lR!ilii!itll!llliL£II ilifli'l'tMM'R'll'l LIBRARY Connecticut Agricultural College Class No X'^SJLO 65 \ The Standard Dictionary of Facts HISTORY, LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, BIOG- RAPHY, GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ART, GOV- ERNMENT, POLITICS, INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE, SCIENCE, EDUCATION, NATURAL HISTORY, STATISTICS AND MISCELLANY A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF READY REFERENCE BASED UPON EVERYDAY NEEDS ORIGINALLY PREPARED AND SUBSEQUENTLY REEDITED, EXTENSIVELY REVISED, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED BY COMPETENT SPECIALISTS EXCLUSIVELY UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF The Frontier Press Company BUFFALO, N. Y. 1920 Copyright, 190S, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1909, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1910, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1911, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1912, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1913, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY., Copyright, 1914, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS CO:\IPANY. Copyright, 1916, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1917, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1918, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1919, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. Copyright, 1920, BY THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. All rights reserved. PUBLISHERS' PREFACE After a wide experience in selling single- volume reference works, the publishers /-\ planned the production of The Standard Dictionary of Facts by an entirely new -*- -^ method, the success of which is now a notable achievement in twentieth century book making. Instead of assuming to know exactly what the public desired in a quick reference manual, or of taking for granted that any editor we might employ would possess such knowledge, we went to the only infallible source of information, — the people themselves. Through our large force of expert salesmen, men and women of education, culture and experience, who had been in personal contact with tens of thousands of reference book users throughout the country, we secured first hand knowledge of what the average person desired above all else to find in a handy single volume. By carefully classifying the results of this extensive inquiry — representing hundreds of thousands of visits to parents, pupils, teachers, professional and business men, artisans and farmers — a definite working plan for the contents was evolved and placed in the hands of the editorial staff with exphcit instructions to build the work strictly in accordance with this unique method. In other words. The Standard Dictionary of Facts is not the product of an editor, or of a corps of editors, in the customary sense. The sole function of its editors has been to embody as completely as possible from available material the subject matter which had been specificallj'' indicated by a vast number of reference book users. But in the mind of the publishers this working plan embraced another fundamental constructive idea, —that of generous revision and improvement, to be made in quick response to discovered needs. In consequence the text of the work from the first has been subjected to repeated improvements some of which have involved much greater labor and expense than the original edition. A single revision has included changes on upwards of 500 pages; and the index, now the most comprehensive ever placed in a work of hke magnitude, has been repeatedly made anew. Since the pubhcation of the original edition in 1908, no less than ten separately copyrighted revised editions have been made, so that it is now sub- stantially a new work. At this point it is fitting to state that the appreciation of the public has been most gen- erous. We are gratified to be able to say that our expensive policy of improvement has been rewarded by the largest patronage ever extended to a single-volume reference work. We, therefore, feel peculiarly indebted to hundreds of thousands of subscribers for their constructively helpful support, without which the phenomenal development and popularity of this manual would have been impossible.' " Hundreds of special reference works together with the resources of large hbrarics have been drawn upon to secure the vast range of information now contained in this volume. In addition, much special aid has been furnished by many persons throughout the United States and Canada. The valuable departments of Literature and Language are almost entirely due to the efforts of Miss Susan F. Chase, M. A., Pd. D., and of Miss Helen L. Dunston, of the Buffalo State Normal School. The increasingly popular section on Natural History was rewritten and enlarged with the addition of many new subjects by Professor Irving P. Bishop, for twenty-five years a successful teacher of natural science. Notwithstanding the great expense and labor necessary to correct the defects of the first edition and despite the fact that the present edition embodies the closest approach to up-to-dateness yet attained by an American reference work, our standard demands a still higher degree of accuracy and perfection. We, therefore, shall welcome in the future, as always in the past, any intelligent criticism, information or suggestion that will assist us in making the work still more useful. THE FRONTIER PRESS COMPANY. TABLE OF CONTENTS FIRST BOOK HISTORY DICTIONARY OF HISTORY — Concise Histories of Countries and States: Alabama — Argentine Republic — Arizona — Arkansas — Austria-Hungary — - Belgium — Brazil — California — Canada — Chile — China — Colorado — Connecticut — Cuba — Delaware — Denmark — England — Florida — France — Georgia — German Empire — Greece — Idaho — Illinois — Indiana — Iowa — Ireland — Italy — Japan — Kansas — Kentucky — Maine — Maryland — Massachusetts — Mexico — Michigan — Minnesota — Mississippi — Missouri — Montana — Nebraska — Nevada — New Hamp- shire — New Jersey — New Mexico — New York — North Carolina — North Dakota — Norway — Ohio — Oklahoma — Oregon — Pennsylvania — Persia — Portugal — Rhode Island — Russia — Scotland — South Carolina — South Dakota — Spain — Sparta — Sweden — Switzerland — Tennessee — Texas — Turkey — United States — Utah — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming — EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS — GREAT BATTLES — GREAT WARS — BIPORTANT TREATIES — OUTLINES OF AMERICAN HISTORY — BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — RUINS — RULERS OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS, PAST AND PRESENT — HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS AND TABULATIONS. SECOND BOOK LANGUAGE The English Language — L^se of Capital Letters — Punctuation — Right LTse of Words — Figures of Speech — Synonyms — Letter Writing — Words and Phrases from the Classic and Modern Languages — Abbreviations — Mispronounced Words — Forms of English Composition — Tra\-els — Memoirs — Biography — History — News — Fiction — Short Story — Parables — Ai.legories — Description — Exposition — Essays — Editorials — Reviews — Criticisms — Argument — Addresses — Lectures — Orations — Sermons. THIRD BOOK LITERATURE Preliminary View op Literature — Oriental Literature — Literature of India — Persia — China — The Hebrews — Egypt — Phenica — Assyria — Arabia — Greece — Rome — Scandinavia — Germany — France — Italy — Spain — Russia — England — America — List of Books for Children's Library — Family Libraries — Books and Authors, Classified — Famous Poems, Authors and First Lines — Pen Names OF Noted Writers — Mythology — » Names* in Fiction, Literary Plots, and Allusions. FOURTH BOOK BIOGRAPHY Great Men and Women of the Past — Great Men and Women of the Present — Authors — Statesmen — Warriors — Rulers — Jurists — Lawyers — Physicians — Scien- tists — Educators — Sculptors — Painters — Architects — Preachers — Invent- ors — Discoverers — Patriots — Editors — Philanthropists — Actors — Musicians — Financiers — Religious Leaders — Philosophers — Mathematicians — Astron- omers — Artisans — Orators — Engineers — Merchants — Geniuses — Savants — AND Others. FIFTH BOOK GEOGRAPHY, TRAVEL, ARCHITECTURE Selected Topics in Physical, Descriptive, and Political Geography — Continents — Oceans — Ri\^rs — Mountains — Lakes — Countries — States — Cities — Battle- fields — Castles — Cathedrals — Churches — Monuments — Obelisks — Palaces — Shrines — Museums — Art Galleries — Historic Buildings — Historic Ruins — Fashionable Resorts — Architectural Structures — Theaters — Tabulations. TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 SIXTH BOOK GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Government of the Principal Countries of the World — Government of the States of THE Union — Go\'ernment of Territorial and Insular Possessions — Go\^rnment OF Cities — Abyssinia — Afghanistan — Alabama — Argentine Republic — Arizona — Arkansas — Austria-Hungary — Belgium — Bolivia — Brazil — British Empire — Bulgaria — California — Chile — China — Colombia — Colorado — Connecticut — Corea — Cuba — Delaware — Denmark — District of Columbia — Dominican Republic — Ecuador — Florida — France — Georgia — German Empire — Greece — Hayti — Idaho — Illinois — India, Empire of — Indiana — Iowa — Ireland — Italy — Japan — Kansas — Kentucky — Liberia — Louisiana — Maine — Maryland — Massachusetts — Mexico — Montana — Montenegro — Morocco — Nebraska — Netherlands — Nevada — New Hampshire — New Jersey — New Mexico — New York — New Zealand — North Carolina — North Dakota — Norway — Ohio — Oklahoma — Oman — Oregon — Panama — Paraguay — Pennsylvania — Persia — Peru — Portugal — Prussia — Rhode Island — Roumania — Russia — Scotland — Servia — SiAM — South Carolina — South Dakota — Spain — Sweden — Switzer- land — Tennessee — Texas — Turkey — United States of America — Uruguay — Utah — Venezuela — Vermont — Virginia — Washington — West Virginia — Wisconsin — Wyoming — Zanzibar — Tabulations and Statistics. SEVENTH BOOK INDUSTRY, INVENTION, COMMERCE Agriculture — Banks — Canals — Commerce — Commercial Products — Finance — Forestry' — Imports and Exports — Insurance — Inventions — Iron and Steel — Labor Organizations — Live Stock Industry — Manufactures — Merchant Marine — Mining — Money — Occupations — Railroads — Transportation — Trusts — World Marts — World's Staples — Tabulations and Statistics. EIGHTH BOOK SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION Branches of Human Knowledge — Colleges and Universities — Educational Systems and Topics — Fine Arts — Learned Societies — Music — Religions and Religious Denominations — Electricity — Topics in Physical Science, Medical Science, Biological Science, Electrical and Mechanical Science — Scientific, Educational and Religious Statistics. NINTH BOOK NATURAL HISTORY ANIMAL KINGDOM: Birds, Insects, Mammals, Reptiles — MINERAL' KINGDOM: Coals and Clays, Gases, Fossils, Liquids, Metals, Precious Stones, Rocks, Soils — VEGETABLE KINGDOM: Cereals and Bulbs, Grasses, Flowers, Forests, Fruits — CURIOSITIES AND WONDERS. TENTH BOOK MISCELLANY Curious Titles — Notable Bridges — Chemical Substances — Popular Names of Cities — Earthquakes — Fraternal Organizations — Holidays — Death Rates — Mourn- ing Customs — Names and Name Origins — Navies of the World — State Mottoes and Popular Names — Arithmetical Principles — Weights and Measures — Distances. HOW TO USE The Standard Dictionary of Facts In these swift-moving times the best in- formed win, the uninformed fail. Exceptions have become so few that everyone nowadays desires to be better informed. This handbook of ready reference will give correct an.swers to more than a hundred , thousand questions, — a remarkable nuniber for a single volume. More noteworthy still, it has been found to answer ninety-five out of every hundred questions that come up in the average person's life and affairs. This sig- nificant fact has been proved by ten years of testing in the hands of nearly a million users. Most important of all, it will per- form an equally helpful service for every- one who will faithfully follow a few very simple rules. First of All, this book must be kept where it can be quickly used; not stored in a closet, hidden on a high shelf, or locked be- hind glass doors to keep it clean. Place this book on the home reading table, the child's study table, the workshop bench, or the office desk, and see to it that it is always within easy reach. In the home and school further encourage its use by frequent personal example and by assisting those who have not yet formed the habit of looking up answers to daily questions. The Working Plan. The arrange- ment of the information is very simple and is as easily understood as reading time by the clock. The Table of Contents on pages 4 and 5 indicates its wide range. The keys to this great array of facts are found in the cross-reference Index (pages 867 to 908), by far the largest and most valuable yet placed in a single volume of similar scope. To learn how to use this index is to learn how to reach the facts in the volume. Finding Facts. Most users desire im- mediate information on single points which arise from time to time. In all such cases one should turn at once to the Index. Sup- pose one wishes to find which territory had the largest population when admitted to the Union. Tui-ning to the index under T, one finds, page 904, the entry "Territories" in the third column. Note that immediately imder the word, and set over a little to the right (sub-indexed), is a group of points about "Territories." Passing down this list to the second entry one finds "Population," followed by a dotted line leading to the figures 625, which is the nimnber of the page where the information may be foimd. But instead of "territory," suppose one first thought of the word "state." Turning to S in the index, one finds, page 896 second column, the entry "States." Set over to the right beneath it is a sub-indexed hst of points about "States." Passing down the column one finds the entry "Population," and is here also referred to page 625. But suppose at the outset one had in mind the word "population" instead of "territory" or "state." Upon turning to the index under P one finds, page 891, the entry "Population" and, sub-indexed under it in proper order, the entries about both "States" and "Territories" with references hkewise to page 625 where, in a well arranged table, correct answers to hundreds of similar questions maj^ be found. The foregoing example is merely one of scores of thousands which may be as readily found by means of the carefully constructed cross-reference Index, making fact finding a keen pleasure to those who wish to be well informed. If, in any case, the name, subject, or title looked for is not found in the Index, do not conclude that the information sought for is not given. Try other related words, names, subjects or terms. Then, if not successful, read the explanatory Note at the beginning of the Index, page 867, and in case the sub- ject sought for seems related to any of the special dictionaries, continue search among them. Each of about twenty special dic- tionaries such as Names and Name Origins, Pen Names of Noted Writers, Famous Poems, Mythology, etc., is self indexed in its proper place in the text. A brief 'period of earnest practice will enable an inexperienced beginner in the use of refer- ence books to make good progress in finding information. Form the Right Habit. This work contains vastly more information and will answer an immensely greater number of questions than many purchasers at first re- ahze. Consequently, never hesitate to test the work for points concerning any question that may arise. The result will be a source of increasing satisfaction and surprise at its unexf)ectcd range and resources. One will not find answers to merely trivial and non- sensical questions, but as a furnisher of authentic information on matters of conse- quence, the more thoroughly it is used the more highly it will be prized. Further, seekers for information sometimes are not aware at the outset that they have started on the v^Tong track. Yet discoveries are made only by those who seek them, and while seeking one often finds greater things than those which he set out to find. Columbus was looking for the Indies when he discovered America. Likewise, tens of thousands of users have achieved an education and formed the habit of self information as the result of systematically searching this volume. Finally, remember that this book is designed and planned to be used. By being worn, soiled, and cover-scarred from constant handling it will fulfill its real purpose and repay the owner a thousand fold for his purchase and his pains. To be kept in an unhandled and spotless condition would be the worst fate that could befall it. HISTORY Abdication is the act of giving up an office. It is sometimes compulsory, and some- times the result of vexation and disappointment. The following monarchs have abdicated: Abbas II. of Egypt 1914 Abdul-Hamid II. (forced) 1909 Amadeus I. (duke of Aosta) of Spain, 1873 Boris of Bulgaria, 1918 Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced), 1849 Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia, 1802 Charles I. of Austria-Hungary, 1918 Charles IV. of Spain (forced), 1808 Charles V. of Spain and Germany 1556 Charles X. of France (forced), ." 1830 Christina of Sweden 1654 Constantine I. of Greece (forced), 1917 Diocletian and Maximian, 305, 308 Edward II. of England (forced), 1327 Ferdinand of Austria, 1848 Ferdinand of Bulgaria 1918 Francis II. of the Two Sicilies (forced), 1860 Henry VI. of England (forced) 1471 James II. of England (forced) 1689 Lidj Jeassu of Abyssinia, 1916 Louis Philippe of France (forced) 1848 Ludwig of Bavaria (forced) 1848 Manuel II. of Portugal (forced), 1910 Milan of Servia 1889 Napoleon I. of France (forced) 1814 Napoleon III. of France (forced), 1870 Nicholas I. of Montenegro,* 1918 Nicholas II. of Russia (forced), 1917 Otho of Greece (forced) 1862 Pedro II. of Brazil (forced), 1889 Poniatowski of Poland (forced) 1795 Pu-Yi of China (Hauan Tung), 1912 Richard II. of England (forced), 1399 Victor Amadeus of Sardinia 1730 Victor Emmanuel, 1821 William I. of Holland 1840 William II. of Germany 1918 ' Abyssinia. The oldest accounts of the Abyssinians are full of fables, but seem sufficient to prove that they attained some degree of civili- zation even in remote antiquity. Chi'istianity was introduced about the middle of the Fourth Century, and soon prevailed extensively. Axum was at that time the capital. Two centuries later the Abyssinians were powerful enough to invade Arabia, and conquer part of Yemen. In the Tenth Century a Jewish Princess over- threw the reigning dynasty, the surviving repre- sentative of which fled to Shoa. After three centuries of confusion the empire was restored under Icon Amlac, and some progress was made in improvement. Early in the Fifteenth Cen- tury the Abyssinians entered into close relations with the Portuguese. Under the influence of the Portuguese missionaries the ro3'al family adopted the Roman CathoKc faith, and the old Coptic Church was formally united to the See of Rome. The people and ecclesiastics obsti- nately resisted the innovation; the emperor gave way; and ultimately, in 1632, the foreign priests were expelled or put to death. Though Christianity is still the professed religion of Abyssinia, it exists only in its lowest form, and is little more than ceremonial. The Church is national and independent, but the visible head, or Abuna ("our father"), is ordained bj' the Cop- tic Patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines of the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic Church, especially in the monophysite heresy; but several pecuhar rites are observed, including the rite of circmncision and observance of the Mosaic laws respecting food, love-feasts, and adult baptism. The oldest Abyssinian churches are hewn out of rocks. The modern churches are mostly I'ound or conical buildings, thatched with straw and surrounded by pillars of cedar Statues and bas-reliefs are not tolerated in churches, but paintings are numerous. In 1860, King Theodore (born 1818, crowned 1855) felt himself insulted by the British Consul, whom he imprisoned, with some missionaries. A large EngUsh force under Lord Napier then came to Abyssinia and captured the strong fortress of Magdala in April, 1868. On this occasion Theodore committed suicide. After an interval of anarchy Prince Kassai assumed power as Johannes II., in 1872. He died in 1889, and was succeeded by Menehk II. Abyssinia then practically became an Italian protectorate. During 1895 a war broke out between Abyssinia and Italy, which was closed in 1896. In 1906, an agreement was concluded between Great Britain, France, and Italy, as to their interests in Abyssinia. In 1907, a decree was issued by Menelik II. announcing the formation of a cabi- net on European lines. Abyssinian War, The. Between the British and Theodore, King of Abj'ssinia. This expedition (for the release of missionaries, Cap- tain Crawford, and others) was under Sir R. Napier, who joined the army at Senafe, January, 1868. On April 10th, Colonel Phayre defeated Theodore at Magdala, which was bombarded and taken on April 13th. The return of the British armj^ commenced April 18th, 1868. Achaean League, The. A confeder- acy of the twelve towTis of Achsea. It was dis- solved by Alexander the Great, but reorganized B. C. 280, and again dissolved B. C. 147. The second of these leagues, founded at Megalopolis, contained all the chief cities of Peloponnesus. It contended with the Macedonians and the Romans for the hberty of Greece; but, being beaten at Scarphea by Metellus, and at Leuco- p6tra by Mummius, it dissolveu soon after the taking of Corinth. The twelve cities of Achsea, in Ionia, were founded by the HeracUdae. Achaean AVar, The. Roman ambas- sadors at Corinth enjoin the dismemberment of the Achaean League and are insulted (B. C. 147). Kritolaos, general of the league, at once besieged Heracleia (B. C. 146), but was defeated at Scarphea by Metellus, and slew himself. Diajos, successor of Kritolaos, was defeated at Leucopetra by Mummius (B. C. 146). Corinth was then destroyed, and all Greece was erected into a Roman Province, September, 146. Actiac War, Tlie. This arose out of the rupture between Octavian and Antony, two of the Triumvirs (B. C. 33). Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, and de- 10 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS feated Antony at Actium, 2d September, B. C. 31. Both Cleopatra and Antony killed them- selves. Alexandria was taken by Octavian, August 30th (B. C. 33), and Egypt was made a Roman Province, B. C. 30. ^Etolian Confederacy, The, B. C. 323, called into existence by the Lamian War. The states used to assemble annually in the autumn at Thermum, and the assembly was called the PanictoUcon. B. C. 189, the iEtolian states were subjected to the Romans. The object of the Lamian War was (on the death of Alexander the Great) to Uberate Greece from Macedonia. The Athenians were the prin- cipal insurgents, but were defeated in 322 at Cranon, by Antipater. Afghanistan. The history of Afghanis- tan belongs almost to modern times. The col- lective name of the country itself is of modern and external origin (Persian). In 1738, the coun- try was conquered by the Persians under Nadir Shah. On his death, in 1747, Ahmed Shah, one of his generals, obtained the sovereignty of Afghanistan, and became the founder of a dy- nasty which lasted about eighty years. At the end of that time Dost ]\Iohammcd, the ruler of Cabul, had acquired a preponderating influence in the country. On account of his dealings with the Russians the British resolved to detlirone him and restore Shah Shuja, a former ruler. In April, 1839, a British army under Sir John Keane entered Afghanistan, occupied Cabul, and placed Shah Shuja on the throne, a force of 8,000 being left to support the new sovereign. Sir W. MacNaghten remained as envoy at Cabul, with Sir Alexander Burnes as assistant envoy. The Afghans soon organized a wide-spread in- surrection, which came to a head on November 2, 1841, when Burnes and a number of British officers, besides women and children, were mur- dered, MacNaghten being murdered not long after. The other British leaders now made a treaty with the Afghans, at whose head was Akbar, son of Dost Mohammed, agreeing to withdraw the forces from the country, while the Afghans were to furnish them with provisions and escort them on their way. On January 6, 1842, the British left Cabul and began their most disastrous retreat. The cold was intense, they had almost no food — for the treacherous Afghans did not fulfill their promises — and day after day they were assailed by bodies of the enemy. By the 13th, 20,000 persons, including camp-followers, women, and children, were de- stroyed. Some were kept as prisoners, but only one man. Dr. Brydon, reached Jelalabad, which, as well as Kandahar, was still held by British troops. In a few months General Pollock, with a fresh army from India, retook Cabul and soon finished the war. Shah Shuja having been as- sassinated. Dost Mohammed again obtained the throne of Cabul, and acquired extensive power in Afghanistan. He joined with the Sikhs against the British, but afterward made an offensive and defensive alUance with the latter. He died in 1863, having nominated his son Shere AU his successor. Shere Ali entered into friendly re- lations with the British, but in 1878, having re- pulsed a British envoy and having refused to receive a British mission (a Russian mission being meantime at his court), war was declared against him, and the British troops entered Afghanistan. They met with comparatively Uttle resistance; the emir tied to Turkestan, where he soon after died. His son Yakoob Khan having succeeded him concluded a treaty with the British (at Gandamak, May, 1879), in which a certain extension of the British fron- tier, the control by Britain of the foreign policy of Afghanistan, and the residence of a British envoy in Cabul, were the chief stipulations. The members of the mission were again treach- erously attacked and slain, and troops were sent into the country. Cabul was occupied, Kan- dahar and Ghazni were relieved, and Yakoob Khan was sent to imprisonment in India. In 1880, Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mo- hammed, was recognized by Britain as emir of the country. Until his death in 1901 he was on friendly tenns with the British, by whom he was subsidized. Encroachments by the Russians on territory claimed by Afghanistan threatened a rupture between Britain and Russia in 1885, and led to the delimitation of the frontier of Afghanistan on the side next the territory now occupied by Russia. In 1897, a punitive ex- pedition was again sent against the tribes around the Khyber Pass, who disregarded their pledges. In 1905, the Emir Habibullah, son of Abdur- Rahman, ratified a treaty with Great Britain agreeing to accept the advice of the British Government in regard to his foreign relations, and was guaranteed against unprovoked ag- gressions on his dominions. Afghanistan is divi- ded into four provinces, Cabul, Turkistan, Herat, and Kandahar, each under a hakim or governor. Alabama. The name, derived from the Indians, denotes "Here we rest." Originally a part of Georgia, the country included in Alabama and Mississippi was organized as a Territory in 1798. In 1812, that part of Florida, then belong- ing to Spain, lying between the Perdido and Pearl rivers on the Gulf Coast, was seized by the United States troops and annexed to the Territory. Alabama remained a Territory after the western portion was admitted as a State under the name of Mississifjpi, and was itself admitted as a State in 1819. On January 11 1861, the Ordinance of Secession was. adopted by the Secession Convention, and in February a provisional congress met at Montgomery and organized the Government of the Confederate States. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated Presi- dent of the Confederacy at Montgomery, Febru- ary 18, 1861, and the government seat was moved from Montgomery to Richmond in July, 1861. Mobile was finally captured by the Fed- erals, April 12, 1805, and on May 4th the State was included in the surrender made by General Richard Taylor. After the Confederate sur- render, the State passed under the phases of pro- visional and mihtary government until 1868, when it was regularly reconstituted as a State in the Union. In 1901, a Constitutional Con- vention, called to regulate negro suffrage, was in session from ]\Iay 21st to. September 2d at Mont- gomery. On November 11, 1901, the new con- stitution was ratified by popular vote. In 1911 the legislature passed a bill providing for the adoption of a commission form of government by HISTORY 11 the municipalities of the State. In January, 1915, the legislature enacted a statutory law en- forcing state-wide Prohibition, which took effect July 1, 1915. Alabama Claims. A series of claims for indemnity made upon Great Britain by the United States, based upon alleged failure of Great Britain to observe certain obUgations of international law. These claims chiefly arose from damages inflicted by vessels in the Confederate service which had been fitted out or built in English waters. The history of the Confederate crusier Alabama is tj^pical of the more flagrant cases. This vessel was built at Birkenhead, England, and, although the attention of the British government was repeatedly called to suspicious circumstances, "No. 290," as the ship was called, sailed July 29, 1862, without register or clearance papers. After taking on equipment in the Azores from two English vessels, she assumed the name Alabama and began her famous career of destruction. Before being sunk by the Kearsarge on June 19, 1864, the Alabama is said to have destroyed 70 vessels. The de- termination of the extent to which Great Britain was responsible for this was the most important problem of diplomacy resulting from the Civil War. By the important treaty of Washington, 1871, it was stipulated that the Alabama claims should be submitted to the decision of five arbi- trators, — one named by England, one by the United States, and one each by the king of Italy, the emperor of Brazil, and the president of Switzerland. The arbitrators met at Geneva Dec. 15, 1871, and on Sept. 14, 1872, signed the final award in which it was decreed by unanimous vote that England was responsible for the depre- dations of the cruiser Alabama and, in full satis- faction of this and all other claims, was directed to pay an indemnity of $15,500,000. _ This de- cision greatly strengthened the principle of arbitration as a means of settling serious inter- national differences. Alamo, The, a mission church at San Antonio, in what is now Bexar County, Texas, converted into a fort. In 1836 it was occupied by about 150 of the revolutionists in the Texan War of Independence. Though attacked by 4,000 Mexicans under Santa Ana, the Texans held it from February 23d to March 6th, when Santa Ana took it by storm. All but seven of the gar- rison perished, six of these being murdered after their surrender, and one man escaping to report the affair. In this garrison were the celebrated David Crockett, and Colonel James Bowie, in- ventor of the bowie-knife. The memory of this massacre became an incitement to the Texans in subsequent encounters, and "Remember the Alamo!" became a war-cry in their struggle for freedom, Alsace-Lorraine. Originally a part of Roman Gaul and inhabited by Celtic tribes. In the fourth and fifth centuries it was overrun by Teutonic tribes who largely supplanted the older inhabitants so that by the tenth century por- tions of the country were extensively German- ized. However, in the latter middle ages Lor- raine became more and more distinctively French. In 1552 Lorraine became a part of France, not by conquest but by a treaty, signed by all the Protestant princes of Germany, the text of which states that the German language had never been used in the towns of Toul, Verdun, and Metz. Alsace proper became the possession of the Habs- burgs and in 1648 w^as ceded to France by the emperor of Austria who stated in the treaty that "no other emperor, in the future, will ever have any power in any time to affirm any right on these territories." Southern Alsace, including Miilhausen, formerly belonged to Switzerland but during the French revolution decided by popular vote to become a part of the French republic. In 1870, following the defeat of France by the Prussians, Bismarck made the surrender of Alsace-Lorraine a principal condition of peace. Notwithstanding the opposition of the inhabi- tants and a unanimous protest of their deputies that "Europe cannot allow a people to be seized like a flock of sheep," Alsace-Lorraine was made an imperial territory of Germany under the direct control of the kaiser. Despite strenuous opposi- tion, met by alternating pohcies of military severity and mildness, the complete Germaniza- tion of the provinces was steadily aimed at through laws compelling the use of "the German language in the public schools, in courts, and municipal bodies and through German control of the press and higher learning. AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED Naval engagements are indicated by italics; * means that it was a drawn battle; f means a general estimate. Date ,Tulv 2, Feb. 11, May 5, Oct. 27, Oct. s, Nov. i:^, May 28, Jan. 2i», March 2, Oct. 2, Aug. 12, Marc il7. Sept. 16, Sept. 17, 1S98 1865 1864 1864 1864 1776 1781 1814 1815 1863 1776 1813 1862 1862 Name of Battle Aguadores (including July 1st), Aikens, Albemarle, Albemarle, Allatoona, Alfred-transports Alliance-squadron, Alligator, America-Elizabeth, Anderson's Cross-Roads, . . . Andrea Doria-Racehorse, . . . Antelope-Zephyr, Antietam (continued), .... Antietam (ended) Opponent Spanish Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. English English Conf. Conf. ViCTOK u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. u. s. u. s. CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd Ct 4 2 142 5 2 8 4 1 12 9t 25 352 2 20 2 16 2,010 I 9,416 1,842 Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd 10 31 338 3 11 32 6 30 160 704 10 30 14 1 13 41 3 2 9,399 12 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date April 9, 1865 Aug. 14. 1813 July 15, 1862 Jan. 10, 1863 Jan. 11, 1863 Oct. 12, 1863 Oct. 13, 1863 Oct. 0, 1779 July 14, 1813 Sept. July 23, 1864 22, 1864 Aug. 3, 1812 Aug. 3, 1804 Aug. 7, 1804 Nov. 29, 1813 Marchie, 1865 Feb. 1, 18H4 Oct. 21. 1S61 Feb. 4, 1863 Aug. 5, 1862 Oct. 4, 1863 Aug. 27, 1863 Jan. 29, 1863 June 24, 1813 Nov. 6, 1861 Nov. 7, 1801 Aug. 16, 1777 MarchlS, 1805 MarchlS, 18(i5 May 26, 1S64 May 27, 1864 May 28. 1864 May 29, 1864 May 30, 1864 June 9, 1863 Jan. 11, 1865 July 26, 1864 Oct. 24, 18(i4 Oct. 25, 1864 June 25, 1876 May 17, 1863 Aug. 24, 1814 Feb. 13, 18H2 Oct. 10, 1863 Sept. 8, 1862 April 3, 1780 June 3, 1776 Sept. 23, 1779 Oct. 12. 1800 March 31, 1865 Sept. 11. 1777 June 10. 1864 April 29. 1862 Oct. 14, 1863 Aug. 4. 1812 Oct. 19. 1863 Feb. 22 1847 Feb. 23. 1847 July 21. 1861 Aug. 29, 1862 Aug. 30. 1862 June 17, 17 Vo July 1, 1863 July 7, 1862 Oct. 7 1812 Aug. 16 1780 June 11 1898 June 12 1898 June 13 1898 June 14 1S98 Nov. 16, 1863 Jan. 27 1814 April 23 1864 April 13, 1813 March 1 1813 Nov. 20, 18.56 Nov. 21 18.56 Nov. 22 18.56 April 26 1863 Jan. 14 1863 July 7 1777 Aug. 19 1780 Oct. 19 1864 Aug. 8 1862 Name of Battle Appomattox Arnus-Pelican, Arkansas, Arkansas Post (continued), . . . Arkansas Post (ended), Arrow Rock (continued), .... Arrow Rock (ended). Assault on Savannah, Asp, attack on the, Athens, .\la.. .\tlanta. Hood's first sortie, . . . Atlas-Planter and Pursuit Attack on Tripoli Attack on Tripoli Autosse, Averysboro, Baohelor's Creek, Ball's Bluff Batesville, Baton Rouge Baxter's Springs. Bayou Metea Bear River Beaver Dam Belmont (continued) Belmont (ended) Bennington, Bentonville (continued), .... Bentonville (ended) Bermuda Hundreds (continued), . Bermuda Hundreds (continued), . Bermuda Hundreds (eontinued), . Bermuda Himdreds (continued), . Bermuda Hundreds (ended),. . . Beverly Ford Beverly, W. Va., Big Creek, Big Blue (continued) Big Blue (ended) Big Horn, Black River. Bladensburg Blooming Gap, Blue Springs, . .■ Boat attack on Charleston, .... Boats-Black Snake Boats-tender to Nautilus, .... Bonhomme Richard-Serapia, . . '. Boston-Berceau Boydton and White Oak Road, . Brandywine Brice's Cross-Roads, Miss., . . . Bridgeport, .Ala •. . Bristow Station Brownstown Buckland's Mills Buena Vista (continued) Tiuena Vista (ended) Bull Run Bull Run No. 2 (continued), . . . Bull Run No. 2 (ended), .... Bunker Hill Cabin Creek, Cache Swamp Caledonia and Detroit-boats, . . . Camden Camp McCalla (continued), . . . Camp McCalla (continued), . . . (^amp McCalla (continued), . . . Camp McCnlla (ended), Campbell Station, Camp Defiance Cane River Canonnier-M ediisa, Canonnier-W arspile, Canton Forts (continued), . . . . Canton Forts (continued) Canton Forts (ended), Cape Girardeau Carney's Bridge Castletown, Catawba Fords Cedar Creek, Cedar Mountain (continued), . . Opponent Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. English Tripolitan Tripolitan Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians English Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. E^nglish English English French Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. English C6nf. Mexican Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English English Spanish Spanish Spanish Spanish Conf. Indians Conf. English English Chinese Chinese Chinese Conf. Conf. English Endish Victor U.S. Eng. U. S. u. s. u. s. Conf. u. s. Eng. Eng. U. S. U. S. U. S. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. U. S. u. s. Conf. U. S. u. s. Eng. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. Ind. u. s. Eng. u. s. u. s. Conf. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. Eng. Conf. U. S. * Eng. Conf. U. S. u. s. Conf. Conf. Conf. Eng. U. S. U. S. U. S. Eng. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Conf. U. S. U. s. Eng. Eng. U. S. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. Enjr. CASUALTIES United States Killed Wo'nd'd 203 6 18 6 129 "45 68 4 499 2 1 22 11 77 24 223 2 99 80 2 12 25 "96 30 igi 201 156 5 18 "4i 261 29 30 33 23 1 49 4 177 289 223 3 50 17 8 '267 481 798 145 8 8 1 94 112 17 12 6 7 211 162 297 17 50 25 831 "i62 173 6 2,142 5 13 6 54 477 77 226 4 203 21 8 49 50t 'i'73 41 I'.ios 289 20 32 "62 242 42 2 62 57 2 3 67 11 1.134 568 394 8 150 30 23 '4.56 1.011 4.023 304 15 45 4 281 11 186 132 162 3 3 28 18 27 583 281 3,516 Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd 189 2 10 lot 60 "84 18 10 12 1.162 2 60 50t 204 86 13 68 5t 125 12 11 224 30t 23 i 59 '26'7 864 253 3 48 "■78 81 40 183 13 48 3 4 49 4 236 98 124 31 150 4 '568 362 1.696 369 42 110 5 80 60t 136 37 108 400 22 14 35 2 961 386 6 15 30t 78 '265 37 21 18 7,337 4 70 80t 632 22 242 7t 234 32 31 8 34 '682 81 I'.ssi 2,136 354 6 102 'i35 126 186 297 26 94 2 5 18 68 17 998 398 582 42 250 31 l',24i 1,390 6,154 695 108 150 10 245 140t 214 164 4 1 540 43 36 144 21 3,239 HISTORY 13 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Name of Battle Opponknt Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Aug. 9, 1862 Cedar Mountain (ended) Conf. Conf. 450 660 223 1,060 April May 18. 1847 16, 1863 Mexican Conf. U. S. U. S. 63 426 368 1,842 loot 486 500t 1,954 Champion Hills, April 30, 1863 Chancollorsville (continued), .... Conf. Conf. May 1, 1863 Cliancellorsville (continued), .... Conf. Conf. May 2, 1863 Chanceliorsville (continued), .... Conf. Conf. May 3, 1863 Chanceilorsville (continued) Conf. Conf. May 4, 1863 Chanceliorsville (ended) Conf. Conf. 1,512 9,518 1,718 10,563 Sept. 13, 1847 Chapultepec, Mexican U. S. 116 671 i.ooot 2,000 June 4, 1782 Chamiint/ Sally-Revenue, English u. s. 1 4 3 6 Feb. 25, 1815 Chasscur-St. Laivrence English U.S. 5 8 15 23 July 6, 1864 Chattahoochee (continued) Conf. u. s. July 8, 1864 Chattahoochee (continued), .... Conf. u. s. July 10, 1864 Chattalioochee (ended) Conf. U.S. 80 450 201 402 Nov. 23, 1863 Chattanooga, including Orchard Knob, Lookout Mountain, and Missionary Eidge (continued), Conf. U. S. Nov. 24, 1863 Chattanooga, etc. (continued), . . . Conf. u. s. Nov. 25 1863 Chattanooga, etc. (endetl), .... Conf. u. s. 757 4,529 850 2,150 June 1 1813 Chesapeake-Shannon, English Eng. 47 99 24 59 Dec. 7 18 1777 1863 Chestnut Hill, English Conf. * Conf. 14 36 42 64 Sept. Chickamauga (continued) Sept. 19 1863 Chickamauga (continued) Conf. Conf. Sept. 20 1863 Chickamauga (ended) Conf. Conf. 1,644 9,262 6,000 10,000 Feb. 27 5 1847 1814 Cliiliuahua . . Mexican English U. S. u. s. 3 60 5 244 33 199 67 .Inly Chippewa, 328 Nov. 11 20 9 1813 1847 1864 Chrysler's Fields English Mexican Conf. * u. s. u. s. 102 131 126 237 876 585 22 l,000t 248 147 Aug. May Churubusco, 3,000t 652 Clovd's M'taiuand New Eiver Bridge, Dee. 5 5 1863 1864 CoiTeeville Conf. Conf. Conf. u. s. 38 19 62 73 21 22 32 June Columbia, Ark., . '. 81 April 16 1865 Columbus, Ala Conf. u. s. 10 14 30 50 Dec. 9 4 2 1862 1864 1864 Col. Matthews, ' Conf. Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. Conf. 18 8 22 26 32 18 68 Col. Goodine;, 39 June Cold Harbor (continued) June 3 1864 Cold Harbor (ended) Conf. Conf. 1,905 10,570 364 1,336 Jan. 14 1813 Comet-frigate Port'guese u. s. 1 3 10 14 Aug. 3 1 1814 1782 Comoeta Creek, English English u. s. * 2 1 8 • 2 10 14 20 Dec. Commerce-brio and schooners 24 19 6 1775 1781 Concord, English English Eng. U.S. 49 11 34 19 74 25 199 Sept. Congress-Savage, 31 Feb. 9 1799 Constellation-insurgent French U. s. 2 3 29 41 Feb. 2 1800 Constellation-Vengeance French u. s. 14 25 50 110 Aug. 19 1812 Constitution-Guerriere English U.S. 7 7 15 63 Dec. 29 20 1812 1815 Constitution- J aim English English u. s. u. s. 9 4 25 10 60 35 101 Feb. Constitution-Cyane and Levant,. . . 42 Aug. 19 1847 Contreras, Mexican u. s. 20 40 700 2,200 Oct. 19 1814 Cook's Mills English u. s. 11 54 20 60 Feb. 23 3 1813 1862 Cora-boats, English Conf. Eng. u. s. 1 3 1 2 Oct. Corinth (continued) Oct. 4 29 1862 1812 Corinth (ended), ... Conf. English U.S. Eng. 315 1,812 3 1,423 5,692 1 Feb. Courier-Andro7nachc 17 14 22 8 1 1781 1862 1813 1862 1863 English Con f . English Conf. Conf. U.S. u. s. u. s. * * 12 115 125 16 60 418 498 98 120 98 75t 29 22 199 Sept. Crampton Gap, . . 342 June Craney Island, 125t June 302 Aug. Culpepper Court-IIouse, 104 Feb. 21 1865 Cumberland, Md., ........ Conf. u. s. 1 3 2 8 F'eb. 5 1865 Dabney's Mills (continued), .... Conf. u. s. Feb. 6 1865 Dabney's Mills (continued), .... Conf. u. s. I-'eb. 7 1865 Dabney's Mills (ended) Conf. u. s. 232 1,062 249 751 July 11 5 1812 1813 Decatur-Commerce, English English u. s. u. s. 4 16 4 18 7 Aug. Decatur-Dominica 45 June 17 1776 Defense-transports English u. s. 9 18 30t Sept. 9 27 6 1847 1805 1864 Del Key u. s. u. s. * 8 6 31 8 46 lot 89 April Turkish Conf. 20 1 Dec. Deveraux'a Neck (continued), . . . Dec. 8 1864 Deveraux's Neck (continued), . . . Conf. * Dec. 9 1864 Deveraux's Neck (ended) Conf. * 39 390 112 228 April 15 1813 Diligent-squadron English Eng. 1 3 1 Aug. 22 2 25 28 3 1814 1812 1813 1863 1863 Diornede-U pton, English English English Conf. Conf. U.S. U. s. U.S. U. s. U. s. 4 3 1 16 7 8 3 60 1 3 6 85 150 2 Sept. Dolphin-two ships 8 Jan. 9 June Donaldsonville, 114 Feb. Dover, Col. Harding 400 May 15 6 5 23 23 1 10 22 1862 1863 1864 1864 1813 1898 1862 1814 Drury's BlufT Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians Spanish Conf. Indians Conf. U. S. Conf. Conf. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. 422 41 38 13 1 88 2 20 2,380 79 64 42 6 356 2 75 514 82 4 6 30 120 4 220t 1.086 Nov. 158 May 18 Aug. Duvall's Bluff 33 Dec. July El Caney 400 Feb. Elizabeth City 10 Jan. Emucfau, Ennoree Ford, Nov. 20 1780 English u. s. 3 4 92 102 14 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Jan. 24, 1814 Sept 5, 1813 Aug. 1, 1801 Aug. 13, 1812 Enotachopco Indians English Tripolitan English English English Conf. Conf. Cont. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Indians English Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. EngUsh Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English Conf. English Mexican Algerine U. S. u. s. U.S. u. s. Eng. U.S. u. s. * u. s. Conf. U.S. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. u. S. u. s. U.S. , u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. Conf. u. s. Eng. U.S. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. Conf. Conf. u. s. Eng. Conf. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. U.S. U. S. Ccnf. Conf. Conf. U.S. Eng. Conf. Conf. Conf. U.S. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. Eng. Eng. U. S. U. S. U. S. Eng. U.S. U.S. u. s. Conf. U.S. U.S. U.S. 40 2 58 130 99 'lid 25 5t 15 145 8 4 124 113 12 4 47 560 17 79 18 "26 '184 39 198 2 17 64 84 11 " '7 348 1 1 120 10 68 1 624 20 90 1 17 189 ia52 12 357 32 3,000 17 2 1 8 94 2 189 2'.834 10 8 2 19 3 60 10 66 349 601 '783 80 8t 30 170 16 26 706 516 38 5 154 746 56 216 29 ■'63 '749 121 304 2 27 3 1 124 166 26 "ig 4 52 3 6 268 15 337 7 876 31 478 3 20 1.033 g'.ioi 55 64 122 4,500 20t 1 7 3 32 162 6 542 13,709 14 18 1 57 11 200t 4 20 5 85 864 150 125 6 12 22 17 450 242 25 32 245 466 222 110 14 "3 150 108 249 8 4 5 7 30t 62 68 ' ' '3t 2 19 1 44 86 12 134 50 26 29 201 14 79 1.141 ■565 30t 150 2,000 26 10 137 8 16 2 98 4',666 1 9 4 1 8 24 12 12 17 Enterprise-Tripoli Essex-Alert 30 3 March2S. 1814 Sept. 8, 1781 July 28, 1864 Oct. 27, 1864 Oct. 28, 1864 July 13, 1863 Essex-Phcebe and Cherub 10 402 Ezra Chapel Fair Oaks (continued) Fair Oaks (ended) Falling Waters. 3,778 '361 354 Feb. 26, 1863 Feb. 28, 1862 Aug. 5. 1864 Oct. 7, 1863 Falmouth Farraqxit at Vicksburfj, Farragut in Mobile 8 20 37 April 18, 1863 April 1. 1865 April 9, 1865 May 20, 1863 Fayetteville 36 750 Fort Blakely 874 37 Sept. 15, 1814 Sept. 27. 1864 Fort Bowver 40 Fort Davidson 756 Feb. 15. 1862 Fort Donelson 1,534 Aug. 15. 1814 Sept. 17. 1814 March 12. 1864 309 Fort Erie (sortie). Fort De Russey 250 33 Dec. 24. 1864 Dec. 25. 1864 Jan. 13. 1865 Jan. 14, 1865 Jan. 15, 1865 May 27. 1813 Fort Fisher (continued), Fort Fisher {continued), Fort Fis/ier (continued), Fort Fisher (continued) Fort Fisher (ended) Fort George 55 249 163 April 2. 1865 Sept. 5, 1812 Fort Greggs and Alexander 353 20 Aug. 28, 1861 Feb. 6, 1862 Fort Hatteras, 25 11 April 25, 1862 March 3, 1863 18 Fort McAllister 1 May 5, 1813 60t Oct. 6, 1777 June 28, 1776 Forts Montgomery and Clinton, . . 141 437 March 11, 1863 March 12, 1863 March 13, 1863 March 14, 1863 March 16, 1863 May 10. 1862 Fort Pemberton (continued) Fort Pemberton (continued) Fort Pemberton (continued), .... Fort Pemberton (continued) p'ort Pemberton (ended) Fort Pillow ■"st 1 April 12, 1864 61 AprU 11. 1863 Oct. 17, 1862 Fort Pulaski 7 108 Aug. 6. 1777 Fort Schuyler 204 July 27, 1864 Fort Smith 19 March25, 1S65 698 Aug. 2. 1813 Fort Stephenson, . . . 101 July 18. 1863 74 AprU 17, 1864 Fort Wessels 42 Dec. 18, 1862 Jan. 6, 1813 April 10, 1863 Foster's E.xpedition (ended) Fox-Lapwing, 638 8 163 Nov. 30, 1864 Dec. 11, 1862 Dec. 12. 1862 Dec. 13. 1862 Jan. 18. 1813 Franklin, Tenn Fredericksburg (continued) Fredericksburg (continued), .... Fredericksburg (ended) 5,113 4,061 50t Jan. 22. 1813 May 23, 1862 Frenchtown No. 2, Front Roval, 155 13 June 27. 1862 Jan. 1. 1863 Sept. 7. 1813 Aug. 26. 1814 June 4. 1780 Jan. 16. 1864 Gaines Mill Galveston Gen. Armstrong-Queen Gen. Armstrong-British boats, . . . Gen. Pickering-Achilles 4,000 117 19 107 12 49 Sept. 21. 1777 5 Feb. 18. 1815 Oct. 4. 1777 George LMle-Granicua 1 402 July 1, 1863 July 2. 1863 July 3. 1863 April 7. 1776 Gettysburg (continued), Gettysburg (continued) Gettysburg (ended) 14.666 3 Nov. 8. 1813 Sept. 25. 1812 Nov. 2. 1813 April 29, 1863 Globe-packets Globe-Sir Simon Clark Governor Tompkins-Mary Ann, . . . Grand Gulf 18 4 4 16 Dec. 15. 1775 81 Nov. 17, 1847 Guaymas, 18 June 17. 1815 Guerriere-Mashouda, 18 HISTORY 15 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd March 15 May 21 May 1 1 ,1781 1863 1777 1862 1776 1863 1862 1864 1862 1863 1864 1863 1779 1812 1780 1863 1864 1779 1812 1813 1813 1781 1779 1781 1862 1864 1863 1813 1815 1814 1779 1862 1782 1779 1863 1776 1776 1804 1863 1862 1862 1863 1863 1863 1781 1779 1779 1864 1864 1864 1812 1864 1864 1862 1815 1862 1780 1862 1862 1863 1863 1814 1776 1814 1776 1814 1813 1813 1898 1863 1862 1776 1864 1862 1775 1777 1776 1861 1864 1863 1862 1776 1813 1864 Guilford Court-House Gum Swamp English Conf. English Conf. English • Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. English English English Indians English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Indians English Conf. English English Conf. English English Tripolitan Conf. Conf. Conf. ■ Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English English English English English English Spanish Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English English English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Eng. U. S. U. S. u. s. * Conf. u. s. u. s. Conf. u. s. * Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u.^s. u. s. Eng. U.S. Eng. u. s. u. s. Conf. Conf. U. S. U.S. U. S. U. S. * * u. s. u. s. Conf. * Eng. Trip * u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. Eng. U.S. U. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. U.S. * u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. * u. s. Eng. u. s. Eng. Eng. U.S. U.S. U.S. U. S. Conf. Conf. * Conf. U. S. Eng. Eng. U. S. * u. s. U. S. Conf. Eng. Eng. Conf. 123 3 3 53 7 80 15 8 48 7 56 2 3 ■ 2 98 1 1 1 52 6 3 3 66 17 1 1 26 1 4 1 2 13 3 19 144 88 37 24 37 18 1 222 ' ' 1 13 24 1 103 28 90 28 24 24 8 6 30 52 27 10 16 140 4 1 36 11 7 3 2 42 23 12 62 8 314 8 5 344 8 120 32 24 102 69 1,047 6 5 7 4 152 3 3 7 3 141 16 1 4 645 60 4 11 106 4 3 11 1 1 6 3 18 32 598 765 228 76 81 12 3 978 l',i49 2 54 80 4 441 60 478 60 72 68 66 2 35 50 58 96 17 50 22 8 3 61 52 9 10 2 108 59 18 188 10 231 4 14 198 2 20 16 35 18 247 13 2 31 205 5 3 3 61 38 6 4 2 18 153 5 10 557 3 2 20 8 2 3 2 20 1 385 71 64 48 21 7 3 842 498 9 22 3 80 168 71 180 18 259 11 3 17 15 84 41 12 28 3 3 2 12 49 2 5t 33 164 31 3 61 2 318 16 18 732 20 50 46 115 74 763 1 20 11 64 504 18 9 9 May 27 Sept. 16 Sept. 13 Hanover Court-Iiouse Harper's Ferry, Harrisonburg Oct. 1 Dec. 7 Harrison, Hartsville, Jan. 10 Hartsville Oct. 27 Hatcher's Run Jan. 11 Hatleras- Alabama Feb. 22 Hazard-Caledonia, July 9 July 4 March 21 April 5 July 22 Feb. 17 Nov. 18 Hazard-Duff, . Helena ; Henderson's Hill Hibernia-brig of war Highflyer-Caledonia Highflyer-Poictiers Hillabee towns, April 25 Hobkirk's Hill 104 20 7 21 114 378 33 July 30 Feb.' 17 Holker-brig H olker-H y pocrite , . . Dec. 20 Nov. 30 July 17 Holly Springs Honey Hill, S. C Feb. 24 Hornet-Peacock March 23 28 March 27 Horseshoe Bend, April 14 Jan. 4 April 8 Nov. 15 Feb. 24 Hunter-armed ship Huntersville, Va Hyder Ally-Gen. Monk Impertinent-Harlem 6 4 33 3 5 Nov. 16 Industry-brig 8 March 19 Industry-brig, 6 Sept. 4 April 7 April 7 Intrepid, Ironclads at Charleston Island No. 10 30 3 3 Sept. 19 luka, 692 July 12 504 May 14 Jackson 392 July 16 James Island, . . . 152 July 6 Nov. 1 Jamestown Island Jason-Perseus, 49 9 July 25 6 April 30 Jenkins Ferry 1,458 Aug. 31 Sept. 1 July 31 June 19 June 10 Jonesboro, Ga. (continued) Jonesboro (ended) Julia-Gloucester Kearsarge-Alabama, 1,502 3 21 Jan. 30 Kelly's Stores, ... 28 Dec. 3 March23, Kemp-merchantmen (armed), .... Kernstown, 8 342 Oct. 7 King's Mountain, 284 Dec. 14 Kingston 268 Aug. 6 Kirksville, 498 Nov. 17 Knoxville, 64 Nov. 29 March30, Knoxville La Colle Mill 432 47 June 3 Dec. 14 Lady Washington-barges, Lake Borqne 11 77 Oct. 11 Sept. 11 Lake Champlain 26 110 Sept. 10 Sept. 28 June 24 Aug. 21 July 5 Lake Erie Lake Ontario Las Guasimas, Lawrence IjCbanon, 94 20 124 14 4 Nov. 22 8 July 7 Legareville, 25 May 23 Lewisburg, 76 April 19 Sept. 20 April 17 Lexington, Lexington- Alert, Lexington- Edward, 3 8t Sept. 12 65 April 12 Sept. 10 Aug. 17 Lexington, Red River Little Rock 341 45 8 Aug. 27 Feb. 14 Long Island, 257 4 June 17 Lynchburg (continued), 16 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Datk June 18, Aug. 9, Sept. 30, July 1, Aug. 4, July 24, Aug. 27, May 1, Aug. 13, Aug. 12, Nov. 4, April 25, May 16, Aug. 20, July 23, July 24, Dec. 2, Dec. 17, June 27, May 8, April 20, June 26, June 6, March 8, Jan. 7, June 12, June 7, Jan. 19, Nov. 28, Feb. 3, April 14, March 9, June 28, July 9, Sept. 24, Dec. 6, Feb. 14, Aug. 30, Oct. 5, Nov. 16, Sept. 14, July 13, Dec. 30, Dec. 31, Jan. 1, Jan. 2, Dec. 15, Dec. 16, Sept. 13. July 12, Dec. 23, Dec. 28, Nov. 3, July 19. June 15, March 14, May 24, July 26, Sept. 6, Sept. 28, Sept. 29, Sept. 30, May 15, Jan. 1, Jan. 8, April 23, Aug. 29, Nov. 28, July 25, June 18, Sept. 28, Oct. 31, May 26, May 27, June 25, Jan. 31, Oct. 4, Feb. 10, Feb. 20, Nov. 26, 1864 1812 1863 1862 1862 1863 1862 1898 1898 1898 1812 1864 1864 1779 1864 1864 1777 1812 1861 1862 1863 1862 1862 1862 1862 1863 1863 1862 1863 1863 1780 1862 1778 1864 1846 1812 1776 1814 1813 1776 1862 1862 1862 1862 1863 1863 1864 1864 1814 1863 1814 1814 1863 1863 1847 1862 1862 1863 1781 1864 1864 1864 1864 1815 1815 1862 1779 1812 1814 1781 1812 1799 1864 1864 1862 1863 1812 1S63 1864 1863 Nov. 27, 1863 Sept. 19, 1864 May 6, 1814 Name of Battle Lynchburg (ended) Maguasa M.ajor Moiitgoniory, Malvern Hill Malvern No. 2 . . Manassas Gap, Manassas Junction, Manila, Manila Manzanillo, Marcn(io-Lco7iidas, Mark's Mills Marksvillo Mars- Active Martinsburg (contmued) Martinsburg (ended) Massarhusetts-Laivnsdale, Mas:^asiiiowa Matliias Point, McDowell's, McMinnville Mechanicsville, Memphis Merrimac in Hampton Roads, . . . Middle Creek Middletf)wn, Miliiken's Bend, Mill Spring (I-ogan Cross Roads),. . Mine Run (ended) Mingo Swamp Monk's Corner Monitor- Merrimac, Monmouth Monocacy Monterey, Montgomery, armed-sJiip, Moore's Creek, Moorfields, Moravian towns, Mount Washington, Mumfordsville, Murfreesboro, Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (continued), Murfreesboro (continued) Murfreesboro (ended), Nashville (continued) Nashville (ended) Near Baltimore Near Donaldsonville, Near New Orleans, Near New Orleans Near Opelousas, Near Pomeroy, Near Tabasco New Berne, New Bridge, New Lisbon, New Lonflon New Market Heights (continued), . New Market Heights (continued), . New Market Heights (ended), . . . New Market, Pa New Orleans New Orleans, New Orleans Newtown , , Niagara batteries Niagara (Lundy's Lane), Ninety-six Nonesuch-privateer Noriolk-Picaroons North Anna (continued), North Anna (ended) Oak Grove, near Richmond Off Charleston, Ogdensburg Old River, Olustee Operations at Mine Run, Va. (contin- ued), Operations at Mine Run (continued), Opequan Oswego, Opponent CASUALTIES Victor United States Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. ConL Spanish Spanish Spanish English Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. English Indians Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. ConL Conf. English Conf. English Conf. Mexican English English English English English Conf. ConL ConL Conf. Conf. ConL Conf. ConL English Conf. English English Conf. ConL Mexican Conf. Conf. Conf. English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. English English Conf. Indians English English English English Picaroons ConL Conf. Conf. Conf. English ConL Conf. ConL Conf. ConL English Killed Wo'nd'd Conf. U. S. Conf. U. S. U. s. U. s. Conf. U. s. U. s. U.S. U. S. ConL U. S. U. S. U. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. ConL Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. ConL u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. u. s. u. s. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. ConL Eng. U. S. * u. s. U.S. u. s. u. s. U.S. Eng. U. s. u. s. U.S. ConL U. S. U. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. Eng. U. S. U. S. u. s. u. s. u. s. ConL u. s. u. s. Conf. U.S. U. S. U. S. U.S. 18 14 2,860 6 30 14 8 98 9 342 3 11 1 80 149 10 250 3 1 154 39 99 26 72 90 142 4 7 48 15 33 1,533 399 24 151 24 7 26 2 102 3 1 398 120 11 4 37 171 48 3 22.3 51 23 5 193 653 603 58 40 3.500 8 59 28 7 40 142 18 3 836 5 26 4 176 224 4 301 8 4 223 207 398 73 1 160 579 364 13 3 3 22 101 22 62 7,245 1,741 1.39 349 113 8 124 8 7 432 5 12 34 2,031 563 23 13 147 22 12 ,572 107 8 1,460 401 24 7 1,175 3,719 38 Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd 47 50 3,023 10 41 11 318 ■ iot 126 32 2 "26 6 39 71 4 156 20t 8 11 18 148 192 121 8 3 294 78 200t 6 13 13 80 252 29 47 1,384 584 80 88 99 120 58 12 20t 50 4 22 399 96 20 700 12 12 14 201 24 7 65 304 60 3 4 150 1,632 70 157 75 2 4,077 18 79 16 298 '('?')■ 1 394 64 7 'i52 13 390 8 236 30t 11 32 32 294 132 432 20 6 2 170 322 450 21 22 20 101 448 31 103 6,892 3,021 301 126 230 149 298 41 30t 152 15 43 142 1,601 306 30 1 1,400 40 34 30 559 61 16 70 1,513 300 6 7 350 3,868 165 HISTORY 17 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Name of Battle Victor CASUALTIES Opponent United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Mexican U. S. 4 42 102 127 Conf. u. s. 23 139 48 152 Conf. Conf. 3t 4 5t English U.S. 2 3 6 12 Englisli u. s. 1 1 1 English U.S. 2 8 15 English U.S. 6 8 Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. Conf. U.S. 203 972 1,040 3.638 Conf. U.S. 301 1.411 880 3,916 Mexican u. s. 3 4 Conf. U.S. 916 2.943 980 1,520 Conf. U.S. 298 2,565 341 3,092 Conf. * 1,298 7,474 984 6.721 Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. 112 506 801 1,417 Conf. u. s. 419 2,076 799 4,023 Conf. U. 8. 87 484 101 605 Conf. U.S. 170 822 240 761 Tripolitans U.S. 1 loot Conf. Conf. 26 73 34 62 Conf. U.S. 130 650 633 2,337 English U.S. 4 16 13 22 Conf. u. s. 17 40 39 111 Conf. u. s. 3 18 28 92 Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. 1,735 7,882 1.128 8,6i2 English U.S. 37 62 50 98 Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. 99 688 348 1,654 Conf. Conf. 41 59 125 174 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 84 152 14 i62 ■ Conf. u. s. 130 718 144 832 Conf. U.S. 8 7 Conf. * 250 • 680 188 364 Conf. Conf. 293 1,549 110 173 Conf. Conf. 67 361 104 796 Conf. U. S. 8 23 11 48 Conf. u. s. 8 15 18 36 Conf. u. s. 167 798 164 817 Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. 141 788 214 686 English u. s. 3 19 2 22 English Eng. 24 56 11 14 English U.S. 7 23 33 37 English u. s. 31 64 49 151 English u. s. 3 8 4 9 English u. s. 1 3 140 3 English U.S. 4 10 8 19 Mexican u s. 18 62 83 142 Malays U.S. 2 11 120t 200t English Eng. 18 42 1 8 English Eng. 90 160 50 101 English U.S. 1 2 6 26 English Eng. 311 5 12 English U.S. 2 6 18 24 English u. s. 3 11 16 24 Engliijh u. s. 80 101 15 45 Conf. u. s. 149 250 80 160 Conf. u. s. 69 341 103 720 Conf. * 127 546 289 1,211 English u. s. 11 21 142 258 Conf. u. s. 7 27 14 36 Conf. u. s. 23 39 45 88 Conf. u. s. 17 31 28 61 Conf. u. s. 598 2,147 8G1 1,949 Mexican u. s. 39 83 160 228 English Eng. 3 1 Conf. Conf. 199 689 153 248 Conf. u. s. 47 198 25 30 Conf. U.S. 3 ;> 15 23t Conf. Conf. 5 12 3 24 English U. S. 8 3 English u. s. 3 23 Conf. Conf. 199 893 486 1,024 Conf. Conf. 17 19 Conf. Conf. 1 3 2 English u. s. 1 3 2 6 English u. s. 21 84 29 101 Conf. U.S. 166 1.014 268 2,032 May 8, Dec. 31. Feb. 2. Aug. 18. Nov. 5. April 29. June 30, March 6, March 7, March 8, July 20, April 22, Oct. 8, April 2, June 19, June 20, June 30. July 31. Aug. 31 Oct. 30 Feb. 16 Oct. 20 June 5 Jan. 5 Oct. 25 Aug. 13 April 6 April 7 Sept. 11 April 8 April 9 April 20 Oct. 22 Oct. 23 May 1 March 13 June 14 May 27 June 9 Nov. 7 April 10 Dec. 7 Sept. 30 Oct. 1 June 23 Jan. 15 Oct. 9 Jan. 3 Dec. 4 Jan. 9 May 7 May 15 Feb. 7 Dec. 31 Oct. 13 Sept. 3 March 7 April 24 Oct. 16 May 5 Nov. 7 May 12 Aug. 25 Oct. 22 Jan. 14 April 7 April 26 May 13 May 9 March29 Aug. 30 Feb. 8 Feb. 12 Nov. 6 Sept. 16 Dec. 19 April 8 Sept. 8 Jan. 21 July 6 May 29 April 6 1846 1862 1864 1779 1812 1814 1815 1862 1862 1862 1864 1847 1862 1865 1864 1864 1864 1864 1864 1864 1804 1863 1864 1781 1863 1863 1862 1862 1814 1864 1864 1864 1862 1862 1863 1863 1863 1863 1862 1861 1863 1862 1864 1864 1812 1815 1814 1777 1781 1779 1779 1847 1832 1775 1812 1777 1778 1778 1776 1813 1863 1863 1864 1777 1865 1864 1864 1864 1847 1813 1862 1862 1864 1863 1812 1776 1864 1863 1863 1776 1813 1865 Palo Alto Parker's Cross-Iloads Paterson Creek. Paulus Hook Paul Jo7ies-Hassan, Peacock-Eperi'ier, Peacock-Nautilus, Pea Ridge (continued), Pea Kidge (continued) Pea Kidgp (ended) Peach Tree Creek Perote Perryville, Petersburg, Petersburg (from June 15), .... Petersburg (continued to June 30), . Petersburg (ended), Petersburg (from July 1, exclusive of losses at the Crater and Deep Bot- tom) Petersburg (August 1 to August 31), Petersburg (September 1-October 30) Philadelphia (.frigate), Philadelphia, Tenn., Piedmont, Pilgrim-Mary Pine Bluff Pineville Pittsburgh Landing (continued). . . Pittsburgh Landing (ended).. . . . Plattsburg Pleasant Hill (continued) Pleasant Hill (ended) Plymouth, Pocotaligo (continued), Pocotaligo (ended) Port Gibson Port Hudson Port Hudson Port Hudson Port Republic Port Royal Prairie d'Anne Prairie Grove. Preble's Farm (continued) Preble's Farm (ended), President-Beh'idere, President-Endymion Prince de Neuckatel-Endymion, . . . Princeton Prosperity-privateer Protector- Admiral Duff Providence-Diligent Puebia Qualla Battoo, Quebec, Queenstown, Raleigh- Druid • . . . Randolph-Yarmouth Ranger-Drake Ranger-privateer J Rapids of Miami Rappahannock Station, ]{aymond Ream's Station Red Bank Red Hill Red River, Red River Resaca Resaca de la Palma, Revenge-A'arcissus, Richmond, Ky Roanoke Island Rock House, Rogorsville, Rossie-Princess Amelia Rover-Africa Sabine Cross-Roads Sabine Pass Sabine Pass, Sachem-privateer, Sackett's Harbor Sailor's Creek 18 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AMERICAN BATTLES, TABULATED — Continued Date Feb. 3, Dec. 21. Jan. 12, April 30, Jan. 8, July 1, July 2. July 3, Feb. 16, Nov. 21, July 10, July 11. July 12, June ■ 22. Oct. 7, Dec. 22, Oct. 8, Dec. 10, April 30, Nov. 10, Oct. 3. Dec. 29, Oct. 8, Jan. 10, June 16, April 2, May 31, June 27. July 15, May 12, May 3, Aug. 18, Aug. 19, Aug. 20, Aug. 21, March 30, April 19, April 20, Sept. 14, March 26, July 3, May 8, May 9, May 11, May 18, Jan. 8, March 5, June 17, Dec. 26, Sept. 19, June 28, Aug. 11, June 6, Jan. 23. July 29, Aug. 18. July 16. April 28. Jan. 28. Jan. 20. May 9. May 10. Oct. 26. Nov. 9. Nov. 3, June 30. March 4, March 5. July 4, May 10. Nov. 7. Nov. 12, Feb. 20. Dec. 25. June 11. June 12. Aug. 7. June 2. April 9. Feb. 22. July 15, Name of Battle 1865 1779 1848 1814 1847 1898 1898 1898 1847 1847 1898 1898 1898 1898 1777 1778 1780 1812 1814 1813 1814 1778 1779 1865 1862 1865 1862 1863 1863 1780 1863 1864 1864 1864 1864 1863 1864 1862 1862 1865 1898 1864 1864 1864 1864 1863 1863 1863 1781 1777 1779 1814 1813 1813 1863 1864 1779 1863 1815 1864 1864 1864 1846 1813 1813 1847 1863 1863 1863 1775 1811 1813 1865 1776 1864 1864 1781 1780 1777 1864 1864 Apnl 18, 1847 June 13. 1776 Sakelhatchie Sally-transporta, San Bias, Sandy Creek San Gabriel San Juan (continued) San Juan (continued) San Juan (ended) San Jose San Jos(^. Santiago (continued) Santiago (continued) Santiago (ended) Santiago forts bombarded, . . . Saratoga Saratoga-Chance, Saratoga-Molly Saratoga- M orgiana Saucy Jack-Pelham, Saucy Jack-Sherbroke, Saucy Jack-troop ship Savannah Savannah Scottsboro Secessionville Selma. Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, . . Shelb>'\ille Shepardslown Siege of Charleston (ended), . . Siege of Suffolk, N. C. (ended), . Six-Mile House (continued). . . Six-Mile House (continued), . . Six-Mile House (continued), . . Si\-Mile House (ended),. . . . Somerset. Southfield- Albemarle South Mills or Camden, .... South Mountain Spanish Fort (to April 8). . . . Spanish squadron destroyed off Santiago Spottsylvania (continued) Spottsylvania (continued) Spottsylvania (ended) Spottsylvania (continued) SpringfieUl Spring Hill St. Charles St. Jamcs-ship (armed) Stillwater Stone Ferry Stonington Stony Creek. Stony Creek Stony Lake Strawberry Flams, etc Stony Point Streight's Raid (to May 3) Surprise-Star, . Snirgis' Raid (January 16-28),. . . Swift Creek (continued) Sw'ift Creek (ended) Tabasco Talladega Talluschatches, Tamultay Thompson's Station (continued), . . Thompson's Station (ended). . . . Tibb's Bend Ticonderoga Tippecanoe, Tom-Townsend, Town Creek Trenton Trevilian Station (continued). . . . Trevilian Station (ended) Trumbull-lns TrumhuU-Watt TrumhuU -transports, Tunnel Hill Tupelo, Harrisonburg, and Old Town Creek. Tuapan Tyrannicide-Dispatch Opponent Victor CASUALTIES United States Opponents IviUed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd Conf. U. S. 18 70 20 80 English * 5 12 6 11 Mexican u. s. 2 3 8 English u. s. 1 3 13 28 Mexican u. s. 2 9 70 150 Spanish u. s. Spanish u. s. Spanish u. s. 151 1,007 204 1.340 Mexican u. s. 3 8 13 30t Mexican u. s. 3 8 20 Spanish u. s. Spanish u. s. Spanish u. s. 2 13 6 Spanish * 1 11 (7) (7) English u. s. 32 61 98 156 English U.S. 4 9 5 13 EngUsh u. s. 2 4 6 10 English u. s. 3 7 2 5 English u. s. 2 9 4 11 English u. s. 3 2 5 English u. s. 8 15 3 2 English Eng. 28 69 7 19 Englisli Eng. 98 136 20 35 Conf. u. s. 1 8 14 32 Conf. Conf. 137 438 63 141 Conf. u. s. 153 347 198 409 Conf. * 891 3,627 1.987 2,233 Conf. u. s. 143 361 164 344 Conf. * 22 78 34 66 English Eng. 92 142 76 189 Conf. u. s. 15 94 898 1,202 Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. 212 1,155 862 3,138 Conf. u. s. 11 38 24 73 Conf. Conf. 2 12 Conf. U. S. 15 98 12 67 Conf. U.S. 312 1,234 224 860 Conf. u. s. 99- 695 152 401 Spanish u. s. 1 1 342 461 Conf. U.S. Conf. u. s. Conf. U.S. 3,288 19.278 3.342 20,187 Conf. u. s. 2.031 7.956 1,752 7.248 Conf. u. s. 14 145 23 164 Conf. Conf. 8 14 1 4 Conf. U. S. 136 20 6 8 English :f: 1 4 3 8 English U.S. 98 252 161 328 English Eng. 51 99 31 63 English U.S. 1 5 21 55 English Eng. 17 38 20 1 30 Indians Ind. 400 Indians U. S. 12 42 32 98 Conf. U.S. 401 1.754 338 762 English u. s. 20 70 63 31 Conf. u. s. 12 69 English u. s. 1 1 Conf. u. s. 6 17 30 62 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 90 401 124 376 Mexican U.S. 4 10 Indians U.S. 15 86 299 Indians u. s. 5 41 186 Mexican u. s. 6 53 42 103 Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. 99 301 152 453 Conf. U.S. 6 23 280 687 Enghsh u. s. Indians u. s. 37 151 120 iso EngHsh u. s. 2 8 13 Conf. u. s. 5t 8t 8t 18t English u. s. 2 4 17 78 Conf. u. s. Conf. u. s. 85 490 124 582 English Eng. 5 11 C. 3 English * 19 20 39 52 English U.S. 7 8 9 14 Conf. U.S. 150t 200T 80t 180 Conf. U.S. 85 563 184 516 Mexican u. s. 3 11 25 34 English U.S. 1 2 2 5 HISTORY 19 AMERICAN BATTLES, TABUl LATEI > — Continued Name of Battle Opponent Victor CASUALTIES Date United States Opponents Killed Wo'nd'd Killed Wo'nd'd March29, 1779 Ti/ranmcide-Revenge English U. S. 8 11 22 1813 1864 1813 1812 English Conf. English English u. s. Conf. 9 1 6 2 20 3 7 1 6 36 7 Jan. 30 32 Jan. 26 2 Oct. 25 United States-Macedonian 68 1863 1847 1863 Conf. Mexican Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. 30 70 3 50 8 2 100 Nov. 19 12 Feb. 28 Van Buren, Ark 5 March20 1863 1779 Vaughts Hill Conf. English U.S. u. s. 23 3 33 5 63 4 241 Oct. 15 Vengeance-Defiance 11 Sept. 18 1778 Vengeance-Harriet English u. s. 1 3 3 8 March24 1847 1914 1863 1863 Mexican Mexican Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. Conf. 11 17 56 70 3 981 120 7 2,000t April 21 April 16 May 19 195 18 Vicksburg (continued to May 22), . May 22 1863 Vicksburg (continued to May 25), . Conf. Conf. May 25 1863 Vicksburg (ended) Conf. U. S. 1.848 2,."i78 1,420 2,i5i Dec. 27 1862 Vicksburg assault (continued), . . . Conf. Conf. Dec. 28 1862 Vicksburg assault (ended) Conf. Conf. 724 990 63 134 July 4 1863 Vicksburg (ended) Conf. u. s. 545 3,688 25 20 Sept. 1 Oct 6 1814 1782 1812 1814 1863 English English English English Conf. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. u. s. 2 3 5 11 1 10 5 15 10 4 15 25 32 17 Oct. 18 47 June 28 42 Oct. 27 WauLatchie (continued), Oct. 28 1863 Wauhatchie (continued) Conf. U.S. Oct. 29 1863 Wauhatchie (ended) Conf. u. s. 76 339 153 208 May 15 June 17 1780 1863 English Conf. Eng. u. s. 250 130 5 14 Weehawken-Atlanta 8 June 23 1864 1862 1862 Conf. Conf. Conf. u. s. u. s. U.S. 604 84 34 2,494 110 42 156 3 65 344 May 7 West Point 15t June 29 White Oak Swamp 86 Oct. 25 1776 1864 1863 1863 White Plains English Conf. Indians Conf. * u. s. u. s. Conf. 24 52 8 63 66 148 23 144 89 162 194 42 144 June 27 White River, 341 Sept. 3 Aug. 26 Whitestone Hill 42 White Sulphur Springs 75 March 8 1865 Wilcox's Bridge (continued) Conf. Conf. March 9 1865 Wilcox's Bridge (continued) Conf. Conf. MarchlO 1865 Wilcox's Bridge (ended) Conf. Conf. 80 42i 132 643 May 5 1864 Wilderness (continued) Conf. u. S. May 6 1864 Wilderness (continued) Conf. u. S. May 7 1864 Wilderness (ended) Conf. U. S. 2,309 12,188 1,956 10,444 Nov. 14 1813 1862 1865 1861 1864 English Conf. Conf. Conf. Conf. u. S. u. S. u. s. u. s. u. s. 6 456 o 223 76 40 1,400 3 721 265 82 351 3 331 48 Williamsburg 1,403 Feb. 8 Williston Station, 6 Aug. 10 June 30 764 Wilson's P.aid (June 22-30) 252 March 22 ,1865 Wilson's Raid (to April 24) Conf. u. s. 99 598 352 1,231 May 25 1862 Winchester Conf. Conf. 38 154 68 329 June 14 1863 Wmchester (contmued) Conf. Conf. June 15 1863 Winchester (ended) Conf. Conf. 203 397 50 si Feb. 19 1862 Winton, N. C Conf. * 1 4 Sept. 22 1862 1778 Wood Lake, Indians English U.S. Eng. 8 225 24 84 2 138 July 3 Wyoming, or Fort Forty 8 July 16 1863 W yormng-J apanese batteries, .... Japanese u. S. 6 4 100 200 July 18 1863 Wytheville Conf. Conf. 21 62 3 8 Aug. 1 1812 Yankee-Royal Bounty English U. S. 2 2 7 May 19 1864 1813 1814 Yellow Bavou, Conf. English English U. s. U. s. * 42 66 108 203 74 loot 6 158 April 27 April 18 York 302 York-Lord Somers 12 Oct. 19 1781 Yorktown (ended) English u. s. 8 16 199 353 Arabia. The history of Arabia before the time of Mohammed is involved in mystery. The aborigines of Arabia were probably Cush- ites, most of whom passed over into Abyssinia. A few, however, remained, who inhabited the west coasts. Subsequently another Semitic race, de.scended from Abraham, settled in the land. The oldest Arabian tribes are now ex- tinct, and only a traditional memory even of their names exists; but the Semitic chiefs, Joktan, or Kahtan, and Ishmael, are generally considered to be the fatliers of the present in- habitants. Christianity found an early entrance into Arabia. The Jews, in considerable num- bers, migrated into Arabia after the destruction of Jerusalem, and made many proselytes. The great diversity of creeds m the peninsula was favorable to the introduction of the doctrine of Mohammed, which forms the grand epoch in Arabian history, and brings it into close connec- tion with the general history of civilization. Now, for the first time, the people of Arabia became united, and powerful enough to erect new empires in the three quarters of the world. The dominion of the Arabs, from the time of Mohammed to the fall of the caliphate of Bag- dad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in 1492, is an important period in the history of civilization. But the movements which had such great effect on the destinies of other nations produced but little change in the interior of Arabia; and after the brilliant career of conquest was ended the penin- sula was left in an exhausted condition. Then 20 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS followed the subjugation of Yemen by the Turks in the Sixteenth Century; their expulsion in the Seventeenth Century; the dominion of the Portuguese over Muscat, 1508-1059; the con- quests of Oman and the temporary victories gained by the Persians at the close of the Six- teenth Centui'y; and, lastly, the appearance of the Wahhabees (1770), whose moral influence is still felt. The latter took an important part in the political affairs of Arabia, but their progress was interrupted bj^ Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, W'ho subjugated the coast country of Hedjaz, with some parts of the coast of Yemen, and in 1818 gained a decisive advantage through the victory of Ibi-ahim Pasha. The subsequent events of the year 1840, in Syria compelled Mehemet, however, to concentrate his forces and to resign all claims upon the territories lying beyond the Red Sea. Politically, Hedjaz, Yemen, and El Hasa are really three Turkish provinces; the Sinaitic peninsula is in Egyptian hands; England exercises much influence in Hadramaut tlii-ough her possession of Aden; the Sultan of Oman is practically independent, and in alliance with England. Argentina, Republic of. In 1515, Juan Diaz de Solis, while searching for a passage into the Great South Sea new4y seen by Balboa, entered the Rio de La Plata. In 1526, Sebastian Cabot, son of the discoverer of Newfoundland, penetrated nearly to the confluence of the Parana and the Paraguay, being arrested by the rapids, which afterwards gave name to Corrientes. In 1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command the only outlet of the country. In conjunction with its own colony of Montevideo, on the oppo- site bank, it has virtually monopolized the history of a region equal in extent to Western Europe. Gradually other cities were planted, partly by col- onists from Spain, and partly by adventurers from Peru, each city generally giving its own name to its own province. The chief staples of the country — horses and cattle — had been largely introduced before 1552. Dowm to 1775, the basin of the 'Rio de La Plata was a depen- dency of the viceroyalty of Peru. In that year, however, was erected the \'iceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, which, to the basin in question, added Bolivia, under the name of Upper Peru, thus embracing the headwaters of the Amazon, and also most of the plateau of Titicaca. The year 1806 ushered in a new order of things. Spain, as an ally of France, being then at war with Eng- land, both Buenos Ayres and Montevideo were occupied by the English — a change which, brief as was its duration, virtually sowed the seeds of revolution. The colonists had felt the incon- venience of belonging to a state which left them, in a great measure, to defend themselves; they had successfully tried their strength against a foe more powerful than their own masters; and they had been encouraged not less by the say- ings than by the doings of their invaders to as.sert their independence. The triumphant militia, after deposing and expelling the legiti- mate viceroy for cowardice, elected in his stead the French officer who had led them to victory. Thus had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres be- come peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the outbreak which Napoleon's dethronement of the Bourbons, in 1808, almost immediately occa- sioned throughout Spanish America. The con- stituents of the Argentine Republic did not> however, submit to the sovereignty of Joseph Bonaparte when he was shuffled on to the Spanish throne to replace Ferdinand VII. In 1810, they organized a government in the name of Ferdinand. After a short and inglorious period, this arrange- ment ended in utter confusion. In 1816, a Gen- eral Congress declared the independence of the "United Provinces of Rio de La Plata"; but those provinces, in 1827, returned once more to a state of isolation. In 1831, Buenos Ayres, Entre Rios, Corrientes, and Santa F6, sometimes classed as the coast or riverine states, entered into a federal compact, and invited the others to form a voluntary alliance with them. This Argentine Confederation led to little but anarchy till 1835, when General Rosas was elected cap- tain general or governor of it, with all but absolute power. He secured quiet and oi-der for a time; but his struggles to achieve the military and commercial supremacy of Buenos Ayres led to his overthrow in 1851. Buenos Ayres, refusing to submit to Urquiza, the next gov- ernor of the Argentine Republic, declared itself independent in 1854, but was compelled by a signal defeat at Cepeda in 1859 to reenter the con- federation. Continuing restless, however, another war placed that province in the position of supremacy which it still holds. In 1881, the Argen- tine Republic, in conjunction with Chile, came into possession of Patagonia and TierradelFuego. A financial crisis in 1890 did much to temporarily retard the industrial progress of the republic. In 1906-07, immigration was encouraged on an extensive scale, and railroad building received a renewed impetus. The immigration law of 1911 excluded all but able-bodied immigrants. In 1912 Argentina spent more money on educa- tion than on her army and navy combined. Arizona. Evidence contained in numerous ruins indicates Arizona was the home of a highly civilized race before it was visited by Europe- ans. It was entered by Fray Marcos, a Spanish friar from Me.xico, in 1539, and first extensively explored by Coronado in 1540. Indian missions and military posts were from time to time tem- porarily established but the first permanent settlement dates from the founding of the pre- sidio at Tucson in 1776. Arizona originally formed a part of Mexico and was ceded to the United States along with New Mexico, February 2, 1848. It was separated from New Mexico and made a territory, February 24, 1863. Indian troubles in some measure hindered the development of the country, but the popula- tion of the territory steadily increased in propor- tion as larger tracts of desert land were reclaimed by irrigation, and the mineral resources of the region were utilized. Arizona was admitted to the Union, February 14, 1912, being the 48th state and last territory admitted. In the same year suffrage was granted to women, and in 1914 state-wide Prohibition w-as adopted. Arkansas. The name, derived from the Indian, signifies "smoky water," with a French prefix meaning "bow." The State was origi- nally a portion of the Louisiana Territory pur- chased from the French in 1803. When the HISTORY 21 State of Louisiana was admitted, in 1812, the remaining portion was' organized as Missouri Territory, which name it held till 1819, when Missouri formed a State Constitution, and Ar- kansas became a Territory under its present name. It became a State in 1836. The people passed the ordinance of secession on May 6, 1861. During the Civil War the principal battles fought witliin the State boundaries were Pea Ridge, Prairie Grove, Arkansas Post, and Hel- ena. Arkansas was temporarily reorganized as a State in the Union in 1864, but it was rele- gated to military government under the recon- struction acts of 1867. The new constitution was adopted in 1868, and the State resumed per- manent federal relations. On February 6, 1915, the legislature, by an overwhelming vote, adopted a statutory enactment enforcing stale-wide Pro- hibition, which took effect January 1, 1916. Armada. A Spanish w^ord, signifying gen- erally an anned force, but applied specially to the great naval expedition sent out against England by Philip of Spain, A. D. 1588. The object of the expedition was to strike a decisive blow at the Protestant interest. The expedition had been long m preparation, and consisted of no fewer than 132 vessels, chiefly galleons, which carried, besides 8,000 sailors and the galley- slaves, an army of 20,000 men. These were destined for the coast of Flanders, where Alex- ander Farnese, Prince of Parma, was to embark with 35,000 men in addition. The news of these hostile preparations aroused all the enthusiasm of England. Her navy, which had been reduced to thirty-six ships, was rapidly increased until 191 vessels were ready for sea. These were placed under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, under whom served Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and othei-s. The command of the army was given to the Earl of Leicester. The main body of the ships was stationed off Ply- mouth, while a scjuadron, under Lord Seymour, was ordered to cruise off the coast of Flanders. The Armada set out from the Tagus on the 29th of May. On the 19th of July, the fleet (which had been delayed by storms) was observed en- tering the Channel. On the 23d there was a whole day's fighting off Portland, and the 25th saw a similar scene with a similar result — the capture or crippling of Spanish ships — off the Isle of Wight. On the 27th, the fleet anchored off Calais. Two nights later, eight small vessels, daubed with pitch and resin, and filled with explosive substances, were drifted down with the tide towards the floating castles, and were set on fire. In the panic which the fire and the frequent crashes struck through the Spanish fleet, many vessels cut their cables and cleared off from the shore, while others were disabled or seriously injured. Next morning the scattered vessels of the Armada fell an easy prey to the English ships, wliich, being much smaller than those of the Spaniards, had been more easily maneuvered. Four thousand Spaniards were killed. Many of their vessels were either taken, sunk, or driven ashore. The rest fled northward at the bidding of their admiral, who saw no way home but round the northern coast of Scotland; and, at the end of September, fifty- three weather-beaten and mutilated ships, all that remained of "The Invincible Ai-mada," were brought to anchor in Santander Bay. Assembly. The four great legislative bodies which succeeded each other during the period of the first French revolution are usually termed: (1) The National or Constituent Assem- bly, commenced June 17, 1789, by the resolution of the deputies of the communes in the States- General, constituting themselves a national as- sembly, to which the deputies of the nobles and clergy afterwards adhered; termed Constituent Assembly from having framed a constitution; dissolved on the acceptance of the constitution by the king, September 30, 1791. (2) The Legis- lative Assembly. It commenced its sittings Octo- ber 1, 1791; suspended the royal authority by its decree of August 10, 1792; and was dissolved September 21, 1792. (3) The Convention. It commenced its sittings September 21, 1792, with a proclamation of the Republic; was dis- solved 4 Brumaire, fourth year of the Repub- hc (October 26, 1795). (4)- Two-thirds of this assembly were then included in the new body of the Corps Lcgislatif, which commenced its sittings October 27, 1795, forming the Council of the Five Hundred (des Cinq-Cents), and the Council of the Ancients (des Anciens), 250 in number. The latter body was named the Di- rectory. This assembly subsisted until the disso- lution of the Directory by Bonaparte, 17 Bru- maire, eighth year of the Republic (November 10, 1799). The term AssenibUe Nationale was revived by the legislative body under the second Republic, May, 1848; and under the third Republic, 1870. Assyria (ds-slr're-ah). The name of the first great empire of antiquity recorded in Holy Writ._ Assyria Proper, including Nineveh, was a region east of the Tigris and derived its name from Asshur, the second son of Shem. It ap- pears to have comprised the modern pashalics of Van and Diarbekr, with Pensarmenia, includ- ing at least part of Azerbijan and corresponding almost exactly to modern Kurdistan. The first empire of Assyria was founded bv Belus, B. C. 1993. Ninus,"'son of Belus (1968-1916), and his widow, Semiramis (1916-1874), were its most famous monarchs. The last of their successors, Sardanapalus, infamous for his luxury and volup- tuousness, was dethroned by his subjects, and burned himself in his palace, with his eunuchs, concubines, and all his treasures, about 820 B. C. The empire was then divided into Media, Assyria, and Babylonia. Salmanassar, or Shalmaneser, conquered Judea about 724 B. C. The second empire of Assyria finished with Nabopolassar, who united Assyria to Babylonia, B. C. 625. Assyria, with Babylonia, was conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and became a province of Persia. Augur (au'giir). A public officer appointed to interpret the will of the gods, as expressed by signs or omens, for national or individual guid- ance. Their office was one of great importance in the state, as no enterprises or ceremonies were performed unless they declared the omens fa- vorable. Accordingly, the members of their col- lege were always elected from the most honorable citizens. Their divinations were called auguries or auspices, between which there is sometimes a distinction made, the latter meaning such as 22 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS were derived from the inspection of birds, the former being extended to all omens or prodigies whatever. The Augurs bore a staff or wand as the ensign of their authority. Their office was suppressed, 390 A. D. Austria-Hungary. The history of Aus- tria is the history of the House of Habsburg. When Rudolph of Habsburg became Emperor of Germany, and Ottokar, King of Bohemia and Duke of Austria, Styria. and Carinthia, refused to take the oath of allegiance, the emperor succeeded in dispossessing him of his fiefs (1278), and subsequently conferred them on his son (1282). Thus the dynasty of Habsburg was founded. In the first half of the Sixteenth Cen- tury, Duke Ferdinand of Austria was elected King of Hungary by one party, John Zapolya of Transylvania by another. After several wars, in which John was supported by the Turks, Ferdinand came out victorious and united Hun- gary to Austria. Possessed of a large territory, fertile and densely peopled, the House of Habs- burg was for several centuries the richest and most powerful family in Eui'ope. But humilia- tions came with Napoleon. Driven out of Ger- many, the Emperor Francis assumed, August 11, 1804, the title of Emperor of Austria. After the fall of Napoleon, Austria was restored to its former size, and under the administration of Metternich it also regained its prestige in Euro- pean pohtics. But its internal weakness became apparent, first by the revolution of 1848, when only the support of Russia prevented the whole fabric from falling to pieces, and then after the battle of Sadowa, 1866, when, for the second time, it was driven out of Germany, and lost its hold on Italy. The empire was then consti- tuted as a double state — Austria and Hungary. In 1878 the administration of Bosnia and Herze- govina was given to Austria. In 1882 the dual kingdom entered into the Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy. Thereafter the policy of the Habsburg rule became more and more identi- fied with the Hohenzollern ambition for world domination. In 1909 Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in defiance of Russia. With Germany's support in 1913, Austria, by securing a protectorate over Albania and by denying Servia access to the sea, prevented the Balkan alUes from realizing the fruits of their victory over the Turks. Francis Ferdinand, Austrian heir apparent, was assassinated at Serajevo, June 28, 1914. Accusing Servia of complicity, Austria-Hungary demanded that Servia punish the accomplices and suppress anti-Austrian influence. Reject- ing Servia's reply, Austria declared war on Servia, July 28, 1914. Russian mobilization in behalf of Servia began at once. Austria de- clared war on Russia Aug. 6. Germany sup- ported Austria. Great Britain and France, sup- porting Rassia, declared war upon Austria Aug. 13. The Austrian attack on Servia in 1914 failed. The Russians, invading GaUcia, took Lemberg, Sept. 22. March 22, 1915, Przemysl fell to the Russians but, June 3, was retaken. Austria regained Lemberg and in May, 1915, drove the Russian forces out of the Carpathians. Italy, May 23, 1915, declared war on Austria. In Oct., 1915, Austria completely occupied Servia. During Oct. — Dec, 19|16, the Teutonic armies conquered most of Rumania. Emperor Francis Joseph died Nov. 21, and was succeeded by his grandnephew Charles I. Oct. 24^Nov. 9, 1917, the Austro-German forces recaptured Gorizia and occupied Italian territory as fat as the Piave river. In June, 1918, the Austrian offensive against the Italian armies failed. Following the utter defeat of the Austrian armies by the Italian counter-stroke beginning Oct. 24, Austria- Hungary, on Nov. 3, signed terms of truce equivalent to military surrender. On Nov. 11 Charles I. abdicated his throne, thereby ending more than 600 years of Habsburg rule. Battles {The fifteen decisive), according to Professor Creasy: (1) Marathon (B. C. 490), in which the Greeks, under Miltiades, defeated Darius, the Persian, and turned the tide of Asiatic invasion. (2) Syracuse (B. C. 413), in which the Athenian power was broken, and the extension of Greek domination was prevented. (3) Arbela (B. C. 331), by which Alexander overthrew Darius, and introduced European habits into Asia. (4) Metaurus (B. C. 207), in which the Romans defeated Hannibal, and Car- thage was brought to ruin. (5) Arminius (A. D. 9), in which the Gauls overthrew the Romans under Varus, and estabhshed their in- dependence. (6) Chdlons (A. D. 451), in which Attila, "the Scourge of God," was defeated by Aetius, and Europe saved from utter devasta- tion. (7) Tours (A. D. 732), in which Charles Martel overthrew the Saracens, and broke from Europe the Mohammedan yoke. (8) Hastings (A. D. 1066), by which William of Normandy became possessed of the English Crown. (9) Orleans (A. D. 1429), by which Jeanne d'Arc raised the siege of the city, and secured the independence of France. (10) Armada (The), (A. D. 1588), which crushed the hopes of Spain and of the papacy in England. (11) Blenheim (A. D. 1704), in which Marlborough, by the defeat of Tallard, broke the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. (12) Pultowa (A. D. 1709), in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and the stabihty of the Muscovite Empire was established. (13) Saratoga (A. D. 1777), in which General Gates defeated Burgoyne, and virtually decided the fate of the American Revolution. (14) Vahny (A. D. 1792), in which the allied armies, under the Duke of Brunswick, were defeated by the French revolutionists, and the Revolution was suffered to go on. (15) Waterloo (A. D. 1815), in which Wellington defeated Napoleon, and rescued Europe from French domination. Belgium. The territory now known as Belgium formed onlj' a section of that known to Cajsar as the territory of the Bclgaj, extending from the Seine to the Rhine, and to the ocean. This district continued under Roman sway till the decline of the empire; subsequently formed part of the Kingdom of Clovis; and then of that of Charlemagne. After the breaking up of Charle- magne's empire, Belgium formed part of the Kjngdom of Lotharingia under Charlemagne's grandson, Lothaire; Artois and Flanders, how- ever, belonged to France by the treaty of Verdun. HISTORY 23 For more than a century this kingdom was contended for by the kings of France and the emperors of Germany. In 953, it was conferred by the Emperor Otto upon Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, who assumed the title of archduke, and divided it into two duchies: Upper and Lower Lorraine. In the frequent struggles which took place during the eleventh century, Luxemburg, Namur, Hainaut, and Liege usually sided with France, while Brabant, Holland, and Flanders commonly took the side of Germany. The con- test between the civic and industrial organiza- tions and feudahsm, which went on through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and in which Flanders bore a leading part, was temporarily closed by the defeat of the Ghentese under Van Artevelde in 1382. In 1384, Flanders and Artois fell to the House of Burgundy, which, in less than a century, acquired the whole of the Netherlands. The death of Charles the Bold at Nancy, in his attempt to raise the duchy into a kingdom (1477), was followed by the succession and marriage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, by which the Netherlands became an Austrian possession. With the accession, however, of the Austrian House of Habsburg to the Spanish throne, the Netherlands became the scene of increasingly severe persecution under Charles V. and Philip II. of Spain. Driven to rebellion, the seven northern states under William of Orange, the Silent, succeeded in establishing their independ- ence, but the southern portion, or Belgium, continued under the Spanish yoke. From 1598 to 1621, the Spanish Netherlands were transferred as an independent kingdom to the Austrian branch of the family by the mar- riage of Isabella, daughter of PhiUp II., with the Archduke Albert of Austria. He died childless, and they reverted to Spain. Twice conquered by Louis XIV., conquered by IMarlborough, coveted by all the powers, deprived of territory by Holland and by France, the Southern Nether- lands in 1714, by the peace of Utrecht, again came under the dominion of Austria, with the name of the Austrian Netherlands. During the Austrian war of succession the French, under Saxe, conquered nearly the whole countrj^ but restored it in 1748 by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Belgium regained much of her prosperity under Maria Theresa and Charles of Lorraine. On the succession of Joseph II. a serious insurrection occurred, the Austrian army being defeated at Turnhout, and the provinces forming themselves into an independent state as United Belgium (1790) . Scarcely subdued by Austria, they were conquered by the revolutionary armies of France. The Austrian rule practically ended with the battle of Fleurus (1794), and the French pos- session was confirmed by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Luneville (1801). In 1815 Jiclgium was united by the Congress of Vienna to Holland, forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1830 a revolution resulted in the separation of the two countries. In 1831 Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, became king of Belgium. Upon the withdrawal of the Dutch claims in 1839, the neutrality and independence of Belgium were guaranteed by a treaty signed by Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Russia. Aiter a prosperous reign of thirty-four years, Leopold was succeeded by his son Leopold II. in 1865. At the outbreak of the Franco-Prus- sian war in 1870, Great Britain signed a separate treaty with France and with Prussia, agreeing, in case either belligerent should violate the neutrality of Belgium, to aid the other in up- holding the treaty of 1839. In 1885 the Congress of Berlin constituted the Congo Free State and invited Leopold II. to be- come its sovereign. In 1890 the Congo Free State passed under the suzeraintj^ of Belgium, and in 1908 was annexed to Belgium. In 1909 Leopold died and was succeeded by his nephew Albert I. On Aug. 2, 1914, Germany demanded free passage of German troops through Belgium to attack France. Belgium refused, and a German invasion began in direct violation of Germany's own signed guarantees. Liege fell Aug. 7. Belgian forces were defeated and compelled to retreat. Louvain was burned Aug. 27. On Aug. 20 the Germans took Brussels, levj'ing a war tax of $40,000,000. Ghent and other cities were occupied. On Oct. 8 Antwerp fell. Hun- dreds of thousands of refugees found shelter in England, Holland, France, and America, many countries contributing millions of dollars to their relief. The remaining population was subjected to barbaric indignities and atrocities. Cities and towns were fined, their treasuries looted, their inhabitants shot and imprisoned, and their homes despoiled. The machinery of factories was removed or destroj^ed and Belgian citizens deported for enforced labor in Germany. But Teutonic frightfulness failed to crush the national spirit. The army continued to fight heroically in the allied lines. The patriotism of the king and the loj^alty of the people was unwavering. Finally, the invaders were forced out of the country. On Nov. 22, 1918, King Albert reentered Brussels at the head of the victorious arm\% and Belgium was proclaimed a free and independent nation. BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME Pontiff Pontificate Surname N.VTIONALITT St. Peter, First Century A. D. A. D. 41 67 07 79 79-91 91-100 Second Century 100-109 about 109-119 119-128 Cletus or Anacletus, Clement, Evaristus, Alexander I., Sixtus I., Roman. 24 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Telesphorus, Hyginus Pius 1 Anicetus, Soter Eleutherus, Victor I Zephyrinus, Calixtus I., Urban I Pontianus, Antherius Fabianus, Cornelius Lucius I., Stephen I., Sixtus II Dionvsius Felix I Eutychianus Caius, Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Melchiades, Sylvester I Marcus, Julius I Liberius Damascus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestinus I Sixtus III Leo I., ". The Great," , Hilarius Simplicius Felix II Gelasius Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas John I Felix III Boniface II John II Agapetus I Sylverius, Vigilius Pelagius I John III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I., "The Great, Sabinianus Boniface III Boniface IV., .... Deusdedit Boniface V., Honorius, Severinus, John IV Theodore, Martin I., Eugenius I Vitalianus Adeodatus, Donus I., Agatho, Leo II Benedict II John V Conon, A. D. 128 139 142 157 168 177 190 202 Third 217 222 230 235 236 251 253 254 257 259 269 275 283 A. D. 139 142 157 168 176 190 202 217 Century 222 230 235 236 250 253 254 257 258 268 274 283 296 Fourth Century 296 304 304 309 309 310 314. 314 335 336 337 352 352 366 366 384 384 398 398 401 Fifth 401 417 418 422 432 440 461 468 483 492 496 Sixth 498 514 523 526 530 532 535 536 537 555 560 574 578 Century 417 418 422 432 440 461 468 483 492 496 498 Century 514 623 526 530 632 535 536 537 555 560 673 578 590 Seventh 590 604 607 608 615 619 625 638 640 642 649 654 657 672 676 678 682 684 685 686 Century 604 606 615 618 625 638 640 642 649 653 657 672 676 678 681 683 685 686 687 Greek. Athenian. Native of Aquileia. Syrian. Greek. Greek. African. Roman. Iloman. Roman. Greek. Probably Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Greek. Roman. Uncertain. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. African. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Spaniard. Roman. Rom.an. Native of Albano. Greek. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Native of Sardinia. Native of Tibur. Roman. Roman. Roman. Native of Sardinia. Native of Frusino. Tuscan. Native of Beneventum. Roman. Roman. Roman. Native of Campania. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Tuscany. Roman. Native of Abruzzi. Native of Capua. Roman. Native of Dalmatia. Greek. Native of Tudertum. Roman. Native of Signia. Roman. Roman. Sicilian. Roman. Native of Syria. Native of Thrace. HISTORY 25 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — Continued Pontiff Sergius, . . . John VI John VII., . . Sisinnius, . . . Constantinus I. Gregory II., Gregory III., . Zach.ary, . . . Stephen II., . Paul I Stephen III., . Adrian I., . . Leo III., . . . Stephen IV., . Pascal I., . . Eugenius II., . Valentine, . . Gregory IV., . Sergius II., . . Leo IV., . . . Benedict III., Nicholas I., Adrian II., . . John VIII., . Martin II., . . Adrian III., Stephen V., Formosus, . . Boniface VI., . Stephen VI., . Romanus, . . Theodore II., . John IX., . . Benedict IV., . LeoV Sergius III., . Anastasius III., Landon, . . . JohnX., . . . Leo VI., . . . Stephen VII., John XL, . . Leo VII., . . Stephen VIII., Martin III^ Agapetus II., John XII., . . Benedict V., . John XIII.,, . Benedict VI., . Benedict VII., John XIV., . John XV., . . Gregory V., Sylvester II., . John XVII. , . John XVIII., . Sergius IV.,. . Benedict VIII. , John XIX., . Benedict IX., Gregory VI., . Clement II., . Damascus II.,. Leo IX., . . . Victor II., . . Stephen IX., . Nicholas II., . Alexander II., . Gregory VII., Victor III., Urban II., . . Pascal, . . . Gelasius, . . . Pontificate Eighth A. D. 687 701 705 708 708 715 731 741 752 757 768 772 Ninth 795 816 817 824 827 827 844 847 855 858 867 872 882 884 885 891 896 896 897 897 898 Centtiry A.D. 701 705 707 715 731 741 752 757 767 772 795 Century 816 817 824 827 844 847 855 858 867 872 882 884 885 891 896 897 900 Tenth Centurij 900 903 903 904 911 911 913 913 914 914 929 929 929 931 931 936 936 939 939 942 942 946 946 955 955 964 965 965 973 974 983 985 Eleventh 996 999 1003 1003 1009 1012 1024 1033 1045 1046 1048 1048 1054 1057 1058 1061 1073 1086 1088 972 974 983 984 996 Century 999 1003 1009 1012 1024 1033 1045 1046 1047 1054 1057 1058 1061 1073 1085 1087 1099 Surname Ottaviano Conti. He was the first who changed his name on his elevation. Twelfth Century 1099 1118 1118 1119 (Conti) (BonifaceVII., Franco, anti- pope.) Bruno. Gerbert, Philagathus. Secco, . . Fasio Sylvester, .... Giovanni Braziano, Suger, Pappo. Bruno Gebhard, .... Frederick, .... Hildebrand, . Otho or Endes, Nationality Native of Palermo. Native of Greece. Greek. Syrian. Roman. Syrian. Greek. Roman. Sicilian. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Bishop of Parto. Roman. Native of Tiber. Roman. Native of .\rdea. Roman. Native of Sabina. Roman. Native of Rome. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Roman. Native of Auvergne. Roman. Roman. Native of Tusculum. Roman. Native of Saxony. Bishop of Toul. Bishop of Eichstadt. Abbot of Monte Cassino. Native of Burgundy. Native of Milan. Native of Tuscany. Native of Beneventum. Native of France. Native of Tuscany. Native of Gaeta. 26 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS BISHOPS AND POPES OP ROME — Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Calixtus II A. D. A. D. 1119 1124 1124 1130 1130 1143 1143 1144 1144 1145 1145 1153 1153 1154 1154 1159 1159 1181 1181 1185 1185 1187 1187 11S7 1191 1191 1198 Thirteenth Century 1198 1216 1216 1227 1227 1241 1241 1243 1254 1254 1261 1261 1264 1265 1268 1271 1276 1276 1276 1276 1277 1277 1281 1281 1285 1285 1288 1288 1292 1294 1294 1303 Fourteenth Century 1303 1304 1305 1314 1316 1334 1334 1342 1342 1352 1352 1362 1362 1370 1370 1378 1378 1389 1389 1404 Fifteenth Century 1404 1406 1406 1415 1415 1431 1431 1447 1447 1455 1455 1458 1458 1464 1464 1471 1471 1484 1484 1492 1492 1503 Sixteenth Century 1503 1503 1513 1513 1521 1521 1523 1523 1534 1534 1549 1549 1555 1555 1555 1559 1559 1565 1565 1572 1572 1585 1585 1590 1590 1.590 1591 1591 1591 1605 Native of Burgundy. Bishop of Ostia. Honorius II Innocent II., Cardinal Lamberti, .... Celcstine 11 Lucius II Native of Bologna. EuReniu.s III., Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III., Urban III Gregory VIII., Nicholas Breakspear, . . . Cardinal OrlandoBandinello, Cardinal Ubaldo, Uberto Crivelli, Englishman. Native of Siena. Native of Lucca. Archbishop of Milan. Clement III Paul Bishop of Praeneste. Roman. Native of Signia. Roman. Native of Anagni. Celestine III., .... Innocent III., Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Cardinal Hyacinthus, . . . Cardinal Lotharius Cardinal Savelli, Cardinal Hugo Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV., Sinibaldo Fieschi Cardinal Rinaldo Conti, . . James, Patriarch of Jerusa- lem, Native of Genoa. Native of Anagni. Clement IV Gregory X., Innocent V Adrian V John XXI Guy Tebaldo Visconti, .... Cardinal Peter Ottobono Fieschi, .... Native of St. Gilles, in Languedoc. Native of Placenzi. Native of Tarentaise. Native of Genoa. Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV., Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XI Clement V John XXII Cardinal Orsini, Cardinal Simon de Brie, . . Cardinal James Sevelli, . . Cardinal Jerome, Pietro da Morrone, .... Cardinal Benedetto Gaetani, Cardinal Nicholas, .... Bertrand, removed Papal See to Avignon, James, Native of Rome. Frenchman. Rornan. Native of Ascoli. Native of Abruzzi. Native of Anagni. Native of Treviso. Native of Bordeaux. Native of Cahors in Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V Gregory XI., Urban VI Boniface IX., Innocent VII., Gregory XII., Martin V Eugenius IV., Nicholas V Calixtus III Pius II Paul II James Fournier, Peter Roger Stephen Aubort, William Grimoard, .... Peter Roger, Bartolomew Prignano,. . . Peter Tomacelli Cosmo Migliorati, .... Angelo Corrari Otho Colonna Gabriel Condulmero, . . . Cardinal Thomas Alfonso Borgia, yEneas Sylvius Piccolomini, Peter Barbo Francis della Rovere, . . . Gian Battista Cibo, . . Rodrigo Lenzoli Borgia, . . Francis Todeschini Piccolo- France. Frenchman. Native of Limoges in France. Native of Limoges. Frenchman. Frenchman. Neapolitan. Of Naples. Native of Sulmona. Native of Venice. Roman. Venetian. Native of Sargana. Spaniard. Native of Siena. Native of Venice. Sixtus IV Genoese. Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Genoese. Spaniard. Genoese. Julius II., Julian della Rovere, . . . Giovanni de' Medici, . . . Guilio de' Medici, .... Alessandro Farnese, . . . Giovan Maria Giocci, . . . Cardinal Cervini Gianpietro Caraffa, ..... . Giovanni Angelo Medichino, Michelo Chislieri Hugo Buoncampagni, . . . Felice Peretti of Montaito, . Gian Battista Castagna, . . Nicola Sfrondati, ..... Gian .\ntonio Facchinetti, . Ippolito Aldobrandino, . . Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Son of Lorenzo, the Mag- nificent. Native of Utrecht. Nephew of Lorenzo. Roman. Julius III Marcellus, Roman. Native of Montepulciano. Paul IV Pius IV Neapolitan. Native of Milan. Pius V Native of .\lcssandria. Gregory XIII Sixtus V Native of Bologna. Native of March Ancona. Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Genoese. Native of Milan. Native of Bologna. Native of Fano. HISTORY 27 BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME — Continued Pontiff Pontificate Surname Nationality Seventeenth Century ' A. D. A. D. Leo XI 1605 1605 1621 1621 1623 Alessandro de Medici, . . . CamiUo Boryhese, .... Alessandro Ludovici, . . . Native of Florence. Paul V Native of Koine. Gregory XV Native of Bologna. Urban VIII 162.3 1644 Maffeo Barberini Florentine. Innocent X 1644 1655 Gian Battista Pamfili, . . Koman. Alexander VII., 1655 1667 Fabio Chigi, Native of Siena. Clement IX 1667 1669 Guilio Rospigliosi, .... Native of Pistoia. Clement X 1669 1676 Emilio Attieri, Native of Rome. Innocent XI 1676 1689 Benedetto Odescalchi, . . Native of Como. Alexander VIII 1689 1691 Pietro Ottobani Native of Venice. Innocent XII 1691 1700 Antonio Pignatelli Native of Naples. Eighteenth Century Clement XI 1700 1721 Gian Francesco Albani, . . Native of Urbino. Innocent XIII 1721 1724 Michael Angelo Conti,. . . Native of Rome. Benedict XIII 1724 1730 Vincenzo Maria Orsini, . . Native of Rome. 1730 1740 Lorenzo Corsini Native of Florence. Benedict XIV 1740 1758 Prospero Lambertini, . . . Native of Bologna. 1758 1769 Carlo Rezzonico, Native of Venice. Clement XIV 1769 1775 Gian Vencenzo Ganganelli, Born near Rimini. Pius VI 1775 1799 Nineteenth Century Angelo Braschi Native of Cesena. Piua VII 1800 1823 Gregario Barnaba Chiara- monti, Native of Cesena. Leo XII 1823 1829 1829 1830 Annibale della Genga, . . . Cardinal Castigliani, . . . Native of Romagna. Pius VIII Native of Cingoli. Gregory XVI 1830 1846 Mauro Cappellari Native of Belluno. Pius IX., 1846 1878 1878 1903 Giovanni Maria Mastai-Fer- retti Gioacchino Pecci Native of Carpinetto. Twentieth Century Pius X 1903 1914 1914 Guiseppe Sarto, ..... Giacomo della Chiesa . . . Benedict XV., Native of Genoa. Blue Laws. The code of 1660, a compila- tion of the earhest laws and customs of Connec- ticut. It is almost verbally copied from the Mosaic Law. After the restoration of Charles II. "Presbyterian true blue" became a term of derision applied to anything which smattered of Puritanism, and "blue laws" simply meant puritanical laws, or laws with a blue tinge. These laws inflicted the penalty of death for worshiping any god but the God of the Bible; for speaking disrespectfully of the Bible, Christ, or the Holy Ghost; for witchcraft, adultery, theft, false-swearing, and disobedience to par- ents. Said to have been drawn up by the Rev. Samuel Peters, but generally supposed to be apocryphal. Boer War, The. The reinforcing of the British troops in South Africa, along the borders of the Transvaal Republic, together with differ- ences on the franchise question, coupled with grim recollections of former armed clashes be- tween Great Britain and the sturdy, patriotic Boers, all tended to hasten the conflict of 1899- 1900, one of the most sanguinary in the world's history. As an effort to avert war. a conference was held May 31, 1899, between Sir Alfred Milner, Governor of Cape Colony, and the Presi- dents of the Dutch Republics at Bloemfontein, in which terms for the adjustment of the claims of the Outlanders were discussed, but no agree- ment was reached. Between June 1 and Octo- ber 10, negotiations proceeded between the gov- ernments of Great Britain and the Transvaal, while the legislature of the latter adopted fran- chise laws which were not acceptable to Great Britain. In the meantime, both countries made energetic preparations for war, and the Orange Free State announced that in case of hostilities it would support the Transvaal. On October 10th, the Transvaal sent to the British Government an ultimatum demanding: That all points of mutual difference be regulated by friendly recourse to arbitration ; that all British troops on the border of the Transvaal Republic should be instantly withdrawn; that Great Britain should withdraw all reinforcements of troops landed in South Africa since June 1, 1899, with assurance that during further nego- tiations the Republic would not attack any British possessions, and that upon compliance with the ultimatum the Republic would be pre- pared to withdraw from the borders the armed burghers of the Transvaal ; that the British troops then on the high seas should not be landed in any part of Africa; that an answer to the ulti- matum be received by the Republic not later than 5 o'clock P. M. on October 11th; that an unsatisfactory answer would be regarded by the Republic as a formal declaration of war by Great Britain. On October 12, 1899, the reply of the British having been unsatisfactory, the Transvaal Boers invaded Natal, advancing toward Newcastle, which was defended by the British generals White and Symons. The British evacuated Newcastle and fell back on Ladysmith, where, on October 13th, there was a strong British force. On October 20th, the Boers began the siege of Kimberley, and on the same day in Natal was fought the battle of Dundee, in which the British repulsed the Boers, suffering a loss of 215 in killed and wounded. On October 21st, General French captured the Boers' position at Elandslaagte after a hard battle, with a British 28 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS loss of 257 killed and wounded. General White repulsed a Free State force at Rietfontein, near Ladysmith, October 24th. Five days later the Boers began the siege of Ladysmith. On Octo- ber 30th, in a sortie near Ladysmith, the British were entrapped and defeated, and the Boers captured 870 prisoners. Communication with Ladysmith was cut off by the Boers on Novem- ber 2d, and the next day the British evacuated Colenso, in Natal. The Boers shelled Mafeking November 6th, but were repulsed in an attack on the British position. The first British trans- port carrying reinforcements reached Cape Town on November 9th, and proceeded to Durban. The Boers wrecked a British armored train near Eastcourt, Natal, on November IGth, capturing fifty-six prisoners, including Winston Churchill. On November 23d, near Gras Pan, Lord Me- thuen attacked the Boers and drove them from their position, and on November 26th the British won a sanguinary victory at Modder River. A series of Boer successes then followed. On De- cember 10th, the British, under General Gatacre, were led into a Boer ambuscade near Stormberg Junction and lost 1,000 men, including 672 cap- tured, while on the same and following day Lord Methuen failed to take the Boer position at Spytfontein after desperate fighting and heavy losses, General Wauchope being killed. On December 15th, General Buller was severely defeated while attempting to force the Tugela .River, near Colenso, he losing 1,000 men and eleven guns. The British losses to this date were 7,630 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the attention of the civilized world was riveted upon the war. After Buller's signal defeat. Field Marshal Lord Roberts was ordered, December 18th, to South Africa, to take com- mand of military operations, with Lord Kitch- ener as chief of staff, and with a reinforcement of 100,000 men. General French captured Colesburg on New Year's Day, 1900. On January 6th, Roberts and Kitchener arrived in South Africa, and on the same date the Boers were repulsed with heavy loss in an attack on Ladysmith. On January 23-25th, occurred some of the most desperate and famous fighting of the war, when a British storming party under General Warren captured Spion Kop, but, after heavy losses, withdrew. General Buller made a third attempt to relieve Ladysmith, but failed, February 9th, and Lord Roberts began an invasion of the Orange Free State on February 12th. General French relieved Kimberley on February 15th. On February 22-27th there was severe fighting between Roberts and Cronje, terminating with the capitulation of the latter, with 4,600 men and six guns. Lord Dundonald entered Lady- smith on February 28th, and General Gatacre occupied Stormberg on March 5th. On March 7th, Lord Roberts turned the Boer position near Modder River and advanced triumphantly on Bloemfontein, capital of the Orange Free State, which surrendered to the British on March 13th. The Boer Commander-in-Chief, General Joubert, died on March 27th, and Colonel de Villebois Mareuil, French officer with the Boers, was killed in a skirmish on April 5th. General Cronje and the other Boer prisoners were sent to St. Helena, where they arrived April 14th, and the demoralization of the Boers seemingly began. On April 20th, Mr. Pettigrew, in the United States Senate, introduced a resolution of sympathy with the Boers, but it was voted down, 29 to 20. On May 3d, Lord Roberta began his advance on Pretoria. The Boers now turned to the United States and Europe for intervention, but the United States was the only government in the world of all those approached by the South African Republic which tendered its good offices to either of the combatants in the interest of the cessation of hostilities. So the war continued. On May 10th, the British crossed the Zand River and occupied Kroonstad, and on May 15th, General Buller occupied Dundee. The Boer envoys to the United States reached New York on May 16th, the day that Mafeking was relieved, after a siege of 217 days. President McKinley received the envoys unofficially, but they were officially informed by Secretary of State Hay that the United States could not intervene in the war. The end of the struggle was not yet, however, in sight. On May 28th, Lord Roberts pro- claimed the annexation of the Orange P>ee State to the British Empire. The British entered Johannesburg on May 30th, and on the same day President Kruger retired from Pretoria, which city surrendered on June 5th to the Brit- ish army. General Prinsloo and 3,348 Boers surrendered at Naauwpoort, and Harrismith surrendered to General Macdonald on August 4th. Several conspirators against the life of Lord Roberts were tried at Pretoria August 17th, and their leader was executed. Machadodorp, Kruger's new capital, was occupied by General Buller August 28th. On September 1st, the Transvaal was proclaimed a part of the British Empire by Lord Roberts. Guerilla warfare, which had" begun July 1st, was now general in the Transvaal, and the Boer Generals DeWet and Botha continued to harass the British by sporadic raids. Ex-President Kruger, aband- oning the Transvaal, began his journey to Eu- rope September 12th. He arrived at Marseilles on November 22d, and had an ovation from the French people, the demonstrations of wel- come continuing through his journev to Paris, while the National French Assembly adopted resolutions of sympathy. On November 30th, the supreme military command in South Africa was turned over to Lord Kitchener by Lord Roberts, who departed for home, sailmg for England from Cape Town on December 12th. In the meantime, the German Government inti- mated to Mr. Kruger on December 1st, that a visit by him to Berlin would be inopportune. Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands, on the contrary, welcomed Mr. Kruger at a dinner on December 15th. The British met with a severe reverse at Nooltgedacht December 13th, Colonel Legge being killed. On December 14th, Sir Alfred Milner was appointed Administrator of the Orange River and Transvaal colonies, and the year closed with both sides grimly deter- mined to continue the terrible warfare to a definite conclusion. The first battle of 1901 was at Lindley, HISTORY 29 Orange River Colony, where forty British officers and men were killed or wounded. On January 7th, the British position along Delagoa Bay Railway was unsuccessfully attacked by the Boers, who were also driven back on January 17th near Standerton, when they attacked a British column under General Colville. On January 18th, New Zealand troops and Bushmen, under Colonel Gray, routed 800 Boers near Veutersburg. On January 30th, the Bloem- fontein-Ladybrand line was crossed by DeWet near Israel's Poort, and the Boers captured the British post at Modderfontein in the Transvaal on February 3d, at about which time the British War Office decided to reinforce Kitchener with 30,000 additional mounted troops. General Smith-Dorrien was attacked by Louis Botha with 2,000 men at Orange Camp February 6th, but repulsed him. On the same date the Boers cut the Delagoa Bay Railroad, near Lorenzo Marques; ten days later DeWet crossed the railroad at Bariman's Siding and was engaged by Crabbe and an armored train, and on Feb- ruary 19th the Boers blew up a supply train at Clip River. Fom* severe Boer reverses then followed in quick succession. The Boers, 5,000 strong, were defeated by General French at Piet Retief, February 22d; DeWet's force was scat- tered by Colonel Plummer at Disselfontein, Orange River, February 23d; General French captm'ed 300 Boers, ammunition, cattle, and supphes at JNIiddleburg, February 26th; Lord Kitchener drove DeWet north of the Orange River, with a loss of 280 men captui-ed, March 1st. Lord Kitchener then granted General Botha a seven days' armistice to make commu- nication with other Boer leaders, after which truce hostilities were resumed. The Boers cap- tured a British supply train near Viaklaagte March 22d, but were defeated tlu'ee days later near Vryheid by General French. On March 27th, Fourie's commando and Bruce Hamilton's command held a running fight for twenty miles, (vommandants Prinsloo and Englebrecht surren- dered to the British March 30th, and the British reoccupicd Pietersburg on April 9th, on which date the Boers captm'ed seventy-five men of the Fifth Infantry and Imperial Yeomanry. Gen- eral Botha, on April 10th, renewed negotiations for peace. Sir Alfred Milner, returning home from South Africa, was received bj^ the king and created a peer May 21st. The Boers, again for a time, rejoiced over successes. They attacked and partially destroyed the convoy of General Plummer's column May 25th, captured a Brit- ish post of forty-one men near Maraisburg, May 27tb, and attacked General Dixon's brigade of the Seventh Yeomanry near Vlakfontein, May 29th, causing a heavy British loss. On June 3d, an attack by 700 Boers under Schecper uyjon Willomore, Cape Colony, was repulsed after a nine hours' fight. The British and Boers lost heavily in an engagement between ElUot and DeWet near Reitz, June 6th, and on the same day Colonel Wilson, with 240 men, routed 400 Boers under Bever, near Warm Baths. The Boers captm-ed 200 members of the Victoria Mounted Rifles at Steenkoolsprint, June 12th, and the Midland INIounted Rifles were overpowered by Commandant Malan at Waterkloof, June 20th. President Schalk-Burger, of the South African Republic, and President Steyn, of Orange Free State, issued a proclamation for "no peace with- out independence," June 20th, and on August 7th, Lord Kitchener issued a proclamation of banishment against all Boers in South Africa not surrendering by September 15th. In the meantime. General Benson repulsed the Boers in a mountain pass near Dullstroem, and, though the inevitable end of the warfare was becoming daily more apparent, fighting was continued. Fifty of General French's scouts were captured in Cape Colony August 16th; tliree officers and sixty-five British, north of Ludybrand, were captured August 21st; the Boers attacked a convoy near Kooi])0])je and killed nine men of the Seventj'-fourt h Yeomanry, wounding twenty- three, on August 24th; Colonel Vandelcur and nine men were killed and seventeen wounded by the blowing up of a train in "the Transvaal, August 31st; Von Tonder and Delarey engaged General ]\Iethuen in the Great Maries valley, September 8th. Then, on September 16th, the British troops captured Lotter's entire command south of Pietersburg, and on the following day the Boers partially evened matters by ambush- ing and capturing three companies of British mounted infantry under Major Gough, near Scheeper's Nek, and also by capturing a company of mounted British infantry and two guns at Vlakfontein, September 20th. Two Boer com- mandos were captured September 21st, near Adenburg, and Colonel the Hon. A. Murray and Captain Murray, his adjutant, were killed in a fight with Krintzsinger, who crossed the Orange River. On September 29th, Commandant De- larey attacked Colonel Kekewich's camp at Moedwill, with loss on both sides. Martial law was declared throughout Cape Colony on October 9th. The following day General Sir Redvers BuUer admitted, in a speech, that he advised the sm-render of Ladysmith, and was severely criticised for his utterances. Conmiander Scheeper was captured October 12th, and Captain Belle w and four others were killed in a fight, October 16th, at Twenty-four Streams. On November 1st, in a heavy Boer attack on Colonel Benson's column near Brakenlaagte, the British lost twenty-five officers and 214 inen in killed and wounded. During the next sixty days numerous small sku-mishes were reported, and during the first thi'ee months of 1902 the war was more or less of a desultory character. Negotiations for peace between the Boer leaders and the British Government began on March 23d, the latest notable Boer accomphshment having been the capture of General Methuen and 200 men, forty-one British being killed, on March 11th. On May 31, 1902, Lord Kitchener announced that a peace treaty had been signed between Great Britain and the Boers, Commandant-Gen- eral Louis Botha, assisted by General Delarey and Chief Commandant DeWet, acting for the Boers. Bohemia. The Bo ii, from whom Bohemia derives its name, settled in the country in the Second Century B. C, but were expelled by the Marcomanni about the beginning of the Christian era. The victors themselves soon gave place to 30 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS others, and as early as the Fifth Century A. D. we find Bohemia peopled by the Czechs, a Slavic race. In the latter part of the Ninth Century, Swatopluk, the King of Moravia, subjugated Bohemia and introduced Christianity. After ills death, the Dukes of Prague, who, in 1061, had the title of king conferred on them by the Emperor Henry IV., ruled the country as a state in the German Empire, until 1306, when the last of the dynasty was assassinated. From 1310 to 1-137, Bohemia was ruled by kings of the House of Luxembourg. In the time of Wenzel IV. (Wenceslas), a reformation of religion took place under John Huss and Jerome of Prague. After the death of Wenzel IV., the imprudent measures adopted by the Emperor Sigismund excited in Bohemia a war of sixteen years' dura- tion, which ended in making Bohemia an elective kingdom. In 1458, the shrewd and able Protest- ant noble, George von Podiebrad, ascended the throne. His successor, Ladislaus (1471-1516), was elected (1490) to the throne of Hungary, and removed the royal residence to Ofen, where also his son and successor, Louis (1516-26), resided. After his death in battle against the Turks at Mohacz (1526), Bohemia and Hungary passed into the hands of Ferdinand I. of Austria, who had married Louis' sister. From that time the history of Bohemia merges into the history of Austria. Boii. A Celtic people, who emigrated from Transalpine Gaul into Italy, where they occupied the old seat of the Umbrians, between the Po and the Apennines. In B. C. 283, the Boii were defeated by the Romans at the Vadimonian Lake, and thereafter prolonged through numer- ous campaigns, especially in support of Hannibal, but sometimes single-handed, their resistance to the Roman arms, till their complete defeat by Scipio Nasica, B. C. 191. They were subse- quently compelled to recross the Alps, and dwelt for more than a century in a part of modern Bohemia (which derives its name from them), but were ultimately exterminated by the Dacians. Bonaparte's Egyptian Campaign (1799). Alexandria fell into his hands; he won the great battle of the Pyramids; completed the subjugation of Egypt; passed into Syria, made himself master of Gaza and Jaffa; won the battle of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, attacked the Turks at Aboukir, and utterly destroyed their whole army, June 25, 1799. Bonaparte's Forty Days Cam- paign. He left Paris May 6, 1800; marched over the Alps, and reached Aosta May 23d; he entered Milan June 2d ; won the battle of Monte- bello over the Austrians, June 9th, and tlie great battle of Marengo, June 14th; returned to Paris, July 2d. The forty days count from his arrival at Aosta, May 23d, to his return to Paris, July 2d. Bonaparte's Italian Campaign (1796-97). He was 27 years of a-je. April 11th, he defeated Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at Montenotte, in Sardinia; April 14th, he- won, the battle of Millesimo; April 15th, he won the bat- tle of Dego; April 22d, he won a victory over the Piedmontese at Mondovi; May 10th, he de- feated the Austrian general, Beaulieu, at the Bridge of Lodi, and entered Milan; June 19th, he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, and Ancona; August 3d, he defeated the Austrian general, Wurmser, at Lonato; August 5th, he defeated the same general at Castiglione ; September 8th, he defeated him again at Bassano; November 17th, he won the great battle of Areola over Alvinzi, the Austrian general ; January 14, 1797, he won the battle of Rivoli over Alvinzi and Wurmser; January 15th, he won a battle at the faubourg of St. George, near Mantua; January 16th, he won a battle near the palace called The Favorite; March 16th, he defeated the Aus- trians, led by the Archduke Karl, at Taglia- mento; October 17th, the treaty of Campo Formio, and in December he returned to France. He had won fifteen battles; added Savoy and Nice to France, the Netherlands, and Italy; had obtained vast money compensations, and returned to France laden with treasures of art. Boxer Rebellion, The. The causes of the Boxer outbreak in China were cumulative. For three years prior to the enforced occupation of China iDy the powers, in 1900, a number of acts of foreign countries had a disquieting efTect upon the empire. Since 1898, Russia had taken Port Arthur and the adjacent harbor of Talien- wan. Germany had leased Kiaochau and gained great concessions in the province of Shang Tung. France had suggested privileges in portions of Chinese territory adjacent to the French posses- sions of Tonquin. Great Britain, to cap the climax, had obtained from China a lease of Wei-Hai-Wei, on the south shore of the Gulf of Pechili, opposite Port Arthur, and thus com- manded the entrance to the gulf and the water approach to Peking. Many Chinese were re- sentful of these encroachments by foreigners, but the Dowager Empress did not oppose them, and hence she was bitterly arraigned by her people. The leader of this opposition was Prince Tuan, the sixth son of the Emperor Kwang-Su's grand- father. Prince Tuan had long been an athlete and had a following of many athletic young men in the kingdom, who, because of their ability in sports, were known as boxers, a name which Tuan's recruits adopted. Tuan pro- claimed his nine-year-old son heir presumptive to the throne. The emperor, then but a figure- head, dominated by the Dowager Empress, had little popular support. The Boxers revolted, massacred missionaries at many interior points of the empire, and finally made a concerted attack upon the foreign legations in Peking, in which movement the imperial] troops eventually participated. The Chinese Tsung-li-Yamen, the equivalent to a responsible government ministry in Europe, was in .sentiment hostile to foreigners, and hence either would not, or could not, protect the legations or escort them safely from the country. The civilized world received distress- ing reports of massacres and outrages, and was for several weeks in suspense as to the fate of the foreign ministers in China, their families, legation attaches, and converted Chinese under foreign protection. The offended powers de- cided upon concerted action and hurried vessels and troops to the ports nearest to the danger points. Upon Chinese resistance to the landing HISTORY 31 of marines at Taku, the forts were shelled by all the allies except Americans, and on June 17th, while the Chinese shelled the allies' fleet, the allied troops landed and captured the Taku forts, after a sanguinary conflict. On June 18th the Ninth United States Regiment was ordered from Manila to China, other troops following. On June 20th, German fury and general inter- national indignation was aroused when Baron von Ketteler, the German Minister, while pro- ceeding on a diplomatic mission to the Tsung- li-Yamen in Peking, was beset by Chinese sol- diers and butchered. On the same day an allied expedition under Vice-Admiral Seymour, of the British Navy, began a march upon Peking for the relief of the British legationers. Such count- less hordes of Chinese opposed him that he was obliged to turn back, suffering casualties of 374. The allied warships shelled Tien-tsin on June 21st, and the combined forces, two days later, occupied the foreign quarters of that city. The Chinese, on June 23d, requested an armistice through Minister Wu at Washington. The United States promptly replied that free com- munication must first be allowed with the lega- tions, and on July 4th, Secretary of State Hay outlined to the powers the American policy. On July 13-14th, occurred one of the noted conflicts of history, when the allied forces stormed the Chinese port of Tien-tsin, which they captured with a loss of 800 killed and wounded. Colonel E. H. Liscum, commanding the United States contingent, was among the slain. On July 19th, the Emperor of China appealed to President McKinley for peace. The advance of the allies upon Peking began August 4th, under command of Field Marshal von Wal- dersee, of the German army, who was unani- mously selected to command the allied forces. The first news from the beleaguered foreigners reached the United States in the form of a cipher message from Minister Conger. It read: "Still besieged. Situation more precarious. Chinese Government insisting on our leaving Peking, which would be certain death. Rifle firing upon us daily by imperial troops. Have abun- dant courage, but little ammunition or provisions. Two progressive Yamen ministers beheaded. All connected with the legation of the United States well at present moment." The receipt of this message caused intense excitement throughout the United States, for, though it broke the long suspense, it added to public fury and anxiety. On August 8th, Li Hung Chang was appointed Envoy Plenipotentiary to pro- pose to the several powers for the immediate cessation of hostile demonstrations. On August 14th, Peking was captured by the allied forces of the Americans, British, Germans, French, Austrians, Italians, and Japanese. The American troops were the first to enter the city, and Cap- tain Reilly was the first victim. The emperor and empress had fled. The legationers were prompt- ly relieved and told thrilling stories of their danger and distress during the long siege. The Chinese, on August 16th, asked for an armistice, which was refused. Li Hung Chang's appeal was rejected by the United States, and China was informed that the demands of this Govern- ment must be complied with. At the same time General Chaffee was given full power to act. The American refugees from Peking reached Tien-tsin safely on August 25th. On November 19th, the negotiations between the allies and the Chinese authorities for terms of peace and compensation, which were begun when the allies took full possession of Peking, had progressed so far that the German Imperial Chancellor in the Reichstag announced that the allies had unanimously agreed upon the follow- ing as their demands upon China: _ First. China shall erect a monument to Raron von Ketteler on the site where he was murdered and send an Imperial Prince to Gerniany to convey an apology. She shall inflict the death penalty upon eleven princes and officials already named, and suspend provincial exami- nations for five years where the outrages occurred. Second. In future all officials failing to prevent anti- foreign outrages within their jurisdiction shall be dis- missed and punished. Third. Indemnity shall be paid to states, corpora- tions and individuals. The Tsung-li-Yamen shall be abolished and its functions vested in a Foreign Minister. Rational intercourse shall be permitted with the em- peror, as in civilized countries. Fourth. The forts at Taku and other forts on the coast of Chili shall be razed, and the importation of arms and war material prohibited. Fifth. Permanent legation guards shall be main- tained, and also guards of communication between Peking and the sea. Sixth. Imperial proclamations shall be posted for two years throughout the empire suppressing Boxers. Seventh. Indemnity is to include compensation for Chinese who suffered by being employed by foreigners, but not compensation for native Christians. Eig}dh. China shall erect expiatory monuments in every foreign or international burial ground where the graves have been profaned. Ninth. The Chinese Government shall undertake to enter upon negotiations for such changes in existing treaties regarding trade anil navigation as the foreign governments deem advisable, and with reference to other matters having in view the facilitation of commer- cial relations. In December, 1900, the Chinese authorities had accepted all the foregoing conditions im- posed by the allies, and the preliminary note of the demands of the powers was signed by Li Hung Chang and Prince Ching. Peking was evacuated by the American cavalry and artillery May 5th, and General Chaffee embarked for the Philippines May 18th. The powers, on May 9th, demanded of China a formal indemnity of 450,- 000,000 taels (about $300,000,000), which was agreed to by China, and the powers, on July 26th, formally accepted China's offer to pay the sum named on time at 4^ per cent, interest. Prince Chun, at Berlin, September 4th, formally apolo- gized to Emperor William for the insult to Ger- man honor in the murder of Baron von Ketteler. On September 17th, the American and Japanese troops in Peking handed over the Forbidden City to the Chinese. Brazil. It was only in 1531 that the Portu- guese, busy as they were in India, here planted their first settlement. In 1578, Brazil fell with Portugal, under the power of Spain, and became a prey to the Dutch; and, though Portugal regained its own independence in 1640, it was not until 1654 that Brazil was entirely recovered from the Hollanders. In 1807, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil; in 1815, the colony was declared "a kingdom"; and the Portu- guese court having returned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled at Rio de Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son of King Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen "Per- 32 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS petual Defender" of Brazil. He proclaimed the independence of the country on September 7, 1822, and was chosen "Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender" on October 12th, fol- lowing. In 1831, he abdicated in favor of his onl}^ son, Dom Pedro II., who reigned until November 15, 1889, when he was dethroned, exiled, and Brazil declared a republic under the title of the United States of Brazil. A new con- stitution was adopted in 1891, and Fonseca elected first president. Admirals Mello and Da Gama rebelled, 1893, but their revolt was soon suppressed. In 1906-07, Brazil took the lead in an effort to:reach a better understanding among the countries of North and South America. A great demonstration was given by the city of Rio de Janeiro, in 1908, to the United States Pacific squadron. After continued sinkings of Brazilian ships by German submarines, Brazil seized all German vessels in her harbors, June 28, 1917, and formally declared war against Germany, Oct. 2G, 1917. Bruns^\ ick, The House of. The Duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by Charlemagne, and governed afterward by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo, Marquis of Italy and Lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife, Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, Duke of Carinthia in Bavaria), a son, Guelph. This son was invited into Germany by Iinitza, his mother-in-law, and invested with all the posses- sions of his wife's stepfather, Guelph of Bavaria. His descendant, Henry the Lion, married Matil- da, daughter of Henry II. of England, and is always looked upon as the founder of the Bruns- wick family. His dominions were very extensive; but, having refused to assist the Emperor Fred- erick Barbarossa in a war against Pope Alex- ander III., through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed at the Diet at Wurzburg, in 1180. The Duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria; the Duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the House of Anhalt; and his other territories to different persons. He then retired to England; but, at the interces- sion of Henry II., Brunswick and Liineburg were restored to him. The House of Brunswick, in 1409, divided into several branches. Brunswick was included by Napoleon in the Kingdom of WestphaUa in 180G, but was restored to the duke in 1815. Buccaneers. A celebrated association of piratical adventurers, who, from the commence- ment of the second quarter of the Sixteenth Century to the end of the Seventeenth, main- tained themselves in the Caribbean seas, at first by systematic reprisals on the Spaniards, latterly by a less justifiable and indiscriminate piracy. The name is derived from the Caribbee boucan, a term for preserved meat, smoke-dried in a pecu- liar manner. The Buccaneers were also some- times called "Brethren of the Coast." The as- sumption bj' the Spaniards of an exclusive right, based upon the broad claim of initial discovery, to the whole of the New World was stoutly re- sisted by the enterprising mariners of England and France. The cruelties inflicted by the Spaniards upon aU foreign interlopers, of which the history of that time is full, naturally led to an association for mutual defense among the adventurers of all other nations, but particularly among the English and French. The funda- mental principles of the policy were close mutual alliance and war with all who were Spanish. The center of their predatory life was Tortuga. Their last great exploit was the capture of Carthagcna, 1697. Bull Run, or Bull's Run. A stream in Virginia, dividing Fairfax and Prince Wilham counties, in the northeastern part of the State, and flowing into the Occoquan River, fourteen miles from the Potomac. On its banks were fought two of the most memorable battles dur- ing the Civil War. After a series of heavy skir- mishes, July 16-19, 1861, the Union army, under General ]\IcDowell, was on the 21st utterly routed by the Confederates, under the command of Generals Beauregard and J. E. Johnston. The Union loss was about 3,000 men, while that of the Confederates was estimated at nearly 2,000 men. The former lost, in addition, twenty- seven guns, besides an immense quantity of small arms, ammunition, stores, provisions, and accoutrements. On August 30, 1862, another great battle was fought here between the Union forces, commanded by General Pope, and the Confederates, under Generals Lee, Longstreet, and "Stonewall" Jackson, when the former were again defeated with heavy loss. The three battles of Groveton, Bull's Run, and Chantilly, fought in three successive days, cost the Union cause about 14,500 men in killed, wounded, missing, and prisoners, thirty guns, and 30,000 small arms. The first battle of Bull Run is sometimes known as the Battle of Manassas. Bunker Hill, Battle of. A famous engagement between American and British troops, June 17, 1775. The former were com- manded by Colonel Prescott and General Put- nam, and the latter by General Howe. The British loss in killed and wounded was 1,054; that of the Americans, 450. Although the latter were driven from their position after their pow- der was exhausted, and the victory remained with the British, the moral effect of this first battle on the Americans, and the heavy loss to the enemy, made it equivalent to a victory for the Continentals. On the ground where the hottest of the battle was fought a granite obelisk, 221 feet in height, has been erected at a cost of $100,000, raised by popular subscriptions. The corner stone was laid by General Lafaj^ette, when on his visit to this coimtry in 1825; it was completed July, 1842, and, on the occasion of its dedication, Daniel ^^'ebster delivered liis famous oration, generally regarded as his best effort. Burmah. The Burmese Empire was found- ed in the middle of the Eighteenth Century by Alompra, the first sovereign of the djmasty, which fell in the person of King Thcebaw in 1886. In 1824, the British commenced hostil- ities against Burmah, and captured Rangoon on May llth. Successive victories led to the cession of Arracan in 1826. In 1852, further complica- tions resulted in the cession of Pegu to the Brit- ish Indian Empire. In 1885, King Thcebaw, relying upon French assistance, interfered with a iiritish trading company. The British Gov- HISTORY 33 ernment took up the case, and demanded of the Burmese monarch security for his future good behavior. Theebaw rejected these demands, whereupon the queen declared war on November 10th. On November 28th, General Prendergast entered Mandalay, the Burmese capital. The king surrendered on the followmg day, and was immediately deported to British territory. The government was thenceforth administered by a British resident, and on December 31, 1885, Burmah was formally annexed to British India, thus closing the history of Burmah as an inde- pendent kingdom. Cade's Rebellion. In June, 1450, Jack Cade, an Irishman who called himself Mortimer, with 15,000 or 20,000 armed men of Kent, marched on London and encamped at Black- heath whence he kept up a correspondence with the citizens, many of whom were favorable to his enterprise. The court sent to inquire why the good men of Kent had left their homes. Cade, in a paper entitled "The Complaint of the Com- mons of Kent," replied that the people were robbed of their goods for the king's use, that the men of Kent were especially ill-treated and overtaxed, and that the free election of knights of their shire had been hindered. The court sent its answer in the form of an army, before which Cade retreated to Sevenoaks, where he awaited the attack of a detachment which he defeated. The royal army now objected to fight against their countrymen; the court made some concessions, and Cade entered London on the 3d of July. For two days he maintained the strictest order; but he forced the mayor and judges to pass judgment upon Lord Say, one of the king's hated favorites, whose head Cade's men immediately cut off in Cheapside. A promise of pardon now sowed dissension among his followers, who dispersed, and a price was set upon Cade's head. He attempted to reach the Sussex coast, but was followed by an esquire, named Alexander Iden, who fought and killed him July 11th. His head was stuck upon London Bridge as a terror to traitors, 1450. Calendar. A systematic division of time into years, months, weeks, and days, or a register of these or similar divisions. The present cal- endar was adopted in the Sixteenth Century, the Julian, or old Roman calendar, having become grossly erroneous. Luigi Lilio Ghiraldi, frequently called Aloyslus Lilius, a physician of Verona, projected a plan for amending the calendar, which, after his death, was presented by his brother to Pope Gregory XIII. To carry it into execution, the pope assembled a number of prelates and learned men. In 1.577, the proposed cnange was adopted by all the Catholic princes; and in 1582, Gregory issued a brief abolishing the Julian calendar in all Catholic countries, and introducing in its stead the one now in use, under the name of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or the "new style,'' as the other was now called the "old style.'' The amendment ordered was this: Ten days were to be dropped after the 4th of Octo- ber, 1582, and the 15th was reckoned immediately after the 4th. Every 100th year, which, by the old style was to have been a leap year, was now to be a common year, the fourth excepted ; that is, 1600 was to remain a leap year, but 1700, 1800, 1900, to be of the common length, and 2000 a leap year again. In this calendar the length of the solar year was taken to be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, and 12 seconds, the difference between which and subsequent ob- servations is immaterial. In Spain, Portugal, and the greater part of Italy, the amendment was introduced according to the pope's instruc- tions. In France, the ten days were dropped in December, the 10th being called the 20th. In Catholic Switzerland, Germany, and the Netherlands, the change was introduced in the following year; in Poland, in 1586; in Hungary, in 1587. Protestant Germany, Holland, and Denmark accepted it in 1700, and Switzerland in 1701. In the German Empire a difference still remained for a considerable time as to the period for observing Easter. In England the Gregorian calendar was adopted in 1752, in accordance with an act of Parliament passed the previous year, the day after the 2d of Sep- tember becoming the 14th. Sweden followed in 1753. The change adopted in the English cal- endar in 1752 embraced another point. There had been previous to this time, various periods fixed for the commencement of the year in various countries of Europe. In France, from the time of Charles IX., the year was reckoned to begin from the 1st of January; this was also the popular reckoning in England, but the legal and ecclesiastical year began on March 25th. The 1st of January was now adopted as the beginning of the legal year, and it was customary for some time to give two dates for the period intervening between January 1st and March 25th, that of the old and that of the new year, as January llSy^. Russia alone retains the old style, which now differs twelve days from the new. California. The name, signifying "hot furnace," is derived from the Spanish. Though discovered by Sir Francis Drake in 1578, it was first settled by the Spaniards in 1768, at San Diego. Lower California, however, was settled by the Jesuit missionaries in 1683. Spanish power was overthrown by the Mexican Revolu- tion of 1822. By the treaty of peace which followed the Mexican War, California was ceded to the United States for $15,000,000 in 1848. At this time the white population was 15,000. In January, 1848, gold was discovered at Sut- ter's mill by J. W. Marshall, a verification of Humboldt's prophecy more than a dozen years before. The immigration from all parts of the world soon increased the population to a quarter of a million. The State was admitted to the Union on September 9, 1850. The history of the Chinese in California has been more remarkable than that of any other foreign element. By 1860, the number of Chi- nese had reached 34,933; by 1870, 49,310; and by 1880, 75,218. A plebiscitum was taken, and the people of California voted with remarkable unanimity in favor of the restriction of Chinese immigration. In 1882, Congress passed the restriction law which, by successive renewals, has been kept in force till the present time. The Chinese population of California, by 1890, had declined to 71,066; and by 1900, to 45,753. 