BY LH-BAILEY i III i Please handle this volume with care. The University of Connecticut Libraries, Storrs 3 C U53 00024323 W&z l&ural Science &etteja( Edited by L. H. Bailey THE FARMSTEAD '*£&& THE FARMSTEAD THE MAKING OF THE RURAL HOME AND THE LAY-OUT OF THE FARM BY ISAAC PHILLIPS ROBERTS Director of the College of Agriculture and Professor of Agriculture in Cornell University ; author of " The Fertility of the Land " FIFTH EDITION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. 1910 All rights reserved ft* Copyright, 1900 By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY ^et up and electrotyped January, 1900 Reprinted August, 1902; January, 1903; August, 1907; June, 1910 1113k. Haunt ptrasanf |r;ai J. Horace McFarland Company Harrisburg, Pennsylvania CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGES I. Rural Homes 1-11 II. The Farm as a Source of Income 12-42 - III. Educational Opportunity on the Farm 43-53 IV. Selection and Purchase of Farms 54-64 V. The Relation of the Farmer to the Lawyer . {By Hon. DeForest VanVleet) . 65-73 VI. Locating the House 74-86 VII. Planning Rural Buildings 87-131 VIII. Building the House — General Lay-out .... 132-157 Building the Foundations 138 Wooden Houses — The Frame , 142 IX. Building the House, Concluded — Outside Cov- ering, Painting 158-180 Veneered Houses . 168 Old Houses 170 Painting the House 173 X. Inside Finish, Heating, and Ventilation .... 181-192 Heating and Ventilation 190 XI. House Furnishing and Decoration {By Professor Mary Roberts Smith) . 193-203 XII. Cleanliness and Sanitation — Water Supply and Sewage . {By Professor Mary Roberts Smith) . 204-223 Water Supply and Sewage 217 (v) vi Contents CHAPTER PAGES XIII. Household Administration, Economy, and Com- fort . . {By Professor Mary Roberts Smith) . 224-236 XIV. The Home Yard . {By Professor L. H. Bailey) . 237-248 XV. A Discussion of Barns 249-265 Location 255 Planning the Barn 259 Water Supply 261 XVI. Building the Barn — The Basement 266-287 Excavation 268 Walls 271 Floors , 277 Stalls 280 Mangers and Ties 285 XVII. Building the Barn — The Superstructure . . 288-297 XVIII. Remodeling Old Barns 298-305 XIX. Outbuildings and Accessories 306-320 Poultry Houses 306 Piggeries 311 The Silo 316 XX. Lightning Protection {By H. H. Norris, M.E.) . 321-335 Metal Roofs 324 Protecting Wooden Roofs 326 XXI. The Fields 336-345 Fences 336 Orchards • 340 Farm Garden 341 THE FARMSTEAD CHAPTER I BUBAL HOMES Man is made partly by heredity, partly by environment ; both may be controlled and modi- fied to a far greater extent than is generally supposed. In speaking of farm life, its dis- advantages ar.e frequently emphasized, while its possible advantages as an environment for the development of the finest quality of human nature are as often ignored or overlooked. Nature, with her ever- varying form and color, beauty and symmetry, is forgotten in the city; the shady forest, the meadow brook, the waving fields, are unknown. There, instead, is incessant noise, the clang and clash of trade, towering and ugly buildings, skies darkened by the smoke of factories, children who never saw a tree or played elsewhere than upon a hard and filthy pavement ; and worst of all is the nerve-destroy- ing haste and unequal competition, wearing out A (1) 2 The Farmstead body and soul. In rural life, however tame and lonely, the home is not merely a few square feet hedged in by brick walls, but the whole wide countryside : the barns, the fields, the woods, the orchards, the animals wild and do- mesticated, the outlook over hill and valley — these all constitute the farmer's home. The manufacturer locates his factory in some by- street or suburb where land is cheap, and as far as possible from the residence part of the city; his home is far removed from these un- sightly surroundings. But the farmer must live within a few hundred feet of his barns and out- buildings, and if these be ugly and dirty, the beauty and comfort of the home are sadly marred. If the farmer, then, has the whole landscape as a background for his home, he must on the other hand modify his immediate surroundings so as to overcome their almost in- evitable unsightliness. Besides the ever-present beauties of nature, country life has certain other advantages over the city: it is the place to develop the strong health -physique. The luxury of rich and popu- lous communities tends to produce puny and enervated citizens; the excessive toil, bad air, limited space and scant food of the poor tend to degrade and destroy body and soul ; but the comfortable simplicity, space, air, sunlight and The Human Animal 3 abundant food of the open country give oppor- tunity for the finest development of the human animal. It is true that even on the farm there are sometimes overwork and privation ; but, at the worst, these cannot be so severe as in cities so long as the sun shines, the wind blows, and green things grow for the worker out of doors. Here the child may be born right and nourished by pure food and air. It is surrounded by animals whose life and motion become an iDcentive to action, and who become its companions without danger of moral con- tamination. The lamb, the calf, the colt, are far safer playmates than the city urchin precociously wise in evil ways. Professor Amos Gr. Warner says that "chil- dren reared in institutions are much below par because they lack the power of initiative." The farm child has an incessant, varied and uncon- scious training of the eye, the hand, and the mind. While he is developing strength, sym- metry, courage, the mental is being coordinated with the physical. The hand is made to obey the will, while the fact that the handicraft is made useful lends charm and delight to the work. The city child must try to learn, by a course of manual training in some public school, what the country child picks up unconsciously in the natural process of play and work. 4 The Farmstead After half a century, I look back to one of the happiest moments of my life, when I pre- sented my mother with a dove -tailed wooden flower box, painted bright red. That flower box first taught me how to make wood take the form desired. While the flower box has long since rotted, the board -runner sled smashed, the water wheel broken, and the boat lies rotten in the bottom of the lake, the time spent upon them was not thrown away, for they gave me the inspiration and power to "boss" wood, and this power has served me well in many an emergency. As knowledge begins to dominate the hand and train it to change the form and character of things, certain physical laws are discovered. If the sail is made too large or the boat too narrow, a cold bath is the result. If the sled runners are too short and rough, the school- mate arrives at the bottom of the hill first. No schoolmaster was needed, for when one of these natural laws was broken or ignored, the penalty followed quickly and with full force. So, in a thousand ways, the youth is taught respect for the laws which govern matter. All this leads the youth on the farm, if full play and direction are given, to investigate everything in sight, to discover that there are other than physical laws. The higher laws puzzle him greatly, Physical, Mental and Spiritual 5 give him much concern, lead to doubts, for they are too abstract and too far-reaching for his youthful comprehension. The physical laws have been found by experience to be ever true and stable, and the youth cannot but believe that moral and spiritual laws are equally so. This is the sheet anchor which holds him to belief in them, however imperfectly he may understand them. He is anxious to investigate, even to experiment along these lines, but is disappointed because the results cannot be set down in pounds or feet or units of energy. If here on the farm the mental and physical have been kept healthy and active, the moral and spiritual will develop as naturally as the fruit from the blossom. The development of spiritual fruit to high perfection is slow, because the power to think and reason correctly and ab- stractly comes only with age, experience and mental development. But the greatest advantage of country life lies in the opportunity for the promotion of healthy family relations. Parents naturally find their chief happiness in the education and develop- ment of their children; and in time the children stimulate the parents. The sharing of common labors from babyhood up, the working together for common interests and ambition, which farm life especially entails, produce the most whole- 6 The Farmstead some family relations. The most valuable part of any person's education is really in the home. To " help father and mother" becomes the key- note of a child's life, and unselfish, willing ser- vice is the first and last and best lesson of morality and religion. The pride in honest and capable ancestors, the natural and wholesome ambition for the future of the children, fill up a measure of contentment difficult to find else- where. In such a family there need be nothing to conceal ; life takes on dignity in place of affectation, honesty instead of sham; it has sim- plicity, pure affections, fidelity. Artificial sex distinctions disappear ; men and women may do that which is needful and human, the woman in the field, the man in the house, if desirable, sharing their common, healthful activities. All this is very well, some will say, but how shall such a home be maintained on the income of the farm? "Farming doesn't pay." This state- ment is unverified, and, carrying on its face, as it does, a little truth, is misleading. Does farm- ing pay ? Does anything pay ? What is pay ? All depends upon how you value the currency in which the pay is received. Is " wisdom bet- ter than rubies?" Are the sayings of the wisest and best of men true ? " Give me neither riches nor poverty. Get wisdom, get understanding, Take fast hold of instruction," American Peasantry 7 A modern thinker, Professor L. H. Bailey, in the report of the Secretary of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture, 1898, puts it in this wise : " But there is another cause of apprehension which I ought to mention, perhaps founded upon the probable tendencies of our sociological and economic conditions, especially as they apply to rural communities. There is a tendency towards a division of estates as population increases, and the profits of farming are often so small that educated tastes, it is thought, cannot be satis- fied on the farm. There are those who believe that because of these two facts we are ourselves drifting towards an American peasantry. Let us take the second proposition first, — that the profits of farming are so small that educated tastes cannot be satisfied and gratified on the farm. Now I grant this to be true if the measure of the satisfaction of an educated taste is money ; but I deny it most strenuously if the satisfaction of an educated taste lies in a purer and better life. We must make this distinction very deep and broad, for it is a fundamental one. I believe we have made a mistake in teaching agriculture, during the last few years, by put- ting the emphasis on • the money we make out of it. I do not believe that people are to become wealthy on the farm, as a few do in manufac- turing ; I should not hold out that hope to men. 8 The Farmstead There are certain men here and there who have great executive ability, who see the strategic points and take advantage of them, who can make a success of farming the same as they would at the making of shoes, or harnesses, or buttons, or anything else. But as a general thing, the farmer should be taught that the farm is not the place to become wealthy. I do not believe it is. Certainly I should not go on the farm with that idea in view. But if I wanted to live a happy life, if I wanted to have at my command independence and the comforts of living, I do not know where I could better find them than on the farm ; for those very things which appeal to an educated taste are the things which the farmer does not have to buy, — they are the things which are his already." The wealthy few of the cities give voice to the thought that the farming classes in the United States are always on the verge of pov- erty, yet in the last century they have rescued from barbarism and. solitude nearly all of the arable land of the two billion acres of which the United States are composed. More than four million five hundred thousand farm homes have been planted, valued at more than thirteen billion dollars. Much hue and cry has been raised of late about farm mortgages. If the facts were known, it is more than probable that Income of Farmers 9 the farmers, as a whole, have assets in mort- gages, promissory notes and savings banks amply sufficient to liquidate all such outstanding obli- gations. Added to the real estate, the farmers own implements and machines valued at five hundred millions of dollars, and their live stock, upon ten thousand hills, numbers one hundred and seventy -five millions, valued at more than two billions of dollars, while the annual value of the farm products is between two and three billions of dollars. It should be remembered that these values are nominal, the true value being in most cases more than double these amounts. The farmers are not now in danger of becoming paupers. From the farms come more than half of the college students. At the present time it is probable that the income of the farmers exceeds three billion dollars annu- ally. When it is considered that there is little or no direct outgo for rent of house, and that nearly three -fourths of the food is produced at home, and that these items are seldom taken into account in the statistics of income, it appears that the farmer's real income is much larger than is usually estimated in money. In other words, a five hundred dollar net income on the farm, under the conditions which now prevail, provides for a more comfortable living than does a thousand dollars in the city. 10 The Farmstead But these results of the labors of the farmer as set forth in figures, tell but half the story, for nothing is said in these census reports of an empire redeemed, of the thousands upon thousands of miles of road constructed, of rivers spanned, of the school house by every roadside, or of the church spires which mark the progress of agriculture and civilization in countryside, in village and in hamlet. The census report does not give the number or value of the great men and noble women which the rural homes have produced, though they are the most valuable product of the farms. It says nothing about the perennial rural springs from which flow, in a never-ending stream, statesmen, divines, mis- sionaries, teachers, students and business men. Although more than half of these life-giving energies of the nation and civilization come directly from the rural homes, the census report gives no clue by which the value of these, the nation's wealth and power, can be ascertained. Looking over all the trades and professions which are followed by civilized and barbarous peoples, none give opportunity for rearing the family under so nearly ideal conditions as does the profession of agTiculture : none furnish such good conditions for rearing children and for developing them into strong, natural and useful men and women. Here, then, on Loyalty and Contentment 11 these broad acres of America, under the flag which we love, we are to help transform the rude surroundings of the pioneer and the slov- enly homes of the careless into pure and beau- tiful nurseries of American citizenship. Having shown, in part, what a rural life has to offer to those who are trained to appreciate the beauties of nature and to obey her laws, and having shown that the average farmer always has an assured though modest income, and that the better farmers have an ample income for main- taining improved rural homes, the further dis- cussion of how they may be made to minister to the natural longings for broader and more refined lives may be taken up. CHAPTER II THE FARM AS A SOURCE OF IXCOME If it cannot be shown that the profession of agriculture offers as good opportunities for se- curing, with a fair degree of certainty, what all should prize, — a beautiful and comfortable home and a modest surplus, — then this little vol- ume will be for the most part useless and un- called for, as the following chapters presup- pose an income sufficient for maintaining a home, and for gratifying, in part at least, the simple, educated tastes of the better class of American farmers. In "The Fertility of the Land' 7 I attempted to set forth some fundamental principles which, if followed, should result in such increased in- comes as to justify the present book. A com- fortable home must be secured from the products of field and stable, with a reasonable expenditure of physical energy, or farming in its highest sense is a failure. In addition, farming must give fair opportunity for training and educating families, and for making provision for old age and unforeseen contingencies. (12) Leisure and Education 13 In the previous chapter the annual income of the farmer has been set forth, and, approxi- mately, the accumulated earnings of the rural population. Unfortunately, we are so short- sighted that the present — the dollar — blunts the appreciation of the higher and more enduring values which spring from well conducted farms. This being so, of necessity much stress must be laid on immediate benefits which flow from a well ordered farm life. While it is not proposed to write here of the details of farm manage- ment along the lines of greatest financial re- sults, yet something must be said, at least in general, about the methods most likely to pro- duce the necessary competence. A fairly liberal income and financial reserve give, or should give, some leisure. Leisure gives opportunity for study and recreation, without which life becomes one ever -revolving round of work, and results in producing an automatic animal. If this is to be avoided, far-reaching plans must be laid, energy directed into its most efficient channels, and time and resources economized. All this implies training and edu- cation directed, primarily, along the lines which broaden and ennoble, and those of the occupa- tion to be followed. For centuries, the higher education has been in the direction of the humanities, while educa- 14 The Farmstead tion along technical and non- professional lines, until recently, has been conspicuous by its ab- sence. Prior to the present century, what provision was made for coordinating the hands and intellects of the industrial classes? None at all. Is it any wonder, then, that the farmer and mechanic, until recently, received but meager rewards for their efforts? All this is now changed. Already the indus- trial classes are enabled to secure far more of the necessaries and luxuries of life for a given period of work than could their ancestors. In every state and territory one or more colleges have been equipped and endowed to teach, among other things, " such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life. " In addition to this provision, Congress gives to each state and territory $15,000 annually for conducting experiments and investigations in agriculture. In 1890 the Federal government supplemented the benefactions of 1862 by ap- propriating annually $15,000 to each of the Land Grant colleges ; this sum has now been increased and finally fixed at $25,000, for the purpose of strengthening the departments of agriculture and mechanic arts. Most, if not Education Broadens 15 all, of the states have made additional appro- priations for agriculture, in some cases very libera] ones. At first, there was a strong pre- judice against these colleges devoted to the im- provement of the industries and those engaged in them, but this has nearly disappeared. A broader view of education now prevails than formerly. The modern colleges and universities think it not undignified to offer other than four year courses of study preceded by difficult en- trance requirements. Many courses of from six weeks to one or two years are now open to those who prize knowledge above a diploma. Most of these courses are given at such seasons of the year as best suit the pupils. In America all doors which lead to knowledge have at last been opened, and all earnest students may enter and find teachers awaiting them. The effect of the recent changes in college courses has been most marked and beneficial. Many of the colleges have, as far as possible, adopted the words of the founder of Cornell University: "I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study." The following data show the incomes of the United States Land Grant colleges for the year ending June 30, 1897. The table is condensed from one recently published by the United States Department of Agriculture : 16 The Farmstead OfflnOONHOOOCOOOCOfflHlOffirtOlO »MrinriXiCOOOO(MC0C001HinNH(0 M00C0<*CUHi0N^OONmQ0l0nMlO«)01 • 00 i— I -* O CO CI ffi N •NOlHN(D(MOIM H^IOtH00NiO(M«O00thNI- CO t^- CO .OHIOIMCC i— i © lO CM NHffi NHNinOJlO .(MNIO^H CO OS © ©©©© • © — < © CO lO CM © -* CO CO •©©©© ■ C CllO (M lO ■* O ©©©©©©CM© ©©©©©©CO© ©©©©©©COIO V2t 6 *< Noooooooooooonooooooo i— ioo©©©©©©©©©©co©©©©©>— i© ©©©©©©©©-*©©©co©©©©©co>— i ©©©©©©©t^ -*©0©©©©--H co ©^© ©^© ©^© c^ i-T cm* c-f -*" t^T cm" co © r-l CM CM rH CM CM r-> «o S © © © co ia oo © © © © Nooom oo © co oo © © © • © © © oo © . CM ■■* • © © CM i— i ■ee- © oo ©,© • r- .-H co ira co • © ©cMt^© ; —^ CO CO © -* ■ © >-l © © © -># © cm co CM © t— © IC CM © © © © •<* -H "*©©©-* >-l © i— i CO 00 © "* © -v CO a> — tn ■ — . SoSg So g * ~ P? CO ."£ CO >>> 03 03 ^ CO p O 03 3 2 : "j-l 's-l ci bD o ' d fl fl s 3 CP cp l£8> S 03 ® CP < M— .„ 2^03 P- -dSo-2< o3 .^ cp co 5 O fl K J^WMWJJSS^SSSS State Appropriations 17 Tt •NN0>OM^OOOWffi0i00«0JX!0 JO O O OS ~ • lO IO CO O CO t- o 'OiCCOOCONOOOHOOCONWO^'* rH O O lO T. • CM • i— 1 i— 1 i-H O JO i— 1 i— 1 CI © i3 s « s a3 «s m ® iS ►? ^ 2§5 ^L* C£ ,i— i rt o ,0> — ' =3 «3 ™ tC H p-*- K E> [> ►> ■ t* U %J -i-H . 1 ' o o c ,a M IrZiZZOO a> . £03 • a> — s o u ~, -I 111! ^ ^2 M ^- — o ■£ O '" C r-l rS ° ' '■—' — H — '_> OO 5s S^ cq£ 1 — 'HrinQ 00 w HH O W .2 J3 jHH 32 03 03 bcs^+j+sts S S cS us2ris?SriM ^CD-^OOOCDCDCD O Cm 03 CO CO CO H H Eh a $ J 8 eg -h -h § « 3a\^f§£l.s ^oga.-r > ^§3 -5 3 "Sb'St « ~£ "S § § j£,^^aSeD©.J2r>> 18 The Farmstead It has been thought strange that the farmers did not more quickly see and appreciate the valuable opportunities offered to their children. But why should they at once appreciate and value the princely provisions which were being made for them? With no opportunity for edu- cation along the lines of their profession, follow- ing a more or less despised calling, from being the butt and jest of those who had had educa- tional advantages from time immemorial, how could they at once understand the value and far-reaching effects of the new order of things? Then, too, these liberal provisions were made somewhat in advance of the times. The pioneer must first redeem the land from the wilderness, fight the physical battles and endure the hard- ships of a new country. As soon as these primitive conditions passed away, the farmers made an effort to bring their profession up to a high intellectual plane and make it a delight- ful and honorable calling. The evolution from the primitive to the complex, from the age of toil to the age of thought, from excessive mus- cular effort to a more intelligent direction of energy, from the narrow and prejudiced to the broad and liberal, from the coarse and ugly to the refined and beautiful, is proceeding rapidly, and is in part realized. What happier task than to give direction and help, sympathy and en- The True and the Beautiful 19 couragement to these new-born .desires ! The part which the youths on the farm are taking in this evolution leads naturally to a higher intel- lectual plane, and hence to a more rational understanding and fuller comprehension of what the rural home should be. This desire to gratify the love for the true and beautiful, which has been growing up by reason of the better education, leads directly to the securing of an income sufficiently large to gratify the more re- fined and newly acquired tastes. Taking the rural population as we find it, with added wants and new aspirations, and with a somewhat better understanding of the value of a more extended culture, it will be seen that a more rational system of agriculture, a more economic expenditure of energy, and a clearer comprehension of the highest and most economi- cal use of money must be secured if the objects sought are attained. To secure the results de- sired, it must be shown how a competence can be secured without excessive toil, how the results of work may be put to the best uses, and lastly, but not least, it must be shown what is really valuable, what real, what substantial, what polite, what beautiful, what worthy of in- telligent Americans. On the other hand, vulgar display must be shown to be vulgar, shoddy must be unmasked, the effect of aping the un- 20 The Farmstead cultured rich set forth, and that which is unreal and that which goes for naught but vanity dis- played under their true colors, — that comparisons may be made, and that truer conceptions of life, its duties and obligations, may be secured. How may a competence be obtained ? Briefly, by securing a knowledge of the laws which govern the business or undertaking entered into, and by conducting the business or undertaking in obedience to the modes of action or laws which apply to the specific case in hand. What are some of the dominant laws which should govern the farmer and farm practices ? The farmer should specialize along those lines for which his taste and training, in part at least, fit him. To be more specific : A farmer will show you his potato patch with pride, but not a word will be said about his work animals and their offspring, which look like Barnum's woolly horse. Then the first principle of agriculture is, follow up successes. In this case, the man has land and skill in potato culture which should lead him directly to success. Why not each year in- crease the output of potatoes, and let some horseman breed the horses ? I have no ear or taste for music ; why should I spend time in thrumming a piano and in making the life of my neighbors miserable ? I love a bird and am interested in all its ways, its beauty and its life. Specialization 21 Why not study the birds, and let them make the music ? Much of life's energy is spent in trying to adjust square pegs to round holes and round pegs to square holes, and life may be spent be- fore the adjustment is complete. Modern civil- ization tends to specialization. Men vary as widely as do the stars. There is a place for everyone and some one to fi]l the place, if this great mass of unlike units can only be sorted and fitted into the complex problem of civilization. The first question, and the question which should be repeated often is, What am I good for; what branch or branches of agriculture will give me the greatest pleasure and profit? Having answered this question, pursue the work through all discouragements to a successful issue. It is possible you have no capacity for farm life, and, since you cannot buy a capacity, better go directly to town and there fit yourself into your environment. I have known men to toil many years on a farm, and near the close of life to be driven to town by the sheriff. There they made not only a living, but secured a modest competence in conducting some little one-horse business, the profits or losses of which could be counted up every night. The farm, with all its complexities, with its profits and losses a year or five years in the future, was too large and 22 The Farmstead far-reaching for their narrow understandings. All are not so fortunate. Some remind us of the Quaker's dog which he sold to his friend and recommended as a good coon dog. The dog proved to be a failure and was returned to the seller, who said, " I am much surprised. Thee believes that nothing was created in vain, does thee not, Ephraim?" "Most certainly I believe that the Creator made all things for some beneficent purpose." " I, too, believe this, and I had tried that dog for everything else under the heavens but coons, so I was certain he must be a good coon dog." A competency is always in sight in this country for those who do well those things which are suited to their tastes and training. A competence may be secured by following those branches of farming which require the minimum of labor and the maximum of skill and train- ing. My friend of Westfield, Mr. Gr. Schoenfeld, from Germany, has six acres of land, a part of which is covered with glass. He did that ter- rible thing, — ran in debt for the full purchase price of the land. It and the valuable improve- ments upon it are now paid for. His modest home is valued at $6,000. While paying for it a large family has been raised and educated, the eldest boy entering Annapolis Naval Academy with a high standing. It is possible that this Follow up Success 23 son will one day be acknowledged as the intel- lectual and social equal of the aristocracy of Germany should he ever visit the fatherland of his parents. But why this long account of a not infrequent occurrence ? To show how it was done : This German, though untrained, suc- ceeded from the first in producing superior carnations. He followed up his successes, and sold the product of brains instead of the fertility of his little farm. Mr. Schoenfeld sold in Buf- falo during one year — October 1, 1896, to Sep- tember 30, 1897 — carnations (80,946 flowers) for the net sum, over commissions, of $719.08. The amount of plant -food removed by the 80,946 carnations was as follows : Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash 5 lbs. 4 ozs. 2 lbs. 3 ozs. 10 lbs. 8 ozs. (valued at $1.32) The table below shows the amount of plant- food removed by 856 bushels of wheat, being the amount which, at 84 cents per bushel (the average price of wheat for the last ten years in central New York), would bring $719.08, the amount received for the carnations. