Please handle this volume with care. The University of Connecticut Libraries, Storrs hbl, stx 3 1 E 78.N4A65 no.5 Lost City S3 QQ5120bM 1 w ■P- CTi 3 O Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from LYRASIS members and Sloan Foundation http://www.archive.org/details/lostcitypueblogrOOshut tier Jj h +k r J 7l t«L p*P"* O"*^. S ^- NEVADA STATE MUSEUM ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS NO. 5 LOST CITY PUEBLO GRANDE DE NEVADA By RICHARD SHUTLER, JR. (SECOND PRINTING 1984) jf T ** THIS REPORT IS DEDICATED TO MARK RAYMOND HARRINGTON PIONEER OF NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGY Courtesy of the National Park Service Pueblo Grande de Nevada at Sunrise PREFACE This description of the Pueblo sites of southern Nevada was a project sponsored by the National Park Service who supported some of the original excavations. The official sponsorship of the Nation- al Park Service smoothed the path of my research in many ways. In addition, the National Park Service also provided financial assist- ance for a trip to New York in 1957 to study the Lost City collections housed in the Museum of the American Indian of the Heye Founda- tion, and for the photographic and cartographic work in this report. The unfailing cooperation and many courtesies of the Park Service personnel helped me time and time again. I am particularly grate- ful to Dr. Erik K. Reed, Mr. Albert H. Schroeder, Mr. Charlie R. Steen, Mr. Charles A. Richey, and Mr. O. L. Wallis. To Judge Clark J. Guild and the Board of Trustees of the Nevada State Museum and to Director J. W. Calhoun, I owe thanks for the financial support of the Archaeological Survey of southern Nevada undertaken in 1955 . Their interest in the prehistory of Nevada re- sulted in their unflagging cooperation . The Society of the Sigma Xi helped to support the research at the Heye Foundation by awarding me a Sigma Xi-RESA Grant- in- Aid. The Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, generous- ly allowed me access to their Lost City collection, provided many of the site and artifact photographs used in this report, and the staff of the Museum was helpful in numerous ways. Many other individuals contributed in oneway or another to this report, and to each I wish to express my appreciation. Dr. T. Dale Stewart contributed the appendix on skeletal material. Dr. Paul S. Mangelsdorf and Dr. Hugh C. Cutler identified the plant remains, and Dr. Clement W. Meighan, the trade beads. Dr. Alan P. Olson did the cartography and Mr. John C. Thomas, Jr., the photographing of some artifacts. Mr. and Mrs. Watson Smith gave me the use of their dark room. Mr. Louis Schellbach, who represented the State of Nevada at the Lost City excavations during part of the early years of this work gave me many photographs of the ruins which proved to be very helpful. Southwest Museum under whose direction most of the Lost City ex- cavations were done . He shared with me his expert knowledge of Pueblo people of southern Nevada and very kindly loaned me all his field notes and maps. This report was submitted to the Faculty of the Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy . The report has been slightly re- vised and reorganized for publication. Last I wish to thank the members of my committee, Dr. Emil W. Haury, Mrs. Clara Lee Tanner, Dr. Raymond H. Thompson, and Mr. Terah L. Smiley for their herioc patience and innumerable helpful suggestions . Photographs of the Lost City sites and features were loaned to me by the National Park Service, the Heye Foundation, the Southwest Museum, and Mr. Louis Schellbach. There was little information available as to who took the photographs or when they were taken. The institution loaning the photograph is credited. All other scenic or site photographs were taken by myself, and all uncredited photo- graphs of artifacts were taken by Mr. Thomas. The name Pueblo Grande de Nevada, or Lost City, refers to the archaeological sites that lie along both sides of the lower 16 miles of the Muddy River. These sites, several hundred in number, are composed of pithouses, pueblo ruins, campsites, rockshelters, salt mines and caves. The excavators in their field notes and the few published reports (Harrington 1927b, 1937a) referred to any site that showed architect- ural remains as a "House" . A house can therefore refer to a pit- house village, a pueblo with pithouses and surface rooms, or a pu- eblo composed solely of surface rooms. Since the term "House" to refer to these sites was used consistently in all the field notes and has appeared in print it has been retained here. One-hundred and twenty-one houses were wholly or partially excavated at Lost City, as well as a number of caves, rockshelters, and salt mines. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Mark Raymond Harrington of the TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE i CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Archaeological History of Southern Nevada 1 CHAPTER 2 ENVIRONMENT 3 Area 3 Geology and Physiography 3 Climatic Data 3 Ecology 3 The Moapa Valley 4 CHAPTER 3 AREAL EXTENT OF THE SOUTHERN NEVADA PUEBLO CULTURE 5 The Area of Farms and Villages 5 The Upper Moapa Valley 5 Summary 6 The Lower Moapa Valley 6 The Lower Reaches of the Virgin River 6 The Area of Hunting and Trading 7 Lake Mead National Recreation Area 7 Virgin and Muddy River Area Shivwits Plateau 8 Grand Canyon Terrace Sites 10 Summary 10 Other Nevada Pueblo Sites 11 California Sites 12 CHAPTER 4 ARCHITECTURE 13 Architecture of the Moapa Phase 13 Architecture of the Muddy River Phase 14 Architecture of the Lost City Phase 14 Pithouses of the Lost City Phase 15 Surface Houses of the Lost City Phase IS Architecture of the Mesa House Phase 17 CHAPTER 5 LOST CITY POTTERY 22 Pottery with Burials 29 CHAPTER 6 DESCRIPTION OF ARTIFACTS 33 Stone Artifacts 33 Ground Stone 33 Metates 33 Manos 33 Paint Grinding Stones 34 Mortars 35 Pestles 35 Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts 35 Stone Balls 35 Polishing Stone 35 Sandstone Sharpening Stones 35 Notched Stones 35 Chipped Stone Artifacts . . . 35 Projectile Points and Blades 35 Blades 37 Flake Knives 37 Scrapers 37 Side- scrapers 37 End- scrapers 37 End and side- scrapers 37 Hammerstones 38 Choppers 38 Drills 38 Drill-knife 38 Chipped and Ground Discs 38 Graver-knives 38 Stone and Clay Pipes 39 Miscellaneous Stone and Clay Artifacts 39 Minerals 39 Page Turquoise 39 Red ochre 39 Yellow ochre 39 Magnesite 39 Raw copper ore 39 Mica 39 BONE. ARTIFACTS 39 Bone Awls 39 Spatulae 39 Flaker 40 Pendants 40 Bone Dice 40 Miscellaneous Bone Implements 40 ORNAMENTS 40 Miscellaneous Ornaments 41 FIGURINES 41 WORKED SHERDS 41 WOOD ARTIFACTS 41 VEGETABLE MATERIAL 41 Zea Mays Remains 41 Summary of Lost City Artifacts 42 CHAPTER 7 BURIALS ■ 43 CHAPTER 8 ROCKSHELTERS AND A CAVE IN THE LOST CITY REGION 50 Rockshelter No . 1 .' 5 Rockshelter No. 2 50 Rockshelter No. 3 51 Rockshelter No . 4 51 Rockshelters Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 51 Rockshelter No. 9 51 Rockshelter No. 10 ^ 51 Rockshelter No. 11 52 Rockshelter No. 12 52 Footprint Rockshelter 52 Warshield Rockshelter 52 Boulder Rockshelter ■ 5 3 Summary of the Use of Rockshelters 5 3 CHUCKAWALLA CAVE 54 Stone Artifacts 54 Chipped Stone 55 Unworked Stone 55 Bone Artifacts 55 Clay Artifacts 56 Figurines 56 Worked Sherds 56 Wood Artifacts 56 Cordage, Textiles, and Basketry 56 Plant Remains 57 Faunal Remains 57 Summary and Conclusions 57 CHAPTER 9 PREHISTORIC MINING IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA 58 Salt Mining 58 Salt Cave No. 1 58 Salt Cave No . 2 59 Salt Cave No. 3 59 Salt Mine 60 Sullivan Turquoise Mine 60 Summary 60 Discussion of Aboriginal Mining in the Southwest 61 CHAPTER 10 CULTURAL COMPARISONS WITH NEARBY AREAS 62 The San Juan Anasazl 62 Walhalla Plateau 62 Pueblold Culture of Southwestern Utah 62 Physical Type 63 Conclusions 63 Fremont Culture of Northeastern Utah ■ 64 Willow Beach 64 Hi Page CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 65 The Virgin Branch 65 Relationships of the Virgin Branch 66 The Cultural Sequence at Lost City 67 The Moapa Phase 67 The Muddy River Phase 67 The Lost City Phase 68 The Mesa House Phase 68 The Southern Paiute 69 APPENDIX A CRANIA FROM LOST CITY, SOUTHERN NEVADA 71 By T. D. Stewart Table 1. Measurements (mm) of Lost City crania with ranges of 2 comparative series: Adult, males 72 REFERENCES 77 EXPLANATION OF PLATES 81 TABLES Table Number 1 . Pottery types from Upper Moapa Valley Sites 6 2. Shivwits Plateau Basketmaker-Pueblo- Paiute Lithic Material 9 3. Shivwits Plateau Basketmaker-Pueblo- Paiute Pottery types 9 4. Arizona A:15:8 Pottery types 10 5 . Grand Canyon Terrace Pottery types 10 6 . Nevada Survey Sites Stone Artifacts 11 7 . Nevada Survey Sites Pottery types 11 8. Architectural Features of the Lost City Houses -. 18 9. House 47, Pottery types 23 10. House 50, Pottery types 24 11. House 68, Pottery types 24 12. House 71, Pottery types 24 13. House 72, Pottery types 25 14. House 73, Pottery types 25 15. House 74, Pottery types 25 16 . House 75 , Pottery types 26 17. House 77, Pottery types 26 18. House 80, Pottery types 26 19 . House 81 , Pottery types 26 20. House 87, Pottery types 26 21 . House 88, Pottery types 27 22. House 89, Pottery types 27 23. House 94, Pottery types 27 24. House 119, Pottery types 27 25 . Pottery with Burials 30 26. Pottery Sherds with Burials 32 27 . Burials 44 28. Pottery from Chuckawalla Cave 54 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES (At End) Plate 1. Western boundary of Pueblo Culture. Plate 2 . Pueblo occupation of the southern Great Basin Plate 3. Upper Moapa Valley, Nevada. White Narrows Area. Plate 4 . Upper Moapa Valley sites and Lost City ruins . Plate 5. Arizona A:l:l. Plate 6. Virgin River Site. Plate 7. Lake Mead National Recreation Area. Plate 8. Shivwits Plateau, topography and sites. Plate 9. Shivwits Plateau artifacts. Stone tools associated with Basketmaker and Pueblo pottery sites. Plate 10. Shivwits Plateau artifacts. Stone tools associated with Basketmaker-Pueblo, and Paiute pottery sites. Plate 11. Shivwits Plateau artifacts. Stone tools associated with Basketmaker-Pueblo, and Paiute pottery sites. Plate 12. Shivwits Plateau artifacts. Stone implements associated with Basketmaker-Pueblo, and Paiute pottery sites. Plate 13. Arizona A: 15:8. Plate 14. Arizona A:15:8 artifacts. Plate 15. Grand Canyon Terrace sites and artifacts. Plate 16. Grand Canyon Terrace sites, petroglyphs and pictographs. Plate 17. Artifacts from Grand Canyon Terrace sites. Plate 18. 40 Mile Canyon, stone monuments and petroglyphs. Plate 19. Western Nevada survey sites. Plate 20. Nevada survey sites. Plate 21. Nevada survey sites. Plate 22. Nevada survey site artifacts, associated with Basketmaker- Pueblo and Paiute pottery sites. Plate 23. Lost City archaeological sites. Lower Moapa Valley, Clark County, Nevada. Plate 24. Detail of Section 33. Lost City archaeological sites. Lower Moapa Valley, Clark County, Nevada. Plate 25. Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Main ridge and vicinity. Plate 26. The Southwest Museum's 1929 Archaeological survey of the Lower Moapa Valley, Nevada. Plate 27. Lower Moapa Valley floor sites. Plate 28. Pueblo House No. 2. Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Plate 29 . Lost City house ruins . Plate 30. House No. 47. Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Plate 31. Lost City architecture. Plate 32. Lost City architectural features. Plate 33. House 47 architectural features. Plate 34 . House 47 architectural features . Plate 35 . Lost City sites . Plate 36. Lost City sites and architectural features. Plate 37. Lost City architectural features. Plate 38. St. George Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City. Plate 39. Moapa Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City. Plate 40. North Creek Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City. Plate 41. Washington Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City. Plate 42. Boulder Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City. Plate 43. Lost City pottery types. Plate 44. Lost City pottery types. Plate 45. Lost City Corrugated pottery. Plate 46. Lost City whole pottery vessels. Plate 47 . Lost City whole pottery vessels . Plate 48. Lost City pottery designs . Plate 49. Washington Black-on-gray bowls from Lost City. Plate 50. Lost City whole pottery vessels. Plate 51. Lost City corrugated pottery. Plate 52. Washington Gray jars from Lost City. Plate 53. Lost City plain and corrugated pottery. Plate 54. Lost City plain pottery. Plate 55. Pottery handles from Lost City. Plate 56. Pottery with Burials from Lost City. Plate 57. Pottery with Burials from Lost City. Plate 58. Metate type specimens from Lost City. Plate 59. Mano type specimens from Lost City. Plate 60. Mano type specimens from Lost City. Plate 61. Ground stone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 62. Ground stone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 63. Pecked and chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 64. Projectile points from Lost City. Plate 65. Projectile points from Lost City. Plate 66. Projectile points from Lost City. Plate 67. Chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 68. Chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 69. Drills from Lost City. Plate 70. Chipped and ground stone discs from Lost City. Plate 71. Clay and chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 72. Bone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 73. Bone and wood, artifacts from Lost City. Plate 74. Bone tools from Lost City. Plate 75. Shell and bone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 76. Stone, bone, and shell artifacts from Lost City. Plate 77. Shell beads from Lost City. Plate 78. Figurines from Lost City. Plate 79. Figurines from Lost City. Plate 80. Worked sherds from Lost City. Plate 81. Wood artifacts from Lost City. Plate 82. Wood, horn and bone artifacts from Lost City. Plate 83. Charred com from House 38, Room L. Plate 84 . Corn cobs from Warshield Rockshelter, Basketmaker type . Plate 85. Corncobs. Plate 86. Basketrnaker corn cobs from the Peabody Museum, Harvard University. Plate 87. Flexed burials, Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Plate 88. Lost City Burials. Plate 89 . Antler club with Burial 67 . Plate 90. Artifacts from Footprint Rockshelter. Plate 91. Warshleld Rockshelter. Plate 92. Chuckawalla Cave. Plate 93. Stone artifacts from Chuckawalla Cave. Plate 94. Bone and wood artifacts from Chuckawalla Cave. Plate 95. Bone, stone and clay artifacts from Chuckawalla Cave. Plate 96. Figurine fragments from Chuckawalla Cave. Plate 97. Salt Cave No. 1, southeastern Nevada. Plate 98. Passage in Salt Cave No. I. Plate 99. Method of removing salt. Plate 100. Mining tools from Salt Cave No. 1. Plate 101. Mining tools from Salt Cave No. 1. Plate 102. Artifacts from Salt Cave No. 1. Plate 103. Mining tools from the open-pit Salt Mine. Plate 104. Artifacts from the open-pit Salt Mine. Plate 105. Sullivan Turquoise Mine. Lake Mead in background. Plate 106. Mining tools from the Sullivan Turquoise Mine. APPENDIX A Plate 1. Adult male BP 5 025. Plate 2. Adult male BP 6000. Plate 3. Young adult male BP 6033. Plate 4. Adult male BP 6470. Fig Fig Stereographic drawings of 2 artificially deformed Pueblo skulls oriented in the Frankfort position. Stereographlc drawing of pathologically deformed skull BP 6000 oriented in the Frankfort position. vl CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The reconstruction of the Pueblo Culture of southern Nevada presented in the following pages, is based on data drawn from many sources. Chief among these is the wealth of undescribed archaeological materials recovered from the great ruins near Over- ton, Nevada, the Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Of equal importance has been the opportunity to use the many unpublished field notes and maps made during the course of these excavations. The Pueblo Grande de Nevada or Lost City has been examined or dug into by many workers, sponsored variously by the State of Ne- vada, the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, the Southwest Museum, and the National Park Service. The results of all this research have never been published except for a few progress reports. The artifacts recovered during the excavations found their way into several museums. I was able to examine and describe the Lost City collections housed at the Nevada State Historical Society Museum in Reno, Nevada, at the National Park Service Headquarters in Boulder City, Nevada, at the Museum in Over- ton, Nevada, and at the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Fountation, in New York City. The excavators of this material have placed at my disposal all of the existing field notes, charts, and maps made during the course of the excavations. The results of an archaeological survey made by M. R. Har- rington in 1926 have been checked to determine the western boundary of the Pueblo Culture (PI. 1). Another survey made by Harringtonin the Lower Moapa Valley in 1929 produced much use- ful material. Data on sites around Lake Mead collected by National Park Service staff members since 1936 are used in this report. Inl955I carried out an archaeological survey in southern Nevada and the Shivwits Plateau to supplement earlier survey resources. The archaeological material derived from so many sources will not yield the same results as data gained through a coher- entorganized programof research. The disadvantages of a sec- ond-hand report compiled many years after the excavation has been completed are many. The rapid development of archaeo- logical techniques in recent years has made the work done 20 or 30 years ago seem inadequate in many cases . Errors in inter- pretation are almost inevitable under such circumstances and for these I take full responsibility. Archaeological History of Southern Nevada The first report of archaeological remains in this area is that of Jedediah Smith who in 1827, wrote to William Clark, then Superintendent of Indian Affairs, that he had discovered a pipe and a flint knife in a cave in a mountain of salt along the Vir- gin River (Dale 1918). On October 15, 1867, the New York Tribune reported these activities of the Morgan Exploring Expedition: " . . ./_In/the center of a large valley we discovered some Indian salt works .. .In another section of the same valley was a curious collection of rocks, mounds, and pillars, cov- ering several acres in extent and resembling the ruins of an ancient city. We saw... arches with keystones still per- fect, and a number of small stone pillars constructed with a peculiar kind of red mortar or cement, set upright about 20 feet apart, as if they had been used to support an aqua- duct for conveying water from a large stream half a mile dis- tant into the outskirts of the city" (Bancroft 1882: 713-714). The Tribune 1 s correspondent was undoubtedly referring to the ruins of Pueblo Grande, but arches with keystones, cement pillars, and aquaducts are not found in southern Nevada. In 1849 pioneers saw stone-lined canals in extreme southeastern Nevada (Booth- ly 1888). From 1900 to 1920 several archaeologists reported prehistoric remains in southern Nevada but no systematic surveys or excava- tions were undertaken. Mescal pits, pottery, and stone imple- ments were found in caves in the Spring Mountains near Las Vegas , Nevada, in the first years of the 20th century. This material is mentioned in an article by M. S. Duffleld (1904: 148-150). In 1912 A. V. Kidder visited the Las Vegas area and collected pot- sherds of Pueblo, Mohave, and Palute origin. Kidder may have been the first to realize that the Pueblo Culture once extended in- to southern Nevada. In 1913 H. P. Mera collected some Pueblo sherds around Las Vegas and visited the Tule Springs area. This collection has never been published. N. C. Nelson, in 1921, visited some sites near Las Vegas (Harrington and others 19 30: 16). Credit for the initiation of a lively interest in the archaeology of southern Nevada and for the excavations at Lost City belongs to the former Governor of Nevada, Colonel James C. Scrugham. After seeing the reports of Smith and Morgan, Scrugham instructed his friends in the southern part of the state to be on the lookout for salt caves and ruins (Harrington and others 19 30). In 19 24 John and Fay Perkins of Overton, Nevada reported the discovery of Lost City. Governor Scrugham then requested Har- rington to lead an expedition to the area to verify the report.. This was done with the cooperation of the Smithsonian and Carnegie Institution of Washington. In 1925 Harrington was sent by the Heye Foundation of New York to commence excavations at Lost City . The State of Nevada gave financial support to the project in exchange for a type col- lection of artifacts and help compiling an archaeological map of the State. Louis Schellbach, III was sent by the State of Nevada to help with the work. This work was continued for a second sea- son in 1926. Harrington also explored saltmines in the area and carried out a survey to determine the western boundary of the Pueblo Culture (PI. 1). Only preliminary accounts of this work have been published (Harrington 1927b, 1928). In 1926 Harrington became associated with the Southwest Museum at Los Angeles. With its sponsorship he continued his work in southern Nevada . Further work at Lost City was followed bya survey of theLower Moapa Valley in 1929 by apartyfrom the Southwest Museum. Underthe direction of IrwlnHayden, anear- by Pueblo ruin called Mesa House was completely excavated. This is the only published final report of the excavation of a Pueblo ruin in southern Nevada (Hayden in Harrington and others 19 30). During this same season Paiute Cave was excavated by Harrington (Harrington and others 1930). In 1930 Harrington in- vestigated Gypsum Cave near Las Vegas where he found evidence of the association of man and extinct ground sloth (Harrington 1933). After work was begun on Hoover Dam by the Bureau of Recla- mation, it was evident that the artificial lake (Lake Mead) to be created by the water which would be impounded by the new dam would inundate Pueblo Grande de Nevada. Consequently the Na- tional Park Service, encouraged by the State of Nevada, started a salvage program to excavate as many ruins as possible before the information they contained would be lost. This work was car- ried on under the direction of Harrington from 1933 through 1938. The work was continued until the last possible moment. In many cases water began to flow into sites still being excavated. Since the establishment of the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 1936, staff members of the National Park Service have recorded the location of many sites within the Recreation Area, and have made surface collections. Besides recording sites in southern Nevada, Gordon C. Baldwin has published several use- ful analyses of southern Nevada pottery (Baldwin 1944, 1945, 1950a, 1950b). In 1942 S. M. Wheeler reported his excavations in Etna Cave near Caliente, Nevada (Wheeler 1942). Two sites nearTonopah, Nevada, where Folsom-like, Pinto, and Lake Mohave points were found were described by Elizabeth W. Crazier Cambell (1949). Clovis-like points from north of Beatty, Nevada, have been de- scribed and reported by Shutler and Shutler (1959). Vegas Wash, a few miles west of Las Vegas, where the bones of extinct animals are found in ash and charcoal beds, which could possibly be the campsites of ancient man. In 1955 Harrington and Ruth D. Simpson conducted excavation there (Harrington and Simpson 1961). Also in 1955 I conducted test excavations in a shelter, known as Stuart Rockshelter, nearMoapa, Nevada. Here four cultural strata are indicated, with radiocarbon dates of 1914 B.C. and 2094 B.C. for the lowest stratum (Shutler, and others 1960). In modern archaeological methodology, the metric system of measurement is standard practice. However, all dimensions of pueblos, pithouses, rooms, and features, taken during the Lost City excavations were made with the English or long measure system. As it would be impractical to convert this mass of data to the metric system, all measurements in this report, except for artifacts, are given in the English system. In 1933 and 1952 Harrington visited the Tule Springs site in CHAPTER 2 ENVIRONMENT Area Climatic Data The area underconsideration in this report includes the Muddy and Virgin river drainages in Clark County, Nevada, with com- parisons made with the Pueblo remains found previously along the northern reaches of the Virgin River in Utah; Lincoln, Nye, Esmeralda, and Clark counties in northeastern Nevada; and the Shivwits Plateau in Mohave County, Arizona (PI. 2). The west- em extension of the Pueblo Culture is concentrated along the drainages of the Muddy and Virgin rivers . The Muddy has its source in a warm spring northwest of Moapa, Nevada, and runs approximately 30 miles southeast through the Moapa Valley to where it joinswith the Virgin. The Virgin Riverheads a fewmiles north of Glendale, Utah, at an elevation of about 9000 feet. In precipitous descent to the Colorado River, it drops to an eleva- tion of approximately 1000 feet and cuts two great canyons, Zion and Parunweap in southwestern Utah. Before the formation of Lake Mead behind Hoover Dam it was joined by the Muddy near St. Thomas, Nevada. Today both the Muddy and the Virgin de- bouch into Lake Mead. The Virgin Rlverflows between high banks for most of its course in Nevada, so ruins of permanent villages are found only where flood water agriculture was possible (Pis. 5, .§_-.£; 6, a-c) . Only camping sites are found along the Colo- rado River in Nevada. The stream current, volume, and cliff- like banks preclude irrigation. However, the wide valley through which the Muddy River flows is dotted with the remains of Pueblo occupation (PI. 4, ^, .c-d), among them the enormous Pueblo Grande de Nevada. From this area the Pueblo people hunted and traded in all directions . Campsites with Pueblo pottery are found as far south as Las Vegas, Nevada. To the west these campsites are seen in Nye and Esmeralda counties and even sporadically in Owens and Death valleys of California. The boundary of Pueblo remains extends from here northward to include Lincoln County and the eastern edge of White Pine and Elko counties (PI. I). Here in the north- east part of Nevada the Pueblo remains are like those found in Utah to the east and probably emanate from that source rather than from our area to the south, although some southern Nevada Pueblo pottery has been found in this region. Campsites of these people are found to the east on the Shivwits Plateau of Arizona (PI. 8, b-gj. Geology and Physiography The bulk of the area under consideration here is in the Basin and Range Province (Fenneman 1931; Steward 1938; U. S. Dept. of In- terior 1946). Isolated mountain ranges run in a general northwest- southeast direction, and are separated by broad valleys filled with sediments. The mountains contain several types of rock, some have stratified sedimentary rock and others have granitic or metamorphic rocks. Volcanic deposits are scattered through- out the area. The mountains have been formed by simple folding, or overthrusting, or by combinations of these processes. In this area all streams drain into the valleys to evaporate or be absorbed by the hot sands. The area generally is high in ele- vation; the mountains reach altitudes of between 6000 and 11,000 feet while the valleys are between 4000 and 6000 feet. Extreme southern Nevada and the adjoining parts of Arizona are drained by tributaries of the Colorado River. Like the Great Basin, south- em Nevada is characterized by parallel mountain ridges and broad valleys but the elevations are much lower. The valleys are most often below 3000 feet in elevation. The lofty Sierra Nevada Mountains to the west force the mois- ture-bearing winds blowing inland from the Pacific to rise, there- by, dropping their moisture on the west side of the mountains, leaving the interior basins extremely dry. Throughout most of Ne- vada the precipitation ranges from 5 to 10 inches annually and in the southernmost parts of Nevada even less. The air is so dry that over most of the area potential evaporation equals or exceeds pre- cipitation. Precipitation normally increases with altitude. Some mountain ranges in the area receive over 20 inches of annual pre- cipitation. These mountains also retain much water. More than half of the annual precipitation falls in the form of snow in winter and remains to fill springs and streams in the spring. Summer rains occur mainly as cloud bursts. The area has many days of bright sunshine. During the summer the temperature frequently exceeds 100° F. except in the highest mountains . In the low southern valleys the heat may reach over 120° F. during the day. Summer nights are generally cool how- ever, throughout most of the area. During the winter the tempera- ture is mild in low-lying valleys, but above 4000 feet sub-zero weather is encountered. Ecology The floral and faunal resources of the area can largely be cor- related with altitude. In addition, local differences in water sup- ply, and soil conditions make the distribution of any particular species uneven. Most of the area is in the upper Sonoran life zone, with Artemisia a characteristic plant. The flora is xero- phytic and is adapted to arid conditions with low shrubs and grasses prevailing. The following plants are common to this area: small sagebrush (Artemisia nova) , sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ) , rab- bitbrush ( Chrysothanus qravolens) , little rabbitbrush ( Chrvsoth an- us puberulus, winter- fat ( Eurotia lanata ), antelope brush (Purshia t ridentata) , qreasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus) , andsaltgrass (Distichlis spicata) , though typical of this belt, these are oflittle use as food sources. In the mountains there are arboreal types such as: pinyon (Pin- us monophylla) , juniper ( Tuniperus scapulorum) , and certain ber- ries provide food, including service berry (Amelanchier alnifolia) , chokecherry ( Prunus fasciculata ) , elderberry (Sambucus micro - gotrys ), gooseberry ( Grossularia inermis ), and wax current (Ribes cereum ). In the low valleys to the south, the lower Sonoran life zone prevails . Here the principal plants are: creosote bush (Co- villea tridentata) , desert saltbush (Atriplex polycarpa) , mormon tea (Ephedra vividiscov) , catclaw (Acacia qreqgi ) , Mesquite (Pro- sopis glandulosa ) , screwbean (Stromocarpa ordorata ) , barrel cac- tus (E^hinocactua) , prickly pear (Opuntia basilaris enqelm) , yucca (Yucca 4 sp.), agave (Agave utahensis enqelm) , Joshua tree ( Clis- toyucca brevifolia) , and sunflower ( Helianthus ). Most of these were useful as sources of food or raw materials for the Indians. At lower altitudes during moist years certain grasses provided seeds for food: wheat grass (Aqropyron) , red- top grass (Aqrostis ), blue grass (Poa ) , and needlegrass (Stipa) . Most of the plants, trees, shrubs, and grasses are reported by Steward (1938: 14-32) as having been eaten by the Paiute and Shoshoni Indians in the Great Basin. Many of these plants plus rushes, com, beans, and squash were eaten by the Pueblo Indians, who were agricultural- ists. The following plants are listed by Train, Henrichs, and Archer (1957) as having been used for medicinal purposes by the Paiutesin southeastern Nevada: Mormon tea (Ephedra nevadaen- sis S. Wats), venereal disease; spurge (Eriodictyon augustifoli- umNutt.), coughs and colds; common juniper (Tuniperus communis L.), blood tonic and venereal disease; arrowreed (Phraqmites communis Trin.), sugar; arrowweed (Pluchea sericea (Nutt.) Cov.), indigestion; compositae ( Porophyllum lurcospermum Green), de- layed menstruation; screwbean ( Prosopis pubescens Benth), eye- wash; soururaceae ( Anemopsis California Nutt H. and A.), mus- cular pains; mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt ex T. and G-), pulmonary disorders; cliff-rose (Cowania mexicana D. Don), smallpox, measles, and venereal disease; gourd (Cu- curbita foetidissima H. B. K.), venereal disease; pea bush ( Dalea fremontii Torr.), internal hemorrhages; pea bush (Dalea polya- denis Torr.), coughs and colds; jimson weed (Datura meteloides DC), as a narcotic; Desmanthus illinoensis (Miclx.) Mac M.), trachoma; willow (Salix exiqua Nutt.), venereal disease; purple sage (Salvia camosa Dougl.), colds; and seepweed (Suaeda tor- rena var. ramosissima (Standi.), Murray, Munz, bladder and kidney trouble. There is no reason to believe that they were not growing in the area during the Pueblo period of occupation, as the climate is apparently the same, or that the Pueblo people were less versed in the art of herb healing. The Shivwits Plateau at an elevation from about 5000 to 6500 feet is in the Transition life- zone. Here rainfall is greater than in the lowlands, 10 to 25 inches annually. Ponderosapine (Pin- us ponderosa Laws) as well as pinyon and juniper abound. Pin- yon nuts were one of the attractions that drew Indians from south- em Nevada to the Plateau for over 2000 years. This has been determined by the presence of southern Nevada pottery on the Plateau. Despite the aridity of the Great Basin there are numbers of game animals. Deer, mountain sheep, and antelope occur over most of this region, though in fewer numbers than in prehistoric times. The mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus ) occurs in small herds in the lower elevations of the mountains. Antelope (Anti- locarpa americana) still exist in small numbers in the northern part of Nevada. In open valleys are jackrabbits ( Lepus califor- nicus) and cottontails (Sylvilagus foridanus ). Other rodentia are kangaroo rats (Dipodomvs ordii and microps) kangaroo mice ( Microdipodops meqalocephalus) , grasshopper mice (Onvchomvs leucoqasta) , and white-foot and canyon mice (Peromyscus mani - culatus and crinitus) . badgers (Taxidea taxus) , pocket gophers (Geomvidae ) , and ground squirrels (Citellus ) are abundant . Chip- munks ( Callospermohilus and Eutamias ) and packrats (Neotoma cinerea) live in the hills and mountains . Water rodents, the bea- ver ( Castor canadensis ) and muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) occur along stream courses. Wolves ( Canis nubilis ), coyotes (Canis latrans ) . mountain lions (Felis concolor ), and wild cats (Lynx rufus ) are present. Reptiles occur throughout the area. Lizards include the chuckawalla (Sauromalus obesus baird) and the Gila monster (Heloderma) , are present only in the extreme south, as are the desert tortoise ( Gopherus aqassizi) , the collared lizard ( Crotophytus wisilizeni) , sagebrush lizard ( Sceloporus qraclos- us), whip-tailed lizard (Cenemidopyorus tiqris) , and the homed toad (Phymosoma m'calli ). There are several species of snakes such as: the gopher snake (Pitaophis coterrifer desserticola) and the rattlesnake ( Crotalus viridis lutosus ). A large variety of hawks and owls inhabit the area as well as buzzards ( Cathartes aura septentrionalis) , road- runners (Geococcvx califomicanus) , quail (Lephortyx qambeli) , and the mourning dove (Zenaidura ma- croura) . The occurrence of fish is limited by the lack of water. The Moapa Valley The Moapa Valley, in which Pueblo Grande de Nevada is lo- cated (PI. 4, _c-.d), is bordered on the east by Mormon Mesa, on the north by eroded clay hills, and on the south by low gravel terraces. On the northwestern rim of the valley are clay hills and gravel topped mesas. Virgin Peak can be seen to the east. To the west the hills gradually rise to the sandstone pinnacles of the Valley o£ Fire. Beyond this to the west and a little south are the Muddy Mountains. North of the valley are the Mormon Mountains . The valley floor is generally level, and fertile soil is found in the area of the river flood plain. Elsewhere the soil ranges from almost pure clay to sand; in a few places alkali flats occur on the valley floor. The Muddy River forms the main water source of the valley, being easily available for irrigation. In addition some small springs occur in the gravel terraces on the eastern side of the valley. Swampy areas generally surround these springs. Salt is present in this area and this resource was exploited by the Pueblo people. Open salt mines and workings in caves both occur. Flint used by the prehistoric people is present in the gravels of the terraces and a deposit of flint was mined at the upper end of the lower valley. Magnesitebeds were visited near Kaolin, Nevada, to obtain the material for the white slip used on pottery. The clay hills of the valley yielded material for mak- ing pottery. Sandstone slabs and rounded river boulders used in building are present in the valley. Deposits of turquoise and iron and copperores for making paints, though notpresent in the valley, were located within a distance of 50 or 60 miles. Cottonwoods that grow in the valleys today are said to have been introduced by Mormon settlers. But mesquite and screw- bean occurred in prehistoric times. Their remains have been re- corded in the ruins. Both offered food and building material. Pine and juniper abound in the Mormon Mountains or on Virgin Peak. Willow (Salix), martynia ( Martynia altheaefolia ) , arrow- weed (Pluchea sericea) , Apocynum, and various cacti all used by the Indians, grow in the valley. Yucca had to be collected at higher altitudes. Mountain sheep lived on mesas west of the valley and deer still occur in the mountains. Jackrabbits and cottontails as well as other rodents are abundant. Eagles, hawks, buzzards, mi- gratory water birds, road- runners , and quail are present and prob- ably furnished food and feathers. The chuckawalla and other reptiles are common. The desert tortoise was especially valued for its shell. There are a few fish in the river (Harrington, and others 19 30). CHAPTER 3 AREAL EXTENT OF THE SOUTHERN NEVADA PUEBLO CULTURE The territory of the southern Nevada Pueblo people can be di- vided into two areas. Located along the Muddy River and the lower reaches of the Virgin River are the villages and fields . Out of the river valleys campsites occur with Pueblo potsherds . These were the stopping places of hunting and trading parties. These two areas are called the area of farms and villages and the area of hunting and trading, illustrating the Pueblo pattern of land use. Some of this information comes from previous work by different archaeologists. Some of it is new and derives from archaeologi- cal surveys I made in 1955 and 1956. In 1955 I investigated the nature and extent of the Pueblo remains in the five southern coun- ties of Nevada: Clark, Lincoln, Nye, Esmeralda, and White Pine, and a portion of the Shivwits Plateau (Mohave County, Arizona). In 1956 I surveyed more of the Shivwits Plateau, and a portion of the Grand Canyon terrace below the Plateau. Before discussing the two areas of the southern Nevada Pueblo people, it would be well to explain the various systems of num- bering sites recorded in the region. Different systems of site recording will appear in the text for the various archaeological surveys carried on in the areas under discussion. These surveys were made by several individuals for different institutions over a period of almost 35 years. This sit- uation accounts for the lack of uniformity in the numbering of the sites discussed. In some instances a site will be numbered by more than one system (Pis. 3; 23). Harrington in his survey of the Lower Moapa Valley in 1929, and other times, used arabic numbers to record the sites (Pis. 23; 24; 25). The National Park Service in their site surveys within the Lake Mead National Recreation Area have used the Gila Pueblo method of recording sites (Pis. 7; 23; 24). In his 195 3 survey of the Upper Moapa Valley, Schroeder used arabic numbers for his field notes, later assigning them Gila Pueblo system numbers in the National Park Service files at Boulder City. In my 1955 and 1956 archaeological survey in southern Nevada I used the Nevada State Museum method of recording sites (PI. 3). Sites I recorded within the boundaries of the Lake Mead National Recreation Area were given National Park Service numbers. The Area of Farms and Villages The farms and villages of the Pueblo people of Nevada are con- centrated in the river bottoms of the Upper and Lower Moapa val- leys and in the lower reaches of the Virgin River. There the thickly clustered pithouses and surface houses attest to the dense abo- riginal occupation of these river valleys. The Upper Moapa Valley Just below Glendale, about lOmiles from its source, the Muddy River flows through several miles of narrow canyons. These can- yons divide the Moapa Valley into two parts, the Upper Moapa Valley to the north of the Narrows and the Lower Moapa Valley to the south (PI. 3). The western edge of the Upper Moapa Valley is composed of a high steep- sided mesa (PI. 4, a), while the east- em edge is bordered by low eroded hills (PI. 4, b). The flat val- ley floor afforded ample arable land for the prehistoric farmers (PI. 4, a). The waters of the slow moving river could be easily diverted onto the fields. In 1951, Albert H. Schroeder surveyed this area and reported eight sites located along the valley Schroe- der 1953). In 1955 I visited the sites Schroeder described and located three additional ones. The reported remains in the area are: three caves, two shel- ters, six pithouse sites, three multi-roomed Pueblo surface struc- tures, and a Paiute campsite. The valley was occupied from Basketmaker n through early Pueblo III times and later by the Paiutes. These sites by no means exhaust the archaeological potential of this valley. Black Dog Cave is located in a bluff on the western side of the valley, near the lower end. This cave was partly excavated in 1942 (Harrington 1942: 173-174; Cody 1942: 175-176). Bradley R. Stuart, formerly a resident of Moapa, has