THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 t>yr>t 
 
 A GRAMMAR 
 
 OF 
 
 THE TAMIL LANGUAGE, 
 
 WITH 
 
 ain appcuiJijr. 
 
 BY 
 
 C. T. E. R H E N I U S, 
 
 MISSIONARY, TINNEVELLY. 
 
 MADRAS ; 
 
 PRINTED AT THE CHURCH MISSION PRESS. 
 
 1836.
 
 PL 
 
 ¥753 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Orthography, 
 
 PAGB. 
 
 1 General Statement, 7 
 
 2 The Tamil Letters, ibid. 
 
 3 Division of Letters, 12 
 
 4 Names of do ihid. 
 
 5 Pronunciation do 1-* 
 
 6 Transmutation do 18 
 
 7 Omission do 22 
 
 8 Augmentation do 23 
 
 9 Some words are variously changed, 29 
 
 10 A List of the changes 35 
 
 'Etymology. 
 
 11 Parts of Speech, 36 
 
 12 The Particle (@«n:_.f 0^/r«b) 37 
 
 13 Division of Noims in proper and common, 42 
 
 14 Further division of Nouns in high and no-caste, 43 
 
 15 Subdivision into 5 classes (Lj/rci)) or genders, ihid. 
 
 16 Cases of Nouns and Declension, 45 
 
 1 7 Pronouns, 52 
 
 18 First personal Pronoun, 53 
 
 \^ Second do 54 
 
 20 Third do 55 
 
 21 Interrogative Pronouns, 61 
 
 22 Nouns of Number, . 63 
 
 23 Indefinite Pronouns, 68 
 
 24 Formation of Nouns, 71 
 
 25 Verbs (aS?«r^Q^/r6i). Their parts, 76
 
 IV 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 26 Their Roots, 76 
 
 27 Their Affixes, • • ibid. 
 
 28 Their three Tenses, 77 
 
 29 Imperative Mode, 86 
 
 30 Optative Mode, 87 
 
 31 Their Indefinite Modes, including Participles, Gerunds 
 
 Infinitive, Subjunctive, •* • 89 
 
 32 Verbal Nouns, 93 
 
 33 Negative form of a Verb, with Paradigms of Conjugation, 97 
 
 34 Causal Verbs, 102 
 
 35 Defective Verbs, ibid. 
 
 36 Two Voices of Verbs, 106 
 
 37 A peculiar kind of Verbal Nouns oS^esr^^^uL/^Tp^^, ... 108 
 
 38 Derivation and formation of Verbs, 109 
 
 39 t^S^Os'rr&i or qualifying words, 112 
 
 40 Adjectives, 113 
 
 41 Adverbs, 115 
 
 Si/nfax. 
 
 42 General Statement, 117 
 
 43 Nominative and its Verb, 118 
 
 44 Second or Accusative case, 122 
 
 45 Third case or Ablative instr 124 
 
 46 Fourth or Dative case, 125 
 
 47 Fifth or Ablative mot 128 
 
 48 Sixth or Genitive case, 1 29 
 
 49 The seventh case or Ablative loc 131 
 
 50 Eighth or Vocative case, 132 
 
 51 Oblique case, ibid. 
 
 62 Present Tense, 133 
 
 53 Past Tense, ibid. 
 
 54 Future Tense, 134
 
 PAGE. 
 
 55 Relative Participles, 135 
 
 56 First and tliird verbal Participles or Gerund and past Sub- 
 
 junctive, with the auxiliary Verbs, • • • • 138 
 
 57 Second and fourth verbal Participle or future Subjunctive 
 
 (^©«^,) 147 
 
 58 Fifth verbal Participle or Infinitive, j 43 
 
 59 Construction of verbal nouns (.^^0,) 150 
 
 60 Use of the Imperative mode, 151 
 
 61 ^, ■ Optative, ihid, 
 
 62 „ Negative verbs, J52 
 
 63 „ Passive forms, I53 
 
 64 Some parts of ere^Sp^, viz. sre^^, otsw^lc, er^(rr,^ 
 
 iSTeSeO^ srejTLJ^, crearLJSUSBr^ 154 
 
 65 Active Verbs formed vvith Sanscrit Nouns, .... I53 
 
 66 Neuter verbs formed with ^Sp^, ^nS'.Q^iQjD^^ uQQjd^ 
 
 including the use of .^/i;, ^aJ^', ^ssreusar, ^ear^, 25g 
 
 67 The Verbs f^feo^ ^(t^s-so^ &c 262 
 
 68 „ oitTihsii^ Qstr&rstreO^ &c ^^^'^ 
 
 69 „ Os^iTedeOeO^ Qus^ed^ &C jgQ 
 
 70 „ 9«@L£>, &c 2(54 
 
 71 55 GfiL/ei»r(BLC, &c 265 
 
 72 „ uariLQ L-esr ^ &c 266 
 
 73 „ @b-!)asi;, @a)6i)rLQ^, .=a,'».\)6i), ^ed&)!Tuyffd, ^drjiSl, ... 107 
 
 74 „ ^.errerr^ &.iss!rG), 2 70 
 
 75 „ Gurr^Lo, 272 
 
 76 „ <SL-Gsu<sir, IfjiJ^ 
 
 77 „ ^©LD, ^^/r^, 273 
 
 78 „ si-^iLt. «._L-r^, difference between jr^-l-it^ and 
 
 Lamli-n-^', Und. 
 
 79 „ Qu^eo, 276 
 
 80 The pronouns and indefinite demonstrative pronouns =syOT«Br, 
 
 ^'sh-sisr^ il)id. 
 
 h- 
 
 T'
 
 VI 
 
 PAGH. 
 
 81 The interrogative, CTayeJr, er/^ff, &c., when connected n-ith 
 
 6?, ^Sja/tii, or .^O ea/Lo, 181 
 
 82 The Particle, uu^, 184 
 
 83 The Particle S7, 185 
 
 8-1 » !?, •■•• 187 
 
 85 „ ^, 190 
 
 86 „ e_Lo, ibid. 
 
 87 „ eresr jT), and ot«w, 193 
 
 88 „ @«"3T6»rL0 or @«"3T,§p/L0, 195 
 
 89 „ GpeJr, (Jo-ir, &c., Sl^, Glo^, &C 196 
 
 •^^eijii, 199 
 
 91 „ u>p^, and Qeujui, 200 
 
 92 „ @S!lfi or @S5fi(?L0«), 201 
 
 93 „ IsQiurr, if,ifi^ 
 
 94 The use of <«-£_, 202 
 
 95 „ ~ ^eSir,^^^, ii^-^^ 
 
 96 „ — ^pi:(Se>!i;Diu, ibid. 
 
 97 „ — -^^, 203 
 
 98 „ — @j^, (5ip^^, &c ibid. 
 
 99 „ — «®«, and (jp®*, ibid. 
 
 100 „ — tusSiu, 204 
 
 101 „ — (S;^k^^ ibid. 
 
 102 „ — @«o«Dn-aSili_n-«), ibid. 
 
 103 ., — .^©ja/ix, ^Sj2/ii), ^iLii^ii, 205 
 
 104 „ — ©-.gi/Ji and ^^w^c, 206 
 
 105 ,, — lo/t^^Jld, ^OTa,', _^?<5ir, ^'Sewr, 207 
 
 106 „ — L/;3LD and tj/r«&, 208 
 
 10/ „ — O-J/r0il0, 209 
 
 108 „ — jSuS^^il, ibid. 
 
 109 „ — ^emsiurr^^ .^^eOirei, ibid. 
 
 110 ,. — Particles ^/rsar and ^tlo, 210
 
 Vll 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 311 The use of O^rrjj/ii, ibid. 
 
 112 „ — (oTeOeOfTU), QpQpeu^Lh, &C 211 
 
 113 Two negatives destroy each other, 213 
 
 114 A resolution, &c., foUomng the purpose or end of that 
 
 resolution, ••.... 213 
 
 115 The effect or inference follows the cause, 214 
 
 1 16 Respecting Ellipsis, 2 5 
 
 117 Position of negative and afl&rmative Clauses, 216 
 
 118 Comparisons, 217 
 
 119 Proper position of words in a sentence 218 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 1 On the English Articles a and the, 219 
 
 2 About, 220 
 
 3 Above, 221 
 
 4 After, 222 
 
 5 Against, ibid. 
 
 6 Ah! Alas! Oh! 223 
 
 7 Already, ibid. 
 
 8 Also, 224 
 
 9 Although (see though,) ibid. 
 
 10 Among, ibid. 
 
 11 As, .' ibid. 
 
 12 At, 226 
 
 13 Before, 227 
 
 14 Behind, 228 
 
 15 Below and beneath, ibid. 
 
 16 Besides, 229 
 
 17 Between, ibid. 
 
 18 Beyond, ibid. 
 
 19 Both, 230 
 
 20 But, ibid.
 
 Vlll 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 21 By, 231 
 
 22 Either, or, 233 
 
 23 Except, 234 
 
 24 For, 234 
 
 25 From, 235 
 
 26 How 237 
 
 27 However, , ibid. 
 
 28 If, 238 
 
 29 In, ibid, 
 
 30 Lest, or that not, 240 
 
 31 More, see than, ibid. 
 
 32 Most, ibid. 
 
 33 Neither, nor, 241 
 
 34 Notwithstanding and nevertheless, ibid. 
 
 35 Now, 242 
 
 36 O! Oh! ••••••. ibid. 
 
 37 Of, ibid. 
 
 38 On upon, 244 
 
 39 Or, 246 
 
 40 Otherwise, else, ibid. 
 
 41 Over, ibid. 
 
 42 Out, 247 
 
 43 Perhaps, •••••.•• 248 
 
 44 Rather, ibid. 
 
 45 Since, . . . .> ibid. 
 
 46 Still, 249 
 
 47 Than, ibid. 
 
 48 That, 250 
 
 49 Then, ibid. 
 
 50 Thence, thenceforth, 251 
 
 51 There, thereabout, thereafter, thoreas, thereby, therefore, 
 
 therefrom, therein, &c., &c Hid-
 
 IX 
 
 PACK, 
 
 52 Though, or although, -^^ 
 
 53 Through, «^''^- 
 
 54 To, 253 
 
 55 Towards, 255 
 
 56 Under, i^id. 
 
 57 Unless, 256 
 
 58 When, whenever, &c 257 
 
 59 Whence, Avhensoevei, ibid. 
 
 60 Where, whereas, whereabout, wherever, wheresoever, 
 
 wherefore, &c. &c 258 
 
 61 Whether, 259 
 
 62 With, 260 
 
 63 Without, 261 
 
 64 Yea, 262 
 
 65 Yes and no, H^id. 
 
 66 Yet, 263 
 
 67 Certain Verbs, 264 
 
 68 Parenthesis, 265 
 
 69 Peculiar expressions, 266 
 
 70 The Tenses, •• 267 
 
 71 The Modes and Participles, 269 
 
 72 The personal Pronouns, 271 
 
 73 Certain Phrases i^id. 
 
 Miscellania. 
 
 74 The Measures, • 272 
 
 75 Days, months, and years, 273 
 
 76 The points of the Compass, &c 278 
 
 77 Tei-ms of cansanguinity, 279 
 
 78 On Figures, 280 
 
 79 Specimen of the Nannul 289
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The fbllowms^ Grammar of the Tamil lang-uage 
 was composed several years ago. I had found the 
 grammatical works, previously published, defec- 
 tive in various respects, especially in regard to 
 Syntax ; and originally purposed to publish only 
 a Treatise on Tamil composition ; but having been 
 advised by various friends, to whom I submitted 
 the manuscript, to add the other parts of Grammar, 
 and thus form at once a complete work, I yielded 
 to their advice. 
 
 In constructing the chapters on Orthography and 
 Etymology, I have followed more the order of the 
 native Grammars, than that of European languages, 
 because I judged it expedient to introduce the 
 student at once to the native manner of treating 
 the subject ; and to facilitate the study of the native 
 Grammars themselves. I have, however, every 
 where noticed the ditference between the Tamil 
 and the European languages, and in the Appendix 
 given a translation of the English particles into 
 Tamil, noticing various other differences between 
 the English and Tamil idioms. 
 
 It is not the object of the above observation to 
 detract any thing from the valuable works of 
 Ziegenbalg, Beschius, and others. They did in their 
 days what they could in Tamil literature, and we 
 are greatly indebted to them for the degree of 
 knowledge they have given us of the Tamil lan- 
 guage- But they all have failed in giving us pure 
 
 B
 
 11 
 
 Tamil ; they have mixed vulgarisms with gram- 
 matical mcities, and left us in want of a regularly 
 digested Syntax. 
 
 The present work will, I ti-ust, supply tluese 
 deficiencies. It is not a Grammar of the high, or 
 rather the poetical, Tamil language; in order to 
 study this, the learned Beschius' second work will 
 still be necessary ; but it is a grammar of the ver- 
 nacular Tamil, as it is spoken and written by well 
 bred Tamulians, yet so as to avoid the errors 
 against grammar which are found among them. 
 It steers between the high and vulgar Tamil> 
 avoids the intricacies of the former, and the barbar- 
 ism of the latter. The student will, however, find 
 notices of both interspersed in the work for his 
 information, which will be usefiil to him when he 
 either reads the poetical works or hears the com- 
 mon talk of the illiterate. 
 
 The Tamulians have many classical books, and 
 these are all in poetry. They are of two kinds ; 
 One is cfalled §)6ciaestjrj^»o, which comprizes the 
 Grammars, such as Q^ir^siruLSiuil, p&sr^^io, &c., 
 land the other is called ^soifiaj^p-a), which com- 
 prizes books written according to the foraier, such 
 
 as the Poems of ^(^aJsrr^Qj/f, ^/rsoz^oj/r/r, &C. 
 
 Besides these two, there are other written books, 
 both in prose and poetry, such as the eB^Qrrunr^^^^ 
 
 tki-j^^^LSi ; QiSiim^&Qtun-LjmL®^ ^<B^^UJ^utrL-.^, &C., 
 the authors of which are not known. And, lastly, 
 there are translations into Tamil from the Sanscrit 
 Puranas and other stories, such as ^(5©9Sortj/rt_^i-/ir/r 
 
 Lfi, §ff!rirLCia-iu<assriJt), ^ir^^ULjirir&ssrLDy U(^<^jej5^!rLaf 
 Guirs'§}n'irjF^am^^ &C. 
 
 From the poetical writings, Tamil style and dic- 
 tion, as used in common life, cannot be learned ; be-
 
 111 
 
 cause they contain so many old Tamil words, which 
 are not at all in use now, and so many terminations, 
 and modes different from those in common conver- 
 sation, that it is not at all intelligible, except after 
 hearing- the explanation of learned men ; and even 
 they cannot understand at once any poem written 
 in that manner, without much difficulty. Those 
 poetical writings contain indeed explanations in 
 prose; and from them something more of Tamil 
 style and diction may be attained ; but they also 
 differ much from the style used in civil life, and not 
 unfrequently require another explanation to make 
 them intelligible. 
 
 The poems ofQsd(sinrmQiUfry^s^^gj[ruirL-&)y &c., are 
 much of the same cast as the former ; they con,tain 
 also vulgar expressions ; not at all approved by the 
 learned, simply to fill up the metre. 
 
 As for the translations of stories from the Sans- 
 crit, the idiom may certainly be learned from them 
 to a considerable degree ; but as the translators 
 seem, mostly, to have been Bramins, they have left 
 many Sanscrit words in them, and even followed in 
 various instances the Sanscrit idiom ; not to men- 
 tion many Tamil vulgarisms, which they have em- 
 bodied in their works. 
 
 In all the Tamil books there are other errors of 
 various kinds, owing to the circumstance of their 
 being all in manuscript. No two copies agree toge- 
 ther. 
 
 The prose works of the learned Be§chius have 
 much of the same character. The Tamil idiom 
 may, on the whole, be learned from them ; but 
 they contain vulgarisms. We can, on the whole, 
 understand what he means, but in many instances 
 it will be impossible to analyse the sentence with-
 
 IV 
 
 out meeting with difficulties. The copyists, how* 
 ever, may perhaps be charged with a great part 
 of these errors. 
 
 After what I have said, it will be asked, " How 
 then shall we acquire the proper Tamil idiom r" 
 I answer, that it can only be acquired by the as- 
 sistance of a learned Native, who knows the native 
 grammars well, has had no practice in English 
 and foreign compositions, possesses a clear and 
 logically thinking intellect, and is no flatterer. 
 With persons of this character I was early brought 
 into connexion ; and to this providential circum- 
 stance must be attributed whatever degree of criti- 
 cal knowledge I have obtained. 
 
 It will not be uninteresting to the reader to ob- 
 tain some information about the history of the Ta- 
 mil grammatical works, of which the fi&sr^io is 
 the chief. 
 
 The Madura Province, including Tinnevelly, is 
 confessedly the seat of the purest Tamil. Towards 
 Madras it becomes mixed w ith the Teloogoo and 
 other dialects. About 500 years ago when Pan- 
 diya Rajah was reigning at Madura, Agastier, the 
 famous Muni of the Hindoos, lived ; who, upon the 
 desire of the king, wrote the first Grammar of the 
 Tamil language ; which was called ^s^^oj^io. 
 He had twelve disciples whom he instructed in the 
 language, one of them was Tolkapiyer, who ap- 
 peared to be the most clever in acquiring it : Soon 
 after, Tolkapiyer prepared another Grammatical 
 work, of which the c^s^^,iu^^ was the basis ; and 
 which was called Q^iriossnliSiu^eo. The former 
 gradually- sunk into oblivion, and is now lost, ex- 
 cepting the fragments contained in Tolkapiyer's 
 work.
 
 Some time after, when Siyag-ansi-en Rajah reign- 
 ed in Madura uen&sr^^ifSfS^&Jir^ (Pavanandi Vit- 
 tuvan) a learned man of the Jaina Sect, abridged 
 the Tolkapiya Nul ; and called it/f6cr.@2jT^. Of the 
 5 parts in which the Tolkapiyam was divided, (viz., 
 erQ^P^^'SiTjTLD, i. e., the chapter of letters or Ortho- 
 graphy ; Qs'iri^eci^^n-inl, i. e., the chapter of words, 
 or Etymology ; -OLJir(Th6(T^&iTirm^ i. e., the chapter of 
 matter ; §)iLJiruL^ (or Q&iuil\0t) i. e., the chapter of 
 Poetry ; and ^eow&trn- ^^<stnTUb^ i. e., the chapter on 
 Beauty, (or Rhetoric), and in which Pavanandi 
 also divided his work, only the two first chapters 
 have been preserved ; the rest are lost ; though they 
 were afterwards supplied by other persons. 
 
 After him was a learned man of the .rLoeorr, i, e., 
 the Jaina Sect, who wrote an explanation of the 
 
 About the same time arose a learned Sivapatti- 
 karen, named euS^^itujsir^ue^i—irrril), and pretend- 
 ing to find errors in the text of the fi^,^eo, wrote 
 a grammatical work called ^ecs&ssor^en&eil, ?*. e., 
 the light of rules, in which he changed some parts 
 of the /sdr^^^^ and added others at his discretion, 
 but retained the before-mentioned division in 5 parts. 
 
 About the year 1770, there was a poet in Tin- 
 nevelly, named ^&sirpLDi=^QjiriuuL^&)eun-. Upon the 
 request of the Ootamallei Poligar [i^(W)^lju^Q ^si^m) 
 he wrote the fs^M^^aesar i. e., an explanation of the 
 text of the ;5^,^^Qi)sr made by Pavanandi. 
 
 This Sankaranama Sivaya Pullaver's master &snS 
 pr^^tl^iSiTSTm^ (Saminadatambiran) wrote a gram- 
 matical work, which he called '^eossGssr&Q&np^^ 
 i. e., a collection of rules ; wherein he treats espe- 
 cially on the Tamil declensions and conjugations. 
 
 About the same time, ^oj^frecrp^ilLSsnTm^ a learn-
 
 VI 
 
 ed Sanniyasi, wrote a work, in which he exposes 
 the errors of the ^eos&esareSsfr&^BUi, made by the 
 above mentioned Vayittiyanada Pandaram. This 
 work he cdiWed ^e<issiei5sre^efT<ss(^(yQjs^, i. e., the Blast 
 or Strong- Wind on the Light of Rules, with which 
 he intended to extinquish the Light, of Rules. 
 He wrote also the ^^^ireS(7^^^, in which he ex- 
 plains the Tolkapiyam ; moreover, he undertook to 
 examine and compare the former three works, viz., 
 
 eS0^^ ; made the needfld extracts, and embodied 
 them in thefi^^a^^}, prepared by Sankaranama Si- 
 vayam. The thus enriched js^.^^) is now in use 
 among the Tamulians, and held in high estimation 
 as the best classical work. It is called js<^,^^es)ir^ 
 i. e., an exposition oftheNannul. 
 
 ^^^<s(^Lainr£feiJirLSQiuir^einrir, who studied with 
 
 Saminada Tambiran, died in Tinnevelly in 1809- 
 His chief disciple =sytxjtj®}fiu/r«wr<s«e9ir/riu/r, is still liv- 
 ing in the same place, with whom, among others, 
 ^(^uuiTfi)4si—&)jB(rfidr4B.eSirrrftr, studied, who hajs sincc 
 14 years been a most valuable assistant to me. 
 
 To give the student an idea of Tamil style as 
 exhibited in the Nannul, I shall at the end of the 
 Appendix give a specimen of it, with an analysis, 
 and a translations of it in plain Tamil and in Eng- 
 lish; which I recommend to his study after he is 
 well acquainted with the other parts of the Gram- 
 mar. 
 
 To God, the eternal and almighty Jehovah, and 
 author of speech, be glory for ever and ever ! 
 
 Palamcottah, > 
 
 Oct. 1834 < C. T. E, RHENIUS,
 
 TAMIL GRAMMAR 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, 
 
 §1. 
 
 Tamil Orthography treats of the foiTn, names, 
 sound, number, and division of letters; also of their 
 transmutation, omission, and augmentation. 
 
 §11 
 
 1 . The Tamil language has 30 simple letters ; as 
 follows : — 
 
 as in America, 
 as in still, 
 as in full, 
 as in self, &c. 
 as in long. 
 
 a, as in ah ! 
 
 i, or ee, as in reel, 
 
 u, as in rule, 
 
 e, as in they 
 
 o, as in sole, 
 
 ey, as in eye. 
 
 5 short 
 vowels. 
 
 er. 
 
 a, 
 
 e, 
 o. 
 
 7 long 
 vowels. 
 
 < 
 
 ^ or /*, 
 
 ep<s(T, OU, 
 
 as in foul
 
 8 
 
 18 mute 
 consonants. 
 
 < 
 
 ■^J 
 
 &, 
 
 K, as 111 Kllli^. 
 
 ng, as in long. 
 
 ^, 
 
 s, as in so. 
 
 ©5 
 
 o 
 
 gn, as in impugn, 
 d, pronounced hard 
 n, do. do. 
 
 ^, 
 
 t, as in duty. 
 
 ^, 
 
 n, as in no. 
 
 • 
 
 b, and p. 
 
 ^, 
 
 m, as in my. 
 
 e 
 
 y, as in yarn, 
 r, as in round. 
 
 61), 
 
 1, as in lap. 
 
 O 
 
 V, as in vain. 
 
 *. 
 
 a kind of rl. 
 
 o 
 
 1, pronounced hard. 
 
 
 r, as in cry. 
 
 
 n, as in on. 
 
 There is a letter, ^ or o'o, called aitham, vulgai4y, 
 akkdua, nearly corresponding to the German ch, as 
 in licht ; but it seldom occurs in common lan- 
 
 guage. 
 
 2. The vowels, when subjoined to consonants, 
 lose their initial form ; thus : 
 
 The short vowel c^, a 
 
 is inherent in every consonant, and is always un- 
 derstood, except where the mark ^ shows that the 
 consonant is to be pronounced mute,* thus « is ka, 
 ^, sa, (^5, gna, ^ da, cow, na, &c. &c. 
 
 The long ^, a, is changed into ir and affixed thus : 
 */r, ka, «=ir, sa, (^T, gna, ^/r, da, &c., except exw/D, and 
 
 * This mai'k however is seldom found in native writings.
 
 9 
 
 «8r, which receive the following form, (^, na, (^, 
 ra, (ora), na. 
 
 The short ^, i, is changed into '^ thus: 9, ki, ^, 
 si, i^, di, «c3ft, ni, ^, ti, ^, ni, l9, bi, tS, mi, a9, yi, sS?, 
 li, ®9, vi, 5^, rli, erfl, li, /S, ri, csf), ni. 
 
 The long Rj, i or ee, is changed into ^ thus : ^, 
 kee, ^, see, £©., dee, gsb?, nee, ^, tee, &c. 
 
 The short 2-, u, is changed into Q or =^, or I, 
 thus: (^, kti, <Bf, m, (B, dii, m^, nu, ^, tii, ^, nil, 
 L/, bii, (LP, mu, tq, }u, (m, ru, JJI, lii, ©/, vu, ^, rlu, 
 t25, lu, jp], ru, .^, nu. 
 
 The long aar, u, or 00, is variously changed, most- 
 ly into (?, or j^, as : <Bf«-, koo, @, soo, @, doo, ,^2/r, 
 noo, ,#F, too, .^ir, noo, l^, boo, ^p, moo, ^, yoo, f/^, 
 roo, j}JD-, loo, Q^, voo, ^, rloo, ^, loo, jjn^, roo, ^gj/r, 
 noo. 
 
 The short <Hr e is changed into 0, and prefixed to 
 the consonant after which it is pronounced ; as, Qsy 
 ke, Q'3=, se, Oz_, de, Qsw, ne, 0^, te, &c. 
 
 The long C7 e, is changed into Q, and is prefixed 
 as the former ; thus : (?<©, ke, Qs^, se, C?l_ de, (?«ajr, 
 ne, (?^, te, &c. 
 
 The short cp 6, is changed into Q-ir, the conson- 
 ant being placed between them; as, Qcs/r, ko, Qc9=/r, 
 so, Qi_/r, do, Q^/r, to, &c. In ©sor, ff), and sor, the form 
 is thus : Q(R3S),n6, Q(5', ro, and Q(g), no. 
 
 The long ep 5, is changed into Q-tr, with the 
 same exceptions as the former, thus, Qair, ko, C?<9=/r, 
 so, (?/_/r, clo, C^/r, to, &c. (?(^, no, G*(Y)j», ro, and 
 G(^, no. 
 
 The long vowel ^, ey, is changed into szd, and is 
 likewise prefixed ; as, &ds, key, s2d<9=, sey, 6C5t_, dey, 
 <555^, tey, &c. except essr, eo^ err, and eor, with which
 
 10 
 
 6w is united ; thus, ^mr, ney, Sa), ley, Ssrr, ley, and 
 Ssar, ney. 
 
 The long' vowel g^srr, is changed into Q-stt, and the 
 consonant put between ; as : Qsea, kou, Oe^m^ sou, 
 Qt-GST, dou, &c., but it is usually written thus, «e(sj/, 
 kavoo, /. e. kou, <9=<a/, savoo, i. e., sou, &c. * 
 
 Hence the Tamil alphabet may be said to con- 
 sist of 247 letters ; though the combined letters are 
 more properly syllables than letters. 
 
 Besides these letters, three letters are sometimes 
 borrowed from the Grantham or Samscrit, viz., ©^ sh, 
 6UU,. s, and ^, h. — suv, is always mute, e^ is used only 
 with some vowels, as, (s^ sha, a^fl-, sha a^ shi. eu^j is 
 not yet much in use ; but it is highly desirable that 
 it should be more extensively adopted. The learn- 
 ed do not properly admit the use of these letters, 
 and in words, borrowed from the Samscrit, change 
 the Q^ and euu, when not mute, into /- ; and, when 
 mute, into the same consonant with which they are 
 connected ; thus for L^0a$^-6or, they write £-/0/_eor 
 piiruden, a man ; for ei^^e^ui, suq^l^ld idruddm, the 
 year ; for ■bs^l..lL^ siIl^ld kdffdm, distress, for jEe^i—ih^ 
 ■fiiLi-Lh jmdtdm, loss. The c^ is expressed by «, as 
 for su/reuQ(50' LD they write eair^missiui vdgdndm, a vehicle. 
 But, in common language it is better to retain the 
 Samscnt letter, to avoid ambiguity. 
 
 It is also to be observed that the /» is never used 
 with a vowel, but is always mute except in the 
 
 * In the poetical Tamil and other native books, the distinc- 
 tion here observed between short «nd long vowels, is usually not 
 marked ; both are written alike, as <sr short and cr lon£f ; 0« short 
 and O'S lonp; ; 5? short and 5? long; Osir short and O'Srr long, &c- ; 
 likewise the small stroke at the foot of the ir r, is not observed, but 
 ■written the same as the characteristic of long ^, viz. ir.
 
 II 
 
 word ^/i/EisBTLD ingnganam, this place ; and (55 is usecF 
 only with ^, ^, <sr, and ep. 
 
 Here is a list of all the Letters. 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 •i* 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 «r 
 
 e. 
 
 i»srr 
 
 I ^ 
 
 1^ 1^ 
 
 9 
 
 ^ 
 
 6^ or 
 
 <s 
 
 i'/r 
 
 te 
 
 le 
 
 @ 
 
 *._ 
 
 0& 
 
 c« 
 
 (SS)£ 
 
 0-in- 
 
 C<*/r 
 
 G)=sar 
 
 IBl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .f 
 
 s=tr 
 
 frl 
 
 ^ 
 
 <» 
 
 (5 
 
 Ojf 
 
 GV 
 
 6S>JF 
 
 ■■Q^^n- 
 
 G'^/r Q^OT 
 
 (55 
 
 0/r 
 
 
 
 
 iO(g? ! 
 
 
 Q(eyfr 
 
 
 
 L— 
 
 i—tr 
 
 ^ 
 
 is_ 
 
 ® 
 
 ® 
 
 Ol- 
 
 Cd'/_ 6»i_ 
 
 pi-ir 
 
 G'i_/r 'Qi_s,r 
 
 isssr 
 
 (^ 
 
 feOAJ 
 
 «sF 
 
 ^^p; 
 
 .gyy 
 
 C>/(55ffr 
 
 Qtoisr 
 
 %SSt!T 
 
 iG)'6aji 
 
 G(^ 
 
 G/ioMTsyr 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^/r 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 S^ I 
 
 Q^j 
 
 G> 
 
 <SS)^ 
 
 
 Gsir 
 
 O^eir 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 ^ir 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 Si 
 
 .5ar 
 
 Oj5 ' 
 
 GV 
 
 es)j5 
 
 G)^/r 
 
 • 
 
 (_J 
 
 L-i/r 
 
 lS) 
 
 iS 
 
 H 
 
 y ' 
 
 Ou 
 
 (dlj 
 
 asiu 
 
 Oun- 
 
 (?Lj/r 
 
 LJerr 
 
 LQ 
 
 Lcn" 
 
 oil 
 
 iS 
 
 Of 
 
 5e i 
 
 Qm 1 
 
 G°uD 
 
 esiiD . 
 
 OLan- 
 
 Q^fT ^ 
 
 Otaisir 
 
 UJ 
 
 uj/r 
 
 1^1 
 
 u5 
 
 •H 
 
 B ' 
 
 Qiu 1 
 
 Guu 
 
 QDUJ ] 
 
 Ouj/r 
 
 ^Ju-'/r .Oi,j<„n- 
 
 ir 
 
 mr 
 
 rf) 
 
 ,p 
 
 C5 . 
 
 C5 ; 
 
 O/r 
 
 Qn- 
 
 s»/r 
 
 Qln'n- 
 
 GV/r |Q,rar 
 
 a) 
 
 eon- 
 
 £1)1 
 
 6^ 
 
 et)i 
 
 m ' 
 
 G>6U 
 
 Geo 
 
 2eo 
 
 OehCT 
 
 ic'ev/r 1 
 
 OeOstr 
 
 fflj 
 
 sun' 
 
 aS 
 
 af 
 
 ay 
 
 r 
 
 §i 
 
 G")aj 
 
 (Jsu 
 
 655 au 
 
 Qau/r 
 
 G'aj/T 
 
 O&ierr 
 
 6P 
 
 i^"- 
 
 i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 (y> 
 
 e? 
 
 0^ 
 
 Gcp 
 
 eaLp 
 
 Oi^n- 
 
 (oy;fr 
 
 Lperr 
 
 sff- 
 
 sir/r 
 
 srfl 
 
 af 
 
 & 
 
 eu 
 
 Oar 
 
 G°srr 
 
 ?B<r 
 
 Osn n- 
 
 G<srr(r 
 
 Qsirsrr 
 
 /o 
 
 C2? 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 ^ 
 
 ,3Vr 
 
 Op 
 
 Qfl) 
 
 68)^ 
 
 0)^2) 
 
 Q^ 
 
 Q/Dsn- 
 
 6S( 
 
 © 
 
 osti 
 
 «0f 
 
 & 
 
 ^gur 
 
 G)<jiir 
 
 Qesr 
 
 ?e5r 
 
 'J© 
 
 Q(es) 
 
 0^'SP
 
 12 
 
 §111. 
 
 Besides the division into vowels, mute consonants, 
 and combined vowel-consonants, the Tamil gram- 
 marians have divided the 18 consonants into six 
 hard, six soft, and six middle letters. 
 
 The six hard sounding;- letters are called eu^^ear 
 <5r(L^^^, i. e. vallind erluttii ; they are &, <b=, t-, ^^ 
 u, p. ^ 
 
 The six soft sounding- letters are called QuiaisSsur 
 <^(!^P^, i' e., inellina erluttu ; they are/E;,(G5, &ssr, 15, 
 
 The middle letters are called ^szDi_aS«DrQaj(i^^^^ 
 i. e.y ideyind erluttu ; they are, lu, j, eo, ej, 5£., err.* 
 
 §IV. 
 
 1 . To express the names of the letters nd is add- 
 ed to every short letter^ and vend or yend to the 
 long ; thus ; 
 
 «sy, a, is called ana, «, kana, «=, sana, 
 
 ^, i, eena, Q, keena, 9, seena, 
 
 a-, u, oona (^, koona, <fir, soona, 
 
 cr, e, ena, Qs, kena, Q'S'^ sena, 
 
 cp, o, ona, Q<s/r, kona, Qe^ir, sona, 
 
 ^, a, avena, «/r, kavena, &c. 
 
 ff, ee, ee\ena,^, keeyena, &c. 
 
 Sin:, 00, oovena,**., koovena, &c. 
 
 €r, e, eyena, Qb, key ena, &c. 
 
 ^, ei, ei\ena,e2r«, keiyena, &c.' 
 
 ep, 6, ovena, Qsir, kovena, &c. 
 
 ^e^^ ou, ouvena, Qs&r^ kouvena, &c. 
 
 * These artificial divisions are only of use when studying' the 
 native grammars ; iu which, to avoid repetition, they are frequently 
 referred to.
 
 13 
 
 But among the learned «^lo gdiam is usually 
 added to every short letter, and siruu^, i. e., gar am 
 to every long letter ; thus : 
 
 ^, a, is called ^3:11 u^, i. e. agaram. 
 
 <s, ka, ssjili, i. €. kagaram. 
 
 ^, i, ^^iTtxj, z. e. igaram. 
 
 Q, ki, BsiTisi, ?'. e. kigaram. 
 
 £., ti, ^sjil, i. e. iigaram. 
 
 (^, ku, (^^o-LD, i. e. kugarain. &c., and 
 
 ^, a, ^sirrril, i. e. agaram. 
 
 &ir^ ka, strscnxLa^ i. e. kagaram. 
 
 fls, ee, ifsirrrih, i. e. eegaram. 
 
 S, kee, ^cffi/r/TLD, i. e. keegaram. &c., and, 
 
 2. Again, a letter is called «7"(Tf:^^, i. e., erluftu ; 
 a vowel is called sluSIQitq^^^^ i, e., vyirerluftu, 
 which means the letter of life, because it gives, as it 
 were, life to the consonant ; a consonant is called 
 QiMiLiQajQ^^^, i. e., meyerluttu^ which means the 
 letter of the body ; because the consonant is consi- 
 dered as the body of the vowel ; they call it also 
 ^n^QpQ^^^, i. e., dtterliittu, which has the same 
 meaning, and the vowel consonant is called a-ttSr 
 QldiljOiu(l^^^, i. e. uyirmeyyerluffu, which means 
 letter of body and Ufe, because it consists both of a 
 vowel and a consonant. A short vowel is called ©^ 
 jpsu^QiTQ^P^ or (5/£ijiJmSlQff(L^/^ ; and a long vowel, 
 
 3. I would here observe, that the Tamulians in 
 writing do not leave any space between the words, 
 but connect all the words even of a whole discourse ; 
 thus : LD^'i^n-<si^jBe\j6d(sun-3err&)eii^ i. e., ?/idnitIiergel, 
 (men) ndllavergel, (good) dl/d, (not. 
 
 This is difficult, particularly to beginners; but 
 exercise and acquaintance with the terminations of
 
 14 
 
 the several parts of speech make it more easy; — 
 still it is highly desirable to introduce spaces, or 
 some marks of separation between words. 
 
 §v. 
 
 The pronunciation of the letters has been al- 
 ready pointed out in the table § II. 
 
 A few farther particulars remain to be noticed, 
 1. The short vowel =sy, a, before u, eo, ©r, and eor, at 
 the end of polysyllabic words, is not exactly pro- 
 nounced like a mentioned in the alphabet, but some 
 what like e, as in men ; thus : 
 
 c^su/r aver they, not (avar.) 
 Q&sreoeoSd SO lie/, a saying, not (sollal.) 
 Lairij<s&r 7ndrangel, trees, not (marangal.) 
 ^dii^ aven, he, not (avan.) 
 
 2. The vowels ^, i, and <sr, e , receive a some- 
 what deeper sound than they have ordinarily, be- 
 fore t-, osar, ip, en, and p, SO that the ^, is sounded 
 somewhat like the French u ; or like the (ii) in the 
 German word " Miihle ;" — and the <sr, like the 
 French (eu), or like the (oe) in the German word 
 " boese ;" thus : 
 
 ®?0, (a house,) pronounce vudii ; but (a?^, (street,) 
 
 veethi. 
 Qu(s^, (a woman,) pronounce jooew, but Qu^, (speak,) 
 
 pesu. 
 ^l^, (under,) pronounce kiirl. 
 G^srr, (a scorpion,) pronounce toel. 
 iSp&s, rto be born,) pronounce /?wm A' ^*a. 
 
 3. The vowel ^, ei,is in monosyllabic words pro- 
 nounced like the diphthong ai, or ei ; as : 
 
 (Sffis, kai, the hand. 
 <BS)ai^ mui, ink.
 
 15 
 
 4. The letters, c®, k, p, t, and u, p, are at the be- 
 ginning- of a word pronounced hard, as in the table; 
 but in the middle, when sin2;ie, they are pronounc- 
 ed soft ; viz., <ffi, is sounded like the German cli, or 
 like o-^ in God, with an aspirate, ^ like th, and 
 L-i like b, as : 
 
 ^ecisr, the eye, pronounce Ian; but ljs^, the 
 day, pronounce pdchel or jufr/w/. 
 
 ^^, the head, pronounce taky, but uir^il, 
 the foot, pafham. 
 
 ueos, hatred, pronounce, j?a(yhei ; but ^un^ 
 ^3-tl, unworthiness, a'dfthiram. 
 But if they occur double in the middle of a 
 word, both are pronounced hard, as : 
 
 Lj<ffisil>, the side, pronounce pdkk dm. 
 
 LJ p^ a u^^ firmness, pronounce pd^tirdm. 
 
 ^^iliL4^ being, pronounce iruppu. 
 
 5. The letter «=, in the middle of a word, when 
 single, is pronounced the same as in the beginning, 
 viz. like s ; but when double, it is pronovmced like 
 j, or rather dj ; or as g, in rage ; thus : 
 
 <9=£roi_j, congregation, pronounce sdbei/. 
 
 lSJjtG'qjcflq, entrance, pronounce pirdiesd?n. 
 
 but ^jffcF^ttJLo, kingdom, pronounce irdjiydm. 
 Again, s^s^, after y^ or j-, is pronounced harder 
 than j, nearly like the ch, in breach, as : 
 
 L/cst^cF^, praise, pronounce piighdrchi. 
 
 Qp(TL_ir3=9, succession, pronounce tdddrchi. 
 The same hard sound is given also to & after ^, 
 or f, as: 
 
 LCiTz^^sTOLD, excellence, pronounce matchimey. 
 
 (opuj/^, exercise, pronounce mvydrtchi. 
 
 6. The difference of sound between, /a^, (b^, sssr, /?, 
 and 6or, is so nice, that it can only be learned from 
 the mouth of a native. Observe, that when thev
 
 16 
 
 are mute, the following- letters follow them, as being" 
 most congenial to their sound, viz. 
 
 m, is followed by <s. 
 
 ©» ^^ 
 
 6237, . . . , Z_. 
 
 J^^ ^^ 
 
 CC, p, 
 
 also LQj u. 
 
 Thus : <eF&«t£>, assembly, pronounce sdug^am. 
 LD(^<9^srr, yelloxG, „ mayijel. 
 
 £Gsari—ui, a part, ,, kdna'dm. 
 
 <s=n^^il, meekness, ,, sanfhdm. 
 
 «pscr^, one, ,, o/?/w. 
 
 .^LDi-/, o^ arrow, „ dmbu. 
 
 7. The difference of pronunciation between /r, ^, 
 and ^. and between ^, and err, must likewise be 
 learned from the mouth of aTamulian. For t^, we 
 have no proper sound in English or any other 
 European language ; it is a mixture of r and /, and 
 imperceptibly coalescing by turning the tongue up- 
 ward to the roof of the month. Many of the com- 
 mon people, and nearly all in the southern parts of 
 India, pronounce it erroneously like, err, 1. But the 
 difference between the two is material, and ought 
 to be strictly observed ; for csv^^j means destroy^ but 
 ^sS,give. — ^ I would call a soft or single r ; but ^, a 
 hard, or double one ; so also^', is pronounced softly, 
 but, err, strongly:/. /. 
 
 (?Lj/f, name, pronounce per. 
 Gu^, birth, „ poeru. 
 G^3so,work, „ veley. 
 Gwdsrr, time, „ voellei. 
 
 8. A double fp, is not pronounced like rr, but 
 like tr ; though the r is sounded rather softly and 
 quickly ; thus :
 
 17 
 
 (^fptl, guilt, pronounce kii^ram. 
 Qupjfi, received „ pecfru, &c. 
 
 But the common people usually pronounce it 
 like tt, as, huff am, pcettu. 
 
 9- <&or«?, is pronounced dra, as, 
 
 £rs5or(W7eor, he said, prouounce endran. 
 But many pronounce it nda, viz., enddn. Thus 
 also, Q&^T^^ proceeding, sendru, vulgarly ; sendii. 
 
 10. Double tit-, is pronounced like tt, as, 
 
 Q<si1.Ql-&)T, I heard, pronounce koetten. 
 
 11 . A mute lu, either at the end or in the middle 
 of a word, is pronounced like t or y, as, 
 
 QtMUj, truth, pronounce mei, or ?nei/. 
 Qs'iu^ir&T, she did-, pronounce seithal, or seythdL 
 
 12. The pronunciation of a long- vowel or double 
 consonant, requires twice the time necessary for a 
 short vowel or single consonant. The natives call 
 the length of time for the pronounciation of a short 
 vowel, or of a single consonant, Lo/r^^eo/r, mdtthtrei, 
 i. e., a measure, which they define by a single 
 twinkling of the eye, or a snap of the fingers ; 
 accordingly, a long vowel or a double consonant 
 requires two such measures. A strict observance of 
 this rule is of importance, as a neglect of it will pro- 
 duce misunderstanding; thus, 
 
 u^ili, pathd/n, means a xvord ; but, 
 uir^il, pathdm a foot. 
 
 13. Every long vowel, or every compound sylla- 
 ble, by which I mean a syllable composed of two 
 consonants and a vowel, has naturally a particular 
 emphasis or accent. Thus in &ir^, hdthii, the ear ; 
 the syllable <e/r has the stress ; in Q^[(e^^£>i2Qp^^ 
 
 D
 
 18 
 
 .sd/Iifo-iren, I say, the syllables Q^ir^ and Qpdr 
 have the stress. 
 
 Besides this natural emphasis, Tamil syllables 
 have no accent. In words consisting of two or 
 more short syllables, every such syllable is pro- 
 nounced alike. 
 
 Samscrit words of three syllables are often writ- 
 ten in Tamil with four syllables; e. g., ^(sas^iuil, is 
 written ^.oiQiuis^ ; in this case the emphasis of the 
 Samscrit is retained; thus, pronounce, avashjam. 
 
 § VI. 
 
 The transmutation of letters takes place when 
 two words are joined tog-ether, and affects the last 
 letter of the preceding- word and the first letter of 
 the following' word. The transmutation of letters 
 is called ^Mp&), tirlfheL It is done in the follow- 
 inof cases. 
 
 1 . When the preceeding- word ends in a mute 
 consonant, and the next begins with a vowel, that 
 vowel is dropped, and its characteristic mark is 
 joined to the mute consonant ; thus : 
 
 .iyaisor ^<scdso, is Written ^sda^i&)2$o, he is not. 
 QstruLo ^&retT^ G&irua^i^ejr, angry. 
 
 2. Whenix» is followed by <s, the ^ is changed into &. 
 
 ^ ©, 
 
 f / • • • .^, 
 
 as, (o)<FUJi-DQ<5/r(SK5ri_ffecr is written Q&u^iejQ&it<s^ 
 
 i—trm-y he conquered. 
 LJueiiLnQ&u^srm-, is written ufreU(^Q<3=tLJ^ir'oar^ he 
 
 sinned. 
 Lj^^fiiL^^^/ro-cTj is written Lj^pe^^^^adr, he 
 gave a book.
 
 19 
 
 3. When &> is followed by s, <r, or u, the «^, is 
 chang"ed into /.* 
 
 Thus: ua-eosi^^ gravel sfone, is written uirf<B^. 
 u^soQ'3'treo, a ivord in return^ is written Lj^.p 
 
 QpL^&E[r&}ULrLu9iLL-ir<c^, Jw kneeled dozvn, (ip!;^i^ 
 
 But when &i is followed by ^, both are changed 
 into #, as : 
 
 i-j^,sb^^^n-dr^ he made a return, uQfp^^n-m-. 
 <ffi^_a'^sro/r, the sea shore, ^i—f iB.<s6)!r. 
 
 And if the word ending" in ^ is a monosyllable, 
 the GO before ^ is changed intOcPo, and the ^ into /, as : 
 
 &&)^^, the stone is bad ; •Boo^^. 
 ^eo^fessTf the neuter gender, e^/o^o^Ssissr. 
 