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash 904 lbs. 437 lbs. 298 lbs. (valued at $158.34) In addition, 20,000 flowers used in making flower displays for weddings, and the like, were 24 The Farmstead sold at retail, by the dozen, for $450.80. The net returns for flowers sold during the fiscal year ending September 30, 1897, amounted to $1,169.88. The expenses, including taxes, insur- ance and 10 per cent on the capital, were $790.67. This includes the cost of raising 12,000 plants, about 6,000 of which netted $263.24. In round numbers, then, the net in- come from the one leading industry — flowers — after paying 10 per cent on invested capital, coal, commission and workmen's bills, was $642.45, with an additional prospective income from the 6,000 plants which remained unsold. When I last visited this gentleman, he in- formed me that he had all the land he wanted. Since that time he has purchased eight acres adjoining, has made some improvements upon the land, and now values it at $2,000. He stated incidentally that the reason he made his purchase was that the land was in the market, and he wanted control of it that he might choose his neighbor. The land, he says, is now in the market, although it paid 9 per cent, clear of all expenses, on a valuation of $2,000. The question is often discussed as to how much land is necessary to secure a competence. Here we find that six acres suffices. A large family has been fed chiefly from the products of the or- chards, vineyard and garden, and the children Learn Difficult Things 25 are receiving a practical and, in some cases, a liberal education. All this has been accom- plished because the man quickly learned the value of scientific agriculture and was wise enough to follow up his successes. Not only follow up success, but learn to do the difficult things ; there will always be a throng seeking to do the easy things,— things which require the maximum of muscle and the minimum of* brains. Why do such multitudes seek this hard, easy work! Because they will not consent to endure the toil, shall I say, of acquiring the power to think deeply, accurately and effectively. Some of our sympathy is thrown away upon these muscular workers. Their desires are few, their wants simple, their appetites good, and their sleep peaceful. Let us show them the way to a higher life, open the doors to those who choose to enter, and fret not because all will not enter in. " Some are and must be greater than the rest, More rich, more wise ; but who infers from hence That such are happier, shocks all common sense." The man who fells the trees in the woods may receive 15 cents per hour ; the man who controls the carriage of the great sawmill and decides on the instant what shape and dimen- sions the lumber shall take may receive 25 cents 26 The Farmstead per hour for simply moving a little lever ; a third man causes a piece of the wood to take on the forms of beauty for the great staircase, and may receive 50 cents per hour ; the fourth furnishes the design for this beautiful staircase, and may receive $1 an hour. The man who does the so-called "hard" work receives the least pay. Why? Because it is the least diffi- cult. This difference of remuneration holds good on the farm. Mushrooms sell for 50 cents per pound ; maize for one-half cent per pound. Why? Because anybody, even a squaw, can raise maize, but only a specially skilled gar- dener can succeed in mushroom culture. Hot- house lambs bring from $6 to $10 when two months old ; a poorly bred sheep at two years of age may bring from $2 to $4. Why? The breeding and feeding of the one is easy ; of the other difficult. In 1897 the raising of potatoes was difficult. The blights, the bugs and the beetles were pres- ent in full force. Good potatoes in the middle and eastern states rose to 65 cents per bushel wholesale. The man who watched and fought intelligently secured 300 bushels per acre and a ready market ; the careless man and the man who should have been raising horses or chickens secured 30 bushels per acre and a slow market. Why ? Because unusual difficulties were pres- Profitable Crops 27 ent, and the man who was able to cope with them drew the prize of $195 per acre for his potatoes. This successful potato raiser the pre- vious year secured more than 300 bushels per acre, and sold them for 25 cents per bushel, but even at this low price they brought more than $75 per acre. If from 200 to 300 per cent profit can be secured and the limit of profit not reached by raising one of the most common products of the farm, what possibilities loom up for securing a competence from those products which require greater skill and knowledge than the raising of potatoes? Consider the crops which are supposed to give promise of securing little or no profits at the present low prices, as wheat, maize, hay and oats. One man, on land naturally below the average, has secured during the last fifteen years an average of nearly 35 bushels of wheat, and in a few cases 40 bushels per acre. The average yield for the whole United States in 1889 was a shade less than 14 bushels per acre. During the same year the average yield of oats was 28.57 bushels per acre, and hay, including such other crops as are used for forage, averaged 1.26 tons per acre. Good ^farmers secure 40 to 50 bushels of oats, and 2 to 2% tons of hay, and in propi- tious years 50 to 60 bushels of oats and 3 tons of hay per acre. (Compare Figs. 1 and 2.) These 28 The Farmstead latter yields always show large profits and lead to a competency, while the average yield usually gives no profit. If the average yield gives only a bare subsistence, what must be the condition of those who secure much less than the average ? If one man raises 35 bushels of wheat, five Fig. 1. Thirty-five-bushel wheat field (Cornell University). other men must each raise 10 bushels to secure an average yield of 14 bushels per acre. Some entire states — as, for instance, Mississippi, North Carolina and Tennessee, — have an average of 6, 6 and 9 bushels, respectively, per acre. What is the remedy? Stop raising wheat, and raise something better adapted to soil and climate, or Supply and Demand 29 go to town and sell peanuts. Some of these men who utterly fail to comprehend the laws of wheat culture may be good "coon dogs," after all. It will be said that if the yield per acre be doubled, the market will be so flooded that no one Eight-bushel wheat field, on a farm adjoining that shown in Fig. 1. will receive profits. This is the old scarecrow. No farmer can control the prices of his product. The law of supply and demand is inexorable What he may do is to improve quality, dimin- ish cost, reduce area, find the best market and the products most sought, and increase the 30 The Farmstead production from a given area. If he raises the yield from 20 to 35 bushels, while the yield of his neighbor remains at 10 bushels and prices remain low, we shall soon see a fine illustration of "the survival of the fittest." The 35 bushels will yield a fair remuneration for the work expended in production when prices are at the lowest. When they are high the profits are 200 to 300 per cent. Wheat-, for the last ten years, has averaged 84 cents per bushel in June in central New York. Allow $3 for the straw of the lower yield, and if the wheat was sold at the average price, the total income per acre would be $11.40. For the straw of the larger yield allow $6, which, added to the wheat at the average price, would give a gross income per acre of $35.40. The cost of raising and marketing an acre of wheat, including $5 for rental of land and $2 for fertilizers, may be set down at from $15 to $20 in New York. If the most successful com- pels the less successful farmer to stop raising wheat at a loss, what will the latter do with his land ? Better give it away than lose by farming it. Better abandon the farm and go to town and set up a second-hand clothing store. There is always at least a small profit in that business. In central New York a large herd of dairy cows was tested, and the owner of the herd Abandon Unprofitable Land 31 was informed that about one-fourth of his cows were quite profitable, one-half paid their board bill and a little more, and one-fourth were kept at a considerable loss. He was advised to dis- pose of the unprofitable cows. His answer was, "But what will I do for cows?" Then, to secure a competence, the crops and the land which uniformly produce loss must be abandoned. How it worries the city penny-a- liner and how it rejoices the successful farmer to see land thrown out of cultivation — "abandoned." To me nothing is so encouraging in agriculture as this lately acquired knowledge which reveals the fact that vast areas have been cleared and brought under cultivation which should have been left undisturbed, except to harvest the ma- ture trees and protect the young plants from ravages of fire and cattle. As the blackberry bushes, year by year, creep down the steep hillsides and over the rock -covered fields, one rejoices at the pioneer work these modest, hardy, tap -rooted plants are accomplishing. How wisely and well they fit the soil for a higher and more noble class of plants, and how surely in time they cover the shame and naked- ness of mother earth ! The rural population has made many serious mistakes, toiling to reclaim land which was not worth reclaiming, not worthy of an intelligent 32 The Farmstead farmer. But how could they know better? Not one college of forestry in all this great land up to 1898, and as yet but one in its infancy ! Until the last generation not a single school of agriculture, scarcely a book obtainable which might give direct help to the rural American boy and girl ! Therefore, the farmer should not be blamed for the wasteful and unscientific treatment of forest and field. All this leads to the conclusion that to secure a competence, lands of high and varied agricultural capabili- ties, lands worthy of an intelligent American, should be selected upon which to build and maintain rural homes. Quantity of farm products we have in abun- dance ; better quality is what is wanted, since quality may improve prices and widen markets. To assist in securing a competence some spe- cialization is advisable. Sometimes this has been carried so far as to work serious disaster. Many farms in western New York have been almost exclusively devoted to the raising of grapes, which, when abundant or moderately so, sold at ruinous prices. It is noticed that where only an eighth or a fourth of the farm was devoted to vines, the yield was not only pro- portionately larger but the quality better than where nearly all the land was used as a vine-^ yard. Wherever diversified agriculture was car- Diversified and Specialized Farming 33 ried on to a limited extent and plantations were restricted, the low price of grapes made no seri- ous inroads on the income. Where all the land was given up to grapes, work was intermittent, the farmer being overtasked at one season of the year and idle at another. The demoralizing effect on the farmers and their families of this army of unrestrained youths and loungers of the city, which, for a brief period, swarms in the districts ^devoted to specialized crops, as grapes, berries and hops, is marked. The baleful result of raising a single or few products in extended districts may be seen in California and the great wheat districts of the northwest. In such localities there is little or no true home life, with its duties and restraints ; men and boys are herded together like cattle, sleep where they may, and subsist as best they can. The work is hard, and from sun to sun for two or three months, when it abruptly ceases, and the workmen are left to find employment as best they may, or adopt the life and habits of the professional tramp. It is difficult to name anything more demoralizing to men, and espe- cially to boys, than intermittent labor ; and the higher the wages paid and the shorter the period of service, the more demoralizing the effect. If there were no other reason for practicing a some- what diversified agriculture, the welfare of the 34 The Farmstead workman and his family should form a suffi- cient one. Happily, many large and demoral- izing wheat ranches are being divided into small farms, upon which are being reared the roof- tree, children, fruits and flowers. To secure a competence, no more activities should be entered into than can be prosecuted with vigor and at a profit. On the other hand, too few activities tend to stagnation and degenera- tion. Mental power, like many other things, increases with legitimate use and diminishes with disuse. The farmer who simply raises and sells maize is often poor in pocket and deficient in understanding. The college graduate who at- tempts but a few easy things seldom becomes a ripe scholar. To secure a competence, the petty outgoes should be met by weekly receipts from petty products. I have known so many farmers to succeed by specializing moderately along one or two lines, while holding on to diversified agricul- ture, in part at least, that I am tempted to give a single illustration as a sample of thousands which have come under my notice. A Scotchman and his family of four little children landed in northern Indiana with three to four hundred dollars ; to this was added as much more by day labor. A farm of about one hundred and fifty acres was purchased, one hun- The Shrewd Scotchman 35 dred acres of which were adapted to wheat, corn and clover. Thirty acres were marshy pasture land ; the balance, timber. Wheat was selected as the great income crop, which was supple- mented by the sale of one to three horses yearly. The butter from a dozen cows, the chickens, ducks, and their eggs, were taken to the city once each week. The result was that at the end of the year there were no debts of subsistence to be paid. This left all the money received for the wheat and horses to be applied towards liquidating the mortgage. In a few years a large, comfortable house was built. This was followed by the purchase of another farm, and still another, until each child was provided with a home and facilities for securing a mod- est income. This shrewd Scotchman succeeded because he neglected neither little nor great things. With what pride the writer, in 1863, deposited $1,700 in bank, the product of a single wool crop ! — and the little farm of one hundred and twenty acres was not all devoted to wool -raising. If a young man can secure a loving, helpful wife, four good cows and enough land to pro- duce feed for them, with room left for an ample garden, a berry patch and a small orchard, he may consider himself rich, and if he be able and intelligent he will soon have a competence. 36 The Farmstead The farmer, of necessity, goes to the city or village once each week for supplies which cannot well be produced on the farm. He should re- turn, if possible, with more money than he had when he left home. It is not the big mortgage which was given for part of the purchase price of the farm which should make him unhappy, but the steadily increasing little charges accumu- lating on the tradesmen's ledgers until this " honest "■ farmer dreads to meet a score of his town acquaintances. The farmer who, from his well-painted cov- ered democrat wagon, sells the product of his skill and labor looks to me quite as dignified as does the merchant who sells nails and codfish, turpentine and bobbins, patent medicines and jews '-harps, none of which represents his own skill or labor. Farming will never be carried on in America by trusts or syndicates. A combine can run fifty nail factories or breweries, but not fifty farms, at a profit, because farming is too diffi- cult, requires too close supervision and frequent change of details and combinations, and new plans to meet the ever-changing conditions of climate and soil. The conditions which sur- round agriculture in America put a quietus for- ever on "bonanza farming," and tend to the rearing of ideal homes and the accumulation of Humus and Phosphoric Acid 37 modest incomes. Mining -farming on virgin, fer- tile, unobstructed areas can be successfully prosecuted only for a time. "The Red river valley native soils contain from .35 to .40 of nitrogen, while the soils which have been under cultivation ( in wheat ) for twelve to fifteen years contain from .2 to .3 of a per cent."* Another important point: When humus is taken out of the native soil as above, only .02 of a per cent of the phos- phoric acid is soluble by ordinary chemical methods, while in the native soil three or four times as much phosphoric acid is soluble and is associated with the humus Allowing that an acre of soil one foot deep weighs 1,800 tons, the native soil would contain from 12,600 to 14,400 pounds of nitrogen per acre, while the cultivated soil would contain from 7,200 to 10,800 pounds per acre. If the average amount of nitrogen in native soils ( 13,500 pounds per acre), and the average in the soil after it had been cropped twelve to fifteen years (9,000 pounds per acre), are compared, it will be seen that the soil has lost 4,500 pounds of nitrogen per acre, or more than one -third (prob- ably one-half) of the nitrogen which could well be made available, and this in less than a quar- ter of a century. *Henry Snyder, Bulls. 30, 44, Minn. Exp. Sta. See " Fertility of the Land," p. 256. 38 The Farmstead Fifteen crops of wheat of 25 bushels per acre require 433 pounds of nitrogen, or one- tenth of the amount which the soil lost during the years of cropping. This soil, under "bo- nanza farming," has lost outright nitrogen suffi- cient for 155 crops, each requiring as much nitrogen as does a crop of 25 bushels of wheat per acre. When the amount wasted on a single acre is multiplied by the acres of the vast, fertile wheat plains of the west, where "bonanza farming" is carried on, the loss of nitrogen to our country is seen to be so great as to appal the thoughtful man who looks for- ward to the generations who will want this element in the not distant future. H'appily, this "bonanza farming" has its own cure. When mining -farming reduces the yield so that profits vanish, then these great farms will be cut up into modest- sized ones, true homes will rise, intermittent labor and the tramp harvest- hand will disappear, and the last and only con- dition which tends to produce an uninstructed peasant class will cease to exist. The other great " bonanza " industry which still remains and which affects agriculture, and the land directly, is lumbering. This, like " bo- nanza" wheat farming, may be classed as a min- ing industry, carried on at the surface instead of in the bowels of the earth. Without rational Waste of Nitrogen 39 direction, restraint or control, this agricultural mining goes on until the sources from which the profits are drawn are so depleted as to be no longer profitable. There is no home or competency for the farm boys in the lumber camp or on the great wheat farm. Here the rule is to take all and return nothing. After the ax and the binder, comes the fire to com- plete the wanton destruction. The shade -giving and moisture -conserving brush, stubble and Btraw, and all living plants, are destroyed, and nothing but the mineral matter, unmixed with surface humus, remains. A blackened .waste, devoid of animal or vegetable life, is left be- hind. No homes can be reared here, no com- petence secured until nature, assisted by man in the coming years, slowly restores the cover- ing and productivity of the soil. This unwise treatment of the land must soon come to an end ; then the hardy home -builder will have op- portunity to repair, by more rational methods, some of the wanton and unnecessary waste. Is it too much to hope that before the close of another decade every state and territory will have a school of forestry, and that all national forest domains will have been brought under rational supervision and control? The future home -builders will need them, and the present owners of homes have a right to a share of 40 The Farmstead the benefits which flow from intelligently man- aged forest preserves. It is not enough to show that intelligent farming is highly remu- nerative at the present time ; provision must be made by which the children and the chil- dren's children, for all generations, may have opportunity for securing a competence from rural pursuits. Can a competence and a comfortable home be secured by the renter? If not, why not? Shall the farmer put his little capital into a home and run in debt for supplies and neces- sary equipment ; or had he better rent, and start even? This depends to a large extent upon the individual. A successful country life does not depend upon owning the land in fee simple. Here is a picture of what may be called "a country gentleman" (Fig. 3). He, his father and his grandfather, all have been renters of the same farm. He has a com- petence and an assured income. This hue and cry about renting has no terrors for those who have been renters and have found that this is often the most satisfactory way to start when capital is limited. The merchant of limited means invariably rents the building in which he does business, because it is safer and usu- ally more economical to rent than to purchase the business block. Renting vs. Ownership 41 In an old city of 12,000 inhabitants, it was found that 84 per cent of the business was car- ried on in rented rooms. The trouble in rent- ing farms in the United States lies chiefly in Fig. 3. A farmer and a renter. the fact that there are no well digested laws or old customs which help to guide the renter and rentee. A few simple laws would provide for adjusting the value of betterments removed from 42 The Farmstead or put upon the farm at any time. Long leases, with inducements to long occupancy, would give the rentee a permanent occupier. The renter has quite as good a chance of finally securing a home in fee simple as has the man who pur- chases and mortgages heavily. The possession of a valuable farm and an assured income, es- pecially in a new country, is often most surely and easily secured by renting for a series of years. Good farming pays liberal profits even on rented land. If there is failure, it is the man and not the occupation which causes it. The fault will not be "in the moon," but in ourselves if we fail or become underlings. CHAPTER III EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY ON THE FARM More and more we are coming to believe that the rural district schools offer bnt few op- portunities for educating the farmers' children. Various schemes have been recommended for providing better and more convenient educa- tional facilities. One proposition is first to improve the principal highways. This, it is thought, will make it possible to run 'buses or carriages twice daily to transport the children to and from some centrally located graded school. Such schemes are usually proposed by some one who has seldom seen a country school -house and who is totally unacquainted with the conditions which prevail in rural communities. Admitting, for the sake of comparison, that teacher and pupil in the country are not so far advanced in book -lore as they are in the city, how does it happen that the country youths are able to maintain themselves on an educational level with , the pupils of the graded schools when they meet them in the academy and college ? Is it not quite possible that the wide opportunities (43) 44 The Farmstead enjoyed by the country youth for becoming acquainted with natural objects of use and beauty are a full offset, so far as training is con- cerned, for the more systematic instruction given in the city schools ? I can but look with some degree of solicitude on the effect on civilization and on the home, of palatial hotels, and great school buildings, filled with heterogeneous masses of children, in which love, solicitude and sacrifices, each for all, have little opportunity for growth and development. The family seems to be the sacred unit of civili- zation and morality. A full and sufficient rea- son must be given for massing men, much more children, in a single great structure, thereby destroying the quiet and breaking the sacred ties of the home. What good reasons can be offered for massing children between the ages of six and twelve in an uncomfortable school- room ? Children do not study ; they learn little except when they read the lesson in the imme- diate presence of the teacher who is able to amplify and explain the lesson in hand. Send- ing these little ones to school is a relic of the primeval days, when, by reason of large families, lack of training and excessive toil of the parents, there was no other way but to make nursery maids of the school-teachers. I have a vivid recollection of those early Educational Opportunity on the Farm 45 days when I was crowded into a 16 x 20 school- house, with two score other bounding, mischiev- ous urchins, all seated on the hard side of un- backed, long-legged slab benches, which left our bare legs, for which the flies had a liking, to dangle between heaven and earth. True, all this has now been improved, and good and ap- propriate seats are usually provided, but this only ameliorates the conditions ; it does not cure them. If the parents who have lost something of their first love for their children, or who are too lazy or careless or ignorant to teach them, will go to these patent- seated school -rooms and sit for five mortal hours on one of these hard, wooden, uncushioned seats, they will no longer place their tender children in these modernized stocks. You who no longer have the hot blood and restless nervous energy of youth make long faces and complain bitterly from your well cushioned pew, if the over- earnest pastor pro- longs his sermon ten minutes beyond the custo- mary time. It may be said that many, neverthe- less, secured a primary education under these unfavorable conditions. But I did not ; I re- ceived it at my mother's knee in the old kitchen, some of it before daylight. About all I got in that old school-house were kicks and cuffs from boys who were older and stronger than I, and round shoulders from sitting through many 46 The Farmstead weary hours on backless benches, and blistered hands in punishment for my unrestrained in- terest in things in general, and in my school- mates in particular. But what has all this to do with the oppor- tunities which a farm life gives for education? It is to emphasize the need of more home train- ing, more personal attention by the parents, and a more natural and rational education of those whom it has been our responsibility to bring into existence, and upon whose shoulders will rest the weal or woe of our country. In these rural homes, children should be reared and edu- cated until they have reached the point beyond which their parents or the older children cannot carry them. The child, when only two or three years old, begins to learn handicraft, performs some little helpful act for another ; it is being taught to work. As it becomes more mature it is to do useful things ; but who thinks of keep- ing the child of eight to ten years of age at con- tinuous work for five or six hours daily! Why not carry on the child's mental education along these natural lines in the same manner as it receives its primary technical education ? I am almost persuaded that the farmers' children would be better off if the old red school -house on the dusty, treeless four corners was abandoned, and the responsibility for the Primary Education 4? education of the children up to twelve or four- teen years of age was thrown upon the parents. As it is, the parents who have received a fairly good primary education become rusty and illit- erate simply from non-use of the education which they had when they left the schools. If the unexcelled opportunities which rural life offers for securing a primary education were only utilized, there would be fewer country youths hating even the sight of that red school -house which has received such honorable mention. It has been glorified in every Fourth of July ora- tion, but it still remains not only unevolution- ized but even degenerated. If you ever imagined that the best provision has been made for teaching the little ones, spend a day in one of these school -houses. Take some book with you that is as abstract and useless to you as the children believe their books to be to them, and make the attempt to memorize a single page, or essay to write a composition on " The Immortality of the Soul," or on " The Wisdom of Annexing the South Sea Islands." Meantime, classes are reciting in fal- setto voices ; the teacher is giving many admoni- tions and making dire threats ; a festive bum- blebee has found its way through the open win- dow and makes as much commotion among the timid girls as a mouse at a tea-party. Now a 48 The Farmstead dog barks, and the boys know that Bowser has safely treed a squirrel. Before you have had time to collect your thoughts a lusty farm boy, perched on a creaking wain, whooping loudly to his team, goes rattling by. Stay a week and finish your composition, and see how fast your children are securing disjointed fractions of an education. A half- hour of continuous, quiet, in- tensified study at home is worth more than a day in many a school -room where little muddy driblets of knowledge are being doled out to the children. You may say that you have no time to teach children. Business is too pressing, and you are already overworked. You should have thought of that sooner, and been wholly selfish and saved the money and time you spent to persuade that beautiful maiden to join you and help perform the duties and functions of life. You will certainly agree that home education is the best, the ideal education. For a child, an hour or two of study and recreation a day, an equal time employed in useful work, and the rest of the day spent in picking up fun and facts, both of which may be found in abundance on the old farm, is the natural way to secure a broad primary foundation, upon which to rest a liberal education. After the child has reached the age of ten or twelve and has had careful home training, Preserve the Home Life 49 what provision can be made for continuing its education during the next four to six years ? Two or more districts might be joined to form one, for graded school purposes. On every farm is, or should be, a spare horse and a light wagon ; a few dollars would provide a stable near the school building. Such an arrangement would permit the children to drive to and from the central school, although the distance might be two or three miles. All this means that the children will be around the family fireside in the evening instead of on the street, as is too fre- quently the case when they are sent to the vil- lage or city school and remain during the week. All this keeps the boys and girls in sympathy and healthful touch with home life and their parents, until character has been strengthened by age and knowledge. Here, in these country and village graded schools, the home life, with its restraints and duties, is preserved. Only the mentally strong or the courageous and aspiring will seek the halls of higher learning, from which, if they tend to go astray or neglect their work, they are quickly returned to the bosom of their families. If the central graded school is impracticable in some cases, then a few families might join and employ a private instructor ; this would be far cheaper and more satisfactory than to send the children away from home. 50 The Farmstead It is not so much lack of facilities as a lack of an appreciation of the true value of an edu- cation which debars the country youth from securing even a wholesome and logical primary education. The value of an education for citi- zenship must be placed first, and its value as a money- making power second. Now the first question that is usually asked is, Will an educa- tion help to secure a position or to make money ? The question, Will an education help to a nobler citizenship 1 is not even thought of. We shall have no evolution in rural training until the parents secure a clearer conception of the true value of an education. Evolution along educational lines has already begun, and it is not difficult to see many bene- ficial effects of the changed methods. M. Deinolins' recent book has this to say : " ' It is useless to deny the superiority of the Anglo- Saxons. We may be vexed by this superiority, but the fact remains, despite our vexation.' . . . . Considering the superiority conclu- sively proved, the author proceeds to search for the cause of this superiority. He finds the se- cret of this irresistible power of the Anglo-Saxon world in the education of its youth, in the direction given to studies, to the spirit which reigns in the school. The English and the people of the United States have perceived that the needs of Educational Opportunity on the Farm 51 the time require that youth should be trained to become practical, energetic men, and not public functionaries or pure men of letters, who know life only from what they learn in books. M. De- molins has personally studied with care some prominent English schools. In these he found the school buildings, not as in France, immense struc- tures with the aspect of a barrack or a prison, but the pupils were distributed among cottages, in which efforts were made to give the place the ap- pearance of a home. They were not surrounded by high walls, but there was an abundance of air and light and space and verdure. In place of the odious refectories of the French colleges, the dining- room was like that of a family, and the professors and director of the school, with his wife and daughters, sat at table with the pupils."* Here is seen the beginning of better methods in primary education. In the rural districts of America, this system needs but little modifica- tion to fit it to the rural home. All else must yield to the inborn rights of the children. If that Brussels carpet which adorns the dark and unused parlor must be pulled up and some of the worst pictures relegated to the garret, in order that provision for a school -room for the children of the family or for those of the im- mediate neighborhood may be made, then pull ♦Editorial, « Literary Digest," July 2, 1898. 52 The Farmstead it up. Receive the visitor in the sitting-room or on the veranda, and let the neighborly chat be where there is " air, and light, and space, and verdure." Reduce the above picture of an English school to suit environment, and we have the family as a unit ; the mother and her companion as teach- ers ; and we shall have not only the appearance of home, but a true home, where duty com- mands and love obeys. This is no far-fetched picture ; it is one drawn from many observed instances of these farm home schools. The youths on the farm have a right to a liberal education if they desire it ; they own the earth, and why should they not have the best it affords if they make good use of what the earth and all that therein is has to offer. When we come to the higher education, there are good and sufficient reasons why pupils should be massed. At the college, expensive and rare appliances, great laboratories and mu- seums, ample and expensive libraries, and dis- tinguished and able teachers, must be provided. Then, too, the pupils of the college have arrived at that period of maturity which gives them a fair degree of self-restraint and discretion. Connected, as I have been for more than a quarter of a century, with college life, I have had many opportunities to observe the fresh- The Down -hill Road 53 ness, vigor and purity of many of the country lads and lasses who come directly from the healthy, solid home instruction of their parents. I am well aware that this chapter will not revolutionize rural primary education. I do not want it to do so. Revolution destroys ; evolution builds. But if these brief words of one who received until near manhood the thoughtful, loving home training of a mother, who said, " I received a better education than my parents did, and, come what will, I determine that my children shall have better opportunities for se- curing an education than I had," shall persuade some that the farm home is the natural, the appointed place for training children until they have passed the critical mental and physical period of life, I shall be content. CHAPTER IV SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF FARMS In selecting a farm, many things should be considered. One purchaser may lay stress on the quality or productivity of the land, another on its location as to market, another as to the outlook or scenery, and another as to the society in the immediate locality. Some would be unhappy if far removed from city or town, while others delight in many broad acres far removed from the busy crowd. All these different phases of the subject, with many others, should be considered before the pur- chase is made. It is seldom that a farm can be secured which fulfils all desirable condi- tions ; therefore, such choice should be made as will most fully meet the desires and tastes of the purchaser. Some farms are purchased with little or no thought of their producing a livelihood, while others are selected largely for the purpose of securing profits in their cultivation, and others are bought because they are expected to furnish safe and profitable investments. It is evident (54) Health and Morality 55 that no specific or even general rnle can be formulated which will be applicable to all pur- chasers, since tastes, training, needs and desires of the purchaser vary widely ; nevertheless, a discussion of the subject may be profitable. Those who secure their income and profits by agriculture alone should lay stress on four things; viz., healthfulness, environment, quality of land, and water supply. Without health, life often becomes a burden ; therefore, climatic conditions, soil and surround- ings, so far as they relate to physical and mental vigor, should be considered first. But health and vigor are not all, for if the moral, intellectual and social conditions of the people in the neighborhood are undesirable, the chil- dren may take the road which leads towards semi -barbarism. This road is open to all, in city and country, but parents should avoid thrusting their children into it. Church, and so- cial congenial and God-fearing associates should be accessible to the growing family. Children are and must be active, physically and mentally, if they are to grow straight; and if provisions are not made for directing their energies into proper channels, they are likely to find improper ones. Wherever the farmer sows not a full abundance of good seeds, weeds are certain to spring up. The farm must provide a fair and liberal in- 56 The Farmstead come, because want brings lack of true pride, breeds carelessness, even hatred of others, filches self-respect and courage. Therefore, if profits are desired, good land, land of wide agricultural capabilities, should be selected. The greater variety of crops the land is capable of produc- ing and the more varieties the farmer raises, provided he does not exceed his mental and executive capabilities, the better will be his education and training. Frequently the purchaser has too little means, and feels that he must secure cheap lands, which too often are situated far from the rail- way markets and centers of activity. In such a case, he places himself outside the activities of the towns, which are extremely helpful to him if he be wise enough to choose the good and re- fuse the evil which they offer. Of course, much depends on the good sense of the parents and the inheritance and training of the children as to how much they will imbibe of that which is good and how much they will refuse of that which is evil. Children cannot be placed entirely beyond evil influences, but they can be pre- vented from becoming too familiar with them. "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ; Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, We first endure, then pity, then embrace." Good Water Supply 57 Already something has been said with regard to an abundant supply of water, but it may not be out of plaee to emphasize the necessity of se- curing healthful water for household purposes. Modern science has revealed the fact that a large number of diseases are introduced into the system by means of drinking water (see Chapter XII ) . All drinking water may be boiled ; it may be said that it should be, for in too many cases water that appears limpid and pure, drawn from sources which have every appearance of being uncontaminated, is not only dangerous but sometimes deadly. Careful physicians recom- mend that all water be filtered, but so many of the filters are imperfect and are so badly neglected that there is no certainty that filtered water is entirely safe ; therefore, it may be said that the only safe way is to boil all drinking water. As the streams and soil become more and more contaminated by unsanitary condi- tions, it is only in rare cases that safe water can be secured naturally. When wells or streams become low, or when streams are quickly flushed by heavy rains, invariably there is danger that the water which they contain may be impure. Care should be taken to pro- vide an abundance of water, and that used for household purposes should be treated in such manner as will make it entirely healthful. 