1 / % f " JOHANN VALENTIN ANDREAE JOHANN VALENTIN ANDREAE'S i%Jk CHRISTlANOPOLIS AN IDEAL STATE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BY FELIX EMIL HELD A. B. College of Emporia, Emporia, Kansas, 1902 A. M. College of Emporia, Emporia, Kansas, 1908 THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN GERMAN IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1914 \ education, science, and investigation; religion, music, and art; government and social connections. A comparison of the above headings with the emphasized factors in the Utopia and the Civitas Solis, and also the method of treat- ment of these items, will show, 1) that between the Chris- tianopolis and the Utopia there is slight or partial agree- ment only in some matters of social laws, government, and religion, though even in these fields the differences are greater than the likenesses; 2) that the Civitas lays em- ... phasis upon objective methods of teaching, failure of the Aristotelian method, scientific investigation of nature, mathe- matics, and the value of painting. To say, however, as several do who have been quoted, that this coincidence necessarily means a copy, is absurd. For these principles of education were a part of Andreae's system long before he saw any of Campanella's manuscript. This will be evi- dent from an inspection of the Fama and the Con- fessio, which were in print respectively in 1614 and 1616, and the former of which was circulated in manuscript form as early as 1610. The introduction of the Fama contains this prophecy : " The blessed dawn will soon appear, which, after the passing of the gloomy night of moonshine or the scanty glimmerings of the sparks of heavenly wisdom which may still linger with men as presagers of the sunshine, will usher in the pure day, with which all heavenly treasures will become known. This will be the genuine carbuncle, of which we have learned that it will give forth light in darkness a welcome medicine to take away all ills and anxieties of men." Other parts of these earlier works will be used on later occasions. 1 Besides showing Andreae's early interest in the " wisdom which should reveal all in- visible things in the world-secret" (knowledge by experi- 1 See pp. 72, 119, 120, 121. 40 Christianopolis mental investigation), this section is also important because it shows that even in 1610 the philosopher's stone as such was for him a myth and merely symbolical of enlighten- ment. In defense of the originality of the Descriptio (not con- sidering, minor likenesses in form and detail) it may then be briefly stated: 1) Andreae's notion of a Utopia dates from his visit to Geneva, and his seriousness in the matter of a realization of such an ideal state is proved by his own personal efforts in the communities in which he lived. 2) The principles inculcated are not duplicated in preced- ing Utopias his conception of an ideal state is a new one; and the system of education as outlined, a marked improve- ment over all preceding, and, as far as Utopias are con- cerned, is strictly his own. 3) In matters of science and education where the Chris- tianopolis and the Civitas have important points in common, there is no proof of copying, as the same principles are found in Andreae's earlier works, especially the Fama, which antedates the Cimtas. 4) As a final argument it may be said with Gussmann, " It would indeed speak but badly for Andreae's historical great- ness, if his work, which fits so exactly into the frame of his other writings, and which is so thoroughly filled with his own peculiar soul (Geist), were nothing more than a dry recasting, the trivial bowdlerization (Verballhornung) of the work of another." x 1 W. Gussmann : Christianopolis, in der ZkWL, Jahrg. 1886, VII, p. 438. CHAPTER III THE CHRISTIANOPOLIS AND FRANCIS BACON'S NEW ATLANTIS The story of the revolt against the Aristotelian method of arriving at conclusions, is one too often discussed to re- quire lengthy repetition. Suffice to say that many scientists of the sixteenth century (among them especially Telesio Bernardino in Italy) were restive under the restrictions of the old system, and were striving, independently and in co- operation, to pave the way for a new philosophy of nature. Among those who fought most strongly against Aristotle and his teaching as it had passed down from his day, and one to whom the greatest credit has been given for over- turning an old and instituting a new system of philosophy, is Francis Bacon. It would seem that he early conceived a dislike for Aristotle's system. If we can trust a statement from Dr. Rawley, which the latter says Bacon made to him in commenting upon his early student life, Bacon expressed this dissatisfaction as early as his sixteenth year when a stu- dent at Cambridge namely, that at that time " he first fell into a dislike of the philosophy of Aristotle, on account of its unf ruitfulness ; it being a philosophy only strong for dis- putations and contentions, but barren of the production of works for the benefit of the life of man." x Bacon was born in 1560. His father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, had been Lord Keeper of the Royal Seal, to which office Bacon also later attained. Francis Bacon entered Cam- 1 Rawley's Life of Bacon, in Spedding, I, p. 4. 4i 42 Christianopolis bridge at twelve, and completed the regular course in the liberal arts. Being destined by his father for service to the state, he accompanied an embassy to France and spent some time at Calais. At his father's death he re- turned to England and studied law and political science, which became his regular profession in life. It must be added, however, that law as such was never his greatest pleasure. In explanation of this fact a statement of his own may serve. " I possessed a passion for research, a power of suspending judgment with patience, of correcting false impressions, of arranging my thoughts with scrupulous pains.' But my birth, my rearing, and education had all pointed toward politics, not philosophy, and, as is not unfre- quently the case with young men, I was sometimes shaken in mind by other men's opinions. I also thought that my duty toward my country had special claims upon me. Lastly I conceived the hope, that, if I held some honorable office in the state, I might thus secure helps and supports in my labors, with a view toward the accomplishment of my des- tined task. . . . With these motives I applied myself to politics." * Under Elizabeth and later under James I, Bacon made great advancement in his profession, and held the highest offices in the government, until his disgrace and removal from the chancellorship in 1621. But during this time and especially during the five years of his life in re- tirement, he seems to have spent all his spare moments and to have devoted his best efforts (if we may judge from his letters and works, and also from comments of Dr. Rawley, his very intimate friend and the editor of his works) to the breaking down of what remained of the old method of Aristotle, and to the building up of a "new system" or 1 Introduction to G. C. Moore Smith's edition, Bacon's New Atlantis, p. 11. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 43 "new instrument" (organum). This was to free the in- tellectual world from the fetters of pure logic and sophistry and to open up unknown mines of truth and information a system which Bacon maintained was entirely his own and which would cause a complete revolution in thought. Of his many works, those which deal especially with the subject before us are : The Advancement of Learning, published in English in 1605, the Novum Organum in Latin in 1620 and the De Augmentis, Latin, in 1623. The Novum Organum or Instauratio Magna included the Advancement of Learn- ing in revised and translated form. The Great Instaura- tion also includes the Sylva Sylvarum, or Natural History, and to this was appended the New Atlantis when the former was published for the first time by Rawley after Bacon's death. The Sylva was the last thing that occupied Bacon's time. Whether Bacon was entirely unprejudiced and unselfish in his scientific efforts is a disputed question. Wolff paints Bacon as an antagonist of Aristotle, endeavoring to dis- place the latter from his world-throne and to establish him- self in the vacated place. 1 In so doing, he maintains that Bacon fails to realize or at least to confess that his method is after all not entirely new, but one which eliminates from Aristotle his purely deductive reasoning, and merely de- velops and adapts the inductive. Certain it is that induc- tion so often ascribed to Bacon did not begin with him; that the attainment of knowledge through experimental means and the compiling of masses of detailed facts were, as already stated, suggested and practiced long before. But Bacon was keen and quick-witted enough to grasp the value of this method and first formulated it into definite prin- ciples. He insists, furthermore, that his induction does not 1 Wolff : Francis Bacon und seine Quellen, pp. 235 ff. 44 Christianopolis consist merely in simple enumeration of details and collec- tion of facts but in an additional process of exclusion and rejection. 1 This feature is not discoverable in his earliest works, as for instance Valerius Terminus, but as a result of his own experience, and perhaps suggestions from others, gradually appears. So that his final scheme, as described by Spedding, 2 provides for three steps : the ministration of the senses, of the memory, and of the reason, under which heads he includes the gathering of facts and material, and the proper checking of results. Of all Francis Bacon's works none has created more in- terest or has been more commented upon than the New Atlantis partly because of the uncertainty as to the date of its composition, partly because of its content, and again, because it is, as distinguished from Bacon's usual attempts, a work of fiction. The New Atlantis was first written in English, not in Latin as stated by Henry Morley in his Ideal Commonwealths, and others, and was among the works 3 translated into Latin during the last five years of Bacon's life to assure their preservation. 4 There was no 1/ date on the manuscript (it was published in 1627, a year after Bacon's death, at the end of the Sylva) and the work is a fragment. We are told by Rawley, " That his lord- ship thought also in the present fable to have composed a frame of laws of the best state or mold of a commonwealth. But foreseeing it would be a long work, his desire of col- lecting the Natural History diverted him, which he pre- ferred many degrees before it." 5 In his summary of the 1 Bacon's Life and Works, I, p. 34- a Life and Works, I, p. 40. * Hist, of Henry VII, The Counsels, Civil and Moral, Dialogue of the Holy War. 4 Rawley : Life of Bacon, p. 10. e Works, III, p. 127, Pref. to the New Atlantis. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 45 works of Bacon's last five years (those of his retirement) Rawley puts the New Atlantis between the History of Henry VII and De Augmentis. This would make the date of its composition about 1623. No one disputed this date until in comparatively recent years, when, due to the discovery of some papers in the Harleian Charters, which were attributed to Bacon, the date was suddenly pushed back seven to nine years. In the paper referred to 1 the New Atlantis is men- tioned twice. The contents of the paper would point to a date between 1614 and 1617, according to which the New Atlantis must at least have been begun at that time. Dr. S. R. Gardiner took this view, and in his Life of Bacon in the Dictionary of National Biography states " '. . . New At- lantis, formerly supposed to have been written as late as 1623, but now known to have been composed before 161 7." This change was accepted by all authorities, and was copied in encyclopedias and " lives," until a full analysis of the case ap- peared in the Athenceum 2 in an article by Dr. G. C. Moore Smith. Dr. Smith pointed out that the paper, representing an address given by Bacon before the houses of parliament, was probably the work of Thomas Bushell, 3 written after the death of the former, and put into his mouth for per- sonal reasons. The argument of the article was accepted by Dr. Gardiner in the next issue of the Athenaeum 4 and the 1 Harleian Charters, III, D, 14. ' Feb. 3, 1900. Thomas Bushell (1594-1674) entered the service of Bacon at the age of fifteen years. His habits were those of a spendthrift. When introduced at the court, his extravagant clothes were noticed by King James. He was always in debt, and Bacon came to his rescue often. When the latter was impeached, Bushell retired from public life, but returned after Bacon's death and promoted several mining schemes. In this capacity he seems to have used Bacon's name for his own private ends. 4 Feb. 10. / 46 Christianopolis matter now stands as formerly. The fact that Dr. Rawley, the private secretary of Bacon, definitely assigns the work to the last five years of Bacon's life, furnishes the strongest possible argument. His statement, just quoted, on the title page of the New Atlantis, suggesting that " it was unfin- ished because Bacon, being pressed for time, preferred to continue the Natural History," would seem to be an addi- tional proof, especially when one remembers that the part in which Bacon was most interested, that of science and inven- V tion, was already completed. It can readily be seen why Bacon, having finished that part of his ideal state, and feel- ing, as he stated several times, that his death would cut off some of his productions, preferred to leave the rest and take up his former task that which lay nearer to his heart. At any rate Dr. Smith's statement may be accepted: "Ac- cordingly, any attack on Dr. Rawley's date, on the ground of the Harleian paper, may be considered to be now abandoned." * It cannot be doubted that Bacon set a high value on the New Atlantis, and commentators have not hesitated to at- tribute to it and to the ideals for which it stands a very prominent place in literature and in the development of modern natural philosophy. First of all Rawley, " Certainly the model is more vast and high than can possibly be imitated in all things. Notwithstanding most things therein are within men's power to effect." 2 For those who have written on the subject, the New Atlantis is the most perfect form of ideal state up to the time of its publication, and for some, the scheme of a col- lege and outline for research therein contained, the one and only model for the Royal Society of London and other 1 Smith's edition of the New Atlantis, Introduction, p. 9. 2 Title page of the New Atlantis, Works, III, p. 127. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 47 similar institutions. Furthermore, that this model of a col- lege and the plans for " investigating nature " appear first in the New Atlantis and are entirely original with Bacon has not as yet been much contested. It will be made clear further on, that the former contention is not entirely true; and to show that the latter statement may be seriously doubted, will be the purpose of the discussion immediately succeeding. There are certain undeniable likenesses in the New Atlantis and the Christianopolis of Andreae, and cir- cumstances point to a relation between them. But before we take up a comparison of the two, the question as to whether it is at all possible that Bacon may have known Andreae's works will be looked into. 1 Bacon had regular correspondence with men of letters in different parts of Europe, and he kept in as close touch as possible with all available contemporary literary and sci- entific productions. This cannot be doubted. For although his personal references to such correspondents, those whose interests were scientific rather than political, are comparatively few, certain incidental remarks give evi- dence of the facts. Only once, so far as is known, does he mention Campanella. But in this brief reference 2 he plainly suggests his acquaintance with him and with his ideas. A letter to Father Redemptus Baranza at Anneci, preserved in the collection of J. P. Niceron, 3 deals with Baranza's opinion on parts of the Novum Organum, which was published the second year previous and which Baranza had evidently carefully perused. Bacon's letter asks the latter to take up and develop certain phases of natural 1 Simon Goulart translated some of Andreae's works into French. Andreae's Fifty-two Discourses, translated into French in 1622, are in the Stadtbibliothek at Zurich. 2 Bacon's Works, II, p. 13. * Life and Letters, VII, p. 374. 48 Christianopolis philosophy, and expresses, as he often does, the desire for " fit assistants " in the work he was undertaking. He adds the very suggestive clause, " I have seen those of your works that are published, works, certainly, of great sub- tlety and diligence in your way. The novelists (regularly at that time for innovators, inventors, and investigators) whom you name, Patricius, Telesius, 1 besides others whom you do not mention, I have read. . . . Let our acquaintance be now established." Scaliger 2 is mentioned in the Sylva. 3 " Therefore Scaliger does well to make the pleasure of generation a sixth sense," referring to Scaliger's Exer- citationes Adversus Cardanum. And direct influence from the same source is traceable in the description of the chameleon 4 and elsewhere. Scaliger was in England in 1566 and kept up relations with the Continent while at the University of Leyden. Among Bacon's memoranda of July 26,i6o8, 5 is found this item : u Q. of learned men beyond the seas to be made, and 1 Telesio Bernardino, the Italian philosopher, was born a Cala- brian in 1508. He died in 1588. His philosophy is founded on experience, his researches including physics, chemistry, and as- tronomy. An academy founded by him in Naples, being intended to educate scientists and displace Aristotle's method, is still in exist- ence. His chief work is De Natura, which appeared in fragment at Rome in 1568 and in Naples in 1586. * Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) was perhaps the most famous philologian of the sixteenth century. He studied in Bordeaux and Paris, specializing in the classics and Hebrew literature. In 1566 he was in England, and spent the next twenty-five years in various places in South France. He was converted to the Protestant church, and succeeded Lipsius as professor at Leyden in 1593. He died in 1609. Among his very numerous and various writings are several on scientific subjects. Heinsius, and later Casaubon, were intimate friends and comrades of his. 8 Works, II, p. 556, no. 694. 4 II, p. 460, no. 360, from Scaliger's Adversus Cardanum, p. 106. B Works, XI, p. 64. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 49 hearkening who they be that may be so inclined." He was endeavoring to find help in the work of his Great Instaura- Hon from among the learned men of his own country and the Continent. Shortly after this he tried to interest Casaubon (who was then at Paris), as is plain from a letter Bacon wrote him. x Bacon knew of Galileo, and, according to Mr. Ellis' preface to the Descriptio Globi Intellectualis, " listened eagerly for news from the stars brought by the latter's telescope." 2 A letter to Sir Henry Wotton 3 is of especial interest. In this letter Bacon says : " The letter which I received from your lordship upon your going to sea, was more than a compensation for any former omission, and I shall ever be glad to entertain a correspondence with you." 4 Spedding tells us that the letter went in company with three copies of the Novum Organum. Wotton was at the time on an embassy to Germany; and having a considerable acquaint- ance with the men of learning in Europe, could do much to advertise the book. He was so well acquainted with German, that for years in Ingolstadt and Vienna he was mistaken for a German. 5 1 Works, XI, p. 146. ' Works, III, p. 511. 1 Sir Henry Wotton (1568-1639), diplomat and poet, was educated at Oxford, and went upon an extensive tour of Europe in 1588. He visited Altdorf, Linz where he met Kepler Vienna, Rome, and other cities in Italy. In 1593 he was with Casaubon at Geneva and later in France. In the service of Essex he accomplished diplomatic missions in France and Germany. After James' ascension to the throne, he was given posts as ambassador in various places in France and Spain. In 1619 he returned to England by way of Germany. He was present at James' funeral and went to parlia- ment under Charles. In his acknowledgment of Bacon's letter and the three copies of the Novum Organum he promised to give one of the latter to Kepler. 4 Works, XIV, p. 130. Lucy Aiken : Memoirs of the Court of King James I. London, 1822, I, pp. 117 ft. 50 Christianopolis A study of the lives of three men would seem espe- cially to point toward a possible connection between Bacon and the circle of friends and acquaintances of Andreae on the Continent. These will be taken up separately. Isaac Casaubon was born at Geneva in 1559. He was edu- cated, and afterwards taught the classics at the university in his native city. In 1593 he became acquainted with Sir Henry Wotton, already referred to, who was at that time on his travels through Europe; and the latter stayed for some time at the home of Casaubon while in Geneva. Casaubon soon had a world reputation among scholars. The French, especially through the efforts of De Thou, 1 tried hard to win Casaubon for France, by establishing him at one of the French universities, and in 1596 he went to Montpellier. Even earlier than this he had formed a close friendship with Scaliger, then professor at Leyden. They had been introduced by Richard Thomson, an Englishman. Scaliger, who was eighteen years Casaubon's senior, did not at first look upon his overtures with favor, but in the end came to think very highly of his scholarly attainments, calling him the " most learned man in Europe." They cor- responded regularly until Casaubon's death in England. From Montpellier Casaubon went to Paris, taking up a posi- tion under Henry IV, under the title of Lectureur du Roi. With James he had already been in communication while the latter was James VI of Scotland, and he was long desirous of taking up his abode in London. The death of Henry in 1610 released Casaubon from any obligations to stay longer; and the same year he started for England in the suite of Lord Wotton of Marley, the half-brother of 1 De Thou, historian and statesman (1553-1617). His home was in Paris, and during the reign of Henry IV, beginning in 1594, he was president of the parliament. He had a wide circle of pro- fessional acquaintances, including Scaliger, Heinsius, and Bacon. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 51 Sir Henry. With James he was very intimate. The latter spent hours in conversation with him and supported him with a considerable pension. The Bishop of Ely and the Dean of St. Paul's were his closest friends, and he also spent much time at Oxford and Cambridge. After his death in 1614 he was buried at Westminster. His very numerous publications deal to a considerable extent with the classics, and include translations from Greek into Latin. Among the " learned men beyond the seas," * Casaubon is to be counted. 2 He had become acquainted with some of Bacon's writings and had written to Sir George Cary, ex- pressing his appreciation of them. Bacon took advantage of this fact to open a correspondence with him, and this was at least partly responsible for the call which Casaubon received from James the following year. This letter 3 ex- presses the desire for friendship and cooperation in the great work of scientific research. The second individual whose life may have formed a link between those of Bacon and Andreae is Georg Rodolf Weckherlin. He was born at Stuttgart in 1584, and entered the University of Tubingen in the spring of 1601, pursuing the study of jurisprudence. During the years immediately following his graduation from the university he entered the diplomatic service and discharged several missions in Ger- many and France. The three years following 1607 he spent in England, as secretary of a legation to James I, and in 1614 he is mentioned as acting as private secretary to the Duke of Wiirtemberg. His marriage to the daughter of Francis Ra worth of Dover called him to England in 161 6, and after 1624 he was under-secretary of state in England, having charge of the correction and examination of all 1 Cf. p. 48 of this chapter. 2 Works, XI, p. 145. 3 Works, XI, p. 147- 52 Christianopolis official correspondence. During the civil wars he took his stand with parliament, though in the expedition against Scotland he followed Charles. In 1644 he was made secre- tary of foreign tongues, which office he held until displaced by Milton in 1649. In 1652 when Milton's sight began to fail, Weckherlin was his assistant. He died the following year. Weckherlin is known first of all as a poet, and has left a collection of several hundred poems. Among these there is one of some length dedicated to " Heinrich Wotton, dem Engelischen Ritter," while another is an adaptation of one of Wotton's odes. 1 This, it is to be remembered, is the Sir Henry Wotton who lived with Casaubon in 1593 at Geneva, with whom Bacon corresponded and to whom he sent his Novum Organum in 1620. It will also be noted that Weckherlin entered the University of Tubingen the same year as did Andreae, and that they spent the follow- ing four years there together, the one in jurisprudence, the other in theology. And furthermore Weckherlin was a close friend and for years the secretary of Benjamin von Buwinckhausen, Stadthalter of Alencon, an intimate friend of Andreae. At the death of Buwinckhausen, Andreae conducted the funeral services and in his sermon speaks of him as " a man of the greatest worth, of whom I shall never speak except with great honor." 2 Andreae mentions Buwinckhausen in his Vita, in various connections. 3 The third to be considered is Sir Toby Matthew, courtier, diplomat, and writer. He was born in 1577 an< ^ was e ^u- cated at Oxford. In 1598 he visited a friend in France but returned soon after. In 1601 he went to parliament and there 1 Nos. 44 and 11 of Goedeke's collection of Weckherlin's poems, Leipzig, 1873. 2 Weckherlin's Oden und Ges'dnge in Hopfner, and Vita, p. 113. 8 Vita, pp. 103, 113, 119, 126, 150, 158, 159, 242. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 53 became acquainted with Bacon. The next few years he spent in Europe, visiting especially Italy and Spain. While abroad he became converted to the Catholic faith. This, though he kept the fact secret for a while, made permanent resi- dence in England impossible, as he refused to take the oath of allegiance. He was therefore on the Continent more than in England, though he made several attempts to be per- mitted to live at home, attempts in which Bacon earnestly took his part. While in Brussels he received a copy of the Advancement of Learning and, in 1610, the De Sapientia Veterorum. During the next few years he translated into Italian several of Bacon's works, among them the Essays. At a later period again at Brussels he translated into Eng- lish The Incomparable Dr. S. Augustine and The Penitent Bandito. In 1624 he was appointed one of the eighty- four " Essentials " or original working members of an Academe Royal, the scheme of which had been completed by Edmund Bolton. 1 In 1625, as a mark of especial favor to Matthew, Bacon added his Essay on Friendship to the series, referring in his letter to the friendship existing between Matthew and himself. In Bacon's will was found a clause by which he left thirty pounds to be expended in purchasing a ring for Matthew. The latter died in the English College at Ghent in 1655. During Matthew's extensive travels in Europe he visited many towns in Italy, France, Switzerland, Spain, and Germany. During the whole period of their association, from the time he became acquainted with Bacon in 1601 until the latter's death, a regular correspondence was kept up between them. Many of these letters are preserved, 1 Edmund Bolton (1575-1633), historian and poet. In 1617 he pro- posed a scheme for a college, and its fellows were actually chosen the Academe Royal. But James died, and his successor showed no great interest in the institution. Hence the organization dissolved. 54 Christianopolis some quoted by Spedding. All show the closest friendship between Bacon and Matthew and a great appreciation on Bacon's part of the literary and critical ability of Matthew. As Bacon's books came out, copies were at once sent to Matthew, with a view toward getting the latter's opinion as well as having them circulated on the Continent. As is evident from the letters, Matthew was on the lookout continually for literary men whose acquaintance he would be glad to make, and whose scientific investigations could be of service to him in his own researches. It will be evident from the foregoing pages that a knowl- edge on the part of Bacon of Andreae's Christianopolis and the Fama, and some of the other works, which appeared from 1 614 to the time of Bacon's death, and some of which were circulated even earlier in manuscript form, is not by any means out of the question. Rather it would seem almost impossible that Bacon should not have heard of them through one or the other of their mutual acquaintances. The problem then becomes one of inner evidence in the works in question, to determine, if possible, whether they are kindred. This matter will be taken up now. G. C. Moore Smith, in the introduction to his edition of the New Atlantis, devotes some pages to the tracing of the name " New Atlantis " to its sources. In the fable itself, Bacon refers to the " Atlantis," the island mentioned in the Critias of Plato. This island and the sea around it were named after Atlas and inhabited by his children and their de- scendants. Francisco Lopes de Gomara in his History of the Indias x made Plato's Atlantis the continents of America ; or rather the present America is all that is left of Atlantis after having been partially sunk into the sea as a result of an earthquake. Bacon refers to the same Atlantis as hav- 1 i5S2. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 55 ing been almost depopulated by a great local flood; and locates his island of New Atlantis between the Great Atlantis and the Orient. Of greater interest for the present dis- cussion, however, is the name of the city built upon the island. This is Bensalem, Son of Peace or Salvation. The names Village of Peace, Caphar Salama, and the Hiero- solyma in the Utopia of Andreae seem to have been directly transferred to Bensalem and to Nova Solyma, A New Peace, the latter being the Ideal City of Samuel Gott which will be discussed in the next chapter. In form and general style the two works under considera- tion are the same. In each case it is the experience of an individual as the latter relates it to his hearers or readers, not a dialogue as was the case in the ideal states of both More and Campanella. Smith * comments favorably upon Bacon's beginning. " How natural an opening ! No introduction, no account of persons spoken of, merely, We sailed from Peru.' " Bacon's introduction continues, " We had good winds at first. But then the winds came about and settled to the west. Next, strong and great winds came from the south. Finding ourselves in the midst of the greatest wil- derness of waters in the world, we gave ourselves up for lost men and prepared for death." Now if we disregard for the time the allegorical form of the Christianopolis, however effective this may be, we have almost the identical words. ** I set sail again upon the sea. I left the port with many others and exposed my life to a thousand dangers. For a short time the weather favored us; then adverse winds drove contrary currents against us and we despaired. The sailors did their best, but we soon saw destruction before our eyes and stood in readiness for death." 2 1 New Atlantis, Introduction, p. 23. 2 Chap. i. 56 Christianopolis Then follows the landing. In the Christianopolis 1 it is a wreck and a violent casting ashore. In the New Atlantis a voluntary landing in boats. But in both cases the adven- turers are kindly taken up and cared for. In the Chris- tianopolis 2 the stranger passes three distinct examinations before he is given full privileges to use the city. In the New Atlantis the examination and the questioning on the ship are begun before landing is permitted, and are continued on shore. The first question, " Are ye Christians? ", 3 the most important, is followed by an oath, giving evidence that no blood has been shed, and that the party is not a band of pirates. In the Christianopolis the first examination is likewise a caution against vagabonds and tramps. A further suggestion of the same is expressed in the address given to the crew in the strangers' house by the leader. 4 After dwelling upon the miracle of their escape and rescue he adds : " Yet there is more. For they have by commandment, though in form of courtesy, cloistered us within these walls for three days. Who knoweth whether it be not to take some taste of our manners and conditions? And if they find them bad, to banish us straightway; if good, to give us further time." The parallel can be traced throughout the whole story. A mere detail of difference lies in the fact that Andreae divides his work into short chapters, but they are so well arranged and so closely connected that we get the idea of an uninterrupted relation of experiences and a description of impressions as the visitor passes through the city, even as is the case in the New Atlantis. In the Christianopolis the division is merely one of print. The strangers' house and the fund for strangers in the New Atlantis is but an elaboration of Andreae's simpler 1 Chaps, i, ii. * New Atlantis, p. 131. 2 Chap. iv. 4 New Atlantis, p. 134. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 57 method of showing kindness to strangers and caring for them after the proof of their worthiness has been estab- lished. And the latter fact is also carefully investigated in the New Atlantis. The rather lengthy and somewhat unneces- sary description of the rooms in which the strangers are kept, and the preparations made for their reception and nursing, are very naturally suggested by the fact that here a whole ship's crew is to be accounted for, instead of but one individual. The principle of humanity and charity, how- ever, seems to be brought out just as clearly in the Chris- tianopolis in a less boastful manner, though Smith * sees in Bacon's detailed account poetic means to greater " natural- ness " in the description. The latter part of the New At- lantis 2 is taken up with a description given by one of the Fathers of Salomon's 3 House as to the purposes and aims of this " college." At the close of this, or rather in the midst of it, the narrative breaks off, and it remains for one to guess under what circumstances the visitors left the island and returned home to tell their story. But the fact that they were by especial act merely permitted to stay longer than the usual time, and not allowed to remain per- manently as a whole party, together with the farewell state- ment of the father of Salomon's House, " I give thee leave to publish what I have told thee, for the good of other nations " these would naturally lead to a conclusion much like that of the Christianopolis. This will suffice for a com- parison of the narrative form of the two works. 1 Introduction, p. 23, of his New Atlantis. 3 Pp. 156 ff. 3 Bacon regularly spells the word as it appears in the Vulgate and in Luther's translation of the Bible. Though the name is similar to that of Solamona, the lawgiver of Bensalem, yet- the inhabitants are convinced that he named the place in honor of the Hebrew king (New Atlantis, p. 145). UNIVERSITY ft 58 Christianopolis A strong point of similarity is found in the religious conditions in the two places. Bensalem, like Christianopolis, is a Christian state. A history of the island gives in sub- stance the following mystical account of the introduction of the Christian religion into the place. 1 Twenty years after the ascension of Christ, the inhabitants of the east side of the island saw a great pillar of light in the night. Upon investigation with boats it was found that the pillar was unapproachable, until one of those present, a wise man of the society of Salomon's House, recognizing the miracle, prayed to God for light, and thereupon found his boat free to move ahead. The column disappeared as he approached ; but at its base were found an ark containing the canonical books of the Old and the New Testaments and a message to the following effect : " I, Bartholomew, a servant of the Highest, and apostle of Jesus Christ, was warned by an angel that appeared to me in a vision of glory that I should com- mit this ark to the floods of the sea. Therefore I do testify and declare unto that people where God shall ordain this ark to come to land, that in the same day is come unto them salvation and peace and good will, from the Father and from the Lord Jesus." The implication of the message is that a safe place was to be found where God might establish His religion, and have it bear fruit in the hearts and lives of an honest and wise people. Now we find a strikingly similar idea expressed in the Christianopolis. First "'. . . the church, which has been tossed about so many thousand years on the world-sea." 2 Again, " When the church wandered as a stranger from east to west . . ." 3 But especially in answer to the question " What blessedness set up its abode here ? " the stranger is told, " When the 1 New Atlantis, p. 137. a Chap, xxxvi. 3 Chap. lxix. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 59 whole world raged against the good, and forced them to de- part out of her boundaries, then Religion, an exile, taking along her most faithful friends, after crossing the sea and searching here and there, finally chose this land where she put her associates ashore ; and later she built a city which we call ' the Christian city/ and desired that it should be the abode or refuge, if you like, of honesty and uprightness." 1 Compare with this also Die Christenburg, which was com- posed in 161 5 : " In the world-sea there is an island, much favored of God. . . . When evil took possession of the earth, religion fled hither." 2 Even the questions which bring out these explanations are strangely alike. It is the first question for information in both cases. " Who was the apostle and how was the place converted to the Christian faith? " The guide in the New Atlantis answers : " Ye knit my heart to you by asking this question in the first place ; for it sheweth that ye seek first the kingdom of heaven." 3 And he then, like the guide in the Christianopolis, proceeds to explain the manner of the conversion of the island. A strange and unexpected development for Bacon is the mystical, mysterious description of the ark contain- ing the letter and Bible. One is unconsciously reminded of the secret vault described in the Fama. 4 Innumerable are the references to prayer and worship which correspond in the two works: thanks to God for rescue from the storm and safe landing among a Christian people; oaths in the name of God and Christ as pledge for past and future behavior. There is no mention of daily meals and church attendance in the New Atlantis. But the prayers at the Feast of the Family, 5 to be spoken of again, 1 Chap. iii. 2 Griineisen, p. 254. 8 New Atlantis, p. 137. * Fama, p. 58 (Geheime Wissenschaften). 6 New Atlantis, p. 147. 