kept its place exclusively in the church, while the clavichord and spinet found their proper abode in the home. Who the inventor of these instruments was will never be known. It is certain that their earliest forms date no farther back than the fourteenth century. The virginal 170 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 171 From the Weimar "Wunderbuch." PRIMITIVE SPINET, ABOUT 1440 From the Weimar "Wunderbuch." A CLAVICHORD, 1440 172 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY is first mentioned in 151 1. The embryonic forms of the stringed instrument with keyboard may be recognised in two ancient mechanisms: the monochord, from which the clavichord family proceeded, and the antique psalter, the remote progenitor of the harpsichord and spinet. ITALIAN SPINET The monochord, used in its primary form by the Greeks, was not a musical but a mechanical device consisting, as the name implies, of one string, divisible by means of a movable bridge (somewhat like the strings of a violin, altered in length by the moving finger of the player). To obviate the inconvenient shifting of the bridge, a set of keys (claves) was attached, with metal pegs, which, striking the string in different places, produced the corre- sponding tones. In the subsequent clavichord, the num- ber of strings was increased, but one string still served for two or more tones by being thus struck at different INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 173 points. The transition from the monochord to the clavi- chord is represented by the dulcimer, a very old instrument of German origin. It consisted of several metal strings, stretched over a long wooden box, tuned by means of DULCIMER pegs, and struck with diminutive mallets of wood or felt, manipulated by the hand and dropped upon the strings from above. The combination of these two gave rise, about 1500, to the clavichord. The strings, usually of brass wire, were stretched over the surface of a sounding board or box, and gave forth their tone by being struck with the thin metal tangent at the end of the wooden rod extending to 174 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the kej'board. The tone was dehcate and characteristic enough to give birth to a specific style of instrumental music. The first instrument of this kind in which there was a separate string for each key, is said to have been con- structed in 1725 by Daniel Faber, an organist at Crailsheim in Wiirttemberg. At first the clavi- chord had twenty keys, with a compass of two and a half oc- taves; all of the keys were white except B flat, which was black; later the number of keys was increased to twenty-two, and, upon the addition of the chromatic tones, to thirtj^-eight. About 1600 it had a compass of about four octaves; the lower keys were then black, the upper ones white; it had, as a rule, no legs, but was placed upon a table. As to the other family, the harpsichord and spinet, it had, like the ancient psalter, a separate string for each tone, of proportionate length. The tone of the psalter was produced by means of a brass or ivory plectrum in the player's hand, with which the strings were struck or snapped. This instrument developed also about the year 1500 into the harpsichord (clavicymbal, virginal or spinet) UPRIGHT HARPSICHORD INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 175 by substituting a set of quill points for the plectrum. The approximately triangular form of the psalter was retained, at least in the clavicymbal and harpsichord, which had the appearance of a small harp laid upon its side. The virginal and spinet were nearly or quite rec- tangular. In every outward respect, the instruments of both classes were practically alike; they differed (i), as has been seen, in the mode of producing the tone; (2) while the clavichord was single-strung, the virginal was often double or triple strung (z. ^,, in "choirs," more than one string for the same tone); (3) the harpsichord often had two banks of keys, one above the other, as on the organ, and a sort of damper, shifted by hand. II (With movable MONOCHORD PSALTER (With metal or bridge or ivory plec- with keys.) trums in the hand.) I Square 2 Triangular (With felt ham- Hackbrett (Ger.). Spinett (Ger.) . Harpsichord. (Snapped with mers, struck Dulcimer. Spinette (Fr.) . Clavicymbal quill points by hand (Ger.). from key- from above.) Psalter (modern). Virginal Clavicymbalum. board.) (Eng.). Spinetto (It.) Clavicembalo (It.) or Buonaccordo Cembalo. (It.). (With metal Clavichord. Clavecin (Fr.). pegs from be- low, with key- board.) (With felt ham- Klavier (Ger.). Forte-piano, Piano-e-forte, Pianoforte, Grand mers from piano, Fliigel (Ger.), Pianino or Upright. below, with keyboard.) Of the remarkably large number of experimental varie- ties of keyboard instruments invented in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as fancied improvements upon the clavichord and harpsichord, none was to prove of 176 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY lasting value until the attempt was made by Bartolommeo Cristofori, of Padua, in 171 1, to devise a means of modi- fying the tone, and in a sense combining the advantages of both classes. The instrument he made was most closely CRISTOFORI PIANO related to the clavichord, as the strings were struck from below, not by metal tangents, however, but by small felt hammers. The tone which was thus produced proved to be susceptible of considerable modification; it could be made long or short {legato or staccato), and either loud or soft. For the latter reason, which was considered the most significant, the new instrument was called forte-e- piano (loud and soft) or forte-piano, and later, pianoforte, which novel designation it has ever since retained. It is natural that the development of any style of INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 177 music must go hand in hand with the technical and me- chanical perfection of the instrument for which it is de- signed. The methods of execution upon these keyboard instruments, especially as concerns the fingering, were so singularly awkward and clumsy that one wonders how it was possible to obtain an}^ satisfactory results with them. At first only the three middle fingers were used; the thumb and little finger but rarely; and this most unnat- ural and apparently needless restriction was tolerated for a full century. As late as 1735 the famous player and composer, Mattheson, fingered the C major scale in a manner which would seem to us to preclude all progress. He magnanimously admits, however, that "you will find almost as many different methods of so-called fingering {applicatur) as there are players. Some run with four fingers, others with five, while others, again, get along almost as briskly with only two. Nor is this of any consequence as long as one adopts some definite system and adheres to it." In his famous pianoforte method {Versuche iiber die wahre Art, das Klavier zu spielen, 1759), Philipp Emanuel Bach says: " As our ancestors very seldom made any use of the thumb, it was usually in their way; consequently they often had too many fingers. Nowada3's we are sometimes conscious of having too few, notwithstanding the more rational use of them in our present style of music. I have often heard m}^ deceased father [the great Johann Sebastian Bach] say that he had fre- quently seen great players in his youth who never used the thumb except in wide stretches, where it was unavoid- able." Couperin, in his equally famous method (L'art de toucher le Clavecin, 1716), already taught a more gen- eral use of all five fingers. It was the elder Bach, how- ever, who appears to have first advocated the cultivation and employment of all five fingers equally. Of this, his Well-Tempered Clavichord and other works bear unques- tionable testimony. 178 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY All this affords the reader a gUmpse of the array of obstacles which the art had to overcome, and increases his appreciation not only of our present pianoforte style but of the esteem due to the admirable compositions of earlier days, conceived and executed under such limita- tions as were imposed by the crudeness both of the theory and the mechanical vehicles of musical expression. The tone of all these instruments was, as intimated, delicate, though possessed of a certain keenness and pene- tration and of very brief resonance. The so-called mani- eres, or embellishments (grace-notes), were doubtless often introduced chiefly for the purpose of prolonging the res- onance of certain tones of the melody — though, of course, they also partly originated in the imitation of the orna- ments (coloratures) so common and essential in vocal arias. CHAPTER XXI CULTIVATION OF THE CLAVICHORD STYLE OTHER INSTRUMENTS. THE PRIMARY ORCHESTRA In the art of clavichord playing and composition, the French and ItaHans kept up an even contest for suprem- acy for a long time. France possessed the greater num- ber of distinguished clavichordists, while Italy continued to produce the best singers and violinists. In France three masters appeared at an early date who laboured with marked success in establishing a dis- tinct clavichord style: Denis Gaultier (about 1605); Georg Mufifat (from the middle of the seventeenth cen- tury until 1704); and Franfois Couperin (born in Paris in 1668; died 1733). The most popular instrumental forms of the time, created by these and other writers in all countries, were the toccata, ricercar, fugue, fantasie, capriccio, aria (not vocal) with or without so-called doubles (variations), and, more especially, the numerous forms of the dance (alle- mande, bourree, chaconne, courante, gavotte, gigue, me- nuet, passacagha, pavane, passepied, polonaise, rigaudon, sarabande, etc.), which were commonly published col- lectively under the title of suite. The suite was probably of French origin, dating from the middle of the seventeenth century. It often con- tained, besides the dances, other more scholastic forms of composition, such as the prelude, fugue, rondeau, scherzo, etc. In Italy the term partita was often applied to it, and also the designation sonata da camera in distinction to 179 i8o ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the sacred concerto known as sonata da chiese. (Neither of these should be confounded with the modern sonata, though the relation is apparent.) The sonata (from sonus, sound; signifying a "structure of sounds," and thus distinguished from the vocal cantata, from cantare^ to sing) appears to have been originally, at a very early date, also a vocal composition allied to the motette. Later on it was a brief instrumental introduction to larger vocal forms (in which case it also bore the name sinfonia). In its present modern col- lective form of three or four movements, the sonata was derived in some degree from the suite, which it partly suc- ceeded and eventually super- seded; but it does appear contemporaneously with the suite, as a composition in one movement. This sonata in one movement was the most perfect and scholarly form of this whole early instrumental era, as it is to-day, with its orchestral counterpart (the symphony), the most distinguished of all the forms of absolute music. Its most eminent promoter was Domenico Scarlatti (the younger), who gave it those fundamental structural traits which, with some important modifica- tions, form the ground-plan of the modern sonata- allegro. The earliest suites consisted usually of dances, but the name suite (and also partita) was also given to a series of variations of a small dance in period form, like the chaconne and passacaglia. The suite was most popular in France, while in Italy preference was given to the sonata and partita. The instrumental styles of these two countries differed so essentially in the eighteenth FRANCOIS COUPERIN THE CLAVICHORD STYLE i«i century that the terms French style and Italian style were common and decidedly distinctive. Of the numerous works of Fran9ois Couperin, one of the most prominent figures in French musical history in the early part of the eighteenth century, the Pieces de Clavecin are the most remarkable. They consist chiefly of the dances in vogue at that time, but contain also pieces of a more general character, conspicuous among which is the rondeau (rondo). This latter was then the most popular instrumental form and was based upon the idea of alternation — the alternation of a principal period with one or more subordinate periods; thus it embodied the fundamental condition of instrumental music, the clarity and effectiveness of which are dependent upon just such thematic oppositions and confirmations as the rondo (and also the sonata) affords. The following ron- deau illustrates Couperin's style: rsr te i--ii^Ji r m ^^ A. CO r^=? t=3ZS Oi- rbn n- n Ui ^ ^=^ ^^ i 1 I ? >^ -1^^ E m 21 ^ jr. ^ /^_^uM&£' 'f?) i , iJl r i 1-: T i \ ^{ a ■ ri "ife#kfl-»t -^" --T^. n^'.a.A f^"'* a^ /'iAc-t.<,ViA*«<^ f: 'UryLcLiXiuLJ^ , /rO^-'-^x-'J-eoC S^ J. ABc*«AA<«*«<; i82 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Couperin's historic successor was Jean Philippe Rameau (born, 1683, at Dijon; died, 1764, at Paris). Rameau was the first to publish a theoretical work in the sense of the modern text-book on harmony; it was entitled Trea- tise on Harmony, Reduced to Its Natural Principles. It appeared in 1722 (about the same time that Bach's Well- Tempered Clavichord Wcis published in Germany), and was the first example in history of an attempt to present a system of harmony or chord combination in the form of a well- grounded and carefully investigated theory. Prior to this the theory of composition was taught under the name of counterpoint, but thereafter these two phases of theory were always separately taught and applied. Rameau's J. PH. RAMEAU method, though experi- mental, was the basis for all subsequent treatises for nearly one hundred and fifty years, and many of his deductions and rules are still recognised as fundamentally valid. Rameau's clavichord pieces were extremely popular, and he was also actively engaged in operatic composition. In Italy, Girolamo Frescobaldi was followed by the two Scarlattis, Alessandro and his son Domenico. By far the more eminent in the history of music in general, and clavichord composition particularly, was the younger, Domenico Scarlatti, who is justly regarded as the most distinguished clavicymbalist (and also organist), both as composer and player, of this era. He was born in 1683 (two years before Bach and Handel) in Naples; he lived for a time in Lisbon and Madrid, returned in 1725 to THE CLAVICHORD STYLE 183 his native country, and died in 1757 (one year after the birth of Mozart). It is scarcely possible to overestimate the influence ex- erted by Domenico Scarlatti upon the advance of musical i ^ eciye^ gj^j^', i^ijrrixi i— i J^ •l^-'-l _p i^ art, especially that of instrumental or absolute music. Many of his pieces for the clavichord are still considered admirable, and in originality, purity of style, and beauty of detail they rank with the best that the art produced i84 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY during the first half of the eighteenth century. To his great contemporaries, Bach and Handel, he was inferior only in breadth and versatility of genius. In England instrumental music was also an object of serious and wide-spread cultivation. The most promi- nent composers were Thomas Tallis (died 1585), his pupil k^=:f^ -smvmi^^i fcg; T -r ! L_U i Ml ^^m 'f fe'yf.n^ ftjcn-cSi^K. ^m ?rJ. 1 J .:&. ^ ? William Byrd (died 1623), Giles Farnaby, Thomas Morley (died 1604), John Bull, Orlando Gibbons (i 583-1625), and Pelham Humphrey (1647-74) — all musicians of skill and scholarship, though it cannot be asserted that their contributions to instrumental literature were of striking originality or lasting worth. They devoted their atten- tion mainly to dances, in the French style, and to pop- ular pieces. The greatest native English composer was Henry Purcell (1658-95), a genius of real power of whom more will be said in connection with the opera. THE CLAVICHORD STYLE 185 In no countr}" was the growth of instrumental music more rapid and vigorous than in Germany. One of the earhest clavichord composers of this country, was Johann Kuhnau. This original and masterly writer (born 1667; died 1722 — ten years before the birth of Haydn), was Bach's predecessor as cantor and organist of St. Thomas's school in Leipsic. One of Kuhnau's most interesting creations