58 The Farmstead Having discussed the subject from four lead- ing standpoints, those of less importance may be taken up. It is usually not wise to purchase a farm, however well it may fulfil the require- ments of healthful ness, desirable environment and productivity, if the lands by which it is surrounded are poor, since man, in one respect, is like the tree toad, which partakes largely of the color of the thing to which it adheres. The French have a proverb which runs in this wise: " Tell me where you live, and I will tell you your name." Translated into modern thought, it would read : " Tell me your environment, ,and I will tell you your character." Beauty of natural scenery may not be entirely ignored, although utility, the dollar, must be kept prominently in view. One can afford to economize in the living expenses in many ways not dreamed of by those who load the farm table with a superabundance of good things, if it be necessary to do so, to secure beautiful surroundings. It may be only a question of choice between a moderate subsistence and a reposeful environment, or an overloaded table with uninspiring surroundings. Natural as well as artificial beauty and pleasurable environment have their values. A certain lot on one street sells for $1,000, another one on the same street for $500. They are both within easy reach of The Water Supply 59 the business center, on the same street- car line, of the same size, and have the same elevation. Why the difference in price? Because of envi- ronment. A seat in the dress circle at the theater costs a dollar, one in the peanut gallery ten cents. The play can be seen as well with a glass in the cheap seat as in the more ex- pensive one. Then environment has value, as well as land and buildings. The value of the farm may be greatly modi- fied by the improvements upon it. It is well to ask, Is the house well located? May it not have to be virtually rebuilt before it is at all satisfactory! Will it be necessary to move and repair barns before they are at all suited to their purposes! The improvements may be too extended for the needs of the purchaser. Some farms are overloaded with buildings ( Fig. 4 ) ; some have badly arranged, unsightly buildings, too good to destroy and too ugly and unhandy for either economy or pleasure. Farm buildings are not a direct source of income and are ex- pensive to keep in repair ; therefore, there would better be a slight deficiency of them than an ill arranged surplus. All other permanent im- provements, such as orchards, plantations, fences, and the like, should be carefully considered. A good bearing orchard of only a few acres may serve to furnish enough profit each year to liq- 60 The Farmstead uidate taxes and interest charges. The orchard may be cheaper at $500 per acre than the bal- ance of the farm is at $75 per acre, or it may be only an incumbrance of good land. Is the farm naturally or artificially drained? If not, Fig. 4. Too many buildings for eighty acres of land. will $35 per acre have to be spent in thorough draining before the land is really satisfactory? If not drained, will it bring constant disappoint- ment? Fences, lanes and the necessity for them, the amount and location of inferior land as pas- ture land, the kind of weeds about the farm, as Suitable Land 61 well as the amount, kind and location of timber, should be considered. Land devoted to market -gardening should be near the market town where the perishable prod- ucts are to be sold. Vegetables should reach the market early in their season in a fresh and presentable condition and cheaply, if satisfactory profits are- desired. Then land which can be tilled early (warm or sandy land) , though it may contain a comparatively small amount of natural plant- food, will be more satisfactory than rich, cold land situated farther from the market. An acre of poor, sandy land near the market may be worth, to the gardener, three or four times as much as an acre of the more dis- tant fertile upland. Near the town, manures, which are so neces- sary to force many market -garden products, can be procured cheaply and in abundance. The added distance of even one or two miles from the switch or shipping station may have an im- portant effect on profits. Land situated far from market may well be devoted to stock- raising and such other products as may be marketed infrequently or at leisure. As yet, agricultural methods in America are so new that they have not adjusted themselves to the grow- ing cities, nor have specialized crops found their appropriate localities. Too often are seen truck 62 The Farmstead farms located half a score of miles from the city, and the meat -producing farms within sight of it. As the country becomes older, the varied activities in agriculture will fit themselves into their appropriate localities, as they have already done in many parts of Europe. The dairyman of the Channel islands has long since learned that the piebald cattle of the poulders are not suited to his wants, and the boer of the low- land knows that the meek -eyed, thin-skinned Jersey is not best adapted to his cold, windy country and wet pastures. Cost of tillage should be considered when valuing land. When produced on friable land, crops may be secured at much less cost than on tenacious clay. On the other hand, while sandy soils are the most easily cultivated, they are ever demanding more plant -food, and hence are not well adapted to grass or general agri- culture, as the expense of keeping them pro- ductive is usually so great as to preclude profits. Except in special cases, as in truck farming, it is cheaper to purchase natural plant -food in the soil than artificial fertility. One acre of land may have potential plant -food sufficient under superior tillage for one hundred crops, while another unaided will yield but half as many, and yet the two pieces of land are often priced at the same figure. In other words, land Character of Roads 63 of high productive power is usually cheaper than land of low productive power. A good farm may be cheaper at $50 per acre than a poor one as a gift. Last, but not least, is the road to the farm. Every free-born American demands a public highway in front of his house ; if farms are small there must then be a highway about every mile, or, at most, every two miles. This leads to cutting up the country into en- larged checkerboards, to a multiplication of highways so great that none of them can be kept passably good without overtaxing the land which adjoins them. On account of the con- tour of the land over which they pass, some roads are extremely difficult and are well de- scribed by the man who, when asked how far it was from a certain town to another one, answered : " Thirty miles, and it's up hill both ways." As I write this I look out upon a washed clay road which stretches up and on towards the horizon for six weary miles, so steep that the team must maintain a walk for the whole distance in ascending or descending. What is land worth at the other end of this road, as compared with that which lies six miles away in the other direction, along a smooth, level pike? Every grown farm boy should have a good horse and a good road upon which to 64 The Farmstead drive, if he be worthy of such a noble animal as the horse. When he starts for himself let him locate on a good road. There are always enough persons who are not thankful for advice, especially if it be in a book, who are looking for cheap land at the end of the hilly ^oad. Many farms are purchased by young men just starting out in life before judgment has been developed by experience, while men of mature years take in the whole problem, or rather series of problems, easily and at once. The novice would do well to make a list of the topics enumerated above, and add to them such others as appeal to his tastes or condi- tions and then study them, one at a time ; in fact, there is nothing left for the young man to do but to make out a score -card upon which he records his judgment in numbers as he in- vestigates each phase of the difficult problem of selecting a farm. CHAPTER V THE RELATION OF THE FARMER TO THE LAWYER Doubtless more than one reader will be as- tonished, perhaps even horrified, to think that the writer should seriously suggest that there ought to be any relation whatever between the farmer and the lawyer. It has come to be generally believed by many farmers that lawyers are at best a necessary evil, which it is well to avoid if possible ; but, strange as it may appear, this very feeling is responsible for much of the litigation, with its attendant loss and sometimes ruin, in which too many farmers have been engaged. It is not the purpose of this short chapter to treat of the subject of law, or to try to lay down any rules to be blindly followed in legal matters. An old and learned lawyer, who had all his life been engaged in a country practice, once told me that the most prolific sources of litigation were alleged text -books of law, bearing such alluring and seductive titles as " Every Man his own Lawyer," or " The Farmer's own Law Book." E (65) 66 The Farmstead Several years ago, a wealthy manufacturer of the state of New York sent a bright son to a law school, to help prepare him for a business career. At the end of his course the proud father was present at commence- ment, and, in the course of conversation with his son, said : " Well, John, I suppose you have learned a great deal." John answered, " I have learned one thing which I think is of value ; and that is, if any legal matter comes up in the course of my business, to consult the very best lawyer I can find." That young man had really learned something worth far more than the cost of his course in the college of law. There is, perhaps, no other of the so-called learned professions which is so exacting and which requires more devotion and study for its mastery. Some of the brightest men in this country have devoted a lifetime to the study and practice of law, only to have just entered its broad field as they have been compelled to lay down their work. How futile, then, would be the attempt to make every man his own lawyer ! The real purpose of this chapter is to open the eyes of the farmer to the necessity of a closer relationship between himself and the lawyer,— the family lawyer, if you please, hav- ing his confidence to the same extent as that of the family doctor. The Title to the Farm 67 Most farmers desire a comfortable and a beautiful home, and it is to aid such that this book is written. Such a farmer would doubt- less consult a builder or an architect as to the foundation, walls, plan and materials of the home to be constructed, and he would act wisely ; but how many would think so far as to consult" a lawyer as to the very foundation upon which his home and his future happy occupancy of it rest: the title to the farm. Too many times he is satisfied with the services of the village solons, — the shoemaker who is a notary public, the justice of the peace, or the pettifogger who daily overrules the supreme court or the court of appeals. Years after he has purchased his farm, he finds, perhaps, that some man has given a deed whose wife has not signed, and upon the death of the woman's husband our farmer friend is confronted with a law suit ; and he finds that this wife, who did not sign the deed, is entitled to dower in his farm, the use of one -third of its value at the time her husband gave the deed, for life. Such cases are frequent, and might easily be pre- vented by submitting an abstract of the title to a lawyer at a cost of $5 or less. The flaw in the title may be a mortgage or judgment, or a failure of all the heirs of a deceased person, somewhere along the chain of title, to join in 68 The Farmstead the deed ; all of which might be overlooked by the ordinary business man, and yet be readily detected by a lawyer. Some day the farmer may be annoyed by the encroachment of a neighbor upon his farm, and, when in the midst of a litigation, find that the description of his farm is so defective that there is no relief. I have in my possession a deed of a valuable farm containing this descrip- tion : " Beginning on the road at the south end of a pile of four -foot wood ; run- ning thence westwardly to a black cherry tree, thence northerly to a stake, thence easterly to a pine stump in the center of the road, and thence southerly to the place of beginning, con- taining 100 acres, more or less." For fifty years this description has been copied, a score of times, by the various justices of the peace and notaries public of the neighboring hamlet, but fortunately, however, it has never devolved upon the owners to establish the boundaries of that farm. The first lawyer who got hold of this particular deed insisted upon such a de- scription as would be tangible and certain. Not many years ago a mortgage on a valuable farm in Tompkins county, X. Y., was fore- closed, and during the foreclosure it was dis- covered that this mortgage covered about fifty acres of Cayuga lake, and what had been sup- Titles and Abstracts 69 posed to be a valuable mortgage was depreci- ated one -half by reason of the neglect and incompetence of the country conveyancer. So, too, there are questions as to line fences, water courses, rights of way, encroachment upon the highway, and an innumerable train of threatening evils, continually arising, any one of which, if neglected or referred to the many wiseacres common to every community, may lead to costly litigation, or even to the loss of the farm itself. A bit of counsel at the right time, which is when the matter first appears, will pre- vent, at trifling cost, all the attendant evils of a law suit. Such instances are very common in the ex- perience of every lawyer who enjoys even a moderate country practice ; and it is an alarm- ing fact that perhaps fifty per cent of the titles to all the farms, especially in the older states, have flaws more or less serious, any one of which is a microbe of trouble, liable to assert itself when least expected. This being so, the general and inflexible rule should ever prevail, never to take a deed of property without an abstract of title which has been examined by a competent attorney. The so-called maxims of law, often repeated and distorted, especially in farming communities, are extremely dangerous to follow. They may have some foundation in 70 The Farmstead fact, but as almost all rules of law have their exceptions, and as no one not versed in the law is competent to pass upon them, they should never be blindly followed by a layman. To illustrate this point : Not long ago a prosperous farmer, relying upon the oft -repeated assertion that twenty years of peaceable posses- sion gave title, became involved in a lawsuit with the town over a fence which had been built in the highway adjacent to his farm. He was an astonished man when the lawyer whom he consulted told him that possession for a thousand years of the land claimed would not give him title as against the public. It seems almost incredible that a farmer, who will drive his horse for miles to have him shod by an expert, or who will summon a veterina- rian to treat a sick cow, will be satisfied to consult what someone has brightly termed a necessity lawyer, — because necessity knows no law, — upon matters affecting his farm, his home, or his competence, rather than the experienced lawyer. The cow might be replaced for forty or fifty dollars if a mistake was made, but the farm, the competence, have cost a lifetime of labor. Perhaps the most striking example of neglect on the part of the farmer is in regard to the disposal of the fruits of his life-work. It is Sources of Litigation 71 true that anybody can draw a will, and yet the fact that men and women allow anybody to draw their wills is productive of more fat fees than arise from any other source. Not long ago an acquaintance, who did not realize the truth of the old adage that " a little knowledge is a dangerous thing," drew his own will, and, being childless, sought to leave his property to his wife, who had been the partner of his labors in a long life of toil. The law of the state of New York requires two witnesses to a will. He procured only one, and upon his death the property, which husband and wife had with so much toil secured, was for the most part scat- tered among distant relatives, almost strangers, because he was afraid of lawyers and their fees. In all the varied business which a farmer will meet, — the giving of notes, mortgages, etc., or, better, the taking of mortgages, bills of sale, and promissory notes, — it is well to remember that different conditions of fact make necessary different interpretations of the law, and that it is usually unsafe to follow a neighborhood prece- dent. Oftentimes you may be called upon to transact business where it is not convenient to consult a lawyer. In such cases, and in all transactions of any magnitude or possible im- portance, all talk, or the essence of it, should be reduced to writing. Then it cannot get away 72 The Farmstead or be distorted or forgotten, and is in good shape to submit, at the first opportunity, to your lawyer, who, if an error has been made, can, while the matter is fresh, more easily cor- rect it. Remember that a contract is simply a meeting of the minds of the contracting parties, and the best drawn contract possible is one that states, in language simple and concise, what each means as expressed by word of mouth. Most of the litigation so much feared by the farmer is due to the farmer himself and his neglect to seek an ounce of preventive. It is true that there are rascally lawyers ; so, too, there are dishonest men in every trade, occupa- tion or profession, but they are generally easily located. If this chapter shall lead the farmer to feel that his business is farming, that " a jack-at- all- trades is master of none," and that the law, justly interpreted and enforced by those who know it thoroughly and well, is to be the foundation of his success, the guarantee of his home through life, and the channel of its proper disposal after death, then it has not been written in vain. Remember that the province of the true lawyer is to keep his client out of trouble, rather than to get him out of trouble. An honest lawyer, of whom, thank Heaven, there are very many, notwithstanding the popu- The Lawyer Your Friend 73 lar prejudice of those who have suffered from litigation, will always try to steer you clear of litigation and loss. In conclusion, then, always consult a lawyer in matters affecting your farm or property. The average fees of a lifetime will not exceed fifty dollars, and oftentimes valuable advice will be given free. Select one in whom you have con- fidence, and stick to him. Become his friend, and let the relation be one of mutual confi- dence. Do not neglect to ask him a question because you fear he will think you dumb; he probably knows less about farming than you do about law. He will need your advice and influence in minor matters as much as you need his. Call on him when you are in town, and he will be glad to see you. Very often he will answer your question gratis. When he charges you what may seem a large fee, remember that you are paying for skilled labor, and that you are entitled to expend as much for the possible welfare and happiness of your family as you expend upon the choice stock in your stables. Farmers, more than any other class of men, perhaps, are prone to neglect legal matters, or place them in incompetent hands. CHAPTER VI LOCATING THE HOUSE Since more than three -fourths of the life of the farmer and his family are spent in sight of home, more than one -half of life in the house, and more than one -fourth in bed, the house, the place where they live, should receive most care- ful attention. Having secured sufficient land to maintain a home, and having made certain that these lands are productive and profitable, a problem is presented in locating and building the house which demands a high degree of in- telligence, long, painstaking study, and a good understanding of what constitutes fitness, beauty and durability. Life in the country gives one the idea of re- pose, of strength and breadth, of largeness, of solidity and durability, of healthy, symmetrical, solid development. Things which are evanes- cent, unreal, shoddy; things which are simply for show or vulgar display ; things which have the appearance of aping that which may be appropriate under different conditions, but are totally out of place in rural life, must be (74) Principles of Ventilation 75 avoided if utility, natural beauty and comfort, economy and repose are to be secured. The pioneer in the wooded districts built the home in some sequestered nook or valley at the base of the hill or table land, where the spring or the stream issued from the wood -covered heights. The rural house of the pioneer allowed free circulation of the frosty air ; the problem of ventilation they solved without knowing it. Unwittingly they adopted the correct principle ; viz., ventilation by many small, gentle streams of air instead of by a few large openings, which create dangerous drafts. It must be admitted that our forefathers overdid the ventilation in most cases, and rheumatism and chilblains were the result; but the principle was correct. Now the spring has dried up, the water from the deforested hills comes rushing to the low- lands until the streams overflow their banks, and these and other changed conditions indicate that the future farmsteads should be erected on higher land, on the slopes of the hills. From the one extreme we have gone, in some cases, to the other, and the home has been built on the very apex of some lofty hill. Such locations may be well adapted for summer residences, where little or no farming is carried on, but are not suitable for the farm home. Now that the house is constructed by more 76 The Farmstead skilled workmen than formerly, and out of bet- ter material, there is little need of locating the home in the sheltered nook, except possibly in the extreme north, or on plains subject to tor- nadoes. The object in locating the house on somewhat elevated lands is fourfold. First, air drainage. In deep, crooked, narrow valleys the air is pocketed, especially at night, and the damp, cold air settles in the lowest land as cer- tainly as water finds the low -lying pool. In these pockets between the hills, frosts come early and remain late. While traveling in western North Carolina in the late summer and fall, I could not but observe how every little break in the hillside and every narrow valley was filled at sunrise, to the crest of the adjoining hill, with a dense fog. Slowly the sun, as it approached the zenith, dissipated the fog, but the narrow valleys were often free from fog for only a few hours each day. Here the home might be situated well up the moun- tain side, as shown at the right in Fig. 5. In a little pocket about twenty feet deep, formed by hills, with a road embankment at its mouth, fruits failed, although they flourished on the adjoining land, where there was good air drainage (Fig. 6). If fruits do not thrive on these undrained areas, the natural conclusion is that the children will not. It is found Unhealthy Locations 11 that the upper stories of city buildings are healthier than the lower ones, and that the ground floor is the most unhealthy of all. This is the only objection to a one -story house. On Fig. 5. A house in the bottom of the valley and one on the mountain side. the level prairies little opportunity is offered for locating the house above the level of the sur- rounding country. Fortunately, many of the prairies are undulating, and furnish most beau- tiful locations for country homes. Much may be 78 The Farmstead done, even in the level country, to overcome the disadvantages of the site by placing the cellar of the house only two or three feet in the ground and grading up to within a short distance of the top of the wall. A pool or Fig. 6. A frosty pocket. two, or a miniature lake near the barns, and skilful planting of trees will lend a diversity and charm well worth the attention and time given to them. A pool may be made by scooping a place in hard earth or by damming a stream (Fig. 7). If no water is allowed to flow over the dam and it is raised some two feet above the overflows, it will serve every purpose as well as an expen- sive grout or stone structure. It will be noticed in the picture that provision has been made by Lakes and Pools 79 digging shallow ditches on the right and left for carrying off the surplus water when the minia- ture lake is full. In constructing the dam, a trench two feet wide, at right angles to the stream, should be dug to the depth of one foot, Fig. 7. A useful pond. or until solid ground, unmixed with vegetable matter, is reached. Fill the trench with clayey earth which is free from humus, which will pre- vent the dam from leaking at the bottom where it meets the natural soil. The stream which feeds the lake or pond should be small, and need not be perennial if the dam is raised as high as it should be. If the water is dammed back to the depth of twelve to fourteen feet, and the banks of the pond are rather steep (A, Fig. 7), a cool, useful miniature lake will 80 The Farmstead be formed, and not an unsightly marsh, during the dry months of summer. Dryish, gravelly soil and subsoil is to be much preferred as a site for a house to clayey or dark, damp soil which contains much humus. If the ideal soil cannot be secured, then thorough drainage should be provided. In locating on a gentle declivity, there is a constant tendency for water to penetrate the wall next the hillside or to pass under the wall and appear in the bottom of the cellar. Unless this can certainly be pre- vented, another location had better be selected. The house should be situated on somewhat elevated ground, to promote both surface and house drainage. If it is the purpose to intro- duce into the house more water than has been furnished heretofore, then full provision should be made for carrying all waste water and fecal matter to a safe distance from the house, and to do this beyond a perad venture, sufficient fall must be secured to give permanency to the work and an unobstructed outlet. One of the objections urged against a country home is that it is "too quiet," too much shut up from the outside world. This, in part, is true. It detracts much from the enjoyment and beauty of the country home if vision is shut in to a few acres just about the house. The Amer- ican farmer is not content to live under the Vistas and Landscape 81 conditions which delight the Transvaal Dntch farmer, so isolated that he cannot see the smoke from his neighbor's chimney nor hear the bark of his neighbor's dog. When visiting the home of the' Hon. Edwin Morgan, I fonnd that he was having three large trees cut down. It seemed to the uninstructed like vandalism. When asked the reason for sac- rificing these noble trees, nourished and tended for half a century, he answered: "I have many more trees, but I have but one lake — Cayuga — and I must have vistas through which I can watch the white sail, the crested waves, the ever- changing colors of the water as the winds open vistas in the fleecy clouds. I love the trees not less, but the soft reflection of the moonbeams on the rippling wave more, and so the trees must give way." The outlook from the vine -covered veranda should be broad and extended. If possible, the hill and dale, the stream and wood, neighbors' houses nestled in plantations of trees and shrubs, all should be in sight. As life advances, I see more and more clearly the effect of that noble lake, its now boisterous now placid sur- face of the rippling water which laved the stony beach. I see its effect on that "tow- headed 77 lad who at one time breasted the waves, at another sat dreamily casting pebbles into the clear ex- 11136 82 The Farmstead panse, wondering what life had in store, what the great unknown world offered for the nut- brown, high- tempered, crude country boy. Then plant the country home where nature in her happiest moods has showered her richest gifts ! But beauty loses much of its charm where healthy vigor gives not the power to appreciate and enjoy it. So the house should be located on a healthy eminence. But it is not easy to find a location which shall combine convenience, beauty, air and water drainage, and healthfulness all in the highest degree. In the case of the farmer, convenience as to carrying on the vari- ous operations of the farm and healthfulness are paramount. Drainage may be artificially improved, vistas opened, miniature lakes con- structed, and surroundings made more beautiful. The farm and its equipment is the workshop, and must be convenient in all its appointments, or much energy is spent for naught ; health must be maintained at the highest, or work may become but toil and drudgery. In locating a house, its relation to the size of the farm, its productiveness and agricultural capabilities should be considered. In locating the site, two places should be carefully avoided: First, at the end of a long lane in the middle of the farm. It may be said that the buildings form the natural nucleus in and around which Conditions Affecting Location 83 the work centers, and therefore they should be placed near the middle of the estate. But the work carried on in the fields forms but a small part of the farmer's activities. He must ever, in these modern times, be in touch with the school, the church, the post office, the rail- way, the niarket, and his neighbors. When an infrequent call is made at the end of this long lane, the children appear like frightened deer as they seek shelter in the shrubbery or behind the corner of a building, and the more the in- herited timidity and reserve, the wilder they appear. The other location to be avoided is within a few feet of the highway. Such locations are only admissible in the city, where land sells by the square foot. What fortunes are sometimes spent in the city to secure some amplitude of space between the dusty, noisy street and the residence ! What dignity and repose an ample, well kept house-yard gives to even a plain, modest house ! The effect of the mistake of locating the house too close to the highway is often accentuated by locating the barns on the other side and immediately upon the highway, and in front of the house. The location of the house, as to the highway, should be governed, in part, by the size and productive power of the farm. If ample acres and means are available, 84 The Farmstead then the grounds should be ample ; if limited, the grounds should be made to correspond. In moderate-sized holdings, a clear space of from 100 to 200 feet between the house and the highway, and width equal to or exceeding the length, will give room for a few shade trees and an ample grass plat. The site should be either suited to the house or the house to the site. Therefore, the character of the proposed house and the site should be considered at the same time. One location may be suited to a one- story, another to a two -story house. No loca- tion is suited to a story-and-a-half house. It may be said that on most farms the house is already located, and has grouped around it plantations and barns. In many cases it would be inexpedient to change the site of the house, as this would necessitate many changes of out- buildings and other permanent improvements. But if a careful inspection is made of farm- steads, it will appear that many of the houses are in need of repairs and additions, and that the cost of making them would be but slightly increased if either the house or the outbuildings were removed to a more desirable site. In the great majority of cases, the old barns should be gathered together into one structure, or into two at most, and adapted to the needs of modern agriculture (as will be explained in a subse- Mortgages and Old Houses 85 quent chapter). All changes presuppose well matured plans and long and careful study of problems which will have to be solved if the location of the house or barn is changed. The scope, and particularly the cost, of the changes should be known approximately before the execution of the plan begins. " For which of you, intending to build a tower, sitteth not down and counteth the cost, whether he have sufficient to finish it? Lest haply after he hath laid the foundation, and is not able to finish it, all that behold it begin to mock him, saying, this man began to build and was not able to finish." Far better live in the old house, with its inconveniences, and get the greatest possible happiness out of the ancient structure, than to build a new one and cover it with shining paints of many colors and a mortgage which sticks longer than the paints. Some of these old farm houses embody many beautiful and reposeful characteristics, are well located, and need only slight modifications to make them fit the site as nicely as a bird fits its nest. If thought can be awakened as to the possibilities of these neglected homes and some information imparted as to their treatment, or, in other words, if the eyes and understand- ing can be trained to take in the fundamental principles of beauty, dignity, fitness, and repose, 86 The Farmstead we shall soon see fewer architectural monstrosi- ties. That there are not more is a wonder. What lad or lass has ever had the slightest instruction by teacher in rural or city school along the lines of fitness, beauty, and health- fulness of sites for country homes ? The few youths who reach the institutions of higher learning are scarcely better off. Some of these are taught to see the beauties and wonders of nature through a microscope, and, in rare cases, one may be taught to observe the lines of symmetry and form as exhibited in a poor plaster cast of some mythological Roman war- rior; but as for any instruction which leads directly to a broad understanding or keen ap- preciation of nature in her broader, happier, and grander aspects, it is painfully conspicuous by its absence. So, is it any wonder that the farmer is deficient in appreciation of the fitness and beauty of the tree -clad, gently rolling plateau for a home site, when the "liberally" educated fail to see the innumerable beauty- spots which cover the face of nature? CHAPTER VII PLANNING BUBAL BUILDINGS The farm house is not what is called a " paying investment. " It is not a direct source of income ; neither can the other rural build- ings be said to produce a direct income. Gen- erally speaking, the farm house can fulfil but four purposes if properly planned and well con- structed : the house may serve to keep the family warm in cold weather, cool in hot weather, dry in wet weather, and to gratify a love for the beautiful. Since the farm house as a paying investment is usually a failure, if it does not supply the wants of the household and fulfil its object, it becomes a failure indeed. The first great mistake which the prosperous farmer usually makes is to invest too much money in expensive, hastily planned buildings. The house should be built to serve its inmates ; too often the inmates become the servants of the house. A farmer's wife cannot well afford to devote one room in the overcrowded house to the storage of expensive, useless upholstery and bric-a-brac, nor time to keep them presentable and in order (87) 88 The Farmstead The debt incurred for a part of the purchase price of the farm forbids the employment of help to keep in order this home museum of things useful and beautiful, and things useless and ugly. If plainness, durability, and natural beauty in parlor, sitting-room and chamber would only become fashionable, what a burden would be removed from the shoulders of house- wives, both in country and city ! The time is at hand when health and intelligence should count for more among American women than show and the possession of a miniature uphol- stery shop. The furnishings of the rooms should minister to the comfort of their owner, and not tend to make life burdensome. Not infrequently farmers of energy and ability become possessed of more than a compe- tence near the close of life. Having lived in somewhat restricted circumstances, they think to make the close of life more comfortable and luxurious. So, notwithstanding the fact that most of the children have left the paternal roof, they set about building a large house, tear down or remodel, and add to the outbuildings; and at the close of life they leave the possessions en- cumbered and a farm overloaded with buildings as an inheritance to a child unable, by reason of youth and inexperience, to secure a com- petence sufficient to live and keep up repairs. Expensive Building 89 A beautiful farm of 180 acres, in centra] New York, is provided with the following build- ings: Fig. 8. The buildings on a 180-acre farm. Jk ED n 32XW 4ox8o 30X80 A house, part 2-, and part 1%-story, 110 feet long. A horse barn, 30 by 80 feet. A grain barn, 40 by 80 feet. A straw shed, 20 by 30 feet. A machinery and husking barn, 20 by 80 feet. A hay barn, 16 by 30 feet . 