60 Christianopolis the only festivity of the sort described, and the benedictions at the close, are all suggestive of table and family prayers, as is the case in the Christianopolis. The father of Salo- mon's House, as he passes through the city, raises his hand and silently blesses the people. He begins his discourse about the college with the words, " God bless thee, my son," and closes with the same phrase. So also the officer of the strangers' house x comes " as a priest and a Christian " to bring what assistance and comfort he can to the afflicted. And the leader of the crew says in his address to his com- rades, " Let us look to God, and every man reform his own ways. Besides we are come here amongst a Christian people, full of piety and humanity." 2 Again, " It seemed to us that we had before us a picture of our salvation in heaven ; for we that were a while since in the jaws of death, were now brought into a place where we found nothing but consola- tion." 3 In like manner in the Christianopolis the stranger is addressed : " How fortunate you are, because after so vengeful a storm and shipwreck, you have happened to be landed at this place." 4 The religious, the Christian ele- ment in both the New Atlantis and in the Christianopolis is a very essential part of the whole. . Socially the two Utopias are closely akin. The family 'is the unit of society, and upon it is built the whole social fabric. This conception is very far developed in the New Atlantis. The Feast of the Family is instituted and cele- brated in honor of him whose family counts at least thirty living members. On an appointed day the head of the family, having previously chosen several friends to assist in the celebration, meets with the members of his family ac- cording to a stated ceremony. The occasion is made use of * New Atlantis, p. 135. 8 New Atlantis, p. 136. 9 New Atlantis, p. 134. * Chap. ii. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 6i to settle all petty disputes between members, to impress lessons of morality, piety, patriotism, and obedience; and to bring all into close association with each other. The ceremony, rather elaborate and impressive, does not espe- cially concern us here. The important features are these : the feast is religious in character, including invocation, hymns, prayer, and benediction. It bears also direct rela- tion to the state; for the expenses are supplied from the state treasury, and the head of the family hereafter wears a medal presented by the king. Socially it emphasizes two important points: first, the principle of family unity. Toward the close of the ceremony, one of the sons is chosen who shall henceforth live with the father in the latter's house, assist him in the affairs of his household, and so hold the family together by taking the father's place in case of his death. The second is that of raising up a large family ; for no man is so honored throughout the state as such a " family-father." He is granted a charter containing many privileges and exemptions; and the medal presented by the king bears the inscription, " To , our well beloved friend and creditor," a title proper only in this case ; " for they say a king is debtor to no man, but for the propagation of his subjects." 1 In this feast they pray to Adam, Noah, and Abraham, whereof the former two peopled the world, and the latter was the father of the faithful. Now, just these features are made emphatic in the Christianopolis. Family and table prayers and hymns are the daily rule. Contrary to conditions in all earlier Utopias, there ar t no common tables, except for pupils in the board- ing schools; but the family meets daily around its private board. The government deals out food and provisions each week to families, 2 a family consisting of father, mother, and 1 New Atlantis, p. 149. a Chap. xv. 62 Christianopolis younger children the older sons and daughters being in boarding school or at college. And as to the importance of family increase, the quotation already suggested in the preceding chapter will suffice, " The crown of woman is motherhood." 1 v/ The second question asked of the guide in the New Atlantis is one relating to marriage: " Because propaga- tion of families proceedeth from nuptial copulation, what laws have you concerning marriage ; and do you keep mar- riage well ; and are you tied to one wife ? For where popu- lation is so much affected, such as with you it seems to be, there is commonly permission of plurality of wives." 2 The answer to this question is given with a considerable amount of pride, and shows the following facts : there is not under heaven so chaste a nation as that of Bensalem, so free from pollution and foulness. It is the virgin of the world. If the spirit of fornication be represented by a " foul and ugly Ethiop " then the spirit of the chastity of Bensalem would appear in the likeness of a fair, beautiful cherubim. There are no dissolute women, courtesans, and the like. These the people of Bensalem detest and they are surprised that Europeans countenance and permit a nuisance that is so detrimental to the lives and health of the inhabitants. Purity in married life even is observed. " For whosoever is un- chaste, cannot reverence himself. And the reverence of man's self is, next to religion, the chiefest bridle of all vices." 3 The marriage relation is the most sacred in life. Polygamy is not practiced that would be out of harmony with the spirit of the family. Consent of parents is neces- sary for legal marriage. It will be remembered that the Christianopolis expresses 1 Chap. xc. * New Atlantis, pp. 151 aid 152. * New Atlantis, p. 153. ChristiAnopolis and The New Atlantis 63 views almost identical with these. 1 " The glory of a con- quest over the passions ..." Purity of personal life, in the single as in the married state, consent of parents on the part of the contracting parties, permanency and serious- ness of marriage these are the chief points in both cases. Only in one respect does Bacon's ideal differ from that of Andreae, and here we must admit (as in the case of More and Campanella) that the latter stands infinitely higher in the ethical scale. " I have read," says the speaker in the New Atlantis, " in a book of one of your men (evidently More) of a feigned commonwealth, where the married couples are permitted, before they contract, to see one another naked. This the inhabitants of Bensalem dislike, for they think it a scorn to give a refusal after so familiar knowledge. But because of many hidden defects in men's and women's bodies, they have a more civil way; for they have near every town a couple of pools, which they call Adam's and Eve's pools, where it is permitted to one of the friends of the man, and another of the friends of the woman, to see them severally bathe naked." 2 This was for Bacon a de- sirable mean, or a compromise between the strictly " eu- genic " conceptions of More, and his own notions of pro- priety. A few other minor points of similarity will be mentioned before passing to the chief matter, that of the founding of a college. Both governments are particular about health regulations and sanitary conditions. In the New Atlantis the ship's crew is disinfected (not very thoroughly, it is true) before landing. 3 The city is provided with baths 4 for health and cleanliness. Christianopolis has not only baths but an 1 Chap, xviii. " New Atlantis, p. 132. 2 New Atlantis, p. 154. * New Atlantis^ p. 157. I 64 Christianopolis elaborate sewer system as well ; * and the authorities are very careful lest contagion come to the citizens through guests. 2 Similar expressions occur in connection with the rules of hospitality to strangers. At his first meeting with the in- habitants of Christianopolis the shipwrecked sailor gives us the following information : " He led me to the city where he said I would be well taken up, according to the usual charitable kindliness shown in his country toward unfortu- nate strangers. I could answer nothing but ' Thanks and praise to God.' " 3 In the New Atlantis, in the rehearsal of the past history of the state, the visitors are told : " For first he (the king) hath preserved all points of humanity in taking order and making provision for the relief of strangers distressed, whereof you have tasted." " At which," we are told, " as reason was we all arose and bowed." 4 But the New Atlantis is important primarily and has become famous chiefly because of the picture drawn and the description given of a " college," a group of learned and capable men endowed, and working together toward a common end the attainment of knowledge by experiment, the enriching of the world's store of information by the process of investigation into nature, and discoverir/g in her the truths and principles that have existed from all time. Bacon is ordinarily credited with having originated the en- tire scheme and as being alone responsible for the founding of such colleges, academies, and societies in England. It is not alone his plan of a college that has been so much praised, nor yet the individual experiments or lines of investigation that he suggests. For of the latter some have proved to be visionary, impracticable, and not altogether desirable; and others were not original, but taken from More, Roger Bacon, 1 Chap. xcv. 8 Chap. iii. 2 Chap, xcvii. * New Atlantis, p. 144. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 65 and other earlier investigators in England and elsewhere. It is rather the mere suggestion that such an institution would be desirable and would lead to good results which is of importance. As in the case of the other Utopias which have been dis- cussed, and perhaps even to a much higher degree, this one represents the author's favorite work. There can be no doubt but that Bacon considered the New Atlantis, as far as com- pleted, one of his most important productions, as embodying the principles which he had developed in years of experi- ence. Yet the New Atlantis, Aside from being a fragment, is not a complete description of a well-balanced city in the same sense as the Christianopolis is. In the former, certain features not always essentials are given very great impor- tance, as for instance the history of the great Atlantis, while other factors more necessary for an ideal state are entirely omitted. Little or no mention is made of education of the children and youth, occupation of the citizens, and matters of daily life. This difficulty would not likely have been remedied even if the work had been finished according to the plans of the author. Rawley tells us on the title page, " His lordship thought also in the present fable to have com- posed a frame of laws, of the best state or mold of a com- monwealth." * And it seems probable that the code of laws would have completed the work. This fits in well with Bacon's own life and interests. The account of his life in the autobiographical statement already quoted 2 shows the two objects of his life, benefit to humanity by founding a new system of experimental philosophy, and by a study of all legal conditions. In the New Atlantis, if completed, the 1 New Atlantis, p. 127, p. 44 of this chapter. 2 P. 42 of this chapter. 66 Christianopolis second object would have been fulfilled in the code of laws, while the prominence of the first is clear from the esti- mation in which the college is held, and the purpose which is ascribed to it : * " The knowledge of our foundation is the knowledge of causes and secret motions of things, and the enlarging of the bounds of human empire, to the effecting of all things possible." 2 " It so fell out that there was in one of the boats one of the wise men of the society of Salomon's House, which house or college is the very eye of the kingdom" 3 " Ye shall understand that amongst the excellent acts of that king, one above all hath the pre- eminence. It was the erection and institution of an order or society which we call Salomon's House, the noblest founda- tion as we think that ever was upon the earth, and the lantern of this kingdom. It is dedicated to the study of the works and creatures of God." This object of the college, the direction in which in- vestigations are to be made, and the methods by which results are to be obtained are stated more in detail in succeeding pages of the New Atlantis. But only those mat- ters which have become practical since Bacon's time will be considered here. The organization of Salomon's House,* the College of Six Days' Work, is not complicated. The work is divided. Certain members of the staff, so-called fellows, are sent out into the world at definite intervals of time. It is their duty to visit the countries to which they are dele- gated, examine the conditions that exist, note the improve- ments and changes, especially in the " sciences, arts, manu- factures, and inventions," and bring back books, patterns, and instruments of all kinds. They are well provided with 1 New Atlantis, p. 137. 8 New Atlantis, p.. 145. 8 New Atlantis, p. 145. * New Atlantis, pp. 146-156. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 67 money, so that everything of value is obtainable by them. Their reports and purchases are examined into by other members of the college at home. Of these, some read the books and test the value of experiments ; some try new experiments based on the results of the former; some col- lect and tabulate the results, and so forth. The material actually dealt with covers a broad field. Observation of wind, weather, and heavenly bodies; analysis of soils and their use in forcing the growth of plants; study of trees and shrubs for their own improvement and the utiliza- tion of the fruit; study of the habits of bees and silk- worms ; preparation of drinks wine, ale, and so forth, also of medicines and concoctions for the restoration of health; dissecting of bodies of animals with a view toward obtain- ing knowledge of the human body. In mechanics there are experiments dealing with motions in air and water, forces and projectiles, even perpetual motions. 1 There is the study of sound, light, and smell, resulting respectively in new scales, colors, and odors. For the performing of these investigations, large and elaborate rooms have been fitted up. Deep caves and high towers, laboratories, sound houses, perfume houses, perspective houses, engine houses, and so forth, each equipped according to the latest models. Concerning the contribution which Andreae made in this direction, Guhrauer says the following: " Here then (in the Christianopolis) principles of genuine natural science based upon observation and experiment, founded at the same time by Bacon, are applied to different faculties. And what is surprising, we see the plan of an academy or col- lege of natural science, and the sciences and arts con- nected therewith, with collections of specimens, gardens, 1 This was a favorite attempt among all experimenters. Comenius devoted considerable time to the matter. 68 Christianopolis and like establishments represented in clear outlines long before the famous fragment of Bacon of Verulam, which dressed in like costume pursues like purposes, namely the New Atlantis, was published, which latter is usually looked upon as the first impetus for the founding of natural science academies and colleges." 1 Now it is perfectly true that Bacon and Andreae were men of somewhat similar type and that their interests fol- lowed similar lines. Both, one as a lawyer, the other as a preacher, came in touch with humanity and civilization. Both were led to see the conditions of society and, being of sympathetic and at the same time aggressive temperament, desired to make improvement. Both were men of letters, university-trained, insatiable students, and alive to all the ideas that were being promulgated. Both, though born and living in different countries, were breathing the same at- , mosphere and moving in the same realms of thought. And O^it is especially true that in their studies, their attention had been repeatedly drawn to the insurmountable difficulties in attaining knowledge through the means thus far placed at their disposal. Hence one might well see how they would arrive at somewhat similar results, though working quite independently of each other. But the very striking agree- ment between the plans and outlines, even in some of the details of the institutions which they advocated, makes one wonder whether the facts do not justify the assumption of more than a coincidence. In comparison with the views of Bacon regarding his college as quoted earlier, 2 there is the following from Andreae. Speaking of the location of the college : " It is time that we go into the very innermost part of the city, which is as 1 Quoted in Gussmann's article, p. 467. 2 Pp. 65, 66 of this chapter. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 69 it were the soul of the city, and imparts to the latter, life and inspiration." * Bacon calls his college the " eye " and the " lantern " of Bensalem. Again, " Never have I seen the like so much human perfection united in one place." 2 And as for the directions in which advanced education branches out, things actually done and experiments carried out, very much in the New Atlantis has its counterpart in the Christianopo- lis. Andreae's chapter on astronomy 3 outlines the study of the heavenly bodies, their sizes and distances, courses of planets, and eclipses. Agriculture and cattle raising 4 are not only practiced but made a systematic study. The department is presided over by a man " exceptionally well versed in the science of agriculture, pasturing, and cattle breeding." The use of fertilizer is well understood and the times when it may be best applied to the cultivated fields. In addition to the garden plot behind every dwelling house, 5 which serves to beautify and decorate the lot, as well as to promote the health of those who take care of it, there are gardens 6 in connection with the college containing " over a thousand varieties of plants, as might be called a living botany text." Some of these are for decorative purposes only, others are to be used as food, while still others are carried to the drug shops to be prepared as medicines. The New Atlantis says of the plants and herbs, " Many of them we so order as they become of medicinal use," 7 and " We have dispensatories and medicine shops, wherein you may easily think, if we have such variety of plants and living creatures more than you have in Europe, the simples, drugs, and ingredients of medicines must likewise be in so much greater variety." 8 1 Chap. xxvi. B Chap, xxiii. 3 Chap. xxvi. 6 Chap. xciv. * Chap, lxvii. 7 New Atlantis, p. 158. 4 Chap. viii. 8 New Atlantis, p. 160. jo Christianopolis To return to the Christianopolis, the gardens are well or- dered, each class of plants having its own proper place. And it is especially plain that these plots are all for experimental purposes ; for large gardens are without the city walls where food materials are raised in proper amounts to supply the town. In the college gardens also are found birds and bees " which are tended with great care." x The practice of dissection is pursued and the principles of anatomy studied in an especially equipped apartment. 2 As in the New At- lantis the bodies of animals are made the subjects, and the information thus obtained is used to increase the knowledge of anatomy, " there being nothing in the world as wonder- ful as the workshop of the human body, which they call a miniature of the universe." It is stated : " They have a place especially dedicated to the dissection of animals. No one could find fault with this practice of finding the seat of bodily ailments and striving to assist nature, except such a one as, along with barbarians, thinks it unnecessary to know one's self. There are even among persons who con- sider themselves scholars, some who know nothing about where they live, breathe, digest, or discharge, except that it is somewhere within their skins. But the teachers of Chris- tianopolis show the youth the operations of life from the organs of animals ; and sometimes they dissect a human body, though this is rare." 3 The mechanics are given their proper attention, as are also the crafts. Laboratories, physical and chemical, serve as workshops for trying out newly invented instruments. Minerals and metals are worked. " In the eastern quarter of the city are the seven shops fitted out for melting, forg- ing, casting, and molding of metals. . . . Here, if any- where, is seen the examination of nature, since whatever the 1 Chap. xciv. a Chap. xlvi. * Chap. xlvi. Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 71 earth contains in its bowels is brought under the influence of the laws and instruments of art; the men are not im- pelled to their work without knowledge, like beasts, but have been long ago inspired by careful knowledge (cognitio) of the things of natural science, and thence take their delight in the bowels of nature. Unless you listen to the reasons and look into the anatomy of the macrocosmos, they think they have told and taught you nothing. Unless you deter- mine by experiments, and make corrections with better in- struments for the improvement of the arts and scienqes, you are of no value. Take my word for it, if sophistry should wish to be considered here, it would be a mockery ; to such an extent do they prefer activity (re's) over words. For here one can greet true and genuine chemistry, and can listen to her freely and diligently. ... In a word, here natural science (physica) is active." l As one more important similarity, the conception of the obtainment of knowledge by inspiration, the dawning of " light " must be mentioned. The Christianopolis is full of references to it, sometimes used purely in a religious sense and again with reference to an inner light, the flashes of genius. A few instances may be cited : in the introduction, " For the return of light." 2 " That God permitted dark- ness to fall upon the minds of the godless." 3 " The light of new religion dawned within us again." 4 " The deceiver cannot withstand those who have a higher light within." 5 " They recognize their mistake, or the lack of light in their souls." 6 " They try to remind themselves of the eternal light." 7 " We believe in an everlasting life in which we will possess perfect light, contentment, quiet, wisdom, and joy." 8 1 Chap. xi. 5 P. 5. 7 P. 2. P. 10. ' P. 3- 7 Chap. xxv. 4 P. 4- 8 Chap, xxviii. J2 Christianopolis " Those who know not what they want, and so, blind guides, who pride themselves with having much light, draw others into the abyss who are still blinder than they." r " To pro- mote the light of truth." 2 " They will never repent that they have come from darkness into light." 3 From the New Atlantis three instances only will be cited, but these are important. The one object in sending men out from the college and having them visit foreign lands, is knowledge. " Thus we maintain a trade, not for gold, silver or jewels, nor for silks, nor for spices, nor for any other commodity of matter; but only for God's first crea- tion, which was light, to have light, I say, of the growth of all parts of the world." 4 The twelve men who go out into the world are called " merchants of light " ; and " Then after diverse meetings and consults of our whole number, to consider the former labors and collections, we have three men that take care out of them to direct new experiments of a higher light, more penetrating into nature than the former. These we call ' lamps.' " 5 It is not necessary to rely solely upon the Christianopolis in support of this opinion. An even more striking simi- larity between the ideas of Bacon and Andreae is to be found in the Fama, which was written nine years earlier, and in several intermediate works where the same plan is found. The " Fraternitas " is a body of men banded to- gether for the very same purpose as that suggested in the New Atlantis " to institute a general reformation " 6 and " a general reformation divini et humani" 7 " to discover the mysteries of nature " 8 and " to study men all over the earth." 9 This brotherhood, beginning with only four mem- 1 Chap, xviii. 4 New Atlantis, p. 147. 7 P. 30. 2 Chap. xxix. " New Atlantis, p. 164. 8 P. 4. 3 Chap, xxxiv. 9 Pp. 3, 12. 9 P. 1. bers, la Christianopolis and The New Atlantis 73 )ers, later increased its membership to include eight, " all free men through whom a volume of knowledge might be collected of all that man could hope for." x The college is called that of the Holy Spirit. Its members travel abroad and learn what they can in foreign countries, but return upon a set date each year to the college to report, or give a satisfactory reason if unable to come. 2 These are the essen- tials of the Fama, and, it would appear, also the elements of Bacon's College of Six Days. A few matters of importance might be spoken of in which the Christianopolis and the New Atlantis seem to differ con- siderably, or which are looked upon from a different point of view by the two writers. The idea of freedom, so oft. iJr recurring and so much emphasized in the Christianopolis, does not play so important a part in the New Atlantis. Even the political conception of the state is not quite so democratic as might have been expected. The plan of gov- ernment in the latter is monarchical and rather centralized. This is not surprising in view of the fact that Bacon had been and was on the closest terms of friendship with v the King of England and might expect assistance or hin- drance according as his works met with the latter's ap- proval or disapproval. Nor were the Stuarts, with their ideas of divine right, a type to be pleased with the picture of an ideal state in which freedom and democracy were too prominent. 3 In the foregoing pages an effort has been made to point 1 P. 13. 2 Pp. 15 f. 8 In the New Atlantis (pp. 154, 155) we have a lengthy description of the history, early prominence, and decay of the civilization of America, the large Atlantis. This is a matter which, naturally wanting in the Christianopolis, can be easily accounted for from the close relations existing between America and England in Bacon's time. The description of the clothes and costumes worn on state occasions corresponds well with the elaborateness and gaudy colors 74 Christianopolis out that, contrary to the opinion of most commentators on Bacon, his was not the first Utopia which definitely outlined an ideal state built upon the basis of modern philosophy ; and that his college of scientific research based upon an experi- mental method of reasoning was preceded several years by another, just as carefully outlined and completely detailed as his own; that the elements of the college were present in the Fama, which was published a decade before the New Atlantis was composed, and was circulated as early as 1610. 1 More- over, it is not at all impossible both from his close associa- tion with continental scholars and from the intimate and international character of the learning of the time that Bacon knew these very works either directly or indirectly. A careful comparison of the two Utopias definitely eliminates any suggestion of mere coincidence and makes the mental kinship of Bacon and Andreae almost indubitable. of dress in the 16th and 17th centuries at the English court. The Christianopolis is simpler in this respect, and on like occasions when great and good men are to be described, speaks of the face and bearing rather than of the dress. On the other hand, Andreae's interest in music and art, the fact that he was himself musical and a critic of art, explain the prominence given in his Utopia to these features. Such evidences of the personality and environment of the two authors are noticeable in other parts of their ideal states, which need not be mentioned. 1 A Latin translation of the Fama appeared as early as 1614, and it is quite probable that through this version Bacon became ac- quainted with Andreae's ideas. CHAPTER IV THE CHRISTIANOPOHS AND NOVA SOLYMA The immediate effect of the Christianopolis in Germany was not so great as might have been expected; it did not become the pattern for other works of a similar nature, nor was its publication received with startling enthusiasm. This will not seem so strange, however, when we remember that Andreae was as yet not very well known as a writer and had only local reputation as a man of ability and knowl- edge of social and religious conditions. His chief works previous to this time had been published anonymously and he himself stood decidedly in the background. An additional explanation for the fact that the Christianopolis met with seemingly little success, will be found in the horrors of the Thirty Years' War, with its wholesale slaughter of citi- zens, destruction of property, devastation of whole sections of countries, and dissipation of the vital strength of the German states. Such conditions were not conducive to the composing of " ideal states," nor encouraging even to the studying of works that were calculated to reform church, state, and school system. Germany had first to recover sufficiently from the effects of the war to be able to plan calmly for future improvement. Thus we find that while the production of More, a man of national fame, had been en- thusiastically received by his own countrymen, read, re- edited, and even committed to memory, 1 Andreae's Chris- 1 Morley : Ideal Commonwealths, Introduction, p. 7. 75 j6 Christianopolis tianopolis, the work of a private citizen, pastor, and teacher in a small community, was covered up and all but lost and forgotten. In England social and political conditions were not in the same state of actual turmoil either at the time when the Christianopolis was published or during the decades immediately following. While the country was politically unsettled and almost on the verge of civil rupture, it was not actually being devastated by war. On the contrary, the national mind was occupied with just such problems of edu- cational and social improvement. The elements of reform took root sufficiently to survive the shock of civil war when it did come. It will become evident that Andreae's ideas on education and science, as contained in the Christianopolis, were carried over to England by some of his friends and admirers at home; and that the atmosphere there proved more conducive than in Germany to their further develop- ment and ultimate practical application. It is a remarkable fact that seventeenth-century England produced a number of Utopias. Whether this is due to an exceptional inclina- tion of the English mind toward the Utopia, or whether it is to be explained by the state of religious agitation of this period and widely spread chiliastic hopes of the religious sects, it is difficult to decide. Among the half-dozen Utopias, then, that were produced on English soil, one in particular has an especial claim upon our consideration first, because it shows some new features in the development of Utopias as yet little no- ticed by those who have concerned themselves with this subject; and secondly, because it bears a close relation to the work which forms the center of the present dis- cussion. Nova Solyma appeared anonymously in 1648. It was ) A The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma yj written in Latin, consisted of six books, and bore on the title page only the words : Novae Solymae Libri Sex. Londoni Typis Joannis Legati MDCXLVIII The following year a second edition was issued in which the title was supplemented by the words " Sive Institutio Chris- tiani," followed by a heading for each of the six books. It is also noted that the work was printed for Thomas Under- bill, among whose books it is catalogued in the British Mu- seum. No further notice seems to have been taken of Nova Solyma. At least we find no reference to it in the literature of the period. In 1902, however, the entire work appeared, translated into English, accompanied by a long introduction and with elaborate notes. The editor of this publication was the Reverend Walter Begley. In his commentaries Mr. Begley makes a very thorough comparison of Nova Solyma with the various works of John Milton, and cites innumer- able detailed examples of construction, style, vocabulary, phraseology and thought, to prove that Milton was the au- thor of this work. Begley divides his argument into a series of proofs proofs from music, poetry, pedagogy, and so forth, and finally proof by elimination. Then in his con- clusion he states : " The authorship of this romance must clearly be confined to a very small class of men. Neither Shakespeare nor Bacon could by any possibility have pro- duced such a book as this even if the date allowed the sup- position. No one but a first-rate Latinist could have writ- ten our romance. . . . As a matter of fact the book could not have been written by any then-living Englishman except such men as Alexander Ross, Phineas Fletcher, Dr. Duport, Thomas May, Thomas Farnaby, Andrew Marvell, Cleve- land, Cowley, Crashaw, and men of that stamp of erudition. 78 Christianopolis Now let any scholar try this list of names severally, by the contents of Nova Solyma by its tone, its sentiment, its opinions, its sublimities both in prose and verse, its main- tained seriousness, its religious principles, and its inde- pendent theories, then I think these names will disappear from the list of probable candidates, and they will be weeded out one by one till all are gone." Milton, there- fore, he concludes, must be the author of the book. Quite by accident it has become known that, while Milton may have influenced the work to some degree, the real au- thor was quite another person a man of whom Begley probably never heard. Stephen K. Jones * states that while collating Baxter's Holy Commonwealth he happened to notice among the books printed for Thomas Underhill, a list of three, whose author was Samuel Gott. The first one of these was the Nova Solyma. Samuel Gott is a man almost entirely unknown to-day, and mentioned in none of the encyclopedias or histories of literature. He was born in 1613. His father, also Samuel Gott, was a dealer in iron, and seems to have been a man of some means, for in 1640 his name is mentioned among those merchants from whom the king hoped to borrow money. The younger Gott completed the Merchants' Tailors' School and continued his education at St. Cath- erine's College, Cambridge. Here he took the bachelor's degree in 1632. The following year he became a member of the Society of Gray's Inn and in 1640 was admitted to the bar. There is no evidence that he ever practiced law. After his father's death in 1642, he married, retired to a country estate, and lived privately until shortly before the time of the return of the Stuarts. After a few years' resi- dence in London, during which time he was elected an * The Library, July, 191 0, p. 225. The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 79 " Ancient," he again withdrew to his home at Battle, where in all probability he stayed until his death, which occurred in 1671. Begley in his argument for Milton's authorship of Nova Solyma speaks x of the prominent part which was being played at this time in England by four men, all close friends and associates of Milton. These men, John Dury, Samuel Hartlib, Theodore Haacke, and William Petty, will be considered more closely in the following chapter. They were all vitally interested in the general subject of education; they were the ones who kept agitating the subject of the founding of a society for the study of the natural sciences. It was Hartlib to whom Milton ad- dressed his Tractate on Education in 1644. It was Hart- lib who became more and more interested in the idea of a " reformation work " and in 1647 presented to the High Court of Parliament certain considerations on reformed edu- cation and the redressing of public evils for the advance- ment of God's " Universal Kingdom " and the general com- munion of His saints. These are phrases that occur in Nova Solyma 2 and are, as Begley points out, favorite ex- pressions with Hartlib and Dury in their doctrine of unity in churches. In 1649, the year after the first issue of Nova Solyma, Hartlib edited a work by Dury, in which the latter begins by saying: "We (referring to his group of investi- gators) are upon the design of a public reformation; herein everybody is one way or another, if not engaged yet concerned, some more, some less, some in private, some in a public way." 3 Now, as has been stated, Gott took his degree from Cambridge in 1632. This was also the year in which John Milton completed his course at the same institu- 1 Begley, op. cit, I, pp. 311 ff. a I, p. 86. 8 Nova Solyma, I, p. 313. 80 Christianopolis tion. There can hardly be any doubt that Gott was ac- quainted and closely associated during the succeeding years with the same group of men as was Milton, especially since he was constantly at work on the same problems, as his authorship of Nova Solyma proves, which were occupying their minds. But these very men were the warmest ad- mirers of Comenius, the friend and co-worker of Andreae, and even corresponded with Andreae himself. 1 Hence all the arguments brought out by Begley (and they are many) to prove that Milton must have written Nova Solyma, be- cause he knew Hartlib, Dury, and the others well, and because so many of the ideas contained in the work are clearly theirs this argument and testimony have now double effect in proving the connection between Nova Solyma and Andreae, since Gott, through these men, had direct relations to Andreae and his group. The Utopia now to be considered shows a number of dif- ferences from all those that have preceded. It is not a brief summary of laws, education, religion, and customs a description of conditions in an ideal city, with the evident and one purpose of making these known. But in Nova Solyma we have a long romance, with various characters and incidents love, rivalry, robbery, bloodshed, pageants, and feasts, with scenes shifting to different countries, even continents all interwoven and combined in a novel of somewhat modern type. Yet it is didactic throughout, and built up on a system of education a moral and a religious code which are always discernible. That Gott meant to teach certain truths, and merely clothed them in the dress of romance to make the whole easy and interesting reading, is plain from the titles of the six books which are given on the first page of the second (1649) issue. For the au- 1 M. C. G., II, p. 236. : The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 8i thor, the important facts are summed up: i) Boys. 2) The J creation of the world. 3) Youth. 4) Sin. 5) The age of / the adult. 6) The redemption of man. And in fact these single words contain the kernel of the respective books. Two young men, students at Cambridge, have heard of h the famous republic in the East, and being filled with a J desire to learn of the place first-hand, they set out without the consent of their parents and arrive at Nova Solyma after having on the way taken into their services a young man who proves to be the son of the chief ruler of the city, and the hero of the story. It might be noted here that Nova Solyma is evidently on the site of the biblical Jeru- salem. This statement is not made definitely, but several references would strongly imply it. The young Cambridge students 1 (and later their father also), 2 on leaving Dover, take ship for Joppa. In the second instance, the journey is made from Joppa to Nova Solyma on horses, and requires a considerable part of one day. Now as Joppa is the nearest seaport to Jerusalem and as the distance is thirty or thirty- five miles, the locations of Jerusalem and Nova Solyma might well be the same. The description of the place cor- responds with that of Jerusalem, Nova Solyma being built on a hill (possibly on hills). 