34 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS In 1900, the Japanese numbered 10,151; in 1910, 41 ,356. Thcy,liave largely superseded the Chinese as agricultural laborers and domestic servants. In 1906, the state suffered from one of the most destructive earthquakes of modern times. In 1911 California adopted equal suffrage; also an amendment putting into force the initiative, referendum, and recall. In 1913, the Cahfornia legislature p;issed an anti-alien land bill. The Panama-Pacific international exposition celebrating the opening of the Panama canal was held at San Francisco, Feb. 20 -Dec. 4, 1915. Forty-five foreign nations, forty-three states and three territories were represented. More than 18,000,000 people attended. Caliph, Kalif, or Khalif (Kal'lf). The chief sacerdotal dignity among the Saracens or Mohammedans, vested with absolute authority in all matters relating both to religion and politi- cal affairs. The government of the original caliphs continued from the death of Mohammed till the 655th year of the Hegira, that is, from A. D. 632 to 1277. The Fatimite caliphs of Africa and the Ommiad sovereigns of Spain, each professed to be the only legitimate succes- sors of Mohammed, in opposition to the Abbas- side caliphs of Bagdad, which latter caliphate reached its zenith of power and splendor under Haroun-al-Raschid, in the Ninth Century. The title is now one assumed by the Turkish Sultans, as successors to the Prophet, and also by the Persian Sophis, as successors of Ali. Campus Martins (Lat., The field of Mars). In ancient times, a field by the side of the Tiber, where the Roman youth practiced themselves in warlike exercises. It was consecrated to Mars, god of war, and a temple of that deity stood on it. During the earlier days of the Roman Republic, it was also used for holding the comitia, or assemblies of the people ; later it was adorned with many fine statues. It constitutes the main part of the modern city of Rome. Canada. In 1534, Jacques Cartier, a French navigator, entering the St. Lawrence on the festival of the saint of that title, took nomi- nal possession of North America in the name of his king, Francis I. In 1608, Quebec was founded by De Champlain; and here, fifteen years later, he built Fort St. Louis, from which stronghold France ruled for 150 years a vast region extending eastward to Acadia (now Nova Scotia), westward to Lake Superior, and ultimately down the Mississippi as far as Florida and Louisiana. The Recollet and Jesuit mis- sionaries traversed the country in all directions, and underwent incredible hardships in their zeal for the conversion of the Indians. These fearless priests were the pioneers of civilization in the far West, and to one of the most intrepid — La Salle — is due the discovery of the Mississippi valley. In 1670, Charles II. granted to Prince Rupert and his company, known ever since as the Hudson Bay Company, the perpetual ex- clusive right of trading in the territory watered by all the streams flowing into Hudson Bay. Garrisoned forts were now raised at suitable points, and the bitter enmity between the French and the English traders frequently led to bloody struggles, in which sometimes the Indians also took a part. The most warlike native tribe was that of the Iroquois, who were persistent ene- mies of the French, while the peaceful Hurons were steady allies. Meanwhile, the wars on the American continent followed the course of the wars in Europe, until the long struggle between France and England for the supremacy in Amer- ica came to a close on the "Plains of Abraham," in 1759, when General Wolfe defeated Montcalm. This victory opened the gates of Quebec. The capitulation of Montreal next year brought to a close the era of French dominion in Canada. The people of the conquered country were se- cured, by the terms of the treaty agreed to, in the free exercise of their religion ; and peace was concluded between Britain and France, 1763, when Canada was formally ceded to England, and Louisiana to Spain. In the same year a small portion of the recently acquired territory was, by royal proclamation, organized under English laws. In 1774, the new province was extended by parliamentary enactment, under French laws, down the Ohio to its confluence with the Mississippi, and up the latter stream to its source. Finally, Canada receded to its present limits in 1783, gi%ang up to the American Republic, at the close of the Revolutionary War, the sites of six States: Minnesota, Wis- consin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. In 1791, Canada was divided under separate legis- latures into two sections — the eastern retaining French institutions, the western receiving those of England ; these sections, after discontent had ripened into armed insurrection, were again reunited for legislative purposes in 1841. In 1867, March 28, the British North America act for confederation of the colonies passed the imperial parliament. It united Upper Canada, or Ontario, Lower Canada, or Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, into one territory, to be named the Dominion of Canada. New- foundland declared against joining the confed- eration, but with that exception all the British territory north of the United States was grad- ually included within the Dominion — the Hud- son Bay Company territory by purchase in 1868, British Columbia in 1871, Prince Edward Island in 1873. In 1870, an insurrection of the Red River settlers, who were under apprehensions as to how their titles to their lands might be affected by the cession of the Hudson Bay Company's rights, took place under the leadership of Louis Riel, and had to be suppressed by a military expedition under Colonel (later Viscount) Wolse- ley. To reassure the settlers, a part of the newly- purchased territory was erected into an inde- pendent province under the name of Manitoba, the unorganized territory beyond receiving the name of the Northwestern Territory. In 1871, the Washington Treaty arranged that the fish- eries of both Canada and the United States should be open to each country for the next twelve years, Canada receiving a compensation, afterwards fixed at five and a half million dollars, for the superior value of its fisheries. In 1884, considerable disaffection was caused amongst the half-breeds and Indians in the Saskatchewan and Assiniboia districts, on account of the diffi- culty of obtaining valid titles to their lands. The discontent at length took shape in an insur- rection, which Louis Riel was invited to head. HISTORY 35 The rebels seized the government stores at Duck Lake. Some Indian tribes cooperating with them massacred the settlers at Frog's Lake. General Middleton with several thousand volun- teers suppressed the rebelhon. Riel was tried and executed at Regina on July 28, 1885. After 1883, when the Washington Treaty expired, dis- putes between American and Canadian fishermen became frequent, and several American fishing vessels were seized on the British North Ameri- can coasts. For the adjustment of the differ- ences over fisheries a joint British and American commission was instituted in 1887. A treaty was signed in February, 1888, but was rejected by the United States Senate. In 1887, an arbitration board was appointed to settle a dispute with the United States concerning the Bering Sea seal fisheries, and ten years later made an award in favor of the Canadians' claims. Another commission, sitting in London (1903), decided the Alaskan boundary controversy in favor of the United States. In September, 1907, a serious riot, directed against the Japanese and Chinese, broke out in Vancouver, largely or- ganized by the American labor agitators, but supported by the local rowdies of the city. The Dominion authorities at once suppressed the outbreak. In 1910, the Newfovmdland fisheries controversy was arbitrated at The Hague. On September 21, 1911, reciprocity of trade with the United States was defeated by Canada, resulting in the downfall of the Uberal ministry and the election of Robert Laird Borden as premier at the head of the first conservative min- istry in Canada since 1896. At the general parha- mentary election, 1917, the conservative party was continued in power by a substantial majority. Upon the outbreak of war in Europe, 1914, the Canadian government called a special session of parhament, which passed the necessary war bills and appropriations. Troops, horses, food- stuffs and money were sent to Great Britain. Prince Alexander of Teck was appointed gover- nor-general in May, 1914, to succeed the Duke of Connaught in October. The Duke of Con- naught was retained in office, as Prince Alexan- der went with his regiment to France at the beginning of the war. In June, 1916, the Duke of Devonshire was appointed governor-general. From August, 1914, to November, 1917, Cana- dian army enlistments for overseas service reached a total of 441,862. By various enact- ments, chiefly during the European War, all the provinces of Canada adopted Prohibition. Que- bec, the last of the provinces to so legislate, passed a prohibitory law effective May 1, 1918. Carthage {caWed Carthago hy the Romans, and by the Greeks, Karchedon). One of the most celebrated cities of the ancient world, situated on the north coast of Africa, on a penin- sula in what is now the state of Tunis. It was founded by the Phoenicians of Tyre, about 100 years before the building of Rome, or, according to tradition, 853 B. C. The builder of the city was said to be Dido. It became the seat of a powerful kingdom; maintained three wars against Rome, which are usually called the three Punic Wars, and in the third of these wars was totally destroyed by Scipio ^mihanus, 146 B. C. The greatness of the city at this time may be judged from the fact that it took seventeen days to burn. It is said to have been twenty-three miles in circumference, and to have contained within its walls a population of 700,000. Ca;sar afterwards planted a colony on the site, which he called Colonia Carthago. It became again the first city in Africa, and occupied an important part in ecclesiastical as well as in civil history. Charter Oak, a tree which formerly stood in Hartford, Conn., in the hollow trunk of which the colonial charter is said to have been hidden. The story is that when Governor Andros went to Hartford in 1687, to demand the surrender of the charter, the debate in the Assembly was prolonged until dark, when the Ughts were extinguished, and Captain Wadsworth escaped with the document and hid it in the oak. The venerable tree was preserved with great care until 1856, when it was blown down. Chile. Chile originally belonged to the Incas of Peru, from whom it was wrested by the Spaniards under Pizarro and Almagro, in 1535. From this period Chile continued a colony of Spain until 1810, when a revolution commenced, which terminated in 1818 in the independence of Chile. Several internal commotions have since occurred; but the country has been free from these compared with other South American States. A war begun with Spain, in 1865, led to the blockade of the coast by the Spanish fleet, and the bombardment of Valparaiso in 1866. In 1879, a war broke out with Bolivia and Peru in reference to the rights of Cliile in the mineral district of Atacama. This war was virtually finished in 1881, and the victorious Chileans gained a large accession of territory from both Bolivia and Peru. In 1891, an insurrection caused by dissatisfaction with President Balma- ceda's administration resulted in his overthrow. In 1907, a number of labor disturbances in the mining regions called for armed intervention. China. The early history of the Chinese is shrouded in fable, but it is certain that civili- zation had advanced much among them when it was only beginning to dawn on the nations of Europe. The Chow dynasty, which was founded by Woo-wang and lasted from about 1100 B. C. to 258 B. C, is perhaps the earhest that can be regarded as historic. Under Ling- wang, one of the sovereigns of this djTiasty, Confucius is said to have been born, some time in the sixth century B. C. During the latter half of the Chow dynasty there appear to have been a number of rival kings in China. Chow- siang, who was the founder of the Tsin djmasty, from which China takes its name, gained the superiority over his rivals, and died in 251 B. C. His great-grandson, a national hero of the Chi- nese, was the first to assume the title of "Hoang" (emperor), and called himself Che-Hoang-ti. In his reign, the great wall, which was designed as a protection against marauding Tartars, was begun about 214 B. C. Buddhism was intro- duced in 65 A. D. Subsequently, the empire broke up into three or more states, and a long period of confusion and weak government en- sued. In 960, a strong ruler managed to con- solidate the empire, but the attacks of the Tar- tars were now causing much trouble. In the thirteenth century the Mongols, imder Jenghis 36 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Khan and his son, Ogdai, conquered China, and in 1259 the celebrated Kublai Khan, a nephew of the latter, ascended the throne and founded the Mongol dynasty. His ninth descendant was driven from the throne, and a native dynasty, called Ming, again succeeded in 1368, in the person of Hungwu. A long period of peace ensued, but was broken about 1618, when the Manchus gained the ascendenc}', and, after a war of twenty-seven years, founded the Tartar dynasty in the person of Tungchi, establishing their capital in the northern city of Peking, which was nearer their native country than the old capital Nanking. The earliest authentic accounts of China are those of Marco Polo, who visited the country in the Thirteenth Century. The first British inter- course was attempted under Queen Ehzabeth, in 1596, and a trade was subsequently established by the East India Company, but no direct inter- course between the governments took place till the embassy of Lord Macartney, in 1792. A second embassy in 1816, by Lord Amherst, was treated with insolence. In 1840, the British, on being refused redress for injm-ies partly real and partly alleged, proceeded to hostilities, and, after scattering every force which was opposed to them, were preparing to lay siege to Nanking when the Chinese sued for peace. A treaty was then concluded (1842) by which the five ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai were opened to British merchants, the island of Hong-Kong ceded to the British in perpetuity, and the payment of $21,000,000 agreed to be made by the Chinese. In 1850, an insurrection broke out in the provinces adjoining Canton, with the object of expelUng the Manchu dynasty from the throne, as well as of restoring the ancient national religion of Shan-ti, and of malcing Tien-te the founder of a new dynasty, which he called that of Tai-ping, or Universal Peace. After a long period of civil war, the Tai-ping rebeUion was at length suppressed in 1865, chiefly by the exertions of General Gordon and other British and American officers at the head of the Chinese army. In October, 1856, the crew of a vessel belonging to Hong-Kong were seized by the Chinese. The men were afterwards brought back, but all reparation or apology was refused. In consequence of this, a war with China commenced, in which the French took part with the British. Peking had to be taken (in 1860) before the Chinese Govern- ment finally gave way, and granted a treaty securing important privileges to the allies. The child emperor, Tsaitien, succeeded in 1875, but only assumed the reins of government in 1887, on reaching the age of sixteen. War was de- clared between China and Japan on July 31, 1894. Japan, by a series of brilliant victories, both on land and sea, brought the war to an end in April, 1895. Corea was declared inde- pendent, Formosa ceded to Japan, and China was forced to pay a very large war indemnity. The following succinct statement of recent prog- ress in China was lately made by a missionary who has labored in that country since 1863: "Who among us, ten years ago, would have dared to imagine that to-day China would have (1) a national fleet; (2) the telegraph radiating to the most distant provinces; (3) government colleges for engineering, navigation, mihtary tac- tics, electricity, and medicine; (4) the Kai-ping mines supplying steamers and the north ports with excellent and cheap coal?" During 1898, both Russia and Germany had taken possession of certain provinces of China. In 1900, the Boxers rose against the foreigners (See Boxer Rebellion). A punitive war by the powers followed; indemnity and future guarantees and punishment of the principals were demanded and paid. In 1903, insurrection and rebelHon occurred in several provinces. Rebels in North China pro- claimed Pu Chun, Prince Tuan's son, as emperor, but the movement was quickly suppressed. As a result of the rebellion in the Province of Kwang-si, the country was desolated and a serious famine threatened. It was reported that 1,000,000 persons were starving, and that men were selhng their wives and children in order to get food. In 1907-08, edicts were issued looking to the extension of seK-government in the cities and a larger degree of civil liberty. A grand council was instituted by the emperor, and in 1910 in response to popular demands he announced the estabhshment of representative government in 1913. In 1911 a revolution began in China between those who advocated the retention of the mon- archy and those who favored the establishment of a republic. In 1912, with the formal abdica- tion of the Manchu dynasty, which ruled China for three centuries, an end came to an empire nearly 5,000 years old. China was proclaimed a republic and Yuan-Shi-Kai was elected president. In 1914, a new constitution concentrated pov/er in the president. In November, Japan seized the province of Kiaochow, leased by China to Germany. Japan made demands upon China, in January, 1915, regarding concessions to foreigners and the transfer to Japan of German and Austrian concessions. A Japanese ulti- matum followed in May which China was com- pelled to accept. The Chinese republic ended in 1915, China by popular vote restoring the monarchy with Yuan-Shi-Kai as emperor. He formally accepted the throne Dec. 11, 1915, but upon his death June 6, 1916, China again became a republic. Cisalpine Republic. A former pohtical division of Italy, embracing portions of Mantua, Milan, the Valtellina, Venetia west and south of the Adige, Modena, and the northern Pontifical States. Inaugurated by Napoleon I. in 1797, it was named the Italian Republic in 1802, and three years later constituted the principal part of the Italian Kingdom. Colorado. Colorado was first organized as a territory in 1861, from parts of Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Utah. A portion of it was derived from the Louisiana purchase of 1803, and a part from the Mexican cession of 1848. This region was first settled by Coronado in 1540. It was thoroughly explored by expe- ditions sent out bv the government, under Major Zebulon M. Pike, in 1806; under Colonel S. H. Long, in 1819; and under Colonel J. C. Fremont, in 1842-44. The first American set- tlements were made by mining parties in 1858- 59, since which time Colorado has become even HISTORY 37 more prolific than California in its yield of the precious metals. The State was admitted Au- gust 1, 1876. The famous Leadville mines were opened in 1879, and the same year saw the Ute uprising. In 1891 the Cripple Creek gold dis- coveries were made. In 1893 the legislature passed a bill, making equal suffrage for men and women a law. The Gunnison tunnel, the largest single irrigation project ever undertaken by the United States government, was opened by Presi- dent Taft, Sept., 1909. In 1909 the state adopted the initiative and referendum and in 1914 a Prohibition amendment which took effect in 1916. Committee of Public Safety. A com- mittee of nine created by the French Conven- tion, April 6, 1793, to concentrate the power of the executive, "the conscience of Marat, who could see salvation in one thing only, in the fall of 260,000 aristocrats' heads." Confederation of tiie Rliine. Dur- ing the war of 1805, so disastrous for Austria, several German princes, too w^eak to remain neutral, were forced to ally themselves with France. The first to do so were the Electors of Bavaria and AViirttemberg, who, in recompense of their services, were elevated to the dignity of kings by the Peace of Pressburg, December 26, 1805. Some months after (May 28, 1806), the archchancellor of the empire announced at the Diet that he had chosen as his coadjutor and successor Cardinal Fesch, the uncle of Napoleon, a thing entirely contrary to the constitution of the Germanic Empire. Finally, at Paris, on the 12th of July, 1806, sixteen German princes formallj' signed an act of confederation, dissolv- ing their connection with the Germanic Empire, and allying themselves with France. These six- teen princes were: the kings of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg, the archchancellor, the Elector of Baden, the new Duke of Cleves and Berg (Joac- him Murat), the Landgraf of Hesse-Darmstadt, the princes of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau-Weilburg Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmar- ingen, Salm-Salm, Salm-Kyrburg, the Duke of Arenberg, the princes of Isenburg-Birstein and Lichtenstein, and the Count of Leyen. Connecticut. One of the thirteen original States. Its name was derived from the Indian, and signifies "Long River." The territory, originally claimed by the Dutch of New Nether- lands by right of prior exploration, was finally acquired bj^ the English imder a patent granted to Lord Say and Sele, and Brooke and asso- ciates, in 1631. Permanent settlements were made, 1633-36, by colonists from Massachusetts, at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. In 1638, New Haven was settled by a distinguished com- pany of emigrants from England. The first constitution was adopted in 1639, being the first time in history when a government was organ- ized and defined by a written constitution. Its leading features were afterward copied in the constitutions of the other States and of the United States, and it was the basis of the charter of 1662. The attempt to revoke and supersede this charter by James II. through his representa- tive, Sir Edmund Andros, in 1687, led to what might be called the first colonial act of rebellion against royal authority. During the Civil War, 54,882 men were furnished by the State. Consul. The title of the two chief magis- trates of Rome, whose power was in a certain degree absolute, but who were chosen for only one year; they were instituted B. C. 509. The authority of the two consuls was equal; yet the Valerian law gave the right of priority to the elder, and the Julian law to him who had the greater number of children; and this one was generally called Consul major or prior. In the first ages of the republic, they were elected from patrician families; but in the year of Rome, 388, the people obtained the privilege of electing one of the consuls from their own body, and sometimes both were plebeians. After the estab- lishment of the empire in 91, the office of consul became merely honorary; the last holder of the dignity at Rome was Decimus Theodorus Pauli- nus, A. D. 536; at Constantinople, Flavius Basilius Junius, 541. Consulate. A body of three persons, to whom, after the dissolution of the French Direct- ory in 1799, the provisional government was intrusted. Napoleon, Cambaceres, and Lebrun, were elected as first, second, and third consuls, respectively, with different degrees of authority, 1800; but the influence of the first becoming gradually augmented, the transition to imperial dignity became easy to him. On August 4, 1802, he was made consul for life, and on May 18, 1804, the title of emperor was substituted for that of consul. Continental System. A plan devised by Napoleon to exclude Britain from all inter- course with the continent of Europe. It began with the decree of Berlin of November 21, 1806, by which the British Islands were declared to be in a state of blockade; all commerce, inter- course, and correspondence were prohibited; every Briton found in France, or a country occu- pied by French troops, was declared a prisoner of war; all property belonging to Britons, fair prize; and all trade in goods from Britain or British colonies entirely prohibited. Britain re- plied by orders in council prohibiting trade with French ports, and declaring all harbors of France and her allies subjected to the same restrictions as if they were closely blockaded. Further de- crees on the part of France, of a still more stringent kind, declared all vessels of whatever flag, which had been searched by a British vessel or paid duty to Britain, denationalized, and directed the burning of all British goods, etc. These decrees caused great annoyance, and gave rise to much smuggling, till annulled at the fall of Napoleon, 1814. Convention, National. A revolution- ary convention in France, which, on September 20, 1792, succeeded the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed the republic, and condemned the king to death. It succeeded in crushing the royalists of La Vendee and the south, in defeating all Europe leagued against France, and in founding mstitu- tions of benefit to France to this day. It was dissolved on October 26, 1795, to make way for the Directory. Corea or Korea. The seeds of Chris- tianity were sown in Corea in 1592, by the invading army, composed chiefly of Christian converts of the Japanese usurper, Tiacosama. Hamel, a Dutch sailor, was wrecked here and 38 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS detained for thirteen years; from his narrative it was that, till very recently, most of our scanty knowledge of Corea was obtained. In 1784, Jesuit missionaries found their way into Corea and had great success among the people. From 1835 till 1860, several intrepid and devoted French missionaries contrived to find shelter, and, in spite of incessant persecutions, the Christian community continued rather to in- crease, rising in 1852 to 11,000 souls. The massacre of nine missionaries, in 1866, led to an invasion of Corea by a small French force, but without success. Nor did two successive Ameri- can expeditions, provoked by attack on an American vessel, succeed in breaking down the barriers that separated the Coreans from the rest of the world. The pseudonym of "Hermit Nation" has attached to Corea, not because of vast deserts and deadly jungles which interposed as physical barriers to constitute the Nile sources a region of myths and mysteries — for Corea, situated in the open sea, had none of these to bar ingress — but because of a persistent policy of isolation wliich, consecrated by time, became in fact, a sort of Corean religion. To be let alone by the So Yang Sara7n ("men from the Western Ocean"), this was the policy of govern- ment until our own day. About 1881, however, Corea made a treaty with Japan, and, later on, through Admiral Shufeldt, U. S. N., with the United States — followed by others with Eng- land, Russia, France, Germany, and Italy. After Japan's Aactory over China, in 1895, Corea was made independent. In 1907, Corea practically passed under a Japanese protectorate and, in 1910, was annexed to that empire. Covenanters. In Scottish history, the name given to the party which struggled for religious liberty from 1637 on to the revolution; but more especially applied to the insurgents who took up arms in defense of the Presbyterian form of church government. The Presbyterian ministers who refused to acknowledge the bish- ops were ejected from their parishes and gath- ered around them crowds of their people on the hillsides to attend their ministrations. The first outbreaks took place in the hill country on the borders of Ayr and Lanark shires. The murder of Archbishop Sharp, on Magus Moor, and a skirmish near there alarmed the govern- ment, who sent troops to put down the insur- gents, who had increased in number rapidly. The two armies met atBothwell Bridge, when the Covenanters were totally defeated, June 22, 1679. In consequence of the rebellious protest, called the "Sandquhar Declaration," put forth in 1680, by Cameron, Cargill, and others, as representing the more irreconcilable of the Covenanters, and a subsequent proclamation in 1684, the govern- ment proceeded to more severe measures. An oath was now required of all who would free themselves of suspicion of complicity with the Covenanters; and the dragoons, who were sent out to hunt down the rebels, were empowered to kill anyone who refused to take the oath. After the accession of William, some of the ex- treme Covenanters refused to acknowledge him, owing to his acceptance of Episcopacy in Eng- land, and formed the earliest dissenting sect in Scotland. Crimean War. In 1854, the Crimea be- came the theater of a sanguinary war, under- taken by England, France, Turkey, and Sardinia in support of the integrity of the sultan's power and to check the growing ascendency of Russia on the Black Sea. The allies landed near Eupatoria, and defeated the Russians at the River Alma, September 20, 1854; at Balaklava, October 25th; at Inkerman, November 5th; at the River Tchernaya, August 16, 1855. The siege of Sebastopol continued from October 9, 1854, to September 8, 1855, when the important fortresses known as the Malakoff and the Redan were stormed by the French and English, and the Russians evacuated the city. An armistice was concluded February 26, 1856, and peace was proclaimed in April of the same year. The British loss, during the war, was nearly 24,000, of which number, however, 16,500 died of dis- ease and privation. The French lost about 63,500. The Russian loss was estimated at 500,000. Crusades (Lat. crux, a cross). The name given to the religious wars which were carried on during the middle ages between the Christian nations of Western Europe and the Mohamme- dans of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. Originally, the object of the Crusades was to obtain free access for pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, but they afterwards developed into a contest for the possession of Jerusalem itself. The Crusades lasted for nearly two centuries. They are usually divided into eight, as follows: First (1096-1100), led by Godfrey of Bouillon, and preached up by Peter the Hermit; second (1147-1149), led by Louis VII. and the Emperor Konrad, at the instigation of St. Bernard; third (1189-1193), led against Saladin, the Sultan of Syria and Egj^Dt, by Richard the Lion-hearted of England and Philip Augustus of France; fourth (1202-1204), led by Baldwin of Flanders and the Doge of Venice; fifth (1217), led by John Brienne, titular sovereign of Jerusalem; sixth (1228-1229), led by Frederick II. of Ger- many; seventh and eighth (1248-1254 and, 1268- 1270), to satisfy the religious scruples of Louis IX. of France. Although the Crusades did not accomplish their main object, and the "Holy City" remained finally in the hands of the "Infidels," they yet called forth an amount of enterprise tiiat has exerted a powerful influence upon modern civilization. On the other hand, they cost many millions of lives, and the deeds that were done during the Crusades in the sacred name of Christ would be altogether repugnant to all modern ideas of religion or even of human- ity. The name Crusades was derived from the symbol of the cross, which the warriors engaged in them wore over their armor. Cuba, spoken of as the "Queen of the An- tilles," was discovered by Columbus in 1492, the discoverer calling it "the most beautiful land that eyes ever beheld." It was first settled by Spaniards at Baracoa in 1511. Havana, first settled in 1519, was reduced to ashes by the French in 1538, and again in 1554. For about one and a half centuries, Cuba was in constant danger from French, Dutch, English, and West Indian filibusters. In 1762, the Eng- lish, under Lord Albemarle, took Havana HISTORY 39 which, however, was by the treaty of I'aris next year restored to Spain. From 1789 to 1845, the island was a vast slave-trading center. Negro insurrections occurred in 1845 and 1848. In the latter year the United States offered $100,000,000 to Spain for the island. Rebel- lions against Spanish rule broke out in 1849 and in 1868. They were put down after long campaigns; another insurrection, begun in 1895, gained formidable proportions by 1898. The United States battleship "Maine," while on a friendly visit, was blown up in Havana harbor, February 15, 1898, and on April 19th, the Con- gress of the United States adopted resolutions declaring Cuba independent. War with Spain began at once. Cervera's Spanish fleet was destroyed at Santiago de Cuba, July 3d, and Santiago and its large army were sm'rendered on July 17th. The leading military events of the war, so far as Cuba was concerned, were the fights at El Caney and San Juan, the battle at Santiago, and the destruction of Cervera's fleet. A Constitutional Convention assembled in November, 1900, and adopted a constitution providing for a repubhcan form of govern- ment, with a president, vice-president, senate, and house of representatives. Thereupon, the United States Congress authorized the transfer of the government to the poeple of Cuba on condition that: (1) No treaty should be made with any other foreign power impairing the independence of Cuba, or allowing mihtary or naval occupation of the island; (2) the United States should have the right to intervene for the discharge of her obligations under the Treaty of Paris; (3) the United States should have certain naval stations (at Bahia Honda and Guantanamo). These conditions were included in the Law of Constitution, and confirmed in the permanent treaty between Cuba and the United States, which was signed in May, 1903. The formal transfer of the government to the Cuban authorities took place on May 20, 1902. Tomas Estrada Pahna was elected first presi- dent, and Luis Esteves, vice-president. An insurrection in 1906 led to American interven- tion and the appointment of Charles E. Magoon as provisional governor. Cuban Government again became independent in 1909, with Jose Gomez as President. In 1913 Gomez was suc- ceeded by Mario Menocal. Czar, Tsar, Tzar (zahr), [Russ. tsar]. The Sclavonic form of Ccesar, the title assumed by the emperors of Russia, borne first by Ivan II. in 1579, as Czar of Muscovy. The eldest son of the czar was called Czarovicz, or, as we usually write it, Czarovilsch, or Cesar oivitch; but this appellation was discontinued after the murder of Alexis, the son of Peter the Great, until revived by Paul I. in 1799, in favor of his second son, Constantine. The consort of the czar is termed czarina. Decemviri {de-sem've-re). A body of men who were elected by the patricians, B. C. 451, for the purpose of drawing up a body of laws, founded on the most approved institutions of Greece. They compiled a code, which they in- scribed on ten tables, and stated that their labors were not yet complete. Next year, therefore, another body of ten, which probably included some of the patricians, was appointed with the same powers; and these added two more tables, altogether making the famous Twelve Tables, which were from that time the foundation of all Roman law. The second body of decemvirs attempted to prolong their period of office, committed some acts of violence, and altogether gave such dissatisfaction that they were dissolved. The traditionary history of the decemvu'i is, however, very doubtful. There were other deticmvirs, who were appointed for judicial and other purposes. Defenestration of Prague, The (May 23, 1618). That is, the ejection out of windows by the Bohemians. The Bohemians had two Protestant churches, one in the diocese of Prague, and the other in the territory of the abbot of Braunau. The Archbishop of Prague and the abbot pulled down these reformed churches, and when the Protestants remonstrated they were told it was the king's pleasui-e. So Count Thurn of Bohemia headed a deputation, which went to the royal castle of Prague to lay their grievance before the king. Being admitted into the council hall, they were so insolently received that they threw two of the councillors and the king's private secretary out of the windows into the moat. This was the beginning of the Tliirty Years' War. Delaware. Though the State was first discovered by the Dutch in 1609, Lord Delaware, Governor of Virginia, who visited it the follow- ing year, and afterward gave name to it, claimed it on behalf of England. In 1637, colonies were planted near Wihnington by the Swedish East India Company, which brought on a conflict with the Dutch and led to the expulsion of the Swedes in 1655. When New Netherlands was conquered by the Enghsh, this territory went with it. William Penn, having received the Pennsylvania grant, secured, also, from the Duke of York rights over Delaware by patent, and until the Revolution the territory was governed under the same proprietary. In 1776, the people' declared themselves an independent State, and as such fought in the Continental ranks. Dela- ware was the first State to ratify the Federal Constitution, and its own constitution, adopted in 1792, still forms the fundamental law. Deluge; The Deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536, and began December 7, 1656, and continued 377 days. {Genesis vi, vii, viii). The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 6, 1657, and Noah left the ark December 18th, following. The year corresponds with that of 2348 B. C. The following are the epochs of the Deluge, according to Dr. Hales: R P R C 3246 Clinton, .... 2482 3170 Playfair, .... 2352 3155 Usher and E.Bible,2348 Septuagint Jackson, Hales, . Josephus, Persian, . Hindoo, . Samaritan, Howard, . 3146 3103 3102 2998 2698 Marsham, . . . 2344 Petavius, . . . 2329 Strauchius, . 2293 Hebrew, . . . 2288 Vulgar Jewish, . 2104 In the reign of Ogygcs, King of Attica, 1764 B. C, a deluge so inundated Attica that it lay waste for nearly 200 years. Buffon thinks that the Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, 40 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS and arose from the Atlantic and Bosporus burst- ing into the Valley of the Mediterranean. The deluge of DeucaUon in Thessaly is placed 1503 B. C. according to Eusebius. It was often confounded by the ancients with the general flood but considered to be merely a local inun- dation occasioned by the overflowing of the River Pineus whose course was stopped by an earthquake between the Mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife Pyrrha and some of their subjects, are stated to have saved themselves by chmbing up Mount Parnassus. Denmark. The Kymri were the earhest knowTi inhabitants of Scandinavia and made themselves formidable to the Romans 100 years B. C. To them succeeded the Goths who, under their mythical leader, Odin, estabhshed their rule over the Scandinavian lands. Odin's son, Skjold, is reputed to have been the first ruler of Denmark; but the Kttle that is known of Danish history in these remote ages seems to indicate that the country was spht up into many small territories, whose inhabitants Uved by pirac3^ The people were divided into "Bonder" and "TrajUe," freemen and bondmen. The former busied themselves with war and "Vikingetog," or piracy, and the government of the land; while to the latter were left the peaceful pursuits of hunting, fishing, and tilling the soil. The mission of Ansgarius the Apostle of the North to South Jutland, in 826, when he baptized Harald Klak, one of the Smaa Kongar, or the httle kings of Denmark, was the means of first opening the Danish territories to the knowledge of the more civihzed nations. The country was soon torn by civil dissensions be- tween the adherents of the ancient and modern faith. Gorm the Old, the first authentic King of Denmark, the bitter enemy of Christianity, died in 935, after having subjugated the several territories to his sway; and, although his death gave fresh vigor to the diffusion of the new faith, paganism kept its ground for 200 years longer, and numbered among its adherents many of those half-mythical heroes, whose deeds arc celebrated in the Eddas and the Ka;mpeviser of the Middle Ages. The success that attended the piratical incursions of the Northmen drew them from their own homes; and, while Gorm's descendants, Svend and Knud, were reigning in England, Denmark was left a prey to anarchy. On the extinction of Knud's dynasty, in 1042, his sister's son, Svend Estridsen, ascended the throne. Internal dissensions and external wars weakened the country, and the introduction of a feudal system raised up a powerful nobiUty and ground down the once free people to a condition of oppressed serfage. Valdemar I., by the help of his great minister, Axel Hvide, known in history as Bishop Absalon, subjugated the Wends of Riigen and Pomerania, and forced them, in 1168, to renounce the faith of their god, Svantevit, and accept Christianity. During the time of Knud VI., and in the early part of the reign of Valdemar II. — sons of Valdemar I. — the conquest of Denmark extended so far into German and Wendic lands that the Baltic was Uttle more than an inland Danish sea. The jealousy of the German princes and the treachery of his vassals combined to rob Valdemar II. of these brilliant family conquests. His death, in 1241, was followed by a century of anarchy and inglorious decadence of the authority of the crown, during which the kingdom was brought to the brink of annihilation under the vicious rule of his sons and grandsons. Under his great-grandson, Valdemar IV., the last of the Estridsen line, Denmark made a quick but transient recovery of the conquests of the older Valdemars, and the national laws were collected into a well-digested, comprehensive code. From his death, in 1375, till 1412, his daughter, the great Margaret, first as regent for her only and early lost son, Olaf, and later as sole monarch, ruled, not only Denmark, but, in course of time, also Sweden and Norway, with such consummate tact, and with so light yet firm a hand, that, for once in the course of their history, the three rival Scandinavian kingdoms were content to act in harmony. Margaret's successor, Erik, the son of her niece, for whose sake she had blended the tliree sovereignties into one, undid her glorious work with fatal rapidity, and after an inglorious war of twenty-five years with his vassals, the Counts-dukes of Schleswig-Holstein, he lost the allegiance and the crowns of his triple kingdom, and ended his disastrous existence in misery and obscurity. After the short reign of his nephew, Christopher of Bavaria, the Danes, on the death of the latter in 1448, again exer- cised their long-dormant right of election to the throne, and chose for their king Christian of Oldenburg, a descendant of the old royal family through his maternal ancestress, Rikissa, the great-granddaughter of Valdemar II. Christian I., the father of the Oldenburg line, which con- tinued unbroken until the death of the King of Denmark, Frederick VII., in 1863, laid the foundation of the Schleswig-Holstein troubles which, after maturing for centm'ies, have ended in our own day in dismembering the Danish monarchy. The insane tyranny of the other- wise able and enUghtened Christian II. cost him his throne. Christian III., in whose reign the Reformation was established, united the Schles- wig - Holstein duchies in perpetuity to the Crown in 1533. Frederick II., who increased the embarrassments connected with the crown appanages, by making additional partitions in favor of liis brother (the founder of the Holstein- Sonderburg family), was succeeded by Christian IV., 1588, who was the ablest of Danish rulers. His hberal pohcy was, however, cramped by the nobles, by whose supineness Denmark lost all the possessions she had hitherto retained in Sweden. The national abasement which fol- lowed led, in 1660, under Christian's son, Fred- erick III., to the rising of the people against the nobles, and their surrender into the hands of the king of the supreme power. For the next 100 years the peasantry were kept in serfage and the middle classes depressed. The abohtion of serfage was begun by Christian VII. in 1767; it was extended to the duchies in 1804. The reign of Christian's son, Frederick VI., brought the country to the verge of ruin. On the acces- sion of Frederick VII. half liis subjects were in open rebelUon against him. Prince Christian of Schleswig - Holstein - Gliicksborg ascended the HISTORY 41 throne as Christian IX. in 1S63 and was succeeded by his son, P>ederick VIII. in 1906. On the death of Frederick VIII. in 1912, Christian X. became king. In December, 1916, the sale of the Danish West Indies to the United States for the sum of $25,000,000 was approved by a referen- dum vote. Deposed Kings of England. (1) Be- fore the Conquest: Sigebert of Wessex, A. D. 755; Alcrcd of Nortliimibria, 774; Ethelred I., 779; Eardwulf and Ethel wulf, S57; Edwy, 957; Ethelred II., 1013; Hardicanute, son of Canute, 1037. (2) Since the Conquest: Edward II., 1327; Richard II., 1399; Henry VI., 1461; James II., 1688. Euphemistically called his "abdication," Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for treason against his parliament and beheaded; Charles II. was not exactly deposed, but he was kept from the crown during the Commonwealth. The most absolute and tyrannical of British sovereigns have been the Welsh and Scotch dynasties, but Wales and Scotland are eminently democratic. The Stuarts claimed the " right divine" of kings, but James I. and Charles II. did no honor to the claim. Deposed Kings of France. Louis XVI., like Charles I., was not only deposed but executed, 1793; Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice deposed, 1814, 1815; Charles X. (1830), like James II., is said to have "abdicated"; Louis- Philippe (1848), also said to have "abdicated"; Napoleon III., 1870, by act of the Corps Legis- latif following his surrender at Sedan. Dictator (dik-ta'tur). A magistrate ap- pointed in times of exigency and peril, and in- vested with extraordinary powers. They acted as generals-in-chief of the army, and could declare war or make peace at their pleasure. They were originally selected from the patrician order, the first having been Titus Laertius, B. C. 501. In B. C. 356, however, the office of dic- tator was thrown open to the plebeians, and Marcius Rutilus, one of that class, received the appointment. For 400 years this office was regarded with veneration, until Sulla and Ciesar, by becoming perpetual dictators, con- verted it into an engine of tyranny, and rendered the very name odious. Hence, it became ex- tinguished by decree of Mark Antony, B. C. 44. Directory, Tlie. "Le Directoire," the executive of the Constitution of Year III. (October 27, 1795 — November 9, 1799). The legislature consisted of two houses, the Council of Elders and the Council of 500. The number of the directors was five, named by the two councils, and they were elected for five years, without power of reelection. They appointed the ministers and les generaux-en-chef. Abol- ished by Napoleon in November, 1799. The military glory of France was never greater than in the Director}^ It had for its com- manders, Bonaparte, Kleber, Desaix, Massena, and Moreau. District of Columbia. The region of the Potomac River was originally a favorite camping and fishing ground of several Indian tribes who lived in its vicinity, and was called by them the "River of Swans." As early as 1660 a portion of the tract was purchased by an Englishman named Pope, who named the whole tract Rome, a stream running through it, the Tiber, and the principal eminence, on which the capitol now stands, Capitoline Hill, and signed all his letters and documents "The Pope of Rome." Some thirty years prior to this, the Potomac had been explored as far as Little Falls, beyond the limits of the District of Columbia, by an Indian trader named William Fleet, with whom Leonard Calvert treated, 1634. The Colonial Congress, for a number of years follow- ing its organization, had no permanent seat. The session of 1783 was begun in Philadelphia, but, being disturbed by a riotous demand of the soldiers for their overdue pay. Congress ad- journed first to Princeton, thence to Annapolis, and, subsequently, to New York. The question of a permanent seat of government, to be en- tirely under federal authority, which had been broached several times, was then considered to be urgent; and when the proposed Federal Con- stitution was being drafted (1787) a clause was inserted in Art. I, Sec. 8, establishing the power of Congress to exercise exclusive legislation over such a district as might subsequently be ceded to the government by particular States for a seat of the Government of the United States. As soon as the intention of Congress to select a site was known, the State of Maryland ceded sixty square miles on one side of the river, and the State of Virginia forty square miles on the other, to constitute the federal district. The site of the national capital was selected in 1790, and the first stone to mark the boundaries of the District of Columbia was set at Jones's Point, below Alexandria, April 15, 1791. The com- missioners appointed to lay out the district agreed that it should be called "The Territory of Columbia," and the federal city "The City of Washington." The city was laid out in accordance with the plans of Major L'Enfant, a French officer and engineer who had been wounded at Savannah, and who was one of Washington's favorite officers. Public buildings were erected, and official possession was taken, ISOO, when Congress removed from Philadelphia and began holding its sessions there. Subse- quently, the whole territory was styled the District of Columbia, in memory of Christopher Columbus. In 1846, the area of 100 square miles was reduced to sixty-four square miles by retrocession to Virginia of the section previously included within the bounds of that State. Pre- vious to 1871, legislative power was exercised directly by Congress. An act adopted that year established a territorial form of government, and gave the citizens representation in Congress for the first time. The charters of Georgetown, incorporated December 25, 1789, and Washing- ton, incorporated May 3, 1802, were repealed by the act, though both were allowed to bear the name of "city," and the corporations of the cities as well as that of Washington County, were merged into the new government. Alex- ander R. Shepherd became president of the Citizens' Reform Association, 1870, vice-presi- dent of the Board of Public Works under the new government, 1871, and governor of the district, 1873. In 1874, the territorial govern- ment was aboli-shed, and since then all the public affairs of the district have been managed by a 42 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS board of three commissioners acting directly under the legislation of Congress. Divine Riglit of Kings, The. A Seventeenth Century dogma, implying the be- hef that kings hold their office by divine appoint- ment, and are the earthly representatives of Deity. So they are in a theocracy Uke Judaea and the popedom. The dogma was sanctioned in the book of the Canons of Convocation, 1604; but in the Bill of Rights, 1689, the right of the people to depose the monarch, to change the order of succession, and to confer the throne on whom they think proper is distinctly set forth. Dominican Republic, or Santo Domingo. A state formed by the Spanish or eastern section of Hayti. Spain, in 1697, sur- rendered to France, by the Treaty of Ryswick, the western part of the island, retaining the remainder down to 1795. In the year last men- tioned, however, the Spanish portion became nominally French. In 1814, the West having vindicated its independence, France formally rehnquished, in favor of Spain, all claim to the East. In 1822, the colony, in imitation of the continental possessions, threw ofT the yoke of the mother-country, to hnk itself, more or less closel^^ with its African neighbors. But in the year 1844 it assumed a separate standing as the Dominican Republic, the anarchy of which it exchanged in 1861 for the despotism of its former masters. In 1863, it again revolted, and Spain gave up the possession; the republic has since maintained a troubled existence. In 1907, a treaty between the Dominican Republic and the United States was ratified, under which the latter will collect the customs revenues, assist the Dominican Government to maintain peace, and act as intermediary between the republic and its foreign creditors. Dorr Rebellion. In 1840, Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only States that were still governed by their colonial charters. The charter of the latter State, imposing, as it did, a property qualification so high as to dis- franchise two-thirds of the citizens, was ex- tremely unpopular. A proposition of Thomas W. Dorr, of Providence, to extend the franchise was voted down. Dorr then took to agitation, and finally a convention prepared a constitution and submitted it to a popular vote. Its sup- porters claimed a majority for it, which its op- ponents, known as the law and order party, denied. Nevertheless, in 1842, the constitution was proclaimed to be in force. An election was held under it, only the suffrage party partici- pating. Dorr was elected governor. The suf- frage legislature assembled at Providence with Thomas W. Dorr as governor; the charter legislature at Newport, with Samuel W. King as governor. After transacting some business the suffrage legislature adjourned. The charter legislature authorized the governor to take energetic steps, and an appeal for aid was made to the National Government. The suffragists attempted armed resistance, but were dispersed. Dorr fled, but soon returned and gave himself up. He was convicted of high treason in 1844, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, but was par- doned in 1847, and in 1852 was restored to hia civil rights. The charter party soon after the rebellion proposed a new constitution, largely extending the suffrage, which was carried and went into effect in May, 1843. Druids. The priests of the Celts of Gaul and Britain. According to Julius Csesar, they possessed the greatest authority among the Cel- tic nations. They had some knowledge of geometry, natural philosophy, etc., superin- tended the affairs of religion aqd moraUty, and performed the office of judges. They had a common superior, who was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who en- joyed his dignity for hfe. They took unusual care to fence themselves round with mysteries, and it is probable that they cherished doctrines unknown to the common people; but that they had a great secret philosophy which was handed down by oral tradition is very unlikely. Of their religious doctrines httle is known. Human sacrifice was one of their characteristic rites, the victims being usually prisoners of war. Eastern Empire. Commenced under Valens, A. D. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him and possess himself of Constan- tinople; he laid siege to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the con- queror; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and commenced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. Ecuador. After the conquest of the Inca dominions, the Kingdom of Quito was made a presidency of the viceroyalty of Peru, and re- mained under Spanish rule from 1533 to 1822. In 1809, it revolted, and after many fruitless struggles achieved its independence by the battle of Pichincha, May 22, 1822. The territory was incorporated into the Republic of Colombia, on the disruption of which, in 1830, it became an independent republic under the name of Ecuador. But a series of civil wars ensued, lasting almost without intermission for more than twenty years. From 1852 to 1858, desultory hostilities existed with Peru. War was declared against New Granada, November 20, 1863, and the Ecua- dorian army was routed. In August, 1868, a very destructive earthquake occurred. In 1869, Garcia Moreno, the head of the clerical party, overthrew the government. He was assassi- nated in 1875, and Dr. Antonio Borrero, the candidate of the non-official party, was elected president. A constitution was adopted and a president elected, and until 1884 the republic enjoyed a reasonably peaceable government. In 1881, another constitution was formed, which, with modifications, in 1887 and 1897, has since been in force. Edict of Nantes (nSnts, Fr. n5nt). This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant sub- jects, in 1598. Itwasrevoked by LouisXIV., Octo- ber 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to HISTORY 43 France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, where their descendants yet remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. Egypt. The Egyptians are the earliest people known to us as a nation. When Abra- ham entered the Delta from Canaan, they had been long enjoying the advantages of a settled government. They had built cities, invented hieroglyphic signs, and improved them into syllabic writing, and almost into an alphabet. They had invented records, and wrote their kings' names and actions on the massive temples which they raised. The arrangement of Egyp- tian chronology is still a much-disputed point amongst scholars. A list of the kings of Egypt, arranged in thirty dynasties, was given by the Priest Manetho (about 250 B. C), and this division is still used. His list, however, is in a very corrupt condition and his method is not strictly chronological. Hence, in the various systems of chronology adopted by Egyptolo- gists the dates assigned to Mena (or Menes) vary from 5702 to 2440 B. C. According to tradition, Mena formed the old Empire of Egypt and founded its capital Memphis. The Fourth Dynasty is distinguished as the "Pyramid Dy- nasty." Three of its kings, Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos), built the largest pyramids. The date assigned to these kings in the chronology of Lepsius is 2800-2700. About 2400 the government of the empire seems to have been transferred from Memphis to Thebes, and with the beginning of Dynasty Twelve, the Theban line was firmly established. The chief princes of this dynasty are Amenemhat I. (2380), who seems to have extended the power of Egj^pt over a part of Nubia; Usurtasan I., who made further conquests in this direction; and Amenemhat III. (2179), who constructed Lake Meri (Moeris), a large reservoir for regu- lating the water supply of the Nile. About 2100, Egypt was conquered by the Hyksos, or shepherd kings, who invaded Egypt from the east and established their capital at Tanis (Zoan). The Theban princes seem, however, to have preserved a state of semi-independence, and at last a revolt commenced which ended by the shepherd kings being completely driven out of Egypt by King Aahmes (Amasis) of Thebes (about 1600), the first of the Eighteenth Dynasty. With Aahmes and the expulsion of the shepherd kings began the reigns of those great Theban kings who built the magnificent temples and palaces at Thebes. The kings of the other parts of Egypt sank to the rank of sovereign priests. Thutmes (or Thothmosis II.) added Memphis to his dominions by his marriage with Queen Nitocris. Under Thutmes III. and his successors there were successful expeditions against the Syrians and the Ethiopians. Amen- hotep III. set up his two gigantic statues in the plain of Thebes, one of which the Greeks called the musical statue of Memnon. The Rames- sides form the Nineteenth Dynasty. They com- mence with Ramses I., who seems to have been of Lower Egyptian extraction. His grandson, the great Ramses II., or Sesostris, was successful against the neighboring Arabs, and covered Egypt with magnificent buildings. Ramses II. was probably the Pharaoh who oppressed the Hebrews, and the exodus may have occurred under his successor, Meneptah, or Merenptah. Under the later Ramcssides the Egyptian Em- pire began to decay. A new dynasty, Twenty- first, came to the throne with King Ilirhor. The seat of their power was Tanis in the Delta. During this period a great number of foreigners, Libyans as well as Asiatics, established them- selves in Egypt. About 9G1, Sheshenk I., the Shishak of the Bible, of a Shemite family from Bubastis, established a new dynasty (Twenty- second). He attempted to restore Egyptian rule in the East, and conquered and plundered Jerusalem. After his death, Egypt was torn by civil wars, and eventually the E^thiopians under Shabak (Sabako) conquered it (Twenty-fifth Dynasty). For a time it was subject alternately to Ethiopian and Assyrian princes, but in the Seventh Century the kings of Sais once more restored its independence and prosperity to Egypt. Psamethik I. (Psammetichus) warred successfully in Syria and Palestine. King Nekho (610-594) defeated Josiah, King of Judah, but his further progress was checked by Nebuchad- nezzar. His sailors circumnavigated Africa. Uahbra (the Greek Apries, the Hophrah of the Bible) and Aahmes II. (Greek Amasis) followed. About 523, Cambyses, King of Persia, overran Egypt and made it a Persian province. During the reign of Cambyses the Egyptians suffered much oppression. After the Persian defeat at Marathon, the Egjqstians rose and recovered their independence for a short time, but were again subdued, and, in spite of two other revolts, Egypt remained a Persian province till Persia itself was conquered by Alexander the Great, B. C. 332. Egypt now became a Greek state, many Greeks having been already settled in the country, and the Egj'ptians were treated as an inferior race. Alexandria was foimded as the new Greek capital. On Alexander's death, his general, Ptolemy, took possession of the throne and became the first of a Greek Dynasty that for three hundred years made Egypt one of the chief kingdoms of the world. The Ptolemies were magnificent patrons of letters and arts. Theocritus, Callimachus, Euclid the geometri- cian, the astronomers Eratosthenes and Aratus, etc., flourished under their rule. But while the Alexandrian Greeks managed to keep down the native Egyptians, they were themselves sinking under the Romans. Ptolemy Auletcs went to Rome to ask help against his subjects, and the famous Cleopatra maintained her power only through her personal influence with Julius Ca?sar and Mark Antony. On the defeat of Mark Antony by Augustus, B. C. 30, Egypt became a province of Rome. It was still a Greek state, and Alexandria was the chief seat of Greek learning and science. On the spread of Chris- tianity the old Egyptian doctrines lost their sway. Now arose in Alexandria the Christian catechetical school, which produced Clemens and 44 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Origen. The sects of Gnostics united astrology and magic with rcligicm. The school of Alex- andrian Platonics produced Plotinus and Proclus. Monasteries were built all over Egypt; Christian monks took the place of the pagan hermits, and the Bible was translated into Coptic. On the division of the great Roman Empire (A. D. 36-1), in the time of Theodosius, into the Western and Eastern Empires, Egypt became a province of the latter, and sank deeper and deeper in barbarism and weakness. It was con- quered in 640 A. D. by the Saracens under Cahph Omar. As a province of the caliphs it was under the government of the celebrated Abbasides — Harun-al-llashid and Al-Mamun — and that of the heroic Sultan Saladin. The last dynasty was, however, overthrown by the Mamelukes (1250); and the Mamelukes in their turn were conquered by the Turks (1516-17). The Mame- lukes made repeated attempts to cast off the Turkish yoke, and had virtually done so by the end of the 18th century, when the French con- quered Egypt and held it till 1801, when they were driven out by the British. On the expulsion of the French a Turkish force under j\Iehemet Ali Bey took possession of the country. ISIehemet Ah was made pasha, and administered the country vigorously, greatly extending the Egyptian territories. At length he broke with the Porte, and after gaining a decisive victory over the Ottoman troops in Syria, in 1839, he was acknowledged by the sultan as viceroy of Egypt, with the right of succession. Mehemet Ah died in 1849, having survived his son Ibrahim, who died in 1848. He was succeeded by his grandson. Abbas, who, dying in 1854, was succeeded by his uncle, Said, son of Mehemet. Under his rule railways were opened, and the cutting of the Suez canal commenced. After Said's death, Ismail Pasha, a grandson of ■Mehemet Ali, obtained the govern- ment in 1863. His administration was vigorous but extravagant, and brought the finances of the country into disorder. In 1866, he obtained a firman from the sultan, granting him the title of khedive. In 1879 he was forced to abdicate under pressure of the British and French govern- ments, and was replaced by his son, Tewfik. In 1882 the "national party" under Arabi Pasha revolted and forced the khedive to flee. On July 11th, a British fleet bombarded Alexandria and restored the khedive, and at Tol-el-Kebir Arabi's forces were totally crushed on September 13. A rebellion in the Sudan, under the leadership of Mohammed Ahmed, the so-called mahdi, now gave the government trouble. In 1883 the mahdi's forces annihilated an Egyptian force under Hicks Pasha in Kordofan. British troops were despatched to Suakin and inflicted two severe defeats on the mahdi's followers. The British cabinet resolved to abandon the Sudan; General Gordon was sent to effect the safe withdrawal of the garrisons (1884). However, the mahdi's forces were strong enough to shut the general up in Khartoum for nearly a year. He perished (January, 1885) before the relief expedition could reach him. Since then Anglo- Egyptian troops have reoccupied it. Prince Abbas succeeded as khedive in 1892 — the British still retaining control. The predominant position of Great Britain in Egyptwas formally recog- nized by France under the Anglo-French agree- ment of 1904. As a consequence of Great Britain's participa- tion in the war of the nations, Egypt was declared a British protectorate, Dec. 17, 1914. The fol- lowing day Abbas II was deposed. He was suc- ceeded by Hussein Kemal, with the title of sultan. El Caney {el-cd'-na), a fortified town of Cuba, on the main road, four miles northeast of Santiago. During the Spanish-American war it was the scene of a decided American vic- tory. At 6 A. M. on July 1, 1898, Captain Cap- ron's battery of four guns opened fire on El Caney from an elevation about a mile and a half distant. The guns were not heavy enough to destroy the enemy's works, and at eight o'clock General Lawton's infantry of Chaffee's brigade, consisting of the 7th, 12th, and 17th United States Infantry, assaulted and captured the hill with many prisoners. In 1901 the United States Government purchased the battlefield and ap- proaches for a public reservation. Electors, The, or Kurfiirsts, of Germany, German princes who enjoyed the privilege of disposing of the imperial crown, ranked next the emperor, and were originally six in number, but grew to eight, and finally nine; three were ecclesiastical — -the Arch- bishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves, and three secular — the Electors of Saxony, the Palatinate, and Bohemia, to which were added at successive periods the Electors of Branden- burg, of Bavaria, and Hanover. Emancipation Proclamation, a proclamation providing for the emancipation of the slaves in certain parts of the Confederate States, issued as a war measure by President Lincoln, January 1, 1863. The number of slaves emancipated by this proclamation was, taking the census of 1860 as a basis, as follows: Alabama, 435,080 Arkansas, 111,115 Florida, 61,745 Georgia, 462,198 Louisiana, 247,715 Mississippi, 436,631 North Carolina, 331,059 South Carohna 402,046 Texas 182,566 Virginia 450,000 Total, 3,120,515 The number of slaves not affected by its pro- visions was about 832,000. The full text of the proclamation is as follows: Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, con- taining, among other things, the following, to-wit: That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of State, the people wliereof shall be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforth and forever free, and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval officers thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such per- sons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom. That the Executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof shall HISTORY 45 be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall, on that day, be, in good faith, represented in the Congress of the United States, by members ciiosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testimony be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States. Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and Government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day of the first above-mentioned order, and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to-wit: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Barnard, Plaque- mines, Jefferson, St. John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascen- sion, Assumption, Terrs Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the City of New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty- eight counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Anne, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this procla- mation were not issued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose afore- said, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforth shall be, free; and that the Execu- tive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self- defense, and I recommend to them that, in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known, that such per- sons, of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. [L. S.] Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hvmdred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty-seventh. By the President Abraham Lincoln. William H. Seward, Secretary of State. England. The history of England proper begins when it ceased to be a Roman possession. On the withdrawal of the Roman forces, about the beginning of the Fifth Century A. D., the South Britons, or inhabitants of what is now called England, were no longer able to withstand the attacks of their ferocious northern neighbors, the Scots and Picts. They applied for assistance to Aetius, but the Roman general was too much occupied in the struggle with Attila to attend to their petition. In their distress they appear to have sought the aid of the Saxons; and accord- ing to the Anglo-Saxon narratives three ships, containing 1,G00 men, were dispatched to their help under the command of the brothers Heng- est and Horsa. Vortigern, a duke or prince of the Britons, assigned them the isle of Thanet for habitation, and, marching against the north- ern foe, they obtained a complete victory. The date assigned to these events by the later Anglo- Saxon chronicles is 449 A. D., the narratives asserting further that the Saxons, finding the land desirable, turned their arms against thef Britons, and, reinforced by new bands, conquered first Kent and ultimately the larger part of the island. Whatever the credibility of the story of Vortigern, it is certain that in the middle of the Fifth Century the occa.sional Teutonic incur- sions gave place to persistent invasion with a view to settlement. These Teutonic invaders were Low German tribes from the country about the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, the three most prominent being the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Of these, the Jutes were the first to form a settlement, taking possession of part of Kent, the Isle of Wight, etc. ; but the larger con- quests of the Saxons in the south and the Angles in the north gave to these tribes the leading place in the kingdom. The struggle continued 150 years, and at the end of that period the whole southern part of Britain, with the exception of Strathclyde, Wales, and West Wales (Cornwall), was in the hands of the Teutonic tribes. This conquered territory was divided among a number of small states or petty chieftaincies, seven of the most conspicuous of which are often spoken oi as the Heptarchy. These were: (1) The King- dom of Kent; founded by Hengest in 455; ended in 823. (2) Kingdom of South Saxons, containing Sussex and Surrey; founded by Ella in 477; ended in 689. (3) Kingdom of East Angles, containing Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely (Isle of); founded by Uffa in 571 or 575; ended in 792. (4) Kingdom of West Saxons, containing Devon, Dorset, Somerset, Wilts, Hants, Berks, and part of Cornwall ; founded by Cedric 519; swallowed up the rest in 827. (5) Kingdom of Northumbria, containing York, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northum- berland, and the east coast of Scotland to the Firth of Forth ; founded by Ida 547 ; absorbed by Wessex in 827. (6) Kingdom of East Saxons, containing Essex, Middlesex, Hertford (part); founded by Erchew in 527 ; ended in 823. (7) Kingdom of Mercia, containing Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester, Rut- land, Northampton, Lincoln, Huntingdon, Bed- ford, Buckingham, Oxford, Stafford, Derby, Salop, Nottingham, Chester, Hertford (part); founded by Cridda about 584 ; absorbed by Wes- sex in 827. Each state was, in its turn, annexed to more powerful neighbors; and at length, in 827, Egbert, by his valor and superior capacity, united in his own person the sovereignty of what had formerly been seven kingdoms, and the whole came to be called England, that is Angle-land. While this work of conquest and of intertribal strife had been in progress towards the establish- ment of a united kingdom, certain important changes had occurred. The conquest had been the slow expulsion of a Christian race by a purely heathen race, and the country had returned to something of its old isolation with regard to the rest of Europe. But before the close of the Sixth Century Christianity had secured a footing in the southeast of the island. Ethelbert, king of Kent and suzerain over the kingdoms south of the Humber, married a Christian wife. Bertha, daughter of Charibert of Soissons, and this event indirectly led to the coming of St. Augustine. The conversion of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia was followed by that of Northumberland and 46 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS then by that of Mercia, of Wessex, of Sussex, and lastly of Wight, the contest between the two religfons being at its height in the Seventh Century. The legal and political changes imme- diately consequent upon the adoption of Christi- anity were not great, but there resulted a more intimate relation with Europe and the older civihzations, the introduction of new learning and culture, the formation of a written liter- ature, and the fusion of the tribes and petty kingdoms into a closer and more lasting unity than that which could have been otherwise secured. The kingdom, however, was still kept in a state of disturbance by the attacks of the Danes, who had made repeated incursions during the whole of the Saxon period, and about half a century after the unification of the kingdom became for the fmoment masters of nearly the whole of England. But the genius of Alfred the Great, who had ascended the throne in 871, speedily reversed matters by the defeat of the Danes at Ethandune (878). Guthrum, their king, embraced Christianity, became the vassal of the Saxon Iving, and retired to a strip of land on the east coast including Northum- bria and called the Danelagh. The two im- mediate successors of Alfred, Edward (901- 925) and Athelstan (925-940), the son and grand- son of Alfred, both vigorous and able rulers, had each in turn to direct his arms against these set- tlers of the Danelagh. The reigns of the next five kings, Edmund, Edred, Edwy, Edgar, and Edward the Martj'r, are chiefly remarkable on account of the conspicuous place occupied in them by Dunstan, who was counsellor to Ed- mund, minister of Edred, treasurer under Edwy, and supreme during the reigns of Edgar and his successor. It was possibly due to his policy that from the time of Athelstan till after the death of Edward the Martyr (978 or 979) the country had comparative rest from the Danes. During the Tenth Century manj^ changes had taken place in the Teutonic "constitution. Feu- daUsm was already taking root; the king's authority had increased; the folkland was being taken over as the king's personal property; the nobles by birth, or ealdormen, were becoming of less importance in administration than the nobil- ity of thegns, the officers of the king's court. Ethelred (978-1016), who succeeded Edward, was a minor, the government was feebh' con- ducted, and no united action being taken against the Danes, their incursions became more frequent and destructive. Animosities between the Eng- fish and the Danes who had settled among them became daily more violent, and a general mas- sacre of the latter took place in 1002. The fol- lowing year Swcyn invaded the kingdom with a powerful army and assumed the crown of Eng- land. Ethelred was compelled to take refuge in Normandy; and though he afterwards re- turned, he found in Canute an adversary no less formidable than Sweyn. Ethelred left his king- dom in 1016 to his son Edmund, who displaj^ed great valor, but was compelled to divide his kingdom with Canute; and when he was assas- sinated in 1017, the Danes succeeded to the sovereignty of the whole. Canute (Knut), who espoused the widow of Ethelred, that he might reconcile his new sub- jects, obtained the name of Great, not only on account of his personal quahties, but from the extent of his dominions, being master of Den- mark and Norway as well as England. In 1035 he died, and in England was followed by two other Danish kings, Harold and Hardicanute, whose joint reigns lasted till 1042, after which the Enghsh fine was again restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. Edward was a weak prince, and in the latter years of his reign had far less real power than his brother-in-law Har- old, son of the great earl Godwin. On Edward's death in 1066 Harold accordingly obtained the crown. He found, however, a formidable oppo- nent in the second-cousin of Edward, William of Normandy, who instigated the Danes to invade the northern counties, while he, with 60,000 men, landed in the south. Harold vanquished the Danes, and hastening southward met the Nor- mans near Hastings, at Senlac, afterwards called Battle. Harold and his two brothers fell (Octo- ber 14,1066), and William (1066-87) immediately claimed the government as lawful King of England, being subsequently known as William I., the Conqueror. For some time he conducted the government with great moderation; but being obliged to reward those who had assisted him, he bestowed the chief offices of the govern- ment upon Normans, and divided among them a great part of the country. The revolts of the native Enghsh which followed were quickly crushed, continental feudalism in a modified form was established, and the Enghsh Church reorganized under Lanfranc as Archbishop of Canterbury. At his death, in 1087, Wilham II., commonly known by the name of Rufus, the conqueror's second son, obtained the crown, Robert, the eldest son, receiving the duchy of Normandy. In 1100, when Wilham II. was accidentall}^ killed in the New Forest, Robert was again cheated of liis throne by his younger brother Henry (Henry I.), who in 1106 even wrested from him the duchy of Normandy. Hemy's power being secured, he entered into a dispute with Anselm the primate, and with the pope, concerning the right of granting investure to the clergy. He supported his quarrel with firmness, and brought it to a not unfavorable issue. His reign was also marked by the suppression of the greater Norman nobles in England, whose power (hke that of many continental feudatories) threatened to overshadow that of the king, and by the sub- stitution of a class of lesser nobles. In 1135 he died in Normandy, leaving behind him only a daughter, Matilda. By the will of Henry I. his daughter Maud or Matilda, wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and frequently styled the Empress Matilda, because she had first been married to Henry V., Emperor of Germany, was declared his successor. But Stephen, son of the Count of Blois, and of Adela, daughter of William the Conqueror, raised an army in Normandy, landed in England, and declared himself king. After years of civil war and bloodshed an amicable arrangement was brought about, by which it was agreed that Stephen should continue to reign during the remainder of his life, but that HISTORY 47 he should be succeeded by Henry, son of Matilda and the Count of Anjou. Stephen died in 1154, and Henry Plantagenet ascended the throne with the title of Henry II., being the first of the Plantagenet or Aiigevin kings. A larger domin- ion was united under his sway than had been held by any previous sovereign of England, for at the time when he became King of England he was already in the possession of Anjou, Nor- mandy, and Aquitaine. Henry II. found far less difficulty in restrain- ing the license of his barons than in abridging the exorbitant privileges of the clergy, who claimed exemption not only from the taxes of the state, but also from its penal enactments, and who were supported in their demands by the primate Becket. The king's wishes were formu- lated in the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), which were first accepted and then repudiated by the primate. The assassination of Becket, however, placed the king at a disadvantage in the struggle, and after his conquest of Ireland (1171) he submitted to the Church, and did pen- ance at Becket's tomb, Henry was the first who placed the common people of England in a situ- ation which led to their having a share in the government. The systern of frank-pledge was revived, trial by jury was instituted by the Assize of Clarendon, and the Eyre courts were made permanent by the Assize of Nottingham. To curb the power of the nobles he granted charters to towns, freeing them from all subjection to any but himself, thus laying the foundation of a new order in society. Richard I., called Coeur de Lion, who in 1189 succeeded to his father, Henry II., spent most of his reign away from England. Having gone to Palestine to join in the third crusade he proved himself an intrepid soldier. Returning homewards in disguise through Germany, he was made pris- oner by Leopold, duke of Austria, but was ran- somed by his subjects. In the meantime John, his brother, had aspired to the crown, and hoped, by the assistance of the French, to exclude Rich- ard from his right. Richard's presence for a time restored matters to some appearance of order; but having undertaken an expedition against France, he received a mortal wound at the siege of Chalons, in 1199. John was at once recognized as King of Eng- land, and secured possession of Normandy; but Anjou, Maine, and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur, son of GoefTrey, second son of Henry II. On the death of Arthur, while in John's power, these four French provinces were at once lost to England. John's opposition to the pope in electing a successor to the See of Can- terbury in 1205 led to the kingdom being placed under an interdict; and the nation being in a disturbed condition, he was at last compelled to receive Stephen Langton as archbishop, and to accept his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). His exactions and misgovernment had equally embroiled him with the nobles. In 1213 they refused to follow him to France, and on his return, defeated, they at once took measures to secure their own privileges and abridge the prerogatives of the crown. King and barons met at Runny- mede, and on June 15, 1215, the Great Charter (Magna Charta) was signed. It was speedily de- clared null and void by the pope, and war broke out between John and the barons, who were aided by the French king. In 1216, however, John died, and his turbulent reign was succeeded by the almost equally turbulent reign of Henry III. During the first years of tlie reign of Henry III. the abilities of the Earl of Pembroke, who was regent until 1219, retained the kingdom in tranquillity; but when, in 1227, Henry assumed the reins of government he showed himself incapable of managing them. The Charter was three times reissued in a modified form, and new privileges were added to it, but the king took no pains to observe its provisions. The struggle, long maintained in the great council (hencefor- ward called Parliament) over money grants and other grievances reached an acute stage in 1263, when civil war broke out. Simon de Montfort who had laid the foundations of the house of Commons by summoning representatives of the shire communities to the Mad Parliament of 1258, had by this time engrossed the sole power. He defeated the king and his son Edward at Lewes in 1264, and in his famous parliament of 1265 still further widened the privileges of the people by summoning to it burgesses as well as knights of the shire. The escape of Prince Edward, however, was followed by the battle of Evesham (1265), at which Earl Simon was de- feated and slain, and the rest of the reign was undisturbed. On the death of Henry III., in 1272, Edward I. succeeded without opposition. From 1276 to 1284 he was largely occupied in the conquest and annexation of Wales, which had become practi- cally independent during the barons' wars. In 1292 Balliol, whom Edward had decided to be rightful heir to the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief to the English king; but when, in 1294, war broke out with France, Scotland also declared war. The Scots were defeated at Dun- bar (1296), and the country placed under an Eng- lish regent; but the revolt under Wallace (1297) was followed by that of Bruce (1306), and the Scots remained unsubdued. The reign of Edward was distinguished by many legal and leg- islative reforms, such as the separation of the old king's court into the Court of Exchequer, Court of King's Bench, and Court of Common Pleas, the passage of the Statute of Mortmain, etc. In 1295 the first perfect parliament was summoned, the clergy and barons by special writ, the commons by writ to the sheriffs direct- ing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough. Two years later the. imposition of taxation without consent of parliament was forbidden by a special act (De Tallagio non Con- cedendo). The great aim of Edward, however, to include England, Scotland, and Wales in one kingdom proved a failure, and he died m 1307 marching against Robert Bruce. The reign of his son, Edward II., was unfor- tunate to himself and to his kingdom. He made a feeble attempt to cany out his father's last and earnest request to prosecute the war with Scot- land, but the English were almost constantly unfortunate; and at length, at Bannockburn (1314), they received a defeat from Robert Bruce which ensured the independence of Scot- 48 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS land. The king soon proved incapable of regu- lating the lawless conduct of his barons; and his wife, a woman of bold, intriguing disposition, joined in the confederacy against him, which resulted in his imprisonment and death in 1327. The reign of Edward III. was as brilliant as that of his father had been the reverse. The main projects of the third Edward were directed against France, the crown of which he claimed in 1328 in virtue of his mother, the daughter of King Philip. The victory won by Edward III. at Crecy (1346), the capture of Calais (1347), and the victory of Poitiers (1356), ulti- mately led to the Peace of Br^tigny in 1360, by which Edward III. received all the west of France on condition of renouncing his claim to the French throne. Before the close of his reign, however, these advantages were all lost again, save a few principal towns on the coast. Edward III. was succeeded in 1377 by his grandson Richard II., son of Edward the Black Prince. The people of England now began to show, though in a turbulent manner, that they had acquired just notions of government. In 1380 an unjust and oppressive poll-tax brought their grievances to a head, and 100,000 men under Wat Tyler, marched toward London (1381). Wat Tyler was killed while conferring with the king, and the prudence and courage of Richard appeased the insurgents. Despite his conduct on this occasion Richard was deficient in the vigor necessary to curb the lawlessness of the nobles. In 1398 he banished his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke ; and on the death of the lat- ter's father, the Duke of Lancaster, unjustly ap- propriated his cousin's patrimony. To avenge the injustice Bolingbroke landed in England during the king's absence in Ireland, and at the head of 60,000 malcontents compelled Richard to surrender. He was confined in the Tower, and despite the superior claims of Edmund Morti- mer, Earl of March, Henry was appointed king (1399), the first of the House of Lancaster. Richard was, in all probability, murdered early in 1400. The manner in which the Duke of Lancaster, now Henry IV., acquired the crown rendered his reign extremely turbulent, but the vigor of his administration quelled every insurrection. The most important^that of the Pcrcies of Northumberland, Owen Glendower, and Douglas of Scotland — was crushed by the battle of Shrews- bury (1403). During the reign of Henry IV. the clergy of England first began the practice of burning heretics under the act de hceretico com- burendo, passed in the second year of his reign. The act was chiefly directed against the Lollards, as the followers of Wickliffe now came to be called. Henry died in 1413, leaving his crown to his son, Henry V., who revived the claim of Edward III. to the throne of France in 1415, and invaded that country at the head of 30.000 men. The di.sjointed councils of the French rendered their country an easy prey ; the victory of Agincourt was gained in 1415 ; and after a sec- ond campaign a peace was concluded at Troyes in 1420, by which Henry received the hand of Katherine, daughter of Charles VI., was ap- pointed regent of France during the reign of his father-in-law, and declared heir to his throne on his death. The two kings, however, died within a few weeks of each other in 1422, and the infant son of Henry thus became King of England (as Henry VI.) and France at the age of nine months. England during the reign of Henry VI. was subjected, in the first place, to all the confusion incident to a long minority, and afterwards to all the misery of a civil war. Henry allowed himself to be managed by anyone who had the courage to assume the conduct of his affairs, and the influence of his wife, Margaret of Anjou, a woman of uncommon capacity, was of no advan- tage either to himself or the realm. In France (1422-1453) the English forces lost ground, and were finally expelled by the celebrated Joan of Arc, Calais alone being retained. The rebellion of Jack Cade in 1450 was suppressed, only to be succeeded by more serious trouble. In that year Richard, duke of York, the father of Edward, afterwards Edward IV., began to advance his pretentions to the throne which had been so long usurped by the house of Lancaster. His claim was founded on his descent from the third son of Edward III., Lionel, duke of Clarence, who was his great-great-grandfather on the mother's side, while Henry was the great-grandson on the fa- ther's side of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III. Richard of York was also grandson on the father's side of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III. The wars which result- ed, called the Wars of the Roses, from the fact that a red rose was the badge of the house of Lancaster and a white one that of the house of York, lasted for thirty years, from the first battle of St. Albans, May 22, 1455, to the battle of Bosworth, August 22, 1485. Henry VI. was twice driven from the throne (in 1461 and 1471) by Edward of York, whose father had previously been killed in battle in 1460. Edward of York reigned as Edward IV. from 1461 till his death in 1483, with a brief interval in 1471; and was succeeded by two other sovereigns of the house of York, first his son Edward V., who reigned for eleven weeks in 1483; and then by his brother Richard III., who reigned from 1483 till 1485, when he was defeated and slain on Bosworth field by Henry Tudor, of the house of Lancaster, who then became Henry VII. Heniy VII. was at this time the i-epresentative of the house of Lancaster, and in order at once to strengthen his own title, and to put an end to the rivalry between the houses of York and Lan- caster, he married, in 1486, Elizabeth, the sister of Edward V. and heiress of the house of York. His reign was disturbed by insurrections attend- ing the impostures of Lambert Simnel (1487), who pretended to be a son of the Duke of Clar- ence, brother of Edward IV., and of Perkin Warlaeck (1488), who affirmed that he was the Duke of York, younger brother of Edward V. ; but neither of these attained any magnitude. The king's worst fault was the avarice which led him to employ in schemes of extortion such instruments as Emp.son and Dudley. His admin- istration throughout did much to increase the royal power and to establish order and prosper- ity. He died in 1509. The authority of the English crown, which had been so much extended by Henry VII., HISTORY 49 was by his son Henry VIII. exerted in a tyran- nical and capricious manner. The most impor- tant event of tlie reign was undoubtedly the Reformation; though it had its origin rather in Henry's caprice and in the casual situation of his private affairs than in his conviction of the necessity of a reformation in religion, or in the solidity of reasoning employed by the reformers. Henry had been espoused to Catharine of Spain, who was first married to his elder brother Arthur, a prince who died young. Henry became disgusted with his queen, and enamored of one of her maids of honor, Anne Boleyn. He had recourse, therefore, to the pope to dissolve a marriage which had at first been rendered legal only by a dispensation from the pontiff; but failing in his desires he broke away entirely from the Holy See, and in 1534 got himself recog- nized by act of parliament as the head of the English Church. He died in 1547. He was married six times, and left three children, each of whom reigned in turn. These were: Mary, by his first wife, Catharine of Aragon; Eliza- beth, by his second wife, Anne Boleyn; and Edward, by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Ed- ward, who reigned first, with the title of Edward VI., was nine years of age at the time of his succession, and died in 1553, when he was only sixteen. His short reign, or rather the reign of the Earl of Hertford, afterwards Duke of Somerset, who was appointed regent, was dis- tinguished chiefly by the success which attended the measures of the reformers, who acquired great part of the power formerly engrossed by the Catholics. The intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, during the reign of Edward, caused Lady Jane Grey to be declared his suc- cessor; but her reign, if it could be called such, lasted only a few days. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., was placed upon the throne, and Lady Jane Grey and her husband were both executed. Mary, a zealous Catholic, seems to have wished for the crown chiefly to aid in reestablishing the Roman Catholic faith. Polit- ical motives had induced Philip of Spain to accept of her^s a spouse; but she could never prevail on her subjects to allow him any share of power. She died in 1558. Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary, was attached to the Protestant faith, and found little difficulty in establishing it in England. Having concluded peace with France (1559), Elizabeth set herself to promote the confu- sion which prevailed in Scotland, to which her cousin Mary had returned from France as queen in 1561. In this she was so far success- ful that Mary placed herself in her power (1568), and after many years imprisonment was sent to the scaffold (1587). As the most powerfvd Protestant nation, and as a rival to Spain in the New World, it was natural that England should become involved in difficulties with that country. The dispersion of the Armada by the English fleet under Howard, Drake, and Hawkins was the most brilliant event of a struggle which abounded in minor feats of valor. In Eliza- beth's reign London became the center of the world's trade, the extension of British com- mercial enterprise being coincident with the ruin of Antwerp in 1585. The parliament was increased by the creation of sixty-two new bor- oughs, and its members were exempted from arrest. In literature not less than in politics and in commerce the same full life displayed it- self, and England began definitely to assume the characteristics which distinguish her from the other European nations of to-day. To Elizabeth succeeded (in 1603) James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, son of Mary Queen of Scots and Darnley. His accession to the crown of England in addition to that of Scotland did much to unite the two nations, though a certain smoldering animosity still lingered. His dissimulation, however, ended in his satisfying neither of the contending ecclesiastical parties — the Puritans or the Catholics; and his absurd insistance on his divine right made his reign a continuous struggle between the prerogative of the crown and the freedom of the people. His extravagance kept him in constant disputes with the parliament, who would not grant him the sums he demanded, and compelled him to resort to monopolies, loans, benevolences, and other illegal methods. The nation at large, however, continued to prosper through the whole of this inglorious reign. His son, Charles I., who suc- ceeded him in 1625, inherited the same exalted ideas of royal prerogative, and his marriage with a Catholic, his arbitrary rule, and illegal methods of raising money, provoked bitter hostility. Under the guidance of Laud and Strafford things went from bad to worse. Civil war broke out in 1642 between the king's party and that of the parliament, and, the latter proving victorious, in 1649 the king was beheaded. A commonwealth or republican government was now established, in which the most promi- nent figure was Oliver Cromwell. Mutinies in the army among Fifth-monarchists and Level- lers were subdued by Cromwell and Fairfax, and Cromwell in a series of masterly movements subjugated Ireland and gained the important battles of Dunbar and Worcester. At sea Blake had destroyed the Royalist fleet under Rupert, and was engaged in an honorable struggle with the Dutch under Van Tromp. But within the governing body matters had come to a deadlock. A dissolution was necessary, yet parliament shrank from dissolving itself, and in the mean- time the reform of the law, a settlement with regard to the Church, and other important matters remained untouched. In April, 1653, Cromwell cut the knot by forcibly ejecting the members and putting the keys of the house in his pocket. From this time he was practically head of the government, which was vested in a council of thirteen. A parliament — the Little or Bare- bones Parliament — was summoned and in December of the same year Cromwell was in- stalled Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. With more than the power of a king, he succeeded in dom- inating the confusion at home and made the country feared throughout the whole of Europe. Cromwell died in 1658, and the brief and feeble protectorate of his son Richard followed. There was now a widespread feeling that the country would be better under the old form of government, and Charles II., son of Charles I., was called to the throne by the Restoration of 50 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 1660. He took complete advantage of the popu- lar reaction from the narrowness and intolerance of Puritanism, and even latterly endeavored to carry it to the extreme of establishing the Cath- olic religion. The promises of religious freedom made by him before the Restoration in the Dec- laration of Breda were broken by the Test and Corporation Acts, and by the Act of Uniformity, which drove two thousand clergymen from the Church and created the great dissenting move- ment of modern times. The Conventicle and Five-mile Acts followed, and the " Drunken Parli- ament" restored Episcopacy in Scotland. At one time even civil war seemed again imminent. The abolition of the censorship of the press (1679) and the reaffirmation of the habeas corpus principle are the most praiseworthy inci- dents of the reign. As Charles II. left no legitimate issue, his brother, the Duke of York, succeeded him as James II. (1685-88). An invasion by an ille- gitimate son of Charles, the Duke of Monmouth, who claimed the throne, was suppressed, and the king's arbitrary rule was supported by the wholesale butcheries of such instruments as Kirke and Jeffreys. The king's zealous coun- tenance of Roman Catholicism and his attempts to force the Church and the universities to sub- mission provoked a storm of opposition. Seven prelates were brought to trial for seditious libel, but were acquitted amidst general rejoicings. The whole nation was prepared to welcome any deliverance, and in 1688 William of Orange, hus- band of James's daughter Mary, landed in Tor- bay. James fled to France, and a convention summoned by WilUam settled the crown upon him, he thus becoming WiUiam III. Annexed to this settlement was a Declaration of Rights circumscribing the royal prerogative by depriv- ing him of the right to exercise dispensing po\yer, or to exact money, or maintain an army with- out the assent of parliament. This placed hencefoi-ward the right of the British sovereign to the throne upon a purely statutory basis. A toleration act, passed in 1689, released dissent from many penalties. An armed opposition to William lasted for a short time in Scotland, but ceased with the fall of Viscount Dundee, the leader of James's adherents; and though the struggle was prolonged in Ireland, it was brought to a close before the end of 1691. The following year saw the origination of the national debt, the exchequer having been drained by the hea\y military expenditure. A bill for. triennial parli- aments was passed in 1694, the year in which Queen Mary died. For a moment after her death William's popularity was in danger, but his suc- cesses at Namur and elsewhere, and the obvious exhaustion of France, once more confirmed his power. The treaty of Ryswick followed in 1697, and the death of James II. in exile in 1701 removed a not unimportant source of danger. Early in the following year William also died, and by the act of settlement Anne succeetled him. The closing act of William's reign had been the formation of the grand alliance between England, Holland, and the German Empire, and the new queen's rule opened with the brilliant successes of Marlborougli at Blenheim (1704) and Ramil- lies (1706). Throughout the earlier part of her reign the Marlboroughs practically ruled the kingdom, the duke's wife, Sarah Jennings, being the queen's most intimate friend and adviser. In 1707 the history of England becomes the his- tory of Britain, the Act of Union passed in that year binding the parliaments and realms of Eng- land and Scotland into a single and more power- ful whole. The measure which declared the parliaments of England and Scotland united, and the two countries one kingdom, known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was passed, after violent opposition, in the reign of Queen Anne, 1st of May, 1707. This union, however, much it was opposed by the prejudices and interest of particular men or classes at the time, has con- tributed very much to the prosperity of both countries. The Grand Alliance, which it had been the aim of William's later years to form between Holland, Austria, and England against the threatening growth of French power, now held the field against the armies of France, and the victories of Marlborough at Blenheim and Ramillies, and the taking of Gibraltar and Bar- celona, ended in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, by which the British right of sovereignty over Hudson's Bay, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Minorca, and Gibraltar was acknowledged, and the foundation of Britain's imperial and colonial power securely laid. The remainder of Anne's reign was distracted by the never-ending alter- cations of domestic parties. She died on the 1st of August, 1714; and with her ended the line of the Stuarts, who had held the scepter of England 112, and that of Scotland 343 years. At her death, George I., elector of Hanover, maternally descended from Elizabeth, daughter of James I., according to the Act of Settlement, ascended the throne of Britain. The Wliiga under this prince regained that superiority in the national coimcils of which they had long been deprived, and this, along with the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act and some other extreme precautionary measures, increased the irritation of the Tory and Stuart party. In 1715 the Earl of Mar in Scotland and the Earl of Derwent- water in England raised the standard of rebellion and proclaimed the Chevalier St. George (the Old Pretender) king. But the insurrection, feebly supported by the people, was soon sup- pressed. In 1716 the Septennial Act was passed, making parliament of seven instead of three years duration. In 1720 occurred the extra- ordinary growth and collapse of the South Sea Company. From this date till 1742 the govern- ment was virtually in the hands of Sir Robert Walpole, the first, we might say, of modern premiers, governing the cabinet and chiefly responsible for its doings. Walpole had great sagacity, prudence, and business ability, and could manage dexterously the king, the parlia- ment, and the people alike. It is true that in the case of the parliament he achieved this by undue influence in elections and a scandalous use of bribery. But the power he thus acquired was generally wisely used. The failure of the war with Spain into which he had reluctantly entered drove him from office, and in 1742 his long ministry came to an end. In 1743, George II., frightened at the dangers to Hanover, HISTORY 51 dragged Britain into the wars between France, Prussia, and Austria, regarding the succession of the Emperor Charles. George himself fought at the head of his troops at Dettingen (1743), where he obtained a complete victory over the French, which was balanced, however, later on by the defeat at Fontenoy (1745). A fresh attempt was now made to restore the Stuart family to the throne of Britain. Charles Edward, son of the Old Pretender, having been furnished by France with a small supply of money and arms, landed on the coast of Loch- aber, in the Western Highlands, in 1745, and was joined by a considerable number of the people. Marching southwards with 1,500 High- landers, his forces increasing as he advanced, he entered Edinburgh without opposition ; and hav- ing defeated Sir John Cope near Prestonpans he marched into England. He now took Carlisle, and advanced through Lancaster, Preston, and Manchester, to Derby, within 100 miles of Lon- don ; but finding himself disappointed of expect- ed succors from France, and the English Tories, contraiy to his expectations, keeping aloof, he commenced his retreat into Scotland, closely pursued by the king's troops, whom he again defeated at Falkirk. With this victory his good fortune terminated. The Duke of Cumbei'land having arrived from the continent put himself at the head of the forces which were destined to check the rebels; and the armies having met at Culloden, near Inverness, Charles was completely defeated. After lurking for six months amidst the wilds of Invernesshire, he at length, with much difficulty, escaped to France. The war of the Austrian succession, which still continued and which was the cause of the hostili- ties between the French and British in India as well as elsewhere, was terminated by tlie treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. During most of this period Pelham and his brother, the Duke of New- castle, had been the ruling ministers, and in their hands the art of government had reached a low level both as regards morality and ability. In 1752, the New Style of reckoning time was intro- duced, and the Old Style being eleven days behind, the 3d of September, 1752, was called the 14th. At the same time the 1st of January was fixed as the opening day of the year, instead of the 25th of March. Soon after, the French, uneasy at the growing colonial power of Britain, made a determined effort against the British Colonies and possessions in North America and the East Indies, and at first the British met with several disasters in America. In 1756 the Seven Years' War broke out, Austria and France being allied on the one side, and Prussia and England on the other, and ill success attended the British arms in Europe also. Fortunately, a great war minister, William Pitt, now took the helm of the state. In 1758 the British made themselves masters of several French settlements in North America, while the attack made by Wolfe on Quebec in 1759 was completely successful, and gave Britain the whole of Canada. The same year the British and their allies defeated the French at Minden in Prussia. In the East Indies the French were even less successful than in America. Clive's victory at Plassey (1757) and Coote's at Wandewash (1760) secured the British empire in the east, and together with the naval feats of llawke and Boscawen made England the greatest of mari- time and colonial powers. On the accession of George III. in 1760 hostili- ties were still carried on, generally to the advan- tage of the French as far as the theater of war in Germany was concerned, but still more to their loss in the other quarters of the world where they were engaged with the British in a struggle for supremacy, and this notwitlistanding that Spain had now joined her forces to those of France. At length the success of the British arms induced France and Spain to accede to terms, and the war ended by the Treaty of Paris in 1763. The French relinquished nearly all their possessions in North America; Minorca was restored to Brit- ain ; in the East Indies they got back their fac- tories and settlements, on condition that they should maintain neither forts nor troops in Ben- gal ; Cuba and Manila were resigned to the Span- iards. In Europe everything was restored to the status quo. The expenses of this war, which had been undertaken partly for the defense of the Ameri- can Colonies, had added upwards of £72,000,000 to the national debt. It seemed to the British people to be just that the Americans should be taxed to assist in the payment of the interest. The Americans did not deny the justice, but replied that if they were to be taxed they had a right to be represented in parliament, in order that, like other British subjects, they might be taxed only in consequence of their own consent. Grenville, then the prime-minister, stood to his purpose, however, and introduced a bill for imposing certain stamp duties on the American Colonies. The Americans protested and resisted, and partly by the influence of the great Pitt, who had steadily opposed the measure, the bill was withdrawn. On the illness of Pitt, now Lord Chatham, in 1767, Townshend became premier, and again revived the project of taxing the Americans by imposing duties on tea; and in 1770, Lord North, as his successor, set himself to cany it out. The result was that in 1775 the Colonies were declared in a state of rebellion and a war began, in which both France and Spain joined the revolted Colonies, and of which the result was the recognition of the independence of the United States. On the American side of this struggle the great name is that of George Washington. On the British side the war was unskillfuUy conducted, and though they gained some successes these were more than counter- balanced by such blows as the capitulation of Burgoyne with nearly 6,000 men at Saratoga (1777), and of CornwalHs at Yorktown with 7,000(1781). Against their European foes the British could show such successes as that of Admiral Rodney off Cape St. Vincent (1780); the brilliant defense of Gibraltar by General Ehott (1779-82); and Admiral Rodney's victory over the French fleet in the West Indies (1782). The war closed with the Peace of Versailles in 1783. Britain finally acquired several West Indian Islands; Spain got I'^lorida and Minorca, France Pondicherry and Chandernagore in India. The struggle had added over £100,000,000 to the British national debt. 52 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS From 1783 to 1801 the government of Britain was directed by William Pitt, the younger son of Lord Chatham, who when only twenty-fom- years of age was placed as first lord of the treas- ury and chancellor of the exchequer. The affairs of Ireland and India, and the impeachment of Warren Hastings, were among the first subjects which occupied the attention of Pitt's ministry. In 1782, the Irish had been able to extort from Britain, then engaged in her struggle with the American Colonies, the right to establish an inde- pendent parliament, so that from this year there were two independent governments in the British Isles till 1800, when Pitt, who had in the interval experienced some of the difficulties arising out of two coordinate legislatures, contrived once more to unite them. In 1789, the French Revolution was begun. For a time there was considerable sympathy in England with this movement; but as the revo- lutionaries proceeded to extreme measures there was a reaction in English feehng, of which Ed- mund Burke became the great exponent, and the execution of Louis XVI. gave rise to diplo- matic measures, which finally terminated in the National Convention declaring war against Brit- ain, on the 1st of February, 1793. At first Brit- ain cooperated with Prussia, Austria, etc., against France, and successes were gained both by sea and land; but latterly on the Continent the armies of the French Republic were every- where triumphant, and in 1797 Britain stood alone in the conflict, and indeed soon found a European coahtion formed against her. The war was now largely maritime, and the naval successes of Jervis off St. Vincent and Duncan off Camperdown were followed (when Bonaparte led an expedition to Egypt, having India as its ultimate object) by the victories of Nelson in Aboukir Bay, and Abercromby at Alexandria. In 1798, a rebellion in Ireland had to be crushed. Peace was made in 1802 by the Treaty of Amiens, only to be broken by another declaration of war in 1803, as the ambitious projects of Napoleon became evident. In spite of the efforts of Pitt (who died in 1806) in the way of forming and supporting with funds a new coahtion against France, the military genius of Napoleon swept away all opposition on land, though the naval victory of Trafalgar (1805) established England's supremacy on the seas. Napoleon, who had assumed the title of Emperor of the French in 1805, and was now virtually the ruler of Europe, put forth his Berlin decrees (180G), prohibiting all commerce with Great Britain wherever his power reached, set his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, and occupied Portugal. But the spirit of resistance had now taken deep root in the British people, and in 1808 troops were sent into Spain under Sir John Moore, and a year later Wellington, then General Wellesley, landed in Portugal. Then began that famous series of successful operations (the Peninsular War) which drove back the French into their own country, and powerfully contributed to undermine the immense fabric of Napoleon's conquests. The other chief European powers having united, Paris was occupied in 1814, Napoleon was de- posed and exiled to Elba, and Louis XVIII. placed on the throne of France. Escaping in 1815, Napoleon appeared once more in the field with a large army. Welhngton and Bliicher hastened to oppose him, and at Waterloo Na- poleon's long career of conquest ended in a crush- ing defeat. The restoration of Louis followed, and Napoleon was sent to the island of St. Helena. Of her conquests Bi'itain retained Tobago, St. Lucia, Mauritius, the (^ape of Good Hope, Dem- erara, Esscquibo, Berbice, Heligoland, and Malta. Ceylon and Trinidad had been gained in 1802, and Britain emerged from this long struggle with a very great increase of territorial posses- sions and political importance. After the termination of the wars with Napo- leon many things concurred to make a troublous era in the home administration. The new bur- den of debt which the wars had left on the nation, the bad harvests of 1816 and 1817, a succession of governments which had no idea but that of absolute resistance to all reforms, etc.; all these contributed to increase discontent. The result was a strong Radical agitation, accompanied often by serious riots throughout the country, more especially in the large towns, and loud demands for reform in parliament and the system of representation. The death of George III. and accession of George IV. in 1820 made httle change in this respect. From 1822 a succes- sion of able statesmen. Canning, Peel, and Lord Grey, gave the government a more liberal turn, and did much to satisfy the popular demands. The Catholics were admitted _ to parliament; the severity of the old restrictions on commerce was relaxed; and in the face of a determined opposition Earl Grey carried the Reform Bill of 1832 (two years after the accession of William IV.), which gave large manufacturing towns a voting power in some proportion to their importance, and practically trans- ferred the center of political power from the aristocratic to the middle classes. The next great public measure was the abolition of negro slavery in every British possession in 1834. William IV. died June 20, 1837, and was suc- ceeded by Victoria. The year following is nota- ble as that in which the Chartists began their movement for reform, which continued more or less active, with popular assembUes, presentations of monster petitions, and occasional tumults, till 1848, when it was without much trouble suppressed. The same years saw the struggle of the Anti-(^orn-law League, of which Cobden and Bright were the chiefs, and which were finally successful, Sir Robert Peel, the leader of the Tory party, himself proposing the repeal of the corn duties (1846). The principle of free- trade had further victories in the repeal of the navigation laws, and in the large abohtion of duties made during Lord Aberdeen's ministry (1853). In 1852-53, dissension arose between Russia and Turkey regarding the rights of the Latin and Greek Churches to preferable access to the "holy places" in Palestine. The Emperor of Russia, resenting concessions made to French devotees, sent Prince Menschikoff to Constanti- nople to demand redress, and not being satisfied, war was declared, June 26, 1853. On the plea that it was impossible to leave Russia a free hand HISTORY 53 in dealing w4th Turkey, France and Great Brit- ain formed an alliance against Russia, March 28, 1854. Invasion of the Crimea followed; peace was signed in 1856 at Paris. Immediately after the Crimean war came the mutiny of the sepoys in India. In 1858, sover- eignty over the British possessions was trans- ferred by parliament from the East India com- pany to the crown. Wars with China (1858 and 1860) opened up five new Chinese ports to trade. The Fenian movement (1861-7) occasioned some excitement. In 1867 parliament passed a measure estab- hshing the principle of household suffrage. The same j^ear the Dominion of Canada was con- stituted. In 1867, the Abyssinian expedition set out, and relieved the Enghsh captives in 1868, In the same year Lord Derby was suc- ceeded by Disraeli as leader of the Conservative party. The year put the Liberals in power. In 1869, Gladstone's administration passed a bill for the disestablishment of the Irish church. In 1870, an Irish land law bill, for the i;egulation of relations between landlord and tenant, became law; and a national system of education for England was estabhshed. In 1871, the purchase of commissions in the army was abohshed. Next followed the ballot act and the Scotch education act. Early in 1874, Gladstone dissolved parha- ment, and a large Conservative majority being returned, Disraeli again became premier. The Ashantee war, begun the previous year, ended early in 1874. In 1876, the title of Empress of India was added to the titles of the queen. During the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 Britain remained neutral, but took an important part in the settlement by the Berlin congress, and acquired from Turkey the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. Then followed war in Afghanistan, war with the Kaffirs of Zululand, and a brief war with the Boers of the Transvaal. In 1880, Gladstone again became premier. This parhament passed a land-act for Ireland (1881), an act for putting down crime in Ireland (1882), a reform act equalizing the borough and county franchise (1884), and a redistribution of seats act (1885) — all important. The inter- vention of Britain in Egyptian affairs led to the bombardment of Alexandria by the British fleet (Julj^, 1882) and the sending of an army into Egypt to quell rebellion; the rising in the Sudan caused British troops to be despatched to Sualdm and another force to be sent by way of the Nile to rchcve (General Gordon at Khartoum. For a brief period Lord Sahsbury was premier in 1885, but in February, 1886, he made way for Gladstone. In April, Gladstone proposed a bill \vhich would establish a separate Irish legisla- tive body. A determined opposition was or- ganized and the bill was thrown out on its second reading. A general election followed, in which those opposed to the bill had a great majority. The Conservative party assumed office, with the marquis of Salisbury as head. A criminal law amendment act for Ireland (1887) and a local government act for England (1888) were passed. In 1887 the jubilee of the queen was celebrated. The Liberals won in the elections in 1892, Gladstone becoming premier. In 1893, Lord Sahsbury was returned to power. October 11, 1899, war was declared by the Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, aiming to destroy British paramountcy in South Africa; those states were annexed by the British, in 1900. In 1900, a new parhament was elected, with a slightly increased Conservative majority. Victoria died January 22, 1901, and was suc- ceeded by Edward VII. In 1902, a new ministry was formed, with A. J. Balfour as premier. The Balfour ministry was succeeded in 1905 by that of Sir Henry Campbcll-Bannerman, which, in turn, was suc- ceeded by the Asquith ministry in 1908. The complete autonomy of Australia was recognized in 1907. In 1908, the old age pensions act was passed. The rejection by the lords of important measures led, however, to demands for the cur- tailment of the powers of the upper house. Parliament was prorogued in January, 1910, and in the new election the Liberals were returned with one vote over the Unionists. The death of Edward, May 6th, interrupted the political war- ring of the parties only temporarily, and George V. dissolved parliament in November and sum- moned a new parliament (elected in December). The Welsh disestabhshment bill, the first bill to become a law without the consent of the house of lords, passed the house of commons the third time in May, 1914. The Irish home rule bill similarly passed; both became law with operation suspended for at least one year. Id August, 1914, Germany entered into war with Russia. England, France and Russia were allied by an agreement known as the triple entente. Germany, declaring war upon France, purposed crossing Belgium to reach France. Sir Edward Grey, British foreign minister, asked if France and Germany would respect Belgian neutrahty. France rephed affirmatively; Germany did not. Upon the invasion of Belgium by the Germans, Aug. 4, 1914, Great Britain declared war upon Germany. British troops were landed on the French coast, Aug. 8. Great Britain declared war upon Austria, Aug. 12; upon Turkey, Nov. 5, at the same time annexing Cyprus. Egypt was declared a British protectorate, Dec. 17. In 1915 Germany declared the waters aroimd the British Isles a w-ar zone after Feb. 18. With the sinking of the Lusitania by a German sub- marine. May 7, 1,152 lives were lost. A coalition ministry was organized. May 25. An Anglo- French war loan was secured in the United States in October. Great Britain declared war on Bulgaria, Oct. 15. In December the army was increased to 4,000,000. The compulsory service bill became a law, Feb. 10, 1916. The German fleet was defeated off Jutland, May 31. On Dec. 7 Lloyd George became prime minister and formed a war cabinet. Feb. 1, 1917, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare. British victory at Cambrai, Nov. 20. AUenby cai)tures Jerusalem, Dec. 10. ^ Woman suffrage adopted, Jan. 10, 1918. Mar. 21, great German attack in France. Naval raid on Zeebrugge, Apr. 22. Allenby routs Turks Sept. 18-22. British break Hindenburg hne, Sept. 27. German fleet surrenders to Admiral Beatty, Nov. 21. Lloyd George wins December elections. Jan. 18, 1919, Lloyd George heads British delegation to peace conference. 