90 The Farmstead A cart shed and chicken honse, 20 by 24 feet. A piggery, 20 by 24 feet. A corn crib, 12 by 18 feet. A carriage house, 24 by 32 feet. Fig. 9. The farm house that is too big for the farm. Some of this lay-out is shown in Figures 8, 9, and 10. These buildings could not have cost less than $15,000. A fair valuation of the farm at the present time would be $14,000 to $16,000. The family which now occupies the house con- sists of man and wife, one child, and two regular employes, one of whom has his own The Old Farm House 91 home. The father overloaded the farm with buildings, his son is struggling to keep them in repair, and the wife labors to keep unused rooms presentable. These buildings might well serve for a section of land and a family of twenty. Fig. 10. Scattered farm buildings. Another house not far from this one was built nearly a century ago (Fig. 11). If the upper story was a full instead of a half- story, it would fulfil all the demands of a house, ex- cept possibly beauty. It stands on a rather steep front slope, which stops abruptly on the shore of one of our beautiful inland lakes (Fig. 92 The Farmstead 12) . By reason of the steep incline at the front of the house, a tall building would be far less beautiful than this lean-to, severely plain struc- ture. This simple old house has a restful, almost beautiful appearance when viewed in Fig. 11. A cosy farm house. conjunction with the trees, the steep, sloping lawn, and the broad, placid lake. The shaded veranda gives the idea of social repose far more than does the formal, stiff, restricted one shown in Fig. 9, which has scarcely room for two easy chairs, and is so constructed that no grateful The Size of the Mouse 93 shade is secured. Woe be to the man who de- stroys this restful old house and substitutes for it a lofty, narrow -waisted one adorned with peaks and spires, bay windows and a filigree cornice ! Before ground is broken for the foundation, Fig. 12. The lake view in front of the house. carefully considered plans suited to the site, the size and productiveness of the farm, and the probable income, should have been made. It may be said that the size of the house should be governed by the size, or the probable size, of the family. But " it is better to dwell in 94 The Farmstead the corner of the house-top than in a wide house " with insufficient means to maintain it. The general plans should be outlined at least a year before a new building or extensive en- largement of the old is begun. The houses which are to be built in the future should be planned with a view to greater economy, con- venience, beauty, and durability. There is now little excuse for erecting poor, uncomfortable, inconvenient houses on the farm. True, the rural population is handicapped, for few city architects have made any study of the plain rural house, and fewer have paid any atten- tion whatever to farm barn construction. Even if architects had given attention to the needs of the rural population, the farmer would feel that he could hardly afford to pay $100 to $200 for the plans of a house costing $1,000 to $2,000, exclusive of the labor which the owner, his men and teams were able to per- form upon it. The task of planning a country house is too great for the country carpenter ; he cannot even interpret plans correctly ; his range of observation and training have been too limited. Then, who is to plan the house ? Why, the farmer and his family, and it will take at least two years of study and obser- vation of other houses and their modern con- veniences before intelligent, crude plans and Useless Cost 95 instructions are ready to be placed in the hands of the draughtsman. Few persons are original ; therefore, if the little conveniences which help to lighten work Fig. 13. A house of seven gables. and make life more pleasurable are to find a place in the house, they must be seen in other houses. All men have more ideas than any one man ; therefore, the range of study should be wide, that whatever is suitable to the condi- tions may be adopted. After having built many farm houses and barns, and having made a long and most careful study of them, I esti- mate that from 30 to 40 per cent of the cost of farm buildings is useless, and sometimes worse than thrown away. 96 The Farmstead A small farm house on a modest- sized farm is shown in Fig. 13. The site is beautiful, and is worthy of a house better fitted to the situa^ tion, the farm, and the farmer. The illustration shows seven gables, and the house, therefore, might serve as a model for a work of fiction ; but the left-hand side of the house is like unto the right-hand side, so it will not do for fiction, for if the truth must be told, there are eleven gables and twenty- two valleys on this house. The vine -covered veranda is most beautiful, and looks cool and comfortable, but there are too many vines, and, with the exception of a few days in summer at midday, the air under this veranda would be damp and uncomfor- table. It is far better to secure shade by means of awnings and a few tall, well trim- med shade trees, which =f preclude dampness and * permit air drainage, than to overburden the Fig. 14. Filigree work is expensive, and does not look well on a farm house. Verailda with VmeS. The covering of this veranda is an unprotected floor, and extends along the front and well around both sides. Notice the too expensive balustrade and frequent fancy posts, an enlarged Expense of Maintenance 97 section of which is shown in Fig. 14. All of this expensive wooden material is exposed to Fig. 15. Ground plan of a house which is out of character on a farm. our ever -changeful, paint -destroying climate. The tinsmith, the painter, and the carpenter will reap a rich harvest if the external part G 98 The Farmstead of this house is kept in order. It seems hardly- necessary to call attention to the chambers, which, of necessity, must be of such a character as to preclude comfort, beauty and repose. A house built after the ground plan, Fig. 15, might make a not unpleasing picture in the landscape, but it would not be appropriate for the farm, and would be unnecessarily ex- pensive in construction and maintenance. It would be difficult to heat, on account of the great surface exposure due to the broken out- Fig. 16. A good model for a farm house, having strong lines and much character. lines and numerous corners, which are seldom air-tight. The style might not be altogether inappropriate for a cheap seaside cottage. Shape of Farm Rouses 99 A rear view of a somewhat larger house is given (Fig. 16) . It would not cause the pass- erby to stop and stare. It may be compared \ ■3?'- Fig. 17. Ground plan of the house shown in Figs. 16 and 19. to a well, appropriately, and simply dressed lady, while the other is a reminder of the over-dressed, furbelowed damsel, who attracts the prolonged stare and the thoughtless comments of every sidewalk idler. Here are seen repose, beauty, 100 The Farmstead elements of durability, and freedom from ex- pensive ornamentation and repairs. A back view of this house has been shown purposely to emphasize the fact that the rear side of a house may be made nearly as beauti- ful as the front side. It would be improved both in looks and convenience if a partially enclosed porch were placed over the door and two of the windows. The planning of a house is not difficult if wants are clearly defined and the principles of economy, dignity, durability and repose, as ap- plied to the exterior of the house, are fairly well understood. If the site is ample, and it always is in the country, you have but to draw a rectangle, the length of which is one- third to one-fourth longer than its breadth. Fig. 17 is a ground plan of the house shown in Fig. 16. The farm house shown in Fig. 18 is located thirty feet from a dusty, muddy, much -traveled public highway. Opposite to it, and immediately on the road, are located the ill -kept farm build- ings. How the aromas of the stables and kitchen are to be kept each on its respective side of the road is a question difficult to solve. Here, as in so many cases, the wife showed better training and more commendable pride in her surroundings and her workshop than the hus- band. She may coax him some day to set a Mistakes in Locating 101 few trees, which may serve in part to hide his work- ^ shop on the other side. Z There are many things ' abont this farm honse ® which are commendable, | and the only wonder is s; that so few mistakes were | made in planning it. g Farmers' wives must have ^ a sort of natural intuition ; ° how else can the fewness I of their mistakes be ex- | plained, for they have sel- | dom received the slightest I instruction along the lines | of house -building. True, £• the tower on the corner is | expensive and inappropri- | ate, but if the house had •"* an appropriate setting of g* trees and shrubs it might | -be beautiful. s ' p The farm house should | have one large bed- room g on the first floor, a well < appointed kitchen and liv- ing room. When the size, number, and arrangement of J the other rooms are 102 The Farmstead fixed, the lines which bound the outside of the rooms will not, of necessity, always coincide with the rectangular lines. On one side the house may extend slightly over, on another fall short of the lines which bound the rectangle. Does the rectangle embody fitness and beauty? If the manufactured things by which we are surrounded are noted, it will be seen how many of them are rectangular. The book, the sheet of paper, the pamphlet, the photograph, the picture frame on the wall, the rug on the floor, the writing case, the chiffonier, the trunk, and thousands of objects of use and beauty naturally take the rectangular form : then why not the house ? Man constructs along the lines of acute, obtuse, and right angles unless there are specific reasons for adopting curves, while nature's modes adhere closely to circular and curved outlines. A front view of a substantial, appropriate house fronting to the west is shown in Fig. 19. It is the house of which a rear view is shown in Fig. 16. The wide, projecting eaves, the simple roof over the second- story windows, and the plain veranda, all protect the windows from storm and the glaring afternoon sun. The eave- trough near the edge of the roof serves to relieve the plainness of the projecting roof, which really has no cornice. The side and ends of some of the rafters are seen, and no attempt has been Shading the Veranda 103 made to box them in. The treatment is digni- fied, plain, inexpensive, and suitable, — there- fore it is beautiful. The planting at the left is too thick for any but a dry climate. A lofty Fig 19. A dignified, restful, economical house. elm tree would serve better for shading the ve- randa in the late afternoon, and permit of better air drainage. The trees shown are deciduous, and therefore cannot form an ideal winter wind- break. If they were evergreens they would be entirely too close to the house. The mournful sighing of evergreen trees in the bleak November winds does not promote cheerfulness. 104 The Farmstead Four college buildings are shown in Figs. 20, 21, 23, and 24. School buildings can hardly be said to be a part of the farm lay-out, but they will serve quite as well as farm buildings to Fig. 20- University building,— gray stone and tile roof. educate the taste and to train the eye and the judgment. The reader will see at once which two of these buildings are most dignified and pleasing. In the schools, the people of the rural dis- tricts have had no instruction which would lead them to carefully observe and compare buildings of any kind; and hence, with but rare excep- tions, they are ill -qualified to make an intelligent study of them. They are totally unprepared to grasp the fundamental principles which should School Buildings 105 govern the erection of structures on the farm, and totally ignorant of the principles to be ob- served when large public buildings are planned and erected. Fortunately or unfortunately, some farmers will be called upon to judge of the plans for 'school and other public buildings. The plans for a president's house and an ex- pensive college building were submitted to a board of thirteen trustees of a flourishing agri- cultural college. Ten of these trustees were farmers of more than local reputation. I for- bear giving illustrations of the results : suffice Fig. 21. University building,— red brick and slate roof. it to say, that happily the house fell down before it was roofed in. A school building for the higher education should be light and airy; but light does not 106 The Farmstead enter a building freely through narrow windows placed in thick stone or brick walls. Fig. 22 shows the effect of narrow and wide windows in the lighting of a building. Observe the shadow cast by the wall between the two nar- row windows. The sun is directly in front of the windows for but a small part of the day. Usually it enters at a more or less acute angle, ..,. . .. ,;; ''llllll,,,, Fig. 22. Showing the greater proportionate amount of light admited by one broad window, as compared with two narrow ones of equal combined opening. in which case a window three feet wide may be more than twice as efficient in lighting a room as one two feet wide, and a four- foot window three or four times as efficient as one half its width. Figs. 20, 21, 23, and 24 serve to illustrate some of the fundamental principles which should be observed in constructing expensive public buildings, and they may also serve for com- Combine Beauty and Utility 107 parison, and for educating the eye and the judg- ment. The knowledge acquired in a study of these buildings may be useful in the planning and erection of rural homes, for in some re- spects all buildings should be alike. The farmer Fig. 23. University laboratories, — red brick and slate roof. seldom has opportunity to contrast and study large detached buildings in which beauty, dig- nity, durability, and, above all, utility, are com- bined, and he seldom plans and erects more than one homestead ; therefore, many buildings should be observed, the desirable and undesir- able features noted and discussed thoroughly before the erection of a new structure, however 108 The Farmstead simple it may be, is begun. It requires no little knowledge to construct in the best man- ner even a modern chicken house. The consideration of these four school build- Fig. 24. University building,— gray stone and slate roof. ings, so different in character, may not be dis- missed at once. They are introduced for the purpose of arousing interest and for giving opportunity to study the principles of external construction. The true principles once mastered, their application to rural homes will not be dif- cult. If Fig. 20 be studied carefully, it will be noticed that the lines are dignified, restful and even beautiful, although the building is con- Peaks and Valleys 109 structed on straight lines, with little attempt at ornamentation.. This building is sometimes taken for an art gallery, and so it is, for in it is taught the fine art of butter making. Its strong tile roof, ample projection of eaves, and freedom frpm peaks and valleys give assurance that this building, barring accidents, will stand for centuries with slight repair, and be more beautiful as time tones down and softens the colors. The building shown in Fig. 21 satisfies neither eye nor judgment. It is a noble build- ing as to size and material, but are not the twenty miniature peaks out of place? It does not have the appearance of a restful school building, but of a mammoth seaside hotel. The many little gables might have been combined into a few large, noble ones, which would have given abundant light and lent dignity and charm to this well built structure. If we now transfer our thought from the large buildings to the brick dwelling house (Fig. 25), we find the same strong lines, the same dignity, and the same durability of roof structure, with a little added ornamentation, as are found in some school buildings. It should have been two- story instead of a story and a half, and the veranda might well have been more ample. This house, too, like the large stone structure (Fig. 20) is 110 The Farmstead restful and satisfying. One instinctively sees that the cost of maintenance of this durable structure will be comparatively little. If this house be compared with the one shown in Fig. 26, it will be easily seen how much more ap- propriate and beautiful it is. One is built of Fig. 25. A simple and attractive little dwelling house. cream brick and roofed with soft- colored tile ; the other is roofed with poor shingles, has a cheap hemlock frame, and is sided with wood, which is covered with gaudy, ready mixed earth paints, which may fade out before the bill for them is paid. Some day a genius will set forth for the Nature Study 111 farmer, in simple language and illustrations, the fundamental principles which should be fol- lowed in the building of rural homes. When that time comes the present children will then be mature and will have been so energized by nature -study work, which is now being intro- Fig. 26. Another type of dwelling house. duced so extensively in the schools, as to be able to appreciate and profit by such literature. Some of the tree -embowered farm houses have such a restful look and often embody such true lines of beauty that it seems almost sacrilegious to change them. On the other hand, some of them are so ill adapted to 112 The Farmstead farm life, so unhandy and uncomfortable, that radical changes should be made. After the farmer has prospered, he naturally has a desire to build a new house or to transform the old one, not only to secure needed conveniences, but that greater beauty and a more luxurious home may be secured. It is difficult for him to find adequate help to solve the problem if he keeps the cost within reasonable limits. He may know where to begin ; he seldom knows where he will end. Usually the first thought should be to preserve the old home, or the greater part of it. The architect is almost certain to advise demolition and the erection of a new house, asserting that the new struc- ture will be no more expensive than the re- modeling of the old, which may or may not be true. But he does not always know what is best, as he is usually unfamiliar with the farmers' needs and traditions. Sacred associa- tions usually cluster round the old farm house ; every room and door and window may be asso- ciated with some epoch in life's history. Through yonder door came the happy bride a half cen- tury ago ; in yonder room the children were born ; — every nook and corner has some tale to tell, some happy association. We cross oceans and mountains to view the birthplaces and homes (which happily sometimes are pre- Preserve the Old Rouse 113 served and held sacred) of a Burns and a Shakespeare. Then is it not well to preserve the farm houses, where possibly are the birth- places of many " Cromwells guiltless of their country's blood." The fir§t thought, then, should be to save and improve the old house, not to destroy it. But most of these farm houses are either too low or too high: that is, they are neither one- nor two-storied, but a story and a half. A two -story wing may often be placed either at the front or side, and may serve to give dignity to the house; or a lower room or two, a few comfortable chambers, and an entrance hall or vestibule may be added. Such addition would make it possible to remove the low, flat -roofed, leaky kitchen to more appropriate quarters. The formerly unused parlor might be trans- formed into a living-room, the former living- room into a dining-room, and the old dining- room into a kitchen. The details by which this evolution is made must, of necessity, be worked out by those who are to occupy the house. That home is enjoyed best which is planned by those who have to pay the bills ; therefore, I shall not go into detail of arrange- ment. My object will have been accomplished if I succeed in creating a greater respect and love for the houses of our ancestors, and shall 114 The Farmstead have stayed the hand of the iconoclast. Any one can destroy, but few can create. So reasoned the college graduate on his re- turn to the old homestead. The old house (Fig. 27) was improved by making slight additions and some minor changes. Even the green win- dow blinds and the white siding were not dis- turbed, only brightened by the use of old- fashioned, unadulterated paints. The major effort was along the line of improving the live stock and making the acres more productive, soon resulting in surplus funds, which were used to erect the large and commodious barn. Simultaneously with the barn came the ice- house, and the windmill for pumping water. The observant passer-by instinctively knows that here are all the outward indications of morality, intelligence, and a rational and progressive sys- tem of agriculture. If the family be judged by what is seen in this picture of the farm above ground, the conclusion must be reached that here is a true home. How different the impression is when we look through the open roadside gate in the next picture (Fig. 28) ! Lack of intelligent purpose and of neatness and thrift is written upon every structure, and is especially shown by the want of any logical plan in the arrangement of the numerous small structures. The house, which Fig. 27. The old homestead. Fig. 28. Lack of intelligent purpose. 116 The Farmstead stands just to the right of the beautiful tree, is modern in many respects, but the front is sup- ported by numerous Grecian columns nearly twenty feet long, as inappropriate and as useless for a farm-house as is a coon's tail on a lady's hat. Instinctively we judge people at first sight, and largely by the clothes they wear and the manner of wearing them. So we judge, and often very accurately, of families by the houses which shelter them and the objects which sur- round them. One can easily tell much of the character of a man by the style and tip of his hat. What noble deeds, what lofty aspirations in this day and age of plenty and opportunity, should we expect to have birth and fruition in the house shown in illustration Fig. 29! This building is not located in the country, but in the suburbs of a small, prosperous inland city. Unfortunately, this village is unlike many beautiful country villages and small cities in western New York in which there are no poor people. What a depressing effect this building must have on the well bred country lad who passes it weekly on his journey to and from the post office ! But how easy to go from one extreme to the other ! Too many farm houses stand alone, unrelieved by noble trees or by modest plant- Planting About the House 111 ing of appropriate shrubbery, looking in the distance at the setting sun like lofty, white- washed sepulchres. On the other hand, the house may be made dark and damp by over- planting. , The house shown in Fig. 30 is a comfortable, fairly attractive stone structure, but is made gloomy and damp by the superabun- Fig. 29. Environment often makes the man. dance of evergreen and deciduous trees which fill all the space, barely thirty feet, between the house and the highway. The church, as well as the farm house, is or should be the home of the farmer ; but the church, like the individual, may become proud, in which case the old meeting-house is de- molished and replaced by a modern new one, 118 The Farmstead which may serve for a time to stimulate lag- gards and appear to take the place of changed purposes in life. But the debt saddled on the Fig. 30. Buried in trees. The opposite extreme from Fig. 26. congregation tends to drive the church-goers to the rear seats and eventually out of doors. I have sometimes thought that a country church could not well be too small. Man is a grega- rious animal, and does not enjoy church -going when the seats are but partially occupied. The plain, substantial stone church shown in Fig. 31 is located in a sparsely settled district on the windy prairies of Kansas. It is certainly most appropriate and fits its environment ; all it lacks to make it beautiful is a suitable setting of trees and shrubbery. It would then serve as Pioneers and Liberty 119 a reminder of " G-od's first temple not made with hands/' and not of one made with a jig-saw. " It is a plain, rugged, austere structure, like the men who built it, and any proposal to mod- ernize it 'would be received with disfavor ; for it means more to the people than merely a church building — it is a sacred possession that is a part of their life," and it is an appropriate monument to the sturdy religious character of the pioneers who stood in the forefront as a wall guarding human rights and liberties in those stormy days of the past. The country church should be as truly a part of the farm structure as are the house and barn, located on land held in fee simple. The school - house also, as well as the church, should form a part of the farm above ground. We some- times build parlors for the pictures, and pal- aces for the horses and cattle, and neglect the school -house. A city of 12,000 inhabitants J Fig. 31. A plain, substantial stone church. jjt:^ Fig. 32. Where horses are kept. Fig. 33. Where boys and girls are taught. The Stable and the Schoolhouse 121 in central New York has many expensive stables, some of them works of art. The barn shown in Fig. 32 is not more than half a mile from the school -house shown in Fig. 33. The beautiful stable might serve as a well appointed dwelling house by making a few minor changes. While such buildings are being constructed, the country school -house, the pride of the American, is left to fall into decay; or, if rebuilt, it is located too often on a little scrap of land which may be almost worthless, as though land in America were the most precious of all our inheritance. This school- house is designed to provide accommodations for both farm and city children living in the suburbs. The school -house has not a tree for shade nor a shrub to admire, situated on the commons among weeds and rocks, provided with one dilapidated outhouse unscreened by fence or tree or vine or shrub, while the stable is sur- rounded with rare trees and shrubs artistically arranged and a smoothly shaven lawn. Are horses and cattle worth more than boys and girls ? To leave the reader to infer that all school- houses are like the one shown would be misleading. A more pleasing illustration is presented in Fig. 34. Here the meeting-house, the school -house, and a bit of the farm are 122 The Farmstead shown in juxtaposition, as they were found at the meeting of the roads in a shady grove. Since moral character should be the foundation upon which to symmetrically build intelligence and industry, the church may be treated first. While taking the photograph, I was struck by the inexpensive character of the meeting-house. The outside covering was of plain, matched, vertical boards, but they were kept well painted and therefore looked neat, and the seats were entirely comfortable. I judge that here true, practical religion finds a congenial home, for a long line of comfortable sheds were being built to house the horses during the hours of devo- tion. Then, too, the s%eds will serve a doubly humane purpose, for where the pupils live long distances from the school the horse driven in the morning will have comfortable quarters until the school closes in the evening. A public water-trough near by, kept full from a spring, gave evidence that this little church and the school -house were potent factors in promoting civilization. To the right is seen a lad plow- ing. Here, then, in this picture is represented the three great corner-stones of civilization upon which to build a symmetrical, beautiful super- structure. To build on either one alone is to insure disappointment ; when life is grounded on all three the result is practical religion and What Farm Life Means 123 intelligence eventuating in a better understand- ing of the complex soil and the interrelations of nature's modes of action. It means steady and effective employment, the abandonment of no- madic life, and in lieu thereof a permanent home and an abundant supply of the neces- saries and comforts of life. The Bible, the Fig. 34. School house and church at the corners. school book, and the plow should all be engraven and intertwined in our modern civilization. So far the general characteristics, fitness, durability and beauty of the country farm house have been discussed and illustrated, together with such public buildings as are directly re- lated to rural life. But having discussed the size, best proportions, and most suitable ma- terials for the house, and having put them into 124 The Farmstead visible form, the building may be made hideous and unnecessarily expensive by careless or igno- rant treatment of external details. Most of the farmers who now occupy the country west of the Alleghanies came from the east and brought with them a varied assortment of styles of architecture inherited from the many European countries from which they or their ancestors came. These people, though of limited means, had pride and tenacity of pur- pose, and they could not easily change to the plain and appropriate exterior treatment of the farm house. This inheritance and persistence, as shown in the farm houses of the middle states, is fitly illustrated by the expensive and heavy Fig. 35. The sway-back house. return cornice, the massive columns, and the complicated and ornate entablatures which are supposed to adorn an otherwise plain house. Two Serious Mistakes 125 I have said that there is no place for the story- and- a- half house. Here is shown (Fig. 35) the results of two serious mistakes; viz., Fig. 36. The expensive bos cornice an effort to build a cheap frame of such a form that it is almost impossible to tie the building together, with the result that the roof is in danger of collapsing ; and the attempt to beautify this cheap structure by over-heavy, complicated cornices. An enlarged detailed draw- ing of a typical return cornice is shown in Fig. 36. On the right is shown a cross- section out- line of the members of the cornice. There are ten of them. The mouldings are now " stuck " by machinery, but these were made by hand, and 10 and 8 were formed of two pieces 126 The Farmstead each, making twelve members in all. The in- finite pains and labor in preparing the material and placing it cannot be realized except by a carpenter who has spent weeks and months in sawing out. in planing and "sticking," and mitering such an elabo- rate system of useless orna- mentation. Compare this with the cornice, or rather , projection, of a house (Fig. 19) which cost $6,000. Fig. 36 shows a projecting eave of scarcely one foot. The next illustration (Fig. 37) shows one of nearly two feet. The latter is far superior to the former in that it is quite as beautiful, is