3 The walls "stand four square" and there are twelve gates named after the twelve tribes, as in the biblical account. 4 It is stated that " not a vestige of the old Solyma remains, but its glories are renewed on a larger scale." 5 Furthermore, the return of the Jews after their conversion was to be to the city of Jerusalem, and this was the indication of the Millennium. 6 To continue the narrative, these young men are hos- 1 1, p. 98. * Ezekiel xlviii, 31, and Revelation xxi, 12. 8 II, p. 181. " Cf. Luke xix, 44. 8 1, P- 78. 8 Jeremiah xxxi, 8 ff. 82 Christianopolis pitably taken up and taught the principles by which the inhabitants of Nova Solyma govern their lives. The visi- tors make many mistakes and at such times are kindly cor- rected by their host. In the course of their stay they visit the schools and are given information as to the system of education elementary and advanced by which the youth is trained. They also attend festivities and celebrations, witness death-bed scenes and funerals, and become ac- quainted with a representative number of persons in the city. A love affair, whose beginning dates from the first day they spend in Nova Solyma, continues throughout the story, and culminates in the marriage of the two young men to the daughters of their friend. and host the chief ruler. This is in very brief the romance occupying in time ex- actly one year, the annual pageant following immediately upon the general election being used to introduce as well as to conclude the story. The events themselves, by no means uninterestingly told, are interspersed, sometimes even inter- rupted, by lectures, religious teachings, moral discourses, recitations of poetry, by hymns and songs. Individuals tell the outward events of their lives, as well as their inner ex- periences. It is thus that the reader becomes acquainted with the history of the state, and those facts and principles which the author wishes to make known the proper rela- tion which should exist between man and man, the object of education, and the relation of the individual to the state the extreme importance of a clean, religious life. It will be the purpose of this chapter to summarize the teachings of Nova Solyma, and compare them in essentials with those of the Christianopolis, with which they have so much in com- mon, and upon which they seem to be based. It might well be supposed that Gott, living in the same . The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 83 untry with Francis Bacon, whose New Atlantis had been published some twenty years earlier and had been wel- comed with such great enthusiasm at home and in other countries, would model his novel upon the Utopia of his already famous fellow-countryman. And it is not the pur- pose here to deny that Bacon's ideal state did have its in- fluence upon, and help to furnish material and ideas for Gott. There are numerous traces of such an influence in the form and in the content of Nova Solyma. But in the main, Gott's object was an entirely different one from that of Bacon, and in this main object Gott has followed quite a different model. The most important points in Gott's mind were neither law (to which Bacon intended to devote the second half of his work, had he been able to complete it) nor yet scientific discovery and invention as such, to which, however, he does pay some attention as an element in his chief general scheme. Gott's highest aim is the*\ plan of a system of education, beginning with children, and j continuing through life, resulting in a broad, full, and j complete development for the individual, in the field and the directions for which he is best adapted by natural talents; and thus furnishing capable and energetic citizens for the community, able and willing to discharge their proper obligations to neighbor, state, and God. While it is true that no specific statement is made regarding the edu- cation of girls, the implication is very strong that they are not neglected. For the two sisters of the hero are well- bred, well-developed, physically and mentally, and entirely fit to associate with the men of the family and their guests. Furthermore, the two boys of the family are, until their tenth year, under the partial charge and tutorage of a matron, 1 whose experience is thought beneficial to their *J, pp. 109-128. 84 Christianopolis early years. In the pages just referred to, she tells the boys a long story a fairy tale to impress upon them les- sons of right and wrong, and to instruct how to distinguish between them " by the critical faculty." It is hardly likely that boys, the importance of the education of whose early years is mentioned several times, would be left in the care of ignorant and untrained individuals. One cannot agree entirely, then, with Begley's statement 1 when he says, that throughout the whole work, as also in preceding writ- ings of the sort, "girls are entirely ignored," even though the reference to their education is only by implication. Gott's system of education begins with the children. The two sons of the chief man in the city are taken as examples, because the visitors are staying at the home of the latter, while in the city, and naturally come into contact with the members of his family circle. These boys are respectively nine and ten years of age. They have been in the care of women as well as men, that they might get advantages of the kindness of the one and the firmness of the other sex. " As soon as children can stand on their feet and begin to walk, they are taught to do so, gracefully and firmly " ..." after that we practice running. . . . Dancing, swimming, archery and such like pursuits receive atten- tion." 2 . . . " And thus we do not, like the Europeans, regard culture as consisting mainly in the accomplish- ments and training of the mind, and take hardly any account of the body; nor yet like the barbarians do we dispense with all mental training and book learning because we share their high opinion of a strong and enduring frame. We follow the glorious examples of the Greeks and Romans and pay our regard to both mind and body." 3 " Our highest endeavor is to kindle into flame the spark 1 1, p. 94 ; note. 2 1, p. ox * l* P- 91- The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 85 of genius that may be latent in each; for we cannot hope that those who only follow the trite and vulgar pursuits of the mob, can ever be so fired with enthusiasm as to dare, I will not say to do, any truly great and noble act. Meanwhile we season their minds with the salt of sober- ness and self-restraint, lest by want of it they should fall into the splendid sins of the pagan world." x Grammar and mathematics are taught early, as these sciences have close connection with daily life; and they are taught as much as may be objectively. They also " attach importance to the proper exercise of faith and imagination." 2 Impurity and dishonesty are rooted out, or rather prevented by anticipation. So the children are brought up to worship God and love their country, reverence parents and elders, and treat each other with considera- tion. And an effort is made that this form of education be made available to as many children as possible. " Our plan is to have prudent men of experience who can be questioned and consulted who are, so to speak, inspec- tors and directors of education. And besides these we have public discourses held frequently in all parts of the land, not only of a religious nature, but on ethics, the family life, and such topics. And so you see our educa- tion gives an entrance to the family circle; and although it cannot be successful everywhere, still if anyone is gifted with abilities out of the common, it looks after him and looks after his career. No one with natural endowments of a higher order is allowed to remain unnoticed and neglected from the obscurity of his birth, as is so often the case elsewhere. Nor are the less gifted despised on that account and reckoned unworthy of such educational care. Indeed we use especial endeavors in their case that 1 1, P- 93- 3 1, p. 94. 86 Christianopolis they may be able at least to rise to the full height of their capacity." 1 Thus far the matter has been one of the preliminary edu- cation at home. The second stage in the education of the youth is the entrance into the public academy. 2 The reader is introduced to this, by accompanying the older brother and his two visiting friends as they take the ten-year-old boy to enter the institution. After some mutual greetings and in- troductory remarks, the head tutor at the request of the visitors, outlines their method and courses. He begins, " The founders of our republic, in their zealous inquiry how best to establish it on a sound basis, put the educa- tion of the rising generation in the very forefront of all means to that end. They held the opinion that good laws, an effective army, and all the other defenses of a state, were of comparatively no avail if obedience and benevolence and the other virtues which tend to the well-being of man- kind were not early planted in the minds of the young. . . . Therefore they spared neither skill nor labor nor expense in properly preparing the ground at this critical period of youth. Especially did they bestow every care on this great public school, or academy, intended for the flower of the age, and to be an example for all other teaching institu- tions in the land." 3 " The first and chief care is to induce the religious habit of mind, the next to inculcate the ethical duties, and the last care (which others make their first) is a liberal education, both literary and scientific. Our re- ligious training is mainly directed to the feelings of a spiritual character." 4 When a boy enters the school, the tutors spend as much time with him as possible to learn his personality the faults 1 1, p. 96. 8 1, P- 235. a I, p. 129. * I, p. 239, pp. 93, 94 of this chapter. The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 87 and the vices, the accomplishments and the virtues, as also the preferences in subjects. By a psychological process of directing the energies, the evil tendencies can be and are diverted into different channels, without retarding develop- ment and growth. Each pupil is considered separately and treated peculiarly according to his own special needs. He is trained for that position and occupation in life which will best suit him, at which he will be able to make greatest success and be most contented, and which will therefore make him fit to render the highest possible services to the community in which he is to live. In order that one may know the essentials of statecraft and government, and the duties toward the same, it is neces- sary to have studied the history of the peoples of past times. And that this may be done most successfully, it should be in the language of the peoples themselves. Hence general instruction is given * in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew, the last named being of course in this city the native tongue, All are used in daily conversation, sometimes the one and then the other; for only thus can the real soul of the language be mastered. Furthermore, the foreign con- temporary languages are taught, especially those of the countries with which Nova Solyma comes into commercial contact. They are not satisfied with a mere makeshift knowledge ; but exact pronunciation, use of idioms, and the I genius of the tongue " 2 are carefully sought after. Thus they not only can carry on all correspondence and conver- sation with their trade countries, but are not " subject to ridicule nor exposed to loss of dignity " 3 when using the foreign tongue ; in reading the works of an author it is not the exact translation of a word that counts, but " the 1 1, pp. 245, 246. a I, p. 246. * I, p. 246. 88 Christianopolis * genius ' of the work is revealed and the book, so to speak, becomes alive not a mere dead letter." x Specialization takes place in the education of each indi- vidual when he becomes ready for it; and such specializa- tion is in the direction in which the greatest talent, interest, and ability have been shown. In the school of letters and art, 2 prizes are offered for proficiency in style of writing, rhetoric (by which are to be understood oratory and debate), poetry, drama, and the novel. "Rhetoric within the bounds of prudent restraints is a most powerful weapon, and can be turned to the highest use." 3 This is the opening sentence of a long eulogy upon rhetoric in which the tutor mentions its many practical applications. The artificial flourishes of the haranguer are scorned, as well as bombast and " logical puzzles " in writing. Poetry is one of the highest forms of literature, and it is taught to all students. For though only few become expert, yet the training in it gives a touch of refinement which is not to be attained in any other way. 4 The poetry of Nova Solyma is entirely of a religious nature, and excellent examples of adaptations of the psalms, as well as original themes, epic and dramatic, are to be found in the records of the school. In his discussion of the novel, the author permits to be seen his objections to the cheap love-stories that at the time were being circulated to a considerable extent imported from Spain or built upon the picaresque model. The ideal of the novel in Nova Solyma is that of a book (the name of book and author being concealed) whose argument is the 1 I, P- 247. 2 I, p. 250. 3 1, P- 253. 4 Poetry plays the same part in Gott's system of education that painting does in Andreae's (cf. p. 36, above, and Christianopolis, chap, xlviii). The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 89 history of a life that is free, that has received a liberal education and has been well and religiously brought up. The story keeps within the limits of human possibility, and deals as a rule with those in the middle ranks of life " who are the best and certainly not the least numerous." It is, then, a biographical, realistic production in the " Burger " life that Gott would recommend. There are certain pupils who, after reasonable effort, show that they are not adapted to a literary career. These are trained to some craft, or find useful employment in farming. The beginning of all education is nature. This is true $ whether the matter in hand be a subject like public speak- ing (where, as has already been seen, naturalness is the first requirement) or whether it be in the line of scientific research. " Human ingenuity produces certain extras, but from no other source than nature do they come. For what, I pray, can a cook or a physician or a chemist pro- duce except the preparation or the distillation of natural products? Nay more, the most peculiar and admirable results of art, if we thoroughly look into them, we shall find to be commonplace and inconsiderable ; for indeed, the very best of them, have been discovered rather than in- vented." x " And religion too has its original foundation in the very bosom of nature." 2 In answer to the question " Do you then wish us all to become philosophers and adepts in the chemistry of na- ture?" the tutor informs his visitor, "Yes I do, if you are such adepts as to be able to extract the meaning of the divine goodness, and such philosophers as to look at com- mon things with no common views. Philosophers have been wont to let their studies end in the desire for knowl- edge and fame only, and have not used them as they ought, 1 1, p. 165. a I, p. 225. 90 Christianopolis to God's praise and glory. Now the special advantage of natural science is to rise from nature to nature's God, trac- ing His footsteps everywhere therein." x And nature fur- nishes a spectacle worthy of the deeper consideration of the inward eye. The physical development of the boys at academy or college is not neglected. There is a gymnasium, in and near which all kinds of " exercises and games are practiced running, leaping, games of ball and the quoit, swimming in the baths, riding, drilling, marching," 2 and so on ; in these the students are not only encouraged, but obliged to take part. At all such regular athletic sports masters are present to assist and coach, as well as to check any improper be- havior ; " for nowhere is a boy's natural disposition more clearly discovered than when in excited play." 3 As advanced work for students 4 who have already ob- tained their degree in arts, two lecture halls are provided the one in which lectures are heard in philosophy and civil prudence, the other which is fitted up and equipped for theology, medicine, and jurisprudence. Only the very best professors and lecturers are engaged, and at the high- est salaries, to superintend the work here; and students are given more liberty than in their previous years. A word should be said here also concerning the type of teach- ers employed in all the grades of the schools, and the standing of such men. The following description is given by the visitors who are being conducted through the school by the head master : " The tutor was well advanced in years, of grave and commanding appearance; but his kind eyes, pleasant voice, and sweet expression all pointed to the best of dispositions. The inhabitants of Nova Solyma do not 1 1, p. 171. ' I, p. 304. a I, p. 304. 4 n > P- 7. The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 91 hold schoolmasters in contempt, as so many other nations do, nor do they class them simply as superior servants, who have to see chiefly that the children are kept safe and do not get into mischief. On the contrary, they are classed with the chief magistrates of the nation ; and especially are those schoolmasters held in honor who have charge of the young and untrained, for they are invested with the Order of the Sun, appropriately enough too; for the sun is the dispeller of all darkness, and renders possible the active duties of life." 1 Closely identified with the educational system, is the religious training ; and hand in hand with the latter goes the use of music. Nova Solyma 2 is a city of christianized I 1* Jews. After a long, wandering, and unsettled life, caused/ by " that most awful deed of crime committed by the fore- 1 fathers," the chosen people again find themselves under one government. For a " sudden flash of divine light " re- moved the " stubborn mental darkness " that had existed. And it is now fifty years since the nation has been restored to prosperity and contentment. Here appears the chiliastic character of the Utopia. I The highest ideal in life is the religious ideal. " Even as knowledge is the servant of morality, so both are true servants of religion." 3 One of the chief themes of the story is the enlightenment and complete conversion of the two young men who have sought out the republic from a desire to know its inner life. Apollos, Joseph, and Jacob the three chief religious teachers mentioned take every occa- sion to turn the thoughts of the young men to a realization of the importance of the future life. Two death-bed scenes are used for this purpose also. Here are shown the agony of a sinful soul near the moment of its departure from the M, p. 234. "I, p. 88. I, p. 306. 92 Christianopolis earth ; 1 and the contentment and peacefulness of one at the time of death whose life has been an attempt to coincide with the Divine Will. 2 " Inner light," " inner feeling," and " revelation " are expressions often used. " Flashes of light," 3 " Excess of heavenly light," 4 " Dark places made plain as it were by the light of heaven," 5 " true renewed life of the soul, and a lively exercise and warm experience of faith," 6 " that inner life of the soul," 7 " the fierce light of all sciences," 8 " the sweetness and light of the intellectual life," 9 " We believe every good gift cometh from the same source of divine light," 10 " Tis true, I see sometimes a slight ray of omnipotent grace flitting across the darkness of my night, with frequent flashes as from some tiny crevice," n " The light of divine favor seemed to beam on his soul," 12 " The only authority in all cases is divine truth," 13 " like rays of heavenly light breaking through their former gloom," 14 " Clear light of heaven into my poor dark soul," 15 " And each glorified saint shall give forth, as doth a lantern, its own inner light," 16 are a few of the very frequent refer- ences to the subject. There are long discourses, lectures, and private talks on religious and philosophical subjects the origin of the world, 17 origin of evil in the world, 18 discourse on the sab- bath, 19 prayer, 20 conception of God. 21 And all point to one conclusion: The true religion is that of Jesus Christ; real happiness consists in adapting of the will to that of God. 1 II, p. 180. 8 1, p. 227. " II, p. 217. a II, p. 67. 9 1, p. 238. " II, pp. 219 and 220. I, p. 88. 10 1, p. 245. " I, P- 178, and II, p. 9. 4 1, p. 195. " II, p. 168. 18 II, p. 26. 8 1, p. 222. " II, p. 196. 19 II, p. 190. 6 1, p. 223. M II, p. 196. 20 II, P- 193. T I, p. 225. M II, p. 207. 21 II, p. 149. The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 93 A pure, active, and unselfish life is the outward evidence of Christianity within. "The people of Nova Solyma take great delight in the art of music." * " It has indeed a subtle influence, yet so elevating and vehement that it seems to throw an enchant- ment on the mind, nor has God failed to include this natural and suitable instrument among the adjuncts of worship. . . . The human voice is the fittest instrument wherewith to praise God." 2 In Nova Solyma the singing of psalms stands next to prayer in religious devotion. The educational system, the religious views, and the proper use of music have now been outlined as they exist in Nova Solyma. A comparison of these with the views held by the inhabitants of Christianopolis will show like- nesses that cannot fail to point to a knowledge on the part of Gott of the " Christian state " of Andreae. Though involving some slight repetition of the material of a preced- ing chapter, it will be necessary to cite a few references from the Christianopolis. Where a subject has been discussed in previous chapters, a page reference merely will be given. The most striking similarity is found in the very kernel of the educational systems of the two Utopias. In the Nova Solyma the essence of the system is twice mentioned, once in detail 3 and once in substance. 4 The Christianopolis gives the same thought exactly, and almost the identical words and phraseology. 5 " The most important duty is to reverence God with a pure and worshipful soul; next, to cultivate pious and unsullied morals, and finally to train the mind." In both instances there is added in parentheses as 1 1, p. 103. 3 n, P. 195- 8 I, p. 239, and p. 86 of this chapter. 4 I, p. 88, and p. 91 of this chapter. 6 Chap. liv. 94 Christianopolis an afterthought : " This order is regularly inverted in the world." It would not be surprising that these two men, religious in their make-up, should put religion first in im- portance in their Utopias ; nor need it be startling even, that the other two items should follow in the same order. But inasmuch as in both Utopias this particular matter is taken as the basis for all the rest, the prominence given to the statements and the exact similarity of the means of expres- sion cease to appear as a mere coincidence. Up to the age of six in the Christianopolis, ten in the Nova Solyma, children are educated at home. At this period they are given over by their parents to the public boarding school, but with earnest prayer. 1 So also the Christianopolis: " Youth the most valuable treasure of the republic," 2 and " Not without fervent prayer." 3 And in Nova Solyma: " Youth the most important item in the state." 4 As in Nova Solyma 5 so in Christianopolis, the instruc- tors are men of the highest talent and ability, and the description tallies remarkably. In the latter, instructors are of " mature years, virtuous, upright, industrious ; " they de- velop the pupils, are held in high esteem, and are capable in their departments. 6 Here as there, the pupils are kept under close observation and taught as individuals. In the study of languages, the same principles and pur- poses exactly are mentioned. In the Christianopolis, 1 as has already been seen in Nova Solyma, 8, the classics and the 1 Nova Solyma, I, p. 239 ; p. 86 of this chapter. 2 Chap, lxxix. 8 Chap. liii. 4 t P- 235 ; p. 86 of this chapter. 5 1, p. 234 ; pp. 90, 91 of this chapter. 6 Chaps. Hi, liii, and liv. 7 Chap. lvii. 8 1, pp. 245 f. ; p. 87 of this chapter. The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 95 modern languages are taught the former, to prepare men to understand ancient civilization, the latter that inter- course with other states may be facilitated. They also learn the languages rapidly; and are surprised that Euro- peans waste years in acquiring one language. And here again, the essence and concrete meaning of the language is considered more important than the abstract grammar. Rhetoric 1 is emphasized but not the unnatural applica- tion of it. " Without the natural gift (natura) the accom- plishment is tasteless, and shows rather something forced, than ingenious." Poetry and music are in Christianopolis, as in Nova Solyma, auxiliary forces to religion. " Choral singing, and singing and chanting of psalms play an im- portant part in private as in public worship." With them 2 music is no small part of the worship. " They praise God especially with words (that is, singing), then also with harps . . . and all kinds of instruments." 3 In both cities the colleges of theology, medicine, and law 4 are located closely together and are so treated. They are for the advanced students. Students in the Chris- tianopolis have courses in physical training 5 as in Nova Solyma. The same forms of exercise are employed, and under strict superintendency. 6 The similarities in religious matters as such, the sacra- ments, baptism and the Lord's Supper, 7 prayer, worship forms, and so forth, have been sufficiently discussed and 1 Chap, lvi ; cf . also p. 32, above. 3 Chap, lxxxv. 3 Cf. Nova Solyma, II, p. 195 ; p. 93 of this chapter. * Christianopolis, chaps, lxxvii, lxxviii, and lxxix; Nova Solyma, II, P. 7. , " Christianopolis, chap. liv. 6 Nova Solyma, I, p. 304; p. 84 of this chapter. 7 Christianopolis, chap, lxxxvi; Nova Solyma, II, p. 198; pp. 91, 92 of this chapter. 96 Christianopolis require no further comparisons. Politics, society, family re- lations, and so forth, are wonderfully alike in both states. The governments are democratic, built up on principles of liberty ; and the note of freedom is loudly sounded through- out. So in Nova Solyma, " If any humanly authorized power denies this principle (that is, of liberty and re- ligion), it is the people's duty to resist and death itself is to be chosen in preference to such an unjust and mon- strous tyranny." x " Liberty of judgment is conceded to us, and recommended." 2 " We have indeed liberty of will." 3 In the Christianopolis " Christian freedom, there- fore, cannot tolerate even restrictions, much less threats." 4 Yet this feeling of freedom does not in any way lean toward license, is not at all anarchistic. It is the inner freedom that regulates the individual will, and makes it voluntarily obedient to a just, higher authority. Hence also patriotism is strongly developed. Of this there are numerous suggestions. In Nova Solyma " That he must needs relieve his mind in a joyous song of home and fatherland." 5 Again, " The affairs of the state should have a special call upon us." 6 M We are joined in family and state by the closest ties." And in the Christianopolis " Those who have deserved well of their native country have here an enviable reputation." 7 The home life in Nova Solyma follows the same prin- ciple as in the Christianopolis. Filial obedience is the rule. Children are polite and respectful. 8 The disrespect shown by the two Cambridge students in leaving Europe for the East without the knowledge of their parents, is severely rebuked by Jacob the chief ruler of Nova Solyma. Again 1 1, p. 224. 4 Chap. xix. 7 Chap. xli. 3 II, p. 196. 8 1, P. 175- 8 1, P. 99. 8 II, p. 170. 6 I, p. 243. . The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 97 e parting of father and son * when the ten-year-old boy- leaves for academy, is indicative of the closest ties between the two. Even after the children grow up they are expected to look to parents for advice and suggestion. So Joseph, the grown son of Jacob, says, " that he is not yet independent of paternal authority, and is simply a member of the family council." 2 And at the time of marriage, the consent of the parents of both parties is necessary. " Now since marriage is in a way the granting of freedom to one's children, and sending them forth into a new colony or home, it not only requires the consent of the parents, but before that, it requires that they should be consulted. . . . Certainly it can scarcely be expected, that God will approve of that marriage of which the parents disapprove." 3 These ideas of filial obedience and marriage have been brought out in the Christianopolis already. Marriage is then a sacred institu- tion sanctioned and approved by parents and by God; and patience must be exercised to make it happy. So in the Christianopolis, " Their friends recommend to the newly married couple, unity, work, moderation, but primarily piety and patience." 4 In Nova Solyma " Discords can be smoothed out by care and patience/' 5 Self-control and patience are urged in all matters, as the chief virtue. " Nothing is more worthy than to control oneself," 6 " The man who can rule himself is the greatest of all command- ers." 7 " To acquire the position of a ruler among men, one must begin by ruling himself that is the first great requi- site." 8 In the Christianopolis, " The glory of con- quest over one's passions," 9 " make effort to control our 1 1, p. 231. 5 II, p. 208. 2 1, p. 207. e Nova Solyma, II, p. 130. 8 II, p. 205. T Nova Solyma, II, p. 125. 4 Chap, lxxxviii. 8 Nova Solyma, II, p. 120. "Chap, xlviii. 98 Christianopolis anger," 1 " to be patient in distasteful affairs." 2 The scenes around the death-bed are similarly described 3 exhorta- tion, prayer and encouragement, and contentment, if the departing one is at peace with God. Several minor and unrelated points will be but hastily mentioned: The library and the armory are adjacent. In both cases the visitors are led through (or past) the one, to get to the other. 4 " Mars and Pallas/' says Nova Solyma, " should not be too far separated." But in both Chris- tianopolis and Nova Solyma " the pest of war " is a neces- sary evil. " Nor is it only that one man becomes a pest to another, but vast multitudes of men, sworn in under a deadly compact, fitted out with all the weapons of destruc- tion, . . . are led forth to lay waste a country, to burn its cities, and to slaughter its principal people; and the more terror they cause, and the greater ravages they commit, so much the more do they boast and triumph in such deeds; and their names are handed down to posterity loaded with honor, this glorious condition being kept up, perhaps to cover the vile atrocities of our ancestors from the researches of later generations, or to encourage posterity to rise to like wicked barbarity." 5 And in the Christianopolis, " When other nations are accustomed to pride themselves with their cannon and war equipment, these people look upon all their heaps of murderous weapons with horror." 6 As in keeping with the other customs of home life, the families of Nova Solyma, as has already been noticed in 1 Chap. xxix. 2 Chap, xliii. 8 Nova Solyma, II, pp. 67, 180; cf. p. 91 of this chapter, and Christianopolis, chap. xcix. 4 Christianopolis, chaps, xxxix, xl ; Nova Solyma, I, p. 243. 5 Nova Solyma, II, p. 38. 6 Chap. xl. The Christianopolis and Nova Solyma 99 the case of Christianopolis, take their meals in their pri- vate houses and at a family table. The description of the gardens and the various hues and colors of flowers therein 1 is almost identical, indeed whole sections in this connection are very similar. It would be possible to carry on the process of likenesses to a much further degree, but this would be tedious and entirely unnecessary. The general plan of the two works has undoubtedly been shown to be one ; the system of education and the ethics of life the important points in the minds of both authors must surely be recognized as the same. (In the former especially, Bacon's New Atlantis could not have been the pattern for Nova Solyma.) And enough parallels have been cited to show direct relation between the two. When it is remembered that Gott himself was in all probability in the circle of Andreae's best friends and warmest admirers Dury, Hartlib, Comenius, and others and that he was interested in exactly the same sort of a reformation of society as was Andreae, and hence would eagerly make inquiry of his friends regarding all possible writings along the line of his work the evidence that Gott actually knew Andreae's Christianopolis becomes too strong to deny. 1 Christianopolis, chap, xciv ; Nova Solyma, I, p. 162. ANDREAE, THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, AND EDUCATIONAL REFORM In tracing the probable effect of Andreae's teachings upon the development of education, and especially the agi- tation which resulted in the foundation of societies for the investigation of the experimental sciences in England, it will be necessary first of all to consider his relations to certain prominent contemporary educators in Germany and abroad. 1 Among these, Johann Amos Comenius will occupy an important place. He was born in 1592 in Nivnitz, Hun- gary, but received his education for the most part in Ger- many. Having completed his preparatory work at the Latin school in Herborn, Nassau, he entered the University of Heidelberg, and after a brief stay in the Netherlands, returned home, taking up a position as instructor in 1614. 1 G. Waterhouse, in a recent publication (see bibliography), dis- cusses the literary relation of England and Germany in the seven- teenth century. After asserting the superiority of German literature over English in the sixteenth century, and stating that England paid back the debt in the eighteenth, he continues (Introduction, xii, xiii) that " German literature of the seventeenth century is not worth reading for its own sake " ; that " vernacular literature is practically unknown," that " the beginning of the century is for Ger- many a period of absolute stagnation." This is speaking somewhat extremely, as none of these statements is quite true. That certain works of Comenius, for instance, were considered important even in England will be shown later in this chapter ; also that he as well as Andreae wrote in German and advocated the use of the vernacu- lar at the same time that Bacon was having his English works trans- lated into Latin so that they might better survive the effects of time. 100 The Royal Society and Educational Reform ioi He was later (after he attained the requhed age) ordained at Fulnek. During the years of the invasion of the Span- ish armies, hundreds of prominent Bohemians were driven out of the country ; and in 1627 Comenius, accompanied by a part of his congregation, withdrew to Poland. He took up his abode in Lissa, having added to his ministerial duties, that of director of the local " Gymnasium." In 1613 ap- peared his first work of importance, Janua Linguarum Reserata which made him famous throughout Europe. This deals entirely with a reform for contemporary educa- tion. His next publication, the Didactica Magna, shows his interest also in the rebuilding of the whole system of scientific research and secured for him a call from Sweden to superintend a reform of the school system. But he was more attracted by an invitation extended by the British Parliament to come to England. The invitation had been procured through the activity of Samuel Hartlib, who had opened a correspondence with Comenius, and had caused to be published the latter's Prodromus Pansophiae. In 1 641, then, Comenius came to London. While political conditions in England did not at the time admit of the form- ing of any permanent organization according to Comenius's Waterhouse states that the influence of English literature on Weck- herlin, Morhof, and Schupp was great. This is undoubtedly true (Weckherlin lived in England more than thirty years!), but that there was also a powerful current in the other direction, through the same and other individuals, is not mentioned. Only three lines are devoted to Hartlib, whose great activity in many fields cannot be overestimated. While Waterhouse records the English transla- tions of Jakob Boehme's works he seems to have no knowledge of the remarkable and widespread influence which German mysticism had upon seventeenth-century England, and the names of men such as Sebastian Franck, Kaspar von Schwenckfeld, Valentin Weigel, and Andreae are not even mentioned in his book. See Margaret L. Bailey. Milton and Jakob Boehme, New York, Oxford University Press, 1914. 102 Christianopolis plans, his visit brought him into association with some of the most learned men of the time. Among these are to be counted Hartlib himself, John Dury, and perhaps Milton. At any rate, the latter's Tractate on Education, published in 1644 and dedicated to Hartlib, shows a strong tendency toward Comenius's views on this subject. Choosing be- tween an invitation to France and a second one to Sweden, Comenius took up his abode at Elbing in 1642, which had at that time been given over to Sweden. Here he stayed most of the following eight years, under the patronage of Oxenstierna, the chancellor. These years, besides being spent in practical teaching activity, produced the Novis- sima Linguarum Methodus which, with his earlier men- tioned works, presents his method in education. The fol- lowing six years were spent in various parts of Germany and Hungary. In 1656 he took up his abode in Amsterdam, where his death took place in 1671. These years were spent in work upon his Pansophia (which he did not succeed in completing) ; and the collection of Opera Didactic a was published in 1657. Comenius's acquaintance with Andreae's productions be- gan early. As early as 1628 he wrote Andreae of his interest in the latter's work, and expressed the hope that " Andreae will not scorn to consider him in the number of his ad- mirers, disciples, and pupils." * The answer was favorable, and was probably accompanied by a copy of the laws of So- cietas Christiana. Comenius's next letter requests Andreae, " That he should not leave the field of battle before he had trained up successors; advanced age should not hinder the veteran general from giving the recruits a start. . . ." 2 The letters exchanged between the two were neither regular nor numerous. Until 1647 there was no further corre- 1 Mohrke, p. 21. a Mohrke, p. 21. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 103 spondence. In that year a long letter from Comenius to Andreae acknowledges favorable comment on the part of the latter upon Comenius's Pansophia; and refers in turn with great praise to Andreae's Theophilus, which Comenius must have seen at least fifteen years earlier. The friendly relations between the two were kept up to a great extent by Hesenthaler, a young friend of both men ; and * a regular exchange of their later works took place. The request for correspondence, and so forth, was invariably on the side of Comenius; and Andreae was always offering excuses for his neglect. At Andreae's death in 1657, Comenius showed his further respect for him by the use of a motto of An- dreae's in the publishing of Didactica Magna. Just to what extent Comenius is dependent upon An- dreae for his views on education is hard to say. Being contemporaries and in direct communication with each other's works, their effect was in all probability to a con- siderable extent a mutual one. Furthermore, as Mohrke very rightly says, 2 conditions very often cause like ideas to rise simultaneously in the minds of isolated thinkers. Especially was this true in this century when the scholars of Italy, Germany, England, and France were working under a common world-impulse, developing solutions to the same great scientific problems. If we can believe Comenius's words, he was certainly indebted to Andreae for his most fundamental ideas. He speaks of Andreae always in the highest terms, and ranks him among the first of those from whom he received in- centive and inspiration for his own work. This he men- tions again and again early in his career, and as late as 1656 in a letter to Hesenthaler he says incidentally while speak- ing of Andreae, ". . . for from him I obtained almost the 1 Mohrke, pp. 23, 32. a P. 138. 104 Christianopolis very elements of my pansophic thoughts/' 1 and he begs Hesenthaler that he make an effort to secure for him at any cost all available works of Andreae, many of which (includ- ing the Christianopolis) he had once not merely read, but possessed and had lost in the burning of Lissa by the Poles in 1656. Hullemann 2 and Hossbach 3 accept Comenius's statement of the case, as supplemented by an analysis of the productions of the two men. Briigel also concludes his argument on this point with, " Andreae laid the founda- tion upon which Comenius completed the admirable struc- ture of his didactic." 4 On the other hand, there are those who deny any debt of Comenius to Andreae, and attribute the similarity in their methods and plans merely to the general spirit of reform and investigation which conditions had brought forth. A comparison of the views of the two would certainly seem to support the conclusion of Hossbach and the others who take stand with him, and would justify Comenius himself in the frank statement he makes regarding his position with reference to Andreae. Only a few striking instances will be cited. The different realms in which edu- cation should be carried on are for Comenius, as stated in his Didactic a, three: sapientia or eruditio, virtus, and religio corresponding to the three so-called divisions of the activity of the soul, intellectus, voluntas, conscientia. These are also the elementary principles in the Theophilus and have already been cited from the Christianopolis. 5 The principle of happiness and prosperity of the succeeding generation provided by a proper care of the youth of to- day, is developed by both in exactly the same way public schools for all children, of both sexes, and of * Mohrke, p. 34. 8 Pp. 163 f. 2 I, p. 1. 4 Mohrke, p. 14. 6 Chap, liv, and pp. 93, 94, above. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 105 all ranks in life ; * instructors of the highest possible type and ability; not merely lecturing, but actual activity and effort on the part of the pupils. Languages, ancient and modern, are to be taught, as in the Christianopolis the former to acquaint the present with ancient civiliza- tion, the latter for convenience in intercourse with other nations. Mohrke 2 gives Comenius the advantage in his insistence upon proficiency in the vernacular. Instances will be found, however, where Andreae advocates this just as strongly. " Those are credulous people who would at- tribute to Latin that it gives greater wisdom than Ger- man/' 3 " What is not clear in Latin or a foreign modern language, must be explained in the vernacular. It is foolish to try to learn the former before one is expert in the latter." 4 In the chapter relating to schools, 5 the word " vernacula" occurs three or four times. Again, the oft- repeated refrain of Comenius and the essence of his method, 1 Everything back to nature, and nothing without nature," is according to Mohrke 6 not to be found in Andreae, how- ever closely one may search for it. This cannot be con- ceded; for such expressions as 7 (where the advantage of efficiency in rhetoric is the theme), " They look more upon nature than upon art/' are to be found throughout his works. Comenius insists upon exercise for the pupils and cleanli- ness in their quarters. He recommends the same outdoor sports as does Andreae and in the same manner bars all games that require no physical motion, as cards, dice, and so forth. He emphasizes the necessity of guarding against 1 Christianopolis, chap. liii. B Chap. lv. 1 P. 45. 6 P. 72. * Chap. lvii. 7 Christianopolis, chap. lvi. 4 Christianopolis, chap. lv. 106 Christianopolis disease, and requires " large, roomy, and pleasant halls and apartments for the pupils." Andreae is just as particular in these points, 1 and by advocating individual attention to pupils, lays the basis for the Montessori system of educa- tion, so popular to-day. Comenius accepts Andreae's views on astronomy, astrology, and mystic numbers directly. Their objective instruction and scientific re- search coincide, as do also their methods of learning a foreign language. Finally and most important of all is Andreae's scheme for the organization of a college, that is, a body of men, educated, equipped and desirous of improv- ing human affairs,* " working together " to fulfill a common purpose. For it was this point in Andreae's plans which first attracted the attention of Comenius and caused him to seek a closer acquaintance with the former. Leaving Comenius for the moment, we will briefly sur- vey the lives and activities of Samuel Hartlib and John Dury. The former was born at Elbing, Germany, near the close of the sixteenth century. His early years are not well known, and most of the information at hand comes from some casual remarks of his own. His father was a Polish merchant and his mother the daughter of an Englishman. Hartlib came to England about 1628 and was himself a merchant. It is impossible to over-emphasize the enthusi- asm of this very interesting man, as also the power and spirit he lent to the movement of better education in Eng- land. He felt that the era of democracy was well adapted for the improvement of all religious and educational condi- tions, and he devoted his life to the faithful performance of the mission of realizing such results. His aim was not only the cultural progress of England or of Germany; but the thought that he had early imbibed from Andreae that of a 1 Chap. liii. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 107 general reformation of the whole world, was ever present in his mind. National and world growth by means of the educa- tion of the youth, was his ambitious purpose. The fact that parliament appointed him a foreign-born man as " agent for the advancement of universal learning " shows in what esteem he was held by his contemporaries. He introduced the writings of Comenius into England. In 1644 Milton addressed to him his Tractate on Education. Hartlib published pamphlets on educational and industrial matters ' and gave encouragement to all undertakings of this nature. In 1646 a pension was conferred upon him in return for his valuable works on husbandry; for, his essay on The l^ Erection of a College of Husbandry is the first attempt on record for the founding of an agricultural school. 1 All the time he was carrying on an extensive correspondence with literary men at home and abroad. The latter part of his life he spent at Oxford, and he was intimately associated with the group of men who later became a part of the - Royal Society. His idealistic interests are shown also in The Description of the Famous Kingdom of Macaria, a Utopia published in 1641. He made numerous translations of works into English, especially of the Latin writings of Comenius. His death took place about 1670. It was in 1633 tnat Hartlib first heard of Comenius through the latter's Janua. He seems to have been natu- rally an enthusiast for the subject, and from his first ac- quaintance with Comenius's theories was completely cap- tivated. Comenius already had conceived the idea of an Enzyklop'ddie der Pansophie, and in 1634, in answer to Har'lib's request, sent him a brief of his plan under the title; Praeludia. The Pansophie was Comenius's favorite work and idea, though his plans for the whole were not 1 Friedrich Althaus, in Historisches Taschenbuch, 1884, P- 244. 108 Christianopolis quite clear in his own mind and in the nature of the case it was a work he could not hope to complete. It was to be 1 fundamentally a " universal science " containing a resume of all human knowledge, both resting upon a religious basis and leading toward a religious enlightenment. As has al- ready been seen, he attributes the incentive for the idea to Andreae. And no one can read Andreae's works espe- cially the Christianopolis without discovering in every chapter just this same thought, " God and nature are the beginning of all man's knowledge; and all scientific re- searches have in view the betterment of mankind and the glorification as well as the ' defense ' of God " religion being the basis and the ultimate purpose of the whole; knowledge and science, the means. In order to enlarge the means and insure a more rapid and successful outcome of results, he advocates schools, study of the languages, and most important of all, the society or college of learned men, founded to collect information from all countries, to work out conclusions experimentally therefrom, and to share the results with the world at large. Comenius's plan is a Pansophie and includes the world in its scope. These were the ideas which attracted Hartlib to Comenius and kept him in correspondence with the latter. Hartlib was in close touch with men of learning in several coun- tries and with all new scientific developments in England ; and he saw in Comenius's plan, elements which he felt would advance the common cause materially. Hence, he made every effort to bring Comenius to England, that the latter's mental picture of his work might be personally out- lined. In the meantime Comenius had been close to ether enthusiasts in London and in the university towns, chiefly 1 Mohrke, p. 32. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 109 ,.. through Harthb's efforts and activity in the cause. One of these, who took the matter up with almost equal energy and enthusiasm, was John Dury. He was born at Edin- burgh in 1 596, in a Presbyterian home. His father, a minis- ter, was banished in 1606 and the son was educated at Leyden. After completing his university course, he was made pastor of an English congregation at Elbing (then under the dominion of Gustavus Adolphus). The English ambassador to the place, Sir Thomas Roe, took an interest in Dury's plans of religious unity between the Presbyterian and Lutheran churches, and gave him recommendations to Sweden and to men in England. To England Dury went in 1630. From this time on for practically the rest of his life, he wandered from place to place visiting Germany, France, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, trying to bring about unity in the church. In 1661 he went to Cassel, where he died in 1680. 1 It was at Elbing in all probability that Dury and Hartlib met, although Hartlib left about 1628, very shortly after the former arrived to take up his pastorate in the English settlement there. It has been suggested 2 that Hartlib's departure for England at this time was partly caused by his willingness to pre- pare the way for Dury's mission. The latter was pri- marily a preacher, interested in bringing about unity in the Christian church. He also had very decided views on education; and Hartlib here, as in the case of Comenius, furnished the inspiration and enthusiasm to make the pedagogical theories practical. During the years that fol- lowed, Dury wrote (and Hartlib published with a preface) a number of religious and educational tracts at the sugges- tion of a " Christian brotherhood whose members wished to be of service to one another and to humanity." 1 M. C. G., VI, p. 65. 2 M. C. G., Massons, VI. no Christianopolis Duty's system of education shows, again, a very notice- able similarity to the educative principles of Andreae. 1 Girls and boys are educated 2 in separate halls the former have governesses, and the latter, tutors (the " masters " of Christianopolis). The schools are supervised by an inspec- tor. Girls are trained to the duties of mothers and house- wives boys are instructed particularly in agriculture, com- merce, and political science; but all study the languages. Good methods and excellent instructors save pupils much trouble and unnecessary difficulty. 3 The chief objects are exactly as in Andreae, and even his accepted order i) education to piety, 2) decency in morals, 3) growth in sciences is followed. He inserts also " preserving of health." Under the first head we find all the relations for daily prayer and worship, as we saw in the Christianopolis, though these are elaborated and developed according to Dury's own personal views. His training in manners, and so forth, is based upon strict morality. The pupils are closely watched and corrected in their daily behavior. Character building must begin with the early years. As far as concerns mental training elsewhere, he complains, pupils are taught very poorly, and trained in the least important matters. They are given words, rules, and sections to com- mit before they understand the meaning. 4 These blunders are eliminated by teaching nothing that the pupil cannot grasp and understand. So education becomes experimental, i M. C. G., XVI, pp. 191 ff. 2 See Christianopolis, especially chaps, xxxviii, xlviii, lii, liii, liv. * Recall here the description of the excellent methods in use at Christianopolis and the wail of the visitor when he recalls his own early grapplings with languages. 4 It will be remembered how often Andreae complains of the " dead letters of Aristotle " as compared with the living " genius " of the subject. The Royal Society and Educational Reform hi nature and the application of her creatures ! The work of the pupils is graded. This is very carefully done in the Christiano polls, though the whole is less defi- nitely outlined. For Dury's third or advanced grade there are exact equivalents in the Christiano polls. The subjects are even in like groups: medicine, pharmacy, chemistry; logic, rhetoric, poetry; theory of music with mathematics. A comparison of the indices of the two works will show surprising likenesses. It will not be necessary to note them here. The practical applications of science to daily life re- call the many workshops and so forth, in the Christiano polls, where the rules and theories are tested and worked out. Precautions for health an open location for the school, plenty of air, absolute cleanliness of the rooms, frequent baths, physical exercise, regular and informal recreation all have been noted before. Such is the system of Dury, the comrade in arms, as it were, of Hartlib, and it shows at every turn exact marks of coincidence with the Utopia of 1619. That Dury was well acquainted with Andreae's works cannot be doubted. First of all, he was introduced by Hartlib to Comenius's works and became, like Hartlib, an admirer of them. It will be remembered that Comenius in his educational productions made frank and open use of Andreae. Moreover there is evidence * of direct correspondence between Andreae and Dury on the subject that lay near the hearts of both men education of the youth to insure betterment of society, church, and state. The intellectual relationships that had been growing up for several years between England and Germany were strengthened and made more definite in 1636 by two young 1 M. C. G., II, p. 233, and Vita, pp. 126, 166. 112 Christianopolis men, Peter Figulus and Joachim Hubner. The former, an orphan, had been adopted into the home of Comenius, and now entered the service of Dury, who was at the time visiting his friend Matthie in Sweden, and endeavoring to get a letter of recommendation from Oxenstierna (chan- cellor of Sweden) to the University of Upsala, with a view toward introducing his doctrines of unity. The other, Hiib- ner, was a friend of Hartlib, through whom the arrange- ments had been made at Oxford in 1634 for the publishing of Comenius's Praeludia. Hubner 's interest in this work was acknowledged by Comenius, when the latter wrote him a few years later and sent along a copy of his Didactica. From this time on, regular correspondence was carried on, and frank mutual criticism was indulged in which fortunately did not lead to serious differences. The next edition of the Praeludia (1639), now called the Prodromus Pansophiae, with Hartlib's preface, gave additional impetus to the ever increasing longing for the " society " outlined by Dury. It was clear that if the principles of the Pansophia were to become of practical value and the work completed, a company of organized co-workers would be necessary. Hence in 1640 definite plans were undertaken to make the theory a reality. Comenius was asked to map out the details for a society of scholars and finally urgently invited to come to England and describe the whole in assembly. This finally resulted (after an address to parliament by Bishop Gaudentius, in which he speaks of Comenius and Dury as furnishing peace on the foundation of " truth ") in the official invitation, already mentioned, extended to Comenius and Dury, and in their subsequent visit and consultation with parliament. These meetings of 1641 and 1642, twenty years before the founding of the Royal Society, half a decade before the The Royal Society and Educational Reform 113 Oxford and London gatherings of Robert Boyle and his comrades, were undoubtedly the fqrerunners in England of the organization as realized under Charles II. In the early correspondence of Hartlib and Hiibner on the subject of education and scientific research, a number of men are discussed and their views. The chief one men- tioned by Hiibner is Andreae, with especial reference to his D extra Amoris Porrecta.. In the meantime condi- tions in England had arrived at a point where national assistance to educational schemes was not to be immediately looked for. The king and the parliament were otherwise engaged, the factions at war ; and the group of scholars and enthusiasts became scattered. Comenius, after some hesita- tion, went to Sweden, Hiibner to Paris, to treat in the place of Comenius with Cardinal Richelieu. Dury remained in England until 1654. During the few years immediately succeeding, unavoid- able circumstances prevented regularity of meetings and attendance. But interest was still kept up and to a consider- able extent through the influence of Robert Boyle, the chemist and natural philosopher. Boyle was younger than the men thus far discussed and was not in England at the time of the early meetings of the society in 1641 and 1642. He was born in 1627, and sent to Eton, where his father's intimate friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was provost at the time. In 1638 he left England for the Continent, staying at Paris, Lyons, and Geneva. Later he spent some time in Italy, studying at Florence with Galileo. The latter died (1642) while Boyle was at the place. In 1644 he returned to England and after some years spent in Ireland, where he had been called on private business, he settled in Oxford, 1654. Here he met often with Christopher Wren, Goddard, and others. A laboratory was fitted up and ex- H4 Christianopolis periments of importance were performed which were writ- ten up and published several years later. While still in London in 1645 ne na d met with those who remained of the associates of the preceding years, and these gatherings v were a little later referred to as the " Invisible College." During these years Boyle corresponded with Newton, John Evelyn, 1 Henry Oldenburg, 2 and Hartlib. 3 It was not until after some time that he could be persuaded to read Bacon or Descartes because he wanted to work out his own views without prejudice from others. In Ireland, where he spent 1 John Evelyn (1620- 1706) was born at Wotton and received most of his education from private tutors. He spent much time on the Continent and corresponded with Boyle on the subject of founding a college. He became very much interested in the Royal Society and held the offices of secretary and president. In a letter to Boyle, dated September third, 1659 (found in Boyle's Works, edition 1772, VI, p. 288), he urges the banding together of "gentlemen who have the common interest of preserving science and cultivating them- selves," to form a society. His works, like those of Hartlib, deal with a great variety of subjects. 3 Henry Oldenburg, natural philosopher and man of letters, was born at Bremen in 1615, the son of a " Gymnasium " tutor. His education was received in his native city, and he went to England in 1640, where he made the acquaintance of a number of learned men in parliament. Returning to Germany, he was for years en- gaged in diplomatic service, though in private he devoted his time to scientific research. In 1654 he met Milton, having gone back to England, and entered into closer relations with the English edu- cators than before. He lived at Oxford, was much with Boyle and Petty, and was a part of the early movements, described before, for the foundation of the Royal Society. He spent the latter part of his life in England and was the first secretary of the Royal Society. 8 In the correspondence of Boyle and Hartlib (Boyle's Works, VI, pp. 76-136), covering a period of ten or fifteen years, there are numerous references to Haacke, Dury, Petty, and also to German experimenters and men of letters. Hartlib mentions receiving let- ters urging and furnishing plans for " a real reformation and ad- vancement in all manner of literature " from a man of the greatest importance " whose name would be known to those traveling on the Continent." The Royal Society and Educational Reform 115 years without chemical equipment, he devoted much of his time to experiments in anatomy and dissection. The In- visible College is mentioned several times in his corre- spondence of the years 1646 and 1647. I n one of his let- ters he urges a former tutor of his to bring along to London "good receipts or choice books on any of these subjects (natural philosophy, mechanics, or husbandry) which you can procure; which will make you extremely welcome to the Invisible College." Later on " The corner stones of the Invisible College, or as they call themselves, the Philosophical College, do now and then honor me with their company." 1 The meetings during these years at London (1645 an ^ following) were entirely informal and not as hopeful of ultimate and permanent organization even as those of a few years earlier. But they were a desperate attempt to per- severe and win in spite of the unfavorable conditions. At some of the meetings Dr. John Wallis was present as lecturer on mathematics. In his account of one of them he tells of the subjects discussed and also of the most promi- nent members who attended. Among the latter was Theo- dore Haacke, as Wallis says : " A German of the Palatinate and then resident in London, who, I think gave the first occasion, and first suggested these meetings." Haacke was a Calvinist, born in 1605 at Neuhausen near Worms. He received his earlier education at home, but in 1625 came to England and studied at Oxford and Cambridge. For a year after visiting continental universities, he returned to Oxford in 1629, remaining three years. Having been or- dained deacon and having accepted a charge, he was appointed to raise money by subscription for benevolences in Germany, during the war. In 1648 parliament granted 1 Boyle's Works, I, pp. 17, 20, 24. n6 Christianopolis him sole right in the translation into English of The Dutch Annotations on the Bible. He was often employed by the government as translator and counsel, and received a pen- sion. About 1645 ne g ave fresh impetus to the " meetings of learned men " and in 1663 was elected one of the original fellows of the established Royal Society. His work as translator was notable, and shortly before his death he had ready for print some three thousand German proverbs, translated into English. In 1648 several of the company in London moved to Oxford, among them William Petty. 1 Here also was Boyle after his return from his Irish estates. A society similar to that in London was at once formed. This company be- came in 1 65 1 the Philosophical Society of Oxford and met for a generation. Those who remained in London, includ- ing John Evelyn, continued to meet regularly until 1658, when the meetings were interrupted by the wars, " For then, the place of their meeting was made a quarter for soldiers." 2 At the time of the restoration the meetings were resumed with renewed zeal and finally the permanent organization was formed. Sprat 3 states that " the wonderful pacific year 1660 " marked the real beginning of the Royal Society and that while the prospective members were arranging their platform, " the contrivance of it was much hastened by a certain treatise, and that was a proposal by Master 1 William Petty (1623-1687) was born at Romsey in Hampshire. From his early childhood he showed a taste for mechanics. He studied abroad, in France and Holland chiefly, making medicine his specialty at Ley den. Returning to England in 1646, he devoted himself to mechanical inventions and scientific studies. This brought him into touch with educators, and he moved to Oxford. From this time his interests are the same as those of the other founders of the Royal Society. 2 Thomas Sprat, History Royal Society of London, p. 58. ' Pp. 58, 59. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 117 Cowley 1 of erecting a philosophical college. The intent of it was that in some place near London there should liberal salaries be bestowed on a competent number of men, to whom should be committed the operations of natural experiments." Charles II finally permitted his name to be enrolled among those of the members, and issued a royal charter in 1662. The aims and purposes of the Royal Society, as given by Sprat in his history, and the directions in which in- vestigations were made, cover a narrower field than was planned in the programmes of either Andreae, Hartlib, or Comenius. For centuries education had been merely a mat- ter of scholarship in rhetoric, logic, languages, and subjects of like nature; but now the Royal Society, the earlier academy of Telesius in Italy, and the later societies on the Continent showed a tendency toward narrowness in the other direction. With Andreae, and this shows the usual breadth and thoroughness of the man, it was a matter of the proper balance of all faculties and the development of all phases of education. It is just in this respect that his Utopia is so much superior, for instance, to that of Bacon. His successor, Comenius, and the latter's associates, Dury and Hartlib, were true disciples of his in this respect. As a matter of fact, after the founding of the Royal Society in England, Comenius wrote to a number of its members on this very point, warning them against one-sidedness in the organization, and recommending attention to reform in literary education also. For this reason a section in Sprat 2 is interesting, in which he digresses from his theme and rather apologetically inserts a recommendation for the founding of an academy in lan- guage and cultural subjects. After congratulating the Italians 1 Abraham Cowley, the poet. a Pp. 39 ff. n8 Christianopolis on the number of their academies for the study of " lan- guage, style, and so forth," and speaking in the highest terms of the French Academy at Paris, " composed of the noblest authors of the nation " and boasting of the " Great Cardinal Richelieu " as its founder, Sprat continues : " I hope now it will not be thought a vain digression, if I step a little aside to recommend the forming of such an assembly, to the gentlemen of our nation. ... I shall not stick to say that such a project is now seasonable to be set on foot, and may make a great reformation in the manner of our speaking and writing. The thing itself is no way contemptible. For the purity of speech, and greatness of empire have in all coun- tries still met together. Besides, if we observe the English language, we shall find that it seems at this time more than others, to require some such aid, to bring it to its last per- fection. The truth is, it has been hitherto a little too care- lessly handled; and I think has had less labor spent about its polishing than it deserves." The suggestion of Cowley, as quoted from Sprat, 1 was "every way practicable; unless perhaps in two things: he did more consult the generosity of his own mind than of other men. The one was the largeness of revenue with which he would have his college at first endowed; the other, that he imposed on his operators a second task of great pains, the education of the youth. The last of these is indeed a matter of great weight, the reformation of which ought to be seriously examined by prudent men. For it is an undeniable truth, which is commonly said, that there would be need of fewer laws, and less force to govern men, if their minds were rightly informed and set straight while they were young and pliable." 2 This last state- ment of Sprat coincides exactly with several passages 1 P. 116 of this chapter. a P. 59- The Royal Society and Educational Reform 119 P in the Christiano polls as will be remembered, and also with the views of Comenius. Sprat is thoroughly in sympathy with this feature of a college and regrets that it is as yet unfeasible. " It was not the excellent author's fault," he adds, " that he thought better of the age than it deserved." The Royal Society 1 is a general body, the membership of which is unrestricted by religious belief, nationality, or lan- guage. Andreae's views were also broad, and his " reforma- tion " as described in the Fama, the Christiano polls, and Theophllus was a general one of the whole world. His " fellows " also travel into all countries and gather informa- tion everywhere. In the Fama one " fellow " died in Eng- land and " his name is well known in that country." 2 In the Christiano polls the religious requirement was neces- sarily narrower. In the Royal Society the fellows must be chiefly "gentlemen, free and unconfined." In the Fama exactly the same qualification is demanded. Innumerable are the parallels in ideals between Andreae and the Royal Society. In many cases it is merely a matter of the development of a planted seed. The Christiano polls is never elaborate in description, rather suggestive. But in the more extended plan of the Royal Society the germs of the Christiano polls are often discoverable. Sprat complains that heretofore " the seats of knowledge have been not labo- ratories, but only schools, where some have taught, and all the rest have subscribed." ? The Christiano polls lays like stress on experimental learning. 4 Instruments are to be made, and even new ones invented, especially those for mathematics. 5 So also Frater R. C. in the Fama on his 1 Sprat, p. 63. 8 P. 68. 6 Sprat, p. 246. 1 ?. 17. 4 Chap. lxxx. 120 Christianopolis return from the East spends his last years " making and inventing new instruments in mathematics." x The subject-matter to be investigated by the Royal Society is included 2 under three heads God, man, and nature. " As for the first, they meddle not otherwise with divine things than only as the power and wisdom and goodness of the Creator is displayed in the admirable order and workman- ship of the creatures. " In the Christianopolis it is stated that " What goes beyond natural experiment is accepted as coming from God." 3 The second head deals with the " faculties, the constitution of their bodies, and the works of their hands." And the third, investigation of nature the experimental sciences as often mentioned. Here as in the Christianopolis the latter are related, " and so there will be a mutual communication of the light of one science to an- other." 4 In discourse, plain speech is to be preferred to in- volved. 5 " In a few words I dare say, that of all the studies of men, nothing may be sooner obtained than this vicious abundance of phrases, this trick of metaphors, this volu- bility of tongue which makes so great a noise in the world. But I spend words in vain ; for the evil is now so inveterate, that it is hard to know whom to blame or where to begin the reform." This scorn of artificial application of rhetoric has already been brought out in a preceding chapter of this discussion of the Christianopolis. The astronomical observations, 6 the library, 7 the courses of education, 8 references to crafts and men working in metals, the care and study of bees, the gardens and parks, and scores of other details, all have corresponding factori in 1 Fama, p. 12. * Sprat, p. 85. T Sprat, p. 25 Sprat, p. 81. 6 Sprat, p. 112. 8 Sprat, p. 32 8 Chap, lxiii. 6 Sprat, p. 241. .. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 121 the Christiano polls. The rules for the members x have close similarity with those in the Fama. Fellows pay their ex- penses, meet at regular intervals in secret (except as the society votes to admit others to the meetings). Their pro- grammes, as they are carried out at the meetings, are alike. In speaking of Andreae, the criticism is often made that he leaned too strongly toward astrology, alchemy, and the supernatural. 2 Now in the plan of the Royal Society among the investigations to be made and at that time not as yet well understood, are mentioned some that, in addition to being rather absurd, border on the alchemistic and super- natural as well : " What river turns wood into stone," 3 " Turning water into earth/' 4 " growth of pebbles in water," 5 " Springs that petrify," 6 " gold into silver," 7 " feeding of a carp in air," 8 " making insects of cheese and sack," 9 " As to whether spiders are enchanted by a circle of unicorns' horns or Irish earth roundabout them." 10 It might be noted here that Boyle had some faith in trans- mutation and alchemy, for he was instrumental in repeal- ing the statute against "multiplying gold."- 11 And even Bacon was at times, especially early in his career, not quite ready to give up all the contentions in favor of the magical. 12 1 Sprat, p. 145. 2 Nothing could be plainer than Andreae's position with respect to this question. He takes every occasion to distinguish between real and false science, as in chaps, iv, xi, and xliv of the Christian- opolis and in the introduction of the Fama (already quoted, p. 39). In the introduction to his edition of Die Christenburg (p. 246), Griineisen summarizes Andreae's purpose in this respect as in- disputably "to contrast the true secret, the basis and kernel of genuine science, and the deep spirit of the wonders in the realm of nature . . . with vain secrets and valueless brooding, quibbling, and trifling with nature." * Sprat, p. 159. 6 Sprat, p. 191. 8 Sprat, p. 223. 4 Sprat, p. 191. T Sprat, p. 221. 10 Sprat, p. 223. Sprat, p. 191. 8 Sprat, p. 223. " Diet. Nat. Biog. " Works, III, pp. 289, 331. 122 Christianopolis As to the relations existing between the Royal Society of London and the Continent, Sprat himself, one of the original fellows of the society, acknowledges in his history a close connection. Yet it must be confessed that he is more inclined to attribute help to the rest of Europe from England than to admit the existence of influence in the opposite direction ; and he gives Germany credit for a very small share of the results attained. " It is evident," he says, " that this searching spirit and this affection to sensible knowledge, does prevail in most countries round about us. Tis true, the conveniences for such labors are not equal in all places. Some want the assistance of other's hands; some the contribution of other's purses; some the benefit of excellent instruments from the patronage of the civil magistrates. But yet according to their several powers, they are everywhere intent upon such practical studies. And the most considerable effects of such attempts throughout Eu- rope, have been still recommended to this society by their authors to be examined, approved, or corrected." x Sprat then explains at some length the relations existing between the Royal Society of London and similar groups of men on the Continent; the following paragraphs are quoted therefrom: " In France, the Royal Society has maintained a perpetual intercourse, with the most eminent men of art of all con- ditions; and has obtained from them, all the help which might justly be hoped for, from the vigor and activity, and readiness of mind, which is natural to that people. . . . And, to instance once for all, it has been affectionately in- vited to a mutual correspondence by the French Academy of Paris." " In Italy the Royal Society has an excellent privilege of 1 Sprat, p. 125. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 123 / receiving and imparting experiments, by the help of one of their own fellows, who has the opportunity of being resident there for them, as well as for the king. . . . This application to the Royal Society I have mentioned, be- cause it comes from that country which is seldom wont to have any great regard to the arts of these nations that lie on this side of their mountains. " Speaking of the Low Countries, he says : " And this learned correspondence with him and many others is still continued, even at this present time, in the breach between our countries; their great founder and patron still permitting them to maintain the traffic of sci- ences, when all other commerce is intercepted. Whence we may guess what may be expected from the peaceful part of our king's reign, when his very wars are managed, without injury to the arts of civil knowledge/' " In Germany, and its neighboring kingdoms, the Royal Society has met with great veneration as appears by several testimonies in their late printed books which have been submitted to its censure ; by many curiosities of mechanical instruments that have been transmitted to it; and by the addresses which have been sent from their philosophical inquirers. For which kinds of enterprises the temper of the German nation is admirably fit, both in respect of their peculiar dexterity in all sorts of manual arts, and also in regard of the plain and unaffected sincerity of their man- ners; wherein they so much resemble the English, that we seem to have derived from them the composition of our minds, as well as to have descended from their race." In the foregoing pages an attempt has been made to estab- lish the following points : Andreae, himself influenced some- what by the spirit of research and the idea of an academy of * science in Italy, developed a system of education and a defi- 124 Christianopolis nite plan for a college. His ideas in both matters were accepted and further elaborated by Comenius, who, through his friend Hartlib and by a personal visit, introduced them into England. In this, Hartlib was assisted by John Dury, whose acquaintance with Andreae was not only through Comenius, but also by direct correspondence. Peter Figulus and Joachim Hubner were both also means of intercommuni- cation the one between Comenius and Dury, the other between Comenius and Andreae on the one hand, and between Comenius and England on the other. The meetings of these men at London as early as 1641, with and also separate from a commission appointed by parlia- ment, were responsible for the first agitation toward not only a better educational system, but also the founding of a college of science. Political conditions interfered with further developments. Had this not been the case, the Royal Society might well have been founded nearly two decades earlier than it was. The members of the group scattered and later founded societies in London and Oxford. The moving factors of this second attempt, Boyle, Haacke, and others, were also acquainted with and inspired by the Andreae-Comenius system. 