was a collection of six Biblical Histories, with additional explanatory notes, in the form of sonatas for the clavichord, pub- lished in 1700. Each one of the six is accompanied b}' a so-called programme de- scribing the music and its illustrative purpose; for ex- ample, No. 2 bears the su- perscription: Saul, cured of his disorder by the music of David. The sonata represented (i) Saul's depression and foolishness; (2) David's exhilarating harp playing; (3) the kmg's pacified spirit. This is another illustration of the apparent instinctive inclination among music lovers to recognise descriptive qualities in music — even when instrumental — and to em- ploy it in the suggestion and direct illustration of physi- cal and emotional movements. The error committed by many of these older writers appears to be that they car- ried the idea to what impresses us as an absurd extreme. The practice was very common, and many compositions received descriptive titles sometimes both absurd and inap- propriate. This is seen in the writings of Rameau, Cou- perin, English composers, and even the great Bach; and the custom has not yet wholly died out — in fact, in recent times it appears to have been revived, but in a far more JOHANN KUHNAU i86 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY artistic and serious fashion, in the tone-poems of Liszt and others. n^n i,i ^l&yfCa^it-^t, /\(A-J^yK.ty s 1 f^\^\ ^ m ^ A. ^ ^ ^ =F Theophile Muffat (son of Georg MufFat and pupil of Joseph Fux) was more distinctively German than his father, who is usually assigned to the French school. Theophile was born in Vienna and hved during the first half of the eighteenth century. Another very popular clavichord composer was Johann Mattheson (1681-1764), who will be considered later. As to the other musical instruments which were used THE CLAVICHORD STYLE 187 partly for solo performance but chiefly as accompani- ment, and out of the combination of which the complete orchestra was ultimately to emerge, it suffices to say that each separate instrument (of brass, or wood, or with strings) became the object of mechanical investigation and improvement until it reached its highest grade of technical structure and efficiency. As far as popularity and general usefulness are concerned, the lute assumed, no doubt, the foremost rank during the early centuries of musical practice. But it was not calculated to serve artistic purposes, and, although constructed in a wide variety of forms and sizes and used a great deal by early instrumental composers, and in accompaniments, the lute was never considered worthy of a place in the later orchestra and has, therefore, become almost ob- solete. The instrument that proved its artistic superiority and adaptability was the violin. This attained a degree of perfection at Cremona, in Italy (in the period from 1600 to 1745), never since quite equalled, through the persis- tent and skilful efforts of the Amatis, Guarneris, and Antonio Stradivari. The greatest violin players and composers were Giu- seppe Torelli (died 1708), Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713), Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770), and, later, Giovanni Battista Viotti (1753-1824). The family of stringed instruments played with bow — the violin, viola (da braccia), violoncello, and contrabass — constituted then, as now, the fundament of the orches- tra, to complete which it was only necessary to add the wind instruments of wood and of brass. The division of every class of instruments into groups (choirs or families) of four or five, differing in register and corresponding originally to the different vocal parts, was practised as early as the fifteenth century. Agricola (in 1529) speaks of a quartet of "little violas of three strings." Michael Praetorius (in 1619) mentions the use of three-stringed ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY violas in part-music. In his day, in Germany, a complete quintet was employed (presumably, violin, viola, viola da gamba, violoncello, and contrabass), a fourth lower in pitch than similar instruments in Italy. The term vio- lino first appears in a book dated 1533, though it is not known to what this refers — ^probably a little viola, called later violetta. The earliest explicit mention of the name "violin" occurs in a treatise published in 1596, where its compass is given exactly as fixed to-day. The first certain employment of the violin appears to have taken place in Mon- teverde's Orfeo (1607), where it is spoken of as a violino piccolo. A body of instrumen- talists in the sense of the modern orchestra (wind and strmgs) is first men- tioned by a German, Johann Pezelius, in 1675, who asso- ciated two violins, cornet, flute, clarions, clarionets, and bassoons. In the same year Johann Caspar Horn's famous Parergon musicum was published, consisting of dances for two choruses, with violins, flutes, cornets, shawms, and the basso continue (probably played, as was quite universal, upon a bass lute). Gabrieli, in Ital}^, commenced to as- sociate various instruments; but the orchestra, as a unified and properly balanced body, was not fully organised until the days of Haydn (middle of the eighteenth century). Greater stress was naturally laid at first upon the culti- vation of the single instruments for solos or for small en- semble performances, thus assuring the full recognition of the qualities and the technical perfection of each and gradually determining its degree of fitness for concerted employment. The wind instruments in most common use appear ANTONIO STRADIVARI THE CLAVICHORD STYLE 189 to have been those of metal — the trumpets, trombones, horns, etc. — which very frequently formed a choir by themselves in the church service and in chorale elabora- tions. Next in popularity to these stood the oboes, clarionets, flutes, and other wood-wind instruments, the mechanical perfection of which is, however, of compar- atively recent date. It was customary to use, also, one or more virginals or clavichords in accompaniments. These, however, in their present form of the pianoforte, are no longer admitted to the orchestra, their place there being now taken by the harp. The development of an orchestral body was powerfully furthered by the forms of dramatic music which con- stantly increased in popularity and magnitude, steadily approached a higher artistic aim and achievement, and stood in need of instrumental reinforcement and resources. CHAPTER XXII DRAMATIC MUSIC IN ITALY LATER ERA In consequence of the luxuriant growth of dramatic song the serious a cappella style of the Roman Church gradually gave place, in Italy, to a wholly new mode of musical conception and utterance. Monteverde, Cavalli, and Cesti had already found the beginnings of a new musical language better suited to the expression of human passion; Carissimi had extended, enriched, and intensi- fied this language; and his great successor, Alessandro Scarlatti, marks the inauguration of a most brilliant era of Italian dramatic art. The earliest and chief centre of activity was at Naples, and the array of masters engaged there in the creation of dramatic works (espe- cially operas) were known as the Younger Neapolitan School. To this era belong, first, two scholars of Scarlatti, Francesco Durante and Leonardo Leo, who head the mas- ters of the younger Neapolitan school. Durante was born in 1684 (one year before Handel and Bach) at Fratta Maggiore, studied at first with Alessandro Scar- latti, then in Rome with Pasquini; later he became chap- elmaster in Naples, where he died in 1755. He was Scarlatti's inferior in point of dramatic talent, but his works exhibit a certain thoroughness and brilliancy. His orchestra was still primitive, though he began to make use of flutes, oboes, bassoons, horns, and trumpets. Leonardo Leo was born in 1694, followed a career very 190 DRAMATIC MUSIC IN ITALY 191 similar to that of Durante, and died in 1744. His melo- dies were more flowing and graceful than those of his contemporary, but also more effeminate. Leo was the favourite of all Italy. He wrote about forty operas, sev- eral oratorios, and a multitude of sacred works, mostly with orchestral accompaniment. A closer imitator of Durante was Francesco Feo, born, 1699, '^^ Naples. His works, both sacred and secular, were noted in their time for their purity and solidity but were soon forgotten. Another noteworth}" pupd of Scarlatti was Nicolo Por- pora (later the teacher of Joseph Haydn), born 1685. He was the author of a large number of operas, many of them written for the London stage, where he was engaged, in 1733, as composer and director; he was exactly the same age as Handel, and died in 1766. Porpora was more famous as vocal pedagogue than as composer. To the next generation of Neapolitan tone-masters belonged, first and foremost, Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, born 1710, died 1736 (at the age of twenty-six years). In the opera seria he was unsuccessful, owing to his lack of talent and experience concerning dramatic effects, and his want of the power and versatility requisite for larger creations. On the other hand, his comic intermezzo, La serva padrone, was enormously successful, especially in Paris. The historian Fetis speaks of it as " a master- piece of ethereal melody, elegance, and genuine dramatic form." His last work, a famous Stabat Mater, has main- tained its place in the admiration of music lovers to the present day, though critics differ widely in their judgment of its real merit. The next composer of renown was Nicolo Jommelli, born, 1714, near Naples. He appears to have been an erratic genius, more gifted and brilliant than diligent. In 1754 he became director and composer to the king in Stuttgart, where he remained until 1765, when he returned to Naples, and there died in 1774 (four years after Beethoven's birth). 192 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Probably the most distinguished of all the representa- tives of the Neapolitan school was Nicolo Piccini, born 1728 (four years before Haydn); he studied with Durante ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ 4- ^r TT } ^ \\ ^ ^ ^ ^ I IV' 1! ^ rl 7if^ ^^ El ^^ ^^=? d^c i ^ ^ S f^ 4, 4. i and Leo and presented his first opera, Le donne dispet- tose, at the age of twenty-six, in the theatre at Florence. His greatest success was won with the comic opera Cecchi?ia, written for Rome in 1761, which was on the stage almost uninterruptedly and spread into all the DRAMATIC MUSIC IN ITALY 193 musical cities of Europe; it became so famous that Pic- cini's method of handhng the opera huffa (comic opera) was recognised as standard, and he was called the re- generator of that style. He is accredited with being the first to adjust the aria to the design of the rondo form. In the course of the ensuing fort}^ j^ears Piccini composed no fewer than eight}^ operas besides a number of oratorios. In 1776 he went to Paris, where he became the head of a strong rival faction opposed to Gluck, in which connec- tion we shall again consider his career. Piccini died in 1800. Another renowned pupil of Durante was Giovanni Paesi- ello, born, 1741, at Tarento. His artistic career opened with two comic operas written for the Bologna stage, La Pupilla and // mondo at rovescio; these were followed — up to the year 1803 — by ninety others, partly serious but chiefly comic. He died in 1816. The remarkable progress thus made by the Italian opera, subsequent to Alessandro Scarlatti, extended principally in the direction of purely vocal art, while the dramatic contents were proportion- ately neglected. The melody expanded to broader dimen- sions, and its rhythmic members assumed greater regu- larity and symmetry. In the early days of monody the melody of the opera and oratorio was composed of brief members, the sec- tions were short, cadences frequent, and the aria, as a whole, stunted, undeveloped, and unfinished. The younger generation elaborated and sj^stematised the structural form and created that broad three-part de- sign (with a middle section and a da capo) which was universally adopted and cultivated under the designa- NICOLO PICCINI 194 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY tion "grand aria." (This form was naturally utilised in instrumental composition also and became the basis of the great majority of subsequent forms — in fact, the chief structural idea according to which all homophonic forms and even the larger sonata and symphony designs were modelled.) But the more their interest centred thus in the vocal ele- ment, the less attention was directed to the dra- matic purpose, which was supposedly the prime object of the en- tire creation. The re- sult was, of course, that all dramatic conditions became of decidedly in- ferior significance, and the art and practice of vocalism soon asserted themselves as principal aims. The dramatic characters sank into mere vocal instruments; the aria, as brilliant vocal show piece, sup- planted the other ele- ments; duets and en- sembles were rare; and the chorus had but a very unimportant role, or none at all. This, again, influ- enced and degraded the text (libretto), which soon sacri- ficed its dignity and dramatic sense. The composers catered to the singers and were but too ready to devote their efforts and melodic inspirations to the growing rage for technical display, virtuoso colorature, and bravour arias. Hence the discredit into which the Italian opera fell and the contempt with which, to the present day, many of the older types of this class are regarded, as GIOVANNI PAESIELLO DRAMATIC MUSIC IN ITALY 195 far as libretto and dramatic action and purpose are concerned. While the school at Naples was thus flooding Europe with its attractive and, in some respects, admirable prod- ucts, the rest of Italy was by no means idle. In Rome, Venice, Bologna, and other cities composers of more or less celebrity were active, addmg their voices to the vic- torious chant of Italian operatic art. In Rome, where the music of the church would be expected to receive, naturally, more zealous cultivation than that of the secular drama, there were, nevertheless, several eminent masters busily engaged in the new and popular domain of composition. Among these were Giu- seppe Ottavio Pitoni (1657-1743); Bernardo Pasquini (1637-1710), Frescobaldi's successor in the field of organ virtuosity; Francesco Gasparini (1668-1737), teacher of Domenico Scarlatti, composer of about thirty much-ad- mired operas and the author of an interesting and valu- able text-book on Thorough-Bass (the term, equivalent to figured bass, is derived somewhat clumsily from basso continuo or continuous bass); and Agostino Stef- fani (1655-1730), famous for his melodic talent, especially in the duet, of which, in its typical form, he was regarded as the creator. Of distinct artistic merit is his Stabat Mater for six vocal parts, two violins, three violas, 'cello, and organ. Conspicuously identified with Venice was the famous school of Giovanni Legrenzi (1625-90), author of many fine sacred works, seventeen operas, and a number of sonatas and other instrumental pieces. He organised an orchestra of thirty-four pla3^ers at St. Mark's, which comprised string and wind instruments in an association strikingly similar to the modern body. His most eminent disciple was Antonio Lotti (1667- 1740), who wrote nineteen operas and many excellent works for church and chamber, distinguished for their grace, pathos, and profound contrapuntal scholarship. 