inexpensive, and protects the external paint and woodwork far more than does the former. The piece at the top of the rafter serves to cover the projecting cornice, and as a roof- board as well, and gives opportunity to place the eave trough well outside, which prevents damage to the house should it ever leak. The frieze board is simple and serves its pur- pose well. It has taken a long time to learn that a wooden roof which is at least one -third pitch is far more durable than the flat roof shown in Fig. 38. Here the return cornice is carried across the entire end of the house, and Exposure and Decay 127 the gable is ceiled with plain matched boards, both likely to leak and to rapidly become paintless. Many veranda and porch floors and outside doors have no roof over them, or other protec- tion. This is poor economy. It would be better to reduce the cornice to the fewest possible members, if it were necessary to do so, in order to secure means to roof the veranda, which, un- protected, decays rapidly. Or the money ex- pended on the cornice, which results in neither use nor beauty, might well suffice for the building of an additional room, or to provide many conveniences, such as hot and cold water, storm sash, and window screens. When the farmer reached the fertile, treeless Fig. 38. The old-time gable end cornice. prairies he was compelled to economize in lumber. Some genius soon discovered that the best and most scientific method of constructing 128 The Farmstead the frame of a house was along the lines of ship construction (Fig. 39) : that is, ribs, joined to a sill or sills, encircling the entire structure and placed at equal distances apart. Two keels or sills joined together by joists, straight Fig. 39. Framework of a ship. ribs — joists — instead of curved ones, a roof instead of a deck, and the balloon frame (Fig. 40) — the best of all frames when properly constructed, — was invented. Unwittingly the ship construction, slightly modified, was adopted. In this frame the westerner departed radically from the style of his ancestors, but he could not be satisfied with a plain oversail projection. Principles of Construction 129 He could not afford the heavy box cornice. Having succeeded so well on the frame, he set about inventing a new style of decoration for Fig. 40. The balloon frame. the projecting eaves, but the cornice was not a success. The decorations shown in Figs. 41 and 42 serve to make hideous many a cheap dry- goods -box house, which blisters and cracks 130 The Farmstead in the hot prairie winds. These houses some- times receive no paint or one coat, or at most two, and in a few years, what with storm and sun, mischievous boys and wind cracks, this Fig. 41. Too elaborate and short-lived. Fig. 42. The jig-saw cornice.. ginger- bread, dog-eared cornice, made of inch lumber by the use of scroll saw, looks as dilapidated as a college boy after a cane -rush. The thought of permanent beauty, as well as Beauty and Usefulness 131 economy and usefulness, should enter into the plans of a house. But what is beauty! I am well aware that many of my readers will not agree with me, for " The standard of beauty ofttimes it doth vary: Two pretty girls are Eliza and Mary." They may be very unlike, yet both beautiful. From the farmer's standpoint it may be said that the chief characteristics of beauty are fit- ness, naturalness and simplicity. CHAPTER VIII BUILDING THE HOUSE— GENERAL LAY-OUT The reader will understand that no attempt is made to treat this subject in detail nor strictly from the architect's viewpoint. A cas- ual observation will make it self-evident that the structures on farms have received little at- tention as to beauty of form, economy of con- struction, or adaptation of means to ends. Like many others, I have noted all this and have made a somewhat careful study of the causes which usually have produced this want of harmony, durability, adaptability and econ- omy in the construction of rural homesteads. The many illustrations of detail are designed to emphasize underlying principles. Principles are always the same : details may be varied to suit conditions. While the numerous illus- trations are meant to explain the details, it is believed that they will also give help to a large part of the rural population who have had little opportunity to secure any adequate instruction in the art and science of home building. Usually the cellar would better be extended (132) Vegetables in the Cellar 133 Fig. 43. Cellar under the upright only. under the entire house, although it is neither wise nor healthy to store large quantities of ma- terial in it which, if not cared for, may decay and vitiate the air in the rooms above. If the cellar be properly con- structed there is no' objection to storing family supplies of fruit and vegetables for the winter in this partly un- derground room. Large quantities of vegetables held for future sale should not find storage in the house cellar. Now that the floors of houses are made tight, often double with paper between, and carpets or rugs to cover them, the cold no longer enters the cellar through the floor. The cellar wall may therefore extend upwards on three sides, well above ground, that opportunity may be given for the introduction of light and air. With only single-glazed cellar windows, no building paper, and floors and boarding of un- seasoned lumber, the pioneer was compelled to place the cellar well under ground, or bank the walls with manure if the winter's supply of veg- etables was to be made secure, 134 The Farmstead A common form of the foundation for farm houses is shown in Fig. 43 — a main structure, reinforced by a wing which, in most cases, has no cellar under it. Fig. 44 shows the cellar under the whole structure. If the walls of the unexcavated wing are placed 3% feet below ground, as they should be in a cold climate, and extend 2 feet above ground, it will take more stone to construct the foundation walls of the house with a cellar un- der only a part than when it ex- tends under the entire structure. The stone saved by leaving out the wall between the two sections of the house will more than suffice for building the walls of the wing to their full height. In the latter case, it would cost slightly more for excavation than in the former. Since cellars, when appropriately used, are in some respects the most useful and cheapest rooms in the structure, there is no economy in not placing them under the en- tire house. A cellar may be divided by 4 -inch brick walls into various rooms, corresponding in Fig. 44. Cellar under the entire house. The Foundation 135 shape to those above, thereby securing supports for the partitions in the superstructure, and also separate compartments, in order that the vegetables, fruit, milk, and furn'ace may be separate one from the other. To prevent rats from en- tering the cellar under the walls, either one of two methods may be adopted. A footing -course projecting beyond the outside of the wall ar- rests the ro- dents, for f^'y^'^., having dug have F ig- 45. A footing course tinder the cellar wall. down they not sufficient intelligence to dig around the footing -course (Fig. 45). Or the desired result may be accomplished by placing a thin layer of refuse broken glass against the outside of the wall two to three feet from the surface of the ground (Fig. 46). Cellars would be much improved if they had higher ceilings. At least 7 feet should be allowed &&■&•■'■''■''■■.>■■■■ ""■■■■■ Fig. 46. Showing a layer of material to stop vermin. 136 The Farmstead between the cellar floor and the under side of the overhead joists. All cellars should have concrete floors and plastered ceilings, for both warmth and cleanliness. In an extremely rigor- ous climate, the upper angle of the wall should be lathed and plastered as shown in Fig. 47. ~ WINDOW m CELLAR FRQtt irttlDE. SECTIONAL YIEW OF V/lffDOW Fig. 47. Protecting the c ellar from frost by plastering across the tipper corners. If the front cellar wall and the greater part of the side walls extend 2 to 3 feet above the earth, a good sized window (which may be single- or double-glazed) can be secured. The rear walls should extend not more than one foot above ground. If the earth slopes rear- ward, then grade up to the wall until not more than two steps will be necessary to reach the kitchen floor ; it is easier to climb a gentle as- cent than steps. The front steps are used but Economy of Effort 137 a comparatively few times, while the rear ones are used many times, so it matters little if the front of the house is several steps above grade. It makes a visitor unhappy to know that the lig. 48. The daily route to the well. busy housewife must descend three steps, walk forty feet and ascend two steps to reach the well platform, then reverse the journey, to secure the drink of cold water desired (Fig. 48). The illustration in Fig. 49 shows how the farmer solved the difficulty by building an elevated Fig. CO. An elevated earth wali to the well. plank walk from the kitchen to the well. Fig. 50 shows how he might have solved it in another way. The hillside wall may be kept dry and the 138 The Farmstead cellar free from water by drainage or by back- ing the wall with loose rubble stone, or by both (Fig. 51) . BUILDING THE FOUNDATIONS <!e bre.&.ks k Fig. 77. The laying of shingles. of one course should not coincide with the joints of the first or second course below. Consult Fig. 77. If two nails be driven in the sides of an un- seasoned shingle, when it shrinks it is likely to split in the middle ; and in laying a roof the joint immediately above the course under con- sideration is likely to come at or near the mid- 168 The Farmstead die of the shingle, which splits by reason of the shrinking. The case is still worse when three nails are put in a shingle, for then it is almost certain to split in the middle and immediately in line with the joint in the course above. Unscientific placing of and insufficient mix- mortar results in an unsatisfactory house, both in- side and outside, however good the materials may be. VENEERED HOUSES shingles ing of A most excellent way to secure a warm, durable house, and one that will re- quire the minimum of care-taking, is to first construct a 4- inch wall after the balloon pattern, as has been previously described. To this frame, sheathing surfaced on one side is attached. The 4-inch brick wall is securely fastened to the wooden structure by means of 30-penny spikes, one at each studding, which are driven in at the top of every seven courses of brick. ( See Veneered Houses 169 Fig. 78.) A wooden house may also be veneered with stone, the veneering being held in place by means of metal anchors attached to the board- ing. The foundation needs to be a little stronger than for the wooden house, and must be pro- vided with a stone water-table for receiving the veneering. In a veneered house, all the lightness and dryness of a wooden house are secured on the inside and on the outside all the durability and solidity of a brick or stone house. When the veneering is of hard-burned, cream- colored or neutrally tinted brick or brown stone, the effect is extremely pleasing. The first cost of such a house is somewhat more than an all- wood house, but its greater durability and freedom from con- stant repairs makes it no more expensive in the end. When one builds such a house and covers it with a steep slate roof, he feels that he has builded for many coming generations. It is not necessary to speak in detail of stone and brick houses, since such structures are quite expensive, and their construction should always be placed in the hands of experts. It may be well, however, to discuss them generally. The cost of building brick houses is nearly twice as great as those of wood ; stone houses cost more than brick houses. The foundations of brick 170 The Farmstead or stone structures must be broad and placed deep in the ground, to sustain the great weight placed upon them. However much pains has been taken, the walls of the superstructure often crack by reason of the unequal settling of the foundation or by unequal strain on the walls, due to the window and door openings. Once the walls are cracked they become unsightly, and cannot well be restored without being rebuilt. Unless the windows are extra large the house will not be well lighted because of the thick walls. (See Fig. 24, p. 108.)' The walls do not heat and cool as quickly as do wooden walls, hence brick and especially stone houses are likely to be damp, since the warm air of the rooms tends to part with its moisture when it comes in contact with the relatively cool walls. This ten- dency of the walls to condense moisture may be obviated by studding and plastering them on the inside, but all this adds to the expense. Until building material becomes much less ex- pensive than it now is, the farmer would better build either a wooden or veneered house. OLD houses Houses which were built some time ago and before building paper and better methods of con- struction were in vogue, are usually too cold Be -siding Old Rouses 171 and often extremely unsatisfactory. The out- side covering may be warped and cracked and too often paintless. Where these conditions prevail the house may be re -sided without re- moving the old covering. The window frames, corner boards, and like members which receive the siding are built out by placing bands around 1-1 Fig. 79. Re-siding an old wall. the frames and on the corner boards of sufficient thickness to receive the new second siding. Strong building paper is then placed over the old. siding, and strips one inch thick and two inches broad are nailed immediately upon it and over the several studs of the old frame. (Fig. 79.) The house is now ready to receive new siding. If paper be laid on the floors and a well 172 The Farmstead seasoned second floor be laid upon it, they will be greatly improved at slight cost. Eave troughs should be placed outside the perpendicular line of the walls to prevent water from entering the house should the troughs leak or overflow from being filled with ice. Eave troughs are frequently made of tin which is too narrow, in which case, especially on flat Fig. 80. Faulty gutter or eave trough. Fig. 81. Well constructed gutter. roofs, the water will back up under the shingles and run over that part of the gutter which lies hidden in the roof. The elevation of the front edge of the gutter should be at least 2 inches below the extreme upper edge of the tin of which the gutter is made. (Compare Figs. 80 and 81.) Gutters placed at the end of the rafters are usually not as durable as those placed on the roof, but if carefully put up so that they will keep their position they serve Gutters and Valleys 173 their purpose well and may be made to give additional beauty to the eaves of the roof. The conductors which lead the water from the gut- ters to the ground should be made large and of corrugated material, that expansion may be pro- vided for should they become filled with ice. What has been said about using too narrow tin for gutters is doubly applicable to the val- leys. Open -valleys are better than closed. All tin used for gutters or valleys should be painted on both sides before it is placed upon the roof f; and all used about the outside of the building should be kept well painted, as it is more eco- nomical to paint often than to mend leaks. PAINTING THE HOUSE After much solicitude and money have been expended on the construction of the house, it is poor economy to let it suffer for want of paint. Not infrequently the house is planned so large, or so much is spent on its erection that means are not at hand for fully protecting the outside with suitable paints. As to the colors of paints or their combina- tions, little can be said, since tastes and condi- tions are extremely variable. A farm house should have its own distinctive features, and its own personality, and while it may be similar to 174 The Farmstead many other houses it should not be a duplicate of any other one. In manufacturing towns long rows of houses are built, each one the exact duplicate of all the others in shape, dimensions, and color. The effect is abominable. This illustration of exact imitation only goes to show how necessary it is to have diversity of style in the houses them- selves and variation in the colors of the paints if the maximum beauty of the home and adap- tation to landscape and site are secured. In painting the farm house beauty should not be ignored, but beauty may not be compatible with durability and necessary economy. The farm home may and should be placed in such beauti- ful environment that the paint which covers it sinks into comparative insignificance as com- pared to the painting of the city house ; there- fore the elements of economy and durability play as important parts in the painting of farm houses as does beauty. Even a great, plain, two -story white farm house with green window- blinds can be made to look beautiful and home- like if it has a suitable setting of noble trees. If the outside covering of the house is placed some time before it receives its first coat of paint, the wood tends to check and usually be- comes too dry for applying it. If exposed for some days to the direct rays of the sun before The Priming Goat 175 painting, so much of the oil of the paint will be taken up by the wood that there will not be enough left to bind the mineral matter of the paint to the wood. This is especially the case where an attempt is made to complete the paint- ing by the application of but two coats, in which case, the first or prime coat must contain rela- tively much mineral material and little oil, and must be spread thickly if the surfaces are to be well covered by the two coats. Not infrequently, the outside woodwork is swollen and somewhat displaced by rains before the roof is in place. Even after it has dried out the ideal conditions are not secured. The roof should be placed as soon as the siding is completed, or if possible before. The carpenter should put on the first, or prime, coat as fast as the house is sided ; that is, the woodwork which has been placed from one scaffold or stage should be painted from the scaffold before the one above is con- structed. The corner boards, window sash, and frame should receive one coat of paint before they leave the shop. The prime coat may be of yellow ochre mixed with some white lead, since the after painting with the desired color will cover the yellow if two coats be applied. Good yellow ochre is a most durable paint when prop- erly mixed and spread, although it may be said that the more white lead used in the prime coat 176 The Farmstead the better. Yellow ochre should contain a large per cent of iron ; when ochres are composed largely of colored clay they are inferior. The paint for the first coat should, in any case, be thin, since the oil which it contains plays an im- portant part. This first coat tends, or should tend, to fill the wood with oil so that the oil in the after coat will mostly remain with the paint, and not leave it and pass into the wood, thereby destroying its binding force. Too much stress can hardly be laid on the necessity of rubbing the first coat into the wood by vigorous use of the brush. To realize the value of this principle one has but to visit a first-class carriage manu- factory and observe the methods which are in use to prepare a carriage body for its final coat of dark paint and varnish. In too many cases the first coat of paint is mixed too thickly and is not pressed into the pores of the wood as it should be, in which case the paint may either peel or rub off in a few years. The country boy dressed in his best black suit often has a reminder of this if he chances to lean against the outside of the old country church while " waiting for meeting to take up." All outside painting, with the exception of the first coat, should be done, as far as possible, in cool weather. Early spring and late fall, when flies and dust are not present, are the Linseed Oil Paints 111 best. If the house is built in the summer, the second coat may be put on in the fall and the third coat the following spring. The paint of the second coat may be a little thicker than that of the first, and that of the third a little' thicker than the second. If the best job is desired the paint for all three coats should be mixed thin- ner than is customary, in which case a fourth eoat will be required the following fall. The house will now have a polish similar to the well painted carriage body, and, like it, will resist moisture and remain good for a long time. If a building is to be painted at all it would better be painted at the beginning and be kept well painted, as it is the more economical in the end. Better curtail the size of the house than to build it so large that the outside covering must be neglected. The oil used in paints is usually derived from the vegetable oil found in flax or linseed. Al- though many other kinds of oils have been tried, nothing has been discovered which can take the place, in paints, of linseed oil. This is most remarkable, for there are many vege- table oils which are very similar to this one. Linseed oil is expensive as compared with sev- eral other kinds, hence many attempts have been made to find an oil equally as good for paint- ing ; so far as I am able to learn, none have 178 The Farmstead been discovered. Linseed oil in paints, when dried, forms a hard, tough, gluey coating which serves to bind firmly the particles of paint together, and to the wood, and to exclude water as no other oil does ; hence if any other oil is mixed with the linseed oil, it is said to be adul- terated. At the present time linseed oil is adul- terated in some cases, and it is believed that this adulteration is the chief cause of the lack of durability in many of the ready- mixed paints. If linseed oil be mixed with other oils which are wanting in its valuable characteristic, it is cer- tain that such oils will not bind the particles of paint together as they should be bound. At present the only protection is to purchase guaranteed pure oil of dealers who are reliable beyond perad venture. Outside painting should be done with unboiled oil unless, on account of the weather, boiled oil must be used to hasten drying. In extreme cases a drier (litharge) is used. The drying process should not be rapid in outside painting, as slow drying promotes durability. The substances mixed with the oil to form paints are extremely variable in composition and color. Some are good, and are usually relatively high priced. Others are inferior and relatively low priced. Now that so many brands of ready- mixed paints of many tints are in common use, Unadulterated Paints 179 it is impracticable to analyze all of them and determine their quality so that the inferior may be distinguished from the superior. There ap- pears to be but two ways out of this serious dilemma: use the best brands of the ready-mixed paints and await results, or purchase pure white lead and zinc paints and pure oil, and tint to suit tastes and conditions. Heretofore, to do this successfully has required much skill and patience, especially if the house was to be painted in many colors. Paints are now so universally adulterated that I deem it my duty to call attention to a company which virtually guarantees the material sold. The National Lead Company makes white paints of pure white lead and pure linseed oil. It also manufactures pure tinting colors, at least the company so advertise, and without doubt would be liable for damages should the paints prove to be adulterated. Sample tint cards are furnished and directions given as to the quantity and kind of tinting material to be mixed with the white paint to give the desired color. All this greatly simplifies painting, and if these paints are pure, as represented, the farmer will have no difficulty in securing pure paint of any tint desired. The farmer who desires a beautifully painted house, and simplicity, may well restrict the 180 The Farmstead colors of the paints he uses to two, being care- ful that they are in harmony, one with the other, and with the character of the house and its surroundings. The following figures show the composition of some common paints (No. 1 was analyzed at the Cornell Exp. Sta., the others at the Iowa Station) : I. The paint known as white lead, when pure, is a basic carbonate of lead mixed in oil. A sample showed— White lead 93.62% Oil and undetermined 6.38% There was no evidence of adulteration. II. White lead- White lead 41.12% Barium sulfate 30.29% Zinc oxide 28.59% Adulterated with barium sulfate and zinc oxide. Barium sul- fate is very heavy; in fact, in nature it is known as heavy spar, III. Venetian red, dry — Ferric oxide 24.12% Calcium carbonate \ 66 36% Calcium sulfate ) Undetermined 9.52% Adulterated with calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate. Vene- tian red is ferric oxide, or a natural red oxide of iron. Calcium carbonate is chalk or limestone, and calcium sulfate is plaster. IV. Venetian red in oil — Ferric oxide 12.82% Calcium sulfate 3.54% Barium sulfate 63.98% Oil and undetermined 19.66% 100.00% Adulterated with barium sulfate and calcium sulfate. CHAPTER X INSIDE FINISH, HEATING, AND VENTILATION As a rule, houses are built too quickly. The frame timbers are only partly seasoned when placed; the rains which fall before the house is roofed-in and the dampness caused by plastering all conspire to swell and make damp all portions of the wooden parts of the struc- ture. Formerly, the casings of doors and windows and the floors were placed before the rooms were plastered ; the better practice of plastering on "grounds"* and placing the wood- work after the mortar is dry is now observed by the builders of all good houses. In most cases even these improved methods of con- struction do not result in securing what is wanted — tight floors and doors and casings which will not shrink and warp out of shape. Nearly all of this trouble may be traced to two principal causes : the lumber which con- stitutes the inside finish may not be thoroughly seasoned, or the house may be so damp that the *Narrow strips of sufficient thickness to receive the lath and plaster, placed on the frame and other places where needed. (181) 182 The Farmstead finish swells after it is placed. In either case, when the house becomes thoroughly dried out by artificial heat or otherwise, unsightly and dirt -holding cracks will appear. When ex- pensive hard wood polished floors are laid, pains is taken to provide against shrinkage by kiln-drying the floor boards and by laying them where the air and sun unite to take up extraneous moisture in the rooms and in the floor boards used. Comparatively few persons can afford hard wood floors, but this fact does not preclude having floors without wide cracks , which serve to retain dangerous and filthy material. There is no reason why tight floors may not be made of hard pine or other suitable material, pro- vided a little extra pains be taken in their con- struction. The laying of the floors should be the last carpenter work done in the new house. All this implies that a rough, cheap floor has been laid when the frame was constructed. The rough, diagonally laid sub -floor will cost some- thing extra, but it results in so many benefits that it should never be dispensed with. Windows and door frames must have inside casings, and baseboards, kitchen wainscoting and picture moldings cannot well be dispensed with. All these should be of the simplest and Satisfactory Finish 183 plainest construction. Fig. 82 shows a cross section of a plain baseboard, and Fig. 83 one of complex construction. Two styles of fac- ings are shown in Fig. 84. The one style forms lodging places for dirt ; Fig. 82. A plain base board. Fig. 83. A complex base board. the other reduces dust catching to the mini- mum. I notice that some of the newer pas- senger coaches, though most elegant, are built with smooth inside finish. With the excep- 184 The Farmstead tion of the window sills there are no lodg- ing places for dust and cinders. The old- fashioned doors with thin panels, and numer- ous moldings have been discarded, and those as plain and uniform in thickness as a pane of window glass, substituted for them. The picture molding, as shown in Fig. 85, may serve to support the picture and catch dirt as well. The other illustration (Fig. 86) shows one which may serve quite as well for the pur- pose desired without forming a dust shelf. If the window sashes are made with plain bevels and not molded, and all other window fixtures, as stops and the like, are constructed in the Wainscoting and Stairivays 185 same way, the labor of keeping the house clean will be greatly reduced. The wainscoting and the ceilings, if they are made of wood, should be constructed of wide boards, the cracks being covered with beveled battens. The old-fashioned, beaded, narrow ceiling Fig ^ material is not only difficult to keep The common tinted or varnished, but almost for- .Tmt faulty -.,-,■,. picture bids cleanliness . moulding. Most stairs are too steep ; some are little better than ladders and more danger- ous. The risers in the main stairway should not exceed 6% inches, nor the steps be less than 12 inches wide. The back stair may have 7 to 7% inches risers, and 10- to 11-inch steps. The best and most beautiful stair has one or more broad landings. The spiral or "corkscrew" stair is worst of all. The effort to economize space by cramping the stair is almost univer- sal. The difference between a cramped stair and an ample one may not amount to more than 12 square feet of space, equivalent to the top of a small table. True, the children may go up an easy stair two steps at a time, but when their hair whitens they will bless the man who knew the difference between an , easy, dignified stair and 186 The Farmstead a step-ladder. Diminish the size of a room, add a foot to the width of the house, do anything rather than cramp the stairway. As far as possible paint should be kept on 2 the inside woodwork. There are but few varieties of wood which may not be made smooth ; and by the use of hard oil, which is really oil and varnish mixed together, all woodwork becomes beautiful and can be easily cleaned. It appears almost sacrilegious to cover the fine grain of our native woods with cheap, adulterated paint. If some of the woods, such as ash, oak and chest- nut, be sawed "on the quarter" and properly finished, they become more elegant and are in better taste than any of the imported high-priced woods. The farm house should be plain, sub- stantial, and durable, and in many cases there is sufficient wealth to make it elegant and even refined by decorating the walls with a few fine pictures and providing useful books. We judge people somewhat by the furnishings of the rooms in which they live, and by their appre- ciation of things which are really beautiful and useful. The comfort and elegance of the rooms depend quite as much on the plastered walls as on their wooden finish. Few things are more annoying than poor walls, which may fall at any time upon the furniture and rugs, and Plastering the House 187 may even endanger the lives of the little ones. With quick -lime and sand and an honest and efficient workman, a good, durable wall may be secured ; provided, however, that the joists and studding are strong enough to prevent vibra- tion when the floors are walked upon or the doors are closed quickly. In plastering, the green- coat finish should not be adopted, since poorer walls will inevitably be the result than by the scratch -coat method. To the new settler on the prairies living in a cov- ered wagon, the time consumed in building a house was important; therefore the second coat of plaster was put on a few hours, after the first. The pressure required to spread, level, and smooth the second coat often disturbed the clinches formed by the first coat. The bond of these mortar clinches being broken or disturbed, the wall was made weak. It is well known that if the bond between the lath and mortar is once broken after the mortar sets, it never reunites. The only safe way to place a wall when the common mortar is used is by the scratch -coat method. This consists in allowing the first coat to become fully dry, having, however, scratched the surface of the plaster slightly soon after it is put on. When it is perfectly dry the second coat is placed, and when this is dry, a third (skim) coat may be added, which should be 188 The Farmstead but little thicker than whitewash. This leaves the wall smooth and nearty white. However, many walls are now finished on the second coat which is left level but rough, and may be tinted by mixing coloring material with the mortar. The quality of the wall depends largely upon the mixing of the mortar and the amount of firm troweling which it receives. The fewer interstices between the particles of sand the better. Firm, persistent troweling tends to reduce interstices, and hence to make the wall firm and strong. Plastered walls are much strengthened by being painted, and wherever such painting is appropri- ate, as in the bathroom, wardrobe, and kitchen, they should receive two coats of light cream color or other warm -colored paint. A new mixture, cement and hair, or wood- fiber, has been put on the market, and is likely to be used extensively, for when properly used a stronger, harder, and more durable wall is se- cured than by using the ordinary stone lime and sand mortar. This cement is sold under a va- riety of names, and is usually known by the builders under the generic name, adamant or adamant plaster. It is put up in barrel pack- ages, and sells in central New York from $2 to $2.50 per barrel, wholesale. It is mixed in small quantities immediately before using, in the proportion of one of cement to two of sharp Adamant Plaster 189 sand. One barrel suffices for thirty square yards of two -coat work, three - fourth - inch grounds being used ; seven -eighth -inch grounds are required for three -coat work. As mortar made of this material sets quickly, the laths should be thoroughly wet before the mortar is applied, and the rooms should be closed while the work is ; progressing, or the mortar will harden too rapidly. Not only plastering mortar, but that used for other purposes which depends on cement for its binding force, should not be allowed to dry out rapidly. One serious objection is urged against walls made of cement mortar,— it being said that they are so resonant as to be annoying. To overcome this objection the walls of one public building were covered with burlap and painted. Notwithstanding the objections raised against cement plastered walls, they are likely to come into common use, since they are so superior in hardness and durability to the old style wall. Ordinarily, a full year should be allotted for building the house, and it should not be occu- pied until it has become thoroughly dried out. Perhaps this hint of the unsanitary condition of a damp house may be sufficient for the Ameri- can. In Germany the law requires that a new house must have been completed a full half year before it may be occupied. 