1 These meetings were the direct forerunners of the Royal Society, which was incorporated in 1662. Furthermore, Bacon, to whom is usually accorded exclusive credit for giving incentive to the Royal Society through his New Atlantis and other works, also bears the 1 It may be of interest to mention here that as a result of An- dreae's plans for a college, a society, similar in purpose and scope to the later Royal Society of London, was founded as early as 1622, imder the name Societas Ereunetica, at the University of Rostock, . by Joachim Jungius, one of the foremost scholars of the time and v/ an ardent admirer of Andreae. See G. E. Guhrauer, Joachim Jun- gius und sein Zeitalter, pp. 69 ff. The Royal Society and Educational Reform 125 stamp of Andreae, and helps to further the latter's views. The Nova Solyma shows clear traces of the ideas of An- dreae, some of which could not well have come through Bacon, traces in organization, purpose, and results attained. BIBLIOGRAPHY Aiken, Lucy. Memoirs of the Court of King James I. London 1822, I. (After Ernst Hopfner's Georg Rodolf Weckherlins Oden und Gesdnge.) Allgemeine deutsche Biographie. Althaus, Friedrich. Samuel Hartlib, ein deutsch-englisches Char act erbild. (In His- torisches Taschenbuch, 1884.) Andreae, Johann Valentin. Fama Fraternitatis, Confessio, Allgemeine Reformation. 1616. Andreae, Johann Valentin. Mythologiae Christianae Libri Tres: 1) Apologorum Chris- tianorum Manipuli Sex et Alethea Exul. 2) Reipublicae Chris- tianopolitanae Descriptio. 3) Peregrini in patria Errores. Andreae, Johann Valentin. Reise nach der Insul Caphar Salama. (Christianopolis, trans- lated into German by D. S. Georgi. 1741.) Andreae, Johann Valentin. Vita ab ipso conscripta. (F. H. Rheinwald. Berlin 1849.) Anonymous (A. von Kirchenheim). SchlarafHa Politica. Leipzig 1892. Bacon, Francis. Life, Letters, and Works. Spedding, Heath, and Ellis. 1858- 1868. (References are made to this edition. The Fable of the New Atlantis, III, pp. 118 ff.) Begley, Walter. Nova Solyma. Samuel Gott. (Translated into English, with Introduction, Notes, and Bibliography. London 1902.) Boyle, Robert. Complete Works. J. & F. Rivington. 1772. Brugel, Julius. Johann Valentin Andreae. (Schmidt, Geschichte der Erziehung.) Bruggemann, Fritz. Utopie und Robinsonade. (Forschungen zur neueren Liter atur- geschichte No. 46.) Carriere, Moriz. Die Philosophische Weltanschauung der Reformationzeit. Leip- zig, 1887. 126 Bibliography 127 COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS. Selections from his various works as found in KvaCala, Mohrke, and Monatshefte der Comenius Gesellschaft. Dictionary of National Biography. Goedeke, Karl. Gedichte von Georg Rodolf Weckherlin. Leipzig 1873. Glockler, Johann Philipp. Johann Valentin Andreae, ein Lebensbild. Stuttgart 1886. Gruneisen, Carl. Die Christenburg von Johann Valentin Andreae. (Zeitschrift fiir die historische Theologie. Bd. 6, S. 231.) Guhrauer, G. E. Der erste deutsche Staatsroman. Guhrauer, G. E. Joachim Jungius und sein Zeitalter. Stuttgart 1850. Gussmann, W. Reipublicae Christianopolitanae Descriptio. (In der ZkWL. Jahrg. 1886, S. 326 ff.) Herder, Johann Gottfried. Vorrede zu Johann Valentin Andreae. Dichtung zur Beherzi- gung unseres Zeitalter s. (In Suphan's edition.) Holderlins Gesammelte Dichtungen. Berthold Litzmann. Stuttgart. Hopfner, Ernst. Georg Rodolf Weckherlins Oden und Ges'dnge. Berlin 1865. HOSSBACH, WlLHELM. Johann Valentin Andreae und sein Zeitalter. Berlin 1819. HiJLLEMANN, CARL. Valentin Andreae als P'ddagog. I Teil, 1884; II Teil, 1893. Jones, Stephen K. The Authorship of "Nova Solyma." {The Library, July, 1910, p. 225.) Kippenberg, August. Robinson in Deutschland bis zur Insel Felsenburg. Hannover 1892. Kleinwachter, Fr. Die Staatsromane. Kvacala, Ivan. /. A. Comenius. Berlin 1914. Lopes, Francisco. Istoria de las Indias. (After G. C. Moore Smith's edition of the New Atlantis, Introduction, p. 19.) Maack, Ferdinand. Geheime Wissenschaften. I Band. Berlin 1913. 128 Christianopolis Mohrke, Max. Johann Amos Komenius und Johann Valentin Andreae, ihre Pddagogik und ihr Verhdltnis zu einander. Leipzig 1904. Mohl, Robert von. Geschichte und Literatur der Staatswissenschaft. Monatshefte der Comenius Gesellschaft. Morley, Henry. Ideal Commonwealths. New York and London 1901. Prys, Joseph. Der Staatsroman des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts und sein Erzieh- ungsideal. Wiirzburg 1913. Rawley, William. Life of Francis Bacon. (In Spedding's Works, I.) Realenzyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie. Record of the Royal Society of London. 1912. Schmidt, K. A. Geschichte der Erziehung. SlGWART, CHRISTOPH. Kleine Schriften. Freiburg und Tubingen 1881. Smith, G. C. Moore. Francis Bacon's "New Atlantis." Cambridge Press 1909. Smith, G. C. Moore. The Date of the New Atlantis. (In the Athenoeum, Feb. 1900.) Sprat, Thomas. History of the Royal Society of London. 1667. Ullrich, Hermann. Robinson und Robinsonaden. Bibliographic, Geschichte, Kritik. Teil I. Weimar 1898. Vogt, Carl. Johann Balthasar Schupp. (Euphorion, 1910, pp. 38-48.) Voigt, Andreas. Die Sozialen Utopien. Leipzig. Wackwitz, Fr. Entstehungsgeschichte von D. Defoes "Robinson Crusoe." Berlin 1909. Waterhouse, G. The Literary Relations of England and Germany in the 17th Century. Cambridge, 1914. Wessely, Ignaz Emanuel. Thomas Campanellas "Der Sonnenstaat." (Trans, into German.) WlNDELBAND, W. Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Philosophic. Wolff, Emil. Francis Bacon und seine Quellen. 2 7^ 9 T8 y 1 30 J T 1 ,L X s h o B V JO K L F G ( Cv o A. .700 1 C D 40 y so 2.S ac ao ao , H I M N *<* K 1/ "< vj < s V A.Templutn cum Prytnneo. BCD. E. Collegium. F G H I . HorKs Phyficus K L M N Hartuli Ciuium OP. <3.. R Interior writs S Tyu) Pullicaftcfca: X . Y Z. . gcterior series a t.+.Htrtuli. r. $ Ofpcmtr a. xz.Qjintuor forttr. it. i. Qualuo- jirvfuyiiatula . ip.zo.Pomert- o o Lota fin GROUND PLAN OF CHRISTIANOPOLIS CHRISTIANOPOLIS CHRISTIANOPOLIS By Johann Valentin Andreae Thou Most Noble and Worthy Man, John Arndt, Reverend Father in Christ. This our new state recognizes and respects thee ; for in- asmuch as this colony has its source in that Jerusalem which thou didst build with mighty spirit, against the wishes of the sophists, it is impossible not to refer all things to thee, to give thee thanks for the institutions and laws, to beseech thee at the same time not to think it beneath thee to communicate out of thy kindness what in thine opinion should be added or changed. So may God grant to thy most honored old age that thou mayest see as many as possible heeding thine interpretation of loyalty, upright- ness, and scholarship. Farewell, reverend father in Christ, and continue thou to commend me to God as I give heed to thee. Jan. i, 1619. R.D.T. Most faithfully, Joh. Valentin Andreae. HAIL, CHRISTIAN READER. I see two classes of men in the commonwealth. A class of those who do not so much approve of those things over which they are set or under which they are placed, as they admire them and defend them to the teeth. The other class, men who endure human affairs, but in such a way, it is true, that they do not hesitate to wish for better things and to obey moderate changes. But as the latter class never readily causes disturbance, because of backwardness and sense, but rather as far as possible gives way, is silent and tolerant; so also the former, because of blind madness and lack of self-control, attack, torment, and not rarely drag those into the conflict who merely grumble at them though they may not at all desire it. Of this, Antichrist gave us the clearest example when he oppressed the church of Christ with wicked burdens. And it is surprising that there were people who, though perhaps they may not have ap- proved of such baseness, at least tolerated it. Be that as it may, it was admitted and done so disgustingly that when some sought a correction of such terrible disgraces in the most temperate way, they were given over to punish- ment, proscribed from the protection of law, and torn by God knows what curses; until, as men's minds became en- raged with the indignity of the thing, an impulse was given to restore light and dispel the darkness. What now may be the cause of this, since it opposes all reason, is not very clear. For whether it be a spirit of ambition, which will suffer correction from no one, or whether it be greed, which does so flourish among men; whether it be a mental dull- 133 134 Christianopolis ness which makes no choice or distinction between good and evil, or whether people foolishly become accustomed to things in a way that lessens all ugliness all this does not at all compare with the great boldness with which we our- selves oppose the most evident truth and the most hoped for good. And so many believe, and not without reason, that this cloud was sent by God upon the minds of the wicked, lest they should conform to the modesty of the good, which can be done with moderate and tolerable means; that, once convicted of their impudent wickedness and regarded as unworthy of being yielded to farther, they may be compelled to do greater things, and thus, when the mask is removed, lose their influence among the people. It was thus that our hero Doctor Luther proceeded; when men would not heed his prayers and tears, he began to breathe threats out of the Word of God. Accomplishing nothing by submissiveness, he began to rise up. 'When he had carried on siege for a long time, he began to storm the opposing power, and with such success, that WE REJOICE though they gnash their teeth. I am rather inclined to think that this very drama may be played again in our own day. The light of a purer religion has dawned upon us ; in accordance with it, the administration of public affairs has been regulated, and the brilliancy of letters and arts has been restored; we may be able entirely to triumph over many conquered enemies superstition, dissoluteness, and rudeness. But the secret snares of the Devil give us trouble, as a result of which our rejoicing is made less firm, and a mere name without the substance is left us. For though all our doings should be patterned after our Christ, whose name we bear and confess, yet it happens on account of our weak in- dulgence that Christians differ in no respect from men of Hail, Christian Reader 135 the world. For whether we look at the churches, the courts, or the universities nowhere is there a lack of un- scrupulous ambition, greed, gluttony, license, jealousy, idle- ness, and other mastering vices at which Christ violently shuddered, but in which we chiefly delight. From this may very easily be imagined the joy of the Devil, who when he has secretly stolen from us the kernel, gladly allows us to glory in the shells and rinds, and it is easy to notice our simpleness in that we are content with the bare shadow of anything, though we listen like religious, polished, and educated men. And yet that impostor does not deceive all, and least of all those who have a higher light within. Very many of these, men of most fervent spirit, have lifted their voices loudly even before us, and will con- tinue to do so very zealously in the future also. From their number I will mention only Doctor John Gerhard, Doctor John Arndt, and Doctor Mart. Moller, as especially deserving it of me, most upright theological scholars, al- though the last named is a little disturbed on the subject of the Lord's Supper. When these men noticed that the whole world was resounding with disputations, so that the spirit of Christ could hardly be heard through them, they desired greatly to procure intermittent silence, which should be devoted to piety and should permit a breathing space after the heat of disputing, and thus unite scholarship with up- rightness in such a way that each might add splendor to the other. This was asked for very modestly, and allowed with the greatest ill will. Since the bishops of the churches would acknowledge the presence of no simony, the political leaders no dishonesty, the university no lack of education, being warned against devotedness, uprightness, and letters, they were accused of treason. If we put faith in those who answer the argument, it will appear that the whole 136 Christianopolis church is full of windows, into which anyone may fly whenever it pleases him, and where he may whisper to his liking; the republic, a market place where vices may be bought and sold ; the academy, a labyrinth in which it is a game and an art to wander about; and whatever is squan- dered upon these is pure gain. Defenders arose who were willing to be betrayed ; good people would have taken oath upon their innocence, while now the evil ones detest the public testimony of their evil deeds. For the erring world would much prefer to have its acts concealed than to have them praised in public. Those who perform sacrifice in the church have grown incensed because the security or rather the nothingness of their calling, the carelessness of their sermons, their cul- ture, smacking all too much of the world, are not approved. And yet the churchmen forbid all this. The greedy ones of the world roared because the harshness of their law, the license of their morals, the accumulation of their riches, their contempt of eternity were not praised. And yet even their own civil authority prohibits these. Teachers of let- ters babbled on behalf of their lack of knowledge of the arts, lack of languages, cheapness of their academic de- grees, the insatiable depth of their expenses, and even against the direct wishes of scholarship; and so, as igno- rance was willing or rather required it, hypocrisy has under- taken and violently usurped the protection of religion, tyranny that of civil authority, quibbling that of letters, it is true, with many and diverse judgments ; but the cham- pions of God, or the servants of a good cause, remained unafraid. For though particularly of some they might have hoped for and expected greater fairness, learning, and espe- cially greater moderation, who were thought to be well versed in the affairs of the state, and of great merit; yet Hail, Christian Reader 137 anyone who has once examined the world more closely, has clearly noticed that nothing is more intolerable to impostors, than truth and uprightness; and they hate these so thoroughly that, in the impotency of their wrath and forgetful of themselves, they throw off their masks, covers, and wrappings, rush forth bare, and thus give way the secret of their wickedness. No sensible man can see without re- pulsion how basely gluttony in the midst of the church, moral looseness in the very public square and in the schools, empty titles without stability, and prodigality without limit are overlooked nay, even commended and brought before the public. This is just the reason why these persons, from whom one would least expect it, give way and yield to truth more readily, since when once convicted of their own mistakes they find nothing left except infamous impudence and low banter ; and with these they try in vain to exonerate themselves. And so with their innate politeness they hear and bear reproofs ; they confess their faults or their mental darkness, the inventions of the Devil, the force of habits, credulity, and other shackles of the same sort ; and wish that they were faultless again. A certain fraternity, in my opinion a joke, but accord- ing to theologians a serious matter, has brought forth evi- dent proof of this very thing. As soon as it promised, instead of the taste of the curious public, the greatest and most unusual things, even those things which men gen- erally want, it added also the exceptional hope of the cor- rection of the present corrupted state of affairs, and even further, the imitation of the acts of Christ. What a con- fusion among men followed the report of this thing, what a conflict among the learned, what an unrest and com- motion of impostors and swindlers, it is entirely needless to say. There is just this one thing which we would like to 138 Christianopolis add, that there were some who in this blind terror wished to have their old, out-of-date, and falsified affairs entirely retained and defended with force. Some hastened to sur- render the strength of their opinions; and, after they had made accusation against the severest yoke of their servitude, hastened to reach out after freedom. And then, to get closer to the matter in hand, there were some who made accusation against the principles of Christian life as heresy and fanaticism. Others even embraced this with a whole heart. While these people quarreled among themselves, and crowded the shops, they gave many others leisure to look into and judge these questions. Of this now we have this benefit, that, as it seems to us, the world is not so sure of its affairs as it would like to seem, nor is it so steadfast in its views that it cannot be turned aside; nor yet (and this is the chief point) are all so far from Christ that no one would be willing to admit His rules of life and then regulate his own life according to them, if the opportunity were given. Moreover I am prone to praise the judgment of a man of the most noble qualities in piety, ethics, and nature who, when he saw that men were undecided and for the most part deceived by the report of that brother- hood, answered, " If these reforms seem proper, why do we not try them ourselves? Let us not wait for them to do it.", meaning that there was nothing to hinder us from learning these things from the Gospels and making the attempt from the praiseworthy examples of devoted Chris- tians, if we really wished to imitate the life of Christ and improve our daily lives. For we certainly would not com- mit such an injury against Christ and His Word, as to prefer to learn the way of salvation and emulate it, from some society (if there really is such a one) hazy, omniscient only in the eyes of its own boastfulness, with a sewn shield Hail, Christian Reader 139 for an emblem and marred with many foolish ceremonies, than from Him who is Himself the Way, the Truth, and the Life, whose precepts are so in evidence and so easily located that we have to make use of the greatest subter- fuges and evasions to avoid them. For if our conscience urges us that we have ground for complaint against the too great security of religion, the impurity of life, and the mockeries of learning, what shall hinder us from driving out of ourselves at least (if others do not desire it) the vices of life, from planting virtues instead, and from joining closer to our Christ whom we fear is farthest removed from our affairs ? It is quite certain that nothing gives this permission to us or to Christ except the fear of the judgments of men, which attempts to preserve us from our own friends and the usual customs of life, and to keep for us the good will of men ; yet which none the less a little later hurls us through the dif- ficulties of this age, to groan and grieve when it is too late, naturally, because we have given faith to the world and denied it to Christ. And this is to be considered the best determination, which, when the Word of God has been heard 'md accepted, does not look to men or to any society or assembly for approval, but stands at the command of God [ and of the human conscience, walks zealously under the direction of the Holy Spirit, and bears unjust criticism no i.nore unwillingly than the croaking of frogs ; since alto- get her it is evident that only a very few people dare to attack piety, uprightness, and character in the open, but by circumlocutions rather trifle, lie, or try to devise something a'c which after a while they can bark. And so you will hear fi rst of all the words " fanatic/' " turbulent," and " a dan- g,er to literature " ; then you will be accused and will have to look at the wounds of a chimsera and the conflicts of 140 Christianopolis blind gladiators. But if you quietly put your faith in a clear conscience, you will yet take the greatest joy with you. Now, my excellent reader, you see as an evident example of this Christian security, this new Republic which it seems best to call Christianopolis. For inasmuch as other people (and I myself also) do not like to be corrected, I have built this city for myself where I may exercise the dictatorship. And if you should call my own insignificant body by this name, perhaps you would not be so far from the truth. But even as the laws almost everywhere are good and yet the morals of the people loose, so I fear you will suspect that the case is the same with the citizens of my state. However that may be, I have determined not to praise my citizens, but to describe them; and to reveal and communicate to you according to what statutes we are commanded to live. I could not speak to you' about dif- ferent things more frankly or freely, I could not giy^ you the facts with less restriction, nor draw forth your opinion more unreservedly than in this manner. Whether you approve or disapprove of this matter I shall praise you, provided you give answer with like candor. But if you answer me with some sophism, nothing will be easier for me txhan to bear your unfavorable criticisms and ignore you. Itf you find our state at all attractive, nothing shall be denied ?you ; if you decline it, nothing shall be thrust upon you. My citi- zens do neither waste their own substance nor do they covet yours. Furthermore they are willing to accept whatever you care to give them, and they are glad to give you what- ever you desire. Our laws compel or constrain no one ; the'y do persuade standing forth with the Word of God and nc?>t giving way to Satan. Moreover, they admit every good man as an adviser. The structure has no art, but abundant simplicity. I Hail, Christian Reader 141 We have not told everything. Perhaps we have said more than the wicked can stand less than we offer to the good, however often they may wish it mentioned. Finally let me say, it is a public show, a thing which has not been said to the disadvantage of the famous Thomas More. As far as concerns my own work, it ought to be more easily laid aside as not being as serious or as clever as his. I have written to my friends, since one can joke with them; I should not dare to write to eminent men, even if I wished* to do so ; I should not be able to if I dared ; and I should not want to if they permitted it. So great is my respect for them, such the knowledge and confession of my inexperi- ence. At any rate, those may read who wish to, and let them remember that among friends many imperfections are overlooked which would not stand the critical test of evil wishers. If anyone doubts the truth of my story, let him put off passing judgment until all reports of wanderings and sea travels have been made. But the safest way will be (provided Heaven permits, the land does not interfere, and the sea is calm, with Christ the guide of your voyage, and your comrades all desirous of a just life), for you to embark upon your vessel which has the sign of the Cancer for its distinctive mark, sail for Christianopolis yourself with favorable conditions, and there investigate everything very accurately in the fear of God. So farewell, my Chris- tian reader, and gird you on the road to heaven. CONCERNING THE STATE OF CHRISTIANOPOLIS. THE REASON FOR THE JOURNEY, AND THE SHIPWRECK. While wandering as a stranger on the earth, suffering much in patience from tyranny, sophistry, and hypocrisy, seeking a man, and not finding what I so anxiously sought, I decided to launch out once more upon the Academic Sea though the latter had very often been hurtful to me. And so ascending the good ship, Phantasy, I left the port to- gether with many others and exposed my life and person to the thousand dangers that go with desire for knowledge. For a short space of time conditions favored our voyage; then adverse storms of envy and calumny stirred up the Ethiopian Sea x against us and removed all hope of calm weather. The efforts of the skipper and the oarsmen were exerted to the limit, our own stubborn love of life would not give up, and even the vessel resisted the rocks; but the force of the sea always proved stronger. Finally when all hope was lost and we, rather of necessity than on ac- count of bravery of soul, had prepared to die, the ship col- lapsed and we sank. Some were swallowed up by the sea, some were scattered to great distances, while some who could swim or who found planks to float upon, were carried to different islands scattered throughout this sea. 1 Mare Aethiopicum. Probably intended to imply " Sea of Stupidity." 142 TITLE PAGE OF THE ORIGINAL EDITION OF THE ff CHRISTIANOPOLIS " , Concerning the State of Christianopolis 143 Very few escaped death, and I alone, without a single com- rade, was at length driven to a very minute islet, a mere piece of turf, as it seemed. II. DRIVEN TO THE ISLAND, CAPHAR SALAMA. Everything here pleased me, except I did not please myself. The island, moreover, small though it had ap- peared, had a great abundance of all things, and there was not a foot of soil to be seen which was not under cultiva- tion or in some way put to use for mankind. The site of the island, such as I found it to be a little later, I will not re- fuse to explain. It is in the Antarctic zone, io of the south pole, 20 of the equinoctial circle, and about 12 under the point of the bull. 1 To trifling minutiae I will never answer. The form is that of a triangle, whose perimeter is about 30 miles. This island is rich in grain and pasture fields, watered with rivers and brooks, adorned with woods and vineyards, full of animals, just as if it were a whole world in miniature. One might think that here the heavens and the earth had been married and were living together in everlasting peace. While I was drying my undershirt, the only garment I had saved, in the rays of the morning sun, an inhabitant of the island, some one of the many watchmen of the place, came upon me suddenly. He inquired into my mis- chance with all kindness, and while sympathizing with my misfortune, bade me trust him and accompany 1 Andreae seems purposely to locate his Utopia in an impossible place. 144 Christianopolis him to the city, where, with their usual consideration toward strangers and exiles, the citizens would supply my needs ; and he added : " Happy are you whose lot it has been, after so severe a shipwreck, to be thrown on land at this place." And I answered only, " Thank God ! Glory to God!" III. THE ORIGIN OF CHRISTIANOPOLIS. Meantime the sight and the beauty of the city as we approached it surprised me greatly, for all the rest of the world does not hold anything like it or to be compared with it. So turning to my guide I said : " What happiness has established her abode here ? " And he answered : " The one that in this world is generally very unhappy. For when the world raged against the good and drove them out of her boundaries, religion, an exile, gathering about her the com- _ rades whom she regarded the most faithful, after crossing the sea and examining various places, finally chose this land in which to establish her followers. Later she built a city which we call Christianopolis, and desired that it should be the home, or, if you prefer, the stronghold of honesty and excellence. The generosity of this our republic to all in want, you are about to experience. So if you desire to traverse the city (but you must do it with dispassionate eyes, guarded tongue, and decent behavior) the opportunity will not be denied you ; nay, the city lies open to you in its individual parts." Then I answered : " Oh, blessed hour when after so many monstrous sights seen with dread and exertion, I shall be granted the privilege of observing some- thing really elegant and beautiful. I shall evade neither the Concerning the State of Christianopolis 145 bath, the razor, nor the brush, that, being washed, scraped, and cleansed, I may be admitted to the pure abodes of truth and goodness. For how unfortunate my mistakes and evasions have been, has become known to many, a long time ago. Qhi_jnaj__I_some time see be tter, truer , more fixed, jind more _stable conditi ons in brief, those which the world promises, but never and nowhere produces ! " IV. EXAMINATION OF THE STRANGER, FIRST, AS TO HIS IDEAS OF LIFE AND HIS MORALS. Now we had approached the eastern gate, when my com- panion introduced me to the prefect of the day's guard. He received me pleasantly and asked me what I desired. " Very many things," said I, " for as you see I have been cast up from land and sea. But now since I seem to have met God Himself here, why should I not seek largely of that which I have lacked all my life ? " The prefect of the guard smiled and kindly advised me, inasmuch as this island had nothing indecorous, not to prove to be one of those whom the citizens of the community would not tolerate among them but would send back to the place from which they had come, such persons as: beggars, quacks, stage- players who have too much leisure, busybodies who worry i-** unnecessarily in the details of unusual affairs, fanatics who T^* however have no real feeling of piety, drug-mixers who J ruin the science of chemistry, impostors who falsely call ^ /g themselves the Brothers of the Rosicrucians, and other like blemishes of literature and true culture, whom this city has never ceased to suspect. Then when I had purged my- 146 Christianopolis self by a testimony of my inmost conscience, and had with many words vowed the service of my whole powers to truth and to integrity, he said : " There is no reason now why you should not have the benefit of our goods, and what is much more important, of ourselves." So saying, he grasped me by the hand, took me into the home of some watchmen or guards near by, and refreshed me with very savory food and drink. V. EXAMINATION, SECONDLY, AS TO HIS PERSON. Now when I had put on different clothing, not at all extravagant, but easily procured and comfortable, he gave me over to some attendants who took me to my second examiner. This man appeared as one born for the purpose of drawing forth from a man his innermost and most private thoughts. He returned my greetings very kindly and put several friendly questions to me, meanwhile watching my bearing and the lineaments of my face very critically. With a smile rather than with serious expression he in- quired as to my native land, my age, my manner of life, all, as it were, incidentally. After a few courtesies had been exchanged, he said : " My friend, you have undoubtedly come here under the leadership of God that you might learn whether it is always necessary to do evil and to live according to the custom of barbarians. That this is not the case we will give you proof this very day as we ought to all persons. And all the more gladly will we do this since neither nature nor your fortune seem indisposed, but rather you possess a heart favorable to the influences of Concerning the State of Christianopolis 147 both. And if God indeed rule you, so t hat yo_ u_be_iree-rQrn th e at tractions of the fleshy then we do not doubt that you are already ours, and that you will be forever." While thus speaking (as I seemed to notice) he was studying the calmness of my being, the modesty of my countenance, the closeness of my speech, the quiet of my eyes, my personal bearing, with such thoroughness that it seemed to me he could scrutinize my very thoughts, with such affability that I could conceal nothing from him, with such respect that I felt I owed everything to him. And so, when my mind had been laid bare all around and he had at length touched somewhat on the subject of letters, he said : " My friend, you will grant me your indulgence when I discourse in so unscholarly a way as I have done. Be not discouraged, for in this community of ours you will find no lack of men who are fairly steeped in learning and culture." At the same time he issued a command to an attendant that he should accompany me to a third examiner. And so he shook my hand and bade me farewell, urging me to have confidence. But I thought to myself: "Heaven help me! If they call this ' discoursing in an unscholarly way,' what shall become of me?" VI. EXAMINATION, THIRDLY, AS TO HIS PERSONAL CULTURE. Now when I came to him, I found no less kindness than in the former case ; for let me say once for all, all haughti- ness and pride are banished from this place. But when I heard this man speak, I felt more ashamed than ever before. I had to M know nothing " with Socrates, but in an entirely 148 Christianopolis different sense. How I regretted having spoken of litera- ture! He asked me, in most pleasant terms it is true, to what extent I had learned to control myself and to be of service to my brother; to fight off the world, to be in har- mony with death, to follow the Spirit; what progress I had made in the observation of the heavens and the earth, in the close examination of nature, in instruments of the arts, in the history and origin of languages, the harmony of all the world; what relation I bore toward the society of the church, toward a compendium of the Scriptures, the kingdom of heaven, the school of the Spirit, the brother- hood of Christ, the household of God. I was amazed when I understood that so very little had been made a part of myself, of the many things which are so freely and in such generous amounts given to man. And so, doing all that- 1 could under the circumstances, I turned to frank confes- sional and said : " Most honored sir, all these things I am entirely unacquainted with and I have never had instruc- tion in them. But of this much I assure you on my word, that within me I have very often wrestled with them, desired to know them, and have dared to attack them." Whereupon he almost shouted out aloud. " You are ours," he said, " you who bring to us an unsullied slate, washed clean, as it were, by the sea itself. It but remains that we pray God that He inscribe upon your heart with His holy stylus the \ things which will seem, in His wisdom and goodness, salu- tary to you. And now truly you shall see our city in its individual parts. And after you have returned we will listen to whatever you may further desire of us, in so far as we are mentally prepared and provided." And he gave me three men, Beeram, Eram, and Neariam, worthy indi- viduals as was evident from their countenances; and they were to show me around everywhere. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 149 VII. DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY. If I describe to you the appearance of the city first of all, I will not be making a mistake. Its shape is a square, whose side is seven hundred feet, well fortified with four towers and a wall. It looks, therefore, toward the four quarters of the earth. Eight other very strong towers, dis- tributed throughout the city, intensify the strength; and there are sixteen other smaller ones that are not to be despised; and the citadel in the midst of the city is well- nigh impregnable. Of buildings there are two rows, or if you count the seat of government and the storehouses, four; there is only one public street, and only one market- place, but this one is of a very high order. If you measure the buildings, you will find that from the innermost street, being twenty feet in width, the numbers increase by fives even up to one hundred. At this point there is a circular temple, a hundred feet in diameter. As you go forth from the buildings, the intervals, storehouses, and the rows of houses are each twenty feet wide and the wall is twenty- five feet. All buildings are in three stories, and public balconies lead to these. All this can, however, be better understood from the accompanying plate. 1 All buildings are made of burnt stone and are separated by fireproof walls so that a fire could not do very severe damage. Spring water and flowing water are here in great abundance, sup- plied partly by artificial means, and partly by nature. Things look much the same all around, not extravagant nor 1 For this and future references to the plan of the city, see diagram following p. 128. 150 Christianopolis yet unclean ; fresh air and ventilation are provided through- out. About four hundred citizens live here in religious faith and peace of the highest order. We shall have some- thing to say about each individual one. Outside the walls is a moat stocked with fish, that even in times of peace it may have its uses. The open and otherwise unused spaces contain wild animals, kept, however, not for purposes of entertainment but for practical use. The whole city is di- vided into three parts, one to supply food, one for drill and exercise, and one for looks. The remainder of the island serves purposes of agriculture and for workshops. These I have noted down in some way or another in the plan. And next we must take a trip through the city. VIII. AGRICULTURE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. In the farthermost section of the corporation which faces east is the farm quarter. It is divided into two parts, the agriculture proper on the one side, and the animal hus- bandry department on the other. For all the grain, vege- tables, and greens which the state can get from the island, and all the pack-animals, beef-cattle, and flocks of which they have need, are kept in fourteen buildings, so con- structed that they will shelter the guards and care-takers also. For, since the buildings rise in three stories, as I have shown, they hold more than one would suppose. Whatever waste materials accumulate, are taken through the gateways in the corner towers and carried to the edge of the walls, until the time arrives for distributing them over the fields arid meadows. Directly opposite these build- ONCERNING THE STATE OF CHRISTIANOPOLIS 151 ings is a rather large tower, thirty by forty-five feet, which connects the farm buildings with the city buildings; it also incloses a space of land, so that under the tower a rather broad vaulted entrance into the city is open, and smaller doors lead to the individual houses. This tower can be so fortified on both sides at the gates that there can be no passing back and forth through the walls to the town when once the gates are closed. A hall with windows all around, is built under the dome of this tower. Here the citizens of that side of the town may come together, as often as the ordinances require, and act on sacred as well as on civil matters. Uriel, a man very expert in agriculture, soil fer- tility, and breeding and care of animals, lives above in this tower. Kapzeel and Simea, subordinate to Uriel, are the prefects of the towers, and they assist him in his work whenever it is possible. Here there is no rusticity, but the agriculture of the patriarchs is reproduced, the results being the more satisfactory, the closer the work is to God and the more attentive to natural simplicity. / c; IX. MILLS AND BAKERIES. Seven mills and as many bake shops adjoin these two public storehouses which face south; while seven meat shops and as many provision chambers are on the side that faces north. Larger towers divide the two sides as in the former case ; and likewise, towers very much like those smaller ones, inclose them. The mills do not only grind the grain and have it stored on the upper floors, but what- 152 Christianopolis ever is to be done with machinery apart from fire, is done here; and as this is a place for originality to work its way, there is a great variety of such for devising pleasure and wonder on the part of the spectator. Here paper is made, trees are sawed into beams, and arms and tools are polished. All the bread which is necessary to supply the island is baked in these bake shops, and all flour is kept here. Be- tween these are tanks for oil, and underneath, cellars are dug out for receiving wine. And the men in charge of the storing and packing away, are expert tasters. Neria, who lives in the middle tower, has charge of these, and Simea and Gadiel, prefects of the small towers, assist. The arrangement is that each prefect is responsible to two of the four men. You will be surprised how a supply of provisions, not at all very great, can be made to suffice for temperate habits in everything. For though no one in the whole island ever goes hungry, yet by the grace of God or the generosity of nature, there is always abundance, since gluttony and drunkenness are entirely unknown. Of the distribution of food I will speak later; let me add just one thing now, that everything is done neatly and with proper appreciation of the gifts of God. Men that have to do the heavy work do not become wild and rough, but remain kindly; the guards are not gluttons, but are temperate, not evil-smelling but cleanly washed. And to conclude, the government is ad- ministered in a way so advantageous in all respects, that the people can enjoy all these privileges with a pleasure that is decent and need not be concealed. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 153 X. the meat shop and the supply house. A district on the north is devoted to the slaughter houses and to fourteen other buildings which have to do with the same. This part has no suggestion of the bestial about it. And yet in other places I have seen men become coarse from the daily custom of shedding blood, or the handling of meats, fat, hides, and the like. Here also there are kitchens in- tended for the roasting, boiling, and cleansing of animals; but which know no delicacies or dainties. And inasmuch as they praise neatness and sanitation, there are wash houses for washing the clothes and linen. The provision chamber is divided into several rooms; it has butter, lard, suet, grease, tallow, and other supplies of this kind; but also fish, dried and fresh, and all kinds of fowl, not only for the inhabitants but also for strangers and traveling merchants. For there is the greatest oppor-\ tunity for commerce in this island, though the inhabitants/ of the place, individually, have nothing to do with it. Such I matters are left to those selected to attend to them. And) here the real value of exchange appears, which looks not so much at the gain, as at the variety of things ; so that we may see the peculiar production of each land, and so com- municate with each other that we may seem to have the advantages of the universe in one place, as it were. From this, the recognition of this little point, our earth, and also the generosity of God, the Giver of all, becomes manifest; and finally, that which is the gift of all men, is rendered that of every individual. I will not say more along this line now, for in the first place there is need of too much 154 Christianopolis else, and then the subject will recur often in the rehearsal of other parts. Thirhena and his comrades, Kapzeel and Zarphat, have charge of this part, of the work, and they regulate the daily life and the work of the subordinates. XL METALS AND MINERALS. There remains the section on the west which is given over to the forge. For here on the one side are seven work- shops fitted out for heating, hammering, melting, and mold- ing metals; while on the other side are seven others as- signed to the buildings of those workmen who make salt, glass, brick, earthenware, and to all industries which require constant fire. Here in truth you see a testing of nature herself; everything that the earth contains in her bowels is subjected to the laws and instruments of science. The men are not driven to a work with which they are unfa- miliar, like pack-animals to their task, but they have been trained long before in an accurate knowledge of scientific matters, and find their delight in the inner parts of nature. If a person does not here listen to the reason and look into the most minute elements of the macrocosm, they think that nothing has been proved. Unless you analyze matter by ex- periment, unless you improve the deficiencies of knowledge by more capable instruments, you are worthless. Take my word for it, if sophistry should undertake to prattle here, it would be a mockery to such an extent do they prefer deeds to words. Here one may welcome and listen to true and genu- ine chemistry, free and active ; whereas in other places false Concerning the State of Christianopolis 155 chemistry steals upon and imposes on one behind one's back. For true chemistry is accustomed to examine the work, to assist with all sorts of tests, and to make use of experiments. Or, to be brief, here is practical science. Sesbazar with his two assistants, Zarphat and Gadiel, have charge and seem to require not so much the labor itself as a fit exercise for the human body. For while among us one is worn out by the fatigue of an effort, with them the powers are reinforced by a perfect balance of work and leisure so that they never approach a piece of work without alacrity. More- over, as I looked on the work, this self-reproach kept com- ing into my mind, that, urged by so long a time, employed at so much expense, assisted by books, I had learned noth- ing of all these things, which it is altogether fitting one should know, and that by my inexcusable folly I had neg- lected the countenance of nature, which is after all the most attractive. XII. dwellings. When then I had examined the inclosure containing the shops and the storehouses, I entered through the east tower and saw the city proper, square and with two rows of buildings facing each other. The street which separates these rows of houses is twenty feet wide, and is of sufficient width, when you stop to consider that horses and wagons are not used upon it. The buildings on the outer side are fifteen, those on the inner side twenty-five feet wide; they are thirty-three feet high and most of them forty feet long on the side facing the street. The walks are arched and sup- 156 Christianopolis ported by columns five feet wide and twelve high, that rainy- weather may do no damage. Where the walls face each other, a walk is formed by the balconies on the second and third stories, all of which it has been deemed wise to repre- sent in the diagrams. The larger side of the city, if you stop to count the towers, has thirteen buildings, the smaller side, eleven, making eighty-eight in all ; x and, if this is multiplied by three, they constitute two hundred and sixty-four homes. The distribution of these is shown on the sketch. No one need be surprised at the rather cramped quarters ; for there being only a very few persons, there is also need for only a very little furniture. Other people who house vanity, ex- travagance, and a family of that sort, and who heap up baggage of iniquity, can never live spaciously enough. They burden others and are burdened themselves, and no one measures their necessities, nay even their comforts, easily otherwise than by an unbearable and unmovable mass. Oh, only those persons are rich who have all of which they have real need, who admit nothing else, merely because it is possible to have it in abundance ! For as often as I have seen wealth on this earth I have also always noticed dissatisfac- tion standing by ; but in only the one condition, which we call " lack," has contentment appeared. XIII. MECHANICS. In walking around the city, I could easily notice what the distribution of the craftsmen was. For even as the 1 Probably a typographical error in the original. . Concerning the State of Christianopolis 157 ty is four-cornered, so also its inhabitants deal with four materials: metals, stones, woods, and the things that are- needed for weaving ; but with this difference, that the occu- pations which require more skill and innate ability are as- signed to the inner square, while those which admit of more ease in working, to the outer or greater square. And they, furthermore, regard clock-makers and organ-makers, ^ ^ cabinet-makers, sculptors, and masons on the same basis. This feature, moreover, is entirely peculiar to them, namely, that their artisans are almost entirely educated men. For that which other people think is the proper characteristic of a few (and yet, if you consider the stuffing of inexperi- ence as learning, the characteristic of too many men al- ready) this the inhabitants argue should be attained by all individuals. They say neither the subtleness of letters is such, nor yet the difficulty of work, that one man, if given enough, cannot master both. And yet there are some who incline more to this or to that occupation, who, if they pre- fer to make a craft a specialty, are made masters over their fellows, that they may in turn train up others and still others. I saw what mechanics I thought were workers in brass, tin, iron; knife-makers, turners, makers of jewel cases, of statuary, workers in gypsum, fullers, weavers, furriers, cob- blers ; and among the nobler crafts, sculptors, clock-makers, goldsmiths, organ-makers, engravers, goldleaf-beaters, ring-makers, and innumerable other like trades not to be despised. Tanners, harness-makers, blacksmiths, wagon- ^ makers, trunk-makers, stonecutters, glass-makers, all these you will find here. Now that we have named those that follow the trades it might be said that patching, sewing, and * embroidery are all done by the women, ft All these things are done not always because necessity demands, but for the purpose of a competition among the mechanics, in order 158 Christianopolis that the human soul may have some means by which it and the highest prerogative of the mind may unfold themselves through different sorts of machinery, or by which, rather, the little spark of divinity remaining in us, may shine brightly in any material offered./ Of the overseeing and incentives, as also of the hours of leisure and of work, we will speak later. XIV. PUBLIC PRAYERS. Before I proceed, something should be said regarding their public worship. Three prayers are offered each day, morning, noon, and in the evening, when thanks are given to God for blessings received; and on bended knee and with folded hands, a continuation of His aid and a worthy death are implored in a solemn formula. No one may be absent from these prayers, except for the most urgent rea- son; parents bring all their children hither that they may learn even in infants' prattle to praise God. Then a reading from the Holy Scriptures is listened to, and the meeting, of about half an hour, is dismissed with a hymn. If the day be a special day, on which some remarkable instance of God's grace is to be commemorated, somewhat more time is expended in the devotions. These meetings are held in the larger halls of the towers, and each one has his assigned place. And nothing is more worthy of Christians than this observance. For though we owe secret prayers to God, our best ones, and very frequent, yet this communion of spirits and prayers has a distinctly pleasant sound in the ears of God, and an especial efficacy. Those who neglect this a . Concerning the State of Christianopolis 159 perhaps a little bit too sure of their salvation, while those who are expecting at some time a communion of saints, even as they plan all things in this world with a view toward the heavenly fatherland, so they are occupied in divine praise more diligently and more eagerly than in any other thing. On this account, happy and very wise are those who anticipate here on earth the firstlings of a life which they hope will be everlasting ; and most unfortunately foolish are those who close their life with this most grievous mortality. XV. FOOD. Their meals are private to all, but the food is obtained from the public storehouse. And because it is almost im- possible to avoid unpleasantness and confusion when the number of those partaking of a meal is so great, they pre- fer that individuals shall eat together privately in their own homes. Even as the food is distributed according to the nature of the year, so also it is apportioned weekly accord- ing to the number of families. But provision of wine is made for a half year, or if conditions admit, of still longer period. They get their fresh meat from the meat shop, and they take away as much as is assigned to them. Fish, as also game, and all sorts of birds are distributed to them according to each one's proportion, the time and age being taken into consideration. There are ordinarily four dishes, and these after being carefully washed are prepared by the women, and are seasoned with wise and pious words. Who- ever wishes to have a guest may do so, and the parties con- 160 Christianopolis cerned, join their dishes accordingly ; or if it be a foreigner, they ask from the public supplies what may be necessary. For the kitchen, which I have mentioned above, serves this purpose, that whatever decency requires beyond the regular measure may be obtained from it. Since grown children are brought up elsewhere, in most instances a family consists of four or five, less frequently six individuals, father, mother, and one or two children. Servingmen and serving- women are a rare thing, nor very noticeable, except in the case of those attending the sick, those in confinement, or babies. The husband and wife perform together the ordi- nary duties of the home, and the rest is taken care of in the public workshop. Matters relating to boys and girls just arriving at adolescence, we shall hear of later. Let us just consider for a minute what an enormous burden we would be freed from, if the multiplex difficulty of providing food and drink, and the perplexity and daily care of stuffing our stomachs were taken from us. XVI. OCCUPATIONS. Their work, or as they prefer to hear it called, " the employment of their hands," is conducted in a certain pre- scribed way, and all the things made are brought into a public booth. From here every workman receives out of the store on hand, whatever is necessary for the work of the coming week. For the whole city is, as it were, one single workshop, but of all different sorts of crafts. The ones in charge of these duties are stationed in the smaller towers Concerning the State of Christianopolis 161 at the corners of the wall; they know ahead of time what is to be made, in what quantity, and of what form, and they inform the mechanics of these items. If the supply of material in the work booth is sufficient, the workmen are permitted to indulge and give play to their inventive genius. No one has any money, nor is there any use for any private money; yet the republic has its own treasury. And in this respect the inhabitants are especially blessed because no one can be superior to the other in the amount of riches owned, since the advantage is rather one of power and genius, and the highest respect, that of morals and piety. They have very few working hours, yet no less is accomplished than in other places as it is considered disgraceful by all that one should take more rest and leisure time than is allowed. Since in other places it is true that ten working men with difficulty support one idler, it will not be difficult to believe that with all these men working there is some time of leisure left for the individuals. And yet they all together attend to their labors in such a way that they seem to benefit rather than harm their physical bodies. Where there is no slavery, there is nothing irksome in the human body which weighs down or weakens. And who will doubt that where God is favorable, all things are done with greater force and zeal, more easily and more accurately than where, against the wishes and favor of God, a mass of useless buildings is heaped up? 1 62 Christianopolis XVII. VACATION PERIODS. It will not be unprofitable for us to see how the inhabi- tants of Christianopolis spend their leisure time, or to name it more properly, the breathing spell which is allowed one. When they have cheerfully done enough to fill the require- ments of piety, patriotism, and literature, and have exer- cised their bodies in the mechanical arts according as the season admits, they take longer or shorter periods of quiet. This vacation, they say, they owe not so much to the flesh as to the spirit, not less to the soul than to the body. There is the greatest need that we return to our- selves as often as possible and shake off the dust of the earth; that we may restock our minds with generous reso- lutions and attack vice, it is necessary to take a fresh start; that we may revive the wearied faculties of the soul and sharpen our wits, we must stand near or even sit down upon a whetstone. Thus you will not expect to find the sporting of fools nor the noise of aimless wandering, the result of this national rest; but a relaxation of the mind, intent upon some subject, and especially a recollecting of things that pertain to a care of the future life, lest any- thing at all dearer or higher than God be brought back to us. So during these free hours it is common to see the greatest calmness among the citizens, many devoting them- selves to some special service to God, or to some neighbor bearing a cross, or especially instructing each other mutually in Christian conversations. But alas how different among those who struggle in the world and whom Satan harasses, who weary the spirit and relax the flesh, who are occupied Concerning the State of Christianopolis 163 in the mud and rest in filth! They are never less with themselves than when alone. How therefore should they hear the Lord speaking among us! How should they at- tempt to do manly deeds of valor! How should they give birth to new offspring of genius or discover new inventions when between the tumults of others and themselves they grow deaf and stiff ! XVIII. REWARDS. And now, I judge, you will want to know of what ad- vantage it is for one of regular morals and excelling talent to live in this city when you hear nothing of re- wards. Well, he of the Christian City solves this difficulty very easily; for it is glory and gain enough for him to please God. And yet incentives of the Holy Spirit are not lacking. For really deeds of the children of God are of such weight with these citizens, so often are they praised, and in so many ways are they impressed upon the minds of the youth, that every generous nature burns with a de- sire to imitate. Besides, the pleasure of the consciousness of having done right, the dignity of a nature that has over- come darkness, the greatness of dominion over the pas- sions, and above all, the unspeakable joy of the companion- ship of the saints, take possession of a refined soul far too deeply than that the renouncing of worldly pleasure should be feared. Even if anything makes it worth while on the part of a Christian to be preferred to others, here there is no prerogative except of virtue, in this order that the greatest worth is that of devotion to God, then of moderation, after^ 164 Christianopolis that of a subdued nature, and finally of human strength; and as far as each one is nearer the will of God, that much the more fitted is he thought to be for governing others. And since the world changes this around, understands but little the experience of a good life, and pricks up its ears to hear the pipe of vanity, it subjects the mind and body to the poorest guide. It is not surprising for one not to know what he wishes or does not wish, and for blind leaders, though promising light, to follow a far blinder one into the abysses of darkness. XIX. PENALTIES. In the same way we may say of penalties, there is no use of these in a place that contains the very sanctuary of God and a chosen state, in which Christian liberty can bear not even commands, much less threats, but is borne voluntarily toward Christ. Yet it must be confessed that human flesh cannot be completely conquered anywhere. And so if it does not profit by repeated warnings (and in case of need, serious corrections) severer scourges must be used to sub- due it. For this purpose fit remedies are on hand, not of one sort only, but chosen to suit different individuals. For truly, if one withdraws the sustenance from one's carnal appetites, or substitutes the cudgel for the tickle of lust, much may be remedied. It is the art of arts to guard against permitting sin to become easy for anyone. On the other hand, how wicked it is to vent one's wrath against those toward whose ruin you hurl stones. At any rate, the judges of the Christian City observe this custom especially, that Concerning the State of Christianopolis 165 they punish most severely those misdeeds which are di- rected straight against God, less severely those which injure men, and lightest of all those which harm only property. How differently the world does, punishing a petty thief much more harshly than a blasphemer or an adulterer. As the Christian citizens are always chary of spilling blood, they do not willingly agree upon the death sentence as a form of punishment ; whereas the world, ever prodigal even of a brother's blood, pronounces wantonly the first sentence which occurs to it, feeling safe in this subterfuge that it has not personally employed sword, rope, wheel, and fire, but only through a servant of the law. Christ be my witness, it is certainly handsome logic on the part of a government to make thieves of dissolute characters, adulterers of the intemperate, homicides of loafers, witches of courtesans, in order that it may have someone with whose blood to make expiation to God ! It is far more humane to tear out the first elements and roots of vice than* to lop off the ma- ture stalks. For anyone can destroy a man, but only the best one can reform. XX. nobility. In this republic no value is set on either succession of title or blood apart from virtue. For while it is true that those who deserve well are given the highest rank and are decked with medals, yet the advantage of this to their children, as in advance of others, is that they are admon- ished more frequently of this family example, and thus the heredity of virtue is inculcated. For if they possess this, 166 Christianopolis they are easily moved to the laudable memory of their parents, in such a way however, that a free choice may not be detrimental to the new virtue. For those who rise in life by the help of God, which is the first moving factor of all virtues, are to be honored in the worship of God, and employed in conducting the state business. But this is always evident, that divine gifts rise here and sink there, thus showing that excelling is not a human attainment nor due to the distribution of a few men, but to the choice of heaven. It is not necessary to state what a mistake those make who so frequently take the license of sinning and the tinder of corruption out of the prerogative of family distinction, with the result that the offspring of heroes, who has not deteriorated, is an object of surprise. For as it is true that parents climb the lofty citadel of virtue over the difficult hills of work, so children often slide through the labyrinths of extravagant pleasure to the low- est engulfing depths of vice. If these should look back or around into the affairs of mortals, they would never admit that what might have commended them to God and men, did, by free rein to their pleasures and destruction of their flatterers, direct them into the readiest downward path of body and soul. XXI. OFFICIALS. This central part of the state is governed by eight men, each of whom lives in one of the larger towers. Under them are eight other subordinates, distributed through the smaller towers. The spirit of all of these is rather parental than Concerning the State of Christianopolis 167 overbearing ; and the fear of those intrusted to the authori- \ ties is not greater than their respect. For whatsoever they I may order others to do, this they do also themselves. They | do not lead any more with the voice than by their example. Nothing is easier than imitation under conditions of this kind, nothing more natural than following an example, where no one corrects except he be himself above criticism ; where no one teaches except he be himself learned; and where the rule itself is the precept. He who first brought violence and disdain into the world had nothing divine about him. God approaches His own, and is approached of them. God is heard of them and hears. So far from mutual worship and contempt being permitted us, earthen vessels of the same clay, it is not even seemly. Since all things in the Christian Republic are referred to God, there is no need of secrets and councils of state, in which Satan in his kingdom rejoices. Here everything is open, giving opportunity, forsooth, to fear God and to love one's neigh- bor, which is the very crowning point of human society as well as of divine law. What answer then will they give, who convert religion, justice, and human intercourse into veritable chains, shackles, and prisons; and who with wrinkled brow, poisoned dress, and oily tongue, a hardened heart and a grasping hand, wish not merely to be in com- mand of men, but to lord it over beasts and fill whole volumes with these monstrosities? Surely neither the law of God nor the Gospels of Christ admit confusion; and yet they never praise the human dominion in their followers, but always inculcate a common brotherly communion. And now because the church has renounced these principles, she has become richer and more formidable, but not at all holier, she who could not be influenced even in her last cleansing to lay aside arrogance and harshness and persuade her 168 Christianopolis curators to use a more sensible government. And so the Christian grieves and is kept in the midst of Christianity neither giving orders nor yet sufficiently obeying. XXII. PUBLIC WORKS. There are also public duties, to which all citizens have obligation, such as watching, guarding, harvesting of grain and wine, working roads, erecting buildings, draining ground ; also certain duties of assisting in the factories, which are imposed on all in turn according to age and sex, but not very often nor for a long time. For even though cer- tain experienced men are put in charge of all the duties, yet when men are asked for, no one refuses the state his services and strength. For what we are in our homes, they are in their city, which they not undeservedly think a home. And for this reason it is no disgrace to perform any pub- lic function, so long as it be not indecent. Hence all work, even that which seems rather irksome, is accomplished in good time and without much difficulty, since the prompt- ness of the great number of workmen permits them easily to collect or distribute the greatest mass of things. Who does not believe, since we are willing, all of us, to rejoice in and enjoy privileges and conveniences of a community, that the care and the work are ordinarily imposed upon a few, while continual idleness and gluttony are made permissible to the many? On the contrary, who denies that every citi- zen, in his own place and order, owes his best efforts to the republic, not merely with his tongue but also with hand and Concerning the State of Christianopolis 169 shoulder? With an entirely mistaken sense of delicacy do the carnal-minded shrink from touching earth, water, stones, coal, and things of that sort; but they think it grand to have in their possession to delight them, horses, dogs, har- lots, and similar creatures. Now the inhabitants of Chris- tianopolis laugh at this and not unjustly, since painted on their coats of arms they show here and there, not implements of fierceness and pomp, but those of humanity and work; and against other people the former prove a confession of their vanity and brutality. XXIII. THE HOMES. No one owns a private house; they are granted and as- signed to individuals for their use ; and, if the state desires, they easily change their abodes. Almost all the houses are built after one model ; they are well kept and especially free from anything unclean. There are three rooms in the aver- age house, a bathroom, a sleeping apartment, and a kitchen. And the latter two are generally separated by a board par- tition. The middle part within the towers has a little open space with a wide window, where wood and the heavier things are raised aloft by pulleys. The house has one door and the head of the house is responsible for it. This leads to the balcony from which one ascends either through the towers or by way of a spiral stairs. In this connection the plan should be examined carefully, for there is not leisure to recount details. At the rear of each building is a garden, kept with much care and nicety, inasmuch as the gardens are conducive to health and furnish fragrance. The roof 170 Christianopolis serves a common purpose; for the walls, built up in steps and frequently constructed as a check for fire, separate and the gutters unite it. The buildings have double windows, one of glass and one of wood, inserted in the wall in such a way that each may be opened or closed as is desired. There are small, private cellars, for not a great deal need be stored in them. And so whatever extravagance and burdens there may be in the world, these people draw together into what you might call a very suitable shell, where nothing is lacking which should cover a man and contain his belong- ings. The houses are kept up at the expense of the state, and provision is made by the carefulness of inspectors that nothing is thoughtlessly destroyed or changed. Fire can hardly ever do any damage or break through and spread. They drive out cold with furnace heat, and counteract heat with shade. How unfortunate are those who believe that they have built lasting dwellings for themselves here and then discover too late that they have been working in the dark for others; meantime they have never been at home, not even in their own bodies. But even more unhappy, if Christ passes by their inauspicious palaces and enters the huts of the poor! XXIV. FURNITURE AND FURNISHINGS. Now it will be easy to guess what the furnishings are. There are none except the most necessary, and even then scant. The beds for both family and stranger are com- fortable, neat, and well arranged. The neatness of the women provides' for clean bed- and table-linen as well as Concerning the State of Christianopolis 171 underwear and chaplets. There are the necessary dishes for the table and enough cooking utensils. For why should you want great numbers of things when all that you may reasonably desire can always be obtained at the public store- house? They have only two suits of clothes, one for their work, one for the holidays ; and for all classes they are made alike. Sex and age are shown by the form of the dress. The cloth is made of linen or wool, respectively for sum- mer or winter, and the color for all is white or ashen gray ; none have fancy, tailored goods. Drinking goblets are for the most part of glass, yet some are tin and the rest brass. Of the arms and letters we will speak later. It is quite evident that all this furniture requires no care except that incident upon cleaning, no guarding except the simplest, no expenses except the most insignificant; yet they are not less effective than the heaps, caves, chests, and like prisons of the riches of this world. If you need any in- strument other than what is in daily use, you may get it at the supply house. For there are enough implements on hand, both private and public, since the whole state is one of artisans. Moreover, they ought to be ashamed of them- selves who are inactive in the great multitude, but in the meantime pride themselves with all sorts of vessels and in- struments, while they do absolutely nothing except with other people's hands, eyes, and ears, and in the same way accumulate wealth with useless solicitude; wretched they are in the midst of such a laborious and manifold group of props, with which they hope to be raised from the ground on stilts and appear sublime. They are made fools equally for their attempt to wander over the earth and to fly toward the sky. 172 Christianopolis XXV. y NIGHT LIGHTS. They do not allow the night to be dark, but brighten it up with lighted lanterns, the object being to provide for the safety of the city and to put a stop to useless wandering about, but also to render the night watches less unpleasant. They would strive in this way to resist the dark kingdom of Satan and his questionable pastimes; and they wish to remind themselves of the everlasting light. What Anti- christ expects from the great number of wax candles, let him see for himself; but let us not shrink back from any system which lessens the fear of a man working at night in* the darkness, and which removes the veil which our flesh is so anxious to draw over license and dissoluteness. And vthere is no reason why we should consider expense here, when in other matters these citizens are exceptionally economical and when in other places there is the greatest extravagance in most all affairs. Oh, if we would but turn more to the light, there would not be such an opportunity for every sort of meanness, nor such great numbers of swindlers! Would that the light of our hearts were burn- ing more frequently, and that we would not so often endeavor to deceive the all-seeing eye of God! Now that the darkness serves as excuse for the world and opens it for all sorts of baseness, while it spreads blindness over those things of which it is ashamed, what will be the situa- tion when at the return of Christ, the Sun, every fog will be dispelled and the world's corruptness which it guards with so many covers, shall appear, when the wantonness of the heart, the hypocrisy of the lips, the deceitful deeds of Concerning the State of Christianopolis 173 the hands, and its much other filth shall be a disgrace to itself and a mockery to the blessed? XXVI. THE COLLEGE. Now is the time when we approach the innermost shrine of the city which you would rightly call the center of activity of the state. It is square, two hundred and seventy feet on the outside, a hundred and ninety feet on the inside, bounded by four corner towers and intersected by as many others, opposite each other and inclosed by a double line of gardens. There are in the whole building four stories, ris- ing respectively to a height of twelve, eleven, ten, and nine feet; and the towers extend eight feet more even above these. Toward the market-place, on the inside, there is an open porch, very attractive with its seventy-two columns. Here religion, justice, and learning have their abode, and theirs is the control of the city; and eloquence has been given them as an interpreter. Never have I seen so great an amount of human perfection collected into one place, and you will confess the same when you shall have heard a description of the sights. And yet I often* wonder what people mean who separate and disjoin their best powers, the joining of which might render them blessed as far as this may be on earth. There are those who would be considered religious, who throw off all things human; there are some who are pleased to rule, though without any religion at all ; learning makes a great noise, flattering now this one, now that, yet applauding itself most. What finally may the 174 Christianopolis tongue do except provoke God, confuse men, and destroy itself? So there would seem to be a need of co-operation which only Christianity can give Christianity which con- ciliates God with men and unites men together, so that they have pious thoughts, do good deeds, know the truth, and finally die happily to live eternally. Let us then co- operate once lest we be separated for eternity. XXVII. THE TRIUMVIRATE. Now let us consider why they prefer an aristocracy to a monarchy. For though a monarchy has many advantages yet they prefer to preserve this dignity for Christ, and they distrust, not without cause, the self-control of human beings. Christ does not tolerate too absolute a representa- tive, nor does a man raised too high look up at the sky; he looks down upon the earth. One's own experiences are the nearest, and they are worse, the more one is given to tyranny and weakness of character. In such an instance, at least, the triumvirate is the safest form of government, when it admits only the best in the state and those most experienced in public affairs, since one must work up through all steps of virtue to it. Each one of the leaders does his own duty, yet not without the knowledge of the others ; all consult together in matters that concern the safety of the state. Each has a senate, but on fixed days they all meet together that decision in the most important matters may be reached with common consent. As is fitting, all these men must be loyal, prudent, and wise ; yet some are designated for these Concerning the State of Christianopolis 175 ranks, or distinguished as being more exact. The chan- cellor announces all the decrees of the senators, repeats them, and makes them public. This man must be one of greatest tact and trustworthiness. No litigation is adjusted here; for the citizens have no controversies too great to be settled by the arbitration of the tribunes. But questions of the truth of the Christian religion, the cultivation of vir- tues, the methods of improving the mind; also the need of treaties, war, negotiations, buildings, and supplies are de- liberated upon, with great, yet modest freedom and with a proper appreciation of the gifts of God. So it comes that they act upon serious matters calmly while other peoples become disturbed and anxious over trivial things, a very evident witness of their vanity, who roll up and impose troubles upon themselves, or if there are none, trump up some in order that they may torture themselves in bearing up under them. XXVIII. religion. Looking all these things over, I might have suspected this place of being some fanatical city, since, in the world whatever seeks the skies is heretical. But a double plate on which stood the sum of their confession and profession inscribed in letters of gold, soon freed me from error. The words of this tablet, as I wrote them down, have the fol- lowing import: I. We believe with our whole heart in one triune God, very good, very wise, great, and everlasting : the Father, who created the world out of nothing, preserves, moves, and directs the same, whose 176 Christianopolis ministers are good angels, against whom the condemned Satan is rebellious, whose delight is man, once the divine image and prince of the world, to whom sin is hateful, whose interpreter of all wisdom and summary of all uprightness is the Scriptures, and whose love, through the giving of His Son, is most open and kind. II. We believe with a whole heart in Jesus Christ, the Son of God and Mary, coequal with the Father yet like us, our Redeemer, united as to personality in two natures and communicating in both, our Prophet, King, and Priest, whose law is grace, whose scepter is that of peace, whose sacrifice, that of the cross. III. We believe in the same regeneration of the Spirit, the admis- sion of sin, even the brotherhood of our flesh with Him and in Him, and the restoring to dignity, lost by the fall of Adam. IV. We believe that by His life, suffering, and death