196 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY This master, no doubt underestimated in his own day and generation, is now regarded as a shining Hght of the Vene- tian school. He was also a thorough master of the vocal art. Another disciple of Legrenzi's school was Antonio Cal- dara (1670-1736), born in Venice; he became vice-director of the opera in Vienna, under the celebrated pedagogue and composer Johann Joseph Fux, where he remained until his death. He wrote sixty-nine operas, noted more for skilful technic than creative talent. Great respect is ac- corded, further, to Bene- detto Marcello (1686- I739)> whose principal work was a beautiful and powerful setting of the Psalms of David. His original intention of com- posing the entire number (one hundred and fifty) was abandoned after he had finished the first fifty. One of the most clever and original composers of the Vene- tian school was Baldassare Galuppi (1706-85); he spent some time in London and was the author of about sixty operas. In Bologna appear Giovanni Paolo Colonna (1640-95) and Giovanni Bononcini (the younger); the latter, born, 1660, at Modena, was most famous as a really able rival of Handel in London, whose popularity with the English public he shared quite evenly until the superior genius of Handel overpowered him and (coupled with some indiscretions of which Bononcini was accused) forced him to return to the Continent, where he was lost sight of. Another less brilliant but more noble-minded AGOSTINO STEFFANI DRAMATIC MUSIC IN ITALY 197 exponent of the school of Bologna was Giovanni Maria Clari (bom 1669). Other Italian cities also produced masters of greater or lesser distinction. Palermo was the home of Baron Emanuele d'Astorga (1681-1736), justly famed for his beautiful Stabat Mater, and an excellent tenor singer who won the hearts of every community he visited. His cantatas were highly prized. From Florence came Francesco Conti (1682-1732), who, in 1703, was called to the position of theobist (lute player) in the orchestra at Vienna; like Caldara, Conti became vice-director there under Fux. He wrote sixteen much- admired operas. ZINGARELLI. SARTI. TRITTO. PAISIELLO* * The spelling of this name is either Paesiello or Paisiello. See Grove, Dictionary of Music and Musicians, vol. Ill, p. 598. CHAPTER XXIII THE OPERA IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES The popular drama was perhaps nowhere more gen- erally cultivated than in France; therefore, this nation was ready to adopt with eagerness the new musical dra- matic forms to which Italy had given birth and for which France possessed ample models and lively sympathy. Mention has been made of the popular play Robin et Marion of Adam de la Halle. This was a sort of fore- runner of the later opera, and performances of works of a similar nature were among the most common forms of recreation, kept alive chiefly by the jongleurs or min- strels of France up to the sixteenth century. In 1645 Cardinal Mazarin caused a number of profes- sional singers to be imported from Italy to Paris. They performed Peri's opera, Orfeo ed Eurydice, and met with such success as to arouse the ambition of native French composers, who began to imitate the new dramatic style and produce operas of their own. The transportation of Italian opera into France is sig- nalised in history by the appearance of Giovanni Battista LuUy, who, though a native-born Italian, was destined to inaugurate the brilliant early era of French opera, and, in fact, to create the national grand opera of France. Lully was born in 1633, at Florence. He emigrated to Paris at the age of twelve and served in the kitchen of Mademoiselle d'Orleans, the king's niece. The atten- tion of certain nobles having been drawn to his extraor- dinary musical ability, Lully was given a place among the OPERA IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 199 twenty-four violons du roy, where he attracted the notice and won the complete favour of Louis XIV. Lully was of an almost repulsive appearance and far from refined in manners, but he was not lacking in certain good quali- ties and, above all, knew how to manage and to ingra- tiate himself with the king. He soon became superinten- dent of the court music, was ap- pointed secretary to the king, was knighted, and in 1672 was intrusted with the exclusive management of the royal opera. As composer, Lully was keenly aware of the taste and desires of the French people, and he soon stood with- out a rival in their esteem, actually creating an epoch in the history of French grand opera, which he raised to the dignity and importance of a national institution that retained its significance long after his death. Lully was powerfully supported by a skilful poet, Philippe Quinault, whose librettos were greatly superior to those of his contem- poraries m France, Italy, and Germany. Together they brought out about one opera each year. The first of Lully's operas was Les fetes de V amour et de Bacchus (1672). Up to the year of his death (1687) some eighteen other operas and ballets followed, all based upon Grecian JEAN BAPTISTE LULLY Portrait by Mignard. 200 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY mythology. All bore the same title, Tragedie, mise en musique, and each was prefaced by a prologue. As far as the intrinsic merit of Lully's music is con- cerned, it must be pronounced greatly inferior to the ar- tistic productions of Italian and German masters. His creative musical talent could not bear comparison with that of Monteverde, Cavalli, Scarlatti, or Schiitz. His success was, therefore, not due to this but to his dra- matic genius; his operas were masterpieces of dramatic pathos and expression, and their strongest feature was the declamation. Their ob- ject was the most vivid and passionate dramatic utter- ance, and the music, the separate tones of his mostly fragmentary melodies and re- citatives, were wholly sub- servient thereto. Hence, Lull3^'s operas did little or nothing for the advancement of absolute music, though it must be recognised that, from such close and ardent associa- tion with the emotional pulsations of the drama, the latent dramatic and emotional qualities of music were stimulated and brought nearer to the vital action they were destined to evolve and exercise in time. Lully discarded all vocal embellishment, thus adopting a tendency directly opposed to that of the Italians, whose natural melodic expression was marred and hampered by a redundancy of ornament. The following is a fine illustration of effective musical declamation from Lully's Alceste: From Vidal's "Les Instruments a Archet," Paris, 1876. ONE OF THE TWENTY-FOUR "VIOLONS DU ROY" m OPERA IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 201 i ^=^ 1 1^ f^i ^m Q t-ee^ l vSk -cc<< - Ti S«-t4 S&d <^ ii^si^- 913 r ^ • ^•:i^ ] ^B It appears, for the reasons just given, that the early French national opera as conceived bj^ Lully was quite as one-sided, in its almost exclusive dramatic character, as was that of Italy, where this very dramatic element was made entirely subservient to purely melodious musical expression. Lully's instrumental accompaniments were very meagre — not in any degree independent but a mere duplication of the vocal parts — except, of course, in the overture and in the ballets and dances (called airs). In regard to the latter, another characteristic distinction appears between the French, who loved the ballet and gave it a prominent place in their opera, and the Italians, with whom this was an unimportant and more unusual factor. Lully's operas would probably have been less popular had not his dramatic talent given him such command of the effective auxiliaries — the management of the stage, the arrangement of dances, the scenes and costumes — all 202 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY these things were brought into concerted operation by his own hand. In this respect LuUy bore significant his- toric relation to Richard Wagner, whom he resembles in his definite purpose of creating a music-drama which should assemble all the arts necessary for this object, but to whom he was inferior in point of musical and dra- matic genius. The next eminent promoter of French national opera was Jean Philippe Rameau, to whom reference has already been made as instrumental composer and as author of the oldest harmony method. Rameau, like Gluck and Handel, reached quite an ad- vanced age before treading the path that was to lead to the greatest triumph. His first opera was performed in 1733, when he was in his fiftieth year. Born in 1683, he gave early proof of un- usual musical talent. At the age of eighteen he left his parental home, went to Mi- lan, and did not return to Paris until sixteen years later. It was his first opera that suddenly made him famous, and it was followed, up to his death, in 1764, by twenty- two other operas and ballets, which, though neither revo- lutionary in style nor even particularly original, were, nevertheless, immensely popular — probably because they were so natural and clever a continuation of the same processes and the same manner of treatment that had made Lully so beloved. Rameau's style was, however, somewhat superior to that of the latter in the intensity of its declamation, the variety and interest of its rhythm, and the richness and technical purity of harmony. A somewhat later and almost equally distinguished FRANCOIS JOSEPH GOSSEC OPERA IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 203 composer and promoter of national French grand opera was Frangois Joseph Gossec (1734-1829); he was an ad- mirable writer and compares most favourably with the best talents that France has produced. Gossec is ac- credited with being a close forerunner of Haydn in the domain of the S3^mphony, having written one in the style subsequently adopted and developed by the great classic masters, five yea.rs before Haydn turned his attention to the symphony. Gossec wrote a few comic operas but chiefly those of the larger, tragic type. French grand opera, which attained to such vigour under Lully and Rameau, encountered before the death of the latter a strong rival in the opera huffa of Italy, which found its way to Paris (as it also had to Germany and England) and gave birth in France to the no less popular and important forms of the opera comique and the operetta. In 1752 a troupe of Italian ^'bufFonists" (from huffa, comic) invaded Paris, presenting the comic operas of Pergolesi and other Italian masters with overwhelming success. This actually led to a division into rival fac- tions — those who favoured the novel foreign products and those who held loyally to their own national musical drama. The famous Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-78), better known in literary than in music history, sided with the "buflPonists" and even ventured to emphasise his belief in the superior excellence of the Italian style by immediately composing and producing a vaudeville (1752), Le devin du village, which was received with great favour. The antagonism grew so active that after two years the ItaUans were obliged to quit Paris. But their seduc- tive melodies continued to ring in the ears of the French people, and the gradual affiliation of the two styles which had become distinctive of these two nations was the in- evitable consequence. Thus, the opera bufFa of Italy actually became the type of the French operetta, though each clung to its distinctive traits; it always remained 204 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY characteristic of the French operetta that it contained spoken dialogue as well as musical numbers. But the op- eretta of France reached a degree of poetic and musical superiority over the opera buffa which did not fail to exert a powerful influence on the whole range of French dramatic art. Mythologic subjects were abandoned in the operetta in favour of episodes of every-day life, es- pecially that of the peasant, and this alone made it more popular and far more appealing to the sympathies of the public. After a time the term operetta was applied to every class of musical drama in which certain parts were spoken, while in "grand opera" every word was sung. Further, the latter al- ways contained ballet numbers, the operetta none. Three French composers of the eighteenth century are noted for their successful efforts in establish- ing and perfecting the style of both operetta and opera: Andre Danican, known also by chess-players as Phil- idor (1726-95), whose best work, Ernelinde, is regarded as a very sig- nificant step; Pierre Alexandre Monsigny (1729-1817), director of the Paris conservatoire, whose operetta, Le deserteur, created an epoch in the history of comic or light opera; and Andre Gretry, by far the greatest musical genius of the three, and famed as the one "who brought comic opera to its fullest perfection and made it a genuine re- flection of the national character of the French in the sphere of dramatic art." Gretry was born in 1741, made a pilgrimage to Rome on foot at the age of eighteen, where he studied zealously for five years; he then re- turned to Paris, and finally overcame the jealousy of his colleagues with his opera. The Huron (1768), versified by Marmontel. Of his sixty-one very much admired ANDRE DANICAN (puilidor) OPERA IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND 205 operas, Richard Cceur de Lion (1784) was the most popular, not onl}^ in France but in almost all European musical centres. He died in 181 3. The histor)^ of operatic art in England presents but little of interest before the daj^s of Henry Purcell, born at London in 1658 (twentj-seven years be- fore Bach and Handel), Until near the end of the seventeenth century English dramatic music was almost entirely in the hands of Italians, The French librettist and composer Robert Cambert (crowded out of Paris by Lully) went to London in 1673 and endeavoured to oppose his Parisian style to that of the Italians, while a number of native En- glish writers strove to es- tablish a national style by using English historic material. The first of the latter to achieve a certain measure of success was Matthew Locke, whose Macbeth was very favourably received. At the same time Henry Purcell appeared, and he it was who was destined to elevate English musical art to a dignity and lofty artistic standard hitherto unknown in that country and rarely excelled since. Purcell was unques- tionably the most gifted of all English composers, the pos- sessor of true musical genius. His aims were thoroughly patriotic; but he adopted Italian models in preference to those of the French, whose style he considered superficial. HENRY PURCELL 2o6 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY ^ Purcell's sacred works were highly esteemed, especially his compositions for the annual celebration of St. Ce- cilia's Day — a national festival still observed in England./ (The first one was held November 22, 1683, under Pur- cell's direction, who later wrote several Odes to St. Ce- cilia. Handel's Alexander' s Feast and St. Cecilia Ode were written for these celebrations.) [ Purcell's thirty- nine dramatic works consisted chiefly of national plays with musical scenes and interludes. His Dido and Apneas (1675), a most excellent creation which is yet occasionally given in England and affords very positive enjoyment, comprises an overture, recitatives (simple and accom- panied), arias, duets, and numerous choruses of striking character and effect, as well as a few instrumental inter- ludes. After 1690, French musicians gradually withdrew from the London stage, leaving it at last entirely in the hands of the Italians. The first opera in which, according to Italian practice, the entire text was sung, was Thomas Clayton's Arsinoe^ ^7^S- This and a few other native operas were soon entirely supplanted by the flood of Italian works that proved more popular with the music lovers of England, and soon Scarlatti (the elder), Bonon- cini, Conti, and others reigned supreme. Their operas were at first translated, but it was shortly found more convenient to sing them in their original tongue. In 171 1 Handel appeared on the London stage with his Rinaldo, and a few years later the most brilliant era of Italian opera in England began. Another English musician of this time is worthy of note, Henry Carey (born about 1690), a gifted poet and composer of popu- lar ballads but not connected with the opera. He is generally assumed to be the author of God Save the King. CHAPTER XXIV THE OPERA IN GERMANY Italian dramatic music began early to reach out into other countries of Europe, and, indeed, may be said to have overrun the musical world in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The reader has learned how the operatic and vocal art of Italy found its way into France and England, partly through the instrumentality of Ital- ian singers and operatic troupes who emigrated in large numbers, and partly through the composers themselves, who endeavoured, with varjang success, to establish their operatic style bej^ond the borders of their own lands. In the same way, the influence of Italian opera spread into Germany. Italian composers and singers flocked to all the prin- cipal musical centres — to Vienna, Munich, Dresden, Ber- lin, and other cities — where their sojourn became more or less permanent and where they speedily won the fa- vour of the entire populace, and retained it for a century without opposition. In Vienna the opera was at the height of its power and favour from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth century, especially under the brilliant direction of Fux, Antonio Caldara, and Francesco Conti — the respective representatives of the scholastic, beauti- ful, and comic types of dramatic music. Of these, Jo- hann Joseph Fux (1660-1741) was a man of profound theoretical learning; his famous method of counterpoint, Gradus ad Parnassum (1725), is still quoted as an au- thority. 