done some testing in the cave and Schroeder visited it in 1951, and I in 1955. In the top levels of the cave Paiute material was recovered, and under this were Pueblo I and II remains. The lowest levels pro- duced an assortment of perishable materials which reportedly closely resemble the Basketmaker II artifacts from DuPont Cave (Schroeder 1953b: 64). Over 30 slab or grass-lined circular cists from one to three and one-half feet in diameter and from six inches to over two feet deep were found in the deposit. In 1955 when I visited the cave the remains of some of these cists were still seen on the present surface of the deposit. On the mesa top above Black Dog Cave are three pithouses and a large circular clearing about 39 feet in diameter. Schroeder says that one of the pithouses has been excavated (195 3b: 65). It measures about nine feet in diameter and six feet deep. The floor has a central post hole and a rectangular firepit just east of it. Two slabs mark the long sides of the firepit and support a griddle stone which lies across them. A second pithouse is unexcavated; large slabs show above the surface along its per- imeter. No sherds were seen associated with any of these pit- houses. In 1955 I visited another pithouse, C1-29A which is lo- cated near the first three. This is an unexcavated depression nine feet in diameter. No slabs are to be seen along its edge. Sherds of Pyramid Gray, Logandale Gray, and Lino Black-on- gray were collected from the surface of the depression. Granary Cave is located in a small side canyon near Orphan Butte, about 300 yards south of Black Dog Cave. Over 12 slab- lined cists, similar to those seen in Black Dog Cave, are trace- able on the surface of the deposit. No artifacts or sherds were collected here, as none were seen. On Orphan Butte itself Schroeder found a small rockshelter. He reports (Schroeder 1953b: 62) that the local residents say that Pueblo n and Paiute arrowpoints have been found in the fill . Brad- ley Stuart found a tule figurine in a second shelter on the south side of Orphan Butte. On the top of the butte is a pithouse, 16 feet in diameter and four feet deep . Excavations revealed a cen- tral posthole in the clay floor and an oval fireplace, plastered and rimmed, just east of the posthole. The sides were lined with vertical sandstone slabs held together with the same clay that plastered the floor. A metateand dart points, but no sherds, were recovered from the house. A small slab cist is located just out- side of the house. A few feet away from the house are the remains of a small rectangular one- roomed surface structure. Schroeder collected only a few sherds on Orphan Butte ranging in time from Pre-A.D. 700 to post 1150. All these features are designated Site 7 in Schroeder' s report (NSM Cl-41). Just north of the White Narrows, which lies on the Moapa In- dian Reservation, on the east side of the river is a crevice in the low hills, Cl-44. Bradley Stuart told me that the crevice was used as a Paiute burial place for many years. The wearing ap- parel on one of the burials within the crevice indicated that the hole was used within the last 50 years. Schroeder' s Site 1 is another pithouse on the top of a mesa on the west side of the valley. Here there are a number of circular depressions six to 14 feet in diameter. One, however, measured almost 30 feet across. Sherds of Boulder Gray, Logandale Gray, and a type like Rudy and Stirland's (1950) Plain Gray type I were found . Two more pithouses (Schroeder Site 2) are situated about 50 feet west of the valley just above the valley floor, on a low knoll. One of these had sherds of Logandale Gray and the other had both Logandale and Boulder Gray sherds. These pithouses have been partially destroyed by farming operations. On another low knoll projecting into the western side of the valley is a pithouse 13 feet in diameter. Chunks of travertine rock are found along the perimeter of the depression. Sherds of Boulder and Logandale Gray were found. This is Schroeder' s Site 3. I discovered two other pithouses sites, Cl-52 on the low gravel knolls on the eastern side of the river. Here there are two circular depressions measuring from six to nine feet in di- ameter. Pyramid Gray, Logandale Gray, Lino Gray, and Lino Black-on-gray sherds were associated with these depressions. Cl-43 (PI. 4, a) is a 12 room surface structure 500 yards north of White Narrows . Schroeder' s Site 4 is a pueblo dating from Pueblo land II times. It is U-shaped with one large living room in the center with ad- joining storage rooms on either side forming the U. This site is on top of the mesa on the eastern side of White Narrows. Re- mains of adobe and stone wall, adobe floors, and hatchcovers can be seen. Several pithouse depressions were noted near the surface structure and may antedate it, at least in part, as one is lying under a surface room. Basketmakerlll, Pueblo I and II, and a few Paiute sherds were found here . About 1000 yards to the north is anothervery similarU- shaped pueblo (Schroeder's Site 5). The sherds collected date between post-A.D. 750 and 1150. In 1955 I found a similar multi-roomed surface structure, Cl-51 on the same side of the valley one-half mile east of the White Narrows (PI. 4, b). At least nine pithouse depressions can be seen around it. Basketmaker III, Pueblo I and II, and Paiute sherds were collected here. There is considerable evidence of burning in the ruins of the surface structure. One more site of importance is located in the Upper Moapa Valley. This is Cl-42, a Paiute campsite, situated on the low gravel hills on the eastern edge of the valley. Here Paiute Brown Ware sherds and stone chips were collected. sherds at three of these pithouses indicates that they might have continued to be used in Pueblo I and II times. The ceramics and architecture suggest a weak representation of Pueblo I. This situation corresponds to that found in the rest of southern Nevada. This fact seems to indicate a rapid devel- opment out of Basketmakerlll and a long period of stability with little culture change. The apparent contemporaneity of certain pithouses and surface dwellings and their propinquity suggests that Pueblo culture here developed from a local Basketmaker base and was not due to a fresh migration of population from the east. Here, as elsewhere in Nevada, Pueblo III is indicated by pot- tery types assigned to the early part of that period only. The Upper Moapa Valley pottery types are given in Table 1. The Paiute finds in the valley show a different sort of exploi- tation of the valley. Occasional triangular, side notched arrow- points, pottery sherds, and stone chips in the shelters and Black Dog Cave, and campsites on the eastern hills, and the Burial Crevice suggest that they visited the valley only sporadically to hunt and to gather wild seeds, and bury their dead. TABLE 1 Pottery types from Upper Moapa Valley Sites Sites C1-29A Cl-43 Cl-52 Cl-57 Pottery Types Moapa Gray 39 Boulder Gray 7 Pyramid Gray 3 10 4 Logandale Gray 1 3 1 Lino Gray 24 North Creek Gray 3 Washington Gray 2 Snake Valley Gray 1 Washington Corrugated 12 Lino Black-on-gray 1 7 North Creek Black-on-gray 5 The Lower Moapa Valley The Lower Moapa Valley is the area encompassing Pueblo Gran- de de Nevada (PI. 4, c-.d). For some 16 miles from the junction of the Muddy River with the Virgin, the Basketmaker and Pueblo sites stretched along both sides of the Muddy River up to the Narrows (Pis. 23; 26). Summary Whether or not the Basketmaker II people once occupied the Upper Moapa Valley has not yet been determined. The remains from Black Dog Cave are suggestive of this period, but the fill was relatively shallow and also contained artifacts from later periods. The excavations undertaken in the cave were not rigid- ly controlled so it is difficult to properly evaluate the results. The small deep non-ceramic pithouses with central postholes possibly belong to Basketmaker II times. They are all located on the mesa or knoll tops high above the valley floor. The Basketmaker III period is represented by the rest of the pithouse sites and by pithouse depressions in and around the Pueblo structures . These pithouses with associated ceramics occur both on the mesa tops and close to the valley floor only slightly above it on low knolls. The occurrence of Pyramid Gray This region was intensively occupied by agricultural people for several hundred years. The comparatively level bottomland of the Muddy River makes diversion of water for fields of com, beans, and squash a relatively easy procedure. Small brush check dams would have been sufficient to divert the water to the fields. The Lower Reaches of the Virgin River Arizona A:l:l (PI. 5, a), is a largepithouse and surface habi- tation site on a bluff overlooking the Virgin River a few miles above Mesquite, Nevada. Plate 5, b-c, shows the Virgin River north and south of this site where flood waters or check dam farming could have been carried on along the river bottom. This site, foundon my 1955 survey, belongs to thefarming and village category. The pottery types present indicate an occupation at this site lasting from Basketmaker III through the Pueblo period of this area. Southern Paiute potsherds were also recovered from this site, which probably representsa latercampsiteof the Paiute. CI-54, a four- acre site exhibiting Basketmaker III - Pueblo and Paiute occupation is located on a mesa top, overlooking the Virgin River, 4.1 miles south of Riverside, Nevada, on the east side. Pithouses, and outlines of the remains of surface dwell- ings are shown in Plate 6, _a-c_. In the lower reaches, the Virgin River, running through awide canyon, is a shallow river with a good deal of flat river bottom providing ideal conditions for flood and small diversion dam farm- ing . Sporadic checking of the bluffs overlooking the river indi- cates the majority of them contain pit and surface houses, sug- gesting a large sedentary population along the river during the Basketmaker- Pueblo period, farming on the river bottomland. The Area of Hunting and Trading The economy of the Pueblo farmers of southern Nevada was augmented by hunting for wild game, gathering food plants, and by trading with neighboring groups. Their hunting activities are attested to by the bones of deer, antelope, mountain sheep, tor- toise, rabbits, birds, and other animals found in their villages as well as by the numerous campsites which radiate out from the river bottom. It is assumed that the campsites away from the villages were occupied by hunting parties. Their trade relation- ships are indicated by finds of objects of exotic origin within their villages as well as by finds of their pottery well outside the area where they might reasonably be expected to hunt. The two major hunting areas of the southern Nevada Pueblo farmers were the areas immediately surrounding and south of the Muddy- Virgin river system, that is, the area now included in the Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Valley of Fire, and the Shivwits Plateau to the northeast. In addition site surveys re- vealed Pueblo campsites in 40 Mile Canyon and elsewhere in southern and eastern Nevada. Occasional finds of Pueblo pot- tery west of the Pueblo boundary (PI . 1) defined by Harrington (1928) are considered to be traces of trading parties. Paiute and Shoshoni campsites are also found in these areas. On some campsites Paiute or Shoshoni potsherds were found mixed with Pueblo potsherds, not necessarily indicating contempor- aneity of occupation but that especially good camping areas near game and water were used for hundreds of years by different groups of people. Some campsites are found with no potsherds at all. Since the stone tools of the Paiute, Shoshoni, and Pueblo people are very similar in many respects it is very difficult to tell which group or groups used these sites. Lake Mead National Recreation Area Lake Mead National Recreation Area includes a narrow strip along the course of the Colorado River averaging about 15 miles wide and estending eastward from a few miles west of Boulder City to Grand Canyon National Monument-, a distance of about 100 miles. It also includes a narrow strip about 35 miles long along the Virgin River from the Colorado River northward, and a short section of the Lower Muddy River, as well as a portion of the Shivwits Plateau. It extends southward from Hoover Dam almost to Bullhead, Arizona, a distance of about 70 miles. It is the strip along the Virgin and Lower Muddy rivers, and part of the Shivwits Plateau with which we are concerned here(Pl . 7) . The area contains parts of two major physiographic provinces: The Basin and Range characterized by north- south trending block- faulted mountains separated by broad valleys, and the high Colo- rado Plateau . The boundary between these two provinces is sharp- ly defined by the Grand Wash Cliffs . The Basin and Range pro- vince is typically a windswept region of little rainfall and sparce vegetation, and contains but few streams which are not inter- mittent. The Colorado Plateau province has characteristics sim- ilar to the Basin and Range except that it receives more rainfall , and consequently supports a heavier vegetation. Since establishment of the recreation area in 1936, National Park Service staff members have recorded over 400 archaeological sites of various cultural mixtures in and around the Lake Mead area. These are predominately open surface sites near the rivers or springs which were favorable camping places for a long period of time, as indicated by varied pottery wares found. Of the 400 sites, 170 are in the Virgin-Muddy river area, and 159 of these produced pottery that give information as to the tribes who camped at these sites and the span of time pottery making people have inhabited the area. On the Shivwits Plateau, the 52 sites recorded by the National Park Service and the 21 sites noted in my survey make a total of 7 3 recorded in this region. Although varied amounts of lithic implements were collected, only pottery is considered in the discussions of the sites of this region. Stone tools are of little use in determining cultural af- filiations, because those in the sample are so generalized as to be of no significance in determining cultural indicators . Plate 7 illustrates the parts of the recreation area under con- sideration, the Virgin- Muddy river section, and part of the Shiv- wits Plateau. The number of survey sites is in parenthesis in each square, e.g., Nevada DD:14 (1). In handling a large num- ber of sherd collections from surface sites the type of information to be derived is limited to indications of the people who camped in the region, and span of time the area has been inhabited by these pottery making people. With a statistically adequate sam- ple a seriationof the pottery could be attempted, but there is no way to determine what portion of the pottery at the sites was collected or has been retained at the recreation area headquarters . Virgin and Muddy River Area (Nevada DD:6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16) Local wares predominate at these sites as they do over the entire area of southeastern Nevada. Moapa Gray Ware, a Pueblo pottery, including Boulder Gray, Boulder Black-on-gray, and Moapa Black-on-gray types span the Pueblo occupation of the area from Basketmaker III to early Pueblo III. The Virgin Series of the Tusayan Gray Ware is represented by the types North Creek Gray and Washington Corrugated. North Creek Gray occurs sparsely over the area from Basketmaker III through Pueblo II, while Washington Corrugated, a late Pueblo II to early Pueblo III type is well represented at most sites. Tusayan White Ware, Virgin Series, is represented by four types: Washington Black- on- gray, a Pueblo I pottery of wide but light distribution; St. George Black-on-gray, the predominate decorated type which occurs widely in Pueblo II; North Creek Black-on-gray, a widely but lightly distributed Pueblo II type to early Pueblo III type; and Hurricane Black-on-gray, a late Pueblo II type which occurs very sparsely in Nevada DD:7. Logandale Gray Ware, with Logan- dale Gray, a Basketmaker III and Pueblo II type, is found occa- sionally in Nevada DD:6, 7, and 10. Shinarump Brown Ware , with Shinarump Brown, is a Pueblo III type found in small numbers at sites in the area. Shinarump White Ware is represented by only a few sherds of Virgin Black-on-white, a late Pueblo II to early Pueblo III type. Trade wares from the San Juan region are represented by San Juan Orange Ware, with its type Deadman's Black-on-red, a Pueblo I to early Pueblo II type of which a few sherds were found in Nevada DD:7, and II. Also, Tsegi Orange Ware, with Tusayan Black-on- Red, a middle Pueblo II to early Pueblo III type, is found occasionally in Nevada DD:6, 7, and 11. These two types demonstrate contact with the San Juan region of theAnasazi east of the Colorado River. Afew sherds of San Francisco Mountain Gray Ware, aCohonina pottery from the Patayan area west of the San Francisco Peaks and east of the Colorado River, represented by Deadman's Gray, Deadman's Black-on-gray, and Deadman's Fugitive Red, were collected at sites in Nevada DD:7, and 16. This ware was made during Pueblo I and Pueblo n times, so there must have been con- tact with the local Pueblo people. Sherds of Tizon Brown Ware, with types Cerbat Brown, Sandy Brown, Tizon Wiped, and Aquar- ius Brown were found at sites in Nevada DD:7, and 16. This ware, indigenous to the present Walapai area east of the Colo- rado River, was made from Basketmaker III to Pueblo III times, again indicating contact with the Pueblo people of the Virgin- Muddy river region. Prescott Gray Ware, with Aquarius Orange, a Pueblo II to Pueblo IV type, is represented by a few sherds at sites in Nevada DD:7, and 15. A less strong contact with south- eastern Nevada is indicated by these sherds from the Prescott area. A few sherds of Lower Colorado River Buff Ware decorated pottery were found in Nevada DD:6, 7, and 16. Since this is considered to be largely historic pottery, these people probably camped in the area after the Pueblo occupation had ended . Pyramid Gray, a Lower Colorado River type, whose time range as indi- cated at Willow Beach (Schroeder 1952: 99) is pre-A.D. 900 to 1150 (Pueblo II to early Pueblo III), is strongly represented at sites over the entire area. This strong representation suggests that Pyramid Gray may have been made locally, and not traded in. Paiute Brown Ware was found at practically all the sites re- corded. Although the evidence for Pueblo-Paiute contact is not conclusive, it certainly is suggestive. These Shoshoni speak- ing people, along with occasional parties from the Lower Colo- rado River, were at least the last to camp at these sites that had been occupied from time to time since Basketmaker III times. Shivwits Plateau Lying in the northwest portion of Arizona, the Shivwits Plateau is cut off from the rest of the State by the Grand Canyon of the Colorado (Pis. 2, 7). Despite its isolation the plateau was ex- tensively exploited in prehistoric times because of its rich floral and faunal resources. The Shivwits Plateau, rising in a flat table land about 6,000 feet above sea level, is composed mainlyof sandstone and lime- stone with occasional lava outcrops. It is part of the Colorado Plateau through which the Grand Canyon cuts. Mt. Dellenbaugh at 6,750feet elevation (PI. 13, a), on the north and Blue Moun- tain on the south project above the level of the rolling plain. Juniper, pinyon and western yellow pine grow over most of the plateau broken by low valleys and washes in which sagebrush grows . Plate 8, a shows the western portion of the Shivwits Plateau, an area of lower elevation, some 5,000 feet, about 35 miles east of St. George, Utah. The valleys contain abundant sagebrush. Plate 8, d looking down Mustang Canyon on the Grand Canyon terrace, shows an area of many petroglyphs. Wild game was undoubtedly plentiful in this area in prehistoric times. There are indications of the former abundance of deer, rabbits, squirrels and various game birds such as quail. The great amount of lithic material in the form of blades and pro- jectile points testify to the extent of aboriginal hunting. Today, however, due to cattle and sheep ranching over most of this area, combined with overhunting, little game can be seen. Theplateauhas an ample supply of water. A number of springs are located there and rain water fills streams and collects in nu- merous pools . Until 1942, when Baldwin, and others (1942b) carried out a limited survey of the Shivwits Plateau, the archaeological po- tential of this area was virtually unknown. Twenty-five sites were recorded, ranging in type from lithic campsites, campsites with Pueblo pottery, to a true Pueblo (Arizona G:3:I5), which lies southwest of Price Pocket on the south slope of a small knob. It has a horseshoe shape, open toward the south, with a court- yard in the center. The walls were constructed of lava rock and adobe, but no information as to their height or width is available (PI. 13, ja), Pueblo and Paiute pottery was present on the site. During the 1950' s other National Park Service Personnel, Albert H. Schroeder in particular, made several trips to the Shivwits Plateau and Whitmore Wash areas recording more sites similar to those reported by Baldwin in 1942. The most recent archaeological work in this area is that of 1955 and 1956, carried out by me together with James S. Griffith and various National Park Service personnel in 1955, and again with National Park Service personnel in 1956. In 1956work was extended to the Grand Canyon Terrace on the eastern side, and below the Shivwits Plateau. This is the first reported work in this area . Altogether, 21 new sites (PI . 7) of various types (lithic and pottery campsites, a multi-room masonry surface pueblo, and several large rockshelters on the Grand Canyon Terrace), were recorded. The rockshelters contain quantities of undis- trubed perishable material. A portion of the Shivwits Plateau is included in the recreation area as shown on Plate 7: it includes parts of Arizona A:13, 14, 15, and 16; and most of Arizona G:2, and G:3; as well as a small part of Arizona G:6 and G:7. Pottery types found inArizona A:14, 15, and 16 are the same as those found in the Village and Farm- ing Area of southeastern Nevada. I have no record of sites in Arizona G:2, 6, or 7. Thirteenof the 35 sites recorded in Arizona G:3 produced pottery. All the pottery wares listed for the Virgin- Muddy river section of the recreation area were found at these sites in varying amounts. They indicate that the Basketmaker III, Pueblo, Patayan, or Lower Colorado River people were hunt- ing and gathering in this area since atleast A.D. 500. The pres- ence of Basketmaker II type proj ectile points (Schroeder 1952bi81, Fig. 63, a^, left 4) suggests an even earlier use of this region by pre-pottery people. The Shivwits Basketmaker III, Pueblo and Paiute campsites are similar in all respects (being in the pinyon- juniper, and occa- sionally yellow pine, stands) to the non-pottery sites (PI. 8, Jd-c), except for the presence of pottery at the former. Two non-pottery sites (workshop areas) were recorded in the pinyon- juniper stands on the plateau. 2-MOH-3 (Arizona G:3:28), is an area about 20 yards in diameter located one mile west of Price Butte on the western slope. Three flake knives and one Type I drill were found at the site. 2-MOH-6 (Arizona A:14:4), is about 100 yards in diameter, on the south slope of the ridge immediately west of Mt. Dellenbaugh. Seven flake knives, one side scraper, a thumbnail scraper, and a graver were recovered from this site. The Shivwits stone implements from non-pottery sites are illustrated in Plate 9, o-u_. Site 2-MOH-7 (Arizona A:14:5), an area about 50 yards in diameter, located one-eighth of a mile north of the point of ridge running S-E, N-W, four miles south of Oak Grove, is a Paiute site. Hearth ash indicates it was a campsite. Thirty-one South- em Paiute Brown Ware sherds were recovered from the surface. The site is similar to that shown in Plate 8, c. Two campsites were recorded with Basketmaker III and Pueblo pottery on the surface. Site 70, is an area from the top of Price Butte to one-half mile below on its western slope. Stands of pinyon and juniper cover this area (PI. 8, b). Numerous ash concentrations indicating previous campfires were evident . Arti- facts consisted of three projectile points, four blades, a flake knife, side scraper, graver, and a Type II chopper. Pottery types include Boulder Gray, Lino Gray, North Creek Gray, Lino Black- on- gray, and North Creek Black- on- gray. Site 71, lies about three miles from Afton Snyder's house, along the road leading to the eastern edge of the plateau, on the trail to the Grand Canyon Terrace. A projectile point, blade scraper, turtleback scraper, and a snub-nosed scraper are the artifacts collected from this area. A few Boulder Gray sherds were also picked up. Ten sites with Basketmaker III, Pueblo and Paiute pottery were located. All are in the pinyon- juniper forest, with ash deposits indicating numerous campfires. Site 2-MOH-4 (Arizona G:3:29), is an area about 20 yards in diameter, a clearing in the large sherd area from one-half mile down the western slope of Price Butte to two miles below. Arizona A:14:2 (PI. 8, c:) is a clearing in the pinyon-juniper forest one-half mile northeast of the 1956 National Park Service fire camp. Site 2-MOH-5 (Arizona G:3:30) is a small area one- fourth mile west of Price Butte, near Horse Springs. Plates 9, 10, 11, and 12 illustrate the artifacts from these sites, andTables2 and 3 tabulate the tool and pottery types. TABLE 2 Shivwits Plateau Basketmaker-Pueblo-Paiute Lithic Material Sites Ariz. A:14:2 Ariz. A: 15: 3 Ariz. G:3:26 Ariz. G:3:29 Ariz. G:3:30 Ariz. A:14:6 Tool Types Projectile points 8 8 5 Blades 12 33 9 Flake knives 35 18 15 Scrapers: side 21 11 15 end 4 1 side and end 1 7 thumbnail 1 thumbnail, graver 1 turtleback 2 snub-nosed Scraper- plane 1 1 Graver 1 3 Drill, Type I Drill, Type II 1 Chopper, Type I 4 5 Chopper, Type II 1 2 Hammerstones 1 2 Mano, Type I 1 Mano, Type V 1 Mano, Type VII 1 2-MOH-4 7 39 5 27 3 3 2 2-MOH-5 2 13 2-MOH-E 2-MOH-9 Ariz. A: 14:4 2-MOH-6 TABLE 3 Shivwits Plateau Basketmaker-Pueblo-Paiute Pottery Types Sites Ariz. A:14:2 Ariz . A:15:3 Ariz . G:3:25 Ariz . G:3 :29 Ariz. G:3:30 Ari. 2. G:3:27 Ariz. A:14:6 Site 70 2-MOH- 4 2-MOH-5 2- MOH-1 2- ■MOH-8 2-MOH-9 Pottery Types Moapa Brown 1 5 Moapa Gray 1 2 1 2 Boulder Gray 1 5 22 4 2 3 10 3 10 Lino Gray 14 2 7 1 North Creek Gray 1 8 8 5 Moapa Corrugated 2 1 11 San Juan Orange Ware 1 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 1 3 1 St. George Black-on-gray 1 North Creek Black-on-gray 3 S . Paiute Brown Ware Plain 2 17 2 5 102 20 48 6 26 Corrugated 3 3 27 11 4 2 Red Wash 9 1 Arizona A:15:8, is a multi-roomed surface pueblo on the Shiv- wits Plateau discovered in 1956 (PI. 13, a-b), about five miles north of the National Park Service fire camp, on a knoll over- looking the Grand Canyon to the east of the plateau. The walls of uncoursed masonry, possibly held together with adobe were neverhigher than three feet, tojudgefrom the fallen debris. There was evidently a brush superstructure. Since the occupation of this site was seasonal due to the severe winters at this elevation, the brush structure built upon low walls was quite adequate . Bald- win mentioned such a pueblo site in his 1942 survey from another part of the plateau. Paiute as well as Patayan, Basketmaker III and Pueblo pottery was found on the site. Plate 14, illustrates the artifacts from this site, which include Basketmaker III and Pueblo projectilepoints, blades, flake knives, side and end scra- pers, with combinations of both types, thumbnail scrapers, scra- per-choppers, scraper-gravers. Type I and II choppers. Type I and IV manos, and a rubbing stone. Table 4 lists the pottery types. TABLE 4 Arizona A: 15:8 Pottery Types Pottery Types Southern Paiute Brown Ware Plain Corrugated Aquarius Orange Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Lino Gray North Creek Gray Knoll's Gray Washington's Gray Washington Corrugated Moapa Corrugated North Creek Corrugated Black Mesa Black- on-white Medicine Black-on- red Tusayan Black-on- red Moapa Black-on- gray Boulder Black-on- gray St. George Black-on- gray North Creek Black-on- gray Hurricane Black-on- gray Southern Paiute Brown Ware Pottery figurine fragment Pottery discs: Plain Corrugated Number of Sherds 282 307 6 14 65 4 27 2 2 29 37 5 1 36 4 12 38 9 23 20 (PI. 15, d). These manos fit the worked surface of the metate which was straight, groundby a back- and- forth movement. Sev- eral blades and a cut reed were also recovered. Handprint Rock- shelter, Arizona A:15:12, has a high slightly overhanging roof (PI. 16, aj. There are a series of contiguous rooms along the base of the back wall (PI. 16, h) . These rooms were separated by uncoursed masonry slabs of varying sizes. The fill of the rooms is exceedingly rich in perishable material, such as sandals and cordage. There are numerous petroglyphs on the cliff wall of the site, as shown in Plate 16, ,c-d_. Several blades, flake knives, scrapers, hammerstones, a rubbing stone and a Type I chopper were found at the site. AtArizona A:15:ll, anothersmall rockshelter, a projectile point fragment (PI. 17, _f), several flake knives and blades were found on the surface. Summary The stone implements recovered from the Shivwits non-pottery sites are so generalized that it is difficult to access the cultural affiliations and the time placement of these sites. The predom- inance of killing, skinning, and scraping tools suggests that they were used mainly for hunting. The pottery types found at many of the Shivwits Plateau sites indicate it was a favorite hunting and gathering area for both Basketmaker- Pueblo and Paiute groups. The lack of stratigraphy in the surface sites leaves open the question of contemporaneous occupation by the Pueblos and Paiutes. The lack of culturally diagnostic stone tools at these sites (since the Pueblos and Paiutes were there for the same reasons, the tools could be ex- pected to be similar), and the fact that the sites were occupied from time to time over a long period, due to their favorable lo- cation to water, game, and pinyon nuts, makes it all the more difficult to define which specific group used the non-pottery sites, or if the pottery sites were used by the Basketmaker- Pueblo en- tirely prior to the Paiutes. The artifact types from the Shivwits Plateau sites are similar to those of southern Nevada but the incidence of type varies . A greater abundance of game , and therefore, more projectile points, knives, and blades are recorded for the Shivwits sites than for those of southern Nevada . There seems little doubt that the various groups of people who have inhabited the southern Nevada region for at least 2,000 years made seasonal trips to the Shivwits Plateau for hunting and gathering purposes. Thepresenceof Black Mesa Black-on-white at Arizona A: 15:8, suggests that occasional groups from the Ka- yenta joined the southern Nevada Pueblo people in this area. Grand Canyon Terrace Sites Four large rockshelters were recorded in this area below the eastern edge of the Shivwits Plateau, south of Powell's Plateau, at an elevation of about 4,500 feet in 1956. This previously unknown area contains numerous shelters, many containing walled rooms, and they are rich in perishable material. It is possible that in the area some groups wintered that spent the summer and fall on the plateau above. There are many springs but not much arable land, because of the rocky nature of the terrain. Sherd and tool collections were made from the sites located. Plate 17 shows the diversity of the stone assemblage, and Table 5, the variety of cultures indicated by the pottery types. Arizona A: 15:9 (Snyder Cave) is one of the large rockshelters in the pinyon- juniper zone (PI. 15, .a). Plate 15, b, pictures fallen debris from one of the masonry rooms in the shelter. One Basketmaker III projectile point (PI. 17, d), flake knives, agave quids, twisted juniper bark, and two Basketmaker III square-toed sandals were found. Nipple Cave, Arizona A:15:10, is a shelter with remains of six rooms (PI. 15, c) . A large slab metate, and three mano fragments were found on the surface of Nipple Cave TABLE 5 Grand Canyon Terrace Pottery Types Site s Ariz. Ariz. Ariz. Ariz. Pottery Types A:15:9 A:15 10 A:15:ll A:15:12 Southern Paiute Brown Ware Plain 2 8 35 Corrugated 13 Tooled 1 Shinarump Brown 1 Moapa Brown 1 3 1 Moapa Gray 2 Boulder Gray 4 1 1 7 Lino Gray 2 1 North Creek Gray 1 4 2 Washington Corrugated 1 1 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 North Creek Black-on-gray 1 Jeddito Yellow Ware 1 St. George Black-on- gray Pendant 1 10 10 Other Nevada Pueblo Sites The 40 Mile Canyon area, about 35 miles northeast of Beatty, Nevada, and immediately east of Timber Mountain has long been rumored to contain Pueblo ruins. With an old prospector from Beatty as a guide, we visited 40 Mile Canyon, an area devoid of water, and difficult of access. It is part of the Las Vegas Bomb- ing Range, so arrangements with the Nellis Air Force Base at Las Vegas were made before we entered the area. Plate 18, ei, gives a panoramic view of the section of 40 Mile Canyon we visited. It is a beautiful, deep, steep-sided canyon, capped by thicklava flows on both sides. Along the east side of the canyon (PI. 18, b), there are piles of rock about three feet high, at about 25 foot intervals for over one-fourth of a mile. No indication of their use is apparent, but there is no reason to assume that they are not prehistoric. A former resident of Beatty, Nevada, Mr. J. Moore, told me that an Indian told him of similar piles of rocks, where the rock on top of the pile pointed in the direction of a spring . There are many small rockshelters at the base of the lava flow that caps the canyon sides. Most of these have low rock walls at the entrance. The remains of one of these may be seen in Plate 19, c, site Ny-29, 1500 feet up the side of the east wall. Plate 19, d, pictures the basin metates from Ny-29. Ny-28 (PI. 20, a) is also a deep rockshelter in 40 Mile Canyon. The entrance is too low to permit easy entry, but there appeared to be con- siderable deposit in the shelter. Plate 20, b, shows some of the many rock circle outlines found inScrugham Park. There are thou- sands of petroglyphs in 40 Mile Canyon, such as shown in Plate 18, £. This area must have been a favorite hunting and gather- ing area, and perhaps also an important ceremonial region to judge by the rock outlines and large number of petroglyphs. Both the Pueblos and Paiutes were in this area, but to which one belongs the credit forthe primitive art gallery is impossible to determine. Site Ny-27 (PI. 19, a), is a rockshelter one mile up the east side of Timber Mountain Divide from 40 Mile Canyon where we found Pueblo and Paiute pottery. The pinyon and juniper made this a good gathering area, and it is possible that this was the trade route used by the Pueblo groups from southern Nevada to and from Death and Owen's valleys. Plate 19, b, shows a basin metate from Ny-27. Site 74 is an area called Red Spring, in Red Rock Canyon about 12 miles west of Las Vegas, Nevada, that according to the pot- tery, is a favorite camping place for Basketmakerlll - Pueblo and Paiute Indians. The presence of one Verde Gray sherd implies people from the Verde Valley came this far west. Cl-45, is an area about an acre in extent, located in Paradise Valley about five miles east of Las Vegas, Nevada, contains many springs. To judge from the pottery, this was an area popularwith not only the Basketmakerlll- Pueblo and Paiutes, but also people from the Lower Colorado River. Wh-44 (PI. 21, _a), is a rockshelter in Baker Creek Canyon just south of Lehman Cave, near Baker, Nevada, over 6,000 feet in elevation with Pueblo and Shoshoni pottery. CI- 39 (PI. 20, c), is a shelter known as Stuart Rockshelter, located in Meadow Valley wash a few miles northwest of Moapa, Nevada, that I partially excavated in 1955. This excavation in- dicated four cultural levels: Paiute- Pueblo, Pueblo, Basketmaker III, and an early Pinto-like culture. Plate 22, _a-g_, illustrates the artifact material recovered from these sites, and Tables 6 and 7, tabulate the tool and pottery types. TABLE 6 Nevada Survey Sites Stone Artifacts Sites Tool Types Cl-41 Cl-50 Cl-51 Ny-27 Projectile point 1 Metal projectile point 1 Metal fragment 1 Blades 1 2 Flake knives 2 1 11 Side scraper 1 2 Side and end scraper 1 Chopper, Type I 1 Spire-lopped Olivella bead 1 Tortoise carapace 1 Mano, Type VII 1 TABLE 7 Nevada Survey Sites Pottery Types Sites Pottery Types Southern Paiute Brown Ware Plain Corrugated Shinarump Brown Moapa Brown Boulder Gray Logandale Gray Pyramid Gray Lino Gray North Creek Gray Washington Gray Snake Valley Gray Washington Corrugated North Creek Corrugated Lower Colorado River Buff Ware Tusayan Black- on- red Boulder Black-on- gray Lino Black-on- gray Washington Black-on- gray St. George Black-on- gray North Creek Black-on- gray Hurricane Black-on- gray Verde Gray Unidentified Cl-41 Cl-45 Cl-50 Cl-51 8 11 10 16 1 2 4 1 4 2 3 35 5 1 84 2 1 5 27 7 2 5 15 9 4 2 3 20 2 76 6 27 17 Cl-54 17 Ny-27 Wh-44 74 7 4 8 2 1 11 Two sites, Wh-42 (PI. 21, b), andWh-43, are rockshelters in Snake Creek Canyon, near Baker, Nevada. These rockshelters contained North Creek Gray pottery sherds, a southern Nevada type. Wh-42, produced a typical Pueblo point (PI. 22, _s), a flake knife (PI . 