He has given satisfaction to the justice of God, that mercy has been merited, the same has been brought to us through the Gospels, given over to our faith, intrusted to the purity of life, and that thence the dominion of sin was crucified, destroyed, and buried. V. We believe that the kingdom of hell and the poison of death have been destroyed, and that in the victory of the resurrec- tion, security has been restored to us under the care of God. VI. We believe the kingdom of Christ is infinite and eternal, where He is present to His church at the right hand of the Father Omnipotent, Omnipresent, and that He feeds, keeps, and quickens her spiritually with His Word, even as He does literally with flesh and blood. VII. We believe His supreme judgment, which He shall pro- nounce upon all men, good and evil, with highest majesty, and shall distinguish the just from the unjust most critically. VIII. We believe with our whole heart in the Holy Spirit, our Comforter and Teacher, by whom we are sanctified, enlivened, and equipped, after we go from freedom to doing good, by whom we are made wise beyond nature, armed against nature, and put at peace with her ; by whom we grow warm, are united and divided into languages ; by whom we see and hear the past, present, and future properly correlated; by whom we look into the Word of God. IX. We believe in a holy, universal church, purified by the water of baptism from infancy, and fed by the communion of the eucharist, thus guarded with the seals of the new covenant, taught in the ministry of the Word, disciplined with the cross, ready to serve in prayers, active in charity, generous in communion, powerful in excommunication, which though distributed over the earth, the unity of faith joins, the diversity of gifts strengthens, Christ, the Concerning the State of Christianopolis 177 Bridegroom and Head, renders invincible, and which the standing of the different classes and the purity of marriage embellish. X. We believe in a free forgiveness of all sins through the min- istry of the Word, and in the obligation of our gratitude and obedi- ence on account of this. XI. We believe in the general resurrection of the human flesh, so much desired by the faithful that on account of it they par- ticularly love a natural death ; so formidable to the wicked that on account of it they consider the natural life to be especially cursed. XII. We believe in an eternal life by which we shall obtain perfect light, ability, quiet, knowledge, plenty, and joy; by which also the malice of Satan, the impurity of the world, the corruption of men shall be checked; by which it shall be well with the good, and evil with evil-doers, and the visible glory of the Holy Trinity shall be ours forever. XXIX. ADMINISTRATION OF THE STATE. Thus far it has been permitted us to hear about the re- ligion ; the other tablet prescribes the rules of daily life, and the words read as follows: I. We strive with all our strength to submit ourselves in all reverence and adoration to God, the one Founder and Ruler of the human race, and to prefer nothing in heaven or on earth to Him; to refer our life and all our actions to His glory and to succeed with His aid. II. We strive never to provoke the holy name of God with any form of blasphemy, never to alienate it by grumbling, dishonor it by frivolity, neglect it on account of laziness ; and we strive to regard reverently the most holy mysteries of our salvation. III. We strive to have leisure ever for our God, to rest from the confusion of cravings of the flesh, to provide a quiet shrine for the Trinity, a pure dwelling place for our neighbor, breathing- space for all creatures, to devote our time only to the Divine Word. IV. We strive to preserve and practice love to parents, respect to our superiors, propriety to our equals, modesty toward those that 178 Christianopolis have been trusted, labor for the republic, a good example to pos- terity, and to perform the duties of Christian love with mutual kindnesses. V. We strive to bridle our wrath, to restrain our impatience, to value human blood, to forget revenge, to abhor jealousy, and care- fully to imitate the very gentle heart of Christ. VI. We strive to shield the innocence of youth, the virginity of maidens, the purity of matrimony, the unpolluted restraint of widowhood, and to overcome luxury and intoxication with the tem- perance and fasting of the flesh. VII. We strive to enjoy the goods intrusted to us by God, as diligently as possible, peacefully, properly, and with giving of thanks ; to exercise the duties of acquisition and distribution as justly as possible, of employment modestly and of conservation safely. VIII. We strive to propagate the light of truth, the purity of conscience, the integrity of bearing testimony, freely and correctly, to reverence the presence of God at every time and place, to protect the innocent and to convict the guilty. IX. We strive to disturb nothing of another, nor to confound divine with human things, to submit to our lot, to inhabit our dwellings peacefully, and to despise the sojourning place of the whole world. X. We strive so to establish our intercourse that each one's property be given and preserved to him, and that no one would rather covet the affairs of another than to put his own in order and devote them to the glory of God and the public safety. When I had read these tablets I was not a little more strengthened in the belief that here lived a people of Christ, whose religion agreed with that of the apostles and the state administration with the law of God. For although pseudo-Christians boast of these two characteristics, yet anyone who associates with them," even occasionally, ^will easily see that their words are sacred, but their secret acts unfeeling; though their confession is honorable, their con- fusion is distressing; it will be evident that their formula of peace is very frequently a thoroughfare of discord ; mean- time they accuse their flesh and yet will not accept the help- ing hand of God nor the corrections of the Spirit. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 179 XXX. THE MINISTER OR PRESBYTER. Now when I was led away from this place, I was ad- mitted into the presence of the chief priest, not by any means a Roman pontifex, but a Christian. His name was Abi- aldon, a man of revered old age and from whose countenance there shone real divinity. No one is more practiced in the Holy Word, no one more experienced in the same. When he was graciously and zealously speaking with me, I recog- nized the ambassador and mediator of God ; he did not look at things of the earth at all. When I attempted according to our custom to recognize this man with titles, he, disdain- ing such earthly absurdities, would not tolerate it, saying he considered himself sufficiently well appreciated if I be- lieved him to be the servant of God and my spiritual father. They say that he is very often inspired of God and that he then announces some unusual things, but with the greatest modesty of the spirit. Only once a week, and that on Sun- day, he addresses the people and teaches them with divine eloquence ; and they confess that they have never listened to him without receiving an inward impulse for good. He is ashamed to advise others to do a thing which he has not already done himself. Hence when standing before the people, though he be silent, he teaches. His whole time he spends in sacred meditations and especially in efforts to further Christianity, and he seeks no other refreshment than heavenly food. When he blessed me I felt something warm within me, and it permeated my whole being. Truly this genuine theology is more efficacious than the assertions of many among the worldly. I blushed when I remembered 180 Christianopolis the pride, greed, jealousy, and wine-drinking of some, and the other sins of our sacred order. You would suppose that they did not themselves believe what they were persuading others to believe, granted that they have actually learned to persuade anyone. Under their good favor, I was well pleased with Abialdon, a man of fervent spirit, but tem- perate flesh, a lover of the heavens, but forgetful of the things of the world, always doing, rarely speaking, intoxi- cated with God, abstaining from voluptuousness, guarding the flock, neglecting himself, first in merit, last in boasting. XXXI. CONSCIENCE. I do not hesitate either to praise the wife of the preacher (for he is a married man). Her name is Senidis, a very excellent woman, observing to the last detail the rules of piety and moderation. She neglects nothing of which it is right that her husband should be advised. Being very sen- sible herself, she is not often deceived; and being upright she does not deceive others. She always bears an untroubled countenance and is of calm mind, being, as she well knows, most happily married. She has blessed her husband with a numerous and beautiful offspring; two of these children are daughters, Alethea and Parrhesia. She guards her own affairs carefully, takes greatest pride in her married state, and seeks nothing else. In order that nothing may go wrong, because of her negligence, she tends things care- fully and aspires. to cleanliness in everything. She speaks when there is reason. At other times she prefers to keep Concerning the State of Christianopolis 181 silent. When there is need of skill and diligence she has no equal; for this reason the hangings and coverings of the shrine were woven by her hands. When I remember her, I am disgusted with worldly women; for they either are superstitiously scrupulous, or altogether dull, or they rudely scold, or they admit anything however wicked, or they wrinkle up their faces, or they revel wantonly; finally they keep giving their husbands advice, and never in sea- son; they never love them sincerely nor take care of them economically. Forsooth, such is the light-mindedness of the consciences of the world, that after the dances of human vanity, when the honey of vices has turned bitter, they do not turn to God with a timely change of heart; but they annoy one with their dog-like yelps and drive people to desperate, hasty acts. Happy is that holy matron who by her example has taught that it is possible to pay the closest attention to one's affairs, and yet be holy with a joyful countenance. XXXII. THE MINISTER'S ASSISTANT OR THE DIACONUS. The church of the Christian City has also a diaconus by the name of Achban. He is very closely associated with Abialdon, and his duty is to educate the youth, distribute the sacraments, perform marriage ceremonies, and give com- fort to the sick. Not that this is not also the office of the presbyter himself, but less his than that of the diaconus. The superior does not despise his colleague, but rather the colleague has the greatest respect for his superior. The former does not burden and weigh down the latter 182 Christianopolis with heavy tasks, but the latter supports the former. The one does not command, but the other is naturally obedient. Even as between father and son there should be a mutual affection, exactly such is the relation in this case, though there is little difference in their ages. No power commands more effectively and none serves more readily than love. The diaconus does not care to make any changes, nor does he ever forget himself so far as to boast. But he is glad to hear from his spiritual father what God commands, what is best for the church. He preaches one sermon be- fore the people in the middle of the week. I do not know why they should meet in assembly less often than others, unless it be, as I suspect, that they prefer to have sermons well prepared, a thing impossible when there are too many in a given time; and they make up the difference generously with their daily prayers and readings. They receive from their theological seminary those who read in public the devout meditations of illustrious servants of God, a custom which they think far in advance of the juvenile efforts of others. And it did not displease me either when I heard a reading grounded on a firmer basis than mere doubtful memory. Truly one man is not sufficient to hearken unto the Holy Spirit, bridle his passions, tame the barbarians, bear his labors, take care of his family, and earn his daily bread; and yet the world asks this very thing of ministers twenty years of age; and, for fear they may have a lack of something to do, they are compelled to combat hunger. I marvel at two points truly, in the case of men who prevail upon mere boys to care for their souls, and who are prevailed upon to intrust their souls to them. Of course I would give way if there were many like Timothy, but since I see so few of these, and especially since I see so much wickedness, I grieve for the lot of the Concerning the State of Christianopolis 183 church which is vexed at the sluggishness and audacity of the world. XXXIII. the judge. Then I met the second of the triumvirs, Abiefer by name, a man born after such a pattern that he does to no one what he would not wish done to himself, and what he desires for himself, he tries to secure for all. Neither blood nor riches, which here amount to nothing, exalted him; but a calm and peace-loving soul. He does not make his responses, confined, as it were, and seated on a tripod; and a citizen does not tremble at his look; but like the rising sun, he shines upon all and clears up everything. To state it all briefly, he is the pater familias of the city, and he re- joices in being called the minister of Christ. It is his duty to keep close watch over the measures, weights, and num- bers, and to administer the specific proportion of things. Whatever methods they exercise in taming their passions and in thoroughly overcoming Adam, these he considers his sphere and he regulates everything with a view toward life eternal. For he feels that the best plan for a republic is one which agrees as nearly as possible with heaven ; and being very pious himself, he believes that a propitious God is the salvation of a city, the destruction of the same a wrathful God. So he strives that the Divinity become not offended by the sins of the citizens, that it rather be conciliated by adorn- ments of faith. Hence the city is invincible, unless it yield first to its own vices. No evil however small is admitted into it, and the citizens do not fear Satan's influence, but 184 Christianopolis overthrow it as soon as possible. Surely one could never wonder enough at the feeling of security of the world, which tojerates the public trading in vices and does not fear con- tagion; which offers abominations to God and is not sure of the latter's disgust ; which deals with the greatest political schemes and yet boasts of a Christian society ; which thinks it has provided enough for itself when it is sure that one is not lacking who will govern it with great pomp and with the greatest protection of all lusts. Even as the Christian City is august and most flourishing because of its watchful- ness of justice, so worldly cities wither away from day to day under the weakness of wickedness. XXXIV. UNDERSTANDING. Now I pray that you listen to some facts regarding his wife. I have never seen a woman less credulous, I have never heard conversation deeper or more considerate. But if she once believes a thing and repeats it, you may depend upon its being true. Hence she does not do anything with- out cause, a cause in which her husband agrees. She has the sight of an eagle, eyes that can bear the light of the sun and can see very far. She tolerates no empty rumors nor the unreliable reports of the crowd. She does not tolerate the concealment of virtue nor the advertisement of vice ; she does not countenance the restriction of liberty nor the loosing of servitude; nor does she stand any overhasti- ness. Her husband is not ashamed to discuss difficult prob- lems with her ; he hears her freely, but reserves the decision Concerning the State of Christianopolis 185 for himself. If she gets a little too curious regarding mat- ters of his sphere he holds her in check and admonishes her of heaven, and requires that she restrict herself to her own duties. Thus she lives peaceably and joyfully, under the direction of her husband, a very fitting example to those who either communicate all things or nothing with the women. Whoever has a logician for wife cannot even believe in God, unless the wife gives her approval, and he takes oath to all her foolishness as being entirely true. He who has an Athenian, never bears the slightest inter- ruption. What utterly absurd things are done in a republic because the why is neither known nor tolerated. The world has faith in the unbelieving, follows the blind, is mortally afraid of the weak, raises the lazy, and admits Heaven knows what absurdities. It ought not, then, take offense when someone laughs at it; it should rather appreciate the talka- tive ones who keep asking it with importunity why it does and suffers this or that. The world will never regret hav- ing been urged from darkness into light, from servitude into freedom. XXXV. measure. As assistant to this second triumvir stands Achitob, the state economist, whose care it is that the state revenues and storehouse supplies are so distributed among the individuals, that not less than his just amount falls to each one. This is not so difficult a task as one might suppose; for since no one lays claim to any prerogative or asks as his right more food than the season of the year and the custom of 1 86 Christianopolis the city prescribe, but all preserve an equal ratio, the di- viding is quickly done in accordance with the number, and the amount of the year's produce ; and to see that the food is cleanly and properly cooked, is the special duty and care of the women, who also are to seek out and prepare for the sick those articles of food which are best adapted to them. Achitob has great ability at figuring and he so divides the yearly produce among the citizens that they never hunger, nor yet feast at the expense of their intellectual nature. This is a very desirable arrangement, especially in com- parison with those, some of whom suffer hunger and others of whom measure the divine goodness not by plenty, but by superabundance and nausea. They are unworthy of life who seek the chief thing in life on the table or in the stomach, and who pay no attention to the food of heaven ; but while the poor-looking servants of God are ascending to heaven, these persons, swelled by the foods of the world, are forced down to hell by the weight of their bellies. Nature is content with but few necessities; neither earth, sea, nor air is sufficient for the gluttony of one man until at length he is tortured in fire without end or measure. XXXVI. THE DIRECTOR OF LEARNING. The third of the triumvirs, Abida, has the sphere of human learning. I found him, contrary to expectation, without haughtiness or laziness. All about the man was kindly, nothing- crabbed. It was thought there was little he did not know; yet in his modesty he professed an igno- Concerning the State of Christianopolis 187 ranee of all things. There was lack of nothing except, among his colleagues, the decorations of titles. He always said that the man who studied as a disciple under the direc- tion of the Holy Spirit, had accomplished something. When I inquired as to the sum of all learning, he mentioned Christ and Him crucified, saying that all things pointed toward Him. He seemed at one time contemning the earth and praising the heavens; and then again he seemed to be esti- mating the earth highly, and the heavens as of less value. For he insisted that a close examination of the earth would bring about a proper appreciation of the heavens, and when the value of the heavens had been found, there would be a contempt of the earth. At the same time he entirely dis- approved of all that literature which did not bring one nearer to Christ; if it tended to separate one from Christ, he cursed it. He centered all importance in the church, which had been tossed about so many thousands of years upon the world-ocean; to the church were due, he said, all tongues, all history, all reasoning, all signs of nature, all arts of the heavens ; then finally one might expect the gift of blessed eternity. Only Christians have knowledge, but it is of God. All remaining things are foolishness, because they come out of one's self. These facts surprised me greatly, when I heard all things made light of, which among others are praised highly. But I was convinced when I remem- bered why we are born into this world, namely, to enjoy Christ, our absolute necessity, our invaluable gain. But when it falls our lot to die, woe to the miserable literature which has fed us for a few days on smoke! Arise, thou sacred science which shall explain to us Christ, that we may here learn things that are not to be unlearned, but to be increased and extended into all ages ! 1 88 Christianopolis XXXVII. TRUTH. I owe it to the excellent matron, his wife, since she was kind to me, to explain incidentally what kind of a woman she is. Nothing about her is false, everything simple and open. Whatever she sees, against divinity or humanity, she disapproves, but she chooses with kindness and sense. She knows of nothing so objectionable as hypocrisy and sophistry; she looks at all things from top to bottom, and such as she finds them, she makes them known to her hus- band. She sets no value upon gossip; but rejoices in the silence of the Spirit; if any difference of opinion arises among the women, no one is more fit for conciliation than she is. Her conversation is brief and full of Christ, as is self-evident, and she convinces her adversaries without ex- citement. She preserves her modesty inviolate, though sev- eral times she was wooed by the philosophers on account of the charm of her countenance. Oh, marriage, blessed and much to be preferred by all persons, which unites those who are joined unencumbered with prejudices, cringing flattery, and falsehood ! And though they are deceived by them, the deception pleases them and they prefer to hear monstrous fabrication rather than facts that are in accord with their own feelings. Alas for such willing blindness, such voluntary sadness! In the presence of their dead bodies they dream of immortality; in the darkness they dream of clear light; in the midst of crime they dream of a well regulated life ; with shackles on their feet, of wings ; and what not. .How true it is that the number of fools is never greater nor more intolerable than among those who Concerning the State of Christianopolis 189 profess wisdom. This most praiseworthy woman has done me this kindness, that she warned me of many mistakes, never before known to me. XXXVIII. the tongue. The chancellor whom I mentioned above was in the neighborhood. He, too, is anxious to be called a minister of Christians. He is of great importance ; hence I would con- sider him a very bad influence in a wicked state, but an excellent one in a good state. They make sport of us who believe that he hears one thing and speaks another. I have found him frank and even perhaps somewhat heedless. He has good cause for avoiding intemperance; as a matter of fact, he married Moderation, a woman of excellent coun- sel, and she, as she is very observant of sacred silence, tempers all his conversation very happily. When he has to speak of God, he trembles; when of Christ, he exults; when of the Holy Spirit, he becomes enthusiastic; when his speech concerns man, he grieves; when it concerns na- ture, he investigates ; when Satan, he is disgusted ; when the world, he is ashamed ; when death, he smiles ; when heaven, he looks up. Never does he seem to be doing less than when he discusses daily matters; to such a degree he says we are engaged in details. He values time not to the first minute, but to the sixth or seventh, so that hour-glasses are not at all required. Coins are not cared for elsewhere, as he guards his words, for fear some hateful or poi- sonous one will escape his lips. And so all around the 190 Christianopolis Word of God resounds, Jesus speaks, the Holy Spirit breathes, man is ennobled, human nature is controlled, Satan gnashes his teeth, the world laughs, death loses its sting, and the heavens open. It is surely an admirable in- strument of God, which guards the oaths and rights of humanity, and is anxious to imitate the Word of God. For what Christ is to the universe, that this interpreter is to this Christian society, in that he brings to light all that is hid- den, and makes known the secret corners. If God favors, he praises Him ; if He tests misdeeds, he confesses ; if He is angry, he intercedes ; and if He imposes a cross, he accepts it. If Satan interferes, he disputes the matter; if the flesh oppresses him, he sighs; and if supplies are withheld, he warns ; what need of more cases ? Whatsoever the Creator commands and is befitting the creature, he attempts ac- cording to his own ability and carries out with the readiest obedience, while the carnal-minded carry around burning torches in their mouths with which they set God, men, the world, and themselves afire, so that finally they blaze in inex- tinguishable flame. XXXIX. THE LIBRARY. When now I had paid my respects to these chief men, I was to be shown the halls of the citadel. There were twelve, destined to preserve the public affairs, all arched, thirty-three feet wide, thirty-three feet long, but not over twelve feet high. In the first room, a library of consider- able size, were guarded the creations of great and in- numerable natures, divided into groups and distributed Concerning the State of Christianopolis 191 according to subject-matter. Whatever we think has been lost, this I found there, to my very great surprise, al- most without exception. There is no language on earth which has not contributed something of its own to this place, no mind which is not here represented. Yet the citizens seemed to me not to consider the use of it very highly, and they were satisfied with fewer books the more thorough ones. The highest authority among them is that of sacred literature, that is, of the Divine Book; and this is the prize which they recognize as conceded by divine gift to men and of inexhaustible mysteries; almost every- thing else they consider of comparatively little value, yet they are very well read and fortified in advance by this remedy, that they admire nothing that is mere babble. And they write books too, not because of any desire for reputa- tion, but with a view toward spreading the Christian faith, scorning the world, and rebuking Satan. This is the ardent desire of all, to realize how little one really knows, and from this starting-point to aspire to the true knowledge and to disdain the vain boast of the human mind. But there are many things which it is expedient not to know in this life, wherefore a holy simplicity is for many a library in itself. Others say they have enough to study out of the volume of this universe. While very many assert that they find more within themselves and trace the sources of all arts more easily, than out of whole piles of books. And so they are disgusted with all things in the world which do not have in them anything godly, and they collect them for a mockery of the human mind that they may convince their people of the uselessness of such. Farewell then to books, if we follow them only! Hail Christ, the Book of Life, out of which more easily, surely, and safely we may learn all. 192 Christianopolis XL. THE ARMORY. Of the armory, which lies on the other side, they have a still more critical opinion. For while the world especially glories in war-engines, catapults, and other machines and weapons of war, these people look with horror upon all kinds of deadly and death-dealing instruments, collected in such numbers ; and they show them to visitors not without disapproval of human cruelty disapproval, because so much is being contrived for seeking and dealing death, when death itself is so very near, and even hidden in one's bosom ; disapproval, that a man will take such a risk to bring upon his nearest brother that at which he himself trembles; that so much danger is being overlooked in the hope, doubtful and for the most part treacherous, of some gain or another ; finally that such fierceness and violence is expended upon striving for things of absolutely no value, when a greater and more deadly danger impends from Satan, the world, and even from our own selves. However, they do bear arms, though unwillingly, for keeping off some greater evil, and they distribute them privately among the individual citizens, that they may serve in the homes in the case of sudden emergency. Meantime, they impress all the more seriously upon them that they be mindful of their spiritual armor, never expose their bodies, defenseless and bare of virtues, to Satan, never through drunkenness and gluttony forget their watches, but that they be swift and brave at their sta- tions, elude the enemy in ambush, and when he takes the offensive, repel him, strengthened with the spirit of God. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 193 XLI. THE ARCHIVES. The hall adjoining the library is set apart for preserving the judicial proceedings, laws, and public acts of the state. Here one may see the annals of many periods, from them behold the words and deeds of their predecessors, and compare these with the things accomplished or being ac- complished at present. If anything has been honorably and bravely done, it stands out as an example and a stimulus ; if otherwise, they have opportunity to change and, as it were, upbraid themselves. No one may be igno- rant of the past history of his country; but the latter so strongly re-echoes every age, that they think they have lived in almost any age. Those who have excelled in merit to the advantage of their country, have great reputation; nor do those have less fame who have shone forth in loyalty to God, good sense toward the citizens, bravery against the enemy, or genius in the direction of the arts. When others neglect this, they are not without blame. How few people of to-day know the movements, plans, and trans- actions of a former age, or hear the lives of predecessors openly and frankly described ! Meantime people dream that they all were demigods ; and if anyone says they have made a mistake in anything, they resent it. No one really writes about the affairs of the world except flattery, the greatest enemy of posterity. Flattery loves the deceit her- self, and so rejoices to pass it along to her children; though her own people accuse each other mutually, though they live basely in fact, yet their lives as pictured by the para- sites, are the very images of virtue. Hence it is that many 194 Christianopolis consider the biographies of the elders somewhat doubtfully, when they see that they stand forth from the pens of the authors on a slippery footing. The frankness of just one man, Thanus, received the applause of the public ; but though one may praise, he is hardly permitted to imitate. If anyone would attempt the same thing among his own people, he would be flogged. Men are so base that though they do not at all revere the sight of God, yet they themselves can hardly bear to look upon their likenesses represented accord- ing to life, nor to expose them to the view of posterity. XLII. PRINTING. Next to this is situated the printing shop, the home of an invention that has proved itself for both the advantage and the disadvantage of our age ; in this place at least it is harm- less. For beyond the Holy Scriptures and those books which instruct the youth and aid the devotion of the citizens, little printing is done. Private copies of the Bible are owned by individuals in their own language, as are also principles of confession, books of hymns and prayers, and such other documents as make for piety. Whatever inquiries benefit the school, are printed in great numbers so that they may serve Christian boyhood. Scattering literature which ex- presses doubt concerning God, which corrupts the morals or imposes upon man's mind is not permitted. To whatever extent printing presses are defended elsewhere, they never- theless err to the limit ; for though everyone's curiosity is satisfied, one's own ambition and the purse of the printer, yet . Concerning the State of Christianopolis 195 no concern is felt for God, or the harm to one's neighbor. How many vast volumes of nothingness, what a mass of lies and fallacies are accumulated in the twofold output of the year! One is surprised that there are men who can read through even the titles. For these are the fruits of a learned, boastful age, that the wise and the unwise, side by side and publicly, trifle with such an abundance of produc- tions, and think that unless someone has placed their name in the public market catalogue, it is all up with literature and religion. For nothing can be collected so foolishly, invented so tastelessly, described so crudely, presented so uselessly but the bookshops will keep it. XLIII. the treasury. Adjoining the armory is the treasury; this has no use at all among the citizens, but is not to be scorned in its relation to foreigners. No one would believe what an amount of coined gold and silver there is here in stock; with it they may pay tribute to Caesar, support mercenaries when it becomes necessary, trade with foreigners, give to strangers, and support their industries. Whatever has money value, they think has least value ; what has been pur- chased with blood, has the greatest value. The inscriptions on the coins are, on the one side, // God Be with Us Who Can Be Against Us, and on the other side, The Word of the Lord Endures Forever. The former face bears the repre- sentation of an eagle with a cross athwart ; the latter, their city resting on a book. And so, money which weakens every 196 Christianopolis other part of the world, lies here unnoticed and of no fur- ther value except for its usefulness; and it has no need of an especial guard, since no one in the republic can use it. So here men are served without injury by that which among others is injurious and insuppressible, more than all dragons and monsters. To money is due public corruption; with it the heavens are sold, the soul is fettered, the body bound, hell bought. Whatever sin is committed is attributed to money and not unjustly, when men accuse themselves before having been caught by so very cheap a thing. How easily bought is the human race which has sold its Christian lib- erty to Antichrist, its natural liberty to tyranny, and its human liberty to sophistry; and has surrendered its wretched efforts for the cheapest return : superstition, servi- tude, and ignorance! XLIV. THE LABORATORY. Behind the treasury is the laboratory, dedicated to chemical science and fitted out with most ingenious ovens and with contrivances for uniting and dissolving substances. No one here need fear because of the mockery, falseness, or falsehoods of impostors; but let one imagine a most careful attendant of nature. Here the properties of metals, minerals, and vegetables, and even the life of animals are examined, purified, increased, and united, for the use of the human race and in the interests of health. Here the sky and the earth are married together; divine mysteries impressed upon the land are discovered; here men learn to Concerning the State of Christianopolis 197 regulate fire, make use of the air, value the water, and test earth. Here the ape of nature has wherewith it may play, while it emulates her principles and so by the traces of the large mechanism forms another, minute and most exquisite. Whatever has been dug out and extracted from the bowels of nature by the industry of the ancients, is here subjected to close examination, that we may know whether nature has been truly and faithfully opened to us. Truly that is a humane and generous undertaking, which all who are true human beings deservedly favor. Others, on account of the wickedness of too many or angered by their unhappiness, refuse with foolish haughtiness every investigation of na- ture and examination of human reason, considering them- selves sufficiently wise when they make attempts at the most ingenious art, with one or the other form of mockery, and do not at all remember how infinitely many things they accept and believe only because they have been marked down and mentioned to them ; how carelessly they spurn the most evident gifts and remedies of nature, and yet obey the most ridiculous tales of peddlers and quacks. I have transgressed, I suppose, against the haughtiness of many, and against the prejudice of many; but they will grant me their forgiveness when they hear that I did not exercise this art but only watched it ; and being of courteous nature, I interpreted it more kindly and advantageously. 