64 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS EVENTS OF HUMAN PROGRESS I. Period of Unrecorded Events — Prehistoric Times. II. From tlie Dawn of History to the Birth of Christ — B. C. in. From the Birth of Christ to the Present Time — A. D. Our present knowledge of human progress is of two kinds: First, that which earlier generations have handed down in the form of written records, and, Second, that which is assumed by inference from various relics and tokens of ancient peoples, sometimes found buried in the earth or otherwise preserved. The first of these kinds of knowledge constitutes history; the second has to do with unrecorded stages in the life of the human race and is called prehistoric. Dates and events at the dawn of history are involved in much doubt. At best the earliest assigned dates are merely approximations and must in every case be so interpreted. All dates earlier than 1000 B. C. are to be regarded as comparative rather than as exact. PERIOD OF UNRECOEDED ACHIEVEMENT — PREHISTORIC TIMES The Prehistoric Period, the length of which it is impossible to estimate with even approximate correct- ness, is divided into two parts, the Paleolithic or Old Stone sige and the Neolithic or New Stone Age. Be- fore the Paleolithic age, however, there was a period in the life of man during which his progress was so slight that he did not attain even the primitive stage of development which crude fiint weapons indicate. In the remote epochs designated by the terms Old Stone Age and New Stone Age, the progenitors of the now dominant peoples struggled upwards toward civiliza- tion by successive conquests of nature and of natural forces. . . The chief factors in their advance were the acquisi- tion of weapons and tools, the use of fire, the cultiva- tion of plants, and the domestication of animals. Many of their achievements were relatively more im- portant than the harnessing of steam and other great inventions of modern times. Yet when, where, and by whom these progress-shaping things were done seems forever hidden in the voiceless past. The men of those times had not yet invented the alphabet or learned how to preserve the records of their deeds in any form of written language. The mute surviving relics of these periods tell nothing of the story of those who toiled to fashion them, they mention neither persons nor events, they define no periods of time. I. The Paleolithic Age. This period, called the Old Stone Age, is characterized by remains of rough flint and other stone weapons, implements, and uten- sils found all over the world. These primeval tools and weapons of flint were followed by others made from bone, horn, and ivory, and included daggers, fish hooks, heads of harpoons, needles, and awls, which were ornamented in some cases with crude designs and drawings. II. The Neolithic Age. Most students of the remains of prehistoric peoples hold to the view that the Neolithic or New Stone Age ensued upon the Old Stone Age only after a long interval of time. Instead of leaving their chipped flint weapons rough, the men of this period polished their surfaces and ground them to keen cutting edges. They produced fire by strik- ing flint or by rubbing wood. They developed the art of making pottery and of weaving fabrics. They erected various memorials to the dead, including what are known as barrows, cairns, cromlechs, and dolmens. Some primitive peoples, such as the lake dwellers of Switzerland, built rude dwellings. In this period the dog, cat, camel, horse, ox, sheep, pig and goat were widely domesticated. Prehistoric peoples of India tamed the elephant and the humped ox as did the ancient Peruvians the llama, alpaca, and guinea-pig. A large proportion of the cultivated plants still of supreme importance to mankind were in extensive cultivation long before the dawn of history, including wheat, rice, maize, barley, millet, sorghum cane, cab- bage, turnip, pea, bean, apple, peach, banana, date, olive, fig, hemp, and flax. What is defined as Prehistoric Time has terminated at widely different periods in different countries. The peoples of the Nile valley and of the Tigris-Euphrates region emerged from the total darkness of the unre- corded past about 5000 B. C. Yet the inhabitants of America remained in the prehistoric period until the discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492 A. D. B. C. 6000 (about) 4700 4150 3700 3300 3000 FROM EARLIEST RECORDS TO TIME OF MOSES Arts of Civilization At this date flourishing city- states appear in Mesopotamia, evidencing great antiquity for Babylonian civilization which recent research indicates may be carried back to approximate- ly 8000 or 9000 B. C. Late in- vestigations tend to place the beginning of Egyptian history at about 0000 B. C. Hieroglyphic writing in Egypt. Copper tools introduced into Egypt. Stone architecture be- gun. Wheat, barley, and millet grown in Egypt. Ox, goat, cat, greyhound, goose, pictured on early monument.'^. Figs de- picted on pyramid at Gizeh. ftlummies wrapped in linen cloth. Canal cut at Asyut. Irrigation established. Pigeon domesticated in Egypt Babylonia and Assyria 5000 (about). Babylonia peopled by the Sumerians. Well advanced in civilization. Temple of Nippur built. 4500. Kingdom of Shirlpurla in full power. 4400. E-anna-tum erected the famous stele of the vultures. 4000. Nippur the religious center of Babylonia. 3800. Sargon I. greatly extended the empire; built temple to Bel at Nippur. 3300. Temples erected at Agadc and Sippar. 3000. Gudea builds palaces at Tel-lo. 2800. Urgur and Dungi, Kings of Ur, enlarge temples. Egypt 5000 (about). Predynaatic age. Small local Kingdoms in the Nile valley. The King- doms of the North and of the South. 4777. Menes founds first dynasty builds Memphis. Tombs at Abydos filled with objects inscribed to Menes. 4650. Uenefes builds pyramid near Kokhome. 4400. Apis, the sacred bull, wor- shiped at Memphis. 3900. Khufu (Cheops) builds the Great Pyramid at Gizeh. 3500. Pyramids built at Sak- karah. 3000. Capital removed from Memphis to Herakleapolis. 2800. Vigorous reign of Amenemhat. HISTORY 55 B.C. FROM EARLIEST RECORDS TO TIME OF MOSES —B.C. Arts of Civilization Asia Africa and Europe 2750. Nubia conquered. 2700 Wheat, rice, tea, soy Temple at Abydos bean, millet, and sor- built. ghum cane grown in China. 2600 Silk culture begun in 2600. Part of Lake Moeris China. 2500. Isin becomes a leading city. 2300. Hammurabi makes Babylon preeminent; constructs canals; enacts famous code of laws. 2200. Nimrod or Belus ruler in Babylon. Nin- reclaimed. 2100 Geometry used in Egypt. eveh built by Asshur. 2098. Hyksos or Shep- 2070. Ninus rules in Nineveh; founds As.syrian herd Kings conquer empire. Egypt, and rule 400 2000 Horses introduced into 2000. Senuramis rules Babylon; invades years. Egypt. Mastiffs, Libya, Ethiopia, and India. hounds, lap dogs, and turnspits carved on Egyptian monuments. The Hebrews Olive, grape, date palm, lentil, bean, 1996. Abraham born. lupine, and water- melon grown in Nile 1937. The Arabs valley. seize Nineveh. 1920 Gold and silver first men- tioned as money. 1896. Isaac born. 1891 Letters first used in 1856. Inachus plants a Egypt by Syphoas. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies. colony in Argos. 1822 Memnon invents the 1766. The Shang Egyptian alphabet. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph, dynasty in China begins. 1710. Colony of Arca- dians emigrate into Italy. 1618. Sesostris reigns in 1582 The chronology of the Arundelian marbles Egypt. 1556. Rameses-Miamun begins. 1577. Israelites perse- reigns in Egypt. 1580 The cymbal used at the cuted in Egypt. 1546. Troy founded 1556. Athens founded by feasts of Cybele. 1574. Aaron born. by Scamander. Cecrops. 1571. Moses born. \ The Chinese Dark Ages. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded. 1507. Areopagus estab- 1506 The flute invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 1500. Northern In- hshed in Athens. 1494 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 1491. The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. dia invaded and conquered by the Aryans between this date and 1000. FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS— B. C. | Arts of Civilization The Hebrews Asia and Africa Europe 1491. Moses gives the law at 1490 Crockery made by Egyptians and Greeks. Mt. Sinai. 1486 Ericthoneus introduces first chariot. 1485. Egyptus reigns and gives name 1457. Kingdom of Mycene founded. 1453. Death of Aaron. to the country. 1453. First Olympic 1451. Death of Moses. games at Elis. Joshua conquers Canaan. 1449. Ericthoneus reigns in Troy. 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 1370 Bucklers used in single 1374. Troas, King of 1397. Corinth be- combat. Troy. comes a king- Music and poetry cul- dom under Sisy- tivated in Greece. 1343. Eglon, King of Moab, en- phus. 1356. Eleusinian slaves Israel. 1322. Ramoses II. (Sesostris) con- quers Ethiopia. 1314. Ilus, son of mysteries insti- tuted by Eumol- pus. 1305. Israel subdued by King Troas, founds 1266. CEdipus, King 1263 Temple of Apollo at of Canaan. Ilium. of Thebes. Delphi built. 1285. Deborah and Barak de- 1263. Argonautic Jason leads first naval feat the Canaanites. 1252. Second Assyr- Expedition of expedition on record. 1249. Gideon conquers the Midianites. ian dynasty. Jason. 56 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. 1240 1224 FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS— B. C. Arts of Civilization 1115 1100 The axe, wedge, wim- ble, and lever, also masts and sails for ships, invented by Dsedalus of Athens. Game of backgammon invented by Palame- dea of Greece. The Hebrews Asia and Africa Mariner's compass known in China. Dictionary of Chinese completed by Pa- out-she. 1015 1000 Minos gives Crete his code of laws. Solomon extends his commerce to India, via Red Sea, and to the shores of the At- lantic, via Straits of Gibraltar; builds Pal- myra, Baalbec, and other cities. 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines. Samson born. 1136. Samson slays 1,000 Philistines. 1116. Samuel, last Judge of Israel. 1095. Saul becomes King of Israel. 1085. David born. 1055. Death of Saul; accession of David. 1048. David King of all Israel. 1042. The Ark removed to Jerusalem. 1036. Revolt of Absalom. 1033. Solomon born. 1016. Death of David. 1015. Solomon anointed King. . 1012. Solomon begms the Temple. 1004. Dedication of Temple. 975. Death of Solomon. Revolt of the Ten Tribes. Two kingdoms formed. 1240. Troy taken by the Argonauts. 1233. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 1220. Priam, King of Troy. 1194. The Trojan War begins. 1140. Tiglath-Pile- ser real founder of the Assyrian Empire. 1124. Troy taken. 1123. Chow dynasty begins in China. Europe 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy. 1235. Theseus reigns in Athens for 30 years. 1225. First Theban War. 1216. Second The- ban War. 1213. Helen of Troy carried off by Theseus, mar- ries Menelaus. 1152. Alba Longa built by As- canius. 1124. ^olian migra- tion. Thebes, capi- tal of Boeotia, founded. 1104. Return of the Heraclidai. End of King- dom of Mycene. 1070. Heremon, of Gallicia, con- quers Ireland. 1060. Athens gov- erned by Archons. 016 884 869 The Rhodians begin navigation laws. Homer's poems brought into Greece. Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. . Gold and silver coined by Phidon, ruler of Argos. Judah 971. Shishak, King of Egypt, takes Jerusalem. 888. Philis- tines plun- der Jerusa- lem. 884. Usurpa- tion and death of At- haliah. Israel 975. Jero- boam estab- lishes idola- try. 918. Ahaband Jezebel. 901. The Syri- ans besiege Samaria. 896. Elijah translated to heaven. 884. Jehu. King. 840. Jehoash defeats King Ben- badad of Syria. 1044. Ionian emi- grants settle in Asia Minor. 1000. Solomon and Hiram, King of Tyre, form an al- liance; also Solo- mon and Pha- raoh. 986. Utica built. Samos built. 971. Shishak (Se- sostus of Egypt) plunders Jerusa- lem. Homer born (7). 825. Dynasty of the Tanites in Egypt. 820. .\rbaces, King of Assyria. 976. Capys reigns in Alba Longa. 935. Bacchus, King of Corinth. 895. Tiberinus, King of Mha, drowned in the river .\lbula, which is thence called the Tiber. 864. Romulus, King of Alba Longa. HISTORY 57 B. C. 786 772 FROM TIME OF MOSES TO TIME OF CYRUS — B. C. Arts of Civilization 721 710 685 680 660 640 621 610 504 Corinthians employ tri- remes or vessels with three banks of oars. Sculpture first men- tioned among the Egyptian arts. Judati First eclipse of the moon observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon. Religion of Buddha in- troduced in India. Roman Calendar re- formed ; year divided into 12 months in- stead of 10 as before. Iambic verse intro- duced. Chess invented. Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind. Spherical form of the earth and true cause of lunar eclipses taught by Thales, who also discovered the electricity of amber. Draconian code form- ulated. Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Many lives lost in the attempt. He also sent out a Phenician fleet wliieh circumnavigated Africa. Solon's code supersedes that of Draco in Athens. Money coined at Rome by Servius Tullius. 741. Pekah, King of Is- rael, be- sieges Jeru- salem, 120,- 000 of his men slain. 726. Heze- kiah abol- ishes idola- try. 717. Heze- kiah, King. Hebrews 712. Sennach- erib invades Judah. 711. His army (185,000) destroyed by pestilence. 696. Manas- seh. King. 677. Manas- seh, carried to Babylon, is afterward restored. Israel 770. Pul in- vades Israel, and is bribed to depart. 721. Samaria taken by the Assyrians; Tribes car- ried into captivity. Asia and Africa 797. Ardyssua, first King of Lydia. 767. Sardanapalus, King of Nineveh. Media subjected to Assyria. 747. Era of Na- bonazzar, Assy- rian Empire de- stroyed. 737. Sebacon in- vades Egypt. 736. Tiglath-pil- eser conquers Syria and part of Israel. 721. Shalmanezer. Kingof Nineveh, takes Samaria and carries the Ten Tribes into captivity. Europe 606. Conquest of Jerusalem by Nebu- chadnezzar 591. Ezekiel prophesies in Chaldea. 588. Captivity of Judah completed. Jerusalem destroyed and the Temple burnt. 579. Jews car- ried to Babylon. 717. Sennacherib. King of Nineveh. 710. Media becomes a kingdom. 680. Babylon and Nineveh are united under Esarhaddou. Babylonia 648. Saracus, King of Babylon and Nineveh. 612. Nineveh a second time destroyed. 606. Nebuchadnez- zar defeats N echo of Egypt, in- vades Judea and takes Jerusalem. 604. Nebuchad- nezzar, King of Babylon. 599. Birth of Cyrus. 589. Invades Phenicia. Egypt 660. Psammet- icus. King of Egypt. Memphis becomes the capital. 610. Pharaoh Necho, King of Egypt. 600. Psammis, King of Egypt. 594. Pharaoh- Hophra, King of Egypt. 581. Egypt in- vaded by Nebuchad- 814. The Kingdom of Macedon founded by Caramus. 769. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 753. Building of Rome. 750. Sabine War. 747. Union of Ro- mans and Sa- bines. 743. First Messen- ian War 716. Romulus re- puted murdered. 685. Second Mes- eenian War. 678. Argseus, first King of Macedon 672. Tullius Hos- tilius. King of Rome. 664. First sea- fight on record — between the Corinthians and Corcyreans. 658. Byzantium founded. 640. Latins con- quered by the Romans. Philip I., King of Macedon, 616. Tarquinius Priscus, King of Rome. 602. Ill>Tia con- quered by Macedon. 594. Solon, Archon of Athens. 578. Servius TulliuB, King of Rome. 58 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM TIRIE OP 3I0SES TO TIME OF CYRUS — B. C. Arts of Civilization Persia Babylonia Egypt Europe 572. Takes Tyre. 569. Amasis, 568 School of sculpture King of opened at Athens. Egypt, makes alliance with Greece. 536. Pythagorus 567. Conquest of the Etrurians by Rome. 565. First census 562 First comedy acted at 562. Crcesus, visits Egypt. of Rome; Athens. King of Lydia, 84,700 citizens. Dials invented by 560. Cyrus, King subjects Asia Anaximander of of Persia. Minor. 539. The Phocians Miletus. 548. Cyrus con- emigrate to 540 Corinthian order of quers Lydia. Gaul and build architecture invent- 538. Takes Baby - 538. Babylon Massilia (nov/ ed by Calimachus. Ion. taken by Marseilles). 535 Thespis performs first Cyrus, the 535. Made tribu- tragedy at Athens. Persian. tary by Cyrus. 536. Persian Empire founded by Cyrus, composed of Assyria, Media, and Persia. Captivity of the Jews ended. 535. Temple rebuilt at Jerusalem. 529. Death of Cyrus; Cambyses, 528. Thrace comes King of Persia. into view. FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER— B. C. Arts of Civilization Persia Greece Macedonia Rome, Etc. 530. Cadiz built 527 First public li- 527. Pisistratus by the Car- brary founded 525. Cambyses con- dies, after seiz- thaginians. at Athens. quers Egypt and makes it a Persian prov- ince. Psammeticus, last King of Egypt. ing Athens. 522 Confucius, the 522. Darius I., Chinese philos- King of Persia. 510. Followers of opher. Pisistratus ex- 509 Abolition of regal pelled; Democ- 509. The Tar- government at 508. Darius con- racy established quins ex- Rome, and es- quers India. at Athens. pelled from tablishment of Rome. a Republic at Brutus and Rome. CoUatinus first Consuls. 507. The Capitol 500 Phenician letters 500. The lonians 497. Alexander finished. carried to Ire- revolt and burn land from Sardis. I., King. 494. Tribunes of Spain. the people The Temple of chosen. Minerva built. 491. Coriolanus 490. Darius sends 490. Battle of Mara- banished. an army of ,'jOO,- thon. 000 into Greece. 487. Egypt revolts 483 Etrurians excel in — is subdued by 483. Aristides ban- music, drama, Xerxes. ished. and architec- 486. Xerxes, King ture. of Persia. 481. Expedition of Xerxes into 480. Battle of Ther- 480. Carthagini- Greece; destroys mopyte. ans defeated. Athens. Battle of Sala- mis and defeat of Persians. Hamilcar killed in battle. 479. Returns de- 479. Battle of feated. Platea; Persian fleet destroyed at Mycale. 476. Themistorles rebuilds .Vthcns. 465. Xerxes assas- 465. Third Messini- sinated. Artax- an War. erxes I., King. 461. Pericles im- 460 Voyage of the presses himself 460. Cincinnatus, Carthaginians 456. Esther. upon Greek af- Consul. to Britain for fairs. tin. 449. Persians de- feated at Sala- mis. HISTORY 59 B. C. 441 FROM THE DEATH OF CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER — B. C. Arts of Civilization The battering ram invented. 399 380 368 360 Catapults invent- ed by Diony- sius. Treatise on conic sections by Aristae us. A celestial globe brought into Greece from Egypt. Philippics of De- mosthenes de- livered. 336 Aristotle writes his philosophi- cal works. Eclipses calcu- lated by Calip- pus, the Athen- ian. Persia 445. Jerusalem re- built by Nehe- miah. 440. Siege of Samos by Pericles. 401. Cyrus the Younger defeat- ed. Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon. 400. Delhi founded. 387. Greek cities of Asia made tribu- tary to Persia. Greece 344. Aristotle visits Mitylene. 338. Royal family destroyed with poison. 336. Darius III. King. 457. Long walls of Athens begun. 431. Peloponnesian War 429. Death of Peri- cles, having gov- erned Athens 40 years. 416. War with Sici- ly. 411. Athens gov- erned by the "400." Alliance of Spar- ta with Persia. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 400. Return of the 10,000. Macedonia 370. Predominance of Thebes. 360. War of the Allies against Athens. Decline of Gre- cian republics. 356. Second Sacred War. 344. Philip subdues Sparta. 3.39. War with Macedonia. 413. Archelaus, " Patron of Learning," seizes the throne. 336. Philip slain. 399. Archelaus murdered. 392. The lUy- rians invade Macedonia, and possess the throne. 360. Philip II..- King; he in- stitutes the Macedonian phalanx; de- feats the Athenians. 356. Philip II. conquers Thrace and Illyria. Birth of Alex- ander the Great. 341. War against the Athenians. Siege of By- zantium. 338. Philip master of Greece. 338. Athenians and Thebans defeated at Chajronea. 336. Philip as- sassinated by Pausanius; Alexander III., sur- named the Great, suc- ceeds to the throne. Rome, Etc. 456. Cincinnatus, Dictator. 451. Laws of the 12 tables. 413. Egypt re- gains inde- pendence. 411. Roman famine. 407. Carthagin- ians War on Sicily. 390. Rome de- stroyed by the Gauls. 376. War be- tween patrici- ans and ple- bians. Lucius Sextus first plebian con- sul. 371. Curule magistrates appointed. 369. Military tribunes abol- ished. 343. Samnian War, contin- ued 53 years. 340. War with the Latins. 337. First plebian prae- tor. 60 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM THE DEATH OP CYRUS TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER — B. C. 335 Arts of CiviHzatlon Persia Greece Macedonia Rome, Etc. Caustic art in- 335. Greeks con- 335. Enters vented. 334. Alexander the Great invades Persia. (See un- quered by Alex- ander the Great. Thebes destroy- ed. Greece, con- quers Greeks, and succeeds to head of army against Persians. 334. Invades Persia. Defeats der Macedonia.) Darius at 332. Caledonian 331. Darius III. Granicus. monarchy murdered. Alex- ander founds the (Scotland) founded by Grecian or Mace- Fergus I. donian mon- 333. Battle of Issus. Roman treaty archy. Battle of Arbela. 332. Egypt conquered by Alexander, and Alexandria built. with Alex- ander the Great. 330. jEschines, the orator, banished. 327. Second Samnite War. 328 Voyage of Near- 327. Alexander invades India. chus from the 325. Demosthenes banished. Indies to the 323. Ptolemy I. restores the independence of Egypt. Euphrates. Alexander the Great dies in Babylonia. The Grecian cities revolt from Macedonia, and in 321 Antipater be- comes Regent of Greece. Persia was reconquered from the Greeks, and remained tributary to Parthia till about A. D. 250. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST — B. C. Arts of Civilization Rome, Etc. Macedonia Greece Syria, Judea Egypt, Cartilage 321. Roman army sur- 319. Poly- renders to sperchon the Sam- succeeds nites. Antipater, 320 First work on 320. Sam- and pro- 320. Ptolemy mechanics nites de- claims lib- I. carries written by feated at erty to the 100,000 Aristotle. i Lucena. Grecian cities. Jews into Egypt. 317 Commerce of 317. Syra- 317. Cassan- 317. Deme- Macedon cuse and der as- trius Pha- with India, Sicily sumes the lerius gov- through usurped throne of erns Ath- Egypt. by Agath- ocles. Macedon. ens. 315. Cassan- der rebuilds Thebes. 312 The Appian 312. War 312. Pyrrhus 312. Seleucus I. retakes Way con- with the II., great- Babylon. structed. Etruscans. est hero of 310 Aqueducts and baths in Rome. his time. 306. Democ- racy es- tablished at Athens 301. Battle of Ipsus, .Alexander's empire 301. Phenicia united to 300 Euclid, the by Deme- divided anew into Egypt. celebrated trius. four parts: Syria, 300. Golden mathemati- Macedon, Greece, Age of the cian. 296. Philip IV. 294. Deme- Egypt. Ptolemies. trius mur- ders Alex- 293 Sun-dial erect- ed at Rome, ander and eiezes and time . throne of divided into Macedon. hours. 290 Fabius intro- 291. Seleucus founds duces paint- ' 286. Law of mg at Rome. Hnrt^n- 286. Lysirna- chus. King .\ntioch, Edessa, and Laodicea. 283. Death of The Colossus sius, by of Thrace, Soter. of Rhodes which the subjects built by decrees of Mace- Chares. the people had the donia. force of 1 . 1,.., -,■,.,... HISTORY 61 B. C. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH | OF CHRIST — B. C . 285 Arts of Civilization Rome, Etc. Macedonia Greece Syria) Judea Egypt, Cartilage Dionysius 287. Lysim- 285. The Scythians in- founds the achus vade Bosporus. solar year, reigns. 283. Ptolemy to consist Philadel- of 365 days. phus. King 5 hours, and of Egypt. 49 minutes. 284 The Septua- gint begun at Alexan- dria. 284. The Acheean Republic. 283 The Pharos built at 281. The Tar- 281. Antiochus Soter Alexandria en tine 279. Irrup- succeeds Seleucus. first light- War. tion of the house on Gauls. record. 277. Reign of Antigouus. 274. Pyrolius invades Mace- donia, de- feats An- tigonus, and is proclaimed King. 272. Antigo- nus re- stored. 268. Second 268. Athens 269. Egypt first sends 267 Ptolemy inctirsion taken by ambassa- makes a 266. Rome of the Antigonus. 262. Invasion of the dors to canal from mistress of Gauls. Gauls. Rome. the Nile to all Italy. the Red Sea. 266 Silver money first coined. 264. First 250. Parthia Punic War. revolts 255. Athens 246. Antiochus II. 246. Ptolemy from joins the poisoned by Euergetes 241. End of Macedon. Acha>an his wife. subdues first League. 226. Seleucus Syria. Punic War. III., King of Syria. 225. The 224 Archimedes makes known his discoveries in mechan- Gauls re- pulsed in Italy. 221. Ptolemy Philopa- ics. 220. Philip 220. The So- ter, King. 219 Art of sur- 219. Hanni- assists the clal War 219. War with gery intro- bal takes Achffians. begins. Ptolemy. duced. Saguntum, and crosses the Alps. 218. Second Punic War. Hanni- bal de- feats the Romans at Ticinus and Tre- bia. 216. Varro at Cannse totally de- feated by Hannibal. 211. Alliance of Philip and Han- 211. Antiochus the Great, King of Syria. 206 Gold coined 206. Cartha- nibal. 206. Spar- at Rome. ginians driven out tans de- feated at 205. Ptolemy Epiphanes, King. 204. Roman of Spain. Man tinea. 204. Scipio carries the 203. Judea conquered general 202 Art of print- war into Africa. 202. Hanni- by Antiochus. Soipio de- feats Has- drubal and Sy- phax of Carthage. 202. End of ing known in China. bal defeat- ed at bat- tle of Za- ma. End of war. Second Punic War. 62 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH | • OF CHRIST — B. C. Arts of Civilization Rome, Etc. Macedonia Greece Syria, Judea Egypt, Carthage 200. Second Macedoni- 199. Second 198 Books, with an War. War with 198. Achse- 198. Jews assist Anti- 198. Egypt leaves of Rome. ans and ochus in expelling loses her vellum, in- Spartans the Egyptian troops Syrian troduced by join the from Jerusalem. posses- Attalus, Romans 196. Hannibal joins sions. King of Per- against Antiochus. gamus. 188. Syria is made a temporary Roman province. 179. Reign of Perseus. 171. Third War with Rome. Macedon. 190. Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus at Magnesia. 187. Antiochus killed. Syria becomes tem- porarily a Roman province. Syria Judea 185. Seleu- 181. Plague cus IV., 180. Ptolemy at Rome. King. 172. Antio- chus Philoma- ter, King. 174. Cato's 170 Paper invent- 170. Tiberius IV., 170. Jeru- embassy ed in Cliina. and Caius King. salem to Gracchus. 168. Mace- don be- Greatly hated plun- dered Carthage. 167 First library 167. Census comes a by the by An- opened in of Rome, Roman Jews. tiochus Rome. 327,000 citizens. province. 165. Romans Epipha- nes. 165. Judas 162 Hipparchus fixes the first degree of longitude and latitude; founds trig- opometry. enter Achaia. Macca- beus expels the Syrians. 161. Trea- ty with 159 Clepsydra in- vented by Scipio Nas- cia. 155. Romans unsuccessful in Spain. 149. Third Punio War. Rom- ans. 152. Massi- nissa de- feats the Cartha- ginians. 151. Joint reign of 146 Alexandria the center of commerce. 146. Conquest of Carthage and Corinth. Greece annexed to the Roman Empire. 146. Corinth destroyed by the Romans. Greece becomes a 142. Antio- chus Philo- mater and Physcon in Egypt. 146. Car- tilage tak- en and destroyed by the Romans. 140 Clock wheels Roman VI., 145. Ptolemy invented by Ctesibius. province King. Physcon under the 134. Inva- becornes 133 Equestrian order a dis- 133. Spain becomes a Roman province. name Achaia. sion of Judea. sole King of Egypt. 130 tinct class. Revival of 130. Con- 130. John learning in quered Hyr- China. by Par- thia. 129. Re- gained by De- metrius II. canus delivers Judea from Syria. 129. Physcon driven from his throne for cruelty. 120 Theory of eclipses known to Chinese. 123. Caius Gracchus, Tribune 128. Pesti- lence in Egypt. 123. Car- thage rebuilt. 116. Ptolemy Lathyrus, King 113. First great migration o f the German of Egypt. nations. HISTORY 63 B. C. 86 79 74 62 50 27 19 FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST — B. C. Arts of Civilization First sumptu- ary law at Rome. Honiaii schools of oratory on Greek mod- els insti- tuted. Libraries of Athens sent to Rome by Sylla. Posidonius caleulate.s the height of the at- mosphere. The Romans possess gold mines in Asia Minor, Macedonia, Sardinia, and Gaul; and silver mines in Spain. Magnificent houses for Roman nobles erected. Also marble theater of Scaurus to hold 30,000 spectators. Iron chain cables used by the Ve- netians. A water mill erected on the Tiber at Rome. The Alexan- drian library burnt — 400,000 vol- umes. Caesar reforms the calendar by introduc- ing the solar for the lunar year. Direct trade of Rome with India. Silk and linen fac- tories in the Empire. Treasures of Egyptian art brought to Rome. The Pan- theon built. Pantomimic dances in- troduced on the Roman stage. Aqueducts constructed by Agrippa. Rome, Etc. 104. Teutoni defeat 80,000 Romana on banks of the Rhone. 99. Birth of Julius Cajsar. 91. Social War in Italy. 88. War with Pontus. 82. Sylla defeats Marius and is created per- petual dictator. Plunder of the temple of Delphi. 75. Bythinia a Roman province. 65. Syria becomes a Roman province. Cicero Consul. 6.3. Catiline's conspiracy detected and sup- pressed by Cicero. Syria Judea 97. Mith- ridates con- quers Capido- cio. 86. Takes Bythin- ia. 66. De- feated by Pom- Pey. Syria passes under Rome. 105. War with Egypt. 79. Alex- andra, Queen of Jan- neus, governs Judea. 63. Judea a Roman prov- 60. First triumvirate — Pompey, Crassus, and Csesar. 55. Csesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans and Gauls, and in- vades Britain. 53. Crassus defeated and killed in Parthia. 51. Caesar completes conquest of Gaul, which becomes a Roman province. 49. Civil War between Caesar and Pompey. Pompey defeated; Cjesar, Dictator. 48. Battle of Pharsalia — Pompey defeated by Caesar. Death of Pompey in Egypt. 47. Caesar takes Alexandria and conquers Egypt. 44. Casar assassinated in Roman Senate. Antony master of Rome. 43. Second trmmvirate — Octavius C»sar, Marc Antony, and Lepidus. 42. Battle of Phihppi; defeat and death of Brutus and Cassius. 32-31. War between Antony and Octavius. By the battle of Ac- tmm (31), Octavius acquires the Empire. 30. Republic of Rome becomes a monarchy. Population of Rome, 4,100,000 citizens. 27. Titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octavius for ten years. 23. Agrippa subdues all Spain. 21. Athens finally subjected to Rome. 19. Death of Virgil. 18. Parthians defeated. Egypt Cartilage 107. Alex- ander I, King of Egypt. 82. Revolt in Upper Egypt. Thebes destroyed. 81. Alex- ander II., King of Egypt. 65. Ptolemy Auletes, King. 55. Auletes restored. 46. The Afri- can War. 45. Caesar rebuilds Carthage. 43. Cleopa- tra poisons her brother and rules alone. 36. Cleopa- tra ob- tains from Antony a grant of Phoenicia, Cyrene, and Cyprus. 31. Defeat at Actium. 30. Suicide of Antony and Cleo- patra. Egypt passes to Rome. 64 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS B. C. FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST — B. C. Arts of 12 CiTilization Rome, Etc. Roman le- gions distrib- uted over .15. Cantabria, Austria, and other territory conquered by Drusus, is added to the | the prov- Empire. inces in fixed camps i;j. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 1 which soon grew into 11. Germany subdued by Germanicus. | cities — among 10. Egyptian religion displaces lational religion. them were Bonn and Mayence. 8 Calendar cor- 5. Varus appointed Governor of Syria, and Cyrenius Governor of Judea. rected by Augustus. 4 Birth of Je- 4. Cymbelene, King of Britain sus, at Advent of Christ, four years before the so-callod Christian Era. B. C. Bethlehem, Death of Herod. in Judea. 2. Csesar confirms the will of Herod. 1 A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF R03IE— A. D. 1-476 Arts of Civilization Development of Christianity The Roman Empire 1. Caius Caesar makes peace with the Parthians. Tiberius returns to Rome. 6. Varus, encamped on the Weser, governs lower Germany like a Roman province. 8. Jesus reasons with 9 Celsus advances the the doctors. 14. Augustus dies at Nola; is succeeded by Tipe- science of medicine. 25. Pontius Pilate, Gov- ernor of Judea. rius as Emperor. 19. The Jews are banished from Rome. 26 The Druids in Ger- 26. John the Baptist 26. Thrace becomes a Roman province. many. begins his ministry. 27. Jesus baptized by John. 29. Twelve Apostles sent abroad. 30. Crucifixion of the 30. Agrippina banished. Savior, Friday, April 3rd. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 37 Appion of Alexan- dria writes on 37. Tiberius succeeded by Caligula, noted for his 40. Disciples first called profligacy. grammar. Christians at Antioch. 41. Herod's persecu- tions. 48. Census, 6,900,000. 50 Columella, born in 50. Paul preaches at Spain, writes on Athens. husbandry. 59. Paul appeals to Cffsar. 60. Paul imprisoned in 54. Nero, Emperor; a profligate and tyrant. Rome. 61. Revolt of the Britons under Queen Boadtcea. 64 Nero's golden palace 64. First persecution of 64. Nero sets fire to Rome; accuses Christians. built — of great Christians by Nero. extent. Paul visits Jerusa- lem. 66. Jews at war with Romans; Paul be- headed. 70. Destruction of Jeru- salem by Titus. 77. A great plague at Rome, 10,000 dying in one 78 The Capitol at Rome day. rebuilt. 79. Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by Vesu- Circumnavigation vius. of Scotland. 80 Paintings executes! 80. Agricola governs Britain, reduces Wales and enters Caledonia. for the baths of 95. Second persecution Titus; the group of of the Christians by the Laocoon. Domitian. HISTORY 65 A. D. 98 120 132 180 215 235 274 284 290 323 330 366 FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME — A. D. Arts of Civilization The Ulpian library. Jurisprudence flourishes. Forum built. Pillar of Trajan, and Baths. Bridge built over the Danube. Great buildings of Palmyra. The Roman mosaics. Ptolemy, celebrated Egyptian astrono- mer and geogra- pher. Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. Caracalla grants right of Roman citizen- ship to all the provinces. Alexandrian School of Philosophy founded. Rome surrounded with a wall. Diocletian's Oriental form of govern- ment. Diocletian's Baths. The Gregorian Code. Church of. St. Sophia erected at Constan- tinor)le. Constantinople a seat of art and litera- ture. Forts built on the Rhine. Development of Christianity 107. Third persecution by Trajan. 118. Fourth persecution by Hadrian. 134. Heresy of Marcion. 150. Canon of Scriptures frxed about this time. 202. Fifth persecution under Severus. 235. Sixth persecution under Maximinus. 250. Seventh persecution of the Christians. 262. Paul, bishop of Sa- mosatia, denies the divinity of Jesus Christ. 272. Persecution of Christians under Au- relian. 283. The Jewish Talmud composed. Religious ceremo- nies multiplied. Pagan rites imitat- ed by the Christians. 296. Monks in Spain and Egypt. 303. Persecution under Diocletian. 306. Persecution of Christians stopped by Constantius. 325. Council of Nice. 337. Eleventh persecu- tion 373. Bible translated into Gothic language. Death of Athana- sius. The Roman Empire 98. Trajan, Emperor; Roman Empire at its greatest extent. 100. The Huns migrate westward. 117. Hadrian, Emperor; makes a journey through the provinces; visits Britain and builds there a wall from the Tyne to Solway Firth; builds a wall from the Rhine to the Danube. 138. Antoninus, Emperor; 145-152, defeats the Moors, Germans, and Dacians; stops the perse- cution of the Christians. 161. Marcus Aurelius, Emperor; 169, war with Marcomanni. 189. The Capitol of Rome destroyed by lightning. The Saracens defeat the Romans. 193. Septimiu.s Severus, Emperor. A vigorous ruler. 194, besieges Byzantium; 202, persecutes the Christians; builds the wall of Severus in Britain; 211, dies at York, in Britain. 223. Artaxerxes begins the new kingdom of Persia. 232. Persian War. 241. The Franks first mentioned in history. 251. Confederacy of the Franks established between the Rhine and Elbe. The Persians victorious in Asia Minor. 256-69. Goths conduct e.xpeditious into Asia Minor and Greece. 261. Sapor, the Persian, takes Antioch, Tarsus, and Cffisarea. 264. Alliance with Odenatus, King of Palmyra, who is succeeded by his wife Zenobia, who reigns with the titles of "Augusta" and "Queen of the East." 268. Claudius II. defeats an army of 320,000 Goths. 270. .\urelian, a great warrior, becomes Emperor; 271, defeats the Goths and Alemanni; 273, re- duces Palmyra, and takes Queen Zenobia prisoner; 274, Franks, Spain, and Britain re- duced to obedience; 275, Aurelian killed near Byzantium. 277. Probus, Emperor; 280, defeats the Persians. 284. Diocletian, Emperor. China, 296. Sends ambassadors to 291. The Franks master Batavia and Flanders. 304. Diocletian and Maximian resign the empire to Constantius and Galerius. 306. Constantine the Great, first Christian Emperor, defeats the Franks. 331. Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be destroyed. 337. Death of Constantine, and the accession of his three sons to the empire. 364. Death of Jovian, and the accession of Valen- tinian and Valens under whom the empire is divided. Western Empire 364. Valentinian, Emperor. 368. The Saxons invade Britain, but are defeated by Theodosius. 375. Gains victory over the Germans; succeeds to the Eastern Empire on the death of Valens. Eastern Empire 364. Valens, Em- peror. 376. Hungary (an- cient Pannonia) invaded by the Huns, from whom it is named. 66 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE FALL OF ROME — A. D. Arts of Civilization Development of Christianity Western Empire Eastern Empire 379. Prerogatives of the 379. The Lombards first 379. Theodosius the Roman See much en- leave Scandinavia, and Groat becomes a larged. defeat the Vandals. zealous supporter 381. Second general of Christianity. Council of Constanti- nople. 384. Symachus pleads in the Roman Senate for 388. Theodosius de- Paganism against St. feats Maximus, Ambrose. the Tyrant of the 392. St.Chrysostom, Pa- 392. Theodosius becomes Western Empire. triarch of Constanti- sole Emperor of the East nople. and West. Complete downfall of Paganism. 394. Final division of em- 392 Impulse given to the development of pire between the sons of Theodosius. mathematics at 401. Europe overrun by the Alexandria. Visigoths. 406. Vandals allowed to set- tle in Spain and Gaul. 410. The Goths under Alaric 408. Theodosius II., a child, Emperor. sack and burn Rome. 412. Rise of the Vandal power in Spain. 413. Burgundian Ivingdom 416. The Pelagian heresy begun in Alsace. 414. Regency of the condemned. 420. The Franks form a kingdom, under Phara- mond, on the lower Rhine. 424. Valentinian III., Emperor's sister, Pulrheria. 420. Persian War. 423 Theodosius estab- lishes pubhe scnools and attempts the restoration of Emperor. 426. Britain evacuated by the Romans. 428. Romans defeated by learning. 431. Third general Coun- the Franks and Goths. 431. Armenia divided cil at Ephesus. Franks, under Clodion, by the Persians 432. St. Patrick preaches extend their conquests. and Romans. the gospel in Ireland. 433. Attila forms an im- 433. A great part of 435 Theodosian Code 435. Nestorianism pre- mense Empire from China Constantinople published. vails in the East. 443. The Manichaean books burned in Rome. 447. Eutyches asserts the existence of only one nature in Jesus Christ. to the Atlantic. 439. The Vandals, under Genseric, form Kingdom of Africa, take Carthage and plunder Italy. 441. Roman territories in- vaded by the Huns, Per- sians, and Saxons. 445. Famous embassy from Britain soliciting aid against the Picts. 448. Merovceus I., first King of the Merovingians. destroyed by fire. 437. Pannonia, Dal- matia, and Nori- cum gained from the Western Em- pire. 450. Marcian, Em- 451. Fourth general 451. Arrival of Saxons in peror, refuses to Council at Chalcedon. Britain under Hengist and Horsa. 452. City of Venice founded. 458. Franks, under Childeric I., conquer as far as the pay tribute to the Huns. 457. War with the Goths. 461. Peace with the 465-476. Oligarchy of Loire and take Paris. Goths. 468 The principle of law the bishops of Rome, 468. The Visigoths under established that the Constantinople, .\lex- I'>ic establish their king- 474. Zeno, Emperor; accused shall be andria, ,\ntioch, and dom in Spain. a turbulent reign tried by his peers, Jer\isalem. marked by de- or equals. The Church now begins to assume a political aspect. bauchery and conspiracies. 475. Theodoric be- 476 Odoacer's sack of 476. Odoacer, King of the comes chief of the Rome changed the Ilerulii, takes Rome, and Ostrogoths and course of events in the Western Empire ends invades the em- Europe. The form 1228 years after the pire. of the old Roman founding of the city. government re- Commencement of the mained, but Italy, Kingdom of Italy under ravaged by a suc- Odoacer. cession of wars, plagues, famines, and every form of pubhc tyranny. was almost a desert. HISTORY 67 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and the Church France 480. An earthquake destroys greater 481. Clovis I., part of Constanti- 484. Christians founder of the nople. persecuted by the Vandals. I'Vench mon- archy. 485. Battle of Sois- sons gained by 486 Rise of the feudal system in France under Clovis. 487. The Sax- ons defeated by Prince Arthur. Clovis. 491. The Green and 490. Sussex be- 491. Clovis sub- Blue factions. comes a dues Thuringia. 493 Theodoric introduces Greek architecture into Italy. 502. Invasions by the kingdom. 493. Italy con- quered by Theodoric. Odoacer put to death. 494. The Roman Pontiff asserts his supremacy. 496. Christianity introduced Persians. into France. 510. Clovis makes 611 The Salic law in 511. Great insurrec- Paris his capi- France. tion in Constanti- nople. tal. 514 Use of the burning glass in warfare. 514. Constantinople besieged by Vitali- 516 The Christian Era proposed and intro- duced by Diony- sius, a monk. anus, whose fleet is consumed by the burning glass of Proclus. 518. Justinian I. be- gins a brilliant reign over the Eastern or Byzan- tine Empire. 527. Celebrated Justi- nian code of laws. 519. Prince Ar- thur defeat- ed by Cer- dic, who be- gins the third Saxon 529 The schools of Athens 529. Belisarius, the Kingdom of 529. Order of the suppressed. famous general. Wessex. Benedictme defeats the Per- 530. Kingdom Monks insti- sians. of Essex. tuted at Monte 532. Burgundy 534. Defeats the Van- Cassino, near conquered by dals in Africa. Naples. Childebert. 535. Subdues Sicily. 536. Takes Naples. 536. Ostrogoths 537. Takes Rome. 537. Italy con- quered by Belisarius, for Justinian. 539. War, famine, surrender their posses- sions in Gaul to the French King. 540. North Africa, and pestilence. Corsica, and Sar- 542. Prince Ar- Milan rav- dinia annexed to thur mur- aged by the the Eastern Em- dered in Goths. pire. Cornwall. 548. The Turkish 551 Manufacture of silk introduced from China into Europe monarchy founded in Asia. 554. Italy governed by monks. by Greek Exarchs. 558. A plague extends over Europe and 557. Church of St. Germain de Pres built at Paris. 558. Clotairc I., King. 559 The Saxon laws pro- Asia and lasts 559. Saxon mulgated. 'J"he about 50 years. Heptarchy king's authority begins. limited by the Wittenagemot. Three orders: the noble, the free, and the servile. 568 The feudal system 568. Italy con- established in Italy 569. The Turks first quered by the by the Lombards. recognized as a na- Lombards. Written laws com- tion. They send piled by the Visi- an embassy to Jus- goths in Spain. tin II. and form an alliance. 68 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. 580 597 617 632 674 698 716 FROM THE FALL OF ROME TO THE DIVISION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization Latin language ceases to be spoken in Italy, and super- sedes the Gothic in Spain. England relapses into semi-barbarism , after Saxon con- quest. The aristocracy ac- quire great power in France. Rites and supersti- tions increase all over Europe. The Eastern Empire Ethelbert publishes the first code of laws in England. Islamism and the power of the Ca- liphs established in the East. In the Caliphs were united the highest spiritual and regal authority. Stone buildings and glass come into use in England. The .\nglo-Saxons advance in civiliza- tion and power by the introduction of Christianity. In France, the Teu- tonic language supersedes the Latin. National assemblies established but confined to the aris- tocracy. In Persia the Magian religion gives place to the Mohammedan. Christianity greatly extended among the German nations in the North of Europe; but al- most exterminated in Africa by the progress of Jloham medanism. The art of making Eaper introduced y the .\rabs. 600. Eastern Empire spread over Hun- gary, Poland, and Prussia, under Ti- berius II. 602. Invasion of the Persians. 610. Heraclius takes Constantinople, kills Phocas, the Emperor, and makes himself King. 612. Mahomet pub- lishes the Koran. Syria ravaged by the Arabs. 614. Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 622. The Hegira, or Mahomet's flight from Mecca to Me- dina. 632. Death of Ma- homet. 633. Omar, Caliph, takes Jerusalem, which is held by the Saracens 463 years. 673] Siege of Con- stantinople by the Saracens, whose fleet is destroyed by the Greek fire of Callinicus. 680. Kingdom of Bul- garia founded. 698. Carthage de- stroyed by the Saracens, and the north coast of .\f- rica subjugated. 709. All Africa sub- dued by the Sara- cens. 716. Leo III., Em- peror. The Saracens invest Constanti- nople, by land and sea. City saved by Greek fire. Great Britain and Ireland 575. East Ang- lia formed into a kingdom, whence the origin of the name Eng- land. 591. Ethelbert, King of Kent, gains the ascend- ancy. 604. St. Paul's Church founded by Ethelbert of Kent. 607. Suprem- acy of the Pope ac- knowledged. 617. St. Peter's (now West- minster Ab- bey) found- ed by Sa- bert. King of Kent. 633. Bretwold V. embraces Christianity. Italy and tlie Ciiurch 690. The name England first used. 700. Anglo- Saxon Oc- tarchy. 705. Alfred the Wise in Northum- bria. 727. Ina, King of Wessex, begins col- lection of Peter's pence to support a college at Rome. 575. First monas- tery built in Bavaria. 590. Mass intro- duced. 598. St. Augus- tine, first arch- bishop of Can- terbury, intro- duces Chris- tianity into Britain. 607. The Pan- theon of Rome dedicated to Christianity. 625-40. Churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria lost to the Christian world by the sweep of Mohammedan- ism. 680. The Sixth general Coun- cil called at Constanti- nople. France 583. Clotaire II. King. 698. Picts adopt Christianity. 704. The first province given to the Pope, John VI. 726. The Emperor Leo forbids image worship. 628. Dagobert I. builds the Church of St. Denis, the sep- ulture of the French kings. 638. Kingdom di- vided by Clovis II. andSigebert, the latter King of Austrasia. 690. Pepin d'Her- istal, King. 695. Childebert, III., King of Neustria. 700. Aquitaine, Burgundy, and Provence be- come separate dukedoms. 714. Charles Mar- tel, Duke of Austraaia. 725. Charles Mar- tel subdues Ba- varia. HISTORY 69 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF ROME ro THE DIVISION OP THE WESTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 476-841 Arts of Civilization The Eastern Empire Great Britain and Ireland Italy and the Church France 732. Defeats the Saracens at Tours. 735. Death of 740 Saracens encourage the vener- learning. Ignor- 746. Saracens de- able Bede. ance, profligacy, feated by Con- 752. The Pope de- 752. End of Mero- and misery charac- stantino V. thrones Chil- vingian line of terized the age pre- deric. King of French kings. ceding Charle- France, by a Pepin, the magne. 762. Caliph Almanzor papal decree. Pope Ste- phen III. at war with the Lombards. 755. Beginning of the Pope's Short, first of the Carlovin- gian line. builds Bagdad and temporal 764. Extirpates makes it his capi- tal. 766. Asia Minor rav- power. the Huns. aged by the Turks. 785 Golden period of 785. Empire invaded learning in Arabia by Haroun al Ras- 787. First re- 787. Seventh gen- under the Caliph chid, Caliph of corded in- eral Council of Haroun al Raschid. Bagdad. vasion of the Nice. 788 Pleadings in courts of justice first prac- Danes — the Sea Kings ticed. and Vikings. 791-96. Estab- 793 Foundation of schools in monasteries and cathedrals by Char- lemagne. Agriculture and hor- lishes the mar- gravate of Aus- tria. 800 800. The Pope 800. Charlemagne ticulture encour- separates from founds the New aged by Charle- the Eastern Western Em- magne; both flour- Empire and pire and is ish in Spain under becomes Su- crowned at the Caliphs. preme Bishop of the West- ern. Rome King of Italy, Germany, and France. 802 Arabian horses intro- Charlemagne 802. Receives an duced into Spain. 803. The Saracens reforms embassy from ravage Asia Minor. the Church. Many bishop- rics founded. Haroun al Ras- chid. 806. Charlemagne 813 Transient revival of 813. Egbert, divides the em- learning under King of Wes- pire among his Charlemagne. sex, defeats sons, only one The reign of Caliph the Britons. of whom sur- Mamun the golden vived him — epoch of Arabian Louis I. literature. 822. Constantinople besieged by the 817. College of Cardinals founded. 824. Christianity 817. Louis I. di- vides the em- pire. Saracens. The 827. The seven carried to 828 St. Mark's Church at Bulgarians raise kingdoms of Denmark and Venice built. the siege. 829. Theophilus. Emperor. Heptarchy united by Egbert under the name of England or the land of the Angles. Invasion of the Danes. 838. Ethelwolf, King. Sweden. 840 Feudal system in its Kenneth, power. King of the Scots, de- feats and ex- tirpates the Picts, and becomes sole monarch of Scotland. 841. Another di- vision of the empire. Charles I., King of France; Louis I., King of Germany; Lothaire, King of Italy. 70 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL A. D. 841 OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Cburcb Eastern Empire The British Isles Hereditary nobility and the clergy dominant in mat- 844. Ignatius, Patriarch 844. Decline of the Cali- ters of state. of Constantinople. Persecution of the Christians in Spain. 846. The Saracens de- stroy the Venetian fleet and besiege Rome. phate begins. Fre- quent wars between the Greeks and the Saracens. 849. Alfred the Great born. 850 Roman and Common Law introduced. 850. Christianity propa- gated in Denmark and Sweden. 858. Nicholas 1. first Pope to be crowned. 860. Schism of the Greeks begins. 864. Bible translated into Slavonian. 867. Eight Council at 807. Basil inaugurates 867. The Danes con- Constantinople. the Macedonian dy- nasty. quer Northumber- land. 872 Clocks exported from Venice. 886. Leo VL, Emperor. S72. Alfred the Great defeats the Danes. 890 Oxford University 890. Southern Italy sub- founded by Alfred ject to the Greek 891. Renewed invasion the Great. Empire. of the Danes. Trial by Jury; fsirs and markets in England. 900 England divided in- to counties, hun- 901. Edward the Elder dreds, and tithings. 904. Russian expedition the first to take the County courts es- under Oleg against title of "Rex An- tablished. 912. The Normans in France embrace Christianity. Constantinople. glorum." 915 University of Cam- bridge founded. 921. The Bohemians adopt Christianity. 929. Eudes, monk of Cluni. 917. Constantinople be- sieged by the Bul- garians. 919. Romanus, general of the fleet, usurps the empire and places his son Con- stantine VIII., on the throne. 937. Romanus gains a 916. Agriculture at a low ebb. 934. Athelstan, King. 939 Cordova, in Spain, becomes famous as a center of science, learning, indu.stry, and commerce. naval victory over the Russians. 940 Mints established in England. 941 The figures of arith- metic brought into Europe by the Saracens. 945. The Empress Helen usurps the throne. 952. Malcolm I., King Linens and woolens 955. Baptism of Olga, of Scotland. manufactured in and conversion of 955. Dunstan, Abbot of Flanders. Russia to Christian- ity. Glastonbury, rises to great power. HISTORY 71 A. D. FKOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTEKN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - A. D. 841-1453 841 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Charles I. (tho Bald), King. 841. Louis I., King. 842. Ramiro I. elected King of Oviedo. 846. The Saracens destroy the Ve- netian fleet and besiege Rome. 858 Invasion of Louis tho German, who is defeated. 856. Louis 11. es- tablishes his court at Pavia, and rules Italy. 857. Garcia Ximines founds the Kingdom of Navarre. 862. Ruric the 860. Gorm united Jutland and the Danish Isles and becomes King of Denmark. 861. Iceland dis- covered. 868 Lorraine annexed to France Norman, Grand Duke of Novgorod. 885 Paris besieged by the Normans. 879. Louis ni. and Carloman reign jointly. 887. Arnold, Em- 873. Sancho Ini- go, Count of Navarre, 875. Harold, first King of Norway. 898 Charles III., King. peror. 890. Arnold takes Rome. 899. Invasion of ^the Hunga- rians. 1 889. Arpad lays the foundation of Hungary. 912 The Normans, un- der Rolla, estab- lish themselves in Normandy. 912. Conrad I., Emperor. 910. Kingdom of Leon founded by Garcia. 912. Arabs build the splendid city and pal- ace of Zehra. 914. Beginning of the heroic age in Spain. 907. Oleg in- vades the Greek Em- pire, 901. Republics of Venice and Ge- noa founded. 923 Civil Wars. 930. Harold VI., first Christian King of Den- 936 Louis IV., King. 936. Otho the Great, Emper- or. mark. 933. Eric, King of Norway. His cruelty leads to revolt of people. 954 Lothaire I. confers the dukedoms of Burgundy and Aquitaine on Hugh the Great. 950. Bohemia an- nexed. 940. Ramiro, King of Leon, defeats the Moors at Simancus. 955. Sancho I., King of Leon. 945. Swatoslav, King of Rus- sia. 72 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. 982 997 1000 1002 1024 1055 1062 1068 FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Dublin a trade cen- ter. Venice and Genoa rise to great im- portance in com- merce. Firdusi, the Persian Homer, flourished. (940?-1020.) Paper made of cotton rags. Churclies first built in the Gothic style of architecture. The French language begins to be writ- ten. Faint impulse given to art in Italy. Musical scale of six notes invented by Guido Aretius. Italy and the Church 959. St. Dunstan, arch- bi.shop of Canter- bury, attempts to reform the Church. 9S9. Greek Christianity propagated in Rus- sia by Waldimir. 993. First canonization of saints. 999. Hungary becomes a fief of the Church. Eastern Empire 959. Emperor Romanus II. 1024. John XIX., Pope. 996. War with Bul- garia. The British Isles 985. Danish invasion under Sweyn. 1018. Bulgaria again re- duced to a Grecian province. First age of 8chola.s- tio philosophy. Surnames first u.sed among the Eng- lish nobility. Shoeing horses intro- duced into Eng- land. 1048. Leo IX., the first Pope to keep an army. 1054. Excommunication of the Patriarch of Constantinople and the Greeks. 1059. Quarrel between the Popes and the German Emperors. 1066. Pope Alexander II. deposes Harold, and gives England to William the Con- queror. The papacy at the height of its power. 1042. First invasion of the iSeljuk Turks. 1043. The Russians in- vade Thrace with 100,000 men and are repulsed by the Greeks. 1054. Theodora, last of the Macedonian dy- nasty. 1002. Massacre of the Danes in England. 1003. Scotland ruled by Malcolm II. 1013. Danes, under Sweyn, become mas- ters of England. 1016. Edmund II. fights six battles with Ca- nute, King of the Danes, with whom he divides the king- dom. 1027. Brian Boru, sole Monarch of Ireland 1031. Canute subdues Scotland. 1034. Duncan, King of Scotland. 1039. Macbeth murders Duncan, and usurps the throne. 1042. The Saxon line re- stored under Edward the Confessor. 1051. William, Duke of Normandy, visits England. 1067. Emperor Romanus III. defeated and taken prisoner by the Turks. 1066. Harold II., King, killed at the battle of Hastings. William the Con- queror, King. End of the Anglo-Saxon line. HISTORY 73 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 960 987 996 1010 1031 1032 1046 France Hugh Capet, Duke of France. Louis v., last of th( Carlovingians. Hugh Capet, King, and founder of the Capetian line of French kings. Robert II. succeeds his father on the throne. Notre Dame, Paris, rebuilt. Germany 964. Italy united to th« Empire of Germany. Tuscany be- comes a Duke- dom. Otho at war with Lothaire. 979 Henry I., King. Burgundy annexed. Dispute between William the Con- queror and Wil- liam of Arques for the Duchy of Normandy. William, Duko of Normandy, claims the crown of England and wars on Harold to obtain it. 1002. Henry II., Emperor. 1024. Conrad II., first of the Franconian line. 1039. Henry III. defeats the Bo- hemians and Hungarians. 1053. Henry causes his son, Henry, to be pro- claimed King of the Romans. This title was applied for sev- eral centuries to the Emper- or's eldest sou. Spain 976. Hixem. Ca- liph of Cor- dova. 998. Division of theiMoham- medan King- dom of Cor- dova. 1000. Sancho the Great, King of Navarre, takes the title of Emperor Russia 981 \ladimir the Great, the first Christian ruler. 1035. Ramiro I., King of Ar- agon. 1015. Russia di- vided among the 12 sons of Vladimir. Lesser Countries 973. St. Stephen, first hereditary King of Hungary Gives it written laws. 985. Sweyn I., of Denmark, in- vades England. 1016. Canute II., King of Den- mark. 1019. Norway con- quered by Ca- nute. Danish as- cendancy. 1036. Ru3.sia re- united by Jaroslav. 1054. Russia di- vided a sec- ond time. Civil w'ars and great distress. 1065. Alfonso, King of Cas- tile and Leon 1068. Flight of Alfonso to Toledo. 1055. The Turks re- duce Bagdad and overturn the Em- pire of the Ca- liphs. 1059. Ingo I., first Christian King of Sweden. 1060. Robert Guis- card, Duke of Apulia. 1065. Jerusalem taken by the Saracens. 1067. Polish con- quests in Russia. 1068. Olaf III., King of Norway. 74 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Cburcb Eastern Empire The British Isles 1070. Lanfranc, Arch- 1070. Feudal system bishop of Canter- introduced. bury. 1073 Booksellers first 1073. Quarrel of Pope heard of. Gregory VII. (Hilde- brand) with the Emperor Henry IV. 1075. The Pope sends legates to the various courts of Europe. 1076. Submission of Henry IV. to the Pope. 1074. Syria and Palestine subdued by Melek Shah. 1081. Alexius I. (Comne- 1076. Rebellion in Normandy. 1084 Rigid police system 1084. Triumph of Henry nus). Emperor. Rob- established in Eng- IV. over Gregory. ert Guiscard invades 1087. William invades land. The order of the the empire and de- France and is killed 1090 Fortresses at New Carthusians insti- feats Alexius. at Nantes. Castle and Carlisle tuted by Bruno. After the capture 1093. Malcolm III., of built. 1095. Peter the Hermit preaches against the Turks. 1096. The Fh-st Crusade. of Jerusalem by the Turks, the Christian pilgrims are insulted and oppressed, 'which gives rise to the Cru- sades — the great struggle between Christianity and Mo- hammedanism. Order, learning, and commerce re- vive in the last quar- ter of this century, and the empire is feared or respected by the nations of Europe and Asia. 1099. Invasion by the Scotland, invades England, and is slain near Alnwick Castle. 1100 William of Poitou, 1100. Study of theology Crusaders. 1100. Henry I., King of first troubadour of receives new im- 1104. Battle of Acre. England, unites the note. pulse. 1109. Tripolis taken by Crusaders. Normans and Sax- ons. 1107. Henry quarrels with Anselm. 1118 Knights Templar 1 1 IS. John I. reforms the instituted. 1123. First Lateran, or manners of his peo- 1120 Scholastic philosophy ninth General Coun- ple. 1124. David I. promotes reaches a high cil. Tyre taken by civilization in Scot- point under Abel- 1127. Pope Honorius II. Crusaders. land. ard. makes war against Aristotle's logic Roger, King of Sici- comes into repute. ly. 1139. Second Lateran, or 1140 Gratian collects the tenth General Coun- canon law. cil. 1147. The Second Cru- 1143. Manuel Comnenus, Emperor. 1150 Magnetic needle sade. known in Italy. 1154. Pope Adrian IV., an Englishman. 1156. Manuel forms the 1154. Henry II.. King of England. 1158 Bank of Venice es- design of conquering 1158-64. Ascendancy of tablished. 1160. Waldenses and Itiily and the West, Thomas a Hecket, Colleges of theology, Albigenses begin to but fails. Archbishop of Can- philosophy, and law at Paris. appear. terbury. Woolen manufac- tories established in England. HISTORY 75 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN E3IPIRE - -A. D. 841-1453 1070 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Rise of the trouba- 1070. Bergen, Nor- dours in 1072. Henry IV. way, built. Provence. summoned be- fore the Pope for selling the investiture of bishops.; treats the mandate with contempt. 1073. Summoned again. 1076. Henry sends an ambassador to depose the Pope, and is excommunicat- ed. Undergoes penance and submission. 1076. Time of the Cid. 1079 Birth of Abelard. 1080. Henry de- grades the 1084. Bohemia made Pope and 1085. Toledo a kingdom by triumphs. taken from the Moors by the Cid. 1086. Battle of Henry IV. of Germany. 1087 War with England. Robert, Duke of Zalacca. 1090. Sicily taken Normandy, op- 1093. The Popes from the Sara- poses William continue their cens by Roger Rufus. struggle against the empire. 1094. Pedro I.. King of Na- varre and Ar- agOD. the Norman. 1096 Many French no- blemen take part in the First Cru- sade. 1104. Alphonso I., King of Navarre and 1105. War between Norway and the 1108 Abbe Sugar, minis- ter to Louis VI. of France. 1109. Henry V. en- ters Italy, takes the Pope prisoner, and compels him to crown him. 1114. Henry V. Aragon. Wends. marries Matil- 1118. Alphonso 1119. War between da, of England. captures Sar- Pisa and Genoa. 1120 Rivalry between England and France begins. 1125. Lothaire 11. opposed by Frederick, and Conrad, Duke of Suabia. 1141. Dissensions agossa. 1139. Portugal becomes a 1128. Riga on the Baltic founded. 1147 Louis VII. joins the of the Guelphs Kingdom un- 1147. Moscow Second Crusade. andGhibellines. der Henry of founded. 1150. EricX., King 1152. Frederick I., Besancon. of Sweden. Emperor of Germany and Italy. 1157. Castile and 1158. The Emperor Leon divided. 1 1 58. Venice a great 1159 War with the English. Frederick re- ceives the title of King of Bo- hemia. maritime power. 76 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL 1 OF THE E.\STERN EMPIRE — A. D. S41-1453 | Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles 1167. Rome taken by 1168 Colleges of law, phi- losophy, and the- ology at Paris. Frederick Barba- rossa. 1178. Renewed activity of the Waldenses, forerunners of Prot- estantism. 1179. Third Lateran, or eleventh General Council. 1172. Henry conquers Ireland. 1189. Richard I. engages in the Third Crusade. 1190 The Jews become 1190. Third Crusade. 1190. Iconium taken by the principal bank- Frederick Barba- 1193. John attempts to ers of the world. 1198. Power of the Pope rossa, but after- seize the crown in supreme over tem- wards restored. the absence of Rich- poral matters. ard. 1200 University of Bo- 1200. John, King of Eng- logna has 10,000 1202. The Fourth Cru- land students. sade. Constantinople 1204. The Crusaders 1206 University of Paris founded. taken. plunder Constanti- nople. 1209 Period of the trouba- dours in France; the minstrels in England; minne- 1215. Fourth Lateran 1215. Magna Charta singers in Ger- Council, against the signed at Runny- many. Albigenses. 1217. Fifth Crusade. mede. 1216. Henry III., King. 1222 University of Padua founded. 1243. Struggle of Pope Innocent IV. with 1228. John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Emperor. 1246. Henry marries 1217 First war fleet in Spain. the Emperor Frod- oric. 1260. Emperor Michael Eleanor of Provence. 1258. Famous parlia- ment at Oxford. 1261 Parliament estab- Palaeologus recovers lished in England. 1265. Dominion of Italy passes to the Pope. Constantinople. 1268. The Mongols in- vade Asia Minor and 1265. Fir.st regular par- liament. Civil War. 1273 First patent of nobil- ity granted in 1274. Fourteenth general take Antioch. France. Council at Lyons. 1276. War between Eng- Literature and science 1281. Othman estab- land and Wales. flourish in Spain lishes an independ- 1283. England and Wales under Alphonso ent rule in the north united. the Learned. of Asia Minor. Robert Bruce and 1285 Institution of the three great courts of law in England. John Balliol contend for the crown of Scotland. Cimabue, the first of 1296. Struggle of the 1296. Scotland submits modern painters at Church with France. to England. Florence. 1299. Othman invades Nicomedia, and es- tablishes the Otto- man Empire. 1297. Scotland rebels. War between Eng- land and Scotland follows. HISTORY 77 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF TBE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE— A. D. 841-1453 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries 1167. Rome taken 1167. League of the 1170 Rise of the Wal- denses. by Frederick. 1174. Frederick's fourth expedi- tion into Italy. 1176. Defeated at the Battle of Legnano. Italian cities. 1171. Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, ex- tends his domin- ions. Conquers Syria, Assyria, and Arabia. 1183 The peace of Con- 1183. Italy inde- stance reestab- pendent by 1186. Incursion 1186. Directs all his lishes the inde- treaty of Con- 1188. Alphon.so of Huns and efforts against pendence of the stance. IX., King of Poles into the Crusaders. ItaHan republics. Leon. Russia. 1190 Philip Augustus 1190. Henry VI., one of the lead- Emperor and 1193. Battle of As- ers of the Third King of Italy. calon. Saladin Crusade. defeated. Death of Sala- din. 1204 Normandy reunit- ed to France. 1212. Frederick 1212. The Christ- 1206. Genghis Khan subdnies the North of China II., Emperor. ians gain the Battle of Navas de To- losa. 1217. Ferdinand, King of Cas- 1213. Jurje II. 1216. Tartary over- run by Genghis Khan. tile. 1224. Mongolian 1222. Hungarian lib- 1223 Louis VIII. con- invasion. erty assured by ducts crusade known as Charter of An- against the Al- the "Golden drew II. bigenses. Horde." 1226 Louis IX., King. 1230. Castile and Leon united 12.36. Second 1236. Mongolian in- by Ferdinand Mongolian vasion of Europe III., who invasion. under Batu takes large Moscow Khan. territory burned. from the 1238. Russian 1241. The Hanse- Moors. independ- atic League. ence over- thrown by 1248 Louis IX. leads the the Tartars. Seventh Crusade. 12.50. Conrad IV., Khan of 1 Emperor. 12.53. The-Alham- bra founded. 1266. Henry of Kiptchak, Grand Duke. 12.59. Kublai Khan builds Pekin and makes it his capital. 1267 Burgundy falls to the crown. Castile a Ro- man senator. 1270 Louis IX. sets out on the last Cru- 1273. Rudolph sade. Emperor, 1274. Crown of 1276 France at war with founds House Navarre Castile. of Habsburg. passes to France. 1290. Khan of 1290. Wenceslas, 1291. James II., Kiptchak King of Bohemia, King of Ar- wields strong takes Cracow. agon. rule in Rus- .1297 Invasion of Flanders. 1298. Adolphus, Emperor, de- posed, and Al- bert I. en- sia. 1299. Foundation of the Ottoman Empire. throned. 78 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FKOM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE — A. D. 841-1453 | 1300 Arts of CiTillzation Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles Rapid advances in 1300. Silverplate used in civilization — re- England. vival of ancient learning — iin- provementa in the arts and sciences — and general ex- pansion of liberty. 1302 Mariner's compass invented at Naples. 1303 University Avignon. 1303. Papal power de- clines. 1303. Genoese control trade of Black Sea. 1305 University Orleans. 1309. Seat of the Popes transferred to Avig- 1306. Robert Bruce pro- 1307 University Perugia. non. claimed King of Scot- land. War with Eng- 1308 University Coimbra. land continued. 1311 Governmental re- forms extorted from Edward II. in England. 1311. General Council at Vienna. 1320. Civil War in the Eastern Empire be- tween the Emperor and his son. 1326 Clocks constructed 1326. Orkhan, Sultan of on mathematical the Turks, makes 1327. Peace. Independ- principles. 1339. Struggle in Rome Prusa his capital. ence of Scotland. 1338. Struggle for the French crown be- 1340 Gunpowder used at between the Colonna gins; lasts 120 years. battle of Cressy. and the Ursini. 1346. Battle of Cre.ssy. 1347 Manufactures and commerce improve in England. 1347. Democracy in Rome under Rienzi, last of the Tribunes. 1354. Rienzi killed; pa- pal dominion re- 1355. John Pateologus, stored. Emperor. 1356. Edward, the Black Prince, wins the bat- tle of Poitiers. 1361 Parliament in Eng- 1373. Treaty with Mu- land receives added rad, the Ottoman 1376. Death of the Black powers. 1378. Schism of the West; Pope Urban VI. acknowledged in England; Clement VII. in France, Spain, and Scotland. Emperor. Prince. 1384. The Scots, assisted by France, invade 1386 Jan Van Eyck in- vented oil painting. 1389. Bajazet, Sultan of the Turks. 1402. Bajazet defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane, at the battle of Angora. 1403. Solyman I., Sultan of the Turks. England. 1399. Herjry IV., King. House of Lancas- ter begins. 1406. James I., King of Scotland. 1409 University of Leipsic founded. 1409. The Council of Pisa. 1414. Council of Con- . stance. 1416. Huss and Jerome burnt for heresy. 1414. Henry V. claims the French crown. 1415. Gains the battle of Agincourt. 1422. Death of Henry V. 1425 Arts promoted in Italy. 1425. Emperor John VII. Accession of Henry visits Italy to ob- VI. tain help against the War with France. Turks. HISTORY 79 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OP THE EASTERN E3IPIRE- -A. D. 841-1453 France Gerniany Spain Russia Lesser Countries 1300. Dissensions 1300. Moscow in the Moor- made the ish state. capital. 1302 First convocation of the States- general in France. 1304 War witli Flanders. 1304. Rise of the Swiss towns. 1306. Rudolf of Austria, Em- peror. 1308. Henry of Luxemburg, Emperor. General in- surrection in Switzerland. 1312. Alphonso XL, King of Castile and Leon. 1307. Swiss Republic founded. 1315 Edict for the en- franchisement of 1314. Louis of Ba- varia and slaves. Frederick of 1318. Finland in- 1316 Philip V. succeeds Austria con- vaded by 1319. The Oligarchy by virtue of the tend for the Rus.siaus. of Venice estab- Salic law, now crown. lished. first establish^. 1322. Frederick of 1326. Tamerlane .Austria de- 1327. Arrival of born at Kesh, 1332 Revolt of the Flem- ings. feated. 200,000 Moors to as- Tartary. 1338 War with England. sist Granada. 1346 Normandy overrun 1340. Moors de- by Edward of feated at 1353. Establishment England. 1355. Promulgation Tarifa. of the Ottomans 1356 King John defeat- of the Golden in Europe. ed and taken Bull. 1359. Hungarian con- prisoner at Poi- quests on the tiers. Charles, the Danube. Dauphin, Regent. 1360 John regains his liberty. Cedes 1365. War be- much territory 1378. Wenceslas tween Na- 1369. Tamerlane to England. (King of Bohe- varre and makes Samar- mia), Emperor. France. cand the capital 1380 Charles VI., King. 1380. Tartar of his new Em- Defeat of the War. Dimi- pire. Flemings at Ros- tri Ivano- becq. vitch checks them at the Don. 1382. Moscow burned. 1385. War between Austria and 1386 Fruitless attempt to invade Eng- 1394. The Emperor Switzerland. land. imprisoned 1395. Tamerlane at Prague. invades Rus- 1399. Invasion of 1400. Robert, sia. India by Tamer- Count of Pala- Russia lane. tine, Emperor. 1407. John IT., King of Cas- under the Mongol Tar- tars until 1462. 1410 Civil War between Orleans and Bur- gundy. 1411. Sigismund (King of Hun- tile. 1415 Defeat by the Eng- lish at Agincourt. gary), Emper- or. 1416. Alphonso v.. King of 1419. The Hussite War in Bohemia. 1422 Henry VI. pro- claimed at Paris King of France and England. Aragon and Sicily. 1427 Orleans besieged by the English. 80 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL | OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - A^D. Sil-US.-J Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Eastern Empire The British Isles . 1429. Schism of the West ended. 1434 Invention of printing at Mayence. 1444. Vladislas, King of Poland, defeated and killed by the Turks. 1444. Truce with France. Marriage of Henry to Margaret of Anjou. 1447 Library of the Vati- can founded. 1448. Concordat of As- 1448. Constantino XII., 1450 Flourishing period of ehaffenberg, by last of the Greek 1450. Insurrection of trade in Western which the liberties Ernperors. Jack Cade. Richard, Europe — particu- of the German 1453. Siege and capture Duke of York, larly in Flanders, Church are com- of Constantinople by claims the throne. or modern Belgium. promised. the Turks, ending the Eastern Empire. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 1 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Rritain Germany Spain and Portugal 1454. Struggle 1454. Henry IV. between Cos- 1455. Wars of the 1462. The Emperor of Castile, mo de Medici Roses begin. besieged in King of and the aris- court at Vi- Spain. tocracy. enna. 1458. The French 1460 Wood engraving in- vented. rule in Genoa. 1463. War of Ven- 1460. James III., King of Scotland. 1461. Edward IV., King. House of 14C4 Post-oflBces in France and Eng- ice with the Turks. York. land. 1469. Lorenzo de 1469. Invasion of 1469. Marriage 1470 Beerhard invents Medici suc- 1470. Henry VI. re- the Turks. of Ferdi- the pedal to the ceeds Pietro stored by War- nand of Ar- organ. at Florence. wick. agon with 1471. Increase of 1471. Return of Ed- Isabella of 1473 Printed musical the power of ward IV. Deaths Castile. notes. Large the Medici. of Warwick and library founded Rise of learn- Henry VI. at Ofen. ing. 1475. Edward IV. 1477 Watches made at Sixtus IV., invades France. 1477. Marriage of Nuremburg. Pope. Maximilian and 1479. Union of 1480. War between Maria of Bur- Castile and England and gundy. Aragon. Scotland. 1492. Alexander 1492. Henry VII. in- 1492. Conquest 1493 Printing press at VI., Pope. vades France. 1403. Maximilian of Granada. Copenhagen. I., Emperor. Discovery of Era of discovery in America by the New World Columbus. begins. 1500. Partition of 1498. Vasco de Gama 1502 St. Peter's and Naples be- reaches other great tween France India via churches built. and Spain. 1503. Naples an- nexed to the Cape of Good Hope. 1506. Columbus Spanish 1509. Henry VIII., dies at Val- crown. King. ladolid. Julius II., Pope. 1511. Council of 1512. War with 1512. Maximilian Pi.sa. France. divides the em- 1513. Pope Leo 1513. Battle of Flod- pire into 10 cir- X. patron of den; James IV. cles. literature killed. and the arts. 1515. Wolsey, chan- 1516. Charles, 1517 Luther and the Pro- cellor and cardi- 1517. Beginning of King of all testant Reforma- nal. the Reforma- Spain and tion. tion. the Nether- Hans Sachs founds lands. the German drama. HISTORY 81 A. D. FROM THE DISSOLUTION OF THE WESTERN E3IPIRE TO THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE - -A. D. 841-1453 | 1429 France Germany Spain Russia Lesser Countries Saved by Joan of Arc. Charles VII. crown- 1430. War be- ed at Rheims. tween Cas 1431 Joan of Arc burned. 1438. House of tile and Granada. 1437-38. Rise of Por- Austria estab- 1441. Kiptchak tugal. lished. Albert Mongols di- II. (King of vide Russia. Bohemia and Hungary), Emperor. 1446. War with Hungary. 1452. Civil War in Navarre, 1450. Kingdom of Delhi enlarged. 1453 End of the French 1453. Austria made in which Cas- 1453. Poland's inde- and English wars. an hereditary tile and Ar- pendence con- Duchy by Em- agon join. firmed by Diet peror Freder- of Petrekin. ick III. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN E3IPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1454. Poland at war with the Teutonic Or- der. 1458. Greece sub- 1458. Hungary vig- jected to the orous under Turks. Matthias Cor- 1461 Louis XI., King. 1462. Ivan the Great takes 1464. War with vinus. the title of Hungary. 1466. Prussia a fief Czar. 1470. Sten Sture, of Poland. 1468. Uzun Has- san, master of Persia. 1472. Ivan mar- Regent of ries Sophia, Sweden. niece of the 1475 War between France and Burgundy. Greek Em- peror. 1477 Artois and Burgundy 1479. Great in- united to France. vasion of the Tartars. 1480. Otranto taken. 1481. Power of 1481. John, King 1481. Bajazet II.. 1491 Bretagne united to the Tartars of Denmark, Sultan. the crown. annihilated. partially ac- knowledged 1485. Matthias of Hungary takes in Sweden. 1493. War with Egypt, Hun- gary, and Ven- ice. Vienna. 1492. America dis- covered by Co- lumbus. 1499 Conquest of Milan. 1505. War with Persia. 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- pucci. 1502. Soufi sole Sovereign of Persia. 1510 Council of Tours. 1510. Renewed 1506. Poland un- Tartar inva- 1512. Selim I. de- der Sigismund sions. thrones and puts to death his father. the Great. 1511. Cuba con- quered. 1513. Christian 1514. Persians de- 1512. Florida dis- 11., King of feated; Kurdis- covered. Norway and tan added to 1513. Discoveries 1515 Francis I. invades Denmark. the empire. of Balboa. Italy. 1516. Cairo taken. 1517. First patent granted by Spain for the importation of negroes into America. 82 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL, OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal 1519. Charles V., 1519. Conquest King of Spain of Mexico by 1521. Diet of Cortez. Worms. 1522 Circumnavigation 1529. Turks invade of the globe by 1525. Spanish as- Germany. Magellan. cendancy by Xavier plants the victory Christianity in of Pavia. 1532. The King mar- India. ries AnneBoleyn. 1530 Jorgens invents the 1535. Henry excom- spinning wheel 1540. Order of municated by the 1540. Lisbon, the for flax. Jesuits Pope. market of founded by 1543. Invasion of 1543. Alliance with the world. Loyola. France. 1547. Formal estab- England against France. 1545 Vasalius makes im- 1545. Council of lishment of Prot- portant contribu- Trent. estantism. tions to study of , Edward VI., anatomy. King. 1548 Orange trees intro- 1552. Treaty of duced into Eu- IS.'-.O. Julius IIL, Passau secures rope. Popa 1553. Mary, Queen of England. 1554. Lady Jane Grey executed. 1555. Persecution of the Protestants. 1558. Elizabeth, religious liberty to the Protest- ants. 1556. Charles V. ab- dicates. 1559 Carriages intro- 1559. Termina- Queen. duced into Paris. tion of Rise of the Pu- 1560 Knives first made French wars ritans. in England. in Italy. 1568. Mary, Queen of 1564. Maximilian II., Emperor. 1564. Acquisi- tion of the Philippines. 1567. Duke of Alva Govern- 1569. Florence a Scots, takes ref- or of the grand duchy. uge in England. Nether- lands. 1570. War with Turkey. 1573 Titian, colorist Battle of painter, at height 1576. Rudolph II., Lepanto. of fame. King of Bohe- 1580. Portugal 1584. Raleigh's col- mia and Hun- passes under ony in Virginia. gary, Emperor. Spanish do- 1585. Pope Six- 1585. War with minion. 1586 Tobacco introduced into Europe. tus V. re- stores the Spain. 1588 First newspaper in Vatican li- 1588. Spanish Arma- 1588. Defeat of England. brary. da destroyed. the Spanish 1590 Telescopes invent- ed by Jansen, a 1592. The Rial to Armada. German. and Piazza di 1594. Union of Napier invents lo- San Marco 1599. Troubles with Protestants at garithms. built at Ven- ice. Ireland. 1600. English East India Company Heilbronn. 1602 English East India Company found- ed. chartered. 1603. Union of Eng- land and Scot- 1606 Gilbert's electrical discoveries. land. 1607. English settle- ment at James- town. 1608. Protestant union under 1609. Leghorn Frederick the 1009. Expulsion becomes the Elector. of the Moor.s. 1615 Coffee in Venice. emporium of the Levant trade. 1617. Sir Francis Ba- 1618 Harvey discovers 1618. Conspiracy con, lord chan- 1618. Thirty Years' the circulation of of Bedmar to cellor. War begins. the blood. subject Ven- 1620 Thermometers in- ice to Spain. 1620. Pilgrims sail in Mayflower. 1620. Massacre of vented by Drebel. Prague. 1621. Dutch Negro slavery be- War. gins in Virginia. 1625. Charles I., 1625. Naval War 1626 Kepler's laws dis- 1626. St. Peter's King. with Eng- covered. dedicated. 1627. War with land. 1628. War fol- France. 1628. Victories of lowingdeath Wallenstein. of the Duke Mantua. HISTORY 83 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON— 1453-1815 France Eussia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1519. Spaniards, under Cortez, 1520. Christian, 1520. SoHman the King of Swe- Magnificent, conquer Mex- den. Sultan. ico. 1521 First War with 1521. Gustavus 1521. Belgrade tak- Charles V. Vasa throws en. 1525 Francis defeated and taken prisoner at off the Dan- ish yoke. Pavia. 1523. Gustavus 1526. Invasion of 1527 Second War with Vasa, King Hungary. Charles V. of Sweden. 1529. Invasion of 1532-44 Struggle for posses- Union of Germany. sion of Italy. 1533. Ivan the Calmar dis- Siege of Vi- 1533. Pizarro con- Terrible, solved. enna. quers Peru. Czar. 1532. Union of Norway and Denmark. 1543. First stand- 1535. Barbarossa seizes Tunis. 1545. Mines at Po- tosi discovered. 1547 Henry IT., King; ing army in 1547. Turks invade Catherine de Sweden. Persia. Medici, Queen. 1551. Tripoli taken. 1552 Fifth War with Charles V. 1554. Siberia discovered. 1552. Invasion of Hungary. 1559. MiUtary 1566. Akbar raises the Indian Em- pire to its greatest splen- dor. 1560. Eric XIV., power of the 1564. Coligny sends King of Swe- Turks at its a colony of Hu- den. greatest height guenots to 1562 Religious liberty granted to the Hu- guenots. Hugue- not Wars. 1571. Russia de- War be- tween Swe- den and Den- mark. 1570. Peace of Stettin. under Soliman. 1570. War with Venice. 1571. Battle of Le- Florida. 1572 Massacre of St. Bar- tholomew. vastated by the Tartars panto. 1576 The Catliolic League. and Moscow 1577 Sixth Religious War. burned. 1578. Alliance of 1578. Alliance Sweden and with Poland. 1579. Beginning of Poland the Republic against Rus- of Holland. sia. 1585. Persia ac- 1588 Revolt of Paris. 1588. Christian quires great 1589 House of Bourbon be- IV., King of 1589. Revolt of power under gins with Henry Denmark. the Janizaries. Abbas the IV. Great. 1590 Siege of Paris raised by the Spaniards. 1595. Power in Hungary de- 1598 Edict of Nantes — tol- 1598. Borus Go- clines; revolt eration granted to dunov be- of Wallachia. the Protestants. gins a new dynasty. 1604. Charles 1605. Revolt in 1605. Jehangir, Mo- IX., King of Syria. gul Emperor Sweden. 1606. Commercial of India. 1611 Gustavus treaty with 1009. First English Adolphus, France and envoy of the King of Swe- Holland. East India 1610 Assassination of den. Company sent Henry IV. 1613. Michael War be- to India. 1614 Last assembly of the Fedorovitz, tween Swe- States-general. Czar, founds the house of Romanoff. den and Den- mark. 1616. Sweden 1617. Finland dominates 1618. Great Per- ceded to the North. sian victory at Sweden. Shibli. 1624 Ministry of Cardinal Richelieu. 1620. War with Po- land. 1627 War with England over the Hugue- nots. 84 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS FBOni THE FALL OF THE EASTERIN EMPIRE TO THE 1 A. D. FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal 1629. Gustavus 1630 Gazettes first pub- Adolphus lands lished in Venice. 1631. Influenceof France in- in Germany. 1632. Battle of 1639 Printing in America. creases. Liitzen. 1639. Loss of the Japanese trade. 1640 Manufacturing in 1640. Frederick 1640. Portugal Sweden. 1642. Civil War and William of regains in- revolution. Prussia. dependence. 1643 Cotide and Turenne the greatest gen- 1646. Revolt of erals of the time. Naples under 1648. Treaty of Massaniello. 1649. Commonwealth under Cromwell. 1652. War with Hol- land. 1653. Cromwell, Westphalia. 1 1654 Airpumps invented. Lord Protector. 1660. Charles II., King. Stuarts re- stored. 1657. Leopold I.. Emperor. 1654. Brazil re- covered from the Dutch. 1655. War with England. 1661. Invasion of Portugal. 1666 Canal of Languedoc 1666. Great fire in 1665. Tyrol united built. London. to Austria. 1667 Gobelin tapestry manufactured in 1668. Triple alliance Paris. 1669. Candia taken from Venice. 1670. War be- of England, Swe- den, and HoUiind against France. 1671 Foundation of the tween Genoa Academy of Ar- and Savoy. 1673. War of Aus- 1673. War with chitecture at tria and France to Paris. France. protect Hol- 1676. Messina 1676. General re- land. blockaded by 1679. Habeas Corpus volt of the the Dutch act passed. Hungarians. and Spanish 1680. Greater part 1681 Museum of Natural History founded in London. fleets. of Alsa,ce seized by France. 1683. Siege of Vi- 1681 Jardin des Plantes 1685. James II., enna by the founded at Paris. King. Rise of the Whigs and To- ries. Turks. 1686. Buda taken after being held by the Turks 145 1687 The earliest tele- years. 1687. Joseph I., graph instru- 1688. Revolution. King of Hun- ments invented. 1689. Alexander 1689. William III., gary. 1689. Revolt in VIII., Pope. King, and Mary II., Queen. War with France. Catalonia in favor of France. 1690 White paper first 1690. Battle of the 1690. Joseph I., elected King made in England. Boyne. 1691. Incursion 1692 First opera in Lon- James defeat- of the Romans. of the don. ed, returns to French into 1693 Bank of England 1693. Battle of France. Aragon. founded. Marsaglia. 1C97. General peace. 1697. Victories of Prince Eugene over the Sul- tan Mustapha at Zenta. 1701. War of the 1701. Hague alli- 1701. Philip v.. Spanish succes- ance. King. sion. 1702. F"rencli vic- 1702. Queen Anne. 1703 Rus.sian newspaper tory of Luz- War against established at St. zace over the France and Petersburg. imperialists. Spain. Flo\iri9hinK period 1704. Gibraltar taken of French litera- by English. 1705. Barcelona ture. 1706. French driven from Italy by Prince Eu- gene. taken by the Allies. HISTORY 85 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1632. War with 1632. Christina, 1638 Invasion of Spain. Poland. Queen of 1634. Murad in- Poles ad- Sweden; Ox- vades Persia. vance to enstiern. Re- 1637. Troubles on 1639. Great naval 1640 Turin taken by the Moscow. gent. the Tartar victory of Van French. 1 frontier. Bagdad Tromp, of Hol- land, over the 1643 Louis XIV., King. taken by the Spanish fleet 1645. Peace be- Turks. at the Downs. 1648 Wars of the Fronde. tween Swe- 1645. War with 1640. Madras, In- 1649 Siege of Paris. den and Den- mark. Venice. dia, founded. 1663 Mazarin enters Paris 1653. John de Witt, in triumph. 1654. Russian Grand Pension- victories in 1657. War be- 1657. Alliance with ary of Holland. Poland. tween Den- mark and Sweden against Poland. 1659 Peace of the Pyrenees. Sweden. 1660. Arts and 1660. Sobieski, Po- sciences 1661. War with lisli general. flourish. Austria. 1662. Invasion of Hungary. wins great vic- tory over the Tartars. 1667 War with Spain. 1671. The Cos- 1672 War with Holland. sacks subju- gated. 1672. Invasion of Poland. 1674. Sobieski. King of Poland. 1678 Peace with Holland and Spain restores tranquillity to Europe. 1678. First War with Russia. 1680 France the most for- 1680. Diet of midable power in 1682. Ivan and Stockholm. 1682. War with Europe. Peter, Czars. Austria. 1683. Defeat at Vi- 1685 Revocation of the enna. Edict of Nantes. 1686. Russia de- clares war. 1687. Revolution in Constanti- nople, Soly- man II., Sul- tan. 1686. Dekkan, In- dia, conquered. 1688 War of the Allies 1690. Recovery of 1692. Mogul power against France. 1689. Peter the 1693. The King Belgrade from at its height in 1697 General peace of Rys- Great, Czar. of Sweden the Austrians. India. wick between 1692. First trade declared ab- Jesuits gain France and the with China. solute. large influence Allies. 1697. Charles 1699. Peace of Car- in China. XII. begins lowitz. The Ot- 1695. Brussels to reign. toman power bombarded by Denmark, broken. the French. Poland, and Russia form an alli.ance against Swe- den. 1700. Peter the 1700. Defeat of Great wars the Allies at with the Narva. Northern 1702 Invasion of Holland. Powers. 1702-6. Charles Revolt of the Hugue- 1703. St. Peters- XII. sweeps 1703. Mustapha II. nots. burg found- Poland and depose* 1 by tlie 1704 Defeat at Blenheim. ed. Russia. Janizaries. 1704. Stanislaus I., King of Poland. 86 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A D. 1709 1714 1721 1728 1740 1750 1761 1767 1774 1784 1786 FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 Arts of Civilization Prussic acid dis- covered. Rise of commerce in Austria. Inoculation for small pox intro- duced. Behring Strait dis- covered. Irish linen manu- factories and English steel and cutlery factories flourish. Franklin's discov- eries in electricity, Potatoes first planted in France, First spinning ma- chine in England. Spinning-jenny in- vented by Ark- wright. Steam engines im- proved by Watt and Bolton. First American ves- sel in Cliina. Institution for the deaf and dumb at Paris. Taylor's system of stenography iavented. Italy and the Church 1707. All Spanish possessions in Italy aban doned. 1715. Siege of Corfu raised. 1719. Sicily in- vaded by the Spanish. Great Britain 1730. Clement XII., Pope. 1744. Italy in- vaded by the French and Spaniards. 1746. French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy. 1773. Jesuits ex- pelled from Rome. 1782. Pontine Marshes drained. 1707. Act of union of England and Scotland. First united parliament of Great Britain meets. 1713. Peace of Utrecht. Eng- land acquires large American possessions. 1718. War with Spain. 1727. George II., King of England, 1739. War with Spain. Germany 1711. Charles VI., Emperor. 1718. Quadruple alliance against Spain. 1725. Alliance of 1725. Alliance Vienna, Spam, with Aus- and Austria. tria. Spain and Portugal 1796-7. Napo- leon's Italian campaign. 1798. Roman Re- public pro- claimed by the French. 1745. Troubles in Scotland. 1756. Alliance with Prussia. 1762. War with Spain. 1763. Peace of Paris. 1775. War with the American Colo- nies. 1776. British army takes possession of New York. Hessians hired for service in America. 1781. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1783. Treaty of Ver- sailles. Independence of the United States acknowl- edged. 1786. Impeachment of Warren Hast- ings. 1793. First coalition against France directed by Eng- land. 1797. Nelson de- stroys French fleet near Alex- andria. 1798. Second coali- tion against France. 1800. Union of Eng- land and Ireland. 1733. War of the Polish succes- sion. 1740. War of the Austrian suc- cession. Maria The- resa succeeds to the heredi- tary States. 1745. Francis I., husband of Maria Theresa, Emperor. 1756. Seven years' war — Austria and Prussia. 1772. Dismember- ment of Po- land. 1778. War of the Bavarian suc- cession. Bava- ria seized by Germany. 1788. The Emperor tries to control the universi- ties. 1792. War with France. 1793. First coali- tion against France. 1797. Napoleon's Austrian cam- paign. 1734. Conquest of Sicily and Naples by Don Carlos. 1746. Ferdinand VI.. King. 1767. Jesuits ex- pelled from Spain. 1788. Charles IV., King. HISTORY 87 A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON— 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1707. Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles XII. of Swe- den invades Russia. 1709. Is defeated 1713 Peace of Utrecht — perpetual separa- tion of the crown of France and Spain. at Pultowa. 1714. Finland conquered. 1715 Louis XV., King. 1715. Charles re- 1715. Treaty of turns to Swe- 1717. Turks lose Antwerp with den. Belgrade. Austria. 1718 The Quadruple Alli- ance against Spain. 1718. Invades Norway and is killed at the siege of Frederikshald. 1720. Peace of 1721. Peter as- Stockholm. 1723. Turks and 1723. Christians ex- 1724 Congress of Cambray. sumes the Russians at- pelled from title "Em- tempt to dis- China. peror of all member Persia. the Rus- sias." 1725. Catharine I., Queen. 1726. Alliance with Austria. 1727. Treaty with China. 1733 The Polish succession 1730. Peter II., 1730. Christian 1733. Frederick involves France in last of the VI., King of 1734. Turks driven Augustus II., war. male line of Denmark. from Persia by King of Poland 1740 The Austrian succes- Romanoffs. Nadir Shah. 1739. India invad- sion. 1740. Renewed in- ed by Nadir 1741. Swedes vasion of Tur- Shah.who takes driven out of key. Delhi. 1744 War with England Finland. 1745. Defeat of 1744. Hostilities and Austria. Turks at Kars. between the 1747 War with Holland. French and English in In- dia. 1756. Calcutta 1760 Loss of all Canada. 1762. Catharine taken by the II. reigns. Nabob of Ben- 1768. War with gal. the Ottom.an 1765. Establish- 1770 Marriage of the Empire. ment of the dauphin to Marie 1772. Despotism English in In- Antoinette. re-estab- lished in Swe- den by Gus- dia. 1766. Power of the Mamelukes re- 1774 Louis XVL, King. 1774. Revolts of tavus III. vived in Egypt 1776 Franklin in Paris. the Cossacks. under Rodvan 1778 Alliance with Amer- 1784. The Crimea and Ali Bey. ica. ceded to Rus- 1774. Warren Hast- 1780 Rochambeau sent to sia. ings first gov- aid the Americans. 1787. War with 1787. Disastrous ernor-general the Turks. war with Aus- tria and Rus- sia. of India. 1776. Lord Pigot governor-gen- eral of the East 1789 French Revolution begins. Lafayette commander of the national guard. Indies. 1792 War with Germany. 1792. Gustavus 1794. Polish revolt France declared a re- III. assassi- at Cracow. public. nated. 1793 King and Queen be- headed. Reign of Terror. Gustavus IV., King. 1795 Napoleon Bonaparte commands the army. 1796 W^ar in Italy. 1796. Unsuccess- 1797 Napoleon in Austria. ful war with 1797. Swiss revolu- 1798 Expedition to Egypt. Persia. 1798. War with the tion. Helve- 1799 Swiss campaign. French in tian Republic 1800 Battle of Marengo. Egypt. declared. 88 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE 1 FALL OF NAPOLEON —1453-1815 1801 Arts of Civilization Italy and the Church Great Britain Germany Spain and Portugal Iron railways in England. 1802. Napoleon President of 1803. Successful war the Italian in India. 1804. The Emperor Republic. of Germany as- 1805. Napoleon 1805. Napoleon de- sumes the title 1805. Battle of crowned feated at Tra- of Emperor of Trafalgar. King of Italy. falgar. 1806. Fourth coali- Austria. Battle of 1807 Fulton invents the tion against Austerlitz. steamboat. France. Confedera- 1808 Lithography in- 1808. Rome an- tion of the 1808. Madrid vented. nexed by Rhine. taken by the Napoleon to 1809. Peace of Vi- French. 1810 First successful the King- 1810. War with Swe- enna. Joseph steamboat built dom of Italy. den. Bonaparte, in Europe. King. 1812. War with the 1812. Austria in 1812. Battle of United States. alliance with Salamanca. 1814 Steam carriages in 1814. Fall of Na- France against England. Gas poleon. Russia. used for lighting Kingdom 1813. War of Ger- the streets in ceases. man independ- London. ence. 1814. Ferdinand VII. re- 1815 Safety lamp in- 1815. British defeat- 1815. German stored. vented by Davy. ed at New Or- leans. Wellington vic- torious at Wa- terloo. The Allies enter Paris, and Napoleon is ban- ished to St. He- League. Congress of Vienna. 1815 lena. FROM THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME Arts of Ci^-ilization United States Great Britain Prussia Austria The abolition of the slave trade by the 1816. U. S. Bank in- 1816. Bombard- Congress of Vienna. corporated. ment of Al- 1817 Public schools estab- 1817. James Monroe, giers. The 1817. Population, hshed in Russia. President. Dey com- 28.000,000. pelled to abol- 1818. The Zoll- 1818. Napoleon's ish slavery. verein son made 1823. The Cann- formed. Duke of 1819 The steamship "Sa- ing ministry. 1819. Death of Reichstadt. vannah" makes The Ashan- Marshal the first trip across tees in Africa Bliicher. the Atlantic. 1821. Monroe reelect- defeated. 1821. Congress 1822 HierogbT^hics deciph- ed. of monarchs ered by Champo- Missouri com- at Laybach. lion. promise bill passed. Insurrec- tion in Mol- 1824 Inland navigation stimulated in the 1824. Visit of Lafay- davia and ette. VVallachia. United States. 1825. Erie Canal opened. Protective tariff enacted. 1825 Steam navigation on 1825. J. Q. Adams, the Rhine. President. 1828. Wellington Vast increase in peri- 1829. Andrew Jack- ministry. odical literature in son, President. Irish disturb- England, France, ances. Germany, United 1830. William States, etc. 18.31. Northeastern IV., King. 1831. Austria in- 1832 Trades unions in Eu- boundaiy be- Difficulties terferes in rope. tween the U. S. and British prov- inces established. 1833. President Jack- with China. Italianaffairs. 1 son reelected. 1834. Robert 1834. Zollverein -l.ivery abolished in Bank tieposits Peel, Pre- includes i^ritish Colonies. removed from mier. Diffi- most of the nmding of the the U. S. Bank. culties in German 1836. Visit of the Smithsonian Insti- Canada. States. Emperor of tution. Russia. Luxor obelisk erected Ferdinand 1 in Paris. I., Emperor. HISTORY 89 A. D. FROM THE FALL, OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE TO THE FALL OF NAPOLEON — 1453-1815 France Russia Scandinavia Ottoman Empire Lesser Countries 1801. Alexander, 1801. Denmark 1802 Napoleon President Czar. and Sweden of the Italian Re- accede to the 1803. Insurrection public. alliance be- of Mamelukes War with England. tween Eng- at Cairo. 1804 Napoleon I., Emperor 1804. War with land and of the French. Persia. Russia. 1805 Battle of Austerlitz. 1805. Russia joins the co- 1806. Louis Napo- leon, King of 1807 War with Russia. alition 1807. War against Holland. Invasion of Portugal. against 1808. Finland in- Russia and France. vaded by the England. 1807. Treaty of Russians. 1809 Battle of Wagram. Tilsit. 1809. Charles XIII., King 1809. Russians de- feated at Silis- 1810 Continental peace ex- cept with Spain. of Sweden. tria. 1812 Russian campaign. 1812. Invasion 1812. The Poles de- of Napoleon. 1813. Servia invad- clared a nation Moscow ed by Turkish by Napoleon. burned. army. Diet of War- 1814 Allies enter Paris. 1814. Union of 1814. Malta falls to saw. American House of Bourbon re- Sweden and England. war with Eng- stored. Norway as land. )815 Napoleon returns 1815. The Hob- two king- 1815. William I., from Elba. Alliance doms under King of the Hundred days' war. formed. one monarch. Netherlands. Battle of Waterloo and defeat of Na- poleon. Abdication of Napo- leon. FR031 THE FALL OF NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME France Spain and Portugal Italy and Greece Russia Lesser Countries 1815. Union of 1815. Kingdom 1815. Poland Portugal and of Two Sici- united to 1816. Lord Amherst's un- Brazil under lies restored. Russia. successful mission to John VI. China. 1817. Slave 1817. The Mahratta 1818 France joins in trade abol- power completely Holy Alliance. ished. 1819. Establish- overthrown in India by the British. 1819. Bolivar, President 1821 Death of Napo- 1821. Austrian ment of mili- of Colombia, South leon at St. invasion of tary colonies. America. Helena. Italy. liberty of the press in Poland nul- Peru and Guate- mala independent. Brazil independent. 1822. Greek revo- lified. 1822. Iturbide, Emperor lution. of Mexico. 1824 Charles X., King. Declaration of Independ- 1830 Algiers taken by the French. ence. 1825. Death of Revolution and Ferdinand, 1826. Nicholas I. 1826. Missolonghi taken abdication of after reign of crowned at by the Turks. Charles X. sixty-six Moscow. Louis Philippe, years. War against King. 1827. Treaty be- tween Russia Persia. 1829. Venezuela inde- 1830. Salic and Turkey pendent. law abol- respecting 1830. War against 1830. Polish struggles for ished. Greece. Poland. nationality. 1831 Abolition of hered- 1833. Isabella 1831. Leopold I., King itary peerage II., Queen 1832. Kingdom 1832. Poland of the Belgians. in France. of Spain. of Greece made part of Don Carlos founded. empire. claims the throne. 1834 Death of Lafay- Portugal a 1833. Santa Ana, Presi- ette. constitu- dent of Mexico. 1836 Insurrection at- tional mon- 1836. Decree to expel all tempted by archy. British and other for- Louis Napoleon 1834. The Carlist eigners from China. at Strasburg. War. 90 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE FALL, OP NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT riME 1837 Arts of Cirilization United States Great Britain Prussia Austria Morse patents the 1837. Independence 1837. Victoria, telegraph invented of Texas ac- Queen. 1838. Commer- by him in 1832. knowledged. cial treaty 1840 Wheatstone's tele- Martin Van 1840. War with 1840. Frederick withEngland. graph patented in Buren, President. China over William, England. the opium trade. War in King. Syria; Great Britain an ally of Aus- tria and Tur- key. 1841. W. H. Harri- 1841. Chinese son, President. War ended. Death of Harri- son and succes- sion of John Ty- ler. 1844. Treaty with 1844. Daniel O'- China. Connell's 1845 Lord Rosse's tele- 1845. Texas annexed trial. scope completed. to the U. S. Sentence Gutta-percha used. James K. Polk, President. reversed by the House of Lords. 1846 Sewing machine 1846. War with Mex- 1846. Repeal of patented. ico. The Oregon Treaty with the English corn laws. 1847 Great canal from Great Britain, 1847. Severe fam- 1847. Austria Durance to Mar- settling the ine in Ireland. takes posses- seilles completed. Northwestern sion of Cra- Railroad building in boundary of the cow. Germany. United States. 1848 Girard College opened. 1848. Treaty of Gua- 1848. Civil War 1848. Insurrec- 1848. Revolution dalupe Hidalgo in Ireland. tion in Ber- in Hungary. ends Mexican Habeas lin. Francis Jo- war. Corpus Act seph, Em- Gold discov- suspended. peror. ered in California. Kossuth 300,000 immi- withdraws grants arrive this his army year. from Vienna. 1849 Tubular bridge in An- 1849. Zachary Tay- 1849. Multan in 1849. The King 1849. New con- glesea, England. lor, President. India taken. declines the stitution pro- Magnetic clock in- Railroad from imperial mulgated. vented by Dr. Boston to New crown. Locke of Cincinnati. York. Armistice between Prussia and Denmark. 1850 Great agitation on 1850. Attempted in- 1850. The war in 1850. Hanover slavery in United vasion of Cuba Lahore withdraws States. by filibusters. ended. from the The Pekin "Monitor," Death of Presi- The Punjab Prussian al- a new paper, print- dent Taylor; Mil- annexed to liance. ed in China. lard Fillmore, the British Hesse- Woman's Rights con- President. Crown. Darmstadt vention at Worces- Texas bound- Death of withdraws. ter, Mass. ary settled. Sir Robert Treaty of Fugitive Slave Peel. peace with Denmark. Law passed. English forces de- New Con- feated in stitution for South Africa Prussia. by the Kafirs. 1851 Daguerre makes im- 1851. Erie Railway 1851. Continu- 1851. Louis Kos- portant contribu- openeanklin. First mechanical patent issued. Census enumeration ordered. 1791 Anthracite coal discovered in Penn- 1791. Canada di- 1791. Negroes of sylvania. vided into Up- Hayti revolt Vermont admitted as a State. per and Lower. against France. 1792 Corner stone of White House laid. Kentucky admitted. 1793 Whitney invents the cotton-gin. Washington receives all the electoral 1793. Slavery abolished in votes for reelection. Upper Canada. Corner stone of United States Capi- tol laid by Washington. Political parties assume names of Republican and Federalist. Third Congress opens at Philadel- 1794. Jay's Treaty phia. relative to com- 1794 Foundations of United States Navy authorized. Whisky insurrection in Pennsyl- vania. merce, naviga- tion, and boimdary. Toronto 1795 Anti-rent troubles in New York. founded. 1795. Maroon War 1796 Tennessee admitted. in Jamaica. 1796. Guiana again Washington issues his " Farewell Ad- Sugar first in British posses- dress." produced from sion. 1797 John Adams, President; Thomas 1797. Sault Ste. cane in Louisi- Jefferson Vice-President. Marie Canal ana. Special session of Congress to con- began. sider relations with France. 1798 .\lien and sedition laws passed. Commercial intercourse with France suspended. 1799 General post-office established. Death of George Washington. 1800 French spoliation claims adjusted. 1800. The Sault Ste. 1800. Louisiana Capital removed from Philadelphia Marie Canal in transferred to to Washington. Canada com- pleted. France by Spain. 1801 Tliomas Jefferson, President; Aaron Burr, Vice-President. Congress establishes the District of 1801. Toussaint rOuverture founds repub- Columbia. lic in San Do- 1802. The Dutch re- Tripoli declares war against the mingo. sume possession United States. of BritishGuiana. 1803 Ijouisiana purchased for $15,000,000. 1803. Slavery il- 1803. French quit 1803. British Guiana Ohio admitted. legal in Lower Hayti. finally acquired. 1804 Vice-President Burr kills Hamilton in a duel. Canada. 1805 JeflPcrson re-elected; George Clin- ton, Vice-President. 1807 Embargo Act passed. Fulton's steamboat, "Clermont," steams from New York to Albany. 1807. Slave trade abolished in Dutch Guiana. 1808. Royal family of Portugal ar- rived in Brazil. 1809 James Madison, President* George Clinton, Vice-President. 1809. Steamer "Ac- 1809. Ecuador at- commodation" tempts to throw Embargo Act repealed. arrived at Que- bec from Mon- treal. off the Spanish yoke. 1810. Independence 1811 Trading P9sts first established among the Indians. Battle of Tippecanoe with Indians. First steamboat on the Ohio. of Argentine Re- public begins. Independence of Chile. 1812 Louisiana admitted. 1812. Sir George 1812. Spanish con- 1811. Paraguay de- War declared against Great Britain. Prevost, Gov- stitution pro- clares its inde- American vessel " Constitution " cap- ernor. mulgated in pendence of tures the British "Guerriere." Costa Rica. Spain. American vessel "Wasp" captures Venezuela pro- claims its inde- the British " Frolic." American vessel "United States" pendence; war captures the British "Macedo- ensues for ten nian." years. American vessel " Constitution " cap- tures the British "Java." Canada invaded. 102 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OP THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. 1 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1S13 United States of America Canada Spanisli Nortli America Spanish Soutb America Commodore Perry captures the Eng- lish fleet on Lake Erie. 1813. Chile recon- quered by Spain. Madison rc-eiectcd; Elbridge Gerry, Vice-President. Toronto, Canada, captured. Battle of the Thames. 1814 Battle of Lundy's Lane. British capture and burn Washing- ton. Hartford Convention meets to oppose war. Stonington, Conn., bombarded by British fleet. 1814. Montevideo captured by the revolutionary army of Buenos Ayres. 1815 •Jaclvson defeats the British at New- Orleans. Treaty of Peace with Great Britain ratified. Algerian War. 1815. Brazil becomes a kingdom. 1816 U. S. Bank chartered by Congress. The "Ontario" first steamboat on Great Lakes. Indiana admitted. American Colonization Society form- ed; founds Liberia. 1816. Argentina de- clares itw separa- tion from Spain. 1S17 Janies Monroe, President; Daniel 1S17. First bank 1817. Unsuccessful 1817. Chileans defeat D. Tompkins, Vice-President. note issued at insurrection in Spani.sh and gain Mississippi admitted. Montreal. Mexico. their independ- First instruction of deaf mutes in ence. America by T. H. Gallaudet, at Hartford, Conn. Seminole War. 1818 Illinois admitted. Pensions granted Revolutionary sol- diers. 1819 The "Savannah," the first transat- lantic steamship. Alabama admitted. Florida purchased by the United States. Maine separated from Massachusetts. 1820 Maine admitted. 1820. Earl of Dal- 1821 Missouri Compromise Bill passed. housie, Gov- 1821. Mexico be- Missouri admitted. ernor. comes inde- Liberia purcliased. pendent of Andrew Jackson appointed Governor Spain . of Florida. Costa Rica independent. 1822. Mexico an 1822 Independence of Spanish South 1822. Brazil declares American States recognized. empire under its independence. Gaslight introduced into Boston. Iturbide. Costa Rica united to Mex- Pedro I., Em- peror. Ecuador inde- pendent. 1823 President Monroe proclaims the ico. 1823. Federal Re- "Monroe Doctrine." pxiblic pro- 1824 Gen. Lafayette arrives in New York. claimed for Mexico. 1824. Bolivar, Dic- tator of Peru. 1825 Jolin Quincy Adams, President; Federation of 1825. Argentina con- John C. Calhoun, Vice-President. Central Ameri- stitution decreed. Treaty with Russia ratified. can States. Upper Peru in- Erie Canal finished. 1826. First survey for Nicaraguan dependent, takes the name of Bo- livia. Republic of Central .\merica. 1826. Gen. Sucre, President of Bo- 1827 First railroad in United States built 1827. Ottawa ship canal. livia; succeeded in Massachusetts. founded. by Bolivar. War between Buenos Ayres and Brazil. 1828 Protective Tariff bill passed. 1828. Ecuador in- vaded by Peru. Uruguay inde- pendent. 1829 Andrew Jackson, President; John 1829. Welland 1829. Expulsion of 1829. Venezuela sep- C. Calhoun, Vice-President. Canal from Spaniards from arates from New 1830 Great speeches of Webster and Port Dalhousie Mexico de- Granada. Hayne delivered in the U. S. Sen- to Port Robin- creed. 1830. Death of Boli- ate. son completed. var. Gen. Flores first President of Ecuador. HISTORY 103 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES. 1 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1831 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America First locomotive built in United 1831. Revolution in States. Brazil. Abdica- Chloroform discovered by Samuel tion of Dom Pe- Guthrie. dro. 1832 First Democratic National Conven- 1832. Newfound- 1832. Patagonia vis- tion. land obtains a ited by Charles Black Hawk War. colonial legis- Darwin, the sci- Nullification in South Carolina. lature. entist. United States Bank bill vetoed by the President. 1833 Jackson re-elected; Martin Van 1833. Constitu- 1833. Santa Ana, 1833. Chilean consti- Buren, Vice-President. tional govern- President of tution formed. Bank deposits removed from the Na- ment in New- Mexico. tional Bank. foundland. 1834 National debt extinguished. Whig party first takes its name. 1835 Attempted assassination of President Jackson. Seminole War begins. 1835. Texas de- clares her inde- pendence. 1836 Massacre at Alamo, Texas. 1836. First railway 1836. First Con- Arkansas admitted. in Canada gress meets in Sam Houston, first president of Texas. opened. Costa Rica. 1837 Martin Van Buren, President; Richard M. Johnson, Vice-Presi- dent. Great commercial panic. Morse system of telegraphy patented. 1837. Papineau and Mackenzie re- bellion. 1838 "Great Western" and "Sirius" cross 1838. Canadian re- 1838. Mexico de- 1838. Buenos Ayrea the Atlantic. bellion sup- clares war blockaded by pressed. against France. Slavery abol- ished in Brit- ish West In- dies. French fleet. 1839 Vulcanized rubber patented by Good- year. 1839. Termination of the Mexican- French War. 1840 Lieut. Wilkes discovers Antarctic con- tinent. 1840. Upper and Lower Canada 1841 William H. Harrison, President; John Tyler, Vice-President. Harrison dies April 4th; John Tyler, President. Failure of the United States Bank. reunited'. 1842 Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island. Ashburton Treaty with England signed. Application of ether as an anses- thetic. 1843 Bunker Hill Monument dedicated. 1843. McGiU Uni- 1844 Morse telegraph completed from Bal- versity, Mon- 1844. Dominican timore to Washington. treal, opened. Republic pro- 1845 James K. Polk, President; George claimed in 1845. England and M. Dallas, Vice-President. Hayti. France blockade Florida admitted. Buenos Ayres, United States Naval Academy estab- pending Civil lished at Annapolis. War. Texas admitted. Venezuela's in- Petroleum discovered near Pittsburg. dependence rec- 1846 Mexican War begins. 1846. Earl of Cath- 1846. Gen. Mejia ognized by Spain. Wilmot Proviso. cart, Governor. of Mexico is- Smithsonian Institution established sues proclama- in Washington. tion of hostility Iowa admitted. to the United Ellas Howe patents the sewing ma- States. War chine. with United States. 1847 Salt Lake City founded by the Mor- mons. 1847. Mexico se- questers church property to raise war funds. Gen. Quit- man, military (lovernor of City of Mexico. 1848 Gold discovered near Colonia, Cal. Peace signed with Mexico. Acquisi- tion of New Mexico and California. Wisconsin admitted. Corner stone of Washington Monu- ment laid. 1848. Peace be- tween United States and Mexico. 104 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 United States of America Zachary Taylor, President; Millard Fill- more, Vice-President. Rush of gold hunters to California begins. Death of President Taylor, July 9th; Millard Fillmore, President. California admitted. Bulwer Clayton Treaty with Great Britain signed. Fugitive Slave Bill passed. Clay Compromise Bill passed. Great fire in library of Congress. United States Mint established at San Fran- ci.sco. Deaths of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. Franklin Pierce, President; Rufua King, Vice-President. Walker's filibustering expedition. Gadsden purchase. Treaty between United States and Japan. Kansas-Nebraska Bill approved. Oatend Manifesto issued. Completion of Panama Railroad. Troubles in Kansas. First agricultural college in United States established at Cleveland. Civil strife in Kansas. J'irst Republican National Convention. James Buchanan, President; J. C. Brecken- ridge, Vice-President. Dred Scott decision. Great financial panic in United States. First attempt to lay transatlantic cable. Minnesota admitted. Second treaty with China signed. First message over Atlantic cable. Canada Oregon admitted. John Brown's raid. Morrill high tariff bill approved. South Carolina passes ordinance of secession from the Union. Abraham Lincoln, President; Hannibal Hamlin, Vice-President. Secession of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Attack on Fort Sumter. Kansas admitted. Southern States form a confederacy. McClellan appointed commander-in-chief. Mason and Slidell taken from British vessel. Fight between the "Merrimac" and "Monitor." Slavery abolished in District of Columbia. Confederate States of America 1861. Jefferson Davis, President; A. H. Stephens, Vice- President. Battles of Bull Run. 1862. Capture of Ft. Henry. Grant takes Ft. Donelson. 1850. Riots in Mon treal; Parlia- ment House burned. Canadian rlergy reserves abolished. 1853. The "Geno- va," first transatlantic steamer, arrives at Quebec. 1854. First petro- leum wells bored. 1855. Suspension Bridge at Ni- agara Falls opened. 1856. Grand Trunk Railroad opened. Allan Steam- ship Line es- tablished. 1858. Ottawa made the capital. Decimal sys- tem of coinage adopted. 1860. Prince of Wales visits Canada. 1861. Gold found in Nova Scotia Spanish North America Spanish South America 1862. Macdonald, Premier. 1850. Cuba in- vaded by American fili- busters under Lopez. 1851. Second in- vasion of Cuba; Lopez shot. Hayti an Empire under Solouque. 1854-60. Central America in- vaded by American fili- busters under Walker. 1857. New Mexi- can constitu- tion estab- lished. 1858. Mexican constitution annulled by Church party. Civil War in Mexico. Hayti a Republic. 1859. Juarez of Mexico con- fiscates Church prop- erty. 1860. Civil War in Mexico be- tween Zulo- aga and Miramon. 1861. Juarez, Dic- tator of Mex- ico. Mexican troubles with England, France, and Spain. Reunion of Santo Do- mingo with Spain. 1862. England and Spain dis- approve Mex- ican Mon- archy for Maximilian. 1850. Steam- ship line from Brazil to Europe inaugu- rated . 1852. Slave trade sup- pressed in Brazil. 1853. Civil War in Argen- tine. 1856. Ecuador adopts French system of coinage, weights, and meas- ures. 1860. Revolu- tions and insurrec- tions pre- vail in Uruguay for next thirty years. HISTORY 105 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, | 1789 A. D., TO rilE PRESENT riME United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Confederate States of America IR62 Treaty with Great Brit- ain for suppression of slave trade. Congress passes act to prevent polygamy in the Territories. Gen. Jackson captures Harpers Ferry. Battle of South Moun- tain. Battle of Antietam. Greenbacks first issued. 1862. Battle of Shi- loh. Capture of New Orleans by Farragut and Butler. Battle of Fair Oaks. Robert E. Lee in command of Confederate ar- mies. Battles before Richmond. Battle of Mur- freesboro. 1863 Emancipation procla- 1863. Battle of Chan- 1863. Mexico oc- mation. cellorsville. cupied by West \ irginia admitted. Siege of Vicks- the French Gen. Meade commander burg. under of the Army of the Battle of Chick- Bazaine. Potomac. amauga. Battle of Gettysburg. Battle of Look- out Mountain. 1864 U. S. Grant, Lieutenant 1864. Grant's Vir- 1864. Confederates 1864. Maximilian, 1864. Hostili- General. ginia campaign. in Canada plan Emperor of ties be- Fight between " Kear- Battle of Wil- raids. Mexico. tween sarge " and "Ala- derness. Paraguay bama." Battle of Spott- and Fugitive Slave Law re- sylvania C. H. Brazil. pealed. Battle of Cold Ameri- Battle of Monocacy. Harbor. can Con- Premium on gold, 285 Atlanta cam- gress at per cent. paign. Lima, Nevada admitted. Capture of Mo- Peru. President calls for 500,- bile. 000 volunteers. Battle of Win- Grade of Vice-Admiral chester. 1865. Argen- established. Sherman's tine in- Additional call for 300,- march to the sea. vaded by 000 volunteers. Thomas de- feats Hoed at Nashville. Para- guans un- der Lo- 1865 Lincoln re-elected; 1865. Confederate 1865. Confedera- 1865. Maximilian pez. Andrew Johnson, Congress ad- tion rejected proclaims War be- Vice-President. journs sitie die. by New Bruns- Mexican- tween Peace conference at Richmond wick. French Brazil Hampton Roads. evacuated by War ended. and Uru- President Lincoln shot Confederates. United guay. at Ford's Theater, Lee surrenders States pro- Treaty Washington, April at .Appomattox, tests against between 14th. April 9th. French occu- Brazil, Andrew Johnson, Johnston, Mor- pation of Uruguay. President; April 15th. gan, Taylor, and Mexico. and Ar- General amnesty proc- Kirby-Sriiith sur- Insurrection gentine lamation. render. in Jamaica. against Habeas Corpus restored Jefferson Davis Para- in Northern States. captured. guay. 1866. Invasion of 1866. Napoleon Four Canada threat- III. agrees years' war 1866 Civil Rights Bill passed over President's veto. ened by Feni- with United results. Fenian raid into Canada . ans. States to Relig- Atlantic telegraph comp leted. Canadian withdraw ious toler- Parliament French troops ation en- first meets at from Mexico. acted in Ottawa. Chile. 1867 Nebraska admitted. 1867. Dominion of 1867. Maximilian, Chilede- Alaska transferred by B Lussia to the United Canada formed Miramon,and clares war States. by union of Mejia tried in against Upper and Mexico and Spain. Lower Canada, shot. 1866. Span- iards Nova Scotia, Republic and New re-established bombard Brunswick. in Mexico. Valpara- Lord Monck, iso, Chile. Viceroy of Peru Canada. joins Chile New Parlia- in war ment at Ot- against tawa. Spain. 106 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, | 1789 A . D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1868 United States of America •Canada Spanish North America Spanish South^America President Johnson impeached, tried, 1868. Agitation 1868. Insurrection and acquitted. against confed- of Creoles in Southern States readmitted to rep- eration in Nova Cuba under resentation in Congress. Scotia. Cespedes. Burlingame treaty with China signed. Fenian raid XIV. Amendment adopted. repelled. Sir John Young, Gov- ernor-General. 1869 U. S. Grant, President; Schuyler 1869. Newfound- 1869. Filibusters 1869. Revolution in Colfax, Vice-President. land refuses to again attack Ecuador. Union Pacific Railroad opened for join the Do- Cuba. traffic. minion. Financial panic in New York. Hudson Bay Soldiers' monument at Gettysburg territory pur- dedicated. chased by the Dominion. 1870 Northern Pacific Railroad begun. 1870. Rupert's 1870. Continual in- XV. Amendment ratified. Land made the Province of Manitoba. surrections in Cuba. 1871 Legal Tender Act decided constitu- 1871. British Co- 1871. Civil War tional. lumbia united and insurrec- "Tweed Ring" in New York exposed. to the Do- tions in Mexico. Great fire in Chicago. minion. District of Columbia a territorial gov- Departure of ernment. last battalion of Royal troops. Uniformity of currency es- tablished. 1872 Geneva award of $15,500,000 made to the United States. Great fire in Boston; loss $80,000,- 000. Modoc War in California. 1872. Lord Duf- ferin, Gover- nor-General. 1872 Grant re-elected; Henry Wilson, Vice-President. 1873 Credit Mobilier investigation by Con- 1873. Prince Ed- 1873. Slavery abol- 1873. Treaty be- gress. ward Island ished in Porto tween Argentina. One-cent postal cards issued. joins the Do- Rico. and Brazil. Financial panic in New York. minion. 1874. Religious or- Territorial government in District of ders suppressed Columbia abolished. in Mexico. 1875 Act authorizing the resumption of specie payments 1875. Icelanders settle in North- west Territo- 1876 Massacre of Custer's troops by Sit- ries. 1876. Intercolonial 1876. Venezuela re- ting Bull. railroad opened nounces papal Centennial Exposition at Philadel- from Quebec to authority. phia. Halifax. Colorado admitted. 1877 Electoral Commission appointed. 1877. Great fire at St. John, New 1877. Porfirio Diaz, President of Rutherford B. Hayes, President; Brunswick. Mexico. William A. Wheeler, Vice-Presi- dent. Great railroad strike. "Molly Maguires" hanged in Penn- sylvania. War with the Nez Perces Indians. Edison announces his phonograph. 1878 Bland Silver Bill passed over Presi- 1878. Marquis of 1878. Surrender of dent's veto. Lome, Gover- insurgent gov- Electric lighting introduced by Edi- nor-General. ernment in son. Cuba. 1879. War between 1879 United States Government resumes 1879. Industrial Chile and Peru specie payment. Exhibition at and Bolivia. Women permitted to practice before Ottawa. United States Courts. French Atlantic cable laid. 1880. Manuel Gon- 1880. Buenos Ayres 1880 The Kearney agitation in California. 1880. Royal Cana- zales, President made the capital dian Academy of Mexico. of Argentina. of Arts founded. 1881 James A. Garfield, President; ISSl. Contract for 1881. Lima occupied Chester A. .\rtluir, Xice-President. new Pacific by the Chileans. President Garfield shot, July 2d; railway rati- Patagonia di- Chester A. Arthur, President, fied. vided by Chile September 20th. and Argentina. International Cotton Exposition at Atlanta, Ga. HISTORy 107 A. D. 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TI3IE United States of America Star Route trials hpgin. War with the Apache Indians Northern Pacific Railroad completed. Opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. Great floods in the Ohio Valley. Financial crises in New York. Grover Cleveland, President; Thomas A. Hendricks, Vice-Presi- dent. Apache War in New Mexico. World's Industrial Exposition at New Orleans. Railroad strikes and anarchistic riots Silver certificates authorized. Bartholdi's Statue of Liberty un- veiled. Chinese immigration prohibited. Benjamin Harrison, President; Levi P. Morton, Vice-President. Johnstown flood. Pan-American Congress meets in Washington. North and South Dakota?, Washing- ton, and Montana admitted. Oklahoma opened for settlement. Idaho and Wyoming admitted. People's Party convenes at Topeka, Kan. McKinley Tariff goes into effect. Sioux War; Sitting Bull killed. Massacre of Italians in New Orleans. Canada Behring Sea dispute referred to arbi- tration. Grover Cleveland, President; Ad- lai E. Stevenson, Vice-President. Columbian E.xposition opened at Chicago. World's Parliament of Religions meets at Chicago. Chinese Exclusion bill approved. Great financial depression. Silver bill approved. 1882. Northwest Territory be- yond Manitoba divided into Assiniboia, Sas- katchewan, Al- berta, and Athabaska. First colony of Russians set- tle in North- west Territory 1883. Conflicts be- tween Catholics and Orange- men in New- foundland. Standard time adopted. 1884. Marquis of Lansdowne, Governor-Gen- 1885. The Riel in- surrection in Northwest. 1886. Fisheries dis- pute with United States. Vancouver City founded. 1887. Great rail- way bridge at Lachine com- pleted. -■Anthracite coal first mined in Canada. 1888. Lord Stanley, Governor-Gen- eral. 1890. Dominion Commons pass- ed a resolution of loyalty to Great Britain. 1891. Canadian Pa- cific Railway completed. First Pacific mail steamer arrives at Van- couver from Yokohama. St. Clair tun- nel connecting Canadian and United States railways open- ed. 1892. Dominion discriminates against United States in use of Welland Canal. 1893. Canal tolls arranged with United States. Commercial treaty between France and Canada. Earl of Aber- deen, Govern- or-General. Spanish Nortli America Spanish South America 1883. Ancient city discovered in Sonora, Mexico. 1884. Porfirio Diaz, President of Mexico. 1885. Concessions to the Nicara- gua Canal Com pany granted by Nicaragua. 1886. Slavery abol- ished in Cuba. 1883. Peruvians de- feated with great loss by Chile. 1890. Union of Cen- tral American States formed. 1888. Slavery totally abolished in Brazil. 1889. Revolution at Rio de Janeiro; emperor ban- ished; republic declared. First Brazilian Congress meets. 1890. Great financial crisis in Argen- tine. 1891. Civil War in Chile. Mob at Valpa- raiso assaults United States sailors. 1892. Revolutions and insurrections in Brazil. 1893. Insurrections in Argentine. Naval revolt in Brazil, led by Admiral de Mello. 108 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1894 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Wilson Tariff bill passed. ; 1894. Intercolonial 1894. Naval scrim- Great railroad strike from Ohio to Congress open- mage between Pacific coast. ed at Ottawa. Admiral da Coal strike. Gama, Brazilian Republic of Hawaii recognized. insurgent, and New treaty with Japan. Admiral Ben- ham, United States Navy. 1895 Free silver movement an important 1895. First Exhibi- 1895. Cuba de- 1895. Chile adopts issue. tion in North- mands auton- 1 the gold stand- Special message of the President on west opened at omy from ard. the Venezuelan question. Regina. Spain. 1896 Treaty with the Choctaw Indians. 1896. Sir Charles 1896. Weyler issues 1896. Revolt of Tupper, Pre- his famous re- "Fanatics" in mier. concentrado Brazil. Newfound- order in Cuba. Chile signs land Govern- Uniform treaty of amity ment purchases education sys- with Bolivia. railway system. tem in Mexico. Gold mines of great value dis- covered in Peru. 1897 William McKinley, President; 1897. School ques- 1897. Weyler re- 1897. Venezuela rati- Garret A. Hobart, Vice-President. tion settled in called from fies boundary Universal Postal Congress meets in Manitoba. Cuba and treaty with Washington. Commission Blanco ap- Great Britain. Extensive strikes among coal and for Yukon gold pointed cap- iron miners. region ap- tain-general. Dingley Tariff bill goes into effect. pointed. Joint com- mission ap- pointed to set- tle difficulties with United States. United States of Cen- tral America formed. 1898 City government of Greater New 1898. Great influx 1898. Hostile dem- 1898. Argentina pro- York inaugurated. of miners to onstrations in vides for a com- Destruction of the "Maine" in Ha- Yukon gold Havana plete network of vana Harbor. region. against Ameri- railways. War with Spain. Earl of Minto, cans. Admiral Dewey destroys the Span- Governor-Gen- Invasion of ish fleet at Manila. eral. Cuba and Por- Naval battle at Santiago; destruc- to Rico by tion of Cervera's fleet. United States. Treaty of Paris: United States ac- Completion quires sovereignty over Cuba, of great Mexi- Porto Rico, and the Philippines. can drainage Treaty for annexation of Hawaii. canal. 1899 Aguinaldo foments the Philippine 1899. Adjournment 1899. Cuba and 1899. Venezuelan War. of the Joint Porto Rico boundary Appointment of the First Philippine High Commis- pass to United tribunal meets Commission. sion. States by in Paris. General Wood, Governor of Cuba. Treaty of Paris. 1900 Civil government established in the 1900. Great fire in 1900. Cuba consti- Philippines under act of Congress. Ottawa. tutional con- Galveston flood and hurricane. Parliament- vention meets. Civil government in Alaska. ary ejections American forces sent to China under sustain the General Chaffee. Liberal minis- try in power. 1901 McKinley re-elected; Theodore 1901. Population 1901. War declared Roosevelt, Vice-President. of Canada, between Pan-American Exposition. 5,338,883. Venezuela and Piatt Amendment relating to Cuban Toronto Ex- Colombia. independence passed. hibition open- President McKinley shot at Buffalo, ed. N. Y., September Cth; Tlieodore Roosevelt, President, September 14th. President recommends Panama canal 1902 1902. Canadian- 1002. Revolution 1902. Gen. Uribe, purchase. Australian in Santo Do- Colombian in- Civil government established in the cable laid. mingo. surgent leader, Philippines. Treaty be- Eruption of surrenders. Decision of United States Supreme tween New- Mt. Pel6e, St. End of revo- Court in Northern Securities case. foundland and U. S. Pierre. lution in Venezuela. 1903 Department of Commerce and Labor. 1903. University of 1903. West Indian 1903. The republic Pacific cable completed. Ottawa found- hurricane of Panama pro- Canal treaty with Panama. ed. destroyed claimed. Cuban Reciprocity Treaty ratified. many lives. Canal treaty Alaskan boundary dispute decided. with U. S. 1904. Venezuelan (Commercial treaty with China. 