190 The Farmstead HEATING AND VENTILATION In the future as in the past, most farm houses, without doubt, will be heated by stoves. However, some farmers will desire either an air, water, or steam heater. Air heaters are danger- ous, because if the valves are not properly man- aged, the pipes may become superheated and may set the building on fire. They carry fine dust into the rooms, and the heat cannot be evenly distributed when the house is exposed to the full force of the wind, as it usually is in the country. The system of heating by means of hot water has many objections when used in the farm house. The water in the pipes is likely to freeze at night in the unused rooms if it is cut on 2 ; if it is left on, all the rooms must be heated, which is frequently not desirable. Then, too, heat cannot be secured as quickly in the morn- ing as desired, and in case of too much heat, the rooms cool slowly unless doors or windows are opened. The first cost of placing a steam heating plant is expensive, but once in place it is most satisfactory. Wherever steam power can be used to advantage in the dairy, the steam plant might well be placed in one end of the summer kitchen or in the wood house, where it may be separated from the balance of the room by a partition. There is no more danger of Household Steam Plant 191 fire from a boiler than from a stove. The one plant which furnishes steam and hot water for various purposes, such as churning, sawing wood, and pumping water, need not be more expensive if it also is made to serve for heating the house. A simple contrivance now in common use, — when several buildings are heated from a cen- tral station, — serves to govern the amount and pressure of steam introduced into the building. The farm steam plant should be situated, when possible, below the level of the radiators on the first floor, that the warm water from the con- densed steam may be used again in the boiler instead of cold water. In the long run, this system would heat the house more cheaply than stoves, require less care -taking, and be cleaner and more satisfactory in every way. Much has been written about ventilation; and too often the systems applicable to ventilating large, overcrowded rooms and public halls have been applied to dwellings. However complex and difficult the ventilation of large buildings may be, the ventilation of a room in a dwelling is simple, If there are two or more windows in a room, ideal ventilation can be secured by rais- ing the lower and lowering the upper sash as much as desired. By this method three streams of air are allowed to enter or leave the room, as 192 The Farmstead there will be openings at the top, bottom and middle of the windows. The impure air is largely found at the top of the room and at the bottom. If, then, the warmer and lighter air is allowed to escape at the top, the colder air will rush in at the bottom, which will result in keep- ing it moving as water moves when the inflow is at or near the bottom of a vessel and the outflow near the top. Whenever only one win- dow can be secured in the sleeping room, large transoms should be placed over the doors into the hall. While this method does not ventilate as well as the other, it serves to keep the air pure in the chamber. When there are many rooms situated on one hall, the hall should be ventilated by means of windows at its end, or at the top of the house. Many farm houses are over -ventilated in winter, the cold air entering the loose casements until the wash water ex- pands and breaks the pitcher. In such cases storm sashes are a necessity, and are more eco- nomical than feather beds or coal in preserving a living temperature. CHAPTER XI HOUSE FURNISHING AND DECORATION House furnishings do not exist for them- selves, but as a background for the people who live among them. Just as the trees, rocks, fields and animals have for their set- ting the green earth and the blue sky, and as pictures have a background, a middle dis- tance and a foreground, so human beings have their setting. If the setting be more striking or more elegant than the people for whom it exists, they are made uncomfortable and overshadowed by it; if meaner and uglier than they, the people are belittled by it. How many houses there are whose furnishings are much more attractive than their inhabitants ! A woman of superficial education and trivial character has the distinction of having the most beautiful library in her state; rows on rows of the best books, in beautiful bindings, in a room of the most artistic design, and nobody to read them. The contrast between the woman and her environment is pitiful. The house and its contents should be an out- M (193) 194 The Farmstead growth of the tastes, habits and occupation of its owners. Farm life in its best aspect is a synonym for breadth, generosity, simplicity, cleanliness, abundance of sunlight, fresh air and good food, the beauty of nature, freedom from stiff formality — these are the things which the city dweller envies the farmer. The equipment of the house should express this breadth, beauty, and freedom of life. It follows from this that many pieces of furniture and some kinds of decoration which are offered in the shops are quite out of place in a country house. Imitation is, therefore, a dangerous principle, for it is likely to lead to the choice and purchase of articles which, however suitable for some other family and pretty in themselves, are wholly inappro- priate in the case of the purchaser. There are three main considerations which should always be taken into account in house- furnishing : health, suitability, and beauty. The order of these is often reversed to the perma- nent injury of the housewife. The first law of hygiene is that nothing can be suitable which is not wholesome for those who are to use it ; the first law of decorative art is that nothing is beautiful which is not wholly suitable. If these principles should be applied to the furnishing of country houses, they would taboo dark, thick window draperies, nearly all bric-a-brac, heavy Neutral Background 195 upholstered furniture, parlor tea-tables filled with delicate (and generally dusty) china, and many other things which have been copied from the unwholesome and perhaps necessary customs of city life. Taste is a matter of cultivation, as much as efficiency or honesty; the habitual application of its fundamental principles in one's own house- hold, and the seeing of beautiful things else- where, are the chief means of its development. Man obtained his first conception of beauty from the form and color which he saw in the world about him, and we have only to apply the prin- ciples which are there apparent, in order to d velop good taste. Nature provides an immense and comparatively neutral background ; Nature always makes curves, never angles ; Nature blends the most sharply contrasting colors to- gether in the butterfly's wing, in the poppies in a meadow, and in the feathers of the robin's breast. The greater part of the world is in soft colors, browns and grays, dull greens and dull blues; the brilliant yellows, reds, pinks, purples and blues are always in very small quantities against this very large, neutral background. Since the furnishings of a house are the setting of the people, none of them should be more conspicuous than the people. Whatever brilliant color there is must be in relatively small quan- 196 The Farmstead tities against a soft background. Nothing either in form or color should "stick out." If the general principles just laid down be applied to the details of house furnishing, we shall find that many matters must be changed. Since the housewife must usually do her own work with very little or, at most, inadequate help, everything should be planned to save her strength. If we remember, also, that the first effort of good housekeeping is to keep dirt out of the house, and the second to get it out at once, it will appear that carpets are unsanitary. It has already been shown that good floors are now to be had easily and cheaply. If prop- erly painted or finished with oil and wax, they form the best foundation for tasteful and cleanly housekeeping. Carpets not only keep the dirt in the house, but they involve that annual bug- bear, house-cleaning. Even when the floors are old and poor, the space around the edge of a rug may be puttied and painted so as to look very well when the rug is put down. By rugs, I do not mean several little rugs, like oases in the slippery surface, or at the doorways to trip the unwary, but a good, generous -sized rug which just escapes the edges of the heavier furniture around the sides of the room ; which is substan- tial enough not to roll up, and which is yet small enough to be carried in and out by one Appropriate Furniture 197 person. If the woodwork and pictures be wiped with a damp cloth, the windows washed, the floor dusted, and the rug beaten out of doors, now and then, no such terrible upheaval as house-cleaning usually implies, is necessary. Rugs may be had ready-made of ingrain, Jap- anese cotton, and jute, Brussels, and more ex- pensive materials, but should always be heavy enough to lie fiat without fastening and large enough to cover the entire portion of the floor which is to be walked upon. The uncovered space should usually not be wider than one and one -half feet. All furniture that is not actually built into or fastened to the wall and floors should be easily movable and easily cleaned. This at once precludes the purchase of heavy, uphol- stered chairs and large sofas. Wicker and rattan furniture, though not so artistic and costly as antique wood, is very light, and with good removable hair cushions, may be made quite as comfortable and far more cleanly than upholstered plush and damask. The cushions may be beaten at the same time as the rugs, and the dust thus taken out of the house. White enameled bedsteads and washstands are rapidly superseding the heavy wooden ones. It is a curious fact that although the persons of a family are of various sizes and ages, chairs are 198 The Farmstead still bought by the half dozen, without reference to the people who are to sit upon them. Even in such minor matters as chairs and tea -cups, some account should be taken of individu- ality. If all furniture be selected with these simple principles in mind, i. e., hygienic cleanliness, the minimum of labor for the housewife, and the com- fort of those who are to use it, there remains only one other way in which to go astray: it may still be superlatively and positively ugly; or it may be comfortable, sanitary, easily moved, and yet be merely negatively ugly; or it may be made decorative by its graceful form, the color of its covering, or the carving upon it. The first principle of artistic decoration is that it must be wholly subordinated to the use of the object which it adorns. For instance, windows are for two purposes: to light the house and for seeing out. If a window opens on a barnyard or some unpleasant prospect, you may put up a sash curtain of light silk or muslin. Thus you obtain light but no view. But if you wish to see out of the window, sash curtains are absurd. In the ordinary private house, elaborate and heavy window curtains are out of place, both for sanitary and artistic reasons. Whenever cleanli- ness is a prime object, drapery should be movable and washable. Silk and velvet dra- Colonial Chairs and Tables 199 peries are only to be tolerated where there is a retinue of maids to keep them clean. The facility and cheapness of mill -work and lathe -work in wood has vitiated the taste of Americans to a terrible degree. Nearly all ready- made furniture is grooved, machine -carved, and ornamented in a way to violate not only the principles- of beauty, but of strength and cleanliness as well. Ornament that does not mean anything is not merely commonplace but ugly. There are four chairs of different patterns, and costing from $1.50 to $15, in the room where I sit; all of them have legs. Now, legs are intended as a support, yet all these are grooved and beaded and hollowed out in spots, so that twice as much material as is necessary has been used to insure support. The ornamentation is not pretty, the hollows are inevitably full of dust, and they mean absolutely nothing to any- body who sees them. On the front crosspiece of one large chair is glued a design of leaves in oak, by way of ornament. If these had been carved out upon a beautiful strip of wood by the hand of a cunning workman, they would at least have meant a man's thought and skill. As they are, they suggest merely a machine and a glue pot, and thousands of others as hideous as they. Contrast with this gingerbread furniture the plain, substantial colonial chairs and tables and 200 The Farmstead sideboards, made of beautiful wood, almost without ornamentation, with shapely, slender, and strong legs and softly polished by hand. Cheapness and quantity have been secured by machinery at the expense of beauty and strength. If the principle thus illustrated be true, then it follows that patterns of any sort, whether in carpets, wall paper, china, or drapery, must be very carefully used that they may not be more conspicuous than that which they decorate. The floor and the wall are the basis both of color- scheme and decoration. They are the back- ground of the people who are to live there ; they should, therefore, be rather inconspicuous, soft and indefinite in effect, and as becoming as possible to the human figures. If the climate be sunny and the room well lighted, the walls and floor may be dark and rich in effect ; if the climate be uncertain and often cloudy, or the room badly lighted, the effect should be light and gay. Color is the chief means of producing this result : the walls and floors of living rooms should be of soft, neutral brown, yellow, red, green, or warm gray tints. Blue, though very lovely when carefully used, is cold in effect, and seldom satisfactory for living rooms, while the blue grays are positively chilling. Yellow in paler or richer shades, depending on the light- Bugs and Floors 201 ing of the room, is uniformly cheerful and satis- fying ; next to it rank the various terra cotta shades. Neither rug nor wall -covering should have large, striking designs ; if having pattern at all, it should rather be of an indefinite, wandering design like the Japanese jute rugs, or of small inconspicuous conventional design, such as may _ be found in the best Brussels carpet. If the floors, howeve^, be poor and old they may be covered very inexpensively with thick, strong building paper which comes in beautiful tints and the rug may be laid on top of this ; or with denim on top of newspapers, which is only a little more expensive, and which may be had in a variety of beautiful shades ; or, best of all, with matting on top of paper. Matting is especially desirable because the dust sifts through below, and does not rise easily when swept. But the mon^y spent to cover up a poor floor would often serve to lay a good new one, and this should be done whenever possible. For kitchen and, in some cases, for a dining room floor as well, nothing is so satisfactory as linoleum. It is impervious, warm, soft to the foot, easily kept in order by an occasional coat of oil, and to be had in agreeable patterns. It may also be used like denim, building paper, and matting, to cover up bad floors, and as a 202 The Farmstead basis for the rug ; while more expensive, it is also much more satisfactory than anything ex- cept a good hardwood floor. There is often far too great contrast between the furnishings of the living room and the parlor ; between the "spare room" and the family bedrooms. The money spent in elegance which is shut up in a room rarely used would serve to add much to the comfort of the whole family. The guest will enjoy the hospitality offered all the more if not treated too ceremoniously. The furnishing of the living room should al- ways include several easy chairs, a good lounge, a place for books and magazines, and a thor- oughly good reading lamp. If it can be af- forded, a small room off the sitting room for writing and study is very desirable. It should contain book shelves, a large writing table or desk, and a good lamp. But if the extra room cannot be had, the desk and book shelves may be placed in the parlor. There should certainly be some place where the children may study or any member of the family may read and write uninterrupted. It is as irksome to write without proper appliances as to bathe without proper facilities. The furniture and decorations of bedrooms can scarcely be too simple ; the walls may be lighter and gayer than those of living rooms. Bedroom Furnishing 203 Blue and white or pale green and white may be used as color- schemes for very sunny bedrooms, yellow or pink and white for less sunny ones. One or two single, white, enamelled iron bed- steads, a washstand, a bureau or a chest of drawers with glass above, two or three low, light chairs, and a table or desk at which one may write, is an ample furnishing, if there be a good closet or wardrobe. The rug need be only large enough to cover the space in front of the bed, bureau, and stand, if the floor be well matched and painted or oiled. A bedroom should give the impression of spotlessness and comfort; everything should be washable or cleanable ; un- less used also as a sitting room, it should not have a superfluous article in it. Mats, bric- a-brac, even many pictures, are quite out of place. Since cost, styles and tastes differ so widely in different localities, no detailed directions can or should be given that will be generally appli- cable. If the principles illustrated in this chap- ter be correct, they will serve to guide and to develop the taste of many different kinds of persons. CHAPTER XII CLEANLINESS AND SANITATION— WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE Filth and disease have gone hand in hand from the beginning of the world; bnt only dur- ing the last quarter -century have we known the true cause of infection, and why it is so closely associated with dirt. The danger of uncleanli- ness lies in the existence of certain microscopic organisms belonging to the vegetable kingdom, known popularly as microbes or germs, but more properly as bacteria. Bacteria, like the plants with which we are more familiar, thrive in mois- ture and moderate heat, but differ from them in many respects. Some of the more striking differences are structure and method of repro- duction, many of them possessing the faculty of growing without sunlight. Bacteria are com- posed of minute masses of vegetable matter which vary from one ten -thousandth to one- thirty thousandth of an inch in length, and they reproduce by simple division. This process of multiplication may occur as often as once in half an hour ; thus immense numbers may de- (204) Bacteria 205 velop in a very short time. Under conditions unfavorable for growth, some species may form within their interior dense masses which are called spores. These resemble the seeds of higher plants in their function of distributing the spe- cies and in preserving life through intervals of time unfavorable for continuous multiplication. Bacteria may be classified in several ways, but for the discussion of cleanliness and sanita- tion, the simplest division is into the harmless and the injurious. The harmless forms live mostly on dead organic matter, causing nitrifi- cation, fermentation, and putrefaction ; they break down the more complex organic com- pounds into simpler ones, so that they can be used again as food for plants. Familiar ex- amples of this are seen in the decay of meat and vegetables. This class is more numerous, much hardier than the other, and comprises an overwhelmingly large proportion of the bacteria in nature. Bacteria are found almost constantly in water, in soil, and in air. Consequently they are pres- ent in all our food, except that which has been heated to kill them. Certain bacteria are nor- mal inhabitants of the mouth, throat and intes- tines, while others find suitable conditions for growth on the skin and in the accumulation of substances excreted in the perspiration. 206 The Farmstead Owing to the short time which has been' de- voted to the study of bacteria and their func- tions, closer attention has been paid to the harmful or pathogenic ' bacteria because of their relation to human health. This one-sided study of bacteriology has blinded us to the beneficent action of many bacteria, and has caused us much unnecessary fear of their presence in food. The harmful bacteria cause disease either in- directly through poisons which they excrete in food products, or directly by poisons or toxins which they form when living within the body. Although harmless bacteria are everywhere pres- ent, the pathogenic or harmful varieties are ordinarily much less numerous. It should be understood, however, that many of the so-called harmless bacteria are the cause of certain de- compositions of vegetable and animal matter with the formation of substances which are detrimental to health. This is illustrated by the occasional cases of meat, fish, and oyster poi- soning. The pathogenic bacteria, such as those of tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and the like, constitute, as has been already stated, a small number of species. These are dissemi- nated through various channels, such as the milk and the water supply, and by persons directly. When they are introduced into dirty and un- wholesome homes, they find in the filth suitable Disinfectants 207 conditions for their multiplication, with the usual consequence of causing more or less dis- ease in the family. The human body possesses more or less power of resistance to bacteria, but if these natural forces cannot overcome their invasion, they in turn will be successful and produce disease. Once infected with disease -producing bacteria, a house should be renovated from attic to cellar, and subjected to the action of agents possessing the power of^ destroying the pathogenic or- ganisms. Numerous means are employed to kill bacteria, among them being the use of disin- fectants in the form of liquids or gases, and the application of heat. The list of chemical disin- fectants is long, but owing to their cost, a rela- tively small number are available for the disin- fection of houses. The use of carbolic acid, copperas, whitewash, and the fumes of burning sulfur are familiar disinfectants used for this purpose. Among the disinfectants which can be applied directly to wounds, to prevent suppura- tion, are weak solutions of corrosive sublimate and of carbolic acid. The greater number of bacteria, pathogenic or harmless, which do not form spores, are de- stroyed by a temperature of 155 degrees Fahren- heit for twenty minutes. Very few resist the boiling point; thus water may be made safe by 208 The Farmstead boiling, and milk by Pasteurizing at 155 degrees for twenty minutes. Cold merely checks the growth of bacteria, bnt, ordinarily, does not de- stroy them. Sunlight and fresh air are espe- cially unfavorable to them; therefore the house should be sunny, and beds, bedrooms and living rooms thoroughly aired. If there be no organic matter to serve as nutriment for them, they can- not multiply ; therefore the body, the clothing, and the dwelling should be kept as clean as possible. For this reason the first test of good sanitation is the immediate removal of all waste matter from the house, and the first preventive of disease is personal cleanliness. In Chapter VI suggestions have been made concerning the site, location, and drainage of the farm house. The kind, number, and con- venience of the sanitary appliances, such as hot water boilers, closets, lavatories, and baths, are chiefly dependent upon the water-supply. If there be an abundance from a town water-main, or from a windmill or house -tank which will give some pressure, the problem of plumbing is comparatively easy; but if there be no such supply, it becomes far more difficult. A good water supply in the house is of the first impor- tance ; therefore, for several reasons, plumbing conveniences lessen the work of the housewife by half, they encourage the practice of that Personal Cleanliness 209 virtue which is " next to godliness," and if properly arranged they do away with many sani- tary dangers. Personal cleanliness is irksome enough with every convenience for washing and bathing. When there is no convenience except a wash basin and a quart or two of hot water, habitual cleanliness is practically impossible. In this respect town and city life have an im- mense advantage over rural life. A woman who had moved from town to country for the sake of her husband's health, was asked how she liked it : she said, " It is delightful, but I some- times think I cannot endure it on account of this nasty privy and no bath-room." Cleanli- ness of the skin is hygienical! y far more im- portant than cleanliness of clothing. In ath- letics and gymnastics, the bath following the exercise is considered an essential part of their hygienic value ; how much more necessary, then, is opportunity for frequent bathing, where the family, both in and out of doors, do daily manual labor which causes much perspiration, and which is often very dirty! The recent movement in cities to provide public bath-houses for the poor in tenements should not outstrip the farmer's effort to obtain equally good facilities. If there be a sufficient water supply avail- able, inhere should be in every house a hot water N 210 The Farmstead boiler of at least twenty gallons capacity, at- tached to the kitchen range, to supply hot water for laundry work and bathing ; a kitchen sink and a bath-tub, each with hot and cold water faucets and waste pipe to sewer or cesspool; and a water-closet. These are the essentials; but, if possible, a stationary wash stand and two laundry tubs, with hot and cold water pipes, should also be provided. In the farm house it will save expense and many steps for the house- wife, and will encourage frequent use, if all these be located on the first floor ; the boiler in a cupboard in the wall of the kitchen, which may be shut in summer and opened in winter ; the sink in the kitchen, or if preferred, in a pantry between the dining room and kitchen ; the bath-room and stationary washstand in a room either opening out of the kitchen or out of the family bedroom, or out of a rear pas- sage ; the water-closet should be in some well ventilated space, on an outside wall, where the noise of the fixture will be as little heard as possible. It should have an outside as well as an inside entrance. It is customary to place the closet in the bath-room, but this often in- terferes with the general use of the washstand and bath-tub by the family, and should be avoided. The nearer all' plumbing fixtures are to each other, the less expensive they are to Principles of Plumbing 211 put in ; therefore in planning the first floor, this point should receive special consideration. Certain general principles apply to all plumb- ing, and may serve to test the various kinds of fixtures offered for sale. All foul and effete matter should be immediately and completely removed from the house ; any back current of foul air into the house should be prevented, and any communication between the sewer or the cesspool and the water supply should be made impossible. Fixtures should be as simple in construction as possible and easily accessible. Pipes were formerly enclosed in the walls, but in the finest new buildings in cities, are now placed altogether in sight, and painted the color of the walls, or of the woodwork. The sewer pipe, on reaching the level of the ground, should pass directly out of the house, and should never be carried along under the first floor of the house. In the southern states and on the Pacific coast, pipes may run on the outside of the house, thus fulfilling ideally the principle that waste matter should be removed from the house as soon as possible. A few years ago there was much controversy over the placing of vent pipes in traps and in branches. Ger- hard and the older sanitarians advise a com- plicated and elaborate use of them, but Putnam and the more recent authorities consider thor- 212 The Farmstead ough ventilation of the soil pipe at top and bottom quite sufficient. The material of fix- tures should be good (not extravagant), and the workmanship should be of the very best. The efficiency of any sanitary convenience depends almost as much upon the care with which it is put in as upon its material and style. But of all the principles of sanitary plumbing, probably the most important is frequent and thorough flushing, if possible with hot water. Any fix- ture will become foul and dangerous if there is not water enough and under sufficient force to scour it out thoroughly. Having laid down certain principles which apply to plumbing fixtures generally, we may now consider these fixtures more in detail. Pipes should be rather heavy. Waste pipes are generally too large, and therefore do not scour well ; they need be only three to four inches in diameter for one or more closets in an ordinary house, and from one to one and a -half inches for washbowls, sinks, and tubs ; they should always be of uniform size, i. e., "full-bore" throughout. Soil pipes should never run level, but as nearly as possible at a uniform slope of not less than one foot in fifty. The kitchen sink may be of white porcelain, enameled iron, painted iron, or granite ware, any of which materials are serviceable and desir- Kitchen Sinks 213 able ; or of wood, lined with lead, zinc, copper or slate, all of which are more or less unde- sirable, because after some use, the water and filth is apt to get in between the wood and its covering, or because they are not durable. The sink should have as little woodwork about it as possible, since wood is porous and, therefore, collects filth. It should be set open on brackets, and not over a dark, moist, dirt- collecting, back-breaking closet. Flushing is especially im- portant in the case of the kitchen sink because of the grease. The best plumbing provides a grease -trap outside the house, which may be easily cleaned; but whether outside or immedi- ately beneath the sink, the trap should have a screw -plug, so that it may be frequently cleaned. It follows that the kitchen waste pipe should not be too large, should have a good incline, and if possible no abrupt curves, so that cooling grease in the water may not harden on the sides of the pipe and finally fill it up. The use of a cheap wire screen garbage basket in the sink will pre- vent the small particles of waste from passing down the pipe. Bath-tubs of white earthenware or " por- celain" are the most expensive, the most dur- able and very heavy ; of white enameled iron, are less expensive and heavy, durable if care- fully used, impervious and cleanly ; those of 214 The Farmstead copper, tinned and planished, dent easily and the tinning wears off, but are fairly durable and still less expensive ; those of wood -fiber are not very common, but are impervious, light and cleanly. The stationary washstand bowl and top are usually of marble ; the outlet of the bowl should not be smaller than the wastepipe ; the trap should be near the bowl, and have a screw plug, so that obstructions may be easily removed. There is an immense variety of water-closets; those should be especially avoided which have moveable machinery in connection with the bowl, such as the pan, valve, and plunger closets. Some of these are very inexpensive, but they are objectionable, either because they rust and accumulate filth, or because they get out of order easily. The forms of closets with- out movable machinery in connection with the bowl, that is, in which the machinery is con- nected with the flushing cistern, such as the hopper, the siphon -jet, and the washout closets, are to be preferred. Any washout or hopper closet bought from a responsible firm is likely to give satisfaction, if thoroughly flushed and kept in order. Stationary laundry tubs are of less impor- tance than these other plumbing fixtures, since there are several excellent washing machines the Laundry Appliances 215 use of which does away with the necessity for them. If one must choose between the two, the washing machine will be most useful ; but if one wishes to have laundry tubs also, they come in porcelain, soapstone, granite, and wood, the latter being the least desirable. If the water supply be limited, as when a tank is supplied by pumping from a cistern, the hot water boiler, the ^bath-tub, and the stationary washstand may be arranged almost as easily as when there is an abundance of water; but it may be necessary to substitute the dry -closet for the water-closet. When no tank supply is available, and all water must be carried from a cistern or from the well in the yard, the cost of plumbing is very small and the discomfort very great. Warm water must* be supplied chiefly from a reservoir at the back of the range, thus making frequent bathing very inconvenient, even if a regular bath-tub be provided. If, however, a cesspool be built in the yard, the kitchen sink, the slop- hopper, the bath-tub, and the laundry tub may have waste pipes to it. Such waste pipes) vsave just half the work, for the water has to be carried only to the fixture, not away from it again. It thus seems worth while to have the fixtures, even though they serve only half their purpose. A slop -hopper with pipe to the cesspool, on the 216 The Farmstead same level and near the kitchen, for waste wash water, etc., from the chambers, saves many steps, and is far more sanitary than throwing slops on the ground outside the house or carrying them to the outhouse. The chief problem is the outhouse, or privy vault. There is no more disgusting or unsani- tary feature of rural life than this ill- smelling, dirty hole in the ground, from which the filth permeates the surrounding soil, and may con- taminate the water supply. Much discomfort and some digestive ills arise from the neces- sity — especially for women — of going a consid- erable distance in cold weather and at night, to such places. The closet should, therefore, be as near the house as is compatible with decency, and should be reached by a covered walkway. If properly built and regularly disinfected and cleaned, it need be neither disgusting nor un- sanitary. The wooden house should never be papered nor carpeted, but should be painted or whitewashed yearly and kept scrupulously clean. The habitual use of ashes or dry earth in the receptacle and an occasional