198 Christianopolis XLV. THE DRUG SUPPLY HOUSE. Outside the gate now, stands the pharmacy, and no place in the world has a more carefully selected collection. For inasmuch as the citizens have a strong inclination toward the natural sciences, this pharmacy is for them a veritable miniature of all nature. Whatsoever the elements offer, whatever art improves, whatever all creatures furnish, it is all brought to this place, not only for the cause of health, but also with a view toward the advancement of education in general. For how can the division of human matters be accomplished more easily than where one observes the most skillful classification, together with the greatest variety! This is a very liberal conception, though contrary to the accepted school, and it is entirely inseparable from literature. For what a narrow thing is human knowledge if it walks about as a stranger in the most wholesome creations and does not know what advantage this or that thing bears to man, yet meanwhile wanders about in the unpleasant crackle of abstractions and rules, none the less boasting of this as a science of the highest order! It should rather be the aim, after something has been accomplished with that theory, to prove its practical value to men ; after the nomen- clature of things, to recognize also the things themselves. Shall theory be so needy that after receiving the precepts of the arts, she should make no attempt at the accomplish- ment of anything and in the very profession of scholarli- ness, should consult those who are unlearned? There is enough of our life, if it is spent economically, that we may obtain the best things far more easily than the worst. There Concerning the State of Christianopolis 199 is more vexation and irksome labor in the foolishness with which men wear out their powers, than in those things which can raise them aloft and admit them to a contempla- tion of our earth. So they are whirled around and whirl others about in a perpetual maelstrom in irrevocable in- famy. XLVI. ANATOMY. They have also a place given over to anatomy, that is, the dissecting of animals, because nothing is so nearly a miracle as the workshop of the bodies of living things, and especially of man, who may be called a miniature example, an epitome, of the whole world. The value of ascertaining the location of the organs and of assisting the struggles of nature no one would deny, unless he desires to be as igno- rant of himself as are the barbarians. And yet there are some persons, even among the educated, who do not know where they live, feel, breathe, digest, or discharge, ex- cept that they think these functions are performed some- where within their skins. For them, right differs very little from left, or lowest from highest. The inhabitants of Chris- tianopolis teach their youth the operations of life and the various organs, from the parts of the physical body. They show them the wonderful structure of the bones, for which purpose they have not a few skeletons and of the required variety. Meantime they also show the anatomy of the hu- man body, but more rarely because the rather sensitive human mind recoils from a contemplation of our own suf- ferings. Let us, therefore, lament the fact that our little + 200 Christianopolis dwelling so carefully formed, snatched from so many dan- gers, and not a few times clad more delicately than damage to life warranted, should end by passing into such a state of foulness and horror. But even as the origin of our life is a thing to blush at, so the rapidity of our dying has its cause of shame with equal merit. Meantime we do hardly find the number of our diseases, nay even, we rarely compute all the afflictions of one member of the human body. Let us then praise our Christ who, though clad in the same flesh as we, obtained for us the ability of sometime being able to take up again our decaying bodies, purified and refined. In consideration of this we will bear the grievous burden of the flesh, readily and willingly, wherever it pleases Him ; we will give over all our members to God; we will dedicate them to His service and will freely return them to Him when He demands them. XLVII. THE NATURAL SCIENCE LABORATORY. Upon this follows the hall of physics, and this cannot be too elegantly described. For natural history is here seen painted on the walls in detail and with the greatest skill. The phenomena in the sky, views of the earth in different regions, the different races of men, representations of ani- mals, forms of growing things, classes of stones and gems are not only on hand and named, but they even teach and make known their natures and qualities. Here you may see the forces of agreement and of opposition; you may see poisons and antidotes ; you may see things beneficial and in- jurious to the several organs of man's body. When I have Concerning the State of Christianopolis 201 mentioned these things, it is all of no value unless you shall see everything before your eyes. For if you should wish to examine only those cases even, in which the rare, freakish, and unusual specimens of nature are kept, there would be no end. Truly, is not recognition of things of the earth much easier if a competent demonstrator and illus- trative material are at hand and if there is some guide to the memory? For instruction enters altogether more easily through the eyes than through the ears, and much more pleasantly in the presence of refinement than among the base. They are deceived who think that it is impossible to teach except in dark caves and with a gloomy brow. A liberal-minded man is never so keen as when he has his instructors on confidential terms. To what shall we attribute it that we see many professing natural science who hesitate when placed face to face with some little herb, unless we suspect that they have never been admitted to this very pleasant view of nature ? If these people should hear citizens of Christianopolis or even boys at their play recognizing, naming, and investigating according to their characteristic marks and signs thousands of herbs, classify- ing them with respect to diseases, they would blush per- haps, or, what is more to the purpose, they would never leave this auditorium unless they left it instructed with a broader knowledge of nature. 202 Christianopolis XLVIII. PAINTING AND PICTURES. Opposite the pharmacy is a very roomy shop for pictorial art, an art in which this city takes the greatest delight. For the city, besides being decorated all over with pictures repre- senting the various phases of the earth, makes use of them especially in the instruction of the youth and for rendering learning more easy. And so the individual rooms have pic- tures adapted to them, and they thus advise the youth of the things pertaining thereto. Besides, pictures and statues of famous men, with their manly and ingenious deeds, are to be seen everywhere, an incentive of no mean value to the youth for striving to imitate their virtue. But they are seriously commanded to observe purity, this being taken, I believe, as a result of the audacity and impurity of the world, which poisons the eyes of the innocent with impure pic- tures. The divisions of this art, or rather the comrades, are architecture, perspective, methods of pitching and forti- fying camps, and even sketches of machines and statistics. Whatever of the dramatic spiritual things have, or what- ever else there may be like literary elegance, it can all be seen here, purposely prepared for scholars. The very time, which these people spend with a view toward this learned enjoyment, others waste oftentimes in dice, chess, or in other still more foolish games ; from these, the latter get the fol- lowing wonderful use : that for examining into matters and explaining them to other people they have no knowledge at all, but they gaze in useless wonder. How much more happily the others practice with the brush, so that wherever they enter, they bring along their experienced eyes, their Concerning the State of Christianopolis 203 hands adapted to imitation, and what is of greater impor- tance, a judgment equal to and already trained for things, not unfruitful or mean. At the same time also the beauty of forms is so pleasing to them that they embrace with a whole heart the inner beauty of virtue itself and the ele- gance of a Christian life. XLIX. MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS. Adjoining this workshop is an excavated place for mathematical instruments, a testimony of human acuteness and energy against our mortal chains. For though the sky is so far distant from us and the wings of our original per- fection are wanting, yet we are not willing that anything should take place there without our knowledge. Hence we determine the ways of the stars with a number of mechanical devices, and mark them down, to such a degree of accuracy that it is surprising that man could have enough patience and perseverance to enter upon such theories. I will not enumerate the instruments here, inasmuch as nearly all of them are understood from the description of the most emi- nent Tycho Brahe. 1 A very few have been added, and among these is the very valuable telescope recently invented. The instruments which serve the purpose of geometry are here, and a great number of the common ones which aid the efforts of students. But why do I rehearse these facts, as if I did not know how useless all ingenious implements seem to the masses who make an effort not to be able to use any mathematical instrument! They betray themselves by 1 Danish astronomer, 1546-1601. / 204 Christianopolis this very fact, in that they throw aside half of learning, and though born for practical human affairs, render themselves useless. Therefore, until those who profess to be broadly educated without mathematics shall return into her favor, I shall not believe nor will I bear witness that they are really educated; I will pronounce them only half educated, and they shall bear testimony to this accusation against them- selves whenever they shall suffer themselves to be led forth upon the forum of human sciences. When then they shall recognize the value of the instruments of the liberal arts and the profits of computation, and shall skillfully apply them, they should be honored. If like strangers in a foreign land they shall bring to humanity no assistance or counsel or judgment or device, then I think they deserve to be con- temned and classed with the tenders of sheep, cattle, and hogs. THE MATHEMATICS LABORATORY. Finally, to hasten on, I saw also the neighboring hall of mathematics, remarkable for its diagrams of the heavens, as the hall of physics is for its diagrams of the earth. Here was represented graphically the primary motion as well as those motions derived from it. A chart of the star- studded heavens and a reproduction of the whole shining host above were shown. Whether one cared to see the hemisphere convex, concave, or flattened ; the particular and accurate figures of individual stars; the harmony of the heavenly bodies and their mutual, admirable proportions; geographical charts of the earth; different illustrations representing tools and machines, small models, figures of Concerning the State of Christianopolis 205 geometry; instruments of mechanical arts, drawn, named, and explained of all these, nothing was left to be desired. There an opportunity was given to make accurate observa- tions of the positions of heavenly bodies and, a more recent development, observations of the spots on the stars, all made known with incredible care and with an acuteness more than human. Here one's eyes could feed, that is, the eyes of the learned ; here were illustrations for short cuts in memo- rizing. Assuredly when I had observed all these things, I gradually came to be less surprised at the wonderful learn- ing of these people, seeing that it had such mechanical as- sistance. Generally in the world, though all other things are lavishly spent, no assistance (none at least to speak of) is provided for the youth ; on the contrary the students are compelled to struggle with difficulties. If perchance some one of them should break through safely, he has little interest as to how he may draw anyone else out. Nay, if there is advantage to himself in so doing, he blocks the advances of the one struggling to follow, with new dams and new stones. So expenses are made a boast without practical results, arts without instruction, learning without books, charity without a kindly feeling, in short, a drilling- ground for a good mind with no desirable exercises. LI. the departments of learning. When I had been conducted from this place to a higher floor, I saw a school, roomy and beautiful beyond expecta- tion, divided into eight lecture halls where the youths, the 206 Christianopolis most valuable asset of the republic, are molded and trained to God, nature, reason, and public safety. For if injunctions are given to individuals to bring up their children excel- lently, why should they not do the same for the common- wealth that the best method of education and instruction be entered in upon? For this most important of all duties they have furnished this very elaborate place, that they might thus declare their love and care for these, their chil- dren of greatest promise, and that they might, as it were, merit future happiness in advance. All this is not after the infamous example of the world. For when the world seems to love her children most of all, she often shuts them up in some out of the way, unhealthy, and even dirty prison, where they are brought into contact with filth and become accustomed to such jails. Here all is open, sunny, and happy, so that with the sight of pictures, even, they at- tract the children, fashion the minds of the boys and girls, and advise the youths. They are not baked in summer nor frozen in winter ; they are not disturbed by noise nor fright- ened because of loneliness. Whatever is elsewhere given over to luxury and leisure of palaces, is here devoted to honorable recreation and pursuits, an investment that is nowhere more satisfactory or better paying. For even as the earth when well cultivated returns with interest what has been intrusted to it, so youth when steeped in the life- blood of the republic and impelled to a joyous harvest, pays back everything with usury. This is the summit of happi- ness, to be able with one and the same effort to preserve the safety of the republic and the adjustment of the future life, so that the children which we bear here, we may find to our satisfaction have been born for the heavens as much as for the earth. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 207 LIL THE TEACHERS. Their instructors are not men from the dregs of human society nor such as are useless for other occupations, but the choice of all the citizens, persons whose standing in the republic is known and who very often have access to the highest positions in the state. For surely, no one can properly take care of the youth, unless he is also able to discharge the duties of state; and he who succeeds with the youth, has thereby already established his right to serve in governmental affairs. The teachers are well advanced in years, and they are especially remarkable for their pur- suit of four virtues : dignity, integrity, activity, and gen- erosity. For if they are not successful with their scholars and disciples and are not highly valued by the public; if they do not excel others in reverence toward God, up- rightness toward their neighbor, and in firmness and modera- tion in their own lives, and are not an example in virtue ; if they do not give evidence of skill, wisdom, and the highest power of judgment for instruction and education, as well as a recognition of crises in the natures of their pupils; if they do not prefer to spur their charges on as free agents with kindness, courteous treatment, and a liberal discipline rather than with threats, blows, and like sternness; if these are not their ideals as instructors, then the citizens of Christianopolis do not deem them worthy of organizing this miniature republic, the successor of the greater, nor of being intrusted with the very substance of their future safety. As they succeed so well in keeping up a condition at all times resembling a state government, they can with 208 Christianopolis good grace warn others, not lightly to expose the very valu- able, supple, and active youth to the vilest, most vicious, insipid, and coarsest men, merely because such may be had more cheaply. Under such care children are brought up to waste their parents' goods, not by measures but by whole bins; and perhaps later on they in turn leave behind them children even worse than themselves. LIII. THE PUPILS. Now it will be well to mention who the pupils are and of what sort. All the children of citizens in general, chil- dren of both sexes, are taken into training. When they have completed their sixth year, the parents give them over to the state, not without prayers and pious vows. The pupils are divided into three classes: the children, the youth, and the mature. Here they eat and sleep, and receive men- tal and physical training. The more numerous their off- spring, the happier the parents are, for they then lack noth- ing; from this one fact it can be seen how unrestrictedly the citizens live. No parent gives closer or more careful attention to his children than is given here, for the most upright preceptors, men as well as women, are placed over them. Moreover, they can visit their children, even un- seen by them, as often as they have leisure. As this is an institution for the public good, it is managed very agreeably as a common charge for all the citizens. They see to it carefully that the food is appetizing and wholesome, that the couches and .beds are clean and comfortable, and that the clothes and attire of the whole body are clean. The Concerning the State of Christianopolis 209 pupils wash often and use linen towels for drying. The hair is also combed to prevent anything unclean from collecting. If diseases of the skin or body are contracted, the individuals in question are cared for in good time; and to avoid the spreading of the infection, they are quarantined. They do these things as diligently as the world attends to its duties neglectfully. For there is no need of my mentioning here the dirtiness of the schools, the uncleanness of food and beds, and the rudeness of those in charge toward the scholars; inasmuch as those who have suffered these in- dignities bear witness not so much with cries and com- plaints, as with bodies feeble throughout all life, for this very reason. LIV. THE nature of instruction. Their first and highest exertion is to worship God with a pure and faithful soul ; the second, to strive toward the best and most chaste morals; the third, to cultivate the mental powers an order, reversed by the world, if any thought of God still remains among the inhabitants of the latter. More- over, they feel themselves dedicated to God, by the law of their birth into this world, as well as by the agency of their parents. They begin their study not with some absurd deposition, that is, some prelude of foolishness, but with earnest prayers. From this they proceed through the fixed stages of those beginning, those advancing, and those who have completed the course, with high-sounding titles, it is true ; but they unlearn these easily on growing more mature. The titles are a great incentive to the degrees, as a noble 210 Christianopolis mind is raised by praise while it is stimulated by a slight disgrace. There is need of strict uprightness on the part of those who give the titles, lest while they are thus play- ing, they should haply trifle with the youth. This is where much wrong is done in other places, and all the more so be- cause it is not without gain and loss. For to accept pay and to sell the ignorant to the state, is certainly not just. Pun- ishments are inflicted with fasting and work ; if there is need, with whipping ; in extreme cases, though rarely, by imprison- ment. The young men have their study periods in the morning, the girls in the afternoon ; and matrons as well as learned men are their instructors. I do not know why this sex, which is naturally no less teachable, is elsewhere ex- cluded from literature. The rest of their time is devoted to manual training and domestic art and science, as each one's occupation is assigned according to his natural in- clination. When they have vacant time, they are permitted to engage in honorable physical exercises either in the open spaces of the town or in the field. Here they may contest in running or wrestling, they may play ball, or even exercise with weapons; or, if they are old enough, they may break horses. You will approve of all these, if you do not for- get that moderation and careful supervision are required in everything. LV. GRAMMAR, THE FIRST DEPARTMENT. Now we will examine the schools of the arts, they being also divided into three sections in accordance with the age of the pupils. The first is the school of grammar and Ian- Concerning the State of Christianopolis 211 guages. There, after the requirements of devotion, prayer, and singing have been satisfied, and sacred as well as other wise sayings that tend toward virtue have been spoken, the work of the boys consists in learning to name all sorts of things and actions in the three languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin ; in being able to repeat them in classes, inflecting them in the comparisons, cases, tenses, proper persons, and numbers; finally in joining them and defining them with modifiers. Here they see to it that what they read, they actually understand, and what they do not understand, they translate into their native tongue. What audacity it is to teach a boy anything at all comprehensive in Latin, when he does not know what you wish or what he is expected to do ; with the same effort and profit you might improve his memory in some other foreign language! And how incon- siderate it is to expect any translations into Latin from the mother tongue before the boy knows what Latin is ! They are careful too, that they may not overload delicate, fragile natures with too great a variety or amount of studies, as it is but too certain that immature keenness of mind can be most easily dulled in this way so that the mind will be permanently unsettled. They are foolish who conceive ex- travagant hopes out of the precocity of childhood, and even further these hopes, when generally such a condition ends in dullness. They want firmly-rooted natures and they ob- tain these through liberal recreation ; in this way the memory is strengthened, power of judgment is drawn forth, indi- vidual frankness is fostered, and work is gradually adapted to the talents. 212 Christianopolis LVI. ORATORY. The more mature students are taught oratory in this same school, where they learn to refute all sorts of argu- ments in accordance with the rules of the art, and to adorn their speeches with little flowers of elegance. Much stress is laid upon natural force, less upon artificial form; and so he who is able to further the former, is the best instructor for the youth in oratory. Without nature, art is something barren and shows more traces of painstaking than of actual talent. So, oftentimes good theorists in oratory are poor speakers, inasmuch as in life they desire to seem broad be- cause of their natural ability. However, if speech is an indication of the thought, it is easily evident why at times language does not flow fluently from the tongue. Yet there are some people, for the most part foolish men, who hope to rise through mere imitation, foolish, for as they destroy their own chances and do not reach others, nothing can be quite as split up, rough, and out of place. The thing needed here is native, inborn sense, and a husbanding of whatever peculiar talent God has granted. For there is no master more perfect in eloquence than He who made the language. An admirable instance of this is found in the Holy Scrip- tures, which do not merely buffet the ears of men, but pene- trate the very heart. In this there is no need of exaggera- tion or of any other extreme foreign form. If one speaks truthfully, modestly, and heartily, he has outdone Cicero in eloquence. To speak briefly, whatever breathes the spirit, will have tremendous effect ; whatever smacks of artificiality will be powerless. He has accomplished much who has Concerning the State of Christianopolis 213 acquired a taste for God's style; for what fools consider simpleness is nothing other than wisdom. As soon as the orators of the world have ceased talking, the lifeless sound and the elegant form of the words have already escaped; whereas the soul remains unsatisfied. When divine truth calls to us in oratory, the heart glows, the spirit is stirred, one's whole nature becomes active. They should hear these words who are too much satisfied with themselves, as often as they speak without God, nay, even as they confess, with their gods they who despise Christ to such an extent that they prefer in their speeches any idol, any demon to the holy mysteries of Christianity. Meanwhile they lay claim to all elegance of expression in themselves and are sufficiently talkative if the world demands such; but it is to be feared that the same parties will be speechless before the tribunal of Christ. LVII. the various languages. Those who are of sufficient age give their attention also to various modern languages; not merely for the sake of knowing more, but that they may be able to communicate with many peoples of the earth the dead as well as the living; and that they may not be compelled to put faith in every sup- posed scholar. Learning a language is very easy for them, though other people get so confused. For if they do not acquire fluent use of one language in a year, they think they have accomplished nothing; whereas if other people do not devote ten years to the same task they seem greedy of time. They say that nomenclature is most important, and 214 Christianopolis that a little grammatical study is needed in addition. They begin with easy reading related to a subject already known. One would hardly believe what an advantage the study of cognates is in learning a language. Memorizing and re- peated use do the rest. I grieved when I recalled with what disputes I was driven to study so that I did not know what I was doing. Here I learned as if in play, a fact I hardly dare mention lest I awaken envy. Yet I must not omit say- ing that I learned to consider of comparatively small value the study of languages along with that of literature in gen- eral; not that we should throw it all overboard, but that we should not value such study beyond its use. For he is not necessarily wise who speaks in this or the other lan- guage, but he who speaks with God. If righteousness and honesty are at hand, it matters little in what tongue they are spoken ; if they are absent, it is of no advantage whether one goes astray speaking Greek or Latin. Too easily per- suaded are they who attribute to the Latin language the power of making them better educated, rather than to the German. But the Latin language must be preserved because it is in itself valuable in a good many ways, and also be- cause it is biting, and unsympathetic with every trivial con- tradiction. Then it has what may reproach me, a man woe- fully untaught in its use, intolerant of its civilization, out of sympathy with its fastidiousness, or, as it itself is wont to insist, barbarous. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 215 LVIII. LOGIC, THE SECOND DEPARTMENT. The second school is called that of logic, being named after one of the noblest of arts. Here the boys, when they have already made some progress, learn to apply the instru- ments of method to every variety of human affairs, to classify whatever is given them, then to form a syllogism that they may see what is necessarily true, what is possible, and where some fallacy of judgment lurks. Here truth has an especial standard by which it may be tested; but as it is rather unpolished, some people from among the proud have applied it carelessly, not to say faithlessly to divine truth. And this is that Helen, for whose sake the Greeks raised such a tumult, and the Trojans perished. She is beautiful, it is true, but she bears herself all too rudely above her surroundings and tramples her equally deserving sisters under foot. One feels like laughing at those who, while they possess this instrument, think they need nothing else, though they lack everything. But they have horns let them use them ! No skilled workman boasts of his sun-dial pin or his plumb-line alone, unless there is something of his own work on hand to exhibit. These sophists, when they have proved that man is capable of laughing, that the sun has been obscured, or the equality of two angles of a triangle, sing their own praises as if something had been especially well done ; and then they rest leisurely for all time to come. Very differently do those, who provide themselves with all sorts of arts, love to arrange them rationally and in orderly manner, and when there is need, draw them forth one at a time from their several places. This they recognize as 216 Christianopolis the chief good of logic; they do not subject all things to it especially not God. They incite their talented men to recognize what reason has been intrusted to them and to test their own judgment of things lest they find it necessary to seek everything outside of themselves and to bring in the theories from without. For man has within him a great treasure of judging if he prefers to dig it up instead of burying it with mounds and weight of precepts. Yet this is surely the very kernel of all reason, to listen to God obedi- ently who is as far from all falseness and counterfeit as He is always closely joined to the truth. Let us in truth love the true. Let us not seek a reason from Him who is above all reason. LIX. METAPHYSICS. In this place others hear lectures on metaphysical sci- ence, which withdraws from everything concrete, and soars aloft to the first beginnings of creation, a science indeed worthy of a man whose natural bent takes him from earthly things. Here they look at the true, the good, the beautiful, unity, order, and the like, all the more successfully because they have divine light in addition. Where philosophers have groped in darkness, they consult the divine sun and ascend to the known God, who was unknown to the pagans. More- over it would be surprising if a man who has traveled men- tally so far that he can differentiate between elements and things, should return so basely to his own body and should wallow with it -in all sorts of filth ; or that one who could see the true vision of the good and the beautiful, should be Concerning the State of Christianopolis 217 caught and deceived so easily by the false, the evil, and the misshapen. It appears, however, that a slippery place is found wherever man goes out of himself and that he falls staggering. And so, he would stand most firmly grounded in one true and good God, who would deliver to Him a soul stripped of the garments of the flesh. Such a one shall hear things that cannot be related, and he shall behold the uni- verse, as it was created in the original perfection, in a sky, not darkened nor yet overcolored but clear as crystal. So with the greatest delight on his own part, and with no little admiration of others, he will understand the first lines of art and the first points of things. This true beauty, while it is unknown to many, produces in them a nausea for this world and leaves the body itself unattractive because of a number of imperfections and the heaviest burdens of the earth. Thus, persistently and eagerly the citizens of Chris- tianopolis are in this hall that they may acquire the ability to leave themselves and learn to withdraw from earthly mat- ters. By this means they find themselves again, and receive far nobler qualities with interest. LX. theosophy. This same hall serves also for the study of something still higher, and this is theosophy, a science which does not recognize any human invention or research, but which owes its whole existence to God. Where nature ends, this begins ; and, taught by the highest divinity, it preserves its sacred mysteries religiously. Few men, even among the most faith- 218 Christianopolis ful, may embrace theosophy, for it is only God who can work benefits, with His light or with the cross. God re- veals Himself in a moment ; He keeps Himself long within His shrines ; He is always the best, though rarely seen ; yet His infinite works have been revealed and in them every true Christian may rejoice. We are without foresight who prefer Aristotle, who value this insignificant little man and not the wonderful works of God, which put him to shame. He never could nor did he wish to believe the fiat of God, the service of the angels, the spirit of fire, the density of water, the pressure of the atmosphere, the raising up of the earth, the immortality of man, the voice of the dumb ani- mal, the inertia of the sun, the bounds of the earth; yet these are all established facts with us. If we would but give ear to God, far greater wonders than these have been set forth at His throne. Why should we not listen to Him, when His very smallest single act deserves all faith with us, and is invincible ? If we believe one miracle, we must accept all which He offers us ; for how can we distinguish between the works of Omnipotence? So this school is one of humility and obedience, where young minds learn to sub- mit to the words of God and in His secrets rather to apply a devout silence than unseemly inquisitiveness. Let philos- ophy worry as it will ; theosophy rests easily. Let her con- tradict, theosophy will give thanks. When the other hesi- tates, this one sits securely at the feet of Christ. Happy is the man who rises at the first call of God ; happier he who follows; and happiest who never once looks back, but con- tinually presses on. This is the chief thing in the prayers and desires of a holy man: if God is pleased, it is well; if He wishes us exercised and crushed because of the weakness of our flesh, God's will be done. Concerning the State of Christianopolis 219 LXI. ARITHMETIC, THE THIRD DEPARTMENT. The third hall is named for arithmetic, the very home of all subtleness. He who is One and Three has endowed this with infinite riches. If you consider human need there is no branch of knowledge to which this does not bear some help of first importance. If you consider the under- takings of man's mind, you will discover that man struggles almost with infinity, in this one direction, and worms his way far into the secrets of progression. I am disposed to say that a man who does not know arithmetic is ignorant of a great deal. Hence, this study is pursued by the in- habitants of Christianopolis with the greatest perseverance, and every day they find in it something to admire, some- thing which sharpens their wits and lessens their labors. In algebra they have no equals, because it calls forth all the powers of man, treats physical units in an entirely unique manner, and solves the most intricate problems with incredible keenness. But they do not forget what an effort it requires to untie the snares set by Satan, when even human skill can involve one so far; what power of com- puting would be needed to unravel the riddles of the world, what need of examination to explain the impossibilities of the flesh, when so much labor is expended in tracing the principles and sources of an art! Even though they strive after nothing at all more lofty, yet they think that such per- sons should not be tolerated who, out of pure laziness, de- prive themselves of a convenience in computing and so variously applicable a short method in problems. And if they should hear that there are among human beings such /> 220 Christianopolis as these, who nevertheless boast of their learning, I doubt if they could refrain from giving some offense. For among them it is evident that they do not permit their citizens to be ignorant of all these arts and yet strut about as office-holders. If among people of the other type it shall begin to be proper to have real knowledge, and this knowl- edge be applied to doing things, zealous talent, I imagine, will not be wanting to many, nor will fortune desert them. Meanwhile we will regard those as generous who, though they do not actually favor the arts, at least do not persecute them with extreme hatred. LXIL GEOMETRY. The next in order are those who study geometry, the own sister of arithmetic, a science which expresses in lines what arithmetic does in numbers. Hence it adapts itself especially to human wants and applies the deepest proposi- tions and theorems to practical matters with admirable dili- gence. For geometry measures not only the dimensions which are near at hand, as the top or the bottom, nor merely regular shapes, but all figures besides. It passes through them, changes, balances, transfers, raises, and plays a most elegant part in all human labors. If one desires theoretical research, nothing is more subtle; if one desires to apply practical problems, nothing is more convenient or rapid. If you intrust to it any talent, the same is returned nimble and applicable- to anything. Hence, the inhabitants of Christianopolis set much store by it, since they see that there . Concerning the State of Christianopolis 221 s no art which is not rendered easier by it, and that man becomes more expert for taking up such arts. Among the thoughtless this art becomes worthless even as all the rest of mathematics. It is very evident, however, that they pay the penalty for it, in that they have to exert themselves more in their labors, and even watch other people's short cuts with tearful eyes. Why should it be surprising that geom- etry is neglected when intrigue, avarice, gluttony, vice, and wrath, yea even stupidity and rashness, have no measure and will tolerate none? The citizens of Christianopolis, while they measure various things, first of all make an especial effort to measure and weigh themselves, then also to value the goodness of God. For it is not of so much importance for us to know the acreage of our little fields, as the meager- ness of our little bodies, the narrowness of the grave, and the comparative insignificance of the whole earth. In this way the vanity of our brain will most easily contract, and the swelling of our heart will subside. This will help render man forgetful of himself, patient in misfortune, apprecia- tive of God, and mindful of future death that we may prefer to grow in value, rather than that we be brought from our former state of little value, to nothing by an angry God. < LXIII. MYSTIC NUMBERS. Those who are older rise even higher. God has His numbers and measures, and it is fitting that man should regard them. Surely that supreme Architect did not make this mighty mechanism haphazard, but He completed it 222 CHRISTIANOPOLIS most wisely by measures, numbers, and proportions, and He added to it the element of time, distinguished by a wonderful harmony. His mysteries has He placed especially in His workshops and typical buildings, that with the key of David we may reveal the length, breadth, and depth of divinity, find and note down the Messiah present in all things, who unites all in a wonderful harmony and conducts all wisely and powerfully, and that we may take our delight in adoring the name of Jesus. Moreover, these matters are not understood through any human skill, but rest upon revelation and are communicated to the faithful and from one to the other. Therefore they walk into a veritable labyrinth whosoever borrow poles and compasses from human philosophy with which to measure the New Jerusalem, figure out its^ regis- ters and sacred computation, or fortify it against the enemy. Let it be sufficient for us that Christ has made plain to us all the means which strive to improve and support life ; let us all be careful not to approach too hastily everything that glistens, unless the figure of Christ is evident and beckons us into the hidden inner parts. This over-confidence has deceived some of the greatest men, and all the more contrary to expectation, because it seemed to them that they were not speaking without inspiration. In this cabala it is advisable to be rather circumspect, since we have consider- able difficulty in present matters, grope in events of the past, and since God has reserved the future for Himself, re- vealing it to a very limited number of individuals and then only at the greatest intervals. Let us then love the secrets of God which are made plain to us and let us not, with the rabble, throw away that which is above us nor consider divine things on an equal basis with human; since God is good in all things, but in His own, even admirable. < Concerning the State of Christianopolis 223 LXIV. MUSIC, THE FOURTH DEPARTMENT. The fourth school is spoken of as that of music, and one cannot enter it unless one has had arithmetic and geometry ; for it depends to a considerable extent upon measure and number. Here again man has given a specimen of his excellence, inasmuch as he multiplies three tones with limit- less variety; so that he excels not only in language but even in the cries of animals and in the songs of birds. "^He even vies with heaven, where there is always melody. It can never be computed what trivial things man turns to the highest uses. With very few letters he speaks so many tens of thousands of words ; with very few tones he produces an infinite symphony. Yet the world has not been able to keep from abusing the legitimate joy of heaven with the evil of Satan, and subjecting it to deceit. So it comes that we have the madness of dancing, the frivolity of vulgar songs, the wickedness of roisterers. All of these things have been long ago driven out of this republic and are now unheard. They like that sort of music which has a prophetic spirit, a whole-souled harmony resounding to the heavens. Whatever the saints have composed, whether it be of a joyful, lamenting, commending, or beseeching nature, this is the material for their music: and daily outbursts of the spirit increase the supply. Here sacred poetry lends its / assistance, yet not the sort which sings of Venus and Bacchus. Moreover, they have an exact distribution of voices according to age and sex, so that when they meet in public the tones of all of them can sound forth in harmonious concert. Nothing can be compared with the majesty of this