 Again, if a monosyllable ending in &), is followed 
 by i-Q, the former is changed into eor, as : -s^ldSsj), 
 a rock, sdrLodso. And if it be followed by ^, then 
 p also is changed into ecr, as : 
 
 &&iQj5(^<ST, a heart of stone, ^secrQear^^sr. 
 
 4, When &r is followed by -s, «?=, or u, the srr is 
 changed into l., as : 
 
 ^Q^jSfr&riSlinurrsm-Ll, a dai/'s journey, <^(W;;Btril.iSin- 
 
 lUtTsoarLD. 
 p.(r^j5{T'^<sL^<sar^ the duty of a holy day, ^^^/rtL 
 
 ^mi-ipil, the inside, 2_tlt_/ff)L£). 
 
 Ljeo jsirdrQ^iu^, the neivs of several days, ueojsrru. 
 
 * The custom of not chanp^'mp; e^ into ;ri, hut douhliuii- the follow- 
 ina; letters «, <f, ^, u, is noi authorized by the nntive i;rainmars, e g., 
 uS'edsse^t^u^eOs^Os'fred, &c., and ought to be abandoned, as there is no 
 particular difficulty in adhering' to the proper rule, excepting per- 
 haps wheu ei is followed by *,
 
 20 
 
 When ^ is followed by ^, both are changed into 
 double or single iL, as : 
 
 &&Tpp^irdT^ he gave tody^ <SLLL_^p[r&sr, 
 ^ffsTrG'^/r^LD, daily, jBnQL^!rj}iil,, 
 ^(sudr^iriu, her mother, ^<snu.nuj, 
 ^iT&r^nuimisr^ a lot OS-like foot ^ ^/rilt_/rLDSjD/r. 
 
 But if the word ending in en^ be a monosyllable, 
 the sn-, is changed before ^ into o°o and p into lL, as : 
 (^srr^^ the thorn is bad, (u^oci^^. 
 Again, if &t is followed by ld, that is changed into 
 
 6&, as : 
 
 (Lp<^(LpL^ a crown of thorns, (Lpe&sriiLpi^^ 
 (LpdrQj^^i^p^, the thorn is broken, (LpsssrQ^jB 
 
 And if it be followed by ^, the ^ also is changed 
 
 into esor, as: (werr^eotl, a thomy ground, (Lpmrsc^ieidu^. 
 
 5 When gkjt is followed by <s, <&=, or lj, the c&r is 
 changed into l., as : 
 
 LjaS/flfo^«<5K5rSsrr85rr, the parrot of the f eld, i-zaS/flto-or 
 ^erresiLCi'B&essTQ&eosum, prosperity in youth, ^efr65)LCi 
 
 Lcessruir^^iauD, an earthen vessel, lllLuf<B^3-ld. 
 
 And when it is followed by ^, the latter is chang- 
 ed into tl, as : 
 
 ^<^^,rD^pn(5cr, he Opened the eyes, <s<dsn^p^psr<^, 
 iMossr^eoLD, the earth, loisotz—svld. 
 But if the w ord ending in essr be in the oblique 
 case, then both the cot and ^ are changed into il, as : 
 ,Bt—(^i^&(essr^su)ir, the sea shore, <sL-(S<3srsiLi^ss)fr. 
 Again, when essr, in monosyllabic words, is follow- 
 ed by p, the / is changed into «rar, as: 
 
 ^essrQ^Lf.^, the eye is long, eessrGessr^^.
 
 21 
 
 'B<sssiQj5!{<s^^ eye pain, <E(sssrG(^(Sij. 
 
 6. When 6or is followed by <s, &=, or u, the scr is 
 changed into, ;&, as: 
 
 Ouirdr^SsD, a Q'o/den imas;e^ Qljitb:^Sso. 
 QuiTi6cruirp^iTil, a golden vessel, Quirfi)uir^^inl), 
 
 And if it be followed by ^, the latter is chang- 
 ed into jD, as: 
 
 Lje^^ir^p<5rrsar, he Q^Clve reward^ ue^^p^pirmr , 
 
 But if the word ending in esr be in the oblique 
 case, then both the ecr and the p are changed into 
 p, as: 
 
 Qu(rdrp&(B, a golden plate, Quirn:,ros(B. 
 
 Again, if a monosyllabic word ending in ecr, is 
 followed by js, the ;? changes into eor, as : 
 
 lR&siQjsl^^^ the lightening is long or extended^ 
 
 (LpsBT^Ss}), something that stands before, (LpdroSSsi) . 
 
 7. Certain words ending in a., when they are 
 united with some other words, as adjectives, change 
 the 2- into ^, and in some cases change the preced- 
 ing soft into a hard letter also, as : 
 
 ^<£!sr(B, a year, Qj:i^ir(sssrs5)t-.Qjs&i)^, rice three 
 
 years old. 
 Ljcssr®, ancient, u'^s!j)L-<kQs=iLj^^ old neics. 
 ^faor^, former time, ^diempiliuir®, former 
 
 trouble. 
 •^^^, former time, ^^€S)pesr^S, former wages. 
 ^dr^^ present day, ^dr&Dpp^Gcnh, this day. 
 §)msi, present day, ^p&^pjstrar, this day. 
 i^p^, other, ucif<oU)p<s&!r60ili, another time.
 
 22 
 
 The same chaiiq^e takes place, when personal 
 nouns are formed of them, as : 
 
 From cgsKsr®, year, ^nuC-'mL—iuam, a hoy two 
 
 years old. 
 tr^p^, other, Ls:^f(5S)piu<siin-, other persons. 
 
 §VII. 
 
 The omission of letters is called Q&(B^io, and 
 takes place in the following- cases. 
 
 1. With the exception of words containins;- two 
 shorts syllables, such as £7-(^, lj-sf, ^0, &c., which 
 kind of words the Tamil Grammarians call ^ecB^s 
 (^r8,eo(Wf ^lu^i&jui, all other words, ending in a., 
 drop this vowel when another vowel follows, and 
 take the vowel of the following word, thus : 
 
 <5[t(B ^i<^'^^^p^, is wTitten siT-^eo/r^^^^ the de- 
 sert flourished. 
 euaSjr® ^iBn-^p^, is written etusssTLf-iSfrp^^^ the 
 
 wasp made a noise. 
 Q^G^sij ^1^^, is written 0^<sSsuifl^y clearness is 
 
 difficult. 
 "Ej/-^ ^(5<sS'(vr^sor, is written ej^^i(W)sQ(^dry he 
 
 is come. 
 eir^ ^'^erreum-f is written •ssr^mefTQi-^, otie that 
 
 has ears. 
 Gtja^.LJL^ ^-sif-a^LD, is written Gun^iiliS&f'.eoLs^f 
 
 instruction is siveet. 
 iMir® (^L^f^, is written LSirrQi^ir^^ja^ the ox 
 
 ran off'. 
 ^(B ^^^, is written ^ss)i-p^,ffve sheep. 
 
 2. \yhen a polysyllabic word, ending in <s^, or 
 6Drj or a long monosyllabic word ending in the same
 
 23 
 
 letters, is followed by ^, the ^, is dropped, or 
 rather is absorbed in the esor or ecr, thus : 
 
 <saj<£KsrQ^z^^^ is written sojOeissn^^, the sling 
 
 is /on 2:. 
 £6odr Qj5LS}-^, is written <b&:)Q&sh^^^ the boat 
 
 is Ions;. 
 LDfl-esar Qjb^^ is Written uhtrQ&ssriB, the excellent 
 
 way. 
 snick Q/urB, is written -s/tQsjjt^, the desert road. 
 
 3. When a polysyllabic word, or a long mono- 
 syllabic word ending in a), is followed by ^, or any 
 other of the letters called OLD^eSleorLD, the eo is chang- 
 ed into btsr, as before stated, and the /s is dropped, 
 as: 
 
 ^rr&)^snu:i^ the length of a finger, e^n-(5f^&ril>. 
 ^ec^oS, the end of a thread, .jF^yssfl. 
 eSor&}^Gstsri_^^the finger is lengthened ^3'(s§ <£S!sn^^ . 
 
 4. When words of the same description, ending 
 in m, are followed by ^, &c., the <^ is changed into 
 «^, and the ^ is dropped, as : 
 
 ^(T7)dr iSei)il>, a dark place, ^QFjevS.s^il. 
 §J(!F)6t^(sssrL-^, the darkness has extended, ^0 
 esQC essr u. ^ . 
 
 5. When a word endings in Ln is followed by 
 another beginning with u^ or ^, the lc of the former 
 word is dropped, as : 
 
 sni^iuLhjsi—^^^, the business proceeded, &n^uj 
 
 i50<ffi(LpLDLD/r(5OTri_^, the beast also perished, 
 
 § VIII. 
 
 The augmentation of letters, called lB&&), takes 
 place in the following_cases : 
 
 1 . If the preceding word end in ^, ^, s-, &m:, «p,
 
 24 
 
 IP, or epen, and be followed by a word beginning with 
 any vowel, the letter gjj is inserted between both ; 
 with the exception of such words ending in s,, as 
 have been mentioned in the former § No. 1, thus : 
 
 ^d)eO(srm-(rfj'^^^ he said llO, is written ^eoeoQsn 
 
 (^a'60^@^ss5^aj, of the cap, (^'^'eCureS^ss^L-iu 
 £i(BQ-SSsri_(rdr, he tooh poison, sQeLjessru-n-ixr^ 
 
 jsQ^Q^, in the midst, is written ^(B^Qeo. 
 ^(srO^^/recr, he took a ftoiver, is written. 
 
 However, ^^, that, and ^^, this, may follow 
 either this rule or the rule § VII. No. 1 , as : 
 
 ^^ersoTsoTj 'what is that '^ may be written ^^^ 
 
 QaKSorsor or =syQ^<s§roijr. 
 
 These words are written also with an °o°) thus : 
 c=^o°o^, @oo^5 &c., and then the connecting letter 
 eu is not required. 
 
 2. When the preceding w^ord ending in ^, /^, er, 
 <ST, or ^, is followed by another word beginning with 
 a vowel, tu is inserted. This tu and the preced- 
 ing ej, are called i~i<3stsrQ[r(i^p^,,i. e., connective let- 
 ter? thus: 
 
 u^GciS'i^^, is written ldgjSu^, of the pear/, 
 « ^^i^f^jji, is written ^uun-L^f^, the fire blazed. 
 
 Qs'frsvQeO^d^eC^^ is Written 0<3=ir(sbGeOlU6b6\}^, 
 
 either a word. 
 <cDs^&), is written sdsuSo^, /;/ the hand.^' 
 
 3. Wheii monosyllabic words, ending in ^ or//, 
 are followed by words beginning with to, or any 
 other QaaajoSewLo, the latter mav be doubled, thus : 
 
 (sros Loir^ssr^, may be written, msili^ir/Sim^, 
 
 that xchich has been exchaun:ed. 
 
 *rj 
 
 * In a very few cases en follows ot or ei, iustead of"-/, as, Qsu-^^ is 
 Gfiua/, to burn.
 
 25 
 
 €s)s^(sssrL^^, is written <5qs^^<^l-^^ the hand 
 
 was lono\ 
 Olbujimsu^jo^^ ^, is written Oi-ci "J LDLDsro^^^^, the 
 
 truth was hid. 
 OmiufiSsD, is written QLalip^Ssd, true firmness. 
 
 They may also be written without doubling- the 
 LD, which indeed is more common. 
 
 4. When a short monosyllabic word, ending- in a 
 consonant, ir, and l^ excepted, is followed by a 
 vowel, the consonant is doubled, as : 
 
 .eRRjr^<s©<g^, is Written .5«Rjr(^ero<e=, the Iiist of the 
 
 (srcxr^stDff, is written £reor(^so^^ my desire. 
 QLotu^ms", is written Oldiuiliit&d<9=, true desire. 
 seo^.ip(^, is written s<^edi^(^^ the stone is 
 
 beautiful. 
 ui(dsr ^€S)i^iu is written /xc!&r,^^u6s)^{u, of the earth. 
 
 5. The four letters <s, <?, ^, lj, at the beginning- 
 of the following words, are very frequently doubled. 
 Many of the cases, however, in which their aug- 
 mentation is required, depend so much upon custom, 
 that it is impossible to define them all by rules. 
 The principle cases are these : 
 
 i. When the preceding word ends in ^, in the 
 following instances, namely, after the infinitive 
 mode, after the indeclinable pronouns, =gy^^, that, 
 ^1^^, this, erp^^ ichich 't after Guireo, /ike, l^^p, 
 other, ^&)eo no, and after some nouns which have 
 dropped the last letter ld, and end therefore in ^, 
 the duplication takes place, as : 
 
 eii!T'S&il-L^^nu^LLi_iTn-, he commanded to come, 
 Gufr<sS=Qs'n-6ar(SS\<5Gr^ he told to S:o. 
 
 Q&n-i^<30uQ ua ^<^ J he went to tell. 
 
 E
 
 26 
 
 ^p^&sei^^ that fruit. 
 ^^^/i^^, this head. 
 er^^uu^^^il^ what book ? 
 <ST(^2tssrLjGurreO^Q<siT(Bp^[T<5ur^ he sttve like me. 
 LdfP'ff's'sonbs&r^ other people. 
 ^uui^iu&jffjSQ^irQ^ not ,?o, give ! 
 ^iiu!Tiu^^^LjL-j, equitable judgment. 
 ixur&Q&irilL^^ the branch of a tree. 
 Lj lu ill Lj I— (SO ^ fearing, S^c. 
 
 ii. After any long vowel, <b, s=, ^, u are doubled, 
 as: 
 
 jBirsQifi^p^, the tongue split. 
 zi)/L_/r^^<s/f^^^, the pot broke. 
 FpS'Qff^^^, thejiy died. 
 ^UL-jfeSp^, the fire kindled. 
 Lj^uL^^^^, the flower blossomed. 
 
 Exceptions are ^ thou, the 3d person plural 
 neuter of the neg-ative verb, and some words deriv- 
 ed from the Samscrit, thus : 
 
 ^Q<9=irdr(^iLj, thou hast said. 
 
 ^3S)euQjiriririSdn-j, they Cthe things J xvillnot come; 
 
 aftcrxcards. 
 tMsn'S'^Qpire^Lh, great joy, Sfc. 
 
 iii. After words ending in ^ ; namely, after the 
 verbal participle terminating in ^, after ^osf), ^<sst\, 
 ^'LJuiLp., ^uLji^, eriliui^, and after many nouns 
 ending in ^, and standing in the oblique case, «, ^^ 
 ^, u, are doubled, as : 
 
 Q<9=irso(£!,s£nicssrLS!^^iT^, Saying, he showed. 
 Gun-f/B<ff'Q<9=irm^i^^ praising, he said. 
 finenblr^iljQun-im^dT, he Went another day, 
 ^^S=Q&^iuQauskj I shall do hereafter.
 
 27 
 
 ^eSui^iTiurressriJi, a solitary journey. 
 ^LJui^P^^^irdr^ he gave thus. 
 ^uui^u(SLj[r(^dT^ he went so, or that way. 
 <oruuL^<5'Qe'rr&)eisQ(rj^iLJ, how doest thou say? 
 Qtsiii^sireo, the foot of a parrot. 
 i-{&Sl^(c^ir^, the skin of a tiger. 
 ^^^uuL^m^ a Jig. 
 
 Exceptions are nouns ending in ^, which denote 
 men, and a few other nouns, as : 
 
 ^LCfilsKs, the hand of the younger brother. 
 ^uQs'^inl^ the body of a devotee. 
 £^^Q^iLj^^!r<5Gr^ he whetted the knife. 
 L-^^^Q<9=iT<oar(^dr^ he exhorted. 
 Q&'l-L^QLjtTi^m-, the merchant xvent. 
 
 iv. After words ending in s-, namely, after such 
 as have the last consonant double, which includes 
 many verbal participles, and the dative case ; after 
 words of two short syllables, excepting the pronouns 
 =sy^, ^^, and sr^, and the numbers ep^, ^^ ; after 
 words ending in ilq, tl(^, f(^^ and after nouns 
 ending in 2_, standing in the oblique case, «, <ff=, ^, lj, 
 are doubled, as : 
 
 &(Bilji~issL^^y the pain is acute. 
 
 ^S^s^uGlj^^, the axletree is large. 
 
 euuS^jji'S&Quji-j, pain in the stomach, 
 
 ^L.(B<s@ilz^, a lamb. 
 
 Qj^^s^^i'^aiueo, likeness of the face. 
 
 {M(j^p^Lja5)u^ a bag of medicines. 
 
 jfj66)i^^^PPP^!r&ir, lie called and gave. 
 
 Qupj}}<sQ&fressru.[rdr^ he received. 
 
 <cr^d(^sG)&!T(Bp^iT<5cr, he gave to me. 
 
 ij:iSsi)<i(^uQun-, go to the mountain. 
 
 L^^iF&mKL^, a nczv god.
 
 28 
 
 Ouir^S=Q<8=[r<^)^ a common icord. 
 Lajji^Q^irmi-p^irdr,* he icipcd off the Spot. 
 (Q(W)ULjL^uS^^Fn-, the priest taught. 
 ^(W)Uuir^ui, the sacred foot. 
 /5tlq<sQ<ffi/7-£3ar-L../r(SBr, he became friendly . 
 uilL^eGT^^ipt^uQuin-f^ek^ he went to the city. 
 ^uiEjf^^^SsD, the head of a ?nonkey. 
 ehdsr(BS'9p(^, the Ziung of a wasp. 
 urrtluuuL^m, the head of a cobra. 
 
 Y. After words ending in ^, namely, after the 
 second or accusative case ; after ^evSso ; after some 
 nouns, ending in ^, standing in the obhque case ; 
 and after some nouns which unite with verbs to 
 form other verbs ; -s, ^, p, u are doubled, as : 
 
 ^iE5)^s£(SSsrGL^(ocr^ J saw it. 
 ^ajsoa l/Glj /rso, /ihe him. 
 ^&j^'3Qsn(B, no ! give ! 
 (Lp(i?,ih6o)<S'SsmLj, a certain vegetable. 
 ^sx)p<mp<ssi^ijj^ a certain vegetable. 
 Lc Ssj) LVLj J; if LD, the side of the mountain. 
 ^(5os'LJLJiLL-sTn-&&T , thcy dcsircd. 
 ld0(5zdldlju®^^^,^, he glorified. 
 
 Exceptions are era;^ and lolLss^l^ ; after which 
 those letters are not doubled, thus : 
 
 (srecS^rsi^^^adr he passed the boundary. 
 iMi^<cS)i—9icSt^i^, he scraped the branch. 
 
 vi. After the verbal participles Guicnu and ^uj, 
 and after nouns ending in uj, it, or, l^, standing ad- 
 jectively, <», <9=, ^, u are doubled, as : 
 
 * But when ld^ means LLpp^ anollicr, the duplicatiou does not 
 take place, as : 
 
 Lfl,5»<« KSO<5/r«JCT-(?ffl.'/r, bring another curry. 
 ui^>See>LpLj\3ei)'^, tliere is no ollur liielihood.
 
 29 
 
 QuiTtL.'£FQ'3'rr<^^m-, he Xi)ent and said. 
 
 ^^^luiMiTLLji^Gu^^m^ he spoke truly. 
 
 Qun lus'Q&sueutl^^ false riches. 
 
 «/r/r t!/t_j0S!JLD, ripeness of the field in August and 
 
 September, 
 u[r(i^^G<Brr<i)Ssi), a garden lying rvaste. 
 
 A few words enclino;' in lu, /?, or, i^, when in the 
 obhque case, have the following <e, ^, ^, i_/ doubled 
 or before <&, it inserted, as : 
 
 0<auuj<s(^ss)p, diminution or fault of the bamboo. 
 
 Qsnn-&(^is(S)p, diminution of the root. 
 
 <ffi/ri^<s@sD;Ei, diminution of the hardness of the 
 
 inside of a tree. 
 0(suujfEj{^L^&), a fate of bamboo. 
 ^arkjQ&n®^ the branch of the Aar-tree. 
 uiri^&Qessrj)}, an empty well. 
 
 §ix. 
 
 Some words are variously changed, of which are, 
 1. ^60 some, and ueo many, several: — When 
 they are written twice to denote variety, they may 
 be joined together without any change ; or the first 
 letter of the second word may be doubled ; or the 
 last vowel of the first word, viz., ^, may be dropt, 
 and the remaining eo be changed into p, as : 
 
 Qei)Qiso, some, u&)ueo several. 
 Q&:!S=9&)^ some, ueoutj^ several. 
 QfQisc^ some, upueo, several. 
 
 Again, when Pso, or uec^ unites with another 
 word, the terminating vowel ^, may either remain 
 or be dropped, and then the regular changes must 
 be made in either case, as : 
 
 uevsdcd, many rules, QsosdsO, some rules.
 
 30 
 
 ufsScO, many rules, Qf<BdsO, some rules. 
 ueojsir&r, many days, Qeopir&r, some days. 
 umi^m^ many days, &^<^^, some days. 
 LJ60u:ia:;S, many grains, ^eouLesS, some grains. 
 LjeorLDesjsf), ?nany grains ^eorLDsssfl, some grains. 
 Lj&isu&sS^ many rows, &&}sussstl, some rozvs. 
 ueie-:>ssS, many rows, ^^'sossaf], some rows. 
 LJsoO^/re?5)z_, many concatenations, ^eiiQ^nssn—^ 
 
 some concatenations. 
 u^oQ((rj>ss)i-, many concatenations, 9.^ijQ(ir^su)L-, 
 
 some concatenations. 
 
 2. The word ^lQi^, Tamil, may be used either 
 with the mute ^, or with an additional ^, when 
 it is joined to words beginning with letters of the 
 «U(^sSoorm class, as : 
 
 ^LSi^S=Q<ff=rr&) or ^i^LpS^Qs^ireb, a Tafnil icord. 
 ^LSt^<ish-^^^ or ^lEi^-bsk-p^, a Tamil play. 
 
 3. The word G^eor, honey, may be united with 
 other words without any change, as : 
 
 Q^iksc^^, the honey is thick, 
 
 or the following various changes may be made with 
 it, as : 
 
 (?^oor(^L-Lo, is written Q^&^i—u^, or Q pit' (^i~i-i^y 
 
 a honey vessel. 
 Qp^Tsi^^^ is written Qpssi^^, or Qp&sL^^, 
 
 the honey is thick. 
 QprnQu^irifi, is written GpQlditl^, a sioeet 
 
 word. 
 QpikL£>ir<sssrL-^^ is written Gplljssstl-^, the 
 
 honey is spoiled. 
 
 4. The words ^sor, his, and ^ek, my, may be united 
 to words beginning with a letter of the ejsiiS&snh
 
 31 
 
 class, without any change, or the ^ may be changed 
 mto^, as: 
 
 ^mLjssis, or pfues)s, his own hatred, namely, 
 
 self-hatred, 
 ^ewQi-j/rL^ffi/, or pfQutrL^(5i], self-interest. 
 erdrLjm&, or (srfuecDe, my hatred. 
 
 5. The words ^crrsor, marrow^ and @uSsor a cloud, 
 never suffer a change in the last letter, though the 
 first letter of the following word may, as : 
 
 &err^s(Ssir>u^, the hardness of the rnarrow. 
 ^SESG? ^sTOLD, the badness of the marrow. 
 (^(i51«07-(^L£i/rt£>, a collection of clouds. 
 (^u^m^a&r, a collection of clouds. 
 
 6. Besides the above, the Tamil Grammarians 
 emuTierate nine kinds of changes which some w^ords 
 undergo, not by rule, but by custom. They are 
 these, as : 
 
 i. A Qlo^sSsotlo letter is sometimes changed into 
 a (auevisSsorLD letter which they call <2jsS^^6u, i. e., 
 hardening, as : 
 
 eun-Lu^P^, becomes, edniu^p^, it is fair or good. 
 
 ii. A siJg^eStesraj letter is changed into a QLs^eoS&sru^ 
 letter ; which they call, Qis^^i^p&o, i. e., softening, 
 as : 
 
 piL€SiL- a bamboo stick pessrsi^i—B^stsrdQeil^Bt^Qjfr&r 
 she drives the various parrots with a bomboo 
 sticJi. 
 
 iii. A short vowel becomes long, which they call 
 ^iLi—eo, i. e., lengthening, as : 
 
 ^Leex)^ shadoxc, becomes ^i^sb.
 
 32 
 
 iv. A loni^ vowel is made short, which they call 
 @^i5gu, i. e., shortening, as: 
 
 for uirptl a foot, lj^lI. 
 
 V. A syllable is contracted, which they call 
 Qp(r(^^^<^, that is, contracting', as : 
 
 for Q ^'^ L-.fr ^ If n-^ they sai/, Gin<sssrL^[riT, persons 
 who have no desire. 
 
 vi. A syllable is extended, which they call M^ 
 ^eo, that is, extending, as : 
 
 for ^<s&si(B6S)jr), they say, ^essrisssrs^stDp, i. e., @<5rf) 
 (r^^QLjirQ^p^iiij j^Lpmn-m&emiT, a cool beautijul 
 shore. 
 
 vii. The first syllable of a word is omitted, which 
 they call (ip^f(^<ss)iDp^so, or ^'^/oi)&(^s5)p^^<so, i. e., 
 shortening; the first, as : 
 
 for prru^ssiir, they say ldso/t, a tamarey or lotus 
 floicer. 
 viii. The last syllable of a word is omitted, which 
 is called ^^©^^(^gro^D^^eu, i. e., shortening the last, 
 as: 
 
 for ^eoi^y blue colour, ^&y 
 ix. The middle syllable is omitted, which they 
 c?i\\ ^ss)i—<s(^mp^^&), i.e., shortening ^the middle, 
 as: 
 
 for lUKQia-, wlio? ojitS-. 
 7 VVhen two Samscrit words are miited, they are 
 often used in Tamil with the same changes that 
 they undergo in Samscrit. 
 
 i. If a final ^, be followed by a word commen- 
 cing with an ^, or ^, the two vowels coalesce into c^. 
 Qm^^'SLatl^^ is written QsDpir&iMLD, a book of 
 the Fed.
 
 33 
 
 Lj(fy'9-- ^ih'BUi, is written u(^'S=ir!t<s[l, the calendar, 
 uir^ ^ireS^^il, is written utr^irjeSSfi^Lh, the 
 
 lotus-fioiver-Hke foot. 
 (^oTT ^ilueo^ is written (^minlu&i, a xvater 
 
 flower. 
 e^SQjTs ^irir^^esr, is written ^<sQir<Bir!Tir^2e3r, 
 
 idolatry. 
 
 ii. If the following- word commences with f) or 
 ffl^, the vowels coalesce into sr ; if with a-, into ^, 
 as: 
 
 «flrir ^^^jtoOT, is written Ma^^rr^, the Indiren 
 
 of the Gods. 
 ^P @#^, is written 9Q^pj0, the cold moon. 
 <sLa&o s^njueS, is written <Bu^Caeotrn u<cS, one born 
 
 of the Tamareij, i. e., Sarasvadi. 
 LD-ffifT Q-^!iil>^ is written u^Qssr^iu^, the palsy. 
 <F^ &.^jm, is written srQsa^jm^ brothership* 
 &PP s^peisi^ is written sf^Co^ir^sm, clear ivater. 
 ^^tu Q-^iutl, is written (^flQiu(r^iuil>, the rising 
 
 of the sun. 
 LDcff/r S-i^&st^LD, is written LLQsirdresrpm, very 
 
 great. 
 
 iii. To express multitude or great variety some 
 nouns are written twice ; in which case the last 
 consonant of the first word is dropped, the remain- 
 ing vowel changed into .^ ; and the sua)sSsorLD letter 
 of the following word united without doubling 
 it, as: 
 
 iS!T&)frsiT(sOLa, many or various times. 
 G^&n-Q^s'La.^ many or various countries. 
 (^so/r(^sOLD^ jnany or various castes. 
 Q<s[ri—[(Qe[ng., many millions.
 
 34 
 
 Observe, however, that these three kinds of 
 chang-es are not authorized by Tamil Gramma- 
 rians ; the words should be written according to 
 the rules fonnerly laid down, thus : 
 
 Instead of Qsu^ it bu^iI^ it should be G6>is;euiraLoil ; 
 and for u^^fftr&su^^ it should be lj (^■3'&Mh<Btl>^ &c. 
 
 And instead of doubling- the words to denote 
 multitude, as in iii. Ljsoueo or Q^ir^il should be 
 used, as ; 
 
 for <erreC)irsn-eOil>, should be ueCsstreOilt^ or wsOueO 
 <sireCLja, or <sntsC&&i^Q^trjyLD ; 
 
 for Q^smQ^s'ts^, should be Lj&dQ ^s^il^j or Qp&ib 
 
 ^smCo^crj^iM^ &C. 
 
 8. Besides the regular changes of letters, the 
 Tamil Poets have indulged themselves in chang- 
 ing, adding, or omitting letters and even transpos- 
 ing syllables, to suit their purpose. It will be 
 sufficient to notice a few instances, simply for the 
 information of the student, as : 
 
 For ^6or (Lpsk the fore part of a liouse, some have 
 written Qj^^^eo. 
 
 — lS'isot, after, iS<^ss)p. 
 
 — Q&ae^eci, temple, Q'Snu^eo. 
 
 — OLjn^(sSt^, a eomwon house, Quir^uS^). 
 
 • — cSy0tc(T^^^6or(03)(sar, ojie like the nectar of the 
 
 Qods, c:^0LC:^^/T<5Or. 
 
 — SL£>ra<fi6or(Sori_.LP(^(3*<F/rjjf, old rice which IS lefty 
 
 — (?;pnj^;3®, the Sola country, Q<fir^(B, the same 
 
 as Geira-LLessTL^eCil,, Corofffaudal. 
 
 — unessrL^uj(^(B, the Pandia country, ua-essrL^/EtrQ. 
 
 — mdsHiijLoir^Q, the Malay ala country, LoeoaQ.
 
 35 
 
 For ^(iffS'sr^n-^ Tanshour, ^(^sd<3'. 
 
 — utm^ff-, Paneiyoor^ Lj&i\ss)s=. 
 
 — Q&p^'&sTLSi&js&dLn, Sendamangalam, Q^^issi^^ 
 
 — '^fiJ^^i Affoor, c^<ss>p. 
 
 — ^^^n)^m^, the father of Aden, c^^a?^. 
 
 — y^eor^.^jK^, do. Pooden, uj,fim^, 
 
 ■ — ei}(B<s<xrppos)^, do. Vadugen, eu(B<s^iis>^.. 
 
 — er&srppm)^, my father, cr^os)^, 
 
 • — j^^^^m^, thy father, ^^mp. 
 
 § X. 
 
 In conclusion I add a list of the changes of let- 
 ters, to present them to the student at one view ; 
 the first letter being the last of the preceding word, 
 and the second letter the first of the following 
 word^ viz. 
 
 * t£>« is chano-ed into ts. 
 
 * t^«= (^^. 
 
 * ^<^ ^p. 
 
 '^P f. 
 
 * 6V?<ffi fS, 
 
 * e>i& , fS".. 
 
 ^ eou f:u. 
 
 eop PP, or ^oP. 
 
 &)/5 6or«Wj or 6W, 
 
 ° o 
 
 &r€' lLiS' 
 
 CTTLJ » . lLu. 
 
 &r^ il.i-, or L- or o°o^. 
 
 GffLO ............. eSSTLO. 
 
 mp ©Rjrscar, or essr.
 
 36 lEjtijmology . 
 
 cOT^ is changed into /l^. 
 
 CKSTLJ L-LJ . 
 
 eftJT^ (5;s5r^_j or ^.t-. 
 
 6Ksr/5 , ©KSTtissr. or fisor. 
 
 eDr^s /<«. 
 
 &sr&- /<s=. 
 
 6WLJ pU. 
 
 60T^ ,..........,, 6or nj or f p. 
 
 eS/^ ; . . , . 651 6or, or ew. 
 
 iV^ofe. Tt is evident that these changes form a part of that system of 
 artiiices, by which the aucienl Hindoo literati excluded the common 
 people from understanding their writings, making them too perplex- 
 ing to be studied by every one ; hence it is, that they are not strictly 
 observed in the common intercourse of life; and it is to be wished 
 that they were altogether banished from the language. Until that 
 take place, ii should be always a rule in prose writings, to admit 
 only such changes as are easy, and such as do not obscure the meaning 
 of words or phrases. With this view I have observed in this work 
 only those which in the above table are marked with an* ; those 
 according to which s, e, p, and u must be doubled ; and such par- 
 ticular words as are usually changed even in common writings ; 
 such as, 
 
 ^cMTsiRiP/f from ^ewr^/f, cold water, 
 
 Oeujs^n- Oeuih^iT, hot water. 
 
 .siB»T68sP;f ^iswr/ff, tears, the water of the eye* 
 
 ;5«w,@vra) js<si>si'e^, good rule. 
 
 •-jes'«s)La ueOesiLD, plurality. 
 
 OaU(SKT6!Dtj3 OeuerremLD, whiteness. 
 
 jsirQi-ir^LQ ^irSrQ^iTjgiih^ daily, &c. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 § XI. 
 
 The Tamil Grammarians divide all the words of 
 their lanj^^uag-e into four principal parts, viz., 
 Nouns, Verbs, Particles, and Adjectives. They
 
 Etymology. — The Particles. 37 
 
 have no Article; the Pronoun is inckided in the 
 Noun ; the Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjec- 
 tion in the Particle, and the Adverb in the Adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 § XII. 
 
 THE PARTICLES. 
 
 I commence with this part of speech, because it 
 is much used in the formation of the other parts. 
 A previous knowledge of it will, therefore, faci- 
 litate the study of the language. 
 
 1. What I have called " the Particle" is in 
 Tamil called ^ero^-FQ^/r^', that is, middle word ; 
 namely, words or letters which are used to connect 
 other words. Apart from this connexion they 
 have no individual signification. 
 
 They are subdivided into eight classes ; 
 
 2. The Jirst class contains the particles which 
 form the cases of the Nouns. These are called 
 Gajpj)isciLXiiLi(TF)L^<B&r^ i. e., forms of dcclensiori. As^-^^- 
 they will necessarily be stated in the chapter of 
 
 the Nouns, I omit them here. 
 
 3. The second class contains particles which form 
 the modes and tenses of the Verbs, and are called 
 eSfetsriLj (j^i-l a or ^ i. e., forms of the Verb. They will 
 likewise be stated in the chapter of the verbs. 
 
 4. The third class are the particles that are used 
 to connect the forms of declension and conjuga- 
 tions with the roots, and are called -s^/r/flsroaj. They 
 are seventeen in number, viz ; — 
 
 ^6or, ^6or, ^sor, ^^, ^f^, §)f^, ^^^. 
 cSyui, ptl, fim, j^lL, <st, j^, a., ^, (^, and &sr. 
 
 They are without meaning even when connect-
 
 38 Etymology. — The Particles. 
 
 ed. — The mode of connexion will be mentioned 
 wherever it occurs in the sequel. 
 
 5. The fourth class, contains particles of similarity 
 or comparison, and are therefore called e^^&siLLi^Q&tr 
 f)&&r\ they are these : 
 
 (?LJ/T60, QplllU^ QjSa', ^&!T, LJLp., L^QIlSnU , ^SCiilUlUj. 
 
 eQiljui, LD/reoTj gjiulLlj, ^,&st99j and ^eoreor. 
 
 They all signify in connexion, " as, like as, equal 
 to, according to, and so on, and do not under go 
 any change when used ; but the nouns w ith which 
 they are connected may be either in the nomina- 
 tive or accusative case, thus : 
 
 ^^Qusr&d ((spuu, QjsiT, ^■ssr,)as or like, near that. 
 ^mpLjQuaec [e^uuj^ Qjsir, fi&jr,) like, near that. 
 
 But, ui^ takes ^i^ one of the third class particles 
 before it, as ^^<^ul^, according to that, or as that. 
 The rest are not used in common language. 
 
 Again, (s^uu, Qpir, and ^&t, receive in common 
 life the adverbial form in ^lu, as : 
 
 e^uufriLj, Q/Ftrnuj, fi&nntu, like or near, and then 
 
 require the dative case, as : 
 ^pn,Q<si\LJuniLj, like that. 
 ^Pf(^Q^!Tniu, strait to that, in the same direct 
 
 tion. 
 ^^n-Q^^&innu, equal to that. 
 
 6. Thejifth class, consists of particles which in 
 different connexions have different meanings, and 
 are therefore called, ^^^u^QuirQ^^^&aLli^iu ^&siL-S' 
 Qe^sTf&m ; they are these : 
 
 LoilQ, Ls^fjii, ^esfl, ^ij(^, ^, ^, ^, <sr, fi-.
 
 Htymology. — The Particles. 39 
 
 eres! (Tf^^ cr&5?(^, fp®? ^«5o, ldbot, Qeir&o, ^^^eb^ 
 
 Many of these are used only in poetical Tamil. 
 Those used in common life are the following-. 
 
 er, ^ and ^, are interrog-ative, emphatic, and 
 disjunctive particles, answering to our sign 
 of interrogation, or to, indeed, yeu, &c. 
 For their use, see § LXXXIIL, LXXXIV., 
 LXXXV. 
 
 £-tii, is mostly conjvmctive, answering to our 
 and, also, but sometimes also disjunctive 
 meaning even, than, see § LXXXVl. 
 
 ereor, <crm^, are likewise conjunctions, answer- 
 ing to that ; but sometimes also meaning 
 similarity, see § LXXXVII. . 
 
 (ipm, or (Lp^L^, or (ipbDreo, (?LD, means before. — 
 It is also used absolutely as a conjunction of 
 time, in which case it means formerly, 
 see § LXXXIX. 
 
 iSser, or lSIsotl^, or L5fcDr6or/f, means after, see 
 § LXXXIX. 
 
 ^^, means under, beneath. ) rt YWTV 
 
 Qis^i, means above, over. _ ^ see ^ LAAAIA. 
 
 LotlO, or LDilOm, means until, as far as, see 
 
 §xc. 
 
 u^f)j:n, means other, and with a./^, viz., u^p 
 jpsui, otherivise, is used adverbially, see §XCI. 
 
 is^pp, means likewise other, and is used adjec- 
 tively, see § XCI. 
 
 ^<sS or ^(sPQi^eo, means hereafter, used abso- 
 lutely, see § XCII. 
 
 Q^ir^Lo and Q^/t^ld, mean every one, without 
 exception, see § CXI.
 
 40 JLfijmology. — The Particles. 
 
 ^^Q^sr and ^Qiusr^ are interjections of woe or 
 pify, and answer to our oh ! alas ! see 
 § XCIII. 
 
 <5im}i'h and c^m^isi, mean even if, at least, 
 although:, either, or, &c,, see § CIV. 
 
 7. Besides these there are many words, which, 
 thoiio'h they belono- to other parts of speech, are 
 used as our prepositions, or conjunctions : I there- 
 fore subjoin them here : — • 
 
 i. Infinitives of verbs. 
 
 e^i—, means together, from sh-QQp^, to join. 
 QiLl-, means near, from ^iKBQp^, to approach. 
 p^j, means except, from /eoS^S^^, to separate, 
 
 remove. 
 e^t^i'jj, means also except, from e^i^Qp^, to cease. 
 <sTps(^copiu, means about, nearly, more or less, 
 
 from (5:j)iQp^, to ascend, increase, and (^sap 
 
 Qp.0, to lessen. 
 ^P, means off] fio/n, without, from. ^^Sp^, to 
 
 cease, to be cut of. 
 (^L^, round about, from (^Q^Qp^, to surround. 
 
 ii. Verbal participles. 
 
 (^/5)^^, with the accusative, means concerning, 
 
 about, iY0Yn.(^/B'i9p^, to define, point out. 
 ^,^e^aui&) and ^sor/£), with the nominative, 
 
 mean without, from the irregular negative 
 
 verb @eu. 
 ^b^'si-iTLD^ and d^eor^ w^ith any case, mean 
 
 besides, except, from the irregular negative 
 
 verb ^&o. 
 ^^^^, from (^Q^Qp^. ^ around wdth the ac- 
 «fl?//S, from &f^9p^. y cusative case.
 
 'Etymology . — The Particles. 41 
 
 eSiLQ, fro?}?, with the Accusative case, from the 
 verb eSQ&p^, to leave, 
 
 iii. Subjunctive moods, 
 
 ^<^eO(T(sSLLL^[r&)^ means if not, unless, from ^eo 
 
 and <£.(BQp^. 
 ^(^eb, if] from c^Sp^, to become, 
 ^0jP/LQ. ^ mean, even if^ although, yet, at least, 
 ^i^^il.y from ^Qp^. 
 
 iv. Nouns : 
 
 uBiu^^il, added to a nominative case, means 
 
 until. 
 <aJ6ro/ra9eiJ, the ablative of aJc5w;r, and (aJsro/r<s@LD, 
 
 the dative of the same, mean imtil. 
 ^en<si]^ means u?2til, composed of .^^err©/, a mea^ 
 
 sure, and s-ld, the conjunction. 
 Ldir^^g-il, a measure, means o?ily, 
 ui(i^ib(^, the side, the hip, added to a genitive, 
 
 means, near. 
 QufTQ^^^ time, added to participles, means 
 
 when. 
 
 ^iljQun(L^^ or ^i^Quir^, from Quitq^^^ ti???e, 
 and dv the demonstrative pronominal letter, 
 means that ti?ne, then. 
 
 ^LjQLj/r(i^^, means this ti?ne, then. 
 
 OuiTQ^iKB, raediXi^ for the purpose of , that. 
 
 i-j^<s(5, the dative of t--^, manner, ?neasure, 
 means i?i order to that. 
 
 ^iS^^tl, a sign, o?nen, means /or the sake of. 
 
 e_c_6or, e_^(ooor, means i?n?ncdiatcly. 
 
 ^es)£iuir&), the ablative of the verbal noun ci>/sro<s, 
 
 bei?ig ; literally, /jy being, means therefore, 
 
 Xioherefore. 
 
 C
 
 42 Etymology . — Nouns, 
 
 8. The sixth class contains particles that are 
 merely emphatic, to lengthen the sound ; and are 
 therefore called ^6U)<B'^(5S)pdQjD §^(S6)L-e'Q&sTf:&&r. They 
 are but two, Qpiugj and epQ, and are used only in 
 poetical Tamil. 
 
 9. The seventh class of particles are likewise only 
 emphatic or expletive, and are called «^«5)^ fisG)p^9p 
 ^<oS)i^<3'Q&a n::s&T . Ten of them are used only in 
 poetry with the second person. They are these : 
 
 lSojit^ ^<sil>^ Quhir^ L^^, ^^so)^, ^^ODp^ oiiri^iUy 
 
 The rest are : 
 
 UJ/r, sir, Sp, S.p'S(^, ^Qinr, Quir^ u^ir^, ^(^il>^ 
 ^Gor^j c^iJ3, ^PLB, ^ffCOTj Qimjpi^ ^<sor^. 
 
 Of these, §)(j^^^, ^lL(B, ^il, ^tnl>, ^irdr and ^sSr^ 
 only are used in common language, see § XVI. 5. 
 § LVI. 7. a. f. § ex. § LXVI. 2. 
 
 I would also notice, as belonging to this class, 
 
 ^meudr, (srmusum, ^ecr^, <^<3ti^, which are affixed 
 
 to nouns, and sreorLj^ which is affixed to nouns 
 anc) sentences, see § LXIV. 4, § LXVI. 4, 5. 
 
 10. The eighth class contains particles which stand 
 for marks of certain sounds, such as of thundering, 
 clapping- with the hands, &c. ; they are therefore 
 called @/6!/-JL5«5OTt_<9=Q<ff=/Tsv), such are <^<^, «^j &c. &c., 
 such words may be formed indefinitely to express 
 any sound. 
 
 NOUNS. 
 
 § XIII. 
 
 The Noun is called in Tamil Qu^i^Q&iri). It is
 
 'Etymology. — 'Nouns. 43 
 
 divided by the Native Grammarians into many 
 classes ; which belong rather to Looic than to 
 Grammar. The principal of those divisions is into 
 ^pLJLjuGun-, i. e-y proper nouns; and Quir^uQi^^^ 
 i. e., common nouns. 
 
 1. The 9p^Ju{uQun-^ or proper nonns, imply 
 every specific name, not only of men, but of all 
 other beings, as : s^tr^^dr^ Saffan, Lon-Lc^jil, the ?nango 
 tree, l/sS), a tiger, &JtSljui, a diamond, &c. 
 
 2. The Qun^tlGuj^, or common nouns, include 
 all the rest, as: u^rni^dsr^ a man, lojld, a tree, til^aLD, 
 a beast, <s&), a stone, &c. 
 
 § XIV. 
 
 They further divide all nouns, whether proper 
 or common, into two principal classes, which ex- 
 press their sex or caste, nearly the same as our 
 gender. — The one is a-aj/f^Sscsr, i. e,, high caste, and 
 the other is j^^i^ojS^sssr (^;&)^^s6isr,) i. e., no caste. 
 
 1. The a.aj/r^8sBJsr, or high caste, implies all words 
 that signify men, gods, and infernal spirits, whe- 
 ther male or female, as: ^suuidr, father, iS^ir, 
 
 father y .syaueor, he, Quessr, xcoman, j>jeu^, she, G^eudr^ 
 god, ue'ir^Bf, devil, &c., 
 
 2. The ^o°o fi^sssr, or ?io caste, are all the nouns 
 that are not included in the former class, whether 
 things animate or inanimate, male or female, as: 
 •W.^'j it, 9«^ light, <B^eS, science, .^^^Len^, soul, Lo^nr^y 
 7nind, u^e^eu^^ fish, upssien, fowl, ^^<oS)it, horse, uja'bssry 
 elephant, &c. &c. 
 
 §xv. 
 
 Again, these two principal classes, are subdivid- 
 ed into five smaller, which they call uireo i. <?., purt ; 6^./^. 
 w^hich include our genders and numbers ; they
 
 44 'Etymology , — 'Nouns. 
 
 are ; ^(^une^^ i. e., masniline high caste ; QueSsruir&i, 
 ^. e., fetninine high caste; ueon-LJiiei), i. e., common 
 high caste; (cp<xrpmuirei) i. e., singular of no caste \ 
 ueceSleoTuneb, i. e., the plural of no caste. 
 
 1. The ^.estsTuneo or ?nasculine of hish caste nouns. 
 includes all nouns of the male sex of the class 
 e^uj^^:dcBsr^ in the singular numher, as : ^eu(sur^ he, 
 uieeor, a so?!, L-j0i—(^, a man, G^eudr^ god, &c. 
 
 2. The QLjmr.-jtr<so, i. e., feininine, comprehends 
 all nouns of the female sex of the e-uj/r^, Ssjot, in the 
 sin2;"ular number, as: ^eum^ she, i-D^eerr, daughter, 
 <sio^M, woman, QfeS goddess, &c. 
 