1904. Earl Grey, diplomatic difE- Arbitration treaty with France. • Governor-Gen- culties with Great fire in Baltimore. eral. United States. HISTORY 109 A. D. FROM THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES, 1789 A. D., TO THE PRESENT TIME 1905 United States of America Canada Spanish North America Spanish South America Theodore Roosevelt, President; 1905. Decennial C. W. Fairbanks, Vice-President. census act. 1906 Destruction of San Francisco by 1906. British pref- 1906. Revolutions 1906. Pan-American earthquake and tire. erential tariff in Central conference at Riot at Brownsville, Texas. debated. America. Rio de Janeiro. 1907 Pure Food Law became effective. 1907. Riots 1907. Tehuantepec 1907. Notable im- Jamestown E.xposition opened. against Japa- National Rail- pulse given to Oklahoma admitted as a State. nese. way opened. trade. 1908 The Aldrich Currency bill introduced 1908. Tercentenary 1908. Alexis flees 1908. Labor riot at in the U. S. Senate. held at Quebec. from Hayti. Chilean mines. 1909 William H. Taft, President; 1909. Unusual im- 1909. Earthquakes 1909. Anarchist up- James S. Sherman, Vice-President. migration from in Mexico. risings in Argen- Payne-.\Idrich tariff. United States. Meeting of tina suppressed. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition. Railway de- Taft and Diaz Peary discovers North Pole. velopment. at El Chamizal. 1910 Commerce Court created. 1910. Death of 1910. President 1910. Mutiny of Postal Savings Banks established. Goldwin Smith. Diaz reelected. Brazilian navy. 1911 Postal deficit wiped out. 1911. Duke of Con- 1911. Diaz forced to 1911. The Rivada- Trust trials before United States naught, Gov- resign. via, largest bat- Supreme Court; dissolution of ernor-General. Francisco I. tle-ship in the Standard Oil Company ordered. Reciprocity Madero, presi- world, launched Arbitration treaties with Great Brit- with United dent. for Argentine ain and France. States defeated. navy. 1912 Nation-wide investigation of dyna- 1912. Duke of Con- 1912. Insurrection 1912. Railroad across mite conspiracy. naught visits in Mexico. Andes completed. Arizona and New Mexico admitted. United States. 1913 Parcel Post established. 1913. Unusual pros- 1913. Madero, 1913. Development XVI amendment adopted. perity through- president of of Amazon Woodrow Wilson, President; out the do- Mexico, forced valley. Thomas R. Marshall, Vice-Presi- minion. to resign. Roosevelt visits dent. Notable ex- Madero is South America. XVII amendment adopted. tension of assassinated. California anti-alien land law. Rural Free De- Huerta, leader Underwood-Simmons tariff law. livery system. of insurrection Glass-Owen currency law. in Mexico. 1914 Neutrality of United States in Euro- 1914. Death of Lord 1914. Revolution 1914. Argentina, pean war proclaimed. Strathcona. in Hayti. Brazil, Chile dele- Nicaragua canal treaty. Empress of U. S. troops gates at Niagara Federal reserve banks established. Ireland sinks. at Vera Cruz. Falls conference. 1915 Federal trade commission. 1915. Canada sends 1915. Carranza 1915. South Ameri- Pan-American financial conference troops and sup- recognized can delegates at Washington. plies to Europe. president of at scientific Naval advisory board established. Mexico. congress. Government railroad in Alaska begun. Washington. 1916 Philippine independence bill. 1916. Duke of Dev- 1916. Villa's raid 1916. Irigoyen elect- Military expedition in Mexico. onshire, Gov- on Columbus, ed President of National Guard mobilized. ernor-General. N. M. Argentina. Purchase of Danish islands approved. Prohibition Workman's compensation act. in Ontario. 1917 Diplomatic relations with Germany 1917. Woman suf- 1917. Cuba declares 1917. Brazil declares • severed. frage granted. war on Ger- war on Germany. Woodrow Wilson, reelected. New Quebec many. Argentina, Boli- T. 11. Marshall, Vice-President. bridge opened. Guatemala, via, Ecuador, Senate adopts cloture rule. Conservatives Honduras, Peru, and Uru- Congress declares war on Germany. win Parlia- Hayti and guay sever re- Immense military appropriations. mentary elec- Nicaragua end lations with Selective Conscription Bill. tion. diplomatic Germany. Navy greatly increased. Terrific ex- relations with Guerra elected Army cantonments built. plosion wrecks Germany. president of Government takes over railways. Halifax. Bolivia. 1918 Federal fuel administration. 1918. Prohibition 1918. Guatemala, 1918. Brazil gives War Finance Corporation bill. adopted in all Nicaragua, Allies interned Daylight saving bill. provinces. Costa Rica, German ships. War industries board. D ominion Honduras, and General strike Man-power registration exceeds troops win dis- Hayti declare in Argentina. 23,000,000. t i n c t i o n in war on Ger- Territorial dis- Two million American troops over- France. many. pute between seas. Canadian Peru and Chile. Republicans win congressional elec- enlistments tions. exceed 550,000. 1919 Death of Theodore Roosevelt. 1919. Premier Bor- 1919. Mexico and 1919. Great marine President Wilson heads American den represents Cuba resume workers strike in delegation to Peace Conference. Dominion at diplomatic re- Argentina. League of Nations formulated. Peace Confer- lations. Brazil excludes Prohibition amendment ratified. ence. Tension over German banks. Revolutionary aliens deported. Death of Laurier. foreign conces- sion in Mexico. 1920 Railways returned to private manage- 1920. Premier Bor- 1920. Carranza over- 1920. Tension be- ment. den retires, Ar- thrown in Mex- tween Peru and Army reorganization bill. thur Mcighen ico by Obrcgon Chile. Supreme Court upholds prohibition premier. and de la Huerta. Revolution in amendment and Volstead en- British Steel Cabrera re- Bolivia. forcement act. Corporation gime in Guate- Argentine- Woman suffrage amendment ratified. formed. mala falls. American bank formed. 110 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Feudal System. The name generally given to the system of land tenure and social arrangements which prevailed in Em'opc during the period commonly known as the Middle Ages. Its essence lay in the close connection which existed under it between social status and the ownership of land. The man who held land from another was looked upon as the dependent and subordinate of the latter. Under the Feudal System both spear and plough helped to pay the rent. Knight Service and Socage were required from every tenant — the former obliging him to serve, at the call of his landlord, for so many days each year in the field of battle; the latter to give occasional days of labor on the castle grounds, or to send fixed suppUes of such things as beef or poultry, meal or honey, to the castle larder. Numbers of serfs, called Villeins, tilled little patches of ground under certain conditions, and these were held nominally to be freemen; but the lowest class of serfs took rank with the oxen and the swine which they tended, being, hke them, the property of the master. The Feudal System still survives as the basis of many laws relating to land. Flags, Historic American. Accord- ing to the historian Lossing the battle-flag of Bunker Hill was the time-honored flag of New England. It had a blue field with the upper inner quarter containing the red cross of St. George, in one section of which was the emblem- atic pine tree. ! The Pine Tree FlcLg, under which the first naval vessels of the colonists sailed in October, 1775, contained a green pine tree in the center of a white field surmounted by the words "An Appeal to Heaven." The Rattlesnake Flag, one of the earUest em- blems of the colonies, was hoisted by Paul Jones on the ship of war Alfred in December, 1775. It was a yellow flag with a rattlesnake in the center coiled over the motto "Don't Tread on Me." The Continental Flag, raised on Prospect Hill, Cambridge, Mass., January 2, 1776, by General Washington contained the thirteen stripes, one for each colony as in the present flag, but in place of the stars it displayed the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. This was the first occasion when thirteen alternating stripes of white and red were made the foxmdation of a national standard. The Betsy Ross Flag, the first combining the stars and stripes, contained thirteen five-pointed stars arranged in a circle on a blue field. This was made the official flag by the Continental Congress. {See United States Flag) Commodore Perry's Flag at the battle of Lake Erie contained the words of the dying Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship," which have become the watchword of the American navy. The Flag of Fort Mc Henry which inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner," September 14, 1814, contained fifteen stripes and fifteen stars. The inspiring name Old Glory was given to the American flag by Captain Wilham Driver of Salem, Mass., in 1831. It was his salute to a beautiful new flag presented to his ship when starting on a voyage around the world. Flanders. An ancient country of Europe which comprised the present provinces of East and West Flanders in Belgium, the southern part of the province of Zealand in Holland, and the de- partment of Nord with portions of Pas-de-Calais in France. During the Middle Ages the Flemish cities became very important and the counts of Flanders,' though nominally subject to France, were more wealthy and powerful than many Euro- pean kings. In 1384 Flanders was united to Bur- gundy. A part of Flanders was transferred to Hol- land, 1648, and various portions were acquired by France, 1659-1713. The remainder then fell under the rule of Austria. In 1795 Flanders be- came a part of the French repubUc. At the Congress of Vienna, 1815, Belgium was jomed to Holland to form the Netherlands, but in 1832 Belgium became an independent state. Flanders has been styled the "cockpit of Europe." From the period of the medieval struggles between the French and EngHsh to the titanic battles follow- ing the Gei-man invasion of Belgium and France in 1914, this region has been the scene of sangui- nary conflicts. Florida. The name Florida, derived from a Spanish word meaning "flowery," or perhaps because it was first visited on "Pascua Florida," or Easter Sunday, was originally appUed to a much larger region than the present State, its boundaries extending to the Mississippi, and on the north indefinitely. It was first discovered by Ponce de Leon in 1512, who landed near St. Augustine. Spain had no permanent footing till 1565, when the fort was built at St. Augustine. Pensacola was settled in 1696. In 1763, Florida was ceded to the English in exchange for Cuba, but by the treaty of 1783 it was retroceded to Spain. A portion of Florida was seized by the United States in 1803, and in 1819 was purchased from Spain for $5,000,000. Florida was admitted as a State in 1845. Forum (fd'rum). In Roman cities, a public place where causes were judicially tried, and orations made to the people. It was a large, open parallelogram, surrounded by porticos. There were six of these forums, viz: the Roma- num, Julianum, Augustum, Palladium, Traja- num, and Sallustii forums. The chief was the Romanum, called the forum. France. Gaflia was the name under which France was designated by the Romans, who knew httle of the country till the time of Caesar. In the Fifth Century it fell completely under the power of the Visigoths, Burgundians, and Franks. In 486 A. D., Clovis, a chief of the Salian Franks, raised himself to supreme power in the North. His dynast}'', known as the Merovingian, ended in 752. The accession of Pepin gave new vigor to the monarchy, which, under his son and successor, Charlemagne (768-814), rose to the rank of the most powerful empire of the West. On the death of Louis V. the Carlovingian Dynasty was replaced by that of Hugues, Count of Paris, whose son, Hugh Capet, was elected king by the army, and consecrated at Rheims, 987. Louis le Gros (1108-37) waged war against Henry I. of England; and when the latter alUed himself with the Emperor Henry V. of Germany against France he brought into the field an army of 200,000 men. The orijlamme is said to have HISTORY 111 been borne aloft for the first time on this occa- sion as the national standard. Louis VII. (1137-80) was almost incessantly engaged in war with Henry II. of England. His son and successor, Philippe Auguste (llSO-1223), recov- ered Normandy, Maine, Touraine, and Poitou from John of England. He took an active per- sonal share in the Crusades. Philippe was the first to levy a tax for the maintenance of the standing army. Many noble institutions date their origin from this reign, as the University of Paris, the Louvre, etc. St. Louis IX. effected many modifications in the fiscal department, and, before his departure for the Crusades, se- cured the rights of the Galilean Church by special statute, in order to counteract the constantly increasing assumptions of the papal power. Philippe IV. (1285-13 14), surnamed Le Bel, acquired Navarre, Champagne, and Brie by marriage. Charles IV. {Le Bel) (1321-28) was the last direct descendant of the Capetian line. Philippe VI., the first of the House of Valois (1328-50), succeeded in right of the Salic law. His reign, and those of his successors, Jean (1350-64) and Charles V. (Le Sage) (1364-80), were disturbed bv constant wars with Edward III. of England." Hostilities began in 1339; in 1346 the battle of Crecy was fought; at the battle of Poitiers (1356) Jean was made captive; and before the final close, after the death of Edward (1377), the state was reduced to bank- ruptcy. During the regency for the minor, Charley VI. (Le Bien Aime) (1380-1422), the war was renewed with increased vigor on the part of the English nation. The signal victory won by the English at Agincourt in 1415 aided Henry in his attempts upon the throne. But the extraordinary influence exercised over her countrymen by the Maid of Orleans aided in bringing about a thorough reaction, and, after a period of murder, rapine, and anarchy, Charles VII. (Le Vidorieux) (1422-61) was crowTied at Rheims. His successor, Louis XI. (1461-83), succeeded in recovering for the cro^\^l the terri- tories of Maine, Anjou, and Provence, while he made himself master of some portions of the territories of Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- gundy. .Charies VIII. (1483-98), by his mar- riage with Anne of Brittany, secured that pow- erful state. With him ended the direct male succession of the House of Valois. Louis XII. (1498-1515) (Le Plre du Peuple) was the only representative of the Valois-Orleans family; his successor, Francis I. (1547), was of the Valois- AngouUme branch. The defeat of Fran- cis at the battle of Pa via, in 1525, and his sub- sequent imprisonment at Madrid, threw the affairs of the nation into the greatest disorder. In the reign of Henri II. began the persecutions of the Protestants. Henri III. (1574-89) was the last of this branch of the Valois. The mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew (1572) was perpetrated under the direction of the queen-mother, Catha- rine de' Medici, and the confederation of the League, at the head of which were the Guises. The wars of the League, which were carried on by the latter against the Bourbon branches of the princes of the blood-royal, involved the whole nation in their vortex. The succession of Henri IV. of Navarre (1589-1610), a Bourbon prince, descended from a younger son of St. Louis, allayed the fury of these religious wars, but his recantation of Protestantism in favor of Catholicism disappointed his own party. Dur- ing the minority of his son, Louis XIII. (1610- 43), Cardinal Richelieu, under the nominal regency of Marie de' Medici, the queen-mother, ruled with a firm hand. Cardinal Mazarin, under the regency of the queen-mother, Anne of Austria, exerted nearly equal power for some time during the minority of Louis XIV. (1643- 1715). The wars of the Fronde, the misconduct of the parliament, and the humbling of the no- bility gave rise to another civil war, but with the assumption of power by j'oung Louis a new era commenced, and till near the close of his long reign the military successes of the French were most brilliant. Louis XV. (1715-75) suc- ceeded to a heritage whose glory was tarnished, and whose stability was shaken to its very foundations during his reign. The Peace of Paris, 1763, by which the greater portion of the colonial possessions of France were given up to England, terminated an inglorious war, in which the French had expended 1,350 millions of francs. In 1774 Louis XVL, a well-meaning, weak prince, succeeded to the throne. The American war of freedom had disseminated republican ideas among the lower orders, while the Assembly of the Notables had discussed and made knowai to all classes the incapacity of the government and the wanton prodigality of the court. The nobles and the tiers Hat were alike clamorous for a meeting of the states, the former wishing to impose new taxes on the na- tion, and the latter determined to inaugurate a thorough and systematic reform. After much opposition on the part of the king and court the Etats Gencraux, which had not met since 1614, assembled at Versailles on May 25, 1789. The resistance made by Louis and his advisers to the reasonable demands of the deputies on the 17th of June, 1789, led to the constitution of the National Assembly. The consequence was the outbreak of insurrectionary movements at Paris, where blood was shed on the 12th of July. On the following day the national guard was con- voked, and on the 14th the people took posses- sion of the Bastile. The royal princes and all the nobles who could escape sought safety in flight. The royal family, having attempted in vain to follow their example, tried to conciliate the people by the feigned assumption of repub- hcan sentiment; but on the 5th of October the rabble, followed by numbers of the national guard, attacked Versailles, and compelled the king and his family to remove to Paris, whither the Assembly also moved. A war with Austria was begun in April, 1792; and the defeat of the French was visited on Louis, who was confined in August with his family in the Temple. In December the king was brought to trial. On January 20, 1793, sentence of death was passed upon him, and on the following day he was beheaded. Marie Antoinette, the widowed queen, was guillotined; the dauphin and his surviving relatives suffered every indignity that malignity could de\ase. A reign of blood and terror succeeded. The brilliant exploits of the young general, Napoleon Bonaparte, in Italy 112 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS turned men's thoughta to other channels. In 1795, a general amnesty was declared, peace concluded with Prussia and Spain, and the war carried on vigorously against Austria. The Revolution had reached a turning-point. A directory was formed to administer the govern- ment. In 1797, Bonaparte and his brother- commanders were omnipotent in Italy. Austria was compelled to give up Belgium, accede to peace on any terms, and recognize the Cisalpine repubhc. Under the pretext of attacking Eng- land a fleet of 400 ships and an army of 36,000 picked men were equipped. The directory sent Bonaparte with them to Egypt; but he resigned the command to Kleber, landed in France in 1799, supplanted the directory, and secured his own nomination as consul. In 1800, a new constitution was promulgated, vesting executive power in Bonaparte. Rejoining his army, he crossed the Alps, and defeated the Austrians at Marengo. In 1804, Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor. The disastrous Russian campaign was soon followed by the falling away of his alhes. The defeat of Leipzig compelled the French to retreat beyond the Rhine. The Swedes rein- forced his enemies on the east, while the English pressed on from the west; Paris, in the absence of the emperor, capitulated after a short resist- ance, March 30, 1814. Napoleon retired to the island of Elba. On the 3d of May, Louis XVIII. (the brother of Louis XVI.) made his entry into Paris. On March 1, 1815, Napoleon left Elba, and landed in France. Crowds followed him; the soldiers flocked around his standard; the Bourbons fled, and he took possession of their lately deserted palaces. The news spread terror through Europe; on the 25th of March a treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and England, and preparations made to restore the Bourbon d3'nasty. At first success seemed to attend Napoleon; but on the 18th of June he was defeated at Waterloo. Placing himself under the safeguard of the Eng- Ush, he was sent to the island of St. Helena, where, on May 5, 1821, he died. In 1824, Louis XVIII. died and his brother succeeded to the throne as Charles X. reigning until the revolution of 1830, and the election to the throne of Louis Philippe as king, by the will of the people. Louis Philippe abdicated (February 24, 1848) and a republic was pro- claimed. Louis Napoleon was elected president in December, 1848; but by the famous coup d'Uat of December 2, 1851, he violently set aside the constitution, and assumed dictatorial powers. A year later he was raised to the dignity of em- peror as Napoleon III. The course of events in the short but terrible Franco-German war of 1870-71 electrified Europe by its unexpected character. On September 2, 1870, Napoleon, with 90,000 men, surrendered at Sedan. A republic was proclaimed, and the first national assembly met at Bordeaux in February, 1871. The assembly organized a republican govern- ment, and nominated Thiers president of the French republic, but -with the condition of re- sponsibility to the national assembly. In 1873, Thiers resigned, and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon, who resigned in 1879, and was suc- ceeded by Jules Grevy. In 1887, Sadi-Carnot was chosen president. He was assassinated June 24, 1894. His successor was Casimir-Perier, who resigned January 15, 1895, and was succeeded by Francois Felix Faure. President Faure was assassinated in 1899, and his successor was Emile Loubet, during whose administration the famous Dreyfus case was reopened. Armand Fallieres was elected to the presidency January 17, 1906. The most important public act during his incum- bency was the enforcement of the separation law, which separated church and state. On January 17, 1913, Raymond Poincare was elected president. At the outbreak of war in Europe, 1914, Germany invaded Luxemburg on the way to France, Aug. 2, declared war on France, Aug. 3, and invaded Belgium, Aug. 4. By Aug. 12 troops were engaged along a battlefront extending from Holland to Switzerland. French forces were defeated at Charleroi, Aug. 23. British troops were overpowered at Mons on the same day and retreated. Gen. Joffre, French commander-in- chief, then ordered a general withdrawal across the Marne. After advancing to within 20 miles of Paris, the German forces turned east, Sept. 4, to attack the main French army. Sept. 6-10, the battle of the Marne raged, ending in the defeat of the Germans and their retreat to the Aisne. Following the battle of the Aisne, September 12-28, the Germans established defensive lines from Belfort to the sea, from which they launched powerful thrusts toward Paris and the English Channel. While there was continuous fighting along the whole front, and many tremendous battles, such as Ypres, Artois, and Loos, 1915, Verdun and the Somme, 1916, and Arras and Cambrai, 1917, with some local gains for each opponent, the whole situation remained prac- tically at a deadlock until March, 1918. Then, by a series of powerful attacks, the Germans beat back both the British and the French lines, gravely menacing Paris and Calais. In this crisis Gen. Foch was placed in supreme command of the allied armies. Organizing his forces for the counter-offensive, he brought the fifth great German offensive to a complete halt near the Marne, July 18, and instantly began a campaign of unremitting attacks which, after four montlas of uninterrupted success, ended in the collapse of the Teutonic powers and the abject submission of Germany to the Allies under the terms of the armistice of November 11, 1918. Jan. 18, 1919, the international peace con- ference opened its sessions at Versailles, with Premier Clemenceau as chief presiding officer. French Revolution, The First. From May 5, 1789, to July 27, 1794. Chief Leaders of the First French Revolution: Comte de Mirabeau, 1789-1791; Danton, from the death of Mirabeau to 1793; Robespierre, from June, 1793, to July 27, 1794. Next to these three were St. Just, Couthon, Marat, Carrier, Hubert, Santerre, Camille Desmoulins, Roland and his wife, Brissot, Barnave,Sicyes, Barras, andTalhen. Great Days of the First French Revolution: June 17, 1789, the Tiers £tat constituted itself into the "National Assembly"; June 20th, the day of the Jeu de Paume, when the Assembly took an oath not to separate until it had given HISTORY 113 France a constitution; July 14th, Storming of the Bastille; October 5th and 6th, the king and National Assembly transferred from Versailles to Paris. This closed the ancient regime of the court. June 20, 21, 1791, flight and capture of the king, queen, and royal family. June 20, 1792, attack on the Tuileries by Santerre; Au- gust 10th, attack on the Tuileries and downfall of the monarchy; September 2d, 3d, and 4th, massacre of the state prisoners. January 21, 1793, Louis XVI. guillotined; May 31st, com- mencement of the Reign of Terror; June 2d, the Girondists proscribed; October 16th, Marie Antoinette guillotined; October 31st, the Giron- dists guillotined. April .5th, 1794, downfall of Danton; July 27th, dovs-nfall of Robespierre. Frisians' or Frisil (later called Frisones). An ancient Germanic people, who inhabited the extreme northwest of Germany, between the mouths of the Rhine and Ems, and were sub- jected to the Roman power under Drusus. They were subdued bj^ the Franks, and, on the division of the Carlovingian Empire, their country was divided into West Frisian (West Friesland) and East Frisian (East Friesland). The language of the Frisians is intermediate between the Anglo-Saxon and the Old Norse. Our knowl- edge of the old Frisian is derived from certain collections of laws; as the "Asegabuch," com- posed about 1200; the "Brockmerbrief," in the Thirteenth Centurj^; the "CEpnsiger Domen," about 1300, and some others. Fronde, a name given to a revolt in France opposed to the Court of Anne of Austria and Mazarin during the minority of Louis XIV. The war which arose, and which was due to the des- potism of Mazarin, passed through two phases; it was first a war on the part of the people and the parliament, c.lled the Old Fronde, which lasted from 1648 till 1649, and then a war on the part of the nobles, called the New Fronde, which lasted till 1652, when the revolt was crushed by Turenne to the triumph of the royal power. The name is derived from the mimic fights with slings in which the boys of Paris frequently in- dulged, and which even went so far as to beat back j at times the civic guard sent to suppress them. Garde Nationale, a guard of armed citizens instituted in Paris, July 13, 1789. At first it numbered 48,000 men, but was increased to 300,000 when it was organized throughout the whole country. Marquis de Lafayette was its first commander. It was reorganized by the Director}^ and by Napoleon, and again under the Bourbons and wafc dissolved in 1827. Under Louis Philippe it was resuscitated and contrib- uted to his overthrow. In 1851, the national guard was again reorganized, but in 1855 dissolved. In 1870, the national guard of Paris was formed for the defense of the city against the Prussians. The resistance of a section of the guard to the decree of disarmament led to the communal war, at the close of which the guard was de- clared dissolvedby the National Assembly (1871). Geneva Convention, a convention signed by the chief European continental powers in 1864, providmg for the succor of the sick and wounded in war. It has since been ratified by the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and about forty other nations. The chief provisions are: (1) The neutrality of ambulances and military hospitals. (2) The personnel of such ambulances and hospitals, including sanitary oihcers and naval and military chaplains, to be benefited by the neutraUty. (3) The inhabit- ants of a country, rendering help to the sick and wounded, are to be respected and free from cap- ture. (4) No distinction to be made between the sick and wounded, on account of nationality. (5) A flag and uniform to be adopted, and an armlet for the persomicl of ambulances and hos- pitals. The flag and ai'mlet to consist of a red Greek cross on a white ground. The Turks use a red crescent in place of the cross. Other pro- visions have since been added intended to miti- gate the severity of naval combat, and cover cases of capture and sinking of vessels. To carry out the terms of this convention, the Inter- national Society for the Aid of the Sick and Wounded has been organized, with committees in the chief towns in the United States and in Europe. It first played an important part in the Franco-German War, every nation sending its contingent of ambulances, surgeons, etc. In the Spanish-American War the Cuban Central j Relief Committee used the Red Cross Society as an agency in the distribution of relief. Georgia. Named after King George II. of England. Georgia was the latest settled of the thirteen colonies, which first formed the United States. The country was originally included in the charter of Carolina. In 1732 the territory was granted to a corporation, which sent out the first colony under Sir James Oglethorpe the same year. In 1733 Savannah was founded. General Oglethorpe commanded the forces of Carolina and Georgia in the unsuccessful expedition against St. Augustine in 1740. In 1752, Georgia became a royal government under regulations similar to those of the other colonies. During the Revolution Georgia was overrun by the British, and Savannah captured in 1778, The Constitution of the United States was ratified Januarv 2, 1788. The State seceded January 19, 1861. The principal military events were those about Atlanta, resulting in its evacuation, and Sher- man's March to the Sea, all in 1864. Georgia was formally readmitted to the Union July 15, 1870. An International Cotton Exposition was held at Atlanta in 1881, which gave a pronounced impulse to that industry in the South. The State enacted a law in prohibition of the liquor traffic in 1907. Germany. After the gradual retirement of the Romans from Germany the country became divided into petty states and govern- ments, where the influence of France was soon made apparent on both sides of the Rhine, asserting supremacy over the whole of the west of Germany. Charlemagne, extending his con- quests from the North Sea to the Alps, and from the Rhine to Hungary, laid the foundation of that long line of emperors and kings who occupied the German throne for upward of 1,000 years. On the extinction, in 911, of the Carlovingian dynasty, the archbishops, bishops, and abbots arrogated to themselves the right of electing their sovereign, who could not, how- ever, assume the imperial title till he was crowned 114 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS by the pope. At this period there were in Ger- many five nations — the Franks, Saxons, Bava- rians, Swabians, and Lorrainers. Their choice of a ruler fell upon the Count of Franconia, who, under the title of Conrad I., reigned King of Germany from 911-18. He was succeeded by Henry, Duke of Saxony, who gained conquests over the Danes, Slavs, and Magyars, which was confirmed and extended by his son and suc- cessor, Otho I. (936-73), who carried the boun- daries of the empire beyond the Elbe and Saale. In 1039-56 Henry III. extended German supremacy over Hungary. In 1125 the male hne of the Franconian d^Tiasty became extinct by the death of Henry V.; Lothaire of Saxony occupied the throne till 1138; when the reins of power were assumed by Conrad HI., Duke of Franconia, in whose reign the civil wars of the Guelphs and GhibcUines began. He was the first of the Hohenstauffen dynasty. He was succeeded by the famous Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa, who, with the flower of his chivalry, perished in the Crusades. In 1273 Rudolf I., the first of the Habsburg line, which still reigns in Austria, began his reign, and restored order by destroying the strongholds of the nobles. For the next 200 years, counting from 1292, the period of the accession of Adolphus, the history of the German Empire presents few features of interest. In 1493 Maximilian I., succeeded his father, Frederick III., married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, and became, consequently, involved in the general politics of Europe, while his opposition to the reformed faith preached by Luther embittered the religious differences which marked the close of his reign. He was succeeded by Charles V., who, although opposed to the Refonnation, left the princes of Germany to settle their religious differences among them- selves, and to quell the insurrection of the peas- ants in 1525, which threatened to undermine society. He abdicated in favor of his brother Ferdinand in 1550, who granted entire toleration to the Protestants. Ferdinand's reign was dis- turbed by domestic and foreign aggressions. Anarchy, both civil and religious, now obtained in his dominions to such an extent as to culmi- nate in the Thirty Years' War, which closed under Ferdinand III. by the treaty of West- phalia, 1648. This terrible war depopulated the rural districts of Germany, destroyed its commerce, crippled the powers of the emperors, burdened the people with taxes, and cut up the empire into a multitude of petty states, whose rulers exercised almost absolute power. The male line of the Habsburg dynasty expired with Charles VI., 1740. The reign of this potentate and that of his predecessor, Joseph I., were signalized by the victories won by the imperialist general. Prince Eugene, and Marlborough, over the French. During the Seven Years' War Frederick the Great, of Prussia, maintained his character for skillful generalship at the expense of Austria. During the life-time of Maria Theresa she retained her authority over all the Christian states, but on her death her son, Joseph II., was little more than nominal sovereign. In 1792 Francis II. was crowned Emperor of Germany; in 1804 he assumed the title Francis I. Emperor of Austria; in 1806 he resigned the German crown and assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, having suffered a series of defeats by the armies of the French Republic. From this period till 1814-15 Germany was almost wholly at the mercy of Napoleon, who deposed the estab- hshed sovereigns, and dismembered the states in the interest of his own favorites. Of the 300 states into which the empire was divided there remained only forty — a number subsequently reduced to thirty-five. The Diet was now reor- ganized by all the alhed states as the legislature and executive organ of the Confederation. The French Revolution of 1830 reacted sufficiently to constrain the rulers of some of the German states to give written constitutions to their subjects. In 1848 insurrectionary movements compelled the convocation of a natural congress of representatives of the people. The Archduke John of Austria was elected vicar of the newly organized government. The refusal of the King of Prussia to accept the imperial crowTi which was offered him by the parliament was followed by a provisional regency of the empire. In 1850 the Diet was restored by Austria and Prussia. In 1859 the federal army was mobilized, and the Prussian prince regent made commander-in-chief. By the treaty of Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to prevent collision it was judged prudent that Austria should occupj' Holstein and Prussia Schleswig. Prussia was believed to have the intention of annexing the duchies, whUe Austria began to favor the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg. In 1866 Austria, disregarding the convention of Gastein, placed the whole matter at the disposal of the Bund. Prussia protested, declared war, and quickly defeated Austria. Austria then gave up all claims to Schleswig-Holstein, and also restored Venetia to Italy. In 1870 the Franco-Prussian war resulted in the utter humiliation of the French arms, and the cession of Alsace-Lorraine, containing 5,605 square miles of territory, together with the pay- ment of five billion francs as additional indem- nity. The German empire, reconstructed in 1870, as a result of this conflict, grew out of the North German Confederation estabhshed in 1866. On January 18, 1871, King Wilham of Prussia received at Versailles the title of German em- peror. He was succeeded in 1888 by his son Friedrich III. who reigned three months. Friedrich III. was succeeded by his son Wilham II., whose early reign was marked by the forma- tion of the Triple Alhance, with Austria and Italy, by the acquisition of foreign dependencies, and by rapid industrial and commercial progress. His later reign witnessed an enormous and ever increasing expansion of military and naval armament to keep pace with a colossal ambition for world conquest and world power. In further- ance of these aims, Germany supported Austria against Russia in the Balkans, formed an alliance with Turkey to gain access to Asia, and made bold demands for French and Belgian territory in Africa. All these plans for vast mihtary conquests were brought to a head when Austria-Hungary, with the approval of Germany, declared war on HISTORY 115 Serbia, July 28, 1914. Russia, to aid Scrvia, began mobilization. This led Germany to de- clare war on Russia, Aug. 1, and upon France, as an ally of Russia, Aug. 3. Upon Belgium's refusal to grant passage of troops to invade France, German forces stormed Liege, Aug. 4-7, whereupon England declared war on Germany. The Germans took Louvain, Brussels, and Ghent. Defeating the British at Mons and the French at Charleroi, they forced the allied armies back into France. After following the British south- ward, nearly to Paris, the Germans turned cast- ward in an attempt to crush the main French armies. Severely defeated in the ensuing battle of the Marne, Sept. 6-10, the Germans retreated and fought an indecisive struggle on the Aisne, Sept. 12-28. Establishing defensive lines from Switzerland to the sea, the Gerrnan armies main- tained their positions on the Franco-Belgian front essentially unchanged for nearly four years, despite terrific battles with huge losses for both sides. In August, 1914, the Russians invaded East Prussia but were soon routed by Hindenburg who advanced into Russian Poland. Japan de- clared war against Germany, Aug. 23, 1914, and seized the fortified German port of Tsing-tau. Feb. 4, 1915, Germany declared the waters around the British Isles a submarine war zone. Following the capture of Warsaw, Aug. 4, the Germans soon completed the conquest of Russian Poland. From February to August, 1916, the crown prince made fruitless attempts to capture Verdun. Rumania entered the war against Ger- many, Aug. 27, but suffered complete defeat with the loss of Bucharest in December. On Feb. 1, 1917, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare which led the United States to declare war on Germany, Apr. 6. On Nov. 7 the Bolsheviki, with German assistance, seized power in Russia and on Mar. 3, 1918, signed the Brest-Litovsk treaty for a separate peace with Germany. Mar. 21, 1918, Ludendorff began a series of tremendous attacks to separate and destroy the British and French- armies in France before the arrival of effective American aid. After achieving marked local success and ap- proaching within 40 miles of Paris, the German armies were thrown ba-^k by allied counter- attacks, July 18, and steadily defeated until November. William II. abdicated and fled to Holland upon the signing of the armistice of Nov. 11, 1918, the terms of which included the sur- render of the German fleet, and the occupation of the Rhine by the Allies. A new government was proclaimed, with Friedrich Ebert as provisional chief executive. In the parliamentary election held Jan. 19, 1919, the moderate socialists prevailed. On Feb. 11, 1919, a provisional constitution was adopted and Ebert was immediately elected president of the new German state. Gettysburg, Battle of, fought July 1-3, 1863, between the Union Army under General Meade, and the Confederates under Gen- eral Lee. During May the armies lay fronting each other upon the Rappahannock. Early in June Lee began his movement for the invasion of Pennsylvania, crossing the Potomac on the 24th and 25th, and reaching Chambersburg, Pa., on the 27th. General Hooker, then in command of the Army of the Potomac, moved in the same general direction, but on the 28th was reUeved, and the command given to Meade. In order to prevent his communications from being sev- ered, Lee turned back toward Gettysburg to give battle. Meade had intended to give battle at a spot several miles from Gettysburg, near which was, however, a small portion of his army. This came into collision about 8 A. M. on July 1st, with the advance of Lee, and was forced back, taking up a strong position on Cemetery Hill, in the rear of Gettysburg. Hancock, who had been sent forwai'd td examine the position reported that Gettysburg was the place at which to receive the Confederate attack, and Meade hurried his whole force to that point. The action on the second day, July 2d, began about 4 P. M. with an attempt made by Lee to seize Round Top, a rocky hill from which the Union position could be enfiladed. When this day's fighting closed Lee was convinced that he had greatly the advantage, and he resolved to press it the next day. On the morning of July 3d, an attempt was made upon the extreme Union right, but repelled. The main attack on the center was preluded by a cannonade from 150 guns, which was replied to by eighty, little injury being inflicted by either side. About noon the Union fire was slackened in order to cool the guns, and Lee, thinking that the batter- ies were silenced, launched a column of 15,000 or 18,000 against the Union lines. Some of this column actually surmounted the low works, and a brief hand-to-hand fight ensued. But the column was practically annihilated. No official report of the Confederate loss was ever pubKshed; the best estimates put it at about 18,000 killed and wounded, and 13,600 missing, most of them prisoners. The Union loss was 23,187, 16,543 of whom were killed and wounded. GhibeUines {gWel-lenz). The name of a celebrated pohtical faction which existed in Italy daring the Thirteenth Century and sprung out of the disputed succession to the imperial throne of Germany, vacated in 1137 by the death of Lothaire II. Conrad of Hohenstaufen, his elected successor, found his claim disputed by Henry of Guelph (surnamed the Proud), Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. At the latter's death his pretentions became personified in his son Henry the Lion, Duke of Brunswick, whose adherents called themselves Guelphs after his patronj^mic, in distinction from the Ghibellines, who derived their cognomen from Conrad's lordship of Weiblingen, 1140. Their feud after a while extended to Italy, over which the German emperors claimed supremacy against the popes, the Guelphs becoming there the supporters of the latter. This strife did not terminate until the French invasion of Charles VIII. in 1495. Girondists {ji-ron'disls),_ the name given to the moderate Republicans in the first French Revolution. The name was derived from the department of Gironde, which chose for its rep- resentatives in the Legislative Assembly five men who greatly distingui.shed themselves by their oratory, and who, being joined by Condorcet, Brissot, and the moderate Repubhcans who were the adherents of Roland, formed a powerful 116 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Conservative party. They fell during the Reign of Terror, and most of them perished on the scaffold. Gladiators, in Ancient Rome, professional combatants, who fought in the arena for the amusement of the people. They were at first slaves, prisoners, or convicts; but afterwards freemen fought in the arena, either for hire or from choice. When a gladiator was severely wounded, so as to be unable to fight any longer, his antagonist stood over him with his sword lifted, and looked up to the assembly for its fiat. If the majority turned their thumbs downwards, that was the signal of death. The practice was defended, even by Cicero, as serving to keep up a martial spirit and a contempt of death among the people. Constantine prohibited gladiators' fights by an edict (A. D. 325), but the practice was not wholly extinct till the time of Theodoric (A. D. 500). God's Truce, or The Truce of God. A singular institution of the Middle Ages, which originated in a council assembled at Limoges at the end of the Tenth Century, and in the council of Orleans, 1016. It consisted in the suspension for a stated time, and at stated seasons and festi- vals, of that right of private feud for the redress of wrongs, which, under certain conditions, was recognized by mediseval law or usage. It pre- vailed chiefly in France and the German Empire; and fell gradually into disuse when the right of private redress was restricted, and at last en- tirely abolished by laws. Goths. A powerful German people, who originally dwelt on the Prussian coast of the Baltic, at the mouth of the Vistula, but after- wards migrated south. About the beginning of the Third Century we find them separated into two great divisions, the Ostrogoths or Eastern Goths, and the Visigoths or Western Goths. The former were settled in Mocsia and Pannonia, while the latter remained north of the Danube. At the beginning of the Fifth Century, the Visi- goths, vmder their King Alaric, invaded Italy, and took and plundered Rome (A. D. 410). A few years later they settled in the southwest of Gaul, and thence invaded Spain, where they founded a kingdom which lasted for more than two centuries. Meantime, the Ostrogoths ex- tended their dominion almost up to the gates of Constantinople, and, under their King Theodoric (A. D. 489) obtained possession of the whole of Italy. Their dominion over Italy lasted, how- ever, only till 554, when it was overthrowTi by Narses, the general of Justinian. From this time, the Goths figure no longer in Western Europe, except in Spain, from which they were finally driven by the Arabs. But their name was perpetuated long after in Scandinavia, where a Kingdom of Gothia existed till 11 Gl, when it was absorbed in that of Sweden. Of Gothic literature, in the Gothic language, we have the translation of the Scriptures by Ulphi- las, which belongs to the Fourth Century, and some other religious writings and fragments. Greece. Prior to the finst recorded Olym- piad, B. C. 776, little is certain in Greek history. Long anterior to this the country had been in- habited, but fact and fable are so mingled in the accounts that have come down to us that it is impossible to distinguish the true from the false. Starting, then, from the period above indicated, we shall give a brief resume of the chief historic events up to the conquest of Greece by the Turks in 1456 A. D. — Olympic Games revived at Elis, 884 B. C; the fij'st Olympiad dates from 776 B. C; the Messenian Wars oc- curred from 743-669; the first sea-fight on rec- ord, between the Corinthians and the inhabitants of Corcyra, 664; Byzantium built, 657; the seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pitta- cus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourished about 593; Persian conquests in Ionia occurred in 544 ; Sybaris in Magna Graecia destroyed, and 100,000 Crotonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites, 508; Sardis burned by the Greeks which causes an invasion by the Persians, 504 Thrace and Macedonia are conquered, 496 Athens and Sparta defy the Persians, 490; the Persians are defeated at Marathon, 491; Xerxes invades Greece, but is repulsed at Thermopylae by Leonidas, 480 ; battle of Salamis occurs, 480 ; Mardonius is defeated and slain at Platsea, and the Persian fleet is destroyed at Mycale, 479; battle of EurjTTiedon, which ends the Persian War, 466 ; Athens attempts to obtain an ascend- ency over the rest of Greece, 459; the first "sacred war" begun, 448; Corinth and Corcyra involved in war, 435, which leads to the Pelopon- nesian War, lasting from 431-404; the Athenian expedition to Syracuse ends disastrously, 415- 413; the retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon occurs, 400; Socrates dies, 399; great sea-fight at Cnidas, 394; the peace of Antalcidas, 387; Thebes arrives at the height of its power in Greece between the years 370-360; the battle of Mantinea, and death of Epaminondas, 362; Philip of Macedon reigns, 353; the sacred war is stopped by Philip, who captures all the to^\Tis of the Phocaeans, 348; battle of Chseroneia, 338; Alexander enters Greece, conquers the Atheni- ans, and destro.ys Thebes, 335; he conquers the Persian Empire, 334-331; Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280; they are defeated at Delphi, 279; and finally expelled, 277; internal feuds lead to interference by the Romans, 200; Mum- mius conquers Greece, and makes it a Roman province, 147-146. Under Augustus and Had- rian Greece was prosperous, 122-133 A. D.; Alaric invades Greece, 396; it is plundered and ravaged by the Normans from Sicily, 1146; conquered by the Latins, 1204; the Turks under Mohammed II. conquer Athens and part Of Greece, 1456; thence, till 1822, the country was a province of Turkey. The revolt of the Greeks from Turkish rule took place March 6, 1821, under Alexander Ypsilanti, and on January 1, 1822, they declared their independence. In 1825, the Turks partially reoccupicd the country, but were finally forced to evacuate in 1828. At last, on February 3, 1830, a protocol of the allied powers declared the independence of Greece, which was recognized by the Porte on the 25th of April, of this year. The crown was offered to Leopold, Prince of Saxe-Coburg, and when he re- fused it, to Otho, a young prince of Bavaria, who was proclaimed king of the Hellenes at Nauplia in 1832. But his arbitrary measures, and the preponderance which he gave to Germans in the government, made him unpopular, and, although HISTORY 117 after a rebellion in 1843, a constitution was drawn up, he was compelled by another rebellion in 1862 to abdicate. A provisional government was then set up at Athens, and the national assembly offered the vacant throne in succession to Prince Alfred of England and Prince William George of Denmark. The latter accepted it, and on March 30, 1863, was proclaimed as King George I. In 1864, the Ionian islands were annexed to Greece. Greece long sought to extend its frontier northwards, to include the large Greek popula- tion in Thessaly and Epirus. In 1878 Greek troops were moved into Thessaly and Epirus, but were withdrawn on the remonstrance of Britain. The persistence of Greece led, in 1881, to the cession to her of Thessaly and part of Epirus, about one-third less than the territory promised by the Berlin congress. The union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria, in 1885, gave rise to a demand for a rectification of frontiers, and war with Turkey was prevented only by the great powers, who enforced peace by block- ading the Greek ports. In 1896 war was de- clared against Turkey when the people of Crete demanded their right to become a portion of Grecian territory. The result was a disastrous defeat. In 1904 the Greek army was reorganized and increased. In 1912, disputing Turkish boundaries and authority, Greece, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro declared war on Turkey. By treaties which closed the war in 1913, Greece acquired Crete, Thessaly, and parts of Epirus, Macedonia, and Thrace, including the ports of Saloniki and Kavala. Upon the assassination of King George, March 18, 1913, his son Con- stantine I., brother-in-law of the German kaiser, became king. When the war of nations began, 1914, Greece remained neutral. Conflict between the king, who was pro- German, and premier Venizelos, who was pro-Ally, caused the fall of the cabinet, March, 1915. In October, 1915, Constantine refused to fulfil treaty obligations to aid Servia against Bulgarian attack and declined Great Britain's offer to cede Cyprus to Greece in return for assistance in the war. French and British troops were landed for service in Servna and a military base was established at Saloniki. In 1917 Constantine was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Alexander, after which Greece definitely joined her forces with the Allies. In 1919 Venizelos headed the Greek delegation to the peace conference at Versailles. Gunpowder Plot, The. The name given to a conspiracy projected by Guy Fawkes and some revolutionary' associates against James I. and the members of the two Houses of ParUament, with a design to their destruction by undermining the building in which they were expected to assemble, placing there charges of gunpowder, and firing the same, November 5, 1605. The plot, however, proved abortive, and the conspirators met the penalty of their crime. Hanse Towns. The name given to cer- tain towns in Germany, so called from the Hanseatic League, which was formed in 1241, for the protection of the ports against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes. At first the League consisted only of towns situated on the coast of the Baltic; but it became so powerful, and exercised so many privileges, that ultimately it included many of the principal cities of Europe. The League consisted, in 1370, of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederate towns. The Thirty Years' War in Germany (1618-48) broke up the association. The only towTis now known as Hanse Towns are Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen. Habsbiirg, or Hapsburg (properly Habichtsburg or Habsburg, the hawk's castle). A small place in the Swiss Canton of Aargau, on the right bank of the Aar. The castle was built about 1027 by Bishop Werner of Strassburg. Werner II., who died in 1096, is said to have been the first to assume the title of Count of Habsburg. After the death, about 1232, of RudoK II., the family divided into two branches the founder of one of which was Albert IV. In 1273, Rudolf, son of Albert IV., was chosen Emperor of Germany, and from him descended the series of Austrian monarchs, all of the Habs- burg male fine, down to Charles IV. inclusive. After that the dj^nasty, by the marriage of Maria Theresa to Francis Stephen of Lorraine, became the Habsburg-Lorraine. Francis II., the third of this line, was the last of the so-called "Holy Roman Emperors," this old title being changed by him for that of Emperor of Austria. From the Emperor Rudolf was also descended a Spanish dynasty which began with the Em- peror Charles V. (Charles I. of Spain), and terminated with Charles II. in 1700. Helvetii. A powerful Celtic people, who dwelt in what is now the west of Switzerland. Their chief to^vTi was Aventicum. About 58 B. C. they resolved, on the advice of Orgetorix, one of their chiefs, to migrate from their country with their wives and children, and to seek a new home in Gaul. They were, however, defeated by Ca;sar, and driven back into their own territories, which became thenceforth a Roman colony. In the commotions that followed the death of Nero (A. D. 63) they were almost extirpated. Holland was an independent country from 863 to 1433, when Philippe of Burgundy united it to his vast estates. In 1477 Mary of Bur- gundy married Maximilian, and Holland was united to Austria. After Karl V. it passed into Spanish control. In 1579 Holland united with six other provinces in the "Union of Utrecht," and became a republic, called "The Seven Provinces," with WiUiam of Orange as stadt- holdcr. In 1806 it was given by Napoleon I. to his brother, Louis Bonaparte. In 1810 it was united to France, but, 1815, it was united to Belgium and "formed "The Kingdom of the Netherlands" under William I. In 1830 Holland and Belgium were divided. William II. became king in 1840 and William III. in 1849. Wilham III. was succeeded by Wilhelmina in 1890. Holland ordered mobilization of troops, July 31, 1914, and, to preserve neutrality in the war of the nations, blocked her roads with barbed wire and barricades, patrolcd her borders, and refused to export food to Germany. In 1915 the army was increased to 550,000. Holy Alliance. The name given to a treaty between the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, ratified in Paris after the fall of the Emperor Napoleon (Septem- 118 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ber 26, 1815), the object of which was professedly to pledge the respective monarchs to conduct their relations to each other under the guidance of Christian principles, but really to pledge each other to the maintenance of their respective dynasties. By the terms of this alliance, no member of the family of Napoleon was ever to occupj^ a European throne. Holy Roman Empire, The. The western part of the old Roman Empire, which was severed from the eastern part in 800, and was given by the pope to Charlemagne, who was crowned "Emperor of the_ Romans." When Charlemagne's empire was divided, Ludwig the German became kaiser; but on the death of Karl the Fat the title fell into abeyance for seventy years. In 962, John XII. gave the title to Otto I. the Great, and changed it into "The Holy Roman Empire." Francis II. re- nounced the titles of King of the Romans and Emperor of the Romans in 1806, and Napoleon added the Italian states to France, May, 1809. Home Rule League (1870). Projected by Mr. Butt, who stoutly opposed the repeal of the Union, but agitated for an Irish parliament which should have no power to touch upon imperial matters, but should be empowered to deal with matters of Ireland of a purely local character. On the death of Mr. Butt, in 1879, his scheme passed into the hands of the Land League, and their watchword, "Ireland for the Irish," meant separation from Great Britain. The term Home Rule survived the death of Mr. Butt, and in 1886, Mr. Gladstone, then prime minister, brought in a bill to give Ireland Home Rule, and exclude Irish members from West- minster. The measure broke up the great Whig party under the leadership of Lord Hartington, supported by Mr. Chamberlain (a Radical), Mr. Goschen, and others, who called themselves Unionists, and joined the great Tory party under the government of Lord Salisbury. Huguenots. A name formerly given to the Protestants in France. The story of the persecutions of the Huguenots is one of the sad- dest in history. In 1561 they took up arms against their persecutors; the struggle continued until the Edict of Nantes, establishing the rights of the Protestants, was signed by Henry of Navarre, April 13, 1598. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, in which, according to various authorities, from 2,000 to 100,000 Huguenots were murdered throughout the kingdom by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instiga- tion of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, began on the night of August 24, 1572. Hundred Years' War, The (1337- 1453). A war between England and France, caused by Edward III.'s claim to the crown of France. When Charles IV. of France died, without male issue, his cousin Philip of Valois succeeded him as Philip VL, the French law excluding females from the throne. Edward III. of England claimed the crown because through his mother Isabella he was nephew to King Charles IV. The French repUed that his claim was worthless since he could not inherit from one who could not herself have ascended the throne. After a long series of contests lasting more than a century, the war closed with the result that England lost all her possessions in France except Calais, which she retained for about a century longer. Hungary. The Magyars, an Asiatic people of Turanian race, allied to the Finns and the Turks, dwelt in what is now Southern Russia before they descended under Arpad into the plain of the Danube, towards the end of the Ninth Century, and conquered the whole of Hungary and Transylvania. During the first half of the Tenth Century their invasions and incursions spread terror throughout Germany, France, and Italj^; but at length their total defeat by Otho I. of Germany put an end to their maraudings, and under their native dynasty of Arpdds they settled down to learn agriculture and the arts of peace. Stephen I. (997-1030) was the first who was successful in extending Christianity generally amongst the Hungarians, and was rewarded by a crown from Pope Syl- vester II. and with the title of apostolic king (1000). Stephen encouraged learning and litera- ture, and under him Latin became not only the official language of the government, but the vehicle of Hungarian civilization, which it un- fortunately continued to be for the next 800 years. In 1089 King Ladislaus extended the boundaries of Hungary by the conquest of Croatia and Slavonia, and King Coloman by that of Dalmatia in 1102. During the Twelfth Century the Hungarians first attained, through French connections, a certain refinement of life and manners. About the middle of the Thir- teenth Century King Bela induced many Ger- mans to settle in the country which had been depopulated by the Mongol invasions. With Andrew III. (1290-1301) the male line of the Arpdd Dynasty became extinct, and the royal dignity now became purely elective. Charles Robert of Anjou was the first elected (1309). Louis I. (1342-82) added Poland, Red Russia, Moldavia, and a part of Servia, to his kingdom. The reign of Sigismund (1387-1437), who was elected Emperor of Germany, is interesting from the invasion of Hungary by the Turks (1391), and the war with the Hussites. Sigismund introduced various reforms, and founded an academy at Buda. Matthias Corvinus (1458- 90), combining the talents of a diplomatist and general, was equally successful against his ene- mies at home and abroad, and is even yet re- membered by the popular mind as the ideal of a just and firm ruler. He founded a university at Pressburg. During the reigns of Ladislaus II. (1490-1516) and Louis II. (1516-26) the rapacity of the magnates and domestic troubles brought the power of Hungary low, and the battle of Mohacs (1526) made a great part of the country a Turkish province for 160 years. The rest was left in dispute between Ferdinand of Austria and John Zapolya, but eventually, by the help of the Protestants, pa.ssed to the former, and has since remained under the scepter of the Habs- burgs. In 1686 Leopold I. took Buda and recovered most of Hungary and Transylvania. In 1724 Charles VI. secured by the Pragmatic Sanction the Hungarian Crown to the female descendants of the House of Habsburg, and the loyalty of the Hungarians to his daughter, Maria Theresa, saved the dynasty from ruin. Maria HISTORY 119 Theresa did much for the improvement of Hun- gary by the promulgation of the rural code called Urbarium, and by the formation of village schools. On the advent of the French revolu- tion, and during the wars which ensued, the Hungarians once more played a prominent part in support of the Habsburg Crown. Napoleon fell, but the revolution had given an impetus to ideas of national and popular rights which the Hungarians, long stifled under the Germanic traditions and tendencies of their rulers, were amongst the first to feel. For a time Francis I. and Metternich stood stiffly out against all concessions, and tried to govern by pure abso- lutism, but ended by summoning in 1825 a new diet. The diet distinguished itself bj^ adopting the Magyar language in its debates instead of the Latin to which it had been accustomed. Succeeding diets in 1830 and 1832 made new demands in the direction of religious equality, a popular suffrage, and abrogation of the privi- leges of the nobles. The Austrian Government attempted to repress the Hungarian national movement by imprisoning DeAk, Kossuth, and others of the leaders. The struggle continued till 1848, when the French Revolution of that year gave the impulse for a similar rising in Vienna. Prince Metternich fled to London, and the Viennese court made a formal concession of all important demands ; but these had no sooner been granted than the government began secretly to work against their being put in operation. The dependencies of the Hungarian Crown, the Croats and the Wallachians of Transylvania, were privately encouraged to revolt, and in December of the same year an Austrian army took the field with the avowed object of annihilating the independence of Hungary; but a series of pitched battles resulted on the whole so much in favor of the Hungarians that Austria was obliged to call in the aid of Russia, which was at once granted. After a heroic struggle the Hungarians had to succumb. But the struggle was continued by the Hungarians in the form of a constitutional agitation, and at last, when the battle of Sadowa, in 1866, separated Austria from Germany, Austria, left face to face with a nation almost as powerful and numerous as itself, felt compelled to submit. In 1867 a separate constitution and administration for Hungary was decreed, and on June 8th the emperor and empress were crowned king and queen of Hungary. The dualism of the Austrian Empire was thus finally constituted. It was indeed but the partial recognition of the fact that the empire w;as a heterogeneous assemblage of communities differing widely in race, lan- guage, social habits and customs, and bound together only by the accident of having fallen to the House of Habsburg. Huns. The name given to several nomadic Scythian tribes, which devastated the Roman Empire in the Fifth Century. They inhabited the plains of Tartary, near the boundaries of China, many centuries before the Christian era; and they were kno^\^l to the Chinese by the name of Hiongun, and also Han. It was in order to put a stop to the continual aggressions of the Huns that the great wall of China was built; and after this the Huns split up into two sepa- rate nations, named respectively the Northern and the Southern Huns. The first-mentioned of these gradually went west to the Volga, where they encountered the Alanni, whom they defeated. Here the Huns remained for about two centuries; but, under the Emperor Valens, they crossed the Bosphorus; afterward invading Rome, under their leader Attila. In 451 he was defeated by the Goths and Romans at the terrible battle of Chalons, on the plain of the Marne in France, where 300,000 dead were left upon the field. Attila, however, continued to menace Rome until his death in 453. The Huns then broke up into separate tribes and were finally driven east- ward across the Don. So fearful were the devas- tations of Attila that the western Christians called him the "scourge of God," and the term "Hun" became synonymous with the worst known extremes of barbaric cruelty and wanton destruction. Hence its universal application to the Germans consequent upon the unparalleled atrocities perpetrated by them during the great world war. Hussites ihiis'ltz). The followers of John Huss iq. v.), who avenged his death by one of the fiercest and most sanguinary civil wars ever known. They took the field under Ziska, 1418, gained the battle of Prague, July 14, 1420, and nearly annihilated the Imperialists at Deutsch- brod, January 8, 1422. After occupying the whole of Bohemia and Moravia, they threatened Vienna, and in 1426 gained the victories of Aussig and Mies. The Emperor Sigismund was at length too glad to come to terms with the Hussites, and the Treaty of Iglau, in 1436, ter- minated hostilities between Catholic and Prot- estant for the time being. Hyksos, The, or Shepherd Kings of Lower Egypt. A race of Arabs which invaded ancient Egypt, and continued dominant, according to Manetho, for 500 years (B. C. 2085-1575), but according to Breasted only about a century (B. C. 1657-1557). They formed or were contem- porary with the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seven- teenth Dynasties of Upper Egypt. It is sup- posed that Abraham went to Egj-pt while the Sixteenth Dynasty was regnant ; and that Joseph was viceroy about B. C. 1715, in the same dynasty. Idaho. The region within the present Um- its of the State was included in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Idaho was included first in Oregon and subsequently in Washington. The first settlement of consequence was the Coeur d'Alene Mission, which was established in 1842. The permanent settlement of the territory did not begin until the discovery of gold in 1860. Idaho was made a Territory in 18G3 and was admitted to statehood in 1890. The state granted suffrage to women in 1896; enacted statutory Prohibition in 1915; and adopted con- stitutional Prohibition in 1916. IHinois. The name is derived from that of an Indian tribe, Illini, signifying superior men. First explored in 1673 by Marquette, and in 1679 by La Salle. French settlements were formed at Crevecoeur, Kaskaskia, and Cahokia in 1682. With the subjugation of Canada, in 1763, the French dominion east of the Missis- sippi became English. In 1783 Illinois was 120 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ceded to the United States by England and became part of the Northwest Territory in 1787. After the successive severance of Ohio in 1800, of Indiana in 1805, and of Michigan in 1809, the remainder of the Northwest Territory was reconstituted as Ilhnois Territory, then embrac- ing Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. On De- cember 13, 1818, Ilhnois with its present limits was admitted as a State, being the eighth adopted under the Federal Constitution. The early history was an unbroken contest with the savages, the most notable incidents being the Fort Dearborn Massacre, August 15, 1812, and the Black Hawk War, 1831 to 1832. In 1913 partial suffrage was granted to women by legis- lative enactment. Incas. A Peruvian Dynasty (1130-1571) which succeeded the Aymara Dynasty, and was reigning when (in 1533) Pizarro conquered Peru. The Incas called themselves descendants of the Sun. The first Inca was Manco-Capac, 1130. Atahualpa was taken prisoner by the Spaniards and put to death in 1533. Tupac-Amaru was beheaded in 1571. India. The country was entered and partly subdued by Alexander the Great. About 126 B. C. it was also invaded by the Tartars, or Scythians of the Greeks, and Sakas of the Hindus. From the Tenth to the Twelfth Century of the Christian era the Mohammedans overran and conquered considerable portions of Hindustan, and subsequently the Mogul Empire was formed. In 1498, India w'as first visited by Vasco da Gama, and later the Portuguese and Dutch established settlements on the peninsula; but the former never acquired more than a paltry territory on the west coast, and the latter a few commercial factories. The French influence in India, at one time considerable, also yielded to the superior enterprise of the British, and finally the French relinquished the field. In 1625, the first English settlement was made by a company of merchants in a small spot of the Coromandel coast, of five square miles, transferred in 1653 to Madras. A short time previous a settlement had also been obtained at Ilooghly, which after- ward became the Calcutta station. In 1687, Bombay was erected into a presidency. In 1773, by act of the British Legislature, the three provinces were placed under the administration of a governor-general, and Calcutta was made the seat of a supreme court of judicature, the presidencies of Madras and Bombay being made subordinate to that of Bengal. Hitherto the affairs of India had been managed by the East India Company, but in 1784 a board of control was appointed by the government, the president of which became secretary of state for India. From the year 1750, when the warlike acquisi- tion of territory commenced under Lord Clive, a succession of conquests, almost forced upon the British contrary to their inclinations, placed nearly all India under their sway. In 1858, the direct sovereignty of India, and the powers of government hitherto vested in the East India Company, were vested in the British Crown. In 1906, the twenty-second Indian National Congress was held at Calcutta for the purpose of discussing the political wants of all races, religions, and provinces of India. Indiana. Originally settled by the French at Vincennes in 1702, but little is known of its early history. In 1763, it became a British pos- session, and in 1783, by treaty with Great Britain, it became part of the United States. In 1787, it was made part of the Northwest Territory, this term being applied to all the public domain north of the Ohio River. This region was much devastated from 1788 to 1791 by the Indians, but their defeat in the latter year gave the settlers peace for a time. Indiana was organized territorially July 4, 1800. In 1811, an Indian war, instigated by Tecumseh, broke out, but the power of the savages was broken at Tippecanoe. Hostilities did not en- tirely cease till 1815. The State was admitted December 11, 1816. In 1827, the Erie Canal opened an outlet for the produce of the West, and the national road was commenced. These stimulated immigration, and the new State grew rapidly. A new constitution was adopted in 1851, calculated especially to promote great public works. Statutory Prohibition was en- acted to take effect April 2, 1918. Indians, American. According to the estimate of James Mooney, United States govern- ment expert, the total Indian population north of Mexico at the date of the discovery of America in 1492 was 1,115,000. In 1910 the Indian popu- lation of the United States, Alaska, and Canada was, in round numbers, 400,000. For a long period there was such a constant and rapid de- crease in the number of Indians in the United States that many anthropologists predicted their early extinction. The low point in Indian popu- lation, however, was reached in 1900 when the census showed a total of only 237,000 within the boundaries of the United States. In 1910 this Indian population had risen to 265,000. In 1910 there were living representatives in the United States of 280 tribes, and in Alaska of 21 tribes. In addition, there were remain- ders of 45 Eskimo tribes. It is estimated that there were survivors of about 150 tribes in Canada, making a total representation of approximately 500 tribes. About 100 tribes are supposed to have become extinct since Columbus discovered America. The following table shows the present distribution of Indians in the United States: State No. Resek- Area Pop. VATiONS Sq. Mi. (1910) Alaska 25,331 Arizona 12 30,554 29,201 California 44 679 10,371 Colorado 1 7.56 1,482 Idaho 2 799 3,488 Kansas 3 2 1,853 Michigan 2 5 7,519 Minnesota 4 1,068 9,053 Mississippi .... 1,253 Montana 5 8,685 10,745 Nebraska, 2 22 3,502 Nevada, 3 993 5,240 New Mexico, 22 2,655 20,573 New York 8 137 6,046 North Carolina 1 99 7,851 North Dakota 3 4,414 6,486 Oklahoma, 10 8,531 74,825 Oregon 4 1,996 5,090 South Dakota 5 9,723 19,137 Utah 1 280 9,123 Washington 12 3.669 10,997 Wisconsin 5 526 10,142 Wyoming 1 149 1,486 All Other States. 10,220 Total 150 75,746 291.014 HISTORY 121 Iowa. The name of the State, originally applied to the river so called, is derived from the Indian. It was a part of the Louisiana Pur- chase, acquired in 1803. It was first visited by a Frenchman, who gave his name, Dubuque, to the place where he settled in 178S. In 1834 the territory now included in Iowa was placed under the jurisdiction of Michigan, and in 1836 under that of Wisconsin. In 1838 Iowa became a separate territory, including also the greater part of Minnesota and the whole of Dakota. The delimitation of the State occurred when it was admitted as such in 1846. Immigration was rapid and continued in spite of a bloody massacre of pioneer settlers at Spirit Lake in March, 1857. In the same year the original constitution of 1846 was revised and the state capital was I'e- moved from Iowa City to Des Moines. In 1915 Iowa reenacted statutory Prohibition to take eflect January 1, 1916. Ireland. According to ancient native legends, Ireland was in remote times peopled by tribes styled Firbolgs and Danauns, eventu- ally subdued by Milesians or Gaels, who acquired supremacy in the island. The primitive inhabi- tants of Ireland are now believed to have been of the same Indo-European race with the original population of Britain. Although Ireland, styled lernis, is mentioned in a Greek poem five cen- turies B. C, and by the names of Hibernia and Juverna by various foreign pagan writers, little is known with certainty of her inhabitants before the Fourth Century after Christ, when, under the appellation of Scoti, or inhabitants of Scotia, they became formidable by their descents upon the Roman Province of Britain. These expedi- tions were continued and extended to the coasts of Gaul till the time of Laogaire McNeill, mon- arch of Ireland, 430 A. D., in whose reign St. Patrick attempted the conversion of the natives. From the earliest period each province of Ireland appears to have had its own king, subject to the Ard-Righ, or monarch, to whom the central dis- trict called Meath was allotted and who usually resided at Tara. Each clan was governed by a chief selected from its most important family, and who was required to be of mature age, capable of taking the field efficiently when occasion required. The laws were peculiar in their nature, dispensed by professional jurists styled Brehons, who, as well as the poets and men of learning, received high consideration, and were endowed with lands and important privileges. Cromlechs, or stone tombs and structures, composed of large uncemcntcd stones, ascribed to the pagan Irish, still exist in various parts of Ireland; lacustrine habit.ations, or stockaded islands, styled Crannogs or Crannoges, in inland lakes, also appear to have been in use there from early ages. It is remarkable that a greater number and variety of antique golden articles of remote ages have been found in Ireland than in any other part of northern Europe ; and the majority of the gold antiquities illustrative of British history now preserved in the British Museum are Irish. In the Sixth Century exten- sive monasteries were founded in Ireland, in which religion and learning were zealously cul- tivated. From these establishments numerous missionaries issued during the succeeding cen- tury, carrying the doctrines of Christianity under great difficulties into the still pagan countries of Europe, whose inhabitants they surprised and impressed by their self-devotion and asceticism. Among the eminent native Irish of these times were Columba, or Colum Cille, founder of the celebrated monastery of lona; Comgall, who established the convent of Bangor, in the County of Down; Ciaran of Clonmacnoise; and Adam- nan, Abbot of lona and biographer of Columba. Of the Irish missionaries to the continent the more distinguished were Columbanus, founder of Bobio; Gallus of St. Gall, in Switzerland; Dichuill, patronized by Clotaire; and Ferghal, or Virgilius, the evangelizer of Carinthia. The progress of Irish civilization was checked by the incursions of the Scandinavians, com- mencing towards the close of the Eighth Century, and continued for upward of 300 years. From the close of the Eighth to the Twelfth Century Ireland, although har- assed by the Scandinavians, produced many writers of merit, among whom were .^i^ngus, the hagiographer; Cormac McCullenan, King of Munster and Bishop of Cashel, the reputed author of Cormac' s Glossary; Cuan O'Lochain; Gilla Moduda; Flan of Monasterboice; and Tighernach, the annalist. Of the Irish architec- ture of the period examples survive at Cashel. The well-known round towers of Ireland are believed to have been erected about this era as belfries, and to have served as places of security for ecclesiastics during disturbances. But this is mere surmise, the date of their erection having never been established nor their use satisfac- torily explained. The skill of the Irish musi- cians in the Twelfth Century is attested by the enthusiastic encomiums bestowed by Giraldus Cambrensis upon their performances. The first step toward an Anglo-Norman descent upon Ireland was made by Henry II. in 1155. The chief Anglo-Norman adventurers, Fitz Gislebert, Le Gros, De Cogan, and De Curci, encountei-ed formidable opposition before they succeeded in establishing themselves on the lands which they thus invaded. The government was committed to a vicero}^, and the Norman legal system was in- troduced into such parts of the island as were reduced to obedience to England. The youthful Prince ,Iohn was sent by King Henry into Ireland in 1184, but the injudicious conduct of his coun- cil having excited disturbances he was soon recalled to England. The country was wholly subdued in 1210; in 1315, it was invaded by Edward Bruce, who was crowned king 1316, and slain 1318. In 1361, the heiress of Ulster, Elizabeth de Burgh, married the English Duke of Clarence. In 1394, Richard II. landed at Waterford with a large army, and gained the adherence of the people by his munificence. In 1494 was passed Poyning's Law, making the Irish Parliament subject to the English Council. In 1542, Henry VIII. assumed the title of king, instead of lord of Ireland. In 1534 Thomas Fitzgerald, son of the viceroy of Henry VIII., revolted, but not meeting with adequate support from his Anglo-Irish connections he was, after a short time, suppressed and executed. Henry received the title of "King of Ireland" in 1541, by an act passed by the Anglo-Irish Parliament 122 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS in Dublin ; and about the same period some of the native princes were induced to acknowledge him as their sovereign, and to accept peerages. The doctrines of the Reformation met little favor either with the descendants of the old English settlers or with the native Irish. The attempts of the English Government in Ireland to intro- duce the Reformed faith and English institutions stirred up great dissensions in Ireland. The country was divided into shires in 1569; printing in Irish characters introduced by Walsh, Chan- cellor of St. Patrick's, Dublin, 1571; in 1601-02 occurred the famous insurrection of Tyrone, who invited the Spaniards to assist him, but they were all defeated by the Lord Deputy Mountjoy in the latter year. In consequence of repeated rebellions 511,465 acres of land in the Province of Ulster became forfeited to the English Crown, and James I. divided his land among such of his English and Scottish subjects as chose to settle there. In 1641 occurred More and Maguire's Rebellion, which was an endeavor to expel the Protestant settlers in Ulster. Be- tween the years 1649-56, Cromwell and his son- in-law, General Ireton, reduced the whole island to subjection. At the Revolution the native Irish generally took the part of James II., the English and Scotch "colonists" of WilUam and Mary; and the war was kept up for four years (1688-92). In 1778, Parliament relaxed the pressure of penal statutes against the Roman Catholics but their effect caused the rebeUion of 1798-1800. On January 1, 1801, the legislative union of Great Britain with Ireland was consum- mated, and the history of the country merges in that of Great Britain. In 1879, Ireland suffered Beverely from famine, and since 1880 from agrarian and "home rule" disturbances. The Birrell home rule bill was defeated in 1907. In 1912 Premier Asquith introduced a home rule bill which, after bitter controversy, passed the house of commons for the third time in May, 1914. With action suspended for at least one year, it became law in September, 1914, without the consent of the house of lords. Ireland was ex- cluded from the effect of the compulsory mihtary service bill of 1916. Ironsides, Cromwell's troopers, a thousand strong, and raised by him in the Ea.stern counties of England, so-called at first from the invinci- bility displayed by them at Marston Moor; were selected by Cromwell "as men," he says "that had the fear of God before them, and made conscience of what they did. . . . They were never beaten," he adds, "and wherever they were engaged against the enemy, they beat continually." Israelites (Hebrew Yisreeli), the descend- ants of Jacob, "the chosen people." The twelve tribes descended from Jacob's children were called " Israel " in Egypt, and throughout the Pen- tateuch, the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The name was afterward given to the larger portion, or ten northern tribes, after the death of Saul, a distinction that obtained even in David's time. But more definitely was the name applied to the schismatical portion of the nation, including all the tribes save Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, which set up a separate monarchy in Samaria after the death of Solomon. After the exile the two branches became blended, and are again called by the old name by Ezra and Nehemiah. But by degrees the name "Jews" (q. v.) supplanted this appellation, especially among foreigners The history of the Israelites, especially during the early periods, is inseparably bound up with that of their rulers, patriarchs, etc., as Abraham, Jacob, Moses, Joshua, the Judges, David, Solo- mon, etc., to all of which the reader is referred. The following is a short summary of the leading points in the history of the Israelites: Abraham called, B. C. 1921; Isaac born, 1896; Esau and Jacob born, 1837; death of Abraham, 1822; Joseph sold into Egypt, 1729; Moses born, 1571; institution of the Passover and the Exodus, 1491 ; promulgation of the Law from Sinai, 1491; the tabernacle set up, 1490; Joshua leads the Israelites into Canaan, 1451; the first bondage, 1413; the second, 1343; the third, 1304; the fourth, 1252; the fifth, 1206; the sixth, 1157; Samson slays the Philistines, 1136; Samuel governs as Judge, about 1120; Samson pulls down the temple of Dagon, 1117; Saul made king, 1095; David kills Goliath, about 1063; death of Saul and accession of David, 1055; David captures Jerusalem and makes it his capital, 1048; Solomon lays the foundations of the temple, 1012; it is dedicated, 1004; death of Solomon and division of the kingdom, 975. In the reign of Solomon the prophet Ahijah was intrusted with the announcement to Jero- boam that, in punishment for the many acts of disobedience to the divine law, and particularly of the idolatry so extensively practiced by Solo- mon, the greater part of the kingdom would be transferred to him. This breach was never healed. A spirit of disaffection had long been rife, even in the reigns of David and Solomon, fostered by various causes, not the least among which was the burdensome taxes imposed by the latter monarch for the support of his luxurious court and for the erection of his numerous build- ings. But however much these causes may have operated to create a breach between the North and South districts of Palestine, certain it is that God Himself expressly forbade all at- tempts on the part of Rehoboam or his succes- sors to subdue the revolted provinces, and, with slight exceptions, the subsequent history of the two nations still more widely separated them. The precise amount of territory contained in the Kingdom of Israel cannot be accurately ascer- tained; it was approximately as nine to four compared with the sister Kingdom of Judah; .the ten tribes included in Israel, it is supposed, were Ephraim and Manas.seh (East and West), Issa- char, Zebulon, Asher, Naphtali, Gad, Reuben, and part of Dan; the population was probably, at the separation, about 4,000,000. It was not long before the new kingdom showed signs of weakness. It developed no new power, which is not surprising when we consider that it was but a section of David's Kingdom shorn of many sources of strength. "The history of the King- dom of Israel is, therefore, the history of its decay and dissolution." The first symptom of dcchne was shown in the emigration of many families who adhered to the old religion of the Israelites back to Judah; and to check HISTORY 123 this Jeroboam set up rival sanctuaries with visible idols, 975 B. C, but which only in- creased the evil he wished to check. As soon as the golden calves were set up the priests and Levites flocked back to Judah, where they were warmly received. Jeroboam's whole poUcy aimed singly at his own aggrandizement. To supply the want of a priesthood, divine in its origin, a line of prophets was raised up remark- able for their purity and austerity. Jeroboam reigned twenty-two years; his son Nadab was violently cut off after a brief reign of two years, with all his house, and so ended the line of Jero- boam. The fate of this dynasty was but a type of those that followed. Domestic famine, the Bword of the foreigner, and internal dissensions helped the tottering kingdom on its downward way, and only one brief era of prosperity oc- curred, under the sway of Jeroboam II., who reigned forty-two years. The Syrian invasion, under Phul, 771 B. C, compelled Menahem, the King of Israel, to pay heavy tribute, and in the reign of Pekah we find them leading many of the Israelites into captivity. In 721 Samaria was taken by Shalmaneser, the ten tribes were carried into captivity, and an end was put to the Kingdom of Israel. See Jeivs for the subse- quent history of the chosen people. Italy. The ancient history of Italy is more conveniently treated under Rome. We, there- fore, glance at more modern times, after the Western Empire had fallen before a mixed horde of barbarous mercenaries, chiefly com- posed of the Heruli. Under the Hohenstaufen dynasty, Italy enjoyed an interregnum from foreign rule of about sixty years, which, however, was wasted in suicidal conflicts between the two factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The most terrible incident of this period was the massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Not- withstanding the inveterate internecine feuds of Italy, it was a period of great splendor and prosperity. The free cities or republics of Italy rivaled kingdoms in the extent and im- portance of their commerce and manufactures, the advancement of art and science, the mag- nificence ot their public edifices and monuments, and the prodigious individual and national wealth to which they attained. Unhappily, a spirit of rivalry and intolerance grew up during this period of mediaeval splendor, and in the arbitrary attempts of these states to secure supremacy over each other they gradually worked their own destruction. After the battle of Waterloo the final reconstitution of Italy was decreed by the Congress of Vienna. The accession of Pius IX., in 1846, seemed the inau- guration of a new era for Italy. A general amnesty was followed by wise, liberal measures, which were also adopted by Tuscany and Pied- mont, in emulation of Rome. By a simultatie- ous autbreak in Sicily and Milan in January, the great revolution of 1848 was inaugurated in Italy. The revolution of France in February imparted a strong impulse to that of Italy, and speedily Naples, Piedmont, and Rome conceded constitutional rights to the popular demands. The Milanese unanimously revolted against Austrian rule on the 17th of March, and after five days of heroic fighting tht Austrians were expelled from the city, and Radetsky, with 70,000 troops, compelled to retreat. On the 29th, Charles Albert entered Lombardy, the avowed champion of Italian independence. In the Congress of Paris, at the close of the Russian War (1856), Cavour strongly urged the expedi- ency of a withdrawal of French and Austrian troops from Rome and the legations. The vic- tories of Magenta and Solferino were quickly followed by the abrupt and inconclusive Peace of Villafranca, July 11, 1859. On the . 18th of March, 1860, Parma, Modena, and the Emilian provinces were incorporated with Sardinia, and the grand-duchy of Tuscany on the 22d. On the 17th of March, the law by which Victor Emman- uel assumed the title of King of Italy was pro- mulgated amid universal rejoicing. On the 6th of the ensuing May, Garibaldi, with about 1,000 volunteers, set sail from Genoa for Sicily, where a revolutionary outbreak had taken place. His swift and comparatively bloodless conquests of the two Sicilies is one of the most extraordinary incidents in modern history. At the close of the German-Italian war, Venetia, 1866, became part of the Kingdom of Italy by treaty with Austria. Turin, the chief town of Piedmont, was the capital from 1859 till 1865; the court was transferred to Florence during the latter year. In 1867 the French army was withdrawn from Rome. In 1870 the whole of the papal states were absorbed by the kingdom of Italy and Rome was its recognized capital. In 1878 Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded by his son Humbert I. In 1882 Italy entered the triple alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Humbert was assassinated July 29, 1900; suc- ceeded by Victor Emmanuel III. In 1911 Italy entered into war with Turkey over affairs in Tripoli; by the treaty of Lausanne, Oct., 1912, Italy acquired full sovereignty over Tripoli. Bound by theTriple Alliance to assist Germany and Austria-Hungary in case of attack, Italy refused to aid them in 1914, arguing that they were engaged in an aggressive war. As war progressed, popular opinion urged the conquest of Italia Irredenta — the "unredeemed" Aus- trian districts of Trentino and Trieste, largely Italian in population but never Italian posses- sions. Italy denounced the Triple iVlhance, May 4, 1915, declared war upon Austria-Hungary, May 24, and attacked Austria along the Italian border and near Trieste. Italy declared war upon Turkey, Aug. 21, and upon Bulgaria, Oct. 19. In Fcbruarj'-, 1916, Italy attacked the Aus- trians in the Balkans, and later in the same year captured the Austrian fortress of Gorizia. Following severe defeat at Caporetto, October 24, 1917, the Italians retreated to the Piave. In June, 1918, the reorganized Italian and allied forces crushed a powerful Austrian offen- sive and, by a great counter-thrust, begun October 24, completely routed the Austrian armies, compelling Austria to accept a truce of virtual surrender, November 4. Jacobins, the members of a poUtical club which exercised a very great influence during the French Revolution. It was originally called the Club Breton, and was formed at Ver- sailles, when the States General assembled there 124 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS in 1789. It then consisted exclusively of the members of the States General, all more or less liberal or revolutionar}% but of very different shades of opinion. On the removal of the court and national assembly to Paris this club began to acquire importance. It now met in a hall of the former Jacobin Convent in Paris, whence it received the name of the Jacobin Club, which was first given to it by its enemies, the name which it adopted being that of the Society of Friends of the Constitution. It now also ad- mitted members who were not members of the National Assembly, and held regular and public sittings. It exercised a great influence over the agitation, of which the chief seat and focus was in the capital, and this influence was extended over the whole country by affiliated societies. Its power increased, until it became greater than that of the National Assembly. It reached the zenith of its power when the National Con- vention met in September, 1792. The agitation for the death of the king, the storm which de- stroj'ed the Girondists, the excitement of the lowest classes against the bourgeoisie or middle classes, and the reign of terror over all France were the work of the Jacobins. But the over- throw of Robespierre on the 9th Thermidor, 1794, gave also the death blow to the Jacobin Club; and on November 9, 1794, the Jacobin Club closed. The term Jacobin is often em- ployed to designate persons of extreme revolu- tionary sentiments. Janizaries (Turkish, Yeni-tcheri, new soldiers), an Ottoman infantry force, somewhat analogous to the Roman praetorians, part of them forming the guard of the sultan. They were originally organized about 1330, and sub- sequently obtained special privileges, which in time became dangerously great. The regular janizaries once amounted to 60,000, but their numbers were afterwards reduced to 25,000. The irregular troops amounted to 300,000 or 400,000. Their power became so dangerous and their insurrections so frequent that several unsuc- cessful attempts were made to reform or disband them. At various times sultans had been de- posed, insulted, and murdered by the insurgent janizaries. At last, in June, 1826, they rebelled on account of a proposal to form a new militia, when the sultan, Mahmoud II., having displayed the flag of the prophet, and being supported by their aga or commander-in-chief, defeated the rebels and burned their barracks, when 8,000 of them perished in the flames. The corps was abolished, and a curse laid upon the name. As many as 1.^,000 were executed, and fully 20,000 were banished. Japao. Although Japan has passed through the successive eras of tribal government, pure monarchy, feudalism, anarchy, and modern empire, its ruling dynasty boasts of forty-six centuries of unbroken succession, and claims descent from Jimmu Tenno, first mikado, a fabulous warrior, whose descent from the sun goddess is a matter of faith with the Japanese, who base upon it their claim of the mikado's divinity. The empire claims to have had a previous existence of 2,479 years; but its history dates from Jimmu 667 B. C, and from his death until 571 A. D. thirty-one mikados ruled; the famous Yamato Dak6 and Sujin the Civilizer belong to this period. Jingu Kogo, Empress of Japan, 270 A. D., conquered Corea in person. In 552 A. D. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, and thenceforth became a potent influ- ence in the formation of character. About this time a succession of infant mikados contributed to loss of power in the mikadoate, and to the formation of noble families, who, one by one, gained ascendency, and ruled the mikados; the feudal system began its existence, and feuds between the rival families were constant. The Fujiwarra family were opposed by the Suga- wara, and succeeded by the Tairas and Mina- motos. In 1184, Yoritomo became first shogua, (a term meaning general), the dual system of government, which ended only in 1867, began, and the shogunate monopolized the real power of the nation, of which the mikado was nominal and spiritual head. From 1199 to 1333 both the mikadoate and the shogunate were under the power of the Hojo family, who set up and removed rulers at their own pleasure; but they promoted the arts, and defeated an invasion of the Mongol Tartars. The Ashi-Kaga family next came into power, and occasioned a fifty-six years' war between the northern and southern dynasties, and strengthened feudalism at the time when all Europe was throwing off its chains. In 1536, Hideyoshi conquered the Coreans, and brought marine architecture to a higher state of perfection; he became taiko, and this period is called the age of taiko. In 1542, Europeans landed on Tanigashima; fire- arms were introduced, Portuguese merchants were attracted, and in 1549, Francis Xavier landed, and with an interpreter preached Chris- tianity in various parts of the empire; he paved the way for the success of others, and priests and Jesuits flocked to Japan, when a total of 600.000 converts was recorded. Wabunaga protected the Christians, as the latter persecuted the Buddhists, whom he hated; but by intrigues and quarrels among themselves the priests alienated the support of the shogun, who perse- cuted the native Christians. The Jesuits stirred them up to resistance, and after a brief battle between Hedeyori, leader of the Christians, and lyesayu; during which 100,000 men perished, the priests were exiled from Japan, 1615. In 1624 all foreigners except the Dutch and Chinese were banished from Japan, the Japanese were forbidden to leave the country, and all larger vessels were destroyed. In 16.37 the great mas- sacre of Christians began, the twenty or less Dutch traders were confined to the island of Deshima, and 100 years' intercourse with Chris- tian nations resulted only in the adoption of gunpowder, fire-arms, and tobacco. For two centuries and a half after lydsayu, Japan had peace; feudalism and anarchy were perfected, and the Tokugawa was the most prominent of a number of families who divided Japan; the power of the shogun increased, the last four rulers of the shogunate being known to Euro- peans under the title of "Tycoon." In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a fleet of American vessels, arrived at Yeddo, and the Perry treaty with the United States was concluded by him with the supreme ruler of Japan. This usurps- HISTORY 125 tion of authority increased the rivalry; after a brief revolution the government was changed to its ancient form and the mikado became the only ruler of Japan. This occurred in 1868. The United States opened Japan to the world after the failure of the Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and Russians. In July, 1894, war was declared with China. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki the terms of peace included recognition of Corean independence, the cession to Japan of Formosa and some smaller islands, with the peninsula of Liao-Tung, including Port Arthur, a large war indemnity, and a very great relaxation of restrictions on foreign industry and commerce in China. In 1904, war with Russia occurred over Manchuria and continued until the fall of Port Arthur in 1905 (See Russo-Japanese War). Corea was annexed in 1910. Emperor Mutsuhito, whose reign of forty-five years saw Japan develop into one of the greatest nations of the world, died at Tokyo, July 30, 1912. He was succeeded by his son Yoshihito. In August, 1914, Great Britain, at war with Germany and Austria-Hungary, asked Japan for assistance according to the alliance of 1905. Japan presented to Germany an ultimatum de- manding the withdrawal of German warships from Japanese and Chinese waters and the dehvery to Japan of the leased province of Kiaochow, China. Germany refused. Japan declared war upon Germany, Aug. 23, captured Tsingtao, the fortified port of Kiaochow, Sept. 27, and Nov. 10 took possession of the province. Several groups of German islands in the Pacific were also taken. The coronation of Yoshihito took place at Ivioto in Nov., 1915, with elaborate ceremonies. Jews (Heb. Yehuda). The history of the Jews begins with the return of the remnant of the kingdom of Judah from the Babylonish cap- tivity in consequence of the Edict of Cyrus. Below will be found a brief resume of the chief historical events in the history of the Jews according to the biblical narrative. According to Euscbius, the Scripture history ends in 442 B. C, and thenceforward the Roman historians and Josephus furnish the best accounts. The Babylonish Captivity. — Daniel prophesies at Babylon, B. C. 603; Obadiah prophesies, 587; Daniel interprets the handwriting on the wall, 538; he prophesies the speedy return from bondage and the coming of a Messiah, 538. The Return from Captivity. — Cyrus, ruler of all Asia, authorizes the return of the Jews and the re- building of the Temple at Jerusalem, 53G; Haggai and Zechariah flourish, 520; the second Temple finished, 515; Ezra arrives in Jerusalem to correct abuses, 458; beginning of the seventy weeks of years predicted by Daniel, being 490 years prior to the crucifixion of Christ, 457; the wallsof Jerusalem rebuilt, 445; Malachi flourishes, 415. The Jews under the Macedonian Empire. — Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to besiege it, but ultimately goes to the Temple and offers sacrifices to the God of the Jews, 332; Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter 320; the Scriptures translated (the Septuagint version) by seventy-two Jewish scribes, at the instance of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 277; Antiochus cap- tures Jerusalem, sacks the Temple, and massa- cres 40,000 of the people, 170; commencement of the government of the Maccabees, 166; a ti'eaty, the first in Jewish history, made with the Romans, 161; Judas Hyrcanus assumes the title of "King of the Jews," 107; Jerusalem captured by Pompey, 63. The Jews under the Roman Empire. — Antipater made ruler of Judea by Julius Ca3sar, 49; Herod, son of Antipater, marries Miriamne, daughter of the king, 42 Herod decreed king by the Roman Senate, 40 Jerusalem captured by Herod and Sosius, the Roman gcnei-al, 37; Herod rel)uilds the Temple on a scale of greater magnificence than ever before, 18; Jesus Christ, the long-lookcd-for Messiah, born four years before 1 A. D., 4 B. C; Pontius Pilate procm'ator of Judea, A. D. 22; John Baptist commences his ministry, 25; is beheaded, 27; Christ's ministry and miracles, 27-29; his death and resurrection, 29; the Jews are persecuted for refusing to worship Caligula, 38; receive the right of Roman citizenship, 41; Claudius banishes them from Rome, 50; Titus captures Jerusalem, the city and Temple are sacked and burned, and 1,000,000 Jews perish, 70; Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, names it Elia Capi- tolina, and erects a temple to Jupiter, 130; the rebellion of Bar-cocheba, 135-36; final deso- lation of Judea, more then 500,000 Jews are slain by the Romans, they are banished from Judea by an edict of the Roman Emperor, and are forbidden to return upon pain of death, 136. DISTRIBUTION OF JEVi^S AMONG THE NATIONS .America, Argentina, Rest of South America, . . . Mexico, Central America, Cuba, United States, Africa, Abyssinia Algiers, Tunis (French),. . Morocco, Egypt, Tripoli, Crete, Asia, China, Japan Persia, Turkey Turkestan, Afghanistan,.. Britisli Empire^, Australasia, British Isles, Canada India, South Africa Other Possessions, Europe, Austria-Hungary, , Belgium, Bulgaria Denmarlv, , France, Germany, Greece, Holland, (and possessions), Italy, Luxemburg, Norway, Sweden, Rumania Russia Servia, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland Total. 45 3 9 4 2,044 000 909 915 000 762 6, 127, 109, 70, 500 500 712 010 2, 29, 463, 18, 143 500 686 135 17, 244, 95, 18, 60, 7, 106 697 500 226 000 700 2,088, 15, 37, 3, 100, 607, 8, 108, 35, 1, 4, 215, 6,243 5, 5, 19, 228 000 653 476 000 862 350 567 617 200 554 900 712 729 000 007 2,107,586 313,722 613.464 433,229 9,499,855 12,867.856 The Jews have suffered much even in modern times and especially in Russia at the hands of the oppressor. In America only have they enjoyed at all times perfect freedom and all the 126 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS rights of citizenship. Full emancipation was granted to the Jews in England in 1858. Kansas, derived from an Indian name meaning "smoky water," was visited by the Spaniards in 1541; afterward by the French in 1719. It came to the United States through the Louisiana Purchase, and was a portion of the territory which, by the Missouri Compro- mise of 1820, was always to remain untouched by slavery. When the territory of Kansas was organized, in 1854, it was declared by Congress that the Missouri Compromise was abohshed. This led to the Kansas troubles, which lasted till 1859, with various vicissitudes, when a free constitution was adopted, forever prohibiting slavery. This imbrogho played an important part in inflaming the passions of North and' South, and ripening the conditions which made the Civil War inevitable. Kansas was admitted to the Union in 1861. Dm-ing the Civil War the State was the scene of irregular warfare, known as "jay-hawking," carried on by Confederate raiders from Missouri and Ar- kansas and the Unionists who opposed them. The only battle of prominence took place at Lawrence on August 21, 1863. In 1880, the con- stitution was amended, prohibiting Hquor traffic. In 1912, the state granted suffrage to women. Kentucky. The name Kan-tuck-kee sig- nifies "darkened bloody ground," and the coun- try now included in the State was originally the common hunting ground for the Indian tribes living north and south of it. The first white visit was that of John Finlej^ and others, from North Carohna, in 1767. Daniel Boone began to explore Kentucky in 1769. Colonel James Knox planted a Virginian colony in 1770, fol- lowed by others in 1773-74, and James Harrod founded Harrodsbiu-g in 1774. In 1775, the Cherokees ceded the country to Boone, who acted as agent for Colonel Richard Henderson and his company. Kentucky was a part of Virginia till 1790, when it became a separate Territor3^ It was admitted as a State into the Union in 1792, being the second admitted. A second constitution was adopted in 1800, and the present one in 1850. Kentucky during the Civil War endeavored to hold a position of neutraUty. The chief battles fought in the State were Mill Spring, January 19, 1862, and Perryvillc, Octo- ber 8, 1862. In 1864, martial law was declared, and civil authority was not restored until Octo- ber, 1865. In 1900, William Goebel, contesting candidate for governor, was assassinated. A series of notable trials followed. Khyber Pass. A British army of 16,000 men was annihilated at Khyber Pass in the month of January, 1842, during the retreat from Kabul. The only persons who escaped were Dr. Brydon (a regimental surgeon) and a private soldier. In 1838, Lord Auckland, Governor-General of India, declared war against the Afghanistans because their ruler. Dost Mohammed, had unlawfully attacked a British ally, and because Dost Mohammed had usurped the throne of Shah Sujah, who was under British protection. On July 21st, Shah Sujah was restored to the throne of Kabul, and the British thought the matter was ended. This was a grand mistake, for at the beginning of winter Akbah Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed, attacked the British army in Kabul, and slew several of the officers. A capitulation was made, and when the British army were in the Khyber Pass on their way home they were cut to pieces. With women, children, and camp followers, 20,000 were slain. Lake Erie, JBattle of. An hnportant naval engagement in the war of 1812, between the United States and Great Britain, fought in Put-in-bay, Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. The American forces were intrusted to Lieut. Ohver Hazard Perry who equii)ped a squadron of nine sail at Erie on Presque Isle bay, and, although blockaded by the British fleet under Capt. Bar- clay succeeded in getting his squadron out of port, August 12, 1813. On the 2Sth Perry was made master commandant. On September 10th he lay in Put-in-bay when he discovered the British squadron and went out to meet it. It consisted of six vessels. The Americans had some advantage in able seamen. Only the Lawrence and the Niagara of the America squadron were regular vessels of war, the others having been built for trading. Their guns were of heavier caUber than those of the EngUsh, but of shorter range. This enabled the British to open battle with advantage. Out of 101 officers and men on Perry's flagship Lawrence only 18 were not disabled. In that desperate con- dition. Perry left the Lawrence and sliifted his flag to the Niagara. The action now became general and, after a stubborn contest,Perry forced Barclay's flagship Detroit and three other vessels to surrender. The remaining two attempted to escape, but were soon overtaken and captured. When Perrj^ saw that victory was secure, he wrote with pencil on the back of an old letter, resting it on his navy cap, the despatch to Gen. Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The contest had lasted about tlxree hours with a loss on either side of about 130 in killed and wounded, Capt. Barclay himself among the latter. This victory completely estabhshed American supremacy on the lake. Congress bestowed gold medals on Perry and Master com- mandant Elliott, and minor rewards upon the other officers and men. Lancaster, the name of a royal English house which flourished in two lines in the Thir- teenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Centuries. The first commences with Edmund, son of Henry III. and Eleanora of Provence, and brother of Edward I. Thomas, his son and successor in the earldom, cousin-german to Edward II., headed the confederacy of barons against Piers Gaveston, and finally shared the responsibihty of his death with Hereford and Arundel. Henry (previously Earl of Leicester), brother and heir of Thomas, joined the conspiracy of Isabella and Mortimer against Edward II., and received the king into his custody at Kenilworth. Henry, his son (previously Earl of Derby), after vainly endeavoring to make peace with John, King of France, under the medi- ation of the pope at Avignon, was sent with an army into Normandy, and took part in the vic- tory of Poitiers and the subsequent French wars. The next Duke of Lancaster commences a new lineage, that of the princes opposed to the house of York. The first in the fine was John of Gaunt, HISTORY 127 orGhent, fourth son of Edward III. His name is one of the most celebrated in English history and in the chivalry of the Middle Ages. Henry of Hereford, the successor of John of Gaunt in the dukedom, was son to him by his first wife. He claimetl the crown by descent, by the moth- er's side, from Edmund the first earl, who was popularly supposed to be the elder brother of Edward I., and to have been deprived of the suc- cession by his father for personal reasons. He became king by deposing Richard II., 1399, and was a prince of great ability and valor. He reigned as Henry IV. till his death in 1413, and was succeeded by his son, Henry V. The son of the latter also inherited the crown as Henry VI., and in his reign the feuds of York and Lancaster broke out, which ended in the union of the two houses in the person of Henry VII. Latin Union, Tlie, a combination formed in 1865 by France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzer- land. These countries entered into an agree- ment by which the amount of silver to be coined yearly was fixed for each member of the union. The coinage of all the countries was of like charac- ter, and to be received without discount through- out the union on public and private account. Greece joined theunionin 1868, Spain in 1871, and subsequently Servia and Rumania also became members. Some of the South American States also used the Latin Union coinage. Spain alone of the countries of the union coins a gold piece not used by the others. The unit of coinage in the Latin Union is the franc; it has different names elsewhere, as, in Italy the lira; in Servia, the dinar; in Spain, the peseta; but the value is always the same. It is the most widely circu- lated coinage system in Europe, being used by about 148,000,000 people. Lexington, a town of Massachusetts, ten miles northwest of Boston, noted as the scene of the first fight between the British and Americans in the war of the Revolution, April 19, 1775. On the evening of April 18th, General Gage, the British commander in Boston, sent 800 soldiers, under Major Pitcairn, to destroy the American supplies at Concord. Paul Revere, of Boston, escaping their sentinels, galloped out to Lexing- ton and Concord with the news, so when the British reached Lexington at daybreak, they found about seventy Americans waiting for them on the village common. Captain John Parker, their commander, ordered them not to shoot until the English did. Major Pitcairn rode forward and called out: " Disperse ye reb- els!" but though the Americans were outnum- bered ten to one, they stood firm. Then Pitcairn ordered his men to fire, and four Americans were killed and nine wounded. Some shots were fired in return, and three English soldiers were wounded ; but after that the Americans retreated some being killed as they ran. The British marched on to Concord, but meanwhile the whole country was aroused, and as they came back, hundreds of Americans attacked them from behind the houses and stone walls by the road- side. They were only saved from destruction by the arrival of reinforcements under Lord Percy. Though not a very great battle, this was one of the most important ones that ever was fought. As soon as the Americans found that the war had really begun, hundreds of men hurried to the army, and not long after the Brit- ish were driven out of Boston. Lepanto (anciently Naupactus, now called by the Greeks Epakto), a small town of Greece, and the seat of a bishop ; on the north side of the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Near Lepanto took place the celebrated naval battle between the Turks on the one side and the papal galleys and those of the Venetians and the Spaniards on the other, on October 7, 1571, in which the Christians, commanded by Don John of Austria, achieved a decisive victory. Of the Turks 30,000 fell or were taken prisoners, while 130 Turkish vessels were captured, and 12,000 Christian slaves liberated; the Christians lost 8,000 men and fifteen galleys. In this battle Cervantes lost an arm. The town became Greek in 1829. Lollards, The (Idl'Iardz). A sect of early Reformers in Germany and England. The name was given in the first place to a class of persons in Germany and the Low Countries, who, in the Fourteenth Century, undertook spiritual offices in behalf of the sick and the dead, and were greatly beloved by the people. Later, the term was conferred opprobriously upon heretics and schismatics in general, more particularly those who followed the teachings of John Wick- liffe. Lombards. A German people of the Suevic family, not very numerous, but of dis- tinguished valor, who played an important part in the early history of Europe. The name is derived from Longobardi, Langobardi, a Latin- ized form in use since the Twelfth Century, and was formerly supposed to have been given with reference to the long beards of this people, but is now derived rather from a w^ord paria, or barte, which signifies a battle-ax. About the Fourth Century they seem to have begun to leave their original seats (on the Lower Elbe, where the Romans seem first to have come in contact w-ith them about the beginning of the Christian era) and to have fought their way south and east till they came in close contact with the eastern Roman Empire on the Danube; adopted an Arian form of Christianity, and, after having been for some time tributary to the Heruli, raised themselves upon the ruins of their power, and of that of the Gepida?, shortly after the middle of the Sixth Century, to the position of masters of Pannonia, and became one of the most wealthy and powerful nations in that part of the world. Under their king, Alboin, they invaded and conquered the north and center of Italy (568-569). The conversion of the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith was brought about by the policy of Gregory the Great and the zeal of Theodolinda,wife of Autha- ria, and subsequently of his successor, Agilulf (590-615). Longobardi (l5n-go-b&r'de). A German tribe, of supposed Scandinavian extraction, which made their first appearance in history during the reign of Augustus, and in that of Justinian I., settled in Noricum and Pannonia. Led by their chief, Alboni, they successfully invaded Italy in 568, and there founded the Kingdom of Lombardy. 128 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS LOST CITIES * The cities designated by asterisks were afterward rebuilt under the same name. Cities Abydos, in Asia Minor, on the Helles- pont; burned bv Darius; conquered by Philip II. ; by the Romans 188 B. C. . Aegina,* on the island of the same name, Greece; subjected by Pheidon 748 B.C., captured by the Athenians 455 B. C. ; by Publius Sulpicius 210 B. C Agrigentum, in Sicily, subjected by Pha- laris 570 B. C. ; destroyed by Cartha- ginians 406 B. C; captured by Romans 262 B. C. ; again destroyed by Cartha- ginians 255 B. C, . Alexandria,* in Egypt, scene of a fright- ful massacre by Ptolemy Physcon 141 B.C. ; captured by Juhus Cfcsar 48 B.C. ; 50,000 persons killed by earthquake .365 A. D.; captured by Chosroes II. 616 A. D.; by Amrou 640 A. D.; destroyed by the Turks 868 A. D., Antloch,* in Syria; conquered by Pom- pej' 64 B. C; destroyed by Chosroes I. 541 A. D.; captured bv Chosroes II. 611 A. D. ; Saracens 638 A. D. ; Turks 1084 A. D.; Crusaders 1098 A. D.; de- stroyed by Bibars, Sultan of Egypt, 1268 A. D Argos,* in Greece, under Phidon about 750 B. C. leading state of the Pelopon- nesus; lost Cynuria in wars with Sparta 550 B.C.; fell into decay after defeat nearTiryns 624 B. C Arsinoe, in Egypt, not far from Lake Moeris; received its name from Ptole- my Philadelphus in honor of his sister Arsinoe, originally called Crocodipolis b V the Greeks ; the ruins are near Medi- net-el-Fayoom, Athens,* in Greece; captured bv Xerxes 480 B.C.; burnt by Mardonius 479 B.C. ; rebuilt by Themistocles 478 B.C. ; 439 B. C. at the height of its prosperity; taken by Lysander 404 B. C; walls re- built by Conon 393 B. C; submits to Alexander the Great 335 B. C; con- quered by Cassander; surrendered to Antigonus Gonatas 200 B. C; partly destroyed by I^hilip of Macedon 200 B.C.; subdued by the Romans 146 B.C.; walls aiul fortifications destroved by Sulla 86 B. C Baalbec* or Heliopolis, in Asia Minor; sacked by the Moslems 748 A. D.; by Timour Beg 1400 A. D Babylon, in Asia; captured by Tiglath- Pileser 1. 11 30 B.C.; by Cyrus 5.38 B.C.; walls destroyed by Darius 518 B. C.; taken by Alexander III. '331 B. C; by Seleucus Nicator 312 B. C, who de- stroyed Babylon to build Seleucia. Ex- plored by Rich, Kerr Porter, Layard, Frazer, Chesney, Botta, Loftus, and Rawlinson, Byzantium, in ancient Thracia (modern Turkey); captured successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spartans; by the Romans 73 A. D.; destroyed by Severus 196 A.D. It was refounded 324 A. D. and called Constantinople, . . . Carthage, city in Africa; captured by Scipio after the hat tie of Zama201 B.C.; burned by the Romans 146 B. C.; rebuilt as a Roman colony 123 B. C; captured by Genseric 439 A. D.; by Belisarius 533 A. D. ; sacked by the Arabs 647 A. D.; destroyed by Hassan 698 A. D Corinth, in Greece; captured by the Dorians 1074 B. C; bv the Macedo- nians 338 B. C; by Aratus 243 B. C; Antigonus Doson 223 B.C.; destroyed by L. Mummius 146 B. 'C; rebuilt by Julius Csesar 46 B. C. ; sacked by Alaric 396 A. D Founded By Whom Milesians. Dorians. Colony from Gela. Alexander the Great. Seleucus Nicator. Inachus. Pharaoh in the 12th Dynasty of Manetho. Cecrops. Nimrod. Megarius under Byzas. Dido Phenicians. Date 715 B. C. 682 B. C. 332 B. C. 300 B. C. 1856 B. C. 2300 B. C. 1558 B.C. 2247 B. C. 667 B. C 878 B. C. 1520 B. C. Desteoted How War. War. War. War. War. War and Decay. Decay. By Whom Turks. Turks. Carthaginians. Turks. Chosroes I. and Bibars. War. War. War. War. War, War. Sulla. Timour Beg. Seleucus Nicator. Severua. Romans and Hassan. L. Mummius and Alaric. Date 1330 A. D. 1536 A. D. 406 and 205 B. C. 868 A. D. 541 and 1268 A. D. 524 B. C. 86 B. C. 1400 A. D. 312 B. C. 196 A. D. 146 B. C. and 698 A. D. 146 B. C. and 396 A. D. HISTORY i2d LOST CITIES — Continued Cities Cteslphon, in Assyria; captured by Tra- jan 116 A. D.; by Severus 198 A. D.; destroyed by Omar 637 A. D., . . . . Delphi, in Greece; temple burned 54S B. C, and rebuilt by the Alcmajonidse; plundered by the Phocians 357 B. C; by Sulla 82 B. C; by Nero 67 A. D.; temple suppressed by Theodosius I., . Ephesus, in Asia Minor; burned by the Amazons 1141 B. C; rebuilt by the lonians 1045 B. C; captured by Crojsus 559 B. C; by Cyrus 554 B. C; destroyed by an inundation 322 B. C; rebuilt 300 B. C; nearly destroyed by an earthquake 17 A. D., Herculaiieuin, in Italy; its foundation ascribed to Hercules; partly ruined by an earthquake 63 A. D.; completely buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 A.D.; a second settlement buried by Vesuvius 472 A. D. Fragments of statues were discovered 1709 A. D.; theater discovered 1738 A. D., . . . . Jerusalem,* in Palestine; captured by David 1049 B. C; sacked by the Phi- listines and Arabs 887 B. C; by Nebu- chadnezzar 586 B. C; by Antiochus Epiphanes 170 B. C; captured by Pompey 63 B. C; by Herod 37 B. C; destroyed by Titus 70 A. D., ... Memphis, in Egypt; partly destroyed by the Persians 525 B. C; captured by Antiochus Epiphanes 171 B. C; re- stored by Septimus Severus 202 A. D.; decayed under theArabs in the Seventh Century, and Cairo built from its ruina, Mycenae, in Greece; destroyed by the Argives 468 B. C; explored by Dr. Schliemann, who discovered tombs with immense treasures in 1877 A. D., Nineveh, in Assyria; received its name from Ninus 2182 B. C; destroyed by Cyaxares and Nabopolassar from 625 to 606 B. C. Layard began explor- ing the ruins 1840 A. D. Numantia, in Spain, destroyed by Scipio the Younger 134 B. C.,. . . . Palmyra, Syria; submitted to Hadrian 130 A. D.; destroyed by Aurelian 274 A. D.; restored by Justinian I. 527 A. D.; again destroyed by the Saracens 744 A. D.; ruins discovered 1691 A. D.; explored by Wood and Dawkins 1751 A. D. Persepolis, in Persia; supposed to have been founded by Jemshed; burned by Alexander III. 331 B. C Petra, in Arabia, captured by the Naba- thseana in the Fourth Century B. C; by Cornelius Palma 106 A. D.; fell into decay and is not mentioned after the Sixth Century A. D.; ruins discovered by Burckhardt 1812 A. D., Pompeii, in Italy; date of its founda- tion unknown; said to have been con- quered by the Samnitos 440 B. C; cap- tured by the Romans 360 B. C; al- most destroyed by an earthquake 03 A.D.; completely buried by an eruption of Vesuvius 79 A. D.; accidentally dis- covered 1748 A. D.; excavations com- menced 1755 A. D., Saguntum, in Spain; said to have been founded by a colony of Greeks; burned by its citizens before surrendering to Hannibal 218 B. C. Samaria, in Palestine; captured by Shalmaneser IV. 721 B. C; by Alex- ander III. 336-332 B.C.; destroyed by .John Hyrcanus 109 B. C, Sardis, in Asia Minor; captured by the Cimmerians about 635 B. C; by the Persians 554 B. C; burned by the Greeks 499 B. C; it was rebuilt; cap- tured by Alexander III. 334 B. C; by Founded By Whom Date Amphictyons. Hercules. Menes or Misraim. Perseus. Ashur. Solomon. Jemshed. Greeks. Omri. Destroyed How 1263 B. C. About 1913 B.C. 3890 B. C. or 2188 B.C. 1431, 1313 or 1282 B. C. About 2245 B. C. About 1001 B. C. About 925 B. C. War. War and Decay. Inundation and Earthquake. Vesuvius. War. War and Decay. War. War. War. War. Decay. Fire. War. By Whom Omar. Titus Argives. Cyaxares and Nabopolassar. Scipio. Aurelian and Saracens. Alexander. Earthquake and Vesuvius. Citizens. John Hyrcanus. Date 637 A. D. 395 A. D. 322 B. C. and 17 A. D. 79 and 472 A. D. 70 A. D. 600 to 700 A. D. 468 B. C. 625 to 606 B. C. 134 B. C. 274 to 744 A. D. 331 B. C. After 600 A. D. 79 A. D. 218 B. C. 109 B. C. 130 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS IX)ST CITIES — Continued Cities Founded Desthoted By Whom Date How By Whom Date Seleucus I. 283 B. C; by Antiochus 214 B. C; by the Romans 190 B. C; destroyed by an earthquake 14-37 A.D. under Tiberius, who rebuilt it; cap- tured by the Turks in the Eleventh Century; destroyed by Tamerlane 1402 A. D., Sodom and Gomorrah, cities of Pales- tine; destroyed, according to the bibli- cal account, by fire from heaven 1897 B. C Susa, in Persia; mentioned on monu- ments 660 B. C. ; captured by Alexan- der III. 331 B. C; by Antigonus 315 B. C; by the Arabs 652 A. D.; after that it decayed; ruins were discovered by Williams and Loftus 1853 A. D 720 B. C. 2717 B.C. About 2750 B. C. War and Earthquake. Fire. Decay. War. War. War. War. War. Greeks and Tamerlane. 499 B. C. and 1402 A. D. 1897 B. C. Aftor 652 A. D. Sybaris, in Greece; destroyed by the Crotoniats 510 B. C. by turning the course of the River Crathis Thebes, or Luxor, in Egvpt; flourished from 1600-800 B. C. ; captured by the Persians 525 B. C; destroyed by Ptolemy Lathyrus 86 B. C Troy, or Ihum, in Asia Minor; destroyed by the Greeks about 1184 B. C; Dr. Schliemann di.scovered ruins, 1872 Archseaua. Menes. Crotoniats. Ptolemy. Lathyrus. Greeks. Nebuchad- nezzar and Turks. 510 B. C. 86 B. C. 1184 B. C. Tyre, in Asia Minor; destroyed by Neb- uchadnezzar 572 B. C. ; rebuilt; cap- tured by Alexander III. 332 B. C; by Antigonus 315 B. C. ; bv .