22, p), and a spire-lopped Olivella bead (PI. 22, _r). From Wh- 4 3 we recovered one flake knife (PI. 22, ^j). These rockshelters were likely temporary campsites used during spring, summer, and fall hunting and gathering trips . The high elevation, with the severe winters , made year-around occupation improbable . A large cave, Wh-26 (PI. 21 c), is located at the mouth of Smith Creek Canyon, 35 miles north of Baker, Nevada. Harring- ton (1926c) reported Pueblo pottery from this cave. I visited this site in 1955 and found no artifacts. The geographical spread of these sites with Pueblo pottery represents the type of Pueblo campsite throughout the hunting and trading area of the Pueblo occupation of the southern Great Basin. At Etna Cave, near Caliente, Nevada, S. M. "Wheeler (1942; Wormington 1955), found three hard-packed layers, which he called "floors" . He reports Pueblo II and Basketmakerlll sherds from above the first floor. Two levels were distinguished be- tween the first and second floors . Pottery was found in the up- per level, but none was found in the lower where Basketmaker II dart points occurred. Between the second and third floors were some Gypsum Cave type projectile points. Also found with this material was dung of a small native American horse. A lanceolate point with a concave base lay below the third floor. The deposit contained figure- 8 sandals throughout. A Fremont moccasin lay in a pit Wheeler attributes to the early Pueblo II occupation. Basketry of the single rod and bundle type predominates, and is the type found in Fremont sites . In Owl Cave near Baker, Nevada, Wheeler found a fragment of an unfinished Fremont moccasin which he attributes to Basket- maker III (19 38). M. R. Harrington found a Pueblo pitcher, some plain and black- on-gray sherds, and some com cobs in Indian Council Cave, lo- cated in Smith Creek Canyon, 25 miles north of Baker, Nevada (1925). On a later survey, Harrington found plain ware sherds and one black-on-gray sherd at Cobre in northeastern Nevada. included within the western boundary of the Pueblo culture (PI. I), are considered to be the result of trading parties camping on the site. Lathrap and Meighan (1951) report a corrugated sherd from Inyo County, California (Iny-225). At that time I noted the sim- ilarity between it and Linden Corrugated (Lathrap and Meighan 1951: 22). Subsequent experience with southern Nevada Pueblo pottery leads me to now believe this sherd to be Washington Corrugated, a common PII-PIII type found at Lost City. W. J. Wallace (1958) reports Pueblo sherds, painted and cor- rugated were recovered at several camps in association with the Brown Ware in Death Valley. Unbaked clay pieces, usually fe- male figurines, have also been found. Long-bladed, comer-notched points identical to those found in Pueblo sites of southern Nevada occur (Schellbach 1930; Fig. 7). Other less specific traits are also shared, such as flexed burial, bone spatuale, and Olivella beads with both ends removed (Hayden 1930). The Davis Dam area extends about 57 miles below Hoover Dam. Baldwin (1943) reported Pueblo, Patayan, Paiute, Mohave, and Walapai pottery with Patayan predominating at sites in this region. Some 155 sites were recorded during this survey. Schroeder(1952a) conducted a brief survey of the Lower Colo- rado River from Davis Dam to the International Border. No Pueblo sherds were reported, but such types as Cerbat Brown, Aquarius Brown, Aquarius Orange, and Verde Black-on- gray were found, indicating the Upland Patayan people did come to this area of Lowland Patayan. The Pueblo trading campsites in eastern California probably represent small parties from southern Nevada after shells from the California coast. The Indians living in Death Valley and eastern slopes of the Sierras could have acted as the intermed- iary between the people in California who gathered the shells, and the Pueblo people of southern Nevada who wanted them. In exchange for the shells, they may have brought such items as salt or turquoise. California Sites Sites with southern Nevada Pueblo pottery outside of the area 12 CHAPTER 4 ARCHITECTURE The information on the architecture of the Lost City area was derived from notes made in the field by different members of the various archaeological expeditions to the Lower Moapa Valley between the years 19 24 to 19 36. One hundred and twenty-one sites were investigated in the area. These sites contained over 610 rooms. The exact number cannot be determined. The lo- cations of the sites are shown in Plates 23 and 24. As described in Chapter 1, each site or house group is re- ferred to in this report, as a "House." The term is confusing, especially when discussing a " House" that is composed of a num- ber of pithouses, or pithouses and surface structures . Since the term "House" is used in the field notes and in all the published reports on the archaeology of Lost City, it was felt that it would be less confusing to retain it than to change it to "Site." Unfortunately through the years, notebooks have been mis- placed and artifacts lost, so that the descriptions of the houses are incomplete. Floor plans of some houses are found with no descriptions of construction. For other houses there are good descriptions of floor and wall construction but no floor plans . Some houses are known only through the inventories of artifacts found in theirrooms. Perhaps most frustrating of all is that when the notes fully describe the architecture of a site, in most cases none of the pottery found in it could be located. Or in some cases when a good collection of pottery from a house was available, the notes describing that house could not be found. In only a small proportion of the sites could pottery and architecture be matched. Obviously these inadequacies in the field notes are not the fault of the excavators who made most careful descrip- tions of the houses but are due to the inevitable toll of the years when notes and collections were scattered and stored in a num- ber of institutions. Not all of the houses were completely excavated; some of them were examined only superficially. In addition erosion had dealt severely with houses built mainlyof adobe and exposed to sudden summer storms, and rapid water runoff. Two reports by Harring- ton have been useful in filling out the incomplete accounts of excavations (Harrington 1927b; 1953b). There seems to have been three architectural periods at Lost City. The first period which equates with Basketmakerll is rep- resented by five large deep round pithouses. No pottery was found in these houses and a few dart points were found nearby. The second period has smaller, shallower pithouses containing Basketmaker III pottery. In the third, pithouses were found used contemporaneously with surface dwellings and the pottery as- sociated ranges from Basketmaker III to Pueblo II. In the final period of Pueblo occupation the architecture remains the same, although Harrington says that the houses were fewer in number. At least one of them, Mesa House was located in an easily de- fensible position high above the valley floor (Hayden, in Har- rington and others 1930). The pottery from Mesa House shows an increase in corrugated types and a decrease in painted types. Plain pottery was no longer made. This period probably dates from late Pueblo II and early Pueblo III. These four phases have been called: Moapa Phase (Basketmaker II): Muddy River Phase (Basketmaker III); Lost City Phase (Pueblo I and II); Mesa House Phase (late Pueblo II and early Pueblo III). I have added the name "Moapa Phase" to the list of foci discussed by Colton (1952: 5), and have substituted the more modem usage of "Phase" for "Focus". These phases are discussed in detail elsewhere in the report . Architecture of the Moapa Phase Five pithouses attributed to the Moapa Phase are located near the junction of the Muddy and Virgin rivers. These were de- scribed by Harrington (1937b). House 107 lay on the top of a gravel mesa 20 feet above the river bed. The mesa is 200 feet west of the Muddy-Virgin river junction. The other four, Houses 108, 109, and 110 (House 110 consisted of two pithouses pre- sumably lying quite close together. I could find no sketch of them), surmount another gravel mesa about one and one- fourth miles east of the Virgin River. These four houses are justabove the 1230 foot contour line. No potsherds at all were found, none even in the fill of these five houses. Stone implements such as knife blades, choppers, manos , and stone chips were found on the floors and in the fill . These are illustrated by Schroeder (1952) . In addition two stemmed dart points were found on the floor of House 107 and three broken comer- notched points in House 108. Several broken dart points were found on the surface near House 109. Though no maps, drawings or photographs could be found of these houses the excavation notes describe the shape of four of them as round and the fifth (House HOB) as oval. All were large and deep. House 107 had a diameter of 17 feet and a depth of fourfeet one inch from the present surface. The relationship be- tween the present and original surface could not be determined from the field notes. House 108 had a diameter of 20 feet and was five feet two inches below the present surface; House 109 was 15 feet in diameterand three feet below the present surface; House 110A had a diameter of 12 feet and was one foot five inches below the present surface. House HOB measured 11 feet east to west and 10 feet north to south. It was one foot six inches below the present surface. The floor of each house was of adobe plaster. In House HOB there was some gravel mixed into the adobe floor. The subsurface wall in each case was the unaltered edge of the pit. No traces of walls remained above ground. Chunks of charcoal and burned adobe found in the fill of House 107 suggest that the walls or roof or both were made of wooden beams and poles with adobe plaster. The excavation notes do not report finding post holes in the floors of these houses. There was a fireplace just east of the center of House 107 but no de- scription of it could be found. House 108 had a circular fire- place made of adobe and stone one foot four inches in diameter. It was located just south of the center of the house. It is not recorded whether or not the other three pithouses had fireplaces. The complete lack of pottery associated with these pithouses and thefindingof the dart points justifies separating these houses from the succeeding period of pithouse dwelling. Albert H. Schroeder found a similar pithouse in the Upper Moapa Valley (1953) . This was an oval slab-lined house 16 feet in diameter and four feet deep. The floor was plastered with adobe. There was a post hole in the center of the floor and an oval plastered and rimmed fireplace east of it. There was also an oval depression in the floor west of the fireplace and a small slab-lined cist outside the house. A slab metate and stemmed dart points were associated with the house and no trace of pot- tery was found. In other areas the Basketmaker II people do not seem to have made pithouses . Slab-lined cists found in caves and rockshelters were the extent of their architectural efforts and appear to fore- shadow the pithouse dwellings of their descendants. An excep- tion is the discovery of Earl Morris near Durango, Colorado. There he identified 48 house floors located in two rockshelters and on the talus slope of one shelter as belonging to the Basketmaker II period. The floors were large slightly sunken depressions, oval in outline, plastered with clay. The walls of horizontal wood and mud masonry slanted inward to meet the domed, cribbed roof. Morris postulates that these houses had side entrances and smoke holes in the roof. Cists and warming pits were found in the floors (Morris 1954). 13 Architecture of the Muddy River Phase Houses 101, 105, 106, and 117 seem to belong to the Basket- maker III Phase. These sites were small clusters of randomly placed, round pithouses containing sherds of Boulder Gray or Moapa Brown pottery or both. House 101 had four pithouses, House 105 only one. House 106 had five, and House 117 had at least four and possibly more that were not excavated. The pithouses ranged from five feet nine inches to 15 feet four inches in diameter. House 101 had both the smallest and largest pithouses. These houses were from six inches to five feet deep. All the floors were made of adobe plaster, except two floors in House 106 and one floor in House 117 which were hard packed earth. Another pithouse in House 117 had a floor which is de- scribed as being made of "earth and stone." Four of the pit- houses in House 106 had adobe plastered walls. The walls of the rest of the house were simply the unaltered pit edge. About half the pithouses in each group had fireplaces. These were bowl shaped depressions plastered with adobe. One fireplace in HouselOl was made of "adobe and stone." This oneandanother adobe plastered fireplace in House 101 was situated against the wall. The rest were placed somewhat off center. In House 117 a single posthole was found in the center of one pithouse while anotherpithouse in the same sitehad five postholes set at equal distances from one another flush with the wall. A quantity of charred mesquite and willow poles was found on the floor of this pithouse. There was a round storage bin associated with the pithouses of House 101. It was round, three feet six inches in diameter, semi- subterranean, and plastered on the floor and walls with adobe. In 1929 Harrington led a party from the Southwest Museum on a thorough survey of both sides of the Lower Moapa Valley, from the Narrows down to the junction of the Muddy and Virgin rivers. They inspected 71 archaeological sites (PI. 26), pithouses, Pueblo surface structures and Paiute campsites. Some of these sites were later visited and renumbered by one or another of the field parties working in the Lost City area. It is difficult to sort these sites out. However, it appears that some of the Lower Moapa Valley sites have been described elsewhere in the field notes under a different number. Of these sites described only in Har- rington's unpublished Lower Moapa Valley Survey notes, five are clusters of pithouses resembling those described above. LMV (Lower Moapa Valley) 4 (for a description of site 4 see Harrington 195 3a) ,5, 6, 10, and 16, are located on gravel benches or points on the eastern edge of the Moapa Valley north of Overton, Nevada (PI. 25). Theseare all groups of pithouses, depressions of round or oval shape. They are large, 15 to 20 feet in diameter. On site LMV 10 no sherds could be found . Only one plain sherd each was found at LMV 4 and LMV 16. Potsherds were found at LMV 5 but were not described. On the west side of the valley about a half mile north of Over- ton, on a low bench were LMV 1 and 7 . These consisted of several bare places in the ground and one pithouse 12 feet in diameter. Pueblo sherds were found on the surface. Anotherpithouse is assigned to the Muddy River Phase . House 82 (Harrington 1953b: Fig. 4: 141) was on the east side of the Muddy in the clustering of houses located on gravel points north of the Main Ridge (PI. 25). It stood on the 1192 foot contour line. This round, deep pithouse containing an encircling bench had a diameter of 13 feet and the pit within the bench was seven feet seven inches in diameter. The bench was six inches above the floor of the pit and was in turn four feet below the present surface. The walls and bench were the natural walls of the pit plastered over with adobe, one foot two inches above the floor. Small willow sticks set into the plaster helped to strengthen the wall; one slab was set horizontally into the wall plaster 16 inches above the bench. A bowl-shaped rimless fireplace 14 inches in diameterand six inches deep was located just north of thecenter of the floor. The adobe bench was divided into four sections or beds by ridges of adobe five inches high and seven inches wide which ran from the pit edge back to the wall . Where the ridge met the pit, upright posts three to four inches in diameter were set into the bench. These four posts held up a square frame on which the crib work roof of overlapping mesquite limbs three inches in diameter was laid. An opening about four feet across was left in the center. Poles were laid from the pit edge to the square and then were crossed by willows . No pottery from this house could be found in the collections. In Zion Canyon Schroeder reported a similar pithouse which contained Basketmaker III pottery. He describes this house as follows: "A circular pithouse, with a floor about three and one-half feet below the surface contained a complete encircling bench which was faced with vertical slabs; evidence of six roof sup- ports embedded in transverse clay ridges on the bench; a pot rest on the bench; a probable lateral entry on the south side; a rimmed firepit south of the center of the floor; a slab-lined vault north of the center of the floor, and walls of horizontal twigs lashed on vertical poles, all of which was plastered over." (Schroeder 1955: 11). In Cottonwood Canyon nearKanab, Utah, Judd found a similar pithouse but there are none reported from anywhere else in Basket- maker III times. The Basketmaker III dwelling throughout the Anasazi was an irregularcircularpithouse made of jacal, with a flat roof. There was a smoke hole hatchway in the roof and a lateral entrance. The floor was generally divided by partitions into distinct areas (Morris 19 39). This last trait was not reported from Lost City. In the Kayenta area round pithouses were built. Some of these had a bench. The roofs rested on four posts. There was a cen- tral firepit and usually a ventilator. Some pithouses had a long entranceand an antichamber (Kidder and Guernsey 1919). These houses were considerably more elaborate than the pithouses at Lost City . Circular pithouses containing Basketmaker III pottery types suchas Boulder Black-on- gray. Lino Black-on- gray, andLogan- dale Gray, have been found located in sites with other structures having later sherds. Some of these may indicate Muddy River Phase occupancy of long-lived sites. Architecture of the Lost City Phase The architectural remains of this phase were found to be as- sociated with pottery ranging in time from Basketmaker III into Pueblo II. The sites exhibit an astonishing diversity. Clusters of pithouses are found, rows of surface houses, and sites with both pit and surface houses. Though the pottery collections are incomplete, it seems that in each of these sites sherds from Basketmaker III through Pueblo II were mixed together. Unfortunately many sherds have been misplaced through the years so that no sherds at all could be found for many sites where the field notes recorded their presence. The provenience of the sherds is most often given as House so and so, "general digging," so that the sherds cannot be correlated with specific architectural features. Or, conversely, when the sherd collections from a site seem to be complete and exact provenience is given, no description of the site can be found in the field notes. It can- not be assumed, either, that collections of sherds for particular houses are complete. Frequently the field notes state that plain, decorated (presumably painted), and corrugated sherds were found, while only plain sherds could be found in the collections . The field notes do not help to identify the sherds. There they 14 are listed merelyas plain, decorated, or corrugated, or just "pot- sherds". For these reasons the pottery cannot be used to estab- lish sub-periods of architectural development within the long Lost City phase. Pithouses of the Lost City Phase Most of the pithouses were more or less circular in form. They ranged from round houses, through those of oval form, to almost rectangular houses, whose comers were, however, always round- ed. Two "D" shaped or half circle pithouses were also exca- vated. The houses ranged in size from five or six feet to over 25 feet across. Some were as much as three feet deep while others were dug only a few inches into the ground. The floors were hard packed earth or made of adobe plaster. A few were constructed of sandstone slabs fitted together and plastered over with adobe. Near the center of about a quarter of the pithouses was found a circular bowl-shaped fireplace. These were adobe plastered and frequently had adobe rims about two inches high. The walls below ground level were the unaltered pit edge, or made of adobe plaster. In a few houses sandstone slabs set on edge lined the interior of the pit. In most cases the walls above ground level have completely eroded away. However, walls com- posed of adobe layers pressed into the proper shape and built up upon one another like the coils of a pot have been found . Some walls were built of these adobe layers strengthened by the ad- dition of boulders inserted at random . An unusual sort of wattle and daub wall was also found. This was made of interwoven poles of mesquite or screwbean and bunches of willow sticks all smeared over with adobe. Frequently stones were also in- corporated into these walls. Quite possibly brush superstructures may have covered some of the pits whose walls have now com- pletely disappeared. Occasional finds of charred beams of mes- quite, willow sticks, and rushes found within the rooms suggest thatat least some ofthe houses may have been roofedas follows: beams of mesquite were overlaid at right angles with smaller poles and sticks and then with rushes. Grass was laid over the rushes and a final covering of adobe or earth was made over the roof, (PI. 32, .a). Entrance into the houses must have been through the roof in some cases because hatch covers, flat stone slabs worked around the edges, have been found in some of the rooms (PI. 32, b) . In other pithouses lateral entrances through the walls may have been used. The above ground walls ofthehouses, where they remain at all, are only a few inches high and no trace of a doorway with a high threshhold could have been preserved. The pithouses occur singly or in clusters of from four to 41 houses which seem to represent small villages . The few sketch maps found among the notes of the various Lost City expeditions of these pithouse groups indicate that the houses were scattered at random widely separated from each other and interspersed with small storage bins. The latter resemble the pithouses ex- cept for their small diameter which ranges between two and four feet. Pithouses were also found incorporated into groups of sur- face houses. Isolated pithouses or clusters of them occurred along both sides of the Lower Moapa Valley from the junction of the Muddy and Virgin rivers to the Narrows of the Muddy (and also in the Upper Moapa Valley, see above). They were located on mesa tops, river gravel knolls, and ridges raised above the valley plain (PI. 25). Surface Houses of the Lost City Phase Evidently villages of surface houses evolved locally from the pithouses and were used contemporaneously with them. Har- rington reports that in some sites: "... the pits (houses) were arranged in a row, side by side, with a little space between" (Harrington 1927b). No such plan was found among the exca- vation notes to which I had access. In any event rows of con- tiguous surface rooms could have easily developed from rows of almost touching pithouses. Many of the "surface" dwellings were actually sunk an inch or so into the ground, suggesting their development from a pithouse. In somecases thelongwalls of the rectangular rooms bulge out slightly betraying a formerly popular oval form (Harrington 1927b, PI. XXXVI, A). The rec- tangular room was, however, the most frequently found in sur- face structures. There is no indication that any of the surface houses were more than one story high. Plate 27, _a, shows how the surface dwellings looked before excavation, and b, the amount of overburden that covered House 87 . Thirty-three of these house sites had contiguous surface rooms arranged in a semi-circle around a plaza which opened to the south. The lines of rooms varied from a slightly curved line as with House 2 and House 16 (Pis. 28; 29, a) to a horseshoe form like House 38 (PI. 29, b) . The larger sites were composed of several curving lines of rooms arranged around two or more plazas , like House 47 (PI. 30). Six houses had contiguous rooms ar- ranged in a straight line; House 114 is an example (PI. 29, _c). Five houses had surface rooms jammed together in a haphazard fashion with no discernible pattern, such as Houses 114 and 4 (PI. 29, _c). This lack of plan may be due to incomplete exca- vation or to erosion of some of the rooms. There were six single- roomed surface houses located on the main ridge among the multi-roomed surface houses (PI. 27). It cannot be determined whetherthese were self-contained units or detached parts of the multi- roomed dwellings. The rooms in a line are generally rectangular in shape, like House 47 (PI. 31, a). These ranged in size from four to 15 feet in length by three to 12 feet in width. Some of them were, how- ever, of a more oval form, and even completely round structures were incorporated into the line, generally at the end like House 5 (PI. 29, .d) . Some small rooms seemed to have been used for storage while others usually larger and with fireplaces, metates, pieces of cooking pots, animal and vegetable remains, were probably lived in. These surface houses usually had from about eight to 30 rooms. House 47 (Pis. 30; 34, a) seems to have had over 100 rooms, however, they were not all lived in at the same time as some rows were built over other abandoned rows of rooms . The sur- face houses like the pithouses, occurred along both sides of the Lower Moapa Valley and in the Upper Moapa Valley. They were located on mesa tops, ridges, and knolls, as were the pithouses . In addition a few stood on the floor of the valley itself. All locally used types of masonry were employed in construct- ing the walls of these houses. Some were wattle and daub; some were layers of adobe mud like those of House 46 (PI. 31, _b; Harrington 1 9 5 3a , Fig. 3: 206). Most frequently they were com- posed of layers of adobe with irregularly shaped boulders in- serted into the masses of adobe at random, like that shown at House 47, (PI. 33, a-.b) . The only care taken in arranging the boulders was to turn them so the flat side (if there was one) lay flush with the interior side of the wall. There were a few cases of sundried loaf- shaped adobe bricks inserted at random into the walls among the rocks. There were also walls which were made of alternate courses of adobe and rocks, as shown for House 47, room 7 (PI. 33, b; Harrington 1953a, Fig. 4: 206). One site (House 2; PI. 28) had walls made of alternate courses of rocks and adobe bricks. Every kind of wall was found occasionally with an interior baseboard of sandstone slabs set vertically into adobe as at House 1 (PI. 35, a). There was one case of a wall base con- structed of two parallel rows of vertical sandstone slabs filled with an adobe core. Adobe plaster was frequently seen on the interior side of all types of walls and rarely on the exterior. Post holes are mentioned only rarely in the field notes. When they were present they were found in the center of the room. 15 They occurred with both wattle and daub and rock and adobe walls. All varietiesof walls occurred together in the samelineof rooms. Wattle and daub rooms were usually (but not always) oval in shape. Other than this there seems to be no correlation between the shape of the room and the type of wall construction. The floors of the contiguous rooms usually rested on the sur- face, but some were sunken from one to six inches into the ground . These sunken rooms did not differ in any detail (other than this one) from the completely above ground surface rooms. Floors were most frequently made of adobe plaster laid over the ground. Floors of adobe plaster laid over a gravel base like House 27, room A (PI. 36, b), or over sandstone slabs, floors with cobbles inserted at random into the adobe, sandstone slab floors without plaster, and simple hard packed earth floors also occur. There is no correlation between types of wall and floor construction. Any one floor type can occur with all wall types. Any one line of rooms usually had a number of different types of floor and wall construction. In House 46 at least two building levels can be discerned, but each level incorporated all the above mentioned types of floor and wall construction (PI. 32, c) . Judging from occasional finds of charred roofing materials in the rooms, the roofs seem to have been flat, built of beams laid acrossfrom wall to wall. The beams were crossedat rightangles by small poles and sticks, with grass or rushes laid over them. Thena thick adobe plasterwas smeared over all (PI. 32, a). Clay roof fragments showing cane impression were recovered from House 47, and House 72, room 15. Entrance into the rooms was in some cases through the roof; hatch covers were found in surface rooms as well as inpithouses. In a few cases narrow doorways with high threshholds as in room 24, House 47 (PI. 36, a; Harrington 1927b, PI. XXXVI, B; 1953a, Fig. 5: 208) have been found opening into the rooms. Interior doorways between two adjacent rooms were very rare. Fireplaces in the surface rooms were exactly like those in the pithouses. They ranged from about one to two feet in diameter and from two to eight inches deep. They were usually plastered with adobe and very often had an adobe rim two or three inches high (Pis. 32, c; 33, a; Harrington 1927b, PI. XXXVI, A; 1953a, Fig. 6: 209). Rarely sandstone slabs or cobbles were inserted into the adobe plaster as the one in House 47 (PI. 37, a.) . Fire- places occurred in about a quarter of the rooms of a site, and were practically always located a short distance from the center of the room. Only very rarely were they in the center. Some were directly adjacent to the wall. Occasionally fires were laid directly on the floor without a prepared pit. A few fireplaces were found in the plazas (PI. 37, a). Probably more of these would have been discovered had the plazas of the houses been completely excavated . Rectangular bins constructed of sandstone slbas set in adobe, or randomly placed rock in adobe, of adobe alone, or wattle and daub were found within rooms touching the room wall which forms the fourth side of the bin (PI. 34, _b) . They were also found in the same position along the exterior walls on the plaza side of the line of rooms . A few comer bins were found in the surface rooms as well as in the pithouses. A quarter circle rim of adobe enclosed the 90 degree angle formed by the intersection of two room walls (Harrington 1953a, Fig. 7: 209). Steward (1933a) found similar corner bins in western Utah but here they were actually deflectors for long shaft ventilators . Some corner bins at Lost City had the remains of fires laid in the bowl . Round semi- subterranean bins like those described for the pithouse groups were found scattered about lines of surface rooms . Located here and there around the line of contiguous rooms were completely detached rooms . These were either surface rooms or pithouses. Both pit and surface detached rooms ranged in shape from rectangles with rounded comers to round structures . All forms ofwall and floor construction were represented in them. Fireplaces, metates, manos, and household debris were found in some but not all of the detached rooms, and in some but not all of the line rooms . Both detached and line rooms with fire- places were found in the same group (PI. 33, a); although the pottery evidence is poor it does not appear that these two types were inhabited at different times. Presumably the people lived in both line and detached pit and surface rooms and used both line and detached rooms for storage. There is a possibility that some of the detached pithouses were kivas, or structures used for ceremonial purposes. Harrington (19 27b: 264) reports finding fragments of painted sandstone slabs in one of these and sug- gests that some of them may have been kivas . However, all the pithouses were so much alike and so like the surface rooms that it seems impossible to distinguish a kiva. Most of the Pueblo architectural remains at Zion Canyon re- semble those of the Lost City Phase. Schroeder (1955) was able to distinguish two periods. At one site, ZNP-5, there was a pithouse partially enclosed on the north by rectangular, slab lined, surface storerooms . The associated pottery was St. George Black-on-gray and Washington Black-on-gray. Schroeder as- signs this site to Early Developmental Pueblo times. At site ZNP-3, a circle of contiguous storerooms and living rooms are grouped around a central plaza. The entrance to the plaza was to the south and near it was found a kiva-like structure. The first use of crude masonry with much mortar and unshaped stones in the immediate area was seen at this- site. This site Schroeder called Middle Developmental Pueblo. Both of these sites fit into the architectural pattern of the Lost City Phase of the Lower Moapa Valley. Possibly the lost field notes and pottery collections prevent us from seeing similar sub-stages at Lost City. Curious blocks of rock and adobe or single sandstone slabs set into the floorvertically formed either steps into the rooms or deflectors. They were about a foot long and six inches to a foot high (PI. 33, a; Harrington 1927b, PI. XXXVI, A; 1953a, Fig. 6: 209). These always ocourred between the fireplace and the near- est wall. But most of them occurred in rooms without a fire- place, and some of them were so situated that they touched the wall. Moreover, one was found with the top surface badly worn as though from being stepped on. These circumstances led Har- rington (1927b) tosuspect that they were not deflectors but steps down into slightly sunken rooms from a lateral doorway. How- ever, not all sunken rooms had these nor did they all occur in sunken rooms. Somewhat similar blocks of adobe and rock or sandstone were also found close to the exterior side of walls and sometimes they were contiguous to the wall. Here they per- haps represent bases of buttresses of some sort employed to strengthen the wall . The architecture of the Pueblo I period of the Anasazi varies greatly from one area to another. In general, however, it may be said that crude jacal houses were found arranged in a crescent shape. Pithouses continued to be used and are found associated with rows of surface rooms. Crude masonry was used here and there as well as jacal. In the Kayenta area during Pueblo I, pithouses, often slab- lined and equipped with fire and ash pit, ventilator and deflector partitions, though rare, are found. Associated with these pit- houses were found contiguous rectangular surface rooms built of slab and adobe, stone and adobe, and also jacal. One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Lost City Phase remains is the size of the pueblos. It would seem that the inhabitants of the Moapa Valley took early advantage of the rich river bottom agricultural lands . Most of the houses in the 16 valley belong to the Lost City Phase. This was the period of the largest population in this area, and the peak of cultural develop- ment. The architecture shows a mingling of Basketmaker and early Pueblo characteristics which is echoed in the pottery collections from these houses. These facts seem to indicate a slow drift of new traits into the area from the northeast. While accepting new ideas the people of the Moapa Valley seemed to have clung to the old traditions and simultaneously used old and new forms of houses and pottery. Architecture of the Mesa House Phase This final period of Pueblo occupation of the Lower Moapa Valley does not seem to be represented in the existing field notes. However, the type site of the phase, Mesa House, has been completely excavated and described by Irwin Hayden (Harrington, and others 1930). The architecture does not seem to be different from that of the preceeding phase. The pottery, however, did change with corrugated types replacing plain types and becoming more popular than painted ones. For this reason the phase has been placed very early in the Pueblo III period. Houses, 47, 50, 89, 90, and 91 all had Citadel Polychrome sherds, an early Pueblo III type from the Kayenta. The Museum Site had some Virgin Black-on- white sherds, an early Pueblo III type from the Upper Virgin drainage. These houses have the same architectural features as the Lost City Phase houses. They seem to have been built in the Lost City Phase and to have continued to be occupied after other houses had been deserted. Harrington (MS) says that during this phase the population of the valley declined; only a few houses continued to be occupied, especially in places of easy defense. In Zion as well as along the Muddy River the architectural characteristics of the preceeding phase, persist into late Pueblo II and early Pueblo III occupation. The Pueblo occupation of the Northern Periphery also seems to come to an end. 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O CD „_, (0 O a 1-1 Q) o c fl) MH 0) o T3 C 2 a ■ " .5 £ o xi 3.2 m w o w o o oS a. re a 2 c c O "p c c c a> g ® to CO CO CO D ■O (0 aj cd w cd cd 3 ja xi t; x> xi CD CD CD CD g xi -Q ■o -° ■* - " O O " fO O p-i a o S, 6 S C CO aH^0^6S?^fccoffl aw w 3 P -Q £: xi ^ +-* O S.S-So§.t;g58S3 O a. cq co cd a. 10 Im >. •a c CO > o C o CI) O o o 10 o J3 o 1o Q ffi 21 CHAPTER 5 LOST CITY POTTERY All the pottery types found at Lost City have already been de- scribed in various publications (Baldwin 1 9 5 Oa,-Colton 1952; Rudy and Stirland 1950; Schroeder 1955). A few sherds were found in the collections that could not be identified but these were too small in number to warrant setting up new types to describe them. They may be aberrant examples of known types. Most of the pot- tery has no provenience other than house (site) number. Occa- sionally a room designation is given, however, in no case is it stated in the notes whether the sherds were found on the floor or in the fill of the room. I was able to find pottery in the collections for 5 3 of the 123 houses in the Lost City area. Only a few pit- houses were definitely lacking ceramic remains, so pottery col- lections from about half of the houses have been lost during the years since they were excavated. In addition most of the pot- tery samples are incomplete, sherds having been lost or mis- placed. In most cases where a good collection of sherds from a house was located, the notes describing the house and its archi- tecture were lost. Conversely, some houses were well described but no sherds which could be attributed to them could be found although the excavation notes reported that potsherds had been found. With all these gaps in the collections and in the notes it was extremely difficult to use the pottery to arrange the sites and different styles of architecture chronologically. What inter- pretations have been made are necessarily inconclusive in most cases. The ceramic remains from the Lost City area are listed here under the number of the house in which they were found . Where a representative number of sherds for a house were found they are presented by type name, number, and location in Tables. Where the sherds found in the collections for a house are very few in number, the list of pottery types is presented in para- graph form. Whole pottery vessels are listed with the sherds from the house where they were found. Description of the various pottery types will be found in the published reports referred to above . House 69 Room 1: Washington Gray 2. Plaza: NorthCreek Black-on-gray 4, Boulder Black-on-gray 4, Medicine Black-on-red 1, Tusayan Black-on-red 1, Hurricane Black-on-gray 1, Washington Gray 7, Southern Paiute Brown Ware 4. House 70 No location: Moapa Black-on-gray 1, Washington Gray 5 , North Creek Gray 1 , Moapa Gray 1 . House 78 Room on hilltop: North Creek Black-on-gray 6, Moapa Black-on-gray 7, St. George Black-on-gray 3, Tusayan Black-on-red 29, Washington Gray 1. Ash Dump: Washington Gray 2, North Creek Gray jar, ht. 9 1/4", wd. 3 1/2". No location: North Creek Black-on-gray 24, Moapa Black-on-gray 31, St. George Black-on- gray 26, Tusayan Black-on-red 6, Washington Cor- rugated 14, Washington Gray 1, North Creek Gray 30, Pyramid Gray 3. House 79 Room 4: North Creek Corrugated jar, ht. 10 3/4", wd. 7 1/2". Plaza: Washington Black-on-gray 1, Wash- ington Gray 8, North Creek Gray 4, Moapa Gray 2, Southern Paiute Brown Ware 1. No location: North Creek Black-on-gray 6, Moapa Black-on-gray 2, St. George Black-on-gray 3, Medicine Black-on-red 2, Washington Corrugated 21, North Creek Corrugated 1, Washington Gray 56, NorthCreek Gray 4, Moapa Gray 1 , Boulder Gray I , Southern Paiute Brown Ware I . House 83 Room 1: St. George Black-on-gray 2, Washington Corrugated I, Washington Gray 1. No location: North Creek Black-on-gray 1, Washington Gray 1, Aquarius Orange I. House 84 Room 22: Toy bowl, unfired. House 85 Room 1: North Creek Corrugated 2, Washington Gray 1 , North Creek Gray 1 , Boulder Gray 2 . House 85A Room 2: Washington Gray 2. House 86 Room 1: North Creek Black-on-gray 3, Moapa Black- on-gray 5, St. George Black-on-gray 2, Washington Gray 3. House 90 Room 2: Moapa Black-on-gray 1, North Creek Gray 3, Pyramid Gray 1. Plaza: North Creek Black-on- gray 2, St. George Black-on-gray 3, Medicine Black- on- red 2, Washington Gray 7, North Creek Gray I. No location: NorthCreek Black-on-gray 1, St. George Black-on-gray 11, Washington Black-on-gray 3, Cita- del Polychrome 2, Washington Corrugated 2, Wash- ington Gray 2, North Creek Gray 1, Aquarius Orange I. House 91 Room 5: Washington Corrugated 5 . . Room 6: North Creek Black-on-gray 4, Washington Corrugated 2, Washington Gray 1. Room 9: North Creek Black-on- gray 1, Washington Corrugated 2, Boulder Gray 1. Plaza: North Creek Black-on-gray 7, St. George Black- on-gray 30, Trumbull Black-on-gray 2, Washington Black-on-gray 2, Washington Corrugated 9, Wash- ington Gray 5 . No location: North Creek Black-on— gray 1, St. George Black-on-gray 1, Citadel Poly- chrome 2, Washington Corrugated 4, Hurricane Black- on-gray 1, North Creek Fugitive Red 1, Washington Gray 4 , North Creek Gray 1 . House 92 No location: North Creek Black-on-gray 1, Washing- ton Gray 4, Moapa Gray 2. House 95. Room 1: St. George Black-on-gray 1, Washington Gray 8, North Creek Gray 2, Boulder Gray 2. House 96 Room 3: North Creek Black-on-gray 59. Moapa Black-on-gray 1, Moapa Gray 4. Surface: House 97 Room 1: Washington Black-on-gray 1, Washington Gray 1 , North Creek Gray 1 , Boulder Gray 1 . House 98 Room 2: North Creek Gray 1. Room 4: St. George Black-on-gray 2, Washington Black-on-gray 4, Wash- ington Gray 3, Boulder Gray 1. No location: St. George Black-on-gray 1. House 99 Room 1: North Creek Black-on-gray 5, St. George Black-on-gray 18, Washington Gray 3, North Creek Gray 3, Boulder Gray 4, Southern Paiute Brown Ware 1. Room 2: Moapa Brown jug. Room 5: Boulder Gray 2 , Pyramid Gray 2 . House 102 Room 4: Shinarump Brown pot cover. Ash Dump: Boulder Gray pot scraper. No location: North Creek Black-on-gray 4, Moapa Black-on-gray 31, St. George Black-on-gray 38, Washington Black-on-gray 8, Boul- der Black-on-gray 41, Washington Gray II, North Creek Gray 49, Boulder Gray 68, Pyramid Gray 20, Shinarump Brown 8, Boulder Black-on-gray bowl, ht. 22 3 1/2", wd. 9". House 103 No location: Moapa Black-on-gray 2, St. George Black-on-gray 6, Washington Gray 13, Boulder Gray 24, Logandale Gray 1, Shinarump Brown 3. House 105 No location: Boulder Gray 71. House 106 Room 10: Partial Moapa Brown bowl. House 112 Room 1: Pyramid Gray 10. Surface: Moapa Black- on-gray 17, St. George Black-on-gray 2, Washing- ton Black-on-gray 2, Washington Gray 1, Boulder Gray 6 , Moapa Brown 1 . No location: Moapa Black- on-gray 2, Washington Gray 5, North Creek Gray 1, Boulder Gray 22, Pyramid Gray 2. House 113 Room 1: Partial Boulder Black-on-gray bowl. House 115 Room 1: Moapa Black-on-gray 2, St. George Black- on-gray 1, Washington Black-on-gray 1, North Creek Gray 1, Boulder Gray 8, Logandale Gray 1, Pyramid Gray 6, Boulder Gray pot scraper. House 117 Room 3: Boulder Gray 36. Surface: Boulder Gray 25. No location: Moapa Brown 46. House 120 No location: North Creek Black-on-gray 10, Moapa Black-on-gray 4, Medicine Black-on-red 2, Tusayan Black-on-red 3, Washington Gray 2, Moapa Gray 1, BoulderGray 2, Pyramid Gray 71, North Creek Black- on-gray pot scraper, Boulder Black-on- gray pot scra- per, Washington Gray pot scraper. House 121 Room 6: Moapa Black-on-gray 3, Washington Cor- rugated 10, Washington Gray 1, North Creek Gray 1. Room 8: Washington Corrugated 7, Washington Gray 4, North Creek Gray 2, Partial St. George Black-on- gray bowl. Partial Washington Gray bowl. Museum Site Room 2: Virgin Black-on-white 1 , Washington Cor- rugated 65, PariaGray 62. Room 3: Washington Cor- rugated 9. Room 4: St. George Black-on-gray 8, Tusayan Black-on-red 1, Washington Corrugated 2. Room 5: Washington Corrugated 1 . Room 6-7: Wash- ington Black-on-gray 1. Room 7: St. George Black- on-gray 1. Room 6-8: Virgin Black-on-white 4, Washington Black-on-gray 2. Plaza: Virgin Black- on- white 5, Plain Gray Type I, 1. No location: Wash- ington Black-on-gray 1, Washington Gray 4, Boulder Gray 1 . Gentry Ranch Ruin, House 2: North Creek Black-on-gray 1 , Moapa Black-on-gray 4, St. George Black-on-gray 1, North Creek Gray 2 , Moapa Gray 1 , Pyramid Gray 1 , South- ern Paiute Brown Ware 2. TABLE 9 HOUSE 47 Pottery Types R6 26 30 33 37 39 45 47 49 63 64 65 66 67 69 70 71 74 76 90 sur* pla* ad* no loc North Creek Black-on-gray 4 17 7 37 2 1 1 1 6 33 2 1 1 7 115 6 133 Moapa Black-on-gray 1 1 1 4 1 1 11 23 St. George Black-on-gray 2 6 2 10 4 1 1 1 4 2 69 5 117 Trumball Black-on- gray 2 1 Washington Black-on-gray 1 1 1 1 7 24 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 1 3 1 Lino Black-on-gray 1 Deadman's Black-on-gray 1 Medicine Black-on-red 1 1 6 23 Tusayan Black-on-red 1 1 1 4 2 4 18 16 Citadel Polychrome 2 Washington Corrugated 3 85 24 21 30 2 2 4 5 10 120 13 206 Moapa Corrugated 1 1 1 1 North Creek Corrugated 1 1 1 22 Hurricane Black-on-gray 1 1 1 2 5 3 1 23 5 43 North Creek Fugitive Red 2 5 Washington Gray 4 1 3 4 5 3 1 1 3 12 11 23 5 3 4 71 4 124 North Creek Gray 4 3 3 14 23 1 39 Moapa Gray 1 2 1 1 Boulder Gray 1 1 1 1 8 Pyramid Gray 2 1 2 4 Aquarius Orange 4 Southern Paiute Brown Plain 2 4 2 5 Washington Gray jar, bumed cob inside, R30, ht. 3", wd Washington Black- on- gray bowl, R66, ht. 4 3/4", wd. 9" Washington Gray jar, Plaza, ht. 5", wd. of orifice 3 3/4' Tusayan Black-on-red bowl, no location, ht. 4 1/2", wd. Boulder Black-on-gray bowl, R18 Hurricane Black-on-gray bowl, R33 Paiute bowl, R62 North Creek Corrugated jar, R18 North Creek Corrugated jar frag., R59 Boulder Gray jar frag. Washington Corrugated jar frag., R46 Pyramid Gray bowl, R15 of orifice 1 1/2" 8 1/2" * abbreviations: sur - surface pla - plaza ad - ash dump no loc - no location 23 TABLE 10 HOUSE 50 Pottery Types Rl North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray 1 St. George Black-on-gray 5 Washington Black-on-gray 1 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 Medicine Black-on-red Tusayan Black-on-red Citadel Polychrome Washington Corrugated 1 Moapa Corrugated Hurricane Black-on-gray North Creek Corrugated Washington Gray 5 North Creek Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray 3 Pyramid Gray Shinarump Brown Aquarius Orange Aquarius Black- on- gray Southern Paiute Brown Moapa Black-on-gray handle fragment Boulder Black-on-gray bowl, R27 Washington Corrugated jar, ash dump Washington Corrugated jar, ash dump Washington Corrugated jar, ash dump North Creek Gray bowl, ash dump Aquarius Brown pot scraper, ash dump 9A 11 13 3 11 7 4 24 15 16 15 20 21 11 25 ad no lo 3 i 7 3 53 92 1 1 14 56 1 l 2 1 1 1 111 21 145 2 3 1 2 2 39 1 9 20 9 2 1 l 9 1 75 22 2 142 10 1 2 83 30 2 149 41 1 1 25 10 1 1 2 20 20 1 1 TABLE 11 . TABLE 12 HOUSE 68 HOUSE 71 Pottery Types M R3 pla sur no loc Pottery Types R3 R4 R5 North Creek Black-on-gray 4 6 14 1 5 North Creek Black-on-gray 5 1 1 Moapa Black-on-gray 5 1 2 6 Moapa Black-on-gray 5 St. George Black-on- gray 2 3 5 2 2 St. George Black-on-gray 6 1 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 Washington Black-on-gray 1 Medicine Black-on- red 2 4 1 Medicine Black-on-red 4 1 9 Tusayan Black-on-red 1 Hurricane Black-on-gray 1 Washington Corrugated 1 2 12 12 20 Washington Gray 2 1 Washington Gray 237 6 13 3 North Creek Gray 1 2 North Creek Gray 2 4 6 5 3 Moapa Gray 2 Moapa Gray 4 1 1 Boulder Gray 1 1 Boulder Gray 1 1 Southern Paiute Brown 1 Pyramid Gray 1 Aquarius Orange 1 Washington Gray bowl, between Rs 1 and 2 Southern Paiute Brown 3 St. George Black-on- gray bowl, R3 24 TABLE 13 HOUSE 7 2 Pottery Types EL 2 4 5. 