 3. Lj»v/?t_,/r^', i. e., common high caste, includes 
 three kinds of plurals ; — i. The plural of the mascu- 
 line nouns, such as uQF^L^n-, husbands, ii. The 
 plural of the feminine nouns, such as Qugsst^bot, 
 women ; and iii., the plural common to both mas- 
 culine and feminine, e. g. 
 
 jysjj/rasrr, thcy, (male or female.) 
 
 Ln5?jf)^/r=e6n-, persons, do. (the human species.) 
 
 G^euir£,dr^ gods, do. 
 
 4. €p6Drff)oSri_jfrei;, i. e., the singular of no caste nouns, 
 includes all the words of .lyoo/SSszsar in the singular 
 number, as, «si?®, house, ^/r)@, feather, <s^^, knife, 
 jBdiLi, dog, @^q5), bird, &c. 
 
 5 ueo<^<xrun^^ i. e., tlie plural qf no caste nonns, 
 comprehends all nouns oijHoojB^essr in the plural num- 
 ber, as : eS(Sl<s<^, houses, <s^^,s&r, knives, uirilt-jsm, 
 snakes, &c. 
 
 Note. 1. To distinjjuish the nouns in reoard to this division, we 
 n\ust chiefly observe their meaning and not their termination ; for 
 though =s)/«3r usually denotes the masculine, and ^^^ the feminine, yet 
 there are nouns with other terminations, which still belong to the 
 masculine or feminine class, as : 
 
 tSfiir, father, snJ^/fl and Oueikr, a icoman, ($(5, teacher, &c.
 
 "Etymology.- — Nouns. 45 
 
 And on the contrary, there are nouns with the masculine termina- 
 tion that are neuttn as : 
 
 .setDfliLirrevr, an insect^ SL-pstreiriT'^, the sea sponge, ^<4«u«5r, 
 a jackal. 
 Note. 2- The formatiouof the plural number of any un- 4.1) or ^Ssw, is by 
 adding the syllable <««fr to the singular, with due observation of the 
 rules of the chanires and aui>:mentation of letters, thus: 
 
 of iS^rr, father, the plural 
 
 O-sRrr, woman, the plural 
 
 LDii^ li, tree, the plur:il 
 
 .^(ifSK^, an ass, the plur<il 
 
 a?®, a house, the plural 
 
 <seO, a stone, the plural 
 
 fitreir, a day, the plural 
 
 (Si (5, a priest, the plural 
 
 s iSl^rrJ-.s&r, fathers, 
 
 s Ouem-a&T, women. 
 
 s LD3'iE]<s&r trees, 
 
 s <«(ifS5)^<«s?r, asses. 
 
 s eS<^£wT, houses, 
 
 s -s pi sir, stones. 
 
 s piTi—siefr, days. 
 
 s (^(B'^'^'srr, priests. 
 
 If the singular ends in c5r, and the noun is of the s-iun-^:'!eissr class, ear 
 is changed into /r, to which sek may be added, as : 
 
 Ly(T5'_€»r, husband, Lj(i^t—ir or {^(r^'—Fseir, husbands. 
 LEiTjPfi'sar, a man, uj-^sfl^/f or LmSsrr&eir, men. 
 (^LDiriTeir, a son, @/x/r:'^ or (v^Uiirn p'-zi^tt, sons, 
 ^su^ir, he> ^suiT or ^fflj/fc£OT-, <Ae2/* 
 
 But Lo<s«»^, a son, has iasrrn-, sons; which plural, however, is used 
 chiefly in poetry. In common life they use @Lc/rJ/r. 
 
 Again, some nouns of the &.iua^2em take ujirir between the singular 
 and the plural terminations, as : 
 
 ^<suu ear, father, fisuu&n-ixirlfs-efr, fathers. 
 
 Q Lln-f.si&sr ^ teacher, Qurr^setn-Lairnd^m, teachers. 
 
 ^isssressriir, elder brother, the chief, .^easr&ssr^Lair/TS&r, elder 
 
 brothers, superiors' 
 Q^rrifiisr, (t companion, Q ^!yip<^u:i!rn&&r, companion^, so also lSot 
 
 SstTLo/r/f, the caste called Pilley ; ^sairiMfrn-, gentlemen, &c. 
 
 In some words of this sort, i^tra is tixed after the .rsn-, as : 
 
 (^Q^i-setTLaTn-, or with the change of letters (^(Tji^cwruj/r/?, priests. 
 The formation of the plural of pronouns deviates from the general 
 rule, and will be noticed in § XX. 
 
 §xvi. 
 
 In declining Nouns, the Tamulians have eight 
 cases, which they call Q^f^miM\L\(TF)Lj&dr, i. e., forms (P^S7. 
 of changes.
 
 46 Etymology. — Kouns. 
 
 1. The first case, is our nominative, and is called 
 in Tamil, er(L^.<sunLu^ or ^^^^/r, /. e., the begi?uii)i2;, 
 OY the first, the principal. The noun itselfis always in 
 this case without any addition ; as, LLeS^<^, a man, 
 ,BsveS, science, Copnei^, pain, aSoi;, a bow. 
 
 2. The second case is our accusative, and is 
 formed by adding ^ to the nominative ; whence it is 
 called ^(c<sun:>^su)Lo, as : Loesf^^asar, the fnan, •S(^sS6!r.iu, 
 the science, QjsiT<5Siea, the pain, e^sLSso, the bow. 
 
 3. The third case, is our ablative, and has two 
 forms, the one is ^<^, denoting- the instrument 
 or the cause, as : LD(i5sf)^(OT)a), by the inan ; <s<s^6SajiT&), 
 by the science ; G^/rai/r^, by the pain ; eS&)ecireb, by the 
 bow ; the second is, «p®. ^(B, or e.i_(?cor, denoting 
 connexion, as uh<si£i ^Q (^(B , or iM<s£ipQ^(Bj or Lcejjf]^ 
 ^i—G^y with the man, &c. 
 
 4. The fourth case is our dative, and is formed 
 by adding o to the nominative, as, u:><sS.^^&(^, to 
 the man ; <B&)€Si(^, Qp!rens(^^ eS<sv£^<s(^, &c. The 
 inserted e- in u^&fi^^<s^, and in similar nouns, is a 
 e^ir^esiiu, see § XII. 4, used to connect the @ to the 
 mute consonant ; and the duplication of s is made 
 according to the rules of augmentation. 
 
 Some nouns receive ^ also, one of the s^si^squj, 
 before the termination @, as: 
 
 jsn&r^ a day, rsir^'ii^ and jStrtisn^B^. 
 ^6or.^, this day, ^^jff<s(^ and ^i^<siDjD&(^. 
 ^m-£o, that day, ^<^^&(^ and ^dr&^pdf^, 
 creorjjf, ichat day '^ €rmj)i<B(^ and er<xirss)jD<S(^. ■ 
 
 5. The fifth case may be called the ablative of 
 separation or motion ; and is formed by add ing 
 
 ^si) or ^oor to the nominative, as : LatsS^^^yfrom
 
 Ety?7ioIog\}, — ISfouns* 4: J 
 
 atnan ; s&)eSjSs<^, fro??i science ; Qr^irSei)^ from pain ; ®5)^ 
 eSa), from the boiv, &c. Very frequently also, the 
 particle ^(5^^ or ^°orj3/ is added to this case, as : 
 
 u:^^^<5SS([F)^^ or LOi^^afeSsGrj}} ; ,s&jeSiiS,S(T^p^ OF 
 
 <s6v<sSuSl&f:6w^, &c. ; the meaning' is the same. 
 
 6. The sixth case is our genitive, and is formed 
 by adding =p/^, or &.sql-iu to the nominative, as : 
 Lt^&:Pi^^ss>i—uj or uKsi^^-xi^, of a man^ but the former 
 is more common than the latter.* Neuter nouns, 
 particularly such as end in a vowel, take ^oSr (a 
 *=ffrflsrottj) before this termination, thus ; «s^'<29a5',^3j;)/_aj, 
 *B^09u5c3r^, of the science ; Q^!r'S^!55)i—uj^ G^irsSbvr^, 
 of the pain ; eSlebS^es^L^tu, (sSi&xSsor^, of the bow, &c. 
 The termination is sometimes dropped, as: sebSa^dr, 
 
 G^/rsflsor, iS^ireSle^'f &C. 
 
 7. The seventh case, is an ablative of place, and 
 is expressed in poetical Tamil by no less than 28 
 terminations, viz: — 
 
 <s€sstf ts/reu, <ffisc?z_, ^sro^_, ^Ssi), eiiiriij, p,6QSF^ ©joSodt, 
 (Lpsor, ff^an', ajgOLD, ^l..lc>, (dldsi), b j^, L/ero/— , (Lppeo^ 
 lSsot, l-iitQ, J^^rr, G^m, &,<oS)l^, eui^, S-ejfl, ^i^t 
 
 All these words severally are equivalent to at or 
 ?Vz, when used as forms of this case ; however, only 
 ^a), and ^L..isi^ and this declined ^i-^^^, are in 
 common use; which also may receive the e^niflsc^oj, 
 
 ^<osr^ thus: LDOsfl^szjf'ia!, u^a^l^mli—^^eo, or LDCsP^i&or 
 
 «6(sssr, &c., at or in the man ; <ssv(aS,u9&)y -B^jeSiL^cx^ii-.^ 
 ^eii, <ffi6?)®9u5ec7-£6iRjr, at or in the science, &c. 
 
 * Some have used also s-i— for the jj^enitive case, as: lc ssfl/^ .gu ;_ , 6i:c-, 
 but it is obviously a corruptioa of s-enL-uj, aud uot authorized by the 
 rules of grammar.
 
 43 'Etymology,— 'Nouns. 
 
 8. The eifrhfh case is our vocative, and is called 
 in Tamil (^is^CcsufjpissuM^ i. e.^ mode of cal liner. 
 The most common Ibrm is that of adding the parti- 
 cle <5T to the nominative, as : LDs?5R,eG«jr, O man I 
 iS&yeSQuj, O science ! lcht^sstCSlo, O death ! &c. 
 
 Besides this, there are various other forms part- 
 ly in common use, partly peculiar to Poetical Ta- 
 mil, viz: — 
 
 i. The nominative of any noun may be used as 
 a vocative. This however is ambiguous. 
 
 ii. If a noun end in ^, this short vowel may be 
 changed into the long one, as: /5ldl5-;5ldlS', O Lord! 
 «9=/7-^^-#/r^^, O Satee, ^ldlS-^lqu, O wasp ! 
 
 iii. Words ending in ^, change this vowel into 
 
 ,^(u or ^, as : ^^tsst-^&s^ ^lu , or ^&s(^, O mother ! 
 p^sQp-p^^snu, O father / eSli—dso-isSlL-eOftiLj, O king / 
 u:>i-.^ss)^-mL-^^aiLij O woman! j5(r(oO!r-j5[{3-iHU, O 
 heron ! 
 
 iv. Words ending in ecr, form the vocativ^e vari- 
 ously, (1) by dropping the eer, as: ^ss^peisdi-^mpe^}, 
 O king ! ^n-^m-fin^y O lord ! ^G/sQ^dr-QQ^Q^, (2.) 
 by lengthening the last vowel, as : QuQ^u^<xr-Qu(T^ 
 
 LD/rsSr, O thou great one ! ^lqljsot. ^Lhiunm-, O 
 
 Siven ! (3-) by dropping .jveer, and adding .^, as : 
 ^<5i5ip3ii^T-^66)psnir O kino' ! (a^iTL^m-Q^friprr^ () con/pa- 
 vion ! (4.) by dropping ^^ and adding ^Qeua, as : 
 
 ^luiLim-j^iLJ'dJiiQ^iiiT ^ O sir ! j>jLliLj(5sr-jfjLJLJirQeuir^ O 
 
 father ! (5.) by dropping ear, and adding <^^ as : ^5©/r 
 
 flL/6or-^S25)/raj(offl-'/r, O Tireiycn! QuQ^LairtoVir-QLJ(y^LD(ceuiT^ O 
 
 thou orreat one ! (6.) by changing ew into ilj, as : lc^Sso 
 uj!T<ocr-u^3?})ajniLj, O mountaineer ! uj^c^i^-uj^i^iu, O Poo- 
 nan! (J-) by changinof the last syllable .i^eor into 
 (^Qiu, as : ean i^eondi-sun uS^Q^itnQiu^ O possessor of a gate !
 
 Tjfymology . — Nouns. 
 
 49 
 
 (8.) by chano'ing- c^sor into cj, as : (1^(75 ssDr-^Lp^G^, 
 O Soopra/nauian / ^a_<so7-^G'aj, O father / O sir ! 
 
 9- The <e'/r/floD)[L,'-^Gor, and also =s^sor, may be insert- 
 ed before the termination of any case, the vocative 
 excepted ; particularly in words that do not end in 
 
 6or; e. ^.j s&o^; 2d case cSgioSaSSsjsr, <ffiffufflStt5;^aJ, &&i 
 
 eSij^G;Qj(B, &c. — The dative case may then be 
 either ^^<sq^ or ^/(^, contracted, according- to 
 the rules of changes of letters, from ^'^(^, thus : 
 
 10. In tbrming the cases the common rules of 
 chang-es and augmentation of letters are observed, 
 as before exemplified in «e^@^, which inserts uj, ac- 
 cording to rule, § VIII. 2, Qptr^, which drops a., 
 according to rule, § VII ] , eS^s which doubles the 
 mute consonant according to rule, § VIII. 4- 
 
 1 1 . The same forms of the cases are used also in 
 the plural number, as will be seen from the fol- 
 
 lowing 
 
 PARADIGM 
 
 Of the Tamil Declension' 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Ist, Nom. LDSisfl^ss^. a man. 
 2d, Ace. LDsufl/SesT, a man. 
 3d, Abl, iQstr. LQsa? j;(g)«i) by a 
 
 man. 
 Al)l. Soc. LDsf!p_#(?(2) i) 
 with a man, 
 4th, Dat. LQser^ ^i(3 to a man. 
 
 5th, Abl. mot. 
 
 or L0»3fl_cF(SBfl»a^. 
 
 or Las^^^<eit(<r)^^ 
 or LQ 6bF ^ Sfffi SBD *ar ^V . 
 
 
 from a man 
 
 LdsSs^iT or Las<^ ^iTss^ men. 
 LDst^f&nr or lj:6!# j^/f^&rr, ?ne7i. 
 U)5rf^J/r«i) or Lii^fir'S^&nreOt by 
 
 men. 
 LQs3?«C/rjr® OT meef^iTsQsrrT^, 
 
 with men. 
 
 or LaerA',s:.n-£(S(f)i,(_f, or ' to men, 
 
 LLssV s^ S\eii or LdsiS/^lT 
 
 LOssi'i^if'&eSeiin^ ^. 
 
 ] 
 
 from meti' 
 
 H
 
 no 
 
 Hfymoloory. — Isfouns* 
 
 6th, Genitive, ~\ 
 
 or la-jS ^esr ^. J 
 
 of a man. 
 
 7th Abl. loc. Lo«! 
 
 eSu^^^ed (at or in, 
 
 or U3gafl^ffijr<£c!efr ^ a man. 
 
 or UD Sofl^ 55? si) . 
 
 8th, Voc. LB^sS^Qesr., O man! 
 
 I 
 
 S' 
 
 £(6«,B!»i_UJ, La ssf: fi fi & eS i 
 
 meSj^flL— ^^ei or ai-5Bf^ ^ 
 
 orin 
 
 em oS! dE iSBW LD 
 
 tflstffl^G/r or LT^ei^fin-sQeir, men! 
 
 Note. — Accordino- to the Latin form, it will be thus; 
 
 Nom. 
 (Jen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 Voc. 
 Abl. 
 
 Singtika: 
 
 1st, LD sttf^SW. 
 
 -lU 
 
 4lh, 
 
 La slB ^ ear ^ , 
 
 LCiSSV^^a,C$. 
 
 2d, LL&:r. ^^ssr- 
 8th, Lnes? fQear, 
 5Ul, ua ■'■'■■:> ^aff&>, 
 
 LC> a.'fl^ tK.'* si;" (tK^ ^ 
 LD ssf ^ Sl^eafl our jp;. 
 7 th, LQ^V'V SST'i-^^, «>. 
 
 -instr. Sd, Lossf^^ei). 
 -Soc- 3d, LDo-sr^G (2)(?i— . 
 
 -loc. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 LD eaP. s^ n' s srr ' 
 
 LQ asTt ^ /? <S (6J fflO L_ lU » 
 
 LDsatt Si[T si&^s^ . 
 
 m ^sp s= fT <s G sir . 
 LaeSsiT^seifiw, 
 LdBirfi^/f =SE stflsar. 
 LLeS^nseSeSlQ^fi^' 
 Lc^eS J /f cS etfi sof( iSBT ^ . 
 Laser ^ IT ■3>eS L^^^ei, 
 
 LQSsfi ,F/f <S OTSO. 
 
 to sirf) ^ /f <s 6tfl «5Dr <iE laJsr. 
 
 LQ Sijfl =ff /f <S SIT T «l) . 
 
 Loee^^if'sQiofnTG L—- 
 
 12. All nouns are declined as iMssPi^eor^ with the 
 following exceptions: — 
 
 i. Nouns endino- in .^^^ drop this syllable in the 
 sino'ular cind add the ^/r/flejoaj, {^p^) before the 
 tenninations ; excepting- the vocative, as : 
 
 Si?i!2;i{/ar 
 
 1st, LDiTLD, a free. 
 
 2d, Lxm^ss)^ or i-Dj^F'SsOT, o/^ a tree Loo-fi^^ 
 3d, LDjf^[r(^ or LDir^^(eff)®i, />?/ rt ^ree, &c. 
 Lo IT ^5(p^n(B or LOO ^kQ^iB^ zvifh a tree. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Ldinhsm frees. 
 
 hs}i
 
 Htymology. — N'ouns. 51 
 
 4th, Ln3-^^&(^ or i-DiT^^f(^, fo a free. 
 
 5th, iM[r^^sv or iM!j^^oi£i&),J^ro)}i a free. 
 
 6th, LB [f ^ ^ ^)<5ni-iu of a free. 
 
 7th, Laj^^6t^'u.^^&), af a free. 
 
 8th, is^aQis^^Ofree ! 
 
 The Plural is LBuihs^, &c. 
 
 ii. Nouns ending in and jpt, preceded only by 5^ 
 
 one syllable with a long vowel, or preceded by 3 
 more than one witli short vowels, have the tl and 
 
 / doubled before the addition of the terminations, ^ 
 
 excepting the vocative case, and the plural num- ? 
 
 ber, as: ^ 
 
 a?3, a house, (ajtlsro^ or (a?Ll^3ssr, ^tLL^irei] OV i 
 
 6Sl1l^^&), &C. Is 
 
 ^..sa, a river, .^fes^p or ^frSdssr, ^f (^&) or ^p x 
 
 /S^aJ, &c. \ 
 
 P'B®, a flat mefal plate, ^stl.6QL- or ^•Bu-i^tm', 
 
 ^eiLL-n&) or p&il.L^.m)eci, 8zc. ^i* 
 
 aioS^, fhe abdomen, euaSpssip, &jiiSlp^,2etsr, euuSlp 
 
 0eo or alaS//)^es)<^■, &c. 
 But the plural is eS^^&r^ aTSsSsir^ &C., cg^J3/fiOT. 
 
 ^^sdsd, &C. 
 
 13. There is a general oblique case, formed with- 
 out the regular terminations ; and used either as 
 the 6th or as the 7th case. — One Ibrm is by adding 
 only the <tfinfl&r>iu ^fo-or, as : 
 
 eij irSQiju^^iiowQufrQ^Grr^ the suhsfance or sense of 
 
 a verse. 
 L^ejsSeor sL/eKjresjsrm, fhe colour ojfhe grass. 
 
 Another form takes place in nouns ending with 
 ui, by changing it into the ^n^^iu, ^i^^, and in
 
 52 JEfi/?}?ology. — Pronouns. 
 
 nouns endiiio- with ® and ^ (mentioned above), by 
 doubling the consonant of those final letters, as : 
 
 (^is^^s'ffiTUjSy), the likness of the face. 
 >sntL(BsuL^, the zvay of, or throu2;h a jungle. 
 ejii5/ j^/ajsS, pain of or in the abdomen. 
 
 Again, other nouns in ls^ only drop the last let- 
 ter, as : 
 
 ui&siQjrnei^^ distress of mind, or mental distress. 
 G^GiJ^ili-^, the command of G od, or the divine 
 command. 
 
 Again, nouns ending in a vowel receive no altera- 
 tion, as : 
 
 ^^Qi5tr<s^, head-ache. 
 
 ^i1lSss>m, the hand of the younger hrother. 
 
 er(L^^^^H&(rjTUi, tlie chapter of letters. 
 
 Some of these forms are often used thus : 
 
 .p/^Qj/rz^, the sea of virtue, composed of ^pu^ 
 
 and ^L^. 
 Ljaf<Bu.&}, the sea of milk, of uit&) and <sl.&). 
 ,B=LDiT^[rm&(sijH=Qii,u:>^ the happiness of peace, or 
 
 peaceful happiness. 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 § XVII. 
 
 What we call Pronouns the Tamil Grammarian 
 
 classes with the nouns. They are divided into ^<^ 
 
 (^.S^- ^LnuQun-i=Q<9=ir&), i. e., nouns referring to ourselves, — -
 
 Etymology. — Pronouns, 
 
 53 
 
 Qpm^.^LjQLji^&Qs^t^<^, i.e., nouns referring to per-(^S'A. 
 sons standing; before us; — LJL-^<ssD&i-jQui^i<ffii&)j 
 i. e., nouns referring to persons or things at a distance ; (^-^O- 
 eSt^,iliCsLuffs--G)ffn6v. i. e., nouns of interrogation ; .£/■ 
 and (r<sss^GsS\^QLj^k^&n<5^^ i. e., nouns of number. — <!^. S^. 
 What we denominate " person," the Tamulians call 
 ^t-th, i. e., place; and thus: 
 
 Thejirst person is called ^eOT(oz»LDu5/_tx). 
 
 The second person is called (Lpdrc^iSsouSi—il ; and 
 
 The third person is called ui—^'i€S)<sitSii—iM. 
 
 These three together they call ^<s3i-.tl ; /. e., the (fh.7^ 
 three places. 
 
 § XVIII. 
 
 The ^<5S7 62j)LDa9^^^L;C?t_i/rcFQ(F/r^i ; ?'. e., words o/'^.vf2- 
 the first person., are ;snm or a-fr-sor, I, in the singular ; 
 and jBnih or lunth, and ^irih&dr, we, in the plural. 
 They are thus declined : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1st, jsrrear., J, 
 
 2d, «ra.. ?sjr, 7ne. 
 3d, fiT£B7-(g)!;i), by me. 
 
 (sraB-G(SB) 9, with me. 
 4th, (srearsi^, to me. 
 5th, OTwsrfa), or 
 
 GT sir eif, ei! (^ 
 
 CBT" ssr ^t . 
 6th, eresr or 
 OTaw^, or 
 
 7th, <sr«oris!mz_#SeO, > . 
 or OTSoresiisO. / 
 
 I. 
 
 s 
 
 from me. 
 
 > of me, 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 or 
 
 OT SOT 6!>T loO ^ 
 
 Plural, 
 
 JSmh, or ^n-iKJSsrr, we. 
 
 jSLGeaua or otB'SSeit, 7/4-, 
 
 jSdbLLired or icT m^s en !r ei) ., hy its. 
 
 ^u-Qinir® or STfs«(oSTrfr®, z^i7/i MA"- 
 
 JSua^C'^ or OTfE;<«(25£:^j ^0 l/«. 
 
 ^tiufisi) or sr/B^eifei. '^ 
 ^U)uilsL)i(3^^ or OT/B*sffl 
 
 or ST lEi s eiH asfl^ loBT ^ 
 
 jEUi or <sr^&&r. 
 
 JBlqS^ or si iej sen- _ffi^ ^~. qf US. 
 
 jSihci^esii—iu orsriEi'SfSt^smu.iu, J 
 
 jBLbiBi-^^-^ei or STihJSeSu- \ 
 
 ^^&>, /LCL^eO or sriEja f i/?. Of 
 
 cfPffl), ^tjbaS6Ji"<fi<5»r or i ai us 
 
 //o/n M*. 
 
 ^/ 
 
 3
 
 5-4 Efi/mology. — Pronouns. 
 
 Observe the difference between jsnu^ and ^ir&'S^. 
 ^rnl implies yourself and the person or persons to 
 whom you speak, but !snth&&r excludes the latter. 
 — The Tamulians in Ceylon seem not to observe 
 this difference, otherwise it is adopted throu2;-hout 
 the Tamil and Telooo'oo countries ; thouo-h the na- 
 tive Grammars do not mention it. — In Government 
 proceeding's jbplL always means z^e, i. e., the person 
 who zvrites the order. 
 
 § XIX. 
 
 (J^'SS- 1. The (;u:5sor(5cfI^L)tt5/L,.^^^Lj(?i_.'/r<g=Q,g=fr^, z. c, w^ords 
 
 of the second person are ^, thou, in the singiilar, 
 and ;ffa«err ^^ou, in the plural. — They are thus de- 
 clined : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 1st, ^ thou- ^iis&r, you. 
 
 2d,' e_--^?«ir, thte. S-iki&l^, ^ you. 
 
 3d,' &-^&^, b:^ thee. ^msen-msi, hy you- 
 
 ^s;rG@)1?, ic'dk thee. e-iwsGeirjr®, ' with you. 
 
 4ib, £.6OTii*., to thee. P_E/«©i(5, to you. 
 
 5Ui' fe.^ssfi^ or ) e_rojJ)«o, ^ 
 
 ' e_6^»-rf«5)c5 f/-^„w/,.. ^iwaeSei!(<^^^, \ from you. 
 
 «;fi«.-OT^, 
 
 s 
 
 ^esv^, \ of thee. e_E/«s»r^, V 0/ you- 
 
 .,( 
 
 a.a ,^ff<!)i_ttj, J e-/EJ#(S5 
 
 e_ /EJ # (Sff. am i— lU . 
 
 7th, ^^^6^L-S^^^-0,) ^fhSsfiu.^^.^, 
 
 B.s^«fl0i), /a7//iee ^E)««fl«i>, } in, or at you. 
 
 E_6w-<2;ss)T, 3 e_/B<ss(flew-.£eB!(r 
 
 S(f?« 
 
 2. ^ra^srr, besides being- used simply as a plural, 
 is also applied to a single person, as an honorific 
 by inferiors to superiors. When equals address
 
 'Etymology . — Pronouns, 55 
 
 each other poUtely they use ^a-, which is thus de- 
 chned : 
 
 1st, /r. 
 2d, e-txeoLD, 
 3d, S-il'-arreO, 
 
 4th, e_i-o<f^, 
 5th, s-ttiSei 
 
 S—LC^iM otff. 4Jr ^ . 
 
 6th, e-LD^', 
 
 7th, ^-d.L£L—i:0ei>^ 
 
 § XX. 
 
 1. The LJL^n-sGQsiliQt-in-ff-Qe'ff&o, i. e., nouns i^eferring (M-S^- 
 tothe persons or things of ivhichioe speaks are mascu" 
 linCi feminine and neuter. — They are the same as 
 the demonstrative Pronouns, called in Tamil &lL(B 
 uGu^; — and are of two sorts, the one pointing* out 
 the remote person or thino-, and the other that 
 which is near or before us. They are formed of the 
 demonstrative letters ^i and ^ with the termina- 
 tions civfeOT, ^OT- and ^, thus: 
 
 
 thou 
 
 or you. 
 
 
 thee 
 
 or yoit. 
 
 
 by thee 
 
 or you. 
 
 
 with thee 
 
 or you. 
 
 
 to thee 
 
 or you. 
 
 > 
 i 
 
 from th 
 
 ee or you- 
 
 t 
 s 
 
 of thee 
 
 or you 
 
 
 in, or at thee, or yoU' 
 
 1 The nmote demonstrative Pro- 
 
 > noun';, or pointing out the absent 
 3 person or thinu,-. 
 
 !Deinoiistrati\ 
 inii' out the p 
 tiling-. 
 
 ^euew he, or that man- 
 
 ^eu&r, she, or that woman. 
 
 -^^'j it, or that thing. 
 
 ^ffljiur^ Af, or this man. 1 Demonstrative pronouns point- 
 
 ^susff, she, or /his woman. ^ in^i' out the present person or 
 
 ^^', it, or this thing- 
 
 2. The masculine and feminine of these pro- 
 nouns are declined, as Lcis3f/y<50T, thus : 
 
 I'he Singular. 
 
 Ist, ^sussT, ^ffljear, /le, .^everr, fJsusJr, she. 
 
 2d, =&,'aj269r, ^aj2«r, /am, ^^ajSwr, ^'au?6ifr, Aer, &C,
 
 56 Etymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 The Plural of both genders is the same, viz., 
 
 1st, ^aj/r, or ^eun-s&r, those ; ^evir, or ^emrs&r, these men or 
 
 womeU' 
 
 2d, cjya/6»r, or =syaj/f<s26w, /Ao«e; @aj«o/r, or ^euas^tsn, these men or 
 
 womeii. 
 
 3. ^suff-si^^ is more commonly used as the plu- 
 ral ; and both ^enn- and ^■surf&^, are also used by 
 inferiors as honorifics, when speaking- of superiors, 
 or by any person when speaking of another respect- 
 fully. 
 
 4. The Neuter Pronoun is thus declined : 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1st, -sv^, that, ^j^ this. 
 
 2d, ^«r>/?, or ^f'^ssr, that, ^es>s:, or @/2e»r, this. 
 
 3d, ^^^e^, or <s>if(^eo, by that, ^^©ej or ^*©«&, hy this. 
 
 4th, ^^i®,or^^A5, ; ^/^;,,^ ^^f.'-^, or ^^p^, or J 
 
 or ^^fi-cs S ^y;p@ S 
 
 5lh, ^^ci), or =S/SaTr?a). >. -^ 
 
 or =iv#e!jPel) or I from @^<a), ^^«afl*'), @^6sP<^, f /rom 
 
 # ^^^J@sii—uu or ^fM 
 ~ . of that, 6s>!—uj or ^^*ar or ^^ ^ of this. 
 
 6th, ^^^«!!)'—tu or 
 
 -sy^«i>. 5 fli/Aa^. ^^=«^^^^«^> ^^^. ^ at this.
 
 Hfijmology. — Pronouns. 
 
 ^7 
 
 
 ■10 
 
 
 
 4J 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I- ■>• 
 
 O 2 
 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 1 ® 
 o H 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 © 
 
 i © 
 
 ■Si 
 
 °3 I) ©o 'S ^^ 
 § § § S 3 9 3 
 
 i i 
 
 (a (a 
 
 3 
 J 
 
 J 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ '^ 
 
 a^ 
 
 S § 3 i 9 
 
 O O 
 
 "««j to 
 
 I ^• 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 •♦0 
 
 4) 
 Co 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 paJ''^-\ 
 
 o 
 
 
 § o 
 
 a- „ 
 
 © D 
 
 6)^ 
 
 
 § 3 g S ^ (i 
 
 1^ 
 
 I'- 
 
 (3 O 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 ^ a 
 
 = ©I 
 
 •ci .e,\_ 'Ev. 
 
 
 " to 
 
 3 
 
 J 
 
 . 3 
 
 a 
 § 
 
 i ^' j ! I 
 ^ - - i s ^ 
 
 a 
 
 CO "C 
 .-I CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 i^
 
 58 Hfymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 Note 1st. — ^su^Ssmp aad ^sufioop, &c., are formed of the demon- 
 strative letters eSy aad ^, of <s^p^, one of the .ff=(riflss)iu, and of the 
 termiaatiou. 
 
 Note Sd — The • Inral of ^^ and @^ has by some been stated to be 
 ^^sar and @^<s6n-; but the native Grammars do not authorize it. 
 
 5. The demonstrative letters dy and ^, are also 
 prefixed to any noun, of whatever number, gender, 
 or case. If the noun beoins with a consonant, this 
 is doubled after =p/ and ^ ; but if it begins with 
 a vowel, those letters are united to it by the letter 
 aj doubled, as: 
 
 ^LDLDssP^sor, M«f /??^7z, ^fisLfflczsR^fe^, this man. 
 
 ^•Bsireuui, that time, ^is/reoo), this time. 
 
 eS)/ajffl^/f , that vi//age, ^aja^/f, this village. 
 
 ^eumireoujLi^^ that temple, ^dj'Siiaeotutli, this temple. 
 
 ^djsSSso^s&r^ those leaves, ^w(sS3sO&&r, these leaves. 
 
 6. ^,pp and ^^p are also demonstrative pro- 
 nouns, and are prefixed as adjectives to any noun, 
 when the usual rules of the increase of letters must 
 be observed. — They are called in Tamil <mil-(BuQu 
 Qni^fftl; i. e-i defective demonstrative nouns, because 
 they do not in themselves point out any particular 
 person, number, gender, or case, and cannot there- 
 fore be used by themselves, as : 
 
 ^^^s^Co^Ssd, that cloth, ^^^^^[rs£.iutx>, this grain. 
 ^^0Q<si}^&%, that light, §)n^^Su.il, this place. 
 ^^^^imSfi), that mountain, ^^^i^u&siji, this side. 
 ogy^^ffijL^^srr, those ways, ^^^<s£s^^3&r, these knives* 
 
 7- A third form of indefinite demonstrative pro- 
 nouns is o^feorew and ^sorew, which mean such, or
 
 Hfymology. — ProJiouns* 59 
 
 such like, when the usual personal terminations are 
 affixed. They also form nouns, and are then re- 
 gularly declined, as : 
 
 ^«Dr|g)<5or, such a man, ^m^^, such a man. 
 ^<h<^<^, such a ivoman, ^'x^^<sk, such a woman. 
 ^<5or&sr^^ such a thing, ^m-sar^^ such a thing. 
 
 The word, g)^^6sr, is also used adjectively, and 
 thus prefixed to any noun, as : 
 
 ^GoroorLDOTsR^ecr, such a man. 
 ^&or«jrQi„.(SKjr, such a ivomcin. 
 
 It is then commonly doubled, as : 
 
 ^eorsoreSeoroorLcissfl^eor, such and such a man. 
 
 ^dr&areSto^&sfQi-jiTQ^'^, such and such a thing. 
 
 ^<i^6ar(cStm<S(5J6urrn-^S!D^<sdr, SUch and SUch Words. 
 
 8. TheTamulians have also a reciprocal pronoun 
 referrino;- to the ut-n-sssieuGt-in-, or third person, viz., 
 ^irioar, himself and herself; and ^iT^<sm and ^/riii, 
 themselves. They are thus declined :
 
 60 
 
 JLtymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 ■vS 
 
 5J 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 1 
 ■3 -3 
 
 <3 
 9 
 
 '3 
 
 © 
 3 
 
 
 >-3 
 
 3 
 J 
 
 I -g 3-3 
 
 •3 3 
 
 ■a 
 s 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 3 
 
 J 
 
 § O © ^ ^ •^' I) 
 
 « Is ^ 18 le t? i« 
 
 o@ .@ •§ •§ eg 
 
 '«t '^ 'Sl "^v. '^ *L •*>. 
 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 ■So 
 
 
 -3 
 
 
 herself 
 &c. 
 
 
 himself 
 
 himself, 
 J... 
 
 >< 
 
 g 
 o 
 
 V 
 
 55 
 O 
 
 cc 
 
 G ^t „fc tK 
 
 l«\. «L *l "^l 
 
 © J "^ 
 
 »^ CN CO 
 
 
 
 J3
 
 Etymology . — Pronouns. 6l 
 
 Observe that the phiral ^ir&^B&r, is used as an 
 honorific, when an inferior speaks to a superior, 
 as: ^ir&&&iQs'trm(5!^r^&r ; i. e., you said. 
 
 psrisi^ is used also as an honorific among equals, 
 or when a superior wishes to honour an inferior, 
 as: ^nil^uLJif.<g-Q£'LuiuGsiJGssT(bhli^ you must do so. 
 
 § XXI. 
 
 1. The <^^uQuffS'Qff!r<^^ i. e., interrogative pro- d^-S^- 
 noun, is formed by the letters, er and lutr with the 
 usual personal terminations, as : 
 
 crsjjssr or uj/rsusBr, who? what man? 
 <srei}<^ or luireum-^ zoho ? what woman ? 
 er^ or \uw^^ which? what thing? 
 
 The Plural is : 
 
 ereijn-<Bdr or lufrm^, who ? xvhat men or women ? 
 erissieu or ojflsroai, which? zvhat tilings ? 
 
 The declension is like ^©jsct^ ^qjot^ ^-^^ ^jsu^^^ 
 and ^moi, see § XX. 
 
 Note 1. — uurrsu^, is frequently contracted into lufrir, which, common 
 use again has changed into ^f, see § IX. 6, i. 
 
 Note 2. — For (sreun-s&r, also OTaur is used of a single person as an 
 honorific ; like =gyau/f, which, see § XX. 
 
 2. The interrogative letter sr, is like the demon- 
 stative letters ^ and ^, prefixed to any nouns 
 and means what ? as : 
 
 cTLDiiCssfl^eDT, what man ? 
 
 <srL£)Lx>(^i^n-<B<^^ what men ? 
 
 eruuili^mLh, zvhat city ? 
 
 crajffi^/f, zvhat village ? 
 
 er^<su<oS)s^&r^ zvhat kinds?
 
 62 Etymology* — Pronouns* 
 
 3. Instead of the simple letter ^ the adjective 
 form <cr^^ is al?o used in interrogatively, and pre- 
 fixed to nomislike ^^^ and ^^^, (see § XX. 6.; as : 
 
 <Er;5^L£.<53f)^fcor^ whttt man? 
 
 €T^^uS<^'bsfT^ what child? 
 
 cr/^Q^ei)^, what rice OY paddy ? 
 
 <sr^^<B(a<B(T(c^eb^ what temple? 
 
 (srps^a, what village? 
 
 4. Of the interroQ;-ative letter <sr are also formed 
 the common interrogative pronouns (sreor, CTeor^or, and 
 ereDrSOT, meanino' what? and again of 'sreorour, is form- 
 ed ersorsora/r/L.', how? used adverbially; likewise, 
 with the &n^m\u^ {^^^.) 
 
 er^ssrpsiD^ ivhat? ersk&sr^^i^GeO^ by what? treor 
 6or^^<s@, to what? or, for what? 
 
 Note — errand Gujo^, have been used for srsSr j and eresreerLiiiTiLj, 
 for sTiirssrsufriu ; but whicli is .ncorrect. 
 
 5. When the particle 2_t£i, is added to any in- 
 terrogative noun, it changes the interrogative into 
 an affirmati\'e, with a sense of completion. 
 
 eroj^LB-aj/rssj^jt^, every man. 
 
 cra/(«T5LD-aj/rsu(si^LD, every woman, 
 
 (cT^^iM-uaeuLh, every thins. 
 
 crsu/f ^(sr^Lo-iL/Taj^Lo, all men or women ; whosoever. 
 
 er<s^euiLjil-iuiT6oisuiLiily all things whatsoever. 
 
 The singular of this form however, is not much in 
 use. When they are declined, the e-ii is always 
 put after the case, as : (sraj^^Ssrr/L/ii), luireuminqil^ lunen 
 
 f^SS>IDlL{ll^ Sec.
 
 Etymology. — Pronouns. 63 
 
 6. The addition of ^Q .2>ld, or .^(OT),^ld, to either 
 sing-ular or plural, s^iv-. sto these pronouns an inde- 
 finite or exceptive sense tuus : 
 
 cr(su;S3)0jjjiLD, any one man ^ 
 cTQjerr/rSjj^Lb, any one woman ^ of many. 
 (oT^irQ^Lh, any one thing j 
 
 Thus, also, (STL/LjLl^L^oT^yjLD, every city. 
 
 <criliuil.i^<xf&]&^u:^^ all cities xvhat soever . 
 <Er<ij6ii(ss)&q[li, every, or whatever kind. 
 er(sijsi}<oS)&<s(^u^, all kinds zvhatsoever. 
 (sr§^LCiaPi^im)Si^LCi, any man (ofmany.) 
 erp^L£i(T^<su:i(rf^)mi]LQ, any beast f of many.) 
 <or^pLJLjp<5s-jei}-3<ort it (^ jjii ld, any birds (of many . J 
 
 In declining- such nouns, the characteristic of the 
 case is put between the noun and e-ld or ^^0 Jifixi, as : 
 
 ua, &C. 
 
 § XXII. 
 
 1. The £T(SOTst5sfloor(?t_//f, /, e., nouns of numbers, with i/j^^- 
 their appropriate characters, or sig-ns are these : 
 
 epetsT^ s: 1 
 
 ^iTessT® e_ 2 
 
 ^est ^ . ■ . • . ■, ffil 3 
 
 jsirjsj or jBfriosr(^ ^ 4 
 
 Si^^, vulgiirly ^'(£V © 5 
 
 <^ ^ Sir 6
 
 04: Etymology. — Pronouns, 
 
 «^C^ cr 7 
 
 ertl® ^ 8 
 
 ^e^u^ Si, 9 
 
 LJ^^J •• < (») 10 
 
 l-/^G)©65r^ „j^ J J 
 
 Weir sS !i essr® u32_ J2 
 
 LJ^d-^sar^ (jflS 13 
 
 LJ^g^eBTj^ j^^ 24 
 
 &c. &c- 
 
 u^Oj?(r&ru^ lOsi, 19 
 
 |)C5^^ e-iO 20 
 
 ^ri^uiOfiir^^ e_<s 21 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Qpuu^ flSiO 30 
 
 QpuusiO^n-ssT ^ /RiE 32 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 jFrrpu^ ^,(0 40 
 
 ^^u^ @,0 50 
 
 ^^u^ rfrwO 60 
 
 (sr(if:-/^ (bTiO 70 
 
 ereik^^ ^.0 QO 
 
 O/rrmr^iir^ Si.tO QQ 
 
 OfiirA ^tirpQ(yr)<m- ^ ^« g ^ 
 
 &c. &c 
 
 .SW^^r ffT ] 00 
 
 .^^©{vpear^ ....•••• ta s 10[ 
 
 ^-vpiJJSiKjr® ffre- 102 
 
 ,^p^QP&sr^ •••• KTOh 103 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 .SIT p ju'^u ^ ^ , ..... ................ m-ii) 1 10 
 
 .girpp'^u^ flTe_ii) 120 
 
 ,gir p^Qfii^u^ /tt/Rh) 130 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 ^(i^^sir^ s-fir 200 
 
 (rp^.sir.^ "n iT 300 
 
 ^ire^^ cF/rr 400 
 
 g/.5/r ^j; ••••.. (g.TT 500 
 
 ^^fi^gJT ^ ^ <S-rrrfT 600 
 
 cifxp^S""^ <iT/rr 700 
 
 sressr^iir ^ =^iTr 800 
 
 O^iTstrstriruSlJ it <Bi.tT 900 
 
 0^iT&rs;rmi3sr sO^rrear j}j , si,(as 901 
 
 O f^rrarentrnSo'^^SexriSl ...*..... Si>itT£L. 902 
 
 "&e. &c. 
 
 ^,uJ)jii) •• ^ 1000 
 
 ^lu 3^ ^O^' irm ^ ..-■•.,•.•• ^ji* lOOi 
 
 &c &c.
 
 'Etymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 65 
 
 sS^uSsr^^uu^^ ■ •••• ^''^ 
 
 ^tiSljJ^^C^u^ ........ ^a-u) 
 
 &c- &c> 
 
 ^nSIJT^O;Sir(i^,Sirjv a ••• ^"^ 
 
 ^tiSlir^^Q.ffirj}j ^a_/Tr 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 @ jgNiTf—fruJlirLO or fp JTilSIjlc , . . . ...... e-^ 
 
 QpsulTllS^lh *"^ 
 
 jBrreoiTiiSlsrii "^^ 
 
 ^luirnSljTiIi ,,..,. ...... ®^ ■ 
 
 ^(IT)\l3 !T ih ...... Sh-^ 
 
 ^LprraSs'iL •.*..• ^^ 
 
 cr is»r(«Wi nil J LO , .......... «^^ 
 
 ep6ku^(ea)uSIJT til sh^ 
 
 u^C2)i<Jli^ (ii "^^ 
 
 ^(^u^(^a3JTiii ,. s_"3^ 
 
 (T^LJLJ^®ilJ)jlil • »iO^ 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 O^tressr^iin^S^LD ...-. Si-ii)^ 
 
 _g!r;fr)iiSffLD or '^eOc^J^ih .« '"'^ 
 
 ^(^,^(n)a3sr ih or ^!i'smi^ec£'<FLD ...... s-fir^ 
 
 &c. &c. 
 ^if ^^ &}£=£= i2i or QstTi^ »t»m ■ • 
 
 2. The fractions are thus expressed : 
 
 Qfi^^S\ ^^ 
 
 ^es>fr&<sires!ifl ...... .... re) 
 
 «ffi n'ejrafl ................ ............ <5 
 
 ^esuTLHir ...... <3^ 
 
 QpssiTsmi •».... •*..•• .... ^ 
 
 LCKT • i—/ 
 
 LnirsiTesS or q^<flq t-Jd 
 
 ^ffisssrOuj/r or @(5Lc/r S 
 
 ^6«(T£;<s/reO ^^ 
 
 Qpaar^LOir fH) 
 
 ^69r^Lo/rc£/re3!n? ....... . rH)3 
 
 jsirejULDir ^ 
 
 .s/rei} ........ ........ eil 
 
 ^eair ^ 
 
 Qfi&s{r&> j^^ 
 
 1010 
 10-20 
 
 1100 
 1200 
 
 2000 
 
 3000 
 
 4000 
 
 5000 
 
 6000 
 
 7000 
 
 8000 
 
 9000 
 
 10,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 90000 
 100,000 
 200,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 1__ 
 i_ 
 
 16 
 
 _u 
 
 80 
 _L 
 40 
 _3_ 
 80 
 
 l_ 
 20 
 _1_ 
 
 Irt 
 _1 
 
 10" 
 
 Jl 
 
 8 
 _3__ 
 
 20 
 
 x3^ 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 5" 
 
 J_ 
 
 4 
 
 3. 
 
 4 
 
 J 
 
 320 
 o 
 
 3"2 
 _8_ 
 3 20 
 _1_2 
 320 
 _1_6_ 
 3 20 
 _2J) 
 3 20" 
 
 3_2 
 320 
 
 40 
 320" 
 
 f 20 
 60 
 3 2(7 
 _6 4 
 3 20 
 80 
 32(7 
 
 JLfi.a 
 320 
 240 
 72(7 
 
 3. The cardinal numbers may be considered 
 either as nouns or as adjectives. 
 
 i. When they are used as nouns, they are placed 
 after the noun, and regularly declined, as : 
 
 K
 
 66 Etymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 e<scQedn(5crj)]^ o?ie stone. 
 ^&)SaGsar'd, two stones. 
 ,BedSiiT<3^mi— or &<soS3GsrrL^Zssr. 
 &&j^sr<ssisrL—nsi> or figusSirfiwri^i^eUj &C. 
 