application of some disinfectant, such as copperas or chloride of lime, is necessary. If drawers are used in the privy, they may be hauled out frequently by horse; and with the liberal use of road dust, no offense arises. The writer knows a country Disinfection 217 house in which dry- earth closets are under the house -roof, and yet there is no unpleasantness. Since the well is so easily contaminated by the seeping through the soil of manure and human waste matter, it is of the utmost importance that the privy vault should be below the source of water supply and as far as possible from it. In the following pages the details of construction of the privy vault are given, the relative location of it, and the water supply. Plumbing fixtures, like all other mechanical contrivances, to be efficient, require to be kept in perfect order. Frequent, thorough flushing with hot water whenever possible, and disinfec- tion of the closet and the sink, are especially desirable. If all fixtures be set "open" and all pipes in sight, any leakage may be easily de- tected and remedied. If the pipes be painted with white lead, the defect will be discovered by the discoloration of the paint. WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE Water in abundance for the domestic animals should be provided by means of artificial pools or lakes, situated on land higher than the barns, but if they must be placed below the level of the buildings, aermotors or windmills may be easily made to elevate it to any reasonable height. It 218 The Farmstead is difficult to explain why more miniature lakes, in which to store water for all except culinary purposes, are not constructed. In Fig. 7 it is shown how easily these pools may be made without expensive stone dams, and after the fashion of those constructed in many of the southern states. Wells, in many places, must be deep, and then often furnish but a meager supply of water, while cisterns large enough to supply all wants are expensive. In addition to artificial lakes, wells, and cisterns, there are often streams, or best of all, springs, to be drawn upon. In any case, a full and continuous supply of water should be provided before buildings are con- structed if annoyance, loss, and unnecessary labor are to be obviated and the best sanitary condi- tions secured in the house. Unless the water is brought into the house under a constant pres- sure, one or more storage tanks should be pro- vided. They should be placed at such elevations as will secure at least some pressure on the first floor above the cellar. The storage tank may have a capacity of from one to five barrels, and may be constructed of rough or planed two -inch planks and lined with galvanized iron, if the water is to be used for culinary purposes ; if not, it may be lined with lead. The tank, which may be of any shape desired, may be placed on sup- Water Supply 219 ports near the ceiling of the bath-room, or the room which contains the commode, or at one end in the upper part of the clothes-press; pro- vided, however, that the discharge pipe is made so large that under no contingencies will the tank overflow. If the house is fairly large and the cistern capacious, sufficient water may be pumped into the tank from the cistern in a few minutes to supply all wants for the day. From the tank it will flow by gravity into the hot water boiler and to all other points desired which are not above the tank. If water be raised by means of an aermotor, a storage tank will still be necessary, as the wind may fail to operate the motor for an entire day. By what- ever means water is secured, the supply should be ample at all times. Springs and wells in the middle and northern states, and cisterns in the southern states will, in most cases, serve to sup- ply the potable water needed, but these are too often inadequate to supply the large demand for water made by the animals, and the extra demand for water in the house made by cleaner and more sanitary methods of living. In using water in the household, it becomes mixed with a great variety of organic substances which pollute it, and which tend to putrefaction and decay. As these various organic substances break down, numerous compounds are produced, 220 The Farmstead many of which endanger not only health but life itself; it is therefore evident that all soiled water should be removed from the house immediately and by the shortest practical route. But what to do with the polluted water after it has been re- moved from the rooms, becomes one of the most difficult problems of modern civilization. The first thought is to empty this sewage into streams and lakes; but those living on the streams and in the cities must secure their water-supply from these sources. It is evident, then, that the streams should not be polluted. The next thought is to distribute the sewage over the land, but this method is usually an expensive one, and seldom can enough sandy land be se- cured to absorb and filter the vast quantities of sewage which modern conditions make necessary. On the farm the same difficulties are pre- sented, and the problem to be solved differs in degree rather than in kind. If dry -earth closets are used on the farm, there is still the kitchen and laundry sewage to be provided for. While disposing of this, provision may also be made for the night-soil, thus obviating two systems of removing waste from the house. However, the earth- closet will reduce the amount of liquid sewage and increase the temptation to discharge it into the streams which, above all things, should be avoided. If porous or sandy lands can Cesspools 221 nSCD> be found within reasonable distance of the dwell- ing, and yet not too near to it to endanger health or pollute the water supply, a cesspool may be constructed. A hole some ten feet in circumference and ten to twelve feet deep, dug in the earth, walled with stone without mortar, may serve for catching and filtering the sewage. On top of the wall, which should not reach the surface of the ground by about two feet, lay two pieces of railroad iron, and on these place large flat stones, covering all with dirt, providing, however, for ventilation by means of a 4-inch iron pipe, which should be long enough to reach a little above the surface of the ground when all is com- pleted. If the soil is not as por- ous as is desired, lay sev- eral tile or stone drains at a depth of three to five feet, and extend them from the cesspool some distance out into the field or grounds beyond. (Fig. 87.) These drains should have free outlets, and the longer they are the better. At the outlet of the drains plant" willows or some other water-loving, fast- Fig. 87. Plan of a cesspool. 222 The Farmstead growing trees. These will take up and utilize vast quantities of liquid and decomposed solids, and if the household is of only ordinary size no nuisance will result. If water is limited and the dry -earth closet must be adopted, then the cesspool for the kitchen and laundry liquids need not be made so large as described, but may be built in the same manner. The dry-earth closet may be built as follows : Construct a privy of suitable size, 5 to 20 feet from the most convenient rear door, and connect it by a covered walk to the house. The small building should be placed not less than two feet above the ground, on a good, tight wall, which should extend under three sides of the building, the other side to be furnished with a hinged door. Secure a large, iron -top, dump wheelbarrow, which may serve to hold all fcecal matter. This may be emptied weekly or monthly into a nearby trench, previously prepared. A few shovelfuls of earth thrown upon the ex- creta will effectually arrest any offensive odors which might otherwise arise. Before the ground freezes in the fall dig a trench of sufficient length to contain the foecal matter during the winter. In cold weather the barrow may be inverted over the trench, and by the application of a few quarts of hot water to the iron bottom the frozen material will be released. When the Natural Disinfectants 223 ground thaws, the accumulated matter may be covered. While the material is frozen there will be no danger from it. It should be said that this trench would better be dug near a row of trees or other strong -growing perennial plants. These will quickly take up the products of the night-soil which might, in rare cases, tend to contaminate the soil -water. If but little of the night-soil be deposited in one place, the earth and plants — two most efficient disinfectants— may be trusted to preserve good sanitary conditions. However, pains should be taken to discover if, by any possible means, the sewage may find its way into the well. An intelligent inspection of the soil, the stratification of it and the rocks, will reveal the direction which the soil -water takes ; but if the cesspool and the drains are placed some distance from the dwelling, no con- tamination will take place under any circum- stances, since the amount of sewage is so small and the power of plants and soil to take up the dangerous products of sewage is so great. CHAPTER XIII HOUSEHOLD ADMINISTRATION, ECONOMY, AND COMFORT In colonial times, before so many of the household operations were transferred to shops and manufactories, women were producers al- most as much as men; but in modern times women are more and more concerned with how money shall be spent. The woman is still a producer when she cooks an egg, mends a gar- ment, or sweeps a room ; but the question of how much or how little can be had out of the family income has become relatively more and more her concern. In Europe, far more than in the United States, attention is given by the women to the economical expenditure of the family resources. A provincial French girl is trained from her childhood for household duties. She assists her mother not only in order to learn the finer arts of housewifery, but espe- cially the judicious expenditure of money. The French husband leaves the apportionment of the family income almost wholly to his wife' s dis- cretion. (224) Definite Income 225 There can be no doubt that the prosperity of the family depends quite as much on the wise use of the income as upon the size of that in- come. The first essential of good household management is that the housewife should know definitely how much there is to spend. Nothing is more productive of marital discontent than the habit which many husbands have of doling out money to the wife at irregular times and in indefinite amounts. It destroys the wife's self- respect, it places her in a degraded position before her children, and it removes all incentive to thrift. It not infrequently supplies a power- ful motive for deceit. If the wife is inexpe- rienced, unwise, or extravagant in the use of money, so much the more reason why the hus- band should patiently and firmly teach her how to spend, both for her own sake and that of the family welfare. An arrangement by which the wife controls the expenditure of a certain por- tion of the income is very easy whenever the man receives a salary or regular daily wages. A regular income tends to develop thrift and to teach people to avoid debt ; but there is always a tendency to live up to the limit of it, and the margin for saving and for extra pleasures is al- ways small. Salaried people seldom get deeply in defet, but they as seldom become very rich. On the other hand, whenever the family in- 226 The Farmstead come is irregular, as from farming and most other kinds of business, the problem of house- hold financiering is much more difficult and re- quires both greater self-control and better judg- ment. It is usually possible for such families to determine upon a definite minimum amount which may be counted upon for ordinary living expenses. The margin above this may vary widely, but if the scale of living be habitually adjusted to come within the minimum income, there will be no terror of debt. The expendi- ture of the surplus, when it comes, becomes a unique and unexpected pleasure. Whatever the plan adopted for distributing the family income, the wife should have at her command and should be expected to live within, a definite share of the income. After the minimum expenses of the family have been determined, the next most important question is how and when they shall be paid out. Cash payments are much to be preferred. They have two advantages : whoever pays cash asks no favor of the tradesman, and commands the best quality at a given price. The trades- man who lends money by allowing the payment of bills to be postponed, must pay for his goods and must have interest on the money necessary to carry on a credit business. He must nec- essarily, therefore, reimburse himself by charg- Cash vs. Credit 227 ing a higher price, or by giving a poorer article. It should never be forgotten that credit costs something. The cash customer is always con- sidered a good customer, and can always have the first choice of the market, and favors if any are desired. Whenever monthly or quarterly bills are run, the debtor is apt to acquire a most dangerous habit — the habit of spending now, to pay at some future time. The more remote the time, the more dangerous the habit. It is evident that the oftener bills are paid, the less likelihood there is of mistakes and deceit. If bills must be run, it should never be for longer than a month, and prompt payment of them is a solemn obligation. The article should be done without rather than the seller asked to wait for his money. Whatever plan the housewife adopts will be conditioned by the customs of the locality in which she lives and by the habits of the local tradesman. Women waste much time and energy in buy- ing things one by one ; they spend in this way, too, much more than they realize, and then they wonder where the money has gone. China, linen, and the stock of clothing necessary for changes of season, should be bought by the set, or quantity, marked and prepared for use at regular intervals. Women buy a collar or two, a pair of stockings, a bit of ribbon, a bread 228 The Farmstead plate, a few glasses, etc., and then are sur- prised that they seem to have very little for the money. Unless the housewife be really poor, or unless the money be doled out to her irregu- larly, it will invariably pay to buy in quantity things which are not perishable, and which the household wears out and, therefore, habitually needs. Handkerchiefs, stockings, underclothing, china, drinking glasses, cost less by the dozen and half-dozen than by the piece. Lamp chim- neys are continually broken, toilet paper and soap used up, yet very few housekeepers realize that they waste both time and energy, beside suffering inconvenience, when they buy these one at a time. Buying piecemeal is demoraliz- ing, as well as wasteful, because it is unsyste- matic. Successful housekeeping involves atten- tion to numberless details ; if by periodic instead of incessant attention some of these can be disposed of in the mass, there will be immense saving of energy. Many housekeepers will object to this, either because it involves the immediate expenditure of a larger sum of money for one class of arti- cles, or because, not having more wholesome social and intellectual interests, they find recrea- tion in wandering from store to store, or counter to counter, pricing much and buying little ; or because they love to find "a bargain." The in- The Bargain Counter 229 stinct to get something "cheap," that is, to get something for nothing, or, more properly, to get more than we pay for, lies very deep in human nature. Because women have usually lived from hand to mouth, without foresight, it has perhaps been exaggerated in them. There are the bargain -hunters, and there are the bargain- scorners ; both are doubtless equally illogical. When an article is phenomenally cheap, it is so, usually, either because too many of its kind are on the market, or because the seller is sacri- ficing a normal profit to draw general custom, or because the people who have produced it have done so at less than a decent living wage, or because it is going or gone out of fashion. Good buyers are rightfully suspicious of bar- gains. No one should be willing to buy or use articles which have been produced at starvation wages under wretched sanitary conditions. It is never good economy to buy things which are gone out of fashion unless one is quite satisfied to he out of fashion. If the article offered on the bargain counter be of good quality, and in staple use in the household, it is often well worth buying. Flannels, linens, sometimes woolen dress goods of inconspicuous patterns, may be bought at the end of the season much cheaper than at the beginning, and are a good investment if one has money to spare and is 230 The Farmstead sure what is going to be needed by the family. Over against the money saved in securing a bar- gain, must always be reckoned the time and energy used in finding it, and the risks that its quality may prove inferior, or that it may be unsuitable when finally used. If a woman has nothing better to do with her time and strength than to hunt bargains, there is nothing further to be said; but if she has, it is usually more economical and more satisfactory to buy the articles needed for definite use at a reliable place and at a fair price. All the suggestions that have been made imply accurate knowledge on the part of the housekeeper. A thoroughly trained housekeeper of long experience may possibly keep all the household detail in hand without keeping books of account, but it is absolutely impossible for the inexperienced or unsystematic housekeeper to do so. The mental training involved in keep- ing an accurate account of family income and expenditure is as valuable as a course in mathe- matics. For her own self- discipline, as well as for the better distribution of the family income, every housekeeper should keep an itemized ac- count. Until she can balance her account accu- rately at the end of every month she has not learned the a b c of thorough housekeeping. After having learned to do this easily, she may, Household Book-keeping 231 perhaps, allow herself a very small margin for those "sundries" which have not been put down, and which would waste valuable time to hunt out. Every housewife knows by experience that it is not the regular meat and grocery bills that eat up the income; if adequate care is taken of them, they can be reduced to a definite scale and kept there; but it is the incidentals. A sys- tem of accurate accounts will speedily show how many of these are extravagant or unnecessary. Book-keeping' is a bugbear to most women, chiefly because the system which they undertake is too complicated. The simplest form is the best. Any blank book may be used ; put down on the right hand side everything bought; on the left side all money received ; at the end of the week or month the total sum of the right- hand column plus the money still on hand should equal the total of the left-hand column. If it does not, some item has been omitted or not accurately entered. It is better in the be- ginning to balance the account at least once a week, for then inaccuracies can be more easily traced. The secret of success is to put down at the time of the transaction what has been re- ceived and spent. When the account has been balanced, a second step is much more inter- esting. In another book or in the back of the day- book, if it be large enough, open several 232 The Farmstead accounts on separate pages, as follows : gro- ceries, meats, fuel, clothing, subscriptions and charities, incidentals, etc. Copy each item from the day-book into its proper account ; at the end of a month or year, by adding up these sep- arate accounts, the housewife can tell exactly what proportion of the income has been spent for each class. Mr. Lawes, the famous English agriculturist, when traveling in America, was able to quote accurately the cost of the various items of expenditure in his own house. Economy is a relative, not an absolute thing. Economy of money is often wastefulness of life, yet extravagance, on the other hand, is a serious cause of human degeneration. With the exception of poor management, poor service is probably the most wasteful factor of all in the household, yet there are conditions in which poor service is certainly less wasteful of the family resources, than none at all. The end of housekeeping is the health, comfort, and serenity of the family. The two main factors in producing this result are the family income and the mother's strength and energy. Saving, however desirable, is merely an incidental end. The mother's intelligence, therefore, if she be in command of her fair share of the income, must be used to save not only money but her own resources. The lack of nutritious, palatable Economy and Health 233 food and of nursing in illness, the lack of service when the mother is weakened by labor and child-bearing, is sometimes economy with most disastrous results. Health and serenity are worth more to the family than houses and a bank ac- count. A good education given to an intelli- gent child is worth ten times its cost saved up for him to inherit in middle life. Every device, therefore, which saves the house- wife's energy is a true economy. A clothes- washing machine, a cabinet table, a slop -hopper for kitchen and chamber waste -liquids, are all obtainable and of special value in saving labor. In planning the kitchen, economy of steps in reaching water and fuel should be considered. China should be kept either in wall cupboards opening on one side into the dining-room, on the other into the kitchen, or in a pantry be- tween dining-room and kitchen. Kitchen uten- sils need no longer be of black, heavy, ugly iron, but of granite ware, nickel plate, and aluminum; they may be placed in shelves close to the range, or hung along the wall beside it. A dumb waiter or hand elevator, from kitchen to cellar, saves much going up and down stairs. The height of sinks and work-tables should be adapted to that of the woman who works over them. A tall stool — a clerk's stool — in the kitchen allows the housewife to sit while doing 234 The Farmstead some kinds of work. Distances between sink, range, dishes, and store-room, should be as short as possible, while the ventilation and light- ing of the kitchen should be particularly good. Every step up and down from kitchen to shed, or kitchen to cellar, is an extra drain on the overtaxed woman. Small, cheap contrivances, such as dish -mops, iron dish-cloths, pan- scrapers, small scrubbing-brushes, wire screen garbage -pans, and many others, lighten the work and make it possible for the housewife to be more dainty in her personal appearance. In no respect does farm life differ more from city life than in the kind of food provided and the method of serving it. The farmer's table is loaded down with a great abundance and variety of food, all placed on the table at once, and often rich and indigestible. The city table has half as much, both in variety and quantity, served daintily in courses. The city housewife provides variety from meal to meal, seldom re- peating any dish, except the staple ones, more than once or twice a week ; the rural housewife puts a large variety of the same things on the table at every meal. Abundance of well cooked, appetizing food , there should be, but variety from meal to meal, and from day to day, is far preferable to excessive variety at any one meal. Not only is it better for the digestion to eat of The Farmer's Table 235 a very few kinds of food at one meal ; but, since novelty stimulates appetite, any particular dish will be more appetizing if not served too fre- quently. The farmer's family, while very eco- nomical in the expenditure of money, is often very wasteful of food. Vegetables, fruit, chickens, pork raised on the farm, seem to cost no money, but they cost much vital energy, which is quite as valuable. The value of milk, butter, and eggs is recognized, because it is customary to sell them in town; but the cost in the labor of those who raise and those who prepare food, is often overlooked. The farmer's table is thus not only overloaded, but really extravagant. Here, again, quality is more desirable than va- riety; simplicity should accompany abundance. Since rural life -involves a certain degree of isolation, the family must keep in touch with the world chiefly through literature. Even at the sacrifice of some of the rich variety of food on the table or of new clothes, books and papers should be provided. The local newspaper is apt to contain little beside local gossip; it should be supplemented with an agricultural paper and a family journal, a housekeeping magazine, a chil- dren's magazine, if there be children, and other general magazines if they can be afforded. But better than the general magazines, would be the gradual purchase of the standard works of his- 236 The Farmstead tory, travel, poetry, and fiction. A musical in- strument, a small library, and interesting games will do more than admonition to keep young people at home. Children naturally want a good time ; if it is not provided for them at home they will go to other and perhaps less desirable places to get it. With the increase of appliances, and with the added social and intellectual demands, country as well as city life is becoming more compli- cated and exacting. The housewife, whose physi- cal strength is scarcely equal to the demands of housekeeping and child-bearing, must develop her intelligence and whet her judgment. She must find easier and wiser ways of doing the necessary drudgery, and make brains do an in- creasing part of the labor formerly accomplished by muscle. CHAPTER XIV THE HOME YARD The yard, as well as the house, should be planned. It should be convenient, neat, hand- some, restful. It will need planting; with trees, shrubs, herbs and grass ; but these things should not be scattered promiscuously over the place, for then they mean nothing. Every plant should have some relation to the general plan or design of the place. The first thing to consider in the making of a fit setting for the house is to lay out the plan or design ; the last thing is to select the particu- lar kinds of plants to be used. The place should be a picture. It should be one thing, not many things. If the design is correct and the planting is well done, all parts will be in harmony and the place will appeal to one as a whole. If the bushes and trees are scattered promiscuously over the yard, then there is no central idea and the attention is fixed upon the details rather than upon the place. Figs. 88 and 89 illustrate these contrasts. The one central thought or idea in home (237) 238 The Farmstead grounds is the house. Therefore, make the house emphatic. Let it stand out boldly, 'as in Fig. 88. The common or nursery type of planting. Fig. 89. The proper or pictorial type of planting. Fig. 89. Keep the center of the place open. Do not clutter it with trees, flower beds and other distracting things. Walks and Drives 239 Fig. 90. A modest and direct driveway. If the house is to be made emphatic, give it a flanking. Plant trees or bushes, or both, on the sides. Back it up, also, with trees. If it sets in front of a natural wood or an orchard, the effect is better. If the country is bare and bald be- hind it, plant tall trees there. Make as few walks and drives as possible. They are always unsightly and expensive. Let them lead to their destination by the most direct curves. Do not make them crooked ; for crooked walks and drives are expensive. Gentle curves are more retired and modest than awkward and laborious ones. Fig. 90 shows a good, easy curve. If possible, place the walk or drive at the side, rather than in the center: avoid cutting up the lawn. Most of the planting should be in masses. Plants present a bolder front when standing together. A group is one thing ; scattered shrubs are many things, and they divert and distract the attention. By massing, one secures endless combinations of light and shade, of color, and of form. Against the mass -planting, flowers show off best ; they have a background, 240 The Farmstead as a picture has when it hangs on a wall. One canna or geranium standing just in front of heavy foliage makes more show than do a dozen plants when standing in the middle of the lawn ; it is more easily cared for, and it does not spoil the lawn. A flower bed in the middle of Fig. 91. A good house ; but the home is only half built. the sward spoils a lawn, as a spot soils the table-cloth. Flowers at the side, or joined to the other planting, are a part of the picture ; in the middle of the lawn they are only a spot of color and mean nothing except that the grower did not know where to put them. Take these suggestions to heart. Consider which you like the better, Fig. 91 or 92. Con- sider, also, how Fig. 92 would look if plants were scattered all over the yard. Plants are difficult to grow in little holes in 241 the sod. The grass takes the moisture. They are always in the way. The yard in Fig. 92 can be mown with a field mower. The bushes take care of themselves. If one dies, it matters little: others fill the gaps. If pigweeds come up amongst them, little or no harm is done. They Fig. 92. A house and a home. add to the variety of foliage effect. One does nol^ feel that he must stop his cultivating or sheep -shearing to dig them out. In the fall, the leaves blow off the open lawn and are held in the bushes ; there they make an ideal mulch, and they need not be removed in the spring. In 242 The Farmstead front of this shrubbery a space two or three feet wide may be left for flowers. Here sow and plant with a free hand. Have sufficient poppies and hollyhocks and pinks and lilies and petunias to supply every member of the family and every neighbor. Against the background they glow like coals or lie as soft as the snow. Fill in the corners of the place. Round off the angularities. Throw a mass of herbage into the corner by the steps (Fig. 93) : then you will not need to saw off the grass with a butcher knife. Plant a vine and some low plants along the foundations. When these main or funda- |L mental things are considered, then JM £* some of the inci- * ■>*-'* dental things may be considered. If you are fond of some particular plant, as the hy- drangea, plant it in some prominent place in front of the shrub border. You may want a tree to shade a Fig. The corner by the steps. To Make the Lawn 243 window or a porch : plant it. You may want a pile of odd stones and relics: put them in the back yard, or at the side, where you may enjoy them unmolested. You may have any kind of plant you want, only put it in the right place. Have an eye to the views. Build your house with reference to them, if you can. Do not plant so as to hide the good ones. Plant heavily in the direction of offensive views. Plant so as to obscure the barnyard ; or else move the barn- yard back of the barn, or clean it up. Leave the front of the barn open: you want to see it from the house. HOW TO DO THE WORK The lawn, then, is the first consideration. It is the canvas on which we are to paint a picture of home and comfort. In many cases the yard is already level or well graded and has a good sod, and it is not necessary to plow and re-seed. It should be said that the sod on old lawns can be renewed without plowing it up. In the bare or thin places, scratch up the ground with an iron -toothed rake, apply a little fertilizer, and sow more seed. Weedy lawns are those in which the sod is poor. It may be necessary to pull out the weeds; but after they are out the land should be quickly covered with sod or they will 244 The Farmstead come in again. Annual weeds, as pigweeds and ragweed, can usually be crowded out by merely securing a heavier sod. A little clover seed will often be a good addition, for it supplies nitro- gen and has an excellent mechanical effect on the soil. The ideal time to prepare the land is in the fall, before the heavy rains come. Then sow in the fall, and again in early spring on a late snow. However, the work may be done in the spring, but the danger is that it will be put off so long that the young grass will not become established before the dry, hot weather comes. The best lawn grass for New York is June- grass, or blue-grass. Seedsmen know it as Poa pratensis. It weighs but 14 pounds to the bushel. Not less than three bushels should be sown to the acre. We want many very small stems of grass, not a few large ones; for we are making a lawn, not a meadow. Do not sow grain with the grass seed. The June -grass grows slowly at first, however, and therefore it is a good plan to sow timothy with it, at the rate of two or three quarts to the acre. The timothy comes up quickly and makes a green; and the June -grass will crowd it out in a year or two. If the land is hard and inclined to be too dry, some kind of clover will greatly assist the June -grass. Red clover is too large Moiving 245 and coarse for the lawn. Crimson clover is excellent, for it is an annual, and it does not become unsightly in the lawn. White clover is perhaps best, since it not only helps the grass but looks well in the sod. One or two pounds of seed, is generally sufficient for an acre. At first the weeds will come up. Do not pull them. Mow the lawn as soon as there is any growth large enough to mow. Of course, the lawn-mower is best, but one can have a good place without it. Perhaps a hand lawn-mower (one with large wheels and not less than 16 -inch cut) can be used to keep the sward close just about the house ; then the field-mower may be used now and then for the remainder. Here is another advantage, as I have said, of the open- centered yard which I have recommended ; it is easily mown. It would be a fussy matter to mow a yard planted after the fashion of Fig. 88 ; but one like Fig. 89 is easily managed. The borders should be planted thickly. Plow up the strip. Never plant these trees and bushes in holes cut in the sod. Scatter the bushes and trees promiscuously in the narrow border. In home grounds, it is easy to run through these borders occasionally with a culti- vator, for the first year or two. Make the edges of the border irregular. Plant the lowest bushes on the inner edge toward the house. 