5-10 7 9 13 15 16 17 22 25 76-77 sur pla ad no loc North Creek Black-on-gray 3 2 2 4 2 2 2 13 3 8 Moapa Black-on-gray 7 11 1 1 10 2 1 2 1 1 24 8 21 St. George Black-on-gray I 6 1 2 I 3 1 3 13 2 10 Washington Black-on-gray 1 1 1 2 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 1 1 11 2 Medicine Black-on- red 5 2 3 1 1 2 14 1 10 Tusayan Black-on- red 5 Middleton Black-on-red 1 North Creek Fugitive Red 1 Deadman's Fugitive Red 5 3 5 1 2 Washington Corrugated 98 Washington Gray 25 4 1 14 5 4 3 3 10 3 3 58 10 38 North Creek Gray 6 5 3 2 5 3 1 1 418 5 6 Moapa Gray 8 1 1 6 1 8 5 4 13 9 7 Boulder Gray 2 2 2 1 1 7 2 Pyramid Gray 2 36 Shinarump Brown 1 1 Southern Paiute Brown 1 1 2 1 small unfired clay dish, plaza Pyramid Gray jar, no location North Creek Gray jar, no location Pottery Types Rl R2 North Creek Black-on-gray 6 Moapa Black-on-gray 4 St. George Black-on-gray 5 Washington Black-on-gray Deadman's Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on-red 2 Washington Gray 1 North Creek Gray 2 Moapa Gray Boulder Gray TABLE 14 HOUSE 7 3 R3 R4 R5 2 1 1 1 R7 pla no loc 2 4 20 134 4 76 1 1 9 57 5 33 1 34 small unfired clay bowl, R3 Pottery Types North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on- gray Washington Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on-red Tusayan Black-on- red Hurricane Black-on-gray Boulder Fugitive Red Washington Gray North Creek Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Pyramid Gray R2 R3 R4 TABLE 15 HOUSE 74 R4 between Rs 5-6 Rf 2 9 2 2 12 5 8 1 1 1 2 3 5 10 R24 R64 pla no loc 3 1 1 3 1 3 1 5 1 1 1 1 3 6 6 1 6 5 1 5 25 TABLE 16 HOUSE 75 Pottery Types Rl North Creek Black-on-gray 3 Moapa Black-on-gray 3 St. George Black-on- gray 3 Trumball Black-on- gray Washington Black-on-gray 2 Boulder Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on-red 1 1 Tusayan Black-on-red Middleton Black-on-red Washington Corrugated Hurricane Black-on-gray Moapa Corrugated North Creek Corrugated Washington Gray 13 8 North Creek Gray 35 Moapa Gray 1 Boulder Gray 34 Pyramid Gray Shinarump Brown 1 Moapa Brown Southern Paiute Brown 2 1 R2 R4 R7 R8 RIO R13 pla no loc TABLE 17 HOUSE 77 3 79 7 3 7 1 1 1 1 1 14 7 I 3 1 2 3 1 1 3 3 7 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 9 29 8 18 41 50 9 1 9 1 1 4 18 7 3 4 2 7 2 2 2 TABLE 5 18 7 1 HOUSE 80 Pottery Types North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on-gray Washington Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on-red Tusayan Black-on-red Washington Corrugated Moapa Corrugated Washington Gray North Creek Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Shinarump Brown Southern Paiute Brown Rl R3 R9 pla no loc 1 13 10 10 1 1 6 1 1 1 19 52 22 21 2 37 2 2 1 29 6 Pottery Types North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on- red Tusayan Black-on- red Washington Corrugated Hurricane Black-on- gray Moapa Corrugated North Creek Corrugated Washington Gray North Creek Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Pyramid Gray Shinarump Brown Rl R2 R3 R4 R8 _pja_ no loc 1 11 1 2 6 27 72 1 1 2 6 1 7 22 42 2 2 2 4 3 1 6 39 2 5 34 69 107 3 13 3 2 33 3 3 17 77 124 3 3 5 25 9 3 21 1 10 TABLE 19 HOUSE 81 TABLE 20 HOUSE 87 Pottery Types Rl R2 R6 and 7 North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray 1 St. George Black-on- gray Washington Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on-red Tusayan Black- on- red 1 Washington Corrugated 5 4 8 North Creek Corrugated 4 2 1 Washington Gray 11 1 North Creek Gray 1 Aquarius Orange Aquarius Black-on-gray Southern Paiute Brown no loc Pottery Types Rl 9 9 11 3 2 1 North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on- gray Washington Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Tusayan Black-on- red Washington Corrugated North Creek Corrugated Deadman's Fugitive Red Washington Gray North Creek Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Shinarump Brown Southern Paiute Brown R10 1 1 1 pla 15 24 1 5 6 8 5 1 21 no loc 3 1 16 4 2 1 26 TABLE 22 HOUSE 89 Pottery Types North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on- gray Trumball Black-on-gray Washington Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on-red Tusayan Black-on- red Middleton Black-on-red Citadel Polychrome Washington Corrugated Hurricane Black-on-gray North Creek Corrugated North Creek Fugitive Red Washington Gray North Greek Gray Deadman's Gray Pyramid Gray Aquarius Orange Aquarius Black-on-gray Aquarius Black-on-orange Aquarius Brown Southern Paiute Brown £2111110IiI2I3IiilIZ18iil01i2214_2813J516114245 _sur Dla ad no loc 7 2 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 2 1 10 1 14 I 3 11 1 1 I 7 5 10 1 13 1 1 3 17 2 3 111 6 3 3 1 1115 9 4 2 1 3 6 5 5 4 6 7 11 1 1 14 2 15 1 4 2 2 109 8 106 6 1 10 3 110 1 21 57 13 4 1 27 3 8 1 4 6 190 31 168 5 6 2 1 6 92 24 64 8 5 10 1 1 2 1 1 2 4 1 1 Southern Paiute Corrugated jar, Rll North Creek Black-on-gray bowl, R12 Washington Corrugated jar, R20 TABLE 21 HOUSE 88 TABLE 23 HOUSE 94 Pottery Types R2 Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on-gray Tusayan Black-on-red Washington Corrugated Washington Gray North Creek Gray Boulder Gray 1 Aquarius Brown Washington Corrugated jar, plaza R3 TABLE 24 HOUSE 119 Pottery Types North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray Washington Corrugated Washington Gray North Creek Gray Boulder Gray Shinarump Brown Southern Paiute Brown Rl 37 R3 R4 £ha_ 5 1 1 5 131 12 2 1 1 Pottery Types Rl R4 1 11 52 80 7 2 7 R5 R7 44 32 44 North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on-gray Washington Black-on-gray 1 Boulder Black-on-gray Lino Black-on-gray Medicine Black-on- red Tusayan Black-on- red Washington Corrugated Hurricane Black-on-gray North Creek Corrugated Moapa Corrugated Washington Gray North Creek Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Pyramid Gray Southern Paiute Brown top of Pyramid Gray jar, R3 Pyramid Gray jar R2 2 3 3 R4 2 no loc 3 3 93 89 1 3 124 5 159 23 1 27 Boulder Black-on-gray is the earliest painted pottery found in the Muddy-Virgin river area . Its decorative style is similar to Lino Black-on-gray of the Four Comers region. It is a locally made Basketmaker III type. Schroeder (1955) does not report find- ing any of it in the Zion sites. A few pithouse sites have Boulder Black-on-gray associated only with sherds of other pottery made in Basketmaker III times. Though it was made early its manufacture seems to have lasted into early Pueblo times since Boulder Black- on-gray sherds are found associated with Pueblo I and II sherds in many of the Lost City houses. Though in some cases this association may indicate the long occupation of a house in other cases it is found in small houses with a scanty refuse deposit which shows a short occupation and contemporaneity of manufacture of Basketmaker III and Pueblo II pottery types. Plates 42; 43, _a; and 47, c illustrate Boulder Black-on-gray pottery. Washington Black-on-gray occurs in small numbers at most of the Lost City sites. Together with Washington Gray it represents the meager ceramic evidence of Pueblo I in this area. Schroeder (1955) reports Washington Black-on-gray from Zlon National Park indicating its wide distribution through the Virgin drainage. Its styleof decoration is again similar to Lino Black-on-gray. Plates 41 and 49 illustrate the decoration and bowl form of Washington Black-on-gray. St. George Black-on-gray is the most numerous painted pot- tery type locally made in the Lost City area, and the diagnostic Pueblo II type. Plate 38 illustrates the variation in design style. The designs resemble Black Mesa Black-on-white, the Kayenta Pueblo II index type. There is some variation of the wide lines and chevrons with occasional pendant dots of St. George Black- on-gray. In the final analysis the quartz temperwas the criterion for distinguishing the type. Plates 46, a^e, and 50, a^ illustrate St. George Black-on-gray bowls. Schroeder (1955) reports that St. George Black-on-gray is a common type at Zion sites. Here Schroeder thinks that the designs are transitional, changing to the Sosi-Dogoszhi style of North Creek Black-on-gray. Moapa Black-on-gray is a locally made type which Colton (195 3) dates as Pueblo II to Pueblo III. Design elements are the Sosi- Dogoszhi styles of the Kayenta area, as shown in Plates 39; 43, _c; 47, ^-j); and 48. No Moapa Black-on-gray sherds were reported from Zion National Park (Schroeder 1955). North Creek Black-on-gray is another common type dated by Colton (1952) as Pueblo II to Pueblo III. It has a Sosi-Dogoszhi style of decoration. Plates 40 and 47, d illustrate the design elements. Schroeder (1955) found North Creek Black-on-gray occurring rather commonly at the late Zion sites. Trumball Black-on-gray and Hurricane Black-on-gray are local Pueblo II types found to a limited extent at Lost City sites . Plain gray pottery was the dominant utility ware from Basket- maker III to late Pueblo II times when it appears to have been re- placed by corrugated utility wares. Boulder Gray was the pre- dominant plain gray type from Basketmaker III to Pueblo II. It was found in a majority of sites in the Lost City area. A Boulder Gray jar and pitcher are shown in Plate 54,.a-_b. Logandale Gray was a Basketmaker III type found only in the Muddy-Virgin river area. North Creek Gray was made from Basketmaker III to Pueblo n times. A North Creek Gray bowl and jar are pictured in Plate 54,jD-_d. Moapa Gray is reported only from the Muddy River Val- ley, and its chronological associations are not known. Washing- ton Gray, a Pueblo I type is found along the Virgin River as well as the Muddy. Washington Gray jars are illustrated in Plates 52 and 5 3,^. The number and widespread distribution of Pyramid Gray at sites in the Muddy-Virgin river area make it almost cer- tain that this pottery was locally made either by Patayan people living among the Pueblos or by the Pueblo people themselves . A plain gray duck effigy which is probably Pyramid Gray is pictured in Plate 45, £. A few sherds of Moapa Brown, a locally made type were found in the Lost City sites. Its time range could not be determined. Corrugated pottery is present by late Pueblo II times and very soon becomes the dominant utility type. Washington Corrugated is the predominate corrugated type, being widely distributed in the area, and the sherds are found in considerable numbers at some sites. Plates 45, a; 50, b; 51, _a-c, and 53, _b illustrate the style of corrugations for this type and the jar and bowl forms. The corrugations vary and are similar to Tusayan and Moenkopi Corrugated found in the Kayenta area . North Creek Corrugated and Moapa Corrugated appear with Washington Corrugated in late Pueblo II. North Creek and Moapa Corrugated are found at Zion (Schroeder 1955) as well as in the Muddy-Virgin river region. North Creek Corrugated is illustrated in Plates 45 , £-_d, _g_; 51, d and Moapa Corrugated in Plate 45, b. A painted and corrugated type, Hurricane Black-on-gray also appeared in late Pueblo II. It was made all over the Muddy- Virgin river areas, and since it had a short period of production it is a good Pueblo II time indicator. Sherds of this type are shown in Plate 45, _e-f_. A number of intrusive pottery types are reported from the Lost City area. Lino Black-on-gray, a Basketmaker III type from the Four Comers, is represented by a few sherds from two of the ruins and from several rockshelters. Examples of Lino Black-on-gray are shown in Plate 43, _b, d. Sherds of San Juan Red Ware and Tsegi Orange Ware were found widely distributed in the Lost City area, though in small numbers. They are types from the Kayenta Branch of the Anasazi. The first Black- on- red to appear is Deadman's Black-on-red, a Pueblo I type. Pueblo II saw the intrusion of Medicine, Middleton, and Tusayan Black-on-red. Sherds of Medicine Black-on-red are illustrated in Plate 44, .a-.e, and a Tusayan Black-on-red bowl is shown in Plate 46, i_. The only polychrome pottery reported from the Lost City area is Citadel Polychrome. This is an early Pueblo III type . Citadel Polychrome sherds are shown in Plate 44, j_-g_. Virgin Black-on-white is probably intrusive from the UpperVir- gin River. Only a few sherds of this type were found in the Lost City area and most of these came from caves or rockshelters. It dates from Pueblo III times. A Virgin Black-on-white sherd is pictured in Plate 43, e. From the same area and same time are the intrusive types Shinarump Brown and Shinarump Corrugated. Aquarius Orange, Black-on-gray, and Black-on-orange came from the Cerbat and Prescott areas of the Patayan Culture on the east side of the Colorado River. All of these have a very long time range. Two plain gray intrusives were also reported at Lost City. A few sherds of Deadman's Gray represent contact with the Cohonina area near Flagstaff, east of the Colorado. Pyramid Gray is a Lower Colorado River Patayan type. No Snake Valley Gray Ware or Sevier Gray Ware sherds were recorded from the houses of the Lost City area. However these sherds are reported from the caves and rockshelters in the same area. These wares are west central Utah Puebloid pottery. Per- haps the Puebloids from Utah came to trade at the Lost City but camped at the rockshelters rather than in the villages. The sherds wouldthen represent their vessels which they broughtwith them. Whatever goods they were bringing to southern Nevada to trade, pottery does not seem to have been included. The earliest ceramic phase of the occupation of the Lost City region is represented by Boulder Gray, Boulder Black-on-gray, Lino Black-on-gray, Logandale Gray; all of Basketmaker III times. These are found together in pithouses. These sites which do not contain later sherds or surface architecture represent the Muddy 28 River Phase, which is tentatively dated at A.D. 500 to 700. The next phase, the Lost City Phase, sees this Basketmaker pottery continuing to be used along with Pueblo I and II types, such as Washington Gray, Washington Black-on-gray, NorthCreek Gray, North Creek Black-on-gray. The architecture of the sites shows a similar mixture as pithouses and surface dwellings of various construction styles were used contemporaneously in the same sites. Sometime during this phase, whichlasted from A.D. 700 to somewhere near 1100, the plain gray utility ware was re- placed by corrugated types: Washington Corrugated, Moapa Cor- rugated, and North Creek Corrugated. Since due to the gaps in the collections and the notes this change in utility ware cannot be correlated to any other cultural phenomena the long Lost City Phase is not divided, though future excavation in the area may Indicate that it should be. The final phase of the Pueblo history of the area sees the use of corrugated utility ware and the intrusion of some Pueblo III types, notably Citadel Polychrome, Virgin Black-on- white, and Shinarump Brown. This is the Mesa House phase and is repre- sented at a few sites in the Lost City area, especially at Mesa House (Harrington, and others 1930). Southern Paiute Brown ware is found at almost every site in the Lost City area. Although as was pointed out above the ex- cavation notes never state whether sherds come from the fill or the floor of a room, it seems reasonable to assume that at least some of the many Paiute sherds found in the course of excavation must have been deposited while the ruins were in use. If such is the case, the Paiutesmust have been in Southern Nevada since the Lost City phase. The intrusive pottery indicates that throughout the Pueblo oc- cupation of Lost City these people were in contact, probably trading, with the Upper Virgin River, the Kayenta Branch of the Anasazi, and the Patayan to the east of the Colorado River and of the Lower Colorado River. The great quantities of Pyramid Gray indicates an especially close relationship with the Lower Colorado River people. Perhaps it was made locally in the Lost City area. Pottery handles of some Lost City pottery types are shown in Plate 55 . Pottery with Burials There is more information on grave offerings than for any other aspect of the Lost City excavations. The most common grave offerings were whole pottery vessels. Table 25 lists the whole and fragmentary vessles andTable26 the sherds found associated with jurials. One hundred and seventy-nine of the 289 burials found in the Lost City area contained pottery offerings . I was able to find and identify some but not all of the pottery from 66 different burials . Another 84 burials had whole or fragmentary pottery reported in the notes which I was unable to find. The remaining 29 burials had sherds associated with them which could not be located. Except for Burial 159 which had Boulder Black-on-gray, Wash- ington Gray, Washington Black-on-gray, St. George Black-on- gray, Moapa Black-on-gray, and North Creek Black-on- gray, representing a time period from Basketmaker III through PuelboII, the pottery from the burials is unmixed as to time period. This is probably due to the fact that I could not find all of the pottery from each burial. The overlapping of time periods seen in Burial 159 reflects the situation noted in most of the houses where pot- tery from different periods occur together. There are 82 identified vessels from the burials. Of these 18 are Basketmaker III types, or types which persist from Basket- maker III into Pueblo I. Eighteen vessels are Pueblo I types. Twenty-eight are types which last from Pueblo II into Pueblo III times. Seventeen are Pyrmaid Gray vessels, and one is a South- em Paiute Brown Ware jar. Burial 3 had a Southern Paiute Brown Ware jar and a Washing- ton Black-on-gray bowl, a Pueblo I type, buried with it. Here exists the most conclusive evidence of the contemporaneity of the Pueblo and Paiute occupation of southern Nevada. Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherds were reported from Burials 6, 96, and 122. In Burial 6 a Boulder Black-on-gray bowl, a North Creek Gray jar, and a Pyramid Gray bowl were found. In Burial 96 a NorthCreek Gray jar was discovered. In Burial 122 sherds of North Creek Black-on- gray, St. George Black-on-gray, Trumball Black-on- gray, Washington Black-on-gray, Boulder Black-on- gray, and Washington Gray were found with the Paiute sherd. The provenience of all the sherds is given as "in the grave" . It is unclear whether these were actually buried with the corpse or somehow mixed into or intruded into the grave fill . However, the Paiute and Washington Black-on-gray vessels were definitely buried together with the body of a child, flexed in the typically Pueblo position. The relatively great proportion of Pyramid Gray, a Patayan type, in Lost City graves emphasizes the close relationship be- tween its makers and the inhabitants of Lost City. 29 I I ca £ s> a. 5 o a. a) S O a 3 o H lo| "I L< o en XI 0) E Q b fl CD 3 O CQ a. c CO S id 01 CQ c O >. 5 "3 s CQ CO S O id E o c o O c 6 Q) a 6 5 CD ■a o a) CD 6 +J 01 c o 01 _c 5 3 10 c E id "3 € 2 w id id o 2 >. o W CO a. ►J CQ S ? ? o S 30 1 CO on g o £ CQ C o D EH o 1 I 1 5 31 CI U) JQ 0) E £ 3 £ 3 E: 3 CO c 3 o m CL c S o >- CO c 0> 5 s m >. 3 10 o ■a 2 to 6 0) E s 0) •o O u V x; 10 £ c ■a 3 £ S (0 Ol 3 o CO CO £ o ►J o CO O CD o 2 O o += -2 ^ s s « 10 5 10 >. 1 Ol 10 c 1 i-t 1 c Oi o 1 c o 1 o 1 10 O 10 3 o o TABLE 26 POTTERY SHERDS WITH BURIALS Burial Number: 1 U> 94. 96 _98 _113 121 _122 _126 .132 _133 135 _143 160 189 258 Pottery Types : North Creek Black-on-gray 3 5 St. George Black-on-gray 2 2 7 3 2 1 Trumball Black-on-gray 5 1 1 Washington Black-on-gray 4 Boulder Black-on-gray 1 5 3 Washington Corrugated 1 1 Washington Gray 3 3 2 3 1 North Creek Gray 1 Boulder Gray 2 1 Logandale Gray Pyramid Gray 2 11 Shinarump Brown 3 Southern Paiute Brown 1 11 1 1 9 49 1 3 11 21 10 27 30 1 1 3 1 32 CHAPTER 6 DESCRIPTION OF ARTIFACTS A general description of each type and variety of artifact lo- cated in the Lost City collections is given in this chapter. The following abbreviations are used throughout in connection with artifact descriptions: st. for straight; lg. for length; wd. for width; th. for thickness; dia. for diameter. Where more than one type of tool material is given, they are in order of relative abundance, the first listed being the most common. c), and three with no location; House 50, Rooms 8 and 37, two with no location; House 67, Room 6; House 68, Room 1; House 69, Room 1; House 77, Plaza; House 80, no location; House 81, Room 9; House 86, no location; House 89, no lo- cation; House 91, Plaza; House 94, Burial 127; House 102, Room 4, and one with no location; House 109, no location; Museum Site, Room 2; one from a campsite one-fourth mile east of House 105; and one from a campsite 500 feet east of House 117. STONE ARTIFACTS Ground Stone Length: 20.0 - 52.5 cm. Width: 17.5 - 32.5 cm. Thickness: 3.75 -23.0 cm. Materials: Limestone, granite, sandstone. Metates Forty-two fragments of slab metates too small to describe were counted in the collections. The metates in the Lost City collections have been classified into four types: Utah type. Trough type, Slab type, and Basin type. Type specimens are illustrated in Plate 58. Utah Type Roughly rectangular to boat shaped blocks of stone with trough- shaped grinding surface open atone end only; shelf at closed end with slight depression for holding mano (PI. 58, a). Five specimens of this type were located for study. They were House 47, Room 66 (PI. 58, a); House 47, no location; House 72, Room 22; House 80, Ash layer; and one from Lost City, no location. This type is not common at Lost City, and is a western Utah type metate. Basin Type Unshaped blocks of stone generally oval to broadly triangular in outline with oval grinding surface somewhat basin- shaped and frequently extending to one edge of stone (PI. 58, d). Twelve basin type metates were located in the collections. They were from House 50, Burial 132, two with no location; House 64, no location; House 68, no location; House 73, Room 3; House 89, Room 11; House 101, Burial 262; House 102, no location (PI. 58, d); House 106, Room 1; one from a campsite on the west bank of the Virgin River, eight miles south of St. Thomas, Nevada; and one from a campsite one and one- half miles east of St. Thomas, Nevada, on the west bank of the Virgin River. Length: 36.5 - 46.5 cm. Width: 24.25 - 28.75 cm. Thickness: 7.5 - 15.0 cm. Materials: Sandstone, vesicular basalt, granite. Length: 25 .0 - 52.5 cm. Width: 15.0 - 35.0 cm. Thickness: 3.0 -11.25 cm. Materials: Sandstone, granite, limestone, schist. Trough Type Manos Roughly rectangular to boat shaped blocks of stone with trough- shaped grinding surface open at one end only (PI. 58, b). Eleven specimens of this type were studied. They were from House 47, Room 66; House 50, no location; House 72, no lo- cation; House 75, no location; House 87, Plaza (PI. 58, b); House 88, Plaza; House 89, Plaza; House 94, no location; and House 102, no location. One trough metate fragment (PI. 61, b), has a groove pecked around one end. Length: 37.5 -50.0 cm. Width: 22.5 - 25.0 cm. Thickness: 7.5 - 8.5 cm. Materials: Sandstone, granite. The manos have been grouped into seven types. The speci- mens that were located to study undoubtedly represent a very small portion of the thousands of manos that were made and used at Lost City over a period of several hundred years. Type I Breadloaf shape, rectangular and rounded in outline, lentic- ular cross-section, bifacial, one or two-hand; grinding sur- face of two-hand specimens slightly beveled (PI. 59,^, c). Shape of grinding surfaces of two-hand specimens denotes their use with trough and slab metates, while the one-hand variety were most likely used with basin metates. Slab Type Large slab, generally rectangular or oval in outline with flat or slightly concave upper surface, bottom and sides of slab usually unworked; grinding surface usually smooth, sometimes rough from pecking (PI. 58, c). Twenty- six specimens of this type were studied. They were reported from House 47, Room 66, one from the Ash dump, two from the Plaza (PI. 58, Fourteen manos of Type I were studied. They were from: House 50, Ash Dump (PI. 59, .a); four from House 50, no lo- cation; House 67, no location; House 72, no location; House 73, no location; House 75, no location; House 102, no lo- cation; House 117, Room 4; two from Rockshelter No. 9 (PI. 59, c); and one from Boulder Rockshelter. Length: 15.0 - 17.8 cm. 33 Width: 8.75 - 10.0 cm. Thickness: 4.25 - 7.0 cm. Materials: Granite, sandstone, fine-grained basalt, ular basalt. Type II Roughly rectangular in outline, square cross-section, bifacial, two-hand, grind surface slightly convex (PI. 59, e) . Only one specimen of this type was noted in the collections, and it is fragmentary. There is no location except Lost City. Length: 11 .4 cm. Width: 5.8 cm. Thickness: 5.4 cm. Material : Granite . Plaza; House 72, Room 23, Plaza, and one with no location; House 74, two with no location; House 94, Room 4, Burial 127; House 101, Room 4; House 102, Rooms 3, 6, 7A, 10, 11, 25, Burials 144 and 210; House 111, Room 8; House 113, Room 4; House 115, Room 1; two from Rockshelter 1; two from Rockshelter No. 2; Rockshelter No. 3; two from Rockshelter No. 9; three from Boulder Rockshelter, and one from Foot Print Rockshelter. Length: 12.5 - 22.5 cm. Width: 7.0 - 11.25 cm. Thickness: 3.1 - 6.1 cm. Materials: Granite, sandstone, fine-grained basalt, vesic- ular basalt, rhyolite. Type VI Type III Rectangular in outline with rounded ends, rectangular cross- section, bifacial, grinding surfaces convex, one and two- hand. Used with trough and slab metates (PI. 59, _b, d). Nineteen specimens of this type were located for study. They were from: House 47, no location; House 47, Rooms 25 and 67; two from House 50, no location; House 67, no location; two from House 72, no location; House 75, no location; two from House94, no location; House 101, Room 3; two from House 102, no location; House 102, Room 7 (PI. 59, d): House 113 Room 2; Nevada DD:11:82; Rockshelter No. 9; and Warshield Rockshelter (PI. 59, _b) . Length: 10.5 - 18.7 cm. Width: 6.25 - 10.0 cm. Thickness: 2.5 - 3.8 cm. Materials: Granite, fine-grained basalt, sandstone, vesic- ular basalt. Rectangular in outline with rounded ends, rectangular cross- section; grinding surface convex, unifacial, two-hand (PI. 60, c). Forty- two Type VI manos were described. Their provenience is: House 47, two from Room 66 (PI. 60, c). Plaza, and 10 with no location; House 50, seven with no location; House 67, no location; House 72, two with no lo- cation; House 73; two with no location; House 75, Plaza; House 78, two with no location; House 80; three with no lo- cation; House 87, Plaza; House 89, no location; House 92, no location; House 102, Rooms 4 and 7, two with no location (PI. 61, a, shows a Type VI mano with notched ends); House 121, Room 7, no location; Rockshelter No. 1. Length: 8.75 - 22.5 cm. Width: 7.5 - 11.5 cm. Thickness: 2.5 - 3.9 cm. Materials: Granite, sandstone, vesicular basalt, schist. Type VIII Type IV Oval in outline, rectangular to lenticular in cross-section, grinding surface flat, bifacial, one- hand (PI. 60, a). Most likely these were used with slab metates. Thirty- four manos of this type were classified in the collections. Theirproveni- ence is: House 47, Plaza, and one with no location; House 50, Room 6, and two with no location; House 67, no location; House 80, Plaza; House 89, Plaza; three from House 94, no location; House 101, Burial 263, and two from no location; House 102, Burial 193, Rooms 3, 4, 6, 10, and four from no location; House 107, no location; House 117, no location; Rockshelters 1 and 9; Footprint Rockshelter; and Gentry Ranch Site, no location (PI. 60, a), two from Boulder Rockshelter; and two from Warshield Rockshelter. Length: 10.0 - 13.0 cm. Width: 7.5 - 10.0 cm. Thickness: 3.2 - 4.2 cm. Materials: Granite, fine-grained basalt, sandstone, vesic- ular basalt. Type V Breadloaf shape, oval in outline, lenticular cross-section, grinding surface slightly convex, unifacial, two-handed (PI. 60, b) . Most likely these were used with slab metates. Forty- seven specimens of this type were studied. Their provenience is: House 47, two from Room 66, one from Room 90, one with no location; House 50, no location; House 67, no location; House 70, no location; House 80, no location; House 89, Oval or ovoid in outline, rectangular to lenticular in cross- section, grinding surfaces beveled from use on basin metates (PI. 60, d) . Twenty-two specimens of this type were lo- cated to study. Their provenience is: House 50, Room 2; House 67, no location; House 73, no location; House 74, Room 6; House 75, no location; House 79, no location; House 94, Burial 127, one with no location; House 102, Bin 4, and Burial 193; House 121, no location; three from Rockshelter No. 1; Rockshelter No. 2; four from Rockshelter No. 4; two from Warshield Rockshelter; Boulder Rockshelter; and one from a Pueblo- Paiute campsite about one and one-half miles south- east of House 94 (PI. 60, d) . Length: 10.5 - 15.0 cm. Width: 8.75 - 11.75 cm. Thickness: 3.65 -4.2 cm. Materials: Granite, vesicular basalt. Paint Grinding Stones Small flat slabs of stone or large cobbles with paint remain- ing in limited area on one surface; some with rough grinding surface; others with smooth grinding surfaces; grinding sur- face sometimes pecked. No intentional shaping of stone blocks is ever apparent (PI. 62, ,a-.b). Twelve of these palettes were found with red ochre on the grinding surface. Their provenience is: House 67, Room 5; House 102, Room 3, five from Room 4, two from Room 6 (Fig. 89, a), two with no location; House 104, Room 3 (PI. 62, _b). Length: 14.25 Width: 11.25 - ■ 33.7 cm. 20.0 cm. 34 Thickness: Materials: Mortars 3.7 - 15.0 cm. Granite, sandstone, limestone. Shaped or unshaped block of stone with a round cup-shaped hole in the center (PI. 62, c_) . Four mortars were identified in the collections; I saw and described three of them. Their provenience is: House 47, Plaza; House 72, Room 22; House 94, no location; House 109, Room 1 (PI. 62, c) . Diameter of bowl: 28; 20; 18.75 cm. Height: 16.75; 17.5; 13.3 cm. Materials: Vesicular basalt, sandstone. Pestles Elongated stone cobbles with round battered ends (PI. 62, ^). Three specimens are described here. Their provenience is: House 50, no location (PI. 62, ji); House 98, Room 1; and one from a rockshelter on the west side of the Muddy River one-half mile southwest of Battleship Hill. Length: 30.0; 18.75 cm. Diameter: 6.1; 7.5 cm. Materials: Granite, vesicular basalt. Notched Stones Flatcobbles notched by pecking on two orfour sides (PI. 63, a, i, are typical notched stones). Plate 63, .b, shows a flat cobble with a notch on one side, and the opposite edge bi- facially flaked for use as a chopper. Plate 63, £, shows a stone with two notches and a groove running from notch to notch on both sides of the artifact. Plate 63, _j_, pictures a stone with four notches with incipient grooves, showing the pecking method of making the grooves. Seventy-five speci- mens are from: House 50, Rooms 7 and 26, three from Ash Dump, and two with no location (PI. 63, ja); House 87, Plaza; House94, Rooms 4and 6, three with no location; House 102, Room 3 with two specimens. Room 4 with three specimens (PI. 63, Jj), Room 5 with three specimens. Rooms 11, 16, 24, 33, Room 34 with two specimens, Burial 113, Ash Dump with 16 specimens, and 20 with no location; House 103, Rooms 1, 3, 6, and Bin 7, one with no location; House 11, no location; House 113, Room 6, Rockshelter No. 2, Burial 257; Rockshelter No. 4, no locations. Length: 6.4 - 9.5 cm. Width: 6.5-9.8 cm. Thickness: 1.8 -3.8 cm. Materials: Sandstone, vesicular basalt, quartzite, fine- grained basalt. Chipped Stone Artifacts Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts Sandstone disc, possibly a pot cover. The edges are chipped to form a medium ridge around entire circumference of speci- men. Diameter: 9.9 cm. Thickness: 1.2 cm. Projectile Points and Blades After a preliminary study of the artifacts in this category, a systemof description following Haury (1950: 261) was adopted. Descriptive terminology was freely adopted from Haury. The main criterion for grouping specimens was the presence or ab- sence of a stem. Stone Balls Round stones, apparently intentionally ground and smoothed were recovered in the ruins of Lost City. They vary in di- ameter from 1.2- 5.3 centimeters . They show no wear and may have been used in some sort of game. I saw 22 speci- mens from: House 47, Plaza; House 50, Room 24, one with no location; House 67, Room 4; House 68, no location; House 72, Rooms 5, 22, four with no location; House 7 3, no lo- cation; House 75, Room 1, Plaza, one with no location; House 89, three from Room 15, House 91, two with no location; House 99, Room 3; House 102, two from Ash Dump, one with no location. Similar stone balls are found throughout the Virgin Branch, in the Puebloid culture of western Utah and in the Fremont Culture. Polishing Stones Several small pebbles with one or two surfaces worn flat from polishing some item, probably pottery, were seen in the col- lections. Four of these came from: House 47, Plaza; one with no location; House 72, no location; and House 89, Plaza. Projectile Points: Material: Chert, obsidian, quartz Group A. Stem wider than blade, concave base, rounded tangs (PI. 64, _a). Two specimens from House50, no location. Width: 2.4 - 2.8 cm. Thickness: 0.7 - 0.8 cm. Group B. Stem wider than blade, straight base, rounded tangs (Pis. 64, _p_, _s; 65, .g-_t) . Nine specimens from: House 47, Plaza; House 50, no location; House 94, no location; House 101, Room 3, two with no location; House 102, Ash Dump, one with no location; Lost City, no location. Length: 2.0 - 2.7 cm. Width: 1.1 - 1.6 cm. Thickness: 0.2 - 0.4 cm. Group C. Stem narrower than blade, expanding, straight base, sharp-lateral tangs (PI. 64, _b, .3). Two specimens from House 50, Burial 275; House 111, no location. Sandstone Sharpening Stones Small, sandstone slabs with grooves, which appear to have been used to sharpen stone, bone, or wood artifacts were noted: three from House 72, no location. Length: 3.8 cm. Width: 2.2 - 2.4 cm. Thickness: 0.5 - 1.0 cm. Group D. Stem narrower than blade, expanding, convex base, 35 sharp-oblique tangs (PI. 64, c.~