 LDiTLD^aor^, tJiTee tvecs. 
 
 LDIJi1qJ^<^&j)P or ^(5Q7^36Sr, &C. 
 
 ii. They are used as adjectives before neuter 
 nouns, and are then of course not declined, as : 
 
 ^jssbrSCoLj/f, two names or persons.* 
 Qpmj}!&&), three stories. 
 ^^^^essrQ^ hundred pieces, &c. 
 
 Observe, that ^eSr^ is then changed into fip0, as : 
 
 ^0ijD<5af]^6orj one man. 
 e^(fh<sS(B, one house. 
 
 And again «p0, is often changed into fp/r, as : 
 6pirisD)z_ajff6rra>, one sign. 
 <z^ijnm^ one person. 
 
 Ip^Losjsfl^eor, one man. 
 
 u^Q^^i^.^,€S)n-, eleven horses. 
 
 4. When united with nouns, some of them un- 
 dergo a change, thus ; they either lose a syllable, 
 or shorten or lengthen the vowel, as : 
 
 •of^Jswr® 2 is made ^(5, as @(5^3su, two heads. 
 
 ^(S-'^, twenty. 
 
 Qf^sk^ 3 ■ ^ ox OP QpsuTtSiTLh, three thousand. 
 
 ^eusTs^ir, three kings. 
 QfiLLQpif^^, the three gods. 
 
 Qf>&&!reoLk, the three tenses. 
 
 Qpuu^, thirty. 
 
 * When mascnlir^p or feminine nouns nre added, then the position is 
 thus: tasKfljf/f @-'7'eR(r^(?u/r, t7vo men, Ljri^t—n- u^^iQuit, ten men , 
 ^eti^flserr ^Lpi^^Quir, three women, sh-sSiiuiril-serr episru^Quff-^ nine 
 (sbourers, Sjo.
 
 Etymology. — Pronouns. 67 
 
 of jsireju 4 is made jsiri> 
 ^^ 6 ^^ 
 
 Gtl—® 8 CrSHT 
 
 as /siTflU^, 
 
 forty. 
 Jive kalams. 
 
 Mi/' 
 
 six kalams. 
 
 
 sixty. 
 
 seven kalams. 
 
 
 seventy, 
 eight kalams. 
 
 erewTLj^, 
 
 eighty. 
 
 5. Appellative nouns are formed of the cardinal 
 number, thus : 
 
 of 5?(5 1 is made fp^sosor (vulgarly ^(j^^ffew-j, one, a person, 
 a certain man. 
 
 ep0^^, a female, a certain wotnan- 
 
 @(5 2 • — ^(jjau'T, two persons. ^ 
 
 Qfi 3 gipaj/f, three persons. / whether male or 
 
 j5ir&> 4 ;s IT ec> SUIT, four per.wns. i female. 
 
 g 6 ^SLiiT, Jive persons. ^ 
 
 These nouns cannot therefore be placed before 
 other nouns, as adjectives, but must be used either 
 simply as they are, or put after the nouns, as : 
 
 «Si/ffij/fcesri?(T5(aj(f, they both, 
 ui(o!^^n-QP<sijff-^ three men, &c. 
 
 6. To express ^' one by one, two and two, &c/* 
 they repeat the first syllable of the numbers until 
 |;en, with the exception of epmu^, 9, as : 
 
 cpeyOaJ/rscrjjf, o?ie by one. 
 
 ^ajoSiTcsjr®, two and two. 
 
 (LpL£>^<5k^, three and three. 
 
 /5^/5iT^^ four and four. 
 
 ^<53)ai;5^, Jive and five. 
 
 ^ajaiff j3/, six and six. 
 
 er(ijQsi}(L^^ seven and seven. 
 
 eri3LiQwil.(B, by eights. 
 
 uuu^^^ by tens.
 
 58 Etymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 Of the first four of these, also appellative nouns 
 are formed, thus: 
 
 epajQa;/r(TFQj/r, one after another or one by one. 
 ^QjQ90^/r, ■) These however are not much in 
 „ r use ; instead of them they say, ^® 
 
 7, Ordinal numbers are formed by adding the 
 future participle 41,1^, to the cardinal; excepting 
 cp^^^ ; lor which ^^^, the beginning is used, as : 
 
 (Tp^go/r/i), the first. 
 ^ir«s5ri_/TLQ, the second. 
 Qji(Sssr(rfj>LD^ the third. 
 j5ir<oor&trL£i, vulgrarly /j/reo/TLD, the fourth. 
 ^^^iril^ vulgarly ^(^<EFfnl, the fifth, &c. 
 Lj^Co^jirtl, the eleventh. 
 
 ^(TF)Lj^Q^[r!Tfrm, the twenty first. 
 Qpuu^G^frrrtril, the thirty first, &c. 
 
 They are thus used as adjectives, as : 
 Qp^eonu^^l^'SiTjTLB^ the first chapter, &c. 
 
 To form adverbs of them ^eu^, a verbal noun, 
 is added to the cardinal number, as : 
 
 QPl^&iireu^, first. 
 ^tressTL-ireij^, Secondly. 
 Qj:>&sr(trj>Qj^^ thirdly. 
 
 § XXIII. 
 
 1 . Some indefinite pronouns are ranked among 
 (m,^^^ the participles, and called GuGiri'^ui, that is, a
 
 Etymology, — Pronouns. 69 
 
 word wanting- a noun to complete the idea ; such 
 are : 
 
 ^eo, some. * 
 
 ueo, 7nany^ several , various. 
 
 Others are called eflSen Qa_'<e=^LD, /. e., rcanting a C^- 9^- 
 verb ; such are : 
 
 o 
 
 ^tiosr^^il,, y all. 
 
 2. The former, viz., ^eo and i-je^, are vised with- 
 out any change as adjectives to any noun of what- 
 ever gender or number, as : 
 
 QeciM(sSpn-^ some men, Qiso<sps&r^ some stones. 
 
 U6oG*Lj/r<ffi(sn-, various persons, Ljei>LD,!i&j&<^^ various trees. 
 
 When used as nouns, the usual personal and 
 neuter terminations of the plural are affixed to 
 them. They are then declined as usual, as : 
 
 1st, 9.eoir^ some persons, Sleoessoj, some things ; ueoir, various persons^ 
 uei)es>^, various things. 
 
 2d, Seoesar, some persons, SeosupeajD^ some things; ueoenir, various per- 
 sons, ueoeupetDjD, various things. 
 
 3d, 9,eii!rT&>, hy some persons, 9&)eup:^ei, by some things ; ueosirei, by 
 various persons, uedsup^ei, by various things. 
 QeoQcrrr(B, wiih some persons, 9:<soaupQ(rr)fB, with some things; 
 ueoGiTfr® with various persons, ueosu pQqt,® ^withvarious tilings. 
 
 4th, ^6i)(T5i(5, to some persons, 9&)eu^j£ip.^, to some things ; uec^i^^, 
 to various persons, ueo&jp/S.p-^, to various things, &c. 
 
 Note. — Such is expressed by .s^Cjui^uulLl^^ and ^'Iuis^ljuiLl-^ 
 
 words composed oi .s^tluuf- and ^uuis^., so, and uiLl the participle 
 
 ofi-j@gi^^, to he; .^Iui^iIjuiLl^^ therefore means, v)hich is {or are) 
 sn, i. €., such. They are prt^fixed to nouns like ^eu and u&) ; thus, -s/lj 
 ut^-uuilL-iaiaSf&r^ iuch a man; m^LJui^'luili—:^i;^sS, such a bird.
 
 70 Etymology. — Pronouns. 
 
 The terminations of the pronouns also are affix- 
 ed to them, and then dechned as usual, as : 
 
 ^uui^uuiLt—eu^T^ such a man. 
 «^L;LJZf.iI/Lj/lL_®j«srrj suc/i a zvomen, 
 ^uui^uuiLl^^^ such a thing. 
 
 ^iliui^uuiLL„eu^<ff(^, such persons. 
 ^Ljuug-uuil-L^eQeii&m ^ such things. 
 
 The difference between ^uul^ and §)uui^, is 
 the same as mentioned, § XX. 
 
 3. The words er(^&)irm^ ff&eCQpLa^ J^jlsar ^ ^is> ^ (bPQ^ 
 
 coLoqLD, and (Lp(L^eu^il^ are nouns used, as will be 
 stated in the Syntax, see § CXII. 
 
 In the declension of cr^so/rti, the lL is dropt, and 
 the usual termination of the plural substituted, 
 with the particle s^ld, as : 
 
 1st, cr^eo/TLD, all things. 
 
 2d, icT^eOfTajpsapiLjii, all things. 
 
 3d, «r6i)60frfflj/5;5^LD, by all things. 
 
 4th, <sreb€0cri3upjSf'(^Lh, to all things. &c. 
 
 The other words are declined in the same way ; 
 the a-LD is put after the case, thus : 
 
 1st, aF<ffi6i)(3pL£), ^'iesr^^ih, (ifi(ipeis)iMUL.<UJ, QfiQ^ai^ili, all things. 
 
 2d, s^se\)^eafiu^il, ^'2eer^ea^iLjih, Qfi(i^ss)meauju.jih, QfiQ^^eet^mhy all 
 
 things. 
 3d, s=s<s\)^sirej!jih, Jij'iesr ^ ^ IT ^ th ., rip(i^eauiUJiTei!iil, QpQ^aJfifrsil'^, by all 
 
 things, &c. 
 
 Of (sr<^i60frLo, <s=s6^(iLpLa, j),2esr^^il>, personal nouns 
 also are formed by rejecting- the neuter termination, 
 and adding- 0lo the personal termination of the 
 plural ; the declension is then as before, thus : 
 
 1st, G7fv)siJ/r(5iLD, ^«ei;(5Lo, ^^arsu^ii), all persons. 
 
 2d, creOeu/TswiTiUjii), ,£^«6i;6»,riL,(i), ^26?riaj6i»n"a.;Ui, all pers07lS. 
 3d, s) 6i»*i).TJ/r^L6, ^seojy iT^iji^ ^'imsu J (Tejuih, by all pei'sons.
 
 JEfytnology. — Pronouns, 71 
 
 Note I. — OTffl)«i;n-u), has by some been declined as nouns ending in 
 5Jj, thus: £7a)6un-^«B*LUL0, isr6i)«i)rr^^'d^@(ii, di:c., but this is irregular. 
 
 Note 2. — When zr&jeixru^ and £=s&)Lh, are used adjectively, tiiey drop 
 the LD, and are then prefixed to the noun, which receives e-to at the 
 end, as; &e06iifrLOistl^n'<£Qi;iSi, all men; e^&eoLLS m&^ui^ all trees. 
 
 § XXIV. 
 
 It remains to offer a few hints with respect to 
 the formation of nouns. There are various kinds 
 of nouns, as : 
 
 1 . Primitive nouns ; such as u^ml^ a free, ldcssot, 
 a son, ^srijb^ mother, ^&uu&ir^ father, &c. 
 
 2. Nouns formed from the obhque case and the 
 terminations ^eSr, ^srr, as : from 
 
 LD^ui, a convent, lq^^^/toot, a man of the convent, 
 
 Lc^/^/ren-, a xvoman of the convent. 
 G&n^^fril^^ a tribe, Q-ssr^^in^pfrdr, a man oj 
 
 the tribe, Qairp^usi^n&r, a xvoman of the 
 
 tribe. 
 ^(rF)Lnu^, charity, ^(jLooj/reor, a charitable man. 
 LjessresSiuLEi, virtue, t-jessresSiueuirm-, a virtuous man. 
 LJzl^goTLD, a city, uil-L^es^^^nm-^ a citizen, 
 
 (masc.) uilLf.&sr^^ir&r, a citizen, (fern.) 
 «=^^^, offspring, <s=^^^ttj/r6or, a male offspring, 
 
 €=_w^^ujirm, a female offspring. 
 feSE/f, a village, ^^nLirtf&sr^ a villager, Cmasc.J 
 
 &m:nn&r, a villager, (fern.) 
 
 Observe a few nouns insert lo ; as ^^, righteous^ 
 ness, ^^iMirdi, a righteous man, with the phiral /^ 
 Lo/r6or<ffi6rr, without chang-ing' the eor into /r, as other 
 nouns do, — The feminine is ^^itj&T&reij&r. Thus also, 
 
 q^^LD/TGBT, an intelligent man. 
 
 ^LD/reor, o7ie ruling the earth, a ling. 
 
 QsiTu^nm, one ruling the earth, a king.
 
 72 Etymology . — Pronouns* 
 
 3. Personal nouns formed from other nouns by 
 dropping- the last syllable, and adding- j>ii^ for the 
 masculine and ^ for the feminine, as from 
 
 ^BiEj<sirrril), anger, j^&&j<sst!t<^, an angry man, 
 ^swstri^, an angry woman. 
 
 e^^inrLD, liberality ,s-piTsr^^ a liberal man, a-^//ffl, 
 a liberal woman. 
 
 ^(L^^^, the neck, &Q^^p<m, a man with a neck, 
 £(Lp^^, a woman with a neck. 
 
 ^L£@, beauty, ^ips^^r, a beautiful man, ^JipS, 
 a beautiful xcoman. 
 
 S-Ceo/TLJLD, avariciousness, s-Geo/rLjecr, an avari- 
 cious man, ^QenaS, an avaricious woman. 
 
 In some words of this class derived from the 
 Samscrit, the termination ^, serves both for the 
 masculine and the feminine, as from 
 
 Lj/rsuLn, sin, LJ/reO, a sinner. 
 
 Gstruui, anger, G<sitl5I, an angry person. 
 
 s^Qeoiruilt, avarice, Q-QeniriSl, an avaricious per- 
 son, whether male or female, though, as 
 above mentioned, it has also s-G6\}iTL^mr. 
 
 £}^^m or uBei^pLD, purity, holiness, only the 
 masculine ufis^^^<^, a holy man, is form- 
 ed ; it has also Ljfi<m^^euirdr^ and the plural 
 /_;ffl.5Fc5^(S2j/r6orssrr, without changing- the oor, 
 into if. The feminine is, Lj^&^^Q^&T&TQidr. 
 
 ^ . Personal nouns are formed also by inserting 
 the s^n^ssiiu (^dr) between the noun and the termi- 
 nation ^^, as : 
 
 from eS&o, a bow, (S'soS.'^m-^ a bow-man. 
 
 Lj&o, a toothy LJeusSgoToDT, a man icith teeth. 
 •s/r^, an car, <s[r^m6Qr, a man with ears.
 
 'Etymology. 73 
 
 from jB^sii-, a step, walk, ^FaoL-uSeorscr, a man wJio 
 makes steps, i. e., who walks. 
 0&=ir&), a word, Q^rSd^eam, a man xvho speaks, 
 i. e., a speaker. 
 
 5. Some personal nouns are formed by adding 
 to the oblique case the termination snnr^, (a Sam- 
 scrit word, signifying an agent) for the masculine, 
 and cSff/fi for the feminine, as : 
 
 /rtl£_LD, a garden, Q ^(nLL^&ssr ir&sr , a gardener ^ mas ; 
 
 Q^irLLi—<B&[riB, a gardener, feminine. 
 Geudso, a work, GsuSsO'i'SinTdr^ a labourer, masculine ; 
 
 GajSa)cs<ffi/rrf?, a labourer, feminine. 
 ftaEL^IajLTJ, a service, ^sLL^ius&n [T(^, a servant, mas ; 
 
 ssEi^njSsirfiy a servant, feminine. 
 ^(B, a sheep, ^i^CBs-esinrm-, a fna?i who keeps sheep. 
 
 ^iLQ&snifl, a woman who keeps sheep. 
 Q<siLi^^ cleverness, Qei—L^-Bscrum^ a clever man ; Q<sl^ 
 
 i^&ssrB, a clever woman. 
 «i_6er, debt, ^Bt-me^nrdr^ a man who makes debt, 
 
 whether by borrowing or lending ; <si_6or<s/r/fl. 
 
 a woman who makes debt, &c. 
 
 6. Others are formed by adding .^eifl, to the 
 noun, as : 
 
 «z_6or, debt, .£ez_@(5tB, a debtor, whether male or 
 
 female. 
 (ip^^, the first, (ip^eoir<s^, the chief, masculine 
 
 and feminine. 
 g/r^^, fame, ^/r^^juirejB, a famous man or 
 
 woman. 
 eSl^, a bow, eS&)&)!T<s^^ a fnan or xvoman, using the 
 
 boxv, a?i archer.
 
 74 Etymology. 
 
 7. Others are formed by adding .s^/reS, both for 
 the masculine and feminine, as : 
 
 Qu^sTiL^Ln^ heaven, Qu^nil.e'fftrS, one who enjoys 
 
 heavenly bliss. 
 GiusfsQiuih, cleverness, Qiutr-kQius'srS, a clever, 
 
 respectable, decent person. 
 i-i^^, iinderstanding, t-j^^.s=irS, a person of un- 
 
 derstajidincr. 
 
 8. Others are formed fi'om numbers, see 
 § XXII. 5. 
 
 9. Various nouns are formed from verbs, see 
 § XXXII. 
 
 10. Abstract nouns are formed from some obso- 
 lete roots, by adding mto to them, as : 
 
 from ^^, small, ^jj^stold, smallness, 
 
 ^0, difficult, rare, ^q^sshm, difficulty, rarity. 
 Q<b[t(B, cruel, Q<ssf(B<5B)Ln, cruelty. 
 
 i-\^, flew, u^s5)Lc>, newness, novelty. 
 
 Qu(i^, great, Qlj(t^ss)ll^, greatness. 
 
 ^,L^, low, ^L^ssiLD, lowliness. 
 
 From these, appellatives are formed by dropping 
 es5Lo, and adding ^eor^ .^©jsor, ^<5cr, or epeor for the 
 masculine sino-ular ; jh'^r, ^&r, or ^ent^, for the femi- 
 nine singular ; and ^n-, ^<r, or ^su/f, for both gen- 
 ders in the plural ; ^^, or ^ for the neuter singu- 
 lar ; and cI^otqj, or ^eor, or «5>/, for the neuter plural ; 
 the preceding a., is then changed into ^, thus : 
 
 from Qjfisi^to — Q^iu&sr^ QjBtuen&sr, ^/BiLiir^, or 
 Gojir^, a small ?nan, 
 9jBuj(^^ ^iBiueum, or 9^iua(^, a small xcoman, 
 9^n^^ QjB^, a s?nall thing, 
 
 Q^iwssisij, 9^iiu&sry or 9^\iu^ s?nall things.
 
 Etymology, 75 
 
 from QsaQm^iM-Q'Stn^iudrj a cruel man, &c. 
 QLj^sKLD-QuffiojeoTj a great man, &c. 
 ^L^&DLc^-j^L^iu(^ ^L^tua<^, a humble man, &c. 
 
 They are formed also into declinable nouns, called 
 ^tetsre^jBi^Lii^Quir^ by adding the verbal termina- 
 tions, thus : 
 
 ivom.9j}i€5)u^~9iB,QiiJ<^, I who am small; plural: 
 
 9^QlLJll>, Q^QlUITll, or &rBQlU!KJS&r^ &c. 
 
 we who are small, 
 
 — ^i^scDiM-jfi^Giu^ , I who am a slave ; plural : 
 
 ^i^GiuLD, ^L^GiuiTLci, or t^i^GiuEj&&r^ Sic. 
 7ve who are slaves ; 
 
 — ^rj^iotDLo-^irt^siDLoGiLK^, I ivho am a humble per ~ 
 
 son, plural: pn^^LLQ\uu^, ^nt^&s^Lc^Giuir 
 to, or ^(iL%6iDiMGiuij'B6rr, &c. We who are 
 humble persons, see § XXXVII. 
 
 1 1 . Some nouns of quality are formed by ad- 
 ding /escrLn to the simple root; ^eoTLD is contracted 
 from ^eoreKLo, i. e., nature, character, &c., thus: 
 
 from ^Q^il.(B, thieving, ^Q^d-Q^^&siLh, thievish- 
 ness ; a thievish character. 
 
 ^e^i—il^ evil, ^Q^^^^wjrLD, wickedness. 
 
 eSi^iuirtLQ, playing, <^^iusTiL(B^^9siJi, playful- 
 ness, &c. 
 
 12. Another termination, derived from the Sam- 
 scrit, is ^ffljti, which is equivalent to ^sotld. It is 
 added to words of Samscrit origin, by which they 
 become nouns of condition or quality, as : 
 
 from(?ujfl-i£ajLD, GuJiT'sQiup^mm, intelligency. 
 
 ^e^LD, cold, 9ecp^snili, coolness ; a meek, quiet 
 disposition.
 
 7Q Etymology. — Verbs. 
 
 from^/fl, three — ^.ifliu^^euil, when lu is inserted, 
 a being of three substances. 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 § XXV. 
 
 To Tamil verbs belong, 
 
 (%,S3, QP<sSi-il,^ i. €., the three persons. 
 
 d^.ifZ,ki^. ^ilutr^, i. e., the five smaller divisions, imply-» 
 ing gender and number. 
 
 i-j@^, i. e., the root. 
 
 ©9@^, i. e., terminating particles. 
 
 i^.JJ-- - (}^&&ireii\l^y i. e., the three tenses. 
 
 t^'96- <57-(aja), i. e., the imperative mode. 
 
 (^. 2j- ^ eSiu&Qsiri^^ i. e., the optative mode. 
 
 C^. %c^_ ^ __ 6r<ff=<s=LD, i. e., the ijidejinite mode. 
 
 C^- 9S~ — Q^[rifin.Gu^,i. e., the verbal nouns, and 
 
 lM. 9/' - er^in-iL^Qjip, i.e., the negative form of the verb. 
 
 The two first of these, viz., ^oSI^tx), and ^u^un&i 
 have been already explained, see § XV. XVII. 
 XVIII. XIX. and XX. 
 
 §XXVI. 
 
 The Lj(5^ of a verb is its root, from which all 
 the other modifications proceed, and which as such 
 has no specific meaning, but indicates only the ge- 
 neral idea of the verb apart from mode, tense, and 
 person ; for example, ^i—, walk, lji^, learn, ©90, 
 leave. Quit, go, <5U)su, put, 2-«Rjr, eat, Q&my hear, &c. 
 
 § XXVII. 
 
 The ©9@p is the affix by which the gender, 
 number, and person of the verb is distinguished.
 
 Etymology . — Verbs. fj 
 
 They are, with certain alterations the terminations 
 of the pronouns, as : 
 
 Singular, com. <ST^, 5=T6or, ^^ or Jl^eisrsar^ I. 
 
 do. ^lu, ^, or ^, thou. 
 
 maSC. .f^eor, ^soreor, he. 
 
 fern. c^err, ^swsrr, she. 
 
 neut. ^^9 ^^• 
 
 Plural, com. «ptxj, .gyeorL^, (otiI, ^u^ oy ^th;, we 
 
 do. mir, !fn-<Bm or ^/f, you. 
 
 masc. S^fein.^n- ^^<sm, or .sysor/r, they. 
 
 neut. ^ or ^gyeor, they. 
 
 These affixes are joined to the root after the let- 
 ters characteristic of the tenses which will be stated 
 in the next Section. Here I shall only observe, 
 that the verbs with these affixes is called (Lp^^sS^2esr, 
 i. €., complete verb ; because it conveys a complete 
 sense, and finishes a sentence. 
 
 § XXVIII. 
 
 1. The (ipssirectl^ or the three tenses, are : i^>/S. 
 fiat^sireoil), i. e,, the present tense. 
 
 ^p^^<Birf\im or (ouirecTGireoilt^ i. e., the past tense. 
 (ET^in-arreou^ or a;0(i/ts/r6\)LD, i. e., the future tense. 
 
 These tenses are formed by the aid of certain 
 particles, called ^6S)L.fiBso<ff=Qs=ir^, i. e., words stand- 
 ing in the middle, which are inserted between the 
 root and pronominal affixes, subject to the various 
 chans^-es required by the rules stated in § VI . VII. 
 and VIII. As the pronominal affixes are the 
 same in all tenses, these middle words become the 
 characteristics by which each tense is distinguish- 
 ed. They are these: 
 
 2. Of the present tense,
 
 78 Etymology. — Verbs. 
 
 Qjji^ Sscrjjf, or cg$ 0^j}i, of which the two former 
 are most commonly used, thus : 
 
 Sing. j5i—i,QQp'^ jBi—sSevG/S"^ or fit-ajj^ iwQpssr^ I walk. 
 
 ^L-.&&(ft)UJ J5f—S&'Tir(rr)uu or fii—Surr^^ir^iLi, thou Walkest. 
 
 3L-s8Q)isr J^ .o" ' J3 "J" he walks. 
 
 ' iiBC £ si idi p ssr isr or J5 L eufT si oH' pssris'' \ 
 
 .^ , i SI— km esiar^ar or JB t—ernr Seat (rr@T, i 
 
 iBi—e@(2)<sir l'^ ' -^^Z. ' St ' > she walks. 
 
 *^ (^c-ttJffi/ss^^osrar or JSL-etjT pssr psarsir, ^ 
 
 jSi—£:Qp^ ^L-&Q<oiyp^ or jSL—&j[r^avp.^., it walks, 
 
 PZwr. ;F/_figG'(2jixi <J'l - n ^ - ^ ^ I' we walk. 
 
 jSi—sQ^fT'Sf^ JSi—&SearjSif^elr OT J5 i—&jir ^ sir j^n s,eir, yoU walk. 
 
 . ~, . . isi—iSeiSTma&ek or JS i-enir S mrnrif'Sar.i thev Walk 
 '^ (^i_c?ffi;sBr Osar/r or JSi—SufrjS^peinlT, ^ m. C^J. 
 
 jsi—sQ^pesr or jSL—eufrjSl>,irp&sr, they walk, neut. 
 
 Note. i. The third person plural neut., is always formed with 
 £!6or_^; between which and the affix ^, esr is inserted. Some use the 
 third person neut., singular also for the plural ; likewise jsi—&(^^ 
 for both ; but without authority from native Grammarians. 
 
 Note. ii. There is no certain rule for inserting the middle particle 
 &^, with or wiihoul the double * ; in some therefere it is &i^, in 
 others <s<si^; hut it niuy be in general assumed that S jv denotes 
 the intransitive or neuter form; and isi.^ the transitive or active 
 form, thus : 
 
 .^i^Sp^, meam to he spoiled, to spoil, to grow corrupt ; but 
 
 .Sli^s&p^, to spoil, to destroy. 
 ^eSSp^, to go out, to be extinguished; but ^eSsSp^, to 
 
 extinguish. 
 Olchu&p^, to feed, to eat, as cattle do; but Qu^iusSp^, to 
 
 feed, to make eat, as the shepherd does. 
 ajeir(^s.'p^, to grow; but ajatrif^Sp^, to make grow, to edu" 
 
 cate, to rear. 
 
 But there are many exceptions, thus ; 
 
 .^jSS-p^, means to know, (a thing). 
 Os^ired^Qp^^ to say, ( any thing.) 
 
 Qusfisp.^, to speak, 
 
 erQ^^e^p^, to write, • 
 
 •siriluirpjit/Sp^i, to protect. 
 
 And on the contrary, 
 
 jsi—sSp^ means to walk. 
 ^(SsSp^-, to be, &c. 
 
 The transitive or intransitive sense of a verb must therefore be 
 known by use.
 
 Tjtymology. — Verbs. 79 
 
 Note. iii. The roots eun- come, and ^ir give, become w(^Q;d^ and 
 
 Note. IV. Roots ending' in a consonant conform to the rules by which 
 letters are changed ; as of 
 
 ©•61) is formed ^p^p^, to be Jit, 
 GsJh- Qai^Sjs^, to hear. 
 
 3. The past tense is characterized by the middle 
 particles ^, ^, /, and ^o^. 
 
 The native Grammarians do not point out which 
 roots require the one or the other of these middle 
 particles ; I shall therefore deviate from their course, 
 and rather follow Beschius in describing- the for- 
 mation of this tense ; the only one that has any 
 
 difficulty. 
 
 i. Roots which end with the mute consonants lu 
 or /r, or with the vow^el ^, a., ^, &err, or ^ ; and 
 which form the present tense by sQ^, alw ays have 
 p^ in the past, as : 
 
 Oiaius^SGpeir, I feed, ■ ■ Ouauj^C j^cSr, I fed. 
 
 eu'sirn-^sQp^, I train vp, ewsmr^Q^ew-^ I trained up. 
 
 jg/f^SC^c-ir, I finish, ^n-sQ^esr^ I finished. 
 
 urr^iSQp'isr, I see, unrn-^Qs^, / saw. 
 
 eSiPiSQp'«i!r, I extend, eS.^sQp^, I extended. 
 
 ui^s^QQp'^, 1 learn, ui^-^Gf^. I learned. 
 
 u®&iQp^, I lie do on, u®&Qp^, I lay down. 
 
 e-(BisS(?p«^, I put clothes on, e_®^l?^«3r, / pui clothes en. 
 
 uee)i—J-.£:QpsiT^ J create, uem'—l.Q^&ir^I created. 
 
 B-eia^S&Qpiir^ I kick, £_«»« J^G^esr, / kicked. 
 
 yi^G/DOT, / flourish, y^G'^csr^ / flourished 
 
 £/rs&Qp^, I preserve, &;t^Q ^^, I preserved. 
 &e. 
 
 The only exception is §)(w^&QQp^, I am, which 
 
 has ^(75^(?«sor, 7te'«,?;and from sra;, c/o-ree, is form- 
 ed, (sjnQQpsor^ I agree, and sj/rG^rxoor, I agreed (for 
 
 ii. Roots ending' in ^ and forming- the present 
 tense, with <sQ^j receive ^^ in the past, thus :
 
 80 
 
 JLtymology. — Verbs. 
 
 tnpeSO/Ddr, I for get y 
 
 tS;r<sQG jD ^TT, I am born, 
 LLiossrsi&Q p^, I join. 
 
 t3p^Q ^^, 
 
 LD6»T^(e^i5OT"j 
 
 I forgot. 
 J flew, 
 I was horn, 
 I joined, &c. 
 
 iii. Roots end ino;' in <s@-/i/@-@-<flF-^-q-^y-^-<a/- 
 Qj:^-(B-jpi or srr(ET5 ; and forming- the present tense with 
 9^, receive ^eor before the termination, as • 
 
 ^sr^&Qpsar, 
 
 ,^/E/@ S Qp SBT^ 
 ^rS)SQpdr^ 
 
 Qf.^(^'3Gp'^, 
 
 G-JSfS(2p<^, 
 
 ufTiLis'.s^QGp^, 
 
 erQp^SGpiir, 
 
 ^(i^s^&Gp^, 
 
 JSiML^&Qp'^, 
 
 ^ ^iLljQQp^, 
 usssr ^a&G pssr ^ 
 [^•ssT ^S,Q pek^ 
 e-eOireij@Gp^, 
 Ouir(]^eLjQGpeir^ 
 ^tl(u>QGpsir^ 
 ^(^(B&Gpeln-, 
 ^Qj ^QG pi^, 
 G^®QGpf^, 
 
 SiL®8Gpear^ 
 
 tSjem-(B£Gpiiar^ 
 
 G^p^SG pevr^ 
 
 fS-p^SiGp^, 
 
 ^ar^&Gp^, 
 
 ^eh-Q^QGp'^, 
 
 I make, 
 I take away, 
 I go away, 
 I sleep, 
 I become, 
 1 hasten, 
 I speak, 
 I water, 
 I write, 
 I correct, 
 I trust, 
 
 IflU, 
 
 I do or make, 
 
 I plait, 
 
 I take a walk, 
 
 I am, like, 
 
 I sneeze, 
 
 I steal, 
 
 I stumble, 
 
 I seek 
 
 I tie, 
 
 I approach, 
 
 I comfort, 
 
 I surround, 
 
 I push, 
 
 I leap. 
 
 Exceptions are : 
 
 eSe!r(^@Gp'osr^ 
 ff ^&G p^, 
 
 GuiT(B£iGp^, 
 OsiT&T^SGp^, 
 
 I open, 
 
 I brin^ forth, 
 
 I put, 
 
 I take or get. 
 
 ^sQGear&rr^ 
 
 ^&SGearejr^ 
 
 ^ iwSG 'ior ear ^ 
 
 ^irmi^iG'Sar&r^ 
 
 ^SiGesr&sr^ OX ^ 
 
 Qp®QGe<srm^ 
 
 GuQGeaT'^, 
 
 U!TiU^&Gevr«r, 
 
 erci^^Gevrsir, 
 
 ^Q^^^Gesrssr^ 
 
 jSLhiSGeuresr^ 
 
 S JTUiSi Gear ear ^ 
 
 ujeSsremsfi Gear ear ^ 
 
 iSemeSGear^^, 
 S-eOireSGearatr^ 
 
 OuiTf^eSGearew^ 
 ^ tl lS G ear ear , 
 ^Q^i^Gffjrear^ 
 SeujSi^oearear^ 
 G^i^Gearear^ 
 £ u-i^G ear &!r ^ 
 
 G fipjSG ear&r 
 ^p/SGearear^ 
 S iHr ^ Gear ear ^ 
 ^&remGear ear , 
 
 eSe&rGi^^, 
 ffBsrGp^, 
 (?un-il(?L_«Br, 
 GssreesrG L^asr, 
 
 I made. 
 I took away. 
 I went away. 
 I slept. 
 l^iiSGearesr^ Tbecame. 
 I hastened. 
 I spoke. 
 I watered. 
 I wrote. 
 I corrected. 
 I trusted' 
 I filed. 
 
 I did, or made. 
 I plaited. 
 I took a walk. 
 I was like. 
 I sneezed. 
 I stole. 
 I stumbled. 
 I sought. 
 I tied. 
 I approched. 
 I comforted. 
 I surrounded. 
 J pushed 
 I leaped. 
 
 I opened. 
 
 I brought forth. 
 
 I put. 
 
 I took or got. 
 
 and all words ending in @, ®, and jjf, preceded 
 by one short syllable ; these double the last con- 
 sonant, and then receive the terminatins, as :
 
 Etymology . — Verbs. 
 
 81 
 
 
 I am Jit, 
 I laugh, 
 I suffer, 
 I leave, 
 I give, 
 I receive, 
 I perish, 
 I go off. 
 
 But l£(s8Gp^, I increase, has 
 
 Lj(^QGfl&ir, 
 
 I enter, 
 
 ^S\tS ear 
 ujlLQ I sar, 
 
 GujlQpeir, 
 
 L&sG sejr 
 
 and i^:sjsG^dtr, 
 
 uiGs&ir, 
 
 and i-i'SjsQ^^, 
 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 } 
 } 
 
 was fit. 
 
 laughed. 
 
 suffered. 
 
 left. 
 
 gave. 
 
 received. 
 
 perished. 
 
 went off. 
 
 I increased. 
 I entered. 
 
 iv. Roots ending in «ar and <^, and forming the 
 present tense with 0^, receive the middle particle 
 £l ; and (25 is changed into ^, as : 
 
 e^eSsrSQfO&sr, 
 
 I eat, 
 
 e_sjeir(?i_«w-^ 
 
 I eat. 
 
 ^i^SQp^^ 
 
 I rule. 
 
 ^exrQ L^esr j£3, 
 
 I ruled. 
 
 uarr^QQp^, 
 
 I perish, 
 
 LLfreikrQ L^eir^ 
 
 I perished. 
 
 a-(S(^SGpear, 
 
 I roll. 
 
 gL.0to»J Gl—m-^ 
 
 I rolled. 
 
 Except ^(^t&^QQjDiar^ I grant, which has, ^rt^eSGeareh-^ I granted. 
 
 G°<« tL&Gp dr, I kea r (from the root Gseir) has G s lLQ i_«ar, I heard. 
 «/riswr®(?^«w"j/^ee,contracts the long vowel&has •sessrGi—eir Isaw. 
 
 V. Roots ending in ecr, j^, eojjjf, and forming 
 the present tense with Q^, receive the middle 
 particle ^ ; when j^ and eo^ are changed into 
 
 6or, as : 
 
 ^stfrQGpeyr, 
 €r«ir8Qpm-^ 
 
 0^vi)S)2iSGpi^, 
 O^ ed ejuQQ p isr , 
 O'S rrvieisislG js^, 
 ^fl^Gp^ from 
 
 ^leO e^^ie p^ , 
 
 eat, 
 
 sail, 
 
 whirl about, 
 
 go on, 
 
 overcome. 
 
 kill, 
 >I stand. 
 
 ^drGp^ 
 STearGp^ 
 
 S^LfiskQpevr, 
 Os'^Gp^, 
 Oeu^' Gp sir 
 QsireisrQpek, 
 
 Ss!stG p °>!r 
 
 I eat. 
 
 I said. 
 
 I whirled about. 
 
 I went on. 
 
 I overcame^ 
 
 I killed. 
 
 I stood. 
 
 Except Os'irJoei^'sGpeir^ J gay, which has Os^rr&rQesrsk and 0,F!r^eS 
 
 G'sertv, I said. 
 
 vi. Roots ending in lu, ^, ^, q^, and (Lp, forming 
 
 M
 
 82 
 
 Efi/nwlogy. — Verbs. 
 
 the present tense, with Qjv, receive the middle par- 
 ticle p p ; and (15 and (^ drop the a., as : 
 
 QuilLlQQpssr^ 
 
 
 I feed, 
 
 Gir^l'^GfiKT, 
 
 
 I fed. 
 
 ffkQp'^, 
 
 
 I give. 
 
 fr- pG ^et!r^ 
 
 
 I gave. 
 
 ^s^i^kQpiir^ 
 
 
 J perish, 
 
 ^i^^G^&ir^ 
 
 
 I perished. 
 
 .^fii&Gp'^, 
 
 
 I know, 
 
 ^j^i^G^esr^ 
 
 
 I knew. 
 
 ^ef>L—£G/5strr^ 
 
 
 I get. 
 
 ^iSii—^G^etiT, 
 
 
 I got. 
 
 aemi—QG/Bem-^ 
 
 
 I churn, 
 
 &esii—j5G^esT^ 
 
 
 I churned. 
 
 ojeiTQ^kiGpss^, 
 
 
 I grow. 
 
 ajsrr/r^C^ttir^ 
 
 
 I grew. 
 
 ^(i^siG peifT^ 
 
 
 I Jlnish, 
 
 ^if^G^ih-, 
 
 
 I finished. 
 
 ^^(j^QGpeir^ 
 
 
 I remove. 
 
 f.eSir^G^^, 
 
 
 I removed. 
 
 &jfr^£Gp&n-, 
 
 
 I prosper. 
 
 eu IT ip JS G S ear ^ 
 
 
 I prospered. 
 
 ^ir(ip&Gp^^ 
 
 
 I am humble. 
 
 ^.ITLf^G^^ 
 
 
 I was humble. 
 
 ^euQ^kGp^, 
 
 
 I creep, 
 
 ^oji-p^Gp'^, 
 
 
 I crept. 
 
 But there 
 
 are many 
 
 exceptions, as : 
 
 
 OuiLjQGp'^, 
 
 I 
 
 rain, 
 
 OutuG s;esr^ 
 
 I 
 
 rained. 
 
 O^ojkGpea^, 
 
 I 
 
 do. 
 
 0<F ul' G ^ «w ^ 
 
 I did. 
 
 Oj^iukGp^, 
 
 I 
 
 weave. 
 
 OjBluGfi'^, 
 
 I 
 
 wove. 
 
 6W6u£(?^«n-, 
 
 I 
 
 abuse. 
 
 6a>ajG^«a^, 
 
 I 
 
 abused. 
 
 euir(^is'Gp«!^^ 
 
 I 
 
 gat her together 
 
 , ajrr/fiGewfesr^ 
 
 I 
 
 gathered together. 
 
 s:(l^&GP'>^, 
 
 I 
 
 aire. 
 
 s:j5G^<^, 
 
 J 
 
 gave. 
 
 Guir(S&GpeBr^ 
 
 I 
 
 J'gK 
 
 Ou!r(lf)G ^&!r, 
 
 J 
 
 fought. 
 
 ^QD&Gpesr^ 
 
 I 
 
 weep. 
 
 .SjQ^G ^ehr 
 
 J 
 
 wept. 
 
 a_(ir)- GpiVT^ 
 
 I 
 
 plough. 
 
 e_rtpG s<s3! 
 
 I 
 
 ploughed. 
 
 0^lTQ§kQpesr^ 
 
 I 
 
 worship. 
 
 0^!T(l^Gfi<T!r^ 
 
 I 
 
 worshiped. 
 
 eSQ^QGpeBT^ 
 
 I 
 
 f"U, 
 
 ^Q^^G^SSV 
 
 \ 
 
 I fell. 
 
 
 
 
 and sS'ipjBG^evr, 
 
 / 
 
 vii. A few roots of only one syllable, and forming^ 
 the present tense with 9jfi, have different forms of 
 the past tense, as : 
 
 ^£Gp^, 
 GurrS'Gp'iir^ 
 j=!r&G p«!r, 
 GeukGp«!r, 
 QfiirSiGpeiir 
 
 J become, 
 
 J go, 
 
 I die, 
 
 I burn, 
 
 I am in pain. 
 
 has ^aJCssreoT, 
 
 G u rr uSG ear etn-^ 
 O'F^G^^, 
 
 Geu fsG S'SBT 
 
 OjHTjsG^etsT, 
 
 and ^Cewcar^ / became. 
 
 and GurrGe^-^, I went. 
 
 I died. 
 
 I burnt. 
 
 I was in pain. 
 
 The characteristic middle particle of the past 
 tense being- known, the conjugation goes on as in 
 the present tense, thus :
 
 Tjtymology . — Verbs. 
 
 83 
 
 Singular, ^l-jsQ^^ 
 
 ml 3 ^ IT ear 
 
 Si IB sseresr 
 
 JB L— J5 ^ ^ar eiT ^ 
 
 Plural, jsi—^Q^wtl^ 
 ts L JB ^earta^ 
 
 jBL^JB ^rrir^ 
 jBi—JS^fTff'Sar, 
 JBI—JB fiesrn'^ 
 
 > / rvalked. 
 thou 7valkedst. 
 
 ^ 
 
 / 
 
 /. 
 
 it walked. 
 > we walked, 
 you walked. 
 
 I 
 
 ■he jvalked. 
 ■she walked. 
 
 S 
 
 they walked., (mas. and fem.) 
 they walked., (neut.) 
 
 Note. 1. — Observe that the 3d person sing\ilar neuter of Verbs 
 which have the characteristic @«3^, should be ^^ ^ ; but this is 
 changed into '^pjn., according to the i-ules of the changes of letters, 
 thus: 
 
 O'FfTeOeSiear ^^ 
 
 becomes, 
 
 
 it contained, 
 it said, 
 it made, 
 it went, 
 it became. 
 
 Note. 2. — The vulgar frequently change ^^ into (g<fi^, and ^^ into 
 j^^, as : 
 
 instead of jsi—jsQ^e^, they say, jBi—(ev,Qs=^^ I walked. 
 
 0<fujG ^sw'^ 0'Fi/U(€^Qs^sar J did. 
 
 ear, ui^^Q-Ftar^ I learned. 
 
 Thus they say also, 
 
 for QuiriiSp^, Guirs^sr, or (?u/r#^«-^, it went. 
 
 — ^i^P^sv, «^'^*? or .^■ff^*^', it was. 
 
 — Os^{r&>sSipj>i, Os'ireCtcSs^s- or 0<F[rei)ii£=.3^^^ it said. 
 
 But these forms are incorrect. 
 
 4. The future tense has only two forms. The 
 characteristic middle-particle of the first is uu^ 
 which is inserted between the root and the ter-
 
 84 
 
 Etymology . — Verbs. 
 
 minations, in verbs, which form the present tense 
 with <ffi@^, as : 
 
 jsi—&'£Qfi:^^ I walk, 
 
 0<£rr(Bi'£Gflesr^ J give, 
 
 OufT^iQQpeir^ I forbear^ 
 &c. &c. 
 
 L*(? 
 
 Ljaar, 
 
 
 I shall walk. 
 I shall give. 
 I shall forbear. 
 
 The second characteristic is ay, which is inserted 
 in verbs forming their present tense with Bjpi, as : 
 
 Os^\LjSQpS!r^ 
 
 / do, 
 
 Os'tuGoj^, 
 
 I shall do. 
 
 Ou^QQpm^ 
 
 I receive. 
 
 Olj^Qsh^, 
 
 I shall receive. 
 
 €T(iQ^£G/Ddr^ 
 
 I write. 
 
 er Qp ^G eu SOT ^ 
 
 I shall write. 
 
 ^<=-(5«'C^.-ar, 
 
 I make. 
 
 ^S(mG'su^^ 
 
 J shall make. 
 
 ^^SG^odr^ 
 
 I know. 
 
 ^^G&j&f, 
 
 I shall know. 
 
 G^(r&sT ^@QjD^, 
 
 I appear, 
 
 Gs;ir'o'^jjiG<suesT^ 
 
 J shall appear. 
 
 ^'eiaL-£G/Dek^ 
 
 I get. 
 
 ^eai—Geu^, 
 
 I shall get. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 Observe the following differences ; 
 
 i. Roots ending in (sw, eor, or err, or tl, receive a 
 single Lj, instead of ay ; because more easily pro- 
 nounced, as : 
 
 e-ewrgff^ssr, 
 
 / eat. 
 
 tuearGudr^ 
 
 J shall eat. 
 
 .s/7"(SS!rJs(?^«Br, 
 
 I see, 
 
 SirearGuarr, 
 
 I shall see. 
 
 ^sorfiGpear, 
 
 I eaf. 
 
 ^emQuesr^ 
 
 I shall eat. 
 
 crsarfi'G/Dosr, 
 
 I say. 
 
 GT&irGu^, 
 
 1 shall satf. 
 
 G^ll-SiGjDeir, 
 
 I hear. 
 
 GiSiLGuan; 
 
 I shall hear. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 
 
 
 ii. Roots which end in jjj/, io^, (^, <^(^, or (y>, 
 form the future either regularly, or drop the a- 
 and one of the double consonant, as : 
 
 Qs^ireOsuS^Gp^, I speak, O^F^ebja/ffsue^) j shall speak, 
 
 Osj-ar(^£Gp^, I take, Oa(r&r^Gaj^^,\ r „i,^ii i„hp 
 
 or OsfraTGew^, ) 
 
 ^^QGp^, I reign, ^(2)Ga.«r, 1 j ^^^^^ ^ . ^^ 
 
 or ^orGeumr^ J ° 
 
 BJiTQ^QGfi^, I live,' ^iTQ^G^^j, \ I ^j^^iiii^e^ 
 
 or ajytpCfajen", ^
 
 Etymology. — Verbs. 85 
 
 iii. The roots ^, Guir^ .Frr, (?aj, and Q/i't, form 
 the fiiture tense regularly ; or with the insertion 
 of @, one of the ^nflsisiu ; though the latter is less 
 used, as : 
 
 ^Sff/Biar, 7 become, ^(csuzSr, and .^^(?a/«Sr, / ska// become. 
 