207 2o8 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Italian opera was introduced in Munich in 1654; the performers were all from Italy, and also the composers, with the exception of a few native Germans. One of the earliest and most famous of these was Johann Kaspar Kerll (1628-93), ^^ organ pupil of Frescobaldi, and the author of three operas, six masses, and other works. The first Italian singers were engaged for Berlin in 1616, though a permanent opera was not established there until 1742, when Friedrich II caused the Grand Opera House to be erected. It was opened December 7 of that year with Cesare e Cleopatra, by Carl Heinrich Graun (1701-59). He wrote thirty-three operas, a number of oratorios, and other sacred works, the most famous of which is his Tod Jesu {Death of Christ). This work, which in- fluenced the style of the ora- torio, won extraordmary popu- larity, lasting almost to the present day. It is skilfully written, but bears some traces of the superficial style of the Italian opera of that period. Graun was the undisputed sovereign of the Berlin operatic stage. His smgers were all Italians; the demand for them was so extensive that German vocalists were not tolerated. In Dresden, Italian opera found a foothold in 1662; the instrumentalists were mostly Germans, but the singers all Italians. The opera here reached its greatest emi- nence under Johann Adolf Hasse, one of the most dis- tinguished German tone-masters. Hasse was born in 1699 at Hamburg; he studied with Porpora and Scar- latti; in 173 1 he was given charge of the Dresden opera as director and composer and, at the same time, his wife CARL HEINRICH GRAUN OPERA IN GERMANY 209 (the celebrated Faustina Bordoni, the favourite of all Italy) was engaged as prima donna. He died in 1783. Hasse wrote fifty operas, many oratorios, and a great man}' quartets, symphonies, sonatas, concertos, and other forms. Scarcely any other German musician was ever so idolised b}^ his countrymen. While Bach and Handel were rarel}' mentioned, and then only as learned contra- puntists, Hasse and Graun were the models and shining lights of their age and nation. JOH. AD. HASSE FAUSTINA HASSE Graun was regarded as the greater in sacred dramatic art, while Hasse was the favourite in the domain of opera. Graun was the better scholar; Hasse possessed a more fertile imagination, melodic and dramatic talent, and skill in musical characterisation. Hasse wrote with judgment for the voice, and was himself an excellent singer and teacher; his accompaniments, however, were superficial. Thus it appears that there was no lack of native-born (German) composers who endeavoured, even while imitat- ing the popular Italian manner, to establish a national style and to counteract the overbearing of a foreign school. The Germans, moreover, sensibly adopted the best qualities of both French and Italian dramatic art — from the latter, the highly developed art of melody and 2IO ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY vocalisation; from the French, effective declamation and dramatic expression. Out of this union evolved the best operatic products of the eighteenth centurj^, including those of Gluck and Mozart. The following extracts afford an idea of the style of each and of the advances made in operatic melody: OPERA IN GERMANY 211 J^;vo-u^ .Jrr->t »^ ^^6 - '- -. Strauss is undoubtedly a musical genius of extraordi- nary endowment and intellect and commands a wide range of original resources. His harmonies are rich; his melodies often peculiar but quite as often filled with the spirit of classic naturalness and beauty; his rhythms are THE PRESENT ERA 319 vital, energetic, and novel; his counterpoint infinitely scholarly and free; and his orchestration extremely opu- lent and vivid. He is almost as complete a master of the climax as was Richard Wagner, but his contrasts are more often strik- ing than wholly pleasurable. Strauss is apparently sin- cere in his artistic attitude and serious in his aims, though so revolutionary and daring that he sometimes arouses the suspicion of aiming for effect only. His most pre- tentious creations are his symphonic poems, Also sprach Zarathustra, Till Eidenspiegel, Don Quixote, Heldenleben, Sinfonia domestica, and his operas Salome, Elektra, Ro- senkavalier, etc. His songs, already numerous, are exceed- ingly impressive and often of fascinating beauty and emotional depth. 320 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY >- :3 7: J= •^ < c: ■5 j2 0< ,ii i" w c O o ffi < 3 S >.S U^ s — d ■.-■ o N C O Q J M c c s o — — — >. 3 ^ii -a o ~ n c M c o. Ol ^ '5 J3 3 (•3 OJ -c — U a. NbL, c d ^ 2 Q CHAPTER XLI MUSIC IN AMERICA Music in North America during the early period of colonisation was but a faint reflex of the musical condi- tions and practices of those European countries which contributed to the peopling of the western hemisphere. It continued thus until within little more than the past centur}^. Those who sought the New World were ani- mated by sterner purposes and had little time and possibly little inclination to occupy themselves with the pursuit of music. There were, no doubt, some among them whose love of music was deep and not easily repressed. The more cultured emigrants were familiar with the musical activities of the mother country and carried to their new home memories of its madrigals, glees, ballads, and even, perhaps (in later days), of the early operas. But there was no possibility of continuing this form of enter- tainment in the new and primitive surroundings, and their musical cravings must needs be satisfied with the strains of a fiddle, or flute, or bass viol, with which its owner would not part even when embarking with scanty be- longings on the perilous western voyage. In wealthy homes a harpsichord or spinet was sometimes found. In the South the Spanish lutes were fairly common and led, in time, to the guitar, banjo, and mandolin of to-day. Social choirs were probably cultivated to some extent, and the music of the churches soon became a matter of real concern — indeed, the most significant factor in pre- serving the life of music in America, especially in the more northern colonies. But it is evident that music on this side of the At- 3-21 322 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY lantic was like a flower cut from its stem. For more than a century after the landing of the Pilgrims, practically all but the most slender threads of contact with the old world were severed, and it was almost as if the history of music was to begin again in the New World, in all excepting its fundamental traditions. Then, very gradu- ally, fuller contact was established, and music began to thrive in America with slowly increasing vigour. About the middle of the eighteenth century, English ballad operas and popular plays were occasionally introduced into the colo- nies, and interest in various phases of music-making slowly awakened. The interest in secular music, how- ever, continued for some time to be secondary to that attached to the music of the church; while the former was tolerated, and to some extent en- joyed, church music was regarded as essential and worthy of active parti- cipation. The h3^mn tunes of Hop- kinson (who died in 1791), William Billings (Boston, 1746-1800), Oliver Holden (Massachu- setts, 1765-1834), and a few others, though in no musical sense significant or calculated to contribute in the slightest measure to actual musical promotion, were, nevertheless, distinctively American products. Of far greater lasting worth were the works of Thomas Hastings (1787-1872) and particularly of that distinguished pioneer Lowell Mason (1792-1872), both of whom continued to supply the church with hj^mn tunes and anthems of appropriate char- acter and constantly improving quality. After a while renewed attempts were made to bring European opera across the water. New Orleans organ- ised an operatic enterprise as early as 1791, utilising works of French and Italian origin. Philadelphia and New York followed with similar projects in 1793. In the lat- LOWELL MASON MUSIC IN AMERICA 323 ter city early efforts were made in operatic composition by native-born musicians, though American opera could boast of nothing enduring before the da3^s of William H. Fry (Philadelphia, 1813-64), whose Leonora was pre- sented with a measure of success in 1845. The English Beggar's Opera and ballad operas became popular in New York in 1850. In 1825, members of the celebrated Garcia family began a series of operatic performances, in the serious style, in New York. An Italian opera-house was opened in 1833. From this it is apparent that during the first half of the nineteenth century the United States was beginning to attract the attention of European artists (or of their enterprising managers), and then it was that the stream of modern troubadours began to flow into the New World — a stream that was to bring to the music lovers of the western hemisphere all the wealth of the parent countries and to stimulate and confirm more wide-spread and en- thusiastic interest in the art of music. The Garcias were followed by the violinist Ole Bull (in 1843), Jenny Lind (1850), Henriette Sontag (1852), the violinist Camilla Urso (1852), the singers Alboni (1853), Grisi and Mario (1854), Madame La Grange (1855), and Adelina Patti (1859); later by eminent instrumentalists: Anton Rubinstein and Henri Wieniawski (both in 1872), Hans von Biilow, Eugen d'Albert, Ignace Paderewski, and a multitude of others, until to-day no European vir- tuoso thinks of omitting America from his concert tours. Through these artists the best that the Old World pro- duces is brought to our doors, and the artistic standing of the two continents is in this manner steadily and surely approaching the inevitable equilibrium. Meanwhile, through the founding of various musical organisations (whereby the impulse and influence of Eu- rope is again noteworthy), music in America may be said to have awakened by the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury to something like an independent existence and to 324 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY have begun to assume a vital place in the life and artis- tic history of the nation. The earliest choral or musical association in America, called into existence to gratify the craving for a wider social participation in musical and choral practice than was obtainable in fireside song, was founded about the beginning of the war of independence. This was the Stoughton Musical Society (Massachusetts). The next was the famous Handel and Haydn Society, organised in Boston shortly after the close of the sec- ond war with England (in 1815). About 1799 Gottlieb Graupner, a German, founded the first primi- tive orchestra, the " Philhar- monic," which continued in exis- tence until 1824. This was fol- lowed by the Musical FundSociety in Philadelphia (1821 until 1857), devoted to both vocal and instru- mental music, the New York Choral Society in 1823, and the Boston Academy of Music in 1833. The Academy Or- chestra was organised in Boston in 1840, the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in 1842 by U. C. Hill, one of the first Americans to study in Germany, and the Germania Orchestra about 1850. In 1864 Theodore Thomas founded his own orchestra in New York. In 1866, the Harvard Musical Association was organised in Cambridge, with Carl Zerrahn as its leader. Then followed the New York Oratorio Society, founded in 1873 by Leopold Damrosch; the Cecilia Society in 1877 (Boston, directed by Benjamin J. Lang); the New York Symphony Or- chestra (1878, Leopold Damrosch); the Boston Philhar- monic in 1880 (Bernhard Listemann); the Musical Art Society (New York, Frank Damrosch); and the Boston Symphony Orchestra, which, under the successive direc- TIIEODORE THOMAS MUSIC IN AMERICA 325 tion of George Henschel, Wilhelm Gericke, Arthur Ni- kisch, Emil Pauer, and other eminent European musi- cians has achieved a rank of artistic excellence second to none in the world. The equally significant organisation of the New York Metropolitan Opera took place in 1883. Then came the Chicago Orchestra of Theodore Thomas in 1890; and at present Bal- timore, Philadelphia, Cin- cinnati, and many more American cities maintain their permanent orchestras. These larger bodies pro- vided both the incentive and the material for chamber- music associations whose edu- cating and refining influence was of equal though less ob- vious and wide-spread sig- nificance. The first string quartet appeared in 1843, the Mendelssohn Quintet Club in 1849, and the list of simi- lar organisations, up to the Kneisel and Flonzaley string quartets, has steadily increased in number and impor- tance. Further opportunities of popularising the classic prod- ucts of European masters and of securing a hearing for original American works were furnished by the numerous periodic music festivals, among which those of Worces- ter (Massachusetts), Chicago, the May festivals in Cin- cinnati, and the Bach festivals in Bethlehem, Penn- sylvania, have become noteworthy national institutions. These mediums of broader public education were most powerfully supplemented by the establishing of music schools which supplied direct private instruction to the people. Foremost among the pioneers in this movement was Eben Tourjee (born in Rhode Island in 1834), who LEOPOLD DAMROSCH 326 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY founded a musical institute in East Greenwich in 1859, the Providence (Rhode Island) Conservatory of Music a few years later, and, in 1867, the New England Conserva- tory of Music in Boston. Other important music acad- emies are the Cincinnati College of Music, the National Conservatory of New York, the Institute of Musical Art of New York (founded in 1905), besides a host of smaller schools, of greater or lesser efficiency, representing every large city in the country. In recent 3'ears dignity has been lent to these systems of education by the recogni- tion and establishment of regular music courses in nearly all American universities. In this connection special mention must be made of the eminent services rendered b}^ such teachers as Wil- liam Mason, Rafael Joseffy (Hungary), and Carl Baer- mann (Germany). Powerful agents in the dissemination of musical knowl- edge were the rapidly increasing music-publishing houses, through which the best and newest compositions from abroad and from home became accessible. The first of note was that of Oliver Ditson (Boston, 1832), followed by G. Schirmer (1861), Theodore Presser (Philadelphia), A. P. Schmidt (Boston, 1876), Lyon & Healy (Chicago). The equally momentous pianoforte industry dates back about a century; that of the organ still farther. The first American organ is said to have been built as early as 1745 by Edward Bromfield. John Harris (Bos- ton) is recorded as repairer and maker of spinets and harp- sichords in 1769. Jonas Chickering (born, 1798, in New Hampshire) began to manufacture pianofortes in 1823. The Steinways came from Germany to New York and founded their great pianoforte industry there in 1853, to be followed shortly by Knabe, Weber, Mason & Hamlin, and many other makers. From all this the reader may verify the rapidity and vigour of the development of music in America. Aborig- inal music was absolutely valueless, bearing no other rela- MUSIC IN AMERICA 327 tion to this progress than has been ascribed to that class of primitive utterance treated in the first chapters. The dormant art, kept ahve for a time by faint echoes from Europe, awakened and accumulated in but little more than a century a vitalit)^ which has elevated it to a degree of independent excellence that now compels the attention of other musical nations. Though the latter still look with some mistrust upon the American composer, it is undeniable that the long list of those whose creations are distinctive — begin- ningwith that modest writer of popular songs, S. C. Foster (1826-64), and in- cluding such names as J. K. Paine (born, 1839, in Maine), F. G. Gleason (1848), Arthur