  • ) indicate that the dead may have been buried with the tools they habitaully used in life. The pottery and tools were found to be broken more often than not suggesting that the grave goods were ritually "killed." Lumps of iron oxide of a red or yellow color and lumps of magnesite were also placed in the graves. Occasional fragments of worked stone and crystals ofgypsum and selenlte may represent charms of some sort. Occasional clay figurines were also discovered in the graves . A straight stone pipe, some bone whistles, and dice were also reported. Remains of eight dogs have been found buried in the graves of humans. These may represent pets or perhaps another supply of food. Quantities of beads were found with the burials. Usually these occurred about the neck of the skeleton, suggesting that the corpse was dressed in its finest ornaments before burial. Ollvella , Hallotis , clam shell, steatite, and laterite beads hint at the extent of the trade contacts of the people. Turquoise and other stone beads and pendants are also recovered. One well preserved burial was accompanied by some wooden beads. Fragments of a woven cotton breechcloth hung on a string girdle was reported on one burial. Woven cotton blankets and fur cloth blankets were found wrapped about a few burials . A piece of tanned mountain sheep hide was noted with one burial. One female skeleton was uncovered with each arm encircling a small child. Burial 263, House 101, had an arrowpolnt in one vertebrae (PI. 88, b). The sex of the skeletons was determined in the field in only a few cases. The age of 245 of the skeletons was estimated roughly. One hundred forty-two of them are listed as adult, twenty-two children, and eighty infants. Of all these skeletons only four could be used for study. These are described by T. Dale Stewart In Appendix A. Not all of the pottery could be found in the artifact collections to be identified. All the information extant about the burials is brought together and presented in Tabie 27, except for the pottery, which is discussed in the pottery section. Plates 87 through 89 illus- trate some typical burials. Very few burials have been uncovered so far in sites along the course of the Virgin River. Three burials found in Parumweap Canyon by Wetherill are reported by Schroeder (1955). Two of these were found in a cliff dwelling on the north side of the can- yon. These hadeither beenburied in shallow graves in the floor of the room or perhaps left on the surface of the floor Itself after a little fill had accumulated in the room. In either case they had definitely been left there after the cave had been abandoned as a dwelling. The bones were too disturbed to give information as to the position of the bodies. No offerings were left in the graves. Another burial was found under the overhang of a large boulder in the canyon . No further information is given about it except that again, no offerings were left with the body. These three graves fit into the pattern of the burial complex found to the southwest in the Lost City area, with one exception; the lack of grave goods does not correspond to the wealth of ritually killed artifacts found in graves in the Moapa Valley. Moreover, the fact that Schroeder did not report burials in the abandoned rooms and ash dumps of the dwellings that Wetherill excavated does not fit the situation in the Lost City area where burials were so found in almost every dwelling that was trenched. Both of these differences could be due to the small sample from Zion Park, and the fact that the nature of Wetherill' s problem did not allow him time to thoroughly excavate ash dumps and under floors of each room in search of burials. Some burials without grave goods were also found at Lost City. Still farther to the northeast In Washington County, Utah, Rudy and Stirland (1950) found a burial lying on the floor of a one- roomed structure. Though the grave had been disturbed by amateur collectors before they examined it, it appeared to them that the burial had been laid directly on the floorof the abandoned house. They could see no evidence of a pit dug through the fill. They report that Developmental Pueblo pottery had been placed about the semi-flexed skeleton, some of it broken. This burial corresponds exactly to those found in the Moapa Valley. Skeletal remains from the rest of Utah fit more or less into this pattern. Skeletal material have been found in nearly all Puebloid sites in Utah (Taylor 1954: 13). Disposition of the dead was by inhumation. The skeletons are found in a flexed position. There is no consistent orientation of the body as to which side it should lie upon or as to which direction the head should point. Offerings were frequently placed in the graves 43 with the dead, and these were sometimes broken or "killed" at the time of interment. Burials are found near houses, under the floors of houses, lying on the floors of abandoned houses and in caves (Wormington 1955; Gunnerson 1957; Rudy 1953; Steward 1933a). In addition at some sites, for example at Paragonah (Meighan, and others 1956) and at the Turner- Look site (Worm- ington 1955) the graves were seen to have been prepared more elaborately than in the Moapa Valley. At the former site vegetable material, grasses,bark, and sticks were laid over the corpse and then the grave sealed with a layer of wet clay. At the Turner- Look site large boulders were placed over the body in one grave. Morris (1939: 15-39) gives a resume of the burial practices of the San Juan Anasazi. In Basketmaker times flexed burials were placed in caves and sometimes in the open, usually in slab-lined cists which had originally been used as storage pits. The graves were lined with some sort of vegetable material and the bodies were wrapped in a blanket. A wide variety of mortuary offerings were placed in the graves. The remains were not ori- ented in any particular direction. Early in Pueblo times burials are most frequently found in the ash dumps. They are still flexed, placed in the ground without regard to the orientation of the body. Grave goods are found. Burial in ash dumps continues through Pueblo times. Burials are also found laid on the floor of aban- doned rooms and in graves dug under the floors . In some places rooms continued to be used after burials were placed under the floors, a practice not found in the Moapa Valley. Burials are also found in crevices and in the talus slopes near cliff dwell- ings. It is clear that the burial customs of the Lost City people are identical to those of the San Juan Anasazi. The burials from the Puebloid Culture of Utah are few in number but do not seem to represent a different tradition. The burial practices of the San Juan Anasazi were formalized early in their history and may be presumed to have diffused into Utah and along the Moapa-Virgin rivers . TABLE 27 BURIALS Symbols: R = room; P = plaza; AD = ash dump; Rs = rockshelter; SP = storage pit; O = on floor; U = under floor; X = yes; RS = right side LS = left side; H = head; I = infant; C = child; A = adult; M = male; F = female Floor Flexed Orientation Age and/ Burial No. House Position Position of Body or Sex 1 3 O LS H to S I 2 3 LS H to S A 3 3RA U RS H to S C 4 3R13 U LS H to N F,A 5 3 LS H to S F,A 6 3RC u LS H to S C 7 4AD LS H to N F,A 8 4RG u LS H to SW I 9 4 nearby RS H to SW F,A 10 4RA u Face H to S M,A 11 18 LS H to SE 12 4 LS H to SW 13 4AD LS H to N 14 4RQ O RS H to SE F,A 15 4 RS H to N 16 5RA u LS H to SW A 17 6 O H to SE I 18 7 U LS H to SE I 19 4 RS H to SE C 20 4 C 21 8RB u RS H to E A 22 8RD u LS H to SW I 23 Main ridge RS H to N I 24 Main ridge LS H to N A 25 Main ridge Face H to W F,A Artifacts Textile about bones, charred corn, metate Fur blankets, two puppy burials Body wrapped in textile, woven sandals on feet Metate, pebble pot polisher, turquoise Body wrapped in textile, two turquoise pendants, two shell pendants, shell beads, coiled basket, turtle bones Back bowed as if a tetanus victim, flint knife, red ochre potter's tools Body wrapped in textile, yellow paint, squash seed, flint chips Body wrapped In textile, coiled basket Body wrapped in textile, charred screwbeans, corn cobs, pumpkin seeds, coiled basket, copper ore, cave arrows, dog burial, wildcat skeleton Body wrapped in coarse woven fabric, coiled bas- ket, projectile point (PI. 66, w), projectile point, Pueblo type Body wrapped in textile, incised sandstone slab Colled basket, copper ore, white clay, three per- forated pieces of animal bone Body wrapped in fur blanket, shell disc beads, tur- quoise pendant, dog burial Two manos, rubbed slate object Body wrapped in coarse fabric and then in fur blan- ket, dog burial Body wrapped in coarse fabric, a fine woven blanket, piece of magnesite Body wrapped in coarse textile Inside and fine textile outside, coiled basket, crystal Body wrapped in coarse fabric Coiled basket Sixteen turquoise pendants, two projectile points Coiled basket, small seeds Animal bones, knot of cedar bark 44 62 TABLE 27 (Cont.) BURIALS Floor Flexed Orientation Age and/ Burial No. House Position Position of Body or Sex 26 20AD LS H to N I 27 20 AD Back H to SW C 28 20AD RS A 29 17 U RS I 30 18 U LS H to S A 31 20RA U RS H to SE I 32 38RA u LS H to N F,A 3? 33AD LS H to S C 34 20RN RS H to NW C 35 20AD LS c 41 34 u LS H to S M,A 42 27RA u LS H to SE A 44 50 LS H to SE A 45 50 LS H to SE 46 50RA u H to S 47 22 LS 48 35RA u 49 36RA u Back H to N 50 36RB u Back H to SW M,A 51 50 RS H to S C 53 21RA u LS H to W C 54 21RB LS H to S A 55 47 LS H to SW A 56 49 u RS H to E A 57 47R14 u Back H to SW A 58 47R17 u I 59 47R15 u LS H to NE A 60 47R18 u RS H to SW A 61 56AD LS H to NE I 51 Back M,A 63 55 U Face H to W I 64 56R1 U RS H to NE F,A 65 47R36 U H to N C 66 47R66 U A 67 57R3 U RS H to E A 68 58 U LS H to SW C 69 59 U LS H to N A 70 64 U LS H to NE C 71 65 U Face H to SE C 72 29 U RS H to W F,A 73 1 U LS H to SW F,A 74 46R31 H to SE I 75 67 u 76 67P H to S 77 67R6 u RS H to W A 78 68R2 u LS H to N A 79 68R6 u Artifacts Piece of magnesite Four bone dice, two bone awls Ollvella beads, one small pendant, two broken tur- quoise pendants Body wrapped in coarse blanket, large sherd disc Grave cut through fireplace Ollvella , turquoise and small black beads, knife, bone awl, bone dice Metate fragment, copper ore Traces of blanket around body Large funnel shaped colled basket Body wrapped in fur blanket, large shell beads, small laterite beads, one turquoise bead Cobblestone, broken knife Two lumps of magnesite Traces of burned blanket and fiber, body wrapped in coarse cotton blanket, pumpkin and squash seeds Straight pottery pipe, mano, pieceof pitch, cylindri- cal object Burned com in fill Twenty bone pendants Bones of new- bom infant between legs, traces of meal Charred screwbeans and corn in fill Piece of worked selenite Traces of a coarsely woven blanket, ten projectile points and skin fragment (quiver?) Traces of some sort of blanket around bones Body wrapped in some coarse fabric, broken pro- jectile point Breechcloth of cotton with string belt, fur blanket, coiled basket Squash seeds, tortoise shell, two stone slabs. Skeleton of old man sprawled on top of female Projectile points, clay doll Two antler flakers, elk antler club (PI. 89, a), red ochre, several blue nodules, shell disc beads, eight projectile points, drill, four bone dice, antler chisel, polishing stone Body wrapped in fur blanket, squash seeds, com kernels, blackseed, dog burial Body wrapped in woven blankets, occipital deform- ation, obsidian flake Textile wrappings, skull deformed, bone spatula, lumps of magnesite, coiled basket, knife, meal under basket, basket with squash seeds Body wrapped in fur blanket Textile wrapping at ankles, charred corncobs Skull not deformed, two bone dice Projectile point, piece of turquoise 45 TABLE 27 (Cont.) BURIALS Floor Flexed Orientation Aqe and/ Burial No. House Position Position of Body or Sex 80 47R3 U 81 7 3AD RS H to N I 82 72R6 U Back H to SW A 83 75R3 84 77R3 85 7 3AD 86 79R3 87 79AD 88 79R5 89 80R4 91 82 92 83 93 85AD 94 38 95 32 96 30R2 98 89 R4 101 94AD 102 50AD 103 50AD 104 50R1 105 50AD 106 50AD 107 50 AD 108 94SP 109 94SP 110 94 111 94 112 50AD 113 94 114 50R9 115 50R9A 116 94 117 94 118 94R4A 119 94 120 94 121 94 122 94 123 102 124 98R2 125 94 126 94 127 94 128 94 129 94 130 94 131 94 132 50 AD 133 50AD 134 50R1 135 50 136 Museum Hill 137 50R18 u u u u u u u u u u u u u Back LS RS LS LS RS RS LS LS RS LS LS RS LS LS RS LS LS RS RS RS LS LS RS RS Back Back RS RS LS LS H to NW H to S H to N H to E H to S H to S H to SW H to SE H to W H to SE H to S H to N H to N H to S A C H to NW F,A I H to SE I H to E I A H to SW A H to S I H to S I I H to SW A A I H to SW A H to SE A H to W A H to SE I F,A H to E M,A A C A F,A A A A A A I A A A A I I Artifacts Two small rubbing stones (PI. 71, 1_, jj), drill, Type 2 (PI. 69, z) , projectile point (PI. 65, nn), seven projectile points (PI. 65, _a), projectile point (PI. 65, w), yellow ochre One hundred Ollvella beads Ulna awl (PI. 72, k), bone pendant (PI. 73,_p_), bone pendant Five sandstone slabs Granite hatch cover, turquoise, mano, yellow ochre Blade (PI. 67, t), blade (PI. 68, _s), large blade, yellow ochre Traces of wrapping around body Two Haliotis pendants, shell pendant (PI. 75, w), Hallotis pendant Scraper Scraper, mano Shell beads Scraper, notched stone Bone spatula, stippled decoration, lg. 33.0 cm. small grindstone, bone pins, bone whistle Clam shell disc bead, one scraper Bones of a fetus where abdomen had been Stone pipe Traces of textile near hips Arms extended, flexed child burial on each, pro- jectile point Hatch cover Two slab metates, sandstone mano. Type V, Basalt mano, Type VII String Dog burial String Projectile point Cut Ollvella bead, magnesite, red ochre, two basin metates, two selenlte crystals Two hammerstones, one knife blade Projectile point Six Ollvella shell beads 46 TABLE 27 (Cont.) BURIALS House 138 50AD 139 50 140 5 0AD 141 50AD 142 50AD 143 102AD 144 102AD 145 102 146 102AD 147 102AD 148 102AD 149 102 150 102 151 102R22 152 102AD 153 102AD 154 102R5 155 102R4 156 102R5 157 102R20 158 102R6 159 102AD 160 120 161 102 162 102AD 163 102 164 102R4 165 102R4 166 102R4 167 102R4 168 102R4 169 102R4 Floor Position 170 171 1027A 102R4 172 102R16 173 102R14 174 102AD 175 102R17 176 102P 177 102P 178 102AD 179 102AD 180 102AD 181 102P u o u o o o o Flexed Position LS Face RS LS RS RS RS RS Face LS RS LS Back RS LS RS LS RS LS Back LS RS LS RS H to W H to S H to WW H to SW H to S H to NW H to E H to SE H to SE H to NW H to NE H to S H to N H to SW H to N H to W H to S H to S H to SE H to S H to N H to S H to E H to S H to W H to N RS H to S RS H to E LS H to S Age and/ or Sex I I I A A A I I A A A I I I I I A A I A A I A I A I A A A A A A LS H to S A I tack H to SE C LS H to W I RS H to S A RS H to W A RS H to E I Artifacts Eight cut Ollvella beads Ollvella shell beads Tubular pottery pipe (PI. 69, _r), projectile point, iron oxide Stone disc, th. 1.1 cm., dia. 4.5 cm. Projectile point Granite mano. Type V Projectile point. Type A Metate fragment Six Ollvella beads, fifteen snail shells (PI. 76, ^), pottery sherd polisher Five shell beads, one steatite bead, obsidian knife Drill, Type I, copper ore Two projectile points, charred corn cobs Dog burial in same room Squash seed Projectile point, shell pendants (PI. 75, .g, r, s, x), cut Ollvella beads, stone pendant Projectile point Ollvella disc bead, scraper Hallotis pendant fragment Charred com cobs Olivella shell beads Projectile point, bone awl (PI. 72, u), bone dice, (PI. 7 3, h), projectile point (PI. 64, u), bone whistle (PI. 73, z), yellow ochre, blue point, tor- toise carapace Turquoise bead Blade, Type VIII (PI. 67, k), spire-lopped Ollvella beads (PI. 76, d, e), red ochre, yellow ochre, point palette, blade. Type II, blade, Type IV (4), three scrapers, one knife One bone bead Projectile point, iron oxide Fifteen projectile points (PI. 66, b-c, Type I (PI. 66, x), drills, Type 2 (PI. kkjJJJ, conical stone pipe (PI. 71, ,s), fragment (PI. 72,_i), four bone awls, stone beads, (PI. 76, £-gJ, cylindrical magnesite beads, lg. 1.7, 2.8 cm., dia. 1.5, 1.1 cm., antler awl, bone whistle (PI. 73, aa), shell pendant (PI. 75, d), shell pendant (PI . 75, h), cut Ollvella bead, yellow ochre, two grinding stone fragments, blade. Type II, projectile points (19), stone with red ochre, tortoise carapace Projectile point i, j), blade, 69, _aa, dd, bone spatula 67, _e), fiber string, piece of Projectile point (PI. tanned skin One squash seed Shell disc beads, stone disc, coiled basket frag- ment, four turquoise beads, fifteen squash seeds, string 47 TABLE 27 (Cont.) BURIALS Floor Flexed Orientation Aqe and/ Burial No. House Position Position of Body or Sex 182 102AD LS H to S A 183 102AD LS H to E A 184 102AD LS H to NW I 185 102R6 U LS H to W I 186 102AD RS H to W A 187 102AD RS H to NW A 188 102AD I 189 102AD RS H to NW A 190 102 LS H to SW A 191 102R25 u Back H to S A 192 102R27 u RS H to S I 193 102 LS H to E I 194 102AD RS H to SE A 195 102R29 u LS H to W A 196 102AD RS H to NW 197 102AD RS H to NW A 198 102R28 u LS H to W A 199 102R14 u I 200 102AD I 201 102AD RS H to NW A 202 102AD A 203 102AD LS H to NW A 204 102P I 205 102AD Back H to E A 206 102AD LS H to S I 207 102AD RS H to E A 208 102AD Back H to W I 209 102R3 u A 210 102 LS H to W I 211 102 Back H to SE A 212 102 LS H to SW A 213 102AD LS H to W A 214 102P RS H to NW A 215 102AD RS H to SE I 216 102AD A 217 102AD LS H to SE A 218 102 RS H to W I 219 102AD LS H to S C 220 102 RS H to S A 221 102AD Back H to SW A 222 102P LS H to S I 223 102 LS H to N A 224 102P RS H to S A 225 102 RS H to S A 226 102P RS H to SW A 227 102P RS H to S A 228 102P Back H to N A 229 102P Back H to N I 230 102P RS H to S I 231 102AD RS H to W I 232 102P A 233 102AD LS H to SE A 234 102P RS H to W I 235 102P A 236 102P Back H to NW I 237 102RI3 H to S I Artifacts One turquoise bead, unbaked sherd Shell pendant (PI. 75, aa), metate fragment Projectile point Ulna awl (PI. 72, J), red ochre Projectile point Cut Olivella bead, knife fragments, clay doll frag- ments, mesquite bean cake One Haliotis shell Clamshell disc beads (PI. 76, a, J., k), mano. Type IV, mano, Type VII Bone spatula fragment (PI. 72, d) Twenty-five Olivella disc beads Hatch cover fragment covered with red ochre Projectile point Yellow ochre Dog burial nearby Red ochre Two projectile points, one projectile point. Type 20, scraper Three Olivella disc beads, red ochre Projectile point, metate, mano, hammerstone Metate Sandstone mano. Type V Charred corn cobs Two projectile points Blade, Type V (PI. 67, v), projectile point Knife fragment Broken metate stained with red ochre Turquoise pendant (PI. 76, cc), Olivella disc bead, projectile point Bone dice (PI. 73, e), Haliotis fragment in fill, hammerstone with red ochre Hammerstone, projectile point fragment Three bone awls, one bone awl fragment (PI. 72, h) Sixteen cut Olivella beads, copperore, blade. Type IV, twenty-five shell pendants, scraper, one grooved pumice stone Shell pendant (PI. 75, .v.), thirty- nine cut Olivella beads, two Haliotis pendants Knife fragment Three pumice stones, one with three grooves Fragments of griddle stone stained with red ochre 48 TABLE 27 (Cont.) BURIALS Burial No. House 238 102AD 239 102 240 102AD 241 102 242 102 243 102 244 102AD 245 102 246 102 247 101R3 248 102 249 102AD 25 101AD 251 102 252 102AD 25 3 102P 254 102AD 255 111R2 256 111R8 257 Rs2 258 115R1 259 Rs3 260 Rsl 261 Rsl 262 101P Floor Position 263 101P 264 102AD 265 102AD 266 102AD 267 102AD 268 102AD 269 104AD 270 103AD 274 50R37 275 50R37 276 50 AD 277 50AD 278 50 AD 279 50AD 280 S0AD 288 77 289 121R10 u u Flexed Position LS RS LS RS RS LS RS LS RS Extended on face LS RS RS LS RS Back Orientation of Body H to SE H to SW U U RS LS RS RS RS RS RS Back RS RS LS H to S H to S H to S H to SW H to W H to N H to W H to E H to S H to W H to E H to S H to SE H to N H to S H to S H to W H to NW H toW H to S H to W H to N H to N H to NE H to NW H to SW Age and/ or Sex I A I C C I A A C A A A A Face H to W A RS A A A H to S Artifacts Bone gaming piece (PI. 73, w), projectile point Three Haliotls pendants , forty- six shell beads, four stone beads, two wooden beads One projectile point Whole Haliotls shell, blade, Type II, projectile point, Type 4, Haliotls shell, red ochre, three projectile points Metate fragment, projectile point Basin metate fragment, basin metate, slab metate, hammerstone Projectile point, red ochre, shell and bone beads Cut Olivella bead , deep basin metate fragment, basin metate fragment Traces of a fiber blanket, two projectile points (PI. 66, _i), mano. Type IV, projectile point embedded in a vertebrae (PI. 88, b) Shell pendant (PI. 75, cc), jade disc bead (PI. 76, k), jade bead (PI. 76, j) Shell ring (PI. 75, bb), shell pendant (PI. 75, c), ten steatite beads, Hallotis pendant Forty turquoise disc beads , two turquoise pendants , two Haliotls pendants, magnesite bead Projectile point (PI. 64, b), projectile point (PI. 64, gq), projectile point (PI. 66, c), projectile point, projectile point, drill, Type I Hallotis and clam shell pendants Olivella shell bead Twenty- four projectile points, two knives, scraper, tortoise carapace, copper ore, clay doll Two gypsum crystals Flint chips 49 CHAPTER 8 ROCKSHELTERS AND A CAVE IN THE LOST CITY REGION During the work at Lost City some fifteen rocksheltersand one cave in the area were entirely or partially excavated. Some of these were designated by numbers; a few were given names. The information available about these rockshelters varies from no- thing but the name to enough to give a general idea of the basic cultural pattern of the former inhabitants of the site. Since the provenience for the artifacts from these sites is missing in most instances, and from no site did I find all the artifacts to describe, only a list of the artifact types from each site is given here. This lack of artifact provenience makes tem- poral and cultural assessments difficult. Such assessments are made from the artifacts and pottery when possible. The Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherd, the basin metates, along with Mano Types IV and VII, and the horn spoon are typi- cal items of Paiute material culture. The rest of the artifacts are either non- diagnostic or typical Pueblo ones. The expand- ing stem projectile point with the concave base and sharp- oblique tangs, like that shown in Plate 66, Xi is a typical Bas- ketmaker III type, and is the only clue to the possible earliest inhabitants of the rockshelter. The principal occupants of the site were the Pueblo people . The Palutes also used the site, perhaps while the Pueblos were still in the area, and certainly after they left, as indicated by the European cloth. The strati- graphic position of the Paiute artifacts is unfortunately not re- corded . No measurements of artifacts from the rockshelters are given as most specimens are fragmentary. Measurements of the arti- facts from Chuckawalla Cave are reported. For a description of the artifact typology, see the section on the artifacts from Lost City. Rockshelter No. _1_ Rockshelter No. 1 (Nev. DD:11:130) is located one mile south of the old Virgin River bridge, two miles south of St. Thomas, Nevada, 100 feet east of the Virgin River. One Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherd was reported from this site. There is no way to tell whether this was the only sherd recovered, but it seems unlikely that this would be the case. Rockshelter No. 2 Rockshelter No. 2 (Nev. DD:ll:131)is located two and one- half miles east of St. Thomas, Nevada. The cultural deposit was three feet deep, but no provenience for the artifacts is available. Burial 257 was found in this site. Pottery types from this site consisted of three Virgin Black- on-white sherds, nine St. George Black-on-gray, three Moapa Black-on-gray, three Washington Black-on-gray, one Trumball Black-on-gray, one Hurricane Black-on-gray, one Boulder Black- on-gray , two Tusayan Black-on- red, 180 Washington Corrugated, one Shinarump Corrugated, three North Creek Fugitive Red, three Servier Gray, 139 Great Salt Lake Gray, one Pyramid Gray, and six Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherds. ' A limestone and a sandstone basin metate were recovered along with two sandstone grinding slabs. Manos of several types (Types TV; V; VI; VII), made of vesicular basalt, granite, quartz — ite, and sandstone were recovered. Eight projectile points, all made of chert, were reported. Six were the typical Pueblo type, with parallel sides, stems narrower than the blade, straight or convex bases, and sharp-oblique tangs. One was a Basketmakerlll type with an expanding stem, concave base, and sharp-oblique tangs. One was a stemless variety with a convex base. Nine blades, made of chert, all stemless, triangular in shape with straight or convex bases, and leaf shaped with convex bases were reported. The ground stone artifacts included one slab and two basin metates made from granite, and one ovoid slate rubbing stone. Manos were three specimens of Type V, and two of Type VII. Projectile points were of several varieties: four with parallel- sided stems narrower than the blade, with straight bases and sharp-lateral tangs; one specimen the same except for sharp- oblique tangs; three specimens with tapering stem narrower than blade, with pointed bases and sharp-oblique tangs; two speci- mens with expanding stem narrower than blade, with convex bases, and rounded tangs; and two stemless specimens, tri- angular in shape, with convex bases. Ten stemless chert blades, triangular in shape with straight or convex bases, and leaf shaped were noted. Other stone tools included one end- scraper, one circular scra- per, both made of chert; one chopper. Type I, four Type II chop- pers made of chert and quartzite; one Type I drill made of chert; six chert flake knives; and one chert cobble hammerstone. A hafted knife consisting of a wooden handle, notched on one end to hold the stone blade, cemented in place with pitch, was re- covered . Three large lumps of red ochre came from the shelter. Bone artifacts consisted of one drilled square bone bead, a hom spoon (PI. 82, bj, a piece of cut bone, notched around one end and two pieces of cut tortoise carapace. Wood artifacts found were a knife handle notched on one end with pitch for hafting a stone blade, a wooden ladle, the nock end of a cane arrow (PI. 81, o), a fragment of a fire-hearth, a twig with a two-ply yucca string wrapped around one end, a sharpened twig, and two twigs cut on both ends tied at one end and in the middle with blue European cotton cloth strips. Other stone tools Included one chert side- scraper; five chop- pers, Type I, and 27 Type II choppers, made of chert, quartzite, and granite; six chert flake knives; four chert cobble hammer- stones; a notched stone from Burial 257; and a round polishing stone. Two lumps of yellow ochre, and one lump of copper ore were also found. One stubby bone awl (PI. 72, b), one ulna awl, and one splinter-bone awl, and a piece of mammal long bone, cut on one end, were the bone artifacts recovered. Unbaked clay artifacts Included a spindle whorl with a stick through the hole, threeclay coils, a fragmentof a figurine body, a coiled clay fragment with scratch marks, and three unworked lumps of clay. Wood implements were five fire-hearth fragments (PI. 81, b-cj; a fire-drill fragment (PI. 81, d); three foreshaft fragments (PI. 81, h, n); a ladle (PI. 82, e); a knife handle (PI. 82, d); a wood arrowpoint fragment (PI. 81, m) ; a cane stalk with a 50 cactus thorn in one end and a hardwood point in the other end (PI. 81, jd), perhaps a sewing kit; a stick with crosses incised on each end, perhaps a gaming stick (PI. 73, cc); four twigs sharpened at both ends; a twig with two notches cut out; two twigs shaved on one end with two-ply yucca cord tied part way up on each; a bunt with an end cut; and a bunt with a pounded end. jectile points, (two were of the stemless variety, with convex bases, and three were of the tapering, pointed stems narrower than blade type, with sharp-lateral tangs); two Type II quartz- ite choppers, two large pieces of rock salt; the nock end of a cane arrow (PI. 81, i} and the nock end of a willow arrow (PI. 81, J); and six com cobs. Several fragments of two-ply, S and Z- twist cordage were re- covered; a thin strip of sinew tied in a square knot around a piece of cotton cloth with plain weave was found under Burial 257; two fragments of yucca fiber sandals composed of two-ply, S-twist, twined weave were recovered . Basketry consisted of a coiled fragment, with one rod and bundle construction; a basket bottom fragment with a coiled cen- ter on a bundle foundation. Another basketry fragment displayed a simple stitch technique, with interlocked core coiling, three- rod foundation, bunched, and the exterior of the specimen pitched like that shown in Morris (1941, Fig. 3, d). Six basketry tray fragments showing a diagonal twining technique (each pair of wefts enclosed twowarps, and alternate wefts enclosed the same pair of warps), like that shown in Cressman (1942: 39). Also recorded were two parching tray fragments, with twined technique where each pairof wefts encloses twowarps and alternate wefts enclose the same pair of warps; these warps are rigid and the twining tight (Cressman 1942, Fig. 86,.a-b, J). Basketry frag- ments with close coiling, simple stitch, interlocked, one rod foundation, heavily pitched (Morris 1941, Fig. 3,_f), were re- covered as well as four rim fragments with the same techniques . Also found was a tray or plaque fragment with one rod, inter- locking stitch technique, and a basketry fragment with three rod triangular base, the center rod split, splint stitch, plain, di- rection down to right. Plant remains included com kernels, stalks, husks, and three cobs with a stick for roasting handle through the center of each; Agave quids; cotton balls and burrs; a pitch-covered Agave leaf; screw beans; pinyon nuts; a pod of yucca mojavensis; creosote (Covlllea tridentate ); squash Cucurblta mixta, Cucurblta foeti- dlsslma or C. palmata; seed pod of Mentzlla sp.; and a piece of Juniper bark wrapped with strips of animal skin. Several artifacts made from animal skins were reported: three pieces of tanned deer skin; two pieces of skin sewn with two- ply, S-twist yucca cord (one from Burial 257), perhaps repre- senting moccasin fragments; four pieces of tanned deeror moun- tain sheep skin. Additional faunal remains consist of deer bones, two mountain sheep horn fragments, and two tortoise carapace fragments . A wide variety of artlfactual material was recovered from Rock- shelter No . 2 . The food remains indicate that hunting and gather- ing, as well as agriculture, were practiced by the people who lived here. Theartifact complexindlcates that the Pueblo people were the principal occupants of the site, though the Paiutes also made some use of the shelter. Again the stratigraphic po- sition of the Paiute sherds is unknown so we cannot tell whether they used the site during or after the Pueblo occupation. The Great Salt Lake Gray sherds demonstrate the far flung cultural contacts of the Pueblo people of southern Nevada. Rockshelter No. _3 Rockshelter No. 3 (Nev. DD:11:142) is located on the west bank of the Virgin River, a few miles south of St. Thomas, Nevada. Only a few of the artifacts recovered from this rockshelter were available for study. The sample is too small to provide a cultural Interpretation. The artifacts include two granite manos. Type V; five pro- Rockshelter No. 4 Rockshelter No. 4 is located a few miles east of Rockshelter No . 3 . The few artifacts available from this site are listed be- low. The sample is much too small to be representative. Those seen included a mescal knife with an iron blade, like that shown by Baldwin (1944: Plate XXXIII, upper photo); two large pieces of rock salt; a notched wooden handle for hafting a stone blade; a notched stone; and a bird bone whistle (PI. 73, x) . Rockshelters Nos . 5_, _6,_7, and 8 There is no information available as to the location of these shelters. A wooden arrow point fragment is the only item lo- cated from Rockshelter No . 5 . No artifacts were found in the collections from Rockshelter No. 6. Only cat claw beans and Acacia qreqll were reported from Rockshelter No. 7. One pro- jectile point with an expanding stem narrower than the blade, with a convex base and sharp-lateral tangs was reported from Rockshelter No. 8. Rockshelter No. 9 Rockshelter No. 9 (Nev. DD:ll:140)is located approximately three and one-half miles northeast of St. Thomas, Nevada, about 1000 feet east of the Virgin River. A cultural deposit eight feet deep was reported in the field note book, but no provenience other than the Rockshelter for the artifacts is available. Burials 283 and 284 were recovered from this site. Pottery types include 33 sherdsof Moapa Black-on-gray, one St. George Black- on- gray, two Washington Corrugated, five Moapa Gray, one Boulder Gray, one Parla Gray, two Washington Gray, one North Creek Gray, one Pyramid Gray, one Aquarius Brown, and eight Southern Paiute Brown Ware. Stone artifacts include a small grinding slab with red ochre on it, 21 manos, five Type I (PI. 59, c), one Type II, two Type III, two Type IV, four Type V, and one Type VI; they were made of either granite or sandstone. Four projectile points made of chert were reported. One (PI. 65, _i) had an expanding stem narrowerthan blade, convexbase, and sharp- lateral tangs . An- other was also similar except the stem was parallel, with a straight base and sharp-oblique tangs. The last (PI. 64, v) was stemless, triangular in shape with a convex base. Wood artifacts consisted of a reed flute fragment and a wooden arrow fragment. The artifact sample from Rockshelter No. 9 is again too small to be representative, but it does suggest a predominately Pueblo occupation, lasting from Basketmaker III through the Pueblo period of southeastern Nevada. Pyramid Gray pottery is evi- dence of Lower Colorado River contact . Aquarius Brown came from the Patayan area east of the Colorado River. Again there is no depth information for the Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherds . Rockshelter No. 10 Rockshelter No. 10 (Nev. DD:ll:141)is located one and one- half miles northwest of St. Thomas, Nevada, on the west side of the Muddy River. 51 The few items of material culture located for study are listed below. The small sample does not permit evaluation of the site as to time and cultural diversity. Two projectile points made of chert were found; one was stem- less, triangular in shape, with a straight base. The other one had a stem wider than blade, side notches, and a concave base. The latter is a typical Paiute type (PI. 65, bb). One stemless blade made of chert was noted; It was triangular in shape, with a straight base . One chert flake knife and one quartzite chopper, Type II, completed the stone tool inventory. Perishable material included two fragments of two-ply, S- twist yucca cordage, and one fragment of two-ply, Z-twist, yucca cordage which had a large knot in the middle. Knotted juniper bark, and tule leaves tied in a granny knot, Agave quids and a piece of coyote skin were reported. Washington Corrugated, 50 Shinarump Corrugated, three Boulder Gray, two Logandale Gray, one Sevier Gray, five Pyramid Gray, and 127 Shinarump Brown. Onellmestone basin metate (PI. 90, b), a trough metate frag- ment, a sandstone abrading stone, and a grooved sandstone arrow straightener were discovered in the shelter. There were four manos made from granite and sandstone, two Type IV and two Type V. Four chert projectile points were recorded includ- ing one point whose parallel sided stem was narrower than the blade with a straight base and sharp- lateral tangs; another was the same except for sharp-oblique tangs (Pueblo type); and two with expanding stems narrower than blade, concave base and sharp-oblique tangs (Basketmaker III type) . Twelve chert blades of the following forms were found: All were stemless, three were triangular in shape with straight bases (PI. 57, v), seven were triangular in shape with convex bases, two were leaf shaped with convex bases. Rockshelter No. 11 Rockshelter No. 11 (Nev. AA:7:2) is located approximately five miles south of Panaca, Nevada, in Meadow Valley Wash. Pottery types include one sherd of St. George Black- on- gray, one Snake Valley Black-on-gray, five Sevier Gray, one Sanpran- clsco Mountain Gray Ware, and five Southern Paiute Brown Ware. Stone implements consisted of a granite paint grinder bearing traces of red ochre and two flake knives, one chert and one obsidian . One bird bone cylindrical bead was reported. Cordage Included a twisted strand of yucca; shredded yucca knotted at one end with a loop knot; two-ply, Z-twist yucca string; and a piece of two-ply, Z-twist human hair string. Wooden artifacts reported were two bunts, an arrow foreshaft fragment, a notched and burned stick, and a cut twig. Additional plant remains recovered were Agave quids, split yucca stems, juniper bark, pinyon bark, nuts and cones, acorns, and Yucca sp. seeds. The stone tools from Rockshelter No. 11 (except for the Paiute projectile point), the cordage, wood artifacts, and plant remains could have been left by either the Pueblo or Paiute people. The pottery Is interesting as it evidences extensive extra-territorial relations. The St. George Black-on-gray is the local Pueblo II pottery. Snake Valley Black-on-gray and Sevier Gray come from west central Utah. They may be trade pieces, or represent actual visits of groups of people from Utah. San Francisco Mountain Gray Ware comes from east of the Colorado River around the San Francisco Peaks. The Southern Paiute Brown Ware again presents the problem of post-Pueblo or contemporaneous occupation. Rockshelter No . 12 Rockshelter No. 12 is located five miles south of Panaca, Nevada . Only one item was noted in the collections from this site: a red sandstone basin metate fragment. Footprint Rockshelter Footprint Rockshelter (Nev. DD:5:2) Is located at the head of Arrow Canyon, which runs into Muddy River Canyon above its source of Warm Springs in T 14S R 64E (PI. 90). Pottery types Include one sherd of Virgin Black-on-whlte, one Other stone artifacts are seven chert side scrapers; two chert end-scrapers; one chert scraper- chopper; one chopper. Type I, and seven Type II choppers made from chert and quartzite; one Type II chert drill; six chert cobble hammerstones; six flake knives made from chert, obsidian, and quartzite; a small flat stone with painted lines; and two rubbing stones (pebbles) with red ochre on them . One bone awl was reported. Wood artifacts were numerous; they include 11 arrow fore- shafts, three point fragments, six arrowshaft fragments, two cut twigs, and a notched twig, perhaps a snare trigger. Cordage and textiles consisted of two-ply yucca fiber, braided yucca fiber, two yucca leaf fragments tied with yucca fiber, twined yucca sandals like that shown in Wheeler (1942: Fig. 22), a Juniper bark apron of plain basket weave (PI. 90, c), shredded yucca tied In bundles, shredded yucca tied in a loop, willow bark tied into a loop, two-ply, S-twlst yucca string, two-ply, S- twist shredded Juniper bark, and knotted juniper bark charred on one end. Several basketry fragments were reported including willow pack basket fragments, twined on left, with a pieceof two-ply, Z-twist cordage attached to one fragment, and a twined bag fragment (PI. 90, d). Plant remains Included shredded yucca, yucca fiber and bark, grass straw, shredded grass, picked when mature and dry, shred- dedjuniper bark, Agave quids, creosote bush twigs, cornstalks, husks, kernels, and cobs, pinyon cone fragment and nuts, Cu- curblta palmata , Phraqmltes communis , narrow leaf cattail (Typba anqustifolia) , and an Acacia qreqll pod. Faunal remains consisted of deer teeth, vertebrae, and a skin fragment, a rabbit mandible, tortoise carapace, and split feathers used for arrow making. The pottery and projectile points from Footprint Rockshelter suggest an occupation beginning with the Basketmakers and continuing through the Pueblo period. Boulder Gray and Logan- dale Gray pottery and the projectile points pictured in Plate 66, z-aa are Basketmaker III types. Sevier Gray pottery is from west central Utah, and Pyramid Gray pottery is a Lower Colorado River type. However, many of the items are listed among Paiute material culture and food traits, so the lack of Paiute pottery does not necessarily mean they did not use the site. Warshield Rockshelter Warshield Rockshelter (Nev. DD:5:3) is located near thehead of Arrowhead Canyon, which runs into Muddy River canyon. 52 Plate 91, .a. Is a photo of the shelter, and Plate 91, .b, shows the shield petroglyph for which the site Is named. Several rooms are mentioned in the notes, but no Information as to size, shape, or artifact provenience is given. Pottery types include one sherd of North Creek Black-on-gray, one of Plain Gray Type I (Rudy and Stirland 195 0), 27 Snake Valley Gray, and a whole Moapa Black-on-gray bowl. Stone artifacts reported were five sandstone grinding slabs, 10 manos made of vesicular basalt, basalt and sandstone, and included one Type III, four Type IV, and five Type VTII. Four projectile points made of chert were found. One has an expanding stem narrower than blade, straight base, and sharp- lateral tangs (Basketmakerin type); another (PI. 64, cc) is stem- less, triangular in shape, with a straight base; the third has a parallel sided stem narrower than blade, with a straight base, and sharp-oblique tangs (Pueblo II type); the last has a stem wider than blade, a concave base, and rounded tangs (Paiute type) . Three chert blades, all stemless, triangular in shape, with straight bases were recovered. Other stone tools were three chert snub-nosed scrapers, a chert turtleback scraper, four Type 11 choppers made of chert, quartzite, and fine-grained basalt, two chert flake knives, six chert cobble hammerstones, a cir- cular limestone disc, a stone ball, and an incised stone (PI. 69, m) . A limonite fragment was also reported. A bone saw (PI. 73, v), and a straight conical clay pipe were reported . Wood artifacts consisted of fourarrow foreshafts, seven twigs with cut ends, a wood arrowpoint, a stick with a spatulate end, a stick with juniper bark tied around one end, and a twig with a two-ply, S-twist yucca string tied on It. Cordage included two-ply, S-twist yucca string, shredded yucca tied in a loop knot, and five twined yucca sandal fragments like that shown in Wheeler (1942, Fig. 22). A twined basket fragment and a coiled, two rod and bundle basket fragment were reported . Stone artifacts reported include eight metates made of sand- stone and granite, two basin type, two slab, and four grinding stone fragments. Fifteen manos made of fine-grained basalt, sandstone, and granite were found; they are two Type I, four Type Iv, seven Type V, one Type VI, and one Type VII. Seven chert projectile points were found. Five specimens were stemless, triangular in shape, with concave bases, and one specimen had a tapering stem narrower than blade, with pointed and sharp-oblique tangs . Two chert blades were stemless, triangular in shape, and had convex bases . One Type II chert chopper, and a chert flake knife, and a piece of gypsum complete the stone implement assemblage. Bone artifacts include a bone awl (PI . 