 Qutv^QjDm, I go, GurrGeue^, — Gutrc^,Geu^, I s/uill go. 
 
 s^rrSG/Ddfr^ I die, s^rrQevesr^ — / shall die. 
 
 GeuQG p^, I burn, G&jG^^, — Gsu(^Geu'oar_^ J shall burn. 
 
 GjsrrSGpe^, I have pain, G^BirGeu'^, — G jsn-iv^Geu&r, I shall Itave pain. 
 
 In Poetry this (^ is inserted also in other 
 verbs, as : 
 
 Os'iu^G'^i^, I shall do. ^swfl^Ca/es^, / shall adorn, &c. 
 
 The conjugation of the future is the same as 
 that of the other tenses, excepting the third person 
 neuter, which has the following variations : 
 
 1 . Roots, which form the present tense with «S 
 ^, form the third person neuter, by adding ^^m 
 to the root. This termination serves for both 
 numbers, thus : 
 
 ;^L—e:(^ui, it or they will rvalk. 
 
 Gs^eSsc^ui, it or they will serve. 
 
 <2:/r6!S!rLS)<i@Lc, it or thei/ will show, &c. &c. 
 
 2. Roots, which form the present tense in Q^ 
 receive s-ld, in the third person neuter for both 
 numbers ; subject to the rules for combining let- 
 ters, thus : 
 
 cS/i_<i@LD, it or they will inclose. 
 
 ^i_/B(2;LD, submit. 
 
 a/0ii), cojne. 
 
 O^F/ra) s)2/ti), say. 
 
 Ostr&rf^di, ■ take. 
 
 SjjSliLiLb, kno7v, 
 
 Gldu^ld, feed, 
 
 <sfr,ggK/i)^ see. 
 
 O^FiuiL^LO, ■ do.
 
 86 Hfymology. — Verbs. 
 
 ^dr^LM^ it or they will eat. 
 
 OToTj- ^gjati)^ say. 
 
 -^rS'-^i or contracted ^ld, become. 
 
 Gj5ir(^il>, or QpiTil, he painful. 
 
 Gurr^LL, or Quirta^ go. 
 
 ^/r@u), or *=ffL£, die, &c. &c. , 
 
 The conjugation of the future tense will then 
 be thus : 
 
 yi snail walk, . > I shall make. 
 
 1 ' Ljgssr^jvsuKT, \ 
 
 Singular, jsi—CQu^, 
 
 fii—uuiriu, thou wilt walk, uessr ^)ieu!T\u, thou wilt make. 
 
 > he will walk, usSsr^nsiJir&n-^ he will make. 
 
 > she will walk, uekr^»euireir, she will make. 
 
 jSL-i.(^tli, it will fvalk, u6X!r,^)im, it will make. 
 
 Plural, ;5t—uGLjml, 
 
 pi—uGuili, y we shall 7valk, u essr^uG en iril, we shall make. 
 
 J5L—uueir, 
 
 * fit—UULO, 
 
 } 
 
 m. & f. fiL—ui3^<se!r, youwillwalk,uiissra^eSa£iar,youwillmake. 
 
 TO.. & f. JS1—UU!TIT, — ^ 
 
 jBi—Uuirira&r, f ,, ... „ . • ' ji •;; 7 
 
 * jsi—uun- ythey ivubvalk,ueiitsr^)isu[r!T£eir,they7villmake. 
 
 * fiL—UfTJr, 
 
 neut. j5i—a>(^ai, they will walk, ue^ms>'^, they will make. 
 
 Note. — The Tamil has no particular forms to express our Perfect and 
 Pluperfect and second Future Tenses, except by the aid of the verb ^(5« 
 S/D.^. See § LVI, 7, i. 
 
 § XXIX. 
 
 i^j6- The (srajeo, i. e., the imperative mode, has two 
 ^ forms ; both referring- only to the 2d person. 
 
 1. The first and most common is, the simple 
 root, for the singular ; to this e-Lo is affixed, which 
 is an honorific ; and to this the plural termination 
 ««"■ is added to form the plural. The pronoun is 
 usually prefixed. Thus: 
 
 * These fonns are used only in roetry.
 
 Etymology . — Verbs, 
 
 87 
 
 ^i 
 
 Os=iL 
 
 liJ, 
 
 LJif-, 
 
 Guj;-, 
 
 ^ei^ 
 
 oJir, 
 
 jff'T, 
 
 walking 
 
 doing 
 learning ■ 
 speakiyig ■ 
 
 Sing. Z^'-, 
 
 Plur. ^iSJSe!rj5i—eijiBSar, 
 ■ Sing. ^Os=tLj, 
 
 p rrOtFiLJU-jil). 
 
 walk than. 
 
 walk ijou or thou. 
 
 walk ifc. 
 
 do thou. 
 
 do you or thou. 
 
 standing 
 
 coming 
 
 giving 
 
 Pliir. //EJ'«arO.?ujii^m<s«n-, do ije. 
 
 Sing, /'-"f-, learn thou. 
 
 ^ifui^iLjil^ learn thou or you. 
 
 Plur. ^&a&rui^ijLjik:Se!r, learn ijr. 
 
 Sing. ^'Qusi-, speak thou, 
 
 ^rQusi-ili, speak thou or you. 
 
 Plur. /isj-serrQusi-fEjs&r, speak ye. 
 
 Sing. /;5e>>ja/, .y/anrf ///o//. 
 
 /fr;?6i)ja/tii, *^fl;?r^/ //?o// or you, 
 
 Plur. ^thsm^eisiiiiSiSr, stand iie. 
 
 Sing. /«iJ/r, cowe i'//ov. 
 
 //f ffljfT (25 Lo, fojwe ///o;/ or ;/ov. 
 
 Plur. ^isj'SeirsuirQhmj'Si&r, come ye. 
 Sing, /^/r 
 
 Plur. ^iEJ'SaT^n'(i^iij^^^ 
 
 give thou. 
 
 gi^e thou or ^o?<. 
 
 ^«iic ye. 
 
 Note. — The insertion of /f in the two last instances forms an excep- 
 tion, and is taken from the present tense. See § XXVIII. 
 
 2. The other form is made by affixing to the root, 
 the usual terminations of the 2d person, as : 
 
 Sing. ^jSL-eurriLj, ?valk thou, ui^ivfruu^ learn tliou, <su!r sr triLi, come thou. 
 
 ^n-jsi—eSn-, walk thou, ui^uSir, learn thou, au/r/P/f, come thou. 
 
 Plur. ^msen-jsi—eSirseir, walk ye, L-Jt^uSa-s&r, learn ye, isjrrfn'<selr, come ye. 
 
 But this form may be easily mistaken for the 
 negative verb, and is therefore not much used.* 
 
 § XXX. 
 
 The efluj/E/G^/rsn-, or optative mode is used in all(>^./i^ 
 persons, and has various forms. 
 
 1. The first is <s added to the root. — If \\\q root 
 ends in «, that addition is not required. The one 
 
 Sing. 
 
 or 
 
 In Poetry the folloAring forms are used : 
 
 G^^k \soihou! Plur.j^;^; 
 
 
 go ye.
 
 88 Etymology. — Verbs* 
 
 termination serves for all genders, numbers, and 
 persons, thus : 
 
 •^^^1 \ cii^'s' \"^^y I you, he. hear, may I, &c. may /, &c. 
 ^aJOT, / ' J speak, prosper. 
 
 Note. — Some have used the Infinitive mode, \\'ith the addition of 
 e_ii), to express the Optative, as : //f O^ioujayLO, ^I'reSs^rrfi&saijLb, &c. &c. 
 but there is no authority for this. 
 
 2. Another form is the future tense with .^s, 
 the infinitive of ^Qp^, affixed to it, as : 
 
 Sing. ^fr£^^L-Ll(?u(ra)f, juay I ivalk, euiri^Qaj^s^ may I prosper. 
 
 ^ jst—uuiriuirs, may st thou walk, eun-i^ojiriurrs, mayst thou pi osper. 
 
 ^euisT ^L^iLuir<Qs, may he walk, ^m^ajn-^s, ivay he prosper. 
 hon. ^w°r^[—uufrJ'ir<s:, may he walk, aji^euira' ir£, may he prosper. 
 
 ^eustr fi i—iliu(rstrn's, may she walk, e^rrLpairTeirfra^ may sheprosper. 
 
 .Sl^jsi—uuprrs, may it walk, wrrt^sa^trs^ may it prosper. 
 
 Plur. ^rrilfiL-uGu!rLD,T.s,7nay we walk, emri^Qe^irixiirs^may we prosper. 
 
 hon. ^iTjSi—uiS^ rrs:, may you walk, einri^eS s irs^ may you prosper. 
 
 ^iEjs&rjSt—iliiSiT<seirrrs, may youwalk, &iiTifieS^'^<sfr(rs,may uou prosper. 
 
 m. & f. ^6uirse!rj5u.uu[riTS<sinr<s, may they walk, aiTt^ojirn-'Sgirirs, may 
 
 they prosper. 
 Ueut. ^emeujSL-uuearoJirs, may they walk, ajiri^aiesreuirs, jnay tliey 
 
 prosper. 
 
 3. A third form is the infinitive mode, with the 
 defective verb &i—Qeu&sr^ as : 
 
 Sing. jg!T^jSL—i;s£:sL-.QQ}^, may I walk, 
 
 ^ £SL—eiJ{rtLj, mayst thou walk. 
 
 ^/r .sdJi-af/f, mayst thou walk (honor.) 
 
 _^fflj«3r asL-ajfrdr^ or sl-oj^st, may he walk. 
 
 ^eun- &&L-euiTn-, or «i_su;f, may he walk (honor.) 
 
 ^'eush- -ssL—isjirerr, or 'St—euar, luay she walk. 
 
 ^^ • ssi—eu^!^ may it walk. 
 
 Plur. ^/Ti^ s,&i—Q<Si}Wil, may we walk. 
 
 ^iBjs&r a^t—a^fT^ar, may you iiHilk. 
 
 •m.Scf.^gUsur^srr <s i—&in-fraerr, or Si—tursar. may they walk. 
 
 neut. ^,<sa3u, .ffidCL-ajiJr, may they walk. 
 
 JSi'ofe. — There is another optative form common among the people, viz., 
 bv n^ldinii the word crtli'«7y^', to the infinitive of a verb, thus: .Sl^i^ir 
 a/ ^Oaj'tl'^LC, lit him come, ^sv^i-. §iQ^ssOaiirL-®ih, let hhn be. — • 
 which t^eyfndher contract by rejecting the |?, thus: ^a(«BrauJtl®(i,
 
 Etymology* — Verbs. 
 
 89 
 
 § XXXI. 
 
 The <cr<?^<?=Lfi, i. e., defect, comprehends all the in-/^./^- 
 definite modes of the verb, called in our languag-es 
 participles, gerunds, infinitives, subjunctives, &c. 
 These defective or indefinite modes are divided 
 into two classes. 
 
 1. The /iV^ Ms called (oLj On- 5=<g=Ln, i.e., indefinitei^-^^. 
 mode, used with nouns only. They are our parti- 
 ciples, with this difference, that they comprehend 
 also the relative pronoun ; I shall therefore call 
 them, relative participles. They are three in num- 
 ber, corresponding with the three tenses. They are 
 formed by dropping the personal termination of 
 each tense, excepting the future, of which the 
 third person neuter is also the participle future, as : 
 
 Pres. j5i—6QQp^, I walk, jsi—&Slfi, walking, or ivho or wh'ch nmlks. 
 Past. ;st_;5(?;g<5w, I walked, ;sl-.^^, walked, ox 7ii ho ov which walked. 
 Fut. jsi—i(^ih, it will walk, jsi—Si^il, walking or who or which will walk. 
 
 Thus also : 
 
 Pres. ^L-I,(^QGp^, 
 
 Past. ^i—&QQearidr^ 
 
 Fut. «syi_,j(^Lo, 
 
 Pres. 6Usrr(5SC/r56Br, 
 
 Past. ajsrriT^Q^&r^ 
 
 Fut. eueir(^ui, 
 
 Pres. LJif.<s£iC^«-Br, 
 
 Past. ui^^Q^sir^ 
 
 Fut. Ul^^l^Lh, 
 
 I inclose, 
 I inclosed. 
 It will inclose, 
 I grow, 
 J grew, 
 It will grow, 
 I learn^ 
 I learned. 
 It will learn, 
 
 N 
 
 
 inclosing, or ivho 
 
 or which incloses. 
 
 inclosed, or 7vho 
 
 or which inclosed. 
 
 inclosing, or 7vho or 
 
 which will inclose. 
 
 grotving, or who 
 
 or which groivs. 
 
 grown, or ivho 
 
 or which grew. 
 
 growing, or ivho or 
 
 which will grow. 
 
 learning, or ivho 
 
 or which learns. 
 
 learned or who 
 
 or which learned. 
 
 learning or ivho or 
 
 which will learn.
 
 90 Etymology. — Verbs. 
 
 I add a ie.w other instances of verbs that have 
 some variations, as : 
 
 Pres. O'FireOeju'SiQjD^^ I sat/, Os^ired^stSp, saying. 
 
 Past. O,FfTe0zulQesrijr^ J said, Qs'iTiiO^uj, said. 
 
 or G)^TsiT(je8r6ir^ / said, Os^rrair&sr, said. 
 
 Fut. Os^irei^ih,. It will say, Of^eOS!"i>^ sai/ing. 
 
 Pres. Q-iiT@Qpssr^ j go. Q urrSp, vulgarly Qutrp, going. 
 
 Past. Gu^itSGesrik^ J went, Gun-nSm-^ gone. 
 
 or Qi-'iTGenreir^ J went, GuiTeir, went. 
 
 Fut. Guirc^LXi or 1 ,^ .„ CuT^LDorl 
 
 ^ , > It will go, n ' >£"0?«P-. 
 
 GuirtD, j 6 ' GuiTiSs, j ^ * 
 
 Pres. .^&Gfs^^ I become, 'H^js, becoming. 
 
 Past. ^iiSGenTiw 1 - ^aJiBT or 1 , . , 
 
 ?! /T, . > J became, _ >nanms: become. 
 
 or ^UiearcaT, | ' ^»w, J » 
 
 Fut. ^®"> or 1 ^, ... , potior ) , 
 
 T > /^ »«;<// become, • > beeomins:. 
 
 ^^, J ^^, J * 
 
 The relative participles are prefixed to the 
 noun, as : 
 
 jsi—sQpsfrSii-nl.^ an affair which is going on. 
 jBt—^^sfrS\iuiB<sw-, avail's which were transacted. 
 jsi—s;<^ij.s[rSujLh, the affair which will be transacted. 
 
 2. The 5eco« 6? class of indefinite modes is called 
 cS8airCa-,'<F<9=u3, i. e., snch as refer to verbs only, which 
 I shall call verbal participles. There are five of them. 
 
 i. The first indefinite mode, (called by Beschius, 
 Gerund,) is formed from the past tense, and ends 
 either in ^, or sl, viz. 
 
 Verbs which have ^Cscreor, in the past tense, 
 drop Q&sm^ as: 
 
 .^u-sS Gear's^, .^i—sQ, inclosing or having inclosed. 
 
 0(-jrr(T5^^G«8r«Br, Guit(^^^, agreeing or having agreed. 
 
 O'FireOsSGeareir, C)^f^fcT)«iS, saying or having said. 
 
 Gi5(5(iiL2(?«w«f^, a?(3L0LS', desiring or having desired. 
 
 But GufTaSG^cir, has only, Gt-iiruj, going, or having gone. 
 
 ^nSGesreir^ ^il.', becoming OX having become.
 
 Efyynology. — Verbs ^ 91 
 
 All other verbs drop the personal termination of 
 the past tense ; and add e., as : 
 
 Ui^^C^esr^ 
 
 Ul^fff^, 
 
 learning 
 
 or 
 
 having 
 
 learned. 
 
 mSljS^Q^ear^ 
 
 ^j&p^. 
 
 ktioivino 
 
 or 
 
 having 
 
 known. 
 
 JBt—^Q^sk^ 
 
 J5i-^^^ 
 
 walking 
 
 or 
 
 having 
 
 walked. 
 
 eS^Qi—ek^ 
 
 eSiL(B, 
 
 leaving 
 
 or 
 
 having 
 
 left. 
 
 ^pQpeiiT^ 
 
 ^JS ^, 
 
 ceasing 
 
 or 
 
 having 
 
 ceased. 
 
 In poetry there are also these forms ; Gs^iljl^, Q^iu 
 ojir, Qe^lj^, Q&iuQ^m, all which are the same as 
 
 There is no mode in English exactly correspond- 
 ing- to this first indefinite mode in Tamil ; it is a 
 kind of verbal participle, used with any gender, 
 number and tense, see § LVI. 
 
 ii. The second indejinife mode, ends in ^&d or ^^, 
 and answers to our subjunctive mode with if. — • 
 The first form is made from the past tense, by 
 dropping the personal termination, and adding 
 4j}^y as: 
 
 jSt—^Q^^, jst-^fir^^ if I walk., walked., or shall walk. 
 
 * uip-^ff^ear^ uuf-^^ir^^ if I Icarn, &c. 
 
 ^L-^SCsB-bw-, .sji—sQ^ei^ if I suppress, &c. 
 
 eSilG^sar, eStli_rr«)^ if I leave, &,c. 
 
 GurrQaxreir^ Quir^eO^ if I go. &c. 
 
 ^(?6!jr<iar, ^©«^, if I become, SiC. 
 
 The second form is made by adding ^^, or ^^, 
 to the root of verbs, which form the present tense 
 with Qjf ; but those which form it with &0jjy, in- 
 sert also <S(^, as : 
 
 O^rreJ^, Os=ir^sS!&), or O cF ir eO eS ear ^ if I say. 
 
 ^L—s^(^^ ^i_J-.lsied^ or «syi_fi£'e3r. if I suppress. 
 
 Quit®, Quiru^ei^ if j p,if^ 
 
 Qiauessr®^ Q ewsssr i^eO , if I desire. 
 
 =^®, ^^60, if I hecome. 
 
 ,<SL-, J5I-SS^^ if I go. 
 
 ui^., ut^lS^^^ if I learn. 
 
 -syi^«=^ £.,■&, if I destroij, &e.
 
 92 Etymology. — Verbs, 
 
 But ffij/r has qj/A^w-, or ajifl^, if J come. 
 ^tr — /ffiear, or ^iflei), If I give. 
 Quit — GtJ/r&eo if J go. 
 
 Note. — In poetry there is another form of this suhjunctive, by add- 
 ing ^ei) or ©"«!> to any person of any tense of the verb, or to verbals 
 in ^ ; thus : 
 
 O^tuSemG/0(^^, or 0-FiLjSe^CjDQe3r&>^ Os^uu^'^eiirGiuei^ &C. 
 Os^iuSi^flQ^eO, Os'iufiQ^eO^ &c. 
 
 iii. The third indefinite mode, is formed from the 
 first by adding' the particle a-ii to it ; in which 
 form it corresponds with our subjunctive, with 
 although, referring to the past time, as : 
 
 ^L_<sS, .j>iL-&QtLjUi, although I suppressed. 
 
 Qs^creOeS, OiFtr&ieSiLfLh, / said. 
 
 ut^j^^, ui^^^lL, / learned. 
 
 jSL—js^, jBL-js^il, 7 walked. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 iv. The fourth indefinite mode, is formed from the 
 second by adding the particle a-/^ to it ; when it 
 corresponds to the subjunctive mode with although, 
 referring to the future time, as : 
 
 ^L-;s^[re3, ^l-JB ^irsin^, altkovgk J should walk. 
 
 ui^s^irei, L/i^/^/Tja/to, I should learn. 
 
 ^L-s£(^&>, ^L_£iE'(g)ji2/ai, I should suppress, 
 
 Gu(T@eO, Gurr(g)^LD, I should go. 
 
 ^©6i>, ^©ja*"), ^should become. 
 
 0£=rrm(^&>^ Q,F/r«f (g) j^fU!, ■ should say. 
 
 Os^iTeisS&iT^ O^/r 61) ei)/^ju(i), / should say. 
 
 ^S(fi, .^te j!?'LD, I should be, or become, 
 
 aiiPiesr^ ojfi^LD, ' / should come. 
 
 V. The Jifoh indefinite mode, ends in ^, and cor- 
 responds to our infinitive mode. — ^ is added to 
 the root, according to the rules of augmentation of 
 letters, as:
 
 Etymology .—Verbs, 
 
 93 
 
 Ouj}i, 
 
 Olj^, 
 
 /o receive or gc ^ 
 
 -«Y(V7 
 
 ^i^'. 
 
 /o /i^ecp. 
 
 ^L-m®, 
 
 ^i^ii-s. 
 
 <o 6e contained. 
 
 .^i-S(S, 
 
 ^L_<ff«, 
 
 to contain. 
 
 J5t-.^^^ 
 
 P>—^P-> 
 
 to guide. 
 
 eS®, 
 
 eSi-, 
 
 to leave. 
 
 0-5/rsff-(^, 
 
 OcSfT&mir, 
 
 to take. 
 
 ^(S^ 
 
 ^*, 
 
 to become. 
 
 Gurr(g, 
 
 (?i_;/r<5, 
 
 to go. 
 
 "^A 
 
 ^/Soj, 
 
 to knoiv. 
 
 '^i^, 
 
 -S/ySoj, 
 
 to be destrof/ed. 
 
 ^isni—, 
 
 «£y6S)t— lu, 
 
 to receive. 
 
 Lcenp, 
 
 ix«a/Duj, 
 
 to be hid. 
 
 e_cOT-, 
 
 C-AKi (assr, 
 
 to eat. 
 
 eresr^ 
 
 crcoTSSTj 
 
 to say. 
 
 O-FiU, 
 
 0£=ILJUJ, 
 
 to do. 
 
 sifreSsr^ 
 
 «n"ia»r, 
 
 to see. 
 
 Clcuj, 
 
 Clou.', 
 
 to feed. 
 
 Gsuuj, 
 
 Gffljuj, 
 
 to put on as a crown, or flonfer. 
 
 Ga;, 
 
 CayoJ, 
 
 to burn. Here sL' is inserted for uj ; 
 an irregularity adopted in a Jew in- 
 stances. 
 
 Q<ST, 
 
 C;5/ra;, 
 
 to be in pain. 
 
 ^/r, 
 
 *^frau, 
 
 to die. 
 
 But verbs which form the present tense, with 
 ibS^, add -is to the root, as : 
 
 .£5^, 
 
 JBl—&Sy 
 
 to walk. 
 
 Ul^, 
 
 Ul^S<S, 
 
 to learn. 
 
 ^(5, 
 
 ^(T5<£dr, 
 
 to be. 
 
 Qjs.-fSl^ 
 
 0=s(r®£i5j 
 
 to give. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Note. — All the indefinite modes of the second class are used with 
 any person, gender, number and tense, with the exceptions mentioned 
 before. See their use in S^Titax. § LVI. LVII. LVIII. 
 
 § XXXII. 
 
 The Q^irififQua-^ i. e., verbal noun, is formed^- 7*^- 
 from the roots and the participles. 
 
 1. Neuter verbal nouns, are formed from the 
 root by adding- to it, =5y^, ^a), or e2»^, in verbs 
 which form the present tense with Q^, as :
 
 94 JEtymology. — Verbs, 
 
 / 
 
 From ^t_E/(^, ^£_(K/«^, .=«/(_ c/(5^«S, ^i—iEJi^egt^s, a siibmitling^ 
 «sy£_fi(<5, ^L—&s6i>^ ^i_<#!^^c*, ^£_rf@«s)«, a suppressing^ 
 &inlu!r^^^ &iruuirppei>^ ^iTi^uirjvjpi^eOj srruun'pjjjesi'S, a pro- 
 tecting. 
 
 eS®, e5i_6ii), aS®^«i), aSip6s><sr, a leaving. 
 
 C ^s&) and 1 , 
 
 ^'^®» ^i<««), ^^'S/ff^e^J, ^<fi®«w«, « making. 
 
 ( uisi-ffen and 1 • I • 
 
 ut*.. < . ^ LJiiL«D<s, fl sinking. 
 
 f ^s»i_«6b and ) , ,,• 
 
 ^«>^, |2«„^^^^, J'-^«'-«°*, a getting. 
 
 •^A 15^^/4'''^ |^/r5?«o^, a knowing, 
 
 Os=iu, 0,Fiuiui^, 0^iLi^&), 0^uj6»«, a doing. 
 
 _ _ fCuT^tS and 1 /t, , 
 
 ^esTj jgeareara), ^^^^.ei^ ^stnesiS, a eating. 
 
 n » ( (?^i-li_6») and ) ,n> • , I • 
 
 Qsek, \ ro •> \(j,si—eas^ a nearmff. 
 
 f srrih^ed and 1 »„^ » • 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 But if the root forms the present tense with 
 >bQj»^ then ^^&) or <ff(^^^' or aez^a, is added to the 
 root, as : 
 
 From LJ^u, uis^^^eo^ uu^-s^^ei^ ui^seos: a learning. 
 
 uu^ui3, ui^lIjlS^^^, ui^l1jlS!J;:^^&>, ui^LJt3.ses>^, a teaching. 
 
 O.ST®, 0<«T®^_^«i), Os!r@<£(^^^, 0<S(T-®<ff6»:«, a giving. 
 
 Ouirjfi^ Qurr^^^eJ, QutT^'ir^/ ed^ Ouir^&eas^ a forbearing, 
 
 fi t—y <Bi—^^ei^ jSL-s^rVifiiiO, jsi—Sieas^ a walking. 
 
 ^(5, @0/^"^, ^0i@^«^, ^Q^s^eas, a being. 
 Sec. &c. 
 
 2. Some roots of the latter class are formed into 
 verbal nouns by adding ljl-i ; others by asuj, others 
 by a/j or eS, thus : 
 
 From u if-, ui^lLli, a learning. 
 
 ^L_, /si—iZlj^ a ivalking. 
 
 @C3, ^(5^4, a being. 
 
 Oi-j/r^, 0_/7r^s8)Lo, fl being patient, patience^
 
 Hfymology. — Verbs. 95 
 
 From ^Ti^, 
 
 ^ITt^iSiUi, 
 
 a being htv, humility. 
 
 ^^, 
 
 ^^ay, 
 
 a destroying, destruction. 
 
 =syA 
 
 ^/(Say, 
 
 a knotvins, knowledse. 
 
 LD^, 
 
 jx^aS, 
 
 a forgetting, forgetjulness. 
 
 i3p,^ 
 
 iS/OeS, 
 
 a being born, birth. 
 
 \e&etr^ 
 
 Gs&tgS, 
 
 a hearing. 
 
 Note. — In some instances the roots themselves also are used as nouns, 
 
 as : ^if-, t^^, «9/6»^, (5^1®, £-ir, &c. 
 
 3. From the participles, personal and neuter 
 nouns are formed, by adding the terminations, j>j^, 
 ^6?r, and ^, in the sin^'ular, and =sy/r, and c^s^aj, in 
 the plural to each participle ; except the future, as : 
 
 From the Part: present: ^i— &£.js, vsin^. ;si—i.Q jcsu ear, he who walks. 
 
 jsi—sSd/Dsueir, she who walks. 
 jsi—i^p.£-\ it which walks, 
 Plur. ^i—e-Qpeu^OTSiin&i!T,thpif who walk. 
 ;si—skp0ei&i, they which walk. 
 
 '—— Part: past: fii—^;^,8ing.;5L_^^eu6^, he who walked. 
 
 jSt—^ff.siieiT, she who walked. 
 
 <Bi—^g-^, it which walked. 
 
 Plur. ;5i~j5^<surr or ed ITS eir, they who walked. 
 
 jSL-^^ .-^, f ^'^^y ^^^^^^ walked. 
 
 As for the future, verbs which have lj/J or l/ as 
 the characteristic of that tense, join the same per- 
 sonal terminations to it, as : 
 
 Sing, ;Fi_L!/u6uS9r, ^e who will walk. 
 
 JSi-uu&i&r, she who will walk. 
 
 jBi^Cy^, that which will walk. 
 
 Plur. jBi^CjLJai^^ or QJ/f-ssfl-, they who will walk. 
 
 JSL-Ljueosij, 1 , 
 
 So also Sing. Osrr®uuaj«n-^ he who will giiw. 
 
 Osir(Buueij&r, she who will gire. 
 
 O&itQiuujs!, it which jvill give. 
 
 Plur. OsfrSilLjev.T or eun-siir, they who wilt give. 
 
 0&!r(^uu^, f ^'^^y ^^''"^'^ Jvillgive. 
 
 So also Sing. G'Stlueu<^, Q'StLu&Jar, QsiLu^, &c. 
 «*;T«»rLJa'«srj tf/rgwrusugir, saekru^, Sic.
 
 96 Etymology. — Verbs. 
 
 But verbs, the characteristic letter of which is a/, 
 receive lj, between it and the root, and then the 
 personal terminations ; except the neuter, which 
 omits the lj, probably for the sake of euphony, as : 
 
 Sing. Os^iuuew^, he who will do^ Plur. f Os=iLJusurr or \thei/ who. 
 
 0;FUjufflJwrr, she who will do, '\^Q<Fiuuain-s&r, f &c. 
 
 ^ -^ 7 • 7 •;; J t Os'iuauiir 1 thcywhick 
 
 Os^iu&i^. tt which wiU do, -\ ^ ° , )- 'Z 
 
 Also Os'!r»iejiiu6uesr,hen)howillspeak,Tc'lnT.iO<B''^^uiajiT or \f hey who 
 
 OcFfl-*) jB/LJaj«V, she who will speak., \ 0<F'^^ueuiTs&r^ j &c. 
 
 OjFiT&>s2isiJ^,\. ... ... ( O^ir^uemsu^ \they which 
 
 <s=,reOeu^, j | (ols^ireOsusar, j Sec. 
 
 and Gun-u&j&ir, he who will go, J Quirusun- or \iheywho. 
 
 (?u;rufflJsTr, she who ivlll go, \ Qurrueun&sir, j &c. 
 
 GuiT&j^, it which will go, Gurreueir, they which, &c. 
 
 Observe, that the 3d person, masculine and femi- 
 nine, of all the tenses, is also occasionally used as a 
 verbal noun, so that 
 
 fiL-&Q^(rp^^, is tlie same with, jBi—sQ^euear, 
 
 fiL—uuir&r, i ^L-uueuar^ 
 
 jsi—uuirirs&T. ■. JSt—uuwn-^ar. 
 
 4. Sometimes also we meet with the termina- 
 tion «peDr, instead of ^^^ particularly in the past 
 tense, as : 
 
 pt-^Q ^ir&sr, for ^i—^^euesr^ 
 lStl~Gt—fT&sr^ iEtl-L—<SJ^, &c. 
 
 5. Verbal nouns are also formed by adding- eoLo 
 to the participles of the present and past tenses, as : 
 
 jB L—&&'cirpQS)LB, a walkiiig. 
 
 ;5£_/\iffe)aLo, a having ivalked. 
 
 Os^fTc^enQcarpsnijo,, a saying. 
 
 Os^iTesrisreaLD, a havi7ig said. 
 
 GuirQ'cff. /oseaa, a soing. 
 
 Guinar&nLD, a having gone, &c. &C.
 
 Etymology. — Verbs, 97 
 
 All the verbal nouns are reorularly declined. The 
 forms iBi—^^<sar, pu.LJLj<3isr^ Q&^iusn&sr, &c., recei\!e the 
 
 e=fr^es)iU'^fj}}, thus: ^i-^^ewoj/eroff), j5u.^^&5rQjr-(rfj>so^ 
 ^L-p^csrenf^fi^, &C. 
 
 § XXXIIL 
 
 1. The <cr^^LCiS5)pQu:iiriB, ov negative of a verb, is/Jyy/- 
 made by addino;- the regular terminations of the 
 three tenses; viz., stgot, ^iu, Szc, to the root, with- 
 out any middle particle ; excepting- the 3d, person 
 neuter of the singular which ends in cM^, and the 
 
 3d person neuter of the plural, which ends in ^. 
 
 2. This form has but one tense, which indeed 
 refers chiefly to future time, but includes also the 
 present and past ; and is therefore called (ipsiE/reOLQ, 
 i. e., of three tenses. The conjugation is thus : 
 
 Sing, jstrser ^i_Geijet!r, J shall not, or / use not to walk. 
 
 ^fii—eurrtu, thou wilt not, or ilioii usest not to walk. 
 
 ^eusi: fi u-eun-ear^ he will not, or he uses not to walk. 
 
 ^euelrjSL-eufr^, she will not, or she uses not to nudk. 
 
 KSJ^fii—eiiir^, it will not, or it uses not to walk. 
 
 Plur. jsirth/Fi—Qeurril^ <rve shall not, or we use not to walk. 
 
 ^m'&SrjSL^eSn-sisir, ye will not, or ;ye use not to walk. 
 
 ^eurrsiar^i—eufriT<s&r, they will not, or thei/ use not to walk. 
 
 .jilesisufii—eunr^ (neut.) they will not, or they use not to walk. 
 
 Thus also : 
 
 jBrr^uL^Qiuesr^ I shall not or I use not to learn, &c. 
 
 fiiT'BTO^iuGuuear^ / shall not or / use not to do, &c. 
 
 ptrssr.si^i—ikiQ'Sssr, I shall not or / use not to submit, &c. 
 
 ^/Toi) O jQjD-^, I shall not or / use not to receive, &c. 
 
 firr&r.^Q'Sesr^ J shall not or / use not to become, &c. 
 
 jstrefajirQiTear, I shall not or / use not to come, &c. 
 
 jB(r«i!r^[TQiT«!r^ J shall not or / use not to give, &c. 
 
 ^tTiarsn-Qessrasr, J shall not OV I use not to see, ike. 
 
 Note. Ill Poetry the formntion of the nej^ative is made l)y affixing the 
 appellatives ^iJeoeir^ or ^eieuear, either to the imperative of the positive, 
 
 O
 
 98 Etymology. — Verba. 
 
 or to the past rrlatiA'C participle, and conjugating it throughout all the 
 persons. An 6>), is often omitted. Thus : jsir^^QuSiQeO'iiir^ I .shall not 
 speak; ^Qu^leo; .^a/ro. (Ju^cosar, ^eu&rQi-i^ei&r^ Jsn'diGuSGedJi, Ot 
 GuSeoui ; ^irQuSeSiT^ ^^irQu^eon', ^smeijGu&sO. 
 
 i. Besides the above form for all the three tenses, 
 a negative verb may be formed for each tense, by 
 joining- the verb ^Q^'s2Qp^^ &c., to the negative 
 indefinite mode (the gerund) of any verb, as; 
 
 Present J ^^ ;5i-A>iv^eSi(s-kSQfl^, 
 
 I or ^L-ajn'LBsSrl^(^S(^tLJ.^ 
 ^ I or ^i— sun" LQ ail 0^(0^ ear ^ 
 
 I or p L—ei]tTUi'MQf)fi piTlU 
 
 vi f or jSi—eufTLC&Sr^uQu^ 
 
 luture. -: » _„o_. ',.,.'. 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ ^ z_ au rr ^ Lj LJ /r uj, 
 or jS(—euirLiis&(i^L^uinLj^ 
 
 I do not walk. 
 
 thou dost not tvalk, &c. 
 
 / did not walk. 
 
 thou didst not walk, &c. 
 
 I shall not walk. 
 
 thou wilt not walk, &c. 
 
 ii. A negative verb may also be formed by add- 
 ing the negative ^eo^, to the fifth indefinite mode 
 (Infinitive,) which then refers principally to the 
 past time, thus : 
 
 jSfretir, ^, ^ojear, &c., &c., ;5L_<l^a9a)2a), 7 thou, &c., did not walk. 
 LJifi-ujeScbSsD, — • did not sink. 
 
 iii. g)^Sa), is added also to the verbal noun of the 
 present tense, and then negatives the action itself 
 without reference to time, and stands therefore for 
 all the three tenses, as : 
 
 «syaj ear Q^u!;®^^ 61)351), literally, his doing is not; meaning, he does 
 
 nut do, he did not do. he will not do. 
 ^en&ruL^J;Qp^Q^^, she dues nut, did not, will nut learn. 
 jS!riiy^Os'e)!]^^Qp^fO%e>i, I do not, did not. shall not paij. 
 &c. 
 
 Note. Some add the same also to the vcrhal nouns of the past and 
 futxire tenses, for all persons ; thus :
 
 Etymology. — Verbs, 99 
 
 jB!T&irjsi—^p^e!>'ieo^ I did not walk, 
 
 ^ jsi—^^^e!>%eo^ thou didst not walk. 
 
 ^ajssr jBL~fi^^eO%so, he did not walh\&ic. 
 
 jSfrdrjSL-uu^eiia), I shall not walk. 
 
 ^ jsi—iLu^ed^so^ thou wilt not walk, &c. 
 
 Likewise to any person of any tense, as : 
 
 jEir&r^L-.s&QpsS»i^, I do not walk. 
 
 ' jsi—^Q ^eSed^^ I did not walk. 
 
 fit—uQusSeo^, I shall not walk. 
 
 ;f ;Ez_i;fi(vpu_5l6b26tf, thou dost not walk. 
 
 -^-^ ^t_^^/rj6i)2sv, thou didst not walk. 
 
 fii—uuiTiSiedleo, thou wilt not walk, &c. 
 
 ^iit there is no authority for these forms, 
 
 3. The Imperative (^<sT(s^iS) of the negative verb 
 is made by adding" ^&> or ^e^ to the root of any verb, 
 for the 2d person singular, and ^eor/jQeor, for the 2d 
 person phiral, as : 
 
 ^ ;s L-Q eti en , or jSL—ai<si, do thou not walk. 
 ^mJAstrjSi—ajd^i^eir^ do ye not walk. 
 
 But this form is only used in the poetical Tamil. 
 
 The common form is, to add the imperative of 
 ^(jfi'sQp^, to be, to the negative verbal participle 
 of any verb, as : 
 
 ^ jsi—ai!r^<^, do thou not walk. 
 ^ia-s:eirfii—euiT^(i^iEj'S&r, do ye not walk. 
 
 Still more common it is to say, 
 
 ^ js L-&J irQ /S , do thou not walk. 
 
 ^ir jsi—ojirQ ^m^, do you nut walk, (honor.) 
 
 ^isj'Seirfii—sufrQ^iLiiij'S&T, do you not walk. 
 
 But this is not elegant. 
 
 4. The optative form (eSiu&CS&ir^) of the nega- 
 tive verb is hkewise made by adding the optative 
 of ^0&£^^, to the negative verbal participle, as:
 
 1 00 lEfymology . — Verbs. 
 
 jsirdr^ eStprr^ri^uG'-j^s, may I not fall. 
 
 ^, ^L^iT %Qf)'liUiTiuir^^ mai/.st thou not fall. 
 
 //r, eJt^fr^rjL iS J /r«, mayst thou not Jail (lionorific.) 
 
 ^ajeSr, aSi^/r^0Lji-jfl'(2)^, may he not fall. 
 
 ^ojiT, eSyr/r^^^LjLJ/r , /r^, mai/ he not fall (hoiionfic.) 
 
 ^ouiir, eSi-pir^^((^'ui--rren ir<s^ ma if .she not fall. 
 
 .SIS'-, eS Lp IT ^' lju^ IT <ss^ may it not fall. 
 
 fiirtl, eSLfiir^Q^uGun-i-aiTcS, may ive not fall. 
 
 ^iis^iar, eS;^n-^(i^iZi2^'Ssirn-<s^ may you not Jail. 
 
 ^sLT/fcSOT, eSLpn-^0uuiriT<s(smr£^ may they not fall (m. and f.) 
 
 ^fijemeu, fSLpir^,(i^Ljuear@j{rs, may they not fall (n.) 
 
 5. The indefinite modes of the negative verb are 
 formed thus: 
 
 i. The negative QuQirS^ffil), i. e., relative parti- 
 ciple, is formed by adding ^^ or ^ to the root, as : 
 
 jsi—euir^., or jSL^eufT., not walking, ^ 
 
 O'ff^iuuJiT^, or G^ujujff-, nut doing. >for any tense. 
 
 Gus'trp, or Qus'tr, not speaking, j 
 
 A negative relative participle for each tense may 
 be formed by adding the relative participles of g)(75 
 <b9p^, to the negative verbal participle, as : 
 
 fii—eu!T§(^sQp, not walking, 
 jsi—eur^(i^^^, not having walked. 
 jsi—<sufr^Q^i(^u^, not be ivalking. 
 
 ii. Of tlie eS?<K5rQa^<9=<0=LD, i, e., the verbal partici- 
 ples, the ^>5^ is formed by adding .^^, or .^ld^), to 
 the root, as : 
 
 JSl^SUlTS'i 1 1 71 ■ 
 
 '^ \ > not walking. 
 
 GudFirS'' i , I ■ 
 
 ^ '. > not sueakunr. 
 
 ^ ', J' 7iot hecomins. 
 
 ^ \ > not i^oitig. 
 
 , ^ I not dyif 
 
 > nol ayinsr.
 
 4DW 
 
 ud 
 u 
 
 I U0$ 
 
 I T' 
 
 ueik 
 
 Uess^ 
 
 i)X-» 
 
 ■f 
 
 2d 
 5tU 
 
 / .s7z«// make. 
 
 thou wilt make. 
 
 thou wilt make (lion.) 
 
 he will make. 
 
 he will make (hon.) 
 
 she Will make. 
 
 it will make. 
 
 we shall make. 
 
 xjou will make. 
 
 theij will make. 
 
 they will make. 
 
 making. 
 
 II 
 II 
 
 Id make. 
 
 uA^ a man who will m.ake. 
 
 ue^^ a rvomun who will make. 
 
 (-"swj a thing which will make. 
 
 Ljswf, men who will make. 
 
 It ue^' } ^'"'«g* '^^"''^^'' ^'^' 
 
 Ui 
 
 n. 
 
 e 
 
 b 
 
 ■)t 
 
 )r 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 hi
 
 PARADIGM I. 
 
 Of a verb for 
 
 ni<i the prevent lense wUh iSjv. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 J team, 
 
 t/iou Icaniesf, 
 
 thou (earnest (hon. ) 
 
 he learns, 
 
 he learns, (hon.) 
 
 .she learnx. 
 
 ^j6j'-ji(i.-s3«T^_^, or Lji^iQp^, il learnx, 
 j5tTihut^^Q(I(rr)i}i^ we learn. 
 
 ^thisarut^&'SjSI's^, you learn. 
 ^su^^eh-ui^^iffc^iTSar, they learn, m. & f. 
 j^snaiLJt^*S«m/T)«r, ihei/ learn, (neut.). 
 
 
 Past. 
 
 I /earned. 
 
 thou Icarnedest. "-if- 
 
 thuulearnedest{hon) '-"^ 
 
 
 he learned, 
 he learned (hon.) 
 she learned, 
 it learned, 
 we learned. 
 i/oH learned. 
 
 Kel. Participles, ui^iQjD, learning. 
 
 119-ifir'J'sjT, ihvi/ learned 
 LJijL^^^, theif learned: 
 
 I ut^fifi, learned. 
 
 LJ t^ [_/_(, TOT", 
 l-/(n j: * Oj, 
 
 Ft rem:. 
 
 I shall learn., 
 thou nnlt learn, 
 thill ml! learn., (hon.) 
 he ivitl learn, 
 he will learn, (hon.) 
 she will learn, 
 it ivill l;arn. 
 W:^ shall learn, 
 i/oii n>ill Ifarn. 
 theif will learn, 
 thei/ will learn. 
 
 Of a verb forming the pre.ient len.^e with Q^ 
 
 /'Hf.^E.S T. 
 
 ] uif-*tjiLa, lear 
 
 Verbal 
 
 rerbal Tgd 
 I-les. \5tl 
 
 ViiTt.ui^sQffi,!fI,(hon,&c.,learn. 
 tU. or InfiQ. t_/t^i<s, to learn. 
 
 1st. Part. L/ijL^^, learning. 
 
 3(1. uip-^^ti although having learned. 
 
 2d. ui^^^ir»i, if I, thou &c., learn. 
 
 4th. ui^fifirrsHiO, although /, thou, &c., should learn. 
 
 Verbal < 
 
 
 ji^s 
 
 a learning. 
 a learning. 
 
 a learnin". 
 
 
 uip-UL^, a learning. 
 
 Lji9-i^©;osi;e!r, a man learning, 
 
 Ljtp-c4i;s€DSfl-, a ivontan learning. 
 
 LJt^si&p^, the (bird) ivhich learns. 
 uif-iiwr^iflDtJi, the learning. 
 
 19-^ learn thou ! 
 
 Luf-u^ti, learn thou, (hon.) 
 
 '(BfSsffLJijLi^iBiE^, learn you I 
 
 
 
 
 a having learned. 
 a man that has 
 
 learned, 
 a woman that has 
 
 learned. 
 n>hieh has learned, 
 men or women 
 
 that have learned, 
 things that have 
 
 learned. 
 
 
 Ljip-uLjaj/f, 
 
 jtf-ULjana. 
 J9. Jlj«t, 
 
 a man who will learn, 
 a Woman ivho will 
 
 learn, 
 the (bird) which ivill 
 
 learn, 
 men or women that 
 will learn. 
 
 X things which will 
 f learn. 
 
 
 / inake. 
 
 thou makest. 
 
 Ihou makest (hon.) 
 
 he makes. . 
 
 he makes (hon.) 
 
 she makes. 
 
 
 3 'Tirp.^, or uskr,^! -gp ^^ U makcs. 
 
 we make. 
 If on make, 
 theif make, 
 they make. 
 
 viakina. 
 
 Pa^ 
 
 (_; SWr <8»H .flf (T 
 
 f ctRT evvn (^ dirr 
 
 I fl&r JBSTt _g| IT 
 
 ///ow madest. 
 
 thou madest (hon.) 
 
 he made. 
 
 he made (hon.) 
 
 she made. 
 
 it made. 
 
 we made. 
 
 you made. 
 
 they made. 
 
 they made. 
 
 made. 
 
 i-f em- .Apr aPrf ^ 
 usSsr^Biaiirir^ 
 
 
 Future. 
 
 I shall make, 
 thou wilt make, 
 thou wilt make (hon.) 
 he will make, 
 he will make (hon.) 
 she will make. 
 il will make, 
 we shall make, 
 you will make, 
 they will make, 
 they will make. 
 
 snaking. 
 
 2d. Part. Ljswrtspffla), //'Z, //joM, &c.) 
 5th. uexrear, to make. 
 
 f ^iT^Lji^-ilQu^s, or ui^-'S^s^.a; i_Geua:r, mat/ I learn. 
 Opfa- J ^LJif-uuiruj/ra, or LJt(i-(ffi««*i_aj/ruj, mayst thou learn, 
 live, ''y ^n-ui^uiSniTts^ or.uuf-fS'Sa^i—eS'T^ mayst thou learn 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 yf. \ i 
 
 
 a making. 
 
 a making, 
 
 a making. 
 
 a man making. 
 
 a woman making 
 
 the thing making 
 
 Ljewr^viMT-^Demu), a making. 
 