\ntiochus III. 218 B.C.; bv the Crusaders 1128 A.D.; by Chalid 1291 A. D.; destroyed by the Turks 1516 A. D Veii, in Italy; destroyed by the Romans after ten years' siege 396 B. C 572 B. C. and 1516 A. D. 396 A. D. Louisiana. In 1541, De Soto discovered the Mississippi and in 1682 La Salle voyaged down this river to its mouth, naming the country Louisiana and taking possession of it in the name of the King of France. In 1716, Bienville estab- lished Fort Rosalie in the Natchez country and in 1718 founded New Orleans. In 1717, the Mississippi Company was formed by John Law for colonization purposes, and in 1732 resigned its claim to the territory, and Louisiana became a royal province. In 1733, the first settlement was made at Baton Rouge. In 1750, the culti- vation of cotton was begun in the territory. In 1755, Loui-siana received a large increase in population from the Acadians, who were driven from their homes in Canada. By a secret treaty in 1762, France ceded Louisiana to Spain, and in 1768 the French drove the first Spanish Gov- ernor, Don Antonio de Ulloa, from the colony. In 1800, Louisiana was ceded to Napoleon by Spain, and in 1803, on April 30th, was purchased from France by the United States for 60,000,000 francs. In 1806 and 1807, Aaron Burr's scheme to set up an independent nation in the Mississippi Valley caused much disturbance in New Orleans, and in 1810 residents of eastern Louisiana formed the Republic of West Florida in an attempt to overthrow the Spanish Government there. The district was taken under the con- trol of the United States and made part of Louisiana during the same year after some trouble. In 1812, Louisiana was admitted to the Union as a State, with boundaries as they are now. That same year the first steam vessels on the Mississippi arrived from Pittsburg. The battle of New Orleans between the British and Ameri- cans was fought January 8, 1815, and it was the last battle of the War of 1812. During the period from 1815 to 1860 there was continual industrial activitj^ and Louisiana soon became one of the leading agricultural States. In 1850, Baton Rouge became the seat of State govern- ment. On January 26, 1861, Louisiana passed the Ordinance of Secession. The first gun cast for the Confederate navy was made at Gretna, near New Orleans. Port Hudson, the last Con- federate stronghold on the Mississippi, was cap- tured by General Banks July 8, 1863, and on May 26, 1865, the war in Louisiana was ended by the surrender of General Kirby Smith. From 1865 to 1874 a period of carpetbag government caused many disturbances, and on September 14, 1874, it was overthrown and a representative government established. In 1884, the Industrial Cotton Exhibition was opened at New Orleans, celebrating the centennial of the first exporta- tion of cotton from the United States. In 1890, Chief of Police David C. Ilennessy, of New Or- leans, was killed by an Italian criminal. In 1891, an organized band of citizens killed eleven Italian prisoners in the parish prison at New Orleans. Lundy's Lane, a locality in the province of Ontario, near the Falls of Niagara. Here, July 25, 1814, an obstinate and decisive en- gagement was fought between an American force, numbering 3,000 men, under General Brown, and a body of about 2,000 British troops commanded by General Drummond. The Iobb HISTORY 131 of the Americans was 743 men ; that of the Brit- ish 878 men. Liitzen, a small town in the Prussian prov- ince of Saxony, famous for two great battles fought in its vicinity. The first, a brilliant victory of the Swedes in the Thirty Years' War, took place November 16, 1632. The battle on May 2, 1813, was fought somewhat farther to the south, at the village of Grosgoschen. It was the first great conflict of the united Russian and Prussian array with the army of Napoleon in that decisive campaign, and the French were left in possession of the field. Maine. Various but unsuccessful attempts at colonization in Mame were made between the years 1602 and 1620 by both the French and English. In 1620, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, as head of the Plymouth Company, received a patent of all the region between 40° and 48° north latitude. In consequence of disputes afterward with the Massachusetts Colony, the company was dissolved, and in 1639 Gorges received a formal charter of the region between the Piscataqua and Kennebec, under the title of Maine. Internecine quarrels between the different settlements, on points of jurisdiction, caused the Massachusetts Colony in 1651 to set up a claim to the province under her charter, and parliament sanctioned it. In 1677, all claims of other grantees were purchased. From this time the history of the province was prac- tically merged in that of Massachusetts. The final separation occurred in 1820, when Maine was admitted to the Union, being the tenth under the constitution. In 1842, the boundary dispute between Maine and Great Britain was settled. The "Maine Liquor Law" was passed in 1851. It was repealed in 1856 and passed again in 1858, being made a part of the Consti- tution in 1884. The death penalty was abol- ished in 1876, restored in 1883, and again abol- ished in 1887. The growth of the wood-pulp and paper-mill industry began about 1880, and in 1890 there was a rapid development of the lumber, granite, ice, and fishery trades. In 1879-80 occurred a notable contest for the governorship between the Republicans and Fusionists. Mamelukes {mUm'a-lookz). Originally, male slaves imported from Circassia into Egypt by the rulers of that country. They were in- structed in military exercises, but soon exhibited a spirit of insubordination, assassinating the Sultan, Turan Shah, and, in 1258, appointing Ibegh, one of their own number, Sultan of Egypt. They were at length conquered by Selim I., and Cairo, their capital, was taken by storm, after they governed Egypt 263 years. During the French invasion of Egypt by Napo- leon I., the Mamelukes formed a fine body of cavalry, and for a time seriously annoyed the invaders, though many afterwards joined them. In 1811, Mehemet Ali annihilated their power by treacherously inveigling and destroying 470 of their chief leaders. Manila Bay, Battle of. A remarkable engagement between the American Asiatic squadron, under command of Commodore George Dewey, and a Spanish naval force, under com- mand of Admiral Montojo, supported by land batteries, fought on Mav 1, 1898. When it became evident, in March, 1898, that war be- tween the United States and Spain was inevit- able, Commodore Dewey began to mobilize his vessels in the harbor of Hong Koftg preparatory to striking a blow at the Philippine Islands on the breaking out of hostilities. By April 1st, he had gathered there his flagship, the "Olym- pia," a steel protected cruiser; the "Boston," a partially protected steel cruiser; the "Raleigh," protected steel cruiser; the "Concord," steel gunboat; and the "Petrel," steel gunboat. Toward the close of the month, the "Baltimore," a steel protected cruiser, the " Hugh McCuUoch," revenue cutter, and two newly-purchased ships loaded with coal and other supplies, joined the fleet. Lying in Manila Bay, one of the largest and most important in the world, was a Spanish squadron, comprising, the "Reina Christina," steel cruiser; "Castilla," wood cruiser; "Ve- lasco," iron cruiser; "Don Antonio de Ulloa," iron cruiser; "Don Juan de Austria," iron cruiser; "Isla de Cuba," steel protected cruiser; "Isla de Luzon," steel protected cruiser; "Gen- eral Lezo," gunboat; "El Cano," gunboat; "Islade Mindanao," auxiliary cruiser; "Mar- ques del Duero"; and two torpedo boats. It was supposed that the harbor had been planted with mines and torpedoes and supplied with numerous searchlights, and that the forts on the shore had been strengthened in anticipation of an attack. The United States squadron entered the bay on the night of April 30th, and at 5 o'clock on Sunday morning. May 1st, opened fire on the Spanish squadron and the forts. Two engage- ments were fought, and during the brief interval the United States squadron drew off to the east side of the bay to enable officers and men to get their breakfast. The entire battle lasted less than two hours. The Spanish flagship, "Reina Christina," was completely burned; the "Castilla" suffered the same fate; the "Don Juan de Austria" was blown up by a shell from one of the United States vessels; one or more ships were burned; and the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed. After his second attack, in which he destroyed the water battery at Cavite, Commodore Dewey anchored off the city of Manila and sent word to the governor-general that if a shot was fired from the city at the fleet, he would lay Manila in ashes. The Spanish loss was about 2,000 officers and men. The United States squadron did not lose a ship or a man. Two vessels were damaged in their upper works, and eight men were variously injured. Maryland. One of the thirteen original States, it was named after the mother of Charles IL The State was settled by Lord Baltimore in 1632, under a grant from Charles I. Puritan and Virginian colonies disputed the authority of the proprietary governors, and it was not till 1714, after many broils and considerable blood- shed, extending over three-quarters of a century, that the rights of the Calvert family were finally settled. In 1649, the Assembly passed an act allowing Christians of all sects the public exer- cise of their faith. Baltimore was founded in 1730. The Virginia boundary was adjusted in 1668, that of Delaware and Pennsylvania, 132 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS known in our history as "Mason and Dixon's Line," in 1763. A republican constitution was adopted in 1776. The "Maryland Line" was famous in the Revolutionary War for its gal- lantry. The Federal Constitution was adopted in 1788. In the War of 1812, Maryland suH'ered much from Admiral Cockburn's fleet; French- town, Havre de Grace, and Frederick were burned, and Fort McHenry unsuccessfully bom- barded. The only important battle fought within the State during the late Civil War was that of Antietam, in September^ 1862. Mason and Dixon's Line. This line was originally the parallel of latitude 39 degrees, 43 minutes, 26.3 seconds which separates Penn- sylvania from Maryland. It received its name from Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, two English mathematicians and astronomers, who traced the greater part of it between the years 1763 and 1767, though the last thirty-six miles were finished by others. It was practically the dividing line between the free and the slave States in the East. During the discussion in Congress on the Missouri Compromise, John Randolph, of Roanoke, Virginia, made free use of the phrase, and thereafter it became popular as signifying the dividing hne between the free and slave territories throughout the country. The boundary, as thus extended by popular usage, followed the Ohio River to the Mississippi, and west of that was the parallel of 36 degrees, 30 minutes, the southern boundary of Missouri, though IMissouri itself was a slave State. Massachusetts was one of the thirteen original States. Though first visited by the English under Bartholomew Gosnold in 1602, the first permanent settlement was made by the Puritan colony, which landed from the "May- flower" at Plymouth in 1620. The expedition commanded by John Endicott, which arrived in 1628, acting under the auspices of the Massa- chusetts Bay Company, which had received a royal charter, gradually planted settlements at Charlestown, Boston, Watertown, Dorchester, Roxbury, Salem, Mj'stic, Saugus (Lynn), and other places. The restoration of the Stuarts threatened the rights of the colonists, but their charter was finally confirmed in 1662. King PhiUp's War occurred in 1675-76, and put the colonists in great peril. In 1684, the Massachu- setts charter was declared forfeited to the Crown under Charles II., but it was restored after the accession of William and Mary. In 1692, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth were consohdated. The province took active part in the various French and Indian wars, and contributed largely to the expedition which cap- tured Louisburg in 1745. The Boston Massacre in 1770, the destruction of the tea in 1773, and the Port Bill in 1774 were important incidents pre- ceding the Revolution. At I^exington and Con- cord, in 1775, Massachusetts made the final appeal to arms. At this time the populatiori of the province was 352,000. The State Constitu- tion, still essentially the organic law, was formed in 1780, and the Federal Constitution was rati- fied in 1788. The total expenditures of the State on account of the late Civil War amounted to $30,162,200. Mecklenburg Declaration. This dec- laration was adopted, it is said, in May, 1775, at a midnight meeting of representatives of the mihtia of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. It declares that the people of that county are free and independent of the British Crown, and not only is its general tenor that of the Declara- tion of Independence, but many phrases are word for word as they appear in that document. The minutes of the midnight meeting are said to have been destroyed by fire in 1800. Whether the Declaration of Independence followed the words of the Mecklenburg Declaration or whether the latter, having probably been replaced from memory, was tinctured with the former, is a disputed question. Mexico. The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely different peri- ods — that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. The Eighth Century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the North. Their capital was established at Tula, north of the Mexican Valley. Their laws and usages stamp them as a people of mild and peaceful instincts, industrious, active, and enter- prising. It is related that a severe famine and pestilence all but destroyed the Toltec people in the Eleventh Century, and near the end of the next century, a fresh migration brought, among other kindred nations, the Aztecs into the land. Within two centuries and a half this last people had become predominant. But their rule was in a great degree, a reversion to savagery. The Aztecs founded, about 1325, the city of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico; a hundred years later they had extended their sway beyond their plateau valley, and on the arrival of the Span- iards, their empire was found to stretch from ocean to ocean. Their government was an elective empire, the deceased prince being usually succeeded by a brother or nephew, who must be a tried warrior; but sometimes the successor was chosen from among the powerful nobles. The monarch wielded despotic power, save in the case of his great feudal vassals; these exercised a very similar authority over the peasant class, below w^hom, again, were the slaves. The Mexicans apparently believed in one supreme invisible creator of all things, the ruler of the universe; but the popular faith was polytheistic. At the head of the Aztec pantheon was the frightful Huitzilopochtli, the Mexican Mars. The victims were borne to the summit of the great pyramidal temples, where the priests, in sight of assembled crowds, bound them to the sacrificial stone, and, slashing open the breast, tore from it the bleeding heart and held it up before the image of the god. Cortez landed at Vera Cruz in 1519. Before his energy, and the superior civilization of his followers, the power of the native empire crum- bled away. In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories — at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver's Island — under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys appointed by the mother country. The intolerant spirit of the Catholic clergy led to the suppression of almost every trace of the ancient Aztec nationality and civilization, while the commercial system crippled the resources of the colony; for all foreign trade with any coun- HISTORY 133 try other than Spain was prohibited on pain of death. Mexico ranked first among ail the Spanish colonics in regard to population, mate- rial riches, and natural products. In 1810 the discontent broke into open rebellion, and a guerilla warfare was kept up until, in 1821, the capital was surrendered by O'Donoju, the last of the viceroys. In the following year. General Iturbide, who, in 1821, had issued the plan de Iguala, providing for the independence of Mexico under a prince of the reigning houses, had him- self proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Gueri'ero, his former ally, and General Santa Ana raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following y{>ar he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established. For more than half a century after this the history of Mexico is a record of disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independ- ence, recognized by Mexico in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States; but its western boundary was not settled, and war ensued between Mexico and the United States. From the fall of Santa Ana in 1855, down to 1867, great confusion prevailed. In April, 1862, Emperor Napoleon formally de- clared war against Mexico; but the French finally had to withdraw in 1867, largely because of the attitude of the United States. Maximilian, who had become Emperor of Mexico under French support, was executed in the same year, and Juarez returned to power. On his death in 1872, the chief justice, Lerdo de Tejada, assumed the presidency, in which he was succeeded in 1877 by General Porfirio Diaz, one of the ablest of Mexican soldiers and administrators. In 1910, a rebellion was started under Madero. In 1911 Diaz was forced to resign; Madero was made president. In 1912 Felix Diaz led an in- surrection against Madero, who was assassinated February 24, 1913. Hucrta became acting president. A revolt against the Huerta govern- ment by the Constitutionalists, followers of Madero, resulted in the appointment of Carranza as their commander-in-chief. The United States dechned to recognize Huerta. On April 9, 1914, a party of American blue- jackets landed at Tampico for gasoline. They were aiTcstcd by Mexican troops, but released with an apology. Rear-admiral Mayo demanded a salute to the American flag which was refused. The United States navy was ordered to Tampico to enforce the demand. 1,000 marines were landed at Vera Cruz. On April 21 the customs house was seized by order of President Wilson. 3,000 additional troops took the city on April 22. On May 20, delegates of the so-called A-B-C powers — Argentina, Brazil, Chile — met at Niag- ara Falls, Canada, to arrange peaceful settlement between United States and Mexico. The con- ference ended without positive results. Huerta resigned in July, 1915, and left the country; Carbajal became provisional president. The Constitutionalists under Carranza occupied Mexico City in August; Villa arose against Car- ranza, now provisional president, but was de- feated. In October, 1915, Carranza was formally recognized as chief executive by the United States and other governments, and, in 1917, was elected president of Mexico. In May, 1920, a revolution, led by General Obregon, resulted in the deposi- tion and death of Carranza. The Mexican con- gress thereupon elected de la Huerta, governor of Sonora, provisional president. Michigan. The name is derived from Indian words, meaning "a weir of fish." Though visited as early as 1610 by French missionaries and fur-traders, the first European settlement was made at Sault Ste. Marie by Father Mar- quette in 1668. Fort Michilimackinac, now Mackinaw, was established three years later. In 1701 Antoine Cadillac founded Detroit. With other French possessions it came into the owner- ship of England in 1763. Michigan came into the possession of the United States in 1796, when it was included in the government of the North- west Territory. The Territory of Michigan was formed in 1805. In 1837 Michigan was admitted as a state. In 1916 Prohibition was adopted by constitutional amendment. In 1918 full suffrage was granted to women. Minnesota. The name is derived from an Indian word, signifying "cloudy water." Hennepin and La Salle visited the region as early as 1680. Extended explorations were made by John Carver in 1766 and by Lieut. Pike in 1805, after which explorers and settlei's followed in considerable numbers. Fort Snelling, at the mouth of the Minnesota River, was built and occupied in 1821. In 1837 lumbering industries began to attract immigration. The Territory established in 1849 embraced about twice the hmits of the present State, the western limit extending to the Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1851, the Sioux ceded all their lands west of the Mississippi to the Big Sioux River. The State was admitted to the Union May 11, 1858. The portion of the State lying west of the Mississippi originally belonged to the Louis- iana Purchase, and the eastern portion was a part of what was known as the "Northwest Territory." It was the scene of the Sioux War and massacre in 1862-63. Mississippi. This region was first trav- ersed by De Soto in 1542, and in 1682 La Salle descended the Mississippi (the name derived from Indian words meaning "great water"), took formal possession, and called the adjacent country Louisiana. Iberville built a fort on the Bay of Biloxi in 1699, and in 1716 Fort Rosahe was erected on the site of Natchez. After the cession of the east portion of Louisiana (includ- ing what is now Mississippi) to Great Britain, in 1763, and until the Revolutionary War, immi- gration proceeded very slowly. The Territory of Mississippi was organized in 1798. In 1804 the boundaries were enlarged, and ^Mississippi was made to comprise the whole of the present States of Alabama and ]\Iississippi north of the 31st parallel. The region south of that line between the Pearl and Perdido rivers was added in 1812, though claimed by Spain. Alabama was organized as a Territory in 1817, and Mississippi was admitted as a State. The ordi- nance of secession was passed January 9, 1861. The principal events within the State during the war of 1861-65 were the battles of luka and Corinth and the siege of Vicksburg, which sur- 134 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS rendered on July 4, 1863. The State was form- ally readmitted to the Union in 1870. On Jan- uary 29, 1903, the Yazoo Canal was opened, restoring to Vicksburg the water front it lost during 1876, when the Federal Government attempted to dredge a canal, tapping the Yazoo River. A Prohibition statute was enacted in 1908 which took effect in 1909. 3Iissouri. The name of the State signifies "big muddy." The settlement and progress of Missouri were at first slower than in the lower portions of French Louisiana. Its oldest town, Ste. Genevieve, was founded in 1755. In 1763, France ceded to Spain the portion west of the Mississippi, and to England the section east of the river. Numbers of French Canadians had settled along the whole line of the river, and an active trade had been carried on between upper and lower Louisiana. With Hberal grants of lands to colonists, immigrants flocked hither from Spain. In 1775, St. Louis, originally a depot of the fur-trade, contained 800 inhabitants, while Ste. Genevieve had only 460. Spain sided with the colonists during the Revolution, and her arms were successful in lower Louisiana and Florida. In 1780, however, St. Louis was at- tacked by a force of Enghsh and Indians from Michilimackinac, and was relieved only by the arrival of General Clarke from Kaskaskia with American assistance. With the retrocession of Louisiana to France in 1800, and its subsequent sale to the L'nited States by Napoleon three years later, its political ownership became fixed. Missouri was included in the Territory of Louis- iana, which had been set off in 1805, with St. Louis as the seat of territorial government. In 1812, with the admission of the present State of Louisiana into the Union, the name of the Territory was changed to Missouri. With rapid immigration the population had swelled in 1817 to 60,000. In 1820, by the celebrated compro- mise, Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slaveholding State, on condition that slavery should never exist north of latitude 36° 30', in lands farther west, out of which new States should be formed. During the late Civil War repeated efforts were made to force secession on Missouri, but unsuccessfully. Though no great battles were fought within the State limits, it was the field of active military operations and, in many sections, of bloody guerilla-fighting. The battle of Wilson's Creek, on August 10, 1861, where General Lyon, the Federal com- mander, was killed, and the capture of Lexing- ton by the Confederate general, Sterling Price, on September 20, 1861, were the most important events of the first year of the conflict. Several times General Price held more than half the State in his hands, and it was not till 1864 that the Confederates were finally expelled. In June, 1865, a new constitution was ratified by the people. The fifteenth amendment to the Fed- eral Constitution was adopted by the legislature in 1869. Missouri was the eleventh State admitted under the Federal Constitution. Montana. In 1743, Chevalier de la Veren- drye, with a party of French Canadians, entered Montana and discovered the Rocky Mountains, but made no attempt at settlement. The coun- try came into the possession of the United States by the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1804 and 1806, Lewis and Clark made exploring expe- ditions up the Missouri and across the mountains to the Pacific, crossing Montana twice. Alex- ander Henry, in 1808, led a party of fur-traders into the Yellowstone country, and in 1806-1810, John Colter, of Lewis and Clark's expedition, engaged in hunting and trapping in the territory. Fort Union, the first permanent fort in Montana, was built in 1829 by Kenneth Mackenzie, and in 1832 the first steamer ascended the Missouri into Montana. Fort Benton was built in 1846 by Alexander Culbertson. In 1853-54, Mon- tana was explored by a scientific and mihtary, expedition sent out by Governor Isaac J. Stevens, of Washington Territory. The Gold Creek mines were discovered in 1862, and in the same year the development of the mines of Beaver- head Valley and Bighole River began. In 1864, Montana was organized as a Territory and Helena and Butte City were founded. From 1864 to 1879 there was war with the Sioux, Blackfeet, and Cheyennes. In 1874, Helena was made territorial capital. The battle of Little Big Horn, when General Custer and his men were massacred, occurred in 1876. In 1881, the first railroad reached Helena, arid in 1883 the second was completed. In 1889, Montana was admitted as a State. The Montana State Uni- versity was opened at Missoula in 1895. Mon- tana granted suffrage to women in 1914 and adopted constitutional Prohibition in 1916. Nebraska. The name first appUed to the river is of Indian origin, and signifies "Shallow Water." When originally organized as a Ter- ritory in 1854, it extended from latitude 40° north to the northern national boundary and west to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The Territory of Colorado was set off from this on February 28, 1861, and that of Dakota a few months later. At the same time Nebraska re- ceived from Utah and Washington Territories a tract of 15,378 square miles, lying on the south- west slope of the Rocky Mountains, which, how- ever, was taken from her with an additional portion in 1863 to form the Territory of Idaho. Nebraska was thus cut down to its present limits. Measures to form a State government were made in 1860 and in 1864, but the first was defeated by the popular vote, and the second (being an enabling act of Congress) was not acted on. The Civil War and Indian hostilities checked the growth of the Territory during 1861- 65. In 1866, a constitution was framed and ratified by popular vote, and in 1867 Nebraska was admitted as a State. Constitutional Prohi- bition was adopted in 1916. Nevada. The region within the limits of Nevada forms part of the Mexican cession of 1848. It was organized by act of Congress as a Territory in 1861, from a portion of Utah, and embraced the region bounded north by the pres- ent boundary of the State, east by the 116th meridian, south by the 37th parallel, and west by CaUfornia. A portion of California which had been included the latter-named State re- fused to transfer, and by an additional act of Congress, in 1861, a further portion of Utah was added, extending the east boundary the distance o( one degree. Nevada became a HISTORY 135 State October 31, 1864. In 1866, a third portion of Utah was added, extending the east boundary to the 114th meridian, and at the same time the portion of the State South of the 37th parallel was added from Arizona. The earliest settlements were made by the Mormons in 1848. Gold was discovered in 1849; but the rapid advance in population dates from the discovery of silver in 1859. Among the earliest discover- ies was that of the world-renowned Comstock lode. In 1906-07 rich discoveries of gold were made at Goldficld and other points. The State was the twenty-fifth admitted under the Consti- tution. Suffrage was granted to women in 1914. New Hampshire. One of the thirteen original States. The first settlements were made within the Umits of New Hampshire at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623. The district was annexed to Massachusetts in 1641, became a royal province in 1679, and was again annexed to Massachusetts in 1689. It became a separate province in 1741 and remained so till the Revo- lution. Indian atrocities were frequent tiU the English conquered Canada. It was supposed till 1764 that the present State of Vermont was included in the province. The territory, how- ever, was claimed by New York; the contro- versy lasted till the independence of Vermont was acknowledged in 1790. In 1776, New Hamp- shire declared its independence and estabUshed a temporary government of its own. It took an active part in the Revolutionary War, and the battle of Bennington was fought within its limits. The Constitution of the United States was ratified in 1788. During the Civil War New Hampshire furnished 34,606 men to the Union cause. New Jersey. The State of New Jersey, one of the- thirteen original States, was originally a part of New York, and was first settled about 1617 by the Dutch. A patent granted by Charles II. of England, to his brother, the Duke of York, in 1664, gave the latter a claim on all the country between the Delaware and Con- necticut rivers. An expedition under Colonel Nicolls conquered the whole territory. The portion of the province now named New Jersey received its name from Sir George Carteret, to whom the Duke of York had sold his claim, in memory of the Island of Jersey of which the former had been governor. A constitution was formed for it in 1665 as a separate colony. In 1776, a State constitution was formed, and dur- ing the Revolution the battles of Trenton, Princeton, Millstone, Red Bank, and Monmouth were fought within the State Umits. The Fed- eral Constitution was ratified December 18, 1787, the State capital established at Trenton in 1790, and the present constitution August 13, 1844. The State furnished 79,511 fully equipped troops to the Union army and navy during the Civil War. New Mexico. The earliest explorers of New Mexico were Spaniards who long held possession of the region. Though one of the most recently settled portions of the Union, it was among the earliest to be occupied by the white man, and Santa Fe, originally an Indian pueblo, claims the title of the oldest town in the country. When the Spaniards first visited this region, they found a people Uving in communities with substantial dweUings, and marking the decay of a civifization which had flourished in previous centuries. In 1822 the people of New Mexico, together with other inhabitants of Mexico, of which it then formed a part, threw off the Spanish yoke. In 1846 United States troops under Gen. Stephen Kearney occupied New Mexico, which was surrendered by Mexico in the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. It then included the greater part of the present Arizona and part of Nevada and of Colorado. The territorial government was organized in 1850 and inaugurated in 1851. In 1853 a large strip was added by the Gadsden Purchase. Arizona was set off in 1863, and in 1867 a section was annexed to Colorado. New Mexico became a state on January 6, 1912, the 47th State to be admitted to the Union. New York. The Bay of New York and the river emptying into it were explored by Hendrik Hudson, a navigator in the employ- ment of the Dutch East India Company, in September, 1609. In 1614, the Dutch made settlements on Manhattan Island, and the name New Netherland was extended to all the uncon- quered regions lying between Virginia and Can- ada. Seven years later the Dutch West India Company was incorporated and took possession. In 1623, settlements were made at Albany and on Long Island, and in 1626, Peter Minuit, the Director-General, bought Manhattan Island of the Indians. In 1629, the company passed the act under which the manorial monopolies in land were estabhshed. In spite of Indian wars the colony grew so fast that it came in collision with the English on the Connecticut and the Swedes on the Delaware River. The claims made by the Enghsh to New Netherland on the score of Cabot's prior discovery were finally enforced in the charter granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, and the armed expedition of Colonel Nicolls in 1664. The Dutch under Governor Stuyvesant surrendered, and New Netherland became New Y^ork, though the Dutch reconquered and held the province for a short period, before English rule became peiTnanent. The tyranny exercised over the province by Francis Nicholson, the lieutenant of Andros, who had been appointed to be governor, caused the revolt in 1689 headed by Jacob Lcisler, which was at first successful, though Leisler was two years later executed for treason. In 1687 began the series of French and Indian wars in which the New York colonists bore so important a part. The first of these closed in 1697, with the Peace of Ryswick. The second, or Queen Anne's War, lasted from 1702 to 1713. The most important act in this long conflict between the French and English for the sovereignty of North America, and the end of the historic drama, began in 1754. The contest lasted with varying fortunes until the French were finally driven from their line of fortresses on the lake and the war was ended by General Wolfe's expe- dition, which resulted in the capture of Quebec and the final overthrow of French power in Canada in 1759. The province of New York entered zealously into the Revolutionary cause, 136 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS though it contained a large loyahst faction. Many of the most important mihtary operations were conducted within its limits. The two lead- ing battles fought were that of Long Island on August 27, 1776, whereby the British secured New York City and held it till the end of the war; and the battle of Saratoga, on October 17, 1777, which occasioned the surrender of General Burgoyne's army. On November 25, 1783, New York was evacuated by the British. In 1790, the conflicting claims of New York and New Hampshire were settled by the erection of the disputed territory into the State of Vermont. In 1797, Albany was made the capital of the State, and slavery was abolished in 1817. Dur- ing the War of 1812 the most notable incidents within New York State were the battle of Lundy's Lane, on the Niagara frontier, fought by General Winfield Scott, and Commodore McDonough's naval defeat of the British on Lake Champlain, both in 1813. The Erie Canal, originally pro- jected in 1800, was, through DeWitt Clinton's influence, completed in 1825. During the Civil War, the State furnished 455,568 Union troops. In 1917 by a majority vote of 102,358 a consti- tutional amendment was adopted granting full suffrage to women. Normandy. An ancient northwest prov- ince of France, extending along the English channel, from a point south of the mouth of the Somme to the bay of Cancale, now divided into the departments of Seine-Inferieure, Eure, Cal- vados, Ome, and La Manche. The Romans in- cluded the territory in Gallia Lugdunensis Secunda. It received the name of Normandy from the Northmen, who occupied it in the beginning of the Tenth Century. In 912, Charles the Siinple gave his sanction to their conquests, and RoUo, their chief, received the title of Duke of Normandy. The sixth successor of RoUo, William, became in 1066 the conqueror and first Norman king of England. On his death (1087) England and Normandy were separated, the latter reverting to Robert Courteheusc, while William Rufus seized upon the former. Henry I. ruled over both, but his daughter Matilda was only Duchess of Normandy. Her son, Henry II., accomplished another reunion. From King John Normandy was wrested by Philip Augustus of France; but it was twice held by the English, first under Edward III., and a second time, from 1417 to 1450, under Henry V. and Henry VI. Charles VII. of France made it an integral portion of his kingdom. North Carolina. In 1663 eight noble- men received from Charles II. the patent of the province of Carolina, but a few years prior to this settlements had been made by Dissenters from Virginia and from New England. Albemarle, the name given to the portion now North Carolina, was rapidly augmented by settlers from Virginia, New England, and Bermuda. In 1729, Carolina became a royal government, all but one of the proprietors having sold out to the Crown, and North and South Carolina were formally declared distinct provinces. In 1765, North Carolina received large accessions in parties of Irish Presbyterians, Scotch High- landers, and Moravians. In 1769, the Provincial Assembly declared against the right of taxation without representation, and in 1774 represen- tatives were sent to the first Continental Con- gress, which adopted the declaration of colonial rights. In the revolution North Carohna was a leader and its territory was a scene of some important campaigns. In 1776, it united with the other colonies in the Declaration of Inde- pendence, and a State constitution was formed the same year. Aside from partisan warfare, the only battle fought in the State was that of Guilford Court House in 1781, between Generals Greene and Cornwallis. The State seceded from the Union May 21, 1861, and the military operations which followed were notable. The most important were the capture of Fort Hatteras in 1861, of Roanoke Island and Fort Macon in 1862, and of Fort Fisher in 1865. The State ratified the 14th Amendment in 1868, and the 15th Amendment in 1869. Statutory Prohi- bition was adopted by a referendum vote in 1908. North Dakota. The Territory of North Dakota, of which North and South Dakota were formed, originally constituted part of the Territory of Minnesota, which was organized in 1849 from part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. In 1854 the Territory of Nebraska was formed, comprising then the present State of Nebraska and all of Dakota. On March 2, 1861, the Territory of Dakota was organized, com- prising then the States of Montana and Wyo- ming. The first permanent settlements by whites were made in 1859 in Clay, Union, and Yankton counties. On November 2, 1889, the Territory was divided and the States of North and South Dakota formed and admitted to the Union at the same time. The history of the settlement and growth of the country is identical with that of the territories of which it originally formed a part. Constitutional Prohibition adopted in 1889. North German Confederation, The, was formed after the famous "Seven Weeks' War" and the "Peace of Prague," when Austria was entirely excluded from Germany. The confederation included Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and Frankfort (all incorporated with Prussia), and the states north of the Main united to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, there- fore, the confederation was Prussia and the states north of the Main. In 1870, during the Franco- German War, the "North German Confedera- tion," being joined by Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, and Hesse -Darmstadt, became the "German Confederation," and two months afterwards (January 18, 1871), the King of Prussia had the title of "German Emperor" given him. Northmen. A name applied to the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, or Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, but more generally restricted to those searovers, called Danes by the Saxons, who sailed on piratical expeditions to all parts of the European seas, made their first appear- ance on the coast of England in 787, and from the year 832 repeated their invasion almost every year, till they became masters of all the country under theu- King Canute, and reigned in England during the next fifty years, down to 1042, when the Saxon Dynasty was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor. In 885, they laid siege to Paris, but were at length HISTORY 137 bought off by Charles the Fat. RoUo, one of the most renowned of the Norman chieftains, after ravaging Frieshmd and the countries watered by the Scheldt, accepted the hand of a daughter of Charles the Simple, and received with her, under the tie of vassalage, possession of all the land in the valley of the Seine, from the Epte and Eure to the sea, which then went by the name of Normandy. They rapidly adopted the more civihzed form of life that pre- vailed in the Frankish Kingdom — its religion, language, and manners — • but inspired every- thing they borrowed with theu- own vitality. Their conquest of England, in 1066, gave that country an energetic race of kings and nobles on the whole well-fitted to rule a brave, sturdy, but somewhat torpid people Uke the Anglo- Saxons. Nor'way. The early history of Norway is comprised in that of the other Scandinavian countries, and is, like theirs, for the most part fabulous. It is only towards the close of the Tenth Century, when Christianity was intro- duced under the rule of Olaf I., that the mythical obscurity in which the annals of the kingdom had been previously plunged begins to give place to the light of historical truth. The introduction of Christianity, which was the result of the intercourse which the Norwe- gians had with the more civilized parts of Europe, through their maritime expeditions, destroyed much of the old nationality of the people with the heathenism which they had hitherto cher- ished, although the sanguinary feuds which had raged among the rival chiefs of the land can scarcely be said to have lost their ferocity under the sway of a milder rehgion. Olaf II., or the Saint (1015-1030), who zealously prosecuted the conversion of his countrymen, raised himself to supreme power in the land by the subjection of the small kings or chieftains, who in the times of heathenism had subdivided the kingdom among them. The war between Olaf and King Knud the Great of Denmark, which terminated in 1030 with the battle of Sticklestad, in which the former was slain, brought Norway under the sway of the Danish conqueror; but at his death in 1036, Olaf's son, Magnus I., recovered possession of the throne, and henceforth, till 1319, Norway continued to be governed by native kings. The death in that year of Haakon v., without male heirs, threw the election of a new king into the hands of the National Assem- bly, who, after many discussions, made choice of Magnus VIII., of Sweden, the son of Haakon's daughter. He was in turn succeeded by his son Haakon and his grandson Olaf V., who having been elected King of Denmark in 1376 became ruler of the sister Scandinavian kingdoms on the death of his father in 1380. This young king, who exercised only a nominal sway under the guidance of his mother, Queen Margaret, the only child of Vaklemar III. of Denmark, died without heirs in 1387. Margaret's love of power and capacity for government brought about her election to the triple throne of the Scandinavian lands, and from this period till 1814, Norway continued united with Denmark; but while it shared in the general fortunes of the latter state, it retained its own constitutional mode of gov- ernment, and exercised its right of electing to the throne, until, like the sister kingdom, it agreed of its own free will to rehnquish this privilege in favor of hereditary succession to the throne. The Napoleonic crisis may be said to have severed this union, which had existed for more than 400 years; for Denmark, after having given unequivocal proofs of adhesion to the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled, after the disastrous War of 1813, to purchase peace at the cost of this long united partner of her state. Crippled in her resources, and almost a bankrupt, she saw herself constrained to sign the treaty of Kiel in 1814, by which it was stip- ulated by the allied powers that she should resign Norway to Sweden, receiving in return, by way of indemnity, some portion of Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rugen, which were subsequently exchanged with Prussia for Lauen- burg on the payment by that state of two million rix dollars. The Norwegians, having refused to admit the validity of the treaty of Kiel, nominated Prince Christian, the heir-pre- sumptive to the throne of Denmark, regent and subsequently King of • Norway. This nomina- tion was made by the National Diet, or Storthing, which met at Ejdsvold, where they drew up a constitution based on the French Constitution of 1791. These measures found, however, neither supporters nor sympathizers among the other nations; and with the sanction of the great aUied powers, Charles John Bernadotte, Crown-Prince of Sweden, led an army into Norway, and, after taking Fredrikstad and Frederikshald, threatened Christiania. Den- mark being unable to support the cause of Prince Christian, and Norway being utterly destitute of the means necessary for prosecuting a war, resistance was of no avail, and the Nor- wegians, in this untoward conjuncture of affairs, were glad to accept the proposals made to them by the Swedish King for a union with Sweden, on the understanding that they should retain the newly promulgated constitution, and enjoy full liberty and independence within their own boundaries. These conditions were agreed to, and strictly maintained, a few unimportant alterations in the constitution, necessitated by the altered conditions of the new union, being the only changes introduced in the machinery of government. Charles XIII. was delcared joint King of Sweden and Norway in 1818. After the union, Norway firmly resisted every attempt on the part of the Swedish monarchs to infringe upon the constitutional prerogatives of the nation; and during the reign of the first of the Bernadotte Dynasty, the relations be- tween him and his Norwegian subjects were marked by jealousy and distrust on both sides; but after his death the people generally became .more contented and Norway continued to make rapid progress towards a state of political security and material prosperity far greater than it ever enjoyed under the Danish dominion. The dissolution of the union with Sweden which had endured since 1814, took place June 7, 1905, following a dispute between the two countries as to their diplomatic representation abroad. Prince Charles of Denmark became King, as Haakon VII. 138 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY Dates Historic Name Leading Battles Chief Leaders 1 193-1 i84 743-669 504-469 595-586 448-447 357-346 431-404 334-331 343-290 204-146 200-146 112-106 90-88 88-63 73-71 58-51 50-31 A. D. 70 86-100 409-553 710-1492 1095-1291 1337-1453 1385-1389 1419-1436 1455-1485 1562-1598 1567-1609 Trojan War. Greeks capture Troy. Messenian War. Sparta conquers Messenia. Perso-Grecian War. Greece suc- cessfully resists Persian invasion. Sacred Wars of Greece. €^argely intestine, and without results. Peloponnesian War. Athens con- quered by Lacediemonia. Greco-Persian War. Greece con- quers Persia. Samnite War. Samnites. Punic Wars. Carthage. Greco-Roman War dued by Rome. Romans conquer Romans destroy Greece sub- Romans con- Jugurtliine War. quer Numidia. Roman Social War. Right of Ro- man citizenship granted the Socii. Mitbridatic War. Mithridates, King of Parthia, defeated. Gladiatorial War. Gladiators de- feated. Gallic War. Caesar. Gauls conquered by Roman Em- Roman Civil War, pire established. Jewisb-Roman War. Jerusalem taken; temple destroyed. Dacian War. Country beyond Danube conquered. Barbarian Wars. Teutonic hordes capture Rome and ravage Italy. Saracen Conquests. The Saracens occupy Northern Africa and Spain; defeated in France. Tbc Crusades. Christians capture Jerusalem and ports of Spain, but are finally repulsed. Hundred Years' War. England lost all her possessions in France except Calais. Austro-Swiss War. Independence of Switzerland. Hussite War. secured. Religious toleration Wars of tbe Roses. House of York supplants that of Lancaster on English throne. Frencb Civil War. Edict of Nantes, Protestant toleration. Spanlsb-Netherlands War. In- ■ lependence of the Netherlands achieved. 1 hirty Tears' War. Religious free- dom secured. Siege of Troy. Marathon; Thermopylae; Salamis; Platea; Mycale. Battles chiefly naval. Granicus; Issus; Arbela. Caudine Forks; Sentinum. Ticinus; Trebia; Thrasy- menus; Cannae; Metau- rus; Zama. Cynoscephalae; Pydna. Muthul; Cirta. Chaeronea; Cabira. Petelia. Pharsalia; Thapsus; Mun- da; Philippi; Actium. Siege of Jerusalem. Sack of Rome. Xeres ; Tours ; Tarif a ; Gra- nada. Siege of Jerusalem; Acre. Cr6cy ; Calais ; Aginoourt. Sempach; Nafels. Poitiers; Prague. St. Albans; Bloreheath; Wakefield; Towton; Bar- net; Tcwksbury. Dreux; St. -Denis; Jarnac; Moncontour; Ivry. Ziitphen; Nieuport; vari- ous sieges aim naval con- flicts. Dessau; Leipsic; Lech; Liit- zen; Nordlingen. Hector; Agamemnon. Mihiades; Leonidas; Themis- tocles; Pausanius. Pericles; Alcibiades; Lysander. Alexander the Great; Darius. Fabius Maximus; Caius Pontius. Fabius; Scipio; Hannibal. Flaminiua; .(Emilius Paulus; Mummius; Perseus. Jugurtha; Metellus; Marius. Samnites; Marsians. Lucullus; Pompey; Sulla. Spartacus; Crassus, Caesar. Caesar; Pompey; Brutus; Cas- sius; Antony; Augustus. Titus. Trajan. Alaric; Genseric; Attila. Musa; Tarik; Charles Martel; Cid Rodrigo. Godfrey of Bouillon; Conrad III.; Louis VII.; Fred- erick II.; Pliilip Augustus; Richard the Lion-Hearted; Louis IX.; Edward I.; Sala- din. Edward III. of England; Ed- ward the Black Prince; Henry V. of England; Joan of Arc. Arnold von Winkelried; Leo- pold II. John Ziska; Sigismund. Richard, Duke of York; Ed- ward, Duke of York; Earl of Warwick; Queen Margaret; Henry VI. Duke of Anjou; Henry III.; Henry IV.; Cond6. William of Orange; Maurice of Nassau; Duke of Alva; Alex- ander Farnese; Duke of Par- ma. Gustavus Adolphus; Wallen- stein; Tilly; Turenne. HISTORY 139 NOTABLE WARS OF HISTORY— Continued Dates 1642-1652 1701-1714 1700-1709 1740-174S 1756-1763 1770-1783 1792-1799 1800-1815 1812-1815 1821-1828 1846-1847 1854-1856 1859 1861-1865 1866 1870 1877 1894-1895 1898 1899-1902 1904-1905 1911-1912 1912-1913 1914-1918 Historic Name English Civil War. Engliah Com- monwealth established. Spanish Succession. French and Spanish crowns disunited. Prot- estant succession in England. Swedish-Russian War. Defeat of Charles XII. Austrian Succession. Many pre- vious treaties affirmed; Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria. Seven Years' War. Prussia gains a high rank. American Revolutionary War. United States achieve their inde- pendence. French Revolution. Bourbons de- feated. Napoleonic Wars. France ad- vances to the first place in Europe. War of 1812. United States en- tirely independent of Great Brit- ain. War for Greek Independence. Greece independent of Turkey. Mexican War. Boundary between United States and Mexico fixed. Crimean War. Independence of Turkey guaranteed. Peace of Paris. Italian War. Papal States and two Sicilies annexed to Italy. American Civil War. Abolition of slavery. Seven Weeks' War. Prussia de- feats Austria and unifies Germany. Franco-Prussian War. Paris taken and Alsace and Lorraine added to German Empire. Russo-Turklsh War. Rumania, Servia, Montenegro, independent of Turkey. Treaty of Berlin. Chinese-Japanese War. Indem- nity to Japan; independence of Korea. Spanish-American War. End of Spanish rule in Arnerica; Cuba, Porto Rico, and Philippines pass to United States. Boer War. Annexation of Trans- vaal and Orange river colony to British empire. Russo-Japanese War. Mutual concessions, confirmed by treaty of Portsmouth. Japan a world power. Turco-Itallan War. Tripoli ceded to Italy. Balkan War. Turkey loses much territory in Europe. War of the Nations, or The World War. Overthrow of Pan-Germanic scheme of world conquest. De- feat of militarism and autocracy. Downfall of the Ilohenzollern and Habsburg dynasties. End of Turkish domination over non- Moslems. Triumph of democ- racy. Restoration of independ- ence to small nations. Establish- ment of new world order to se- cure international justice. Leading Battles Edgehill; Marston Moor; Naseby; Worcester. Blenheim; Uamillies; Tu- rin; Oudenarde; Malpla- quet. Narva; Pultowa. Dettingen; Fontenoy; Pia- cenza; Lawfeld. Prague; KoUin; Rosbach Lissa; Torgau. Bunker Hill; Saratoga; Monmouth; Yorktown. Valmy; Jemappes; Wattig- nies; Lodi; Arcole. Marengo; Trafalgar; Aus- terlitz; Jena; Eylau; Friedland; Wagram; Bo- rodino; Leipsic; Waterloo Battles chiefly naval; Burn- ing of Washington; New Orleans. Missolonghi; Navarino. Buena Vista; Cerro Gordo; Capture of Mexico City. Alma; Balaklava; Inker- man; Malakoff. Magenta; Solferino. Bull Run; Shiloh; Seven Days; Antietam; Mur- freesboro; Chancellors- ville; Vicksburg; Gettys- burg; Chickamauga; Chattanooga; Atlanta; Wilderness. Langensalza; Koniggratz or Sadowa. .Worth; Gravelotte; Sedan; Metz; Capture of Paris. Shipka Pass; Kars Plevna. Occupation of Korea by Japanese; Port Arthur; Wei Hai Wei; Nieuchang. Manila Bay; Santiago; San Juan; El Caney. Kimberly; Ladysmith; Maf eking; Pretoria. Yalu; Telissu; Liaoyang; Sha-ho; Siege of Port Ar- thur; Mukden; Destruc- tion of Russian fleet. Benghazi; Derna; Tobruk; Hodcida. Scutari ; Saloniki ; Mon- astir; Adrianople. Li6ge, Marne, Aisne, Tan- nenberg, Ypres, F a 1 k - lands. Second Ypres, Dunajec, Loos, Gallipoli, Artois, Verdun, Jutland, Isonzo, Champagne, Somme, Vimy Ridge, Caporetto, Cambrai, Erzerum, Chateau- Thierry, Second Marne, St. Quentin, St. Mihiel, Argonne, Samaria, Piave, Cerna-Vardar. Chief Leaders Prince Rupert; Fairfax; Charles I.; Cromwell. Duke of Marlborough; Prince Eugene; Marshals Tallard and Villars. Charles XII. of Sweden; Peter the Great. Marshal Saxe; George II. of England; Duke of Cumber- land. Marshal Daun; Frederick the Great. Washington; Greene; Bur- goyne; Cornwallis; Clinton; Howe; Lafayette; Gates. Kellerman; Dumouriez; Jour- dan; Moreau; Bonaparte. Napoleon; Wellington; Nelson; Bliicher; Alexander I.; Francis I.; Frederick Wil- liam III.; Ney. Com. Perry; Admiral Cock- burn; Ross; Jackson. Admiral Canaris; Byron; Ibra- him Pasha. Taylor; Scott; Santa Ana. Lord Raglan; St. Arnaud; Prince Menschikoff ; Gen. Can- robert. Napoleon III.; Victor Emman- uel; Franz Josef I. McClellan; Grant; Sherman; Sheridan; Jackson; Thomas; Lee; Johnston; Meade. Marshal Benedek; William I.; Beyer. William I.; Von Moltke; Fred- erick; Frederick Charles; Napoleon III.; MacMahou; Bazaine. Grand Duke Nicholas; Gourko; Skobeleff; Todleben; Osman Pasha; Mukhtar Pasha. Oyama; Prince Arisugawa; Prince Komatsu. Admirals Dewey, Schley, Samp- son, Montojo, Cervcra; Gen- erals Shafter, Toral. Joubert; De Wet; Botha; De la Rev; French; White; Bul- len; Kitchener; Roberts. Admiral Makaroff; Kuropatkin; Linievitch; Stoesscl; Oyama; Kuroki; Admiral Togo; Ad- miral Kamimura; Admiral Rojestvensky; Nogi; Oku. Aubrv; Enver Bey; Farabelli; Fethi Bey. Putnik; Zekki Pasha; Savoff; Kleomenes; Abdullah Pa- sha; Yankovich. Foch, JofTre, P6tain, Castclnau, Gallieni, D'Esperey, Mangin Gouraud, Ilaig, French, Aiienby, Byng, Home, Maude, Beatty, Jellicoc, Pershing, Sims, Cadorna, Diaz, Brusilov, Grand Duke Nicholas, Hindenburg, Fal- keiihayn, Kluck, Mackensen, Ludendorff, Auffenburg, Dankl. 140 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Ohio. The French made the first explora- tions in what is now Ohio, La Salle's discoveries dating from about 1680. The English, whose patents covered a portion of the region which the French traders aimed to monopolize, came in hostile contact with the latter. It was in this connection that Washington's name first became notable through the Braddock Expedi- tion. In 1763 Canada and the whole region West to the Mississippi previously claimed by France were surrendered to Great Britain. After the Revolutionary War, the United States assumed control over the region afterward known as the Northwest Territory, acknowledg- ing the claim made by Virginia to 3,709,848 acres near the rapids of the Ohio, and a similar claim by Connecticut to 3,666,621 acres near Lake Erie, which became known as the "Western Reserve.'' These claims were admitted in the sense of ownership, but in no way as question of State jurisdiction. The first permanent settle- ment was made at Marietta, in 1788. The early years of the Northwest Territory were harassed by Indian warfare, which did not cease till the crushing defeat inflicted on them by General Anthony Wayne in 1794. In 1799, the Northwest Territory was organized, and shortly afterward Ohio (the name being derived from the Indian signifying "beautiful river") was formed into a separate territorial government. In 1803, the Territory was admitted as a State, the fourth under the Federal Constitution. The seat of government was in Chillicothe till 1810, in Zanesville till 1812, and in Chillicothe again till 1816, after which the State capital was fixed at Columbus. In 1818, the first steamboat, the "Walk on the Water,"was launched on Lake Erie. In 1836, the first western railroad was opened, from Toledo, Ohio, to Adrian, Michigan, with horse power at first and, in 1837, with steam power. The State began to be noted for wheat growing about 1840, and in 1863 her coal and iron mines began to be developed. Manufactur- ing became an important industry about 1865, and for a decade grew rapidly. The Standard Oil Company was formed in 1870, and during the next two decades the State's oil fields were rapidly developed. During the Civil War Ohio furnished one-eighth of the federal troops. Oklahoma. The history of Oklahoma before it was constructed into a separate Terri- tory is identical with that of the region of which Texas and New Mexico formed a part. When Indian Territory was created as a home for all the Indian tribes most of what is now Oklahoma was within its bounds. Some time in the early seventies the name first appeared in pohtical history, the occasion being a bill intro- duced into Congress to create a Territory out of part of Indian Territory, to be known as Oklahoma. The measure failed of passage and for more than a decade nothing was heard of the country. It was not forgotten, however, as in March, 1889, an amendment was tacked on to the Indian Appropriation Bill providing for the opening to homestead settlers of the little area of land embracing less than 3,000,000 acres and lying in the center of what is now the great State. The land was opened in April, 1889, and the first rush of Oklahoma "boomers" took place. In June, 1890, the territorial govern- ment first came into existence, and by the act which brought this about a strip of land known as "No Man's Land," consisting of 3,681,000 acres, was added as Beaver County. Other sec- tions were added from time to time until the Territory contained 24,933,120 acres. In 1906, Congress provided an enabUng act whereby Oklahoma and Indian Territory might be created into a State and admitted into the Union. On November 16, 1907, the conditions of this act having been complied with, the President of the United States signed the Constitution of Okla- homa, and issued a proclamation announcing its admission. The first State legislature con- vened December 2, 1907. Oregon. The original region named Ore- gon was the whole province claimed by the United States on the Pacific Coast, extending from latitude 42° to 54° 40' north. Until 1846 joint possession was held by Great Britain and the United States, and then the latter, by the northwest boundary treaty, abandoned all claim to the country north of the 49th parallel, and the name Oregon was restricted to the region south of that fine, which was given up by Great Britain. The first accurate knowledge of the territory was brought back by Captain Robert Gray, an American navigator, who entered the mouth of the Columbia River in 1792, and gave the name of his ship to it. The sale of Louisiana to the United States, in 1803, endowed this country with a title of ownership, and the expe- dition of Lewis and Clark, in 1804-1806, strengthened the claim. Though a trading-post was established in 1811, by the Pacific Fur Company, under the Astor regime, at the mouth of the Columbia River, the region was largely inhabited by Indians and the employes of the Hudson Bay Fur Company until the active emigration of Americans, between 1833 and 1850, introduced a new element. The territorial organization took place in 1848. In 1853, Washington Territorj^ was instituted out of the region north of the Columbia River on the west and of the 46th parallel on the east. In 1858, Oregon was admitted as a State. A Lewis and Clark Centennial Celebration was held at Port- land in 1905. Suffrage waa granted to women in 1912. Constitutional Prohibition adopted, 1914. Pennsylvania. Delaware River and Bay were first explored under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company, from 1604 to 1624, and miUtary jurisdiction was cstabhshed. Till 1664 they continued in possession of both sides of the bay without much colonization, though a Swedish colony settled at Chester, on the west bank of the river, in 1638, where their industry and peacefulness prefigured the characteristics of the Quakers, who were to come later. Under a charter given by Charles II., in 1681, the region west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, the Quaker, who colonized it and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Under this grant was included Delaware, and the whole region was ruled under the same proprietary until 1699, when a separate legislature, though not a sepa- rate governor, was allowed to this section of the [)rovince. This union lasted till 1776. The etter of the Penn charter included territory HISTORY 141 already covered in the vague grants made to the New England colonies Virginia and Maryland. All the boundary-lines, however, were easily settled, except that separating Pennsylvania and Maryland, which was not defined until the completion of the Mason and Dixon Survey, in 1767. The original Swedish immigrants readily coalesced with the Quaker colonists, and the remarkable thrift of the people, com- bined with their peaceful Indian policy, soon made Pennsylvania a flourishing region. Large additional bodies of immigrants, Scotch-Irish between 1715 and 1725, and Germans from 1730 onward, rapidly swelled population and wealth. The government instituted by William Penn remained in force until 1776, when the province joined the other colonies in the fight for inde- pendence, and a provisional constitution was made by a convention presided over by Benjamin Franklin. Philadelphia was occupied by the British forces from September, 1777, to June, 1778. All the earlier sessions of the Continental Congress were held in this city. The battle of Germantown was fought within the present chartered limits of the city in 1777. From 1790 to 1800 it was the seat of the Government of the United States. In 1790, a new State constitu- tion was formed. In 1794 occurred the disturb- ance knowm as the "Whiskey Rebellion" in the western part of the State, growing out of oppo- sition to the excise laws. In 1799, the seat of the State government was removed to Lancaster, and thence in 1812 to Harrisburg, which still remains the capital. In 1862, during the late Civil War, the State was threatened with inva- sion by the Confederates, but the tide of attack then stopped with invading i\Iaryland. In 1863 General Lee carried out his interrupted purpose, and overran the south portion of the State to within a short distance of Harrisburg. On his retreat General Meade joined battle with him at Gettysburg, near the Maryland line. The battle beginning July 1st, lasted three days, resulting in the Confederate defeat. This Fed- eral victory was probably the important turning- point of the war. As the seventh in the geo- graphical order of the original States, Pennsyl- vania has become historically the "Keystone" State. Disastrous riots occurred about Pitts- burg and elsewhere in 1877 and 1892. In 1908, the famous "State House Cases" were brought to trial, as the result of an alleged $5,000,000 steal by the contractors of the new State capitol, at Harrisburg, and their accomplices. Persia. The original country of the Per- sians occupied a small portion of modern Persia on the north of the Persian Gulf. After being under the Assyrians, and next under the Medes, Cyrus (B. C. 559-529), by conquering and unit- ing Media, Babylonia, Lydia, and all Asia Minor, became the founder of the Persian Empire. The empire was further extended by his son and successor, Cambyses (B. C. 529-522), who con- quered Tyre, Cyprus, and Egypt; and by Darius I., who subdued Thrace and Macedonia, and a small part of India. His son Xerxes (486-465 B. C.) reduced Egypt, which had revolted under his father, and also continued the war against the European Greeks, but was defeated at Thermopylte and at Salamia (480 B. C.), and obliged to defend himself against their attacks in a disastrous war. Artax- erxes I. (465-425 B. C.) had a long and com- paratively peaceful reign. Artaxerxes was fol- lowed by Darius II. or Darius Nothus, Artax- erxes II. (Mnemon), Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), and Darius III. (Codomannus, 338-330 B. C), the last of this dynasty, known as the Achse- menian Dynasty. He was defeated by Alex- ander the Great in three battles, lost his life, and the empire passed into the hands of his conqueror. On the dissolution of the Mace- donian Empire, after the death of Alexander (323), Persia ultimately fell to his general, Seleucus and his successors, the Seleucidce (312). They reigned over it till 236 B. C, when the last Seleucus was defeated and taken prisoner by Arsaces I., the founder of the dynasty of the Arsacida? and of the Parthian Empire, oi which Persia formed a portion, and which lasted till 226 A. D. The supremacy was then recovered by Persia in the person of Ardishir Babigdn (Artaxerxes), who obtained the sovereignty of all Central Asia, and left it to his descendants, the Sassanidse, so called from Sassan, the grand- father of Ardishir. This dynasty continued to reign for about 417 years, under twenty-six sovereigns. The reign of Sapor II., called the Great (310-381), and that of Chosroes I. (Khos- ru, 531-579), were perhaps the most notable of the whole dynasty. The latter extended the Persian Empire from the Mediterranean to the Indus, from the Jaxartes to Arabia and the con- fines of Egypt. He waged successful wars with the Indians, Turks, Romans, and Arabs. Chos- roes II. (591-628) made extensive conquests, but lost them again in the middle of the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. His son, Ardishir (Artaxerxes) III., but seven years old, succeeded him, but was murdered a few days after his accession. He was the last descendant of the SanssaidEe in the male line. Numerous revolutions now followed, until Yezdigerd III., a nephew of Chosroes II., ascended the throne in 632, at the age of sixteen. He was attacked and defeated by Caliph Omar in 639-636, and Persia became for more than 150 years a prov- ince of the Mohammedan Empire. The Arab conquest had a profound influence on Persian life as well as on the language and religion. The old Persian religion was given up in favor of Mohammedanism, only the Guebres, or Parsees, adhering to the faith of their fathers. About the beginning of the Ninth Century the Persian territories began to be broken up into numerous petty states. The Seljuks, a Turkish Dynasty, who first became powerful about 1037, extended its dominions over several Persian provinces, and Malek-Shah, the most powerful of them, conquered also Georgia, Sj-ria, and Asia Minor. Through Genghis Khan the Tartars and Mongols became dominant in Persia about 1220, and they preserved this ascendency till the beginning of the Fifteenth Century. Then ap- peared (1387) Timurlenk (Tamerlane) at the head of a new horde of Mongols, who conquered Persia and filled the world from Hindustan to the extremities of Asia Minor with terror. But the death of this famous conqueror in 1405 was followed not long after by the downfall of the 142 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Mongol dominion in Persia, where the Turko- mans thenceforward remained masters for 100 years. The Turkomans were succeeded by the Sufi Dynasty (1501-1736). The first sovereign of this dynasty, Ismail Sufi, pretended to be de- scended from Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed. The great Shah Abbas (1587-1628) introduced absolute power, and made Ispahan his capital. Under Shah Soliman (1666-94) the empire dechned, and entirely sunk under his son Hus- sein. A period of revolts and anarchy followed imtil Kuli Khan ascended the throne in 1736 as Nadir Shah, and restored Persia to her former importance. In 1747 Nadir was murdered and his death threw the empire again into confusion. Kerim Khan, who had served under Nadir, suc- ceeded in making himself master of the whole of Western Iran or modern Persia. He died in 1779. Aga Mohammed, a Turkoman belonging to the noblest family of the Tribe of the Kajars, seated himself on the throne, which he left to his nephew, Baba Khan. The latter began to reign in 1796 under the name of Futteh Ah Shah. In 1813 he was compelled to cede to Russia all his possessions to the north of Armenia, and in 1828 his share of Armenia. Futteh Ah died in 1834, leaving the crown to his grandson, Mehemet Shah. He died in 1848, and was succeeded by his son, Nasr-ed- Din. In May, 1852, he annexed the Sultanate of Herat, but was compelled to rehnquish it by the British. Persia has since acquired portions of territory formerly belonging to the Oman, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan. Muzaffer-ed-Din succeeded in 1896. He was succeeded in January, 1907, by Mohammed Ali, who, after an attempt to overcome the constitution granted by his father, abdicated in favor of Ahmed Mirza. Early in the war of nations, 1914, Persia pro- claimed neutraUty. Philippine War. When the Philippines were taken over by the United States an insurgent army was operating against Spain. After first assisting the United States troops, Aguinaldo, the insurgent leader, desiring absolute freedom of control, turned his forces against them. On Feb. 4, 1899, his army of FiUpinos made a night attack near Manila. Although the insurgents were driven back with great loss, the Americans lost 49 soldiers and 148 were wounded. About 13,000 men under General Otis participated in this initial battle of the new conflict in the PhiUppines. From this time forward the Americans continuously gained ground. On April 26 the insurgents, using artillery for the first time, were defeated by Col. Funston. On May 23 Gen. Lawton arrived with his command at Malo- los, having marched 120 miles in 20 days, partici- pating in 22 fights, and capturing 28 towns. In August an arrangement was made with the sultan of the Sulu islands {)roviding for the continuance, by the United States, of the pension formerly paid by Spain, the United States flag to be para- mount, and the sultan to repress piracy. In December, 1900, Gen. Lawi;on was killed while assisting a wounded soldier. Aguinaldo was successful in eluding all efforts until March, 1901, when he was captured by means of a stratagem by Gen. Funston of the Kansas Volunteers. In recognition Funston was brevetted brigadier- general in the regular army. On July 4, 1902, the President proclaimed the PhiUppine insur- rection at an end. Poland. Formerly an important kingdom of Europe whose territory down to 1914 was divided between Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Prussia. The capital of Poland was at Cracow from about 1320 to the reign of Sigismund III. (1587-1632), when it was removed to Warsaw. At the period of its greatest extent, previous to 1660, it had an area of about 375,000 square miles, extending northward to the Baltic sea and the gulf of Riga, westward to Brandenburg, south- ward to Hungary and almost to the Crimea, and eastward throughout most of the basin of the Dnieper. At the outbreak of the great European war in 1914 about six-sevenths of this area was com- prised in Russia, including Russian Poland, Lithuania, Volliynia, and a major part of Little Russia, Livonia, and Courland. The portion of Poland which belonged to Austria comprised the crownland of Galicia. The portion belonging to Prussia comprised Posen, West Prussia, and Erm- land, in what is now known as East Prussia. Poland was a state of much influence and promise until rent with serious factional troubles in the eighteenth century. These so weakened it that it fell a prey to the more powerful neigh- boring states of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In 1772, 1793, and 1795 occurred the three successive partitions of Poland whereby all the territory of the kingdom was divided between the three adjoining states. Napoleon, in return for miU- tary support, promised to reconstruct an inde- pendent Poland but accomplished Uttle. Follow- ing Napoleon's downfall, the congress of Vienna, 1815, made some readjustments but left the whole of Poland distributed between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In 1915 the Germans defeated the armies of the czar, captured Warsaw, and occupied much Polish territory in Russia. Under the separate peace signed with the Bolsheviki in 1918 Germany was granted sovereignty over a large portion of Russian Poland. Portugal. The name Portugal is a cor- rupted form of that of the hill fort. Partus Cale, which stood on the south bank of the Douro, and is now one of the suburbs of Oporto ("the harbor"). The Carthaginians under Hamilcar subdued the region, and were followed by the Romans. In the Fifth Century A. D., Lusi- tania, like the rest of the peninsula, was overrun by the Visigoths, and in the Eighth Century was conquered by the Arabs. The warlike Fernando, King of Leon and Castile, in the course of marauding expeditions conquered and occupied the important city and stronghold of Coimbra, in 1064. His son, Alonso IV., seized his brother's territory of Galicia, which included part of the north of Portugal. Alfonso I. defeated a large Saracen army in the plain of Ourique, Alemtcjo, in 1139, took the great stronghold of Santarem, and with the aid of a fleet of EngUsh, German, and Flemish crusaders carried Lisbon itself by siege in 1147. Before his death, in 1185, he had kindled the fire of patriotic loyalty in the nation, which his sword had extended to the Mediterranean Sea. The Burgundian Dynasty founded by him con- HISTORY 143 tinued to rule Portugal until 1580. Alfonso III. was called the Restorer for his reconquest of Algarve. His son Dinis laid the foundation of the commercial greatness of Portugal. Henrique the Navigator sent forth expedi- tions which explored the west coast of Africa, and discovered the Azores, Madeiras, Canaries, Cape Verde, and other islands. Maritime dis- covery and colonization continued during the reigns of Alfonso V., Joao II., and Manuel. In 1487-88 Bartholomeo Diaz doubled the Cape of Good Hope. In 1497-99 Vasco da Gama made his famous voyage to India, and in 1500 Cabral discovered Brazil. The great navigator Magal- haens was a Portuguese. When Joao III. ascended the throne in 1521, Portugal was one of the first Idngdoms of Europe. In 1580 Philip II. of Spain annexed Portugal to his own dominions. Portugal was now burdened with much of the expense and misery of the Spanish wars in Germany and the Nether- lands. Moreover, it lost to the Dutch a great part of its foreign possessions. After a shameful union of sixty years Portugal regained its lib- erty by a revolt which placed Joao de Braganca on the throne in 1640. In 1668 Spain ceded all claims to Portugal and the Dutch restored Brazil, but nothing could bring back the old prosperity. Ordered by Napoleon to seize British merchan- dise in Portugal, Joao VI. sought protection of England and transferred the seat of government to Rio de Janeiro in 1807. The French then occupied Portugal. Wellington's victories over the French, 1808-10, delivered Portugal from Napoleon's tyranny. A revolution took place in Lisbon in 1820 and a constitution was pro- claimed. In 1821 Joao returned from Brazil and accepted the constitution. In 1825 he acknowl- edged the independence of Brazil under his brother Dom Pedro as emperor. Numerous outbreaks culminated in the assas- eination of King Carlos on Feb. 1, 1908. Manuel II. succeeded to the throne, but a revolution in 1910 turned the monarchy into a republic. As an ally of Great Britain, Portugal, in February, 1916, seized German and Austrian ships within her waters. On March 9 Germany declared war on Portugal. Portuguese troops assisted the Allies in Africa and on the Franco- Belgian front. In 1919 a monarchial revolt sought to restore Manuel II. to the throne. Prohibition. Connecticut enacted local prohibition in 1839. Maine was the first to estab- lish state-wide prohibition. This was done by legislative enactment in 1851, and later was incorporated in the state constitution. The thirty-two states which had adopted state-wide prohibition previous to January 1, 1919, to- gether with the District of Columbia, contained population of 51,300,000, according to the latest U. S. census estimates. In the other sixteen states there were districts under local prohibition embracing 65 per cent of their area and a population exceeding 14,000,000. Prac- tically nine-tenths of the area and two-thirds of the population of the United States had thus come under prohibition by state and local enactments. The list of the thirty-two states which adopted prohibition follows: Name of Constitutional Date State or Statutory Effectivb Alabama Statutory, 1915 Arizona, Conatitutional, .... 1915 Arkansas Statutory, iQig Colorado, Constitutional 1916 Florida Constitutional 1919 Georgia, Statutory, 1908 Idaho, Constitutional, .... 1916 Indiana Statutory, 1918 Iowa, Statutory 1916 Kansas, Constitutional 1881 Maine, Constitutional 1884 Michigan, Constitutional 1918 Mississippi, Statutory, 1909 Montana, Constitutional 1918 Nebraska, Constitutional, .... 1917 Nevada Statutory 19 18 New Hampshire, . . . Statutory, 1918 New Mexico, ...... Constitutional, .... 1918 North Carolina Statutory, 1909 North Dakota, .... Constitutional 1889 Ohio, Constitutional 1919 Oklahoma, Constitutional 1907 Oregon, Constitutional 1916 South Carolina Statutory, 1916 South Dakota, .... Constitutional 1917 Tennessee, Statutory 1909 Texas, Statutory 1918 Utah Statutory 1917 Virginia Statutory, 1916 Washington, Statutory, 1916 West Virginia, .... Constitutional, .... 1914 Wyoming Constitutional, 1920 At this stage it was but a step from state to national prohibition. An amendment to the Federal constitution providing ior nation-wide prohibition was adopted by the senate of the United States, Aug. 1, 1917, by a vote of 65 to 20, and by the house of representatives, Dec. 17, 1917, by a vote of 282 to 128. At the general elections of Nov. 5, 1918, legislatures were chosen overwhelmingly in favor of ratification. On Jan. 16, 1919, thirty-six states, the nece.ssary three-fourths, had ratified it by legislative action, and, on Jan. 29, the prohibition amend- ment was proclaimed to take effect Jan. 16, 1920. The first thirty-six states completed ratification as follows: In 1918: Mississippi, Jan. 8; Virginia, Jan. 11; Ken- tucky, Jan. 14; North Dakota, Jan. 25; South Carolina, Jan. 28; Maryland, Feb. 13; Montana, Feb. 19; Texas, Mar. 4; Delaware, Mar. 18; South Dakota, Mar. 20; Massachusetts, Apr. 2; Arizona, May 24; Georgia, June 26; Louisiana, Aug. 8; Florida, Nov. 27. In 1919: Michigan, Jan. 2; Ohio and Oklahoma, Jan. 7; Maine and Idaho, Jan. 8; West Virginia, Jan. 9; Washing- ton, Tennessee, and California, Jan. 13; Illinois, Indiana, Arkansas, North Carolina, Alabama, and Kansas, Jan. 14; Oregon, Iowa, Utah, Colorado, and New Hampshire, Jan. 15; Nebraska, Jan. 16. Previous to March 1, 1919, nine additional states rati- fied the amendment, namely: Missouri and Wyoming, Jan. 16; Wisconsin and Minnesota, Jan. 17; New Mexico, Jan. 20; Nevada, Jan. 21; Vermont and New York, Jan. 29; Penn.sylvania, Feb. 25. The three states, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, which had not ratified up to March, 1919, contained a population of about 4,700,000. The forty-five states ratifying contained a population of approxi- mately 95,600,000, and embraced 99 per cent of the area of the United States. The legisla- tures of Idaho, Kansas, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming voted unanimously for ratification and the average vote in the forty-five state legislatures ratifying was about 6 to 1 in favor of the amendment. In 1917 Porto Rico adopted prohibition by a referendum vote. The District of Columbia, 1917, and Alaska, 1918, were placed under prohibition by act of Congress. 144 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED Name George Washington, John Adams, . . . Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, . . John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, . Martin Van Buren, William H. Harrison John Tyler, . . . James K. Polk, . . Zaohary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, . Franklin Pierce, James Buchanan, . Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, . Ulysses S. Grant, . . Rutherford B. Hayes James A. Garfield, Chester A. Arthur, Grover Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland, William McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt, WilUam H. Taft, . Woodrow Wilson, . BORN When 1732 1735 1743 1751 1758 1767 1767 17S2 1773 1790 1795 1784 1800 1804 1791 1809 1808 1822 1822 1831 1830 1837 1833 1837 1843 1858 1857 1856 Where Bridge's Creek, Va., Braintrcc, Mass., . . Shadwell, Va., . . . Port Conway, Va., . Westmoreland Co., Va, Quiney, Mass., . . . Mecklenburg Co., N. C Kindorhook, N. Y., . Berkeley, Va Charles City Co., Va., Mecklenburg Co., N. C Orange Co., Va., . . Summer Hill, N. Y., Hillsborough, N. H., Stony Batter, Pa., . Nolin Creek, Ky., Raleigh, N. C, . . . Point Pleasant, Ohio, Delaware, Ohio, . . Orange, Ohio, . . . Fairfield, Vt., . . . Caldwell, N, J., _ . . North Bend, Ohio, . Caldwell, N. J Niles, Ohio, .... New York City, N. Y., Cincinnati, Ohio, . . Staunton, Va PARENTS Father Augustine, John, . Peter, . James, Spence, John, . Andrew, Abraham, Benjamin, John, . Samuel, Richard, Nathaniel, Benjamin, James, Thomas, Jacob, Jesse Root, Rutherford, . Abram, . . . William, . . Richard Falley, John Scott, Richard Falley, William, . . . Theodore, . . Alphonso, . . Joseph R., . . Mother Mary Ball, .... Susanna Boylston, Jane Randolph, Nelly Conway, . . Eliza Jones, . . . Abigail Smith, . . Elizabeth Hutchinso Maria Hoes, . . Elizabeth Bassett, Mary Armisted, Jane Knox, . . Sarah Strother, Phebe Millard, . Anna Kindreck, Elizabeth Speer, Nancy Hanks, . Mary M'Uonough, Harriet Simpson, Sophia Birchard, Eliza Ballou, . . Malvina Stone, . Anna Neal, . . Elizabeth Irwin, Anna Neal, . . . Nancy C. Allison, Martha Bullock, Louise M. Torrey, Jessie Woodrow, PATERNAIi Ancestry English, English, Welsh, English, Scotch, English, Scotch-Irish, Dutch, English, English, Scotch-Irish, English, English, English, Scotch-Irish English, English, Scotch, Scotch, English, Scotch-Irish English, English, English, . Scotch-Irish Dutch, . . English, _ . Scotch-Irish PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED Name 1. George Washington, 2. John Adams, . . . 3. Thomas Jefferson, 4. James Madison, 5. James Monroe, . . 6. John Quincy Adams, 7. Andrew Jackson, . . 8. Martin Van Buren, . 9. William H. Harrison, 10. John Tyler, • • • ] 11. James K. Polk, . . . 12. Zaohary Taylor, . . 13. Millard Fillmore, . -j 14. Franklin Pierce, , 15. James Buchanan, . 16. Abraham Lincoln,. 17. Andrew Johnson, . 18. Ulysses S. Grant, . 19. Rutherford B. Hayes 20. James A. Garfield, 21. Chester A. Arthur, 22. Grover Cleveland, 23. Benjamin Harrison, 24. Grover Cleveland, 25. William McKinley, 26. Theo. Roosevelt, |. 27. WUliam H. Taft, . 28. Woodrow Wilson, Mar- ried Wife's Name 1759 1764 1772 1794 1786 1797 1791 1807 1795 1813 1844 1824 1810 1826 1858 1834 1842 1827 1848 1852 1858 1859 1886 1853 1896 i87i 1880 1886 1886 1885 1915 Mrs. Martha Custis, . . Abigail Smith, . . . . Mrs. Martha Skelton, Mrs. Dorothy Todd, . . Eliza Kortwright, . . . Louisa C. Johnson, . . Mrs. Rachel Robards, . Hannah Hoes (Goes), . Anna Symmes Letitia Christian, . . . Julia Gardiner, . . . . Sarah Childress, . . . . Margaret Smith, . . . Abigail Power, . . . . Mrs. Caroline Mcintosh, Jean Means Appleton, , Unmarried, Mary Todd Eliza McCardle, ... Julia Dent, Lucy Ware Webb, Lucretia Rudolph, Ellen Lewis Herndon, Frances Folsom Caroline Lavinia Scott, . . Mary Scott (Lord) Dimmick, (See above), Ida Saxton, Alice Lee Edith Carow Helen Herron, Helen Louise Axeon, . . . . Mrs. Edith Boiling Gait, . . CHILDREN Boys Girls Inaug- urated 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 4 1 2 1 3 1789 1797 1801 1S09 1817 1825 1829 1837 1841 1841 1845 1849 1850 1853 1857 1861 1865 1869 1877 1881 1881 1885 1889 1893 1897 1901 1909 1913 Residence When Elected Mt. Vernon, Va. Quincy, Mass., Monticello, Va., Montpelier, Va., Oakhill, Va.,. . Quincy, Mass., Hermitage, Tenn, Kinderhook, N. Y., North Bend, O., . Williamsburg, Va., Nashville, Tenn,. Baton Rouge, La., Buffalo, N. Y., . Concord, N. H., . Wheatland, Pa., . Springfield, III., . Greenville, Tenn., Washington, D. C, Fremont, Ohio, Mentor, Ohio, . New York City, . Buffalo, N. Y., . Indianapolis, Ind., New York City, . Canton, Ohio, . . Oyster Bay, N. Y., Cincinnati, Ohio, Princeton, N. J., . AoE When Inauq- 57 61 57 57 58 57 61 64 68 51 49 64 50 48 65 52 56 46 54 49 50 47 55 55 54 42 51 56 TATES— TABLE 1 Father's Business f] Planter, Farmer, Planter, Planter, Planter, Lawyer, Farmer, Farmer, Statesman, Jurist, . Farmer, Planter, Farmer, Farmer, Merchant, Farmer, Sexton, . Farmer, Merchant, Farmer, Clergyman, Clergyman, Farmer, Clergyman, Iron Manfr. Merchant, Lawyer, Clergyman, HISTORY 145 Educational Advantage Common School, Harvard College, 1755 College of William and Mary, 1702, Princeton College, 1771 Entered College, William and Mary, Harvard College, 1787, Self Taught, Academy, Entered Hampden-Sidney College, College, William and Mary, 1806, . University of North Carolina, . . . Common School Public School, Bowdoin College, 1824, Dickinson College, 1809, Self Taught Self Taught, West Point Military Academy, 1843, Kenyon College, Ohio, 1842, . . . Williams College, 1856, Union College, 1848 Common School, Miami University, Ohio, 1851,. . . Common School, Entered Allegheny College, .... Harvard, Yale, 1878, Princeton, 1879, Earlt Vocation Surveyor, Teacher, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Medicine, Lawyer, Lawyer, Soldier, Tailor, Lawyer, Lawyer, Farmer, Tailor, Tanner, Lawyer, Teacher, Teacher, Teacher, Lawyer, Teacher, Lawyer, Publicist, Lawyer, Lawyer, Poli- tics Fed., Fed., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Dem., W'hig, Dem., Dem., Whig, Whig, Dem, Dem., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Rep., Dem., Rep., Rep., Rep., Dem., Profession Planter, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Politician, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Army, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Army, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Politician, Army, . Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Lawyer, Publicist, Lawyer, Teacher, Religious Connections Episcopalian, Unitarian, . . . Liberal, .... Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Unitarian, . . . Presbyterian, Reformed Dutch, Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, . Liberal, .... Liberal, .... Methodist, . . Methodist, . . Disciples, ... Episcopalian, Presbyterian, Presbyterian, Presbyterian, Methodist, Reformed Dutch, Unitarian, . . . Presbyterian, Name Washington. Adams. Jefferson. Madison. Monroe. Adams, J.Q. Jackson. Van Buren. Harrison. Tyler. Polk. Taylor. Fillmore. Pierce. Buchanan. Lincoln. Johnson. Grant. Hayes. Garfield. Arthur. Cleveland. Harrison. Cleveland. McKinley. Roosevelt. Taft. Wilson. STATES— TABLE II Served as President 7 yr., 10 moa., 4 d. 4 yr 8 yr., Syr. 8 yr 4yr 8 yr 4 yr., 1 mo., 3 yr., 11 mo 4 yr., 1 yr., 4 mo., 5 d., . 2 yr., 7 mo., 6 d., . 4 yr., 4yr. 4 yr., 1 mo., 11 d., 3 yr., 10 mo., 19 d., 8 yr 4 yr., 6>^ mo., 3 yr., 5K mo.. 8 yr., 4 yr., 4 yr., 6 mo., 10 d. 7 yr., 5 mo., 20 d. 4 yr., Died Age at Death 1799 1826 1826 1836 1831 1848 1845 1862 1841 1862 1849 1850 1874 1869 1868 1865 1875 1885 1893 1881 1886 1908 1901 1901 1919 67 90 S3 So 73 80 78 79 68 71 53 65 74 64 77 56 66 63 70 49 56 71 67 58 60 Acute laryngitis. Natural decline. Chronic diarrhcsa, %Natural decline. Natural decline. Paralysis, . . Dropsy, . . . Asthma, . . . Pleurisy fever. Cause of Death Bilious attacks, with bron- chitis Chronic diarrhcjea, . . . Cholera morbus and ty- phoid fever, Paralysis, Dropsy and inflammation of stomach, Rheumatic gout, .... Assassinated by Booth, . Paralysis, Cancer of the tongue, . Neuralgia of the heart, Assassinated by Guiteau, Bright's disease, culminat- ing in paralysis and apo- plexy, Heart failure, Pneumonia Assassinated by Czolgosz, Embolism, Place of Death Mt. Vernon, Va. Quincy, Mass., Monticello, Va., Montpelier, Va., New York City, Hall of Congress, Wash- ington, D. C Hermitage, near Nash- ville, Tenn., .... Kinderhook, N. Y., . . White House, Washing- ton, D. C Ballard House, Rich- mond, Va Nashville, Tenn., . . . White House, Washing- ton, D. C Buffalo, N. Y., .... Concord, N. H Lancaster, Pa., .... Washington, D. C, . . Greenville, Tenn., . . . Mt. McGregor, N. Y., . Fremont, Ohio Elberon, Long Branch, N. J. New York City, .... Princeton, N. J.,. Indianapolis, Ind., Buffalo, N. Y., . Oyster Bay, N. Y. Place of Burial Mt. Vernon, Va. Unitarian Church, Quincy, Mass. Monticello, Albemarle Co., Va. Montpelier, Hanover Co., Va. Originally, N. Y. Removed, 1858, to Hollywood Ceme- tery, Richmond, Va. Unitarian Church, Quincy, Mass. Hermitage, near Nashville, Tenn. Village Cemetery, Kinder- hook, N. Y. North Bend, Ohio. Hollywood, Richmond, Va. Nashville, Tenn. Near Louisville, Kentucky (Springfield). Forest Lawn, Buffalo, N. Y. Minot Cemetery, Concord, N. H. Woodward Hill Cemetery, Lancaster, Pa. Oak Ridge Cemetery, Spring- field, 111. Greenville, Tenn. Riverside, New York City. Fremont, Ohio. . . Lake View Cemetery, Cleve- land, Ohio. . . Rural Cemetery, Albany, N.Y. Princeton, N. J. Crown Hill Cemetery, Indian- apolis, Ind. Cemetery, Canton, Ohio. Young's Memorial Cemetery, Oyster Bay, N. Y. 146 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Rhode Island. Supposed to be identical with the ancient Vinland of the Icelandic Sagas, historians credit the first discovery of Rhode Island to the Norsemen about 1000 A. D. The navigator Verrazzano visited Narragansett Bay and its shores in 1524. The State was settled at Providence in 1636, by Roger WilUams and his companions, who had been banished from Massachusetts by religious intolerance. In 1638, the Island of Aquidneck, afterward called Rhode Island, was settled at Newport and Portsmouth. A third settlement was formed at Warwick in 1643. The same year Roger Williams went to England and obtained a patent for the united government of the settlements. In 1663, this patent gave way to a charter by Charles II., incorporating the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which remained in force for 180 years. The colon j^ suffered severely in King PhiUp's War, 1675-76, which resulted in the destruction of the Wampanoag and Narra- gansett tribes of Indians. In 1687, Sir Edmond Andros, who had been made Governor of New York, New England, etc., abrogated the charter, but it became again the ruling constitution after his recall. In the wars between France and England, Rhode Island furnished valuable aid by land and sea for the expeditions against Louisburg, Crown Point, Oswego, and Canada. In 1756, she had fifty privateers at sea. During the War of the Revolution the State supphed many ships and sailors for naval operations. Rhode Island was invaded by the British, and vain attempts were made for several years to drive them thence by Count d'Estaing's fleet and General Sullivan's army. The State was the last to accept the Federal Constitution, May 29, 1790. Dorr's insurrection occurred in 1842, an imbrogho growing out of the bigoted suffrage laws, an inheritance from colonial times. It was only in 1861 that the boundary hne be- tween Rhode Island and Massachusetts was finally settled. In 1901, JNIassachusetts re- voked the edict of banishment against Roger Williams, which had stood for nearly three cen- turies. RULERS OF THE WORLD ROMAN EMPERORS Name Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, . Claudius, Nero, . Galba, Otho, . . Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, . . Domitian, Nerva Trajan Hadrian, Titus Antoninus Pius, Marcua Aurelius An- toninus, Commodus,. . . . JPertinax Didius Julianus, . . Septimius Severus, Caracalla, .... Macrinus, .... Heliogabalus (Elagabalus), Alexander Severus, Maximin, Pupienus and . . Balbinus, . . . Gordian Phillip, Decius Callus iEmilianus, . . Valerian, . . . Gallienua, . . . Flavius Claudius, Aurelian, . . . Tacitus Florian, .... Probus, .... Carua, Lineage THE C^SARS A title conferred by the Senate, Stepson of Augustus, . _. . Youngest son of Germanicus, nephew of Tibe- rius, Grandson of Tiberius Son of Domitius Ahenobarbus, Was proclaimed Emperor, . . Was proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor Wa.s proclaimed Emperor, Son of Vespasian, Second son of Vespasian, THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS Was proclaimed Emperor Adopted son of Nerva Nephew of Trajan, . Adopted son of Hadrian Nephew of Antoninus Pius THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM Son of Marcus Aurelius, Was proclaimed Emperor, AVas proclaimed Emperor, Was proclaimed Emperor, Son of Septimius Severus, Was proclaimed Emperor, ' First cousin of Caracalla, Cousin of Heliogabalus, by whom he was adopted. Was elevated by soldiers, Appointed by the Senate Grandson of Gordianus I Murdered Gordian and usurped the throne, . . Proclaimed Emperor by the army Was elected Emperor by Senate and soldiers, . Son of Valerian Was designated by Claudius, Proclaimed Emperor, . . . . Choice of the army Elevated to throne by soldiers. Period of Rule B. C. 30 A. D. 14 37 41 (i9 m 70 79 81 96 98 117 138 180 193 193 193 212 217 218 222 23,5 238 238 244 249 251 2.54 254 260 268 270 275 276 277 282 A. D. 14 37 41 54 ,08 09 69 79 81 96 98 117 138 161 180 212? 217 218 222 235 238 238 244 249 251 254 260 268 270 275 276 277 282 283 Birth B.C. 63 42 12 10 A. D. 37 B.C. .3 A. D. 32 15 9 41 51 32 53 70 86 121 161 126 146 188 164 205? 205 224 208? 214 212 200 222 Death A. D. 14 37 41 54 08 09 69 69 79 81 96 98 117 138 161 ISO 192,Dec.31 193 193 211 217 218 222 235 238 (238 ?238 244 249 251 254 254? 269 268 270 275 276 ? 282 283 HISTORY 147 ROMAN EMPERORS — Continued Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death Carinus and 5 Klder son of Carus, J A. D. 253 284 305 306 .336 361 363 364 375 383? 383? 388 394 395 423 455 455 457 461 467 472 473 473 475 A. D. 284 305 306 336 361 363 364 373 383 388 394 395 423 455 457 461 467 472 473 47.5 476 A. D. ( . . 1 . . I=« i 250 272 317 331 332 321 359 ? 371 346 384 419 395? A. D. 285 Son of Carus, S Diocletian anci i Maximian, . . . ( Constantius and ) Galeriiis, ... 5 Constantino the Great, Constantius II Julian the Apostate, . Was proclaimed Emperor by the army, . . } Was made Ca'sar by Diocletian 'i W^as created Cffisar, 313 310 306 Eldest son of Augustus Constantius Chlarus, . Third son of Constantine the Great, Son of Julius Constantine, 311 337 361 363 Jovian Valentinian I Elevated to the throne by the army ROMAN EMPERORS OF THE WEST Proclaimed Emperor by the army 364 375 383 Maximinius Valentinian 11 Made Emperor by the legions in Britain, Son of Valentinian I Assumed the purple, 398 392 Theodosius the Great, Son of Flavius Theodosia, 395 Honorius, Second son of Theodosius, 423 Valentinian III., . . Son of Constantius, 455 455 457 Marjorian or Majarian, Was elected by Ricimer, ? Severus Anthenius Olybrius, Raised to imperial dignity by Ricimer Son-in-law of Emperor Marcian Made Emperor by Ricimer 465-7? ? ? Glycerus, ? Nepos, Romulus Augustulus . Proclaimed Emperor by order of Leo 480 476 Augustus is deposed and banished by Odoacer, who thus puts an end to the Western Empire of Rome. KINGS, EMPERORS, AND PRESLDENTS OF FRANCE Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death THE MEROVINGIANS A. D. 420 428 448 458 481 511 558 562 584 628 638 665 673 691 695 711 715 720 747 751 768 814 843 877 879 884 888 898 922 936 954 986 A. D. 428 448 457 481 511 5.58 50 i 584 628 638 665 673 691 695 711 715 720 747 751 768 814 840 877 879 884 '888 898 922 936 954 986 987 A. D. '4ii? '465 495 '497 ( 570 1 584 602 (633 1652 652? 652? 6r.i '699 ? 712 ? 714 742 778 823 846 863 ? 839? ? 879 ? 921 941 966 A. D. Clodian, Son of Pharamond (obscure) Meroveus Childeric Clovis I., Founder of the Merovingian Dynasty Son of Meroveus, King of the Franks Son of Childeric, 457 481 511 Childebert I Son of Clovis ■ 558 Thierry I ) Son of Clovis, J 534 Clothaire I ) 561 Charibert 1 Kingdom Divided into Four Parts: Reigns at Paris | Grothan, Chilperic I Sigebert, Childebert II ( Clothaire II f Dagobert I., King of Orleans and Burgundy, 1 King of Neustria at Soissons [' King of Austrasia at Metz, I Son of Sigebert I. of Austrasia 1 Son of Chilperic I ) Son of Clothaire II., 596 628 638 Clovis II. and ( Dagobert II ( Clothaire III "The Young" son of Dagobert I., 656 679 670? Thierry II Son of Clovis II., . .■ 691 Clovis III 695 Childebert III Dagobert III King of Neustria, 715 Chilperic II., 720 Thierry IV Son of Dagobert III 747 ChildericIII Pepin the Little (or Short), .... Son of Childeric II. (obscure) THE CARLOVINGIANS Son of Charles Martel, 755 768 Charlemagne, or Charles the Great 814 Louis le Debonnaire, . Son of Charles the Great 840 Charles the Bald. . . . Louis II., CARL VINGIAN KINGS Younger son of Louis le Debonnaire Son of Charles the Bald 877 879 Louis III., and { Carloman 1 Sons of Louis II ( 882 ? Charles the Fat, . . . Count Eudes Son of Louis the German 888 898 Charles the Simple, . . Son of Louis the Stammerer, 929 Raoul (Rudolf of Bur- gundy), 7 Louis IV Lothaire Son of Charles the Simple, Son of Louis IV 954 986 Louis V 987 148 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS KINGS, EMPEBOBS, AND PBESIDENTS OF FBANCE — Continued Name Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death Hugh Capet, Robert II., Henry I Philip I., Louia the Fat Louis VII., Philip Augustus, . . . Louis VIII., Louis IX., or St. Louis, Philip the Bold, . . . Philip the Fair, . . . Louis X., Philip the Hardy,' . . Charles the Fair, . . . Philip of Valois, . . . John the Good, . . . Charles the Wise, . . Charles VI Charlesthe Victorious, Louis XI CharlcsVIII Louis XII., Francis I., Henry II., Francis II., Charles IX., Henry III., Henry IV., Louis XIII., Louis XIV., Louis XV., Louis XVI., National Convention, Directory nominated, Bonaparte, Cambaceres, Lebrun, . . Bonaparte, Bonaparte, HOUSE OF CAPET Son of Hugh the Great, .... Son of Hugh Capet Son of Robert II., Son of Henry I., Son of Phillip I Son of Louis VI., Son of Louis VII., Son of Phillip Augustus, Son of Louis VIII., Son of Louis IX Son of Phillip III. Son of Phillip IV Second son of Phillip IV., . . . , Youngest son of Phillip the Fair, HOUSE OF VALOIS Son of Charles of Valois Son of Phillip VI Son of John II., Son of Charles V Son of Charles VI., Son of Charles VII. Son of Louis XI., A descendant of the younger son of Charles V. Son of Charles, Count of Angouleme Son of Francis I., Eldest son of Henry II Second son of Henry II., Third son of Henry II., HOUSE OF BOURBON Son of Antoine de Bourbon, King of Navarre, Son of Henry IV., Son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria, . . Great-grandson of Louis XIV., Grandson of Louis XV., FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1792 TO THE FIRST REPUBLIC First sat September 21, 1792 November 1, 1795, THE CONSULATE Napoleon I., . Napoleon II., Louis XVIII., Louis Philippe, December 24, 1799, Consul for ten years. May 6, 1802, Consul for life, August 2, 1802, . THE EMPIRE Decreed Empeior, May 18, 1804, Never reigned, THE RESTORATION Brother of Louis XVI., reentered Paris May 3, I 1814 Charles X., Younger brother of Louis XVIII., deposed July 30, 1830, I HOUSE OF ORLEANS Son of Philippe Egalite, abdicated February 24, 1848 THE SECOND REPUBLIC Provisional Government j formed [ Louia Napoleon, .... Elected President, Napoleon III., THE SECOND EMPIRE Nephew of Napoleon I., elected Emperor, posed 1870 De- Committee of Public De- fense, L. A. Thiers Marshal MacMahon, Jules Grevy Marie F. S. Carnot, . . Jean Cassimir Perier, . Felix Frangois Faure, . M. Emile Loubet, . . Armand Clement Fal- il^res Raymond Poincard, THE THIRD REPUBLIC Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected Elected President, President, President, President, President, President, President, Elected President, Elected President, A. D. 987 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1321 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1674 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1792 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 1830 Feb.22, 1848 1848 1852 1870 1871 1873 1879 1887 1S94 1895 1899 1906 1913 A. D. 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1321 1328 1350 1364 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 1830 1848 Dec. 19, 1848 1852 1871 1873 1879 1887 1894 1895 1899 1906 1913 A. D. ? 971 1011? 1052 1078 1120 1165 1187 1215 1245 1268 1239 1294 1294 1293 1319? 1337 1368 1403 1423 1470 1462 1494 1519 1543 1550 1551 1553 1601 1638 1710 1754 ;i769 1753 '1739 1811 1755 1757 1773 1808 1808 1797 1808 1807 1837 1847 1841 1838 1841 1860 A. D. 996 1031 1060 1108 1137 1180 1223 1226 1270 1285 1314 1316 1322 1328 1350 1304 1380 1422 1461 1483 1498 1515 1547 1559 1560 1574 1589 1610 1G43 1715 1774 1793 1S21 1824 1824 1832 1824 1836 1850 1873 1873 1877 1893 1891 1894 ? 1899 HISTORY 149 SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA Naue Lineage Period of Rule Birth Death HOUSE OF RURIC A. D. 1462 1505 1533 1584 1.598 1604 1606 1610 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 A. D. 1505 1533 1584 1598 1604 1606 1610 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 i796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1894 1917 A.D. 1438 ? 1529 1557 1552 '.'. . . 1598 1629 1656 J 1666 i672 16797 1715 1693 1740 1709 1728 1729 1754 1777 1796 1818 1845 1868 A. D. 1505 Vasily IV.. ..... 7 Son of Vasilv IV., 1584 1598 1605 1606 Boris Godonof Was elected to the throne Usurped the throne HOUSE OF ROMANOFF 1645 Alexis Feodor II Ivan '^^., and ' Peter, ) Son of Michael Feodorovitch, Eldest son of Emperor Alexis Half-brother of Peter the Great, in whose favor 1 he resigned, . f 1676 1682 1696 Peter the Great, . . . Son of Alexis, ... 1725 Catharine I., Peter 11., Was married to Peter the Great in 1707, . . . Grandson of Peter the Great, 1727 1730 Daughter of Ivan V., Son of Antoin Ulrich Leopoldovina and Anna, Daughter of Peter the Great, 1740 Ivan VI Elizabeth, 1764 1762 Peter III Catharine II Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein, . Wife of Peter III., 1762 1796 Paul Son of Peter III., 1801 Alexander I Nicholas Son of Paul, Third son of Paul I 1825 1855 Alexander II Alexander III Nicholas II Son of Nicholas I., Son of Alexander III., .... . . 1881 1894 EMPERORS OF GERMANY Name Louis, "The German' and Lothaire, ... Louis II., . . . Charles the Fat, Arnolph Louis the Child, Conrad I. Henry the Fowler, Otho the Great, . Otho II Otho III Henry the Saint, Conrad II., . Henry III.,. Henry IV., . Henry V., , Lineage CARLOVINGIAN EMPERORS Son of the Emperor Louis I. He is regarded as the founder of the German Empire Son of the Emperor Lothaire I., Son of Louis, the German, Illegitimate son of Karlmann, Son of the Emperor Arnolph, . . .' HOUSE OF FRANCONIA Duke of Franconia Lothaire II. Conrad III Frederick Barbarossa, . Henry VI., Otho IV. and j Phillip Swabia, . . i! Frederick II., ... An Interregnum, . . . HOUSE OF SAXONY Son of the King of Saxony, Son of Henry I., Son of Otho I Son of Otho II Son of Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, HOUSE OF FRANCONIA Was crowned Emperor, Son of Conrad II., Son of Henry III Son of Henry IV., HOUSE OF SAXONY Was elected King and crowned by the Pope, THE HOHENSTAUFFENS Elected in an irregular manner, Nephew of Conrad III., Son of Frederick Barbarossa Second son of Henry the Lion Youngest son of Frederick Barbarossa, . . . Son of Henry VI., HOUSE OF HABSBURG Son of Albert IV Rudolph of Habsburg, HOUSE OF NASSAU Adolph [ Elected j HOUSE OF AUSTRIA Albert Eldest son of Rudoiph 1., .... . I HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Henry VII Son of she Count of Luxemburg, . . Period of Rule A. D. 843 855 875 898 911 919 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 1138 1152 1190 1197 1218 1250 1273 1291 1298 1308 A. D. 855 875 887 898 911 919 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 1138 1152 1190 1197 1208 1250 1273 1291 1298 1308 1313 Birth A. D. 804 795 822 839 850 893 876 912 955 980 972 ? 1017 1050 1081 1093 ? 1165 1174 1177 1194 1218 1252 1250 1262 Death A. D. 876 855 875 899 9U Dec, 918 938 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 Dec, 1137 1152 1189 1197 1218 1208 1250 1291 1298 1308 1313 150 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS EMPERORS OF GERMANY — Continued Name LiNEAOB Period of Rule Birth Death Louis V. or IV. Charles IV.. Wenceslaus, Rupert, . Sigisniund, Albert, . . . Frederick III., Maximilian, Charles V., . Ferdinand I., Maximilian II., Rudolph II., . Matthias, . . Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III. Leopold I., Joseph I., . . Charles VI., . Charles VII. Francis I., . Joseph II., . Leopold II., Francis II., William the Victorious, William II.,* HOUSE OF BAVARIA Son of the Duke of Bavaria, .... HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of John of Luxemburg, Son of the Emperor Charles IV HOUSE OF PALATINATE Was chosen King, HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG Son of Charles IV HOUSE OF HABSBURG Third son of Frederick I., Was elected Emperor, Son of Frederick III., Son of Phillip of Burgundy, . . . . Younger brother of Charles V., . . . Son of Ferdinand I. Son of the Emperor Maximilian II., . Younger son of Maximilian II., . . . Son of Charles, Duke of Styria, . . . Son of Ferdinand II., Second son of Ferdinand III., . . . Son of Leopold I., Son of Leopold I., HOUSE OF BAVARIA Son of Maximilian Emmanuel, . . . HOUSE OF LORRAINE Son of I^opold, Duke of Lorraine, Son of Francis I., Third son of Francis I., Son of Leopold II., THE CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE THE GERMANIC CONFEDERATION THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION THE HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN Second son of Frederick William III., .... Son of Frederick III. and Grandson of William I., A. D. 1313 1347 1378 1438 1440 1493 1519 1556 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1657 1705 1711 1741 1745 1765 1790 1792 1806 1866 1871 1888 A. D. 1347 1378 1400 1438 1440 1493 1519 1556 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1657 1705 1711 1741 1745 1765 1790 1792 1806 1815 1866 1871 1888 1918 A. D. 1286 1316 1361 1352 1361 1414 1415 1459 1500 1503 1527 1552 1557 1578 1608 1640 1678 1685 1697 1708 1741 1747 1768 A. D. 1347 1378 1419 1410 1438 1486 1493 1519 1558 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1657 1705 1711 1740 1745 1765 1790 1792 1835 1797 1859 1888 KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND Name Lineage Period of Reign Birth Death Egbert Ethelwulf 1 Ethelbald, . . I Ethclbert, . . Ethelred I., ... Alfred the Great, . Edward the Elder, Athelstan Edmund^I., . . . Edred Edwy Edgar, Edward the Martyr, Ethelred II., . . . Edmund Ironside, Canute, ... Harold I. (HantM ,, Hardicanute, . . . Edward the Confessor, Harold II., .... William I., William II. Henry I., Stephen, . Henry II., ANGLO-SAXON KINGS First King of all England Son of Egbert, Son of Ethelwulf, Second son of Ethelwulf, Third son of Ethelwulf, Fourth son of Ethelwulf, Son of Alfred Eldest son of Edward, Brother of Athelstan, Brother of Edmund I., Son of Edmund I., Second son of Edmund I., Son of Edgar, Half-brother of Edward, Eldest son of Ethelred DANISH KINGS Hy conquest and election, ■■^on of Canute Another son of Canute, SAXON KINGS Son of Ethelred II Brother-in-law of Edward NORMAN KINGS Obtained the Crown by conquest, . . Third son of William I Youngest son of William I Third son of Stephen, Count of Blois, THE PLANTAGENET8 Son of Geoffrey Plantagenet A.D. 827 838 857 860 866 871 901 925 940 946 955 9.-)9 975 978 1016 1017 1035 1040 1042 1066 1066 1087 1100 1135 1154 A. D. 837 857 860 866 871 901 924 940 946 955 959 975 978 1016 1017 1035 1040 1042 1066 1087 1100 1135 1154 1189 A.D. 775? 849 870? 895? 923 '939? 943? 961? '989 995 ioig 1004 1022 1027 1056 1068 1105 A.D. 837 858 860? 866? 871 901 924 941 946 or 8 955? 959 975 978 1016 1017 1035 1040 1042 1066 1066 1087 1100 1135 1154 1189 ^Frederick III., son of William I., was emperor from March 9 to June 15, 1888. HISTORY 151 KINGS AND QUEENS Or ENGLAND — Continued Name Richard I. the Lion hearted, John, Henry III., .... Edward I., Edward II Edward III., .... Richard II., .... Henry IV., .... Henry V. Henry VI., Edward IV Edward V., Richard III., . . . . Henry VII. ' Henry VIII Edward VI. Mary I., Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., Commonwealth, . . Charles II., James II., . William III. and Mary II., Anne, . . . George I., . George II., . George III., George IV., . William IV., Victoria, . . Edward VII George V., . Lineage Eldest surviving son of Henry II Youngest son of Henry II., Eldest son of John, Eldest son of Henry III., Eldest surviving son of Edward I., Eldest son of Edward II., Son of the Black Prince, eldest son of Edward III HOUSE OF LANCASTER Son of John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., Eldest son of Henry IV., Only son of Henry V., HOUSE OF YORK His grandfather was Richard, son of Edmund, fifth son of Edward III., Eldest son of Edward IV., Younger brother of Edward IV HOUSE OF TUDOR Son of Edmund, eldest son of Owen Tudor, by Katharine, widow of Henry V.; his mother, Margaret Beaufort, was great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, Only surviving son of Henry VII., Son of Henry VIII. by Jane Seymour, .... Daughter of Henry VIII. by Katharine of Aragon, Daughter of Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, . . HOUSE OF STUART Son of Mary, Queen of Scots, granddaughter of James IV., and Margaret, Only surviving son of James I., Commonwealth declared May 19, Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector, Richard Cromwell, Lord Protector HOUSE OF STUART RESTORED Eldest son of Charles I., Second son of Charles I., Son of William, Prince of Orange, by Mary, daughter of Charles I., Eldest daughter of James II. Second daughter of James II., HOUSE OF HANOVER Son of Elector of Hanover, by Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I., .... Only son of George I., Grandson of George II., Eldest son of George III Third son of George III., Daughter of Edward, fourth son of George III., HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG* Son of Victoria, Son of Edward VII. Period of Reign A. D. 1189 1199 121G 1272 1307 1327 1377 1399 1-113 1422 14C1 1483 1483 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1625 j 1649 1660 1685 16S9 1702 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1901 1910 A. D. 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1399 1413 1422 1461 1483 i485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1625 1649 1658 1685 1688 1702 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1901 1910 Birth A. D. 1157 1166 1207 1239 1284 1312 1366 13667 1388 1421 1441 1470 1452 1457 1491 1537 1516 1533 1566 1600 1599 1626 1630 1633 1650 1662 1665 1660 1683 1738 1762 1765 1819 1841 1865 Death A. D. 1199 1216 1272 1307 1327 1377 1400 1413 1422 1471 1483 1483 1485 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 1625 1649 1658 1712 1685 1701 1702 1694 1714 1727 1760 1820 1830 1837 1901 1910 GOVERNORS- GENERAL OF CANADA Govebnob-General The Right Hon. Vis- count Monck, . . . . The Right Hon. Lord Lisgar, G. C. M. G., . The Right Hon. the Earl of Duflerin, K. P., K. C. B., G. C. M. G.,. . The Right Hon. the Mar- quis of Lome, K. T., G.C.M.G., P. C, . . The Most Hon. the Mar- quis of Lansdowne, G. C. M. G. The Right Hon. Lord Stanley of Preston, . The Right Hon. the Earl of Aberdeen, K. T., . The Right Hon. the Earl of Minto, G. C. M. G., The Right Hon.the Earl Grey, G. C. M. G., . His Royal Highness, the Duke of Connaught, His Grace, the Duke of Devonshire, .... Lineage Charles Monck, British statesman, made a peer of the United Kingdom in 1866, Baron Lisgar, a British politician (Sir John Young), Was created Marquis of Dufferin in 1888 (Fred- erick Temple Hamilton Blackwood), . . . . Eldest son of the eighth Duke of Argyll (John George Henry Douglas Sutherland Camp- bell), . ._ Fifth Marquis of Lansdowne (Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice), Sixteenth Earl of Derby (Frederick Arthur Stanley) Seventh Earl and first Marquis of Aberdeen (John Campbell Hamilton Gordon), .... Fourth Earl of Minto (Gilbert John Elliot- Murray Kynynmound), Fourth Earl Grey (Albert Henry George), . . Duke of Connaught (Prince Arthur William Patrick Albert) Ninth Duke of Devonshire, (Victor Christian William Cavendish), Term of Office 1867 1869 1872 1878 1883 1888 1893 1898 1904 1911 1916 1869 1872 1878 1883 1888 1893 1898 1904 1911 1916 Birth 1819 1807 182G 1845 1845 1841 1847 1845 1851 1850 1868 Death 1894 1876 1902 1914 1908 1914 1917 ♦Changed to House of Windsor by George V., July, 1917. 152 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS PREMIERS OF CANADA Name Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald, Hon. Alexander Mackenzie, lit. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald Hon. Sir. J. J. C. Abbott Rt. Hon. Sir J. S. D. Thompson Hon. Sir Mackenzie Bowcll Hon. Sir Charles Tuppcr, Bart Rt. Hon. Wilfrid Laurier Hon. Robert Laird Borden Hon. Arthur Meighen, Russia. The origin of the Russian Empire is involved in much obscurity, but it is usually regarded as having been founded by Rurik, a Scandinavian (Varangian), about 862, his domin- ions and those of his immediate successors com- prising Novgorod, Kieff, and the surrounding country. Vladimir the Great (980-1015), the Charlemagne of Russia, introduced Christianity and founded several cities and schools. But from this period down to the time when the country was overrun by the Tartars, Russia was almost constantly the scene of civil war. For more than two centuries Russia was subject to the Tartars. But Russia's real foundation may be said to date from the accession of Peter the Great in 1689, who first secured to the country the attention of the more civilized nations of Europe. His first militarj^ achievement was his conquest of Azov from the Turks in 1696, which, however, he lost again in 1711. He also completed the conquest of Siberia; and, what was of more importance, obtained from Sweden by the Peace of Nystad, in 1721, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, or part of Karelia, the Territory of Viborg, Oesel, and all the other islands in the Baltic from Courland to Viborg. Catharine I., widow of Peter I., succeeded on the death of the latter, but died after a reign of only two years. The throne was then occupied successively by Peter II., 1727-30; by Anna, 1730-40; by Ivan VI., 1740-41; by Ehzaboth, 1741-62; by Peter III., about six months in 1762; by Catharine II., wife of Peter III., 1762-96; by Paul, 1796-1801; by Alexander I., 1801-25; by Nicholas, 1825- 55; by Alexander II., 1855-81. During all these reigns the gi'owth of the empire was con- tinuous. The Kirghiz Cossacks were subdued in 1731, the Ossetes in 1742; the Finnish Prov- ince of Kymcnegard was gained by the Treaty of Abo in 1743. The three partitions of Poland took place under Catharine II. in 1772, 1793, and 1795. Russia acquired nearly two-thirds of this once powerful state. By the Peace of Kut- chuk-Kainarji in 1774, the Turks gave up Azov, part of the Crimea (ihe other part was taken possession of in 1783), and Kabardah; and by the Peace of Jassy in 1792, Oczakov. Georgia also came under the protection of Russia in 1783, and Courland was incorporated in 1795. A por- tion of Persian Territory had already been ac- quired; and in 1801 the formal annexation of Georgia was effected. The Peace of Frcdriks- hamn, 1809, robbed Sweden of the whole of Finland, which now passed to Russia; the Peace of Bucharest, 1812, took Bessarabia from the Turks; that of Tiflis, 1813, deprived the Per- sians of parts of the Caucasus; and then the Service Born Died Term Yeara 1867-1873 6 1815 1891 1873-1S7S 5 1822 1892 1878-1891 3 (see above) (see above) 1891-1892 1 1821 1893 1892-LS94 2 1844 1894 1894-189(5 2 1823 1917 1S9G-Jan. l.'j to July 8, 1821 1915 1896-1911 15 1841 1919 1911-1920 9 1854 1920-.. .. 1874 Vienna Congress of 1815 gave the remainder of Poland to Russia. After fresh wars, the Persians lost the provinces of Erivan and Nakhichevan in 1828; and the Turks lost Anapa, Poti, Akhal- zik, etc., by the Peace of Adrianople in 1829. The desire to possess further dominions of the sultan led to a war against Turkey in 1853, in which England, France, and Sardinia also took part in 1854, and which ended in the Peace of Paris, 1856. The Russians were compelled to restore to Moldavia the left bank of the Danube in Bessarabia. This district, however, was again restoi-ed to Russia by the Congress of Berhn in 1878, which followed the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78. In 1858, Russia acquired by agree- ment with China the sparsely populated but widely extended district of the Amur; the sub- jection of Caucasia was accomplished in 1859 and 1864, and considei'able conquests have fol- lowed since 1866 both in Turkestan and the rest of Central Asia. A ukase of 1868 annihilated the last remains of the independence of Poland by incorporating it completely in the czardom. The following table will show the extent of these continuous accessions of territory: The extent of Russian Territory under — Ivan the Great, . . 1462, about 382,716 sq. m. Vassih Ivanovitch, . 1505, " 510,288 " Ivan the Terrible, . 1584, " 1,530,864 " Alexis Michaelovitch, 1650, " 5,039,094 " Peter I., 1689, " 5,953,360 " Anna, 1730, " 6,888,888 " Catharine II., . . . 1775, " 7,122,770 " Alexander II., . . . 1868, " 7,866,940 " Alexander II., . . . 1881, " 8,325,393 " Alexander III.,. . . 1892, " 8,644,100 " Nicholas II., . . . 1909, " 8,647,657 " The population from 14,000,000 in 1722 has grown to 182,182,600 in 1915. The effort to ex- tend the Russian domain in the East became a fixed policy. In 1881, the Tekke Turcomans were subjected; in 1884, Mcrv was taken, and Penjdeh was occupied and annexed in 1885, which led to considerable friction between Russia and Britain. A great disturbing element to the Imperial Government of Russia sprang up in Nihilism. Alexander II. was killed by their agency, and many attempts were made to murder the succeeding emperors. In 1891, flour and grain were sent by the United States to relieve distress caused by failure of the harvest. Oppressive measures against the Jews excited unfavorable comment. Alexander III. died November 1, 1894, and was succeeded by his son, Nicho- las II. In 1900, following the Boxer RebelUon, China gave to Russia exclusive mining and rail- way privileges in Manchuria, and the command HISTORY im of all the Chinese troops there to the Russian authorities. This occupation was to end in three years, and the delay in the withdrawal of Russian troops led to open hostiUties between Russia and Japan in 1904. (See Russo-Japanese War.) During 1905-06, Russia was much per- turbed by internal and insiu-rectionary distur- bances. In October of 1905 the Czar issued a manifesto, assuring civil hberty, freedom of the press, extension of the suffrage, and limited representative government. When Austria-Hungary made war upon Servia, 1914, Russia mobilized a portion of her troops "for reason of defense against the prepara- tions of Austria." A general mobilization was ordered July 31. Germany, supporting Austria, at once declared war upon Russia (See War of Nations). With Grand Duke Nicholas com- mander-in-chief of army and navy, the Russians attacked Austrian Galicia, looking forward to an attack on Berlin. They were driven out of Prussia, but met with some successes in Galicia. Early in August, Russia promised Poland auton- omy for loyalty. In September, it was esti- mated, 1,000,000 Austrians faced 1,500,000 Russians along a battle front of 175 miles. March 22, 1915, Przemysl, great Austrian for- tress in Galicia, was taken by the Russians after siege begun early in the war; it was recaptured by Austro-German forces June 3. Slowly the Russians fell back before the Germans; the storm- ing of Warsaw began July 23 ; the city was entered by German troops Aug. 5 after withdrawal of the Russians; within a month thereafter the German troops took 12 Russian fortresses. Early in 1916 Russian forces were engaged along battle lines from Riga to the Rumanian border and in Persia and Asiatic Turkey. Feb. 16 they took the Turkish fortress at Erzerum, Armenia. In March, besides advancing west- ward in Turkey, Russian forces bombarded the Black sea coast towns and advanced rapidly into Persia. Early in 1917 the ever-growing revolutionary party in the duma acquired sufficient power to force the abdication of Nicholas II (March 15). A provisional government was then estabhshed, of which Kerensky became the head. After a period of great internal dissension, resulting in the disorganization of the army, the Bolsheviki, representing the Soviets or soldiers' and work- men's councils, in November seized control of the government. Under the leadership of Trotzky and Lenine an armistice with Germany was ar- ranged, culminating in a separate peace signed at Brest-Litovsk early in 1918 whereby the Bol- shevik government agreed to cede to Germany much valuable Russian territory and to pay a huge indemnity. Russo-Japanese War. A war between Russia and Japan, waged in Manchuria (1904-05). The chief cause of the war was the occupation of Manchuria by Russia after the Boxer uprising of 1899-1900, endangering Japanese preponder- ance in Korea. An earlier cause of irritation was the action of Russia, Germany, and France in preventing the retention by Japan of Port Arthur and the Liao-tung peninsula after the Chinese-Japanese war of 1894-95, and the subsequent leasing of this territory from China by Russia. The principal events of the war were rupture of diplomatic relations with Russia by Japan, Feb. 6, 1904; attacks of the Japanese fleet upon the Russian squadron at Port Arthur, Feb. 8 and 9; naval fight off Chemulpo, Feb. 9; war declared by Japan, Feb. 10; agreement be- tween Japan and Korea signed at Seul, Feb. 23; Vladivostok bombarded by Admiral Kamimura, March 6; Port Arthur bombarded, March 21-22; Wiju occupied by the Japanese, April 6-7; de- struction of the Russian battleship "Petropav- lovk," April 13; defeat of the Russians by the Japanese first army, May 1 ; the entrance to Port Arthur blocked for battleships and cruisers, May 3; Japanese battleship "Hatsuse" sunk by a mine. May 15; Japanese victory at Kinchau (capture of Nan-shan Hill), May 27-28; occupa- tion of Dalny by the Japanese, May 29-30; Russians defeated at Telissu and Wafangkau, June 14-15; unsuccessful sortie of Russian fleet from Port Arthm-, June 23; investment of Port Arthur, July 31, 1904 — Jan. 1, 1905; sortie of the Port Arthur fleet, resulting in a sea battle, in which most of the Russian vessels were driven back to Port Arthur and the rest dispersed, Aug. 10; Vladivostok squadron defeated, Aug. 14; battle of Liao-yang, resulting in the success of the Japanese, the Russians retiring upon Mukden, Aug. 27 — Sept. 4; battle of the Shaho, in which the Russian attack was repulsed, Oct. 9-14; the Baltic fleet sailed for the Far East, Oct., 1904, and attacked the Hull fishing fleet on the Dogger- bank, on the night of Oct. 21-22; Port Arthur surrendered, Jan. 1, 1905; Russians crossed the Hun river and attacked the Japanese at Haikautai, but were repulsed, Jan. 25-29; battle of Mukden resulted in the capture of the city, Feb. 19— March 10; the Baltic fleet reached Kamranh bay, April 12; battle of the Sea of Japan and the annihilation of the Baltic fleet by Admiral Togo, May 27-28; President Roose- velt urged the Russian and Japanese governments to negotiate for peace, June 8; plenipotentiaries met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Aug. 9; treaty of peace signed, Sept. 5, 1905. St. Bartholome^v, Massacre of, a massacre of the Huguenots which took place in Paris, France, beginning on the night of August 23-24 (St. Bartholomew's Day), 1572. A large number of prominent Huguenots had been invited to the royal palace to participate in the. wedding festivities of Henry of Navarre. While these guests were in the palace they were slaugh- tered without mercy, and at a signal the massacre quickly spread over the city. The anti-Hugue- not leaders were Charles IX., the Queen-mother Catharine de' Medici, and the Duke of Guise. The massacre spread over France and it is variously estimated that 2,000 to 100,000 lives were lost. Sailc, or Sallque Law, The {sS,l'-lk). .'\n ancient fundamental law of the Ripuarian Franks, which excluded females from inheriting the French throne. It is supposed to have been established by Pharamond or Clovis, and to have derived its name from the River Saale, in Saxony, whence those Franks originally came. This body of law was revised and reconstituted by Charlemagne; according to it "no portion of Salic land can fall to females," but what was 154 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS meant by Salic land has been long debated among French antiquaries. It was the cause of long wars between England and France, when, in opposition to it, Edward III. claimed the throne of France by a title prior to that of Phihp of Valois. It has been recognized in all coimtries of which the crown has developed on a member of the blood royal of France; it formed the foundation of the pretensions of Don Carlos to the Spanish Crown. It was observed with reference to the great fiefs which had been granted to princes of the blood, by way of appanage; and hence, on the death of Charles the Bold of Burgundy, without a male heir, that duchy reverted to Louis XI. Scotland was first visited by the Roman troops under Agricola, who penetrated to the foot of the Grampian Mountains. It was after- ward exposed to the ravages of the Norwegians and Danes, with whom many bloody battles were fought. Various contests were also maintained with the Idngs of England. Robert Bruce, how- ever, secured the independence of the country and his title to the throne by the decisive battle of Bannockburn in 1314. He was succeeded by his nephew, Robert Stewart, and he by his eldest son, Robert. The latter was a weak prince, and the government was seized by the Duke of Albany, who stoned to death the eldest son of the king. James, his second son, to escape a similar fate, fled to France; in the year 1424 he returned to Scotland, and, having excited the jealousy of the nobihty, he was assassinated in a monastery near Perth. James II., his son, an infant prince, succeeded him in 1437. He was killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of the castle of Roxburgh. James III. ascended the throne at the age of seven years. His reign was weak and inglorious, and he was murdered in the house of a miller, whither he had fled for protection. James IV., a generous and brave prince, began his reign in 1488. He was slain at the battle of Flodden. James V., an infant of less than two years of age, succeeded to the crown. He died in 1542, and was succeeded by his daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary. She was succeeded by her son James, who, in 1603, ascended the throne of England, vacant by the death of Queen EUzabeth, when the two king- doms were united into one great monarchy which was legislatively united in 1707. Servla. The Serbs, an agricultural people of Galicia, entered the country about 637. From the eighth to the twelfth century they were under Greek or Bulgarian suzerainty. Servia reached its height under Stephen Dushan (1331- 1355), when the empire included Bosnia, Al- bania, Thessaly, part of Bulgaria and nearly all of the Hellenic peninsula. The battle of Kossovo, June 15, 1389, gave Servia to Turkey. It was fully subjugated in 1459; during 345 years of Turkish rule Servia was reduced to a race of peasants. They gained autonomy in 1817. Complete independence was established by the treaty of Berlin, 1S7S. Prince Peter was pro- claimed king in 1903 after the assassination of King Alex. I. and Queen Natalie. Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908, was resented. The Balkan states made war on Turkey, 1912. By the peace of London, 1913, Servia's territory was extended. The murder of the Austrian heir-apparent in Bosnia, June 28, 1914, the suspicion of Servian compUcity and Austrian-Hungary's ultimatum to Servia led to the declaration of war (See War of Nations, also Austria-Hungary). Seven Years' War, The (1756-63), was the tiiird, last, and most terrible of the con- tests between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa (with the other powers of Europe on one side or the other) for the pos- session of Silesia. In 1763 Maria Theresa, sorely against her will, was finally compelled to conclude the peace of Hubertusburg, which acknowledged Frederick as Lord of Silesia. This long and desperate conflict made no change in the territorial distribution of Europe, but it increased tenfold the moral power of Prussia, and gave its army a prestige which it retained till the battle of Jena. It cost Europe 1,000,000 lives, and prostrated the strength of almost all the powers who had engaged in it. Shays's Rebellion. At the close of the Revolution, the United States were burdened with a very heavy foreign and domestic debt. They were impoverished by the long war, and it was difficult to raise the means to meet the arrears of pay due the soldiers of the Revolution. On the recommendation of Congress, each State endeavored to provide means for raising its quota by a direct tax. This eff'ort produced much excitement in some of the States, and, finally, in 1787, a portion of the people of Massa- chusetts openly rebelled. Daniel Shays, who had been a captain in the Continental Army, marched at the head of a thousand men, took possession of Worcester, and prevented a ses- sion of the Supreme Court. He repeated his performance at Springfield, and the insurrection soon became so formidable that the governor was compelled to call out several thousand militia under General Lincoln, to suppress it. Though some of the insurgents were sentenced to death, none was executed. Sicilies, The Two, a former kingaom of Italy, consisting of Naples (or South Italy) and Sicily. In 1047, while Greeks and Saracens were struggling for the possession of Lower Italy and Sicily, the twelve sons of Tancred de Haute- ville, a count in Lower Normandy, came in with their followers. Robert Guiscard, one of these brothers, subdued Apulia and Calabria, taking the title of duke, and his youngest brother. Count Roger, conquered Sicily. Roger's son and successor, Roger II., completed the conquest of all Lower Italy by subduing Capua, Amalfi, and Naples, at that time celebrated commercial repubhcs, and in 1130 took the title of king, calling his kingdom the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1759, when Charles IV. ascended the Spanish throne under the name of Charles III., he conferred the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies on his third son Ferdinand, and decreed at the same time that it should never again be united to the Spanish Monarchy. The reign of Ferdinand extended through the stormy period of the French Revolution and the subsequent European commotions. A varied experience followed, during which the country was succes- sively subject to Germany, France, and Spain. HISTORY 15i In 1860, an insurrection broke out in Sicily, and an expedition of volunteers from Piedmont and other Italian provinces under Garibaldi sailed from Genoa to the assistance of the insurgents. The result was that the Neapolitan troops were driven from the island. Garibaldi, following up his success, crossed over to the mainland, where he met little or no opposition; Francis II. fled from Naples; the strong places in his hands were reduced; and by a popular vote the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist as such and became an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy. Sicilian Vespers, the name given to a massacre of the French in Sicily, March 30, 1282. On the evening of Easter Monday the conspira- tors were already assembled at Palermo; but the massacre was precipitated by an outrage offered by a Frenchman to a Sicilian bride, who was passing along the streets with her train. Instantly the Frenchman was killed, and, the populace being aroused by the conspirators, all the French who could be found in the city were slaughtered. Eight thousand were slain in Palermo alone, and the massacre afterwards spread over the island, the French being even dragged out of the churches to which they had fled for protection. The six hundredth anni- versary of the Sicilian Vespers was celebrated with much enthusiasm at Palermo in 1882. Slavery* The establishment of one man's right to control the liberty, property, and even life of another. Slavery probably arose at an early period of the world's history out of the accident of capture in war. Savages, in place of massacring their captives, found it more profitable to keep them in servitude. All the ancient Oriental nations of whom we have any records, including the Jews, had their slaves. In Greece in general, and especially at Athens, slaves were mildly treated, and enjoyed a large share of legal protection, while by the Romans they were used with considerable rigor. The English word slave is simply the name of the Sclavonian race. The wars of the Prankish kmgs and emperors filled Saracenic Spain with Sclavonic captives to such an extent that in its language, as well as in those of other European countries, a natural name meaning, in its own tongue, glorioxis, became the title of servitude. The African slave trade was commenced by the Portuguese m 1442; it was, however, of only trifling extent till the Sixteenth Century. But the importation of negroes into the West Indies and America having once begun, it gradually increased, until the vastness and importance of the traffic rivaled its cruelty and guilt. The slave trade was abolished in England in 1807 but it was only in 1834 that slavery itself was abolished throughout the British dominions. Long before that time, several of the North American "States had decreed the extinction of slavery. Vermont abolished it in 1777, before she had joined the Union. Pennsylvania in 1780, Rhode Island and Connecticut shortly after, New_ York in 1797, and New Jersey in 1804, provided for the gradual emancipation of their slaves. In Massachusetts the Supreme Court declared that slavery was abolished by the act of adopting the State Constitution of 1780. In 1820, the United States passed a law declaring the slave trade to be piracy, but no conviction was obtained under the statute until November, 1861, when Nathaniel Gordon, master of a vessel called the "Erie," was convicted and hanged at New York. Finally, the abolition of slavery, cause and fruit of the gigantic war of secession, was definitively consecrated in 1865 by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States. The French emancipated their negroes in 1848, and the Dutch in 1863. Slavery was also partially abolished in Brazil in 1871, and gradual emancipation has been adopted in Cuba. South Carolina. The first attempt to colonize the territory now included in South Carolina was made by Jean Ribault, a French- man, in 1562. The first permanent settlement was made by English colonists, who planted themselves on the banks of the Ashley in 1670, but removed to the site of Charleston in 1680. The province was created by Charles II. in 1683. Both the Carolinas were included under a com- mon name and proprietary government till 1729, when the king formed the province into two royal colonies. Large numbers of French Hugue- nots had arrived in 1685, and subsequently Swiss, Irish, and German colonists. South Carolina suffered severely from Indian depreda- tions, and joined with Georgia, under Oglethorpe, in a contest with Spanish Florida. She took an active part in the Revolution, and the battles of Fort Moultrie, Charleston, Camden, King's Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw Springs, etc., were fought on her soil. The United States Constitu- tion was ratified in 1788. In 1832, the State passed the Nullification Act, which threatened civil war, then happily averted, but afterward precipitated in 1861 by the firing on Fort Sum- ter. The State was readmitted to federal rela- tions in 1868. From 1865 until 1871 there were reconstruction troubles, ending with the election of Wade Hampton as Governor of the State and his recognition by President Hayes. In 1886 Charleston suffered from a severe earthquake which caused much property loss. The present State constitution was adopted in 1897. In 1915 constitutional Prohibition was adopted by an overwhelming majority. South Dakota. South Dakota became a State November 2, 1889, when the Territory of Dakota was divided into two States. The history of that part of the country will be found under Minnesota, Nebraska, and North Dakota. A pro- hibitory amendment was adopted at the first state election, but, owing to an adverse U. S. Supreme Court decision, dici not go into effe(!t. Consti- tutional Prohibition was again adopted in 1916. Spain, the Spania, Hispania, and Iberia of the Greeks, and known to the Romans by the same names, is supposed to have lieen originally inhabited by a distinct race called Iberians, upon whom a host of Celts are supposed to have descended from the Pyrenees. These two races coalesced and formed the mixed nation of the Celtiberians. About the middle of the Third Century B. C. the Carthaginian influence began to be felt in Iberia, and a considerable tract of territory was brought under subjection to Carthage by Hainilcar, who founded the city of 15fi THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Barcelona. The Romans had driven the Car- thaginians from the peninsula in 206 B. C, and the country was erected into a Roman Province. From the time of the complete supremacy of the Romans till the death of Constantine the con- dition of Spain was eminently prosperous. Everywhere throughout the country towns of purely Roman character sprang up, and numer- ous aqueducts, bridges, amphitheaters, etc., were built. Spain was for three centuries the richest province of the Roman Empire. In 409 A. D., hordes of barbarians, Alans, Vandals, and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees and swept over and des- olated the peninsula. About 412 the Visigoths invaded the country, and their king, Athaulf, established the Gothic monarchy in Catalonia. In 711 the Moors obtained mastery of nearly the whole of Spain, The Moors held Spain for the first few years as a dependency of the province of North. Africa; but after the down- fall of Musa the country was governed (717) by emirs appointed by the Caliph of Damascus. During the period of Moorish domination the small independent kingdom of Asturias, or Leon, had been growing in power and extent. In 758 a second independent Christian Kingdom was founded in Sobrarve, which was in 801 swallowed up by the caliphate of Cordova. Thirty-six years afterward was founded the third Christian Kingdom, that of Navarre, and in 933 another independent monarchy was founded in Castile, which, from its central position and consequent greater facilities for expansion, soon became the most powerful of the Spanish states. The Kingdom of Aragon was the last Christian kingdom formed in Spain. The rest of the history of the Spanish kingdoms before their union is undeserving of a detailed account. Ferdinand II., the last sovereign of Aragon, by marriage with Isabella, Queen of Castile, in 1469, by the conquest of Granada in 1492, and that of Navarre in 1512, united the whole of Spain (and French Navarre) under one rule. Charles I. (Charles V. of Germany) succeeded Ferdinand, and in his reign Mexico and Peru were added to the possessions of Spain. Philip II., by his enormous war expenditure and maladminis- tration, laid a sure foundation for the decline of the country; and the reigns of Philip III. and IV. witnessed a fearful acceleration in the decline. That of Charles II. was still more unfortunate, and the death of the latter was the occasion of the War of the Spanish Succession. Philip V. was the first of the Bourbon Dynasty who occupied the throne of Spain. Under Charles III. (1759-88) the second great rcA'ival of the country commenced, and trade and com- merce began to show signs of returning activity. During the inglorious reign of Charles IV. (1788-1808) a war broke out with Britain, which was productive of nothing but disaster to the Spaniards and by the pressure of the French another arose in 1804, and was attended with similar ill success. Charles's eldest son ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. Forced by Napo- leon to resign all claims to the Spanish Crown, Ferdinand became a prisoner of the French, and Joseph, the brother of the French Emperor, was declared King of Spain and the Indies. But before this time an armed resistance had been organized throughout the whole country. The various provinces elected juntas, or councils, consisting of the most influential inhabitants of the respective neighborhoods, and it was their business to administer local rule. The Supreme Council of Seville declared war against Napoleon and France in 1808. England, on solicitation, made peace with Spain, recognized Ferdinand VII. ais king, and sent an army to aid the Spanish insurrection. After many bloody campaigns the French were driven from the country. The reign of Ferdinand's daughter, Isabella II., was disturbed by the Carlist rebel- lion, 1834-39. Frequent changes of ministry, occasional revolts, the banishment of Queen Christina, the war with the Moors, the annexa- tion of Santo Domingo in 1861, and the quarrels between Spain and her former colonies, Peru and Chile, were the most marked events in the more recent history of Spain. In 1868, Isabella was driven from the throne by a general revolt; and the Cortes, in 1871, elected Prince Amadeo of Italy to be king. Finding the task of ruling constitutionally hopeless, Amadeo abdicated in 1873, upon which the form of government was changed into a republic. During the remainder of 1873, and the whole of 1874, Spain was the scene of general anarchy and mucn bloodshed. In December, 1874, Alfonso, son of ex-Queen Isabella, was declared King of Spain at Santan- der, under the title of Alfonso XII. He died in 1886, and his widow. Queen Maria Christina, was chosen regent during the minority of the infant Prince Alfonso XIII. The Prince reached his majority, May 17, 1902, and became king. On May 31, 1904, he married Princess Ena of Battenberg. Industrial and revolutionary dis- turbances in 1911 culminated in the assassination of Premier Canalejas in November, 1912. His administration is regarded as the most stable Spain has had in many years. Spanish -American War. In 1898, a crisis in Cuban affairs brought on war with the United States, known as the Spanish-American War, which from its opening to its close lasted 114 days. In that time the United States land and sea forces destroyed two Spanish fleets, received the surrender of more than 35,000 Spanish soldiers, took by conquest the fortified cities of Santiago de Cuba, in Cuba, Ponce, in Porto Rico, and Manila, on the island of Luzon, in the Philippines, and secured con- trol, pending negotiations of peace, of the entire Spanish possessions in the West Indies, the Philippines, and Guam of the Ladrone Islands. The Americans suffered no loss of ships or territory and but 279 killed and 1,465 wounded in battle, while the cost to Spain, aside from prisoners, ships, and lost territory, was 2,199 killed, and 2,948 wounded. The cost to the United States in money was $141,000,000. The principal events preceding and during the war and the dates on which they occurred are as follows: February 15th — The United States battleship "Maine" was blown up in the harbor of Havana. According to the report of the Court of Inquiry appointed by the United States the explosion was due to an external mine. HISTORY 157 April 20th — President McKinley, authorized by Congress to intervene in Cuba, using the United States mihtary and naval forces, sent an ultimatum to Spain. The Spanish minister at once left Washington, and the next day the United States minister left Madrid. April 22d — A proclamation was issued by the President blockading the principal ports of Cuba. April 23d — President McKinley issued a call for 125,000 volunteers to serve for two years. April 27th — The batteries of Matanzas, Cuba, were shelled by Admiral Sampson's flagship, the "New York," with the monitor "Puri- tan" and the cruiser "Cincinnati." April 29th — The Spanish fleet, commanded by Admiral Cervera, consisting of the "Cristo- bal Colon," the "Almirante Oquendo," the "Maria Teresa" and the "Viscaya," and the torpedo boats "Furor," "Terror," and "Pluton," left the Cape Verde Islands for Cuba. May 1st — Commodore Dewey, commanding the United States Asiatic squadron, destroyed the entire Spanish fleet in Manila Bay, Philippines, without losing a man. May nth— The "Wilmington," " Winslow," and "Hudson" engaged the Spanish batteries at Cardenas. Ensign Bagley and four of the "W^inslow's" crew were killed. Major- General Wesley Merritt was ordered to the Philippines as military governor. May 12th — A United States fleet, commanded by Rear-Admiral Sampson, bombarded the fortifications of San Juan, Porto Rico. May 19th — Admiral Cervera's fleet reached San- tiago de Cuba, and a few days later was "bottled up" there by the "flying squad- ron " of Commodore Schley. May 25th — President McKinley called for 75,000 more volunteers. Twenty-five hundred United States troops sailed from San Fran- cisco for Manila, several thousand more following at a later date. May 31st— The "Massachusetts," "Iowa," and "New Orleans" bombarded the fortifica- tions at the mouth of Santiago Harbor. They were bombarded again several times after Admiral Sampson took command of the fleet. June 3d — Assistant Naval Constructor Hobson wth seven men ran the collier "Merrimac" to the mouth of Santiago Harbor and sank her in the channel under the fire from the Spanish forts. Hobson and his men were taken prisoners. June 10th— Six hundred marines were landed at Caimanera, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, where sharp skirmishing continued for several days, several Americans being killed. June 12th — The 5th Army Corps, commanded by General Shaffer, sailed from Tampa on twenty-nine transports for Santiago, arriv- ing off there on June 20th. June 13th — President McKinley signed the W'ar Revenue Bill, providing for the raising of revenues by a stamp tax and providing for a popular bond loan which was immediately subscribed. June 17th — A Spanish fleet under Admiral Camara left Cadiz for the Philippines, but returned after passing through the Suez Canal. June 22d — General Shaffer's troops began dis- embarking at Daiquiri and Siboney, near Santiago. June 14th — Roosevelt's Rough Riders were at- tacked while advancing toward Santiago; sixteen Americans were killed and forty more wounded before the Spaniards were repulsed. July 1st— General Lawton took El Caney, near Santiago, and General Kent, commanding the 1st division of the 5th Army Corps, which included the 2d, 6th, 9th, 10th, 13th, 16th, and 24th infantry, and the 71st New York volunteers, took San Juan Hill after heavy fighting. Official reports gave the American losses 231 killed and 1,364 wounded and missing. July 3d — Admiral Cervera's squadron made a dash out of Santiago Harbor, and every vessel was sunk or disabled by the American fleet. General Shaffer demanded the sur- render of Santiago. The seizure of Guama, in the Ladrone Islands, by the "Charles- ton " was reported at this time. July 7th — President McKinley signed resolutions passed by the Senate annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, and the "Phil- adelphia " was ordered to Honolulu to raise the American flag. July 17th — General Toral, in command of the Spanish troops at Santiago, General Linares being wounded, surrendered his forces and . the east portion of the province of Santiago de Cuba to General Shaffer. July 21st — General Leonard R. Wood, formerly colonel of the 1st Volunteer cavalry, was appointed military governor of Santiago. July 25th — United States troops, under General Nelson A. Miles, landed at Guanica, Porto Rico, the town having surrendered to the "Gloucester." July 26th — Through the French ambassador, the government of Spain asked President Mc- Kinley on what terms he would consent to peace. July 28th — Ponce, the second largest city in Por- to Rico, surrendered to General Miles, and he was received by the residents with joj'ful acclamations. Capture of several other towTis, with little or no fighting, followed. July 30tli— President McKinley 's statement of the terms on which he would agree to end the war was given to the French ambassador. The President demanded the independence of Cuba, cession of Porto Rico and one of the Ladrones to the United States, and the retention of Manila by the United States pending the final disposition of the Philip- pines by a joint commission. July 31st — United States troops engaged the Spaniards at Malate, near Manila, in the Philippines, and repulsed them, with some loss on both sides. August 9th — The French ambassador jpresented to President McKinley Spain's reply, accepting his terms of peace. 158 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS August 12th — Protocols agreeing as to the pre- liminaries for a treaty of peace were signed by Secretary Hay and the French ambas- sador. United States military and naval commanders were ordered to cease hostili- ties. The blockades of Cuba, Porto Rico, and Manila were lifted and hostilities ended. August 13th — Manila surrendered after a com- bined assault by the army under General Merritt and Dewey's fleet. Sparta or Laced aemon. A celebrated city of ancient Greece; capital of Laconia and of "the Spartan state, and the chief city in the Peloponnesus; on the west bank of the Eurotas River, and embraced a circuit of six miles. Sparta was a scattered city consisting of five separate quarters. Unlike Athens, it was plainly built, and had few notable public build- ings ; consequently, there are no imposing ruins to be seen here as in Athens, and the modern Sparta is only a village of some 4.000 inhabitants. The Spartan state was founded, according to tradition, by Lacedsemon, son of Zeus. The most celebrated of its legendary kings was Menelaus. Shortly after their settlement in the Peloponnesus it is probable that the Spartans extended their sway over all the territory of Laconia. a portion of the inhabitants of which they reduced to the condition of slaves. They also waged war with the Messenians, the Arca- dians, and the Argives, against whom they were so successful that before the close of the Sixth Century B. C. they were recognized as the leading people in all Greece. Early in the following century began the Per- sian wars, in which a rivalry grew up between Athens and Sparta. This rivalry led to the Peloponnesian War, in which Athens was humil- iated and the old ascendency of Sparta regained. Soon after this the Spartans became involved in a war with Persia, and Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and some of the Peloponnesian States took this opportunity to declare war against them. This war, knoum as the Boeotian or Corinthian War, lasted eight years and increased the reputation and power of Athens. To break the alliance of Athens with Persia, Sparta, in .387 B. C, con- cluded with the latter power the peace kno^xTi by the name of Antalcidas; and the designs of Sparta became apparent when she occupied, without provocation, the city of Thebes, and introduced an aristocratical constitution there. Pelopidas delivered Thebes, and the celebrated Theban War (378-363) followed, in which Sparta was much enfeebled. Dm-ing the fol- lowing century Sparta steadily declined, though one or two isolated attempts were made to restore its former greatness. Stadtholder (Dutch, Stadhouder), the name formerly given to the chief magistrate of the United Provinces of Holland. The last Stadtholder was William V., who had to fly to England in 179.5, at the invasion of the French Republican army. After the Congress of Vienna (1815), Holland, with Belgium, was erected into a kingdom, and William V., was the first king, under the name of William I. Star-Chamber, an ancient English tribu- nal, said to have existed from a very earlj' period, but revived during the reign of Henry VII. One derivation of the name is from the star-covered roof or ceiling of the room in which the tribunal assembled ; but this derivation is at least doubt- ful. The tribunal consisted of privy councillors, and of certain judges, who acted without the intervention of a jury. As this was a violation of Magna Charta, and as the tribunal had been guilty of the most grave excesses, especially in the time of Charles I., the Star Chamber was abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641, at the same time as the High Commission Court. Sumter, Fort (named after General Thomas Sumter, 1734-1832), an American fort associated with both the beginning and the end of the Civil War; built of brick, in the form of a truncated pentagon thirty-eight feet high, on a shoal partly artificial, in Charleston Harbor, three and one-half miles from the city. On the withdrawal of South Carolina from the Union in December, 1860, Major Anderson, in command of the defenses of the harbor, aban- doned the other forts, and occupied Fort Sumter, mounting sixty-two guns, with a garrison of some eighty men. The attack on the fort was opened by General Beauregard April 12, 1861, and it surrendered on the 14th; this event marked the beginning of the war. The Confed- erates strengthened it, and added ten guns and four mortars. In April, 1863, an attack by a fleet of monitors failed. In July batteries were erected on Morris Island, about 4,000 yards off, from which in a week 5,000 projectiles, weighing from 100 to 300 pounds, were hurled against the fort ; at the end of that time it was silenced and in part demolished. Yet the garrison held on amid the ruins and in September beat off a naval attack; and in spite of a forty days' bombard- ment in October-December, 1863, and for still longer in July and August, 1864, it was not till after the evacuation of Charleston itself, o-ning to the operations of General Sherman, that the garrison retired, and the United States flag was again raised April 18, 1865; an event soon fol- lowed by the evacuation of Richmond and the Confederate surrender. S\%'eden. When we first hear of Sweden the country was inhabited by numerous tribes, kindred in origin, but politically separate. Two principal groups are recognizable, Goths in the South and Swedes in the North. Ingiald Hrada, the last ruler of the old royal family of the Ynglingar, who drew their origin from Njord, sought to establish a single government in Swe- den and perished in the attempt. To the Ynglingar followed, in the Upland, the djaiasty of the Skioldungar. Erik Edmimdsson acquired the sovereignty of the whole of Sweden about the end of the Ninth Century. The dawn of Swedish history now begins. Efforts to introduce Christianitv were made as earlv as 829 A. D., but it was not till 1000 A. I)., that Olaf Skotko- nung, the Lap King, was baptized. Erik undertook a crusade against the pagan Finns, and having compelled them to submit to bap- tism, and established Swedish settlements among them, he laid the foundation of the union of Finland with Sweden. Erik's murder in 1 160 by the Danish prince, Magnus Henriksen, who had made an unprovoked attack upon the Swe- HISTORY 159 dish king, was the beginning of a long series of troubles. In 1389, the throne was offered by the Swedish nobles to Margaret, Queen of Den- mark and Norway, who threw an army into Sweden, defeated the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in 1397, brought Sweden under the same scepter with Denmark and Norway. In 1523, Sweden emancipated itself from the union with Denmark, which had become hateful to the Swedes, and rewarded its deliverer, the young Gustaf Vasa, by electing him king, and declaring its indepen- dence of Denmark. Gustaf Vasa, on his death, in 1560, left to his successor a hereditary and well-organized kingdom, a full exchequer, a standing army, and a well-appointed navy. Sigismund, grandson of Vasa, who had been elected king of Poland through the influence of his Polish mother, was compelled to resign the throne in 1599 to his uncle Karl. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish War of Succession, from 1604-60; and on the death of Karl, in 1611, his son, the great Gustavus Adol- phus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia, Poland, and Denmark. The young king soon concluded treaties of peace with his northern neighbors, and placed the internal affairs of his kingdom in order, and, although he ranks as one of the greatest military commanders of his age, the extraordinary number of benefits which he conferred on every department of the administrative system of Sweden entitles him to still greater renown as the benefactor of his native country. The reign of Christina was disastrous. Karl X. was occupied in generally unsuccessful wars against Poland and Denmark ; while the long rule of his son, Karl XL — from 1660-97 — was characterized by success abroad and the augmentation of the regal power. In 1718, the male line of the Vasas expired with the death of Charles XII. His sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were called to the throne by election. The weak Adolphus Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp, who was called to the throne on the death of Frederick in 1751, did little to retrieve the evil fortunes of the state; but his son, Gustavus III. (1771-92), skillfully recovered the lost power of the Crown. Gustavus IV. was forcibly de- posed in 1809, and obliged to renoimce the Crown in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. The dominant party in Sweden elected General Bernadotte to the rank of crown-prince, the latter assumed the reins of government, and by his steady support of the allies against the French Emperor secured to Sweden, at the Con- gress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the administration of Bernadotte, who in 1818 succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV. John, the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway made great advances in material prosperity, and in political and intellectual {Progress; and, although the nation at large entertained very little personal regard for their alien sovereign, his son and successor, Oscar (1844-59), and his grandsons. King Charles XV., and King Oscar II., who came to the throne in 1872, so identified themselves with their subjects that the Berna- dotte Dynasty secured the loyal affections of every section of the united nations of Sweden and Norway down to 1903. In that year serious difficulty arose between Norway and Sweden, owing to the desire of the former for autonomous government. In 1905 the two nations separated, and Oscar II. con- tinued monarch of Sweden until his death, December 8, 1907, when he was succeeded by his oldest son, Gustaf V. Switzerland was in Roman times inhab- ited by two races — the Helvetii, supposed to have been Celts, on the northwest, and the Rhsetians on the southeast. After the conquest of Gaul both races adopted the language and habits of Rome. When the invasions took place the Burgundians settled in Western Switzerland, while the Alemanni, another Germanic tribe, took possession of the country east of the River Aar. A third Teutonic people, the Goths, en- tered the country from Italy and took possession of the country of the Rhsetians. The Helvetii retained their old pagan creed until the Seventh Century, when they were converted by Irish monks. During the Eleventh and Twelfth Cen- turies the greater part of Switzerland was ruled on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahr- ingen. who, however, became extinct in 1218. In 1273, Rudolf of Habsburg, a Swiss nobleman, became emperor. Schwyz, Uri, and Unter- walten, with Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Berne, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into a perpetual league which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. In 1415 the people of the cantons invaded Aargau and Thurgau, parts of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; three years later they crossed the Alps and annexed Ticino, and constituted all three sub- ject states. In 1481 the towns of Freiburg and Soleure were admitted into the confederacy. Basel and Schaffhausen (1501) and Appenzell (1513) were next received into the confedera- tion, and its true independence began. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and the former were successful. During the Thirty Years' War Berne and Zurich contrived to maintain the neutrality of Switzer- land, and in the Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers as a separate and independent state. In 1798, Swit- zerland was seized by the French. At the peace of 1815 its independence was again acknowledged. In 1847, the Jesuits were expelled and the monas- teries were suppressed. An attempt was made by diplomatic notes to intimidate the Swiss Government, but the revolution of 1848 broke out and prevented further interference. In the same year the radical party carried the consti- tution of 1848. After a rebellion against the King of Prussia, as Prince of Neufchatel, the canton was declared a republic, with a constitu- tion similar to that of the other Swiss states. Tarpeian Rock (t&r-pe' yan), a precip- itous rock forming part of the Capitoline Hill at Rome over which persons convicted of treason to the state were hurled. It was so named, according to tradition, from Tarpeia, a vestal virgin of Rome, and daughter of the governor of the citadel on the Capitoline, who, covetous of the golden bracelets worn by the Sabine soldiery, opened the gate to them on the promise of receiv- 160 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS ing what they wore on their left arms. Once inside the gate they threw their shields upon her, instead of the bracelets. She was buried at the base of the Tarpeian Rock. Tartary, properly Tatary, the name under which, in the Middle Ages, was comprised the wliole central belt of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, from the Sea of Japan to tlie Dnieper, including Manchuria, Mongolia,- Chinese Turk- estan, Independent Turkestan, the Kalmuck and Kirghiz steppes, and the old khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Crimea, and even the Cossack countries; and hence arose a distinction of Tartary into European and Asiatic. But lat- terly the name Tartary had a much more limited signification, including only Chinese Turkestan and Western Turkestan. It took its name from the Tatars or Tartars. Temple, Solomon's, the building reared by Solomon as a habitation for Jehovah. David had planned the Temple, but was divinely for- bidden to erect it, as he had shed so much blood in his wars. He made great preparations for his son and successor, who, he learned from the prophet Nathan, was destined to achieve the work. It was built on Mount Moriah, chiefly by Tyrian workmen, and had massive foundations. The stone for its erection was dressed before its arrival, so that the edifice arose noiselessly; the floor was of cedar, boarded over with planks of fir; the Wainscoting was of cedar, covered with gold, as was the whole interior. It was modeled inside on the tabernacle, which was Jehovah's dwelling while journeyings were con- tinually taking place. There was a Holy and a Most Holy Place. The temple was surrounded by an inner court for the priest. There was also a Great or Outward Court, called specially the Court of the Lord's House. This temple was destroyed by the Babylonians during the siege of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar. On the return from Babylon, a temple, far inferior to Solomon's was commenced under Zerubbabel, B. C. 534, and, after a long intermission, was resumed B. C. 520, and completed B. C. 516, under Darius Hystaspes. The second temple was gradually removed by Herod, as he pro- ceeded with the building or rebuilding of a temple designed to rival the first rather than the second. The work was commenced B. C. 21 or 20; the temple itself was finished in about a year and a half, the courts in eight years, but the subse- quent operations were carried on so dilatorily tnat the Jews reckoned forty-six years as the whole time consumed. In the courts of this temple Jesus preached and healed the sick. It caught fire during the siege of Jerusalem under Titus, and was burned to the ground. Tennessee. The name is derived from "Tanase," the Indian appellation of the Little Tennessee River. The first permanent white settlement was made on the Tennessee River, about thirty miles from the site of Knox- ville, and Fort Loudon built. Indian wars lasted till 1761, when the savages were reduced to terms. From 1777 to 1784 the territory formed a portion of North Carolina. During the four years subsequent, the settlers maintained an organization as the State of Franklin, but were reunited to North Carolina in 1788. In 1789 the Territory, with that of Kentucky, was organ- ized by the United States Government, which had received its cession from North Carolina. In 1794, a distinct territorial organization was made, and in 1796 Tennessee was admitted as a State, the third under the Federal Constitution. The State seceded in June, 1861. The principal military events within her limits during the Civil War were the capture of Forts Henry and Donel- son, in February, 1862; the battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, in April, 1862; the battle of Murfreesboro, in January, 1863; the battle of Chickamauga, in September, 1863; the battles about Chattanooga, and the battles of Franklin and Nashville, in November, 1864. State was readmitted in 1866. The Centenary of the State was celebrated by an Exposition at Nash- ville in 1897. In 1907 the National Rivers and Harbors Convention met at Memphis. Statutory Prohibition was enacted in 1909. Teutones, a tribe of Germany, which, with the Cimbri, invaded Gaul in B. C. 113. In B. C. 102, they were defeated with great slaughter near Aquse Sextise (Aix in the department of Bouches du Rhone) by the Roman general Mari- •us. A tribe of the same name is mentioned by Pliny and others as inhabiting a district north of the Elbe, which appears to have been the original settlement of the Teutones before their invasion of Gaul. Teutonic Knights, a military religious order of knights, established toward the close of the Twelfth Century, in imitation of the Templars and Hospitallers. It was composed chiefly of Teutons or Germans who marclied to the Holy Land in the Crusades, and was established in that country for charitable purposes. In the Thirteenth Century they acquired Poland and Prussia, and they long held sway over a great extent of territory in this part of Europe. The order began to decline in the Fifteenth Century, and was finally abolished by Napoleon in 1809. Texas. The first attempt at colonization known to history was made by La Salle, who sailed into Matagortia Bay, and erected Fort St. Louis on the Lavaca in 1685. Four years later the French were ousted by the Spaniards. The two nationalities contested the dominion of the country with bitterness, though the right of pos- session was for the most part with the Spaniards. In 1715, the name of New Philippines was given to the country, and the Marquis de Aguayo was made governor-general, under whose rule Span- ish settlements were rapidly multiplied. In 1762-63, France settled the feud by her cession of the Louisiana territory to Spain. The reces- sion of Louisiana to France in 1803, and the sale by the latter power to the United States, still left the boundary of the old Spanish possessions west of Louisiana open to controversy, as there had previously been no well-defined line. In 1806, the territory between the Sabine and Arroya Honda was established as a neutral ground by the Spanish and American generals commanding on the frontier. In the absence of any national settlement, a series of revolutionary intrigues began with the projected movement of Aaron Burr in 1806. Filibustering expeditions into Texas from the United States led to several severe battles, and it was not till 1819 that the HISTORY 161 Sabine River was finally established as the Texan boundary. The revolutionary spirit, which made Texas a region of turmoil, did not cease when Mexico became independent under the leadership of Iturbide. Invasions from the United States continued, and, though several peaceable and thrifty American colonies had been planted, the dictator Bustamante, in 1830, forbade the people of the United States from further immigration. The long bitterness be- tween the two races culminated in 1835, and the Americans in the province, after fighting several engagements, organized a provisional govern- ment, with Sam Houston as Commander-in- Chief of the Texan forces. A series of sanguinary battles ensued between the Mexican troops under General Santa Ana and the Texan revo- lutionists, and the atrocities of the Mexicans awakened deep sympathy for the Texans. The issue of the contest was practically settled with the battle of San Jacinto, April 21, 1836, when Santa Ana was taken prisoner. General Houston was elected president of the Texan Republic the same year, and in March, 1837, the United States formally recognized the new govern- ment. Intermittent hostiUties continued be- tween Mexico and Texas, which, in 1839-40, had been recognized by the leading European governments; but the threats of the former nation to subjugate the Texans were rendered negative by her own weakness and the growing power of the young State. The annexation of Texas to the United States, which led to the Mexican War, occurred by her admittance as a State in 1845, the fifteenth under the Constitu- tion. After the election of Abraham Lincoln the State seceded, February 23, 1861, by force of a popular vote, ratifying the ordinance of the con- vention called for that purpose. General Twiggs, on February 18th, surrendered to the State au- thorities all the United States posts, troops, and munitions of war in the department. No very im- portant miUtary operations occurred within the State limits during the war. The last fight of the war took place in Texas, ending in a Federal defeat, on May 13, 1865, and General Kirby Smith surrendered the last Confederate army here on May 26th. Texas was readmitted to her full rights in the Union, March 30, 1870. A period of lawlessness existed in the State for a number of years, but was finally suppressed by the Texas Rangers in 1879. A storm and tidal wave destroyed Galveston in 1900. In the next year vast oil fields were discovered near Beau- mont. Colored United States soldiers engaged in a riot at Brownsville in 1905, and were dismissed from the service by the President. Thebes (thehz). The principal city of Bocotia, seated on the River Ismenus. Its fame was great in legendary Greece; it was built by Cadmus; Amphion reared its walls; the Sphinx, CEdipus, and the fatal combat of Eteocles and Polynices, figured in its story. It played a subordinate part in the history of Greece, until the time of Epaminondas, when by his genius it was raised to the first rank among the states of Hellas. But it fell with liis death, and never recovered, from the destructive siege by Alex- ander the Great, in 336 B. C. — A city of Egypt, on the Nile, called No in the Old Testament, and in the Ihad celebrated for its 100 gates, and its vast military forces. Amun, or Ammon, was especially worshiped there. Among its ruins are the magnificent temples of Luxor and Kar- nak, on the east bank of the Nile. ThermopyliB, a celebrated pass of Ancient Greece, leading from Thessaly into Locris, between Northern and Southern Greece. It lay between Momit (Eta (celebrated mytho- logically as the mountain on which Hercules burnt himself to death) and a morass which fringed the Mafic or Mafiac Gulf; both the eastern and the western entrance to the pass approach- ing so close to the morass as to leave room for only a single carriage. In this pass, Leonidas, King of Sparta, was appointed to oppose the invading armies of Xerxes (480 B. C). These were driven back with immense slaughter, in their repeated attempts to force the pass, till at last Ephialtes, a Malain, guided a body of Persians over the mountain, and thus enabled them to fall on the rear of the Greeks, who were all slain (Leonidas included), with the exception of one man. The pass derived its name from the hot springs, sacred to Hercules, by which it was distinguished. Thirty Tyrants of Rome. The collec- tive title given to a set of military usurpers who sprung up in different parts of the empire during the fifteen years (253-268 A. D.) occupied by the reigns of Valerian and Galhenus, and, amid the wretched confusion of the time, endeavored to estabhsh themselves as independent princes. The name is borrowed from the Thirty Tyrants of Athens, but, in reafity, historians can reckon only nineteen: Cyriades, Macrianus, BaUsta, Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; Postmnus, LolUanus, Victorinus and his mother Victoria, Marius, and Tetricus, in the West; Ingenuus, RegiUianus, and Aureolus, in Illyricum and the countries about the Danube; Satm-ninus, in Pontus; TrebelHanus, in Isaiu-ia; Piso, in Thes- saly; Valens, in Achsea; ^mihanus, in Egypt; and Celsus, in Africa. Thirty Years' War (1618 to 1648), a war in Germany, at first a struggle between Roman Catholics and Protestants. Subse- quently it became a struggle for pohtical ascend- ancy in Europe. On the one side were Austria, nearly all the Roman Catholic princes of Ger- many, and Spain; on the other side were, at different times, the Protestant powers and France. The occasion of this war was found in the fact that Germany had been distracted ever since thd Reformation by the mutual jeal- ousy of Cathohcs, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Certain concessions had been made to the Prot- estants of Bohemia by Rudolph II. (1609), but these were withdi-awn by his successor Matthias in 1614, and four years afterward the Bohemian Protestants were in rebellion. Count Thurn at the head of the insurgents repeatedly routed the imperial troops, compelling them to retire from Bohemia, and (1619) invaded the archduchy of Austria. Matthias having died in 1619, he was succeeded by Ferdinand II., who was a rigid Cathohc, but the Protestants elected as their king, Frederick, Elector Palatine, who was a Protestant. Efforts at mediation having failed, the Catholic forces of Germany marched 162 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS against Frederick, who, with an army of Bohemi- ans, Moravians, and Hungarians, kept the field till November 8, 1620, when he was totally routed at Weissenberg, near Prague, by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. The Protestant cause was now crushed in Bohemia, and the people of ihat province were much embittered. The dominions of Frederick, the Palatinate of the Rhine included, were now conquered, the latter being occupied by Count Tilly, assisted by the Spaniards under Spinola. At the Diet of Ratis- bon (March, 1623) Frederick was deprived of his territories, Duke Maximilian receiving the Palatinate. Ferdinand, whose succession to the throne of Bohemia was thus secured, sought for- eign assistance, and a new period of war began. Christian IV. of Denmark, induced partly by religious zeal and partly by the hope of an ac- quisition of territory, came to the aid of his German co-religionists (1624), and being joined by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into lower Saxony. There they were met by Wallenstein, Duke of Friedland, who in 1626 defeated Mansfeld at Dessau, while Tilly was also successful in driving Christian back to Denmark. In the peace of Liibeck which followed (May, 1629), Christian of Denmark received back all his occupied territory, and undertook not to meddle again in German affairs. After this sec- ond success, Ferdinand again roused his people by an edict which required restitution to the Roman Catholic Church of all church lands and property acquired by them since 1552. To the assistance of the Protestants of Germany came Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who landed (1630) with a small army on the coast of Pomerania. Joined by numerous volunteers, and aided by French money, he advanced, and routed Tilly at Breitenfeld (or the battle of Leipsic, September, 1631), victoriously trav- ersed the Main and the Rhine valleys, defeated Tilly again near the confluence of the Lech and the Danube (April, 1632), and entered Munich. Meanwhile the emperor sought the aid of Wal- lenstein, by whose ability and energy Gustavus was obliged to retire to Saxony, where he gained the great victory of Liitzen (November, 1632), but was himself mortally wounded in the battle. The war was now carried on by the Swedes under the chancellor Oxenstierna, till the rout of the Swedish forces at Nordlingen (September, 1634) again gave to the emperor the preponderating power in Germany. The Elector of Saxony, who had been an ally of Gustavus, now made peace at Prague (May, 1635), and within a few months the treaty was accepted by many of the CJerman princes. The Swedes, however, thought it to their interest to continue the war, while France resolved to take a more active part in the conflict. Thus the last stage of the war was a contest of France and Sweden against Austria, in which the Swedish generals gained various successes over the imperial forces, wliile the French arm.ies fought with varied fortunes in West Germany and on the Rhine. Meanwhile the emperor had died (1637), and had been suc- ceeded by his son, Ferdinand III. The struggle still continued till, in 1646, the united armies of the French under the great generals Turenne and Conde, and the Swedes advanced through Suabia and Bavaria. The combined forces of Sweden, Bavaria, and France were then about to advance on Austria, when the news reached the armies that the peace of Westphalia (1648) was concluded, and that the long struggle was ended. Ticonderoga, a village in Essex County, N. Y., on Lake Champlain. Ticonderoga fig- ured prominently during the colonial and revo- lutionary periods. In 1755 the French erected a fort here and named it Carillon. Two years later Montcalm started from this place with 9,000 men and captured Fort William Henry on Lake George. In 1758 General Abercrombie endeavored to take the French fort, and was repulsed after losing 2,000 men; but in 1759 it fell into the hands of General Amherst together with Crown Point. Both were then enlarged and strengthened at a heavy expense. In 1775 the works were taken by Ethan Allen while weakly garrisoned. Two years later the fort surrendered to General Burgoyne, and after being dismantled was abandoned. Tiers Etat {te-arz a-tah'). [Fr., the third estate.] This term was universally applied in France to the mass of the people under the old regime. Before the cities rose to wealth and influence, the nobility and clergy possessed the property of almost the whole country, and the people were subject to the most degrading hu- miliations. But as trade and commerce began to render men independent, and they were able to shake off their feudal bonds, the Tiers Etat gradually rose into importance; and at length the third estate, during the Revolution, may be said to have become the nation itself. Tilsit, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of East Prussia, on the river Niemen, about sixty miles northeast of Konigsberg. It is celebrated for the Peace concluded in the town, in 1807, between the Emperor Napoleon, the Emperor of Russia, and the King of Prussia. The three monarchs met on a raft moored in the river. The population of the town at last census was 34,539. Toleration, Act of, an Act of Parlia- ment passed in the reign of William and Maiy (1689), and confirmed by Anne, relieving all persons who* dissented from the Church of Eng- land (except Roman Catholics and persons who denied the doctrines of the Trinity) from many of the disabilities under which they had been placed by the acts of former reigns. By the Act of Toleration, such persons were to be no longer prevented from assembling for religious worship according to their own forms, but they were to be required to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and to subscribe a declaration against transubstantiatiou ; and Dissenting min- isters were to be also required to subscribe to cer- tain of the Thirty-nine Articles. Tlic benefits of the Act were subsequently (in 1813) extended to persons who denied the doctrine of the Trinity. Most of the remaining disabilities of Nonconform- ists have been removed by later legislation ; and the disabilities of the Roman Catholics (which were continued by the Act of Toleration) were repealed in 1829 by the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act. Toltecs, a Mexican race who are supposed to have been supreme in Central America from HISTORY 163 the Seventh to the Eleventh Centuries. They were completely obliterated by the Aztecs and Tezcucans, who held the country when the Spaniards first landed. The latter races were of a martial spirit, but they were indebted for their arts, their civilization, and their religion to their milder predecessors. The Toltecs present striking analogies to the Etruscans, and in a less degree to the Egyptians and Assyrians. They were great builders, and their religion was a mystic system of great complexity, intimately connected with the study of astronomy, and interpreted by a priesthood, who formed an exclusive caste. Tory, a political party name of Irish origin, first used in England about 1679, applied origin- ally to Irish Revolutionary Catholic outlaws, and then generally to those who refused to concur in the scheme to exclude James II. from the throne. The nickname, like its contemporaneous oppo- site, Whig, in coming into popular use became much less strict in its application, till at last it came simply to signify an adherent of that politi- cal party in the state who disapproved of change in the ancient constitution, and who supported the claims and authority of the king, church, and aristocracy, while their opponents, the Whigs were in favor of more or less radical changes, and supported the claims of the democracy. In modern times the term has to some extent been supplanted by Conservative. Tournament, or Tourney, a common sport of the middle ages, in which parties of mounted knights encountered each other with lances and swords in order to display their skill in arms. Tournaments reached their full per- fection in France in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries where they first received the form vmder which they are known to us. They were introduced into England soon after the Conquest by the Normans. Jousts were single combats between two knights, and at a tournament there would often be a number of jousts as well as combats between parties of knights. The place of combat was the lists, a large open place surrounded by ropes or a railing. Galleries were erected for the spectators, among whom were seated the ladies, the supreme judges of the tournaments. A knight taking part in a tournament generally carried some device emblematic of a lady's favor. Tournaments gradually went out with the decline of chivalry, and are rare, except in America, where they are a form of sport. Tower of London. The most ancient, and historically the most interesting pile in the English metropolis; a mass of buildings on the north side of the Thames, immediately to the east of the ancient city walls, its ramparts and gates surrounded by a dry ditch in pentagonal shape; in outer circuit measuring 1,050 yards. Within this the whole of the buildings are en- circled by a double line of walls and bulwarks, in some places forty feet high and twelve feet thick ; the space between the walls being known as the outer ward, and the interior as the inner ward. The inner ward was formerly the royal quarter. The outer ward was the folk's quarter. The inner ward is defended by twelve massive and conspicuous towers, stationed at unequal distances, and possessing distinctive names and formations. In the center, rearing its head proudly above them all, stands the main quad- rangular building and great Norman keep, known as the Wliite Tower. To the north are the barracks, and to the northwest the Church of St. Peter and Vincula. The entrance to the buildings is on the west side by the Lion's Gate. For centuries the tower was a palace, a prison, a fortress, and a covu-t of law. Here the Plan- tagenet kings held their gay tournaments, mag- nificent revels, and pompous religious cere- monials. Here also tragedy succeeded tragedy, and the innocent blood of many of England's bravest and most beautiful poured forth in a cruel stream. Wise statesmen, fair queens, child princes, noble warriors, and priests were slain, their only crimes, in many cases, being their rank, their patriotism, and their faith. "No sadder spot on earth," says Macaulay, of England. . . . "Death is there associ- ated . . . with whatever is darkest in hu- man nature and in human destiny, with the savage triumph of implacable enemies, with the inconstancy, the ingratitude, the cowardice of friends, with all the miseries of fallen great- ness and of blighted fame." The tower is now chiefly used as an arsenal, and has a small military garrison of the yeomen of the guard. The governorship is still a post of distinction. Treaty, A, in public law, is an agreement of friendship, alliance, commerce, or navigation, entered into between two or more independent states. Treaties have been divided by pub- licists into personal and real, the difference being that the former relate exclusively to the per- sons of the contracting parties — e. g., treaties guaranteeing the throne to a particular sovereign and his fainily, and the latter are treaties for national objects, independent of the rulers of the state. While personal treaties expire with the death of the sovereign, or the extinction of his family, real treaties bind the contracting parties independently of any change in the sov- ereignty of the states. The constitution of each particular state must be looked to to determine in whom the power of negotiating and contract- ing treaties with foreign powers resides. In monarchies, whether absolute or constitutional, it is usually vested in the sovereign. In repub- lics the chief magistrate, senate, or executive council is intrusted. The Constitution of the United States of America (Article II, Section 2) vests it in the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. No special form of words is necessary for the validity of a treaty; but modern usage requires that an agreement which has originally been verbal should, as soon as possible, be committed to writing. Treaties of alliance may be offensive or defensive; in the former the ally engages to cooperate in hos- tilities against a specified power, or against any power with which the other may be at war; in the latter, the engagements of the ally extend only to a war of aggression commenced against the other contracting party. Treaties, Coalitions, Conventions, and Leagues. The principal treaties of history are the following: Adrianople, 1829, Aflrianople restored by the Rus sians to Turkey. 164 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS AIx-La-CliapcIlP, 1748, celnbrated treaty between Oreat Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. A number of previous treaties renewed and con- firmed. Alx-La-Chapelle, 1818, between the Allies and France. The latter paid 2(55,000,000 francs to the Allies. Amiens, 180?, treaty of peace between Great Britain and Holland, France, and Spain. Augsburg, League of, 1686, between Holland and other European powers to enforce respect for the treaties of Miinster and Nimeguen. Baden, 1714, terminating the War of the Spanish succession, between France and the Emperor. Basel, 1795, treaties between France and Prussia and between France and Spain. Berlin, decree, 1806, issued by Napoleon I., against the commerce of England. Breda, 1667, treaty between England, Holland, France, and Denmark. Breslau, 1742, between Maria Theresa of Austria and Frederick II. of Prussia. Bretlgny, 1360, treaty of peace that interrupted the Hundred Years' War between England and France. Calmar, Union of, 1397, United Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under Queen Margaret of Denmark. Cambray, 1508, league against Venice, comprising the Pope, the Emperor, and the Kings of France and Spain. Cambray, Peace of, 1529, between Francis I. and Charles V. Campo Formio, Peace of, 1797, between France and Austria. Carlowitz, Peace of, 1699, between Turkey and Austria, Poland and Venice. Humiliating concessions made by Austria. Carlsbad, Congress of, 1819, held by the German powers to protest against the progress of free institutions and popular rights. Catholic League, 1576, formed to prevent the accession of Henry IV. of France. Coalitions Against France, 1792, 1799, 1805, 1806, 1809, 1813, led by England and entered into by the great powers of the Continent to break down French influence in Europe. Concordat, 1801, between Napoleon I. and Pius VII., whereby the former was made in eflect head of the Gallican Church. Constance, 1183, between Frederick Barbarossa and the Lombard cities. Copenhagen, 1660, between Denmark and Sweden. Fontainebleau, 1807, treaty between Napoleon and the royal family of Spain. Franlifort, 1871, conclusion of the preliminary treaty of Versailles. Gastein, Convention of, 1865, betw^een Prussia and Austria. Glient, 1814, treaty of peace between United States and England, closing War of 1812. Hague Convention, 1907, concerning the rights and duties of neutral powers in war. Hamburg, 1241, league with Lubeck, giving rise to the Ilanseatic League. Hay-Pauncefote, 1901, superseded the Clayton- Bulwer treaty. Great Britain withdrawing her objections to a canal constructed by the United States and under the sole guarantee of neutralization by the latter power. The treaty also omitted a clause previously insisted upon, forbidding the fortification of the canal. Holy Alliance, 1815, a league between the Emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound themselves to Christian principles in political matters. Hubertusburg, 1763, peace between Austria, Prus- sia, and Saxony. jay's Treaty, 1794, between the United States and Great Britain. Kiel, 1814, between Denmark, Sweden, and England. Norway and Sweden united. Kutchuk-Kainardji, 1774, between Turkey and Russia. London, 1840, quadruple treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia on the one hand, and Turkey, touching the states of Egypt. London, Peace of, 1913, between Balkan states and Turkey, closing Balkan war. Luneville, 1801, between France and Austria and the German Empire. Madrid, 1.526, between Charles V. and Francis I. Miinster, 1648, between France and the Emperor of Sweden. By this peace, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognized. Nanking, 1842, ended the opium war between Great Britain and China. Nantes, Edict of, 1598, by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to the Huguenots. Nystad, 1721, closed the war between Sweden and Russia. Paris, Treaties of: 1763, terminating the Seven Years' War, in Austria; the French and Indian War. 1783, terminating the American Revolutionary War. 1814-15, between France and the Coalition. 1856, terminating the Crimean War. 1898, terminating the Spanish-American War. Partitions of Poland by following countries: 1772, secret treaty between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. 1793, between Russia and Prussia. 1795, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Passau, 1552, securing the liberties of German Lutherans. Perry's Treaty, 1854, commercial treaty between United States and Japan. Portsmouth, 1905, treaty between Japan and Rus- sia, closing the Russo-Japanese War. Prague, 1866, peace between Prussia and Austria. Pressburg, 1805, peace between France and Austria; ancient states of Venice ceded to Italy, and Independence of Switzerland stipulated. Pretoria, 1902, terminated the Boer War between Great Britain and the Transvaal. Pyrenees, 1659, between France and Spain; mutual concessions of territory made. Quadruple Alliance, 1718, celebrated treaty be- tween Great Britain, France, Austria, and Holland, for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reign- ing families in Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish Monarchy. Rastatt,1714, between France and Austria. Rastatt, Congress of, 1797, between France and the Empire, established a general peace with the Ger- manic powers. Ratisbon, 1806, secession of the Germanic princes from the Empire, to the cause of Napoleon, forming the — Rhine, Confederation of, 1806. Ryswick, 1697, peace between France and the allied powers, closing the war of the "Patch Note." St. Clair-Sur-Epte, 911, terminated the war be- tween the Norse under Rolla and Charles the Simple of France. Saint Germain, 1570, peace between the Catholics and Huguenots. San Stefano, 1878, this treaty, supplemented by the Congress of Berlin, closed the Russian-Turkish War. Schonbrunn, 1809, treaty between France and Austria. Shimonoscki, 1895, closed the war between Japan and China. The Hague, 1659, between England, France, and Holland, with a view to preserve the equilibrium of Northern Europe. Thorn, 1466, settled the terms of the Polish conquest of Western Prussia. Tientsin, 1858, between China and each of the nations of Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. Tilsit, 1807, treaty concluded between France and Russia, whereby Napoleon restored to the Prussian Monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recog- nized the Confederates of the Rhine, and the elevation of Napoleon's brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Tolcntlno, 1797, between the Pope and the French Republic. Triple Alliance, 1668, the celebrated alliance be- tween the States-General and England against France for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands. Sweden afterward joined the league. Triple Alliance, 1883, between Austria, Germany, and Ituly. Triple Entente, 1906, an unwritten agreement be- tween England, France and Russia — an outgrowth of the "Entente Cordiale." Troycs, 1420, between England, France, and Bur- gundy, whereby Henry V. of England succeeded to the throne of France. Ulm, 1620, by which Frederick V. lost Bohemia. HISTORY 165 I'trecht, 1713, torminated the wars of Queen Anne of England, and secured the Protestant succession in ICngland, and enhirged British colonization in America. Utrecht, Union of, 1579, foundations of the Dutch Republic laid. Valencay, 1813, between Napoleon and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, whereby the latter restored full possession of his kingdom upon agreeing to maintain its integrity. Verdun, Contract of, 843, concluded the war be- tween Lothaire, Ludwig the German, and Charles the Bald, and .settled their respective imperial dominions after the death of their father, Louis the Pious. Verona, Congress of, 1823, held by the great powers to adjust Spanish and Grecian disturbances. Versailles, 1783, between Great Britain and the United States at close of American Revolution: the treaty was signed in Paris. 1783, between Great Britain, France, and Spain. 1871, between France and Ger- many; William I. proclaimed Emperor of Germany. Versailles, 1919, formulated between the Entente Allies and the United States of America, on the one side, and the Central Powers, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria, on the other, following the crushing defeat of the latter group in the decisive campaigns of 1918. The treaty, which terminated the great World War, was signed June 2Sth, 1919, and ratified soon thereafter by the requisite number of powers. It stipulated the terms of peace, including the matter of territorial possessions and reparations, and instituted a League of Nations. Vienna, 1725, treaty between the Emperor of Ger- many and the King of Spain, settling the sovereignty over certain parts of the Spanish dominions. 1731, treaty of alliance between Germany, Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was granted, and the Spanish succession settled. 1738, treaty of peace between Germany and France; Lorraine ceded to France, and France guaranteed the Pragmatic sanction. 1815, treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, confirming the treaty of Chaumont. Warsaw, 1683, alliance between Austria and Poland again.st Turkey, in pursuance of which John Sobieski assisted in rai.sing the siege of Vienna. 1768, treaty between Russia and Poland. Washington, 1843, Ashburton treaty defined the northeastern boundary between the United States and Canada. Washington, 1871, between Great Britain and the United States to adjust the Alabama claims. Westphalia, 1648, between France, Germany, and Sweden, terminating the Thirty Years' War. Worms, Concordat of, 1133, between the Emperor and the Pope, ending the War of Investitures. Zurich, 1859, closed the dispute between Austria and France and Sardinia. Triumvirate, a coalition of three men in office or authority; specifically applied to two great coaUtions of the three most powerful individuals in the Roman Empire for the time being. The first of these was effected in the year 60 B. C, between Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, who pledged themselves to support each other with all their influence. This coali- tion was broken by the fall of Crassus at Carrhaj in Mesopotamia, soon after which the civil war broke out, which ended in the death of Pompey, and establishment of Julius Ca;sar as perpetual dictator. After his murder, 44 B. C, the civil war again broke out; and after the battle of Mutina, 43 B. C, Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus • coalesced, thus forming the .second triumvirate. They divided the provinces of the empire, Octavius taking the West, Lepidus, Italy, and Antony, the East. Troy, or Ilium (Greek, Troia or Ilion), an ancient city in the Troad, a territory in the northwest of Asia Minor, south of the western extremity of the Hellespont, rendered famous by Homer's epic of the Iliad. The region is for the most part mountainous, being intersected by Mount Ida and its branches. There have been various opinions regarding the site of the Homeric city, the most probable of which places ancient Troy at, the head of the plain bounded by the modern river Mendereh, supposed to be the Scaniander of Homer, and the Dombrek, probably the Homeric Simois. The Ilium of history was founded about 700 B. C. by iEolic Greeks, and was regarded as occupying the site of the ancient city, but this is doubtful; it never became a place of much importance. The ancient and legendary city, according to the Homeric story, reached its highest splen- dor when Priam was king; but the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, King of Sparta, by Paris, one of Priam's sons, brought about its destruction. To revcmge this outrage, all the Greek chiefs, afterwards famous in history, banded themselves against the Trojans and their allies, and went against Troy with a great fleet. The first nine j^ears of the war were spent by the Greeks in driving the Trojans and their alhes within the walls of the capital. The tenth year brought about a quarrel between Achilles, the bravest of the Greeks, and Agamemnon, the Greek commander-in-chief, which proved for a time disastrous to their party. This forms the subject of the Iliad. In the end, the city was taken by means of a large hollow wooden horse, in which a number of the bravest of the Greek heroes concealed themselves, while the rest retired to their ships. Thinking that the Greeks had given up the siege, the Trojans in- cautiously drew the horse within the city, and gave themselves up to revelry. The Greeks within the horse issued from their concealment, and, being joined by their companions without the walls, Troy was taken and utterly destroyed. This is said to have occurred about 1184 B. C. Not only has the site of the ancient city been disputed, but the legends connected with it are held by some scholars to have no historical foundation; nor has this view been altered by the excavations of Schliemann, and his dis- covery of the remains of a prehistoric city or cities at Hissarlik, the site of the historic Ihum. Tudor, the name of one of the royal families of England allied to the race of Plantagenets. The fine embraced five sovereigns, and com- menced in 1485 with Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the grandson of Sir Owen Tudor, a Welsh knight of distinction, and Catherine, widow of Henry V. Henry, after the battle of Bosworth Field, was proclaimed king with the title of Henry VII. From him the crown descended to his son Henry VIII., whose son Edward VI. succeeded, and after him his two sisters, Mary and Elizabeth; the Tudor dynasty expired with the death of Elizabeth in 1603, when the house of Stuart succeeded. Tuileries (twe'-ler-iz), the residence of the French monarchs, on the right bank of the Seine, in Paris. Catharine de' Medici, wife of Henry II., began the building (1564); Henry IV. extended it, and founded the old gallery (1600); and Louis XIV. enlarged it (1654) and completed that gallery. The side toward the Louvre consisted of five pavilions, and fovir ranges of buildings; the other side had only three pavilions. During the revolution of 1830 the palace was sacked. It was restored by Louis Philippe to its former splendor, but in 1848 it was again pillaged. The Tuileries then 166 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS became a hospital for wounded soldiers, a picture gallerj^, and the home of Louis Napoleon in 1851. On May 23, 1871, it was almost totally- destroyed by fire (the work of the communists), and the remaining portions were removed in theyear 1883. Turkish, or Ottoman, Empire com- prises territory in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Turkej' in Europe consists of a strip of land east of a line from Enos on the iEgean sea to Midia on the Black sea, and Albania; in Asia, Asia Minor, Syria, including Palestine, Mesopotamia, part of Arabia, Candia, and others of the islands of the archipelago; in Africa, Egj^pt and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, over which there is a nominal suzerainty. Formerly the empire was much more extensive, even in recent times com- prising Greece, Rumania, Servia, Bessarabia, Tunis, etc. We shall here give a brief sketch of the history of the Ottoman Empire, referring to the article Turkey for information regarding the geography, constitution, etc., of Turkey proper. The Ottoman Turks came originally from the region of the Altai Mountains, in Central Asia. Early in the Eighth Century they came in contact with the Saracens, from whom they took their religion. In the Thirteenth Century they appeared as allies of the Seljukian Turks against the Mongols, and for their aid received a grant of lands from the Scljuk sultan of Iconium in Asia Minor. Their leader, Othman or Osman, of the race of Oghuzian Turkomans, became the most powerful emir of Western Asia, and after the death of the Seljuk sultan of Iconium, in the year 1300, he proclaimed liim- Belf sultan. lie died in 1326. Thus was founded upon the ruins of the Saracen, Seljuk, and Mongo power the Empire of the Osman or Ottoman Turks in Asia. After Osman, the courage, pohcy, and enterprise of eight great princes, whom the dignity of caUph placed in possession of the standard of the Prophet, and who were animated by religious fanaticism and a passion for military glory, raised it to the rank of the first military power in both Europe and Asia (1300-1.566). The first of them was Orkhan, son of Osman. He subdued all Asia Minor to the Hellespont, took the title of Padishah, and became son-in- law to the Greek Emperor Cantacuzenus. Ork- han's son, Soliman, first invaded Europe in 1355. He fortified Gallipoli and Sestos, and thereby held possession of the straits which separate the two continents. In 1360 Orkhan's second son and succe.ssor, Amurath I., took Adrianople, which became the seat of the Em- pire in Europe, conquered Macedonia, Albania, and Servia, and defeated a great Slav confedera- tion under the Bosnian King Stephen at Kos- sova in 1389. After him Bajazet, surnamed Ilderim (Lightning), invaded Thessaly, and also advanced towards Constantinople. In 1396 he defeated the Western Christians under Sigis- mund, King of Hungary, at Nicopolis, in Bul- garia; but at Angora, in 1402, he was himself conquered and taken prisoner by Timour, who divided the provinces between the sons of Ba- jazet. Finally, in 1413, the fourth son of Ba- jazet, Mohammed I., seated himself upon the undivided throne of Osman. In 1415 his vic- torious troops reached Salzburg and invaded Bavaria. He conquered the Venetians at Thessalonica in 1420. His celebrated grand- vizier Ibrahim created a Turkish/ navy. Mo- hammed was succeeded by his son, Amurath II., who defeated Ladislaus, King of Hungary and Poland, at Varna, in 1444. Mohammed II., the son of Amurath, completed the work of conquest (1451-81). He attacked Constanti- nople, which was taken May 29, 1453, and the Byzantine Empire came finally to an end. Since that time the city has been the seat of the Subhme Porte or Turkish Government. Mo- hammed added Servia, Bosnia, Albania, and Greece to the Ottoman Empire, and threatened Italy, which, however, was freed from danger by his death at Otranto in 1480. His grandson, Sehm I., who had dethroned and murdered his father in 1517, conquered Egypt and Syria. Under SoHman II., the Magnificent, who reigned between 1519 and 1566, the Ottoman Empire reached the highest pitch of power and splen- dor. In 1522 he took Rhodes from the Knights of St. John, and by the victory of Mohacz, in 1526, subdued half of Hungary. He exacted a tribute from Moldavia, made Bagdad, Mesopo- tamia, and Georgia subject to him, and threat- ened to overrun Germany, but was checked before the walls of Vienna (1529). SoUman had as an opponent Charles V. of Germany, as an ally Francis II. of France. From his time the race of Osman degenerated and the power of the Porte declined. In the latter part of the Sixteenth Century, and most of the Seventeenth Century, the chief wars were with Venice and with Austria. The battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the Ottoman fleet was overthrown by the combined fleets of Venice and Spain, was the first great Ottoman reverse at sea, and the battle of St. Gothard (1664), near Vienna, in which Montecucuh de- feated the Vizier Kiuprili, the first great Otto- man reverse on land. In 1683 Vienna was be- sieged by the Turks, but was reheved by John Sobieski and Charles of Lorraine; in 1687 the Turks were again defeated at Mohacz, and in 1697 (by Prince Eugene), at Szenta. Then fol- lowed the Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699, by which Mustapha II. agreed to renounce his claims upon Transylvania and a large part of Hungary, to give up the Morea to the Venetians, to restore Podoha and the Ukraine to Poland, and to leave Azov to the Russians. Eugene's subse- quent victories at Peterwarden and Belgrade obliged the Porte to give up, by the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, Temeswar, Belgrade, with a part of Servia and Wallacliia; but the Turks on the other hand took the Morea from Venice, and by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 regained Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia, while for a time they also regained Azov. Russia, which had been making steady ad- vances under Peter the Great and subsequently, now became the great opponent of Turkey. In the middle of the Eighteenth Century the Otto- man Empire still embraced a large part of Southern Russia. The victories of Catharine II. 's general Romanzoff in the war between 1768 and 1774 determined the pohtical superiority of Russia, and at the Peace of Kutchuk-Kain- HISTORY 167 arji, in 1774, Abdul-Hamid was obliged to re- nounce his sovereignty over the Crimea, to yield to Russia the country between the Bog and the Dnieper, with Kinburn and Azov, and to open his seas to the Russian merchant ships. By the Peace of Jassy, 1792, which closed the war of 1787-91, Russia retained Taurida and the coun- try between the Bog and the Dniester, together with Otchakov, and gained some accessions in the Caucasus. In the long scries of wars which followed the French revolution the Ottoman Emi)ire first found herself opjioscd to France, in consequence of Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, and finally to Russia, who demanded a more distinct recognition of her protectorate over the Christians, and to whom, by the Peace of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, she ceded that part of Moldavia and Bessarabia which lies beyond the Pruth. In 1817, Mahmud II. was obhged to give up the principal mouth of the Danube to Russia. Further disputes ended in the Porte making further concessions, which tended towards loosening the connection of Servia, Moldavia, and Wallaehia with Turkey. In 1821 broke out the war of Greek independence. The remonstrances of Britain, France, and Russia, against the cruelties with which the war against the Greeks was carried on, proving of no avail, those powers attacked and destroyed the fleet of Mahmud at Navarino (1827). In 1826, the massacre of the Janizaries took place at Con- stantinople, after a revolt. In 1828-29, the Russians crossed the Balkans and took Adrian- ople, the war being terminated by the Peace of Adrianople (1829). In that year Turkey had to recognize the independence of Greece. In 1831-33, Mehemet AH, nominally Pasha of Egypt, but real ruler both of that and Syria, levied war against the sultan of Turkey, and threatened Constantinople, when the Russians, who had been called on for their aid by the sultan, forced the invaders to desist. In 1840 Mehemet Ali again rose against his sovereign, but through the active intervention of Great Britain, Austria, and Russia, was compelled to evacuate Syria, though he was, in recompense, recognized as hereditary viceroy of Egypt. Turkey became involved in war with Russia and was joined by England and France in 1854. This, the Crimean war, speedily terminated with the defeat of Russia, and the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. The principal articles were the aboUtion of the Russian protectorate over the Danubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallaehia united in 1861 as the principaUty of Rumania), the rectification of the frontier between Russia and Turkey, and the cession of part of Bessarabia to the latter power. In 1875 the people of Herzegovina broke into rebellion. A year later the Servians and Mon- tenegrins took up arms. Meantime the great powers of Europe were pressing reforms on Turkey, and in 1876 a conference met at Con- stantinople, to make a fresh settlement of her relations with her Christian provinces. All the recommendations of the conference were rejected by Turkey; and in April, Russia, who had been coming forward as the champion of the oppressed provinces, commenced hostile operations in both parts of the Turkish Empire. She was immedi- ately joined by Rumania, who on the 22d of May (1877) declared her independence. After the fall of Kars, November 18, and the fall of Plevna, December 10, the Turkish resistance collapsed, and on the 3d of March, 1878, Turkey was compelled to agree to the Treaty of San Stefano, in which she accepted the terms of Russia. These were modified by the Treaty of Berhn, July 13, by which Rumania, Servia, and Montenegro were declared independent; Ruman- ian Bessarabia was ceded to Russia; Austria was empowered to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria was erected into a principality. The main events since the Treaty of Berlin are the French invasion of Tunis in 1881; the treaty with Greece, executed under pressure of the great powers in 1881, by which Turkey ceded to Greece almost the whole of Thessaly and a strip of Epirus; the occupation of Egypt by Great Britain in 1882; and the revolution at Philippopolis in 1885, when the government of Eastern Roumeha was overthrown, and the union of that province with Bulgaria proclaimed. In 1903, revolts broke out in Bulgaria and Albania, attended with massacres and atrocities. In 1909, Abdul-Hamid II. was dethroned by the Young Turks, and Mehmed V. made sultan. Serious internal disturbances occurred in 1911. In 1912, because of disputed boundaiy lines and authority, Greece, Bulgaria, Servia, and Monte- negro engaged in war with Turkey, knowTi as the Balkan war. Peace was concluded in 1913 by a treaty signed at London by which Turkey lost all her territory in Europe west of an irregular line from Enos on the iEgean sea to Midia on the Black sea. On the outbreak of the war of nations, 1914, Turkey mobilized her army but remained neu- tral. Sept. 10 it was announced that Turkey would abrogate all capitulations restricting her sovereignty or conferring privileges upon other powers. Turkey closed the Dardanelles to navi- gation Sept. 28, and entered the war in aid of Germany, Nov. 10, warring with the Russians east of the Black sea, and sending forces to menace the Suez canal. Attempts to cross the Suez, Feb., 1915, failed. The Dardanelles fortress bombarded the allied fleet, Jan. 5. Feb. 20 the fleet of 50 warships attacked the forts at the entrance to the Darda- nelles, and by March 1 had penetrated 14 miles. Unable to take the Dardanelles by sea alone, the alUes in April landed large reinforcements of troops. During the year 800,000 Armenians were massacred — practically the whole nation was wiped out by the Turkish government. In Januar}^ 1916, the allies withdrew from the Dardanelles. In February Russian forces took the fortress at Ei'zerum, Armenia. Tuscany (Italian, Toscana), formerly a grand-duchy, now a department of Italv; area, 9,289 square miles; population, 2,340,100. The chain of the Northern Apennines forms a considerable portion of its northern boundary, the sea being its boundary on the west. The principal river is the Amo. Cereals cover a large area, and vineyards, ohve-yards, and orchards are numerous. The manufacture of silk is considerable. The marble of Tuscany, especially that of Siena, is well known. Tuscany 168 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS corresponds to the ancient Etruria, which was, however, of wider extent. After the fall of the Western Empire (476) it passed successively into the hands of the Ostrogoths, Byzantine Greeks, and Lombards. Charlemagne made it a Frankish province, and it was governed by marquises or dukes until the Twelfth and Thir- teenth Centuries, when it became broken up into a number of small republics, four of which were Florence, Pisa, Siena, and Lucca. From the first, Florence occupied the leading place, and it gradually extended its territoiy. In 1569 Pope Pius I. granted to Cosmo I. the title of Grand-duke of Tuscany, and this position was retained, with interruptions, by the celebrated Medici family, until 1737, when it passed to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine. In 1859, when under his descendant, the Grand-duke Leopold, it was annexed to Sardinia by a popular vote, and in 1861 became, with Sardinia, part of the kingdom of Italy. United States of America. When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the United States was exclu- sively inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians. According to the Scandi- navian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England. In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24th discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southward nearly 1,000 miles. In 1498, his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a north- west passage to China; but finding the ice im- penetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay. In 1512, the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539, took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who, in the course of two years, penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point 200 miles bej^ond the Missis- sippi. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augus- tine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585, an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roa- noke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607, the English founded Jamesto\Mi on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement. The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the "Pilgrim fathers of New England," a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the "May- flower." Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630, John Winthrop settled Bos- ton. In 1692, Plymouth Colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover in New Hampshire were settled in 1623. The first per- manent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ulti- mately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachu- setts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-36 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfieid. Rhode Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623, permanent settle- ments were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by a Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1632 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who, in 1733, founded Savannah. The principal Indian wars were those of 1622 and 1644-46 in Virginia; thePequot War (1636-37) and King Philip's War (1675-76) in New England; that with the Corees and Tuscaroras in 1711, and that with the Yemas- sees in 1715, in the Carolinas. Toward the close of the Seventeenth Century the Indians on the northern and western frontiers began to receive aid from the French in Canada, who, whenever their mother country was at war with England, carried on hostilities with the English colonies, and frequently, accompanied by their savage allies, made destructive and bloody in- roads into New England and New York. The first conflict with the French, known as King William's War lasted seven years, terminating in 1697. Queen Anne's War (1702-13) was marked by the conquest from the French in 1710 of Acadia (Nova Scotia). The principal event of King George's War was the capture (1745) of Louisburg, the chief stronghold of the French in America, which was restored to the French at the close of the war (1748). Disputes having arisen with the French on the Ohio, an expedition imder Washington, was sent toward that river, which, on May 28, 1754, ctit to pieces a French detachment under Jumonville, who was slain. This affair began the long contest known as the French and Indian War. Among its prominent events were Braddock's defeat (1755) near Fort Duquesne, when Washington distinguished himself by covering the retreat; the capture by the French of Oswego (1756) and Fort William Henry, at the head of Lake George (1757); and the taking of Louisburg after a siege of seven weeks by Generals Amherst and Wolfe, and the repulse of an attack on Ti- conderoga made by a powerful army imder General Abercrombie and Lord Howe (1758). The crowning exploit of the war was the taking of Quebec (1759) by an army led by General Wolfe. In 1763, by the Treaty of Paris, Canada and its dependencies were formally ceded to Great Britain. The transfer from the French to the English of the posts between the Great HISTORY 169 Lakes and the Ohio led (1763) to a war with the Indian tribes, of which the master spirit was Pontiac. The sentiment of pohtical free- dom was strongly developed among the colo- nists, and republican ideas and feelings trans- mitted from the period of the commonwealth in England were widely difTused, though at the same time a warm attachment existed for the mother country and a devoted loyalty to the Crown. The first opposition was aroused by an act of parliament in 1761, authorizing sher- iffs and officers of the customs to use "writs of assistance " or general search warrants. These writs were resisted in Massachusetts, where the rights of the people were defended by James Otis. In 1765 the Stamp Act was passed, which declared that every document used in trade or legal proceedings, to be valid, roust have affixed to it a tax stamp of the minimum value of one shilling, and increasing indefinitely according to the value of the writing. To enforce the act parliament authorized the ministry to send troops, for whom the colonies were required to provide quarters and various necessaries. These acts created great excitement and indignation in America. Everywhere the people determined not to use the stamps, and associations calling themselves " sons of liberty, " were organized in opposition to the act and for the general defense of the rights of the colonies. In Octo- ber a congress of delegates from nme colonies assembled in New York on the invitation of Massachusetts, and drew up a declaration of rights, a memorial to parliament, and a petition to the king, in which they claimed the right of being taxed only by their own representatives. The merchants of the principal cities agreed to purchase no more goods in England till the act was repealed, and the people pledged themselves to use no articles of English manufacture. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, but the next year parliament passed an act imposing duties on paper, glass, tea, and some other articles imported into the colonies. The colonies in return revived with renewed vigor their non- importation associations. Massachusetts, and especially Boston, was foremost in the opposi- tion. A military force under General Gage was sent to occupy the town in 1768. A collision took place March 5, 1770, between the soldiers and a crowd of citizens, in which three of the latter were killed and eight wounded. The "Boston Massacre," as this was called, caused great excitement throughout the country. In April, 1770, the government removed all the duties except that of threepence a pound on tea. Combinations were now formed against the importation and use of tea, and measures taken to prevent its being either landed or sold. At Boston, December 16, 1773, a band of men disguised as Indians went on board three tea ships which had recently arrived from England, and emptied the tea into the water. Parliament thereupon, in 1774, passed the "Boston Port Bill," which closed that port to all commerce, and transferred the board of customs to Marble- head and the scat of colonial government to Salem. Other repressive bills were also passed. On September 5th the "Old Continental Con- gress" met in Philadelphia, in which all the colonies were represented except Georgia. A declaration of rights was agreed upon, in which was set forth the claim of the colonists as British subjects to participate in making their own laws and imposing their own taxes, and to the rights of trial by a jury of the vicinage, of holding public meetings, and of petitioning for redress of grievances. The maintenance of a standing army in the colonies without their consent was protested against, as were eleven acts passed since the accession of George III. in violation of colonial rights and privileges. The first con- flict occurred, and the first blood of the Revolu- tion was shed, on April 19, 1775. (See under Lexington.) On the night of the day fol- lowing the action the king's governor and army found themselves closely beleaguered in Boston. The people everywhere rose in arms, and before the close of summer the power of all the royal governors from Massachusetts to Georgia was at an end. Volunteer expeditions from Vermont and Connecticut, led by Ethan Allen and Bene- dict Arnold, seized the important fortresses of Ticonderoga (May 10th) and Crown Point (May 12th). The second Continental Congress assem- bled on May 10th at Philadelphia, in the State house, now knowii as Independence Hall. It sent another petition to the king, denying any intention of separation from England, "and asli- ing only for redress of grievances; but measures were taken to raise an army, to equip a navy, and to procure arms and ammunition. The forces before Boston were adopted as the Conti- nental army, and Washington was nominated and unanimously chosen . (June 15th) as com- mander-in-chief. Before he could reach the seat of war the battle of Bunker Hill had been fought, June 17th. He regularly beleaguered Boston till March 17, 1776, when the British evacuated it and sailed for Halifax. Meantime, an inva- sion of Canada under General Montgomery re- sulted in the capture of Montreal and a repulse from Quebec, which was attacked December 31, 1775, by parties led by Montgomery and Arnold. On June 28, 1776, a British fleet attacked Charleston, S. C, and was repulsed with great loss by a small force in Fort Sullivan (afterward Fort Moultrie), commanded by Colonel Moultrie. On July 4th the Declaration of Independence written by Jefferson, was adopted, and in this document the colonies were first designated the "United States of America." Soon after the evacuation of Boston by the British, Washing- ton transferred his army to New York. On June 29th the late garrison of Boston arrived from Halifax, and soon after other British troops from Europe and from the South. The cam- paign began on Long Island, where, on August 27th, the Americans were defeated with heavy loss, and forced to abandon that island, and soon after the city of New York. Ha\ing fought another unsuccessful battle at White Plains (October 28th), Washington early in December was compelled to retreat beyond the Delaware at the head of but 3,000 men. About the same time the British seized and held the island of Rhode Island. On the night of December 25th Washington crossed the Delaware in open boats with 2,400 men, and falling upon the British forces at Trenton, captured about 1,000 Hessians, 170 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS On January 3, 1777, he defeated the enemy again at Princeton, taking 230 prisoners. A movement threatening Philadelphia called Wash- ington south. In the battle on the Brandywine, September 11th, he was outnumbered and com- pelled to retreat with a loss of nearly 1,000 men. On the 26th, the British took possession of Philadelphia without opposition. On Octo- ber 4th, Washington attacked the British at Germantown, seven miles from Philadelphia, but was repulsed with heavy loss; and soon afterward both armies went into winter quarters, the Americans at Valley Forge, on the Schuyl- kill, twenty miles from Philadelphia. Mean- time, a British army, 7,500 strong, besides In- dians, commanded by General Burgoyne, ad- vanced from Canada by Lake Champlain, and took Ticonderoga, Fort Independence, and Whitehall. Strong detachments, which were sent to Bennington, Vt., to destroy a collection of stores, were met there (August 16th) and defeated with the loss of about 200 killed and 600 prisoners by the Vermont and New Hamp- shire militia led by General Stark. Burgoyne was encountered by General Gates, to whom, after the battles of Stillwater (September 19th) and Saratoga (October 7th), he capitulated at Saratoga (October 17th) with his whole army. The consequences of this victory were apparent in the signing, in February, 1778, of treaties of alliance and of amity and commerce with France. The British evacuated Philadelphia in the night of June 17th with more than 17,000 men. Washington pursued, and on the 28th the two armies engaged in battle on the plains of Mon- mouth, near Freehold, N. J. The Americans remained masters of the field, while the British retreated to New York. An attempt made in August, with the assistance of the French fleet under Count d'Estaing, to drive the British from Rhode Island, proved a failure. On December 29th the British, having defeated the American forces at Savannah, took possession of the city. In September, 1779, Savannah was besieged by a French and American force, and on October 9th an assault was made upon it, which was repulsed with a loss to the allies of nearly 800 men, among them Casimir Pulaski. About this time the British evacuated Rhode Island, to concentrate their forces at New York. One of the most brilliant achievements of the war was the storming (July 16, 1779) of Stony Point on the Hudson by General Wayne. On the ocean, which swarmed with American privateers, Paul Jones chiefly distinguished himself. Charleston, S. C, after a feeble defense of several weeks, was surrendered to the British on May 12, 1780, by General Lincoln. The rest of South Carolina nominally submitted to the royal authority; but a guerilla warfare was kept up by Sumter, Marion, and other partisan leaders. Congress sent General Gates to recover South Carolina. On his first encounter with Cornwallis at Cam- den, August 16th, he was routed with great loss, and with the remnant of his force fled to North Carolina. Early in September Cornwallis marched into North Carolina, where, on October 7th, at King's Mountain, a detachment from his army was totally defeated by 900 militia, who killed and captured upward of 1,100 of the enemy. Cornwallis withdrew to South Carolina. On July 10th, a French fleet arrived at Newport, bringing the Count de Rochambeau and 6,000 soldiers. In September a treasonable plot schemed by Arnold was discovered. The prin- cipal military operations of 1781 were in the south, where Greene had superseded Gates. At the Cowpens, S. C, on January 17th, General Morgan won a brilliant victory over the British under Colonel Tarleton. On March 15th, the British gained a victory at Guilford Court House, N. C, but drew from it no advantage; and on September 8th occurred the drawn battle of Eutaw Springs, which nearly terminated the war in South Carolina. Cornwallis, having ad- vanced into Virginia in April, was opposed by Lafayette, Wayne, and Steuben, and fortified himself at Yorktown. Meanwhile, the American army under Washington and the French army of Rochambeau had formed a junction on the Hudson. The allied army arrived before York- town September 28, 1781, and began a regular siege, wliioh lasted till October 19th, when Corn- wallis surrendered with his whole force of 7,247 men, besides 840 sailors; 106 guns were taken. This victory substantially terminated the con- test. A preliminary treaty of peace was signed at Paris, November 30, 1782, by Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens. On September 3, 1783, a definitive treaty was signed at Versailles, by which the United States were formally acknowl- edged by Great Britain to be free, sovereign, and independent. New York, the last position held by the British on our coast, was evacuated No- vember 25, 1783. On June 12, 1776, while the resolution of independence was under considera- tion in Congress, a committee of one from each colony was created to draft a form of confedera- tion, and the articles reported by it were adopted November 15, 1777. Ha\dng been ratified by all the States, they went into effect on March 1, 1781. Dissatisfaction -with the confederation, owing to the weakness of the central government under it, soon became widespread, and in 1786 a convention of delegates from several States at Annapolis, Md., recommended the calling of a convention of delegates from all the States to propose changes in the articles of confederation. Tliis plan was approved by Congress on February 21, 1787, and the convention organized at Phila- delphia on May 25th, by the choice of Washing- ton as president. It remained in session until September 17th, when it adjourned after adopt- ing the Constitution. All the States were repre- sented except Rhode Island. Having been rati- fied by the requisite number of States, the Con- stitution went into effect on March 4, 1789. At the first election Washington was chosen presi- dent and John Adams vice-president, and Wash- ington was inaugurated in New York on April 30th. In the summer of 1790 an Indian war broke out with the tribes of the northwest, who, after inflicting defeats on Generals Harmar and St. Clair, were finally quelled by General Wayne, and peace was restored in August, 1795. At the second presidential election in 1792, Washington again received the unanimous votes of the elec- toral colleges, and Adams was reelected vice- president. The whiskey insurrection against an unpopular excise law in 1794 threw Western HISTORY 171 Pennsylvania into confusion, but was energet- ically suppressed by the president. Two parties had sprung up, the Federalists, supporters of the Constitution as it was, and the Republicans or Democrats, who desired to limit the federal power. The Republicans were active in their sympathy for the French Republic. At the third presidential election (1796) the Federalists, among whom Alexander Hamilton was promi- nent, supported John Adams and the Republi- cans Thomas Jefferson. Adams, who received seventy-one electoral votes, was chosen president while Jefferson, who received sixty-eight, the next highest number, became, by the Constitu- tion as it then was, the vice-president. At the beginning of the administration the relations with France were threatening, and envoys were sent to adjust the difficulties; but the French Government refused to receive them. This ex- cited great indignation in the United States, and Congress made preparations for war. The meas- sures adopted were not without effect. A fresh embassy was sent, and a treaty was concluded in 1800. During the troubles with France two acts were passed by Congress, known as the alien and sedition laws : the first, which was lim- ited to two years, empowering the president to order aliens who were conspiring against the peace of the United States to quit the country; the other, which was to remain in force till March 4, 1801, providing among other things for the punishment by fine and imprisonment of seditious libels, upon the government. These laws became exceedingly unpopular, and were bitterly denounced as harsh and unconstitutional. They contributed largely to the dissatisfaction with Mr. Adam's administration, which led in the next presidential election to the success of the Republican candidates, Jefferson and Burr, each of whom received seventy-three votes. The tie threw the election into the House of Representatives, where, on the thirty-sixth bal- lot, Jefferson was chosen president and Burr vice-president. This contest led to the adop- tion of the twelfth amendment of the Constitu- tion, requiring the electors to designate which person is voted for as president and which as vice-president. Jefferson's administration for the most part was marked by vigor and enlight- ened views, and in 1804 he was reelected, with George Clinton as vice-president. The vast ter- ritory then called Louisiana was purchased from France in 1803. A war with Tripoli, ended in 1805, humbled the Barbary pirates. In 1806 Aaron Burr secretly organized a military expe- dition, chiefly in the western States, which led to his arrest and trial at Richmond in 1807, on a charge of attempting to dismember the Union and to establish an independent dominion west of the Alleghanies; but no overt act being proved against him, he was acquitted. The relations with Great Britain began in 1805 to be disturbed by the unfriendly acts of that power directed against American commerce, and by the exercise of the asserted right to search American vessels for suspected deserters from her navy. In 1800, an act was passed prohibiting the importation of certain articles of British production. In 1807, Congress laid an embargo, which prohibited the departure from American ports of vessels bound for foreign countries. This measure was vehem- ently denounced by the Federal party, and was repealed in 1809. In the presidential election of 1808 the Republican candidates, James Madison for president and George Clinton for vice-presi- dent, were elected. Congress continued the non- importation system. A long negotiation was carried on with the English Government without result, and on June 18, 1812, war was declared against Great Britain. In the summer of 1811, hostilities, excited as was alleged by British emis- saries, were begun by the Indian tribes north of the Ohio under the lead of Tecumseh. William Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, defeated them on the banks of the Tippecanoe River, November 7, 1811. The campaign of 1812 closed with httle or no credit to the Ameri- can arms on land, the principal event being the surrender of Detroit (August 16th) by the Ameri- can General Hull to General Brock. But the navy achieved a series of brilliant victories, which were followed by others during the suc- ceeding years of the war. The campaign of 1813 was marked by alternate successes and reverses. The principal events were the defeat of General Winchester at the River Raisin by the British and Indians, the capture of York (now Toronto) and of Fort George in Canada by the Americans, the repulse of a British attack on Sackett's Har- bor, and the defeat of the British and Indians near Thames River, Canada, by General Harri- son, Tecumseh being slain. On Lake Erie, Sep- tember 10th, a British fleet of six vessels was captured after a severe contest by Lieutenant O. H. Perry. On July 5, 1814, the British were defeated at Chippewa by General Brown, and on the 25th at Bridgewater or Lundy's Lane by Generals Brown and Winfield Scott. On Sep- tember 11th the United States fleet, under Com- modore Macdonough, totally defeated the Eng- lish fleet on Lake Champlain; and on the same day the British army, which had invaded New York and laid siege to Plattsburgh, retreated to Canada. In August, a British fleet arrived in the Chesapeake with an army of 5,000 men com- manded by General Ross, who marched on Washington, and, after putting to flight the militia at Bladensburg, took possession of the federal city on the 24th, and burned the capitol, the president's house, and other public build- ings. On the next day the British retired to their ships, and on September 12th- 13th attacked Baltimore, where they were repulsed by the citizens, and General Ross was killed. After protracted negotiations a treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814, which pro- vided for the mutual restoration of all territory taken during the war. Nothing was said of the imj)ressment of American seamen, one of the main causes of the war, but the practice was dis- continued. Before the news of i)eacc coifld cross the Atlantic, a British army, 12,000 strong, was defeated at New Orleans (January 8, 1815) by fewer than 5,000 men under General Jackson. In the same year Commodore Decatur compelled the rulers of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli to make indemnity for former outrages, and to agree to abstain from depredations on American com- merce. The presidential election of 1812 had resulted in the reelection of Mr. Madison. El- 172 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS bridge Gerry was chosen vice-president. At the presidential election of 1816 James Monroe of Virginia, and Daniel D. Tompkins of New York, Democrats, were elected president and vice- president, respectively. Monroe's administra- tion began under very favorable circumstances. Party distinctions had so nearly disappeared, that Democrats and Federalists combined to support the government. He was reelected in 1820 by all the electoral votes except one. Daniel D. Tompkins was reelected vice-president. The main event of Monroe's administration was the Missouri controversy, by which, for the first time, the country was disastrously divided upon the slavery question. In the session of 1818-19 a bill was introduced in Congress au- thorizing the Territory of Missouri to form a constitution, whereupon James Tallmadge of New- York moved in the House of Representatives to insert a clause prohibiting any further introduc- tion of slaves, and granting freedom to the chil- dren of those already in the Territory on their attaining the age of 25. This motion was car- ried, but the Senate refused to concur. In the session of 1819-20 the debate was long and acri- monious. The Senate sent to the House the Missouri bill with the prohibition of slavery in that State struck out, but with the proviso that it should not thereafter be tolerated north of latitude 36° 30'. Tliis compromise was at length agreed to. The other great event of Mr. Mon- roe's administration was the recognition (1822) of the Spanish American republics, which had declared and maintained their independence for several years. In 1823 the president in his an- nual message put forth a declaration, famous as the "Monroe Doctrine," in Avhich it was an- nounced that anj^ attempt on the part of Euro- pean governments to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere would be considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. In 1819, Florida had been ceded by Spain. In the presidential election of 1824 none of the four candidates (Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Cra\\-ford, and Henry Clay) had a majority of the electoral votes, and Adams was elected by the House of Representa- tives. John C. Calhoun had been elected vice- president by the electoral colleges. Adam's ad- ministration was remarkable for order, method, and economy, but party spirit was higher than it had been for many years. At the election of 1828 General Jackson was chosen president, while John C. Calhoun was reelected vice-presi- dent. In his first annual message (December, 1829) the president took strong ground against the renewal of the charter of the United States bank, as not being authorized by the Constitu- tion. Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to re- charter it, but Jackson vetoed it; and the char- ter expired by limitation in 1836. The com- mercial part of the community generally took the side of the bank, and the party formed in oppo- sition to the president assumed the name of Whigs, while his supporters adhered to the old name of Democrats. In 1832 arose the so-called nullification movement in South Carolina, grow- ing out of the tariff acts of that year and of 1828. A State convention held in November declared these acts unconstitutional and, therefore, null and void, and proclaimed that any attempt by the General Government to collect duties in the port of Charleston would be resisted by force of arms, and would produce the secession of South Carolina from the Union. Jackson had just been reelected for a second term, while Martin Van Buren was chosen vice-president. The firmness of the president gave an effectual check to the incipient rebellion, and the affair was finally settled by a proposition brought forward in Congress by Henry Clay, the leading cham- pion of the protective system, for the modifica- tion of the tariff by a gradual reduction of the obnoxious duties. Other events of Jackson's administration were the removal of the public funds from the United States bank, the extinc- tion of the national bank and the beginning, toward the close of 1835, of a war with the Seminole Indians in Florida. In the presidential contest of 1836, Mr. Van Buren, who was sup- ported by the Democrats, was elected. No can- didate having been elected vice-president, Rich- ard M. Johnson was chosen by the Senate. The new administration began under most untoward circumstances. Within two months after the inauguration the mercantile failures in the city of New York alone amounted to more than $100,000,000. The war with the Seminoles was not ended till 1842. At the election in 1840, Harrison and Tyler, the Whig candidates for president and vice-president, were chosen. Gen- eral Harrison was inaugurated March 4, 1841, and died on April 4th. The presidential office devolved on John Tyler, who soon developed a policy in relation to a national bank much more in accordance with the views of the Democratic party than with those of the Whigs. A treaty was concluded in 1842 with Great Britain by Daniel Webster for the settlement of the north- eastern boundary. The Texas question (see Texas) became the prominent issue in the presi- dential contest of 1844, the Democratic party supporting and the Whigs opposing annexation. The Democratic candidates, James K. Polk for president and George M. Dallas for vice-presi- dent, were elected over Henry Clay and Theo- dore Frelinghuysen. Joint resolutions for an- nexing Texas as one of the States of the Union were signed by President Tyler March 1, 1845, which led to a war with Mexico in 1846. Gen- eral Zachary Taj'lor defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto May 8th, at Resaca de la Palma May 9th, at Monterey in September, and at Buena Vista February 23, 1847. General Scott landed near Vera Cruz on March 9th with about 12,000 men, immediately besieged that city, which sur- rendered before the end of the month, and en- tered the city of Mexico on September 14th, after a series of hard-fought and uniformly suc- cessful battles. A treaty of peace was nego- tiated at Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848, by which Mexico granted to the United States the line of the Rio Grande as a boundary, and ceded New Mexico and California. The Oregon dispute with Great Britain, which claimed the whole region, while the United States claimed as far north as latitude 54° 40', was settled by the treaty of 1846, which adopted the boundary of the parallel of 49°, with a modification giving to Great Britain the whole of Vancouver Island. HISTORY 173 In the Democratic National convention of 1848, Lewis Cass was nominated for president, and William O. Butler for vice-president. By the Whig convention Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore were nominated. The question of slavery had a powerful influence on the political combinations of this period. In 1846, during the Mexican War, a bill being before Congress authorizing the president to use $2,000,000 in negotiathig a peace, David Wilmot, a Demo- cratic representative from Pennsylvania, inoved to add thereto a proviso prohibiting slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. This pro- viso was adopted in the House, nearly all the members from the free States voting for it, but failed in the Senate from want of time. Several delegates seceded from both the Whig and Dem- ocratic conventions of 1848, on the failure of those bodies to pronounce in favor of the prin- ciple of the proviso. These, with the Liberty party, formed in 1840, organized a free-soil or free Democratic party, and Martin Van Buren was nominated for president and Charles Francis Adams for vice-president. Van Buren and Adams received at the election, in November, a popular vote of 291,263, but secured no electoral vote. Taylor and Fillmore were elected. The application in 1850 of California for admission as a State roused the slavery controversy, and the difficulty was complicated by the application of New Mexico for admission, and by a claim brought forward by Texas to a western line of boundary which would include a large portion of New Mexico. Finally, a compromise was pro- posed by Henry Clay in the Senate as a final settlement of the whole question of slavery, and after a long discussion the result aimed at was attained by separate acts, which provided for: (1) the admission of California as a free State; (2) Territorial Governments for New Mexico and Utah without excluding slavery, but leaving its exclusion or admission to the local population; (3) the settlement of the Texas boundary ques- tion; (4) the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; (5) the enactment of a stringent law for the arrest and return of fugitive slaves. President Taylor died July 9, 1850, and was succeeded by the vice-president, Millard Fillmore. The whole weight of his administra- tion was given to the support of the compromise measures. The Democratic National Conven- tion of 1852 nominated for president Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, who was known to hold opinions satisfactory to the South on the subject of slavery, and William R. King of Ala- bama for vice-president. The Whig National Convention nominated for president General Winfield Scott, and for vice-president William A. Graham of North Carolina. The National Convention of the Free-soil party nominated John P. Hale for president, and George W. Julian for vice-president. Pierce and King were elected. The passage in 1854 of a bill for the organiza- tion of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, by which the Missouri Compromise Act of 1820 was repealed, roused great excitement and in- dignation in the free States. The struggle in Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery parties (see Kansas) and the assault by Brooks on Sumner (see Sumner, Charles) added to the feeling. Preparatory to the presidential canvass of 1856 the Republican party was formed, which absorbed the entire Free-soil party, the greater part of the Whig party, and considerable acces- sions from the Democratic. That portion of the Whig party opposed to anti-slavery measures was merged, especially at the South, in an organ- ization called the American party, from^ its oppo- sition to foreign influence, and particularly to Roman Catholic influence, in our political affairs, but popularly known as the "Know-Nothing- Party" from the secrecy- of its organization and the reticence of its members. This party nomi- nated Millard Fillmore for president, and An- drew J. Donelson of Tennessee for vice-president. The Democratic National Convention nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for president, and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for vice- president. The Republican National Conven- tion nominated John C. Fremont of California for president, and William L. Da}i;on of New Jersey for vice-president. Buchanan and Breck- enridge were elected. The cliief interest of Mr. Buchanan's administration centered around the slavery controversy. A constitution for Kansas framed at Lecompton in 1857 was laid before Congress in the session of 1857-58, and its dis- cussion resulted in a schism in the Democratic party, and eventually in its di\dsion into two bodies, one of which looked upon Stephen A. Douglas as its leader, while the other supported Breckenridge for the presidency. The Demo- cratic National Convention met at Charleston, April 23, 1860, and a controversy on the subject of slavery immediately arose. A non-committal platform having been adopted, most of the Southern delegates withdrew and adopted a plat- form of their own, denying the right of Congress to interfere with, and asserting its duty to pro- tect, slavery in the Territories. The convention adjourned May 3d, reassembled in Baltimore June 18th, and nominated Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois for president, and Benjamin Fitzpat- rick of Alabama for vice-president. The latter afterward declined, and Herschel V. Johnson of Georgia was substituted. A convention called by the seceding delegates convened at Baltimore on June 23d, and nominated John C. Brecken- ridge for president, and Joseph Lane of Oregon for vice-president. The " Constitutional Union " party, composed mainly of the American party, nominated for president John Bell of Tennessee, and for vice-president Edward Everett of Massa- chusetts. The Republican National Convention assembled at Chicago on May 16th, and nomi- nated for president Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, and. for vice-president Hannibal Hamlin of Maine. In the election, November 6th, Mr. Lincoln received the electoral votes of all the free States (except three in New Jersey), 180, and was elected. Mr. Bell received the votes of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, 39; Mr. Douglas the 9 votes of Missouri and 3 from New Jersey; and the remaining Southern States cast their 72 electoral votes for Breckenridge. A convention was at once called in South Carolina, and on December 20th unanimously adopted an ordinance of secession from the Union. Before the end of May, 1861, eleven States had passed ordinances of secession (South Carolina, Missis- 174 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina). On February 4th a Congress met at Montgomery AJa., and framed a constitution for the "Confederate States of America," Jefferson Da\'is of Mississippi was chosen president, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia vice-presi- dent. After governmental organization, the first warlike act was the bombardment by the Con- federates of Fort Sumter, which surrendered April 13, 1861. On July 21st was fought the battle of Bull Run, near Manassas Junction, Va., the first of any magnitude during the war, in which the Union forces under General McDowell were defeated by the Confederates under Gen- eral Beauregard, and fell back in disorder to Washington. Soon after General McClellan, who had cleared West Virginia of Confederate troops, was placed in command of the army of the Potomac. On August 10th, a battle was fought at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, Mo., between the Confederates under General Mc- CuUoch and the Federals under General Lyon, who fell. This was followed by a varying and indecisive warfare in that State. On August 29th, Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C, were taken by General Butler and Commodore String- ham; and on November 7th, Port Royal, S. C, by Commodore Du Pont and General T. W. Sherman. On October 21st, a portion of General Stone's command, having crossed the Potomac at Ball's Bluff, about midway between Harper's Ferry and Washington, was defeated by the Confederate General Evans, with a loss of 1,000 out of 1,900 men. On February 6, 1862, the Federal Commodore Foote, with a fleet of gun- boats from Cairo, reduced Fort Henry on the east bank of the Tennessee River in Tennessee; and on the 16th Fort Donelson, on the west bank of the Cumberland, surrendered with about 13,000 men to General Grant. The Confeder- ates under McCulloch and others, just driven out of Missouri, were defeated at Pea Ridge, Ark., March 7th-8th, In the night of April 7th, Island No. Ten in the Mississippi, a few miles above New Madrid, Mo., surrendered, after a series of operations by General Pope and Commodore Foote, lasting over a month. The Federal fleet was now enabled to proceed down the river as far as Vicksburg, Miss., receiving the surrender of Memphis, Tenn., June 6th. The battle of Shiloh, Miss., raged two days (April 6th and 7th), when the Confederates under Beauregard fell back to Corinth, leaving the field in the posses- sion of the Union army under Generals Buell and Grant. Corinth was evacuated after some operations against it imder General Halleck. An important event of the year was the capture of New Orleans toward the close of April by naval and land forces under Captain Farragut and General Butler. Early in the year Roanoke Island, New Berne, Beaufort, Washington, Ply- mouth, and other places on the coast of North Carolina were occupied by the Federals. On April 11th, Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah River, was reduced. Toward the end of Augast the Confederate General Bragg started on an invasion of Kentucky from East Tennes- see. He captured Richmond, Lexington, and Munfordsville, and on October 1st entered Frankfort. The Union forces under General Buell moving against him, he slowly retreated to Perryville, where, on the 8th, a severe battle was fought. During the succeeding night Bragg continued his retreat, and passed into East Ten- nessee. About the end of September the Con- federates under Generals Price and Van Dorn advanced against Corinth, Miss., now defended by General Rosecrans. Their assaults (October 3d, 4th) were repulsed with great loss. General Rosecrans, having superseded Buell, moved into Tennessee, and marched upon Murfreesboro, where Bragg's forces were concentrated, reach- ing Stone River near that place on December 29 and 30th. Here bloody engagements occurred December 31, 1862, and January 2, 1863, which resulted in Bragg's retreat. Still greater ope- rations took place on the eastern theater of the war. Brisk fighting occurred in the Shenandoah Valley (March-June), with decided advantage on the whole to the Confederate General Jackson over Banks, Fremont, and others. About April 1, 1862, General McClellan transferred his forces to Fortress Monroe, near which a remarkable naval duel had taken place (at Hampton Roads) and began a movement upon Richmond up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, fighting at Yorktown, Williamsburg, Seven Pines Fair Oaks, and Mechanicsville, and, during a retrograde movement to Harrison's Landing on the James, at Cold Harbor, Savage's Station, Frazier's Farm, and, finally (July 1st), at Mal- vern Hill. About the middle of Avigust his army was transferred to the Potomac. The Confed- erate army, commanded by General Robert E. Lee, who had succeeded J. E. Johnston, had retired to Richmond, to assume the offensive against Washington. On August 9th an inde- cisive battle was fought by General Banks against Jackson at Cedar Mountain; and on August 29th and 30th occurred the second battle of Bull Run, between the Union army under Pope and the Confederate forces under Jackson and Longstreet, in which the latter had the advantage. Lee moved to the Potomac above Washington and crossed into Maryland. Jack- son captured Harper's Ferry \nth 11,500 men. McClellan, advancing to meet Lee, found him on September 15th strongly posted across Antie- tam Creek near Sharpsburg, where, on the two following days, a bloody battle was fought. In the night of the 18th, Lee retreated into Virginia. McClellan crossed the Potomac about November 1st. On the 7th he was superseded by General Burnside, who moved dowTi the Rappahannock to Fredericksburg. Lee had made a parallel movement down the south bank and strongly intrenched himself on the bluffs behind the town. On December 13th, Burnside crossed the river and made repeated attacks on the enemy's posi- tion, but was repulsed with great slaughter, and on the loth returned to the north bank. On January 26, 1863, Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker. About the close of April Hooker began to cross the Rappahannock, and concentrated his forces at Chancellorsville, where a bloody engagement ensued. May 2d— 4th, in which the Union army was worsted by the forces under Lee, Hooker recrossing to tne north side of the river General Jackson was mortally HISTORY 175 wounded. About the beginning of June, Lee again assumed the offensive. The main body of the Confederate army crossed the Potomac above Harper's Ferry, June 24th-25th, and march- ing across Maryland entered Pennsylvania. Hooker moved north, so as to cover Washington, and on the 26th crossed the Potomac about half way between Washington and Harper's Ferr3\ On the 28th he was succeeded by General Meade. The latter advanced into Pennsylvania, and on July 1st, 2d, and 3d the two armies met in the great battle of Gettysburg, which ended in the discomfiture of the Confederate army. On the 4th, Lee began his retreat, and on the 13th re- crossed the Potomac. Meade crossed on the 18th, and reached Warrenton on the 25th, where he was soon confronted by Lee on the other side of the Rappahannock. In the west important operations had taken place under Generals Grant and Sherman against Vicksburg. Close pressed, on July 3d, General Pember- ton surrendered that Confederate stronghold, with 27,000 men, to General Grant, who, on the 4th, occupied the city. The result of this cam- paign rent the Confederacy in twain, and de- cided its fate. Port Hudson, La., on the Mis- sissippi, surrendered after a siege to General Banks, July 8th. Rosecrans remained quietly at Murfreesboro till June 23, 1863, when he ad- vanced, forcing Bragg to retreat to Chattanooga, which was occupied by a detacliment on Sep- tember 9th, Bragg retiring into Georgia and posting his troops in the vicinity of Chicka- mauga Creek, east of Trenton, Here, Septem- ber 19th and 20th, occurred a severe engage- ment, in which the Federals were worsted and fell back to Chattanooga, where they were be- sieged by Bragg. On October 23d, General Grant arrived and took command. A series of move- ments was at once initiated, which resulted in driving Bragg from Chattanooga (November 25th) and forcing him to retreat into Georgia. An army under General Burnside, which had occupied Knoxville, and was besieged there by Longstreet, was relieved at the beginning of December. All Tennessee was now recovered. In Arkansas, General Steele had captured Little Rock, September 10th. Fort Wagner, on Mor- ris Island at the entrance of Charleston Harbor, after vigorously repelling a heavy assault, had about the same time been reduced by a regular siege under General Gillmore. On April 20, 1864, Plymouth, N. C, was compelled to sur- render to a Confederate force under General Hoke, and as a consequence Washington, N. C, was evacuated by the Federals eight days later. On October 31st, Plymouth was retaken by the Federal fleet. On April 12th Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi about forty miles above ]\Iem- phis, was taken by assault by the Confederates under General Forrest, and many of its colored defenders were killed after the capture. In August, Forts Gaines and Morgan, commanding the entrance to Mobile Bay, were reduced by a fleet under Admiral Farragut, aided by a land force under General Granger, and the Confed- erate fleet there was destroyed. West of the Mississippi, the most important movement in 1864 was Bank's disastrous Red River campaign in the early spring. In September and October, General Price with a considerable force made a raid through Missouri. In Virginia, General Grant, who had received the chief command of the Union armies, began on May 4th to cross the Rapidan and advance into the "Wilderness." Here (May oth and 6th) and at Spottsylvania Court House near by (May 8th-21st) followed a series of sanguinary engagements, which baffled the direct advance. Grant then advanced by a succession of flank movements to the Chicka- hominy, where, on June 3d, he suffered a dis- astrous check in the second battle of Cold Har- bor. On the 12th, having determined to attack Richmond from the south, he began to move, crossing the Chickahominy below Lee's position, and effecting the passage of the James, June 14th-15th. Lee thereupon retired within the in- trenchments covering Richmond. On the 15th and 16th a part of the Union forces unsuccess- fully assailed Petersburg, and on the 19th Grant began a regular siege. An invasion of Mary- land under General Early in July, which threat- ened Washington, failed, and led to operations in the Shenandoah Valley, in which General Sheridan nearly destroyed Early's forces at Winchester. On May 5, 1864, General W. T, Sherman started from Chattanooga on his cam- paign against Atlanta, in which he was ably opposed by Johnston, and vainly assailed by his successor in command, General Hood. At- lanta was evacuated by the Confederates on September 1st. Near the middle of November he started for the coast. Marching through the heart of Georgia without opposition, he reached the vicinity of Savannah, . capturing Fort Mc- Allister December 13th, and occupying the city December 21st. On December 15 th and 16th, Hood, who had marched north with his army, suffered a bloody repulse before Nashville by Thomas. An attempt in December, by a fleet under Admiral Porter and a land force under General Butler, to reduce Fort Fisher at the mouth of Cape Fear River, commanding the approach to Wilmington, N. C, failed; but on January 15, 1865, it was carried by an assault under General Terry, aided by the fleet. The Federal forces occupied Wilmington on February 22d. The siege of Petersburg and Richmond continued till April 3, 1865, when, after Lee's defeat at Five Forks (March 31st, April 1st), those places were occupied by the Federals, hav- ing been evacuated by Lee during the preceding night. Grant vigorously pursued the retreating army, and at Appomattox Court House, on the 9th, compelled Lee to surrender the remnant of his forces, about 27,000 in all, an event which virtually terminated the war. On February 1st, General Sherman started from Savannah on a northward movement through the Carolinas, and reached Columbia on the 17th. General Hardee, being thus taken in the rear, evacuated Charleston, which was occupied by a detach- ment of General Gillmore's forces on the 18th, and the same day the national flag was raised over Fort Sumter. Sherman reached Fayette- ville, N. C, on March 12th. On the 19th the left wing under Slocum encountered the Con- federate army under General Johnston at Ben- tonville, repelled several assaults, and on the 21st, being reinforced, compelled it to retreat 176 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS to Smithfield, covering Raleigh. Sherman then occupied Goldsboro, whence he advanced on April 10th. Johnston retreated through Ra- leigh, and on April 26th surrendered his entire anny, then reduced to about 31,000 men. In the meantime, a cavalry force under General Wilson had swept through Alabama from the north, and passed into Georgia, occupying Selma on April 2d, Montgomery on the 12th, and Columbus, Ga., on the 16th. Mobile was taken on April 12th by General Canby, aided by a fleet under Admiral Thatcher. On May 4th, General Taylor surrendered the Confederate forces in Alabama to General Canby. The last fight of the war occurred May 13th, on the Rio Grande in Texas, between Colonel Barrett (Fed- eral) and General Slaughter (Confederate), the latter being victorious. The trans-Mississippi army of the Confederates, the last in the field, was surrendered by Kirby Smith on May 26th. During the war Confederate cruisers, mostly built and fitted out in British ports, and manned by British sailors, scoured the ocean. Evading vessels of war, they destroyed hundreds of mer- chantmen, doing irreparable injury to the com- merce of the Union. The chief of these were the "Alabama," "Chickamauga," "Florida," "Georgia," "Olustee," "Shenandoah," "Sum- ter," and "Tallahassee." The "Alabama," the most famous, commanded by Raphael Semmes, was sunk off Cherbourg, France, June 19, 1864, by the United States steamer "Kearsarge," commanded by Captain Winslow. After the fall of Richmond, President Davis of the Con- federacy fled south, and was captured at Irwin- ville, Ga., by General Wilson's forces. May 10, 1865. He and some other prominent leaders were imprisoned for a time, but no man was punished for participation in the rebellion. The National Republican Convention assembled at Baltimore on June 7, 1864, and nominated President Lincoln for reelection, and for vice- president Andrew Johnson of Tennessee. The platform pledged a vigorous prosecution of the war for the suppression of the rebellion, and favored an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery. The National Democratic Convention assembled at Chicago on August 29th, and nominated General George B. McClel- lan for president, and for vice-president George H. Pendleton of Ohio. The election took place on November 8th, the eleven seceded States not participating. McClellan ?nd Pendleton re- ceived the electoral votes of New Jersey, Dela- ware, and Kentucky, 21; Lincoln and Johnson received those of all the other States, 212, and were elected. On March 4, 1805, Lincoln's sec- ond inauguration took place. On April 14th he was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, and the Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, dangerously wounded by another conspirator; and on the following day Vice-President Johnson entered upon the duties of the presidency. The ques- tion of emancipation early attracted the atten- tion of the administration and Congress. On April 16, 1862, an act was passed abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, and on June 9th another act declared that slavery should not thereafter exist m the Territories. On January 1. 