72 , o) , and two cylindri- cal bone beads. A numberof clay artifacts were found including a pot stopper of Southern Paiute Brown Ware, a ball of worked clay, and a piece of unfired, colled pottery with basketry impressions. An anthropomorphic figurine of the Basketmaker tradition was re- ported. It was 11.0 cm. long; the left teat Indicates the fe- male sex. There was a punctate necklace around the neck and waist. Pinched clay represents shoulders, and there were no arms, although the legs and feet are pronounced. A beaklike projection represents the face. There were avariety of wood artifacts reported: The nock end of a cane arrow (PI. 81 J), a cane whistle (PI. 73,_y), a cylin- drical cane bead, five burned sticks, tule torches, a projectile fragment, a digging stick fragment, and a bow fragment; this last having a notch cut near the rounded end. Cordage of knotted yucca fiber, two-ply, Z- twist yucca string was found. Three fragments of twined basketry were reported: Two pieces of cotton string; one was one-ply, the other two-ply. Additional plant remains included Agave quids, yucca stalks, tules, and ginger stalks (Avemopsls California .) Faunal evidence consisted of tortoise carapace, sheep skin fragment, and deer skin fragments. Mountain Plant remains were shredded yucca, split and twisted juniper bark, strips of willow bark, barrel cactus spine, squash stem, Cucurblta pepo , Cucurbita mixta, beans, salt grass roots, pin- yon nuts, com cobs and husks. Agave quids, gourd fragments, cotton fibers, Opuntla sp. seeds, grass roots, and hollow stems of Baccharls sp.? Faunal remains included deer skin and teeth, twisted rabbit skin strips, tortoise carapace, and mountain sheep horn. The artifact Inventory from Warshield Rockshelter indicates an agricultural subsistence base. The Basketmakerin projectile point, the Pueblo pottery, and projectile point, and the Paiute projectile point suggest the time span and cultural association represented at the site. Snake Valley Gray Ware is an intrusive type from west central Utah. Boulder Rockshelter The virtual lack of pottery from Boulder Rockshelter prevents any conclusive assessment of cultural or time correlations. However, the artifactual material Is what would be expected of an agricultural people; therefore. It may be assumed the princi- pal occupants were Basketmaker-Pueblo people. Post-Pueblo occupation, if not contemporaneous occupation by the Paiutes, is evidenced by the Southern Paiute Brown Ware pot stopper. Summary of the Use of Rockshelters It Is evident from the artifacts and pottery that these rock- shelters were used as campsites, probably while on hunting and trading trips by the Pueblo and Paiute peoples and outsiders. The evidence Indicates possible contemporaneous occupation of the shelters by the Pueblos and Paiutes. This is corroborated by similar evidence from Chuckawalla Cave and the Lost City sites. The shelters have been used since at least Basketmaker III times . Boulder Rockshelter (Nev. DD:11:135) is located six miles southwest of St. Thomas, Nevada, In the Valley of Fire Wash, two and one-half miles above the Virgin River road. A numberof springs are within 500 feet of the rockshelter. One whole Washington Black-on-gray bowl was recovered here. It Is evident from such pottery types as Snake Valley Gray Ware, Sevier Gray Ware, San Francisco Mountain Gray Ware, Tlzon Brown Ware, and Pyramid Gray, that people from the north, east, and south came to southern Nevada over a long period of time, and in considerable numbers. This long trek undoubtedly was to trade, and some of them probably lived in the area for a short time. The amount of Pyramid Gray found in southern 53 Nevada certainly suggests this was true of the people coming from the Lower Colorado River region. The presence of water, and the protection the rockshelters afforded, made these sites desirable camping places over a long period of time. CHUCKAWALLA CAVE The location of Chuckawalla Cave is given in the notes as follows: " . . .one mile northward from the expedition camp. On the property of a Mr. Whitmore of Overton, Nevada, is a canyon running from the flat valley lands eastward to Mormon Mesa. The ridges hereabouts show a number of ruined houses and some of the largest lowland houses of the Pueblo lie out on the flat over the mouth of the canyon . On the north bank of this canyon, some 75 yards from the mouth, a small cave, its mouth marked by fallen rocks, was found by Mr. Fay Perkins who spotted it from the ash dump in front . " It is impossible today to say exactly where the cave is. We do not know where the expedition camp was, or where Mr. Whit- more 's property was; nor could any map be found with the location of Chuckawalla Cave marked on it. We at least know the site is in the Lost City area. Plate 92, a, shows the mouth of Chucka- walla Cave and Plate 92, J), the fill at the entrance to the cave. No other description ofthecave or its dimensions could be found. Fortunately, depth provenience is recorded for the Chuckawalla Cave material, which makes it the only site In the Lost City area with stratified information. The deposit was dug in four levels: Level 1, 1-12 inches; Level 2, 12-30 inches; Level 3, 30-48 inches; and Level 4, 48-68 inches. Artifacts were also obtained from rock crevices within the cave and from the ash dump. Pro- venience of artifacts will be referred to by levels . Table 28 indicates the types, the potsherds found in the cave. quantity, and provenience of TABLE 28 POTTERY FROM CHUCKAWALLA CAVE Pottery Types Virgin Black-on-white North Creek Black-on-gray Moapa Black-on-gray St. George Black-on- gray Washington Black-on-gray Boulder Black-on-gray Lino Black-on-gray Tusayan Black-on-red Washington Corrugated Moapa Corrugated North Creek Corrugated Washington Gray Moapa Gray Boulder Gray Pyramid Gray Shlnarump Brown Aquarius Brown Cerbat Brown Southern Palute Brown Ware Level 1 Level 2 Provenience by Depths Level 3 Rock C. The Basketmaker III and Pueblo I pottery types, such as Boulder Black-on-gray, Lino Black-on-gray, and Boulder Gray are from the lowest pottery level. Level 3. The Pueblo II and early Pueblo III types, North Creek Black-on- gray, Moapa Black-on-gray, St. George Black-on-gray, and Tusayan Black-on-red, are found in the middle and upper levels, but North Creek Black-on-gray, and the Pueblo II and III corrugated type, Washington Corrugated, are also found In the lower pottery level. Washington Gray, a Pueblo I type, is found in the upper level. Pyramid Gray is found in all pottery levels . I believe that this type was made locally in the Lost City area . Aquarius Brown and Cerbat Brown are from thePatayan area eastof the Colorado River, and were made dur- ing a long time span. The presence of Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherds in Level 3 strengthens my conviction that the Pueblos and Paiutes were contemporaneous in the area. The pottery does not show a clear cut time difference between levels which would be desired. However, there is an indication of a Basketmaker III - Pueblo sequence, and extraterritorial re- lations are demonstrated by the presence of Pyramid Gray and Ash D. 2 11 16 2 2 47 1 1 23 other Patayan potcery, even though the former may have been made locally. The lack of a demonstrated cultural change at this site maybe due to the small pottery sample. On the other hand, this appears to be the general situation through the Lost City region . Stone Artifacts Measurements are not given when the item is illustrated. Ground Stone Manos: Material: Granite, sandstone Level 1 . Type I- One specimen fragment. Wd. 8.0;th. 4.0cm. Level 4. Type III - One specimen. Lg. 12.8; wd. 9 .l;th. 4.2 54 Red painted sandstone fragment. Lg. 8.0; wd.4.3; th. 0.7 cm., squigley lines across and lengthwise on the specimen. Rock Crevices . Egg shaped rubbing stone with red ochre on one side. Lg. 6.5; wd. 3.4; th. 1.1 cm. Sandstone rubbing stone. Lg. 4.1; wd. 2.3; th. 0.4 cm. Level 4. Two specimens; lg. 4.7, 4.0; wd. 4.3, 1.7; th. 0.6, 0.59 cm. Hammerstones: Material: Quartzite Level 2. Two cobble specimens; lg. 8.0, 9.8; wd. 5.1, 6.1; th. 3.6, 4.9 cm. Chipped Stone Projectile points: Material: Chert Level 2. One specimen with stem narrower than blade, parallel sides, straight base and sharp-oblique tangs. This is a Pueblo type, Plate 93, d. Level 3. One specimen with stem narrower than blade, parallel sides, straight base, and sharp-oblique tangs, Plate 93, b. One specimen with stem wider than blade, concave base and pointed tangs . This is atypical Paiute point, Plate 93, c. Ash Dump. One specimen with stem narrower than blade, expand- ing, with convex base and sharp-lateral tangs. Lg. 3.2; wd. 1.5; th. 0.35 cm. One specimen with stem narrower than blade, parallel sides, convex base and sharp-lateral tangs. Wd. 1.7; th. 0.35 cm. Level 3. One cobble specimen; lg. 9.1; wd. 6.9; th. 4.3 cm. Unretouched Flakes: Material: Chert, obsidian Level 1 . Two specimens. Level 2. Twenty- five specimens. Level 3. Fourteen specimens. Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts Level 2. Shaped selenite fragment, oval in form. Lg. 3.0; wd. 2.5; th. 0.2 cm. Stone balls, two specimens. Dia. 2.1; 3.6 cm. Level 3 and Rock Crevices . One specimen of a fragment of worked selenite from each. Blades: Material: Chert Level 2. Two specimens of the stemless variety, triangular in shape, with convex base. Level 4 . One specimen of the same type as in Level 2, Plate 67, X. Scrapers: Material: Chert Level 2. Side; one or two sides used. a. One side, lg. 7.8; wd. 4.4; th. 2.6 cm. b. Two sides, Plate 93, J. Thumbnail; lg. 3.8; wd. 3.4; th. 0.5 cm. Level 3. Side; plano-convex; lg. 5.0; wd. 4.0; th. 2.0 cm. Rock Crevices . Side; one side; lg. 9.5; wd. 6.0; th . 3.1 cm. Graver: Material: Chert Level 3. One specimen of worked chalk. Unworked Stone Minerals Level 1 . Two pieces of turquoise ore. Level 2. Lump of red ochre, and salt crystals. Rock Crevices . Lump of red ochre, and salt crystals. The stone implements are in most cases, too generalized to be useful as time indicators. However, the stone tool assem- blage falls into the pattern expected in a predominately seden- tary, agricultural population. The Paiute projectile point (PI. 93, c), with the Southern Paiute Brown Ware pottery in Level 3 is strong evidence of con- temporaneous occupation of the area by the Pueblos and Paiutes. Level 3. Graver point finished by pressure flaking, Plate 93, a. Drill: Material: Chert Level 2. Type 2 - One specimen, Plate 93, e. Flake Knives: Material: Chert Level 2. One specimen similar to that shown in Plate 67, _e. Bone Artifacts Level 1. Perforated bone dice, oval shaped and conically drilled, Plate 95, a. Level 2. Bird bone cut on one end. Lg. 3.0; dia. 0.8 cm. Level 3. Ulna awl, Plate 94, d. Scapulae bone saw or bark shredder, Plate 94, c. 55 Level 4. Bone dice. Three specimens, Plate 95, c_-d; the third, lg. 6.3; wd. 2.0; th. 1 .4 cm. Rock Crevices . Bird bone whistle, Plate 94, ^. Bone awl, Plate 94, b. Cut bird bone fragment. Grooved on one end. Lg. 7.7 cm. feather ties still evident. Five arrowshaft fragments. Cut, split stick. Split stick tied in a square knot. Fire-hearth fragment. Level 2 . Arrow foreshaft fragment, Plate 94, Pointed twig, Plate 94, X- Clay Artifacts Level 1 . Lump of clay pressed around end of small reed, Plate 95, Fragments of an unfired clay bowl. No temper added, coiled. Figurines Level I . Four pieces of nondescript arms and legs . One nondescript portion of a body fragment. Level 2. Bulb shaped fragment, Plate 96, X- Upper torso fragment of a female figurine, Plate 96, _e. Torso fragment, Plate 96, h. Lower torso fragment, Plate 96, b. Incipient figurine fragment, Plate 96, _c. Upper torso fragment, Plate 96, d. Level 3. Uppertorso fragment, painted chevron design, Plate 96, a. Body fragment, nondescript, and a body fragment with a painted chevron design along one side. Rock Crevices . Figurine legs, Plate 96, jj. Ash Dump. Upper torso fragment, short gashes over surface, Plate 96,J_. The figurines appear to fall into the Basketmaker Tradition as they are similar to those illustrated by Morss (1954), and less elaborate than Fremont figurines (Wormington 1955). Level 3. Peeled twig , burned at both ends . Fire drill ? Lg . 34 . 3 cm . Two split twigs, cut on both ends. Three reed arrowshaft fragments . Rock Crevices . Fire drill fragment, distal end burned. Proximal end of arrow foreshaft, two other fragments. Twig sharpened on both ends . Rectangular piece of cut wood . Two twigs burned on both ends. Twelve arrowshaft fragments of reed. One specimen shows nock end and gut feather lashings. Four cane cigarettes . Arrow foreshaft, distal end, Plate 94, <±. Stick with three sets of short lateral notches around the circumference, perhaps a gaming stick. Split stick with spatulate end. Cut stick with groove on one end. Cordage , Textiles, and Basketry Level 1 . Two pieces of two-ply, S- twist yucca string. Strand dia. 0.02 cm. One piece of three-ply yucca string. Strand dia. 0.35 cm. Level 2. Strips of rabbit skin twisted around two-ply, S- twist fiber. Two-ply, Z-twlst cord dyed red. Single strand cotton thread, dyed blue. Two-ply, S-twist yucca string dyed orange. Bundle of two-ply, S-twist cordage. Strand dia. 0.1 to 0.3 cm. Strands of red dyed cotton. Two bunches of yucca fiber. Yucca fiber sandal fragment. Five strand, braided cord of human hair. Worked Sherds Level 1 . North Creek Black-on-gray pot scraper, Plate 95, X. Aquarius Brown pot scraper, Plate 95, _a- Level 2. Conical pot cover fragment. Two North Creek Black-on-gray pot scrapers, one pictured in Plate 95, X- Rock Crevices . Pyramid pot scraper. Lg. 7.2; wd. 5.8 cm. Ash Dump. North Creek Black-on-gray pot scraper. Lg. 7.9; wd. 5.4 cm. Wood Artifacts Level 1. Three arrowshaft fragments. Cut wrappings on tips and Level 3. Two-ply, Z-twist, fiber cordage. Carbonized coiled basket fragment. Two rod and bundle foundation. Level 4 . Two-ply, S-twist yucca flbercordage . Strand dia. 0.1 to 0.05 cm. Rock Crevices. Two-ply, S-twist yucca flbercordage. Strand dia. 0.3cm. Three piecesof two-ply, S-twistyucca fiber string. Strand dia. 0.05 cm. Bundle of shredded juniper bark. Yucca fiber cordage with a square knot. Ash Dump. Two-ply, S-twist cordage. Asclepls qalioldes . dia. 0.2 cm. Strand 56 Plant Remains Level 1 . Mesqulte bean pod and beans, rush fragment, squash seed, screwbeans, red bean seed, com cob with a splinter through it, corn stalk fragments and com cobs, Agave quids , shredded yucca , cattail fragments , and Agave leaves . Level 2. Screwbeans, pieceof pitch, corn husks, cobs and kernels, squash stems and seeds, shredded yucca, sunflower seeds, bundle of yucca leaves and gourd fragments . Level 3. Corn cobs and husks, yucca leaf fragment, cattail frag- ment, pendant of Lac gum, hole drilled in one end, grass seeds, gourd fragments, and Agave quids . Level 4. Com cobs and screwbeans . Rock Crevices . Gourd fragments, pinyon nuts, bundle of yucca leaves, screwbeans, and mesquite beans. Ash Dump . Squash seeds, shredded yucca fiber, and grass used as binding. Faunal Remains Level 1 . Rabbit skin fragment, no fur; rabbit fur piece; four deer skin fragments; bundle of five feathers. Lower Colorado River is evidence of contact with the people of these regions. I am now convinced that Pyramid Gray was also made locally. They may have camped at the cave during periods when it was vacant, or were possibly contemporaneous with the Pueblo occupants. There is no way to determine which situation existed. No pottery was reported from Level 4. However, the artifacts from this non-pottery level are not significantly different from those found in the pottery levels . Southern Paiute Brown Ware pottery with the Paiute projectile point in Level 3 is the only concrete, stratigraphic evidence of the contemporaneous occupation of the area by the Pueblo and Paiute people. The main body of artifactualand non-artifactural material falls into the complex generally associated with a sedentary, agri- cultural people. However, many items were used by both the sedentary and non- sedentary people who inhabited the area of southern Nevada, and therefore, gives us no clue to cultural or time correlations. Some of the finest specimens from Chucka- walla Cave came from the Ash Dump in front of the cave, and from the crevices Inside the cave which were not excavated stratlgraphically . The plant remains may be divided into two groups, the culti- vated and non-cultivated plants. Cultivated plants or parts thereof are found in all levels of Chuckawalla Cave. This is further evidence that the main occupants of the site were agri- culturalists . The pottery types present identify these people as Pueblo, the sedentary population of the Lower Moapa Valley. The non-cultivated plants are known to have been used by both the Pueblo and Paiute people who occupied this region. Therefore, they are of little help as cultural or temporal criteria. Level 2. Bundle of feathers; three deer skin fragments . Rock Crevices . Mountain sheep horn fragment; rabbit skin fragment. Ash Dump . Five bird feathers. Summary and Conclusions The small amount of pottery from Chuckawalla Cave, along with most of the artifacts, demonstrates rather conclusively that the principal occupants of the site were Pueblo Indians. Pottery from the Patayan area east of the Colorado River and from the In summary. It seems evident the main occupants of Chucka- walla Cave were Pueblo people. There is no definite evidence that there was a succession of Basketmaker- Pueblo occupation. The figurines, that elsewhere in the Southwest indicate the Bas- ketmaker people, are found in all levels. In southeastern Nevada the Basketmaker- Pueblo occupation was more of a blend and less clear cut than In the Anasazi area east of the Colorado River. This situation Is reflected at this site by the pottery and artifacts . It is not clearwhether or notoccupation atthe site was continu- ous or periodic . It is unfortunate that the site did not produce a large sample of artifactual material because Chuckawalla Cave is the best documented site in the Lost City area, including the pithouse and Pueblo sites . 57 CHAPTER 9 PREHISTORIC MINING IN SOUTHEASTERN NEVADA Geological processes have produced several types of minerals useful and accessible to the prehistoric Indians of the south- eastern Nevada area. Salt, a necessity of life, is found in abundance at the salt mines in the lower Virgin- Muddy river region. The salt occurs as veins in the native rock, and was obtained by the aborigines who followed these veins with tunnels dug with crude mining implements. The salt veins occur in de- posits shaped like peaks. The top is composed of gypsum and clay and the base Is solid rock-salt. Morris describing the Camp Verde, Arizona, salt deposit says, ".. .common salt (NaCl), and clay occur as impurities in the sodium sulphate. The salt commonly occurs in small masses as Halite" (1928: 81). The St. Thomas salt deposits are similar to the one described for Camp Verde. They may have been formed by precipitation from a dwindling lake. Turquoise, although of low grade quality, was mined extensively by the early inhabitants of this region from open-pit mines near the southern end of what is now Lake Mead (PI. 7). Turquoise occurs in fissures and Joint planes in crystalline rocks . There were hundreds of circles and ovals on the walls of the rooms, outlined by grooves pecked into the solid salt, ranging from a foot to 18 inches in diameter (PI. 99, a). These were pecked with stone picks, choppers, and hammerstones (Pis. 100, _§; 101, &-d; 102, a); pecking was the method used to re- move the salt. When a knob had been formed it was knocked off. These knobs were then easily transported to their place of The floor of the chamber was covered with salt mining refuse, from four to eight feet thick . The first six inches consisted mainly of salt refuse and guano. Mixed in the rest of the fill were countless little sticks, all bumed at one end, doubtless the remains of torches used by the Indians to see their work, and various kinds of artifacts. I saw and described some of these artifacts at the Heye Foundation, but I know most of them only through Harrington's field notes. Here artifacts were usu- ally listed by type but not always counted, so quantification is impossible. Other minerals mined in the Lower Muddy River Valley by the aboriginal occupants were magnesite and selenite. These were found near Overton, Nevada. Magnesite was used by the Indians for making beads and as pottery slip material; selenite, for mak- ing charms and ornaments . Some copper ore was found in the Lost City ruins. There is no evidence that it was smelted by the Indians, nor is there any indication of what it was used for. It may have been used for body and pottery paint. Today iron and copper ores are mined within 50 miles of Lost City. Pueblo pottery in the mines indicates that the Pueblo people who lived in southeastern Nevada were the principal miners. The crude type of mining Implements found in profusion at these sites precludes determining whether or not pre-pottery making people also mined here. Because such items as salt and tur- quoise were so scarce in aboriginal times, it may be considered a certainty that these materials were traded far and wide. Salt Mining Three caves and one open-pit type mine were quarried for salt by the early Indians of southeastern Nevada (PI. 97, a). Salt Caves Number 1 and 3, and the Salt Mine (open-pit type) are described here. Salt Cave No . 1 Hand picks, notched for haf ting, and unnotched choppers, and haftedand unhafted hammerstones were found by the dozens. These implements were used to remove the salt as described above (PI. 99, a). The mining tools were made from granite, fine-grained basalt, and quartzite cores and cobbles; those of quartzite predominating in the collections that I saw. The picks and choppers were fashioned by striking large primary flakes from the cores and cobbles by percussion flaking, and were usually bifacial. No secondary or pressure flaking is evident. The hammerstones developed flaked and pecked areas from use. The picks are like those shown in Plate 100, _a-b. A chopper is shown in Plate 100, ^c, and notched choppers in Plate 101, .a-d. Plate 63, Jc, illustrated a notched chopper. One flake knife was also found. That the miners brought in food with them is evidenced by the presence of various items of food also found in the house ruins at LostCity, including com cobs (PI. 102, b) , corn husks, and corn kernels . One cob was mounted on a stick for roast- ing. Mesquite beans and rabbit bones were present. Hundreds of yucca quids were found. Thesewere either Yucca baccata or Y. mohavensls ■ A variety of other artifacts was found in the midden associ- ated with the mining tools. These attest to the means of light- ing used by the miners, the clothes they wore, and the cordage they used to make the net bags in which, apparently, they carried the salt away. Salt Cave No. 1 (Nev. DD:11:41) is located on the west side of the Virgin River, six miles below the former town of St. Thom- as, Nevada (PI. 26). Entrance to the cave was high up on the face of the cliff (PI. 97, a- b) . Harrington's excavations were carried on at the north end of the salt deposit, reached by a long, low, underground passage, a former water course. From this it was necessary to ascend through ahole in the roof of the tunnel, perhaps ahundred yards back in the heart of the mountain of salt. Here was located a large room cut into the salt measuring about 75 feet north-south by 40 feet east-west. There are five additional smaller rooms. As there was no natural light in the cave, the miners worked by the light of torches; the remains of these were found in the tun- nels and rooms. Plate 98 illustrates in detail the passage in Salt Cave No . 1 . At least three pieces of yucca cordage were found in the chamber. One was a two-ply, S-twist string, with a diameter of 1.0 cm. Another two-ply string with a diameter of 1.3 cm. exhibited a Z-twist. Pieces of yucca fiber were tied on to this string at irregular intervals. Another piece of yucca cordage made the same way was braided and knotted at one end. This string also had pieces of yucca fiber tied to it. A large bundle of two-ply, S-twist cordage about six feet long was found. Its diameter is 0.3 cm., and the material has been tentatively identi- fied as Uxtlca brevexil . Two pieces of cordage were found embedded in fragments of salt. These were two-ply, Z-twist Agave fiber with diameters of 0.25 cm. and 0.2 cm. In addition a number of untwisted strips of yucca fiber were found. These were all knotted. Besides the vegetable fiber cordage, a bundle of human hair string was found in Salt Cave No. 1 . Two strands of hair were wound together in an S-twist to form this cordage. 58 Some pointed-toed sandals and net bags were recorded. I was unable to find any of these but a photograph of an example of each was found among the notes and is reproduced in Plate 102, _b. The sandals shown in Plate 102, b, (pointed-toed) are similar to those illustrated by Cummings (1953: 114; Lower row, left to right, Nos. 3-4). A fragment of a rabbit skin blanket and bunches of shredded Juniper bark were reported. I saw seven fragments of gourds . Perhaps these served as water containers. Fifteen split sticks are in the Salt Cave No. I collections. Five of them are curved into a loop for hammer- stone hafts and lashed with two-ply, S- twist cordage. Ten sticks with one end burned are in the collections ranging from 7.1 to 20.0 cm. long. In addition there are three cut sticks burned on each end. These are 10.6, 10.7 and 14.0 cm. long. I also saw four fragments of cane arrow shafts . Cordage and sandals, pottery and yucca quids, made with the same techniques and forms, and pottery types as that found in the saltmines were found In abundance in the Lost City ruins, caves and rockshelters . This artifact correlation is the basis for ascribing the mining activities at the saltmines to the Pueblo inhabitants of the lower Muddy-Virgin river valleys . of the Pueblo culture . How much earlier or later, there is no way of knowing. The pottery from Salt Cave No. 1 tells us that the mine was worked in Basketmaker III and Pueblo times, or during the occupation of the Lower Muddy River Valley by the agricultural people, but how long before, or after, we have no knowledge. It appears that Salt Mine No. 1 in the Moapa Val- ley was worked earlier than the one at Camp Verde, though the two periods of mine use may have overlapped. A specific instance of the use of salt for other than eating is recorded by Haury at Arizona C:2:8, one of the Canyon Cliff ruins. "Salt: On the altar of the ceremonial room, there was found a small piece of cotton cloth improvised into a sack for salt. The source of this material may have been either from the salt banks of the Salt River, a few miles above the mouth of Canyon Creek, or from the salt mine near Camp Verde on the Verde River, which was worked by the aborigines" (1934: 59-60). Salt Cave No . 2 Afew sherds of Virgin Black-on-white, Moapa Black-on-gray, North Creek Fugitive Red, and Pyramid Gray were found in the midden. These provide the best evidence that it was the Pueblo Indians who were doing the mining . Since very few Virgin Black- on-white sherds were found at Lost City, it is possible the people from further up the Virgin River came down to mine and were per- mitted to do so by the local inhabitants. The presence of Pyra- mid Gray suggests the possibility that people from the Lower Colorado River were also at the mines, but this pottery may have been acquired through trade or manufactured locally . Only sherds from the Basketmaker III and Pueblo time periods are represented. There is no evidence that the earlier Basketmaker II inhabitants of the valley or the later Paiutes ever worked Salt Mine No. 1. However, since the evidence is all negative on this point, the possibility of their having done so must not be ruled out. Many similarities with Salt Cave No. 1 are found at the salt mine at Camp Verde, Arizona, described by Morris (1928). The Camp Verde Indians mined their salt by tunneling. "They chose a stratum where the salt was relatively plentiful and followed it inward, beating to pieces the breast ahead of them. .. " (Morris 1928:81). The only difference in technique at Salt Cave No. 1, was the excavation of rooms, and the method of salt removal, i.e., the pecking of knobs of salt to be removed by knocking off this knob of salt. Salt Cave No. 2 (PI. 26,J.) is represented by only one photo- graph (PI. 97, b) . No information could be located relating to this salt cave or to the artifacts recovered from It. Salt Cave No . _3 This cave is located on the east side of the Virgin River about one-fourth of a mile back from the river, some six miles above its junction with the Colorado River, and some 20 miles south of St. Thomas, Clark County, Nevada. As with Salt Cave No. 1, this cave is situated in a salt peak composed of gypsum and clay, and the baseisof solid rock-salt. The cavern was formed partly in the salt and partly in the gyp- sum and clay layer above. During the 1890's when this mine was worked by a Mormon pioneer, Daniel Bonelli, itwas known as the Virgin Queen Salt Mine. The cave is 21 feet across at the mouth and 19 feet high. Rock has fallen in the rear of the cave; it extended back about 50 feet at the time of Harrington's visit in 1925. The cave faces west, and the fill was nearly 11 feet deep. On the north side of the cave, the ledge of salt rises to form part of the wall, with the typical circles pecked to remove the knob of salt. The list of artifacts from the Camp Verde salt mine such as bark torches, yucca fiber, sandals, pick hafts, unhafted heavy stone picks, correspond in detail to those from Salt Cave No. 1, and the other salt mines in the lower Virgin- Muddy river area. The southern Nevada stone picks were notched forhafting, rather than grooved like the Camp Verde hafted picks. Morris makes a brief comparison with the salt mining tools of southern Nevada. Speaking of the stone picks at the Camp Verde salt mine, he says, "The most notable fact about these tools is that they are definitely shaped picks, and not axes; a type that, as far as I know, did not develop elsewhere in the southwest except in the salt mining district of Nevada explored by M. R. Harrington" (1928: 89). No potsherds were found in the salt mine at Camp Verde, making it difficult to place the mining activities in time or cul- ture. Morris postulates that the mining of salt began In the pre- pottery period . By comparison of the artifacts from the saltmine with those from the Clear Creek Caves, he concludes that one type or haft and one variety of sandal from these caves and the salt mine are identical. From this limited evidence Morris sur- mises that the Camp Verde salt mine was worked during the height A trench was dug on the south side of the mouth against the south wall. It was 11 feet deep, four feet wide at the top, and 10 feet wide at the bottom. The fill was composed of salt de- bris, stone hammers, picks, and charred sticks. Where traces of cave floor were found, there were beds ofarrowreed and traces of pits dug down through previous accumulations to get at the salt. A total of 418 stone tools was recovered: 290 single pointed picks, 7 3 double pointed picks, 20 implements with sharpened edges, and 35 hammerstones . No evidence of haft- ing was noted. Digging sticks were found, which were probably used to dig down through the cave fill to get to the salt. Wood and bone spatulae, arrow fragments, fur and feather blanket fragments, yucca fiber sandal fragments, and string fragments were also found In the cave. Corn cobs, Agave quids, squash rind, gourd fragments, and dried yucca fruit were recovered . Barrel cacti with spines carefully bumed off, and rabbit and tortoise bones complete the list of items on which the miners evidently sub- sisted. There is no mention in the field notes whether or not potsherds were found in the deposit. 59 Salt Mine Theopen-pit salt mine (Nev. DD:11:30), Is located six miles south of St. Thomas, Nevade . on the west side of the Virgin River, about one-eighth of a mile west of Salt Cave No. 1 (PI. 26). Picks of two sorts were recovered. They are roughly shaped conical stones held in the hand (PI. 103, a), and hafted picks. The method of fashioning these tools was the same as described for Salt Cave No. 1, and no information is available on the num- ber found. Notched and unnotched choppers and hammerstones were re- covered in abundance. The notched and unnotched choppers (PI. 103, .b-.d), were made from flat basalt and quartzite river cobbles. One or more sides exhibited large bifacial, primary percussion flaking. Notched specimens are notched on opposite sides at the approximate center of the tool by removing large primary percussion flakes, perhaps for hafting. There was ap- parently no conscious effort at uniformity. The specimens ranged in size from 9. 5 — 15.5 cm. in length, 7.3-13.0 cm. in width, and 2.6-5.4 cm. in thickness. The hammerstones (Pis. 103,^; 104, a-c), are rounded stream cobbles modified only through use or elongated worked quartzite river cobbles. These latter were formed by removing large pri- mary flakes by percussion from one or all sides; many are bi- facial and edges were used as chopping tools in some cases. They range in size from 11.0-25.3 cm. in length; 8.7-12.5 cm. in width, and 2.6-5.2 cm. in thickness. Fragments of Juniper bark, the cane Phraqmltes , part of grass inflorescences. Agave quids, and compositae seeds were found. Seven fragments of two-ply yucca cordage were recovered from the fill. They ranged from2. 1-5.1 cm. in length, were S-twist, and the diameter of each string was 2.5 cm. One Cerbat Brown sherd was found . The exact provenience is not known, as it is impossible to tell whether the sherd is from the surface or fill. This single sherd does not give much Information. Does it Indicate the presence of Patayan miners, or merely the existence of Pueblo trade with the Patayan? The field notes do not indicate whether or not any other sherds were found . Sullivan Turquoise Mine The Sullivan Turquoise Mine (Nev. DD:13:1), is located 2.5 miles west of Lake View Fork and 100 yards south of the Boulder City-Hoover Dam Highway (PI. 7). The mine is on a rocky hill- side, of the open-pit variety, and the turquoise is of poor grade (PI. 105). The mining was carried out on the face of the hillside by trenching. The area worked covered about one-half an acre in extent. During March of 1936, a Civilian Conservation Corps crewof about a dozen men put several trenches into the mine area . The greatest depth recordedwas five feet fourinches. Various types of mining tools and some pottery were recovered from these test trenches . Numerous fire-hearths were found in the test trenches. They suggest the use offire tocrack thecountry rock, the method de- scribed by Bartlett (1935) as having been used at Los Cerrillos, the New Mexico turquoise mines. The rock was heated by means of fires, and suddenly cooled by throwing water over it, thereby causing it to break. The debris was then pounded with heavy mauls and choppers to separate the turquoise from the matrix. Fire caused the loss of some of the turquoise because it turns white with heat, but over the years considerable turquoise could be obtained in this manner. Crude pounding and chopping implements were the principal mining tools. These consisted of heavy mauls, choppers grooved or notched for hafting, and deerantlerplcks . There is no record of the total number recovered from the excavations, but it must have been several hundred. The stone tools were made from cobbles and boulder fragments. The materials used were granite, fine-grained basalt, limestone, quartzite, sandstone and rhyo- lite . They were roughly shaped by striking off large primary percussion flakes, with little if any shaping of the working edge. Some working edges are blunted from use as pounders (mauls), some like choppers, though this may also be due to use. No axes were noted. Plate 106, a-i_, illustrates examples of the various kinds of mining implements. There is no consistent pattern to the width or depth of the grooves . Pecking for the groove varies from complete encirclement of the tool, to merely notching on the edge of the artifact. That some of the tools were made on the spot is evidenced by the presence of chips. Anumber of plain and decorated Pueblo sherds were recovered from the diggings . As our knowledge of their presence comes only from the foreman's notes, identification of the types is not possible, as none of the specimens are available for study. Fragments of a tortoise carapace were found in the debris. Perhaps the desert tortoise was eaten by the miners. Although there is scant evidence to identify the miners or the length of time the mine was worked, the presence of Pueblo sherds certainly indicates that it was the Pueblo inhabitants of the area who did the mining. Thus, it appears that the Pueblo people were the first to canyon mining operations here, as was the case with the nearby salt mines. This is further corroborated by a statement of Haury's, ".. .the Hokokam were in possession of the semi-precious stone at an earlier date than the Basket- makers, who did not have turquoise prior to the aquisition of pottery" (1937: 129). This would seem to place a bottom date of Basketmaker III on the operations at the Sullivan Turquoise Mine, and since no report of the use of turquoise could be found for the Southern Paiute or other post- Pueblo people in the area, turquoise mining appears to have pertained to the Anasazi occu- pation. The widespread use of turquoise in the Southwest and the Northern Periphery is indicated by the following reports: Hoko- kam (Haury 1937: 129; 1945: 142); Mogollon (Wendorf 1953: 138); Mesa Verde (Watson, and others 1954: 3); Sinagua (McGregor 1941: 293); Fremont Area (Gunnerson 1957: 25); and Western Utah (Rudy 1953: 143), which serve as examples. Summary The extensive nature of the prehistoric salt and turquoise mining in what is now the Lake Mead area is evident from the description above. Evidence as to the identity of the miner's points to the Pueblo Indians in both cases. Basketmaker III and Pueblo sherds found in and on the saltmines and other evi- dence noted above forthe turquoise mine leads to this conclusion. The crude, unspecialized types of mining tools preventour tell- ing whether the mines were also worked before or after the Pueblo occupation. It does seem reasonable to assume the Southern Paiute Indians, at least, knew of the existence of these salt mines, especially if they were contemporaneous with the Pueblo Indians, which seems to be the probable situation. Whether or not the Paiutes worked them is a matter of conjecture. We can only say that in all likelihood, salt and turquoise mines were worked during the span of the Basketmaker- Pueblo occupation of the Lower Virgin- Muddy river valleys. It seems logical that some of the foreign items found during the excavations at Lost City, such as shell and intrusive pot- tery, were obtained from traders in search of salt or turquoise. 60 They came from the coast of California and the Gulf of Lower California, from the north in Utah, and even from northern Ari- zona. Discussion of Aboriginal Mining in the Southwest were also found in the caves. There were rosettes of salt, which were knoblike protrusions consisting of successive hemispherical concentric layers with spaces between layers. Some were mud colored, others white. Other deposits of salt were simply sheets, stained a dirty brown" (Eiseman 1959: 26, 30). A perusal of Southwestern archaeological literature has un- covered very few instances of the identification of salt in ruins, whereas turquoise is much more commonly found. This no doubt is due largely to the dissoluble nature of salt. Turquoise is generally recovered in the form of finished artifacts; beads, pendants, and mosaics. Kroeber (1941) gives the distribution of the use of salt in western NorthAmerica as follows: Salt was used almost with- out exception south of a line running from northeastern Colorado west through southwestern Wyoming, southern Idaho, dropping down through northcentral Nevada, up through extreme north- western Nevada, and up through central Oregon to the Pacific Coast. Avery fewsalt sourcesare known for the inland portions of this area. Three conclusions may be drawn: (1) Although not widely found in archaeological sites, it can be assumed that salt was used by the former inhabitants, and has not survived the long burial since abandonment of the sites; (2) Trading was involved in the acquisition of salt, probably over long distances; (3) Sources of salt were available to the Indians that are not known or recorded today. Salt and turquoise were the major items of prehistoric mining in the Southwest, and southeast Nevada in particular. Minerals of less importance were also mined. The other minerals mined to a lesser extent near Overton, Nevada, were magnesite, used for making beads and for pottery slip, and selenite, employed in making charms and ornaments (Harrington 1930: 10). Salt and turquoise were used for different purposes: Salt for eating, and turquoise for ornaments and mosaics. However, one notable exception for salt was that reported for Arizona C:2:8 (Haury 1934: 59-60), where salt was used for ceremonial pur- poses. An ethnographic example of gathering salt by the Zuni Indians is given by Stevenson (1904: 354-361). Salt was obtained aboriginally in the Southwest at the salt mines in the Lost City, Nevada, area; the salt mine at Camp Verde, Arizona (Morris 1928); near a salt spring in the canyon at the Junction of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers, Ari- zona; and the Zuni Salt Lake, New Mexico. A recent expedition to the Hopi salt mine in the vicinity of the Junction of the Colo- rado rivers gives a more accurate description of the deposits than has heretofore been available. "The Grand Canyon salt mine is apparently the property of the Hopl of Third Mesa. The salt deposit was impressive. It coated the cliffs almost continuously up to a height of 50 feet, and extended as far as one could see upstream and down. Several caves downstream from the point of descent contained salt deposits as well. The deposits appeared to occur in three shapes. There were active deposits in places where the water oozed out of the sandstone and left almost pure white stalactites. These Turquoise was mined by the prehistoric Indians in Nevada at the south end of Lake Mead and Sugar Loaf Peak, both in Clark County; in California, north of Silver Lake, in the Turquoise Mountains, San Bernardino County, near the Nevada line. In Arizona, it was mined in the Dragoon Mountains in Cochise County, on Canyon Creek at its junction with the Salt River in Gila County, near Eldorado and at Mineral Park, Mohave County; in New Mexico at Los Cerrillos, Santa Fe County, in the Burro Mountains, the Little Hachita Mountains adjacent to the Mimbres Valley in Grant County, in the Jarilla Hills, Otero, and near Paschal in Sierra County; in Colorado, atLajara, Conejos County, in the extreme southcentral part of the state. Methods used for mining the salt and turquoise at the differ- ent localities varied with the local situation. Tunnels follow- ing the veins of salt were dug at the southeastern Nevada and Camp Verde, Arizona, mines, while presumably, the salt could be gathered at the salt spring of the Hopi at the junction of the Colorado and Little Colorado rivers, and the Zuni Salt Lake. Pits and tunnels were also employed at the Mineral Park, Ari- zona, turquoise mine. Most of the turquoise mines were worked by digging pits and trenches into the face of the deposit. The actual method of removal of the minerals varied consider- ably between salt mines and between salt and turquoise mines. In the Lost City area salt mines, knobs of salt were formed by pecking, and then this knob was knocked off for easy transpor- tation. At the Camp Verde salt mine the salt was literally beat out of the face of the deposit. Turquoise was obtained quite differently: "The country rock containing the mineral was heated by means of fires, and then suddenly cooled by throwing water over it, causing it to break" (Bartlett 1935: 42). This debris was then pounded into small bits with heavy mauls. The mining tools employed at the salt and turquoise mines were in general similar: Crude hafted and unhafted picks, mauls, axes and hammerstones. However, axes were never used in southeastern Nevada; in fact, a bonafide stone axe has never been reported in the southern Nevada area. The numerous trade items found in Southwestern archaeologi- cal sites, pottery, shell, and minerals, probably derive in part from people coming from many directions to obtain salt and tur- quoise. The meager evidence available as to the time of operation of these prehistoric mines, obtained from potsherds and comparison of artifacts found at the mines with those from nearby ruins, and the fact that no turquoise has been found in sites earlier than Basketmaker III, indicate that mining activities began as early as Basketmaker III, and lasted through the Pueblo period. Whether or not the more recent Southern Paiutes, Mohaves, Navahos, or Apaches have worked any of the mines in their respective areas is not known. The extensive use of turquoise by Navahos, Hopis, and Zunis would make it appear that mines in Arizona and New Mexico have seen continuous use since the first discovery of turquoise at these sites and the use of the material by the Indians . 