 1st., Part. Ljcwrasfft, making. 
 
 3d. ueasr aSiniji, although having made. 
 
 2d. u«iff-««fl(Si60, //'/, thou, iki\. make. 
 
 4th. — — u«ir6Hfl(3i^m, although I thou &ic., should make 
 
 ueAra^hareaLD, a having made. 
 ueAressStereusnT^ a man who made. 
 uexrenSiairwar^ a woman who made. 
 u&sfr&^ier^, the thing which made. 
 Lj«Br6Rffl.ir«ui?^ „,g,i (,r women who made. 
 uessresmlivrsvtaj, things which, &c. 
 
 
 a man who will make. 
 a wom:iti who will make. 
 a thing which ivill make, 
 men whi> will make. 
 
 °, , ' > flunk's which, &c. 
 
 Impe- 
 rative. 
 
 
 make thou ! 
 make thou (hon.) 
 ?nake you. 
 
 Opt a- I /ue 
 
 live. J ^ffLj 
 
 
 iUaj^«, or LjoBrearef £_fij«?r^ mou I make. 
 
 is.T^jTS, or ue&r eaari a !-aj.rtu, ma i/si thou make. 
 
 «?irj-4, or u6»r«Bsr««i_ef(?,7/,(,_yj/MyH,&L'., (hon.) 
 
 PARADIGM II. 
 
 OF THE NEGATIVE FORMS OF THE TWO PRECEDING VERB.S. 
 
 &ing. -; 
 
 ^aui9.aSiT, (hon.) 
 
 jy a; sir Lj i^ lij fT bBt ^ 
 ^ajffLJtp-ujfr/f, (hon.) 
 
 Connnon tense for all times. 
 I shall not learn. 
 
 ihou trill not learn. PIu 
 
 thou wilt not learn. ral. 
 
 he will not learn, 
 he will not learn, 
 she will not learn, 
 it will not learn. 
 
 
 'i^QiiJiria, 
 
 
 Rel: rarllciples. i'-^'f-^'f, \ 
 
 iiot Iciiniiif^ 
 
 erbal Parriciples. i'-^'*^'^'^^' 
 
 Imperative /lj^u^'t^CS, 
 
 or LJi*-iLj(r(r ^, 
 
 or ui^ujirQ^u_f, 
 ^iki'SOTLJi^u-.'ir^Q^iBisar, \ 
 or Ui^iun-Gfiu^iEjsar,} 
 
 > 710/ learning. 
 
 > do Ihou nol learn. 
 S do thou not learn. 
 
 do you not learn. 
 
 Lj^LUj/r^onaj, 
 
 (hon.) 
 
 Optative. 
 
 , ,^/rsJrLjiji-iu/rjS0L'(?LjgiSj 
 
 ■*y6U*jri_HfUUJfr^Cgi-Ji_//7-Q)*^ 
 ^etlfTuUf-UJlT^Q^CjuirS ITS, 
 ■^ ^ LJ 19- lU T^ Lj LJ ^ (T iS J 
 
 JstTiai_n^iuiT)sQ^t-iQu!VLCi(rs 
 ^sstaiLj i^iu IT fi!(^uu ear aj:r'£ 
 
 may I nol learn. 
 
 maysl thou not learn. 
 
 viaysf Ihou nol learn (hon.) 
 
 may he not learn. 
 
 may he nol learn (hon.) 
 
 may it nol learn. 
 
 ■may we not learn. 
 
 may you nol team. 
 
 may they not learn, (m. & fern. J 
 
 matf they nol learn (ncul.J 
 
 1 
 
 we shall not learn, 
 you will nol learn, 
 they will nol learn, 
 they will not learn. 
 
 a nol learning. 
 II man who does nol learn, 
 a woman who does nol lear, 
 that ivhich does not learn, 
 men who do not learn, 
 things which do not learn. 
 
 tting. 
 
 ^ff'_'awr«sjP/f, (hon.) 
 
 ^oiiTuessr^^iT^ (hon.) 
 jy aj SIT Dewr^sw, 
 
 iuesT^^, 
 
 Common tense for all times. 
 I shall nol make, 
 thou wilt nol make, 
 thou will not make, 
 
 he will not make, ' \ -ft 
 
 he will nol make, \ tiij< 
 
 she will nol make, 
 it will not make. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 f fifTtLui 
 I |!E IB* sir 
 
 
 iTiSefn-ia 
 
 we .shall nol make, 
 you will nol make, 
 they will not make, 
 they will not make. 
 
 \ not 
 
 > do thou not make. 
 
 Relative 
 Participles. 
 
 Verbal 
 Participles. 
 
 Imperative. ^ue&r^^(i^. 
 
 Or ,_;6aJrr^C?jF, 
 
 ^,. ^^.n ^ ■ I do thou nol make (hon.) 
 
 £s3SeiTi-iekr(^^nRi,s<sff, ) . , , 
 
 „^ , „. ,^^ , . > do you nol make. 
 
 may I not make, 
 mayst thou nol make, 
 mayst thou nol make (lion.) 
 may he nol niakcy &y. 
 
 
 cjair^anuj, 
 
 a nol making. 
 
 
 U 6OT" ^) ^ Qj iar 
 
 a man who does nol make. 
 
 Verbal 
 
 \-}Sar^fi:euar, 
 
 a woman who does nol make 
 
 nouns. 
 
 uiir^^^. 
 
 that which docs nol make. 
 
 
 u«wr^_^aj,f^ 
 
 men who do nol make. 
 
 
 [u«»r©^«,au, 
 
 things which do not make. 
 
 Optative. ...piT^!->eisr,'^^(i^tlG^j^s.^
 
 Etymology. — Verbs. 101 
 
 The second and remaining verbal participles are 
 formed by adding- the vei-bal participles of the verb 
 ^(if)'s9/D^, to the first negative verbal participle of 
 any verb, as : 
 
 the 2d. jBirdr^ ^, &c, ^j—su/r^^^^/reo, ?"/'/, thou, &c., do not 
 
 walk. 
 
 3d. ^ 1—611 fr^(^(^jF^u:, aJtlioiiish /, &e., do or 
 
 did not walk. 
 
 4tli. fii—eijn^Q^fi^,!r^ih, although /, &c., should 
 
 iiof walk. 
 
 • 5th. ;5i—&Jir^(r^£:s.^ vol to walk. 
 
 6. Negative verbal nouns (Qpirifip-Qu^,) are 
 formed, 
 
 i. "By adding <^®)ld, to the root, as : 
 
 ^£_aj/r6»LCi, a not fvalking. 
 Os^iuiurres)'^, a not doing. 
 C)u/r(5s»)U), a not containing, envy. 
 Gsueari—troDLQ, a not desiring.^ &c., &c. 
 
 ii. By adding the personal terminations to the 
 negative participle, as: 
 
 jsi—eLor^oieir^ a man who does not walk. 
 ^i—eufTs^^eu&r, a woman who does not walk. 
 jSL-euiTfij,j, a thing which does not ivalk. 
 
 Having stated the particulars of a verb, I add 
 two Paradigms, to show them to the student in one 
 view ; only those terminations are put down, w hich 
 are most in common use.
 
 102 Etymology. — Verbs, 
 
 § XXXIV. 
 
 The Tamulians form also causal verbs, 
 
 1. From simple verbs, which have <«Sjj», in the 
 present tense, by substituting ui^i&p^, for the 
 middle particle, as : 
 
 ^isf. ^i^iSGjs'Sfr^ I beat, ^i^uiSsBGro&r^ I cause to beat. 
 U19- ui^.&QGp«rr^ I learn, ui^ui3e3Gp^, I cause to learHy 
 
 i. e., / teach, 
 fit— jBL—i3Gpar^ I walk, fiL-iJi3i&^Gp^, I cause to walky 
 
 i. e,. / transact. 
 Guir^ Guir^^QGp^, I teach, Guir^uiSiSGp^, J cause to teach. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 2. From simple verbs which have Qja, in the 
 present tense, by substituting eS^sS^ as the middle 
 particle, thus : 
 
 Os^iu O'FiuQGp^'r, I do, Os=iu6S:^SGpe^, I cause to do. 
 Os^treden Oetrei)^QGp«ir^I say, Os'irei}£i/eS^£Gpe^, I cause to say. 
 wsssr^fi uekr^su'^Gpssr^ I make, ueix!r.^iisSsQGp^, I cause to make. 
 «SiS ^(SSiGp^, J leave, sSiBeSs&iGpdr, I cause toleavc^ 
 
 i. e., / deliver. 
 oJT &t(^SiGp^, I co7ne, eu^tSsQGpi^, J cause to come. 
 
 mfil/S ^fiSiGpen-, I know, ^jSieS^&Gp^, I cause to knorv. 
 
 I make known. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 An exception is snGssrQGp^, I see, which has ssr 
 eScsriSlisQGpm^ I cause to see, I shoxv. 
 
 These causal verbs are regularly conjugated like 
 
 ui^'sQGjDixrf as : 
 
 jBiT^ir ui^uiSSsSGp^, I teach, Sec. 
 
 ■ uu^tliLSj^G^^nr, I taught, &c. 
 
 ui^ui3uGus!r, I shall teach, &c. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 § XXXV. 
 
 There are several defective verbs, that is, verbs 
 of which some parts only are in use. They are these :
 
 Etymology. — Verbs. 103 
 
 1. Of the root ^, equal or agreeing. 
 
 the 3d person neut. fut. ^icf ld, if agrees, it is equa!. 
 the 1st indeftnite mood, 9^ ^, agreeing, bei?ig equal. 
 
 the 5th indefinite mood, J^f", > <o ogree. 
 
 the perf. participle, 5'^^, agreed equal. 
 
 the tut. participle, !?<5@i2i, wA/c/j wz// or tvhick does agree. 
 
 the verbal nouns, fp^^^, it tvhich agrees. 
 
 and 9'-'-/, agreement, equality. 
 
 In thenegative form,the3d person neut. e^aisurr^, it does not agree. 
 the relative participle, ey^gutr^, not agreeing. 
 
 verbal participle, {l^^I^^ f^, } "^ »ot agreeing. 
 
 Occasionally, however, we meet also with the 
 three tenses, as : 
 
 ^eueuir^asrQnjm, J agree, &e. 
 ep^Q^m, I agreed. 
 
 ^CjQu^, J shall agree. 
 
 2. Of the root G^esarQ, necessity, 
 
 the 3d person neut. fu^ Geue«rfSiui, it is necessary, it must. 
 
 the participle of the past tense, GeueSsn^vj, being necessary. 
 
 the verbal nouns, Gsuekn^iu^, it must, with respect to 
 
 the past. 
 Caycwr^fflj^, it must, wth respect to 
 the future. 
 
 In the negative form, G&imri—n-ui, it must not. 
 
 }^ote 1. — For (?aj6wr®LD, the 'V'ulgar use Caj^piLo, and for Qeues!n^!T\ii, 
 KirreSsTL—irui, or ajfri^di. 
 
 Note 2. — This defective verb must not be confounded with Qeuakr®^ 
 desiring, which is regularly conjugated throughout all the modes and 
 tenses. 
 
 3. Of the root u^/rtl®, possibility, ability, used 
 only in
 
 104 
 
 Hfy m logy . — Verbs. 
 
 The negative form, Lx^ml-Qi—^^ 
 The Relative Participle, u^iti1.:—its;. 
 
 The Verbal Participle, {^,^^,f ^ j 
 
 / can, or ivill vot. 
 
 thou cansi or wilt nut. 
 
 thou canst or wilt not. (hon.) 
 
 he can or Tvill not. 
 
 he can or will not. (hon.) 
 
 she can or will not. 
 
 it can or will not. 
 
 ?ve can or will not. 
 
 tjou can or will not. 
 
 they can or will not. 
 
 which is not able. 
 
 not being able. 
 
 Some use this verb also in the affimative form, 
 
 as Lo/7il'S(?cyoor, I call', LniTiKBsija lu f thou catisf, &c., but 
 there is no authority for it. 
 
 4. Of the negative verbal roots ^&) and ^^, 
 signifying-, not. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Rcl. Part. 
 Verb Part. 
 
 
 ^edeOir^, * 
 @fOei)n", * 
 ^JoeOiT^, * 
 iilfJsDT, * 
 
 Terbal Nouns, ^a)36u, * 
 
 ^ 61) a: /T SOLD, * 
 
 ^iS37S»LQ, * 
 
 ^ sl) a; T ^ au «ar ^ * 
 
 «Sy6i)60/7 sJr, 
 cSya)aJ/rjp^ * 
 
 «syw)60, * 
 
 7 fl?» not. 
 thou art not. 
 he is not. 
 she is not. 
 it is not. 
 we are tiot. 
 you are not. 
 they are not. 
 they are not. 
 
 not being. 
 
 not being. 
 
 } 
 
 a not being. 
 
 a man who is not. 
 a woman who is not. 
 
 a thing which is not.
 
 ILfi/mology . — Verbs. 105 
 
 Note 1. — Only those marked thus* are in common use. 
 Note 2. — The difference between ^eo and «sy«i) is, that @6v> denies 
 the existence of a thing; but ^'^ its quality. See § LXIX. 
 
 5. Of a.srr denoting" within. 
 
 Rel. Participle, &-elrsir, having or containing. 
 
 ' 9-errsrreiaLa or 1 , , ,.,. ^ i 
 
 >tne condition of having. 
 
 Verbal Nouns, -. ^ern^suew^ a mart who has. 
 
 I sL-en-en-Aiar^ a woman who has. 
 
 I^s-errsrr^', a thing which has. 
 
 3d person for all genders, e-eiar®, there is fi-om &-e!r^. 
 
 One of the or is also omitted; thus ^sya/sor &_srr«)-OT-, he is ; ^au/f 
 e_ci7-/f, fAcy are, ^^ &.«^^ it is; .Sfemsu iLj&r, thej/ are. But these 
 forms are used more frequently in poetry. 
 
 6. Of Quir^j denoting sufficiency^ 
 
 3d Pers. neut. Cljt^lo, it is enough, sufficienf. 
 
 In the Neg. form, Quir^rr^, it is not eiiough. 
 
 The verb Participle, Cu/r^/r^, not being enough. 
 
 Verbal noun, Gu/r^/TanLo, the not being enough. 
 
 7. Of the root «^, denoting necessity, duty, the 
 whole of the the future tense, thus : 
 
 «(_(?ay6ar, / must, or maij. 
 
 <si_fflj/ruj, thou must or mayst. 
 
 si^eSrr^ (hon.)^o?< must or may. 
 SL^&ifresr or <SL-&i^, he must or ^n^y. 
 si—surra- or^i—euff, (hon.)Ac /«7<a'^ or may. 
 st—euneir or ■si—ojor, she must or ?//fl_y. 
 
 si—eu^, it must or 7»ay. 
 
 dSi—GsurrLb, we 7nust or ;««?/. 
 
 <Kz_a?/r<S6rr, _7/o« vinst or may. 
 
 si—eurrir^eir or ^t—euirsetr they must or ?Hay, masc. and fem. 
 <sL_fflj6ar, //i('2/ must or ?«a?/, neuter. 
 
 In the 3d person neut. plur. the singular, sl-oj^, is also in use. 
 Hence also the verbal noun, az—swix), duty. 
 
 8. Of the root #@, denoting Jitness, propriety, 
 the whole future tense, as : 
 
 Sing, 
 
 Plur.
 
 106 
 
 Etymology . — Verbs-. 
 
 The Infinitive, 
 Eel. Participle, 
 
 Verbal Nouns, ;ff©^, 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 I oxi^lit^ I amjit, 
 thov ought, 
 he oi/ghf. 
 she ought. 
 
 it ought. 
 
 for /@6wu), 
 
 to befit, 
 fit^ (past.) 
 >, (fut.) 
 
 Jitness, proprieii/. 
 
 s 
 
 a man that ufit. 
 a woman that is fit. 
 a thing that is Jit. 
 
 I am not fit. 
 thou art not Jit). 
 
 The negative form ; 
 
 The whole tense, ^.Qs&sr^ 
 
 &c. &c. 
 The Verbal Participles, ^sit^^ not being fit 
 
 Rcl. Paticiple, 
 A^erbal Nouns, 
 
 not being Jit. 
 
 Vnot being Jit. 
 
 the not being fit, unjitness, 
 ^str^euesr^ an unfit man. 
 ^AfT^susJr, aji u)Jit woman. 
 f,£!t p^^ an nnjit thing. 
 
 § XXXVI. 
 
 The Tamil verbs have two Voices only ; viz. ^ecr 
 ©SSszjr, or ^uj^i_/©9a5cr, i. e., verbs, the action of which 
 remains with ourselves, intransitive verbs ; and Sp 
 ©SlSsor, I. e., verbs, the action of which passes over to 
 another, transitive or active verbs. The passive 
 voice is formed in several ways. 
 
 1. By adding- uQQCops^, I suffer, in all its mo- 
 difications, to the infinitive mode of any active 
 verb, as: 
 
 \ •
 
 'Etymology. — Verbs. 107 
 
 ^i^L-fi-SLiuQiSC^sar, / am beaten, I suffer heating, &c. 
 
 .^ i^s e Lj ucLQ I— eir, I was beaten, &c. 
 
 ^i^-cssLjuOCajser, / shall be beaten. Sec. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 2. By adding QujjiQQpeor^ in all its tenses, to the 
 infinitive, as. 
 
 ^t^S'sOu^QQjD'stir, I get beating, i. e., / am beaten. 
 
 ^i^S'S^uOupQp'iar, I got heating, i. e., / was beaten. 
 
 ^Lf-sstlOujjiQaj&r^ I shall get beating, i. e., / shall be beaten, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 3. By adding-, in some instances, the verb s-ekS 
 Gpoor^ I eat, figuratively, to primitive verbal 
 nouns, as: 
 
 j^lemjDiLje&rSlQ/r)'^, lit: I receive stripes; i. e., / rt?w beaten. 
 
 ^oojBiLjmrQ i—^, lit : I received stripes; i. e., / have been beaten. 
 
 &c. &e. 
 
 ^ilSewrSG'rtjsar^ / am buffetted. 
 
 i^tL(S&srGi—<^, I was buffetted. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 ^jr)iiliL^(mrQQp<^, I am cut off. 
 
 «sy^LJi-y<5wr(?:_«Br, / was cut off. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 The first of these is the most common form, but 
 it does not exactly answer our passive form, because 
 in certain connexions intransitive verbs also may 
 be thus united with u(B&p^, as : 
 
 §^(^&suuil-Q L-.esr^ lit, : I suffered being, i. e., / was. 
 jBi—seuuQQojek^ Hi ; / shall suffer going, i. e., / shall go. 
 
 And again, though the active form be made thus 
 passive, the active verb still retains, in certain cases, 
 its active power ; particularly in the participles : 
 
 «gyaj/r«6ir^cs5^a»a;#<sL!/u/l:_@:_Lo, the place in which they put it. 
 or the place in which it was put.
 
 108 
 
 'Etymology. — Verbs. 
 § XXXVII. 
 
 This seems the proper place to state a pecuHar 
 kmd of appellative nouns, called eS?esri(^rBui-i(Lpfj>if 
 mentioned § XXIV. 10. 
 
 They are formed from certain obsolete roots that 
 are still used as adjectives, such as : 
 
 -9/(5, hard, difficult., Sl^, small, ^ffl'^L, low. 
 
 O'^iT®, cruel, Ou(i^, great, i-j^, new, e-&r, being, &c. &c. 
 
 The final a., is changed into ^, and the follow- 
 ing terminations affixed, 
 
 For the 1st person Sing. ^^, 
 
 2d person, g?, 
 
 3d person, mas. .^^, 
 
 fern. .J>l&r, 
 
 neut. .ja, 
 
 For the 1st person. Plm\ eriii, 
 
 or mSjii, 
 
 2d person, ff/f, 
 
 o , mas. ) 
 
 3d person, f^j^V-si^, 
 
 neut. < "^ 
 
 Thus also, 
 
 as, ^(fI(?UJ6»r^ 
 
 as, .=s>ji\es)UJ, 
 
 as, »gy(flujear^ 
 
 as, K^ifliu&r, 
 
 as, ^!fi^, 
 
 as, «sy/fl(?ujtl, 
 
 as, ^li^iuih, 
 
 as, ^Sidir, 
 
 as, ^/fiiL//f, 
 
 or .^Suu, 
 
 or ^/fluJSBr, 
 
 Mom a Aarrf ma?}, 
 he a hard man. 
 she a hard woman, 
 it a hard thing, 
 we hard men. 
 
 we hard men. 
 you hard men. 
 
 they hard people. 
 
 they hard things, 
 they hard things. 
 
 
 iililciuear. 
 
 SljSeau 
 
 I a cruel nuin, 
 
 thou cruel man, 
 
 he a cruel man, QjBiu'iir, 
 
 she a cruel woman, ^jSiium, 
 
 it a cruel thing, ^•^^, 
 
 / a little man. 
 thou a little man. 
 he a little man. 
 she a little woman, 
 it a little thing. 
 
 At the same time that these appellatives have the 
 foi-m and regimen of verbs, they have also the form 
 and regimen of nouns ; and are then called eSSssrsflcs 
 ^fBuLJuQuff-. Thus any of the persons may be 
 regularly declined, as :
 
 'Etymology^ — Verbs. 109 
 
 1st case, Osrri^Ciueir^ I who am a cruel matt, ^u^Qujelsr^ I who 
 
 am a low man, i. e., a hmnhle servant. 
 2d case, Os(n<^Q\u^esr, vie who am a cruel man^ ^i^Quj'^jser^ me who 
 
 am a low tna?i, i. e., a humble servant. 
 3d case, Qsiri^Qvj^ei, by me who am a cruel man^ ^^Qil'<^^, by 
 
 me who am a low man, i. e., a humble servant. 
 4th case, Ostn^Qiu^i,^, to me ivho am a cruel man, ^t^-C'iu^J®, to 
 
 me who am a low mail, i. e., a humble servant. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Thus also the second person. 
 
 1st case, O'Srrtif-.isoiu, thou who art a hard person. 
 
 2d case, O'Srvts^esaueaiu, thee who art a hard person. 
 
 3d case, Osni^&atuiuired^ bi/ thee who art a hard person. 
 
 4th case, Osin^eaiu^i^^ to thee who art a hard person. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Accordingly we find the following expressions. 
 
 Osn-i^ee)tu9l;BQiuteisnut^f^^rriu, i. e., in plain language. 
 
 O'S^®e»L0iL;sTrsrrBu©SuJ;f^^<S»'-Qu./i3rris»rau(g)9aj sriSBrtasnLJZjL.^^.Tu!/, thou 
 
 a cruel man hast beaten me a small man. 
 
 .^fluj0eije<!JtLieurT:^(i§Qsuir7^ i. e., in plain language. 
 
 ^/flswLcujjra. cwsut5?«»T- OTsfPfiWLcuj/rte^Coa/eo^, / shall make easy the 
 things that are difficult. 
 
 The use of these concise forms is however nearly 
 confined to poetry. Only some of the forms are 
 in common use, as : 
 
 .^jSi^, it is difficult. 
 
 Si^^i, and B^tUj^, it is small. 
 
 ^;6liu idr^ he is a small man. 
 
 OsiTi^^, it is cruel. 
 
 OaiTi^iurr^, he is a hard man. 
 
 ^t^iurr^ or 1 7- 111 t 
 
 n ' i- -' your humble servant, 
 
 e_<srr^ or e-sh-isit-^, it is. 
 
 Ouif)^, it is great. 
 
 Oufliu^ar^ he is a great man. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 § XXXVIII. 
 
 It remains to mention some further particulars 
 respecting- the derivation or formation of verbs.
 
 110 Hfymology . — Verbs, 
 
 1. From intransitive verbs, formed from the 
 roots as before stated, transitive or active verbs are 
 again made by inserting p^, before Sjv, as : 
 
 ^fL—sSp^, to walk, ;s'—s,^@p^, to make walk, to direct. 
 
 ^(Tj^S^^, to he, @c5,<5^fi^^, to make to be, to put. 
 
 Q l-.s^Q;d^, to lie clown, Si—^^&<pj^, to make to lie down, to lay down. 
 
 u®Qfl^, to suffer, Lj®fij§iQp^, to make to suffer, i. e., to affect. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 In the same way are formed also some verbs 
 from those which are ah'eady active, and then the 
 newly formed verb becomes doubly active, or 
 causal, as : 
 
 ^Ln&Qp^, to carry, hear a hurden, si-Lc^^^^p^, to make one carry 
 
 a hurden, to put upon. 
 
 If the root end in ^ or ©, active or causal verbs 
 are formed by doubling the p and lL, as : 
 
 ^jrn^p^, to he composed, comforted, ^pjuQjs^, to comfort. 
 Q p.guQp.^, to he comfortable, Qs-p^Sp^, to make comfortable. 
 ^.gsiQpS'-, to ascend, <spj}iSp^, tomaketoascend,toliftup. 
 
 .^(BSp^, to play, .^fJSiSp^i, to make one play. 
 
 <ly®Qps', to run, eptLQSp^. to drive. 
 
 &.rr3@p^, to dry up, 6nrrtL®Sp^, to make dry. 
 
 Koots which end in &(^, i^i-i, are formed into 
 active or causal verbs, by changing the & and trj 
 into <s and lj, respectively, as: 
 
 ^i—ij(^Spj^, to be contained, mS\(—&(^Qp.S', to make to he contain- 
 ed, to retain. 
 jceomK^Qp^, to be troubled, xedsi^Qp^, to trouble, to mix. 
 QPifEj^&p^, to sound, Qfiifi-^C^&P.^, to cause to sound. 
 
 ^(^uii-jSp,^, to return, ^Q^uLjSp^, to turn, to make go back. 
 
 eTQptLLjSp^, to rise, '^QP^^&P.^, to make to rise, to raise. 
 
 Lastly, some intransitive verbs, ending in wj, form 
 active verbs by inserting S=<Br, as :
 
 Efi/mology. — Verbs. Ill 
 
 ufflsQpsi-, to run, umL'-e^srQp^, to make run, as the water. 
 
 arriuQp^, to become dry, 'SiriuJ'&SSp^, to make dry. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 2. Verbs are formed from nouns by adding- to 
 them u(BBp^, for the intransitive, and i-j®^^ 
 9p^, for the transitive ; if the noun end in i^, it is 
 dropt. Thus : 
 
 (^mruuQQis^, to become healed, (^essruu^^^Sp^, to heal. 
 
 s^^G^rra^iljuQSfi^i, to be glad, £=^Q^iT&:^'liu®^^Qp^, to 
 
 make glad. 
 LDQeatauuQQp^, to become glorious, LaQ<siau:iUu(B^^Qp.^,tofnake 
 
 glorious. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 In a few instances the active form, u^S^^Qp^, is 
 added to the infinitive, and makes the verb active 
 or causal, as : 
 
 From Ofiii^9p.^, to know, 0^^iuuu®^^Qp^, to make known, to 
 
 acquaint. 
 
 > ^<BQp^, to know, .Sl^iuuu®^^9p^, to make known, to 
 
 acquaint. 
 
 3. Intransitive verbs are formed from nouns of 
 quality, by adding, c^^p^, or ^u^Q^'sQp^, as : 
 
 (gessruiTQp^, to become healed. 
 
 (Reiser in frii3(frj&Sp^, to be healed. 
 
 ^srTLDirk'p^, to become long. 
 
 ^smufTiiSQ^iSp^. to be long. 
 
 OeuiskreinLO'jjirSp^, to become white. 
 QsusssroaL^iurTiS^i^sQp.^, to be white. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 4. Active verbs are formed by joining- the 
 verbs ^'^i^Qp^^ u<sssr,^Qp^ or Q&iuQp^, to the 
 noun, as : 
 
 ^eissrLB!v^,(g,Qp_^, to heal. 
 
 ^srru:iTS(^Sp^, to make long, to lengthen. 
 
 ^ij^.k, ..os^ ^ a m r, r to make clean, to cleame-,
 
 112 Adjectives and Adverbs, 
 
 jSL-eiirtiiuekr^'&/D^. to dance. 
 
 iSirs=ijSLQuiessr^pikjg^i^ to praach. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 5. Active verbs are formed of Samscrit nouns 
 ending in ^u^, by dropping this syllable, and ad- 
 ding ^<s&p^, Sec. as : 
 
 From ^iu/TRff-ii, meditation, ^uJrr^eSjo^^ to meditate a thing, ^lurr 
 
 e^LlLSi-&jD^i, to make another meditate a thing. 
 
 Q^ir^^iTih, praise, G ^ir^^isk'fi^, to praise one, G^rrs^ 
 
 iHlLiSsQ/d^., to make one praise another. 
 
 ^^sSssil^ favour, ^m>''S''^J^'&S'P^, to favour. 
 
 • ■■ eb^ojr-LO, word, &Js=--^-s£fl3i, to speak a thing, eus^s/fiuiS^ 
 
 ^P.^, to make another speak a thing. 
 
 • <s?^^s;srtl, inheritance, si-s^^SlsQp^^ to inherit. 
 ^ LS)fl'^Ej:£La, harangue, i3 ^ s^iiQi'Qm^^ to preach. 
 
 (,„■ ' 11, ( iSJs!rSiSp_^ to shine. 
 
 ' ^ ' \'^'^_^'^n-s=u.i3&isp^, to enlighten. 
 
 .^ « • • J '^^^^"'e^^'ip^ to be glad. 
 
 ' ^^^^'^^^^ joi/, X^^G.ff^u^^Sp^, to make glad. 
 
 If the noun end in ©, only ,19^ is added, as : 
 ^^, praise ^^i&Qp^, to praise. 
 
 The word -apB, cleanness, however, receives the 
 addition of sB^Qp^, as : ^^^siB^Qp^^ from the 
 Samscrit. 
 
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 
 
 § XXXIX. 
 
 The fourth and last part of speech in Tamil, is 
 called e-ffi<FQ<?/r^, i. e., qualifying or descriptive 
 word, referring either to nouns or to verbs ; in the 
 former case, we call them adjectives, and in the 
 latter, adverbs.
 
 Etymology — A djecfives. 113 
 
 § XL. 
 
 Adjectives are variously formed from nouns de- 
 noting- quality ; 
 
 1. By adding- the relative participles ^ew or 
 a. en-err, to them, as : 
 
 ^SfTil. lengthy /syrLc/r«w, ^<aTQf<sirsir^ long. 
 
 G&rrensreO^ crooked7iess, QsivessrsOtrevr^ (?=£/r«»Tj)j/srrsr, crooked. 
 
 Os'LleaLa, strailiiess, Os^LhesiLamrregT^ Q<Fihes)La\L,erreir. strait. 
 
 cffl<SLlLy, bitterness, etnsuumar^ ss)<s J.i^«rrjTr, bitter. 
 
 'F^G^ira^m, joy. s^fiQ^srei^Larreer, •FfiG^irei^^iperrsir, joi/ful. 
 
 0&iT®eaLa, cruelty^ OsiT@stsfj:!Ujire3r^ 0^/r®«OLfl.L,«n-fi)r, cruel. 
 
 ^nistl, mercy, ^tisriamrreer, ^bi^esQp&rstr, merciful. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 They always precede the nouns which they 
 qualify, without any forther change, as : 
 
 ^eiTLarewCsfTeO, a long stick. 
 
 ^JTaXQ/^narstrumS^esr^ a mercij'iil man. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 2. If the nouns denoting- quality end in i^, this 
 letter is often dropped, and the remainder of the 
 word used adjectively, as : 
 
 From Sr^^LD, purity, jr.^s:^(^^uji1, a clean heart. 
 
 ^frem-LEt^ spiritiiality, (s^ rr ssr Gurrs' ear tl, spiritual food. 
 
 4^1^, the Outside, LjpuOuirQerr, an external thing. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 3. Nouns ending- in a vowel, are often used as 
 adjectives, without the addition or rejection of any 
 letter, as : 
 
 Laaaipsreoii, the rainy season. 
 
 (geSifs: ir/D^, a cold wind. 
 
 uireis)fi>j§ei)Lh, a stony ground. 
 &c, 
 
 Q
 
 114 Etymology — Adjectives. 
 
 ''. Some nouns ending in usm, and p^, change 
 the La and ^ respectively into u and ^, and be- 
 come thus adjectives, as : 
 
 From ^(TjLOL/, frow, ^(t^tlii^sQsfreo, an iron rod. 
 
 ' L0(3^^, medicine, LZ(^^^uee)u, a medicine bag. 
 
 5. Some nouns ending in e-<sDL£> or ^ssjlo, change 
 these syllables into ^lu, and become adjectives, as: 
 
 From Qsn-^ismLQ, crucify/, Qsm^ujLciexrs^, a cruel mind. 
 
 . ^0ss>Lo, difficulty, .^^lusip ^esr, a difficult command. 
 
 . O^0ss)Lo, greatness, Oufioj iSfu, a large mountain. 
 
 . L^^'eato, newness, Ly^ii-O(_//r0sr, a new thing;. 
 
 . ^esflswijQ, sweetness, ^-s^uju^rrirj^^il^ a sweet thins. 
 
 '■ e-/fl«»Lo, fitness, £./fluj@aBru3, a Jit disposition. 
 
 In some instances only ^ is rejected, as : 
 
 0.str(B^^iJlifi, difficult Tamil. 
 
 Ou(^iiQ<SiTULh, great anger, &c. 
 
 Of Ou0ssiLi}, the last syllable «»lo, is in certain connexions, rejected 
 and the first vowel lengthened, as : Qu^asas', great desire, insatiable- 
 ness. 
 
 6. A few words are naturally adjectives, as : 
 
 ueo, 
 
 various, uecOfftrp-zSr, 
 
 i^arious words. 
 
 9eO^ 
 
 some, QeO'eSs&r, 
 
 some fruits. 
 
 I^PJV, 
 
 other, Lc^O^sar^, 
 
 another thing. 
 
 U^pp, 
 
 other, La^pLssif'^irsetr, 
 
 other men. 
 
 J560 
 
 
 good disposition. 
 
 JSeieO, 
 
 a good mind. 
 
 OuiT^ 
 
 1, common, O-iir^CiQun-, 
 
 a common word. 
 
 H^\ 
 
 7ieW, 4^.F*aJrt-Li, 
 
 a new god. 
 
 7. Sometimes the participles of the past tense 
 are used adjectively, thus : 
 
 QslLu-u^ctiI^ a corrupt tree. 
 
 Os=^^LS(^sih, a dead beast. 
 
 (?_^,T«a7-ffSuj@fliu«w-^ the risen sun, 
 
 uS^^^^jfiSajti:, much money.
 
 Etymology — A dverbs, 115 
 
 § XLI. 
 
 Adverbs are, 
 
 1 . naturally such, as : 
 
 j^fTsi), much^ s^ireoilQuS^^, he spoke much. 
 
 LDjD^, otherwise, LBp^^Q&jrrLb, tve shall knoiv otherwise, 
 
 ^&j, much, ^eu^eisijs,^(r<si!r, he explained much. 
 
 2. Formed from nouns of quality by affixing 
 ^tu or ^&, of the verbs ^^pM-> as : 
 
 From (««rrLjLD, anger, QssrruunriuajjB^rresr^ he came angrily. 
 
 jssar^, a good thin !i, j5eir(ir)iLjJ=0s^iTeiT^ek^ he spoke Well. 
 
 ussth, the side, uJ^SLnmuilGurr^isr^ he went aside. 
 
 ^jjiLDirilL^, haughtiness, ^^LarruuiriujSi—fi^tr&r, she walked 
 
 haughtily. 
 
 . Qrj^eau, grace, Q(^<sauiu!r\i^srm(sSi(i;)n-, he graciously pities. 
 
 &c. &c. 
 
 3. Some infinitives are used adverbially, as : 
 
 «i_(_ together, .j>^euasms<<-L-aijs^frn-s&r, they came together. 
 
 epcj^LDic^ , { fy^g//i(,f.^ ^(T^LSls<silQufTQ)iTSar, they went together. 
 
 £®s, to be swift, &®£Geu!rt:9-^<s!r, he ran swiftly. 
 
 QP®^, to he swift, Qfi®€,ilQLji-i(^e^, he spoke quickly. 
 
 Oiaoieo, to be soft, OLaeOeojSL-fi&rr'sar^ he walked softly or slowly. 
 
 i£s, to be much, L&'S:&0&iT®^fiirei!r, he gave much or liberally. 
 
 »jeSiu, to be free, eueSdjiOsfrQ^^iresr, he gavefreely, spontaneously. 
 
 The participle e-^o, is added to some of the above 
 mentioned words, as : 
 
 i£se>jijQ:SirSls^^fr^, he was very angry. 
 *=.reoay(ii(?Lj,0@'6ar^ fie spokc much. 
 
 L£ip^(ifiOs=[r&T(^si!r, he said otherwise. 
 
 Note. — The Tamil Grammarians divide all the qualities or attributes 
 into 4 classes ;
 
 116 Etymology — Adverbs. 
 
 1 . The qualities of spirit in connection with bodies are 32 ; viz. 
 «si/ffjai^, ^woM)/«/a'c, or perception of any kind ; ^(^sk^ kindness ; ^«»<f, 
 desire, love; ^<F<Fd^,fear; ai/r«ar,i>, nakedness ; /§a»/o, duration; Qumap^ 
 pa/ience; epiriLuj, desire; <s«nt-L-ii)ifl-, retention; anojuji^, confusioii ; 
 ^'2ssre:j, thinking; Oa/^u/Ly, aversion; e_ajLLy, lust; '^^fr s^-SLk, mercy; 
 fifressrdj, shame; Oa^v^sffl, anger; ^easflay, boldness; ^q^^sitj)!, envy; 
 ^s/OTTLy, affection, love ; sreSeiaiD, want ; sriu^^e^, weariness ; ^&ruLa, 
 affliction; ^-iiruLh, pleasure ; '^siresno, yoiitli ; ^^lj, old age ; @««>, 
 hatred; Oau^ir^^ superiority, victory; Q-iirJ=s=truLj, guilt, failing ; 
 sejr&siL, courage; La^il, haughtiness, pride; mjotb^ unmercifulness^ cru- 
 elty ; and LEtp^, forgetfulness. 
 
 2. The qualifications of soul and body together are 5 ; viz., ^\u^pei^ 
 eating; ^(^^6»), sleeping; 0^frQ^^»>, adoring ; .j){is<sSpei, putting on ; 
 and s-iLfi^ei), walking. 
 
 3. The qualities common to all bodies are 6 ; viz. 
 
 i. Qjif-ay, shape, as: <F^^ih, a square; ^eirui, length; a;ili_tS, 
 a circle ; Gstressni, an angle, &c. 
 
 ii. ^«ra/, measure, such as, one, two, three, &c. 
 
 iii. euidsrsssrih, co/o?/r, such as : OsuexrsaLa, whiteness, 0<Fiie»LD, red- 
 ness, OuirdienoLn, gold colour, £(i^<se>La, black, lj<s6»ld, green, &c. &c. 
 
 iv. Lasisril, smell, e. g., jsps^^il, gojd scent, s^ps^^u^, bad smell. 
 
 V. *6S)a;, taste, e. g., emsuuj, bitter, LjeSuLf, sour, ^JeuiruLj, asfrifig- 
 encif, e-eun-ilLj^ saltness, ^^^^ty, sweetness, s-ea/9.lLj, acrid heat. 
 
 vi. e-srr^, sensation, e. g., Osuldsblc, heat, ^essr&aisi, cold, OiaeiresiLD^ 
 softness, ojisrswijQ hardness, ^<swr«»Lo, weight, OfitruueaLD, lightness, 
 SaesiLc, smoothness, and £=((^J'£=eair, j-oughness. 
 
 4. Qualities which spiiits have with or without bodies, are 9 ; viz. 
 
 Q ^rr^piA>, visibility; u^'sap^ed, concealment ; aj«rr/f^«), increase; «(5 
 mised, decrease ; ^ikis^, motion ; ^sat^^ei, reception ; js®mseO, trem- 
 bling; '^eia£=^^eO, connexion ; and i^^eo, giving. 
 
 Adjectives and adverbs may be fonued of all these terms, by adding 
 
 ^ssr or &-e!rsir, ^u or .^«. 
 
 5. The mode of expressing the comparative and superlative degrees 
 of adjectives and adverbs, Avili be stated in the Sj-ntax. See § XL VI. 
 8; § XLVII. 2.
 
 117 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 § XLII. 
 
 1 . Tamil Grammarians do not treat of Syntax 
 specially, but connect it at once vvitli Etymology, 
 callina;' that chapter, Q&freoes^^i&amli^ i. e., the chapter 
 respecting words. 
 
 They make but two principal parts of a sentence, 
 viz., eriTMsnfTuu or 'S(jF)^^it^ which means beginnings 
 head, and expresses what we call the nominative ; 
 and Ljttjeor, which means end, conclusion, and ex- 
 presses the finite verb. 
 
 The words which depend upon, or refer to either 
 of these, are called cjj'ww^OLD/rL^lserr. 
 
 2. As to the position of the parts of a sentence, 
 the subject, or (nrQ^^euiTiu, always precedes the finite 
 verb or ljiu&st, and the latter always concludes the 
 sentence, e. g., Q-sn-r.iDisGrsu^^ndr^ Kotten came, uohilq 
 fiuerrif^^^, the tree grexv, &c. 
 
 All other words which depend upon these prin- 
 cipal parts precede them respectively ; so that the 
 most important of the dependent words is placed 
 nearest to its principal, and the least important 
 farthest from it. 
 
 It is evident that to this general rule, examples 
 cannot be g-iven in this early part of the Syntax : 
 it will be exemplified throughout ; and I mention 
 it in this place to be kept in remembrance during 
 the study of the following rules. 
 
 3. Again,
 
 118 Syntax, 
 
 The Adjective always precedes tte substantive : as, ^eatuiLj&reir^ajn-LS, 
 (rracioits God, &c. 
 
 The Noun precedes its governing participle or preposition : as, eSiLi^&r 
 Qui&>, upon the hou.se. 
 
 The Adverb precedes the verb : as, js'^(ir)^uuin^^^, he sang well. 
 
 The Infinitive precedes the governing verb : as, ^o<s<s<F0j=^/r6Br@)/f, 
 he told to sit down or to wait. 
 
 The Negative branch of a sentence precedes the Affirmative : as, eu(i^ 
 GJtTLDpu^^jr LafTUJjBi—, walk firmly without slipping. 
 
 Lo-.-»fl^fia)iTuj«i)«ULl' uffirua%ssr^ ^jrei^emls&(yr)eiir^ he blasphemeth Gody 
 and not man. 
 
 The Comparative precedes that which is compared: as, ^a/ssflja/Lo 
 ^ffljsBr^^a)ffljio9r, that man is better than this man. 
 
 The similitude precedes that which is similar: as, @ifliij?6i(ru(?u^a) 
 ^(su^S!TS(r&ii&(fi)iar, he shi?ies like the sun. 
 
 The Number precedes that which is numbered: as, u&ireSiTmrQiLaT 
 mis or, twelve trees. 
 
 The Genitive precedes the governing noun : as, u^eS^Q^eso—iLi^miniy 
 the disposition of men. 
 
 The cause precedes the effect : as, Lnsw/paJ^CeuLJiLSj^/r^jli, seed 
 grows by the rain. 
 
 The reason precedes the inference: as, uirrru irewjEeieo&j s-rregrut^iS 
 ^Qeo tSjeun'uiT&jrf-6^L-ir,ss6Seo2a), God is good; therefore he has not 
 viade sin. 
 
 The purpose pi'ecedes the determination : as, Ssij'i/xrsstrsi^ilLJi^st^g: 
 G<F'r.^s'rruL5i—Qeue&T(Bii, we must eat rice in order to preserve life. 
 
 The condition or supposition precedes the consecjuence : as, ^[rLJtSu. 
 i^irp<FirajrriLi, thou shall die, if thou eat. 
 
 From these g-eneral remarks, it is evident that the 
 order of the parts of speech in Tamil is, on the 
 whole, and in many parts, opposite to that in 
 English ; so that the European student has to eifect 
 an entire chang-e in the arran2;-ement of his ideas. 
 But let none be discouraged ; even a short but 
 diligent application will overcome all the difficul- 
 ties. I descend now to particulars. 
 
 § XLIII. 
 
 1. The nominative and its verb always agree in 
 gender, number and person^ as :
 
 Wominative. 119 
 
 jsfr'^O,Firi)£0tQQjDeor^ J say. 
 
 ^/nii(?i_j/r(?a;/rLD, rve shall go. 
 
 ^j5fl"(BcET^(5, do not sleep ! 
 
 ^aQuQesFn-^ you spoke. 
 
 ^!EJS&r-Jiuuu®Qj^iTS&r, you fear, 
 
 ^eu^Qs'm^iQiT, he told. 
 
 ^J's^drev^^n-'^, the carpenter came. 
 
 Ouexruf'SSc^err, the maid sings. 
 QutTif<F(cS=suaiTS'e&rei!)i—us«r^^iTSeiT, the troops fought. 
 
 LaTeoiLjiuiT uin-aS(j^£^eBr/o^, , the mountain is high. 
 
 iM IT mis &r'sii SIT (i^Q^ pear the trees grow. 
 
 2. The pronouns are often omitted, as the verb 
 itself sufficiently points out the person ; when this 
 is not the case, then the pronoun must be put : as, 
 
 ^(oUa^CoeuessrCBili^ thou must go, &C. 
 
 3. The names of superiors, when used by infe- 
 riors form an exception to this rule : as, ua-iruadr^ 
 God, G^aidr^ God, ^<buu^, father, &c. which, 
 because of the respect due to them, may have the 
 verb in the honorific form, though the nouns have 
 the common termination, as : 
 
 u!Ttru!re3r^0(Sjffirilup^(^f, God spake. 
 Qpajmsrekrest^^n-, God thought. 
 
 ^suuekeu(^3uirff-, thejather will come. 
 
 It is however more correct to say, Qpmn-, ^siIj 
 
 4. Thoug-h some nouns, masculine and feminine, 
 have the neuter termination, yet their verbs must 
 have the masculine and feminine gender, as : 
 
 (^(^'B=Os=iT<sd^Q(n)!T^ the teachev saith. 
 
 ^L_ayOT-^.gi/,ffiflxrfl^^/r/f, God has granted. 
 
 en)^(P6ij(§eufraT^ the woman will come. 
 
 ^6Br(EJ=ssn-*i_LJLS!®0©/f<ff(OT-, the people call. 
 
 However, they may also be construed with the 
 neuter of the future of the verb ; though rarely : as.
 
 120 Syntax. 
 
 @(-3^0^/r«) ja'tS, the teacher rnll say. 
 
 £L-&jelr/^tLieijO<B'£'iLjtl, God will be gracious. 
 