1863, Mr. Lincoln issued a proclamation de- claring free all persons held as slaves within the States or portions of States then in rebellion. The 13th amendment to the Federal Consti- tution, declaring that slavery shall not exist within the United States or any place subject to their control, was declared adopted by the proclamation of the Secretary of State on Decem- ber 18, 1865. The first step toward the recon- struction of loyal governments in the seceded States was the proclamation of President Lin- coln of December 8, 1863. Under this scheme governments were organized in Louisiana and Arkansas in the early part of 1864, and in Ten- nessee early in 1865, but senators and repre- sentatives from those States were not admitted to Congress. After the close of the war Presi- dent Johnson appointed provisional governors for several of the seceded States, But Congress did not approve this scheme of reconstruction, and senators and representatives from those States were not admitted. In June, 1866, a joint resolution adopted by Congress proposed the 14th amendment to the Constitution, extending the rights of citizenship to all classes of native and naturalized persons, guaranteeing the validity of the national debt, forbidding the payment of any part of the Confederate debt or of claims for the loss of slaves, etc. In July senators and representatives were admitted from Tennessee, that State having ratified the 14th amendment. On January 8, 1867, an act was passed over President Johnson's veto, confer- ring the right of suffrage on colored citizens of the District of Columbia, and on the 24th a similar act became a law for the Territories. The congressional plan of reconstruction was developed in the act of March 2d and the sup>- plementary acts of March 23d and July 19th, each of which was passed over the President's veto. These acts declared that "no legal State Governments or adequate protection for life or property now exist in the rebel States of Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, Texas, and Arkansas," and divided them into five mili- tary districts. The district commanders were required to make a registration of voters, com- prising male citizens of the United States 21 years old and upward, without regard to race, color, or previous condition, who had resided in the respective States one year, and were not excluded from holding office by the 14th amend- ment. Delegates were to be elected in the several States by the registered voters to con- ventions for framing new constitutions. Only when constitutions had been adopted conferring the right of suffrage on colored persons, and such constitutions had been approved by Congress, and when the 14th amendment had been ratified by the legislatures of the respective States, were senators and representatives to be admitted. The conditions of these acts werp complied with in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina in 1868, and in jMississippi, Texas, and Virginia in 1870. But the subsequent action of the legislature of Georgia in excluding colored members led to further measures on the part of Congress, and delaved the final restoration of that State until 1870. The adoption of the HISTORY 177 14th amendment was proclaimed July 28, 1868. In February, 1869, a joint resolution proposing the 15th amendment to the constitution, pro- hibiting the denial or abridgment bj' any state of the Union of the right to vote on account of color or previous condition of servitude, was passed. The difference between President John- son and congress on the question of reconstruc- tion led to his separation from the repubhcan party, and to the passage March 2, 1867, over his veto, of the "tenure of office" act, which took from the president the power to remove, without the consent of the senate, such civil ofhcers as are appointed by the president with the consent of the senate. His attempt to remove Mr. Stanton, secretary of war, led to his impeachment, a resolution to that effect passing the house of representatives February 24, 1868. He was tried before the senate and acquitted in May, there being a majority against him, but not the necessary two-thirds vote. In 1867, Alaska was purchased of Russia. The national republican convention nomi- nated General Ulysses S. Grant for president, and for vice-president Schuyler CoKax. The national democratic convention nominated Horatio Seymour and Francis P. Blair, Jr. The election took place November 3, Virginia, Missis- sippi, and Texas not voting. Grant and Colfax were elected. In May, 1872, a convention assembled at Cincinnati, composed of persons dissatisfied with President Grant. They styled themselves "liberal repubUcans." Horace Gree- ley was nominated for president, and Benjamin Gratz Brown for vice-president. The national republican convention nominated President Grant for reelection, and for vice-president Henry Wilson. The national democratic convention nominated the same candidates as the Cincinnati convention. The election, November 5th, re- sulted in the choice of Grant and Wilson. One of the prominent events of Grant's administra- tion was the settlement by the treaty of Washing- ton (May 8, 1871), and a subsequent arbitration at Geneva, Switzerland (1871-2), of outstanding disputes with Great Britain, of which the prin- cipal (the "Alabama claims" question) related to the charge that the British government had failed in its duties as a neutral in allowing the construction and fitting out of confederate cruis- ers in British ports. The verdict awarded to the United States an indemnity of $15,500,000 in gold. In 1876 the repubUcans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes and WilHam A. Wheeler. The demo- crats nominated Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks. Hayes and Wheeler, although they received a minority of the popular vote, were declared by a special commission, whose report was adopted by congress in joint conven- tion, to have been elected by a majority of one in the electoral colleges. In 1876, the centennial exposition was held in Philadelphia, in celebra- tion of the one hundredth year of American independence. The exhibitors, from all parts of the world, numbered 30,865. At the follow- ing election (1880) the republicans elected Gen- eral Garfield, who was shot by Charles J. Guiteau, July 2, 1881, at the Baltimore and Potomac depot, Washington, D.C., and died September 19, 1881. Vice-president Arthur became president. In 1885, Grover Cleveland succeeded as presi- dent. The anti-polygamy bill, virtually dis- franchising Mormons, became a law in 1886; also the inter-state commerce bill. A bill passed in 1879 prohibiting the immigration of Chinese as laborers, amended in 1882 making the restric- tion to last for twenty years, was further amended in 1888 by taking away from the Chinese now or heretofore in the country the privilege of return unless they had previously procured cer- tificates. In 1889, Benjamin Harrison, elected by the republicans, became president, the issue of the campaign being free-trade vs. protection. In 1890 a protective tariff bill, known as the McKinley act, became a law. It increased duties on 115 articles, embracing farm products and manufactures, and decreased those on 190, i. e., manufactures estabhshed. It: placed sugar on the free hst. The coinage act of 1890 made it compulsory for the government to buy 54,000,000 ounces of silver yearly; instead of coining the same, to issue silver certificates therefor. On June 19, 1890, the report of the international American conference was pre- sented, forming the basis of the poHcy of reci- procity by which treaties were entered into with Germany, France, Spain, Brazil, and the coun- tries of Central and South America. An appHcation of the "Monroe doctrine" in regard to the Samoan group of islands, which had been seized by Germany, resulted in a treaty which saved the absorption of the islands. The Bering sea question, long a diplomatic stumbling-block between the United States and Great Britain, was referred to a board of arbitration. The pres- idential election in 1892 resulted in the selection of Grover Cleveland. President Harrison retired from office, March 4, 1893. President William McKinley was inaugurated March 4, 1897, and a year later, after a number of attempts to allay the Cuban situation, came the war with Spain. A commission met in Paris to discuss the terms of peace between Spain and the United States. December 28, 1898, Spain ceded to the United States the Phihppines, Porto Rico, and Guam, and agreed to retire from Cuba, accepting the offer of $20,000,000, the United States' proposition. President McKinley was inaugurated for the second term, 1901. He was shot by an assassin on September 6, 1901, and died on the 14th, when he was succeeded by Vice-president Roosevelt, who, after the election of 1904, was inaugurated, 1905, for a full term. President Roosevelt initiated reforms in rail- roads, corporations, and trust methods, and pushed forward the construction of the Panama canal. In 1906, a race war occurred at Browns- ville, Texas, resulting in the colored troops stationed there being ordered out of the state, and in their subsequent expulsion from the United States army. In March, 1907, the presi- dent issued orders for the exclusion of Japanese laborers. This action opened the way for nego- tiations between the governments of Japan and the United States, which culminated, early in 1908, in the comj)lete restraint of Japanese immi- gration to the United States. In June, 1908, the repubhcan national con- vention at Chicago nominated WiUiam H. Taft for president, and James S. Sherman as vice- 178 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS president, who were elected, defeating W. J. Bryan and J. W. Kern, the democratic nominees. The chief features of the Taft administration were the creation of a commerce court and a tariff board, the establishment of postal savings banks and parcel post. The fisheries dispute with England was arbitrated successfully at The Hague. In 1912 arbitration treaties with France and with Great Britain were signed. In 1913 the 16th amendment, or income tax law, was adopted. The presidential election of 1912 resulted in the selection of Woodrow Wilson for president and Thomas R. Marshall for vice-president. Noteworthy events of Wilson's first term were: ratification of the 17th amendment providing for the direct election of senators by the people; revision of the tariff, known as the Unden\'ood- Simmons tariff law; estabhshment of federal reserve banks; workmen's compensation act; eight-hour railway wage law; child labor law; purchase of Danish islands. In April, 1914, the port of Vera Cruz, Mexico, was seized by order of the President and held until September. Upon the outbreak of the European war in August, 1914, the President proclaimed neutrality. The loss of more than 100 Americans on the British steamer "Lusitania," sunk by a German submarine. May 7, 1915, led to extended diplo- matic correspondence with Germany. During 1915 the naval advisory board and the federal trade commission were estabhshed, and the government railway in Alaska was begun. As a result of Villa's raid on Columbus, N. M., early in 1916, a miUtary expedition was sent into Mexico. In midsummer the national guard was mobilized on the Mexican border and the largest appropriations for the army and navy ever made in time of peace were passed by Congress. Follow- ing the Mexican disorders and the disturbing actions of Germany with respect to American rights on the high seas, there ensued a nation- wide movement in favor of military and naval preparedness, accompanied by immense civic parades and other demonstrations. The National Defense act, signed June 3, authorized a regular army of 186,000 and a federalized national guard with an eventual peace strength of 425,000. During 1916 Congress erected a shipping board, a farm loan board, a tariff commission, and an employees' commission. A council of national defense was established, the PhiUppines act was passed, and also the Adamson bill adjusting rail- way wage problems. In November, 1916, Woodrow Wilson was re- elected president, defeating Charles E. Hughes, the Republican candidate. On Jan. 22, 1917, President Wilson stated to the Senate the general terms, embodied in four- teen articles, in accordance with which peace should be fixed at the termination of the war. In consequence of Germany's declaration, Jan. 31, of vmrestricted submarine warfare. President Wilson appeared before the Senate, Feb. 3, and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Germany. On Apr. 2, 1917, President Wilson delivered a remarkable address to Congress resulting, on Apr. 6, in a declaration of war against Germany by a vote of 82 to 6 in the Senate and 373 to 50 in the House. On Apr. 17 Congress voted an appropriation of $7,000,000,000 for war pur- poses. Additional war appropriations raised the total voted by the 65th Congress at its first ses- sion to more than $19,000,000,000, of which $640,000,000 was for the aviation service. During the period of actual war, 1917-18, four government loans were floated, as follows: First Liberty Loan, 33^ per cent, June, 1917, $2,000,000,000; subscriptions, $3,035,226,850; allotment, $2,000,000,000; 4,500,000 subscribers. Second Liberty Loan, 4 per cent, October, 1917, $3,000,000,000; subscriotions $4,617,000,- 000; allotment, $3,808,766,150; 10,000,000 sub- scribers. Third Liberty Loan, 4J^ per cent, April, 1918, $3,000,000,000; subscriptions $4,176,516,850; aU allotted; 17,000,000 subscribers. Fourth Liberty Loan, 43^ per cAt, October, 1918, $6,000,000,000; subscriptions $6,989,047,- 000; all allotted; 21,000,000 subscribers. The total of the four loans, $16,954,400,000, was purchased by 52,500,000 subscribers. In addition. War Savings Stamps subscriptions to Nov. 20, 1918, amounted to $879,330,000. Of the grand total of $17,833,730,000 reaUzed from Libert}' Loans and War Savings Stamps subscriptions, $8,171,776,666 had been advanced, Nov. 15, 1918, to allied nations, Great Britain receiving $3,945,000,000, France, $2,445,000,000, Italy, $1,210,000,000, Russia, $325,000,000, Belgium, $192,520,000, and the remainder to lesser countries, including Greece, Servia, Liberia, Cuba, and Czecho-Slovakia. On May 18, 1917, selective conscription was enacted, the Senate voting 81 for and 8 against, and the House 397 for and 24 against. On June 5, 9,587,000 men registered for mihtary service. On June 13 Pershing arrived in Paris and was followed soon after by the first units of the American expeditionary force. On July 13 a call was issued for 678,000 drafted men. In November a section of the allied line near Toul was taken over by American troops. At the end of December 195,494 soldiers had been embarked overseas. On Jan. 16, 1918, the federal fuel administrator ordered all manufacturing plants to close during Jan. 18-22 and for nine subsequent "heatless" Mondays, revoked Feb. 13. On Jan. 21 the government I'equisitioned all Dutch ships in American harbors. Feb. 23 the price of wheat for 1918 was fixed by the president at $2.20 per bushel. Mar. 30 daylight saving biU went into effect throughout the United States. Apr. 6 President Wilson denomiced the treaties forced upon Russia and Rumania and asserted that America will meet the German challenge with "force to the utmost." July 2 Secretary Baker announced 1,019,115 U. S. troops sent to France with only 291 lost at sea. July 6 251,000 U. S. soldiers were reported on the battle line in France. July 26 the food board reduced the sugar allowance to two pounds per month per person. Sept. 12, final regi.stra- tion of man power, age 18 to 45, of 13,228,000 brought tiie total to 23,709,000. Nov. 5 the congressional elections resulted in a RepubHcan majority in the House and the Senate. Nov. 14 Secretary of Treasury and HISTORY 179 Director-general of Railroads McAdoo resigned both places. Nov. 11 an armistice was signed with Germany. Nov. 23 American troops entered Rhenish Prussia. Dec. 2 President Wilson announced to Congress in joint session his plan to participate in the Peace Conference at Versailles. Dec. 4 President Wilson sailed from New York on the "George Washington," arrived at Brest Dec. 13. On Jan. IS, 1919, the International Peace Conference opened at Versailles, France. Presi- dent Wilson headed the American delegation consisting, besides the president, of Secretary of State Robert Lansing, Gen. Tasker H. Bhss, Col. Edw. M. House, and former Ambassador Henry White. On Feb. 14 President Wilson read to the conference a draft of a constitution for a League of Nations, and on Feb. 23 arrived in the United States to present its propositions before Congress. Utah, which was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, was settled by the Mormons in 1847. At fu'st church officers ruled the government, but, with the coming of non-Mormons in 1849, the state of Deseret was organized, a constitution adopted, and an appeal made to congress for admission to statehood. Congress refused ad- mission as a state but organized the territory of Utah, September 9, 1850. After forty-five years the territory was admitted as a state, January 4, 1896. The original constitution grants full suf- frage to women. Vermont. The first white settlement was made at Brattleboro, in 1724, as a miUtary station, by the Massachusetts colonists. It served as a base of operations during the French wars. Immigration set in, and, in 1768, 124 townships had been granted by Governor Went- worth, of New Hampshire, by which colony the fee and jurisdiction of the soil were claimed. A counter-claim was made by New York in 1763, causing a bitter controversy between the two colonies. In 1777, the people of Vermont declared their independence, and, though admission to the confederacy of states was sought, it was refused, and Vermont remained outside of the Union till 1791. New York had surrendered its claims for a financial consideration in 1790. Vermont was the first state to join the original thirteen. Though not confederated with the other colonies against Great Britain, the "Green mountain boys" had signalized their valor and patriotism in a number of hard-fought battles and expe- ditions. Among these were the capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen, the invasion of Canada, the battles on Lake Champlain, and the two battles near Bennington, which were the primary cause of Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga. Virginia. The name Virginia bestowed by Queen Elizabeth in 1584 on the region now known as North Carolina, discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition, was afterward applied to the whole countrj^ to 45° north. In 1606, James I. gave to the London company, which made the first permanent English settle- ment in America at Jamestown in 1607, the country from 34° to 38° north, extending 100 miles from the sea. The colony was saved from ruin by Captain John Smith two years later. Colonization increased rapidly, and in 1619 a legislative body was formed. In 1641, there were 15,000 English in the colony. In 1676 occurred Bacon's rebellion, brought on by the tyranny of Sir William Berkeley, the governor. The French war of 1754, of which Braddock's defeat was the most notable incident, first brought George Washington into notice. Virginia, under the leadership of Patrick Henry, was the first to protest against British oppression in 1764, and sent representatives to the continental con- gress in 1775. The most important military event of the Revolution in Virginia was the svu-render of Cornwalhs at Yorktown, October 19, 1781. Virginia passed an ordinance of seces- sion, April 17, 1861, and in the war that followed became the bloodiest cock-pit of the whole con- test. The most important battles were Bull Run, July 21, 1861; Winchester, May 25, 1862; the battles of the peninsular campaign in the summer of 1862; second battle of Bull Run, August 29, 1862; Fredericksburg, December 13, 1862; Chancellorsville, May 2-4, 1863; the battles of the Wilderness campaign in 1864, ending in the investment of Petersburg and Richmond; and the final surrender of General Lee at Appo- mattox court house, April 9, 1865. Statutory Prohibition was approved by popular vote, 1914. Washington. The first record in history of the region which is now the state of Washing- ton was the discovery, in 1592, of the strait of Juan de Fuca by a Greek pilot. In 1775 Captain Heceta, a Spanish navigator, discovered the mouth of the Columbia, but was unable to enter the river. In 1789 Captain Kendrick, an Ameri- can, sailed through the strait of Fuca, through the gulf of Georgia and Queen Charlotte sound. On the 11th of May, 1792, Captain Gray, of the American ship "Columbia," entered the river to which he gave the name of his ship. This gave to the United States the priority of claim to the Oregon region, which then comprised the present states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. In October, 1792, an Enghshman sailed up and examined the Columbia about 100 miles from the mouth. The coast soon became well-known, and the United States government fitted out expeditions to explore the interior. The most important was that under Lewis and Clark, who, ascending the Missouri, made the Clearwater river, thence entering the Columbia and reaching the Pacific in December, 1805. In 1846 a treaty fixed the boimdary at the forty-ninth parallel. The territory of Oregon was formed in 1848, and in 1853 the territory of Wa.shington was estab- Hshed from a part of the original countr3^ Wash- ington was admitted to statehood November 11, 1889. In 1910 the state granted suffrage to women and in 1914 enacted statutory Prohibi- tion. Waterloo, Battle of, an important battle won by the allied forces over Napoleon, near W'aterloo, a Belgian village eleven miles south of Brussels, June 18, 1815. The preUmi- nary battles had been at Ligny, June 16th (when Napoleon had defeated the Prussians under Bliicher), and at Quatro-Bras, on the same day (when the aUies under W'ellington compelled the French Marshal Ney to retire). At W^aterloo the French numbered about 72,000. The allies ISO THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS (British, Dutch, and Germans), under Welling- ton, had about 67,000; the Prussians (about 50,000 more), under Blucher, came up in time to take part in the close of the battle, and in the pursuit. The battle began about 11.30 A. M. Briefly it may be said to have consisted of a series of briUiant but unsuccessful charges made by the French, and dogged resistance on the part of the British; in the evening the French Old Guard charged, but unavailingly, after which the allies advanced. The French lost about 35,000, and many prisoners; the allies about 22,000. Marshal Grouchy, though he defeated Blucher at Wavre, June 18th, failed to prevent him from joining Welhngton, and himself failed to come to Napoleon's aid, though but a few miles distant. The rout of the French was complete^ and the disaster final to Napoleon. West Virginia. Immediately after the ordinance of secession, passed by Virginia in April, 1861, a mass-meeting of citizens con- vened at Clarksburg, and denounced the action of the convention, recommending the citizens of Northwest Virginia to meet in convention at Wheeling on I\Iay 13th. Other meetings sus- tained the movement, and delegates from twenty-five western counties met in convention, denounced the action of Virginia, and provided for a convention of all the counties of the state adhering to the Union. The latter convention repudiated the action of Virginia, and elected Francis H. Pierpont as governor of the reorgan- ized state of Virginia. The ultimate result was the formation of the new state under the title of West Virginia, and in 1863 the state was admitted to the Union. Mihtary operations in what is now known as West Virginia were mostly confined to 1861. In 1912 constitutional Prohibition was adopted to take effect in 1914. Wisconsin. The name is derived from the River Wisconsin (originally used with the French orthography, Ouisconsin), from an Indian word, meaning "wild, rushing channel." The first white people in Wisconsin were French explorers, Jean Nicolet and his followers, who entered the region in 1634. In 1658-59 two fur traders, Radisson and Groseilhers, visited the Mississippi and left a record of their travels. In 1665 a Jesuit mission at La Pointe was founded by Father Claude Allouez, and three years later he established the mission of St. Francis Xavier on the shores of Green bay. In 1673 Father Marquette, accompanying Louis Johet, reached the Mississippi by passing through Wisconsin, and later Father Hennepin and La Salle traced other waterways within the territory. Trading posts were established soon after this, becoming dependencies of Mackinaw. About the middle of the eighteenth century a settlement was established at Green bay; at the close of the Revolution Prairie du Chien, at the mouth of the Wisconsin, grew into a settlement, and a few years later La Pointe and Portage became per- manent trading posts. England retained Mackinaw after the treaty of 1783, and American dominion was not felt by the Wisconsin traders until after the war of 1812. By the ordinance of 1787 Wisconsin had been a part of the Northwest ten-itory. In 1800 it was included in Indiana territory. In 1809 it passed to Illinois, and in 1818 to Michigan. In 1828 Fort Winnebago was erected at Portage. In 1832 occurred the Black Hawk war, which almost exterminated the Sacs. The territory of Wisconsin was formed in 1836 out of lands then comprised in the territory of Michigan. It embraced all the land now within the states of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and that part of Dakota which lies east of the Missouri and White Earth rivers. In 1838 all the territory west of the Mississippi, and of a hue due north from the source of that river to the international boundary-line, was taken to form the territory of Iowa. Wisconsin became a state in 1848, the seventeenth admitted to the Union. W^oman Suffrage. The first state to grant suffrage to women was Wyoming, which in- corporated it in its territorial statutes in 1869. Colorado granted suffrage to women, 1893; Utah and Idaho, 1896; Washington, 1910; Cahfomia, 1911 ; Arizona, Kansas, and Oregon, 1912; Alaska, 1913; Montana and Nevada, 1914. In 1913 the women of Illinois were given extensive franchise privileges by state law. In 1917 New York, by a majority exceeding 100,000, voted full suffrage to women. In 1918 Michigan, Oklahoma and South Dakota granted women full suffrage. The House of Representatives, Maj^ 21, 1919, and the Senate, June 4, 1919, passed a resolution submit- ting to the states a proposed federal amendment extending full suffrage to women throughout the nation. On August 26, 1920 the requisite number of states having ratified it. Secretary of State Colby proclaimed the amendment adopted. Wyoming was first visited by white men in 1742 and 1744, when Sieur de Verendrye, with a party from Canada, entered the territory and discovered the Rocky mountains. John Colter, of Lewis and Clark's expedition of 1806- 10, explored the northern part of the section and discovered Yellowstone park. In 1807 Ezekiel Williams made extensive explorations in Wyoming, and in 1812 Robert Stuart's courier party discovered the route to the West known as the "overland trail." In 1834 Sublette and Campbell built Fort Williams, afterward called Fort Laramie, and established the first permanent post in the state. In 1834 the first emigrants to the Pacific coast passed along the overland trail, and in 1836 the first white women crossed the Rocky moun- tains. Fort Bridger, the second permanent post, was built in 1842. Fort Laramie was garrisoned in 1849 and made a government post. Indian wars occurre^d, 1854-1876. In 1806 at the massacre of Fort Phil Kearnj% Colonel Fetterman and eighty m(>n were killed. The gold mines of Sweetwater were discovered in 1867, and the city of Cheyenne was founded in the same year. The first passenger train on the Union Pacific railroad arrived in Wyoming in 1867. In 1868 the territory of Wyoming was organized. Chej'cnne was designated as the capital, and Laramie was founded. The first territorial legislature convened at Chej^enne in 1869. An act was approved that year giving women the right of suffrage. Coal was discovered in 1869. In 1890 Wyoming was admitted to statehood. Premier Lloyd George Photo by I'. Thompson General Pershing Photo by Press III. Service General Diaz Photo by Int. Film Service LEADERS IN THE WORLD '^AR President Wilson Photo by Clincdinst Marshal Foch Photo by Int. Film Service King Albert Photo by Harrls-Ewing Premier Clemenceau Photo by Brown tiros. Field Marshal Haig Photo by Int. Film ."ierrice Marshal Joffre Photo by Brown Bros. WORLD WAR CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT While there is now no question as to its chief causes, onlj'^ the historian of the distant future will be in position to state with absolute completeness all of the causes of the recent international conflict which for more than four years ravaged mankind. Magnitude of the War. The gigantic struggle involved every continent. It affected in some vital way every leading nation. It interfered in scarcely less degree with the peace or with the prosperity of each lesser state. In the end it embattled twenty-eight nations. These embraced more than nine-tenths of the population of the- globe! Its battle-lines flamed on arctic marshes, in snowy mountain passes, in African jungles, in Asian deserts, in Italian vallej's, and in the fair fields of France. Its circling navies sped to every ocean. The blood of its combatants was commingled in the farthest seas. Its heroes fought in the sky, in moving forts, and in caverns of the earth. Under its banners were arrayed soldiers from every race, the white, the yellow, the red, and the black. In sheer magnitude it stands absolutely unap- proached among all the wars of history. Truly the confhct could not be given a fitter name than that of the WORLD WAR. Complexity of the Struggle. In the very nature of the case, the interplay of causes, motives, and issues involved was exceedingly complex. Further, those who have lived through this period of tremendous stress, whether as actors on its battlefields or as noncombatants in remote regions, have all been too close to local aspects of the struggle to judge with accuracy the comparative importance of what they have actually seen. Only the carefully assembled, verified, and di- gested total of all these observed facts will yield final, correct conclusions. A long period of close study will be required in order to assign with exactness the relative rank of the various causes of the war. Locked archives of the nations will be opened. Secret treaties will be brought to light. The concealed compacts of emperors, kings, chan- cellors, and diplomats will be made known. In a generation or two, perhaps, a complete, authori- tative history of the world war may be written on the basis of all these revealed, proved, and well- weighed facts. The Inciting Incident. The assassination of the Austrian crown prince Franz Ferdinand at Serajevo, Bosnia, June 28, 1914, precipitated the most inexcusably criminal war of human record. But this unfortunate event was a mere incident. The murder of a Habsburg prince by a Jugo-Slav conspirator no more caused the ensuing conflict than a push-button under a finger-thrust causes an electric hght. It merely turned on a death-dealing current already generated by the Habsburgs and Hohenzollerns of Vienna and Berlin. The attack on Servia brought Russia into the war. The violation of Belgium brought Great Britain into it. Brutal defiance of national rights at sea brought the United States into it. Yet none of these events of themselves engendered the war or impelled the world to unite in arms against the Teutonic powers. The Real Cause. The great actuating cause was the insensate ambition of Germany to impose its imperial autocratic rule upon the entire world. Behind it were the racial and national jealousies of Teuton and Slav, of German and Frenchman, of German and Britisher. All these antagonisms had been fostered and fanned well-nigh into flame by a half century of increasing Teutonic aggression. Behind it, too, were the German belief in and de- sire for war in order to fulfU German destiny and to promote German Kultur. Behind it also was the German .will to conquer the Entente powers as a step to European supremacy and thence to world power. Back of it, too, were fifty years of universal military training in Germany, of constant drill in the use of arms, of unceasing military and naval preparation, all conducted with scientific precision, with boasted thoroughness, and complete to the most minute detail. Whatever the relative importance of the various contributing factors, the great outstanding fact, made clearer at each new stage of the conflict, is Germany's responsibility for causing and con- . tinning the war and the inexpiable guilt of the Hohenzollerns for its shocking atrocities. All diplomatic efforts to prevent the war at its beginning were thwarted by Germany's ominoiis opposition. All reasonable endeavors to end it afterwards were rendered futUe by German pre- sumptions of victory and of the right to dictate a conqueror's peace. An Imperial Conspiracy. Leaving to future historians the selection of the exact term with which to denote it, there was, in essence, a criminal conspiracy between the Hohenzollerns of Germany and the Habsburgs of Austria to establish a world empire by force. Confident that they possessed the power, they determined to impose their rule regardless of treaties, national honor, or human rights. These worshippers of militarism resolved to stop at nothing, to respect no law of God or man, but to rob, pillage, desecrate, burn, starve, enslave, torture, outrage, and murder, - — in short, to terrorize by every extreme of frightfulness all who dared to oppose them. Germany expected to strike quickly and to win overwhelming military victory before the other powers wei'e prepared to resist. By exacting stag- gering indemnities from conquered nations, she planned to transform war costs into handsome profits with which to extend still further her rule of blood and iron. To achieve this monstrous design Germany completed vast armaments and built more and more deadly instruments of destruc- tion. With like pi-emeditation and thoroughness Germany placed her secret agents in every country. By a most elaborate S5'stem of espionage she charted her campaigns in advance and rehearsed military attacks in detail years before they were actually delivered. German Propaganda. By cunningly concealed propaganda, Germany systematically sought to lull peaceful democratic nations into a false sense of security. Pacifism and disarmament were covertly encouraged, sometimes to the point of financial support. Even England, under pacifist influences, actually reduced her already puny forces to the "contemptible little army" that the Kaiser later particularly requested his armed hordes to destroy. Side by side with espioiiage and the secret en- couragement of pacifism, a vigorous campaign was conducted to foster belief in the superiority of everything German. The whole world was to be steeped with the idea that the German is a super- man, that German genius transcends all other genius, and that the German unapproachably excels in every field. According to this widelj' proclaimed view to emulate the German would be useless and to compete with him impossible. 182 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Americans, especially, were induced to believe that German thoroughness and German efficiency surpassed that of every other nation. But above all else, the paid tools of the Hohonzollerns extolled German military invincibility. They affirmed that the German army could not be resisted and that to defeat it was beyond human power. They main- tained that German military armaments, munitions, equipment, tactics, leadership, and morale were of a superior order, entirely beyond comparison with that of any other nation. Whole peoples, at times, were brought under the spell of this invincibility myth, though it was exploded whenever Belgians, French, British, or Americans met Germans on equal terms. Germany's Allies. The foregoing facts show how deliberately and with what infinite pains the Hohenzollerns prepared to overthrow the other nations of the world. Yet to this overwhelming evidence must be added the character and the record of Germany's allies. The foremost of these were the Habsburga, a decaying medieval dynasty which, aided by a small minority of Teutons, ruled the dissimilar peoples of Austria-Hungary with iron repression. Habs- burg monarchs for centuries plunged Europe into its most sanguinary wars, usually to settle some dynastic contention or to gratify some imperial whim. The terrible Thirty Years' war was brought on by the Habsburgs. A Habsburg emperor, after the French Revolution, sent armies to destroy the newly founded republic in France. The Habsburg rule long sought to keep Greece under the yoke of the Turk. It was a Habsburg prince, Maximilian, who tried to enthrone himself emperor of Mexico in outright defiance of the United States and the Moiu-oe Doctrine. Further, it was the Habsburgs who fought to prevent Italj- from becoming a nation. Again, it was the Habsburgs of Austria who, in 1908, annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in violation of a solemn treatj^. By these same Habsburgs the Balkan states in 1913 were deprived of the fruits of their victories over the Turks. It was the Habsburgs who planned to crush Servia and to conquer a path to Asia through Slavic countries. Yet these are but a few fragments from the black record of this greedy, reactionary house. Such was the character of the feudal autocracy chosen by Germany as her chief copartner in the proposed subjection and despoil- ment of the nations. The next in order among the accomplices of Ger- many was the unspeakable Turk, whose sultan was proclaimed the Kaiser's special friend and whose religion the Kaiser assumed to defend. The civi- lized world will never read the record of this part- nership without a shudder of horror. With the Kaiser's implied consent, hundreds of thousands of Christians in Armenia were starved and slaughtered by the Turks. To aid further the spread of Hohen- zoUern Kullur, the sultan of Turkey, with encour- agement from Berlin, proclaimed a "holy war," calling on Moslems throughout the entire world to rise and slay their Christian neighbors. Last of all was the traitor czar of Bulgaria, the infamous Ferdinand who betrayed his own people and, at the behest of WUliam II, set his armies at the throats of their fellow Slavs in the Balkans. This venal tyrant was the first to abandon his Hohenzollern master when the "invincible" German armies crumbled in "victorious" retreat. Democracy vs. Autocracy. The consummating evidence of Hohenzollern guilt was found in their barbarous conduct of the war, in their brutal inhumanities on land and sea, and in their impudent hypocrisy in defending them as necessary punish- ments inflicted in "defense" of the fatherland. As the conflict progressed, the issue became ver>' clear. It was autocracy against democracy, — a life and death struggle between monarchical mili- tarism and the free peoples of the world. How nearly the conspiring Hohenzollerns and their des- potic allies succeeded in their sinister designs and how completelj^ the libertj'-loving nations over- threw them at last is shown in the following chro- nology of important events of the WORLD WAR. NOTE: For governments and for geographical boundaries as they existed at the beginning of the war, see the sections on Geography, page 507, and Government, page 585. For changes in governments and rulers resulting from the war, consult the section on History, page 9, and also Rulers of the World, pages 146 and 605, in connection with the following Chronology of the World War. SEVERANCE OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS The nations that formally severed diplomatic relations, whether later declaring war or not, are as follows: Austria against JapanJ Aug. 26, 1914 Austria against Portugal, Mar. 16, 1916 Austria against Servia, July 26, 1914 Austria against United States, . . . Apr. 8, 1917 Bolivia against Germany Apr. 14, 1917 Brazil against Germany, Apr. 11, 1917 China against Germany, Mar. 14, 1917 Costa Rica against Germanj' Sept. 21,1917 Ecuador against Germany Dec. 7, 1917 Egypt against Germany Aug. 13, 1914 France against Austria Aug. 10, 1914 Greece against Austria July 2, 1917 Greece against Turkey, July 2, 1917 Guatemala against Germany Apr. 27, 1917 Haj'ti against Germany, June 17, 1917 Honduras against Germany, .... May 17, 1917 Nicaragua against Germany, . . . May 18, 1917 Peru against Germany, Oct. 6, 1917 Santo Domingo against Germany, . . June 8,1917 Turkey against United States, . . . Apr. 20, 1917 United States against German j% . . Feb. 3, 1917 Uruguay against Germanj% .... Oct. 7, 1917 DECLARATIONS OF AVAR According to the State Department's list, the nations involved in the conflict made declarations of war as follows: Austria against Belgium, Aug. 28, 1914 Austria against Japan, Aug. 27, 1914 Austria against Montenegro Aug. 9, 1914 Austria against Russia Aug. 6, 1914 Austria against Servia, July 28, 1914 Belgium against GermanJ^ Aug. 4, 1914 Brazil ag ainst Germany Oct. 26, 1917 Bulgaria against Servia, Oct. 14, 1915 China against Austria, Aug. 14, 1917 China against Germany, Aug. 14, 1917 Costa Rica against Germany, .... May 23, 1918 Cuba against Germany, Apr. 7, 1917 Cuba against Austria-Hungary, . . . Dec. 16, 1917 France against Austria, Aug. 13, 1914 France against Bulgaria Oct. 16,1915 France against Germany, Aug. 3, 1914 France against Turkey Nov. 5, 1914 Germany against Belgium Aug. 4, 1914 Germany against France Aug. 3, 1914 Germany against Portugal Mar. 9, 1916 Germany against Rumania, .... Sept. 14,1916 Germanv again.st Russia Aug. 1,1914 Great Britain against Austria, . . . Aug. 13, 1914 Great Britain against Bulgaria, . . Oct. 15, 1915 Great Britain against Germany, . . Aug. 4, 1914 Great Britain against Turkey, . . Nov. 5, 1914 Greece (Prov.Gov.) against Bulgaria, Nov. 28, 1916 Greece against Bulgaria July 2, 1917 Greece (Prov.Gov.) against Germany, Nov. 28, 1916 WORLD WAR 182a Greece against Gennany Guatemala against Austria-Hungary, Guatemala against Germany, . . . Hayti against Germany, Honduras against Germany, .... Italy against Austria, Italy against Bulgaria Italy against Germany, Italy against Turkey, Japan against Germany, Liberia against Gerhiany, Montenegro against Austria, .... Montenegro against Germany, . . . Nicaragua against Germany, . . . Panama against Austria Panama against Germany, .... Portugal against Germany (authorizing intervention) Portugal against Germany, .... (granting military aid) Rumania against Austria, (accepted by Austria's allies) Russia against Bulgaria, Russia against Germany, Russia against Turkey, San Marino against Austria, .... Scrvia against Bulgaria, Servia against Germany, Servia against Turkey, Siam against Austria, Siam against Germany, Turkey against Allies Turkey against Rumania, United States against Austiia- Hungary,. . United States against Germany, . . CHRONOLOGY OF THE WORLD WAR July 2, 1917 Apr. 22, 1918 Apr. 22, 1918 July 15, 1918 July 19, 1918 May 24, 1915 Oct. 19, 1915 Aug. 28, 1916 Aug. 21, 1915 Aug. 23, 1914 Aug. 4, 1917 Aug. 8, 1914 Aug. 9, 1914 May 24, 1918 Dec. 10, 1917 Apr. 7, 1917 Nov. 23, 1914 May 19, 1915 Aug. 27, 1916 Oct. 19, 1915 Aug. 7 1914 Nov. 3 1914 May 24, 1915 Oct. 16, 1915 Aug. 6 1914 Dec. 2, 1914 July 22, 1917 Julv 22 1917 Nov. 23 1914 Aug. 29 1916 Dec, 7 1917 Apr. 6 1917 Events of 1914 JUNE— 1914 28. Archduke Franz Ferdinand, crown prince of Austria-Hungary, and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, while attending military maneuvers on the occasion of their first official visit to Serajevo, Bosnia, are assassinated by Gavrio Prinzip, a Ser- vian student. JULY— 1914 33. Austria-Hungary sends an ultimatum to Servia, accusing the Servian government of complic- ity in the murder of the crown prince, Franz Ferdi- nand, and making upon the Servian government demands which no state could fully meet without an actual surrender of its independence as a nation. The Austro-Hungarian note further stipulated that Servia must signify acceptance of these demands within 48 hours. 24. Russia, seconded by Great Britain and France, demands that Austria-Hungary prolong the term of her ultimatum to Ser\ia. When urged by Great Britain and Russia to support this demand for delay, Germany refuses and the proposal is, likewise, flatly rejected by the Austro-Hungarian government. 25. Servia replies to the Austro-Hungarian note in extremely conciliatory terms, agreeing to all demands not invohdng the surrender of her sover- eignty, and proposes, in case her answer is not con- sidered satisfactoiy, to refer the decision to the international tribunal at The Hague or to a council of the great powers. 26. Sir Edward Grey, British foreign secretary, suggests a conference of representatives of the four powers, England, France, Germany, and Italy, for the purpose of a^^i^^ng at a plan to prevent compli- cations between Austria and Rus.sia. To this proposal France and Italy immediately agree but Germany refuses. 27. Answering an inquiry from the Prince Regent of Scrvia, Czar Nicholas II urges Servia to neglect "no step which might lead to a settlement" but promises that if, despite Russia's pacific endeav- ors, war should ensue, "Russia will in no case dis- interest herself in the fate of Servia." 28. Evidently with full approval of Germany and in disregard of all proposals for mediation, the Austro-Hungarian government declares war against Servia at noon (Tuesday). 29. Russia decrees partial mobilization against Austria. Sir Edward Grey urges the German gov- ernment to suggest any method whereby the influ- ence of the four powers. Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy, can be \ised together to prevent war between Austria and Russia. Serious compli- cations between Germany and Russia begin to arise. 30. Germany pronounces objectionable Sazonov's proposal that Russia would desist from military preparation provided Austria should withdraw from her ultimatum such points as violate the sovereign rights of Servia. 31. While Austria-Hungary ostensibly was will- ing to satisfy Russia, relations between Germany and Russia become extremely critical. Austria pro- claims general mobilization of her armies. Russia follows with a similar proclamation. At 7 P. M. Germany sends France an ultimatum demanding within 18 hours a declaration whether, in the event of a war between Germany and Russia, France would remain neutral. Upon being questioned bj' Eng- land, France explicitly agrees to respect the neutral- ity of Belgium but Germany declines to make such a promise. At midnight Germany sends a 12-hour ultimatum to Russia demanding that mobilization cease not only against Germany, but against Austria- Hungary. AUGUST— 1914 1. As demobilization would have rendered Rus- sia defenseless against a combined German and Austrian attack, no reply was made to Gei-many's ultimatum. At 7:10 P. M. Germany declared war against Russia. France, as Russia's ally, sent; a noncommittal reply to the German ultimatum wliich was followed at 5 P. M. by an order for the mobiliza- tion of the French army. Italj', though bound by treaty to the Triple Alliance, but regarding Germany and Austria-Hungary as aggressors, declares that she wUl remain neutral. 2. German troops, \'iolating the neutrality of an independent state, invade Luxemburg. Germany presents a 12-hour ultimatum to Belgium demand- ing free passage of German ai-mies through Belgium to attack France. 3. Belgium refuses to accede to the German de- mands, stating that France had already (.July 31) pledged herself to respect Belgian neutrality. At 6:45 P. M. Germany declares war against; France. 4. German military forces invade Belgian terri- tory at Gemmenich. King Albert, telHng the Ger- man emissaries that "Belgium is a nation, not a road," appeals to Great Britain, France, and Russia (who, with Germany, had by the treaty of 1839 solemnly guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium) for armed assistance in repelling the German invasion. Sir Edward Grey dispatches an ulthnatum to Berlin demanding that Germany respect the neutrality of Belgium. Germany refuses on the ground of "mili- tary neces-sity," the German chancellor. Von Beth- mann-Hollweg, angrily rebuking Great Britain for making war just for a "scrap of paper." At 11 P.M. Great Britain declares war against Germany. 5. German forces attack the forts of Liege, Belgium, and are repulsed with terrific loss. 6. Austria-Himgary declares war against Russia. Servia declares war against Germany. 7. After reducing two of the Liege forts by heavy artillery, German forces enter the city. Russia declares war against Germany. 182b THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 8. French troops occupy Mulhouse. Virst EnKlish forces land in France. Montenegro declares war on Austria-Hungary. 9. Montenegro declares war on Germany. Austria declares war on Montenegro. 13. German heavy artillery begins reduction of the remaining Liege forts. 13. France and Great Britain declare war on Austria. 16. Austrian forces cross the Save into Ser\'ia. 17. Belgian government is moved to Antwerp. Last Liege fortresses fall. 18. Servians defeat Austrians at Jadar. 19. Canada authorizes expeditionary force. Germans occupy Louvain. 20. Germans occupy Brussels. French in Lorraine retreat across the frontier. Joffre assumes command of the allied armies in France. Russians defeat Germans at Gumbinnen. 31. Germans levy a war tax of $10,000,000 on Li6ge and $40,000,000 on Brussels. 23. Belgian fortress of Namur falls. 23. Japan declares war on Germany. French forces, greatly outnumbered, are defeated at the battle of Charleroi, Belgium, compelling rapid retreat into France. Von Kluck, Math about 200,000 men, attacks Sir John French, with two British divisions, about 80,000 men, at Mons, Belgium. 34. Joffre orders general strategic withdrawal of the allied armies to the line of the Marrie. Gen. French leaves precarious positions at Mons and begins notable G-day retreat. 26-37. Germans sack and burn Louvain. British fight stubbornly around St. Quentin and Cambrai. 37. Austria-Hungary declares war against Japan. 38. Austria-Hungary declares war on Belgium. British forces end retreat on the Noyon-Chauny- La F6re line, after losing 230 officers and L3,000 men and inflicting losses estimated three times as great upon Von Kluck's divisions. British fleet under Sir Da-\ad Beatty engages, in Helgoland Bight, a portion of the German fleet, sinking three armored cruisers and two destroyers. 3D. Germans capture La Ft^re. 30. The French evacuate Amiens. 31. Name of Russian capital changed from St. Petersburg to Petrograd. Paris prepares for siege. Von Hindeiil)urg defeats Russians at Tannenberg, capturing 70,000 prisoners. SEPTEMBER— 1914 1. Allied armies continue retreat. Russians defeat Austrians in Galicia. 3. Russian armies capture Lemberg. 3. French government removed from Paris to Bordeaux. 4. German army under Von Kluck, upon reach- ing a point near Louvres, about 17 miles from Paris, the nearest approach made by German forces during the war, turns away from the capital and marches east to strike at the French center behind the Marne. 5. German army begins advance south of the Marne. Joffre disposes the allied forces for a great offensive, ordering his armies to attack and "to die rather than retreat." 6. Battle of the Marne begins, on a line extend- ing from Ermenou'sille to Verdun. With upwards of 1,000,000 men, Joffre confronts German armies totaling 000,000. 7. General engagement continues on the entire line of the Marne with the Allies on the offensive. Germans capture the fortress of Maubeuge. 8. Gen. Gallieni, the "savior of Paris," forms a new army, transports 80,000 men in automobiles eastward from the capital and attacks the rear of Von Kluck's army which is simultaneously attacked on flank by the English army. 9. Left wing of the Allies continues to advance, the British crossing the Marne. Russian army of 1,500,000 overwhelmingly defeats 1,000,000 Austrians in Galicia. Servia wins victory over Austrians on the Drina. 10. Battle of the Marne ends with German armies in full retreat to the Soissons-Rheims line, thus marking the failure of Germany's efforts to crush the French center and capture Paris. 11. Battle in France continues with Allies steadily forcing back the German armies. 13. The great German retreat ends on a pre- viously prepared line from Soissons to the Argonne Forest. Battle of the Aisne begins. 14. French forces reoccupy Amiens. 15. The French reoccupy Rheims. 16. The Russian armies attack Przemysl. 21. Russians capture Jaroslav. 22. Servians defeat Austrians near Krupani. 34. The Allies occupy Peronne. 35. German forces penetrate to St. Mihiel and occupy Camp des Remains. 38. Rheims cathedral bombarded by Germans. Battle of the Aisne closes with both armies approach- ing a deadlock which remained practically unbroken for nearly four years. Turkey closes the Dardanelles. 39. Germans begin siege of Antwerp. OCTOBER— 1914 1. British Indian troops arrive at Marseilles. 3. Russians severely defeat Germans in a great five days' battle near Augustowo. 9. Antwerp surrenders to the Germans. 13. Germans occupy LUle. Allies stoutly resist German advance toward the Channel ports. British capture Ypres. Belgian government removed to Havre. 14. German forces enter Bruges. Canadian forces arrive at Plymouth. 15. Germans occupy Ostend. 30. Germans forced to retreat in Poland. 30. Belgians flood Yser valley, preventing Ger- man advance toward Calais. NOVEMBER— 1914 1. German squadron of five cruisers defeats British squadron of four vessels off Coronel, Chile, sinking the "Good Hope" and the "Monmouth." 3. Russia declares war against Turkey. 7. Tsingtao surrenders to the Japanese. 9. German cruiser "Emden," after sinking 25 rnerchant ships in the South Pacific, is driven ashore at Cocos Islands by Australian cruiser "Sydney." 10. Germans capture Dixmude and cross Yser canal. 11. 30. Russians take Johannisburg, East Prussia. British parliament authorizes an addi- tional army of 1,000,000. 33. Germans heavily attack Ypres, held at great sacrifices by British. 37. Russians occupy Czernowitz. 30. Battle of Flanders for possession of the Channel ports, after six weeks of terrific struggle, ends with the Allies firmly holding their lines from the Lys to the sea. Under the eyes of the Kaiser, several hundred thousand picked German troops had been thrown against the Anglo-Belgian and French forces. The Belgians and the British sacrificed the greater part of their original armies, but, supported by the French luider the direction of Gen. Foch, withstood all onslaughts, maintained control of Calais and Dunkirk, and inflicted upon the (lernian army losses estimated at upwards of 200,000 men. DECEMBER— 1914 3. Austrian forces capture Belgrade. 6. Russians begin bombardment of Cracow. WORLD WAR 19,2c 8. British recapture Passchendaelc. Ser\-ians inflict crushing defeat on Austrian armies, recapturing Ushitza and Valievo. Powerful British squadron under Vice-Admiral Sturdee, destroys CJcrman squadron of five cruisers off Falkland Islands, sinking the "Sc'harnhorst," "Gneisenau," "Niunhcrg," and "Leipzig." The "Dresden" temporarily escaped. 13. Montenegrins inflict further defeat on re- treating Austrians and occupy Vishegrad. 14. Servians recapture Belgrade and expel all Austrians from Servian soil. 16. German cruisers bombard Hartlepool, Scar- borough, and Whitby on east coast of England. Events of 1915 JANUARY— 1915 6. Russians capture Kimpolung in southern Bukowina, near the Rumanian frontier. 14. British forces occupy Swakopmund, German Southwest Africa. 17. Russians capture Kirlibaba pass in the Carpathians. 34. Important naval battle off Dogger Bank, between German battle-cruiser scjuadron raiding coast of England and British squadron under Admiral Beatty, results in sinking of German battle- cruiser "Bliicher" and the flight of the remaining German ships to protected waters. 39. German airships bombard Yarmouth, King's Lynn, and other towns in Norfolk, England. 30. Russians occupy Tabriz, Persia. FEBRUARY— 1915 1-4. Gen. von Mackensen, with 140,000 men, desperately attacks Russians on a 7-mile front at Bolimov, 40 miles west of Warsaw. 4. Germany proclaims the waters around the British Isles a "war zone" after Feb. 18th, declaring her intention to sink every enemy merchant ship found in the zone. 5-8. Russian reenforcements from Warsaw over- whelm the German advance and force Von Macken- Ben's whole army back to the Rawka. 7. Von Hindenburg, after concentrating 9 army corps against 4 Russian army corps in East Prussia, drives the invaders from German soil. 8. Russian warships attack Trebizond. 9. The French capture the heights of Les Eparges but fail to expel the Germans from St. Mihiel salient. 10. The United States government warns Ger- many that the German government will be held to a "strict accountability" if through its proposed policy of submarine warfare any American merchant ships are destroyed or citizens of the United States lose their Uves. 13. German forces occupy Mariampol, Russia. 18. Austrians recapture Czernowitz. 30. In freeing East Prussia the Germans claim the capture of 75,000 prisoners and 300 guns. 34. Germans under Von Hindenburg capture Przasnysz and advance on Ostrolenka. 35. Allied fleet completes the reduction of the forts at entrance to the Dardanelles. 36. German advance against Russians checked near Przemysl. 37. Russian counter-stroke recovers Przasnysz, with 10,000 German prisoners, and forces Von Hindenburg to retreat to the Prussian frontier. MARCH— 1915 3. Austro-Germans, advancing into Galicia, are thrown back to Kolomea. 10. British attack German lines at Neuve Cha- pelle, capture the village but fail to gain the com- manding ridge east of the town. The net result of this severe battle was an advance of about a mile on a 3-mile front, at a cost of 13,000 miui. 13. _ British expedition under Gen. .Ian Smuts wins important victory at Kitovo Hills, German East Africa. 14. German cruiser "Dresden" sunk by British. 18. Great Anglo-French naval attack on inner forts of Dardanelles fails; three battleships lost. 30. Germans b(jml)ard Soissons cathedral. 33. Russians capture the great Austrian fortress of Przemysl, after a siege of four months, taking 120,000 prisoners. 38. British steamer "Falaba" sunk with an American citizen, Leon C. Thrasher, on board. APRILr— 1915 4. Replying to Ambassador von Bernstorff's protest against the shipment of munitions to the Allies, President Wilson states that any change in the laws of neutrality during the progress of a war would be a departure from neutrality and that placing ah embargo on munitions would constitute such a change. 7. Russians capture Smolnik and the Rostok pass in the Carpathians. 11-13. Turks in Mesopotamia defeated at Shaiba. 17. The British in Flanders capture Hill 60. This action marked the beginning of a series of ter- rific assaults and counter-assaults, continuing for six weeks, known as the Second Battle of Ypres. 33. German attack, using asphyxiating gas for the first time, crushes British positions near Ypres. 34. Allied line near Ypres further driven back by second attack of chlorine gas. 35. British begin landing troops at six points on GalUpoli peninsula. MAY— 1915 I. Von Falkenhayn completes preparation for great Austro-German campaign against Russia under Von Mackensen, assembling 26 army corps and over 4000 guns. American steamer "Gulflight" attacked by Ger- man submarine; 3 American lives lost. 3. _ Austro-Germans begin a general offensive in Galicia. _ Von Mackensen inflicts disastrous defeat on Russians at Gorlice. 4. Italy renounces the Triple Alliance. 7. British passenger steamsliip "Lusitania" is sunk without warning by German submarine off Irish coast, with a loss of 1152 lives including 114 Americans, among them Elbert Hubbard, Albert G. Vanderbilt, Charles Frohman, and J. M. Forman. 8. Germans, invading Courland, enter Libau. 9. Gen. d'Urbal, assisted by Foch, Joffre, and later by Petain, with seven army corps and 1100 guns, begins the great Battle of Artois. 10. Repeated attacks by Anzac forces fail to capture Turkish positions at Gallipoli. Russian offensive gains against the Austrians. II. French capture Notre Dame de Lorette and Carency, in the Artois sector. 13. President Wilson sends a note calling upon the German government to disavow the illegal sink- ing of the "Lusitania" and other ships. 15-17. Russians severely defeated on the San. 17. French capture the left bank of the Yser- Ypres canal virtually ending the Second Battle of Ypres which, despite local successes due to the use of poisonous gas, resulted in German defeat. 30. British end 12-day attempt to carry Aubers Ridge with the view of retaking Lille. The net result of the battles of Aubers Ridge and Festubert was an advance of 600 yards on a front of 4 miles. 33. Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary to take effect May 24. 34. San Marino declares war against Austria. 37. Italians cross the Isonzo river near Mon- falcone and capture Pilcante and Ala. Russians force Germans at Sieniawa to retreat across the San with heavy loss. 182r/ THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 28. British and French capture important Turk- ish positions on GaUipoli peninsula. Austrian aeroplanes honihard Venice. Germany makes a nonconimittal reply to Presi- dent Wilson's demands concerning submarine war- fare. 31. French capture Souchez, one of the last important actions in the Battle of Artois. JUNE— 1915 I. Austrians occupy Stryj. 3. Austro-Germans recapture Przemysl. British on the Tigris occupy Amara. 5. Final actions of the Second Battle of Ypres close with Bixschoote and Lizernc again in allied hands, but with Hill 60, St. Julien, and Zonnebekc in German possession. 9. Russians resume offensive in Gahcia. The American government, "contending for nothing less high and sacred than the- rights of humanity," renews its demands upon Germany. II. The Italians capture Gradisca. 16. French capture Althof and Steinbruck. 17. Italians capture important heights in the Gorizia sector. 31. Gen. Petain completes the capture of the "Lal)yriuth," bringing to a close the great Battle of Artois. Wliilc failing of its main object, namely, the capture of the important coal-field and railway center of Lens, the conflict proved that German positions of considerable depth could be carried by sufficient artillery and mining preparation. In this prolonged struggle each side is estimated to have lost 60,000 men. 23. Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg. 28. Austro-Germans launch gigantic offensive against whole Russian line, the concentration for Mackensen's campaign to expel Russians from Galicia aggregating 2,000,000 men and 1500 heavy guns. JULY— 1915 1-7. Russians administer severe check upon Austrian advance at battle of Krasnik. 6. The Italian government proclaims a blockade of the Adriatic. 8. Germany sends a second unsatisfactory answer to the American demand concerning unjusti- fiable methods of submarine warfare. 9. Entire German force in German Southwest Africa surrenders to Gen. Botha. 18. Russians begin evacuation of Warsaw. 21. The United States government sends a pointed note to the German government stating that "it cannot believe that the Imperial govern- ment will refrain from disavowing the wanton act of its naval commander." 23. French forces in Kamerun capture Moopa. 24. Italians destroy one of the forts at Plava. 30. Germans use flame projectors in capturing British trenches east of Ypres. Austro-German forces reach Lublin, Poland. German army crosses Vistula north of Ivangorod. AUGUST— 1915 I. Austria-Hungary protests to the United States against shipments of war supplies to the Entente Allies, asserting that such trade is a viola- tion of neutrality. 4. Immen.se Russian fortress of Ivangorod caj)- tured by the Germans. 6. Germans capture Warsaw. 6. Allied reenforcements landed at Suvla Bay fail to effect the capture of GaUipoli. 9. Austro-Germans break through Russian line between Ostrolenka and Vilna. 10. Austro-Germans capture important Russian fortress of Lomza but are unable to disrupt the main Russian line. II. Russians evacuate Van, Armenia. 13. President Wilson, answering the Austro- Hungarian protest concerning trade in war supplies, reiterates his earlier statements to Germany (See April 4), and points out that to prohibit such trade would make every nation an anned camp and greatly encourage militarism. 15. Germans pierce the Russian line between the Narew and the Bug. Austrian aeroplanes bombard Venice. 17. Victorious Gennan armies capture Kovno and break the strong Russian line on the Niemen, thereby compelling the abandonment of Brcst- Litovsk and the further withdrawal of the Russians. 19. Russian fortress of Novo Georgievsk falls under fire of German heavy caliber guns. The British liner "Arabic" is sunk by a German submarine; two American citizens drowned. 31. Failing to drive the Turks from their lines at GaUipoli, the British resort to trensh work. Italy declares war against Turkey. 33. Austro-Germans capture Kovel, compelling the Russians to evacuate important positions. 35. Austro-Germans occupy Brest-Litovsk. SEPTEMBER— 1915 1. Ambassador von Bernstorff assures Secretary of State Lansing that German submarines will not thereafter sink either belligerent or neutral pas- senger ships without warning. 1-3. Russians abandon the great fortress of Grodno and the entire Niemen-Bug line, leaving the Teutonic armies in full possession of Poland and its immense fortresses. 6. Czar Nicholas assumes command of the Rus- sian armies, supplanting the Grand Duke Nicholas. 7. Austro-Germans capture Dubno. 8. Russian armies, striking back, defeat Austro- Germans at Tarnopol and Tremblowa. 18. Germans take Vilna. 33. Bulgaria orders general mobilization and concentrates troops on Servian border. Italians capture heights of Monte Coston. 34. Anglo-French i^egin the Battle of Loos. 35. Loos village and Hill 70 captured by the English after a terrific struggle. By counter- attacks the Germans recover most of Hill 70. French take Souchez cemetery but lose it in German counter-attack. In Champagne the French penetrate German lines on a 15-mile front. Greece decrees general mobilization. 38. The French attack Vimy Ridge securing the western slopes and most of Givenchy Wood, ending the disastrous Battle of Loos. The failure of the Allies was due to lack of sufficient British reserves and an unfortunate delay in beginning the French advance. The British alone lost 50,000 men. 39. The British force the Turks to evacuate Kut-el-Amara and to retreat on Bagdad. OCTOBER— 1915 1. The Russians finally halt the great Austro- German drive connnanded by Von Hindenburg. The battered Ru.ssian armies, though managing to main- tain a united front, had suffered unparalleled re- verses for five montlis, losing 300,000 killed and wounded and 1,100,000 prisoners. 4. French bring the great Battle of Champagne to a close after taking Massiges plateau and Tahure ridge, together with 23,000 pri.soners, many guns, and much war material. The French staff officially estimates total German los.ses at 140,000. 5. Count von Bernstorff notifies the American government that Germany had given strict instruc- tions to submarine commanders which would abso- lutely prevent any repetition of incidents similar to the "Arabic" case. French and British troops are landed at Saloniki. 6. Austro-German forces estimated at 300,000 under command of Von Mackcnsen cross the Danube near Belgrade to cooperate with the Bulgarian armies in crushing Servia. WORLD WAR 182e 9. Austro-Germans occupy Belgrade. 11. Russians break Austrian line and cross the Stripa. Bulgarians begin attacks on Servia at four points. 13. Edith Cavell, British nurse, is shot by Germans at Brussels. English troops capture portions of the famous "Hohenzollern Redoubt." 14. Bulgaria declares war on Ser\na. 15. Great Britain declares war on Bulgaria. 16. France declares war on Bulgaria. 17. Great Britain offers Cyprus to Greece for fulfilment of Greek treaty obligations to Servia. 18. Servia protests to the United States against German extermination of civil population. 19. Italy declares war on Bulgaria. Russia declares war on Bulgaria, 31. Italians begin general offensive from the Tyrol to the Adriatic. 33. Greece, declining to abandon her neutral policy, refuses to aid Servia in return for the cession of Cyprus. 31. Russian counter-offensive in Baltic stops German advance at Platokovna. NOVEMBER— 1915 5. Nish, Servian war capital, surrenders. 7. Italian forces under Garibaldi capture Col di Lana. 10. Russians, assisted by their fleet, beat back German attempts to capture Riga. 24. Servian government is removed to Scutari. 25. Gen. Townshend, in Mesopotamia, is com- pelled to fall back to Kut-el-Amara where, with about 15,000 men, he is laesieged by the Turks. 29. The German government finally declares that all possible provisions should be made for the safety of persons on a vessel about to be sunk at sea. Apparently this constituted a signal diplomatic victory for the American contention ifor the safety of innocent persons on the high seas. But, as in case of the treaty guaranteeing the inviolability of Belgium and many time-honored provisions of inter- national law, this agreement was later regarded by Germany as only a "scrap of paper." 30. Teutonic alKes capture Frisrend, Servia, with 16,000 prisoners, also Monastir. The German-Bulgarian campaign results in the complete subjection of Servia. Surviving Servian troops numbering less than 100,000 are driven into Montenegro and Albania, pursued by the Austrians. DECEMBER— 1915 6. First meeting of the joint war council of the Allies is held at Paris. 7. Allied forces in Servia retire before Bulgarians. 10. Bulgarians in Monastir tear down American flag from Red Cross hospital and seize stores. 15. Sir Douglas Haig is appointed commander- in-chief of British armies in France. Events of 1916 JANUARY— 1916 8. Complete evacuation of Gallipoli by the British and French. 11. Russian armies under the Grand Duke Nicholas march tlu'ough the mountain passes into Tuj'kish Armenia. 13. Austrian forces occupy Cettinje, the capital of Montenegro, and rapidly complete the conquest of the country. 16. At the end of three weeks* fighting the Russians abandon their attempt to recapture Czernowitz, after suffering losses of about 60,000 men. Though a costly military failure, this demon- stration in Bukowina prevented the central powers from persuading Rumania to join them, and, by forcing the transfer of Mackensen with 250,000 men to the Russian front, relieved the hard-pressed Allies in the Balkans. 19. King Nicholas of Montenegro, following the complete defeat of his armies, flees to Italy. 23. The Austrians occupy Scutari, Albania. 24. The seat of the Montenegrin government is transferred to Boi'deaux, France. 25. The Albanian port of San Giovanni di Medua captured by Austrian forces from Montenegro. 39. German Zeppelin bombards Paris. FEBRUARY— 1916 10. Germany announces armedmerchant ships will be sunk without warning. 16. Russian forces under the Grand Duke Nicho- las infhct crushing defeats upon the Turks in Armenia, capturing the strongly fortified city of Erzerum, with 13,000 prisoners and 300 guns, the total Turkish losses being estimated at 60,000 men. 21. The Crown Prince, having concentrated 14 German divisions against 3 French divisions on a 7-mile sector, from Brabant to Herbebois, where the front line defenses were about 8H miles from Ver- dun, begins the most stupendous series of attacks on a fortified position known to military history. By a withering artillery hxe of unparalleled volume in wliich hundreds of thousands of high explosive sheila of all calibers from 4 to 14 inches were used, the French first line trenches on a three-mile front were demolished and occupied by German infantry on the evening of the first day. 22. Germans, attacking the Verdun defenses, carry Caures Wood with a part of Haumont Wood, and, after leveling Haumont village with a hurricane of shells, take it by storm, compelling the evacua- tion of IBrabant, and crushing by sheer weight of numbers all French counter-attacks. 23. Furious bombardments supported by heavy columns of infantry enable the Germans, though suffering enormous losses, to reach Samogneux, Beaumont, and Ornes in their attack on Verdun. 24. At the end of four days of gigantic attack, after fii'ing, it is estimated, not less than 2,000,000 liigh explosive shells against the French positions and sacrificing tens of thousands of lives in massed assaults, the Germans have battered their way through the French defenses, imtil they stand before Douaumont, the first of the permanent forts guard- ing Verdun. At night, under cover of blinding clouds of snow, the decimated and exhausted de- fenders of the outworks of Verdun retire to prepared positions of great strength on Cote du Poivre (Pepper Hill), 1140 feet high, and on the hill plateau of Douaumont, 1290 feet high. Portugal, urged by England, fulfils her treaty obligations to her ally and requisitions 44 German and Austrian sliips interned in Portuguese waters. 25. Gen. Petain, bringing heavy reeiif orcements , arrives at Verdun and, with inspiring energy, re- organizes the demoralized defense. The Germans, massing 18 divisions, about 400,000 men, on a front of 4^2 miles, from Pepper Hill to Hardaumont, tliroughout the day sent wave upon wave of nia.ssed infantry up the snow-covered slopes of the Douau- mont plateau, only to be broken and destroyetl in appalling numbers by the French machine-gun and artillery fire. Late in the day, by a final supreme assault, viewed from a distant hill by the Kaiser himself, a Brandenburg regiment stormed and took the old dismantled fort of Douaumont, but failed to secure command of the summit of the plateau. 26. Gen. Petain orders a counter-attack which sweeps the Germans back down the hillside and cuts off the Brandenburgers in Fort Douaumont. Austro-Bulgarian forces occupy Durazzo, Al- bania, following its evacuation by the Italians who had there safeguarded the escape of more than 100,000 Servians to Corfu, where they reorganized as a fighting force and later joined the allied armiea at Salouiki. 182/ THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 29. At the end of four days of incessant battle the German attacks on Douaumont slacken. The initial impact of the German drive is broken. The arrival of heavy French reenforcements, tra,nsported in thousands "of motor lorries, marks the passing of the crisis in the Verdun defense. MARCH— 1916 2. Germans begin artillerj^ attacks on Verdun positions west of the Meuse. 5. German Zeppelins raid coast of England. ^ German cruiser "Moewe" reaches a home port after capturing 15 vessels in the South Atlantic. 6. The Germans, northwest of Verdun, capture Forges and Regneville. 10. The Germans, northwest of Verdun, re- capture Crow Wood. 14. The Germans capture lower portion of Le Mort Homme, or Dead Man's Hill, northwest of Verdun. 20. The Germans attack heavily west of the Meuse, near Verdun, and capture Avocoiu-t Wood. 22. The Germans, northwest of Verdun, take Haucourt Hill. French passenger steamer "Sussex" sunk without warning by German submarine, 50 lives lost; all American passengers saved. 27-28. First war council of the Entente Allies meets in Paris. 30. Russian hospital ship "Portugal'! sunk by Turkish submarine. APRIL^1916 1. At the end of a twelve-day battle for Hill 304, northwest of Verdun, the Germans gain Malan- eourt and Haucourt. 2. After desperate attacks continuing over three weeks, the Germans, northeast of Verdun, enter Caillette Wood and take the village of Vaux. 3. The French before Verdun recapture the vil- lage, of Vaux and recover most of Caillette Wood. 8. The total German advance since March 7 at Verdun amounts to a mile on a 6-mile front. 9-11. The Crown Prince sacrifices nine infantry divisions in ferocious assaults on the French line northwest of \'erdun in vain attempts to capture Hill 304 and Le Mort Homme. 18. The Russians occupy Trebizond. After terrific bombardment of the French lines, twelve German regiments attacking Pepper Hill near Verdun are thrown back with great losses. 23. Strong Turkish forces occupy Quatia, Egj^pti 25 miles east of the Suez canal. 29. British army of 9000 men imder Gen. Townshend surrenders to Turks at Kut-cl-Amara. MAY— 1916 15-.Iune 18. Great Austrian offensive against Italians in the Trentino. Austrian attack penetrates Italian front between the Adige and the Astico. 15. The British capture portions of the crest of Vimy Ridge. 20. The Russians join the British on the Tigris. Sixty German batteries, northwest of Verdun, concentrate their fire on Le Mort Homme. German infantry captures the French first-line positions. 22. The French, in front of Verdun, recapture Fort Douaumont. 24. The Germans again expel the French from Fort Douaumont. 29. Culmination of German attacks on Verdun positions west of the Meuse. Adding five fresh in- fantry divisions, the Germans gain Cumi^res, Caurettes Wood, and the summit of Le Mort Homme. 31-June 7. After an eight daj-s' battle the Germans northeast of Verdun capture Fort Vaux, opening, with the capture of Fort Douaumont, a breach in the permanent fortificationa of Verdun only 4H miles from the city. 31. Great naval engagement off the Danish coast, called the Battle of .Jutland, or the battle of the Skager-rak. The British grand fleet under Ad- miral Jellicoe encountered the German high seas fleet under Admiral von Scheer off Jutland, about 200 miles from the German naval base at Wilhelms- havcn and about 400 miles from the British base in the Orkney Islands. The action began when the scouting squadron of battle cruisers under Vice- admiral Sir David Beatty met the leading ships of the German column. At 3:48 P. M. the battle cruisers of each side became engaged at a range of lO^ miles. The engagement continued with the advance squadrons of British battle cruisers attack- ing, regardless of losses, the entire German fleet of battleships and battle cruisers. At 6 P. M. the main division of the British fleet under Admiral Jellicoe came upon the scene and swept the German fleet off the battle area. In the obscuring haze and mist which increased as evening came on, fighting continued intermittently for about two horns. The battle developed into a retreat and a pursuit, the British cruisers and destroyers inflicting heavy losses upon the German ships during the night. A few days after this severe engagement the British amiounced their losses to the world. The Germans, on the contrary, concealed and denied theirs, and the Kaiser proclaimed a stupendous "\4ctory" for the German navy. However, the morning following the conflict found the British fleet patrolling the entire battle area. The alleged "victorious" Ger- man high seas fleet never again attempted to dispute the control of the North sea. Its next close ap- proach to the British fleet was on the occasion of it3 surrender to Admiral Beatty, Nov. 21, 1918. The British lost the battle cruisers "Queen Mary" (27,000 tons), "Indefatigable" (18,750 tons), "In- vincible" (17,250 tons); the armored cruisers "De- fence" (14,600 tons), "Warrior" (13,660 tons), "Black Prince" (13,660 tons) ; two flotilla leaders and six destroyers, ranging from 935 to 1850 tons, together with about 5700 officers and men, includ- ing rear-admirals Hood and Arbuthnot. The German losses are not definitely known but the following were admitted by the German ad- miralty: battleship "Pommern," battle cruiser "Lutzow," four fast cruisers and five destroyers, and about 2500 officers and men. JUNE— 1916 4-30. Russian offensive in Volhynia and Buko- wina. 5. British cruiser "Hampshire" destroyed by torpedo or mine near the Ojkney Islands. Lord Kitchener, British field-marshal and secretary of state for war, his staff, and other prominent men en route to Russia on a secret mission lose their lives. Only 12 out of 670 persons on board survive. 6. The Russians recapture fortress of Lutsk. 10. The Russians capture Dubno and other for- tresses, taking 35,000 prisoners. 15. Russians defeat Austrians on the Stripa, taking 14,000 prisoners. 17. Czcniowitz taken by the Russians who occupy all Bukowina. 22. Arabian tribes in revolt against the Turks capture Mecca. 23-24. The Germans, northeast of Verdun, capture Thiaumont Redoubt and Fleury. 27. King Constantine of Greece decrees complete demobilization of the Greek army. 30. Russians capture Kolomea, in Galicia. JULY— 1916 1. French and British begin powerful offensive, known as the Battle of the Somme, which continues until November. This relieves the German pressure on Verdun but fails to break the German lines. 5. The French storm German .second-line posi- tions on the Somme, capturing Hem and Estrees. ^^()RLD WAR 182(7 14. The British, using; cavalry for the first time since 1914, penetrate German second line north of the Somme on a 4-milo front. 17. The Russians repulse the Austrians south- west of Lutsk, taking 13,000 prisoners. 35. The British occupy Pozi6ros captured from the Germans on the Somme front. 28. Capt. Charles Fryatt is executed by the Germans at Bruges, following his conviction by court-martial of attempting to ram a German sub- marine on March 28, 1915. AUGUST— 1916 1. British naval forces occupy the port of Sadani, Gorman East Africa. 5. The Bj'itish rout the Turks at Romani, near the Suez canal, capturing 3000 prisoners. 9. The Italians capture Gorizia, taking 10,000 prisoners. 16. The French advance around Maurepas on the Somme front. 19. The British advance at Thiepval and High Wood on the Somme front. British cruisers "Nottingham" and "Falmouth" sunk by German submarines in the North sea. 37. Rumania declares war on Austria and strikes at the passes of the Transylvania Alps. Italy declares war on Germ any. 31. Turkey and Bulgaria declare war on Ru- mania. SEPTEMBER— 1916 2. Bulgarian and German forces enter Rumania on the Dobrudja frontier. 6. The Bulgarians and Germans capture Turtu- kai, taking 20,000 Rumanian prisoners. 12. Bulgarians and Germans occupy the Greek port of Kavala. 15. The Bi-itish, using a new type of armored car, capture positions on the Somme front. 23. German Zeppelins raid England. 26. Combles, on the Somme front, captured by the Allies. 29. Rumanian forces severely defeated in Tran- sylvania. OCTOBER— 1916 7. The Rumanians in Transylvania withdraw to the Carpathian frontier. 8. The German submarine U-53 sinks, off Nan- tucket, Mass., four British and two neutral steamers. 10. The Italians capture Novavilla, taking 6400 prisoners. 11. The Allies demand the surrender of the Greek fleet. 22. The Rumanians lose their important Black Sea port, Constanza, to the Germans. 24. The French under Gen. Mangin recapture Fort Douaumont, Fleury, Caillette Wood, Thiau- mont, Damloup, and all the other important posi- tions lost to the enemy during the siege of Verdun. In less than seven hours three French divisions re- cover the ground which the flower of the German armies had struggled in terrific daily battles for seven months to obtain, at a loss to the Germans estimated at 250,000 to 500,000 men, and to the French of nearly an equal number. In this final operation which marked the climax of the costly German failure, the French took 6000 prisoners with total casualties of less than 5000. The moral effect was a humiliating defeat to Germany while the French rejoiced that their battle-cry "Passeront pas!" {They shall not pass) had been proved true. NOVEMBER— 1916 1. The Italians advance east of Gorizia, captur- ing Bossvica and 5000 prisoners. 6. British liner "Arabia" sunk mthout warning in the Mediterranean. 7. The French take Ablaincourt and Pressoire. 13. The British advance on the Ancre, taking 3500 prisoners. 18. Austro-Germans in Rumania reach the Wal- lachian plain. 25. Austro-German forces continue the invasion of Rumania, capturing imi)ortant towns. 28. The Rumanian capital is removed from Bucharest to Jassy. The Greek provisional government under Venizc- los declares war on Germany and Bulgaria. DECEMBER— 1916 1. The Allies land marines in Greece, seizing PiriEUS and Athens. King Constantino agrees to the demands of the Allies. 6. Bucharest captured by the Austro-Germans. 10. Lloyd George, made British prime minister following the resignation of Asquith, announces new war cabinet. 12. Gen. Nivelle appointed commander-in-chief of the French armies. 15. The French, attacking northeast of Verdun, penetrate the German lines, capturing important works, 11,000 prisoners, and 115 cannon. 18. President Wilson asks the belligerent na- tions to state their war aims. 26. _ Germany, replying to President Wilson's note, ignores his request for definite statement of peace terms and suggests a peace conference. Events of 1917 JANUARY— 1917 8. Germans capture Fokchany, taking 4000 prisoners, and Gabresska with 5400 prisoners, prac- tically completing the conquest of Rumania. 10. The allied governments state their terms of peace. 17. Great Britain repeats to President Wilson the allied demand for the expulsion of the Turks from Europe and mentions specifically the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France and of Italia Irredenta to Italy. 24. German troops thrust back the Russian lines near Riga. 25. The Germans capture Russian positions on the Galician fi'ont. 31. Germany proclaims unrestricted submarine wai'fare, declaring her intention to sink without warning all merchant ships in the war zone, specify- ing that one American ves.sel a week will be per- mitted to sail on a prescribed route under certain limited conditions. FEBRUARY— 1917 1. Ten vessels are sunk with the loss of 8 lives on the firs't day of unrestricted submarine warfare. 3. The United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany. Count von Bcrnstorff is given his passports. 6. Fourteen ships, including the passenger steamer "Port Adelaide," are sunk by submarines in the war zone. 8. Brazil, Peru, Chile, Uruguay, Bolivia, Panama, Cuba, and Argentina refuse to recognize the German blockade. 10. Ambassador Gerard leaves Germany. 16. British troops in Mesopotamia force the Turks back on the Tigris. 22. Seven Dutch steamers torpedoed by a Ger^ man submarine while sailing supposedly under a safe conduct from Germany. 24. Kut-el-.\mara captured by British. 25. The British attacking German positions on the Ancre capture Serre. 26. President Wilson asks authority to arm mci-chant ships. 182/1 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 28. The U. S. {idvornmcnt publishes a communi- cation from ZimuK^rniaiin, (ioruKui foreign minister, to the German niiiiif^t(>r at Mexico City, suRgesting an alliance against the United States whereby Mexico would be given opportunity to rcconq\ier Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. MARCH— 1917 I. Submarine warfare during February resulted in the sinking of 134 entente vessels and 54 neutral vessels, total tonnage, 465,770. II. The British under Gen. Maude capture Bagdad. 12. The American steamship "Algonquin" sunk by a German submarine. 15. Revolution in Russia compels abdication of Czar Nicholas II. 17. Allied forces in France advance on a front of 45 miles. The British capture Bapaume, and the French take Roj^e and Lassigny. 17-19. Germans in France retire to Hindenburg line, evacuating 1300 square miles of territory on a front of 100 miles, from Arras to Soissons. 21. The American steamer "Healdton" torpe- doed by German submarine, with loss of 21 lives. 22. German raider "Moewe" returns from a second cruise in the Atlantic during which 27 vessels are said to have been sunk. 24. The British announce retaking of 54 towns and 600 square miles of territory in districts evac- uated by the Germans in their strategic retreat to the Cambrai-St.Quentin-Laon line. 26. The "St. Louis," first American armed ship defying German submarine blockade, arrives in a British port. 29. The British in Palestine defeat the Turks near Gaza. APRIL— 1917 1. The armed American steamer 'Aztec" is torpedoed without warning by a German submarine oflf Brest, with the loss of 11 lives. 3. The Germans repulse the Russians in Vol- hynia. 6. The United States declares a state of war exists with Germany. 9. Canadian troops capture Vimy Ridge. Other British attacks near Arras make important gains. 13. The British advancing between the Scarpe and the Loos, capture Vimy, Givenchy, and other positions about Lens. 14. War credit of $7,000,000,000 voted by Con- gress; loans of $3,000,000,000 to the Allies au- thorized. 18. After a tliree days' battle between Soissons and Rheims, the French announce the capture of 17,000 prisoners. 23. Strong British attacks near Vimy, supported by tanks, gain at all jjoints on 8-mile front. British airplanes destroy 39 German • machines with a loss of two. 30. The Russians in Armenia evacuate Mush. MAY— 1917 4. American naval squadron begins operations in European waters. The French cai)ture Craonne, near Rheims. 12. The British and French announce captures, in operations since Ajml 9, of a total of 49,579 men, 444 field guns, and 943 machine guns. 14. The Italians begin an offensive from Tol- mino to the sea, advancing their lines east of Gorizia and on the Car.so. 15. Gen. Petain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as com- mander-in-chief of the French armies, with Gen. Foch as chief of staff. 16. The British capture Bullecourt. 18. Selective Service act passed by Congress. 24. The Italians capture important positions near Jamiano, taking 10,000 prisoners. 30. The armed American steamer "Silver Shell" destroys an enemy submarine in the Mediterranean. JUNE— 1917 4. Austrian counter-attacks regain positions lost to Italians near Jamiano. Gen. Brusilov succeeds Gen. Alexcieff as com- mander-in-chief of the Russian armies. 5. Registration in United States of 9,587,000 men of draft age. 7. The British, storming the German lines on a 9-mile front, capture the whole Messines-Wytschaete ridge, taking 6400 prisoners. Nineteen mines, bur- rowed for a year beneath the ridge, and filled with hundreds of tons of explosives, were exploded at the moment of attack, the shock being perceptible in London. 13. Gen. Pershing and his staff arrive in France. 25. The French win an important position on the Chemin des Dames. 26. The first American troops are landed in France. JULY— 1917 1. Russian army, led in person by Kerensky, begins offensive in Galicia, capturing 10,000 prison- ers but ending later in a disastrous retreat (July 19-Aug. 3). 3. German attacks on the Chemin des Dames are repulsed. American expeditionary force reported to have safely arrived in a French port after defeating two submarine attacks en route. 7. Twenty-two German airplanes bombard Lon- don and the Isle of Thanet, killing 59 people. 10. By sudden attack the Germans capture British positions east of the Yser, north of Nieuport. 20. Kerensky becomes premier of Russia. The Austro-Germans in Galicia advance against the Russians on a 26-mile front, capturing important positions. 23. The Russians in Galicia retreat on a 155- mile front from the Sereth to the Carpathians. 31. The French and British in attacks near Dix- mude capture many villages, including Verloren- hoek, St. Julien, and Bixschoote. AUGUST— 1917 2. The Kerensky government in Russia renews its pledge to the Allies to continue the war. 3. The Austro-Germans capture Czernowitz which changes hands for the tenth time during the war. 8. German troops under Mackensen reach the Susitza river; Russo-Rumanian forces retire in the Okna valley. 14. China declares war on Germany and Austria. 15. The Canadians, advancing near Loos, cap- ture Hill 70, dominating Lens. The Germans burn St. Quentin cathedral. 19-22. The Italians resume the offensive on a 37-niile front, capture Selo, and take 13,000 prisoners. 20. The French capture important positions north of Verdun, including De.ad Man's Hill. 29. The Austro-Germans in Rumania occupy important positions abandoned by mutinous Rus- sian troops. SEPTEMBER— 1917 1. The Italians on the Isonzo report the capture of 14 fortified mountains and 27,000 prisoners. 3. The Germans occupy Riga, evacuated by the Russians. 8. United States department of state publishes text of messages of Count Luxburg, (Jerman charg6 d'affaires at Buenos Ayres, to the German foreign office in Berlin. These were sent by the Swedish legation in Argentina to the Swedish foreign office in Stockholm as their own official messages. They contained the recommendation of Count Luxburg WORLD WAR 182i that Argentine merchant ships should either be allowed to pass the blockade or else be "sunk with- out a trace" {spitrlos verscnkt). 14. The Italians capture Monte San Gabriele. Russia proclaimed a republic, with Kerensky premier. 21. The Germans on the Dvina capture Jacob- stadt, and repulse the Russians on a 25-mile front. 26. The British, attacking the German lines near Ypres, capture Zonnebeke. 28. The British in Mesopotamia take Ramadie, capturing the Tiu-kish army under Ahmed Bey. 29. The Italians take important heights on the edge of the Bainsizza plateau. OCTOBER— 1917 1. German airplanes raid London. 9. Franco-British attack near Ypres results in capture of Poelcappelle. 12. German navy lands forces in the Gulf of Riga. 17. The Russian fleet, defeated in the Gulf of Riga, is trapped in Moon Sound. 18. The Germans, attacking by land and sea, capture Moon Island. The Russians begin evacua- tion of Reval. 23. The French, near' Soissons, take Malmaison fort and 8000 prisoners. 24. Austro-Germans inflict disastrous defeat upon the Italians at Caporetto, compelling their withdrawal on a wide front with heavy losses. 25. The French drive the Germans across the Oise-Aisne canal, taking 12,000 prisoners and 120 cannon. 26. The Austro-Germans reach the Italian fron- tier, inci'easing their captures to 60,000 prisoners and 300 guns. Brazil declares war on Germany. 28. The Austro-Germans capture Gorizia. The Italian losses resulting from the Austro-German breach at Caporetto exceed 100,000 prisoners and 700 guns. 31. The Austro-Germans reach the line of the Tagliamento, capturing 60,000 prisoners and several hundred guns from the Italian rearguard. NOVEMBER— 1917 3. German raid on a front-line salient in France occupied by American troops repulsed with loss of Private Thomas F. Enright, of Pittsburgh, Corporal James B. Gresham, of Evansville, Ind., and Private Merle D. Hay, of Glidden, Iowa, the first Americans killed in action. 5. The Italians abandon their lines on the Tagliamento and begin to retreat on a 93-mile front. 7. Overthrow of Kerensky and provisional government of Russia by the Bolsheviki. The Austro-Germans, outflanking the Italian rearguard on the Tagliamento, capture 17,000 prisoners. 8. Gen. Diaz appointed commander-in-cliief of the Italian forces, succeeding Cadorna. 9. The Austro-Germans take Asiago and reach the line of the Piave which the Italians successfully defend. 16. Clemenceau made premier of France. 20-22. Battle of Cambrai. Successful surprise attacks delivered by British under Gen. Byng, be- tween St. Quentin and the Scarpe, penetrate Ger- man positions west of Cambrai to a depth of five miles on a 10-mile front, tanks being employed to break down wire entanglements. Over 8000 pris- oners and many guns were captured. 22. The Bolsheviki government in Russia an- nounces demobilization of a part of the armies. 23. The Italians repulse powerful Austro-Ger- man attacks from the Asiago plateau to theBrenta. 27. Russian Bolshe\ik envoys enter German lines and arrange negotiations for an armistice. 30. German attacks south of Cambrai penetrate British line to a depth of two miles on a 7-mile front, taking 4000 prisoners. DECEMBER— 1917 1. First meeting of the Allies' supreme war council at Versailles. 2. Surprise counter-attack by Germans near Cambrai forces British to give up a fourth of the ground gained by Gen. Byng's advance of Nov. 20-22. Berlin claims the capture of 6000 British. ' 3. Bolshevik emissaries begin negotiations for an armistice with the Germans at Brest-Litovsk. 5. The British evacuate Bourlon Wood and other positions west of Cambrai. 6. Explosion of munitions vessel wrecks Halifax. The Austro-Germans take Monte Sisemol on the Asiago plateau, capturing 4000 prisoners. 7. The United States declares a state of war exists with Austria-Hungary. 10. British forces under Gen. Allenby occupy Jerusalem. 11. Powerful Austrian attacks against the Ital- ians between the Brenta and the Piave are repulsed. 14. Allied naval council formed. 23. Austro-German forces on the Asiago plateau storm Col del Rosso and Monte Valbella, cutting off 6000 Italians from the main army. Events of 1918 JANUARY— 1918 2. Germany demands of Russia Poland, Cour- land, Esthonia, and Lithuania. 8. President Wilson states to the Senate fourteen points or conditions in his ^dew necessary for the establishment of peace. 18. Lloyd George declares to trades union con- ference: "We must either go on or go under." 20. British, in naval action at entrance to the Dardanelles, sink the Turkish cruiser "MiduUa," formerly the German "Breslau," and disable the "Sultan Yawuz Selim," formerly the German "Goeben." 28-29. Italian forces capture Col del Rosso and Monte Valbella. FEBRUARY— 1918 6. Mackensen in ultimatum to Rumania de- mands that peace negotiations begin in four days. 9. Central Powei's and Ukraine sign a treaty of peace. 11. Bolsheviki declare end of the war. 15. Germany renews war on Russia. 18. The Bolsheviki capture Kiev. 21. Germans advance in Russia, capturing Minsk and Rovno, with enormous food and war supplies. 23. The United States embassy leaves Petrograd for Vologda. MARCH— 1918 3. By treaty of peace with the four Central Pow- ers, signed at Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshe-vik govern- ment pledges to evacuate Ukraine, Esthonia, Livonia, Finland, Erivan, Kars, Batum, and the Aland islands, also to pay a large indemnity. 9. Russian capital removed from Petrograd to Moscow. 13. German troops occupy Odessa. 18. Great Britain and the United States take over Dutch shipping in British and American ports. 21. Germans begin tremendous offensive on a 50-mile front from Arras to La Fc^re. 23. Tlie Germans break the British front in the Cambrai-St. Quentin-La F^re sector, practically destroying Gen. Gough's army and taking Peronne and Ham. Berlin claims capture of 25,000 prison- ers and 400 field guns. Paris bombarded by long- range guns placed at a distance of 73 miles. 182j THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 24. The Germans continue to force back the British on the Sonime front, capturing Bapaume, Nesle, Guiscard, and Chauny. 25. The Germans capture Barleux and Etalon. The French take over a portion of British front south of St. Quentin and around Noyon. AUies lose 45,000 men and 600 guns. 37. Lloj'd George appeals to America for reen- forcements. 28. Gen. Pershing places all American forces in France at the disposal of Gen. Foch. 29. Gen. Foch chosen commander-in-chief of all alhed forces. The German long-range gun kills 75 worshippers at Good Friday service in a church in Paris. APRIL— 1918 1. The AlUes hold against all German attacks on the western front, inflicting enormous losses. The French estimate German casualties during 11-day offensive at about 300,000. 5. The Germans claim capture since March 21 of 90,000 prisoners and 1300 guns. 6. President Wilson states that Germany's chal- lenge will be met with "force to the utmost." 10. British and Portuguese forced back six miles near Armenti^res and La Bassee canal. 12. Field-Marshal Haig issues his famous back- to-the-wall order: "All positions must be held to the last man." The Germans capture Armenti^res. German airplanes bombard London and Paris. 13. The British line holds against massed German attacks from Armenti6res to Hazebrouck. 16. Bolo Pasha executed in France for treason. 18. German attacks west of La Bassee and Givenchy fail to break the British line. 20. Americans repulse German raid at Seicheprey. 22. British naval raid blocks entrance to Zee- brugge, preventing exit of submarines. 24. German forces, attacking whole front south of the Somme, are held to shght local gains. 25. The Germans force back the French and British in the Lys salient. 26. The First Di\-ision of the American army goes into line on the Picardy front. 28. The Germans capture Kemmel Hill. MAY— 1918 1. Gavrio Prinzip, Servian assassin of the Austro-Hungarian archduke Franz Ferdinand, dies in an Austrian fortress. 6. Rumania signs treaty of peace with Central Powers. 14. ItaHan naval forces enter the harbor of Pola and sink an Austrian battleship. 19. Major Raoul Lufbery, American aviator, shot down near Toul. Australian troops capture Ville-sur-Ancre. 25-June 14. German submarines sink 19 ships off the Atlantic coast of the United States. 27. The Germans capture the Chemin des Dames ridge, regarded as impregnable, and sweep forward toward Paris on a 40-mile front. 28. The great German "^^ctory drive" reaches the Aisne. The American First Di\'ision wins the battle of Cantigny, capturing the town in a brilUant attack, the first American offensive. 29. The Germans take Soissons, with 25,000 prisoners. Alhed retreat continues. 30. German counter-attacks on Cantigny re- pulsed by the Americans. The Fifth and Sixth regi- ments, United States Marines, ordered to the Marne battle front where the Germans are nearest Paris. JUNE- 1918 1. The great German drive, rolling forward 6 or 7 miles a day, reaches the heights of the Marne near Chateau Thierry, only 60 miles from Paris. Arriv- ing at the battle front, the American Marines go into the Une at Chateau Thierry. 2. In the fierce battle of Chateau Thierry the American Marines block the German drive at the point of its nearest approach to Paris, hurling back the enemy's veteran battahons. This victorious stand electrifies France. 3. At Jaulgonrie, German shock troops force the passage of the Marne but are driven back across the river by American counter-attacks. 6-7. American Marines, attacking strong posi- tions in Belleau Wood, near Chateau Tliierry, drive the Germans back more than 2 miles, capturing Bouresches and entering Torcy. 9. The Germans, compelled finally to notice the Americans, in a report referring to the attack of June 0-7 on Belleau Wood, say: "Americans who attempted to attack northwest of Chateau Thierry were driven back beyond their positions of depar- ture with heavy losses." The Germans begin a new drive between Mont- didier and Noyon. 10-11. American Marines attack, with bayonet and rifle, machine gun positions considered im- pregnable bj^ the enemy and complete the capture of Belleau Wood, south of the Ourcq, putting out of action three crack German divisions and seriously damaging their morale. W'hile in itself a minor engagement of the great war, tliis victory proved the fighting quality of the Americans and infused a new spirit of confidence into the Allies. 11, Allied counter-attacks regain much ground between Montdidier and Noyon. The Germans claim capture of 75,000 pi'isoners since May 27. 13. The German high command, regardless of losses, hurls specially selected divisions of shock troops against the Marines in Belleau Wood "in order to prevent at all costs the Americans being able to achieve success." Though depleted in num- bers, the Marines not only withstand all attacks but continue to advance. 15. The Austrians launch a powerful offensive against the Italians on a 90-mile front but are everywhere held to unimportant gains. 19. The Germans, attacking Rheims from three sides with 40,000 men, are severely repulsed. 23. The Italians drive the Austrian armies across the Piave in full retreat from the Montello plateau to the Adriatic sea, inflicting losses estimated at 180,000 and ending German hopes of Austrian assistance on the Franco-Belgian front. 24. The American Marines begin final series of attacks to clear the Germans from positions about Belleau Wood. 28. British surprise attack gains important positions between Pont Tournant and La Becque. 30. In honor of the bravery and sacrifice of the American Marines in capturing Bouresches and Belleau Wood, the French order the forest officially renamed Bois de la Brigade de Marine, or Marine Brigade Wood. English and Japanese troops land at \1adivostok. JULY— 1918 1. The American Second Division captures Vaux. 4. Australian and American troops recapture Hamel and Vaire Wood, strengthening the alhed positions near Amiens. 12. Former czar Nicholas II. of Russia reported slain by Bolshcviki. 14. Lieut. Quentin Roosevelt, son of Theodore Roosevelt, is killed in aerial flight on the French front. 15. The fifth great German drive of the year begins on a 50-mile front from Vaux to the Cham- pagne. In this final ofTensive the Germans force the passage of the Marne but are soon outfought by the French, Americans, and Italians and held to narrow gains purchased at staggering cost while Foch makea ready for his counter-stroke. At Dormans the Americans, after witKdrawing WORLD WAR 182Jb four miles, in a furious counter-attack drive the Germans back to the Marne, inflicting severe losses. 18. Gen. Foch begins the long series of increas- ingly effective attacks which finally crush Teutonic resistance on all fronts in the greatest offensive campaign in militarj' history. 18-22. In the victorious allied tlunast towards Soissons, made on a front of 25 miles in the Marne salient, the American First and Second Divisions are given the place of honor with picked French divisions. Without artillery preparation the in- fantry attacked at dawn everywhere forcing back the Germans from 3 to 6 miles during the first day. At the end of the fifth day of continuous advance, the First Division gained the heights above Soissons, while the Second had taken Vierzj'. The two divisions captured 7000 prisoners and 100 field guns, greatly shattering the morale of the opposing German troops. 19. British troops capture Meteren. 20. The American troops, attacking on the Aisne-Marne front, have captured 17,000 prisoners and 560 guns. The defeated Germans withdraw completely from the south bank of the Marne. 20-29. British and French troops attacking on the Ardre, southwest of Rheims, advance 4 miles. 24. German losses since the beginning of Gen. Foch's counter-attack estimated at 180,000. 24-27. The' Forty-second American di^dsion fights its way through the Foret-de-Ffere to the Ourcq. 28. F^re-en-Tardenois captured by French and Americans. 29. The First Australian division takes Merris. AUGUST— 1918 2. Soissons retaken by the French. 3. The Allies advance on a 30-mile front to the Aisne and the Vesle, regain 50 villages, and complete the capture of the Marne salient. 4. American troops capture Fismes. 5. Foch made marshal of France. 7. American troops cross the Vesle. 8-12. The British win the important battle of Amiens. Sixteen Canadian, Australian, and other British di\asions. assisted by tanks and motor machine guns, heavily defeat twenty German divi- sions, forcing them back 12 miles, freeing the Paris- Amiens railway, and taking about 22,000 prisoners and over 400 guns. This victory added to the French-American success in the Marne salient greatly stimulates the confidence of the Allies. 8. The French, under Gen. Debeney, attacking in cooperation with the British in the Amiens sector capture Pierrepont, Plessier, and Fresnoy. 10. The P'rench take Montdidier and advance to Chaulnes. Americans capture Chipilly and Fismette. 13. Estimates place the captures made by the allied armies in JYance since July 18 at 70,000 prisoners, 1000 guns, and 10,000 machine guns. 15. The Canadians capture Damery and Parvil- lers, near Roye. 17. American Fifth Division captures Frapelle. 19. The French reach Lassigny. 20. Gen. Foch begins successful attack on a 15-mile front between the Aisne and the Gise- 8000 prisoners captured. Czecho-Slovak forces in western Siberia capture Shadrinsk. 21-31. The British under Gen. Byng win the hard-fought battle of Bapaume, overwhelming the Germans on a 33-milc front from Lihons to Mcicatel. In this decisive action 23 British divisions, assisted by tanks, drove 35 picked German divisions entirely across the old Somnie battle field, inflicting terrible losses, taking Bapaume and many other important positions, and capturing 34,000 prisoners and 270 field guns 22. The British under Byng recapture Albert. 25. The British advance 10 miles on a 30-mile front, capture La Boisseile, Sapignies, and St. Leger, and take 17,000 prisoners. 26. Canadian troops attack on the Scarpe and recapture the stronghold of Monchy-le-Preux. 27. French troops capture Roye. 28. The French take Chaulnes and Nesle and 40 villages, reaching the Canal du Nord. 30. Gen. Pershing's army takes over the allied line from Port sur Seille, east of the Moselle, west through St. Mihiel to Verdun. 31. The British capture Kemmel Hill. The French cross the Canal du Nord. The Australians storm Mt. St. Quentin. SEPTEMBER— 1918 1. American forces advance beyond Juvigny. Peronne captured by the Australians. The British during August take 57,318 prisoners, 659 guns, and about 6000 machine guns. 2. The Canadians capture the powerful Dro- court-Queant line of defenses, taking 8000 prisoners. Republic of Czecho-Slovakia formally recognized by the United States. 3. The battle of the Scarpe ends with the Ger- mans in a wide retreat to the Hindenburg line. Attacking with 10 divisions, the British overthrow 13 German di\'isions and take 16,000 prisoners. 5. The Allies advance on a 90-mile front. 6. The French occupy Ham and Chauny. The Germans withdraw from the Lys salient. 8. American troops capture Glennes. 10. The French forces close on the Hindenburg line near St. Quentin, La F^re, and St. Gobain. 12. Gen. Persliing, having concentrated 600,000 American troops on a 40-mile front, from Les Eparges to the Moselle, attacks and captures the supposedly impregnable St. Mihiel saUent, taking 16,000 prisoners, 443 guns, and hmnense war stores. The success of this first independent offensive con- ducted by American troops greatly heartened the Allies and convinced the Germans at last that they had a formidable new army to fight. New Zealand troops mn the battle of Havrin- court, opening the way for operations against the Hindenburg line. 16. The British cross the St. Quentin canal. 18. The British win the desperate battle of Epehy, breaking through elaborate defense systems on a 17-mile front from Holnon to Gouzeaucourt, further clearing the way for attacks on the Hinden- burg fine. Franco-Servian forces advance 10 miles on a 20- mile front against the Bulgarians. 18-22. Gen. Allenby, commanding British forces in Palestine, routs the Turks at the battle of Samaria, eventually capturing 75,000 prisoners and vast war supplies, thereby destroying the military power of Turke5^ 25. The Bulgarians in Macedonia retreat on a 130-mile front as a result of crushing defeat in the battle of Cerna-Vardar. 26. The American forces under Gen. Pershing begin the great Meuse-Argonne offensive, with the specific object of breaking through the Hindenburg line and the Argonne forest defenses in order to cut the vitally important railroad communications of the German armies through Mezi^res and Sedan. The accomplishment of this would not only endanger the entire German plan of retreat but might actually compel the surrender of the German armies. On the first day the Americans drove through the barbed- wire entanglements and mastered all the first line defenses. 27-28. Americans on the Meuse-Argonne front penetrate heavily fortified German lines to a depth of from 3 to 7 miles, capturing 10,000 prisoners. 27. British begin attacks between Cambrai and St. Quentin which result in the rupture of the Hindenburg defense system. 1821 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 38. Gen. Haig's forces cut the Cambrai-Douai road. The French capture Fort Malmaison. Canadian troops take Raillencourt and Sailly. 29-Oct. 1. The 27th and 3()th American divi- sions given place of honor with the AustraHan corps under British command in powerful attacks which Vireak through the Hindenburg line along the St. Quentin canal near Gouy and Le Catelet. 29. An English division breaks through the Hindenburg line near Bcllenglise tunnel. French pierce Hindenburg line between St. Quen- tin and La Ffere. 30. Bulgaria ceases hostilities under armistice terms equivalent to surrender. The Belgians capture Roulers and take 300 guns. OCTOBER— 1918 1. Gen. Allenby captures Damascus. 3. The French enter St. Quentin. 3. The British enter Lens and Armentiferes. Kjng Ferdinand of Bulgaria abdicates. 4. The Americans renew attacks on entire Meuse-Argonne front, meeting with desperate resis- tance along the Aire. 6. The German chancellor asks President Wilson for an armistice. 7. British, French, and Americans, attacking between St. Quentin and Cambrai, advance on entire front, taking Beaugard and Fremont. Hinden- burg line penetrated south of Cambrai. 8. Allies under British command crush the Cambrai-St. Quentin front, forcing the Germans to the rear of the Hindenburg line. 9. The British take Cambrai. 10. Americans capture Argonne Forest. The British advance 12 miles beyond Cambrai, completely smashing the famous Hindenburg line and capturing Le Cateau. 12. Americans on the Meuse front gain 5 miles on a 40-mile front, defeating 7 German divisions and capturing 10,000 prisoners. 13. The French capture Laon and La F^re. The 77th American division takes Grandpre. 14. American troops break the Kriemhilde line. 17. Allied armies capture Ostend, Bruges, Lille, and occupy Douai. 18. Allied forces take Zeebrugge, Thielt, Tour- coing, and Roubaix. The Americans capture Bantheville. 19. German armies in full retreat from the North sea to the Sambre. American Second Army Corps, at the end of two weeks' attacks against Hindenburg defense system, completes an advance of 13 miles, taking 6000 prisoners. 24. British armies defeat Germans on a 25-miIe front between the Sambre and the Scheldt, taking 7000 prisoners and 100 field guns. Allied armies under Gen. Diaz begin a tremendous offensive against entire Austrian line in Italy. 25. The Germans flood river valleys in the Argonne region in vain attempts to stop the Ameri- can advance. 26. Ludendorff, failing to extricate the German armies from the ever tightening grip of Foch's forces, is compelled to resign the chief command. 28. Italian armies under Gen. Diaz drive Aus- trians back 5 miles on a 45-milc front. 30. The Italians advance 12 miles beyond the Piave on a 50-niilo front. Austria asks Italy for an armistice. 31. Turkey virtually surrenders to the Allies under the terms of an armistice. NOVEMBER— 1918 1. The Americans begin final advance on the Meuse-Argonne front. 2. Gen. Diaz, commanding 54 Italian and 4 allied divisions, routs the Austrian armies on a 125- mile front. Paris report announces that, since July 15, the Allies on the western front have taken 362,355 prisoners, including 7990 officers, 6217 cannon, 3907 mine-throwers, and 38,622 machine guns. 3. Austria signs terms of truce amounting to full military surrender. In defeating the Austrians in the great offensive begun Oct. 24, the Italians captured over 300,000 prisoners and .5000 guns. 4. The British capture Valenciennes, and ad- vance 5 miles on a 30-mile front. American armies arrive within 9 miles of Sedan. 5. Attacking between the Sambre and the Ar- gonne, the French take 4000 prisoners. 6. Gen. Pershing's forces, in an advance of 25 miles since Nov. 1, arrive opposite Sedan and cut the main line of German communications, thereby winning the decisive battle of the Meuse. In des- perate attempts to hold back 20 divisions of Americans on the Meuse-Argonne front, Sept. 26- Nov. 6, the Germans used, in all, 40 first class divi- sions, or more than a half million of their best troops. 7. The Americans enter Sedan and push toward the Briey iron mines. The French armies advance 10 miles, gravely menacing German communications in the center. On the Franco-Belgian border, the British drive the Germans practically out of France. With their main communications with Lorraine cut, and the division of their forces into three inferior armies threatened, the once powerful German military machine, now hopelessly defeated, faces annihilation or surrender. 8. Germany's peace delegates meet Marshal Foch and receive the Allies' terms. 9. British forces capture Maubeuge. French cavalry pursues German rearguard across Belgian border. The retiring German chancellor. Prince Maximil- ian, announces that the Kaiser has decided to abdi- cate his tlixone. Friedrich Ebert assumes office as chancellor and proclaims that a new government at Berlin has taken charge to prevent war and famine. Revolutions spread throughout Germany. 10. Gen. Pershing begins movements to capture the iron fields of Briey and to isolate Metz. The British reach the outskirts of Mons, where in 1914 the original "contemptibles" made their first stand against Von Kluck. The former Kaiser flees to Amerongen, Holland. 11. Germany's envoys sign armistice terms at Senlis, at 5 A. M. Paris time, to take effect at 11 A. M. Emperor Charles I of Austria alxlicates. 16. Belgian troops enter Brussels. 19. Marshal Retain, at head of French army, enters Metz. 21. German fleet under Admiral Meurer, manned by 14,000 officers and men, surrenders to the British fleet inider Admiral Beatty. 22. King Albert, with Queen Elizabeth, enters Brussels, opens parliament with Gen. Pershing at his side, and reviews the allied troops. 24. Advance units of American army of occupa- tion enter Rhenish Prussia. 25. Marshal Retain, accompanifnl by Gen. Castelnau, makes formal entry into Strasbourg. 29. British army reaches the German frontier. DECEMBER— 1918 1. American troops occupy Treves. 3. The American army of occupation takes up a line 60 miles in length, centering around Coblenz. 4. President AVilson sails from New York, on the "George \\'ashington," to attend the Peace Con- ference at Versailles. 6. British cavalry enters Cologne. 8. Belgian troops enter Diisseldorf. 10. The French army occupies Mainz. WORLD WAR 182m Events of 1919 Jan. 18. The International Peace Conference, composed of delegates from the nations associated in the war against the Central Powers, formally opens at Versailles. The first sessions were held in the palace where, in 1871, during the siege of Paris, William VII of Prussia was proclaimed emperor of Germany. The five members of the American delegation were President Wilson, Secretary of State Robert Lansing, General Tasker H. Bliss, Colonel Edward M. House, and former Ambassador Henry White. Prominent delegates from other nations were Premier Clemenceau of France, Premier Lloyd George and Foreign Secretary Balfour of England, Premier Orlando and former premiers Sonnino and Salandra of Italy, Premier Venizelos of Greece, Premier Borden of Canada, and Premier Hughes of Australia. Upon motion of President Wilson, seconded by Premier Lloyd George, Premier Clemenceau was chosen chief presiding officer. Jan. 19. Parliamentary elections in Germany. Feb. 7. Jugoslavia recognized by the United States. Feb. 11. German Parliament adopts provisional constitution. Friedrich Ebert chosen president. Feb. 14. President Wilson submits draft of League of Nations to Peace Conference. Feb. 21. Supreme Council of Allies decides to recognize Polish government under Paderewski. Mar. 13. President Wilson returns to Peace Conference after trip to United States. Mar. 21. Italian delegation notifies Peace Con- ference that it will withdraw unless Fiume is assigned to Italy. Apr. 22. Italian delegates withdraw from Peace Conference, as a protest against rejection of their demand for Fiume. Apr. 23. President Wilson issues statement regarding Fiume, denying Italian demand. May 6. Chinese Cabinet instructs delegates not to sign Peace Treaty awarding German rights in Shantung to Japan. May 7. Peace Treaty delivered to German Delegation at Versailles. Italian delegates rejoin Peace Conference. June 28. Peace Treaty with Germany signed at Versailles. July 10. German National Assembly ratifies Peace Treaty. July 20. Complete Peace Treaty delivered to Austrian Delegation at St. Germain. July 31. Peace Treaty ratified by British Parliament. Aug. 4. Rumanian forces, invading Hungary in violation of armistice terms, occupy Budapest. Aug. 24. Kiev captured from Bolsheviki by the Ukranians. Sept. 10. Peace Treaty with Austria signed at St. Germain. Sept. 12. D'Annunzio, with a force of volun- teer Italian soldiers, occupies Fiume in defiance of the Italian government and the decisions of the Peace Conference. Oct. 7. Italy ratifies Peace Treaty. Oct. 13. France ratifies Peace Treaty. Oct. 30. Japan ratifies Peace Treaty. Nov. 8. Czecho-Slovak National Assembly rati- fies peace treaties with Germany and Austria. Nov. 14. Budapest, Hungary, evacuated by the Rumanians. Nov. 19. Peace Treaty refused ratification by the United States Senate. Nov. 27. Peace Treaty with Bulgaria signed. Dec. 5. Jugoslavia signs treaties with Austria and Bulgaria. FINANCIAL COST OF THE ^VAR According to bulletins issued by the Federal Reserve Board, the total cost of the war from the outset to the signing of the armistice can be esti- mated at between 170 and 180 billions of dollars. Other estimates vary from 150 billions to 250 billions. Estimates of the final total monetary costs to the leading nations involved have been made as follows: Allies Great Britain, $ 52,000,000,000 United States 40,000,000,000 France .32,000,000,000 Russia 30,000,000,000 Italy 12,000,000,000 Rumania, .3,000,000,000 Servia, 3,000,000,000 $172,000,000,000 Central Powers Germany .S 45,000,000,000 Austria-Hungary, 25,000,000,000 Turkey 5,000,000,000 Bulgaria, 2,000,000,000 $ 77,000,000,000 Reckoning the dead and the permanently dis- abled through battle, disease, and famine at 15,- 000,000, and assuming the economic productive value of each at only $3,000, the world has been further impoverished by the war in the sum of 45 billions. The total cost is claimed by some to have exceeded that of all former wars of history combined. GROWTH OF U. S. ARMY AND EXPEDITIONARY FORCES According to the report of the Secretary of War, at the date of the signing of the armistice over 25 per cent of the entire male population of the country between the ages of 18 and 31 were in military service. This indicates a growth in the size of the army in 19 months of nearly twentyfold. The steps in this amazing growth are shown in the following table: Date 1917 Apr. 1 July 1 Aug. 1 Sept. 1 Oct. 1 Nov. 1 Dec. 1 1918 .Ian. 1 Feb. 1 Mar. 1 Adf. 1 May 1 June 1 July 1 Aug. 1 Sept. 1 Oct. 1 Nov. 1 In U. S. AND Pos- sessions 190,000 480,000 .516,000 640,000 883,000 996,000 1,060,000 1,149,000 1,257,000 1,386,000 1,476,000 1,529,000 1,. 390,000 1,384,000 1,365,000 1,425,000 1,599,000 1,672,000 In the Am. Ex. Forces 20,000 35.000 45,000 65,000 104,000 129,000 176,000 225,000 253,000 320,000 424,000 722,000 996,000 1,293,000 1,576,000 1,834,000 1,993,000 Total 190,000 500,000 551,000 691,000 948,000 1,100,000 1,189,000 1,325,000 1,482,000 1,639,000 1 ,796,000 1,9.53,000 2,112,000 2,380,000 2,658,000 3,001,000 3,433,000 3,665,000 The following table shows registrations and en- listments by states according to tabulations made by the War Department: lS2n THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS SELECTIVE SERVICE REGISTRATION AND ENLISTMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1917-1918 With Alaska, Porto Rico, and Hawaii included, the grand total of registrations approximated 23,709,000. Slightly more than 2,800,000 registrants were inducted into service through local draft boards and through inductions of indi- viduals. The column showing number of soldiers furnished by states includes voluntary enlistments by men who had registered but does not include soldiers previously in the army, or the marine corps, or other naval enlistments. St.\te Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Dist. of Columbia. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas '. . . . Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. . . . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. . New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina. . . North Dakota. . . . Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania .... Rhode Island .... South Carolina . . . South Dakota. . . . Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia. . . . Wisconsin Wyoming June 5, 1917 182,499 37,355 149,097 298,989 84,125 160,037 22,122 32,372 83,226 232,537 41,606 645,037 255,754 215,939 150,347 190,629 159,475 60,593 121,598 362,825 374,317 222,698 139,321 297,456 88,299 118,278 12,090 37,519 304,208 33,497 1,009,345 197,481 65,963 554,709 170,956 63,319 815,973 53,589 128,019 57,899 188,946 409,743 44,158 27,244 181,526 110,167 125,846 244,884 22,896 United States. 9,586,508 June 5, 1918 15,358 1,695 13,208 18,834 6,923 10,380 1,430 2,622 7,380 16,715 2,788 44,842 20,093 18,032 13,122 18,626 13,819 6,207 10,428 24,909 25,799 21,029 12,071 25,608 4,255 9,875 561 2,776 20,574 1,674 69,529 16,743 5,086 43,540 16,315 4,701 63,237 3,849 10,776 5,197 18,153 34,256 3,051 2,354 15,788 7,705 11,522 20,599 1,831 744,865 Aug. 24, 1918 3,914 335 2,797 3,923 1,356 2,205 416 610 1,251 3,691 605 9,696 4,140 3,737 2,646 3,773 2,699 1,106 2,188 5,269 5,178 3,747 2,660 5,341 830 1,959 107 600 4,792 465 15,115 3,833 1,177 8,946 3,407 947 13,692 785 2,532 1,087 3,810 7,334 630 531 3,335 1,688 2,583 4,301 285 Sept. 12, 1918 235,753 52,870 193,569 478,410 122,244 197,426 30,033 52,751 111,058 285,475 58,169 852,131 350,852 280,303 210,924 267,905 209,129 87,687 177,098 475,020 452,771 286,243 185,105 421,056 100,784 152,630 17,039 52,B03 425,136 43,326 1,357,044 251,644 85,728 762,741 238,748 106,883 1,149,322 73,503 157,877 78,471 257,609 521,474 53,224 40,887 251,053 192,573 179,085 308,871 34,357 158,054 12,966,594 23,456,021 Total 437,524 92,255 358,671 800,156 214,648 370,048 54,001 88,355 202,915 538,418 103,168 1,551,706 630,839 518,011 377,039 480,933 385,122 154,593 311,312 868,023 858,065 533,717 339,157 749,461 194,168 282,742 29,797 93,498 754,710 78,962 2,451,033 469,701 157,954 1,369,936 429,426 175,850 2,042,224 131,726 299,204 142,654 468,518 972,807 101,063 71,016 451,702 312,133 319,036 578,655 59,369 Number of soldiers obtained 67,000 10,000 59,000 102,000 31,000 44,000 7,000 13,000 31,000 79,000 17,000 232,000 • 93,000 92,000 59,000 72,000 62,000 22,000 43,000 114,000 123,000 86,000 58,000 115,000 34,000 43,000 5,000 12,000 95,000 12,000 328,000 71,000 25,000 185,000 76,000 26,000 275,000 16,000 49,000 28,000 70,000 155,000 16,000 9,000 67,000 39,000 52,000 87,000 11,000 3,417,000 MOBILIZED STRENGTH AND CASUALTY LOSSES OF THE WORLD TVAR Allted Natiox.s Mobilized Belgium British Empire . France Greece Italy Japan Montenegro . . . . Portugal Rumania Russia Servia United States . . Total 267,000 7,500,000 7,600,000 230,000 5,500,000 800,000 50,000 100,000 750,000 12,000,000 707,343 4,272,521 Dead 20,000 692,005 1,385,300 15,000 460,000 300 3,000 4,000 200,000 1,700,000 322,000 67,813 Wounded 60,000 2,037,325 2,675,000 40,(X)0 947,000 907 10,000 5,000 120,000 4,950,000 28,000 192,483 Prisoners or Missing 10,000 360,367 446,300 45,000 1,393,000 3 7,000 200 80,000 2,500,000 100,000 14,363 Central Powers .Austria-Hungary Bulgaria Germany , Turkey Total Grand Total 39,676,864 4,869,478 11.065.715 4,956,233 6,-500,000 40I),W)0 11,000,000 l,(iO(),000 19,500,000 59.176,864 800,000 101,224 1,011,104 ^3(K),00()_ 2,812,328 7,681,806 3,200,000 152,399 3,683,143 570,000 1,211,000 10,825 772,522 130,000 7,605,542 18,671,257 2,124,347 7,080,580 Total Casualties 90,000 3,089,757 4,506,600 100,000 2,800,000 1,210 20,000 10,000 400,000 9,150,(X)0 450,000 274,659 20,892.226 5,211,000 264,448 6,066,769 1,000,000 12,542,217 33,434,443 Copjrigl.t, !-'.';>, 1)J XMlmnii l'l."lu Co. CHARLES WILLIAM ELIOT LANGUAGE It has been estimated that more than twelve hundred languages were spoken in the two Americas. These languages give evidence of no continuously progressive type of culture. The many tribes have changed their vocabu- laries; but the identical method of putting words together has survived without change. One striking characteristic is the frequency of long words. This is well illustrated by the Aztec word for letter-postage — amatlocuilolit- quitcaUaxtlahuilli, the literal meaning of which is, " the payment received for carrying a paper on which something is written." By compari- son and classification of the countless dialects and languages, they are reduced to a few great groups: the Tumeh group covers the northern part of the Rocky Mountains; the Aztec group has its seat in Central Mexico and Central Amer- ica; the Maya group has its seat in Central America and Yucatan; the Appalachian tribes include all those with which the English and the French first came into contact from the Atlantic to the basin of the Mississippi, and also the tribes of the northern part of South America; the Amazonian tribes occupy a large part of South America. The Hamitic race belongs historically to the northern parts of Africa, the southern parts of Europe, and the western parts of Asia. The Hamitic people were called, by the historic Greeks, Pelasgic. Their civilization has been so overlaid by that of the Aryans as to be almost wholly obscured. The great Hamitic civiliza- tion was that of Egypt, long considered the earliest of all the civilizations. HAMITIC TONGUES Sidonian, Egyptian, Berber, Iberian, or or or Rotic Libyan Biscayan AMERICAN LANGUAGES Koptic Pelasgian, (probably) Minspan, (probably) Galla (probably) Before the Nineteenth Century we knew little more of Semitic literature than what was contained in the ancient Hebrew Scriptures and in that body of Arabic literatvu'e that grew up after the era of Mohammed. Our knowledge has been greatly added to by the numerous inscriptions which have been found and de- ciphered. The Semitic races first appear his- torically in the great desert region covering Arabia and extending to the border of the Mes- opotamian River valleys. The Semitic tongues are different dialects, rather than different lan- guages. ^ The Koran made the Arabic language sacred, as well as classic. About the Eleventh Century that treasure-house of tales, "The Thousand Nights and a Night," was produced. From the Canaanite family came our Hebrew Bible, a library of very varied literature. Blackfeet, Cree, Montagnoi, . . . . Micmoc Ottawa, Abenaki Passamaquoddy, . Pequoid Mohegan Lenape, Nanticoke, Powliatan, Miami Sac Fox Kickapoo Shawnee Seneca, . . Cayuga, . Onondaga, . Oneida, . . Moliawk, . Tuscarora, , Huron, . . . As'siniboin, Sioux, . . . Crow, . . . Winnebago, Omaha, . . Mandan, . . Oto Ponca, . . . C)sage, . . . Kansas, . . Tutelo, . . Cherokee, . Creek, . . . Choctaw, . Chickasaw, Yemassee, . Seminole, . Caddo, . . Pawnee, . Arickaree, Wishita, . Ute, . . . Comanche, Carib, . . Arawak, . Chippewa, Kutchin, Kenai, . . Tacullie, . Umpqua, Hoopab, . Apache. . Navajo, . Lipan, . . 