61 CHAPTER 10 CULTURAL COMPARISONS WITH NEARBY AREAS Before summarizing, it would be well to survey briefly the archaeological remains in the neighboring areas of the South- west and Northern Periphery. The survey will serve to indicate the similarities and differences between the Pueblo remains in southern Nevada and those in nearby areas. The San Tuan Anasazi The San Juan division of the Anasazi Culture is located very near to the Pueblo farmers of southern Nevada. An easy inter- change of ideas and people between southern Nevada and the San Juan area must account for the close cultural similarity be- tween the two areas. Several over-all descriptions of the Anasazi Culture have been published (Amsden 1949; Wormington 1951) and it is too well known to bear characterizing here, save very briefly. The Basketmaker II culture is found in the San Juan drainage area by A. D. 1. The Basketmakers grew com and squash and also hunted. Their weapons were the atlatl and dart. They made excellent baskets, sandals, rabbit skin blankets and crude un- fired clay figurines. Their houseshad oval floors of hard-packed earth with mud and wood walls . Remains similar to these are found in southern Nevada. Gradually the Basketmakers acquired new items, probably from the south. They learned to make pot- tery and to use the bow and arrow. They began to grow several types of com and acquired beans . They lived in small villages composed of clusters of pithouses. Basketmaker pithouses and pottery are also found in southern Nevada. In Pueblo I and II times there was an elaboration in pottery. Small surface granaries developed into contiguous rows of sur- face rooms, while the pithouse was reserved more and more for ceremonial use. Cotton was an important addition to the agri- cultural complex. In southern Nevada these two periods cannot be separately distinguished and Basketmaker III types of dwell- ings and pottery continued to be used into early Pueblo times side by side with new forms. The classic Pueblo III development with its dramatic and beau- tiful architecture and rich material culture is not found in southern Nevada. This maybe attributed to cultural lag in Pueblo II times in southern Nevada carrying into Pueblo III times. By this time the villages along the Muddy and Virgin rivers were deserted and the area abandoned to the nomadic Southern Paiute . Walhalla Plateau The Walhalla Plateau is an extension of the Kalbab Plateau. Hall (1942) recorded open sites in his survey of this area; the earliest houses were round or D- shaped. Some were partly dug into the sloping ground. Sites consisted of houses with one or two rectangular rooms, some with more. Many buildings were asymmetrical. Low walls with brush superstructures were the rule. Unshaped limestone or chert, and shaped sandstone blocks were common material. The lower course occasionally consisted of rocks set on edge. Projectile points, scarce on the north side of the canyon, were common on the south side. No stone axes or mauls were found. The pottery consisted of 60 percent KayentaWare and 40 per- cent Virgin River area types. An occupation from about A.D. 700 to 1175 is indicated by the pottery, with a light population in Basketmaker III, increasing in Pueblo I, with the greatest con- centration in Pueblo II, with a decline and abandonment in Pueblo III. This pattern closely parallels that of the San Juan area. Schwartz (1960) reports Virgin drainage sherds from the Shinumo area of the Grand Canyon. In Area II they were associated with Anasazi and a few Cerbat Branch sherds, a circular pithouse, and terraces for farming. The pottery complex suggests an occu- pation period of from A.D. 1050 to between 1150 and 1200. (The presence of Virgin drainage pottery indicates it was probably closer to 1150.) Area III with 50 percent Virgin drainage types dates the same as Area II. Similar utility wares from both areas indicate not only a contemporaneous but a related occupation of the two areas. Puebloid Culture of Southwestern Utah Areviewof the archaeological remains found in southwestern Utah is essential to our story. This area is given more detailed consideration because of its size and its immediate juxtaposition to the Virgin- Muddy river region. To the north and northeast of the Virgin drainage in Utah, is an area with a culture which Rudy (1953) calls Puebloid , a term which indicates its similarity to the Anasazi, yet emphasizes its separateness, thus, rendering it an important area of comparison with southeastern Nevada (PI. 2). Smith (1941) introduced the term Puebloid; it was adopted by Rudy (1953), and Wormington (1955). Jennings (1956) refers to this area as Sevier-Fremont. Wormington (1955: 97) calls this region Sevier B-l, and Area B-2 (Great Salt Lake); Steward (19 33a) refers to it as Area 4 of his term "Northern Peri- phery." I shall use the term Puebloid . Southwestern Utah forms the eastern edge of the southern Great Basin. It is characterized by isolated ranges of more or less parallel mountains separated by desert basins. Included in the area are the southwestern comer of Millard County and all of Beaver, Iron, and Washington counties. The southern part of the area lies on the border of the Basin and Range country of the Colorado Plateau (PI. 2). Except for the southeastern portion of San Juan County, which is part of the Anasazi region, the archaeology of Utah was little known before 1930. Judd's researches north of the Rio Colorado (1926) and Steward's work in Johnson Canyon and the Paria River area (1941) awakened an interest in the prehistoric cultures of Utah which led to the initiation of a long term program of arch- aeological research by the University of Utah in 1949. In south- western Utah the recent work ofRudy andStirland (1950) in Wash- ington County, Rudy's (1953) survey of western Utah and his excavations in Pine Park Shelter (1954), Taylor's (1954) re- searches at the Garrison Site, and Meighan's (1956) re-exami- nation of the Paragonah site have contributed enormously to our knowledge of the Puebloid Culture of Utah. The Puebloid Culture Is found throughout western Utah and extends beyond the borders of the area now under consideration. The Pusbloids were a sedentary people who practiced agriculture, built houses, and made pottery. Pottery has long been used by archaeologists as a culture and time indicator. Our area of comparison, southwestern Utah, borders both the Kayenta Branch of the Anasazi and southeastern Nevada. The recognition of pottery types over the major portion of this area is distinctive from those found in the Upper Virgin drainage of extreme southwestern Utah, and is an example of the use of pottery in differentiating cultural areas. The easily recognized pottery of this region makes it easy to draw geograph- 62 ical boundaries for the cultures. Through most of this region the Desert Gray Ware described by Rudy (1953) is the characteristic pottery. Rudy's survey of western Utah revealed that Snake Valley Gray, Corrugated, and Black-on-gray predominate west of a line drawn north and south through Milford, while Sevier Gray predominates east of this line. Great Salt Lake Gray, predominant in the region east and south of the Great Salt Lake, is found as an intrusive type in our area. Rudy (1953) believes that the Snake Valley types occupy a chronological position somewhat later, though overlapping with Great Salt Lake Gray . Taylor's excavations at the Garrison Site (1954) unearthed Snake Valley Gray, Corrugated, Black-on-gray, Sevier Gray, and Great Salt Lake Gray . Taylor feels that the occurrence of Great Salt Lake Gray at the Garrison site may indicate trade with the Salt Lake region. He suggests also that Great Salt Lake Gray was popular earlier than Snake Valley Gray. At theParagonah site sherds of all types of Snake Valley pot- tery were found. Meighan (1956) tentatively suggests the follow- ing sequence for the pottery found, beginning with the earliest: Snake Valley Gray, Snake Valley Black-on-gray, Snake Valley Corrugated, Paragonah Coiled, Snake Valley Colled, SnakeValley Tooled, SnakeValley False Corrugated, Paragonah Black-on-gray. The last five probably developed almost simultaneously. At Pine Park Shelter in Washington County Rudy (1954) found Snake Valley Gray and Snake Valley Black-on-gray, Plain Gray Type ILT (also found along the Virgin River) and Shinarump Brown (upper Virgin drainage), Boulder Gray and Pyramid Gray which Indicates contact with groups in southern Nevada. Southern Paiute sherds were also found. There is apparently a cultural association of Puebloid non-Pueblold (Pyramid Gray and Southern Paiute Brown Ware) pottery types in both levels of the Shelter. continuing to be used afterthe surface structure was introduced. It is curious that adobe was the usual building material of the surface house even in areas where suitable building stones abound and where slab-lined pithouses were constructed (Rudy 1953). Chipped stone artifacts are abundant at Puebloid sites. Rudy (195 3) believes they indicate that the Puebloid people hunted and gathered to supplement their farming. The large number of Puebloid campsites in western Utah strengthens this view. A stemmed form of point with an expanding base is commonly found at Puebloid sites and with Puebloid pottery. It is the typical point of the Basketmaker III- Pueblo I cultures of the Southwest. Small triangular points with two side notches and expanding stems are thought to be Shoshoni . They are more common in northwestern Utah where there is stronger evidence of Shoshoni occupation. The Puebloid point is, however, occasionally found associated with Shoshoni pottery . With this exception there is no way of distinguishing between Puebloid and Shoshoni chipped stone artifacts. The "Utah" metate, a trough metate with a depression that serves as a mano rest, is characteristic of the area but slab and basin metates are common. Pecked stone balls and arrow shaft smoothers occur frequently. Elaborate clay figurines are a characteristic of the Puebloid culture and reflect Basket- maker influence. Though a few fragments of basketry have been found, remains of perishable material are too few to be instructive . Physical Type The few burials excavated do not give a clear picture of the physical type of the Puebloids . After his excavations in western Utah Steward (19 36: 57) concluded that: "...the basic peoples having the Pueblo culture of north- western Utah were of a physical type much like if not identi- cal with the modem Shoshonean tribes." As the pottery of southwestern Utah reflects diffusion from the Anasazi area so does the architecture. Two main house types have been reported from Utah: The semi- subterranean, rectangular plthouse called the Grantsville type with its round sub-type the Willard type; and the adobe-walled, rectangular surface structure called theKanosh type. Rudy (1953) points out that the Grantsville type predominates in northern Utah while the Kanosh type predominates in southern Utah. This division corresponds to the distribution of Desert Gray Ware pottery. The Grantsville house is common within the geographic range of Great Salt Lake Gray and the Kanosh house is found in the area of Snake Valley and Sevier Gray. Steward (1953) suggests that the Puebloid plthouse is due to Basketmaker Influence and the surface house is due to Pueblo Influence. The excavations at Willard produced some evidence that the Grantsville house was earlier than the Kanosh (Steward 1933a). Taylor's (1954) excavations at the Garrison site revealed two types of houses. One was the adobe Kanosh type. The second was a large single- roomed unit with jacal walls erected in a pit. At Paragonah Meighan (1956) found both Kanosh and Grants- ville houses. Here there was evidence that the pithouses were dwellings and the surface adobe houses storerooms. Kanosh houses lack fire pits wherever found except at Garrison where Taylor found evidence of small fires having been built inside Kanosh houses. The Kanosh house is quite small. Domestic objects are rarely found within it. Judd (1917) reports finding kivas at Paragonah. Though situated in court-like arrangements these kivas are very like local pithouses. Both have central firepits with raised clay rims surrounded by four posts which support the roof. Both are rectangular in shape with rounded comers and dug about two feet into the ground. Possibly the plthouse was Introduced early to Utah but had a long popularity. In southwestern Utah the skeletons found at Paragonah exhibit cranial deformation and are of the same general physical type as the Pueblo people of Arizona and New Mexico. The two skeletons found in Zion Park are also similar to the Pueblo physical type. Conclusions The Puebloid Culture of Utah clearly is a product of diffusion from the Anasazi. Basketmaker traits were introduced first and spread farthest. These were overlaid but not completely replaced by later Pueblo diffusion. The farther south one goes in western Utah the stronger the Pueblo influence is . The presence of Anasazi Pueblo III trade sherds with Puebloid architectural remains and pottery of Pueblo II type indicates a considerable cultural lag between the Anasazi and the Puebloid. Taylor (1954), Rudy (1953) and Meighan (1956) all speculate that the end date of the Puebloid occupation of western Utah corresponds to the end of the Pueblo III period and may be correlated to the general shrinking of the Pueblo area which took place at that time. Rudy (195 3) specu- lates that the Puebloid people were a native Utah population having a hunting and gathering economy who adapted to Pueblo traits. After the Great Drought in the 13th century their pre- cariously balanced agriculture failed and the people reverted to their former roving, hunting and gathering life. On the other hand, Meighan (1956) feels that the Puebloid Culture represents an actual influx of Pueblo people into Utah. After the drought the area was abandoned by these people. The time and manner of Shoshoni entrance into western Utah is uncertain. There is no evidence of the Shoshoni having forced the Puebloids out of western Utah. At Pine Park Shelter Puebloid and non- Puebloid sherds were found associated in two subsequent cultural levels. This discovery seems to Indicate an overlap of Puebloid and Shoshoni occupations of Utah. There is, of course, the logical 63 possibility that the Puebloid occupation of Utah was in part due to the acceptance of agriculture by native previously non- seden- tary people. Part of these Basin people could have remained unacculturated and were left behind after the drought forced the agriculturalists to abandon the area. Fremont Culture of Northeastern Utah Benches were never found in pithouses. Villages contained sur- face stone and living rooms along with pithouses. Outside fire- places occurred as well as central adobe rimmed flrepits in both surface and pithouses. Forts or towers consisting of one or several masonry rooms were a distinctive Fremont trait. Fremont skeletal material is scarce. Lambdoidal deformation does seem to be common. The Fremont Culture of northeastern Utah had a few distinctive traits as well as patterns reminiscent of the Anasazi (Gunnerson 1960). Villageswere neverlarge, six to 12rooms were the aver- age. Caves and rockshelters were commonly used. Distinctive pictographs and petroglyphs attributed to the Fremont people are commonly found in northeastern Utah. Com, bean, and squash agriculture formed the basis of their economy. The characteristic pottery was plain gray with calcite temper in the north and crushed igneous rock temper in the south. Calcite tempered pottery was decorated by painting and tooling. Some of it was corrugated. Both mineral and organic black paint was used on slipped and unslipped surfaces. Designs were geometric and closely resemble Black Mesa, Sosi and Dogoszhi types. Metates varied from deep basins to nearly flat milling stones. The "Utah" type was also used. Manos were both one-hand and two-hand types. Ornaments and gaming pieces of bone, tooth and turquoise were common. The Fremont moccasin with dew-claw hobnails was a distinctive trait. Fremont architecture exhibited a wide variation which does not appear to correlate with chronology. Square and round sur- face dwellings and pithouses are found. Walls were of slab masonry; boulder and adobe masonry and jacal were used. Fre- quently masonry or adobe walls were builton a boulderfoundation. Postholes occurred in regular patterns of four or were randomly scattered. Subsurface plthouse walls were lined with boulders, plastered with adobe, or were simply the unaltered pit edge. Based on the few tree- ring dates available and on the trade pottery, Gunnerson (1960: 375) suggests a range in time for the Fremont Culture from A. D. 950 to 1 200, making it contemporaneous with the Pueblo I and II periods of the Anasazi Culture. Willow Beach Willow Beach, Arizona, 15 miles south of Hoover Dam, was a beach site used intermittently by hunters and traders (Schroeder 1952b; Wormington 1955). It lies on the route between the Mohave Desert and the Arizona Strip. There is evidence of cultural affili- ation with the Shivwits Plateau at the lowest pre-ceramic levels as well as in the later pottery-bearing levels. Schroeder (1952b) postulates an occupation by Basketmakerll people, probably re- lated to the Fremont Culture. A radiocarbon date of about 250 B.C. (2,200+250 B. P. ; M-45) was obtained for this early material. Evidence indicates that before A.D. 750 the Basketmaker people stopped coming to the site, but a southeastern California group with unnotched stemmed points continued to visit it. Later Bas- ketmaker III pottery from the Muddy-Virgin river area and some Patayan sherds were found. After A.D. 900 Pyramid Gray, made by the probable ancestors of the Mohave is represented at the site, along with the Patayan and Muddy-Virgin river pottery. The site ceased to be visited after A.D. 1100. 64 CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The earliest evidence of the occupation of southern Nevada by man consists of a find in Vegas Wash, near Tule Springs, a few miles west of Las Vegas, Nevada. Here splintered bones of extinct Pleistocene mammals, charcoal deposits, an obsidian flake, and a scraper have been found in circumstances which seem to indicate they were deposited at the same time. A radio- carbon age of more than 28,000 years (Simpson 1960) has been obtained from a charcoal deposit, but the specific association of the charcoal, the bones, and the artifacts has not been de- termined to everyone's satisfaction. The next group in the region lived at Gypsum Cave, situated some 20 miles north of Las Vegas, Nevada. The cave contained four cultural layers. The lowest was an early hunting and gath- ering complex. Here distinctive dart points, diamond in shape, with contracting bases, and some painted dart shafts were found associated with extinct ground sloth, horse, and camel remains. Radiocarbon dates of about 8,000 B.C. have been obtained for this layer. Basketmaker remains were found above the Gypsum material, with a Pueblo layer above that, and Paiute material in the upper- most level. More material of the Gypsum Horizon was excavated at Etna Cave, located in Meadow Valley Wash, a few miles south of Caliente, Nevada. Two Gypsum Cave projectile points were found near the bottom of the deposit. Basketmaker II type dart points were found above these. Above the dartpoints lay a stra- tum bearing Basketmaker III and Pueblo II pottery. Evidence of other hunters and gatherers who came after the people of the Gypsum Cave Horizon is exhibited at Stuart Rock- shelter, a stratified depositnear Glendale, Nevada. The lowest level, some 30 inches thick, contains projectile points similar to Pinto Basin types found in the southern California desert region. Two radiocarbon dates, 1914 and 2094 B.C. were obtained from ash in this level. A Basketmaker III layer overlies this, and above it is a Pueblo layer. The top level contains both Pueblo and Paiute pottery mixed together. Basketmaker II people were thenext group to occupythe area. They were hunters and gatherers too, and their distinctive weapon was a dart tipped with a large stone point with side notches . The remains of these people or people having a similar culture have been recorded over a wide area of the western United States. Most Basketmakerremains havebeen noted in the San Juan drain- age area, but caves with Basketmaker-like material have been reported from central and southern Nevada and in the east from Colorado and New Mexico . From the Basketmaker n base the Basketmaker HI culture of southern Nevada developed, probably stimulated by diffusion from the Kayenta Anasazi. The Basketmaker III period in southern Nevada saw the people clustered in small sedentary agricultural villages along the Muddy and Virgin rivers. Sometime during this period a northern people who made a dif- ferent type of projectile point and brown pottery entered the area. They were undoubtedly the ancestors of the modem Southern Paiute. Their entry apparently caused an imbalance of some sort - perhaps a strain on the amount of wild food or springs available, or the influx swelled to sufficient numbers to force out the Pueblos. The final short period of Pueblo occupation sees a dwindling population living in fewer villages, located on easily defensible bluffs. About A.D. 1150 the Pueblo people moved to the east and abandoned southern Nevada to the Southern Paiute who were encountered by the first white explorers in the region . The Virgin Branch In 19 34 Winifred and Harold S. Gladwin published a classi- fication of the various cultural phenomena of the ancient South- west. They attempted to fit the linguistic stocks recognized among the modem Indians to the archaeological remains of the area. The Gladwins labelled certain broad culture types as roots, for example, the Basketmaker Root. Each root was di- vided into a number of stems, each of which in turn was divided into branches. A branch was composed of phases. An archaeo- logical phase can be defined as a cultural complex possessing a sufficient numberof traits to distinguish it from other similarly conceived complexes, limited to a locality and to a specified period of time. Among the various branches defined by the Gladwins was the Nevada Branch, which together with the Kayenta Branch, con- stituted the San Juan Stem of the Basketmaker Root. The Basket- maker Root was felt to pertain to the Shoshonean linguistic stock. They recognized two phases of the Nevada Branch: The Moapa Phase characterized by Lino Gray pottery and pithouse villages assignable to Pueblo II times. The type sites for this phase were from the Lost City area. The second phase, the Parowan, belongedto Pueblo III times. The Parowan Phase was character- ized by Black Mesa Black-on-white, polished Gray Ware, and Indented Corrugated pottery. The architecture of this phase was the adobe walled pueblo. The type sites were located in the Parowan Valley of southwestern Utah (Gladwin and Gladwin 19 34: 26). The geographic extent of the Nevada Branch was not delimited but judging from the type sites, it obviously included the area of Pueblo occupation in southern Nevada as well as in southwestern Utah. The close similarity between the Nevada and Kayenta branches is indicated by their having been grouped together in the San Juan Stem. Colton suggested that the name Virgin Branch be substituted for Nevada Branch because: " . . .the name of a large state is not a satisfactory name for a branch which covers only a small area of a large state ..." (1952: 5). The majority of the archaeological materials recovered from the Muddy and Virgin drainage in Nevada belongs to the succeed- ing Pueblo period. This culture represents a continuing tradition from Basketmaker times augmented by borrowed elements from the east. The people lived in villages, some quite large, along the two rivers. They farmed the river bottom, mined the turquoise and salt deposits of the area, hunted and gathered in the surround- ing territory, and traded their products widely. With this recommendation I concur and it is worth noting that the name Virgin Branch has been accepted by most of the workers in the area. Colton divided the Virgin Branch rather differently than did the Gladwins. He proposed three phases or foci. The earliest was the Muddy River Phase which was Basketmaker III and Pueblo I in time, lasting from A.D. 600 to 900. This phase has Boulder Gray, Boulder Black-on-gray, and Logandale Gray pottery associated with Lino Gray and Lino Black-on-gray pottery 65 from the Kayenta Branch. The second complex was the LostCity Phase, which replaces the Gladwin' s Moapa Phase because Har- rington (19 30) used this term previous to the Gladwin's classi- fication. The Lost City Phase is Pueblo II, A.D. 900 to 1100. The final phase is the Mesa House Phase, Harrington's term again replacing the Gladwin's. This phase is attributed to late Pueblo II or early Pueblo III time, about A.D. 1100 to 1150. Colton states that the last two phases cannot be described accur- ately until reports of various excavations completed in the Vir- ginBranch have been published. To the Virgin Branchhe assigns the cultures of the northern strip of Arizona, of southern Utah west of the Colorado River, and of southern Nevada. Examination of the results of the excavations in southern Nevada has led me to propose a four-phase cultural sequence for the Anasazi archaeological remains along the Muddy and Vir- gin rivers in southern Nevada. The first is Basketmaker II in time, with an undetermined beginning date and perhaps lasting to about A.D. 500. Gladwin's old phase name, Moapa Phase has been used for this period. Next is the Muddy River Phase: Colton'sname has been retained, but the time has been changed from A.D. 600 to 900 to from A.D. 500 to 700. The Lost City Phase lasted fromA.D. 700 to 1100. Duration of the Mesa House Phase is estimated to have been from A.D. 1100 to only 1150. These remains seem to be closely enough related to the archaeo- logical discoveries in Zion National Park and in the Upper Virgin drainage, to justify grouping all as a single entity for which the name Virgin Branch is retained. The concepts of branch and phase are used here because they seem to be most useful in describing the archaeological cultures of this part of the Southwest. By branch is meant a regional cultural grouping through time. The region of the Virgin Branch includes the southern tip of Nevada where the Muddy and Virgin rivers emptied into the Colorado River, the drainage area of the Virgin River in southern Utah west of the Colorado, the northern strip of Arizona, and the Kaiparowits Plateau and Escalante drain- age of southern Utah. This region was inhabited by the Anasazi of the Virgin Branch from about A.D. 300 to 1200. The phase differs from the branch in being a unit of culture restricted to a smaller locality and having a shorter time span; for example, the Muddy River Phase which is confined to environs of the Muddy and Virgin rivers within southern Nevada and lasts from A.D. 500 to 700. By using the term branch I do not mean to imply any genetic relationship between its phases and any "Root" or "Linguistic Stock" or other "Branch" . Though the concept has been so used in the past, it seems less confusing to retain it than to substitute a new, unfamiliar term. In the following discussion of the Virgin Branch the archaeo- logical material from the Muddy River area of Nevada, from the Kaiparowits Plateau (Gunnerson 1959), and Escalante drainage (Fowler and others 1959), the Virgin drainage of Nevada, Zion Canyon (Schroeder 1955) and Washington County (Rudy and Stir- land 1950) is included. In these areas the antiquities are best known. The Shivwits Plateau is excluded because it seems to have been used as a hunting preserve by a number of different groups. The history of the Virgin Branch lasted from Basketmaker II to early Pueblo III times. The architecture shows a transition from simple pithouses to "U" shaped surface pueblos. The pithouse persists throughout their history, however. Jacal, adobe, and adobe-and- boulder masonry were used. Rooms, especially in pithouses, were slab-lined. Rimmed adobe fire basins are found within and without the rooms. The kiva seems to be lacking. Kayenta Branch architecture shows some similarities; forexample, retaining jacal wall construction to late times and the use of crude adobe-and- boulder masonry, but it is considerable more elaborate. Throughout the Virgin Branch plain gray utility ware was used until late Pueblo II times when corrugated wares were introduced . The painted pottery is black-on-gray or black-on-white. Virgin Black-on-white was not made in southern Nevada, though it was made in the rest of the Virgin Branch area. It occurs in the ruins of the Mesa House Phase as an intrusive type . In southern Nevada black-on-gray is the only locally made painted pottery. The de- signs found on the black-on-gray painted pottery are similar to those of the Kayenta, but simpler. The beautiful polychrome types of the Kayenta Branch were not made by the people of the Virgin Branch. Both 12- rowed and 14- rowed varieties of com were grown at LostCity and Zion; as well as the tepary bean, Phaseolus acutl- folius var. latifolius, which was found at Zion; the kidney bean, Phaseolus vulgaris; squashes, Curcubita moschata and C. pepo; and gourds, Laqenaria siceraria , all grown at both localities. Corncobs were also found at Virgin sites in the Escalante drain- age, and Curcubita is reported from the Escalante area. Cotton was cultivated and woven into cloth. Woven cotton textiles are mentioned in the field notes, but since only a few dyed cotton threads were found in the actual collections the weaving tech- niques cannot be described. Wild vegetable food was gathered at all localities, although since the environments are different, the plants used were not the same. Deer and mountain sheep, occasional antelope and elk, and a variety of small animals, principally the rabbit were hunted. The Kayenta people farmed the same crops in river bottoms and used wild food, too. The minor antiquities from Zion and the Escalante drainage are much like those from Lost City. Pottery figurines which persisted into Pueblo times, round stone balls, and the same variety of chipped stone artifacts, basketry, and cordage characterize all localities. Flexed burials in and around abandoned houses and in ash dumps, accompanied by mortuary offerings, especially pottery, are common. The graves of the Kayenta people are much the same. Beals, Brainard, and Smith (1945) report finding a cemetery area near one village. House 102 at Lost City had so many burials in and around its houses that it must have functioned as a ceme- tery for a number of nearby villages . Little can be said of the physical type of the people. On the Upper Virgin and at Zion two brachycephalic Pueblo-looking in- dividuals were found. The skulls from the Lost City area are both brachycephalic and dolichocephalic. Both occipital and lambdoldal cranial deformation was practiced in all three areas . Characteristic of the Virgin Branch, indeed of the whole North- ern Periphery, is the continued use ofearlyforms of architecture, pottery, and artifacts into later times and along with newer forms. Relationships of the Virgin Branch There are many similarities between the Virgin and Kayenta branches which indicate their close relationship. The Virgin and Kayenta people were agriculturalists growing com, beans, and squash in river bottoms and supplementing their crops with hunted and gathered wild foods. They lived first in pithouses, later in unit houses. Usually rooms were arranged in a straight line In the Kayenta; they were frequently in a U-shaped arrangement in the Virgin Branch . Large masonry houses in both branches were unplanned aggregations of contiguous and separated rooms. In both the Virgin and the Kayenta the masonry was Inferior to the rest of the Anasazi. Irregularly shaped stones embedded In large quantities of adobe mortar and inaccurate coursing are typical. The use of jacal 66 walls continued through Pueblo III times. There was a weak development of thekivainthe Kayenta Branch . This architectural feature is rare and late in the Zion area of the Virgin Branch and seems to be altogether missing in southern Nevada. Flexed burials, with pottery offerings, cemeteries, and oc- casional dog burials are noted for both branches . Kayenta pottery formed the model for the pottery of the Virgin Branch. In shape and decoration Virgin pottery closely resembles Kayenta pottery, although the Virgin imitations are simpler and less carefully executed. Corrugated pottery was not popular un- til late in Pueblo II times in the Virgin Branch and polychrome pottery was never locally made. In addition numerous trade sherds from the Kayenta are identified at Lost City sites and in other sites of the Virgin Branch from Basketmaker III into Pueblo III times, indicating contact between the two areas throughout the history of the Virgin Branch. The cultural development of the Virgin Branch seems to be due to the stimulus received from the Kayenta on an ancient and wide- spread Basketmaker II culture. Whether this implies an actual migration of Kayenta people into this western territory or simply a diffusion of ideas cannot be decided. The Puebloid Culture of western Utah and the Fremont Culture of eastern Utah and western Colorado are also similar to the Virgin Branch. They share similarities in architecture, pottery, and many specific artifacts. These similarities could be due to similar diffusion from the Kayenta in all three areas or as Gun- nerson (1960) has recently suggested to diffusion from the Vir- gin Branch to the Puebloid and Fremont cultures. Gunnerson dates these latter two cultures between A.D. 950 to 1200. This would be the time that the Pueblo people were beginning to leave the area of the Virgin Branch. Perhaps they drifted north and east, introducing their culture which already displayed mixed Basketmaker and Pueblo traits to the Desert Culture people of Northern Periphery. This contact may have given rise to both the Puebloid and the Fremont cultures . other is not described. The rectangular fireplace was lined on the two long sides by slabs, on which lay a flat griddle stone. There was no evidence as to how these pithouses were entered. In Black Dog Cave about 30 cists were found in the lowest level. They were lined, some with grass and some with stone slabs . These cists were from one to three and one-half feet in diameter. Pottery was not found with any of these structures. The perishable material from Black Dog Cave is said to closely resemble that fromDuPont Cave, a Basketmaker II site in south- ern Utah. The five pithouses on the Lower Virgin River had a variety of stone materials associated with them . No arrowpoints were found though some large, rather crude dart points were . These were either stemmed or comer notched types. Harrington (MS) illu- strates some triangular straight based knife blades and a mortar from these houses. Schroeder(195 2b) shows some more similar dart points, some crude percussion chipped choppers and scra- pers, some drills, a mano, and a chipped stone disc. This material is similar to Schroeder's Price Butte Phase at Willow Beach, Arizona (Schroederl952b) . Dart points like these are found in various Basketmaker sites. The phase is probably related to the widespread Basketmaker-like remains of an early period which stretch from central Nevada to the Four Comers region and east into Colorado and New Mexico. The Moapa Phase is difficult to date but seems to be respect- ably old. At Black Dog Cave the material is stratigraphically lower than the early Pueblo remains. A sample from the Basket- maker II level at Willow Beach yielded a radiocarbon date of 250 B.C. + 250; (M-45) (Schroeder 1955). The phase may date from about 300 B.C. to about A.D. 500 when Basketmaker III traits entered the southern Nevada river valleys . The Cultural Sequence at Lost City The Pueblo occupation of the area of the Muddy and Virgin rivers in southern Nevada lasted from Basketmaker II into Pueblo III times. This time span which is best documented at Lost City is divided into four phases: The Moapa Phase, the Muddy River Phase, the Lost City Phase, and the Mesa House Phase. The Moapa Phase The Moapa Phase designates the Basketmaker II remains of the area. Five pithouses on the Lower Virgin River, and three pithouses and Black Dog Cave in the Upper Moapa Valley are assigned to the Moapa Phase. There is other evidence of Bas- ketmaker II in several rockshelters and caves of the region, but the stratigraphy is too confused or the remains too scanty to permit conclusive identification. The pithouses are all located on high bluffs above the valley floor. They are large, nine to 20 feet in diameter, and from one and one-half to six feet deep. The subsurface walls were the unaltered pit edge, though one pithouse in the Upper Moapa Valley appears to have been slab-lined. The floors were com- posed of adobe plaster. One pithouse in the Upper Moapa Val- ley had a central posthole. No postholes were discovered in any of the others. Some sort of beam and brush superstructure is suggested by the charred beams and poles found in the fill of one of the houses. Two houses had circular fireplaces, another a rectangular one; all three were located to one side of the cen- ter of the house. The construction of one of the circular fire- places is described as being made of "adobe and stone;" the The Muddy River Phase This phase equates with Basketmaker III times of the Four Comers region. It probably dates, judging from the pottery, from A.D. 500 to 700. Seventeen sites definitely attributable to this phase have been reported from along the Muddy and Vir- gin rivers. Seven sites were recorded in the Upper Moapa Valley . The others. Houses 82, 101, 105, 106, and 117, and LMV 4, 5, 6,10, and 16, are located in the Lower Moapa Valley. Probably more could be found along the Lower Virgin River. In addition, Basketmaker III remains are found in various caves and rock- shelters in the region. The sites consist of clusters of from one to four pithouses randomly arranged. The pithouses are located both on the high mesas rimming the valleys and on low knolls within the valley itself. The people were beginning to farm the valley floor and move their dwellings down to a convenient distance from their fields. Basketmaker III sherds at campsites indicate that they continued to rely to some extent on wild foods. They also pro- cured salt from the local saltmines and possibly traded it to the Kayenta people, for sherds of Kayenta pottery are found in the pithouses. The round pithouses with adobe plastered floors and fire basins had occasionally slab-lined walls of wattle and daub, adobe, or adobe-and-bouldermasonry. The roof was probably poles, brush, and earth. Bins and lined cists served for storage. Pottery was introduced at this time from the east. The utility wares were plain gray, Boulder Gray and Logandale Gray. Lino Black-on-gray appears as an intrusive from the Kayenta, and the local painted ware, Boulder Black-on-gray, closely resembles it. 67 Both slab and basin metates were used. Small stemmed and notched points suggest that the bow and arrow had replaced the atlatl and dart. Blades, knives, scrapers, choppers, and ham- merstones continued to be used. Chipped and ground discs con- tinued and straight pipes made of baked clay or of stone were introduced. Baked clay figurines were made. The people do not seem to have used turquoise and the local mines were not ex- ploited. Bone was used for awls, spatuale, flakers, pendants and dice. Coiled and twined basketry, fur cloth and cordage were made . The dead were buried in a flexed position and accompanied by mortuary offerings, especially pottery. The Lost City Phase The houses of the Lost City Phase comprise the bulk of the sites found in the area. They were located on low knolls in the valley all along the course of the Muddy River and along the Lower Virgin River. A few small one or two-roomed houses stood on the floor of the valley itself. These may have been used as homes while the people were busy in the fields during planting or harvesting. This was a time of fairly dense population con- centrated in the river valleys, especially in the Lower Moapa Valley . There were about a hundred houses that could be assigned to this phase along the rivers. Some were small with only a room or two, while other houses had over a hundred rooms. Coiled and twined basketry, matting, cordage, netting and sandals were found; juniper bark, sage brush, yucca, andapocy- num were widely used in the manufacture of these things. Cot- ton was grown and woven into cloth . Flexed burials were found in the ash dumps and on and under the floors of abandoned houses. Grave offerings were abundant. Pottery was frequently placed in graves and many of the vessels may have contained food and water. Dog burials were found. The variety of pottery and of architecture may be correlated with chronology but insufficient collections and notes do not allow this phase to be divided. Later excavation may show that there are as Lost City two phases during this time which corre- spond to Schroeder's Early and Middle Developmental Pueblo at Zion. As it is, the Lost City Phase must stand as an extremely long period lasting from A. D. 700 to 1100. The Mesa House Phase The last period of Pueblo occupation of southern Nevada was a brief one lasting from A.D. 1100 to 1150. Houses 47, 50, 89, 90, 91, and the Museum Site continued to be used into this period. The phase is represented most clearly at House 5 3, Mesa House, excavated and reported by IrwinHayden (1930). This large house which contained over 84 rooms was built and occupied during the Mesa House Phase. Corn, beans, squash and cotton were raised by these people. The Muddy River is sluggish and its banks are low. The fields were probably irrigated by means of small brush dams and ditches . Floodwater farming was probably restricted because the Muddy has its sources in springs and does not flood its banks season- ally. Though intensive farming permitted a heavy population in thevalley, wild food resources were not ignored. Deer, mountain sheep, antelope, elk, rabbit, andthedesert tortoise were hunted. A variety of vegetable foods were collected. Among the most important of these was the screwbean. The salt and turquoise mines of the vicinity were exploited during the Lost City Phase. Wide trade networks were main- tained to the north with the other people of the Virgin Branch; to the east with theKayenta and the Patayan across the Colorado, and to the south with the Patayan of the Lower Colorado River. They traded as far west as Death Valley in California where they probably obtained shells from the Pacific Coast. The villages of this phase were combinations of pit and sur- face houses built with all the varieties of floor and wall con- struction found in the preceding phase. The rooms were arranged in TJ-shapes, in straight lines, or in blocks. Bins and storage cists were found within and without the rooms. No room which could definitely be called a kiva has been found in any of these Lost City houses The utility pottery was predominately plain though corrugated types were introduced late in the phase. The painted types were all black-on- gray and were local imitations of Kayenta types which date from A.D. 700 to 1100. The sites which continued to be used stood on ridges at the edge of the valley high above its floor. The locations seem to have been selected with an eye to defense. Mesa House itself was on a small mesa 120 feet above the valley floor. Its main rooms ringed a central courtyard to which there were three narrow, easily defended entrances. The site commands a view of almost the entire valley. About 1000 feet south of where the room block stood is an eminence called Signal Hill. From Signal Hill the country in all directions can be seen for several miles. On its summit were noted the remains of several firepits. It is easy to suppose that Signal Hill formed a convenient lookout post for the inhabitants of Mesa House. The people of the Mesa House Phase continued to farm the valley bottom. Com cobs and kernels, squash seeds and rind were discovered in Mesa House itself. In addition they continued to use the wild food of the area. Quantities of screwbeans, some sunflower seeds andpinyon nuts were reported from Mesa House. The animal bones were from ungulates, mountain sheep, deer, antelope, and elk. Bird bones were rare. Fragments of tortoise carapace were also present. Mesa House Phase pottery in the salt and turquoise mines, and turquoise within the pueblos in- dicate that the mines continued to be worked. The architecture of the Mesa House Phase remains as it was in the previous phase. The houses were combinations of surface and pit dwellings . The forms of wall and floor construction seen before continued to be made. Mesa House itself was located on nearby knolls which may have also contained the clay from which the pottery was made. Water was obtained from the Muddy River which at that time was probably within a mile of the site. The stone artifacts of the Muddy River Phase continued into this phase with new additions. Utah and trough metates were added. Paint grinding stones, stone balls, chipped and ground stone discs, notched stones, a variety of notched and stemmed projectile points, knives and drills, crude choppers, scrapers, and hammerstones were all found. Clay and stone pipes, turquoise, shell, stone, and bone beads and pendants, bone awls, spatulae, fleshersand dice were used. The baked clay figurine persisted. Red and yellow ochre and magnesite were used for paint. The pottery of the Mesa House Phase shows an Increase of corrugated types over plain and painted pottery. The presence of Virgin Black-on-white sherds from the Upper Virgin drainage and Citadel Polychrome sherds from the Kayenta area not only allow us to place the closing date of this phase at about A.D. 1150, but also indicate that contact between southern Nevada and the Upper Virgin and Kayenta regions remained open. Quan- tities of Pyramid Gray sherds show that the people of the Lower Colorado River continued to visit southern Nevada . Contact was also maintained with the Patayan to the east of the Colorado River. 