 J^ole. — Tlio neuter person singular of the present and past tenses, is, 
 in common talk, frequently used mth a noun in the plural number : as, 
 «!rfiu-iijs<s!rjsi—fi^^, (vulgarli) ,51—^31 S^-,) things happened ; but it is 
 incorreet ; because the terraination ^ is evidently singular, neither do 
 the Native (irammarians authorize such a use of it ; it must therefore be 
 «/r/fluj/E/«srr;Fi_^^6or, things happened., jsiriuseh- (^safrs.Qdrpear^ dog 
 bark ; Not, c^aa.r*®^ or ($eatr&£jD^. 
 
 5. The nominative is often used instead of the 
 accusative case. See § XLIV. 2, 3. 
 
 6. It is used Ukewise for the genitive or 6th case 
 in personal nouns, as : 
 
 LDe^fiiT(f.essrilOuirei>e))ir^^, the nature of man is bad. 
 ^aisB7a?^'^z^^^^^ /lig house has fallen down. 
 
 7- Two or more nominatives in one sentence 
 must be connected by the conjunction e-Lo, added 
 to every one of them, as : 
 
 tocfff)«(T5(j5<ffi^ j/fi5^t£it_/fri^@)/f<5sr, men and heavenly beings sung. 
 Lj(^L-^'Sta^uiei\/^Ms^iln^ar'iairs<^il,eusi!sr^Q.^iTsar.j men, women and 
 
 children, worshipped. 
 
 But such nominatives must be of the same gen- 
 der ; otherwise the sentence must be divided into 
 as many simple sentences as there are nominatives 
 of different genders, or the whole sentence must 
 receive a new form. Thus we cannot say, u^<5S^q^ 
 &(^^(3£5)/r<s(sr5LD j>-i^^^irn-<s&T or r^L^^^esr^ men cind 
 hornet perished; hut, uc^^S^a- ^L^^^n^^&T(^^,m!r'Si^tli 
 ^L^p-^6or, men perished ; also the horses perished, or 
 Lo^,^asdr(^^<oS)fr&Q<3aiTGc-. ^^L^^pi^n-&(ar^ the ?nefi pe- 
 rished icith the horses. 
 
 8. In a series of nouns of the same class or spe- 
 cies, in whatever case, the connective particle a-zi).
 
 t^ominative. 121 
 
 may be omitted, and the nouns put in the nomina- 
 tive case, with <ordru<sijn-s&r, if they are masculine 
 and feminine; and with iet^u&dsus^, if they are 
 neuter. These verbal nouns, thus added must be 
 put in the case required, as : 
 
 tFirs^mQsrrp/DOsaridTueu'TSsrn-jjBuuL-i—irp-'Sar, Sciiten and Kotlen 
 
 went forth. 
 
 Gurresr^ OsuarsS fptULC, ^(mLiiQLJ&!rLjes)syiS&ri£<s:eiJti,LS:J'GtjL;iTS=e3rLcn'em- 
 
 «na;=2risvrTiL8(T5«Ssw-^sor, go/d, silver, lead andiron, are very useful : 
 
 Instead of s^tr^^^uiijOs^n-^/D^Lh, &c. OuiTfor _^ll, Osuetreidu^jil, 
 
 For GresTuai'rs&r and <sraBru«»fflj<sar, the conjunction 'sresrj)), with the 
 demonstrative pronouns ^eun-s&r and ^s»a/<sisrr, may also be 
 used' as: 
 
 JF IT ^ ^ ear O <s [tpjdQ ear sir ^ su '" JE fair. Sec. 
 
 Quirek, OiSj&reS, fFu_' ti), ^([^LaQueirj;Sesi^'Se!r^ &C. 
 
 See § LXIV. 4. 
 
 9. Instead of expressing all the parts of the 
 whole class or kind with e-lq or sr&sru&sxaus&r^ &c., 
 only one or two of them may be put in the nomina- 
 tive case, and (Lp^ecunsm&Sisu&m or (Lp^SiuisS)(oU<s(ir 
 added, if they are of the neuter o-ender ; or g^^60/r«jr 
 eun-<s&r, if they are of the masculine and feminine, 
 as: 
 
 Ou!r&!rQp^e\)!rfsTeaeus:^mr®, there is gold and such other things, or 
 
 the rest. 
 ^ir^^e3rQp^eoire)ireuH^s,&rsj^^mTse!T, Sattcn and the rest came. 
 
 As (Lp^eo means first, or the beginning-, the 
 meaning is, that class of things, of which gold is 
 the first ; that number of men, of whom Satten is 
 the first, so that the words answer to our etc., etc.. 
 
 Instead of the pronominal terminations iomeus<m- 
 and <su^£srr^ the noun which is common to the whole 
 class or kind, may be added to (Lp^ecam or (LppSiu, 
 thus : 
 
 R
 
 122 Syntax. 
 
 Qfi^^£^rrL£l(ipfie3ujQuiT£e!r iSp^jSirffselr, Mooitoosawmy and the 
 
 rest were born, 
 ^i^:t^i'ip^€i)(risrj5p:^e!ssriase!rLjfre3s:(G^s^£«)^^ love and the other 
 
 good dispositions are not with sinners. 
 G^Geu^^iTt^Qp^eoirenrG^euir^&T sr(i^<LcS(QFSiar, Devendiren and 
 
 the rest of the Gods rose up. 
 
 Asfaia, when the nouns are neuter, ^ss^eu may 
 be prefixed to Qj^s>eoa&sr^ as: 
 
 OurrdrOejersifiSesieu^if^eorreiireaeuseir^ gold, silver, and the rest. 
 
 10. If the nominatives of the three persons are 
 in one sentence tog-ether, the first has the prefer- 
 ence ; if only the second and third persons, the 
 second has the preference ; the verb must then be 
 put in the phiral of that person. 
 
 ^fT^ii), /(TJLD, ^au^ii), Qun-QeuirLteL'fr(^ijse!r, /, j^otl, and he, 
 
 let us go ! 
 ^•jLji^, oSyaj^LD, Gucrijs&r, go you and he! 
 
 § XLIV. 
 
 1. The second, or accusative case, is required, 
 by all active verbs of whatever kind, as : 
 
 (^^>\u<ATi^i^lsir ^ &(^Q&F roj^i^ the sun dispels the darlfjiess. 
 ujrn._'3 ear^s^ mfrit ese<ea.rf fsS!ri^sS(m'r ^ God punisheth the wicled, 
 <sre<fiiueuFs~%sir^^'Siiuilu®^fiir^0iLLJtrujrr<s^ do not thou afflict the 
 poor ! 
 
 Hence also such verbal participles, as are used 
 like our prepositions, (see § XII. 7. b.) and are 
 derived from active verbs, require the accusative 
 case, thus : 
 
 ^0uj<s/rrf?(L' J«!5)^£@^?/^L,G'Lj^(2)/f,ff6H-, they spoke concerning the 
 
 charity hiisifiess. 
 #sBrta/r/7i«_^«D^aSil®aS«u£'©i3r, he forsook the path of virtue, lit : 
 
 he left it and went away. 
 ULLi^esr^eia/i^diifi^ ■-^^sS(2i,&imp^^ there is a wall round the city.
 
 Accusative. 123 
 
 From the same reason also the comparing: parti- 
 cle, Qi-jreo^ as, must have the accusative, thus: 
 
 ^ee)^ujGufrec^^e>jiEjQ£il.L—^i, this also is spoiled like that. 
 
 2. Of nouns neuter, when the indefinite article 
 would be used in English, the nominative is often 
 put for the accusative, as : 
 
 Lj^^siiEjOsiTS^.^ir^, he gave a book. 
 
 If you say, i-j^^<E^(5o^dQ^frQ^^!r<^y it means, 
 he gave the book. 
 
 This distinction however is not always observed. 
 
 3. When the nominative which stands some- 
 times for the 6th or genitive case, (see the preced- 
 ing paragraph, Sect. 6,) is liable to be mistaken for 
 the latter, the accusative case must be placed before 
 the nominative case, as : 
 
 s^tLes>i—ujw^SL-u^(ea)sar or eSil.eiat—&sil.i^^&!r^ he built the house. 
 
 If you say =iv<a/(so Q?LL0crf_«stl/^(^sor, it may be 
 understood the same with ^,ea^i<^L^ii.r^iL<ss)L-<s&tlL^ 
 (CT)oer, he (a person) built his (another person's) house. 
 
 4. The accusative case must be placed also be- 
 fore the nominative, when it has many appendages 
 which would remove the nominative too far from 
 its verb. If the nominative however has also many 
 appendages, such place must be given it, as will 
 make the sense least ambiguous. 
 
 5. The intransitive verb, G^s^q^^p^, to approach, 
 has sometimes the accusative case, sometimes the 
 7th case, as : 
 
 .sieW'-'^J'Qs'ir^eir^, he approached her. 
 sssL&pQs^a^Q^triJi, we arrived at the villase.
 
 124 Syntax. 
 
 § XLV. 
 
 1. The third case denotes the instrument, or 
 cavise, or formation, as : 
 
 sexTt^atssekvL^ir^^ he saw with the eye. 
 ^iLjjs;^^ire60euili^<^<oTir^ he smote with a weapon. 
 jSfTL^iuir^ ,j>j str ^ ^ IT ear ^ he measured ivitli a ndrli. 
 
 ^ujsiJ(^p^i—(Lpes!rL—irs.^uuil.t—^, the water pot was made hij the potter. 
 ^ j^«* e7fflS«w^(2)Ce'uJ]^;^L-^^^, this happened by order of the king. 
 Os^iT^uiasedeoiT pOs'ujiULJUiLL—^^ the image was made of' stone. 
 LC«!Err(g6i)frfTjr@i_.to, a pot made of earth. 
 ^£emsajfreo!T-m(^L-La., a pot made hij means of a wheel. 
 ^^jgGev2evOium^psri-u.iT^, this busi?iess will (ov can) not he (done) 
 
 by me, or I cannot do this business. 
 
 2. This case when formed with «p®, signifies union, 
 harmony, as : 
 
 R.€0<s^(?^,TCt-«?LL/J'a;/r«5>(j^@(?aj/rL£!, we shall be in harynonif 
 
 with the world. 
 s-ia'3;QeiriTGL^ijSl(^uGu&ir^ I shall he with you. 
 
 When it means fonether with the word <ff?v-/_, is 
 often added, as : 
 
 fieufiQ^n-QL— (<ff^^_) aijsrreanluss!r,^iiQ(^iT<sisr, they make ablution 
 
 with meditation. 
 ^QtuiriB (<ffi_t_) uLj<xistiSl0sf^Lh., with fire will he .<imoke. 
 (S«»'—G''-'n-Gi~(sk.i—)^LpeS(^i(^di^with the umbrella will be shadow. 
 
 Of course all verhs denoting union require this 
 case, as : 
 
 e.«37Go)(?:_<».-i9-(?(6a)LD, we Joined you. 
 
 ui!T ^G ^rvGi—u^u ^es>^<e'Gs'ir^fi!Tn''S<sn; they joined one piece of 
 
 wood to another. 
 ^S.G(^Gi— .Sf^Ourrc^^^rr^^ that does not agree with this. 
 uj^sGsifrGi—u^uJLjeasTQ^ii^ one word unites with another. 
 Lasi!r.^<sa.TLJuJTiru!TG<:^Gi—OiumliLjTeu!r&Si^fr, he reconciled men 
 
 with god.
 
 Dative, 125 
 
 § XLVI. 
 
 The fourth, or dative case, is required, 
 
 1. By verbs signifying to give, in any wise, 
 thus: 
 
 ^(ruurrfTs-.^ui^s^eas'O'Srr^s-^irdr^ he gave alms to beggars. 
 ^©©i'rii.Tsf?df(C5i(5(£5frs!rr^s»^LjG'un-^Jr^/re3^, he taught the ignor- 
 ant wisdom. 
 LSlir;ru3«i(5rff^=«W(E;cS(25<f @uOu^uj<53eyr<FQ<Ffrei)j)2/£'(2)'?<s:Gw-, ihe bramins 
 
 tell the people lies. 
 GsQJ<SL-i—'2&resiiJu<Ljij<3:(^s(§-=Sl;SeSuGum-^ J shall make known to 
 
 you the divine command. 
 Sii3fip(S'F'Fu^LD^,^'^rrtLj, thou hast consented to this. 
 (cTiwsi&^s(^jSajiriumjsteirs=Os'iTeCie)!;^ tell us reasons ! 
 
 2. By the intransitive verbs Gufj9p^, to go, 
 
 Q.eoi—'sQip^, to happen, &mue)^<s9p^, to happen, ^ir 
 &(^Qip^, to be merciful, uuuuQQjd^, to fear, as : 
 
 Os=eBrseruili^eiirs^^p^uCu!rG(ea)'^, tve Went to Madras. 
 ©0fflnLjOiue!>ri(5«£s»L_^^^, I have found grace ; \\t: grace has 
 
 happened to me. 
 ^'Qj^!/:ff@^^eBrLj;CT<FLDuaSl^^^, he has been afflicted; lit: af- 
 
 Jiiclion has happened to him. 
 cr«w<s9'TE/5Lfl, have mercii upon me ! he merciful to me! 
 ^63r/Hc5(sn-LQ/Dfflj(i5i:@L!;uuJULJ®£'(3)/?^srr, the people fear thcMaravers. 
 
 3. By the defective verbs, ^^®, there Is ; Gqj 
 msrQil, it is 7iecessary, ^©tx), it is fit, and their ne- 
 gative forms, ^^dsO, (o£iiessr(B2ufi&o3sO, psn^, as: 
 
 cr6Br«@^^««(TfSK!r^, I have sorrow ; i. e., to me is sorrow. 
 s-iEjS(Sf^a(^'uua!srLS&i2eo, you have no money ; \. e., to you is no 
 
 money. 
 jih-eSs'Smr ^^(^Lju^^uueesrwQ&jessrGlLh, the cooly wants ten fa- 
 nams; i.e., ten fanams are necessary to the cooly 
 @;s^^ega/ajj^<s@^sijaL;arei^G'i-jffG'fflj(Swr®aj,@<n)36i;, so many persons 
 
 are not necessary for this business. 
 ^^ s_s8r<s(5^a(5LD, this .'suits thee. 
 j§^imfiLDsiS^(i^<i(^^^siT^, calumnies are not becoming to men. 
 
 This construction is common in Latin.
 
 126 Syntax. 
 
 4. By all ad verbs and adjectives si^-nifyinsf oppo- 
 sitioii, motion, union, distance, nearness, similari- 
 ty, suitableness, profitableness, assistance, flattery, 
 pleasure, love, hatred, mercy and the other pas- 
 sions ; likewise the feeling-s of the bodily senses, 
 as, hearing-, taste, &c., thus : 
 
 ^iTrr,s=irsij<5^eSQrn-fiLamuuQusi-Q(2)iT£elr, they speak opposed to 
 
 the king. 
 LccQ)s-^(7 js JTiriuuGuiTGeuril, we shall go towards the moutilain. 
 .jij^^<k(^^^uSleas=siJ[riiSjTir^, righteousness has no connexion with 
 
 u nrighleousness. 
 ^^S!r(c^Qi-j!T ^^p:^^^iT LdrraSc^sQp^^ that is far from Canje- 
 
 poor am. 
 £(^^. ^!rajs(^£'s=iSuLn(TiiSi(^&SeS(i^'^HsutriL!!rs^ desire to he near the 
 
 Lord ! 
 ^^^uLjLLu^^p^^sflJi)^j, there is no Jioiver, like this, i. e., it 
 
 is incomparable. 
 ^(3Li((5si»i_uj^(3<tFP^^_j|_g^(5_^^@_giuru!/^0*=uj, do agreeably to 
 
 his will ! 
 ^(i^eu(i^£,Osrr(t^suif^'!iemiuiriiSrr^ij:Ss!r, assist one another ; or be as- 
 sistants one to another. 
 ^Gj5saOuiPQujrrir£(&^£';^^s^6S>LCiuJirtuilQusi-&(Srrsefr, many fiat- 
 
 tr the great. 
 UjfliEJSi-jiiQpajiix!rsrear^(^uLSlirlajesr&>ei), the back biter is not pleasant 
 
 to me, or my friend. 
 t5iriff.(^u ueas\u!Tu3(^sSjD&!^s'iefs= BQ jsQilQutTLDij-'S:^ let us be 
 
 friendly to those who hate us. 
 urTsSs(&^,s''$<s:8(i^ss)uujirtS(t^J- uirr^ he will be gracious to sinners. 
 ^^fi;J=,g^iijs^0ii-iesrs'(^£Qaeir6SLumiSi^j}/, I haoe heard of this affair. 
 ^^^LjU^!rn-^^u:jsireiji(^l^9uj{niS0sSp^, this dish (or thing) 
 
 is tasteful to the tongue. 
 
 5. By the particles Si^, under, Qlo^, over, and 
 LSlfcSr, behind, and by the verbs composed of them, as: 
 
 ^«!)^iIii_)6-js»«#r5#^(e£p(?t-'/r®, throw it under the board. 
 
 rf=-6i)LaLa2ei>rfr^G'a3£^0^^^, the water was above the mountain. 
 
 ^£:s,Ted^^p^LJi3ew (lS^bti^,) after that time. 
 
 ^ &i !T L&i:rs.^ is LpLjLj 05)^ ajQeuessr'^tsi, we imist obey God. 
 
 ^a^&ias(^£.^QLcp'-!®&i!Ta&&r, who will be above them ? 
 
 j5eoeoeuif'S(et^^(^LJLS'ii!rO£'eO£j!iiiiB£T, follow after good people f 
 
 If these verbs be active, they require of course 
 both the accusative and dative cases, as :
 
 Dative. 127 
 
 we 7)iust subject our desires to our reason. 
 
 ^ u^iar'ietfrQiuir0QjQ^^(^LhQ LDpLj(3^ ^i<»h-i-.rr ^i, thou must not exalt 
 
 thyself above any body ! 
 
 The simple particles are often used also with the 
 oblique case. iSee § LXXXIX. 
 
 6. By substantives denoting limit, region, rank, 
 or relation, as : 
 
 ^(ip^^jTLh^^^Q^^^^,^_^<oTi^2e))iumiSI(i^s8'jD^^ the sea is the 
 
 boundary of India. 
 0£=^esruLLL9-5a'-^^^i(j^^0^fi.Q'S^sTisj&il'um^iLj<a!Br''Sl, south of Ma- 
 dras is Tranquebar. 
 .^SLin-<srssrs:(^Qfi^eo(rsS[un-\i3(Vys:Q(ir)(r^ he is my superior. 
 ^■/Ej<£eff'STE;.3"(s«5<ff(5^ff. (o^^)^/r«sn-,raJ)0LJLS/f<£srr.T<5, be ye friends tous ! 
 ^su&rsiesrs(^^^,TtLj, she is mother to me, i. e., iny mother. 
 ^3U'im^suiSi>)i.^ujiSl&r'iiitiiuiTii3(i^iis(2)'ivr, he is her child. 
 
 7. By verbs which require purpose or design, as : 
 
 «i.6iS<^@(?ffli3sDQ,5^uj^/r6Br, he laboured for hire. 
 i p(^Aj^fi[resr^ he came for this purpose. 
 
 In this sense the infinitive ^«, is frequently 
 added, as : 
 
 8. The dative is used in comparisons, where we 
 use the comparative degree, as : 
 
 ^^;5(5 ^^'Qjifl^', that is greater than this. 
 
 to;5^;/fli@^ jrriFr^FeOsufiUo-^, the king is a better man than (his) minister. 
 
 9. Two dative cases express the particle he^ 
 tween, as : 
 
 ^ eSsres^(^s^^^!T IT iLs: <§^ T ^ ^ ^^(^i}^i£(^^^eS S^^ujiT£=ap<sS!r(Si, there 
 
 is great difference between water arid wine. 
 
 S-em- £ f^ ileri^£iV)0 IX e^esr'? n'hat is there betjvcen thee and me ? 
 
 i. e., what have I to do with thee? expressing contempt, or hatred. 
 
 ^fiS/Ttrtuu&reSs^di '-J rr eiT lu ijQ <sfr il.ee) ■—s:(j^ La usO/^ir^u^&irfim, 
 
 the distance from Trichinopoly to Palamcottah is 19 kudams 
 
 i. e., J 90 miles.
 
 128 Syntax. 
 
 §• XLVII. 
 
 The fifth case or ablative of separation and mo- 
 tion is required, 
 
 1. By intransitive verbs signifying- removing, 
 as : 
 
 ssniii^eisF(h£i(^syr or aertiflsfff fiw-^^/E;S@ ^'or or ss!L.^eSn^fis^^!Ei£<^sitr^ 
 
 he removi'd Jrom the viliuge. 
 ^SfeviiJlei (or ^26D«JI«»fl«3r^) LoiiSif^rrLp^^^', the hair hang down from 
 
 the head. 
 ^^^J=s=s;^'T^^eS(T^^^Guir(^^, he went away from this choultry. 
 OufTeOeoir^eeisu&ar ^0^uj^^s>)/(j5^^i-/^u.i_/'i)?te'«"Brpo!(r, evil things 
 
 proceed from the heart. 
 uiLi^esr^^eS(^fi.^ieiJfifiiTek, he came from the city. 
 
 2. It is used, like the dative, for the comparative 
 degree, with o-u^ affixed to it, because it implies 
 that one thing is separated from another, as : 
 
 ^^^La^nSeQi'l^^fiui^OuiP^, that mountain is greater than this. 
 ^^jU/ij ^^OLD»i)eii^^ this is finer than that. 
 
 Also without the s-lg, as : Q&a&T<3n(^(5^^<S6^^, giv^ 
 ing is sweeter than receiving, Q<sa&T«rSec!^'^eo^<5i^^, 
 
 3. It denotes in some cases, possession, as: 
 
 ^Guetir ^jSeS/vOuiFujsir^ he is great in knowledse. 
 
 <^si-<3u;Ts-^^irQuisoeSeisrQfiireiT3Li&ir^ One that is weak in faith. 
 Oun'(i^eSeiisreWiuesr^ one poor i?i goods. 
 
 4. It denotes, though rarely, similarity, like- 
 ness, as ; 
 
 u/r«iS«BiOajsrfl^O«n-*(5, the stork is as white as milk. 
 
 «!Tieisisti3p^^^s;einrihL:Lptl^ (he kalam fruit is as black as a crow. 
 i^esrscr^'ieoiiSteoiuiriesis:., the body is as unstable as lightening, 
 
 i£iar^O(g)L^tLjiJi ^iOTLJLQ, pleasure vanishes like lightening 
 
 a" 
 
 5. It expresses limit, (creo^), as :
 
 Genitive. 1 2.9 
 
 00sCsfrsuei}n-i!^^Opp^ss!reS^ujn-^, the river Cav'iri (i.i) sovth of 
 
 Tinikclrcloor. 
 JSi'ote. — The oLlique case havina: (the s^TiP.esnu) @«5^, must not l>e 
 confounrled with this fifth case. See § XVI. 13, nor with the seventh 
 case. See § XLIX. 
 
 § XLVIII. 
 
 The sixth, or genitive case, is required, 
 
 1 . by nouns, which are the property of another, 
 either as an inherent quality, or as obtained else- 
 where ; the former is called ^pQt^eoLc^ ; and the 
 
 latter S^'fu'ohQip^La^ thus : 
 
 tnfr6!wfl-T<a:ffljn-^<ff(5C55i— iu@«wr/2, thedispositionoxnatureofManikavasager^ 
 ^eijri¥,eai—UJ^esii—^ his robe. , 
 
 j5LD^ ^(T^^iudi, our heart. 
 
 jBLhQfeeiL-ujU'oissrLa^ our monev. 
 
 Xi>^^o"^'@iL,a)i^, the nature of men. 
 
 ^ T s^ ^eai—uu ^i^^ the ring of the king. 
 
 2. It is used also with nouns, of which it ex- 
 presses the constituent parts, as : 
 
 O^«)0)^'@L!<an!_i, a heap of paddy. 
 
 uiir^f(^ss)—iuQ^€iT^^, the total number of men. 
 
 ueni—u-i^O^imax, the wh.ole number ofjighting troops. 
 
 GrisfT<sir^siu.L—i—is^^ a heap of elloo or rape seed. 
 
 Si^eti>fieii^£:(^esiL^MJSF<sau^ the congregation of christians. 
 
 J^. This case is also occasionally used when one 
 thing- has arisen from another ; though the sub- 
 stance remains the same, as : 
 
 Oj5ei&)^Qs'fr^^ the rice of 7ieIloo ; i. e., boiled rice, which has 
 been prepared qfnelloo, i. e., rice yet in the husks. 
 
 4. When two or more genitives beloni:: to a noun, 
 they cannot be united by the copulative conjunc- 
 tion as in English. — We cannot say, for instance, 
 
 S
 
 130 Sj/nfax. 
 
 .Syj^^oJ^sni— ujayLDL9(5(5«a5^sa5£_iL;a^ixO:i5'rL^^c3r, the sai/in^- of 
 
 Agaltier atid of Bhriggoo. 
 
 But the noun to which they belong;- must be 
 repeated as many times as there are g-enitives, or 
 the sentence must receive another form. — We must 
 therefore say : 
 
 words of Agatfier ami I lie words of Bhriggoo ; — or 
 ^ss,^tjj^LLi3(^Q;<sii(^0£=trm&}rQLDirt^<s<ar, the words which Agat- 
 
 tier and Bhriggoo spake. 
 
 Or the g-enitive cases may all be chans^c! into 
 the nominative, and <crmu&Disij<s&r or ermushff-sisfr or 
 <Dr^r8s5)sns&T or sreDF^Q/zr^Grr, added to the last of them 
 in the genitive case. See § XLIII. 7- 8. as : 
 
 ^euuu, Lj<F«!D,ff", ^ecQiam-Ljemsus^esii^tu ^■ssresiLD^ or 
 ^fflJL. u, us'sisi'F, ^"eoOua^s^ ^ieinsuS(^eiaL—Uj ^esTsata, or 
 ^eutlu, UiFesi<F^ ^goQld'SO''^'^^ jSpiEj<SieS ^seyc^uj s:<sireisiLD. Ijie 7ia- 
 
 ture of the red, green, and b/iie colours. 
 lS JLo/r,QSil®.Siv, e_(3^^irOsBr«wusu/r<S(W65)z_iij^i_lga);5f<es?r, the pro- 
 ceedings of Brooma, Vishtnoo and Rutiireu. 
 
 If the rest be only in general referred to, then 
 
 (ip^sii/resreKfflJSOT-, Qj^^eHtrmeidn-^s&T^ must be USed, aS : 
 
 S<suLJLiQfi^eotTesr^flim<S(&^ets>L-UJfisa-^i-^, the nature of the red co- 
 lour and of the rest. 
 
 5. The nominative case is often used for the 
 genitive, when no ambiguity arises from it, as : 
 
 ^aiS!reStL®&(^uQu!rQisi!r^, I went to his house, for ^eu^eiai—iu 
 ^suuisirOs^!rpuif-0<e=iu, doaccording to the command cyf your father. 
 
 But compare § XLIV. 3. 
 
 6. The oblique case is frequently used for the 
 genitive case ; for instances, see § XVI. 13, and 
 §LI.
 
 Ablative. 131 
 
 Note. — As ihe genitive case is used in no other instances hui those 
 mentioned in this paragraph, it is e\ddent that it does not always cor- 
 respond Avith the possessive case in English ; and that therefore great 
 discrimination must be used in rendering the latter in Tamil. See the 
 particle oJ\ in the Appendix, 
 
 § XLIX. 
 
 The seventh case, or ablative of place, is required, 
 
 1 . by nouns which express things existing in, 
 at, or with others, as : 
 
 Lne^aSlst^i—S^^OeOfreifl (or LuesvrluSiOe^n'eS or Lneisi!fiuSiO(^eS or Lossd^iJlsw 
 .sawrO^srfl,) QfisQiutMiTitSi(i^siiiarp^, the splendour of the jewel is 
 
 beautif'uL 
 
 UuS^eSL-^^p&eir'ietr (or Lj'd3^i p&eir^etr or uaS^&FQSr^eir or ljii3£\^ 
 
 eessrS'eir'ieir') uaSlesirr^^ear^n}^^ the parrot of the cultivated Jield 
 
 eats the grain. 
 
 &L—eSlQ^i—s;^pj£,emfr or (^s i^eSljs/Semrr or <sz_-s^«sr^s»fr or •si—e^leh' 
 
 £i—i^<oS)rr^ Ld(^^^La@it[rs^i^eir^^ the sea shore is J'ull of sand; 
 
 or veiy sandi/. 
 
 .^'X'^u-J^^sefL_^§.fi)upei!)'Su (or ^>srruj^^pupes>eu^ &C.) ^GjB<S 
 
 eS^LBtruSiQ^Ais'ittrp^^ thej'ouls of the air are very various. 
 
 jS(r&ilsSi—^^isOjs!r\f.i5s>s (or prreSek ^iTi^teos^ &C.) ^<sfiJ J ld/t ujilCu.T 
 
 li^p^^ the hour of the day has quickly passed. 
 
 sn'fissTS<s&rQp&)'Seo (or •srriB'Sin (if_&)2eo^ •B6sfr^piJ:<sLp<siniSQ^J;k:'Ssrp_^^ 
 
 the vegetation of the rainy season is pleasant to the eye. 
 
 eaSiSsSi—^Siei<sSs9i> (or 6®<5£lS«j; aS J ei), &c.) ^-ustrir u:ifraSl((^J:£p^ 
 
 the finger of the hands is useful. 
 ^p^^<^Eeesr^Lp<^ (ov jSp^_§lm^Lr.(^^ i<^^._^^ QuiP^ebeo, the beauty 
 
 of the colour is not great. 
 
 ^<5free)UiiiS^<semOs^ei)euLh (or ^efremLau3e37Os^e0^Lh, &C.) ^ueinus 
 
 <sn-i(^ui, prosperity in youth will support old age. 
 
 ^u.eSI^<smr^Lp(^ (or ^i—i^uisar^Lp(^^ &C.) i£<seii^(.o' ^inw psSleO^^ 
 
 the beauty of the dancing did fiot much appear. 
 
 2. by verbs signifying to be, to put, to come^ 
 to ask, inquire, &c., as : 
 
 .j>jeuSi_s;^i&)L£(^^^ueet>TQp<am-(B, there is much money with hint,; 
 
 i. e., he has much money. 
 ^euek ^ m eu en) ^Ush ■stair LdiT ^^ssHi—^^ed emeu^^ireir^ he put his 
 
 clothes near the tree. 
 eri^eSi—^^edsu^^n-issr^ he came to me. 
 ^irii'SeiT^&aiTiiSieiSi-^^ifOeSls'iT^uQufrui, we shall inquire of the 
 
 gentleman.
 
 132 Syntax. 
 
 as^isnTsSL-^^pQstlt—n-ns&ry they ashed the master. 
 uiLt^'onr^^pQs'trfiQi (TlL, we arrived at the city. 
 
 §L. 
 
 The eig^hth, or vocative case, with or without 
 the interjection, ^ or <^, always commences the sen- 
 tence, as : 
 
 ^, uiT/ruJCsw- ! <crmiS(ei^&Qi!r&SLn!TS(f^uj^ Oh God, have mercy 
 
 upon lis ! 
 6?, ^^/^.r/rCfflj! ^itQsiLs, Oh king, may you hear ! 
 
 0'^n-(BluiS^ir<s:, right honourable gentleman, please to hear my 
 
 petition I 
 
 § LI. 
 
 The oblique case of nouns is, in the common dia- 
 lect, used chiefly as already mentioned § XYI. 13. 
 I add a few more instances showino;- the peculiar 
 use of this case, especially in the poetical dialect, as : 
 
 yssjfliarLD/r^uisw- or y6wrLQ/r/fu6Bf, a man having an ornament on 
 
 his breast. 
 OiJQ^LhOurTQ^eSps^iT^fiear or Ou0LiiOurr(r^LLs=fr^^eiT^ Sajtan who 
 
 possesses great riches. 
 0-iQ5^^ei!>iuiiSf>s=n-^^eir^ Saltan who has much kindness. 
 
 ^i^i.£-tTu^m-s;^<FjFir^fi^, Satlan who has a fearless mind. 
 
 ^seBT/DLa!rirLSjr)s=ir^^&fr, Saltan who has a broad chest j 
 
 Oerr(Bi^s^^^s=rr ^ ^eit, the savage Jaced Saltan. 
 
 QfiP&!r&>^^s'Os-aj;S, the occurrences of former time. 
 
 ^^jBiTtl.uii3^ or ^^jsireSfluiiSiT, the corn of this time. 
 
 In the same dialect, the oblique form in ^^^ is 
 used also for the oblative in ^a), as : 
 
 «sy^^^^^ajff'ipS«wG'(2>Lo, we live in the world. 
 mSil^euiriifiitsvjSeo^^'y there are no men in the earth able to 
 
 knoiv, (for ^eo^^so.)
 
 Present and Past Tense. 133 
 
 § LII. 
 
 The present tense is used, 
 
 1 . when the present time is to be expressed, as : 
 
 ^iljQu!rQ^^seossinrv\j3(i^6QQp<^^ I am now troubled. 
 
 2. when we wish to express a state or action 
 which is doino;- at all times ; or, which is always the 
 nature of a thing or person, as : 
 
 u J/TLjiTsEfl^sS^?*, God exists., i. e., at all times. 
 
 ^[y^s3T^siis^:<ss>'ussf;iTmiC:§QQr;m, the king sustains the earth. 
 iXietSjsiTUfrsu(iTiO£^ujQ (2)^-3 err, men sin ; \\z. at all times. 
 
 3. It is used also for the future, by reason of 
 eSismire^^ i. e., quickness, haste ; for instance, if a 
 person is waiting- for me, and asks whether I do not 
 yet come, I answer him : 
 
 jsiT^euQ^QQ p&r.^ I come., 
 although my coming is still future, and I should say : 
 ^.ToariFif'SlJLQfruja/^Gffljiw-, I shall come presently. 
 
 Thus also : 
 
 ^uQuTQ^^^!r6SsrL-!rilt<fp^'ss><u<surrS&QQ jD^., I shall now read the 
 
 second Olei leaf ; lit : / now read, &c, 
 
 § LIII. 
 
 The past tense is used, 
 
 1 . when the past time is to be expressed, as : 
 
 y,^ eS s- ^ ^Q eo s' eo ill ^3 u etr lu Qp ffh- 1— rriiSp^, formerly there wasadeluge- 
 s=eiiTibis<srf)£(V)^ uiTuufi^iTili-j^Q&rr^^^mr, he gave judgment to the 
 
 people, i. e., he judged the people. 
 
 ^!TuiQ jsjD.£}i<sresr^esreStL(BuQurruSlp^, yesterday the fever left me. 
 
 *>T%sO'jS\Qiii)^ir'iirss!L(i^i,^uQu!rQ&irisr^ this morning I went to the town.
 
 134 Syntax. 
 
 2. On certain occasions it is used for the future, 
 for the same reason as the present tense, viz., to 
 express oSeon^oy, haste, quickness. — Thus I may say : 
 
 jBtr^s^n-li^u-i—n-iiSp^, i. e., / have done eathig ; or 
 jBirbm^asiLD^ ^naSp^, i. e., / have done cooking. 
 
 whilst I am still eating or cooking, but am hastening to finish it ; and 
 ■when I should properly say: "I shall soon have done." 
 
 3. Sometimes it is used for the future also to 
 express /lj9@^, i. e., greatness, frequency ; viz : 
 when a certain event, usually occurring, does not 
 take place in a particular instance ; for example, 
 one avoiding a certain road, on which passengers 
 usually lose their lives hy robbers, escapes with his 
 life, I may address him thus : 
 
 ^[f iTp^^ii3Qeo.:0iikQ'sQuT(^'uiT^pO£^^^inu for <fitsut£j, Jiadst 
 thou travelled there by night, thou wouldst have died. 
 
 Thus also : 
 
 ^seireuQs^uj ^fTiurr i^pis) -3; uj j}is'-<s uuLLi-^mu, i. e., easiu ^sisuljQ 
 eufTiu, hadst thou stolen, thy hand would have been cut off. 
 
 4. Again it is, though rarely, used for the future 
 to express Q^eStsij, i. r.^ clearness, certainty ; namely, 
 when the speaker alludes to a future transaction, 
 the event of which is rendered certain by univer- 
 sal experience, e. g., 
 
 er ^tlu(i^il.es>L—0<ssTexr(Sl^tl.iamL—QiujSi@edLaes)lfiOuiL!^^ for Ouiu 
 iLjil, ij' the ant mount up a heap with an egg, it will certainly 
 
 rain ; lit : it has rained. 
 Note. — The Perfect and Pluperfect tenses are formed by the help of 
 the verb ^(^s&p^, See LVI. 7- i- 
 
 § Liv. 
 
 The future tense is used.
 
 Future Tense. 135 
 
 1 . to express the future time, as : 
 
 jsfr^etr&(g:lji-jpi^u(SGejrTil, to-viorrow we shall set out. 
 
 2. to express the present time, in cases of ^lu&i 
 i~l, i. e., nature, habit or custom, without any par- 
 ticular cause. Thus, whilst I am going to the Fort, 
 a person asks me : 
 
 Q^!rLLss>i—S(^L^QuireSQ!TX^ ivill (or do) you go to the Fort ! to tins 
 
 I may answer, 
 GufrQsu^, I shall go; for QunSG/sexir^ I go- 
 
 Thus also : 
 
 j5triis:<sireS^iurT®&j0Qe\)iiSsuew-e>j!reiirrLD!r, does this fellow dare to 
 come whilst we are at plaji? for e!S''<^'JJir(B8psfreO^^Q&}. 
 ^suQnTiu/^sijmurr, doe.sl thou knoiv hhn ? 
 
 ^^si-G'S^tevOs'iuGeuew; I do Carpenter's business. 
 
 3. For the same reason it expresses also the past 
 time, as : 
 
 npek GAIT'S or ueOeS.gLairearsfr^aJEJ'S^eirJ^Os^rr&iejSsufrn'Seir for O-s^rrear 
 @/fcS(5rr, (our J ancestors said various things (ox used to say.) 
 
 4. The future tense implies also doubt, uncer- 
 tainty, as : 
 
 ^esnt's&r ^uut^£'Qs=rrei)^siJ!rlT'S&lr^ the people say so ; meaning, 
 
 that it is 7iot certain what they say. 
 ^p^^^<5Ssr(Bi£=Gs='}eou^^:TfiifiLnn-aS(^i(^ui., there willhe^ i. e., there 
 
 may be about 10 cubits in this piece of cloth. 
 JVo/c. — The second future tense in English is expressed in Tamil by 
 the help of the verb ^(j^sQp^. See LVI. 7- i- 
 
 §LV. 
 
 1 . The relative participles partake of the nature 
 of adjectives; they retain, however, the same power 
 as the verbs, from which they are derived ; and 
 have this peculiarity, that they contain the relative
 
 136 Syntax. 
 
 pronoun, for which the Tamil lan^iiag-e has no 
 separate word. That relative pronoun ahvays refers 
 to the noun with which the participle is immedi- 
 ately connected, and must be understood in such a 
 case as the connexion may require. 
 
 2. In relative participles of intransitive verbs, or 
 verbs in the passive form, the relative pronoun is 
 always in the nominative case, in whatever case its 
 antecedent may stand, as : 
 
 (?^;r6sr^iU@ffluj2sBr<5(5^^^(r/f, he described the risen Sim, i. e., the 
 
 Sim which had risen. 
 
 ^ijQs jSfl3jDUiS!fifiiTs;(eff,^r^euL^esiujiS£(Til.®, show the way to the 
 
 men who stand there ! 
 
 ojQ^iEjG'SrruirsQTesr&i^^fiuiSluGuireuirujiTs:, maysf thou flee front 
 
 the wrath (which is) to come ! 
 
 Qualifyino;- expressions, if necessary, precede 
 these participles, thus : 
 
 es)iuiu^sS-s3(n)esr^ the Sun, which appears so splcndtdh/, declares 
 
 the glori/ of God. 
 
 QsiruLarriLjUi ^s^aa^'UiriLjLi^i—s-'&^DLDsiS^n-s^i^ eSe0C'§, avoid 
 
 men, who walk angrily and proudly ! 
 
 3. In relative participles of transitive or active 
 verbs, the relative pronoun may be in any case : 
 
 i. When it is in the nominative case, the parti- 
 ciple must have another noun in the accusative or 
 any other case preceding- it, as : 
 
 S-eOS Si ■so ^ ill ijes>L-^,^LJ B'lruH'&r ereieO!T^ejiiUip_[u^^^(i^i:Q(!r)[r, God 
 who created the world for God, the creator of the world) is high 
 
 above all ; i. e. is the most high. 
 j5&reiaLaQ^iLjQjOLnsSfiiT<s7ef£<SL-aje!r ^^^eij^iQ(ir)ir^ God blesseth 
 
 the men who do good. 
 
 the men, who raised the tumult in the city, have been punished.
 
 Relative Participles. 13 J 
 
 ii. When it is in the accusative case, the parti- 
 ciple must have a separate nominative or any other 
 case and circumstance expressed, as : 
 
 ^0<Fiu^Q'S,Teesr(^s=ff\ujei>eo, the angle which thou hast made is not 
 
 right. 
 
 ' L3ir,ruisxrifep^S(;r)iT,s&r, the Bramins read (sing) the four Ve~ 
 dams, which Vedaviyaser made in ancient times. 
 
 iii. When it is neither in the nominative nor in 
 the accusative, the participle must have these cases 
 expressed separately, and the relative pronoun must 
 be understood with such a case as the connexion 
 requires, as : 
 
 usriru<Te}iS-eOsIies>^u'-Jet!iL^s:^eSs^LB ^s^s=^iUiJimi3(^iQ^p^^ the 
 manner in which God created the world is wonderful. 
 
 <t(^^Q^^iuir^, I do not know the house, to which the watclunen 
 
 have brought those thieves. 
 
 A. Every noun or pronoun in a sentence may 
 have relative participles, thus : 
 
 uil.t_LasS^!Tiu(reutT^ui .sjisjesiir u^pi:&crr)n'&(3(r, men, who have all 
 been gloriously created by the Lord, who is full of love, for get him. 
 
 .m)'S(yiT<s&r, the female devotees, who serve in the large Peroomal 
 temple, which is in Canjepooram, dance bfore the Swa/ni, which 
 
 is made of gold. 
 
 5. More than one relative participle may belong 
 to one noun, in which case all the participles but 
 the last, are put in the form of the first verbal par- 
 ticiple, see next § ; and then construed in the same 
 manner as the last relative participle, as: 
 
 esteu ^ ^,<_] s (T^ a ■on: Q ^rr fi ^i^.s<£ iliuiLi^am, God, wkohas made the 
 innumerable stars, and who has fixed them in the greatest order, 
 
 is to he praised I 
 
 T
 
 138 Syntax. 
 
 J;s&jn; The Lord, who appeared in this world, who taught true 
 wisdom, and did various charitable actions, ought to be desired 
 
 f loved J bif nil. 
 
 However, if by various intervening clauses 
 the sense should be obscui-ed, it is better to turn 
 such relative participles in to verbal nouns, add to 
 each 2-Lo, with ^iu, and add any suitable relative 
 participle of §)(if)^9p^, to the last, with which the 
 noun unites, thus: 
 
 ^sJSL^eOS J^^Qeo La^ ^ .SI Sii ^(T ff il^Ljsesr endear ei}(r^ La t^^ LaisS^U'turreuQ^t^ 
 
 fieu(;i^LD!riiLSl0J^QjD ^iTiLs=<3i<oei/r OiuedeO!T(n)^Q e'iTs^ff(^.Os'\u&]!rrr 
 asiriTs^ may all nien praise the Saviour, 7vho became ma?/ in this 
 world, wlio gave his life to atone for the sins which all men had 
 committed, and who has obtained heavenly bliss for all that 
 
 believe (in) him ! 
 
 The same method ought to be observed when all 
 the principal relative participles have not the same 
 tense, as : 
 
 i^ ^ ilS (J' 60 m 5 /r (? ^ a ' (2) ja^ aSr i_ /r<£ cS LJ u tl. :_ QB a/ a: (^ Lo T (u sr u O LJ ;r |T/! _j[ i£, 
 ^Georr-s ^ ^ir(<r)i.!Vj L^i^^p iSl sr Qiurr£=eBriKis%sfrJ:Os;ir®i.£jr>esi&i^(^ 
 
 the stars, which were made at the beginning by the great God, 
 and which are always exceedingly useful to the inhabitants of 
 
 the world, are an innumerable host. 
 
 Note. — Whon the sense is not, ^oSq^s&p^, to be ; but, ^S/o^i, 
 to become, tlicn tlu' verbal noun does not receive ^ulr, but merely, slld, 
 and the last of them receives the relative participle ^sw- or ^Siu ; f. i. 
 
 LDiTiisrLD^^ifuirs'>diLjsLi!r'i^a(sr, those men are happy, who have 
 been justified, and become Jit for the kingdom of heaven, 
 
 § LVI. 
 
 1. The first indcjiuife mode ov verbal participle 
 is used for the finite verb of any tense, and is of 
 singular use to render the latter conspicuous. When
 
 Verbal Participle. 139 
 
 a nominative or subject has more than one finite 
 verb, the last only receives the personal termina- 
 tion, all the precedino- verbs are chang-ed into this 
 verbal participle. Their tense, number and person 
 must be determined by the last finite verb, thus : 
 
 jsires:Qufnu ^iljuij^>FQ<Frri>esiQsijstiT^ I shall go and tell so; i. e., 
 
 GuirrQsuitsr^ Sec. 
 
 GurT(^iT<s,&r, file peons came, took hold of the criminals, and led 
 them to f he gaol, i. e., eu^^s-aseh-, LSio-/^rrn^*G)V, &c. 
 
 Q^fT^j^ ^!Jir s^^^J5ia&(6a)iTselT, a Sudra and two women jour- 
 neyed, came to a choultry, and tarried (there) the night. 
 uai'/ffiSSaw^^ ^^uLjJ-,(^ujU03uLarnSlpjii, the fields have grown 
 
 and become ripe for harvest. 
 
 strath ^u-iih ^eD^ih ^rr'Zs(rs(^uQun'£ju, uiiSesirruj^^i'^', S'Sar^ 
 
 eu^'lu'sssrs^&ass'Os-^^^s'si—QeurrLn, I, thou, and he, let us go 
 to-morrow, reap the Paddy, bring it to thejioor, make a heap of 
 it, thrash it, sell the grain, and pay the taxes (or let you, and he, 
 
 and / go, ike.,) 
 
 Occasionally the preceding- verbal participle 
 may refer to an action done, whilst the finite verb 
 is in the present or future tense, thus : 
 
 ^irear ^eta-^^0<Ftu^(Lpi^^^uG'-irrQGp^ or jBToir ^es) s^ J:Q e^ tu ^ 
 rLpi^^_^i2j-Sis>i' Lj Quit Qau sir or ^JTr-^or i^eet ^ s=Os=uj^ .iXf-i^^sSesrui 
 QuivQsij^, I shall finish this and then go; or when (or after J 
 
 I shall havejinishcd this, I shall go. 
 