2 ^ Toltec, . . Aztec, . . Chichimec, Pipile, . . Nicarao, . Alaguilac, dM Itza, 1 ^ Tzendal, d Quiche o Cakchiquel I W Huasteca, [ i Maya, S Quichua \ % Amard, J ► Algonkin, . . . Iroquois,. . . . Dakota, .... Chahta-Muskoki Caddo, Kioway Shoshonee, . . West Indian, . Tupi, • .. • • Guarani, . . Mundurucu, Ordra, . . . Ticuna, . . Parentintin, Mura, . . . Purupurii, . Piro Mirdnha, . . Caishdna, • \l 184 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS a"" O GO P o H < O GO 1^ o o H ;?; >^ S ^ (V = .5 2 -a f Old High German Middle High German High German Gothic Old Dutch — Low German \ Anglo -Saxon- Friesian Saxon f Dansk Scandinavian -i Svensk I Norsk SEMITIC LANGUAGES Chaldisan, or Babylonian. Lettic Lithuanian Old Prussian Lettic [ Russian E. Salvic I Bulgarian [ Illyrian iLech Czech Palabian Doric Aeolic Attic Ionic (3 _C3 Portuguese Romansch Ul y. Wallachian H Ladin < _fl 1-1 Italian b3 ca- -< 1-4 y. Catalan ) > y Castilian ) h Provencal a 03 Old French Welsh Cornish (died out beginning of Nineteenth Century) s ;- Breton (intro- '^ duced from Britain) GaUic (inscrip- tions in Gaul) Gaelic a Q ■ Erse Ma nx Jewish, . . Aramaic, Syriaf, . . Nabalffian, Palmyrite, Hebrew (proper) Phenician, . . . Canaanite, . . Edomite, . . . Moabite, . . . Punic, or Carthaginian, Assyrian. -Aramaic. Hebrew. Arabic. Sabnean following Minsean, which may have been Hamilic. Ethiopic, or Geez. Amharic (possibly Hamitic). Aryan {Indo-European, Indo-Ger- manic) Family. To this family belongs the first place. From the Aryans sprang both Persians and Greeks midway in its development; this family rules both Eu- rope and America, the Afi'ican coasts and Australia, as well as the north and south of Asia. Its hterature, both in abun- dance and quality, is unsurpassed by those of any of the other world fami- lies of language. From the Aryans have come the great world literatures in politics, art, letters, science, and religious truth. From them came the Iliad and the Odyssey, the Vedas of India, and the Shdh-ndmeh of Persia, the Eddas of the Norsemen, the Gudrun, the Lay of the Nibelungs, the Beowulf, the Romaunt of Roland, the Arthurian Tales, and the Keltic Mabinogion. One group of the Aryan family con- quered and civilized India and Ceylon. Sanskrit was the language in their day of greatness. The group that traveled farthest west was the Kelts. These were soon followed by the Teutonic tribes. Then came the Slav, Serb, or Wend. "The care of the national language I consider as at all times a sacred trust and a most important privilege of the higher orders of society. Every man of educa- tion should make it the object of his un- ceasing concern, to preserve his language pure and entire, to speak it, so far as is in his power, in all its beauty and per- fection. * * * ^ nation whose language becomes rude and barbarous, must be on the brink of barbarism in regard to everything else. A nation which allows her language to go to ruin, is parting with the best half of her intel- lectual independence, and testifies her wil- lingness to cease to exist." — F. Schlegel. "It is with words as with sunbeams, the more they are condensed the deeper they burn." — Southey. "Though our comparison might be bold, LANGUAGE 185 it would be just as if we were to say that the English language is a conglomerate of Latin words bound together in a Saxon cement; the frag- ments of the Latin being partly portions intro- duced directly from the parent quarry, with all their sharp edges, and partly pebbles of the same material, obscured and shaped by long rolling in a Norman or some other chaimel." — Whewell. The English language is a conglomerate. Whenever there is an invention made or a psycliological truth discovered, or a new article of commerce is introduced, or contact or inter- course with a new nation or people is estab- lished, a new word or set of words is added to our vocabulary. Every new game or fashion creates new names. Our complex civilization is reflected in a complex vocabulary or lan- guage. It is important that we should familiarize ourselves with the sources of our language, and with the sources of its strength, and each do his share towards preserving it in its purity and beauty. We should have an intelligent interest in our mother tongue in order that we may use it intelligently. We must spend a little time in the study of the past of our lan- guage, because it is only in the liglit of that past that the present is intelligible. Few of us are conscious of the changes taking place now, yet these changes must be taking place, for ours is the same language used by Chaucer, yet how different. New words are coming in, and old ones becoming obsolete every year. Slang is responsible for the introduction of many new words. When we first hear a slang phrase, we are surprised; but in this day of great surprises, we quickly grow accustomed to it, and soon adopt it as an integral part of our language. We use it as though it were not a thing of yesterday, but had existed as long as the language itself. If we were to examine some of these slang terms, we should find that many of them have been incorporated into the language, and are properly used in polite society and in serious composition. Trench says, "If the English language were to be divided into a hundred parts, forty-five of these might be Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as now some prefer to call them; forty-five Latin (including, of course, the Latin which has come to us through the French); five perhaps would be Greek. We should, in this way, have allotted ninety-five parts, leaving the other five to be divided among all the other languages, which have made their smaller contributions to the vocabulary of our English tongue." It will be interesting to find what classes of words come from the different sources. The Anglo-Saxon is the basis of the English language; it is the warp while the Latin is the woof. The monosyllables in great part are Anglo-Saxon. The articles, conjunctions, pro- nouns, prepositions, numerals, and auxiliary verbs are Saxon. Verbs of action and words that relate to the primary action of the senses are Saxon, as, think, feel, sing, see, talk, walk, run, and the like. Ever since the English language began we have been filibusters; we have plundered every other tongue for words to make our meaning plain; we have raided where we would, and have never hesitated to put ourselves under obligation to all strangers coming to our shores, or whose shores we have visited. The history of the English language is, in fact, but the his- tory of the English people, and of their doings. The early British language was under debt to the Celts, first of all ; and we find in our pres- ent-day vocabulary such words as apply to Celtic things, as, bard, shamrock, whiskey, clan, dirk, cromlech, kilt, etc. The Anglo-Saxons, while they eagerly discarded words of Celtic origin, as did the French later, enriched their language from the Latin. The Roman occupation of Britain, from about A. D. 43 to A. D. 410, bequeathed to us five or six terms: castra, a camp, has been retained in Doncaster, Lancaster, Gloucester, Winchester, Bibchester, Exeter, formerly Excestre; strata, a paved road, in street, Park street, Stratford, Stretford, Streat- ham, Stradbroke; colonia, a colony, in Lincoln; portus, a harbor, in Portsmouth, Portchester, Portsea; pons, a bridge, in Pontefract; fossa, a ditch, in Fossway, Fossbridge; vallum, a rampart, in Wallbury. The conversion of the British to Christianity is marked by another influx of Latin words and terms relating to the Church: abstinence, avarice, bounty, cardinal virtues, conscience, charity, chastity, confession, consistory, contemplation, contrition, indulgence, recreant, relic, reverence, sanctity, spiritual, unity, etc. Then the Danes lent a hand, giving us: to plough, to ask. Nor is it without a strange irony that the lawless Vikings gave us our word "law." The early supremacy of the Dutch in agriculture, in horticulture, and in ship building is made evident by the fact that a large proportion of the English words, dealing with the farm, the garden, and the ship, are of Dutch origin, and were borrowed from the brave little republic when the English went to school to the Hol- lander, to learn what he had to teach. A few of the words they give us are: ahoy, aloof, ballast, bluff, blunderbuss, boom, brack, brack- ish, brandy, bruin, duck (a fabric), golf, growl, hoarding, knapsack, landscape, leaguer, loiter, manikin, measles, mope, inumps, pink, sheer, slim, sloop, swab, switch, uproar, wagon, yacht, dock, hull, skipper, fly boat. During the First Century that followed the Conquest in 1066, the language of the native population was, as they were themselves, utterly crushed and trodden under foot. The Conquest revolutionized our language as it did our life. A foreign dynasty, speaking a foreign tongue, and supported by an army of foreigners, was on the throne of England; Norman ecclesiastics filled all the high places of the Church, and places of honor and emohmient. This meant that French became the language of the court, of society, and even of the many Norman families who employed the Saxons as servants. But the masses of England still spoke their native tongue. The better or richer families of the Anglo- Saxons began to adopt the French fashions and manners, and to speak the French language, as a mark of gentility. The many churches and castles, which the Normans built in different parts of England, meant that the French would 186 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS there be used, and add to the influence at work to make a new EngHsh language. The lan- guage of chivalry was exclusively French, and brought in such words as honor, glory, renown, host, champion, vahant, feat, achievement, courtesy, gentle, etc. With the lawyer, who was a great power during this time of transition, came such words as advocate, alliance, chattels, demise, devise, demurrer, domain, estate, fief, homage, liege, loyaltj^, manor, personaUty, pur- suit, realty, treaty, voucher, etc. The words which describe the pursuits of gentlefolk are mostly of French origin; and it is a curious comment on history that, as Wamba points out in "Ivanhoe," while Uve animals — ox, sheep, calf, swine, deer — re- tain their native names, they are described by French words — beef, mutton, veal, pork, veni- son — when they are brought to table. The "Saxon" serf had the care of the animals while they were alive, but when killed they were eaten by his "French" superiors. Abundant words relating to law, government, and property have their origin in the Conquest. Such are: custom, prime, court, assize, tax, county, city, judge, jury, justice, prison, goal, parliament, manor, money, rent, chattel, mortgage, council, bill, act, etc. The French had shown their greater genius for war, and so, very naturally, their miUtary terms were accepted. Army, battle, fortress, cannonade, assault, siege, hau- berk, ambuscade, brigadier, colonel, arms, armor, standard, banner, harness, glaive, tower, and lance are some of them. From the fact that butcher, grocer, mason, carpenter, barber, chandler, cutter, draper, and tailor are of French extraction, we should con- clude that the strangers were superior to the natives in the industrial occupations. "It is owing to the coming of William," says Dr. Freeman in his "History of the Norman Conquest," "that we cannot trace the history of our native speech, that we cannot raise our wail of its corruption without borrowing largely from the store of foreign words wliich, but for his coming, would never have crossed the sea. So strong a hold have the intruders taken on our soil that we cannot tell the tale of their com- ing without their help." Nearly all the scholarly writers of to-day have been classicallj' educated, and they 'tvTite for readers presumed to have more or less knowl- edge of Latin, hence they do not hesitate to use Latin derivatives, and often anglicize a Latin word rather than invent a native English com- pound. It is this tendency which has kept us from forming compound words, as do the Gex'- mans for each new idea. But recently the Ger- man Emperor put forth a strong plea for the use of the native words instead of the foreign words, which the people were adopting so readily. He even wanted them to use a native compound in place of the cosmopolitan word telephone. The English tongue is fortunate in that it is an ingenious and partial compound of German and Latin. The German gives force, the Latin sonority to our verse and prose, while an inter- changing of German and Latin gives a variety which every other language may seek in vain. Most of our scientific nomenclature is from the Greek. Not only do we get our scientific terms from the Greek, but also the names for the new instruments and processes; as, hthography, photography, telephone, cinemo- tograph, etc. Our musical vocabulary is largely from the Italian, as the following words bear witness: contralto, duet, opera, piano, quartet, solo, sonata, soprano, stanza, trio, trombone, allegro, adagio, baritone, cantata, canto, fugue, can- zonet, etc. The French give us terms of dress and cook- ing: flounce, jewel, pattern, plait, toilet, ton- sure, vesture, trousseau, costume, model, peruke, drape, embroider, furbelow, jacket, apparel, apron, bracelet, brooch, buckle, fricassee, fritter, gem, jelly, juice, omelet, parboil, peel, pie, rag- out, sauce, sausage, victuals, salad, etc. The advent of the Enghsh in the New World is known by the adoption of tobacco, potato, tepee, wigwam, toboggan, moccasin, pemmican, etc. Were it wise to use the space for it, illustra- tions of words taken from every language could be given. But enough has already been done to show the composite make-up of our mother tongue, and to show the sources of its strength. Every American should speak English. If a foreign word has been adopted into the Eng- lish language, why not let it take the English forms? Let the plural of syllabus be syllabuses; of cactus, cactuses; of focus, focuses; etc. Let others take on the English spelling; as, technic, not technique; grip, not gi-ippe; con- servatory, not conservatoire; exposure, not expose, etc. Only a pedant will use serviette in place of napkin. Let the student or would-be author not try to adorn his style with foreign words; let him use the most usual terms to produce the desired effect. Let him remember that, though Eng- lish has borrowed a great deal of French, though it has lost a large stock of English words, though it has adopted many a French idiom, and has been influenced by French in endless indirect ways, it still remains English. In former times "hard work made one sweat"; now-a-days excessive labor causes profuse per- spiration. If a man, thus overheated, were to stand in a draught, he might catch his death of cold, get very sick, and even die. This reads well enough as an ordinary warning; but in a treatise on hygiene for popular use, the matter is now presented as follows: "If a person, whose system is excited by vigorous exertion, should suddenly expose himself to a current of air, he would probably check his perspiration and con- tract a disease which might involve the most serious and even fatal consequences." Which form of expression shall we cultivate? Which recommends itseK to you? Dr. Freeman says: "In almost every page I have found it easy to put some plain Enghsh word, about whose meaning there can be no doubt, instead of those needless French and Latin words which are thought to add dignity to stjde, but which in truth only add vagueness. I am in no waj'^ ashamed to find that I can write purer and clearer English now than I did four- teen and fifteen years back; and I think it well LANGUAGE 187 to mention the fact for the encouragement of younger writers. The common temptation of beginners is to write in what they think a more elevated fashion. It needs some years of prac- tice before a man fully takes in the truth that for real strength, and above all, for real clear- ness, there is nothing like the old English speech of our fathers." CAPITALS 1. The first word of every full sentence should begin with a capital, vmless a literal reprint of the writing of an illiterate person, who does not begin a sentence with a capital, is to be made. Two lines of invasion were adopted. Montgomery descended Lake Champlain witli 2,000 men, and after a campaign of two months captured iVloutreal. 2. Every line or verse of poetry should begin with a capital. Morning, evening, noon, and night, "Praise Godl " sang Theocrite. Then to his poor trade he turned. Whereby the daily meal was earned. The initial letter in the first word of a poetical quotation, though not beginning a line, shoulii be capitalized. But that's not enough : Give my conviction a clinch ! 3. The name of the Deity in every person, and in every synonym or attribute, should be- gin with a capital; as, God, Christ, Jesus, Son, Holy Ghost, Jehovah, Heaven, Creator, Provi- dence, Infinite One, Supreme Being, etc. When the attributes of the Deity or of the Saviour are expressed, not by adjectives, but in the Hebrew style, by nouns, they should begin with small letters, as Father of mercies, God of wisdom. Prince of peace. Also write Son of man. Spirit of God, Lord of lords, King of kings, etc. 4. Pronouns referring to God and Christ should not begin with capitals, unless they are used emphatically without a noun. Shepherd! with thy tenderest love. Guide me to thy fold above; Jesus said, I and my Father are One. 5. The pronoun I and the interjection O al- ways take a capital letter. Oh does not unless it begins a sentence. The heavens and earth, O Lord I proclaim thy boundless power. 6. The proper names of the days of the week and of the months of the year, and of days of feasts and fasts, festivals and holidays, both rehgious and civic, should begin with capitals; as, Monday, March, Arbor Day, New Years, Whitsunday, Decoration Day Labor Day, Easter, Black Friday, etc. The names of the seasons are not capitalized. 7. All proper nouns and adjectives derived from these nouns should begin with capitals; as, a Greek, a Roman, a Hebrew, a Christian, a Mohammedan, an Elizabethan. Names of all geographical zones or sections of the world, when used as proper nouns, take a capital ; as, the Occident, the Orient, the Le- vant, etc. Names of political parties should be capital- ized; as, Tory, Republican, Federalist, Free Soiler, etc. Geographical, national, or personal qualities, when used as noims or before nouns in common use that specify merchandise, do not need a capital ; as, china, india ink, prussian blue, turkey red, majolica, delft, oriental rugs, castile soap, etc. There are some verbs derived from proper nouns that have lost their reference to the noun, and so are printed with small letters; as, to hector, to philippize, to romance, to japan, to galvanize. But Judaize and Christianize are exceptions to this rule. 8. Capitalize the first word in all titles of books, periodicals, plays, and pictures, and also every other word in the titles except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions. Flake's The War of Independence. This rule is contrary to the custom of the American Library Association's rules, used in cataloguing books. They capitalize only the first word and proper nouns and proper adjec- tives; as, Fiske's The war of independence. 9. The first word and all important words in the titles of corporations and societies, should begin with a capital letter; as, The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the Synod, the Government (when it stands in place of the title of the divisions of the government). In general, one shoidd use a capital in tlie last illus- trations when the definite article is used, and a small letter if the indefinite article is used. 10. Titles of office or honor should be capi- talized if used before the name of the person; as, Mr. Smith, President Roosevelt, Messrs. A. K. Bidwell & Co., Brother George, Aunt Hannah. If used after, they are better written with a small letter; as, Hon. James G. Blaine, ex-senator from Maine; James Brown, roundsman, Broad- way squad. When titles occur frequently on a page, and are used without any particular expression of lionor, they should be written with small letters. In official documents the titles of potentates are often capitalized, even though they follow the name of the ruler; as, Victoria, by tJie grace of God, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India, etc. When sir, friend, boy, and the like words are used in the salutation of a letter, they should be capitalized; as, My dear Sir, My dear Boy. A title used in place of the person's name should begin with a capital; as, Good morning, Captain; Mr. President, I call for the question. Abbreviated titles of honor or respect should be capitalized: James Bryce, D C. L. ; Henry Northam, M. D., LL. D.; Gen., Hon., Dr., etc. 11. Words of primary importance, especially if they indicate some great event, or remarkable change in religion or government, are com- menced with capital letters; as. The Reforma- tion, effected by Luther, is one of the most wonderful events in modern times. 12. The names of the points of the compass when used to indicate direction should begin with small letters. When used to indicate a 188 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS section of the country, they should begin with capitals; as, I am going West; he is a representa- tive man of the South; the river flows south- west. 13. Appellatives used either before or after geo- graphical nouns are capitalized; as, Eric Canal, Hudson River Railroad, Strait of Magellan, Coe Place, Shenandoah Valley, though many pulDlishers omit the capital for the generic word, when it precedes the specific term; as, county of Winchester, state of New York, em- pire of Russia. 14. Abstract qualities, when personified, should be capitalized ; as, O Death I where is thy sting? Then Crime ran riot. 15. All quotations that are intended to be emphatic, or that consist of a complete sentence, should begin with a capital; as, Coleridge said, " Friendship is a sheltering tree." These two questions, "What are we?" and "Whither do we tend?" will at all times press painfully upon thoughtful minds. When a quotation is introduced by that it should begin with a small letter; as, " He said that this great patriot bequeathed to his heirs the sword which he had worn in the war for liberty, and charged them never to take it from the scabbard but in self defense, or in defense of their country and her free- dom." 16. In writing resolutions, the word immedi- ately following Resolved, should begin with a capital. See Punctuation, Comma, Rule 13. Resolved, That the discovery of smokeless gunpowder has increased the horrors of war. PUNCTUATION Punctuation is the art of breaking up a sen- tence by means of points and stops, so as to convey to the reader's mind, as quickly and easily as possible, the writer's meaning. There are two systems of punctuation, the close and the open. The close system is used in legal documents, laws, ecclesiastical formularies, and in precise composition of every sort. Even the omission of a hyphen from a compound word may make a serious error. The insertion of a comma in place of a hyphen between " fruit " and "seeds" in an enactment of Congress cost the government thousands of dollars. The loose punctuation should be used in ordinary descriptive writing. Formerly too many marks were used; to-day the tendency is toward the use of too few marks. Punctuation can surely not be classed among the exact sciences. It is not even an established system, for many of the rules of the teachers differ, and the practice of their pupils differs still more. Points may be omitted or inserted in a catalogue in a way that would not be tolerated in a history. However, there are some explicit directions that may be given that all writers should follow. The points should be used to show the gram- matical relation of words, and never solely to indicate rhetorical pauses in reading. The necessity for a knowledge of correct punctuation is well illustrated by this anecdote: "The following request is said to have been made at church : ' A sailor going to sea, his wife desires the prayers of the congregation for his safety.' But, by an unhappy transposition of the comma, the note was read thus: 'A sailor going to sea his wife, desires the prayers of the congregation for his safety.' " The marks used for punctuation are the peri- od [.], colon [:], semicolon [;], comma [,], interro- gation point [?], exclamation point [!], dash [ — ], parentheses (), brackets [], hyphen [-], double qviotation marks [" "], single quotation marks [' '], apostrophe [']. Period. 1. AH declarative and imperative sentences, and sentences that are interrogative in form, but to which an answer is not expected, should be followed by a period; as, He has gone. Go at once. Ah! whither now are fled those dreams of happiness. The Cyprians asked me why I wept. 2. All abbreviations, unless the ellipsis of intermediate letters in the words has been in- dicated by using the apostrophe, should be fol- lowed by the period; 7th, 9th, 3d, etc., are not followed by the period. 3. When capitals are used for numerals, it was customary formerly to follow them by a pe- riod; e. g., Henry VIII., John IV. 3. The latest usage seems to omit the period, especially in the possessive construction; as, Henry VlII's reign. Comma. 1. All nouns of direct address should be set off by commas; as, John, come here. I say, Mary, can you go now? Sir, I can- not do it. 2. When there are three or more parts in the subject of a sentence, and the conjunction is used between the last two only, a comma should be used after each part except the last. Mary Lee and Laura came yesterday. As the sentence stands, you may think that there are but two persons that came yesterday; viz., Mary Lee and Laura. If the sentence is written, Mary, Lee and Laura came yesterday, then Mary may be a noun of direct address, and the boy Lee and the girl Laura came; but if it is written, Mary, Lee, and Laura came, you know that three persons came. The comma before the and is frequently omitted by rapid writers; but it should not be omitted in this compound construction. 3. Parenthetical or additional expressions, that is, those expressions that break the directness of the statement, require to be cut off by commas ; as, Christopher Columbus, an Italian by birth, discovered America. It is mind, after all, that does the work of the world. In this sentence, ' after all ' does not modify ' does,' but shows a connection between this sentence and something gone before. Another illustration would be, It was not necessary, however, for you to go. Some of the phrases in common use that are usually set off by commas are : in short, in fact, in reality, in brief, as it happens, no doubt, in a word, to be sure, to be brief, etc. Some of the words used parenthetically, which, according to the close punctuation should be set off by commas, and, according to the loose, should not be, are: therefore, then, however, perhaps, namely, indeed, too, moreover, etc. Most of these words named last are capable of two constructions, — they may either belong to the proposition as a whole, or to a single word LANGUAGE 189 in it. It is only when used in the former sense that they require to be set off by commas; e. g., On this assistance, then, you may rely. Then I beheved you, now I do not. 4. Independent adverbs at the beginning of the sentence should be set off by a comma; as, Well, I will go. Why, you may if you want to. Note. — Used in this way it would be better to omit them from all sentences. 5. The nominative, the infinitive, and the participle used absolutely should be set off by commas: The wind having gone down, we may go sailing. To tell the truth, I must remain here. Generally speaking, he is a good fellow. 6. Nouns in apposition are set off by commas: George, my brother, can do it for you. We, the people of the United States, do ordain and es- tablish this constitution. 7. If the subordinate clause in a complex sentence comes first, it should be followed by a comma: If I go, you must remain. While he stays, you must stay. 8. A series of words used in the same con- struction should be separated by commas; as, Ulysses was wise, eloquent, cautious, and in- trepid, as was requisite in a leader of men. He stood, walked, ran, and jumped. If the words are used in pairs, only the pairs should be separated ; as, Ulysses was wise and eloquent, cautious and intrepid, as was, etc. 9. When two statements, each with its own subject, verb, and object, are put in one sen- tence, the comma should be used to show their distinctiveness, even when the sentence is very short; as. You may go, and I will stay. 10. Use a comma between two words in the same construction wlien they are differently modified; as, He sold a horse, and wagon of wood. If the comma is omitted, the horse was of wood. 11. When the subject consists of two or more nouns not joined by a conjunction, use a comma before the predicate; as. Riches, pleasures, health, become evils to those, etc. 12. A comma is put before a relative clause, when it is explanatory of the antecedent, or presents an additional thought. But the point is omitted before a relative clause which restricts the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense. To make clear the difference between an additional and a restrictive clause, let us use this sentence: Her entrance was unnoticed by the officer who sat gazing into the fire. We restrict when we wish to separate one object from other objects of the same sort. If there were several officers in the room, and you wish me to know that her entrance was unnoticed by but one of them, you wish to separate or distinguish him from the others. Then the clause is used restrictively and should not be set off by a comma. But if there was but one officer in the room, you use this same clause to tell an additional fact about him; then it is used additionally and should be set off by com- mas. Much confusion arises in this sort of sentence because authors on punctuation say that a descriptive or additional clause should be set off by commas. A descriptive clause may be used to express either an additional or a re- strictive thought. Bring me the dress that is made of red silk. This sentence requires no comma because there are several dresses there, and I want the red silk one. Bring me tlie dress, which is made of red silk. Here I have used the same descriptive clause, but the use of "which" and the comma shows that that is the only dress there. Note: — In all restrictive relative clauses the pronoun "that" should be used; and in all additional relative clauses use "who " when referring to people and "which " when referring to animals or inanimate objects. If writers would bear this use of these pronouns in mind, the matter of the comma would be immaterial because the pronoun would sufficiently indicate the use of the clause. 13. One good authority says do not use a comma after Whereas, It appears, etc.; Re- solved, That, etc.; Ordered, That, etc. He also says. Do not use a capital after these words. Write, Resolved that women, etc. 14. When a clause is used as the subject of a verb, it should not, even though long, be fol- lowed by a comma, unless it ends with a verb; as. That the governor of this great State of Illinois should make this unworthy appeal to the passions and prejudices of the foreign-born citizens of the nation must always be a cause of mortification to every lover of his country. The second part of the rule is illustrated by, Whatever is, is right. 15. A comma is used before a short direct quotation: He said, "I will go." Note. — A colon is used before a long direct quotation. 16. The comma shows the. omission of words; as. Her address is 718 Norwood Ave., Rochester, N. Y., which means in Rochester, in the State of New York. Reading maketh a full man; writ- ing, an exact man. Note. — The latest authority says omit the comma in the last sentence because no misunderstanding can arise thereby; but custom still uses it. Semicolon. This mark is used to sep- arate such parts of a sentence as are somewhat less closely connected than those separated by a comma. 1. When two clauses are joined by for, but, and, or an equivalent word, the one clause per- fect in itself, and the other added as a matter of inference, contrast, or explanation, — they are separated by a semicolon: Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal. 2. When the parts of a compound sentence, even though they are short, are not closely con- nected in thought, they should be separated by a semicolon; as, I live to die; you dye to live. 3. Use the semicolon to separate the parts of a compound sentence, when one or both members contain commas: Men are not judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; but by the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works. 4. If a series of expressions depend on a com- mencing or concluding portion of the sentence, they should be separated by a semicolon: Phi- losophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that, etc. Also in such a sentence 190 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS as, If we think of glory in the field ; of wisdom in the cabinet; of the purest patriotism; of the highest integrity, public and private; of morals * * * the august figure of Washington presents itself as the personation of all these ideas. 5. AU of the older authorities say use a semi- colon before and comma after as, viz., to wit, namely, i. e., or that is, when they precede an example or an illustration. The latest authority says use the comma in both places. This is but another illustration of the changes in punc- tuation that are coming in. Colon. 1. When a sentence is long, and one or both of the parts contain semicolons, the greater division sliould be marked by a colon: Art has been to me its own exceeding great reward: it has soothed my afflictions; it has refined my enjoyments; it has endeared my solitude; and it has given me the habit of wishing to discover the good and the beautiful in all that surrounds me. 2. A colon should follow a clause that is com- plete in itself, but is followed, without a con- junction, by some remark, inference, or illus- tration: Nor was the religion of the Greek drama a mere form: it was full of truth, spirit, and power. 3. A colon should be used before a long direct quotation, or a list of articles formally intro- duced: She finislied her helpful talk with the song from "Pippa Passes": ".The year's at the spring The day's at the morn; Morning's at seven; " Etc. Will you kindly send me the following articles : 2 lbs. of granulated sugar, 1 lb. of coffee, Etc. 4. The words yes and no should be followed by a colon, provided the words that follow are a continuation or repetition of the question: Can these words add vigor to your hearts? Yes: they can do it; they have often done it. 5. The colon is more often used than any other mark after the salutation in a letter: My dear Sirs: Interrogation Point. 1. An interro- gation mark is placed at the end of every direct question: Will you go? He asked me, "Will you go ? " 2. The mark of interrogation should not be used when it is only affirmed that a question has been asked, and the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other form than that of a direct question: I was asked if I would go to Europe next summer. Note. — It should be placed inside of the quotation marks if it belongs properly to the quotation, and out- side in other cases: — He asked, "Will you return by nine o'clock?" What can be more interesting than "the passing crowd"? Exclamation Point. This point is used after any expression of strong emotion, and after interjections: Friends, countrymen, and lovers! hear me for my cause, and be silent that you may hear. The heavens and earth, O Lord! proclaim Thy boundless power. Oh! nothing is further from my thoughts than to deceive you. Oh, that all classes of society were both enlightened and virtuous! The Marks of Parentheses. If an expression is inserted in the body of a sentence, with which it has no connection in sense or con- struction, it should be enclosed by the marks of parentheses. The test is, can the words to be enclosed be omitted without injury to the sense? I have clearly seen charity (if charity it may be called) insult with an air of pity. She had managed this matter so well (oh, how artful a woman she was), that my father's heart was gone before I suspected it was in danger. Notice the use of the mark of interrogation in this sentence: " While the Christian desires the approbation of his fellow-men (and why should he not desire it?), he disdains to receive their good-will by dishonorable means." The Dash. 1. The dash is used to show an abrupt break in a sentence; to show a sus- pension in the thought; or an epigrammatic turn in sentiment. Closely following came — what do you suppose ? Tlie eye of tlie child — who can look unmoved into that "well unde- filed," in which heaven itseK seems to be re- flected? 2. The dash is used where there is an ellipsis of such words as, namely, that is, etc. To separate adjectives in apposition but closely connected. These poets — Homer and Virgil — wrote epics. Brackets. These marks, used for nearly the same purposes as the parentheses, are usually confined to expressions inserted in or appended to a quotation, and not belonging to it. They are intended to give an explanation, to rectify a mistake, or to supply an omission; as, He had the finest head [of hair] I ever saw; * * * because the people love the principles of the Constitution [long continued applause] and to-day, etc. Hyphen. 1. The hyphen is used in form- ing compound words. When each of the words of whicli a compovmd is formed retains its origi- nal accent, they should be united by a hyphen: The alF-pow''erful God; In^cense-breath^ing morn. Everlasting, notwithstanding, and a few other words are exceptions to this rule. 2. If a prefix ends in a vowel, and the word to which it is joined begins with a vowel, the hyphen, or the diaeresis over the second vowel is used : co-operate or cooperate. 3. The hyphen is used to show the division of words into syllables: hy-phen. Double and Single Quotation Marks. 1. Every direct quotation should be enclosed in double quotation marks: To me he said, " I cannot believe it is true." 2. If the thought, but not the words of an- other are given, quotation marks are not used: He said that he could not believe it true. 3. You may use italics, or double, or single quotation marks if you are quoting a single word or short expression. "Petticoat" (liter- ally 'Uttle coat'), in itself a sufficiently inof- fensive term, has shown a tendency to give way to "skirt." In this illustration "petti- coat" and "skirt" may be italicized and the quotation marks omitted. 4. If a quotation occurs within a quotation, enclose the second one in smgle quotation marks: In his letter he wrote, "If the physi- LANGUAGE 191 cian sees you eat anything that is not good for you, he says, ' It is poison ! ' " 5. When several paragraphs are quoted, use double marks at the beginning of each para- graph, and at the end of the last paragraph only. Apostrophe. 1. The apostrophe is used to mark the possessive case : John's. 2. To show the contraction of words and omission of letters: I'll, you'd, etc. 3. To show the clipping of words in dialect: He wa' singin' to 'em. 4. To form plurals of letters, signs, and figures : There are twenty a's on this page. Count the 2's in this sum. Your x's or O's were not well made. The foregoing are the generally accepted rules. It should be kept in mind, however, that we are in a stage of transition in regard to capitaliza- tion and punctuation, there being a marked tendency toward simplification. RIGHT USE OF SOME C03IM0N WORDS A. Use the article before both nouns or both adjectives when they denote different objects. " A coat and a hat " not "a coat and hat." " A black and white dress" (one dress); "a black and a white dress" (two dresses). Abortive. A ridiculous perversion of this word is creeping into use through the newspapers. " A lad was yesterday caught in the act of abor- tively appropriating a pair of shoes." That is abortive that is untimely in its birth; and, by figure of speech anything is abortive which is brought ovit before it is well matured. Abortive should not be used indiscriminately of failure. Accept of. Never use the preposition after this verb. We accept invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like. Accept and Except. Accept means to take w'hen offered; except means to leave out, to exclude. I accepted the gift. All except two will go. Accord. To accord means to render or be- stow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, "The information he desired was accorded him." Administer. The man died from blows administered by the policeman. Oaths, medi- cine, affairs of state are administered. Blows are dealt. Adopt. This word is often used instead of to decide upon and to take; thus, "The meas- ures adopted by Congress as the result of this inquiry will be productive of good." Better, "The measures decided upon, etc." Instead of "What course shall you adopt to get your pay ? " say, " Wliat course shall you take, etc. ? " In the newspapers one may see " Wanted to adopt — A beautiful female infant." The advertisers meant to say that they wanted the child men- tioned in their advertisement adopted. The word is correctly used in "The measures pro- posed by the senator were adopted at once." Affect. See effect. Aggravate. This word is often used when the speaker means to provoke, irritate, or anger. Thus, " It aggravates (provokes) me to be con- tinually found fault with"; "He is easily ag- gravated (irritated)." Agree. Do not use agree for admit. " That a flat brick facade pierced by a few windows does not make an inspiring picture, all will agree." Say, "all will admit." Agriculturist is to be preferred to agri- culturalist. The same is true of conversationist. Ain't. This is not a contraction, and can- not take the place of I'm not. Alilie. This word should not be used with both, nor with both just, as in "These hats are both alike" or "both just alike"; say, "These hats are alike." All of. The of is a superfluity. "I have them all," not "I have all of them"; "Take it all," not "Take all of it." All Over. All should modify the noun, and not the prepositional phrase in "The disease spread over all the country," not "all over the countiy." Allege. Do not use this word as a syno- nym for say or tell, as in " He alleges that the engine ran sixty miles an hour." Instead, "He says or tells us that, etc." Allow. This w'ord is frequently misused in the West and the South for think; to be of opinion; to admit; as, "He alloivs his horse can beat yours." Instead of this say, "He thinks or is of the opinion that, etc." Almost — Nearly. These two adverbs should not be used indiscriminately. Almost re- gards the ending as an act; nearly, its begin- ning. A man that receives an injury so severe that he comes off with barely his life is almost killed; a man that escapes what would have killed him is nearly killed. These words are correctly used in "I am almost done w-ith my work"; "I nearly ran over the child." Alone — Only. That is alo7ie that is un- accompanied ; that is only, of which there is no other. "Virtue only makes us happy" meana that nothing else can do it. If we say, "Virtue alone makes us happy," we mean that virtue unaided makes us happy. "This means of lo- comotion is used by man only." Alternative. Do not use this word when more than two things are referred to. You may have the choice of three courses, not of three alternatives. Always. Often used redundantty. "When- ever I see her, I think of mother," not "I alivays think of mother." Ameliorated. "Her troubles are greatly ameliorated" should be "are lessened." Among. "He w^as there among the rest" should be "with the rest." Among One Another. "They ex- changed votes among one another" should be "with one another." Amount. "A surprising amount of per- fection has been reached" should be "A sur- prising degree of perfection, etc." And. Do not use and in place of the particle to. "Come to see me," not "Come and see me." And should never introduce a relative clause unless it joins it to a coordinate relative clause. " I have a dress worn by my aunt, and which is forty-five years old." In this sentence leave out a7id and use that instead of which. (See Rule 12 for the comma, under Punctuation.) Antecedents. This word used as a sub- 192 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS stantive means those persons or things which have preceded any person or tiling of the same kind in a certain position. Thus the anteced- ents of General Sherman in the army of the United States are General Washington, General Scott, and General Grant. To call the course of a man's life until the present moment his antecedents is nearly as absurd a misuse of lan- guage as can be compassed. If, instead of " What do you know of his antecedents?" it is asked " What do you know of his previous life ? " or better, "What do you know of his past ?" there is sense instead of nonsense, and the purpose of the question is fully conveyed. Anticipate. This word is often used in place of expect, or foresee. Anticipate means to go before, so as to preclude another; to get the start of, or to get ahead of; to enjoy, possess, or sulTer, in expectation. It is therefore misused in "By this means it is anticipated that the time for Europe will be lessened two days"; and in " Her death is hourly anticipated." It is cor- rectly used in "If not anticipated, I shall here- after make an attempt at a magazine paper on the Philosophy of Point"; and in "Why should we anticipate our sorrows? 'Tis like those who die through fear of death." "Were Greeley's movements those that it was anticipated (ex- pected) he would make?" Anxious is often used where desirous would better express the meaning. Anxioiis means full of anxiety; suffering from suspense or un- certainty; concerned about the future. "I am not anxious to get to Canada" should be "I am not desirous, etc." "I am still more anxious to have you live in New York" should be "still more desirous." Anyhow is permissible in conversation, though incompatible with dignified diction, in which such phrases as "in any event," "he that as it may, " "at any rate," and the like are to be preferred. Appeals is used in this sentence instead of drafts: "There are constant appeals upon the resources of the government." Approach is sometimes improperly used in the sense of address, petition, appeal to; thus, "The teachers have approached the Educational Department in some matters that concern their interest." Apt is often misused for likely, and sometimes for liable. " What is he apt (likely) to be doing? " "Where shall I be apt (likely) to find him?" "If you go there, you will be apt (liable) to get into trouble." Aren't in colloquial use is admissible, but are you not is preferable. I'll, I'm, etc., are good form because they are contractions of the verb only. As — as; So — as. Use the former in affirma- tive propositions, and the latter in negative propositions. He is as tall as you are. He was never so happy as now. Aside is sometimes misused for apart. "Words have a potency of association aside (apart) from their significance as representa- tive signs." As Though is often used for as if. In the sentence, "The child looked as though her hair had never been combed," supply the elliptical clause, and you will see the need of using if in place of though. " The child looked as (she would look) though her hair, etc." " The woman looks as (she would look) though (if) she were tired." At. "They do things differently in (not at) the South." At all is superfluous in such sentences as, "She had no friends at all"; " I do not want any at all " ; " If she had any desire at all to see, she would have waited." At Best. At Worst. These phrases re- quire the article or a possessive pronoun used in them. Always say, "I did the best I could," etc. " He was at his worst." Audience is often used in place of specta- tors. The audience hears; the spectators see: therefore say, " The spectators at the ball game," not " the audience." " The audience at the con- cert, etc." Avenge and Revenge. We atengre the wrong done to others, and revenge the wrong done to ourselves. Avoid is often used in the place of prevent or hinder; as, " There shall be nothing lost if I can avoid it." It should be "if I can prevent it." A"W"ful is too frequently used as an inten- sive. Avoid this use of it; e. g., I was awfully glad to see you. A While Since should be a while ago. Bad Cold. Say a slight or a severe cold. Colds are never good. Badly is inelegantly used for very much. "I shall miss you very much," not "1 shall miss you badly." Balance means the excess of one thing over another, and should be used in this sense only: hence it is improper to talk about the balance of the edition. In this case say rest or remainder. You may speak of the balance of the account. Beastly. One may properly say "beastly drunk" but not "beastly weather." Before is sometimes used in place of rather than. "War before peace at that price" should be "War rather than peace at that price." BetAveen in its literal sense applies to only two objects; as, "The candy was divided between the two boys, or among the four children." When used of more than two objects, it brings them severally and individually into the relation ex- pressed; as, "a treaty between three powers." When used to express contrast — "The three boys are brothers, but there is a great difference betiveen them." Black — Blacken. We black stoves and blacken reputations. Blame it on is a vulgarism used in place of accuses or suspects. " He blames it on his brother" should be "He suspects or accuses his brother." Both is often used in such sentences as "They are both alike"; "They both ran away from school," etc. Omit both from each sentence. It is incorrect in " He lost all his fruit — both plums, peaches, and pears." Bound should not be made to do service for doomed, determined, resolved, certain, or will be compelled. "He is bowid to do it" should be " He is certain, resolved, or determined to do it." "He is bound to fail" should be "He is doomed, destined, or sure to fail." But is often misused. "I do not doubt bttt LANGUAGE 193 he will be here" should read "doubt that." "I should not wonder but he will succeed" should read " wonder if." In " 1 have no doubt but that he will go " suppress but. Change but to tJmn in '' The mind no sooner entertains any proposition but it presently hastens, etc." Sut is correctly used in " I have no fear but that she will succeed," which means a very dif- ferent thing from " I have no fear that she will succeed." By should be with in "The room was filled by ladies and children " ; also in " The ball ended by a waltz." There is a diiTerence of meaning in these two sentences: "I know a man by the name of Brown," and " I know a man of the name of Brown." Which do you mean? Calamity means in an abstract sense source of misery or of loss, but it is often misused to mean loss. Calamities are causes, losses are results. "The fire caused a great calamity" should read "caused a great loss." It is correctly used in "The falling of the building, which caused the death of two firemen, was a great calamity." Calculate is wrongly used in "He calcu- lates to get off to-morrow." "The sentence should read "expects, purposes, or intends to get off." Caliber is often misused for order, as in "His work is of a higher caliber than hers is." Capable is often used in place of suscep- tible. "We need more articles capable of illus- tration" should read "susceptible of illustra- tion." Condone is sometimes misused for com- pensate and atone for. It means to pardon, to forgive. "The abolition of the income tax more than condones for the turmoil of an election" should read " atones for, etc." Congregate Together. In "A large number of people congregated together in the hall," omit the word together, because to congregate, unaided, means to collect, or gather together. Consequence is sometimes used instead of importance or ynoment; as, "They were all persons of more or less consequence " should be "of more or less importance." "It is a matter of no consequence" should be "of no moment." Consider means to meditate, to deliberate, to reflect, to revolve in the mind; and yet it is made to do service for think, suppose, and regard. Thus: " I consider his course very unjustifiable " should read " think his course." " I have always considered it my duty, etc." should read "thought it my duty." Conversationist. See Agriculturist. Co-operate Together means co-oper- ate or operate together, and can mean no more, which makes it plain that the co or the together serves no purpose — is a superfluity. Creditable should not be used instead of O'edible. Say, "two credible witnesses," not "creditable witnesses." Say, " I am credibly informed," not "creditably informed." Crushed out. The rebellion was finally crushed out. Out of what? We may crush the life out of a man, or crush a man to death, and crush — not crush out — a rebellion. Dandy. This adjective belongs properly to the "gushers." It is their sole adjective. He is a dandy man; The refreshments were dandy; The sunset was dandy. Dangerous is misused in the sentence "He is dangerous," when we mean "He is sick." Say," He is not in danger," or "not dangerously ill." Dearest. Do not begin a letter "My dearest John," unless he is the dearest of three or more Joims with whom you are acquainted. Deceiving should not be used in place of trying to deceive. It is when we do not suspect deception that we are deceived. " He is deceiv- ing me " should read " He is trying to deceive me." Deprecate means to endeavor to avert by prayer, and so should not be used in the sense of disapprove, censure, or condemn. Do not say, " He deprecates the whole proceeding." Desperately. Do not say, "He was des- perately wounded," but "badly wounded." Despite should not be, as it often is, pre- ceeded by in, and followed by of. Say," Despite all our efforts," not " In despite of all our efforts." Detect is often misused for distinguish, recognize, discover, see. "I did not detect any- thing wrong in his appearance" should be "I did not discover anything wrong in his appear- ance." " I could not detect any difference be- tween them" should be "I could not see any difference between them." Die with — from. Man and brute die of, and not ivith or froin, fevers, old age, and so on. Differ — Different. The prepositions /row and with are both used with the verb differ, but the weight of authority is on the side of using from. Different to is sometimes used instead of different from ; but it is incorrect. " She is differ- ent than you would expect her to be" should be "different from what you would expect her to be." The word than implies comparison and demands the comparative degree. Different is in no way a comparative. We say greater than but different from. W^e may differ with a per- son, but things differ /rom one another. Dock — W harf . A dry dock is a place where vessels are drawn out of the water for repairs. A wet dock is a place where vessels are kept afloat at a certain level, while they are being loaded or unloaded. A ivharf is a sort of quay built by the side of the water. Vessels lie at wharfs and piers, not at docks. Don't. This is the contraction for do not, and not for does not: therefore do not say, "He do?i't want it." Each other is properly applied to two only ; one another must be used when the number considered exceeds two. We say," Great authors address themselves to one anotfier," unless we refer to only two authors. Effect — Affect. Effect means to bring about; as, "to effect a reform." Affect means to influence; as, "His ideas will affect the char- acter of the reform." Elegant. "This is a fine morning," not "This is an elegant morning." Emigrant — Immigrant. These two words are not infrequently confounded. Emi- grants are persons going out of the country; immigrants are persons coming into the country. Ending of Sentences. Sentences end- ing with prepositions are always more terse, always quite as idiomatic, and always simpler, 194 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS than they would be if differently constructed. "The man I gave it to," not "The man to whom I gave it." "The verb it belongs to," not "The verb to which it belongs," etc. Enjoy Bad Health. Does anyone en- joy bad health? Say, " He is in feeble or delicate health." Equally as Well. As well, or equally well, expresses quite as much as equally as well. Everlastingly means perpetually, eter- nally, forever. Do not say, "The horse was ever- lastingly running away." Every. ^ Every one of us has this in com- mon" should be ' All ol us have this in com- mon." Except. See Accept. Excessively. Say, "The weather is very warm," not "excessively hot." "My friend was exceedingly popular," not "excessively popular." Excise La^vs. An excise is a tax levied on domestic products; it is an internal revenue tax. New York has license laws and license commissioners, and properly they should be so called. New York's excise laws, so called, are properly license laws. Exercise — Exorcise. Do not use these words interchangeably. Exercise means a put- ting into use, action, or practice; exorcise to cast or drive out (an evil spirit), by religious or magical formulas or ceremonies. Expect. We cannot expect backwards. " I expect you thought I would come to see you yesterday" should be "I suppose, etc." "I expect you know all about it" should be "I sus- pect you know, etc." Experience. "We experienced great hardships" should read "We suffered." Extend. "They showed me every kind- ness" is better than "They extended every kind- ness to me." Farther — Further. Use farther for all distances that can be measured either great or small. Use further in all other sentences. Female applies to animals, as well as to women, and so should not be used in such sen- tences as, "With the dislike not unnatural to females, etc." Fewer — Less. Fewer refers to number, and less to qiiantity. Instead of "There were not less than twenty scholars absent," we should say, "There were not fewer than twenty scholars absent." Instead of "There were not less than ten chapters in the book," we should say, "There were not fewer than ten chapters in the book." Find. "I think the men /ind everything" should be "supply everything." Fixed. This word is often misused for ar- ranged; as, "I must fix the books." "Who fixed the dishes on the shelves?" It is vul- garly used thus: "I will fix him." "The jury- was fixed." "You must fix up, if you go. " Your affairs are in a bad fix." Former — Latter. The less the writer uses these words the better. In the interest of force and clearness their use should be studiously avoided. It is nearly always better to repeat the noun. This avoids the reader's going back to see which is former and which is latter. Got — Have. If a man inherits a fortune, you say he has money; if he obtains money through his own effort, you say "He has gotten money." "He has books" means merely that he possesses them; "He has gotten his books" means that he has obtained them through effort. Have shows simple possession; got shows pos- session plus the effort to obtain the thing. Mad Ought. This expression is incorrect because had is used with the past participle of the principal verb to form the compound tense. Ought is a defective verb and has no participle: therefore ought cannot be used with had. Hain't is a very objectionable vulgarism. Handy should not be used in the sense, near, near by, close at hand; as, "The store is handy." Say, "The store is near." Have to Have or Had to Have. Bet- ter than "I have to have my work done by three o'clock" is "I should, must, or ought to have my work, etc." Got to get is another unpleasant repetition. Hence is superfluous in the sentence, "It will be many years hence, we apprehend, before he returns." How. "I have heard how, in Italy, one is' beset on all sides by beggars " should read "I have heard that, in Italy, etc." However. Use how, not however, in such a sentence as, "However could you tell such a story!" If. Use whether in place of if in these sen- tences: "I doubt if the book will suit you"; "I wonder if he has come." Ill — Sick. Almost all British speakers and writers Umit the meaning of sick to the expres- sion of qualmishness, sickness at the stomach, nausea, and lay the proper burden of the ad- jective sick upon the word ill. They sneer at us for not joining in the robbery and the imposition. Richard Grant White says, "I was present once when a British merchant, receiving in his own house a Yankee youth at a little party, said, in a tone that attracted the attention of the whole room, 'Good evening! We haven't seen you for a long while. Have you been seeck' (the sneer prolonged the word), 'as you say in your country?' 'No, thank you,' said the other, frankly and promptly, 'I've been hill, as they sav in yours.' " In — Into. In is sometimes an adverb and sometimes a preposition. As an adverb it is correctly used in these sentences: "Come in"; "Go in." As a preposition in should be used with verbs of rest and into wit h verbs of motion. These words are correctly used in: "He sat in his chair"; "He ran into the house." Incite — Insight. Incite means to rouse to a particular action; as, "The mob was in- cited to set the house on fire." Insight is a noun and means the power or faculty of immediate and acute perception or understanding; as, "The strongest insight we obtain into nature is that which we receive, etc." In Our Midst is not according to the genius of our language. It should be WTitten in the midst of us. Also in the midst of them, and not in their midst. Inaugurate should not be used in place of begin for the simple things of daily life. It is a big word misused. Individual should not be used for person. LANGUAGE 195 The word is used correctly in "Changes both in individuals and communities are often pro- duced by trifles"; incorrectly in "That indi- vidual left here several hours ago." Innumerable Number should not be used. Say instead innumerable times or num- berless times. In SO far as. The in is superfluous in this phrase. "In so far as I know" should be "So far as I know." Intend is often misused for purpose. " I intend to attend college this winter" should read " I purpose to attend college this winter." We purpose seriously; we intend vaguely. Just Going to Go is better expressed by just about to go. Just going to say by just about to say, etc., or by about to go. Just Next. Doesn't "He was next me" express as much as " He was just next me " ? H.ids. It is better usage to speak of one's gloves than of one's kids. Silk gloves are not silks. Kind of. "What kind of man is he?" is correct. "What kind of a man is he?" is in- correct. Lady. Address a stranger as madam, and not as lady. People of culture and refinement will never say, "She is a fine lady," a "clever lady," etc. Ladies say, "The women of Amer- ica," "wojnen's apparel." In similar instances men should be used in place of gentlemen. Lie — Lay. By a vulgar error these verbs have been so confounded' as to deserve some notice. To lie is neuter, and designates a state: to lay is active, and denotes an action on an object; it is properly to cause to lie. "A thing lies on the table"; "Some one lays it on the table"; "He lies with his fathers"; "They laid him with his fathers." In the same manner, when used idiomatically, we say, "A thing lies by us until we bring it into use"; "We lay it by for some future purpose." The confusion arises probably from the fact that lay appears in both verbs. The words are correctly used in the following sentences: I lay myself upon the bed (action). I lie upon the bed (rest). I laid myseK upon the bed (action). I lay upon the bed (rest). I have laid myself upon the bed (action). I have lain upon the bed (rest). A hen laxjs an egg (action). A ship lies at the wharf (rest). The murdered Lincoln lay in state (rest); The people laid the crime upon the rebels (action). Learn — Teach. The uncultured often change these verbs. To teach is to give instruc- tion; to learn is to take instruction. "I will learn if you will teach me" is correct. Leave. The vulgar say, "Leave me be"; "Leave it alone"; "Leave me see it." Of course let is the verb to be used here. Lend. Frequently confused with loan. Lend la a verb, loan a noun. A loan is the completed act of lending, or is the thing lent. "Friends, Romans, Countrj^men, lend me your ears." "The Anglo-French loan was negotiated in New York." Reference to best authorities invariably shows that loan as a verb is objectionable, and, though commonly used in the United States, is not approved except perhaps in financial terms. Less. See fewer. Like — Love. We like acquaintances, horses, flowers, pictures, etc. W'e love wives, sweethearts, kinsmen, truth, justice, and country. Like — As. "He looks like you." This sentence may mean either "He looks as you look," or " He resembles you in his appearance." The sentence should read "He looks as you look," or "He is like you." Like is followed by an object only, and does not admit of a verb in the same construction. As must be followed by a verb expressed or understood. Like is sometimes improperly used in the sense of as though, thus: "It looks like it was caused by fire." Loan. See Lend. Lot — Lots. Very inelegantly used for a great many, a great deal : " He had a lot of money left him"; "Lots of trouble came her way." Luncheon is a more elegant form than lunch, especially in the sense of a formal repast. Make a Visit. We do not make visits, we pay them. May and can are often confused. May expresses permission or probability; can expresses power or ability, "May I go?" asks for permission. "Can he do this?" questions his ability to do it. Similar distinction should be made between might and could. Middling. This word is an adjective, not an adverb ; hence we cannot say a thing is mid- dling good, or that a thing was riiiddling well done. " He resided in a town of middling size" is correct. Mind is often misused for obey. To mind is to attend to a thing so it will not be forgotten. " Will you obey me ? " not " Will you 77iind me ? " Mistaken. " If I am not mistaken " should be " If I mistake not." You are mistaken is a correct form of expression; it means you have been led into error. Most. This word should usually be omitted from conversation and writing. Very is the better word in almost every instance. " It would 7nost {very) seriously affect us." This word is often misused for almost. "He comes here most every day" should be "He comes here almost every day." Mutual. This word is often confounded with common. These words are correctly used in these sentences: "Our former correspondence was renewed, with the most hearty expression of mutual good will." "We have two friends in common." "They met at the house of a com- mon friend." "Their mutual dislike (not dis- like for each other) was well known." Myself. This pronoun should be used only where increased emphasis is aimed at, as in "I will do it myself J' etc. It is incorrect to say, "Mary and myself were satisfied." Nicely. This word is frequently misused in the attempt to make it do service for well, in this wise: "How do you do?" "Nicely." " How are you*? " " Nicely." Numerous is often iised in place of large or many. "We have numerous acquaintances," should be " We have many acquaintances.'* 196 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Of All Others. "Of all others she is the last one you would expect." Is she one of the others? If not, why class her as such? Of Any is often used in place of all. " She is the smallest of any I have known" should be "the smallest of all, etc." Off of. The latter of these words should be omitted from the serttence. Say, "The pears fell off the tree," not " The pears fell off of the tree." Onto. "We get on a horse, on a chair," etc., not "on to." One should be followed by 07ie and not by he. "Can one visit his friends there?" should be "Can one visit one's friends there?" Only. This word is probably more often misplaced than any other word in the language. " He only sang for us." " He sang only for us." The first means that he sang, but did not play for us; the second one means he sang for us and not for any one else. A change in the po- sition of 07ily in almost any sentence will effect the meaning of the sentence the same as in this illustration. Other. This word should not be omitted in sentences like the following: "He said that his wife was dressed better than any (other) woman there." Ought — Should. Ought is the stronger term. " What we ought to do, we are morally bound to do." "We ought to be truthful and honest, and should be respectful to our elders." Over. Do not use over in the sense of more than. "It is over a yard long" should read "more than a yard long." Own is often misused in place of confess. "1 own I saw her do it" should be "I confess I saw her do it." Pair. " A new pair of shoes" should be "a pair of new shoes." The shoes are new, not the pair. Pants is a vulgar abbreviation for panta- loons. Party is often used by the ignorant where good taste would use the word person. Not "the party that I saw," but "the person." Past. This word is incorrectly used for last in such expressions as, "The past three days," "The pas< year." Pell-mell means mixed or mingled to- gether. It cannot properly be applied to an individual. " He rushed pell-mell into my arms " would be to say " He rushed into my arms mixed together." Per. Per day, per man, per pound, etc., are better expressed by the plain English a day, a man, a poimd, etc. Ten dollars per is the slang for ten dollars a week, a month, apiece, etc. Perform. The short word plaij is to be preferred in "She performs on the piano beau- tifully." This sentence would be improved by using well or admirably in place of beaidifully. Peruse is often used when the word read would be in better taste. Place is misused for where in "Let's go some place." "I want to go some place." Polite should not be used ^or kind before the word invitation. Posted is incorrectly used for inform in such expressions as. "The man posted me"; "If i had been better posted." Prejudice should "not be used in a favorable sense. You cannot say "The man is prejudiced in his favor." We should say, "He is prepos- sessed in his favor." Prepositions. If you are in doubt what preposition to use after any verb, or with any noun, always consult the dictionary. Preventive and not Preventative. This adjective, in common with subsequent, in- dependent, relative, antecedent, and possibly others, is often incorrectly used as an adverb. "Previous to our visit" should be "previously to our visit." " Independent oi this reason" should be "independently of this reason." Procure is often made to do the work of the Anglo-Saxon word get. "Where did you procure it?" should be "Where did you get it?" Promise often does duty for assure. "I promise you I was agreeably surprised" should be " I assure you, etc." Providing should be provided in such sentences as, "He offered to provide a stable and supply the necessities of the company pro- viding the control of the board should be turned over to him." Purchase — Buy. Use purchase in refer- ence to great matters, as, " the Louisiana pur- chase"; use buy with reference to ordinary mat- ters, as, "He bought a book, his dinner, etc." Railroad Depot. A depot is properly a place where goods or stores of any kind are kept ; and the places at which the trains of a railroad — or, better, railway — stop for passengers, or the points they start from or arrive at, are prop- erly the stations. Raise — Rear. We rear children and raise animals. Raised the rent is incorrectly used for increased the rent. Real should not be used for very in such phrases as real pretty, real nice, real angry. Resurrect is still marked colloquial in the recent dictionaries. Retire. It is only the over nice that retire in the sense of go to bed. Sunday is the first day of the week, and Sabbath is the last day of the week. Sa'W is sometimes ^'arelessly used for have seen. "I never saio anything like it before" should be " I have never seen anything like it until now. " We say properly, " I never saw anything like it when I was in Paris." Set —Sit. These verbs, like lie and lay, are often confounded in their use. To set is transi- tive; to sit is intransitive. "I set the hen, but she sits on her eggs." Incorrectly we speak of a setting hen, instead of a sitting hen. In Matthew,' it was prophesied that Christ should come "sit- ting upon an ass " and, therefore, His disciples took a colt and " they set Him thereon." The verb is correctly used in these sentences: "My dress sits well"; "We will sit up," that is, will not go to bed; "Congress s?7s." "We se< down figures," but "We sit do^\-n on the ground." An apparent contradiction is found in the sentence, "The sun sets"; but the verb sets in this sentence has a different origin from the verb set that we have been discussing. Long ago they used to say, "The sun settles"; but settle has been shortened to set. LANGUAGE 197 Shall — Will. The radical signification of will is purpose, intention, determination; that of shall is obligation. I will do means I pur- pose doing — I am determined to do. I shall do means, radically, I ought to do ; and as a man is supposed to do that which he ought to do, I shall do came to mean, I am about doing — to be, in fact, a mere announcement of future ac- tion, more or less remote. Always keep in mind that I shall, you will, and he will, are the forms of the future, and that I will, you shall, and he shall, imply volition on the part of the speaker. Will and shall in the first person are properly used in the following quotations from "The Absentee," one of Miss Edgeworth's novels: — "Gone! Forever gone from me," said Lord Colambre, as the carriage drove away. " Never shall I see her more — never will I see her more, till she is married." " We will do our best to make you happy, and hope we shall succeed." They are also used properly in "I shall be drowned"; "We shall have to go"; "Is the time coming when we shall desert Thackeray?" These two words are coming more and more to be used interchangeably, so that one authority says there is no distinction to be made in their use ; but this is not yet true. There is determi- nation expressed in shall as well as in will. Suppose you had put a book upon the table, and had told me not to take it from the table, not to read it. I might say, " I shall go to the table; I shall take the book; and I ivill read it." Shall here indicates a future action with intention added to the thought; and will ex- presses determination. " I will go to the table for supper" indicates that you have been told not to go to the table, but that you wull go in spite of this prohibition; while "I shall go to the table" indicates only futurity of action. Where there is nothing to rouse the will or to show a prohibition, shall is often used inter- changeably with will, as in " Will you come to the table?" "Yes, I will come to the table," in which sentence will expresses futurity, and not determination. You shall do it shows intention on the part of the speaker to make the other person do his will, and not his own will. "You tvill, do it" usually shows simple futurity. Still, in the case of the child and its mother, the child says, "I won't do it ! " and the mother puts her will into operation and says, "You will do it," meaning I will that you will to do it. "He shall do it" and "He will do it" follow the same rules as the second person. The words are incorrectly used in " Will I cut myself?" "I will drown, and nobody shall help me." Will cannot be used interrogatively in the first person singular or plural, as can be seen by the sentence, " Will I put some more coal on the fire?" To determine whether to use would or should, express your thought, whenever possible, in the present tense, and then use would for will and should for shall. These words are used correctly in the following sentences : " I would come to you if I could." " I should have been sorry if I had gone." "I would I were there." "I should go hunting to-day if the weather were good." "I should prefer to hear the music." Sick — 111. See 111. Since when should not be used for since that time, or since what time, according to the meaning. . Smell of. We sviell the rose, not smell of it. Splendid. Splendid, awful, and dandy seem to be about the only adjectives some of our superlative young women have in their vocabu- laries. Standpoint. This idea is better expressed by view point or point of view. Stop for stay is a Briticism. To stop is to arrest motion ; to stay is to remain where motion is arrested. We may stop at a hotel; but how long we stay depends upon circumstances. Storin. To a storm a violent commotion of the atmosphere is indispensable; so say rains or snows, unless it really storms. Street. We live in not on a street. Things occur in not on a street. Stricken is used when misfortune is im- plied ; as, " He was stricken with death." Struck is used in all other cases; as, "He was struck by a stone." Such. "I have never seen such a small man" should be " I have never seen so small a man," as may be seen by transposing the words of the first sentence which then becomes " I have never seen a man such small." Such a Pretty, Such a Lovely, are incorrect, and should be so pretty, so lovely. Sure. "He will surely be here," not "He will be here sure." Sustain. We do not sustai7\ injuries; we receive them. Teach. See Learn. That. This word is not an adverb, and so cannot modify an adjective; so, that good, that worthy, etc., should be so good, so worthy, etc. The, like a, should be used before both nouns or both adjectives when they denote different objects. "The fish and monkey" should Ibe "the fish and the monkey" ; "the secretary and treasurer" (if one man), "the secretary and the treasurer" (if two men). The should be used before Reverend, Hon- orable, etc. The Reverend James Smith, D. D. Thence. Do not use thence with the prepo- sition froyn. "He came thence" is correct. Think for. "He hears more than you think for" is wrong. Omit the for. Those Kind. " That kind of shoes is good," not " those kind." " This sort of people (not these sort) will suit you." To. Never say, " She was to my house yes- terday." Use at in place of to. Try. We make experiments, not try them. Twice Over. The over serves no purpose in " He said it tivice over in different ways." Under the Circumstances. Better in the circumstances. Universally — All. " He was universally praised by all who heard him" is better ex- pressed by " He was universally praised," or "He was praised by all who heard him." Upon — On. We call on persons, and speak on subjects, and stand upon the table. 198 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Use to. Use to should be used to. "We used to live there " is correct. Vocation — Avocation. A man's vo- cation is his profession, his calling, his business; and his avocations are the things that occupy him incidentally. Miss Brown's vocation is teaching ; her avocations are embroidering and painting. Ways. Wrongly used for way; as, "The house is a long ways off" should be "way off." Well — Why. These two words are used by Americans in almost every sentence. Un- less they are absolutely necessary in a sentence leave them out. "Wliarf. See Dock. What. "He would not think but what I said it" should be "but that." W^hence. "Whence came ye?" not "From whence came ye?" Whence means from what place, source, or cause. Whole of. "All of the school," not "the whole of the school." ■ Widow "Woman. Are not widows al- ways women? Another error of this sort is brother men. W^ithout is a preposition and should not take the place of the connective unless; as, "I shall not go without my father consents" should read "unless my father consents," or "without my father's consent." In this last expression without is a preposition. Worst K-ind. A vulgarism we sometimes hear used in the sense of very much. " I want to go the worst kind." Worst W^ay. This belongs in the same category with worst kind. FORMS OF LANGUAGE COMPOSITION The following table includes the principal forms of language composition : — I. PROSE. (1) Narration. — Letters, journals, memoirs, biog- raphies, history, travel, news, fiction. (2) Dkscription. — - Descriptions of external ob- jects, of character and its development, of intellectual processes. (3) Exposition. — Essays, treatises, editorials, re- views, criticism. (4) Argument. — Argumentative essays, debates, briefs, etc. (5) Persuasion or Oratory. — Orations, addresses, lectures, sermons. II. POETRY. (1) Epic and Narrative Poetry. — The great epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, bal- lads, pastorals, idylls, etc. (2) Dramatic (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as speaking and acting for themselves). — Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, melodrama, mask, interlude, etc. (3) Lyric. — Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics. (4) Didactic. — Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc. It is the object of words to convey thought; but in order to present connected thought, words must be properly arranged with a definite end in view. Such an arrangement of words is called a language composition. There are two types of composition, prose and poetry. Prose is the plain language of every-day speech in distinction from the more emotional and artistic language of poetry. The chief varieties of prose composition are: narration, description, exposition, argument, persuasion. Narration presents events in sequence of time, it presents a story; description paints a picture; exposition defines a term or explains a proposition; argument establishes the truth or falsity of a statement; persuasion arouses the emotions, and influences the will. Narration pre- sents events with special reference to time and place and persons, with their attendant motives and circumstances. It is the aim of narration to make the reader an eye-witness of the events related. Under narration may be classed letters, jour- nals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel, news, fiction, and that great body of literature comprehended under the term "stories." The sequence of events in narration may be with or without plot. If it be simply a sequence of time, then the narration is said to be without plot, as in letters, diaries, news of the day, journals, memoirs, biographies; but if there be a subtle relation of cause and effect, which binds together the sequence of events, then we have a narrative with a plot, such as stories, and novels, and dramas. A plot has been de- fined as "any arrangement of the parts of a narrative so that the reader's interest is aroused concerning the result of the series of events detailed." Letters, books of travel, memoirs, and biogra- phies owe their interest to the charm with which they are told, and the real worth of the succes- sive incidents treated. Letters of Thoreau to his friends, of Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, Alcott. give us the charm of Concord life in the golden days of those philosophers, and also give us a model of letter-writing in their simple beauty of style, and the value of their subject matter. Books of Travel have all the personal charm of letters, and added to that the deep interest of new scenes, visited by an apprecia- tive narrator. Travels consist largely of de- scription, w^hich should be well selected and accurate. Stanley's " In Darkest Africa," Roberts's "Forty-one Years in India," Grey's "Travels in Australia," are interesting books of travel. 3Iemoirs relate chiefly to matters of mem- ory', events that have come under the author's personal experience. Memoirs are related to history, but are less systematic and more con- versational in style. "Yesterdays with Au- thors," by J. T. Fields, is a volume of memoirs of noted literary men he knew. Biography is a history of an individual life, somewhat more extended than a memoir. An autobiography is the life history of the writer himself. Biographies form a very im- portant branch of history. If one would know the history of a time he must know the men of that time. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin furnishes a much better picture of life in his times than pages of our best histories. American Men of Letters .series, American Statesmen series, give a fine study of the develop- ment of the American nation. History is a formal and connected account of the life of a nation. Historical narration ex- LANGUAGE 199 plains the sequence of events, their cause and effect, and their bearing on civiHzation. The historian records truth for the instruction of mankind. It is, therefore, recjuired of him that he make his records with impartiahty and accu- racy, and with the highest regard for moraUty. Gibbon's " Dechne and Fall of the Roman Em- pire," Motley's "Rise of the Dutch Republic," are histories written with the charm of romance, because they are narrated with the vividness of an eye-witness and are aglow with human sympathies. News forms a most important branch of letters. The editorial and the news columns in- fluence more people to-day than any other form of literature. Thousands, who are utterly un- acquainted with books, read with eagerness the daily news, so the newspaper of to-day has be- come a popular educator. It is the privilege of the newspaper to present a high standard of pure grammatical English, and of morality. Clearness, brevity, accuracy, are the essential qualities in a news reporter. He must choose language that will convey his exact meaning, and give all essential details in as brief a manner as is consistent with accuracy and clearness. Daily news is read for the information it conveys, and not for beauty of style, yet it is desirable that the news writer cultivate ease and the charm of naturalness in writing up the simplest occurrences of the day, if he can do all this in quick and graphic sentences. News writing differs greatly from the writing of editorials or leaders. The news reporter simply gathers up the facts of the day and presents them without bias of opinion, whereas it is the business of the editor to discuss facts and give opinions. Edi- torials properly belong under exposition and persuasion, rather than under the division of prose narration. Fiction, from the earliest dawn of litera- ture, has been the favorite form of composition. The mind revels in the creations of the imagina- tion, and myths and folk tales are the delight of all peoples. Modern fiction has had phe- nomenal development, and the growth of the short story has been without parallel. Fiction includes stories, novels, and romances, both in prose and verse. The aim of fiction is principally to entertain. The general reader of fiction does not want instruction, he is seeking diversion. Incidentally, however, to the enter- tainment that is furnished by a modern novel, there is much instruction given by our best writers of historical novels, concerning customs and man- ners, and domestic and social life, and the history of the time in the midst of which the plot is set; but more valuable than these outer facts of life is the study of motives and behavior, and de- veloprnent of character, and the insight, which is given into human nature, and the conditions of human society which lie beyond our range of observation. If well selected, and not read to excess, novels form a valuable means of educa- tion, as well as of intellectual entertainment. The novels of Dickens, Victor Hugo, Tolstoi, have opened the eyes of the public to unsuspected social conditions. Bunyan, Goldsmith, Eliot, Hawthorne, have given us a deeper insight into human nature. We see how men and women behave under certain circumstances, and the relation of good and evil conduct. Tlie Siiort Story is not, as often claimed, a creation of recent date. Myths, legends, fa- bles, folk-tales, are all forms of short stories, which were invented when language was young. Mytiis are old-world fairy tales, and have for their heroes gods and goddesses, and for their agencies the forces of nature. Homer's "Odyssey," Virgil's "^neid," Longfellow's "Hiawatha," are poems woven out of mythic fancies. Fables are stories in which animals and inanimate things are represented as having the attributes of human beings. ^Esop's fables have been translated into every language. Parables are concrete examples of spiritual truths. They are frequently used in the Bible. Allegories are concrete stories to illustrate abstract truths, but more extended than parables or fables. An allegory gives a detailed descrip- tion of one thing under the image of another. Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Swift's "Tale of a Tub," are good types of allegories. Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress " is the best known allegory of modern times. Legends and Folk -Tales are the stories of daily life and heroic adventure that are common among all people. The field of the short-story writer has been greatly extended in modern times, and now includes every domain of fact and fancy. The short story of domestic life, or a brief chapter in personal history, may be said to characterize the modern short story, and is the favorite form of fiction. Newspapers and magazines con- tribute largely to this form of literature. It is to be greatly regretted that the popularity of the short story has led to its abuse, and that much that is unworthy both in plot and workmanship is found in active circulation. But literature has been enriched by the number of really worthy short-story writers, and American literature is especially rich in, the number who have pre- served for us tones of local coloring and contem- porary characters. Bret Harte, Mark Twain, Frank Stockton, have contributed the riches of their humor, and Nathaniel Hawthorne, Richard Harding Davis, Sarah Orne Jewett, Robert Louis Stevenson, George W. Cable, have added the beauty of their most delicate touch to the creation of the modern short story. "A New England Nun" by Mary E. Wil- kins, "Story-tell Lib" by Annie Trumbull Slosson, "The- Blue Flower" by Henry Van Dyke, "Christmas Stories" by Charles Dickens, and incidents related in story by Maupassant are a few of the long list of excellent short stories. Description follows narration and has already been included in narration. Every story must contain word pictures of persons or places or objects of interest. Description of external objects is simpler than the delineation of character. In a few strokes of the pen Sir Walter Scott places before us the person of Re- becca, but her thoughts, her feelings, her inner struggles, are revealed to us by a slower process of description. We are quickly introduced to Silas Marner and his home; but the real man 200 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS and his nobility of soul, we do not comprehend until he stands before Godfrey Cass and offers to give up to him his daughter. It is because George Eliot can describe such moments as this that she is ranked among the world's greatest novelists. Shakespere stands first of all writers in his power to describe soul experiences. Exposition differs from narration or de- scription in this that it does not deal with con- crete things, but with ideas, either separately or in combination. Exposition presents defi- nitions, doctrines, principles, or views, with the aim to instruct. Exposition is often intro- duced into the midst of narration or description for the purpose of explanation, to give a point of view, or to present a situation more fully. An Essay is a composition which aims to set forth the author's views on a certain subject. It is less elaborate than a treatise, and varies in length from the brief school exercise to the elaborate essays of Macaulay, or Emerson, or Carlyle. Editorials, reviews, criticisms, are familiar forms of the essay. An Editorial may be called a short essay, giving the views of the editor on some subject of the day. The editorial is very different from the news item which was classed under narra- tion. The reporter simply records facts without personal comment, whereas it is the business of the editor to record facts and give opinions, explaining where necessary, and commending or condemning as occasion requires. News- papers set forth social and political problems of a local or national chai'acter, and it is the aim of the editorial to shape public thought. Back of the editorial "we" is the personality of the writer; but sometimes the writer himself is lost in the political party or organization which the paper or magazine represents. Reviews are more elaborate forms of edi- torials, they deal with the subject at greater length, and are more exhaustive in the discus- Bions. Reviews often treat of literary subjects, as book reviews, music, art, lives of noted men, explorations, etc. Criticisms are for the purpose of setting forth excellences and defects, and are designed to be constructive rather than destructive, as defects are pointed out that the true principles upon which the work is constructed may be better understood. Argumentative Discourse is for the purpose of establishing the truth or falsity of a C reposition. Its aim is to modify or induce elief. It is assumed that there is reasonable doubt in the minds of the hearers, and by rea- sonable argument they must be convinced. In the conduct of such a discourse the subject or proposition is first stated briefly and concisely, then follow the arguments drawn up in order and, finally, the conclusion, which consists of a restatement of the proposition reinforced by the strength of the arguments. In the presenta- tion of a debate, both sides must agree on the preliminary statement or proposition, and then each side must furnish proof to establish the truth of the main proposition as presented af- firmatively or negatively by that side. Persuasion is the highest type of argu- mentative discourse, and includes addresses, lectures, sermons, orations. The aim of persua- sion is so to move upon the feelings of the audi- ence as to influence the will. In exposition and argumentation the appeal is to the will, but the end of oratory has a view" to action. Mark Antony, over the dead body of Ca;sar, aimed to excite the populace to violence. Orations are elaborate compositions and are delivered on formal occasions, as Daniel Webster's Bunker Hill oration, Edward Everett's Gettysburg oration, the orations delivered by Burke, and Peel, and Fox. Clearness and force are strong qualities in an oration, but, in addition to these, all the beauties of composition are in place. As oratory is the highest form of prose composition, nothing trivial or low in language or thought should be allowed. The main idea should be developed by both language and gesture. Words must be made alive. Addresses and Speeciies are less formal than orations, yet they all admit of the three-fold structure into introduction or ex- ordium, body or argument, and conclusion or peroration. The strength of the discourse de- pends upon the skill with which each part is handled. Ready and fluent speech are desir- able qualities in all public speaking; but the ornate language of an oration would, on ordi- nary occasions, be out of place. . A Lecture is less formal than an oration, but it demands a scholarly presentation of a subject in a clear and logical manner. The subject presented should be of importance, not too familiar, and presented in such a way as to interest and instruct. Sermons are the most familiar forms of discourse. They are founded usually upon some passage of Scripture, and are intended for instruction. Besides their expository character, sermons usually contain appeals to the listener, and admonitions. The theme of the sermon is presented in the Bible text; and, in addition to this, it is often necessary for the minister to make explanatory remarks before he begins the body of his argument. The introduction must contain a clear putting of the question, all necessary explanation must be made, and usually an outline is given of the plan to be fol- lowed in the body of the sermon. It is interest- ing to note the three kinds of arguments used in the body of a sermon. First, there is the argument of fact. This is an argument which appeals directly to sense and reason, and not to prejudice. The audi- ence is assumed to be impartial, and concrete questions are presented to their judgment. Second, argument of principle is also ad- dressed to the reason of the audience, and not to feelings or interests. Arguments of facts es- tablish or disprove some concrete matter of human experience, whereas argument of theory or principles establishes the fundamental law upon which the judgment of those facts is based. Third, argument of policy aims to persuade by appeals to motives of action. It aims to in- fluence the will to act in harmony with the prin- ciples outlined in the previous arguments of fact and theory. Wliat is right is presented as the expedient. The "I ought" becomes an obliga- LANGUAGE 201 tion. It is through the medium of the feelings that most men are moved to action. The conclusion of the sermon sums up the main points of the argument, clearly and concisely. It may at times be done in a single sentence; sometimes it is best done by the repetition of the opening text which has been established. Poetry differs from prose in form and dic- tion. The form of poetry is verse. It is arranged in lines of regularly recurring accented and unaccented syllables. The language of poetry differs from prose. Certain privileges are f;ranted to the poet which are called "poetic icenses." Words are chosen for their beauty of sound or association. Figures of speech are more frequent in poetry than in prose, and inverted structure is frequently employed. The essential difference between prose and poetry is, however, in the writer's aim. The chief aim of prose is to instruct and to convince ; the aim of poetry is to appeal to the emotions, to touch the heart of the reader, to play upon his sympathies. Cpic Poetry recites some great and heroic enterprise. Epic poetry is the longest and, ex- cept the drama, the most complex of all poetic composition. Its theme is noble, its underlying plot simple; it has one hero bvit many actors; supernatural agencies are often introduced. The treatment of the story is grave and dignified. There are but few great world epics. Homer's "Ihad" and "Odyssey," Virgil's ".^neid," Dante's "Divine Comedy," Tasso's "Jerusalem DeUvered," Milton's "Paradise Lost," are the greatest, and their themes are of universal interest. Metrical Romances and Narrative Poetry are inferior to the epic. They present plot and story, but with less complication of action, and with simpler theme. Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel," Longfellow's "Evangeline," Lowell's "Sir Launfal," Mrs. Brow^ning's "Aurora Leigh," are examples of this kind of composition. The Ballad and tlie Tale are the sim- plest forms of metrical romance. "Che\y Chase," "Robin Hood," Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome," Coleridge's "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," are good illustrations. Narrative poems of a mixed character have been variously classed under mhior epics or pas- toral poems: Tennyson's "Idylls of the King," Scott's "Lady of the Lake," Longfellow's " Tales of a Wayside Inn," Whittier's "Snowbound," William Morris's "Earthly Paradise." These classifications are not binding. Dramatic poetry presents action, what men do and say, and, in our greater dramas, motives and the moral train of consequences. Passion is strong, incident exciting, thought vigorous. Scenery, costume, dialogue, aid in the presentation of the story. The drama lives its life upon the stage. The main divisions of the drama are tragedy and comedy. Comedy itself has the subordi- nate divisions: farce, opera, melodrama, mask. The Greek drama presents to us the highest form of dramatic art before the age of Shakes- pere. In the golden age of Pericles we have the tragedies of iEschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, and the comedies of Aristophanes, later we have the comic plays of Menander. Greek drama, like our own English drama, was written in poetic form. Tragedy deals with grave topics, and stirs the deepest feelings. It presents the unusual struggle between good and evil. Some crime has been committed, and the consequences of this act are worked out upon the stage in a chain of events which involves many people. The plot becomes more or less complicated, yet in Shakespere's dramas the skill with which the leading characters and the central theme are presented, preserves for the audience unity of action throughout the play. King Lear, Otliello, Macbeth, Hamlet, present the great drama of Good versus Evil, and will make a good begin- ning for the student who wishes to become ac- quainted with tragedy. Comedy, unlike tragedy, has a happy ending. Tlie passions of men, love, hate, jeal- ousy, ambition, are still the hidden springs of action, but there is a happy turn in the current of events, and Good triumphs without violence or bloodshed. Browning's "Pippa Passes" presents Good and Evil, and the superior power of the good, but it is not for the stage — it is too analytic. Shakespere's plays again pre- sent to us the best study. " Merchant of Venice," "Midsummer Night's Dream," "As You Like It," "All's Well that Ends Well," "The Tem- pest," "Taming of the Shrew," "Merry Wives of Windsor," also Sheridan's "Rivals," Gold- smith's "She Stoops to Conquer," will repay many times reading. Shakespere's historic dramas may be classed among comedies or tragedies, according to the relation of good and evil working out of the theme. "King Henry, the Eighth," " King Jolm," "Richard II," and "Richard III" should be studied. The Farce is a minor comedy, which pre- sents ridiculous and extravagant situations. It is familiar to the modern stage. The Mask is usually a presentation of some pastoral scene, and introduces supernatural characters. The "Mask of Comus" by John Milton is our best example. Opera and Melodrama are forms of comedy where music and action are combined. In an opera the parts are entirely sung, while in melodrama singing and speaking are com- bined. Wagner's operas are the noblest con- ception we have of the power of music combined with dramatic art. Lyric Poetry, as the words suggest, is poetry set to music. Originally the voice of the singer was accompanied by some musical in- strument, as the harp or lyre, hence lyric. Lyric poems express the personal feeling of the author, and are moved by some fervor of emotion that must sing itself out. Not only are all song poems, both religious and secular, classed as lyrics, but odes and sonnets belong to this group. Odes express so wide a range of feeling that it is difficult to form an exact definition. The Greek odes of Pindar and Anacreon differ from our modern conception of the ode, which we regard as more stately and dignified. Examples of odes found in our own English are Milton's " Hymn on the Nativity," Wordsworth's " Inti- mations of Immortality " Shelley's " Ode to a 202 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Nightingale," Collins's "Ode to the Passions," Dryden's "Ode in Honor of St. Cecilia's Day," Tennyson's "Ode to Memory." Elegy is a reflective poem on some mournful subject, or, as in modern elegies, a eulogy over the dead. Milton's "Lycidas" belongs to this claas, also Gray's "Elegy written in a Country Churchyard," Shelley's "Adonais," a tribute to Keats, and Tennyson's " In Memoriam," a trib- ute to his friend, Arthur Hallam. A Sonnet is a complete poem of fourteen lines. The personal element is strong, and the themes are tenderness of emotion and beauty of thought and expression. The sonnet is the poet's poem. Shakespere, Spenser, Milton, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Browning, and other great poets have delighted in this form of verse. Read "What is a Sonnet?" by Richard Watsoa Gilder to understand its charm. Didactic Poetry is the least poetic of all poetic forms. It aims to teach, while the higher aim of poetry is to reveal life and beauty and joy. Pope's " Essay on Man," Cowper's " Task," Dryden's "Absalom and Achitophel, " are examples of poems which are so didactic that they are little read. Lyric poems like Shelley's "Cloud," Wordsworth's "Daffodils," Longfel- low's "Rain in Summer," Burns's "To a Wee Mousie's Nest," Tennyson's "Crossing the Bar," Newman's " Lead, Kindly Light," will always remain popular, because they appeal to the emotions and the imagination, rather than to critical thought. The aim of poetry is to arouse the emotions and to give pleasure. ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND DEGREES A., a. Adjective. A. Alto. A., ans. Answer. o.,@. (Lat. ad), To; At. d, da. The like quantity of each. A. A.G. Assistant Adjutant General. A. A. A. & L. American Academy of Arts and Letters. A. A. A. S. American Association for the Advancement of Science. A. & A. S. R. Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. A. A. S. S. (Lat. AcademicF Antiqiia- rinw Societatis Socius), Member of the American Antiquarian Society. A. A. U. Amateur Athletic Union. A. B. (Lat. artium baccalaureus). Bachelor of Arts. A. B. Able-bodied Seaman. Abbr., Abbrev. Abbreviated, Abbre- viation. Abl., ablat. Ablative. Abp. Archbishop. A. B. S. American Bible Society. A. C. (Lat. ante Christum), Before Christ; Analytical Chemist. Acad. Academy. A. C. A. American Congregational Association. Ace, Accus. Accusative. Ace, Acct. Account. A. D. (Lat. anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. A, D.C. Aide-de-camp. Ad., advt. Advertisement. Adj. Adjective. Adjt. Adjutant. Adjt. Gen. Adjutant General. Ad lib.. Ad libit. (Lat. ad libitum), At pleasure. Adm. Admiral. Admr. Administrator. Admx. Administratrix. Ads. Advertisements. Adv. Adverb. .*., ^i. (Lat. cEtatis), Of Age, Aged. A.E.F. American Expeditionary Force. A.G., Agt. Gen. Adjutant General. Ag. (Lat. argentum), Silver. Agl. Dept. Agricultural Department. Agr., Agric. Agriculture, Agricultural. Agl. Agent. A. H. (Lat. anno Hegiroe), In the year of the Hegira, or flight of Mohammed. A. H. C. American Hospital Corps. A. H. M. S. American Home Mission Society. A. H. S. (Lat. anno humanm salu- tis). In the year of human salva- tion. A. L. of II, American Legion of Honor. Ala. Alabama. Aid. Alderman. Alex. Alexander. Alf. Alfred. Alg. Algebra. A. M. (Lat. anno mundi), In the year of the world. A. M. (Lat. ante meridiem). Before noon. A. M. (Lat. artium, magister). Mas- ter of Arts. Am., Amer. America, American. A. M. D. Army Medical Dept. Amer. Phil. Soc. American Philo- sophical Society. Amt. Amount. A. N. Anglo-Norman. an. (Lat. anno). In the year. Anal. Analysis. Anal. Anatomy, Anatomical. Anc. Ancient. Anon. Anonymous. Ans. Answer. A. X. S. Army Nursing Service. A. N. S. S. Associate of the Normal School of Science. Ant., Antiq. Antiquities, Antiquarian. Anthrop. Anthropology, Anthro- pological. A. O. H. Ancient Order of Hibernians. A. O. U. American Ornithologists' Union. A. O. U. W. Ancient Order of United Workmen. Ap.. App. Apostle, Apostles. A. P. A. American Protestant As- sociation ; American Protective Association. Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha. ApoQ. Apogee. App. Appendix. approx. Approximate, -ly. Apr. April. A. P. S. Associate of the Pharma- ceutical Society. Aq. (Lat. aqua). Water. A. Q. M. Assistant Quartermaster. A. Q. M. G. Assistant Quartermas- ter-General. Ar., Arab. Arabic, Arabian. Ar., Arr. Arrive, Arrives, Arrived, Arrival. A. R. A. Associate of the Royal Academy. Arab. Arabic, Arabian. Aram. Aramaic. Arch. Architecture. Archceol. Archfeology. Archd. Archdeacon. A. R. H. A. Associate of the Royal Hibernian Academy. Ariih. Arithmetic, Arithmetical. Ariz. Arizona. Ark. Arkansas. Arm. Armorican, Armenian. A, R. R. (Lat. anno regni regis or reginoe). In the year of the king's (or queen's) reign. A. R. S. A. Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. A. R. S. M. Associate of the Royal School of Mines. Art. Article. A. S., A.-S. Anglo-Saxon. Asst. Assistant. A. S. S. U. American Sunday School Union. Aasyr. Assyrian. Astrol. Astrology. Asiron. .\stronomy, Astronomical. A. T. S. American Tract Society. Atty. Attorney. Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General. A. U. A. American Unitarian As- sociation. A. U. C. (Lat. anno urbis conditce). In the year from the building of the city — Rome. Aug. Augmentative. Aug. Augustus; August. Auxil. Auxiliary. A. V. Authorized Version. A. V. Artillery Volunteers. Avoir. Avoirdupois. B. Bass; Book. B., Bril. British. b. Born. B. A. Bachelor of Arts. [A. B.] Bal. Balance. Bali., Balio. Baltimore. Bank. Banking. Bap.. Bapt. Baptist. Bar. Barrel, Barometer. Bart., Bl. Baronet. Bat., Bait. Battalion. bbl., bbls. Barrel, Barrels. B. C. Before Christ. B. Ch. (Lat. baccalaureus chirur- gioe). Bachelor of Surgery. B. C. Li. (Lat. baccalaureus civilia legis). Bachelor of Civil Law. B. D. (Lat. baccalaureus divinitatis). Bachelor of Divinity. Bd. Bound. Bdls. Bundles. Bds. Bound in boards. B. E. Bachelor of the Elements; Bachelor of Elocution. Belg. Belgic, Belgian. Ben., Benj. Benjamin. Berks. Berkshire. Bib. Bible, Biblical. Biog. Biography, Biographical. Biol. Biology, Biological. B. L., B. L. L. (Lat. baccalaurtua le- gum.) , Bachelor of Laws. bit. Bale?. B. M. (Lat. baccalaureus medicinal). Bachelor of Medicine. B. M., B. Mus. (Lat. baccalaureus m,usicce). Bachelor of Music. JB. O. Branch Office; Board of Ord- nance. LANGUAGE 203 B. O. Bachelor of Oratory. Boh. Bohemian, or Czech. Bost. Boston. Bot. Botany, Botanical. B. P. O. E. Benevolent and Protec- tive Order of Elks. Bp. Bishop. Br., Bro. Brother. Bret. Bas-Breton, or Celtic of Brit- tany. Brig. Brigade. Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General. Brit. Britain, Britannia, British. B. S. Bachelor of Surgery; Bachelor of Science. B. Sc. (Lat. baccalaureus scienlice). Bachelor of Science. B. S. L. Botanical Society, London. Bt. Baronet. hush. Bushel. B. V. Blessed Virgin. B. V. M. Blessed Virgin Mary. hx., bxs. Box, Boxes. C. Cent, Cents; Centigrade; Consul; Centime, Centimes; a hundred. C, Cap. (I.at. caput), Chapter. C. A. Chartered Accountant. Cal. California; Calendar. Cam., Camb. Cambridge. Cant. Canticle. Cant. [Cantaur.] Cantab. (Lat. Cantabrigiensis) , Of Cambridge. Cantuar., Cant. (Mid. Lat. Cantua- ria), Canterbury. Cap. (Lat. caput). Capital; Chapter. Caps. Capitals. Capt. Captain. Card. Cardinal. Cath. Catharine; Catholic. C. B. Companion of the Bath. C. C. Catholic Clergyman, Catholic Curate. C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite. C. E. Civil Engineer. Cel. Celsius. Celt. Celtic. Cent, (centum), A hundred; Centi- grade. Centig. Centigrade. Cert., Certif. Certify; Certificate. Cf. (Lat. confer). Compare. C. ft. Cubic feet. C. G. Coastguard; Commissary-Gen- eral. C. G. S. Centimctre-Gramme-Second. C. H. Court House. Ch. Church; Chapter. Chal. Chaldron. Chal., Chald. Chaldee. Chan. Chancellor. Chap. Chapter. Chas. Charles. Chem. Chemistry, Chemical. Ch. Hist. Church History. Chic. Chicago. Chin. Chinese. Chr. Christ; Christian; Christopher. Chron. Chronology, Chronological. C. I. Order of the Crown of In- dia. C. I. E. Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire. Cin. Cincinnati. Cit. Citation; Citizen. Civ. Civil. C. J . Chief Justice. CI. Clergyman. Class. Classical. Clk. Clerk. cm. Centimetre. C. M. Certificated Master; Com- mon metre. C. M. (Lat. chirurgim mayister). Master in Surgery. C. M. G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and George. C. M. Z. S. Corresponding Member of the Zoological Society. Co. Company; County. C. O. D. Cash on delivery; Collect (payment) on delivery. Cogn. Cognate. Col. Colonel; Colossians; Column. Coll. College. Colloq. Colloquial; Colloquialism; Colloquially. Colo. Colorado. Com. Commander; Commerce; Com- missioner; Committee; Commo- dore; Common. Comm. Commentary; Commerce. Comp. Compare; Comparative; Compound, Compounded. Cotnpar. Comparative. Compos. Composition. Com. ver. Common Version. Con., contra. (Lat.), Against. Con. Cr. Contra Credit. Cong. Congregation, Congregational, Congrcgationalist; Congress. Conj. Conjunction. Conn. Connecticut. Con. Sec. Conic Sections. Contr. Contracted, Contraction. Cop., Copt. Coptic. Cor. Corinthians. Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member. Corn. Cornwall; Cornish. Corrup. Corruption, Corrupted. Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary. Cos. Cosine. C. P. Clerk of the Peace; Common Pleas. C. P. A. Certified Public Account- ant. C. P. C. Clerk of the Privy Council. C. P. S. (Lat. custos privati sigilli). Keeper of the Privy Seal. C. Q. D. Come quick — danger. Cr. Credit, Creditor. C. R. (Lat. Civis Romanus), Roman Citizen. C. R. (Lat. custos rotulorum), Keeper of the Rolls. Cres. Crescendo. Crim. con. Criminal conversation, or adultery. Cry stall., Crystallog. Crystallogra- phy. C. S. A. Confederate States of America. C. S. Court of Sessions, Clerk to the Signet. C. S. I. Companion of the Star of India. Csks. Casks. Ct. (Lat. centum), A hundred, Ct. Court. Ct., Conn. Connecticut. C. T. Certified Teacher. C. T. A. U. Catholic Total Absti- nence Union. Cu. (Lat. cuprum). Copper. Cub., Cu. ft. Cubic, Cubic foot. Cur., Curt. Current — this month. Ciut. A hundredweight; Hundred- weights. Cyc. Cyclopedia. D. Deputy. d. (Lat. denarius, denarii), A penny, Pence. d. Died. Da7i. Daniel; Danish. Dat. Dative. Dav. David. D. C. (Ital. da capo), From the be- ginning. D. C, Dist. Col. District of Colum- bia. D. C. Doctor of Chiropractic. D. C. L. Doctor of Civil (or Canon) Law. D. D. (Lat. divinitatis doctor), Doc- tor of Divinity. D. D. p. (Lat. dat. dicat, dedicat), He gives, devotes, and consecrates. (The formula by which anything was consecrated to the gods or to religious uses by the Romans.) D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery. D. E. Dynamic Engineer. D. Eng. Doctor of Engineering. Dec. December. decim. Decimetre. Def. Definition. Deft. Defendant. Deg. Degree, Degrees. Del. Delaware. Del. (Lat. delineavit). He (or she) drew. Dep., Depl. Department. Dep. Deputy. Der. Derived, Derivation. Deut. Deuteronomy. D. F. Dean of the Faculty; Defender of the Faith. D. G. (Lat. Dei gratia), By the grace of God. Diet. Dictionary. — Dim., Dimin. Diminutive. Dis., Disct. Discount. Dist. District. Dist. Ally. District Attorney. Div. Divide; Dividend; Division; Divisor. D. Lit., D. Lilt. Doctor of Literature. D. L. O. Dead Letter Office. D. M., D. Mus. Doctor of Music. D. M. D. Doctor of Dental Medicine. D. O. Doctor of Osteopathy; Doc- tor of Optica. Do. (Ital. ditto). The same. Dols. Dollars. Dom. Econ. Domestic Economy. Doz. Dozen. Dpt. Deponent. Dr. Debtor; Doctor; Dram, Drams. Dram. Dramatic, Dramatically. D. S. (Ital. dal segno). From, the sign. D. Sc. Doctor of Science. D. T. (Lat. doctor theologim) , Doctor of Theology. Du., Dut. Dutch. Dub. Dubhn. Duo. 12mo. Duodecimo (twelve folds). D. V. (Lat. Deo volente), God wiOing. D. V. M. Doctor of Veterinary Med- icine. D. V. S. Doctor of Veterinary Sur- gery. Dwt. (Lat. denarius, and English weight). Pennyweight, Penny- weigFits. Dynarn. Dynamics. E. East, Eastern; English; Edin- burgh. Ea. Each. E. Aram. East Aramaean, generally called Chaldee. Eben. Ebenezer. E. C. Eastern Central; Established Church. EccL, Eccles. Ecclesiastical. Eccles., Ecclesiol. Ecclesiology. Econ. Economy. Ed. Editor; Edition; Edinburgh. Ed., Edm. Edmund. Edin. Edinburgh. E. D. S. English Dialect Society. Edw. Edward. E. E. Errors excepted. E. E. Electrical Engineer. e. g. (Lat. exempli gratia), For ex- ample. E. I. East Indies, East Indian. E. I. C, E. I. Co. East Indian Com- pany. E. I. C. S. East India Company's Service. Elec, Elect. Electric, Electricity. Eliz. Elizabeth, Elizabethan. Emp. Emperor, Empress. Ency., Encyclo. Encyclopaedia. E. N. E. East-northeast. Eng. England, English. Eng., Engin. Engineer, Engineering. Eng. Dept. Department of Engi- neers. Ent., Entom. Entomology, Entomo- logical. Env. Ext. Envoy extraordinary. Epii. Ephesians; Ephraim. Epiph. Epiphany. Epis. Episcopal. Epist. Epistle, epistolary. Eq. Equal, equivalent. 204 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS Equiv. Equivalent. Esd. Esdras. E. S. E. East-southeast. Esp., Espec. Especial, especially. Esq., Esqr. Esquire. et al. (Lat. et alibi). And elsewhere. et al. (Lat. et alii, alia, or alia). And others. etc., &c. (Lat. et cetceri, calerce, or ccetera), And others, and so forth. Eth. Ethiopia, Ethiopian. Ethnol. Ethnology, ethnological. et seq. (Lat. et sequentes, or sequen- tia). And the following. Etym. Etymology. Ex. Example: Examined: Excep- tion: Exodus. Exc. Excellency: Except, excepted. Exch. Exchange: Exchequer. Exd. Examined. Ex. Doc. Executive Document. Exec. Executor. Execx. Executrix. Ex. Gr. (Lat. exempli gratia). For example. Exod. Exodus. Exon. (Lat. Exonia), Exeter. Exor. Executor. Ez. Ezra. Ezek. Ezekiel. E. & O. E. Errors and omissions ex- cepted. F. Fellow: Folio: Fahrenheit. /. Farthing, farthings. /., fem. Feminine. /. Franc, francs. it. Foot, feet. Fahr. Fahrenheit. F. A. S. Fellow of the Society of Arts. F. & A.M. Free and Accepted Ma- sons. F. A. S. E. Fellow of the Antiqua- rian Society, Edinburgh. F. B. S. E. Fellow of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. F. C. Free Church of Scotland. Fcp. Foolscap. F. C. P. S. Fellow of the Philosoph- ical Society, Cambridge. F. C. S. Fellow of the Chemical So- ciety. F. D., Fid. Def. (Lat. Fidei Defen- sor), Defender of the Faith. Feb. February. . Fee. (Lat. fecit). He or she did it. F. E. I. S. Fellow of the Educational Institute of Scotland. Fem. Feminme. F. E. S. Fellow of the Entomologi- cal Society. Feud. Feudal. F. F. V. First Families of Virginia. F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological Society. F.I. A. Fellow of the Institute of F. /. C. Fellow of the Chemical In- stitute. fi.fa. Fieri facias. Fig. Figure, figures, figurative, fig- uratively. Finn. Finnish. F. K. Q. C. P. I. Fellow of the.Kings and Queen's College of Physicians, Ireland. Ft. Flemish; Florin, florins; Flour- ished. Flo,. Florida. Flem. Flemish. F. L. S. Fellow of the Linniean So- ciety. F. M. Field-marshal. Fo., Fol. Folio. F. O. Foreign Office; Field-officer. F. O. B. Free on board. For. Foreign. Fort. Fortification. F.P. Fire-plug. F. P. S. Fellow of the Philological Society. Fr. France; French; Francis; Francs. fr. From. F. R. A. S. Fellow of the Royal As- tronomical Society. F.R.C. P. Fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians. F. R. C. P. E. Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh. F. R. C. S. Fellow of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons. F. R. C. S. E. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh. F. R. C. S. I. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland. Fred. Frederick. Freq. Frequentative. F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Royal Geo- graphical Society. F. R. II. S. Fellow of the Royal Hor- ticultural Society. F. R. Hist. S. Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. Fri. Friday. Fries. Friesland. Fris. Frisian. F. R. Met. S. Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society. F. R. M. S. Fellow of the Royal Mi- croscopical Society. F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society. F. R. S. E. Fellow of the Royal So- ciety, Edinburgh. F. R. S. L. Fellow of the Royal So- ciety of Literature. F. R. S. S. Fellow of the Royal Sta- tistical Society. F. S. A. Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of Antiquaries. F. S. A. Scot. P'ellow of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Ft. Foot, feet; Fort. Fth. Fathom. Fur. Furlong. Fut. Future. F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoological Society. G. Genitive; Guinea, guineas; Gulf. Ga. Georgia. G. A. General Assembly. Gael. Gaelic; Gadhelic. Gal. Galatians. Gal., Gall. Gallon, gallons. Galv. Galvanism, galvanic. G. A. R. Grand Army of the Repub- lic. G. B. Great Britain. G. B. & I. Great Britain and Ireland. G. C. B. Grand Cross of the Bath. G. C. G. H. Grand Cross of the Guelphs of Hanover. G. C. L. H. Grand Cross of the Le- gion of Honor. G. C. M. G. Grand Cross SS. Michael and George. G. C. S. I. Grand Commander of the Star of India. G. D. Grand Duke, Grand Duchess. Gen., Genl. General. Gen. Genesis; Genitive. Gend. Gender. Genii. Genitive. Gent., Gentn. Gentleman, gentlemen. Geo. George; Georgia. Geog. Geography, geographical. Geol. Geology, geological. Geom. Geometry, geometrical. Ger., Germ. German. Gi. Gill, gills. G. L. Grand Lodge. Gm. Grammes. G. M. Grand Master. Go.. Goth. Gothic. G. O. P. Grand old party (applied to republican party). Gov. Governor. Gov.-gen. Governor-general. . Govt. Government. G. P. O. General Post-Oflice. Gr. Grain, grains; Great; Greek; Gross. Gram. Grammar, grammatical. Gro. Gross. G. T. Good Templars; Grand Tyler. Gtt. (Lat. guUcB), Drops. Gun, Gunnery. H. Hour, hours. Ilab. Habakkuk. Hag. Haggai. Hants. Hampshire. //. B. C. Hudson Bay Company. //. B. M. His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. //. C. Heralds' College; House of Commons. //. C. M. His (or Her) Catholic Majesty. h. e. (Lat. hoc est, hie est), This or That is, here is. Heb., Hebr. Hebrew, Hebrews. Her. Heraldry, heraldic. Hj.-bd. Half-bound. H. G. Horse Guards. H. II. His (or Her) Highness; His Holiness (the Pope). Hhd. Hogshead, hogsheads. H. I. H. His (or Her) Imperial High- ness. Hind. Hindu, Hindustan, Hindu- stani. Hist. History, Historical. H. J., II. J. S. (Lat. hie jacet, hie jacet sepuUus), Here lies, here lies buried. H. M. His (or Her) Majesty. H. M. P. (Lat. hoc mnnumentum posuit). Erected this monument. H. M. S. His (or Her) Majesty's Service, Ship, or Steamer. Hon., Honble. Honorable. Hond. Honored. Hor., Horol. Horology, horological. Hort., Hortic. Horticulture, horticul- tural. Hos. Hosea. H.P. Half -pay; High-priest; Horse power. H. R. House of Representatives. H. R. E. Holy Roman Empire, or Emperor. H. R. H. His (or Her) Royal High- ness. H. R. I. P. (Lat. hie requiescit irt pace). Here rests in peace. H. S. (Lat. hic situs). Here lies. H. S. H. His (or Her) Serene High- ness. Hum., Humb. Humble. Hun., Hung. Hungary, Hungarian. Hund. Hundred. Hyd., Hydros. Hydrostatics. Hydraul. Hydraulics. Hydros. [Hyd.] Hypoth. Hypothesis, hypothetical. I. Island. la. Iowa. lb.. Ibid. (Lat. ibidem). In the same place. Icel. Icelandic. Ich., Ichthy. Ichthyology. Id. (Lat. idem). The same. Ida. Idaho. i. e. (Lat. id est). That is. /. H. S. (Lat. Jesus Salvator Homv- num), Jesus, the Saviour of Men. Til. Illinois. Imp. (Lat. imperaior). Emperor; Im- perial; impersonal. Imp., Impf. Imperfect. Imper. Imperative. In. Inch, inches. Incog. (Ital. incognito, incognita). Unknown. Ind. India, Indian; Indiana. Indie. Indicative. Ind. Ter. Indian Territory. Inf., Infin. Infinitive. In Km. (Lat. in limine). At the out- set. In loc. (Lat. in loco). In its place. /. A^. R. I. (Lat. Jesus Xiizarenua Rex ludworum), Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Ins. Insurance. Ins. Gen. Inspector General. Inst. Instant, the present month: Institute, institution. IrU. Interest. LANGUAGE 205 Int.Dept. Department of the Interior. Intena. Intensive; Intensative. Inter]. Interjection. Intrans. Intransitive. In trans. (Lat. in transitu). On the passage. Int. Rev. Internal Revenue. Introd. Introduction. lo. Iowa. /. O. F. Independent Order of For- /. O. G. T. Independent Order of Good Templars. /. O. O. F. Independent Order of Oddfellows. /. O. R. M. Improved Order of Red Men. /. O. S. M. Independent Order of Sons of Malta. /. O. U. I owe you. 1. q. (Lat. idem quod). The same as. Ir. Ireland, Irish, Irreg. Irregular. " la., Isa. Isaiah. /. S. Irish Society. Isl. Islanil. /. S. M. Jesus Salvator Mundi. It., Ital. Italy; Itahc; Italian. Itin. Itinerary. J. Judge; Justice. J. A. Judge-advocate. Jac. Jacob, Jacobus (= James). Jan. January. J. .4. G. Judge Advocate General. Jav. Javanese. J. C. Jesus Christ. J. C. D. (Lat. juris civilis doctor). Doctor of Civil Law. J. D. (Lat. jurum doctor). Doctor of Laws. Jer. Jeremiah. J. G. W. Junior Grand Warden J. H. S. [I. H. S.]. Jno. John. Jour. Journey. Jon., Jona. Jonathan. Jos. Joseph. Josh. Joshua. Jour. Journal. J. P. Justice of the Peace. Jr. Juror; Junior. J. U. D. (Lat. Juris utriusque doc- tor). Doctor of both laws {i. c, of civil and canon law). Jud. Judith. Judg. Judges. Jul. July; Juhus; Julian. Jul. Per. JuUan Period. Jun. June. Jun., Junr. Junior. Juris. Jurisprudence. K. King; Knight. Kan.,Ks. Kansas. K. B. Knight of the Bath. K. B. King's Bench. K. C. King's Counsel; Knights of Columbus. K. C. B. Knight Commander of the Bath. K. C. H. Knight Commander of the Guelphs of Hanover. K. C. M. G. Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George. K. C. S. I. Knight Commander of the Star of India. K. E. Knight of the Eagle. Ken., Ky. Kentucky. K. G. Knight of the Garter. K. G. E. Knight of the Golden Eagle. K. G. C. Knight of the Grand Cross. K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath. K. G. F. Knight of the Golden Flesce. K. G. H. Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover. Ki. Kings. Kilog. Kilogramme. Kilom., Kilo. Kilometre. Ktnod. Kingdom. K. I. B. Knight of Leopold of Bel- gium. K. L. H. Knight of the Legion of Honor. K. M. Knight of Malta. Kn. N. S. Knight of the Loyal Nor- thern Star (Sweden). Knick. Knickerbocker. Knt. Knight. K. P. Knight of St. Patrick. K. of P. Knights of Pythias. Ks. Kansas. K. S. Knight of the Sword (Sweden). Kt. Knight. K.T. Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar. K. T. S. Knight of Tower and Sword (Portugal). Ky. Kentucky. L. Latin; Lake; Lord; I/ady. L., I., £. (Lat. libra), Pound, pounds (sterling). L., lb., lb. (Lat. libra), Pound, pounds (weight). La. Louisiana. L. A. Law Agent; Literate in Arts. Lam. Lamentations. Lat. Latin; Latitude. ^6. Pound, pounds (weight). L. c. Lower case (in printing). L. c, loc. cit. (Lat. loco citato). In the place cited. L. C. Lord Chamberlain ; Lord Chan- cellor. L. C. J. Lord Chief -justice. L. C. P. Licentiate of the College of Preceptors. Ld. Lord. Ldp. Lordship. L. D. S. Licentiate of Dental Sur- gery. Leg., Legis. Legislature, legislative. Leip. Leipsic. Lev. Leviticus. Lex. Lexicon. Lexicog. Lexicography, lexicogra- pher, lexicographical. L. G. Life Guards. L. Ger. Low German cr Piatt Deutsch. L. H. D. Doctor of Humanities. L. I. Light Infantry; Long Island. Lib. (Lat. liber). Book. Lib. Library, librarian. Lieut., Lt. Lieutenant. Lieut.-col. Lieutenant-colonel. Lieut.-gen. Lieutenant-general. Lieut. -gov. Lieutenant-governor. lin. Lineal, or right-line measures; e. g., lin. yd.; lin. ft., etc. Linn. Linnffius, Linn^, Linnsean. Liq. Liquor, liquid. Lit. Literally, literature, literary. Lit. D., Lilt. D. (Lat. literarum doc- tor). Doctor of Literature. Lith. Lithography. Liv. Livre. LL. B. (Lat. legum baccalaureus) , Bachelor of Laws. LL. D. (Lat. legum doctor). Doctor of Laws. LL. I. Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. LL. M. Master of Laws. L. M. Long metre. Lon., Lond. London. Lon., Long. Longitude. Loq. (Lat. loquitur). He (or she) speaks. Lou. Louisiana. Lp. Lordship. L. P. Lord Provost. L. S. (Lat. locus sigilli). Place of the seal. L. s. d. (Lat. libra;, solidi, denarii). Pounds, shillings, pence. Lt. Lieutenant. Lt. Inf. Light Infantry. Luth. Lutheran. m. Married; Masculine; Mfetre, me- tres; Mile, miles; Minute, min- utes. M. Marquis; Middle; Monday; Morning; Monsieur. .If. (Lat. mille). Thousand. M. (Lat. meridies). Meridian, Noon. M. A. (Master of Arts.) [A. M.] Mac, Mace. Maccabees. Much., Machin. Machine, machinery. Mad., Madm. Madam. Mag. Magyar; Magazine. Maj. Major. Maj.-gen. Major-general. Mai. Malachi; Malay, Malayan. Manuf. Manufactures, manufactur- ing. Mar. March; Maritime. Marq. Marquis. Mas., Masc. Masculine. Mass. Massachusetts. M. Asl. S. Member of the Astro- nomical Society. Math. Mathematics, mathematician, mathematical. Matt. Matthew. M. B. (Lat. medidntF baccalaureus). Bachelor of Medicine. M. B. (Lat. musiccB baccalaureus), Bachelor of Music. M. C. Member of Congress; Master of Ceremonies. Mch. March. M. C. P. Member of the College of Preceptors. M. D. (Lat. medicincB doctor), Doe- tor of Medicine. Md. Maryland. Mdlle. (Fr. mademoiselle). Miss. Mdse. Merchandise. M. E. Most Excellent; Military En- gineer; Mining Engineer; Me- chanical Engineer. M. E. Methodist Episcopal. Me. Maine. Meas. Measure. Mech. Mechanics, mechanical. Med. Medicine, medical; Medieval. Med. Lat., Mediwv. Lat. Mediaeval Latin. Mem. Memorandum, memoranda. Mess. & Docs. Messages and Docu- ments. Messrs. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen. Met. Metaphysics, metaphysical. Meiall. Metallurgy. Metaph. Metaphysics; Metaphori- cally. Meteor. Meteorology, meteorological. Meth. Methodist. Melon. Metonymy. Mex. Mexico. Mfd., Mfs. Manufactured, manufac- tures. Mfg. Manufacturing. M. F. H. Master of Foxhounds. M. H. Most Honorable. M. H. Ger. Middle High German. M. I. C. E. Member of the Institute, of Civil Engineers. Mich. Michaelmas; Michigan. Mid. Middle; Midshipman. Mid. Lat. Latin of the Middle Ages. Mil., Milit. Military. M. I. M. E. Member of the Institute of Mining Engineers. Min. Mineralogy, mineralogical ; Minute, minutes. Minn. Minnesota. Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary. Miss. Mississippi. .Mile. (Fr. mademoiselle). Miss. M. L. S. B. Member of the London School Board. M.M. Their Majesties. MM. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen. mTn. Millemetres; Micrometres. Mm,e. (Fr. madame). Madam. M. P. P. Member of Provincial Par- liament. M. N. A. S. Member of the National .Academy of Sciences. M. N. S. iiember of the Numismati- cal Society. Mo. Missouri; Month. Mod. Modern. Mod. (Ital. moderato). Moderately. Mon. Monday. Mons. (Fr. monsieur). Sir, Mr. Mont. Montana. 206 THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS M. P. Member of Parliament. M. P. S. Member of the Pharma- ceutical Society; Member of the Philological Society. Mr. Master, Mister. M. R. A. S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society. M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians. M. R. C. S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M. R. C. V. S. Member of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. M. R. G. S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society. M. R. 1. Member of the Royal In- stitution. M. R. I. A. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Mrs. Mistress (usually abbreviated to mis'sis). M. S. Master of Surgery. M. S. Master of Science. M.S. (Lat. memorial sacrum), Sa- cred to the memory of. MS. Manuscript. MSS. Manuscripts. mo., mt.h. Month. Mt., Mts. Mount, mountains. Mus. Museum; Music, musical. Mus. B. (Lat. musiccE baccalaureus), Bachelor of Music. Mus. D., Mus. Doc, Mus. Doci. (Lat. musicoB doctor). Doctor of Music. M. W. G. M. Most Worthy Grand Master. Myth. Mythology, mythological. N. Noon; North; Noun; Number; New; Neuter. N. A. North America, North Ameri- can. Nah. Nahum. Nap. Napoleon. Nat. Natural; National. Nat. Hist. Natural History. Nat. ord. Natural order. Nat. Phil. Natural Philosophy. Naut. Nautical. N. B. New Brunswick; North Brit- ain (= Scotland). N. B. (Lat. nota bene). Note well, take notice. N. C. North Carolina. N. D., N. Dak. North Dakota. N. E. New England; Northeast. Neb. Nebraska. Neg. Negative, negatively. Neh. Nehemiah. Nem. con. (Lat. nemme contradi- cente), No one contradicting; unanimously. Nem. diss. (Lat. nemine dissenti- ente). No one dissenting; unani- mously. Neth. Netherlands. Neut. Neuter. Nev. Nevada. New Test., N. T. New Testament. N. F. Newfoundland. N. H. New Hampshire. N. H. Ger. New High German. N. J. New Jersey. N. L., N. Lat. North Latitude. N. M. New Mexico. A^. N. E. North-northeast. N. N. W. North-northwest. N. O. New Orleans. No. (Lat. nutnero). Number. nol. pros, (noleus prosequi), I am un- wilUng to prosecute. Nom., Nomin. Nominative. Non con. Non-content, dissentient. (The formula in which Members of the House of Lords vote.) Non obst. (Lat. non obstante), Not- withstanding. Nonpros. (Lat. non prosequitur). He does not prosecute. Non seq. (Lat. non sequitur). It does not follow (as a consequence). n. o. p. Not otherwise provided for. Nor., Norm. Norman. Nor. Fr., Norm. Fr. Norman French. Norm. [Nor.] Nona. Norway, Norwegian, Norse. Nos. Numbers. Nov. November. A'^. P. Notary public. A^. S. New style; Nova Scotia. n. s. Not specified. N. S. J. C. (Fr. Notre Seigneur Jesus Christ), Our Lord Jesus Christ. A^. T. [New Test.] Num., Numb. Numbers. Numis. Numismatic, num.ismatol- ogy. N. V. M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary. A^. W. Northwest. N. IF. T. Northwest Territory. N. Y. New York. -V. Z. New Zealand. O. Ohio; Old. oh. (Lat. ohiil). He (or she) died. Obad. Obadiah. Obdt., Obt. Obedient. Obj. Objective. Obs. Obsolete. Oct. October. Oct., 8vo. Octavo. O. F. Odd Fellows. O. H. Ger. Old High German. O. H. M. S. On Her Majesty's Serv- ice. O. K. "All correct." Okl. Oklahoma. Old Test., O. T. Old Testament. Olym. Olympiad. O. M. Old Measurement. O. M. I. Oblate of Mary Immacu- late. Op. Opposite, opposition. Opt. Optative; Optics, optical. Or. Oregon. Ordn. Ordnance. Orig. Original, originally. Ornith. Ornithology, ornithologi- O. .S.'oid Style; Old Saxon. O. S. A. Order of St. Augustine. O. S. B. Order of St. Benedict. O. S. F. Order of St. Francis. O. T. [Old Test.] O. U. A . M. Order of United Ameri- can Mechanics. Oxf. Oxford. Oxon. (Lat. Oxonia, Oxoniensis), Oxford; of Oxford. Oxonien. (Lat. Oxoniensis), Of Ox- ford. Oz. Ounce. [The z in this contraction and in viz., represents an old sym- bol (3), used to mark a terminal contraction.] P. Page; Participle; Past; Pole; Port. Pa. Pennsylvania. Pa. a., par. a. Participial adjective. Paint. Painting. Pal., Palo'ont. Palaeontology, pate- ontological. Palceobo. Paloeobotany. Pa. part. Past participle. Par. Paragraph; Participle. Pari. Parliament, parliamentary. Part. Participle. Particip. Participial. Pass. Passive. Pat. Patrick. Pathol. Pathological. Payt. Payment. P. C. (Lat. patres conscnpti). Con- script Fathers. P. C. Police-constable; Privy Coun- cil; Privy Councillor. P. C. S. Principal Clerk of Session. Pd. Paid. Pd. D. Doctor of Pedagogy. P. E. Protestant Episcopal. P. E. I. Prince Edward's Island. Penn. Pennsylvania. Pent. Pentecost. Per., Pers. Persian; Person, per- sonal. Per. an. (Lat. per annum). Yearly. Per cent., per ci. (Lat. per centum). By the hundred. Perf. Perfect. Peri. Perigee. Pers., Persp. Perspective. Peruv. Peruvian. Pet. Peter. P. G. M. Past Grand Master. Phar., Pharm. Pharmacy. Ph. B. (Lat. philosophice baccalaur- eus). Bachelor of Pliilosophy. Ph. D. (Lat. philosophice doctor). Doctor of Philosopliy. Phil. Philip; Philippians; Philos- ophy, philosophical. Phil. Trans. Transactions of the Philosophical Society. Phil., Phila. Philadelphia. Philem. Philemon. Philol. Philology. Philos. Philosophy, philosophical. Ph. M. Master of Philosophy. Phenic. Phenician. Photog. Photography, photographic, photographer. Phren., phrenol. Phrenology, phreno- logical. Phys. Physics, physical; Physiol- ogy, physiological. Physiol. Physiology, physiological. Pinx., Pxt. (Lat. pinxit). He (or she) painted it. Pk. Peck. PI. Place; Plate; Plural. P. L. Poet Laureate. Plff., Pltff. Plaintiff. Plu. Plural. Plup. Pluperfect. Plur. Plural. P. M. (Lat. post meridiem). After- noon. P. .1/. Past Master; Peculiar metre; Postmaster. P. M. G. Postmaster-General. P. O. Post-office. P. (fe O. Co. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Poet. Poetry, poetical. Pol. Polish. Polit. Econ. Political Economy. P. O. O. Post-office order. Pop. Population. Port. Portugal, Portuguese. Pass. Possessive. Pp. Pages. P. p. Past participle. P. P. (Lat. pater patriw). Father of his country. P. P. Parish priest. P. P. C. (Fr. pour prendre conge). To take leave. [T. T. L.] Pph. Pamphlet. Pr. Present; Priest; Prince. Pr. par. Present participle. P. R. (Lat. Populus Romanus), The Roman people. P. R. Prize Ring. P.R.A. President of the Royal .\cademy. P. R. C. (Lat. post Roman conditam). After the building of Rome. [A.U.{].] Preb. Prebend. Pref. Prefix; Preface. Prep. Preposition. Pres. President; Present. Pret. Preterite. Prim. Primary. Prin. Principal. Print. Printing. Priv. Privative. Pro6. Problem; Probable, probably. Prof. Professor. Pron., Pro. Pronoun; Pronounced; Pronunciation. Pron. a. Pronominal adjective. Prop. Proposition. Pros. Prosody. Pro tern. (Lat. pro tempore). For the time being. Prov. Proverbs, proverbial, prover- bially; Provincial, provincially; Provost. LANGUAGE 207 Provinc. Provincial. Ptox. (Lat. proximo). Next of or of the next month. P. R. S. President of the Royal So- ciety. P. R. S. A. President of the Royal Scottish Academy. Prus. Prussia, Prussian. P. S. (Lat. post scriptum), Post- script. P. S. Privy Seal. Ps., Psa. Psalm, psalms. Psychol. Psychology. Pt. Part; Payment; Point; Port. P. T. Post-town; Pupil teacher. Pub. Public; Published, publisher. Pub. Doc. Public Documents. P. V. Post-village. Pwl. Pennyweight. Pxt. [Pi NX.] Pyro., Pyrotech. Pyrotechnics. Q., Qu. Query; Question. Q. C. Queen's College. Q. d. (Lat. quasi dical). As if he should say. Q. e. (Lat. quod est). Which is. Q. E. D. (Lat. quod eral demonstran- dum). Which was to be proved. Q. E. F. (Lat. quod erat faciendum), Which was to be done. Q. E. I. (Lat. quod erat invenien- dum,). Which was to be found out. Q. I. (Lat. quantum libel). As much as you pleaae. Q. M. Quartermaster. Q. M. Gen. Quartermaster-General. Qr. Quarterly; Quire. Q. S. Quarter Sessions. Q. IS. (Lat. quantum sufficit), A suffi- cient quantity. Qt. Quart. Qu. Queen; Query; Question. Quar., quart. Quarterly. Quar., Ato. Quarto. Ques. Question. Q. V. (Lat. quod vide). Which see. Qy. Query. R. Railway; Reaumur; River. R. (Lat. rex). King; (Lat. regina). Queen. R. (Lat. recipe). Take. R. A. Royal Academy, Royal Aca- demician; Rear-Admiral; Royal Arch; Royal Artillery. Rabb. Rabbinical. Rad. (Lat. radix). Root. R. A. M. Royal Academy of Music. R. A. S. Royal .Agricultural Society. R. C. Roman Catholic. R. D. Rural Dean. R. E. Royal Engineers; Royal Ex- change. R. E. Reformed Episcopal. Reaum. Rdaumur. Rec. Recipe. Reed. Received. Recpt. Receipt. Ref. Reference. Ref. Ch. Reformed Church. Ref. Pres. Reformed Presbyterian. Reg. Regular. Reg., Regr. Registrar. Reg., Regt. Regiment, regimental. Rel. Religion, religious. Rel. Pron. Relative Pronoun. Rem. Remark, remarks. Rep. Report; Representative. Rep. Repuh. Republic; Republican. Res. Resolution. Retd. Returned. Rev. Revelation; Revenues; Rever- end; Review; Revise. Revd. Reverend. Revs. Reverends. Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes. R. F. D. Rural Free Delivery. Rhet. Rhetoric, Rhetorical. R. II. S. ]?oyal Humane Society. R. I. Rliode Island. R.I. P. (Lat. requiescat in pace). May he (or she) rest in peace. Riv. River, R. M. Royal Mail ; Royal Marines. R. M. A, Royal Marine Artillery; Royal Military Asylum. R. M. L. I. Royal Marine Light In- fantry. R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer; Royal Mail Service. R. N. Royal Navy. R. N. R. Royal Naval Reserve. R. O. Receiving Office. Robt. Robert. Rom. Roman, Romans. Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic. R. P. Regius Professor. R. R. Right Reverend. R. R. Railroad. R. S. A. Royal Scottish Academy. R. S. P.C. A. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. R. S. E. Royal Society of Edinburgh. R. S. L. Royal Society of London. R. S. V. P. (Fr. Repondez s'il vous plait). Please reply. lit. Right. Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. Rt. Rev. Right Reverend. R. T. S. Religious Tract Society. Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful. Russ. Russia, Russian. R. V. Revised Version; Rifle Vol- unteers. R. W. Right Worshipful ; Right Worthy. R. W. D. G. M. Right Worshipful Deputy Grand Master. R. W. G. M. Right Worshipful Grand Msstcr R. W. G. R. Right Worthy Grand Representative. R. W. G. S. Right Worthy Grand Secretary. R. W. G. T. Right Worthy Grand Treasurer; Right Worthy Grand Templar. R. TF. G. W. Right Worshipful Grand Warden. R. W. J. G. W. Right Worshipful Ju- nior Grand Warden. R. W. S. G. W. Right Worshipful Se- nior Grand Warden. Ry. Railway. S. Saint; Saturday; Section; Shil- ling; Sign; Signor; Solo; Soprano; South; Sun; Sunday; Sabbath. s. Second, seconds; See; Singular; Son; Succeeded. S. A. South Africa; South America. S. A. (Lat. secundem artem), Accord- ing to the rules of art. Sab. Sabbath. Sam., Saml. Samuel. Saju., Samar. Samaritan. Sans., Sansc, Sansk. Sanscrit, Sans- krit. S. A. S. (Lat. Societatis Antiquari- orum Socius), Fellow of the So- ciety of Antiquaries. Sat. Saturday. Sax. Saxon, Saxony. S. B. South Britain (England and Wales). [N. B.] S. C. South Carolina. S. C. (Lat. senatus consultum), A decree of the senate. Sc. [Sc(L, Scull.] Scan. mag. (Lat. scandalum magna- tum). Defamatory expressions to the injury of persons of higli rank or dignity. S. caps. ,Sm. caps. Small capitals. (In printing.) Sc. B. (Lat. scientiw baccalaureus) , Bachelor of Science. Sc. D. (T^at. scientice doctor). Doctor of Science. Sch. (Lat. scholium), A note. Sch. Schooner. Sci. Science. Set. fa. Scire facias. Scil. Sc. (Lat. scilicet), Namely; to wit. S. C. L. Student in Civil Law. Sclav. Sclavonic, Scot. Scotland, Scotch, Scottish. Scr. Scruple, scruples. Scrip., Script. Scripture, scriptural. Sculp. Sculpture. Sculp., Sculpt., Sc. (Lat. sculpsit), He (or she) engraved it. S. D. Doctor of Science. S- D., S. Dak. South Dakota. S. D. U. K. Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. S. E. South-east. Sec. Second. Sec, Sect. Section. Sec, Secy. Secretary. Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation. Sen. Senate, senator. Sen. Doc. Senate Document. Sep., Sept. September. Seq. (Lat. sequentes, sequentia), The following or the next. Serg., Sergt. Sergeant. Serg. Maj. Sergeant-Major. Serj., Serjt. Serjeant. Serv. Servian. Sess. Session. S. G. Solicitor-general. 8. g. [Sp. Gr.] Sh. Shilling, shillings. Sing. Singular.