Foote (1853, Ma ssachusetts), George W. Chadwick (1854, Massachusetts), Edgar Still- man Kelley (1857, Wisconsin), E. A. MacDowell (1861, New York), Arthur Whiting (1861), Horatio W. Parker (1863, Massachusetts), Mrs. H. H. A. Beach (1867, New Hampshire), H. K. Hadley (1871), F. S. Converse (1871) — is securing the recognition of a musical spirit that is rapidly becoming as active and significant as that of the Old World. This list has been strongly reinforced by foreign-born composers: Louis Maas (1852, Wiesbaden), Victor Herbert (1859, Dublin), C. M. Loeffler (1861, Al- sace), and Walter Damrosch (1862, Breslau), who have made America their home. The American spirit has been vitalised by the transient visits of such educators as STEPHEN C. FOSTER 328 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY George Henschel, Antonin Dvorak (New York, 1892-5), and Ferruccio Busoni (Boston, 1891-2). To all of these influences must be added that of the literary men whose critical writings have contributed to the enlightenment and judgment of the public. This list embraces, among many others, the names of J. S. Dwight (born, 1 81 3, in Boston), A. W. Thayer (18 17, Massachu- setts), F. L. Ritter (1834, Strassburg), G. P. Upton (1835, Boston), W. S. B. Matthews (1837, New Hampshire), W. F. Apthorp (1848, Boston), Louis C. Elson (1848, Boston), Henry E. Krehbiel (1854, Michigan), Philip Hale, H. T. Finck, W. J. Henderson, and J. G. Huneker. America has produced a number of distinguished pian- ists, who, though indebted to European masters for their training, have demonstrated the sterling quality of their talent and have exerted a powerful influence upon American musical life. This phase of artistic activity is represented by Louis Moreau Gottschalk, Sebastian Bach Mills, William Mason, William H. Sherwood, Fanny Bloomfield-Zeisler, Julia Rive-King, and many of the above-mentioned American composers. American organ- ists of distinction are: George W. Morgan (1822), G. W. Warren (1828), Frederick Archer (1838), Dudley Buck (1839), S. P. Warren (1841), S. B. Whitney (1842), George E. Whiting (1842), Clarence Eddy (185 1), Wallace Good- rich (1871). CHAPTER XLII THE ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY* At the outset of this chapter the reader is earnestly urged to form a personal music library of his own. It is often advisable and, indeed, necessary to consult books in a public library, but there are a pleasure and satisfac- tion in having one's own books which are well worth the necessar}^ outlay or sacrifice, and such purchases consti- tute an investment which will yield abundant interest. To have books on one's own shelves for reading or con- sultation at any time not only gives them a great added interest but creates a sense of ownership and aflfectionate regard for the volumes which is an invaluable stimulus to the student and is not likely to be fostered in any other way. In making such a collection it is well to bear in mind that it is not necessary to buy a lot of books at one time, but that it is better to build it up by degrees and to as- certain carefully just what is likely to be permanently useful. Several well-chosen books added each year at a comparatively small cost will result in course of time in the formation of a library which will be a constant source of delight and practical service. The suggestions herein made are far from exhaustive or inclusive of all phases of the art, as to cover its liter- ature adequately would require a whole volume. The endeavour has been made, however, to give some help- ful hints and suggestions in an attractive field of study. For convenience of reference, and following the natural se- * Contributed by Frank H. Marling. 329 330 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY quence of the varied interests of the reader, the material has been grouped under various divisions, making the information more easily accessible. By this method the special student in any form of music is able to find par- ticulars regarding books in his own department. The publisher and price have been mentioned in each case, as it is believed that these practical details will greatly as- sist the reader in his choice. Care has been taken to include only volumes in print (with rare exceptions, as indicated) so that those recommended should be procured without much difficulty. It has been the aim of the com- piler to mention only works of genuine worth, though, for lack of space, some excellent books have had to go unre- corded. It is also deemed wise to confine the list to works in the English language, as in this way the needs of the great majority of readers will be met, and to go into foreign literature would open a field impossible to cover within the prescribed limits. For the same reason there have been included very few of the numerous works on method and technic. Works of Reference An almost indispensable work in a musical library of any completeness is Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians (five vols., ^25, Macmillan). A new and revised edition has recently appeared, devoting special attention to American music and bringing the informa- tion generally down to date. It is without an equal in the English language for a comprehensive and scholarly treatment of all branches of the art, and forms an invalu- able storehouse of facts on musical matters of all kinds. Of special value are its critical and scientific articles and its monographs on the great composers, written by specialists. Its possession will obviate the necessity of purchasing many smaller and more fragmentary works. Another reference work is Famous Composers a7id Their ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 331 Works, hy J. K. Paine and others (six vols., ^24, J. B. Millet Company), a work of unusual charm and interest, covering the whole field of music and treating all schools and nationalities in a fascinating way. The chapters are the work of different American, English, and foreign noted critics, each full of enthusiasm for his theme. A distinc- tive feature is its wealth of illustrative matter of all kinds. For those who cannot afford such expensive works there is an excellent one- volume (Riemann's) Diction- ary of Music (^4.50, Presser), by the well-known German critic and writer, which gives the most essential informa- tion in concise and accurate form. The Musical Guide, by Ru- pert Hughes ($1.50, Doub- leday, Page & Company), is a one-volume work consti- tuting a multuni in parvo on musical lines, containing, as it does, a pronouncing and defining dictionary of terms and instruments, with a key to the pronunciation of six- teen languages and a pronouncing biographical dictionary. Admirable, also, are the two dictionaries by Theo- dore Baker, Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (^3.50, Schirmer) and Dictionary of Musical Terms {$1, Schir- mer), both being models of authoritative and condensed statement. Another useful book is Lavignac's Music and Musi- cians (^1.75, Holt), which includes a large variety of in- valuable facts about the technical side of music and some chapters on American and European composers. A handy series of reference books on music is the Music Story Series (thirteen vols., each $1.25, Scribners). These embrace a wide range of historical research and 332 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY comprise musical form, notation, the carol, minstrelsy, the violin, organ, etc. The student can obtain in them much detailed knowledge in any special department for which the ordinary musical dictionary has no room, and the numerous illustrations are of additional value. One of the first books to present music as a language was Music Explained to the World by F. J. Fetis ($1.50, Ditson). This was the forerunner of a number of volumes that have attempted to bring the message of music to the seeker after culture. Histories of Music The most scholarh^ and comprehensive history of music in print is doubtless the Oxford History of Music (six vols., 8vo, ^30, Oxford Universit}^ Press), though its size and price and severely critical and technical form make it unavailable for most students. The old histories of Burney and Hawkins, though full of antiquarian interest to the lover of old times, are, of course, now entirely out of date and lack in modern sci- entific authorit}^ The General History of Music, by W. S. Rockstro ($3.50, Scribners), is by an accomplished English musical writer and contributor to Grovels Dictionary. It is in the main accurate and fair though somewhat lacking in appreciation of the modern schools. Professor Waldo S. Pratt's History of Music ($3, Schirmer) is to be commended for its skilful condensa- tion of its vast array of materials, having been well char- acterised as "a sort of combined history and biograph- ical dictionar}^ and a minute and scholarly treatise." An invaluable summary of musical history for the gui- dance of students is the Study of the History of Music, by Edward Dickinson, the well-known professor of mu- sical histor)^ at Oberlin University (^2.50, Scribners). The story is told in clear, outline form, and a feature of ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 333 exceptional usefulness is the very full references to musical literature for further study throughout every section and chapter. A smaller work is Hunt's Concise History of Music ($1, Scribners), an old favourite packed full of the es- sential details and dates in abbreviated form. More recent works, each of which has found acceptance with students, are Hamilton's Outlines of Music History (^1.50, Ditson) and Math- ews' Popular History of Music {$2, Mathews' Publishing Company). The History of Music, hy J. F. Rowbotham ($2.50, Scribners), comes down only to the time of the troubadours, but is specially explicit on ancient and mediaeval music. The English composer C. H. H. Parry is also an accomplished writer. His Evolution of the Art of Music (^1.75, Appleton) is described by a competent judge as " a series of thoroughly admirable essays, scientific in spirit, and sound." EDWARD DICKINSON Histories of Modern Music A timely book in this sphere is Modern Composers of Europe, by Arthur Elson {$2, L. C. Page & Company), which gives an account in moderate compass of the noted composers of all schools of the day, about whom it is often difficult to get definite information. Other studies dealing, with intelligence and acumen, with the very latest writers are Oilman's Phases of Mod- ern Music (^1.25, John Lane Company), and The Music of To-Morrow and Other Studies (^1.25, John Lane Com- pany), by the same author, treating of Debussy, Richard Strauss, and others. 334 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Masters of Italian Music, hy R. A. Streatfeild ($1.75, Scribners) presents an interesting interpretation of Ital- ian contemporary composers. History of National Music and Folk-Lore Primitive Music, by A. Wallaschek (^4.50, Longmans), is a comprehensive and learned review of the origin and development of the music, songs, instruments, and dances of the savage races. Carl Engel's Study of National Music (out of print) and his Literature of National Alusic {$2, Novello), also Music of the Most Ancient Nations (^3.50, Reeves), em- body the matured convictions of a patient and thorough investigator of historical sources. The National Music of the World, by H. F. Chorley (^1.50, Reeves), a noted London music critic, is probably the most readable and popular account for the general reader. H. E. Krehbiel's Afro-American Folk Songs {$2, Schirmer) is a study in racial and national music, the outcome of many years of patient and loving labour, and forms a pioneer work on this theme which is handled with Mr. Krehbiel's acknowledged originality and ample scholarship. History of Music in America The most considerable work in this department is History of American Music, by L. C. Elson (^5, Macmil- lan), an ample volume crowded with illustrations and treating a difficult subject with sympathy and impartial- it}^; readable in style and forming, on the whole, the most complete all-around review extant of our country's musical institutions and men. One Hundred Years of Music in America, edited by W. S. B. Mathews (^3, Presser), is a thick octavo volume with much detailed information of native musicians ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 335 though not possessing large critical or discriminating value. Famous American Composers, by Rupert Hughes (^1.50, L. C. Page & Company), is to be noted for its enthusiasm, vivacity, and intimate acquaintance with the composi- tions of our countrymen, particularly those of the pres- ent time. In Famous Composers and Their Works, mentioned be- fore, Mr. Krehbiel has a chapter on American composers giving a fair and trustworthy estimate of their achieve- ments, and the same writer has some valuable comments on the same topic in the appendix to Lavignac's Music and Musicians ($1.75, Holt). Biographical Works We must first chronicle soriie general biographical se- ries, the most recent of which is Masters of Music, ed- ited by F. J. Crowest (twelve vols., each $1.25, Dutton). This covers satisfactorily nearly all the great composers, who have been intrusted to competent hands that have made workmanlike use of their materials. In size, illus- trations, and form they are all most attractive. A similar series of able monographs by British writers, called The Great Musicians edited by Francis HuefFer (ten vols., each $1, Scribners), have been on the market for many years, being pioneer works in this field, and have recently been reissued in improved form. Another compilation is the George T. Ferris Series of Music Biographies (five vols., each ^i, Appleton), a most engaging little set, including the great German, Italian, and French masters as well as the great singers, violin- ists, and pianists. They are extremely readable and abound in apt anecdote and vivacious description. Not to be overlooked is the series Living Masters in Music, edited by Rosa Newmarch (ten vols., each $1, John Lane Company), of special timehness for its very 336 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY full accounts of contemporary musicians, in which the student will find most interesting particulars about such "moderns" as Debussy, Leschetizky, Paderewski, Puccini, Richard Strauss, and others. We would also include in this connection, the invaluable set of Famous Composers and Their Works, with its ample chapters on musicians, and Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musi- cians, both mentioned before. Many students will have to begin their biographical study with a work grouping the lives of the greatest com- posers in one volume. We quote as serviceable ex- amples of this class A Score of Famous Composers, by N. H. Dole (75 cents, Crowell) ; Makers of Music, by H. F. Sharp (^1.75, Scribners) ; Standard Musical Biographies, by George P. Up- ton ($1.75, McClurg). Lives of Individual Composers PHILIP spiTTA On J. S. Bach, the monu- mental Life of Bach, by Philip Spitta (three vols., $15, Novello), is a wonderful example of German accuracy and profundity and the final au- thority on all matters connected with the composer, though beyond both the purse and the time of the aver- age reader. A thoroughly competent life in more moderate com- pass is the Life of Bach, by C. H. H. Parry, the English composer ($3.50, Putnams). Smaller compendiums, each adequate so far as their scope admits, are Life of Bach, by Stanley Lane Poole ($1, Scribners), and Life of Bach, by Abdy WilHams (^1.25, Dutton). ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 337 The 77iagnum opus in Beethoven Hterature is Thayer's Life of Beethoven in several volumes, a remarkably com- prehensive work originally published in German, of which an English translation by Mr. H. E. Krehbiel will shortly be issued by the Scribners. It will doubtless be the final court of resort on Beethoven for years to come. Another account is by Schindler and Moscheles (^1.50, Ditson), both personal friends, which contains first-hand information. There are also shorter sketches by Crow- est (^1.25, Dutton), and by H. A. Rudall (^i, Scrib- ners). The romantic career of Chopin has been told with painstaking detail by Professor Niecks in his Life of Chopin (two vols., ^10, Novello), but the most brilliant account is found in Chopin, the Man and His Musicy by James Huneker (^2, Scribners), in which this accom- plished critic tells the story and expounds his composi- tions in his inimitable and fascinating style. Liszt's Life of Chopin (^1.25, Ditson) is more an aesthetic essay than a biography, though interesting for his interpretation of the composer's character and ideals. Brahms has been commemorated at length in Florence May's Life of Brahms (two vols., $7, Longmans), and by J. A. Fuller-Maitland, a careful English writer, in a vol- ume of the New Library of Music Series ($2.50, John Lane Company). Probably the most modern and scientific account of Handel is Life of Handel, by R. A. Streatfeild (^2.50, John Lane Company). In smaller compass and good of their kind are Mrs. Julia Marshall's Handel {$\, Scribners) and Abdy Wil- liams's Handel (^1.25, Dutton). There is no extended life of Haydn in English, but J. Cuthbert Hadden's monograph in the Master Musician Series (^1.25, Dutton) is trustworthy, and there is a still smaller book by Ludwig Nohl (75 cents, McClurg). 338 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY The Life of Liszt has been done in a most picturesque and illuminating wa}^ by James G. Huneker {$2, Scrib- ners). The Mendelssohn literature is quite extensive. His interesting letters (two vols., each ^1.25, Ditson) and letters to Moscheles ($3, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) can be cited. There are a number of sketches and reminiscences of Mendelssohn of more or less value, such as the volume by Lampadius (^1.25, Ditson) with valuable recollections by his friends. The Mendelssohn Family, by Hensel (two vols., ^5, Harpers), is of special interest for the light it throws on his educa- tion and family life. The article by Sir George Grove in his Dictionary is ex- cellent for its enthusiastic ap- preciation and characterisation. One of the most impartial and critically helpful short works is the Life, by Stratton in the Master Musician Series (^1.25, Dutton). Mozart has been honoured in the great and scholarly work by the accomplished Otto Jahn (three vols., $15, Novello), described by a leading musician as " in many respects the most perfect specimen of critical biograph- ical writing in the whole field of music history," though its great bulk and enormous mass of detail necessarily limit its availability. Valuable additional works are Mozart, by W. H. Hadow ($2.50, John Lane Company), Gehring's Life of Mozart {$1, Scribners), and Breakespeare's Life of Mozart (^1.25, Dutton), any of which will supply the necessary facts for the general reader. It is a singular fact that no adequate life of Schumann OTTO JAHN ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 339 has appeared in English, but one of the best existing is that by Reissmann (^i, Macmillan). In more abridged form are FuUer-Maitland's Life of Schumann {$1, Scribners), and Wasielewski s Life of Schtimami ($1.25, Ditson). The most complete work in English on the life and career of Franz Schubert was written by Kreissler von Hellborn in two octavo volumes, issued in London in 1869 and now out of print, though possibly available in second-hand condition occasionally. An admirable account is also contained in Sir George Grove's article in his Dictionary of Musicy and there is a compact smaller life by E. Duncan in the Master Musician Series (^1.25, Dutton). The son of Weber, Max Weber, has written an excellent critical carl glasenapp biography of his father (two vols., ^2.50, Ditson), and Sir Julius Benedict's monograph in the Great Musician Series {$1, Scribners) has the merit of being written by a friend and pupil who was himself an able musician. The Wagner literature is extremely voluminous, and it is impossible to mention a tithe of the biographical material. One of the most satisfactor}^ lives is Henry T. Finck's Life of Wagner (two vols., ^4, Scribners), noteworthy for its clearness, picturesqueness, vigour, and variety. Another important volume is W. J. Henderson's Life of Wagner ($1.50, Putnam). The monumental work by Glasenapp and Ellis, of which six octavo volumes (each $6, Paul Trench & Co.) have been issued, is splendidly written, though too voluminous for general use. More within the needs of most persons are two biog- 340 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY raphies of high critical merit — one by Ernest Newman (^3.50, Dutton) and a more recent issue by J. F. Runci- man (^3.50, Macmillan). Two short Hves, each worthy of chronicle, are Life of Wagner, by C. A. Lidgey (^1.25, Dutton), and Life of Wagner y by Francis HuefFer (^i, Scribners). Wagner's own autobiography is, of course, of high im- portance (two vols., ^8.50, Dodd, Mead & Company), but has not yet appeared in a popular edition. His cor- respondence and letters cover a number of volumes, the most outstanding of which are the ^<5^^^^ celebrated Wagner-Liszt Correspon- dence (two vols., $5, Scribners) and his famous Letters to Alathilde We- sendonck {$\, Scribners). Critical Works BOOKS OF ESSAYS, APPRECIATION, HANDBOOKS, ETC. The pioneer work in the litera- ture of musical appreciation was HENRY E. KREHBIEL undoubtedly How to Understand Music, by the veteran New York critic, Henry E. Kreh- biel ($1.25, Scribners), and though it has had many com- petitors since it appeared, it has probably not been surpassed for general acceptability by the American musical public, whose needs it has most successfully met. Of a different class, but of much value to the student and music lover, are George P. Upton's skilfully com- piled and well-illustrated series of handbooks, The Stand- ard Operas (^1.75, McClurg), The Standard Concert Guide — to symphonies, cantatas, oratorios, etc. ($1.75, Mc- Clurg), The Standard Concert Repertory — of the minor compositions and musical forms (^1.75, McClurg). All these have been tried and tested and pronounced trust- ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 341 worth}^ for their compact marshalling of information con- stantly needed in reading and studying musical works. Among such works there must not be omitted the men- tion of Sir George Grove's Beethoven s Nine Symphonies (j^3, Novello), one of the best books of musical apprecia- tion ever written. And also Philip H. Goepp's Symphonies and Their Meanings (three vols., each ^2, Lip- pincott), a work full of stimulus and inspiration. Stories of Symphonic Music, by Law- rence Gilman (^1.25, Harpers), is an indispensable guide to the understand- ing of symphonies new and old. The Story of Chamber-Music, by N. Kilburn in the New Music Library Series ($1.25, Scribners), is the only volume in English devoted entirely to this subject and gives detailed ac- counts of chamber compositions with analyses and numerous examples, illus- trations, and portraits. Mr. W. J. Henderson, among other creditable musical achievements, has written an excellent monograph, en- titled What Is Good Music {$\, Scribners), full of sugges- tive instruction for the numerous class who desire to cultivate a taste in musical art and is marked by its brevity, sturdy common sense, and well-compacted in- formation. Other works of Mr. Henderson, with valuable material, are The Story of Music {$1, Longmans) and Preludes and Studies {$1, Longmans). A more recent writer, Daniel Gregory Mason, in his volumes, A Guide to Music for Young People and Other Begin7iers ($1.50, Doubleday, Page & Company), The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do (^1.50, Double- day, Page & Company), and The Appreciation of Music (withT.W. Surette) (^1.50, Doubleday, Page & Company) W. J. HENDERSON 342 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY has revealed unusual gifts of clear statement and literary skill in popular exposition. The same author has also brought out some fresh and suggestive critical studies of the old and new composers, issued by the Macmillans, From Grieg to Brahms (^1.75), The Romantic Composers ($1.75), Beethoven and His Forerunners (^1.75). One of the most pungent, original, and distinctive of all our American writers is James Huneker, whose bril- liantly written volumes have won for him a high place in the musical world, both here and abroad. His books, Overtones (^1.25, Scribners), Mezzotints in Modern Music (^1.50, Scribners), and also his lives of Chopin and Liszt, men- tioned elsewhere, all reveal the author's contagious enthusiasm, breadth of knowledge, and wide catholicity of taste, especially in the interpretation of the modern school, of which he is a specially gifted exponent. The Education of the Music Lover (^1.50, Scribners) is by Professor Edward Dickinson, who calls it "a book for those who study or teach the art of listening." By it he places both professional and amateur readers in his debt by his rare faculty of writing about music in a vitalising way. He is eminentl}^ fair- minded and his liberally broad scholarship makes him an admirable leader in the formation of intelligent judgment m musical affairs. Henry T. Finck, for many years in the forefront of American musical circles as critic of the New York Eve- ning Post, has issued a volume the title of which is Sue-- cess in Music and How It Is Won ($1.25, Scribners), which should be in the hands of all professional musicians, as he there describes in a very readable and attractive JAMES HUNEKER ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 343 wa3' how the world's greatest singers, pianists, and teach- ers have made their way. His practical hints on a pro- fessional musical career cannot fail to be most invaluable to those pursuing music as a profession. The composer Schumann's critical essays, collected under the title of Music and Musiciayis (two vols., ^7.50, Reeves), are unique in musical literature as evidencing the union in one personality of great creative power with rare critical acumen and abound in incisive thoughts and pithy sa3'ings. The lectures of our own E. A. Macdowell, delivered while professor of music at Columbia University and gathered together under the title of Critical and His- torical Essays (^1.50, Schmidt), have also a peculiar value and interest on account of his remarkable gifts as a composer. Music and Poetry, by Sidney Lanier (^1.50, Scribners), gifted poet and musician, is a clear and engaging out- line of important aspects of musical criticism, full of delicate analj^sis, educated enthusiasm, and feeling. Purity in Music, by J. F. Thibaut (^1.25, Reeves), is a classic in criticism, especially recommended by the com- poser Schumann, who advises his friends to read it fre- quently for its advocacy of the highest musical ideals. Very popular musical works, though to be read with caution on account of an occasional "amateur" quality in them, are Music and Morals ($1.25, Longmans) and My Musical Life (^1.25, Longmans), both by H. R. Haweis, written in a singularly attractive style and cal- culated to awaken a decided interest in the subject es- pecially on the part of a beginner in musical reading. Musical ^Esthetics The Beautiful in Music (^1.75, Novello), by E. Hans- lick, of Vienna, is characterised by a high authority as "one of the most gracefully written as well as one of 344 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY the keenest discussions of the nature and essence of mu- sic extant." The Boundaries of Music ($2, Schirmer), by A. W. Am- bros, is designed as an answer to HansHck's work, an opposite view being taken regarding the power of music to express emo- tions and feelings. Another well-known and valuable aesthetic work is The ^Esthetics of ^^^^^ ^^"^^^ Musical Art, by Ferdinand Hand {$2y Reeves). Church and Sacred Music Music in the History of the Western Church, by Edward Dickinson (^2.50 E. HANSLiCK net, Scribners), is practically a com- plete history of church music. It is catholic and judicial in tone, reveals wide and exact scholarship, is written in a dignified style, and may safely be taken as an authority in its important field. Suggestive volumes in the same department are J. S. Curwen's Studies in Worship Music (two vols., ^2.75, Curwen), by an experienced English musician, dealing largely with congregational singing and worship in a fair and candid way. Of a similar nature but more practical in its details is Practical Church Music (^1.50, Revell), by J. E. Lorenz, an American church musician, which is a discussion of methods, purposes, and plans and contains valuable counsel and suggestions. Professor W. S. Pratt, of Hartford Theological Sem- inary, and a wise and efficient worker in this field for years, has published an admirable volume conveying his experience and entitled Musical Ministries in the Church (^1.25, Schirmer). ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 345 The Organ and Organists One of the most elaborate and complete books on the construction of the organ is Practical Treatise on Organ Building, by F. E. Robertson (two vols., ^10, Schirmer). A smaller work, interesting for its detailed account of the newest modern improvements and innovations, is Modern Orgari Building, by Lewis (^3, William Reeves). Still more compact are two books by H. Abdy Williams in the Music Story Series, The Story of the Organ and The Story of Organ Music (each $1.25 net, Scribners), both enriched by hundreds of pictures and full of facts about the instrument and its music, photographs of celebrated modern organs, and sketches of the great organists of all schools. Musical Instruments (see also under piano and under violin) A standard compendium in this line is Musical Instru- ments, by Carl Engel ($1.75, Chapman & Hall), a capi- tal handbook by an expert antiquarian. There are also some good illustrations and descriptions of musical instru- ments in English Music from 160^ to 1904 (^1.25, Scrib- ners). The most elaborate treatise in English on this topic is Musical Instruments, by K. Schlesinger (two vols., $6, Scribners), with hundreds of authentic illustrations of ancient and modern examples. Modern orchestral instruments are fully described in several works, namely: Orchestral Instruments and Their Use, by Arthur Elson {$2, L. C. Page & Company); The Orchestral Instruments and What They Do, by D. G. Mason (^1.25, Doubleday, Page & Company); How to Listen to an Orchestra, by Annie W. Patterson (^1.75, James Pott & Co.); The Orchestra and Orchestral Music, 346 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY by W. J. Henderson (^1.25, Scribners), all excellent treatises and fulfilling well their purpose. The Opera The most compact monograph in the operatic field as a whole is The Opera^ Past and Present (^1.25, Scribners), by a musical scholar of rare culture and high ideals, W. F. Apthorp, of Boston, which discards biographical details and concentrates attention on the growth and expansion of the various features of the art and the parts played in its development by the different composers. On an entirely different plan but of unquestionable value in its own way is Arthur Elson's Critical History (^1.50, L. C. Page & Company). One of Mr. H. E. Krehbiel's deservedly popular works is his A Book of Operas ($1.75, Macmillan), which gives, with the author's abundant familiarity with the theme and trained capacity for literary expression, their histories, their plots, and their music. Another operatic production of his pen is Chap- ters of Opera ($2.50, Holt), a real contribution to the his- tory of music in New York. Of fine critical quality is The Opera, by R. A. Streat- feild (^1.25, Lippincott), an English writer of high repute, which includes full descriptions of every work in the modern repertory. In the useful Music Story Series is contained the Story of the Opera, by E. Markham Lee (^1.25, Scribners), which presents a great variety of topics, some of which are not touched upon in other books. Handbooks to the Opera Of handbooks and guides to the operas and their plots there is no lack. The oldest and probably the most popular and generally satisfactory is The Standard Operas, by George P. Upton (^1.75, McClurg), now brought out in a much enlarged and superior form. ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 347 Other worthy handbooks are Guide to the Opera and its companion volume Guide to the Modern Opera, by- Esther Singleton (each ^1.50, Dodd, Mead & Companj^), full of striking and glowing analyses; The Standard Opera Glass, by Charles Annesley ($1.50, Brentano), and The Opera Goer's Complete Guide, by Leo Melitz (^1.50, Dodd, Mead & Company), both of which are particu- larly noted for the very large number of operatic works included in them even though the notices are necessarily much condensed. The critical works dealing with the Wagner operas would form almost a library in themselves, so we must, perforce, confine our suggestions to a small number. Ac- cording to many well-informed judges the best all-around book is the Music Dramas of Richard Wagner, by A. Lavignac (^2.50, Dodd, Mead & Companj^), notable for its clearness, conciseness, and impartiality. The Legends of the Wagner Drama, by Jessie L. Weston ($1.75, Scribners), gives accurate knowledge respecting the historic legends on which Wagner based his dramas, and H. E. Krehbiel's Studies in the Wagnerian Dramas (^1.25, Harper), contains illuminating Wagnerian criti- cism. Among the numberless guides to the motifs of the Wagner dramas. The Wolzogen series in several volumes is authoritative (75 cents each, Schirmer). Oratorio, Cantata, and Choral Music A single volume covering altogether the subject of oratorio music is called The Story of the Oratorio, by Annie W. Patterson (^1.25, Scribners), and is the most complete and fully illustrated, consecutive, and historical treatment of this art form now available. George P. Upton's volumes, the Standard Oratorios and the Sta7idard Cantatas, are now incorporated into his ex- cellent work the Standard Concert Guide ($1.75, McClurg), 348 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY which gives full sketches of the stories, analyses of the music, and particulars about composers. Arthur Mees, the well-known musical conductor, has contributed to the Music Lover's Library a work entitled Choirs and Choral Alusic ($1.25, Scribners), which prac- tically occupies this field alone, so far as sj^stematic treat- ment is concerned, and presents the necessary data about choral works, choral societies, and the conducting and management of choirs and choir singing in concise but satisfactory form. Pianists and the Pianoforte For piano students there is no more appetising work to begin with than Amy Fay's Music Study in Germany (^1.25, McClurg). Though issued years ago, it is still widely popular as a fresh and vivid picture of the strug- gles and the successes of an American student abroad with its lifelike and graphic accounts of the teaching methods of Liszt, Deppe, and other great masters. On the great virtuosos we find Great Violinists and Pianists, George T. Ferris (^i, Appletons), with its glow- ing and highl}^ rhetorical sketches of players from de- menti to Paderewski. A standard reference book is A. Ehrlich's Celebrated Pianists {$2, Presser), with carefully collected biograph- ical notices of over one hundred and fifty performers, in alphabetical arrangement and with numerous portraits, including sketches of twenty-five noted American pian- ists. The lives of the pianists Chopin and Liszt, important in this connection, have been already mentioned in the biographical section of this chapter. To these we may add the little volume on Paderewski^ by E. A. Baughan, in the Living Masters of Music series (^i, John Lane & Company); the Autobiography of Ru- binstein {$1, Little, Brown & Company). ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 349 Possibly, the volume giving most information to the general reader will be The Pianoforte and Its Music, by H. E. Krehbiel (^1.25, Scribners), in which he has com- passed the whole subject in a sound and thorough man- ner, treating of the instrument itself, the composers of its music, and the great players, giving the typical stu- dent or amateur just the sort of information most needed. A book valued by many is J. C. Fillmore's Pianoforte Music ($1.50, Presser), with clearly arranged biograph- ical sketches and critical estimates of the schools and com- posers. More elaborate volumes are: History of the Pianoforte and Its Players, by Oscar W. Bie (^6, Dutton), embel- lished with attractive illustrations, and also History of Pianoforte Playing and Piano Literature, by C. F. Weitz- mann (^2.50, Schirmer), somewhat formal in style but exact in its facts. A. J. Hipkins's Description and History of the Piano- forte (^1.25, Novello) is by an expert on instruments and contains valuable plates showmg various historical forms of the instrument. On the analysis of pianoforte compositions, a subject of growing interest among musical students, there are several books, among them being Descriptive Analysis of Piano Works for Clubs arid Program Making, by E. B. Perry (^2.00, Presser); Weil-Known Piano Solos, by C. W. Wilkinson (four parts, each 40 cents, Scribners), showing how to play them with understanding, expres- sion, and effect, and Elterlein's book on Beethoven s So- natas (^1.25, Reeves). On Chopin's works we can recommend J Handbook of Chopin's Works, by G. C. Ashton Jonson {$2, Scribners), in which each opus is placed in its proper sequence and followed by lucid explanations and brief critical extracts, forming an invaluable book of ready reference. We must also refer here to Huneker's well-known work on Chopin, the Man and His Music, mentioned in the 350 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY biographical section, which includes masterly analyses of Chopin's piano compositions. The Great in Music, by W. S. B. Mathews (two vols., ^3.50, Mathews' Company), is a systematic course of study in the music of classical and modern composers, and is a work of great suggestiveness and practical help- fulness for student clubs. And on the same line is Music Club Programs, hy Arthur Elson (^1.25, Ditson), which embraces historical outlines of all nations, schools, and composers, with questions for study. The Violin and Violinists The literature on the violin is much larger than that on any other instrument. A peculiar fascination, felt by all lovers of the instrument, attaches to its history. A most valuable collection of books in this division is the Strad Library (about twenty vols., each ^i. The Strad, London), covering exhaustively all phases of the instru- ment, manufacture, playing, etc. The Story of the Violin, by Paul Stoeving (^1.25, Scribners), is a concise and closely packed brochure, with pertinent facts and abundant illustrations to brighten its pages. On the old and classic instruments no book stands higher as an authority than that by the English violin maker George Hart, called The Violin, Its Famous Makers and Their Imitators {$G, Dulau & Company), and its companion volume by the same writer, The Violin a?id Its Music ($5, Dulau & Company). On violin manufacture and construction. Heron Allen's Violin Making as It Was and Is (^3, Scribners) is very thorough and practical, with all kinds of specifications and plans. On a smaller but most useful scale is Broadhouse's The Violin and How to Make It (^1.50, William Reeves). On lives of the violinists the reader will find Ehrlich's Celebrated Violinists, Past and Present {$2, Scribners), ESSENTIALS OF A MUSIC LIBRARY 351 though not adapted for consecutive reading, useful for consultation, with its numerous carefully gleaned bio- graphical details. More vivacious volumes are Great Pianists and Violin- ists y by G. T. Ferris (^i, Appletons), and Famous Vio- linists of To-Day and Yesterday , by H. C. Lahee (^1.50, L. C. Page & Company). Among the many technical works on violin playing we may mention Technics of Violin Playing, by Carl Cour- voisier, a well-known authority (^i, The Strad); Chats to Violin Students, by G. C. Corrodus (^i. The Strad); True Principles of Violin Playing, hy George Lehman (^i, Schirmer); and Catechism of Violin Playing, by C. Schroeder (^i, Augener), all the works of acknowledged experts in the field. The Voice and Singing It is impossible to give here any account of the num- berless voice methods of varying degrees of excellence, and only a few of the most famous books which have been tested by time and experience can be cited. Among these are Voice, Song, and Speech, by Brown and Behnke {$2, Putnams), two noted London specialists; The Hygiene of the Vocal Organs, by Dr. Morell Mac- kenzie (^1.25, Werner); How to Sing, by Lilli Lehman (^1.50, Macmillan); Hints on Singing, by Manuel Gar- cia (^1.50, Schuberth); The Philosophy of Si7iging, by Clara Rogers ($1.50, Harpers); The Art of the Singer, by W. J. Henderson (^1.25, Scribners), a book of general all-around interest; and a host of others. On the literature of songs there is a delightful little account by H. T. Finck called Songs aiid Song Writers (^1.25, Scribners), filling a niche all by itself and aptly called "a song Baedeker," so crowded and crammed is it with good things. The fives of great singers is a subject of vivid interest 352 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY to many and there are two small volumes by George T. Ferris, entitled Great Singers (two vols., each ^i, Apple- ton), written with literary colour and charm. Henry C. Lahee's Famous Singers of To-Day and Yes- terday ($1.50, L. C. Page & Company) gives carefully gathered information. The life of the celebrated voice teacher Madame Mathilde Marchesi, called Marchesi and Music (^2.50, Harpers), though marred by egotism, abounds in inter- esting passages. Especially attractive is the story of the renowned Gar- cia, the inventor of the laryngoscope, who lived to the great age of one hundred and knew personally every great musician of three generations, called Garcia the Centenarian, and His Time, by M. S. Mackinlay (^4, Appletons). CHAPTER XLIII EXAMINATION PAPERS IN MUSIC HISTORY, SET BY SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES The papers that follow will give the reader a compre- hensive idea of the scope and extent of music history as a study in schools and colleges. In nearly all instances the subject, presented in the form of lectures, requires work based upon one or more text-books and, in addi- tion, a certain amount of research over a somewhat extensive bibliography. No. I. NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT History of Music Answer six questions from this group. Group I. i. What do the terms "classic" and "romantic" signify- as applied to periods of music history? Give the approximate date of the beginning of each period and name six important composers be- longing to each. 2. Name three great oratorios by different composers and briefly describe each. 3. What composer is called the "creator of the modern song"? What did he do for the song to justify this praise? Name four of his greatest songs. 4. Give an account of the origin and development of the orchestra. 5. What composers have written the finest music for the orchestra? Name /o Mr of the greatest symphonies the world has yet known. 6. State the distinctive influence on opera or the contribution to opera of each of the following composers: Gluck, Wagner, Weber, Beethoven, Verdi, Mozart, Rossini, Gounod. Arrange the names in chronologic order and name one opera of each. 7. For what is each of the following musicians most esteemed: J. S. Bach, Muzio Clementi, Hector Berlioz, Paganini, F. Chopin, Franz 353 354 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Liszt, Georges Bizet, Anton Rubinstein, Peter Tschaikowsky, Anton Dvorak, Edvard Grieg, Edward Elgar? 8. Why are Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms often ranked together? Write quite fully concerning the life and work of one of these musi- cians and briefly concerning the work of the other two. No. 2. NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT History of Music Answer eight questions from this group. 1. Write briefly on the contrapuntal, classic, and romantic schools of music, stating the characteristics of each and naming its most dis- tinguished representatives. 2. Write briefly on the music of Richard Strauss and Claude De- bussy. State what, in your opinion, individualises the work of each. Name at least three of the representative compositions of each. 3. Answer both a and b: a. Name four European composers specially esteemed for their songs, state where and when each one lived, and name two well-known songs of each. h. Name three eminent American song composers and mention tzvo songs of each. 4. Name at least two distinguished musical contemporaries of {a) Louis XIV, (b) Napoleon, (c) Queen Victoria. 5. Describe briefly the classical symphony. Name six symphonic writers. Give a list of symphonies that you have heard or studied. 6. Answer a, b, c, and d: a. When was the pianoforte invented? What did it supersede? b. When did Clementi live? What influence had he and his fol- lowers on the growth of piano composition and technic? c. Name some of the piano compositions of Chopin, Beethoven, Schumann, and Liszt. Write briefly of the style of each. d. Name six famous pianists now living. 7. Give the prevailing characteristics of music in the period between {a) 1400-1600, {b) 1600-1700, (c) 1700-1800, {d) 1800-1900. 8. Distinguish between the forms in each of the following groups: {a) cantata and oratorio, {b) grand opera, romantic opera, and opera comique, (c) symphony and symphonic poem. Name one composition of each class, with its composer. 9. Write briefly on the general characteristics of {a) classical music, Q)) romantic music, (c) programme music. Name three representative composers of each style with one work of each. EXAMINATION PAPERS 355 No. 3. (a). INSTITUTE OF MUSICAL ART OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK Examination in Music History Special Course 1. Remark on (a) The contrast between the ancient and the mod- ern conception of music, Or (b) The growth of musical notation. 2. Contrast the piano with preceding keyboard instruments. 3. Describe the origin and purpose of the opera as an art form. 4. What is a sonata and by whom and when was its modern form specially determined? 5. Give an account of the orchestra and the styles peculiar to it. N. B. Any one question may be omitted for the sake of answering the others more fully. No. 3. {b). Examination in Music History General Course 1. What forms or styles of composition were already prominent before 1700? Give a brief account of one of these. 2. What was Handel's preparation for oratorio writing? When and why did he enter upon it and with what results? 3. Give an outline of Bach's life with special comment on some one aspect of his style and genius that Interests you. 4. Compare Haydn and Mozart as to personality, career, style, and influence. 5. Remark on Beethoven's life and work in relation to the advance of musical art at the opening of the nineteenth century. N. B. Any one question may be omitted for the sake of answering the others more fully. No. 4. HARVARD UNIVERSITY Music 3 The given order of questions to be followed. Write legibly. Express yourself clearly. I. Name four composers between Schubert and Richard Strauss who have contributed to the development of the German Lied. Name four well-known lyric poets from whom the texts for their songs were 356 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY often taken. What are the special features of the German art song in distinction from the folk-song? Give the titles of six representative German songs, one, at least, of each of the composers treated above. 2. State the leading facts in the life of Von Weber. In what im- portant respects did he differ as a musician from his predecessors.'' What were the national tendencies of his time and how do his works embody these tendencies? Describe the characteristics of romantic opera as conceived by Von Weber and name his chief works in this field. Who were three of the lesser composers of this type of opera associated with him? 3. Describe the prominent characteristics of Chopin's music and name the works which best represent his style. Give a list of the celebrated artistic and literary people with whom Chopin associated in Paris during the decade 1830-40. 4. In what three classes may all programme music be grouped? Name a representative composer of programme music in the seven- teenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Describe clearly what has been the influence of Berlioz and of Liszt upon modern orches- tral music. Name several important works of each composer. What term did Liszt invent and apply to his orchestral works? What is the essential difference in content and treatment between works of this type and the classic symphony? What were some of Liszt's mani- fold activities? What four cities are prominently associated with his career? 5. Name standard compositions by various composers which find their source in the works of the following authors: Shakespeare, Goethe, Schiller, Scott, Byron, Hugo. Comment briefly on the connection in any one of these works between the literary basis and the musical treatment. 