68 The artifacts of the Mesa House Phase continued to show the conservatism typical of the southern Nevada Pueblos. The types of metates and manos used during the Lost City Phase continued to be usedin the Mesa House Phase. Mortars, stoneballs, stone balls, stone discs, notched stones, choppers, scrapers, and hammerstones all remained the same. Only three metates were reported at Mesa House which must have had a population of about 90 people at any given time. Does this mean that when the people left they took their household goods with them? Or does this mean that the Paiutes took them after the house was deserted? Points, blades, drills, and knives were also used. Hayden (19 30: 84) remarks that a great many more points were noted at Mesa House than in Lost City Phase sites and suggests that this fact may be correlated with increased warfare. Clay and stone pipes and simple degenerate figurines persisted (Hayden 1930: fig. 13, d) . Sherd discs were made. The basketry, cordage, matting, and textiles seem to have remained the same. Seven flexed burials with grave furniture and two dog burials indicate that the mortuary complex did not change. Throughout the entire Pueblo occupation of southern Nevada the artifacts indicate a continuous additive type of cultural change. New things coming from the east were accepted and added to the material culture, but they did not replace old things. Some artifacts lasted throughout the entire sequence: Crude choppers, scrapers, and hammerstones; chipped discs; the slab metate; the mortar; coiled basektry, grass-lined storage cists, and clay figurines. The pithouse was used from Basketmaker II straight through to A.D. 1150. Agriculture, forms of adobe and stone wall construction, plain gray, and black-on-gray pottery, the basin metate, arrow points, and ground stoneballs were added during the Muddy River Phase. During the Lost City Phase all of these traits were retained and new ones were added, notably: Surface dwellings, cotton cloth, trough and Utah metates, and corrugated pottery . The Mesa House Phase sawa dwindling popu- lation entrenching themselves on high bluffs, adding no new arti- facts to the cultural inventory . Influence from the Kayenta Branch seems to have been steady throughout the entire history. After A.D. 1150, Mesa Houseand the few otherhouses occu- pied during this phase were abandoned. No evidence of drought forcing out the people has been found. The area seems to have been arid throughout the Pueblo occupation as it is today. Life depended on the waters of the Muddy and Virgin rivers . Reduction of this water supply or deepening of the stream channels connected with a period of only slightly greater aridity would have probably been sufficient to greatly reduce the number of agriculturalists able to live along these rivers. The reduction of population would have made the remaining Pueblo villages more vulnerable to Paiute depredations. There is no evidence of a violent expulsion of the Pueblo people. The houses are not burned nor do they seem to have been looted. The defensive arrangement of the Mesa House Phase sites does seem to indicate increasing trouble with the Paiute who entered the area some time during the Lost City Phase. Perhaps the Paiute population of the region grew and became more of a strain on the existing resources . Economic competition could have led to small scale warfare, perhaps raids on the Pueblos and the burning of their fields. Such attacks would have left little trace for the archaeological record but might have been enough to convince the Pueblo people to leave their villages and land. Hayden (19 30: 87) reports that the local Paiutes relate that the old Pueblo people moved to the east and became the ancestors of the Hopl. The Southern Paiute cannot be said . Southern Paiute Brown Ware sherds were noted at almost all of the pueblo sites of the area, in both the Lost City and Mesa House phases. The sherds were found within the rooms of the houses, mixed with Pueblo sherds atcampsites, and in the caves and rockshelters. It is certain that these sherds were left by the Southern Paiute. The pottery is identical to pottery made in historic times by Southern Paiute, and the Paiute have legends which tell of their encounters with the Pueblo people (Hayden 1930; Meighan 1955). In one burial a Paiute jar was found with a Washington Black- on-gray bowl. Washington Black-on-gray is a Pueblo I type of pottery. There is, of course, the possibility that the bowl was an heirloom and dates from later than A.D. 700 to 900. But the burial does date from the latter part of the Lost City Phase . It is interesting that Harrington (1930:124) estimated that the earliest Paiute remains by counting layers of mud believed to be correlated to annual summer cloudbursts and lying in and over the deposits at Paiute Cave dated from A.D. 893. Besides the projectile point type, much of the material culture of the Paiutes, though cruder and less elaborate, is reminiscent of Pueblo artifacts. Both may be derived from the ancient Desert Culture. Twined and coiled basketry, cordage, matting, netting, sandals, fur cloth, cane arrows, chipped stone drills, knives, scrapers, hammerstones and choppers, the basin metate were all made and used by the Southern Paiute. Frequently, they stored their possessions in grass-lined cists in caves or rockshelters. The Southern Paiute are almost the only Great Basin Shoshoni speakers who practice agriculture (Steward 1938: 33). Remains of com and squash in Paiute deposits in southern Nevada caves (Harrington 19 30) indicate that the Southern Paiute have been cultivating these crops for a long period of time. It is reasonable to assume that they learned the practice from the Pueblo people. Steward (1938: 180-185) describes the life of the Southern Paiute in early Caucasian times. Though these Indians practiced some agriculture they relied more upon hunting and gathering. Steward doubts that they ever were organized into true bands . The population was too small and too thinly spread to permit joint undertakings by small scattered horseless groups. Pinyon nuts were gathered in the mountains by family groups . Some were carried back to the winter villages and others were stored in the mountains in grass- lined cists. The pine nut tracts were owned by individual men and inherited by their sons . A woman gathered on her husband's tract. Screwbean andmesqulte groves were owned by families and harvested by them. Both were stored like the pine nuts. Other seeds grew sparsely over wide areas and families did not own tracts of them. As these seeds ripened the families scattered out togather them. Hunting seems to have played a minor role as game was scarce. Deer and moun- tain sheep were taken in the mountains by individuals or by small informal groups of men. The animals were butchered on the spot and the meat and hides dried and carried back to the family. Rab- bits were taken in traps or surrounded by fire. The communal antelope and rabbit drives characteristic of the Great Basin were lacking here. There was no form of ownership of hunting territory and a hunterwas not obliged to share his game. The crops grown by the Southern Paiute were com, squash, beans, and sunflowers . Small fields were planted in damp spots near streams. Some sur- face irrigation was practiced, water being diverted from the streams onto the plots . The fields were individually owned and worked by families. They were destroyed at the death of the owner. Not each family owned fields and there seems to have been some trade of wild and cultivated foods . Sometime during the Lost City Phase, A.D. 700 to 1100 the Southern Paiute entered southern Nevada. Where they came from Neither cultivated nor wild food was anywhere plentiful enough to permit permanent occupation of a locality. Several families 59 wintered together in a sheltered spot, but scattered out again in spring to gather, to hunt, and to cultivate small plots until late fall. This winter village composed of a number of related bi- lateral families was the largest political grouping. It was not an exogamous unit. Its chief had little authority other than to suggest foraging places. In fall several villages would come to- gether for a few days of dancing, speeches, and mourning rites. It seems curious that the Paiute did not take full advantage of the agricultural techniques they had learned from the Anasazi inhabitants of the region. The early Basketmakers had wandered about the area col- lecting wild foods in small groups. The Pueblo people settled along the rivers close to their fields, in permanent villages. They presumably had wider social ties. They exploited the en- vironment to its fullest. They mined the local mineral deposits, and hunted and gathered in the country away from the river. They traded their surpluses far and wide. The Paiutes who succeeded them in the area followed the old Basketmaker way of life. They never concentrated their population close to one resource. In- stead they scattered out thinly throughout the whole territory, always on the move to take advantage of one resource after an- other. Why the Paiute did not settle down to farm in earnestand win for themselves the richer existence of the sedentary villagers is difficult to determine. Perhaps it happens sometimes In the history of a group that they must choose between entrusting their fate to the exploitation of one resource or dividing their attention among a number of resources. Forexample, some agriculturalists of the eastern Plains upon acquisition of the horse left their villages and concentrated on bison hunting, while others both farmed and hunted seasonally. While they hunted extensively, the Anasazi people chose to concentrate on farming and thereby won a steady food supply and the leisure to elaborate their culture. The Paiutes were smart not to trust in just one resource and lose all if it failed. They chose to depend on a number of resources so if one failed others were left. Their way of life kept them spread out and prevented the establishment of a social organi- zation which would have fostered cultural enrichment. 70 APPENDIX A CRANIA FROM LOST CITY, SOUTHERN NEVADA (LAKE MEAD NATIONAL RECREATIONAL AREA) By T. D. Stewart Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. CRANIA FROM LOST CITY, SOUTHERN NEVADA (LAKE MEAD NATIONAL RECREATIONAL AREA) By T. D. Stewart Division of Physical Anthropology, U.S. National Museum Smithsonian Institution, Washington D. C. The four crania (three with associated mandibles) which form the basis of this report (Plates 1-4) were the only skeletal parts submitted tome for study from over 200 burials uncovered by the CCC in 1936. Two other crania were in existence in 1950 (Per- sonal communication from Albert H. Schroeder, October 30, 1950), but could not be located at the time this report was being written . The rest of the skeletal material is said not to have survived ex- posure. The only field notes relating to these four crania are as follow: BP 5925 . From burial no. 255 under the floor of room no. 2 (a circular jacal) of house ruin cluster no. 111. The burial was encountered 9 inches below the floor between the west wall and the centrally located firepit. The skeleton was flexed on its right side with the skull to the south and the face to the east. A broken plain food bowl was by the pelvis. The room contained Basket Maker III and Pueblo II sherds . BP 6000 . From burial no. 154 near the northeast edge of, and on the floor of, room no. 5 (a circular jacal) of the house ruin cluster no. 102. The skeleton was flexed on its left side with the skull to the northwest and the face to the south (?). Grave fill included plain sherds and a stone scraper. Pueblo II sherds occurred in the jacal. BP 6033 . From burial no. 254 in the southeastern portion of house ruin cluster no. 102. The skeleton was flexed on its left side with the skull to the north and the face to the east. There were no associated cultural objects. BP 6470. From burial no. 164 near the south edge of, and on the floor of, room no. 4 (a very large oval jacal) of house ruin cluster no. 102. The skeleton was flexed on its right side with the skull to the south and the face to the east. Pueblo II sherds occurred on the floor and in the fill of the jacal. It is thus apparent that the attribution of these specimens on cultural grounds to the Pueblo II period, or in one case possibly to the Basket Maker III period, is not altogether certain. As for the crania themselves, four more diverse types can scarcely be imagined. Two are undeformed. Of these one is a long head (hyperdolichocrany) of fairly large volume, whereas the other is a roundhead (brachycrany) of small volume, but with a disproportionally large face. Of the two deformed skulls, only one is artiflcally deformed and but slightly so at that. The other represents an extreme grade of a rare type of pathological de- formity — craniostenosis (Virchow, 1851) or more specifically oxycrany (synonyms: acrocrany, hypsicrany, turricrany, steeple head, towerhead). It is noteworthy, too, that the faces of these skulls are much more uniform in proportions than the vaults. All four crania are probably of the male sex. The only one about which the sex is in doubt is the pathologically deformed specimen (BP 6000). Here the dental arches are small and the chin pointed as in afemale, but on the other hand themalar bones are large and robust as In a male. I will return to this problem in the description of the pathological deformity . All four crania are fully adult, but age within the adult range can be stated only in general terms. The youngest is the one 1 I am Indebted to W.S. Comwell of the Eastman Kodak Co., NewYork, for a summary of information on craniostenosis which he prepared for a radiological seminar at the University of Rochester Medical Center, March 4, 1958. with the disharmonic face (BP 6033). Here the sagittal suture is just beginning to close in the obelionic region and the teeth are worn only to the point of beginning exposure of the dentin. These criteria may well represent an age around 25 years. In the other three cases the sutures are extensively obliterated and the teeth show wear varying from moderate to extreme. Certainly these criteria represent ages over 30 years and perhaps even over 40 years . The principal measurements, as defined in Stewart (1952), are given in table 1, together with the main comparative data in the form of ranges . For the most part the figures for the four speci- mens under consideration fall within the ranges of Basket Makers and undeformed Pueblos. Since, however, these specimens are extreme in certain respects, a few figures fall outside the cited ranges. Thus the absolute length of the vault in BP 5925 is 4 mm. greater than the upper end of the range for Basket Makers. Also, absolute vault breadth in BP 6033 exceeds the upper limit of the Old Zuni range by 10 mm. Noteworthy, too, is the disharmony between the cranial module and capacity in the case of BP 6033. All of which emphasizes the statement made at the beginning, namely, that four more diverse crania can scarcely be imagined. The measurements of the pathologically deformed skull BP6000 have been included in table 1 because only the main diameters of the vault appear abnormal (these are enclosed in parentheses). Maximum length is reduced below the ranges of the comparative series and basion-bregma height is increased beyond these ranges . Asa result, the cranial index and the mean height index are great- ly elevated. Yet the significant thing is that the mean height in- dex is above 100 and exceeds the cranial index by 16.1 units. So far as I can discover, relationships of this sort have not been reported for artificially deformed skulls of the Southwest. For example, among 42 deformed Male "Puye" and "Other Tewa and miscellaneous" skulls measured by Hrdlicka (1931, pp. 22-24) the mean height index does not exceed 97 and in the 22 in which the mean height index exceeds the crania index the greatest difference is 8.8 units. Two types of artificial deformity are found in Pueblo skulls: "Vertical occipital" and "lambdoid" . Both types are represented in Hrdlicka' s deformed series cited above. In order to differentiate these artificial deformities from the pathological type of deformity represented in BP 6000 I have prepared three stereographic draw- ings in norma lateralis dextra and added thereto a selection of lines and angles from the Klaatsch (1909) craniotrigonometric scheme (figs. 1 and 2). The purpose of this scheme is to show just how vault shape has been altered. Each drawing is oriented in the Frankfort plane and the landmarks glabella, bregma, lambda, and basion are connected by lines which thus form chords of frontal, parietal and occipital arcs. The greatest height of each arc is expressed as a ratio of chord length. Lines also connect glabella with lambda and basion with bregma. The angle between these two lines — always near 90° in normal skulls — is known as the central angle of Klaatsch. The angle between the basion-bregma line and the Frankfort horizontal indicates the degree of incli- nation of the vertical axis. Three more lines, secondary in im- portance and hence dotted, represent l)the inferior- superior axis of the orbit, 2) the anterior-posterior axis of the foramen magnum and 3) the slope of the occiput between lnion and lambda. It is noteworthy that in the so-called "vertical occipital" type 71 •%H - seu -}d *ajv •jq •seu-uojuajA] •uieip "iuqij - uiiai (oo) A;TOEdeo SYTipoui ypjueao xapui - }q upai/\j 3 OJ 10 H o S 4-* 3 E o e (N <: >*-i M o c 10 a> cu E 2" XapUT JETUBJO •;H -Bajq-'seg •xew "}EJ 'U1PIQ •xeui d-e "uieia uoTieuuojaQ 13 CO £ lo ^ ^ O CM • CO £ —( C ,-H — « r-l O _. ^ to O a. TJ s s o . o o o O en n ^f h co oi CM ,-i ro eg o co — 1 ^_^ 1 r^ m o o in OJ ^ r*- CO o r*. * >— t ■^r * Cs] 1/5 l to CN o" o ,J m 00 O) O CO CO C-J T CO CO co in co n3 a ^ a 72 uesui 'xgpui - qjQ uesui -jq - qjQ uesui -jq *qJQ (ssai6sp) sjBue *A]V (saaifisp) ajSup -opj X -t-j s A c E 01 OJ o ■c >. 0) 4-J (0 5 0) > 01 ^ 01 Zi 01 c O O o S - , o a 1—1 £ O 3 © £ ~3 3 <4-l (0 01 O H C w 0) 01 g D> P. •}d •A|pajd- - seqopu3 •spuqns- - seqopu3 •seu-'seqopug jaddn 'xspuj *oej jejcn 'xapuj -opj •xeui -2Tq 'uieja " i Is o o 1 •-# 3 •^ to CO CO o 1 en CD CO OJ CM CO o 73 stsAnduiAs - pumu -jh xspui qcup- aje jaddn S 1 __ >> 0j o 0) c > o o O ►J s id 13 s 111 'o E o 3 J3 10 E-i o CO »4-» "3 — < w o c w , House 27, room A, looking west, showing basal rocks of wall. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 37. Lost City architectural features, a, House 47, stone slab fireplace in plaza northof room 29; Jd, House 102. Photo a, courtesy of theMuseumof the American Indian, Heye Found- dation; photo b, courtesy of the National Park Service. Plate 38. St. George Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City, a, House 74, Room 3; Jj, House 74, plaza; c, House 75, Room 1; d,_e,_f. House 74, Room 6; £, House 89, Room 22; h. House 75, Room 4; i, J_, House 47, no location; k. House 68, Room 3;_1, m. Lost City, no location. Plate 39. Moapa Black-on-gray sherds from Lost City. _a. House 102, no location; _b, 68, Plaza; c, House 7 3, no location;^. House 81, no location;^. House 89, Room 12; J, House 102, no location; m. House 67, no location; n, House 89, no location; o, House 73, no location; _p. House 91, no location; g, House 89, Room 18; _r. House 68, no location; s_, House 47, no location; _t, House 94, Room 4; _u. House 80, no location. Plate 47. Lost City whole pottery vessels, a-b, Moapa Black- on-gray bowls; c, Boulder Black-on-gray bowl;d, North Creek Black-on-gray bowl. No location. Plate 48. Lost City pottery designs, .a-f, Moapa Black-on-gray. Plate 49. Washington Black-on-gray bowls from Lost City. No location . Plate 50. Lost City whole pottery vessels, a, St. George Black- on-gray bowls, no location; Jd, Washington Corrugated olla. House 5 0; c, Pyramid Gray olla. House 22. Plate 51. Lost City Corrugated pottery. _a, Washington Corru- gated jar. House 50, ash dump;b, Washington Corrugated Jar, House 111, on floor near Burial 25 6; £, Washington Corru- gated jar. Lost City, no location;_d, North Creek Corrugated jar. Lost City, no location. Plate 52. Washington Gray jars from Lost City. No location. Plate 53. Lost City plain and corrugated pottery, a, Washing- ton Gray jar; b, Washington Corrugated bowls; c-d, Pyramid Gray bowl and olla mouth; e, Pyramid Gray olla, No location. Plate 54. Lost City plain pottery, a, Boulder Gray jar; b_, Boul- der Gray pitcher; c, North Creek Gray bowl; d, North Creek Gray jar. No location. Plate 55. Pottery handles from Lost City, a, Washington Corru- gated, House 87, no location; _b, Washington Corrugated, House 94, no location; c, North Creek Gray, House 50, no 82 location; d. North Creek Gray, House94, no location;_e, Boul- der Gray, House 72, no location; i, Pyramid Gray, House 87, no location; .g_, BoulderGray, House 102, no location;_h, Wash- ington Corrugated, Lost City, no location; _i, Washington Corrugated, House 50, no location; j_, Boulder Gray, House 72, no location; k, Washington Corrugated, House 67, no location; X, Washington Corrugated, House 47, no location; m, Boulder Gray, House 102, no location. Plate 56. Pottery with Burials from Lost City. a_, St. George Black-on-gray bowl. Burial 159, House 102; _b, Moapa Black- on-gray cup. Burial 159, House 102; £, Boulder Black-on-gray cup. Burial 159, House 102; ^1, Boulder Black-on-gray dish. Burial 187, House 102. Plate 57. Pottery with Burials from Lost City, a, Washington Corrugated Jar, Burial 138, House 50, ash dump; b, St. George Black-on-gray bowl. Burial 141, House 50, ash dump; c, Wash- ington Black-on-gray bowl, Burial 143, House 102; d, Boulder Black-on-gray bowl, Burial 158, House 102, Room 6. Plate 58. Metate type specimens from Lost City, a, Utah type, House 47, Room 66; b, Trough type. House 87, Plaza; £, Slab type. House 47, Plaza; d, Basin type. House 102, no lo- cation. Length of .c, 38.8 cm. Plate 59. Mano type specimens from Lost City. _a. Type I, House 50, ash dump; b, Type IH, Warshield Rockshelter; c, Type I, Rockshelter No. 9;d, Type III, House 102, Room 7;_e, Type II, Lost City, no location. Length of d, 18.7 cm. rounded ends; jn-^o, blades, stemless, triangular shape, con- vex base; £-3, blades, stemless, leaf shape, convex base; S~t, blades, stemless, leaf shape, convex base;_u-w, blades, stemless, triangular in shape, convex base;_x-.z, blades, leaf shape, convex base. Length of z, 9.1 cm. Plate 69. Drills from Lost City. Type I, e, m, v-x, ee-ff ■ Type II, .a-d, f-lj n-u, z-dd, qq-nn . Type II, _y. Plate 70. Chipped and ground stonediscs from Lost City. Dia- meter of _!_, 9.5 cm. Plate 71. Clay and chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. _a, pottery spoon; b-c_, roof clay fragments; ji, arrowshaft straight- ener; e, incised rubbing stone; i, h-l_, graver-knives;^, flake knife; m, n, conical scoria pipe; £-£, conical clay pipes;_r, sandstone tubular pipe. Length of£, 8.1 cm. Plate 72. Bone artifacts from Lost City. _a, awl tip. House 50, no location; b-c_, awls, Rockshelter No. 2, and Lost City, no location; d, spatula fragment; e-f, awls. Lost City, no loca- tion, and House 102, Room 7; £, L-shaped awl from Etna Cave; h, awl. House 102, Burial 227;_i, spatula fragment. House 102, Burial 174;j, flaker; _k-j_, ulna awls. House 73, Burial 85, and House 102, Burial 187; m, awl with fiber handle, Etna Cave; n-£, awls. House 102, Burial 169, Boulder Rock- shelter, and House 102, no location; q_, antler awl. Rock Crevice in Arrow Canyon; r-Uj awls. House 102, Burial 174, Room 22;House73, ash dump, and House 50, Room 7. Length of u, 6.2 cm. Plate 60. Mano type specimens from Lost City. _§, Type IV; b. Type V; c. Type VI; d. Type VII. Length of c, 22.5 cm. Plate 61. Ground stone artifacts from Lost City. _a. Type VImano with notched ends; b_, trough metate with groove pecked across one end. Plate 62. Ground stone artifacts from Lost City, a-b, paint grinding stones; c, basalt mortar; d, pestle. Length of b, 33.75 cm. Plate 63. Pecked and chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. _a, notched stone; b, notched stone used as a chopper; £-£, ham- merstones; t, chopper. Type II; £, notched and grooved stone; h, hammerstone; 1-1 . notched stones; k, notched chopping tool from Salt Cave. Length of_k, 18.3 cm. Plate 64. Projectile points from Lost City, a^ Group A;c_-d, j-j_, 11, Group D; b, £, Group C; _e-h.,.k-.l_, n-o, dd, ff-qq , ii-kk. Group E; m, Group F; £-.s. Group B;_r, t_-u, ee_, Group M; w- cc , Group O; v. Group N; hh. Group G. Length of j_, 4.1 cm. Plate 65. Projectile points from Lost City. .a-Ji, cc-ee , 11- nn , Group E;_i-£, U7W, Group H; g-t. Group B; Xi Group I; x- _z# bb , qq . Group L; Hj Jck, Group J; hh- 1 i , Group O; oo-pp . Group P. Length of_p_p., 2.8 cm. Plate 66. Projectile points from Lost City. a-±, Group K; Jc-o, Group F; £, _s-v. Group P; grLi Group M; w-cc. Group I. Length of bb_, 6.5 cm. Plate 67. Chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. §j-e_, flake knives; _f, blade, stemless, leaf shape convex base; .g_-k, blades, stemless, triangular shape, straight base;_l-_n, thumb* nail flake knives; o-s, stemless, triangular shape, convex base;_t-x, stemless, triangular shape, straight base; y, blade, stemless, leaf shape, convex base. Length of _y^ 6.9 cm. Plate 68. Chipped stone artifacts from Lost City. _a, knife- drill, Type I; _b, drill, Typel;£-e, graver-knives; i, drill. Type I; Sri, drills. Type III;J-1_, blades, stemless, rectangular shape. Plate 73. Bone and wood artifacts from Lost City. _a-^?,jj, bone dice from: House 109, Room 1, House 121, no location; House 102, ash dump, Burial 224; House 50, no location; House 102, Room 5, Burial 169, Room 7A; House 50, no location; House 120, no location; House 73, Room 7; House 47, no location; House 50, ash dump; House 50, no location; £, bone pendant, House 7 3, Burial 85; _r, cut reed fragment. Lost City, no lo- cation; _s, cut twig, Rockshelter No. 2; $-v, bone saws from: House 102, no location; House 50, Room 9A; Warshield Rock- shelter; w, bonegaming piece. House 102, Burial 240; x, z-aa, bone whistles from: Rockshelter No. 4; House 102, Burials 169 and 174;_x, willow whistle, Boulder Rockshelter; bb, wood gaming piece. Lost City, no location; c_c, wood gaming piece with incised crosses on both ends. Length of c_c, 11.6 cm. Plate 74. Bone tools from Lost City. No provenience . a, splin- ter awl; b, bone pendant; c_, vesicular basalt conical pipe with bone mouth piece; _d, ulna awl; ^, bone pendant;_f, in- cised bone dice. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the Ameri- can Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 75. Shell and bone artifacts from Lost City, a, incised bone bead; b, selenite pendant; c_, Qardium shell pendant; _d, pear-shaped shell pendant; _e, bone gorge fish hook; t, bone needle; 5, p- cc, Hallotis shell pendants; h, stone pen- dant; J, shell pendant; J.-o, Hallotis disc beads; .dd, abalone shell pendant. Length of dd_, 5.5 cm. Plate 76. Stone, bone, and shell artifacts from Lost City. a_, clam shell disc bead; bj-g_, Olivella blpllcata barrel beads; d-e, splre-lopped Olivella biplicata beads; f-q, freshwater snails with hole drilled in each;.h, jade discbead;_i, cylindri- cal Jade bead;J-k,_y., clam shell disc beads; J_, grooved stone object; m, stone mountain sheep effigy; n, stone bead; o, flat stone with scratch marks; £-5, cylindrical magnesite beads; jr, grooved stone object; t, turquoise pendant; u, stone pen- dant; v, turquoise bead; w, white glass bead; x, green glass bead; z, Olivella biplicata disc bead; aa-bb , stone pendants; cc , turquoise pendant; dd, bird bone with two-ply string through it tied to a stick; ee, incised and stippled slate fragment. Length otcc, 2.6 cm. 83 Plate 77. Shell beads from Lost City, .a, Olivella blpllcata bar- rel beads; b, Olivella bipllcata cap beads; c^, Olivella bipli - cata barrel beads; d, Olivella blpllcata cupped beads;_e, Oli- vella biplicata cupped beads; f, Olivella bipllcata barrel beads . Plate 78. Figurines from Lost City. a, House 67, Plaza;b, House 102, Room 4; c, House 87, Plaza; d, House 73, Room 5; e, House 47, ash dump; t, House 47, Plaza; <±, House 47, Room 60;h, House 67, no location;.!, House 72, no location; j_, Lost City, no location; k. House 47, no location; o, House 89, Plaza; £-£, House 112, Room I; ^, House 47, Room 61; t, House 47, Plaza; u, House 89, Room 43. Length of _u, 8.6 cm. Plate 79. Figurines from Lost City. No site provenience. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Found- ation. Plate 80. Worked sherds from Lost City. _a, Washington Corru- gated, House 89, no location; _b. Lino Black-on-gray, no lo- cation; c_, North Creek Black-on-gray, House 47, Room 72; _d. North Creek Black- on- gray. House 47, Room 60; _e, Boulder Black-on-gray, House 120, no location; i, North Creek Black- on-gray, House 120, no location;jj, Tusayan Black-on- red . House 74., Plaza; h. North Creek Black-on-gray, House 47, no location;i_-^i. Medicine Black-on- red, no provenlence;k-, , South- ern Paiute Brown Ware, House 47, Plaza;l,S. Paiute Brown Ware, House 50, no lopation; Boulder Gray, House 47, no location. Plate 81. Wood artifacts from Lost City. _a-c, fire hearth frag- ments; d, fire drill; e, worked end of wood arrow shaft; i, l^ _1, o, nock end of cane arrow shaft; h, arrow foreshaft; J<, ant- ler tool fragment; m, wood arrow point; n, cut twig, sharpened on one end; £, sewing kit? Length of o, 10.7 cm. Plate 82. Wood, homand bone artifacts from Lost City. a^, wood crook with pointed end;_bj horn spoon; c, bone spatula; d, wood handle notched to haft a stone knife; e_, wood ladle. Length of e^, 26 cm. Plate 83. Charred com from House 38, Room L. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 84. Com cobs from Warshield Rockshelter, Basketmaker type. Photo courtesy of the Botanical Museum, Harvard Uni- versity. Plate 85 . Com cobs, a-b, Footprint Rockshelter; cj-d, Rock- shelter No. 10. These specimens show more Teosinte intro- gression than most Basketmaker com. Photo courtesy of the Botanical Museum, Harvard University. Plate 86. Basketmaker corn cobs from the Peabody Museum, Har- vard University. Photo courtesy of the Peabody Museum, Har- vard University. Plate 87. Flexed burials, Pueblo Grande de Nevada. a_, Burial 49, House 36, Room A, under floor. Flexed in supine position; b, Burial 51 , House 50. Flexed on right side. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. twined bag fragment. Length of ^, of the National Park Service . 50 cm. Photo a^, courtesy Plate 91. Warshield Rockshelter. _a, Warshield Rockshelter; _b, shield petroglyph on rear wall of Warshield Rockshelter. Photos courtesy of the National Park Service . Plate 92. Chuckawalla Cave. a, mouth of Chuckawalla Cave; _b, fill at entrance to Chuckawalla Cave . Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 93. Stone artifacts from Chuckawalla Cave, .a, chert graver. Level 3; b, chert projectile point. Level 3; c, chert projectile point. Level 3; d, chert projectile point. Level 2; e^, chert drill, Type II, Level 2; f^ chert blade, Level 4; _g, chert flake knife. Level 3; h, chert flake knife. Level 3;_i, chert flake knife. Level 2; j_, chert side scraper; Level 2. Length ofj., 7.8 cm. Plate 94. Bone and wood artifacts from Chuckawalla Cave. a, bird bone whistle. Rock Crevices; b, bone awl. Rock Crevices; c, scapulae bone saw or bark shredder, Level 3; d, ulna awl. Level 3; e, arrow foreshaft fragment, Level 2; i, pointed twig. Level 2;_g, arrow foreshaft, Rock Crevices; _h, gaming stick?. Rock Crevices. Length of^l, 33.2 cm. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 95. Bone, stone and clay artifacts from Chuckawalla Cave . a, bone dice, conically drilled, Level 1; b, lump of clay pressed around end of a small reed. Level 1; c, bone dice. Level 4; d, bone dice, Level 4;_e, shaped sandstone fragment, tool sharpener? , RockCrevices;j, North Creek Black-on-gray pot scraper. Level l;_g_, Aquarius Brown pot scraper. Level 1. Length of^, 6.9 cm. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 96. Figurine fragments from Chuckawalla Cave._a, Level 3; b. Level 2; c, Level 2; d. Level 2; e, Level 2; J, Level 2; jj. Rock Crevices; h, Level 2; _!_, ash dump. Length of^, 6.0 cm. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 97. Salt Cave No. 1, southeastern Nevada, a, mouth of cave seen from the valley floor; J), entrance to the cave . Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Found- ation . Plate 98. Passage in Salt Cave No. 1. Map was prepared for publication by the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Found- ation, but never appeared. Map mentioned in legend under A-B is not shown because It could not be located. Map cour- tesy of the Southwest Museum. Plate 99. Method of removing salt, a, floor of Salt Cave No. 1, showing pecked circles, the remnants of grooves cut into the salt matrix to isolate blocks for removal; b_, looking into Salt Cave No. 2 with pecked circles and knobs of salt In fore- ground. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American In- dian, Heye Foundation. Plate 88. Lost City Burials, a. Burial 44, House 50. Flexed on left side; b. Burial 263, House 101. Arrowpolnt in verte- brae. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 89. Antler club with Burial 67. _a, Antler club. Burial 67, House 57; b, Burial 67, House 57, Room 3, underfloor. Flexed on right side. Antler club shown in situ. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 90. Artifacts from Footprint Rockshelter. a, Footprint Rock- shelter; b, basin metate; c. Juniper bark apron fragment;^, Plate 100. Mining tools from Salt Cave No. 1. ji, granite pick; b, granite pick; c:, fine-grained basalt chopper; d, notched quartzite hammerstone. Length of d, 17.5 cm. Photos cour- tesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 101. Mining tools from Salt Cave No. 1. a, notched quartz- ite chopper; b, notched quartzite hammerstone; c, notched quartzite hammerstone; d, notched quartzite chopper. Length of d, 11.5 cm. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 102. Artifacts from Salt Cave No. 1. a, hafted fine-grained 84 basalt and quartzite hammerstones; length of lower specimen, 11.4 cm.; b, net bag, sandals and corn cobs from midden de- bris. Photos courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 103. Mining tools from the open-pit Salt Mine. _a, quartz- ite pick; _b, quartzite chopper; c, fine-grained basalt chopper; d, notched quartzite chopper; _e, notched quartzite hammer- stone. Length of_e, 10.6 cm. Photo courtesyof the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation. Plate 104. Artifacts from the open-pit Salt Mine, a, notched quartzite hammerstone; b, notched quartzite hammerstone; _c, notched quartzite hammerstone. Length of c:, 11.7 cm. Photo courtesy of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Found- ation. Plate 105. Sullivan Turquoise Mine. Lake Mead in background. Photo courtesy of the National Park Service. Plate 106. Mining tools from the Sullivan Turquoise Mine, .a, quartz hammerstone; _b, quartz chopper; c, fine-grained basalt chopper-hammerstone; d, sandstone hammerstone; e, notched fine-grained basalt chopper, _f, notched fine-grained basalt chopper; .£, fine-grained basalt cobble hammerstone; h, notched granite maul; jj notched fine-grained basalt chopper. Length of i, 21.5 cm. 85 Plate 1 , aft (■*# 1 . f*rn ''>', ■st- 4- O JP * n in j^ m> * ■ ■ :.,; • S-i I I o V *r>f -1- ■ H R^v / f00 - /f > 1 ' / t . ■ (* i ''■■'■.,■■■' ; ■ '• '• • .:' VD o u Plate 17 J * " M %m •'.wsr "^ 0) -4- o ... >*-'-' - Vv-:/ - - c- ■ ■ ■ ■ . • I *»/ •jfp" Wm i af ; 1 ./i ■ ^ & L 0) o ►J I '*J ■ I wu ■ ■»•■ yH fiM"l - -. fc ,. - ^ Jflnt^^lv A 1 o IN a. U 4- a. a f g m J V n ~m Plate 22 LOST CITY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES LOWER MOAPA VALLEY CLARK COUNTY, NEVADA T" THIS SECTION "1 " ' J ?°'--:r- ' / -SO ■ 3B . j, ■..■ r_ j c 5 ■ // s N e*9IC DATA V-»S «MP NflAHt~8D-9!Zia(ST THOMAS I PR£-'937 PREPARED BT NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, REGION THREE- SANT4 FE, NEW MEXlcO\ HP$ VAP HRA-9D 806eiDE r A-L OF SECTIOH 33}>S40 Plate 23 .no:7:ii3(9o; -DC 7 . ! 2 [89) N DFTAII OF SFCTIQN 33 LOST CITY ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES LOWER MOAPA VALLEY, CLARK COUNTY, NEVADA 3D II 103(77) Plate 24 in rg u a. Plate 26 Plate 27 oo jfi V.-y . . Fir eh I a ce F i r e h I a c e House J 14 N Plate 29 •SCALE Desert Sand Desert Sand PLAN OF HOUSE NO. 47 PUEBLO GRANDE DE NEVADA St Thomas. Clark County, Nevada. EXCAVATED &. EXPLORED Museum of- H»t American Indian, Heye Foundation New York, Ciry.MY. During 1924-1925-1926 Planft-Survey by. M R Hjrrm^on -Tricing byLScbellbach Plate 30 ■ a ..*-*-* Plate 31 /"■ ■ 1 P§ ■ fi*.:' - - ; JBtl^i'i; :'£-,:■ f /.r. 1;: --• "Wt^^yS? -...: l-i * 1 sN~ A ^ j a 1 -b , Plate 32 !fJ**II* |n lljgwwll^jB^gppwl■. ||,|^| WB^^k J jy ■**« Plate 33 Plate 34 -)- a. <&-*■ Plate 36 C»* "^'M ^"^ ^bi f . - "■ .'-V.,' - v, '•/'•^-^W"- Plate 37 m a. O <3- O m in S a % oo in a o VO - M r:* Jj ' r : ' JJ b ' ■ BK*5 ' - 1 i -^^^^1 I r. 1 I" I, ii j: j ; % mr d Plate 62 vo in vo ,■/■ 00 4- o kT s* .' r.£ fr a *13£ . • - € UP ■■■ >■<;■■< Plate 99 ■£$£ v <0 Q. •- - I ■ I o o o -e- O Plate 102 o Q. Plate 104 **&$&*► * Plate 105 o Appendix A, Plate 1 Appendix A, Plate 2 Appendix A, Plate 3 Appendix A, Plate 4 C. I 9 6. 2 M. H. I. 9 0. 2 NEW MEXICO 42.3 C. I. 8 6. 7 11. H. I. 8 8. 4 ARIZONA Appendix A, Figure 1 36.1 C. I. C 9- 5 K. H. I. 1 5. 6 Appendix A, Figure 2 27^8 005 \ H Sr* STATE PRINTING OFFICE CARSON CITY. NEVADA jack McCarthy, state printer 1962 University of Connecticut Libraries