246 The Farmstead For all such things as lilacs, mock oranges, Japan quinces, and bushes that are found along the roadsides, two or three feet apart is about right. Some will die anyway. Cut them back one -half when they are planted. They will look thin and stiff for two or three years ; but after that they will crowd the spaces full, lop over on the sod, and make a billow of green. Prepare the land well, plant carefully, and let the bushes alone. We now come to the details, — the particular kinds of plants to use. One great principle will simplify the matter : the main planting should be for foliage effects. That is, think first of giving the place a heavy border- mass. Flowers are mere decorations. Select those trees and shrubs which are the commonest, because they are cheapest, hardiest and most likely to grow. There is no farm so poor that enough plants cannot be secured, without money, for the home yard. You will find the plants in the woods, in old yards, along the fences. It is little matter if no one knows their names. What is handsomer than a tangled fence -row? Scatter in a few trees along the fence and about the buildings, particularly if the place is large and bare. Maples, bass wood, elms, ashes, buttonwood, pepperidge, oaks, beeches, birches, Bowers 247 hickories, poplars, a few trees of pine or spruce or hemlock, — any of these are excellent. If the country is bleak, a rather heavy planting of evergreens about the border, in the place of so much shrubbery, is excellent. For shrubs, use the common things to be found in the woods and swales, together with roots, which can be had in every old yard. Willows, osiers, witch-hazel, dogwood, wild roses, thorn apples, haws, elders, sumac, wild honeysuckles,— these and others can be found in abundance. From old yards can be secured snowballs, spireas, lilacs, forsythias, mock oranges, roses, snowberries, barberries, flower- ing currants, honeysuckles, and the like. Vines can be used to excellent purpose on the outbuildings or on the porches. The com- mon wild Virginia creeper is the most service- able. On brick or stone houses the Boston ivy or Japanese ampelopsis may be used, unless the location is very bleak. This is not hardy in the northern parts of the country. Honey- suckles, clematis and bitter-sweet are also at- tractive. Bowers are always interesting to chil- dren ; and actinidia and akebia (to be had at nurseries) are best for this purpose. If a regular flower garden is wanted, place at the side or rear of the place, where a liberal piece of land can be devoted to it. 248 The Farmstead Into these native shrub borders, throw some color from nursery -grown bushes if you choose. Mix in spireas, weigelas, roses — anything you like. A rare or strange plant may be intro- duced now and then, if there is any money with which to buy such things. Plant it at some conspicuous point just in front of the border, where it will show off well, be out of the way, and have some relation to the rest of the plant- ing. Two or three purple -leaved or variegated- leaved bushes will add much spirit and verve to the place ; but too many of them make the place look fussy and overdone. You can have a botanic garden of your own, even though you do not know the name of a single plant ; and your home will be a picture at the same time. CHAPTER XV A DISCUSSION OF BARNS Modern agriculture requires large and com- modious barns and other structures to house the crops, the animals, tools, and implements. Especially is this true when mixed farming is conducted in an intensified and economical way. In early days one or, at most, two low barns of 30 by 40 feet were supposed to supply all shelter accommodations required for a farm of one hundred acres. At the present time, on the same farms, may often be seen a barn 60 by 80 feet and double the height of the old struc- tures, with a wing one -half of the capacity of the main barn to which it is attached, this single structure providing more than six times the cubic space of two of the old barns. One sizable farm in Tompkins county, New York, had, for many years, a single barn 30 by 40 feet with 14 -foot posts. It now has a barn which provides more than fifteen times the room of the old one, and yet it is scarcely large enough to house the animals and crops of this modest farm. (249) 250 The Farmstead Naturally, the questions arise, are these large structures necessary, and what changes in agri- culture have take a place to create a need for such mammoth structures? They are neces- sarily expensive, and too often dwarf and be- little the house when placed near it. Modern advanced farmers secure nearly or quite double the average yield of crops of their grandfathers. This is an indisputable fact, not- withstanding the hue and cry about the deca- dence of the rural population. The facts are that some are farming much better than the older generations and some much worse. Much of the good land is producing more bountifully than ever before, and some of the poorer lands have been so badly managed, and have become so depleted in their productive power as to be nearly worthless, and should be thrown out of cultivation and left to recuperate until unborn generations require them. More live stock is kept now than formerly. The number of milch cows, horses, and mules in the United States in- creased more than 50 per cent between 1870 and 1890, and other cattle increased during the same period 150 per cent. Notwithstanding this fact, the live stock on many farms has been greatly diminished. Then, too, progressive farmers believe it to be economy to provide shelter for animals and Commodious Bams 251 crops, manures and implements. The old cus- tom of stacking the hay and grain, of allowing the farm animals to toughen in the winter's blast in field and barnyard, and the manures to leach and bleach under the eaves of the build- ing has, in part, been abandoned and better methods substituted. These new methods re- quire better, larger, and more commodious farm barns. The modern and humane thought is, to make all of the animals as comfortable, accord- ing to their needs and conditions, as is their owner in his well appointed house, and to pro- tect everything that is worth protecting from the storms. There are two fairly distinct methods of con- structing farm buildings: the concentrated and the distributive. The one aims to provide the room needed by one or two large structures ; the other by means of many detached small buildings, each, where practicable, devoted to a special purpose. The last method was the out- growth of the conditions which usually prevailed in"^a new country. First came the rude house and the log stable. The stable was followed by the modest barn, usually of the regulation size, 30 by 40 feet, with 12-, 14-, or, in rare cases, 16 -foot posts. As the arable land increased another barn was built, then a shed, then a wagon -house; followed by a corn -crib, a chicken- 252 The Farmstead house, a pig- pen, and later a sheep -barn, cow- barn, a hay -barn, all the room in the first and second barns being by this time required for grain. Outside the grain districts the buildings were modified to suit conditions, but the prac- tice of constructing many small structures was not changed. The buildings were erected without any com- prehensive plan as to the farmstead as a whole. This necessitated many fences, gates, yards, and a maze of muddy byways in which the dock and other weeds, discarded implements, and the flotsam and jetsam of the farm found oppor- tunity to grow or to rot. Do what one might, the farmstead could never be made to look neat and tidy. Not infrequently, twelve to fifteen separate structures may be seen on a farm of eighty acres. The farmers who own these struc- tures are not to be criticised too severely. They inherited the method of building and often the buildings, and no one, so far, has deigned to give them help by treating such plebeian sub- jects as the improvement of unsightly stys, stables, sheds, and barns. If the concentrated method be adopted, in case of fire all is swept away ; if the distribu- tive, some of the buildings may be saved. There are so many things to be gained, how- ever, by adopting the concentrated method that Concentrate the Work 253 construction would better be along this line and then trust to the insurance company to make good the losses by fire, should any occur. Com- pare Figs. 114, 119. Farm laborers receive fully double the wages, except in harvest time, which they did fifty years ago ; therefore, the barns should be planned with the view of economizing labor. This can best be secured by rearing a single structure, rather than several, for it is evident that if the live stock, tools, implements and provender be placed in juxtaposition, economy in performing the work about the buildings will be secured. However, it is often convenient to have a sepa- rate building open on one side for storing farm wagons and heavy implements and tools. Grain, hay and stover are all unloaded most economically by means of slings and hay fork, operated by horse -power, but the unloading by horse -power implies high barns, with mows measurably unobstructed by timbers. Economy of space also implies deep mows, since a mow twenty feet deep holds more than two mows ten feet deep. High, large buildings require far less outside boarding and roof than small, low, detached buildings which contain, together, the same storage capacity. Economy in construc- tion and maintenance, convenience of tempo- rarily sheltering and removing manures, ease of 254 The Farmstead carrying on work in the building, and beauty, all indicate the wisdom of adopting the concen- trated method in the construction of farm barns. Efforts have been made to economize in barn construction by adopting the octagon form. This form secures a greater enclosed area for a given surface covering than the square or rectangular form. But all of the angles in the frame are more expensive to make than are right angles. It requires more labor and time to saw off a tim- ber at an angle of 35 degrees than at right angles. True, this form lends itself to a roof structure free from obstructing timbers, but, on the other hand, it does not give opportunity for the placing of convenient tracks for elevating the provender. So far the pros and cons may be said to balance. It is only when the attempt is made to divide the octagon structure into stables and rooms, compartments and mows, that its inconvenient shape is fully realized. Everything is out of square. The divisions form obtuse and acute angles, or arcs of a circle, almost without number. All this implies extra expense in the internal construction and usually a great waste of space. The illustrations of these barns have a certain charm difficult to resist, but some of the most intelligent farmers who have made a study of the octagon Location for the Bam 255 barn and have used it, decide that rectan- gular barns are much to be preferred. Some who have built octagon barns speak well of them, but this might naturally be expected. A woman generally speaks well of her husband after she has secured him, however faulty he may be. LOCATION The location of the proposed structure should be considered with the most painstaking care before entering upon the construction of a new building or the remodeling of an old one. Too often a single idea dominates the location. Some thirty years since I decided to erect a large basement barn. The house, a modest, com- fortable structure, was located at a suitable dis- tance from the highway, on a gentle slope. To utilize the highway for driving the animals to and from pasture, and to save the use of the fourth of an acre of land and the building of some twenty rods of fence, the barn was located nearer the highway than the house. This neces- sitated locating the barnyard between the high- way and the barn. I never discovered this fool- ish mistake till years afterwards, when age and study had improved my judgment and oppor- tunity had been given for wide observation and comparison. Now when I revisit the farm it is The Location 257 all too plain as to where the barn should have been located. This large barn made the house appear mnch smaller than before, and from one approach the farm had the appearance of being untenanted, as the barn hid the house. It is humiliating, but how could I have known better at that time of life, with ideas of barn building inherited and with neither book nor teacher to guide me ? The barn should be located far enough from the house to prevent the aromas of the stables and kitchen from mingling, and at such a dis- tance as not to seriously endanger either one, if the other should be destroyed by fire. If possi- ble, the barn should be on lower ground than the house, that no wash or seepage from it may tend toward the house, and for other sanitary reasons. The lower level will assist to make the barns inconspicuous. One hundred feet is the minimum distance which should intervene be- tween these inflammable and expensive structures, except in a very cold climate, where the house andh the barn may be connected by a covered way. See Figs. 94 and 95. This way need not be expensive, and should be so constructed that it can be pulled down in a few minutes in case of fire. It need not be high, and the roof might pitch but one way and be composed, in part at least, of glass. If the entire roof was of glass 258 The Farmstead one side of the covered walk might well be used in the spring for growing early vegetables. If the manure be properly cared for at the far end of the barn, good sanitary conditions would be preserved. The refuse of the stables, if left exposed at the barns in the summer, forms breeding ground for flies, which reach the house if it be near. The substitution of electric street cars, for horse cars which necessitated numerous stables, has noticeably diminished flies in the cities. There should be room between the house and barn for a score or more of large trees, which may serve, in part, to screen each building from the other in case of fire, to shade the walk be- tween the two buildings, and, in part, the barn itself. No tree is better adapted for this pur- pose than the white elm. The open barnyard should, wherever possible, be discarded, for it tends to increase the wasting of manures and the cost of getting them to the field; to the multiplication of fences and flies, and to unnec- essary exposure of animals. Why not substitute paddocks or small fields of a few acres for the wasteful, expensive barnyard? If the animals need exercise they should take it at suitable times in closely- sodded fields, or covered yards, rather than in confined barnyards filled with a mixture of straw, mud and manure. A few Paddocks vs. Yards 259 acres near the bam might be surrounded with a woven wire fence, which would serve admirably for an exercising yard. The sod on this small area might become seriously injured in a year or two, but the field would be enriched by the drop- pings of the animals. The field in such case could be plowed and the wire used to enclose another paddock. But it will be many years be- fore the open barnyard can be, or will be, en- tirely abandoned. What may, and should be done immediately, is to place it at the rear, instead of at the front of the barn, and to cease using it for baptizing manures, and as a storage area for miscellaneous odds and ends. If some change is not made, the farm boy may find a chamber window from which a more restful and inspiring view may be secured than from the one through which he now views daily the evi- dences of thriftlessness and waste. PLANNING THE BARN Make a good study of many barns at short range ; note what features are good, what faulty, what useless ; by this means much will have been learned and many mistakes will be avoided. Decide approximately the capacity which will be required. First, draw a rectan- gular diagram of the barn, then proceed to 260 The Farmstead the proposed location and take a seat ; make a most careful study of the approach, the in- cline of the land, note where fences and gates will be necessary, where and how the water is to be introduced — in fact, take in the whole prob- lem of the environment of the proposed struc- ture. Then imagine that you see the barn, and that you have just arrived from town some stormy night with your wife and baby ; in im- agination help them out of the carriage. Im- agine you have a span of young, restless horses which you have driven to get them used to city ways before selling them. That will make you think of a platform onto which the family may step from the carriage while you are holding the colts. Consider how many big doors you will have to open before the colts are made comfort- able for the night. Are the democrat wagon and the colts to be kept on the same floor, or one up -stairs and the other down? Or is the car- riage in one building situated four rods from the horses? How many gates and doors have you opened and closed since you arrived ? Think it all over, and then go to the house and talk it over with your wife, for some day she may drive to town, and on her return find that both you and the farm hands are in the field, and that there is no one to help her put the team away. After imagination has pictured the Matured Plans 261 conditions which are likely to prevail, then begin to cautiously modify the rectangular dia- gram ; surround it with dotted lines, which may represent roads, fences, gates, lanes, and ad- junct buildings. Then take a rest ; lay the sketch away for a time ; study barns in the neighborhood ; council with the wife again, for she may have to go to the barn often. After a year of faithful and intelligent planning you may be able to place a well digested rough sketch of the proposed structure in the hands of a draughtsman. WATER SUPPLY It would seem to be unnecessary to repeat the axiom, "No water, no plant or animal life," but so many buildings, both public and private, are located and constructed before the problem of supplying an ample, perennial supply of pota- ble water is solved, that it seems necessary to brieTry treat this subject. Several public institutions with which I have been familiar have erected expensive structures before supplying water for them. Three and sometimes five separate attempts were made to furnish water for the use of the plant, none of which were entirely successful. The amount of water needed and the condi- tions under which it must be secured are so 262 The Farmstead variable that few specific directions can be given. One simple, certain and cheap way of securing water for the barn is usually neglected. In some sections of the South, by reason of peculiar geological formations, the practice of constructing pools or storage reservoirs has be- come common. A slight depression or draw or swale is selected and dammed by using the earth from the bottom of the proposed pool and from the higher land adjoining. No stone or wood is necessary to support the dam. The only pre- caution necessary is to have a broad base (see Fig. 7) , and to provide sufficiently large outflows or spillways, one on either end of the dam, that the pool may never rise higher than within two feet from the top of the dam. The surface soil, if it contains much vegetable matter, should be scraped off a strip three to four feet wide and as long as the dam, and the depression filled with earth — clay is best — that contains little or no organic matter. If the bottom of the dam where it meets the normal earth is constructed with sods, or other material which will decay, in time the water will find its way through the porous earth. The pools of the South, to which reference has been made, sometimes have an extreme depth of 12 to 15 feet, and may cover a fraction of an acre or several acres. I have known one Pools and Cisterns 263 of these pools to furnish water for a hundred head of cattle during a long continued drought. It is difficult to explain why more pools, lakes and fish ponds are not constructed . Possibly the reasons are that there is a prejudice against them, and well there may be, since they are usually so shallow that the water becomes im- pure, and since it is not generally realized that a substantial dam can be erected by the use of earth alone. -If it is thought advisable not to allow the animals to go to the pool, it may be fenced, since it is not expensive to lay a pipe in the dam, when it is being constructed, on a level with the bottom of the pool, the outer end of the pipe being furnished with a ball and cock to regulate the flow of water into the trough. Usually it is not advisable to build cisterns for storing water for barn use, since they are too expensive if built as large as needed. A cow re- quires from forty to eighty pounds of water daily in the summer. If sixty pounds be taken as the average, it will be seen that it would require a cistern of three hundred and fifty barrels ca- pacity to supply a herd of fifty animals for one month. In some cases the water of a stream or well may be so highly charged with the pro- ducts of magnesian limestone as to produce goitre, in which case soft water should be sup- plied for the horses. 264 The Farmstead Streams or springs are often available for summer," but they seldom supply ideal water conditions in winter. Young animals, and es- pecially cows in milk, should not be required to drink water at a low temperature or be forced to travel long distances for it in cold weather. The only really satisfactory method of supplying the domestic animals with water is to bring it into the barn, and if the water in the pipes is not under pressure, a small storage tank may be placed in a mow and surrounded by straw. Such storage tank may be built, if small, out of rough 2 -inch plank, spiked together, or, if large, of 2- by 4 -inch scantling, spiked flatwise one upon the other; in both cases the tank is lined with galvanized iron. All barns provided with steam boilers should also be provided with a few small steam pipes leading to the water boxes, that the drinking water of the animals may be raised in winter to 98° Fahr. Animals do not relish lukewarm water in the winter, but they really enjoy hot water. The economy and safety of using hot drinking water will justify the expense of providing it. This is especially true in the winter dairy and when horses have severe winter work. An overheated, tired horse may drink all the hot water he de- sires without danger. Water taken into the stomach at 40° Fahr. must absorb heat enough Hot Water in Barns 265 from the system to raise it to about 99°. To do this food must be burned, as literally as coal is burned in the boiler to heat water. It requires more units of heat to raise a pound of water one degree in temperature than any other substance except two or three of the gases. There are now so many styles of really good air motors or wind mills, that water from wells may be pumped at a minimum cost into storage tanks. There is no longer any excuse for pump- ing water by hand for any considerable number of animals, nor for compelling them to seek water in cold weather at some distant stream. As has been said, there are many ways of secur- ing a supply of water for the barn. The de- tails of accomplishing the results desired are many, but the result should always be the same: an abundant supply of water within the barn under more or less pressure. If this is not se- cured the plans of a barn, as a whole, are un- satisfactory. CHAPTER XVI BUILDING THE BARN— THE BASEMENT Squaking the foundation site is a simple operation, yet few are able to perform it, and it is seldom that a surveyor is at hand. Build- ings are so generally placed with their fronts parallel to the highway or the private way, that the road may be assumed to be the base line. Four stakes set in the middle of the road, as shown in Fig. 96, establish the base line, from which is measured the distance from the road at which it is desired to place the building. The stakes A and B should be placed farther apart than the width of the front of the build- ing ; they are connected by a line which is par- allel to the road and forms the permanent base line. Next the stakes C and D are placed, and also connected by a line. With a 10 -foot pole, six feet are measured off on either line, begin- ning at the intersection of the lines, and eight feet on the other line. If the line C to D is at right angles to the line AB, the 10 -foot meas- ure will just reach from 6 to 8, since 6 multi- plied by 6, plus 8 multiplied by 8, equals 100, (266) Squaring the Foundation 267 and the square root of 100 is 10. Should the 10 -foot measure be longer than from 6 to 8, the stake D is moved to the left until the pole reaches from 6 to 8 ; if the measure is too short to reach from 6 to 8, the stake is moved to the ,f s f s N r si ; ( ; f- / Fig. Locating the barn. right. All of these measurements should be gone over two or three times, as in moving the stake the lines may stretch or shrink. Either a pin or a pencil mark may be used to indicate the measurements on the lines at 6 and 8. If the building is to be 26 feet deep, that distance is measured on the line CD and the same distance from the line AB. Stakes are then driven and a line drawn from E to F, and in like manner a line is drawn from G to H. The work is verified by squaring the last angle as in the first case. The eight dots represent 268 The Farmstead stakes driven in even with the surface of the ground, at just 10 feet from the corners. Since it will be necessary to remove the lines before the horse scraper can be used in excavating, and as the construction stakes at the corners will be disturbed, the short stakes become necessary that the lines may be restored as the work proceeds and the excavation kept square and true. It will be seen that a line drawn from A to B will restore the base line, and in like manner the other lines may be quickly reproduced. It will be necessary, too, to restore these lines before the foundation wall is begun. By "plumbing" downward from the restored lines, other lines may be placed in the bottom of the excavation, which will be duplicates of those first drawn. EXCAVATION Barns are now usually built with a basement story. This implies that the building is to be placed on more or less sloping ground, in which case the removal of some earth will be neces- sary. The basement story should extend well above ground, to economize construction and to secure dry walls and floors. It is a great mis- take to place animals in cellars. The dotted line in Fig. 97 shows an incline rather too Locating the Basement 269 steep ; and in Fig. 98 one that is not steep enough. It is better to place the barn where wanted, even if the incline has to be changed, Fig. 97. ~ The original incline or slope is too steep. than to place it in an unhandy position that the best slope may be secured. It is not diffi- cult to construct a basement barn on level or nearly level land. In the latter case, all of the basement walls may be of wood, since provision can be made for a driveway to the second floor by means of a retaining wall built some ten or ■BSi Fig. 98. The original slope is not steep enough. twelve feet from the barn ; the space between the wall and the barn may be bridged (Fig. 99). Cast-off steel or iron rails form durable and excellent sleepers for such a bridge, the 270 The Farmstead plank being kept in place by spiking two -inch pieces, one on either end on top of the bridge plank. In case no retaining wall is built, and the earth lies immediately against the basement wall(Fig.lOO) , damp- ness may be largely prevented from reaching the stable and the animals by building a second wall across the side or end of the barn, inclosing a space or room for roots immediately under the drive - Fig. 99. Bridge into the barn. Fig. 100. An embankment entrance, with retaining walls holding the corners. way. The floor over this root- cellar should be deafened to prevent frost entering from above (Fig. 101). The second wall will remain com- Floor and Wall Construction 271 paratively dry, since no damp earth rests against it. This location of the root- cellar makes it con- venient for unloading the roots through trap doors in the floor, which are kept partly open Pig. 101. Deafening or packing the floor, to keep out cold. for a time after the roots have been put in, to prevent them from heating. WALLS The foundation walls for barns need not necessarily extend below frost, if the earth is as dry as it should be ; for a slight settling of the building does not result in injury, as in the plastered house. All that is necessary is to make the walls broad and strong and to have them well drained. Masons understand the necessity of bond- ing stone walls, and know how to perform the work; but too often they are careless, and there- fore need to be supervised. In Fig. 102, a well bonded wall is shown at the left end, and one imperfectly bonded at the other. If the wall 272 The Farmstead should chance to pull endwise a crack would appear to the right of the dotted line, since in the seven layers shown there is but one stone, A, that has suffi- cient contact to bond the two stones upon which it rests. The wall should also have its face and back side tied together or bonded, or it may split apart near the middle. Two walls, one of which is properly bonded, the other is not, are shown in Fig. 103. One layer only of stone can be shown in the diagram, but it will readily be seen that if the course which is placed on the one shown is laid like it, — that is, if the faulty bonding near the back side be continued for several courses — the wall will pull apart. The small, narrow stones have been placed at the back side of the wall, and the good stones in the front of the wall; this is all very well, but some long stones should reach from the Fig. 102. Good and faulty construction in a wall. Good Mortar 273 back side of the wall to near the face, if the bond is made good. No stone should reach entirely through the wall, since in cold weather the frost will follow through such stones from face to rear. There is no economy in using mortar which is poorly mixed or that which contains too much sand and too little lime or cement. If the lime or cement, that is, the binding mate- rial, does not come into immediate contact with every particle of sand, then the mortar will be weak. If not enough of the cement or • lime is used,"" the bond will also be weak. For stone walls not more than four parts of sand to one of cement or lime should be used. If the sand be sharp and clean a much stronger mortar is se- cured than when it is composed in part of rotten sand mixed with vege- table matter. If the materials are good and they are mixed in the right proportion, still good mor- tar will not be secured unless they be thoroughly Fig. 103. Poorly and properly bonded. 274 The Farmstead mixed. The best masons use the least mortar, while poor masons are wasteful of it. The prices given below are not applicable to the whole United States, but they may serve to decide the relative proportions of sand and lime which should be used, and the kind of lime which can be used most economically. Water lime retails at about eighty cents per barrel, and three parts of sand and one of lime, if the latter is fresh, should make a strong mortar. Water lime deteriorates rapidly with age, while the higher priced cements deteriorate quite slowly. Stone lime should be fresh and in no case air -slaked. It costs about one dollar a barrel and may be mixed three of sand to one of lime. Rosedale cement costs about $1.25 per barrel, and may be mixed four to one. Portland cement costs about $3 per barrel, and if used instead of the cheaper materials named above, may be mixed five to one. It should always be used for pointing walls and in the construction of cemented floors, in which case it should be mixed two or three to one. All this presupposes that the mortar is so thoroughly mixed that a lime film will surround every particle of sand. The cement and water lime is mixed with the sand before it is wet, and this dry mixing should be most thorough, as the strength of the Stone vs. Wooden Walls 275 mortar is largely dependent on the uniform incorporation of the cement with the sand. This mixing can be much more perfectly done when the material is dry than after it is wet. Other precautions are necessary. The mortar should contain the minimum of water which will permit it to work freely, and when the mortar is used it should be solidified, that is, pushed together by means of a trowel or by the material which is laid upon it. In case of cement or grout floors, the material should be pounded thoroughly. The object of all this is to compel each particle of sand to firmly touch other particles. The tendency to "water-log" mortar, to save labor in spreading it, is too comhlon. If, from any cause, the basement walls must be largely of stone, the tendency for them to gather moisture may be somewhat overcome by plastering them with cement mortar, or studding may be placed against the walls upon which unmatched boards may be nailed (Fig. 104). The warm air of the stable cannot then reach the relatively cold walls, and little condensation will appear on the boards, since they are always more nearly the temperature of the stable than are the stone. Wooden basement walls are preferable in all ways to those constructed of stone, grout or 276 The Farmstead brick, wherever the earth does not rest against them. An excellent method of constructing the walls of the basement story is shown in a section of the first story, Fig. 104. The stud- ding should be 2x6 inches, with short pieces of 2x4 placed edgewise between them to serve as outside nailing girts. A broad, steep water-table is placed just above the upper end of the studding to receive Fig. 104. Lining the basement wall. the boarding above the basement and to im- prove the outside appearance of the building. After the outside boarding of the basement and the window frames are placed, the insidQ of the wall is boarded horizontally with unmatched sea- soned lumber, and as the boards are being put on, the hollow wall space is filled with short straw or straw and chaff. This construction has proved to be the most satisfactory of any tried. The Basement Floor 277 wall is cheap, durable, dry, excludes the cold, and still allows a little fresh air to enter the stables gradually. Objection has been made to this construction on the ground that it harbors mice and rats. After having used buildings with walls of this character for a quarter of a century, I must say that the objection is not well taken. FLOORS The floor of the first story should be partly of wood and partly of cement or of brick. All voidings of the animals should be removed from the stable at least once a day. Allowing the manure to drop through gratings, with the view of letting it remain there more than one day, is decidedly wrong, and any ar- rangement which does not admit of the thorough cleaning and airing of the stable daily is objec- tionable. Nor is the practice of washing out the stables economical, since it necessitates great waste of manure or too great expense in caring for and removing the diluted excreta. If the floors and stable be well cleaned with shovel and broom, and dusted with gypsum, dry earth, saw- dust, or chaffy material, good sanitary conditions will be secured easily and cheaply. While the stables are being cleaned and treated they should i --.- /o' | «■> i 3*t' • '4 i 1 ;.:,.■ #>