6. Name the composer and branch of music of each of the following compositions: Fingal's Cave, V Africaine, Prince Igor, The Merry Wives of Windsor, 181 2 Overture, Hans Heiling, Tod und Verkldrung, Reflets dans I'eau, Sampson and Delilah, Scheherazade, Sakuntala, Louise, Boris Godounow. 7. Describe the social and political conditions of Italy during the first seven decades of the last century. In the works of what composer are these conditions most vividly reflected? Name several of his works. What striking use was often made of his name? Who is the most prominent living exponent of Italian music? Name three of his well-known works. Take eitlier question S or g 8. Contrast briefly the essential characteristics of Russian, Norwe- gian, and Hungarian folk music. EXAMINATION PAPERS 357 9. State the prominent characteristics and mention at least one rep- resentative work of each of the following masters: Grieg, Dvorak, Tschaikowsky, Cesar Franck, Chabrier, Brahms, Debussy, d'Indy. 10. What are the striking differences between the music-drama of Wagner and the former type of opera? Give a chronological list of Wagner's works and describe the changes in his dramatic ideals and musical style which these works embody. Mention two incidents in Wagner's life which influenced strongly his inspiration. Explain the terms "leading motive" and "transformation of motive." No. 5. HARVARD UNIVERSITY Music 3 1. Give some account of the influence of Beethoven during the nineteenth century. On whom did he react and in what manner? 2. Compare and differentiate the romanticism of Weber (instru- mental music), Mendelssohn, Schubert, and Schumann. 3. Trace the general course of programme music from Beethoven to the present day. Mention as many specific works as possible to give point to your statements. 4. State wherein consists the greatness of Chopin. What were the sources of his piano style and of his forms? What was his treatment of sonata form? Comment on Chopin as nationalist. 5. In what respects was Berlioz a pioneer? Show clearly the rela- tion between the artistic and sociological conditions of the times and Berlioz's musical standpoint. Describe his personality as man and artist. What contemporaries were influenced by him? What was Berlioz's attitude toward opera? Toward sonata form? 6. Describe Liszt's attainments and influence as a pianist. What were the sources of his epoch-making technic? Comment on Liszt as transcriber. What did he accomplish at Weimar? Describe the symphonic poem in respect to form and contents. Where and on whom has the influence of Liszt reacted most noticeably ? 7. Outline briefly the conditions existent in French and Italian opera during the first half of the nineteenth century. Wherein consisted Wagner's "reform" of opera. What are the important stages in his work as a dramatic composer? What were the origin and function of the leading motive? Comment briefly on Wagner's use of the orchestra. 8. Compare and differentiate the critical activity of Schumann, Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner. 9. Select any six of the following names for a concise summary of their characteristics as composers and their historical influence: Brahms, Tschaikowsky, Bruckner, Saint-Saens, Richard Strauss, Cesar 358 ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY Franck, Grieg, Dvorak, Moussorgsky, Debussy, Elgar, Rimsky-Kor- sakow, d'Indy, MacDowell. No. 6. YALE COLLEGE semiannual examination Music 3 — History of Music 1. How is design in music shown? Is painting a more imitative art than music or less? 2. Contrast Chinese and Hindu scale systems. Of what nature are modern European scales? Give a short account of ancient Greek and mediaeval church scales. 3. Define organum, counterpoint, discant. Describe the steps taken during the Middle Ages toward the development of harmony. 4. Who was Adam de la Halle, Frescobaldi, Guido of Arezzo, John Dunstable, Henry Purcell, Orlando Lasso? 5. Give an account of the Netherlands school of composers with names and approximate dates. 6. Write a short biographical sketch of Palestrina. To what kind of music did he restrict himself? What is the present importance of his music? How does it differ from the music of our own time? 7. Compare folk music and art music. 8. State the achievements and limitations of early choral music. 9. What serious errors in church music was Palestrina called upon to correct? ID. Describe early musical instruments and the style of music written for them. No. 7. YALE COLLEGE semiannual examination History of Music 1. Write a biographical sketch of Bach with a discussion of his posi- tion in music. 2. What important influences tended to make Handel's style differ- ent from that of Bach? In what does this difference consist? 3. Give a brief history of oratorio, naming important composers and their works. 4. Describe the growth and climax of sonata form. 5. Wherein lies the greatness of Beethoven? 6. Contrast and explain classicism and romanticism. Classify under these two heads the French and German composers from the EXAMINATION PAPERS 359 time of Bach to that of Wagner. Arrange the names chronologi- cally. 7. How many symphonies are known by Beethoven, Brahms, Schu- mann, Tschaikowsky, Wagner? 8. Give an account of the development of opera in Italy from its beginning to the present, with composers' names, dates, and works. 9. Give a like account of opera in Germany. 10. Explain the Wagnerian system of opera and name as many of Wagner's operas as you can. 11. Mention important works by each of the following composers: Haydn, Mozart, Handel, Liszt, Chopin, Weber, Saint-Saens, Verdi, Berlioz, Schumann. 12. What is a symphonic poem? What composer is identified with the earliest examples of this kind of music? Name three of his works. No. 8. TUFTS COLLEGE 1. Write for about fifteen minutes on one of the following sub- jects: (a) Ambrose and Gregory, (b) Palestrina and Lasso, (c) minne- singers and mastersingers. 2. Indicate briefly the significance of the following: {a) Antipho- narium, (b) canon, (c) Bayreuth, (d) aria, (e) ballad, (/) chorale, (g) figured bass, (h) discant, ({) recitative, (;) mode, (k) equal tem- perament, (/) opera comique. 3. Name, with approximate dates, some composers who have had important influence on the development of opera, and state, if you can, the contribution which each made to that development. 4. Give author, nature, and approximate date of the following works: a. St. Paul. b. The Creation. c. The Unfinished Symphony. d. Benvenuto Cellini. e. The Huguenots. /. Iphigenia in Tauris. g. Oberon. h. Carmen. i. Kaiserquartet. y. Pastoral Symphony. k. The Lamentations. /. Genoveva. m. Mors et Vita. n. Life for the Czar. 0. Aid a. 36o ESSENTIALS IN MUSIC HISTORY p. Romeo and Juliet. q. Marriage of Figaro, r. Ein Heldenleben. s. Pathetic symphony. t. Parsifal. u. Kreutzer Sonata. V. Judas Maccabaeus. zv. Summer is a-coming in. 5. Give approximate date and chief claim to fame of the follow- ing: C. P. E. Bach, Berlioz, Chopin, Lully, Kuhnau, Dufay. 6. Take a topic, biographical or historical, which has interested you and outline an essay upon it. Use syllabus form if you choose. N. B. If, in No. 4, you discover any names applying to two works, name both. No. 9. OBERLIN CONSERVATORY 1. What circumstances brought Handel to England? In what period of his life did he compose his Italian operas, and what was their general character? 2. Why did he turn to writing oratorios? 3. How does the oratorio differ from the opera and from church music? 4. Where is the influence of the Italian opera shown in Handel's oratorios? 5. What can be said of his choruses: range of style and expression, variety of structure, dramatic quality, etc.? 6. Under what conditions was the work of Sebastian Bach produced? What different national influences are found in his music? What has been the nature of his influence upon later art? 7. What were the leading movements in music just after Bach's time? 8. Give an outline of the development of the symphony up to Beethoven. 9. What is the sonata form? 10. How was the orchestra constituted in the time of Haydn and Mozart? What additions were made by Beethoven? 11. How did Beethoven complete the form in symphony and so- nata? 12. What is the significance of Beethoven in the development of expression? 13. What do you consider the chief elements in the greatness of Beethoven ? INDEX OF NAMES Adam (de la Halle), 66, 85, 128. Agricola, M., 113, 187. Ahle, J. G., 157. Ahle, J. R., 157. Albrechtsbergcr, J. G., 215, 252, 254. AUegri, G., 127. Amati, 187. Ambrose, St., 34, 35, 50, 128. Animuccia, G., 127, 143. Aribo, 53. Ariosti, A., 148, 218. Aristoxenos, 25. Arkadelt, J., 103. d'Astorga, E., 196. Auber, D. F. E., 271. Bach, J. A., 221, 223. Bach, J. Ch., 221. Bach, J. S., 139, IS7, 165, 177, 221, 224. Bach, P. E., 17^, 240, 242^^' Bach, v., 221. Bach, W. F., 225. Balfe, M., 273. Bardi, G., 143. Beethoven, L. van, 252 et seq. Bellini, V., 272. Benda, G., 232. Bennett, J., 127. Berchem, J., 112. Berger, H., 275. Berger, L., 250. Berlioz, H., 287. Bizet, G., 271. Bodenschatz, E., 131. Boes, J. van, 112. Boieldieu, F. A., 271. Boito, A., 272. Bononcini, G., 196, 218. Bordoni, F., 209. Brahms, J., 299. Briegel, W. C, 157. Bruhns, W., 169. Brumel, A., 102, 105. Bull, J., 127, 184. Bull, O., 323. Billow, H. von, 291. Busnois, A., 84, 97, 98. Buxtehude, D., 169. Byrd, W., 127, 184. Caccini, G., 144. Caldara, A., 196. Calvicius, S., 137. Cambert, R., 205. Carey, H., 206. Carissimi, G., 127, 148, 190. Caron, F., 96. Cavalieri, E. del, 144. Cavalli, F., 148, 190. Cesti, M. A., 148, 190. Charlemagne, 62. Charpentier, G., 317. Chatelaine de Coucy, 63. Chaucer, G., 60, JJ. Cherubini, L., 269, 275, 290. Chopin, F., 65, 284. Christofori, B., 176. Cimarosa, D., 271. Clari, G. M., 196. Clayton, T., 206. Clement (non Papa), 112. Clementi, M., 249. Colonna, G. P., 196. Compere, L., 105. Conti, F., 197. Corelli, A., 127, 187. Cornelius, P., 291. Cottonius, J., 53. Couperin, F., 177, 179, 181. 361 362 INDEX Cowen, F., 273. Cramer, J. B., 250. Croce, G. della, 126. Criiger, J., 139. Czerny, C, 290. Danican, A., 204. Darwin, C, 6. David, F., 291, Davidson, T., 24. Debussy, C, 317. Dietmar von Kiirenberg, 71. Dittersdorf, C. D. von, 231. Donati, B., 126. Dowland, J., 127. Dufay, G., 96, 98, 128. Dukas, P., 317. Dunstable, J., 95. Durante, F., 127, 190. Dussek, J. L., 250. Dux (Ducis), B., 105. Dvorak, A., 310. Eccard, J., 138. Elgar, E., 273. Engel, C, 19. Ephraem, St., 38. Epictetus, 32. Faber, D., 174. Farnaby, G., 184. Faugues, V., 96. Feo, F., 127, 191. Ferrabosco, D., 127. Ferrari, B., 148. Festa, C, 112, 127. Fetis, J. F., II, 191. Field, J., 251. Finck, Heinrich, 106, 113. Finck, Hermann, 106, 107. Flotow, F. von, 268. Forkel, J. N., 106. Fortsch, J. P., 212. Franck, C, 317. Franck, J. W., 212. Franck, M., 139, 152. Franco of Cologne, 55, 90, i: Franco of Paris, 55, 90, 128. Freschi, G., 166, 182. Frescobaldi, G., 166, 182. Froberger, J. J., 168. Fulda, A. de, 113. Fux, J., 186, 196, 207, 215. Gabrieli, A., 126. Gabrieli, G., 126, 139, 154. Gafurius, F., 54, 112. Galilei, V., 145. Galuppi, B., 196. Gasparini, F., 195. Gastoldi, G., 126. Gaultier, D., 179. Gay, J., 218. Gerbert, M., 53. Gibbons, O., 127, 184. Glareanus, H., 112. Glinka, M., 273. Gluck, C. VV. von, 233, 269. Goetz, H., 268. Goldmark, C, 268. Gombert, N., 103, xo8. Gossec, F. J., 202, 203, 271. Gottfried von Strassburg, 72. Goudimel, C, 112, 126, 127. Gounod, C, 271. Graun, K. H., 208. Gregory, 17, 36, 38, 128. Gretry, A., 204. Grieg, E., 310. Guarneris, 187. Guido of Arezzo, 47, 51, 53, 128. Guillaume de Marchant, 91. Halevy, J., 270. Hall, J. L., 42. Halleck, R. P., 42, 77. Hammerschmidt, A., 139. Handel, G. F., 213, 216. Hartmann von Aue, 72. Hasse, J. A., 208. Hassler, H. L., 137. Hastings, T., 322. Haydn, J., 231, 240, 242. Heinrich von Meissen, 72. Heinrich von Morungen, 72. Heinrich von Veldecke, 68. Helmore, Rev. T., 39. 89, 92, INDEX 363 Hermann, N., 135. Herold, L. J. F., 271. Hilarius, 40. Hiller, J. A., 251. Hilton, J., 127. Hobrecht, J., 102. Holden, O., 322. Hollander, C, 118. Holzbauer, I., 233. Horn, J. C, 188. Hucbald, 44, 51, 89, 91, 92, 128. Hummel, J. N., 250. Humphrey, P., 184. Isaac, H., 106, 136. Jannequin, C, 104, 107. Jean de Garlande, 90. Jean de Muris, 57, 91. Jerome, of Moravia, 57, 91. Jerome, St., 32. Joachim, J., 291, 300. Jommelli, N., 191. Josquin des Pres, 102, 105, 107, 116, 128. Keiser, R., 122. Kerll, J. K., 208. Kirnberger, J. P., 215. Klengel, A. A., 250. Koninck, 96. Konrad von Wiirzburg, 72. Kretschmer, E., 268. Kreutzer, K., 268. Kugelman, H., 135. Kuhnau, J., 185, 186, 221. Kusser, J. S., 212. Lane, E. W., 13. Lasso, O. di, 114, 128. Legrenzi, G., 148, 195. Lekeu, G., 317. Leo, L., 127, 190. Leoncavallo, R., 272. Leonin, 90. Lind, J., 323. LIndpainter, P. J. von, 268. Liszt, P., 289. Locke, M., 205. Lortzing, A., 268. Lotti, A., 195. Lotti, G., 195. Lully, G. B., 197, 199. Luther, M., 132, 134. MacFarren, G., 273. Mackenzie, A., 273. Mandeville, Sir J., 77. Marcello, B., 127. Marcellus II, 124. Marchetto of Padua, 57. Marenzio, L., 127. Marpurg, F. W., 215. Marschner, H., 266. Marullo, B., 186. Marxsen, E., 299. Mascagni, P., 272. Mason, L., 322. Massenet, J., 271. Mattheson, J., 177, 186, 213, 214. Mazarin, Cardinal, 198. Mehul, E., 269. Melanchthon, P., 135. Mendelssohn, F., 275. Merulo, C, 126, 166. Meyerbeer, J., 270. Mingotti, A., 215. Molinari, 148. Moniusko, S., 273. Monsigny, S. A., 204. Monte, P., 118. Monteverde, C., 144, 146, 148, 150, 188, 190. Morley, T., 127, 184. Moscheles, L, 275. Mozart, L., 247. Mozart, W. A., 236, 246. Muffat, G., 179. Muffat, T., 186. Miiller, W., 232. Mussorgski, M., 273. Nanini, B., 127. Nanini, G., 127. Naumann, E , 58, 86. Neri, P., 142, 150. Nicolai, O., 268. Nithardt von Reuenthal, 72. 364 INDEX Odington, W., 57, 90, 95. Okeghem (Ockenheim), loi, 106, 116, 128. Osiander, L., 137. Ovid, 32. Pachelbel, J., 168. Paer, F., 272. Paesiello, G., 193, 194, 271. Paganini, N., 291. Palestrina, L., 112, 116, 121, 128. Pasquini, B., 167, 190, 195. Paumann, C, 166. Pergolesi, G. B., 191, 192. Peri, J., 144, 146, 198. Perotin, 90. Petrucci, O., 105. Petrus de Cruce, 57, 90. Pezelius, J., 188. Phillip de Vitry, 57, 91. Philo, 33. Piccini, N., 192, 193, 235. Pierre de la Croix (Petrus de Cruce). Pitoni, G. O., 195. Plato, 26. Politianus, 142. Porpora, N., 191. Praetorius, M., 138, 187. Puccini, G., 272. Purcell, H., 184, 205. Pythagoras, 25. Quinault, P., 199. Quintilian, 32. Raff, J., 291, 305. Rameau, J. P., 182, 202. Ravel, M., 317. Regis (de Roi), 96. Reichardt, J. F., 233. Reinmar von Zweter, 72. Reischius, G., 100. Rhau, G., 136. Righi, F., 148. Righini, V., 271. Robert of Sabillon, 90. Rore, C. de, iii. Rosenmiiller, J., 157. Rossini, G., 272. Rousseau, J. J., 202, 232. Rubinstein, A., 273, 291, 307. Ruggieri, G., 148. Rusiczka, 258. Sachs, H., 73, 74. Saint-Saens, C, 271. Salieri, A., 258, 260, 269, 271, 290. Salinas, F., 113. Sarti, G., 271. Scarlatti, A., 127, 148, 149, 190. Scarlatti, D., 127, 149, 180, 182, 183. Scheidt, S. G., 158. Schein, J. H., 139, 157. Schelle, K. E., 38. Schenck, J., 232. Schubert, F., 258. Schumann, C, 300. Schumann, R., 279, 299, 300. Schiitz, H., 136, 137, 153, 168. Sebastiani, J., 157. Senfl, L., 136. Spencer, H., 6. Spervogel, 71. Spohr, L., 266. Spontini, G., 270. Staden, S. G., 158. Stanford, C. V., 273. Steffani, A., 195. Stradella, A., 148, 149. Stradivari, A., 186, 188. Strauss, R., in, 289, 318. Strunck, N. A., 212. Sullivan, Sir A., 273. Sweelinck, J. P., 113, 168. Sylvester, 40. Tallis, T., 127, 184. Tartini, G., 187. Tausig, C, 291. Telemann, G. P., 214. Terpander, 25. Theile, J., 158. Thibaut, 62. Thomas, A., 271. Tinctoris, J., 108, 112, 126. Torelli, G., 187. Tschaikowsky, P. I., 273. INDEX 365 Vaet, J., 118. Valdecke, H. von, 68, 71. Vecchi, O., 148. Verdelot, P., 1 1 2. Verdi, G., 272. Viadana, L., 144. Viotti, G. B., 187. Vitry (Phillip de V., q. v.). Vittoria, L. de, 127. Vogel, J. C, 268. Vogler, Abbe, 267. Wagner, R., 69, 75, 76, iii, 291, 294. Wallace, W. V., 273. Wallaschek, R., 6. Walther, J., 135, 136. Walther von der Vogelweide, 72. Ward, J., 127. Weber, C. M. von, 267, 279. Weelkes, T., 127. Wieck, C., 280. Wieck, F., 279. Wiegl, J., 232. Willaert, A., 108, no, 119, 126, 128. William, abbot of Hirschau, 53. William of Poitiers, 63. Winter, P. von, 232. Wolfram von Eschenbach, 72. Zarlino, G., no, 113, 165. Zeelindia, 96. Zelter, C. F., 275. Zingarelli, N., 272.