 2. When it is desirable to give a peculiar em- 
 phasis to the several verbs of a sentence, or to show 
 that the transactions were done at one and t!ie 
 same time, the participle &-t^, may be added tooaoh 
 verbal participle, and the whole concluded ^^ith 
 the finite verb of ^^(f^'sQ id ^, as: 
 
 CBi^(i^K^!Tff£.ar, the enemy besieged the fort, and ( at ilie same 
 
 time ) m<uh- a h?d"on.s- noise. 
 
 .jij^ssimiJi^s^Lh^^^i^^ih .jifsurQ LD^Ji^'ljiSliLjLceu^srrsi^, the?/ 
 
 fat the same time) beat him, reviled him, and spit upon him.
 
 140 Syntax. 
 
 Negative verbal participles, when there are more 
 than one, usually receive the a-^, as : 
 
 Lfl) (5 s £1(3)/? <«««-, these villagers neither work, nor clean their bodies- 
 
 Observe that the a-^, with affirmative verbs as 
 in the first case, signify both, also ; and with nega- 
 tive verbs, as in the latter case, neither^ nor. 
 
 3. To avoid ambiguity, affirmative and negative 
 verbal participles should not be intermixed, e. g.. 
 
 It should be : 
 
 ^a;/r=K«rr/riiii(5^_^fr/f<seir, they did not loiye God, nor serve him, 
 nor walk in the path of virtue, but were wicked. 
 
 Tn the former, the verbal participles sh-a^^^ and 0<Ftu^, might be 
 understood to be in the negative because of the following, ^'—eu.-LoeO ; 
 but it might also be understood otherwise; which mistake is more 
 likely to occur, when the sense is less apparent from the connexion. 
 
 4. Tamulians, in relating successive events, 
 always observe the order in which those events 
 naturally occur ; wherefore we cannot say : 
 
 Os'fremG^&r, i. e., / sent the coohj and told him to give you the 
 
 Plantains ; 
 
 because the sending him away was after the command, we must say : 
 
 ^^pQ^c®^^^ ^'Iti'iQ'ssr'^a^^ I gave the plantains to the cooly, 
 telling (him) to give them to you, and sent him away. 
 
 5. After a verbal participle, no new or separate 
 subject can with propriety be introduced in the
 
 Verbal Participle. 141 
 
 same sentence ; but there ougiit to be as many 
 sentences as there are new subjects, either by mak- 
 ino- the verbal participles finite or by adding- par- 
 ticiples of time or place, as the sense may admit. 
 Wherefore we cannot say : 
 
 ^sun&i^^s Siuih/si—^p^!, He came and the business tpent on ; 
 but: ^suirsu^^OufTQ^^, (or e^i—Q-ar^ ox' lS^-j;)-/,) =3;n"fl.uL0^!_^ 
 ^^', when (or, as soon as, or after,) he came, the business 
 
 went on. 
 
 Thus it is also ^vrong to say : g) Jfr^/r^jtlt^-sar^^p J jCsu^^^ .#(?cF2s3r 
 
 seirLJLLis-Stsr i:issiSi£0'S;!rsiT^eifj3i^t—(TF'S'&T. It sliould be, SffQ'SjQr^ 
 
 oj—Qm- fovOuiT.'-w^J as soon as (ot when) the king entered the 
 
 citjf, the troops plundered it. 
 
 inust be, cff-Ytpc^.© i^LC.^ -•''''" aj/ri/jj3Lj6!s>TeOTfl^.^/. ^L^uj^if^^^. s'&r^m.s 
 e!ruLu^^friT.seir, the sea roared, the earth shook, and the people 
 
 were afraid. 
 
 Only when the new nominative denotes a part 
 of the first nominative, the above irregularity may 
 be admitted, as : 
 
 uiyQ;SS'S<aruirs^n'Grr^0P'^uGurrQn^LDiTirs^ss:^pL'ils'Q<aijS^^',^iijQ^ 
 
 Qeoir l3_ ■£ <Sij ^ ^ ear i_j \li I— SL-L—!T a ■sar &&)fr OsLL(SjuGun'(a)ir£:^^ the 
 
 pilgrims entered the road leadijig to the infernal regions ; when 
 
 some siiffered severely there ; others perished. 
 
 U i^ip~esr ^ ^ .ih- ^ ear (Ejs sir iSifl J: ^, S^eofiuj^s^emmLji^ Qeoir^^tlG urrevd^eOesirr 
 
 iLj(Q.Gs=if^^frn-'Siar, the people of the city were divided ; some 
 
 held it with the Jews ; some with the Apostles. 
 
 Note. — When certain actions are not to be performed immediately one 
 
 after another, but separately at any time ; then the verbal participle 
 
 cannot be used, but each verb must receive the finite termination. Thus : 
 
 snliQuiT^^^zr £=^Q ^iT<st^LjuilJB, ^aai—sS L—iTLnpQ-FULhue&rkc^i.ereOeihTeu 
 
 ^fi^.flsrrseLj^G^srr^^sri^Qs^tuiLjiEj^Sr, means that you shall first rejoice, 
 
 then pray, and lastly "ive thanks. — But if this is not the meaning, then 
 
 the actions must be separately expressed, as : srilOufrr{i^'(^'^.AGf?:!Tei^.u 
 
 u®ibj£s't. ^eini—eSL-frLDpQ<iFULhuem>T^)iEJ£e:r. <aris!>eo(rejpjSp3;!r&eij^Q str^ 
 
 3 (g; Qs^ ULl iLjlEJ<s err. 
 
 6. As adverbs are formed by the verbal par- 
 ticiple cf^'ij, of ^Sp^, to become, it will be proper 
 here to make a few observations on the subject.
 
 1-42 Syntax. 
 
 Generally speakins;-, adverbs immediately precede 
 the word which they qualify, as : 
 
 ^!riTeuei!iireiiTS£S!3'Lainu<era^^^Quir(^'Sir^ Ravatien rose up kast'ihj 
 
 and went away. 
 
 But sometimes they may also be separated as : 
 
 ^oairQairuLciriuer'^eSe&rsiisruu^em^^^aTreSf^ir^ ike gentleman re- 
 jected my petition with anger. 
 
 In such cases, how^ever, the adverbs may fairly 
 be construed as verbal participles ; as, in the last 
 instance : " the g^entleman got angry, and rejected 
 my petition." 
 
 Again, when more than oiie adverb belong to a 
 verb, every one of them must receive the copula- 
 tive conjunction si-t£>, as : 
 
 jSLL^^^^uisjs&r i3irs:rrjFLBmLjt}i ^(ipiwsmLjihjsisSit^psur, the stars 
 
 proceed (in their course) shining and in order. 
 
 aj!rairLks^iuJ'LDinLiLlL3sTQiu,TS=6mui,Tu-jLjS0iSes'r,^_^theheavenishigh, 
 
 glorioles, and beneficial. 
 
 The 2_<i often precedes also the ^lu^ as: 
 
 If the adverb has another adverb to increase the 
 force of the meaning, the latter precedes the former, 
 as: 
 
 ^!riLjfieirSi6ir'iefres>ujiQlse^iL.jiiehuiTiL.6S£^iriffs8(fre!r^ the mother cares 
 
 very lovingly for her child. 
 
 7. The verbs §)(jf)^Qp^, Q&n-i^^Qp^^ euQ^QjD^^ 
 QuitQ^P^0^ eSBsp^, ^'£lSp^, ^^'ji>^, &c., are 
 often added to the verbal participles ot other verbs 
 as auxiliaries, for the Ibllowing purposes. 
 
 i. ^(iTj'sQp^^ The present of this verb, added to 
 a verbal participle, embraces both the present and
 
 Verbal Participle. 143 
 
 past tenses, that is, something- of the present time is 
 pointed out besides the past ; corresponding in some 
 cases with our perfect ^ as : 
 
 Lj^fi<s^@a^sOsn'emSleu^^Q^.ss(n)^, he has brought the hook i. e., 
 
 he brought the book and is there. 
 
 i^ u Q Lj IT etO ^eoik'^ilut^Otu(i^^iL3(i^ J, SS'(^'o<ir, the apostle wrote thus: 
 
 i. e., he wrote a certain passage which is now CA-isting. 
 
 e^liiSQ^^Siirfi^, that passage is (said) i?i the second Epistle of 
 
 Peter. 
 f^a(rLXiQ!rQjEirL-ss)L-i(^'lQ<uiTii3((^s£:(n)e3r^ Ramen is gone to the fort^ 
 
 i. e., Ramen went to, and is now in the fort. 
 
 If the past tense be added, the past time to a past 
 transaction will be expressed, in some cases Uke 
 our pluperfect, as : 
 
 « semiT^i^ufl/SlOujfiQfif^^^CifarQesr .s/iEiQsQurraS^m^^iTesr^ he had 
 gone to the village before it was i?i Jlames, i. e., he went and 
 
 was there., before etc. 
 
 OaFff-ioi)6i5iL9(T5^^frffar, Judas had told some words to the servaiits 
 
 as a sign. 
 
 ^Qjss^rreSiUfSJStetrujeai—^^ilT^^siri^. ptds.^sT ^lis^Qs' s^sit^^ he 
 
 had gotten many rich.-s ; but died poor. 
 
 (\pesTQs!n-^ir^uuvp-J^QjFtreOeSliiL3(T^^^ ^ rr(^eOj5 rr sar^ iS.utjf. IPOs' uuiu lot 
 
 iLQu-^ir, had you told me so before, I should not have done this. 
 
 If the future be added, a past transaction in the 
 future with another future will be expressed, some- 
 what like our second future tense, thus : 
 
 QiuGutrQeui-ir^ when he shall have gone to the fort, I shall go to 
 
 Tinnevelly, i, c, when he will go and be in the fort, etc., 
 
 ^(T^LcsevtlQ js 7 s^^^QeojsfT'sirs'frLJiSL-i^Q^liQ'-iss^ ^ I shall have dined 
 
 at ] o'clock, i. e., / shall dine and be, as it were, readij at 
 
 1 o'clock. 
 
 This form however in some cases implies also 
 doubt, as: 
 
 ^^^L Lj^^<s^'sn^i36^:^i^'ZQu£3r^ / jfif,i^ have seen that book.
 
 144 Syntax. 
 
 Some parts of this verb are also used without 
 any meaning' ; for instance : 
 
 (ciQ^J-.^rj^^^ir^, he rose; here ©C5/^, has no meaning; the ex- 
 pression is the same as CT(ap^^/r«sr. 
 tS>iaLie3fu®^^(i^^fiir^^ he was lying down ; is the same as u® 
 
 G'-jir<siTp(i^, do not fo ! this phrase does not mean, do nol go and 
 Sit doivn (or be still) bul; simply do ?iot go! like QustshtQ fi. 
 
 JSfote. — On the Perfect, Pluperfect, and second future tenses see the 
 Appendix, — sect. LXYII. 
 
 ii. Q<s(i^(^^p^, is added to verbal participles, to 
 denote a continued action of the principal verb, as :. 
 
 thcij are consulting to kill him. 
 
 To this ag-ain the present and past tenses of ^(5 
 •bQp^ are added, for the same reasons as in the 
 former instances : 
 
 1^(^-3 i&(n)irs&r, the gentlemen have been considting about this 
 
 , matter. 
 
 s^eS^ufi^Qua^ (inp^Qutr^n'seir., ivhiht they were considting, 
 
 ten of them arose and we?it away. 
 
 Q^n-Gt!(^Qp^, is also added to other verbs, to 
 denote that a person did a thing to or for himself 
 and not for another, as : 
 
 0uen)^j'iws?etr^jr:i^^^sOs!res!rQi_rril, we put on the clothes. 
 ^m)^'&'issir£=s ^^s,s'i^j^i.0£-,iT<arQ6u!nh.j we shall inherit riches. 
 
 iii. £UQF,Qp^^ added to verbal participles, denotes 
 the continuance of the transaction, as : 
 
 '^^fi'si.<B^(SBrtl:^il(3u.TQ^^'^ss)pGsuj£;aj0SiirjD^, that word is noiv 
 
 fidjllling^ 
 fcTis^suQ^etai—iu^ujeSl^Ge)) .^^^,s<SLjUU-(Beu0SQ(;r;ui, we a?'e {uii_ 
 
 tii this moment) supported by his kindness^
 
 Verbal Participles. 145 
 
 The verbal participle, Q«ii«sjr®, may be inserted 
 before enQ^Qfl^, as : 
 
 a0^^a^isnf ^ei5)flC<sjpj^sOsirem-(^aj(i^@(^fr, the Lord is (now 
 
 gradviaWy) fulfilling it. 
 ^ajirjsiisaLaiuir^ifl^^sO<siressr<S^(T^3(2)T, he is (until this moment) 
 
 supporting us. 
 
 ^uuv^uulLl— eu-Fetmws^3' 0,Fn'^sS&0sfr<5m(Slsu^fiir6ir^ he was 
 
 speaking such words ; or, he went on talking, &c. 
 
 iv. Qust(BQp^, to cast, throw, is added to verbal 
 participles to denote the transferring of the action to 
 another, and not to ones self; it is therefore opposed 
 to Q^ndr(^9p^, as: 
 
 jS!risnOe;(r(B^fifi^es)ir>'Sle<rtu&]^fi&reSuQu!ril-L-!r«ir, he rejected (or 
 
 cast away) the good things I gave him. 
 S-Sii^euefO^iTmis^esLpp/SLjGurr®, put off ijonr clothes ! 
 
 V. eSQQp^, to leave, forsake, is added to verbal 
 participles, the sense of which admits the idea of 
 leaving, forsaking ; simply to strengthen it : and 
 to express the finishing of it, as : 
 
 LSlOTit^^rreBT^fii/^ariu^LJLSIaStlG'i-car, afterwards I sent him away. 
 
 vi. §)(B^p^, to give, is added in the same way as 
 an expletive, as : 
 
 aj^^Ll®u(?Ljn-(g)«3r, he came and went away. 
 
 QuiTii3t-L[^!r<cw-^ he went. 
 
 S-<sSsns^tLL-tr^^ he eat. 
 
 ^eusairsaemi^iLQi—^, I saw him. 
 
 Some times it is added also to the root, when it 
 has more the meaning of giving, granting, as : 
 
 df ajn-(j(Bsi5(3)r/EjS®LD, Lord ! shine forth, which is the same with 
 
 eSsTr(E/@jii, or •S«rr/B£IuiI®LO, or fS^sirmiQii^Q^^ih. 
 «0^^/rCaJ, @irffi)S®u), have mercy ! Lord! 
 
 U
 
 146 Syntax. 
 
 Note. — This however, as well as the preceding Guir^Si/ojsi, isnotah- 
 soluteiy necessary; they may be omitted, as the sense is complete >vith- 
 out them, only custom has introduced their use as auxiliaries. They are 
 often mere expletives. 
 
 vii. The past tense of ^9p^i, to become, is added 
 to verbal participles to denote the full accomplish- 
 ment of the action, as : 
 
 j5ir^'!!^^'es)fs-Os'tL.:/B!rii5pjru^ J have ^finished doing it, or it is done. 
 ^s'<seiu:>^^iTiiS<p(^, hast thou finished cooking? 
 
 Observe, that the verbal participles Q&^iu^^ ^s^tlo 
 ^ J5J, in these connexions, stand lor the finite verb 
 
 and ou^ht to be thus : 
 
 •J 
 
 jsrrek ^9ssf<F0<FiijQ pear Jf^ ^nSp jji, i, e., it is finished OX done, 
 
 what J did or was doing. 
 
 viii. As there is some difficulty with respect to 
 the use of the auxiliaries, §}(f^^^p^y Q&ndr(^9p^ 
 &c., I add the following instances. 
 
 ^s.^^nwjsehsj'stTir^peiir^ the Jig tfecs grew ; simphj with respect 
 
 . to ike pa it time. 
 
 Ui<TiEiSerrsustrn'^^(^i@eir«)ear^ the trees are grown; that is, their 
 
 grouping is past ; and theij now stari'J grown. 
 
 U)!Tm'S<Srsii'siriTfi^(^^^&sr, the trees had grown; implying that 
 
 after that something happened res]iectii;g them. 
 
 Ln^m&efr&i<sn!r^^eu(^Qmp^-ar, the trees are growing, i.e., they have 
 
 l)een urowimy and do still srow. 
 L^sTiis&reuefriT^^OsireKn^^i^sQ^flear, the trees have been and are 
 
 covtiniialhi growing. 
 
 uaJTEiiSeiTeLieirrr^^Osrre^c^Qi^^p&ir^ /he trees had been growing; 
 
 implying that afterwards somotliing happened to them. 
 
 8. When the particle s_ii is added to a verbal 
 pnrticiple, the latter bears a past sense, and the for- 
 mer may be translated by althoiioli ; it forms the 
 third indefinite mode, or a subjunctive in the past 
 tense, thus :
 
 Subjunctive Mode. 147 
 
 OeunSI^Q^6m^aS(^^^'Ui *gy««/si(?LJ(r@®^, he n'eftt, althongh the 
 ^ heat of the sun had already appeared ; 
 
 jsir&ir ^auifti_^^«5) @ ^i:* /rao kJG J^l'^Lb, ^au^^ ' /E'<*siS«.*?fJ, Al- 
 though I pleaded (or asked_^ for mercy from him, yet he had 
 
 no mercy. 
 ^euiT^^iuiriuj5i~.j!^:^, ^eanpj^err ^eueoT a5^au/rfii: = aS«.x)2pJ, al- 
 though he walked righteously, yet the people believed not in him. 
 
 § LVII. 
 
 1. The second indefinite mode, or our proper 
 subjunctive, leaves the action doubtful, and only 
 supposes that it may take place ; on which account 
 it must always be Ibllowed by the future tense, as : 
 
 ^eu^;SrpQsfr®uGi-j<ic^, if you come I shall give. 
 jsmh ^^3ui^iufnLJjsi—fi^Gu!T^iJo(cLDirs=Uiaj(T^Lh, if ive goon that 
 road, we shall come into distress, or evil will befal us. 
 «!KrsSir^^iff;gtp^*irti)avifi«Jr^*iruiLl,sirij3,r(^Lc, if ^ follows after 
 
 eair, then ^ changes into i—. 
 
 2. If the conjunction e-m be added to this mode, 
 it expresses the fourt/i indefinite mode, or a future 
 subjunctive, with a/tJiono-Ji ; in this case likewise 
 the action is only suppositious, thus : 
 
 LjsSQi— ^^irss ^^ '-'•'' ^'T^^, even if (ox although) a tyger should lie 
 
 tJiere, he will go. 
 0=E/r*<s.s(^^^ff'^LQ ^QpeufT^iir, even if for allhoui/h ) a musquelo 
 
 should bite (hnnj Jie will weep. 
 
 La^'sSueaLjiOsfr®iS:'SQeu'Sasr@Oi-C:etir^ ^iTsa Q-£u-L—iTeji,,hOai.n'(BsiS 
 
 LumLi^iTie^, although I should crave forgiveness, he will 7iot 
 
 grant it. 
 
 although he should do miracles, the people will not believe. 
 
 This latter subjunctive mode must be carefully 
 distinguished from that mentioned under the pre- 
 ceding page, for should you say : 
 
 uffiTuir&srufis-^finrriSicj^^^frsijiL, it would imply not. that God 
 
 \va.'s lioly, but only supposed io 1)6 so. 
 
 ^«5)U3<s@u)(LS/f)(5^^7i, likewise implies that the tortoise really has 
 
 hair ; you must theretore say in this instance : LDiiSfi(i^^^frsatl / 
 
 and in the former, ljiA*^^ j/riJ)(35^^ii.
 
 148 Syntax. 
 
 3. 4})^^, the subjunctive mode of ^9 jd^, is, in 
 common talk, frequently used as a disjunctive con- 
 junction, sio-nifying- but It can however be used 
 only when it answers to, if it be, which is its proper 
 meaning-. The former use of it is therefore not to 
 be recommended in writing, as it is not sanctioned 
 either by Tamil Grammarians, nor by the practice 
 of any elegant writers. 
 
 4. If the past or future time is to be particularly 
 expressed in the subjunctive mode, ^^ev or ^9eo, 
 may be affixed to any person or number of those 
 tenses, thus: 
 
 uJiriLt^rr^^ had they considered their duties^ this affliction would 
 
 not have happened. 
 j5ml^^Q^iijQeuirLarrQf,,F^s8iLiUi&JiT!rn-La«Sn^S(gLLir^ shall we not 
 
 be happy, if roe do righteousness ? 
 
 § LVIII. 
 
 The fifth indefinite mode, i. e., our infinitive 
 mode is used, 
 
 1. To denote purpose, end ; referring- to the 
 future time, as : 
 
 0<ff-rr&}eoeu^Q^<srr^ I came to inform. 
 
 ^(3«dr^O<3^irsB:(g)T, he told (any one) to sit down, or to stay. 
 
 If, however, the infinitive is not immediately 
 followed by the finite verb, it is better to use the 
 future participle with a particle denotins: purpose 
 or end, instead of the infinitive, in order to avoid 
 ambiguity, as : 
 
 tLjiEJ^u<sauseicuuQu!Te))Oeuesir,^iiit(J/!:>o-^' , J count all riches as 
 
 dung, that I may obtain heavenly bliss.
 
 Infinitive Mode. 149 
 
 2. To denote time, state, or condition, with re- 
 spect to the past time, when it may be rendered by 
 since, as, when, zvhi/st, thus : 
 
 is *o, we cannot jorm any connexion witJi him. 
 
 ^aisJr ^ajlTs;2eir^^ear^L_Qesr^^L~ ^ao^ff ^<£Q=5/r«?rsrr, or @(iri:=c 
 ^euiTSeh-^euT^iLSQLreS(ip^^0^irjs,£j'SCGLjrr(es)resrr.^ as he was 
 j)ulling them along with him, all the three persons fell down and 
 
 were dashed to pieces. 
 
 jFewiEJSar'S:6a!rQuj[rJT^^QeojSf>'S^£!V(C^3Ufre3reuiT Quir^'^frrt"^ whilst 
 the people were standing on the shore, the teacher instructed 
 
 them. 
 
 (^(i^&jrreariOjiTOffrr&ieO, <^^a^/f«iar(?ai^L-fr/f<SOT, whilst the teacher 
 
 spoke, the disciples /ward. 
 
 l3 ly [T LD essr ir LLisi'SeoLafrar-O'Fn'p . eff^Geo ^^."fflj/r/iB<*2syr ^^f ew/icinLo 
 
 s=Qf'ikis:isi]S\eSs', Ln ppen^^T^s^e3riEj<s or S ^eurrsSit-'iij&^sii'ZuHTt^^ps, 
 uurrexri^iu ^n'fr<Fvi' P:U^LCifrs'm-^,0i3rGLaoj:((^^B^rr^or^ w'lilst the 
 Poets praised, the aged and veri/ learned Bramins around by 
 turns pronounced blessings, some females fanned on both sides, 
 and others stood and sang songs, Pandia Rajah sal on his 
 
 throne. 
 
 Note. — 1. As this use of the infinitive mood, is rathei- ambiguous, it 
 •yvill often be better to use tlie proper participle with a particle of time 
 or the ablative of the verbal noun, as : 
 
 ^^iTa(srrj§iflin&iiSl&), or ^ p&fiQuiTQp^, Os^fT^eerOufr^^' or Oerr 
 
 SOTeBTLilloBTL., &C. 
 
 Note. — 2. The infinitive OsiTen-sir, has sometimes been added to the 
 principal infinitive to denote the above meaning (e. g., j^ l!!,lj if- ui (3 i;E 
 .iO-siretrsir, since it is so; J but it is ungrammatical. 
 
 3. The infinitive is an ele2;-ant form of the impe- 
 rative or rather optative mode, chiefly used among 
 respectable people, as : 
 
 ^nOs'ireOeo, mat/ i/ou speak ! or please to speak ! 
 
 ^m&ssrQ&tls, nuiij ijou hear "? or pleasi' to hear I
 
 150 Syntax. 
 
 § LIX. 
 
 1 . The verbal nouns cannot be united to a sreni- 
 tive case or a relative participle ; because thmio-h 
 used as nouns, they retain the power of verbs, 
 thus : 
 
 ersrjffsrJ-Os'iTetOs.uiira^^sp'^ e-ilLearQeO luir^di, my getting well 
 
 depencli upon you. 
 f^en'jjf^Oa-liQp^js^^cSiSQ^sQairp^^ doina: righteousness is good. 
 ^oj-oyr ^su^ctTiUi^s ^^js •eOeo^eOi'-i), his beating him is not good. 
 ^mi(S 'S <ai (^'i p su ir & lar (-^ ^ ^ j /f, they are Soodras, that come there. 
 iS SIT LCI ever n- Qeu^^MfiQiuT^Qpajaseir, the Brnmins (are) the 
 
 learners of the Vedam. 
 jf&ir(n)£juui^fi^euissr'S<^u> j>i nn l-ai n- ew ^ a good scholar will receive 
 
 honour ; — lit : he that has learned well. Sec. 
 jysu/f ^uui^J=Ofir«)£)iiens;iiSI»> ep(i^f^^(yiex!ri—fnLSpj)/^ when he 
 
 spake thus, a voice came forth. 
 
 ^j;^e=OeLjihueSBresttis:Q^iT^^j(c:Os-iueLi^ ;suiS^(^ui3 ^Giufrs^evr 
 
 u>/riii)0-i^^La, // will be profitable to us to go on Sundays to 
 
 church, remember God, pray (to him) and praise (him.) 
 
 jitT«if assiQ5£(Si^GuirSp^jSl^s'iui£e)2a), my going to the village 
 
 is not certain. 
 
 Exceptions are verbal nouns ending- in i^t-j, «a/, «S55«, 
 and «OLD. These, when added to the root, do not 
 retain the verbal power ; you must thereibre say : 
 
 erar^iai—iuuL^uLj, my learning. 
 
 js€ie\}ut^ui-f, good learning. 
 
 ^e/aj^uiw'—iuO-J/rcjsMLD, his envy. 
 
 Ji^^^ ^j&i^, much knoivledge. 
 
 ^aji}&Q^<saL^uj^L—.i.GS)£jseied^si'iO, the conduct of these men is not 
 
 good. 
 
 2. The verbal noun in ^a) with .^ld the neuter 
 of the fiiture tense of .^S^^, is frequently used 
 as our jnay in asking- or giving permission, as : 
 
 ^GuirseorrLh, thou mayst go. 
 
 fiiriBiGu(r<£ecirLDfr, may I go? 
 
 //E/cS(s5r jyiJ,[_ji^#;(P^/r«)6D6t7rLL, you may say so. 
 
 fisriieare-arQarajJ«iir~o^ the people may come in.
 
 Verbal Noiois. 151 
 
 It soDietimes expresses resistance, contempt; 
 particularly in the form of a question, as : 
 
 ^eiirr<sirr jBLHs-'^.uQuiT^sse^mntr, shall these (fellows) teach usf 
 
 3. The verbal and appellative nouns may be also 
 declined, thus: 
 
 ^iT ^sulair^^.mn^eQjD^p^^iJl^^iifd^Qiu^ there is no cause for 
 
 your punishing him. 
 
 e&ri—(ra3p^, the people had much to svffer from the overjiowing 
 
 of the river. 
 
 ^eulTS&rOu[nuiuiT'i.!-FOs=iTeariwei!)isu-i-^^{rtiLcps-se,SL-Qeiimi^ let us 
 
 forget the thing.i which they have falsely spoken. 
 
 §LX. 
 
 The imperative mode, is used w^ith or without 
 the pronoun, and mostly also without the interjec- 
 tion ^tu, as: 
 
 ^tSil^aiir, come (thou) hither! 
 
 mOlmiQ^QusTmssk, go (ye) thither. 
 
 O^LCsiat£UJ,Tiu^:_a,'/B<ff«n-, walk (ye) uprightly ! 
 
 ^/f dfi._L_aJ/r(T5Lo, pray come along ! 
 
 I^uj, QuirreJirjFCesrQsiarmu, O hear thou king Bojah! 
 
 §LXI. 
 
 The optative, or polite imperative mode, is used 
 thus: 
 
 j5irsa^JSutS^^^s(3^LLui—ir^(t^ilCu^s, may I not commit a fault ! 
 ^sui'r eras: eS&sr6xrtliu^^i.(^SQ^^GsrT(£iilju!vii irs.^ may he listen 
 
 tit my request ! 
 pE}Serr^'^i^-eS-''Eenirs., may you prosper ! 
 
 LD%sereS^es7 fi'iTiLis ^^(^£:SL^LJ'.-j(&eijfreiririS^ let the wife obey her 
 
 husband! 
 jsml s^utiK^tretsf ^^p LSiPiL:LDrruSi(^tl.CurrLL!r<s, may we (or let us) 
 
 lore peace ! 
 ^Jih(^:^:SsmrevrLJi^ujn'^ ^^(S/r/fi<s&rr^dF6W(^O^iL.tL/<fcF/_G'a//rL0, as 
 
 we are subjects let us honour those in power. 
 g3^aj(flii-;au/r«ar«sff- ^Qui[ki£letr<FOs'\uiu&'SL-^asar, let the rich do 
 
 charities ! 
 ^n'OutrjpieaLaujirtu^QeiLe, may you hear with patience !
 
 152 Syntax . 
 
 When we call upon others to join us in doine;- a 
 thino*, the simple imperative may be joined to the 
 optative form in ^i-dsun-il, or even to the simple 
 future tense, as : 
 
 come, lei tis help those poor people ; or O s^ujQ en trihsu it (tiki's &r. 
 
 § LXII. 
 
 The 7102:0 five form of verbs for all the tenses is 
 used ; 
 
 1 . In general, for any time ; showing the nature 
 or habit, as : 
 
 ^su^^;SQ^'—rr6sr^ tJiis man does riot steal ; i. e., he has not stolen 
 
 formcrhj, nor docs he steal now, nor will he steal hereafter. 
 
 eSclQir,s_^^<l^«<3(SM7-s!!!jfl(5^^^0^iflaJ.T^, the idol has eyes, but 
 
 does not see. 
 ^6jrLa!Tirs£iT Qunril.s^^^s^LlCufrsn-iT'Sierrj the wicked do not go 
 
 to heaven. 
 
 2. In particular, for the future, as : 
 
 ^a/«wr,'j«OT£9-6»«<s(5aj.T5'/ri3r, he will not come to the feast. 
 ^'SVTLaTir^S'S'osr ^s&^^sS'S!!T^^m^§i)ST L-Si&'Bu'-iL-(r«ir, the wicked 
 
 will not be saved from hell. 
 
 In the foregoing instances the nominatives glauaor, 
 ««s5r &c., are to be construed with the negative 
 verb ; but when the present verbal noun is used 
 with @sJ'2si), that verbal noun is the subject to ^eo'Sso 
 whilst it has its separate nominative &c., of any 
 gender, number, and person, thus : 
 
 ^irff-C;F^^j«srG'd7/ri_;/QOc£/rOT-(25S^^«)2n), Rasendiren does not get 
 
 angry. 
 ^Q fiSLoaSfiirs&r '^(f^aj(i^J;Os[r(^&iT Sup ^i—iEi(^Qp^ei>^, many 
 
 men do not submit one to another. 
 
 The negative of the past tense is best expressed 
 by ^eu3«), with the infinitive mode, as :
 
 Passive Forms. 153 
 
 ^^mr^n-t}mLi^iUfr,ljuQujF^i>^. he did not speak humhltf. 
 sfe^ u,a^k^Su,W6 6p(T5a./r(f««)^i4(sO^^'^«oa3«)3a;, the car- 
 
 penter did nut say a word in return. 
 
 § LXIII. 
 
 1 . The passive form of active verbs with u 
 p^, usually requires the instrumental ablative, as: 
 
 Os=ii3^<£Qajmr(SL^, we must not be overcome by evil, but over- 
 come evil by good ! 
 
 f^fi^£S!rQ^iL<ST^^QeoOiU(i^fuuiLvf.a^&Q^p^^ thi.s letter has 
 
 been written by me, 
 
 ^^^£i^ani(ifi^ea^uj^Q&)Oajil.L~uuLLi—^, that tank was dig- 
 ged by yiootteiyen, 
 
 2. But in the participle fonii, the infinitive of 
 the active verb still governs the accusative case ; 
 and the participle is thus dependent upon the fol- 
 lowing- noun, as : 
 
 ^aj(T^GSiL—UJ^ffjr^ias>^eosu<s<suutLi— @l_ld, the place in which his 
 
 body was laid. 
 
 If it be said, ^sti(^sini-.iu ^^3'tlei!>aj&.suuiLi_uSii—il, it will mean, 
 that the body itself placed something and that the place was passive. 
 
 ^^L^aasiiS'ievsaajeSfliiuuil.L—'Seai—, this (is) the shop in which 
 
 tobacco flit : smoke-leaf J mas sold. 
 
 3. Sometimes u(B9p^ is used also with the infi- 
 nitive of intransitive verbs, but as in the above 
 instance only in the relative participle form ; and 
 then it implies all times except the future ; and 
 must be regarded as an adjective, as : 
 
 jstTi^ @(3<5<suuLl£_sac(f, the village in which I dwell. 
 ^ ^mj'SLJutLu- eSVaR/S", the room in which thou slecpest, 
 
 ^aji^^L-ssuuL-L-uirem^, the road which he went.
 
 154 Syntax. 
 
 In all which places the literal meaning- is, tlie 
 village which suffered that I dwelled, the room 
 which suffered that I slept, &c. 
 
 4. In a similar case the 3d person neuter of the 
 negative form, viz. Lj^fr^, is sometimes used for all 
 persons, and means as much as ^^/r^, <5h-L_rr^, as: 
 
 ^aSuui^s'Os^iLjujuui-tr^, thou must not do so. 
 
 § LXIV. 
 
 Some parts of the verb (srmQp^^ to say, are used 
 in a peculiar sense. 
 
 1. The verbal participle <crdr^, is used as an 
 indicative conjunction, or a particle of quotation, 
 like the Greek or/, or like the mark ( " " ) in Eng- 
 lish, when the words of another are to be quoted in 
 his own language. If there 'be more quotations 
 than one, they all are closed with srsor^, and the 
 copulative conjunction a-oi, after which the narra- 
 tion proceeds, thus : 
 
 'S(^^^iT^^iLj&rsireijO!r^^Ceij^irrOs=!r»>ss3'^P^, the Bible saitk, 
 God is righteous, i. o., tluii God is righteous. 
 
 ^ih S(^p pnQ:Z!T® ^ ^ A C L^%si! &'i)str jsfTUi esiAa-O^rr&rsfrQeue&riSlLhj 
 we must keep the conimandments of God, viz., " Thou shall not 
 commit adultery; thou shalt not lie; thou shall love thine 
 
 enemies." 
 
 Observe that in such quotations the Tamulians 
 do not change the person's words as we do in Eng- 
 lish ; for instance, we may say, either he has com- 
 manded that ive shall not lie, or God's convnand is : 
 thou shall not lie ; but they can only use the latter
 
 The Verb (ErmQp^, 155 
 
 mode. QLJITluQs=ir&)eO!T^(T^UUITIUlT<sQsn6<5T^ ^(SLin-<Btl.l-^ 
 
 ^isrru^LLL^iTir should yOll say : pmlQLJiTijLjQ&tTi^&ia^Qhilj 
 G cu a miT <sQ^(ok £0 Lj g- IT LjiT'osr&iLi-.fiSfTiSliLu.n It it will mean, 
 that God hiinself is among those who shall not speak 
 lies. — If the words of his command are stated 
 indirectly, then piru^ may be used, but sreorjjf 
 must be omitted, and Ljif <s@, substituted, as : ^/rtL, 
 
 thus also : 
 
 6BT(2)-^, thejaiher said that we should not vainlij spend (our) 
 money, or, the father said. " Do not .spend your money vainly." 
 
 ^eufTSerr <s l sin su/rE)"«frLQ^](T5i_jLJ/r/fiSc(r/r<ffiOfflJ«w'^/B •s t eveutTEiSevr 
 
 wise men have said : " let them not incur debts" and " after 
 
 they have incurred debts, let them pay them" i. e., wise men 
 
 have said, that they should not incur debts, &c. 
 
 For the forther use of er^^ and <cr&sr, see § 
 LXXXVII. 
 
 2. The future relative participle erdr^il^ is used 
 to identify persons or things ; and is affixed to their 
 names, as : 
 
 SlsuOevreisT ^^Q^Bjear^ the God Slvsn. 
 
 ^QiuireuiTOsm-eyr ^tl^iliQLjn-eib^ed&i^, the Apostle John. 
 ^(T^J^s-<ssf-iOiu^ ^iGT^O-a^ireo, the n>ord '" Church." 
 
 cf ^'2^/rsi^QLD«3' ^d.'ZTA-Oeiisnij, the oil of gladness. 
 
 ^^Oiuear^ijisuen)§JLt!, the garment of righteousness. 
 
 ^JiLs^essTemitiLuOLnsir^i^s'freOsiosxj, the robe of salvation. 
 
 In all which cases, <Er^ ^il may be rendered by 
 " called." The God called Siven ; — The oil called 
 gladness, &c., 
 
 The relative participles of the other tenses, ^dr 
 Qp and (ordrp^ cannot properly be used in the same 
 way, and are interpreted by their proper meaning-, 
 thus :
 
 156 Syntax. 
 
 QeuOssr^QpQ^eiiwr^ means, '■'■the God who saith Siven" 
 
 ^Quj[Tsu[rQ'it!T'S!!^ fl^^liQuire^^eo^, the Aposlle iv ho said, '■'■John." 
 
 But the relative participles of the passive form 
 may be used like erm^LC), thus : 
 
 ^^Q&iresTesruuiLL-GjSeuixrr^ the God who was called Siven. 
 
 3. The subjunctive ^eDT(V5»a) or «rcsf;60^ if thou say, 
 or ask, is frequently added to the interrogating 
 adverbs and pronouns, as, er<oGrmpS^i^Oe\iixr^&), 
 
 ^Qirm-^si}^ <srLJUL^Qiu<^(tr^eo, €rm-«siQsii&>T(t^&)^ &C., 
 
 the literal meaning of which is, if you ask, why ? 
 from, xvhat cause ? ivho ? how ? or ivhat ? They are 
 used either at the beginning of sentences, or they 
 are affixed to verbal nouns at the end of a sentence, 
 in which latter case they mean as much as thus, as 
 
 follows," &C., <crsGrGoi^^n:Q<e6ot^&)^ sr&ff&si ^^^Q^eix^ 
 
 (Mf&o, may often be rendered ''for, because" as : 
 
 ^eui^sirajsSebeasussuuu-i—Tf^, er ^ ear s;0iQOeo^ (!!;)&>, mSijajear e^(^ 
 
 ^uiui^tufTs ^ao^^QsirleoOs'iij^iresr^ this man has been put 
 in prison, because, observing Jewels upon a child, he killed it in 
 
 order to rob them. 
 
 With the verl)al noun it will be thus : 
 
 ^euiyr srreusSlffi)es)aj£<SLiuil.L—0^e^effr^^^Qeoei!r(yr)ei^ &C. lit : his 
 beirig put in prison was because, &c. or, if ijou ask, wluf he was 
 
 put in prison ? the cause is, &c. 
 
 ;fQj^/ra)<y(?aL(«wr®Qj0^6w«wQsu6sr(5^^ i. e., if thou askest what thou 
 
 shall say ? or Ihou shall say thus. 
 
 «eysu®^ ^^uuuuLLi—eufs;eiTrTO!res^ei>, if thou askest who they 
 
 are that have been sent by him ? or those ivho have been settt 
 
 by him are these, &c. 
 
 ^^j5i—^js0^tljui^0tuevr(rr)&)^ it happened thus, or in this matmer. 
 
 The interrogation may also be separated from 
 €r&!T(^i)^ thus :
 
 The Verb er^Qp^. 157 
 
 ^ Ouj (—' i_j if- ^ Q ^ /r si €D (« aj s»r ® O iJ3 697 (vp «) ^ 
 
 But as this mode of speaking requires a repetition of the first clause 
 at the end of the answer, -viz. •rSl^ '^Ljui^fii—^^^^ ^eun^^Gen- ^.^ 
 uuuuLLc—n'aa&r, ^uui^Gilj Os^neOeoGeuessrGlLh, =Sij^^Qeo ^'Sies'&u<3U 
 ^vdeneua&ili'-it^i—iTisr^ it is not elegant to use this form when the an- 
 SAver is but short, and without much argument. It would be almost 
 ridiculous to say : ^fflj«»r<eraJaS«0«»aj<s« lji-iI-l^iv^, ei'^em-^^.^Qeiiisrt^ed 
 epd^Sl&T^arMius^Osir^Qs^uj^srr^. In such cases it is both more clear 
 and elegant to put the causal particle ui^n3^Qe\} before, thus: ^ajear 
 
 On this subject, see § CXV. 
 
 4. The verbal and appellative nouns creoru^, 
 ereoTLjajeor, are used in the same way as <or&>}^Ln ; 
 but with this difference, that as they are nouns, the 
 whole sentence introduced by them, becomes the 
 subject to the following- clause ; thus : 
 
 LCte^^O^^eofT^^ui uireSsOsn-eiTu^ OLBiu^fre^, it is certainly true^ 
 
 that all men are sinners, 
 
 K^Pi^^Os'iuujeSQ^LhLj izT&ru^jsAeoeurriQu-'^^iTesr^ it is certainly a 
 
 good sentence^ " love to do charity." 
 
 SlQjOesrearueum^LSLp0<S(^ ^(i^G^sum^ Siven (is) a God among ov 
 
 to the Tamulians. 
 
 They may also be declined, as : 
 
 «syff)Oa5«5rLJ^^^^^(5'-cOLQ6sr^^(5_^^Lo/rii), the meaning of'^jsil 
 
 is ^(f^Liiih, 
 
 pinched off one of the heads of' Brainha. 
 
 "Mote. — In all these instances srfwujs' and (sr^u&i^, stand for srsar^ 
 Os^rredeouuL-i—^., tsrm ^lO^Fedediluil-i—eii'asr^ and. on the contrary, for 
 er&n- j)iOs-rTeds!i&(rr)eir or 0^/rs^(g)«3^, &c. may simply be said er'^Qt^&sr 
 creer(rr)&n-^ &c., iu which casc the verb both quotes and concludes the 
 sentence, as : 
 
 ff,sfljnjQ/ruja;(3(?QjO«w6Jr£l(vp6Brj he saith '' / shall coyne quickly" 
 
 ©r that he will quickly come.
 
 158 Syjitax. 
 
 §LXV. 
 
 ^ifmijiiTiTisaO<stl.(BLlQuireiJiTn<sO<sirdr(y^^^, lie said, '■'■ the wiclicd 
 
 shall perish, or that the wicked, &c. 
 
 Active verbs formed by the combination of a 
 Samscrit noun with a verb denoting- doing, (see § 
 XXXVIII. 5,) must generally be construed as if that 
 noun were the accusative case, w hich in fact it is ; 
 wherefore, though in English they may often be 
 rendered by single active verbs, yet, in Tamil, 
 when other nouns are affected by them, these nouns 
 must be put in such other cases, or receive such 
 additions, as the sense requires, thus : 
 
 O-Fuilu^efsrssi—Qeun-ih, means, " /e< us -perform the mantram !" 
 
 ox say prayers (inwardly), but, " let us pray to God," cannot be 
 
 rendered by, uff tr'-i a "issriFQis^u imu eh- essrS'SL—Q eij it Lh. 
 
 but by u'Trrus'iesrQ JBSTS^'^ (or jS^asrAj^^ 0£=uLiu6«!reissrs<SL-.G6virii}^ 
 
 let us behold, or look upon God, or think <>/ God, and say prayers. 
 
 ^a!(/r<siOT-(?<s/ruK/0«/r«wr(_n-/r««Tr, means '^^ they got afigry," but, 
 " they got angry with us," must be rendered : ^euir^eir srm&err 
 
 QLafi>G<s!ruiijQsn'e»TL-.irfi^<ar. 
 
 iSiTs'ijsilue^eimtlf^ir, he preached, lit: he made a Sermon. 
 
 But, '■^ he preached Christ" Q^Slenl^eaeuai^^^^uSsrs^ijsilueh- 
 
 " He preached the resurrection qf the dead" tt^^^ fin-'rsrQ^Ljuilj 
 
 LJ ® an /r /r & Q <sw c»r ^ l9 J <fi^ ffii ■£ iii Lj ewr ewffi (g) /f . 
 
 Gu/r^<s5LQuc!»r«a»f?®^, he tai'ght ; but " ^e taught many people" 
 
 cSy (? ^ <s J= *w (B <£ (25 16 @ L J G Lj /r ^ <s ii LJ is»T «!(!ff? @ /r. 
 
 If the noun however be neuter, such verbs may 
 govern it in the accusative, as : 
 
 uj6i;u^(r/f«^iB«?e»rLj(?t_//r<F«w-txLJC!OTisB»SC'(g)Lo, we eat various things. 
 m^^^s's=mis^&>iuui3s^s'-mi£uiuehesistl(^iT, he preached (on) that 
 
 subject.
 
 Active and Neuter Verbs. 159 
 
 There are a few exceptions, e. g., Gp{r^^^(i^ 
 Os'tLjQp^^ ^iiLia0orLs:>uGssr,^]&P^^ and all nouns com- 
 bined with ^'S(^Qp^, these govern any noun in 
 the accusative case, as : 
 
 u!rrruJT'?jssr^(2^ir^B!r(^0s:ijutLJs:s;[-.Qeumli, let us thank God! 
 ^eu&afr^^uu!rem-Li-ie&r,miiQeumh^ 7Ve shall meditate foil J him. 
 ^aLi/r«2arl,«jss5rLD/rc5:£(g)ff, he healed them. 
 La€i!reia^^OfieSeuirs(^su[rsrir<s, may he enlighten the mind ! 
 
 Note. — Verbs which are formed of Sarascrit nouns, by changing their 
 last syllable, such as Gfiir^^fisQm^, Os^'SlsS/o^i, ^■dJirsSa:^.jD^. 
 ^n-isiire^.£9p^, Sec. Sec. of course do always require the accusative. 
 
 § LXVI. 
 
 1. JSfeuter or intransitive verbs, formed with 
 ^uSq^SQp^, must be carefully distinguished from 
 those formed with ^^p^, and ljOS^d^, the word 
 ^iiSl(T^<sQp^, means to be, and gives an adverbial 
 sense to the noun prefixed : but the two latter 
 words mean to become, to get, as : 
 
 s=e^eQujLDiriiSI(^s£Qpdr, I am well. 
 
 -n .,', .n^r,n>rr.^ > 1 become well ; 1 am aieliins: tvell. 
 j^eijebWUJUuibilsils/oeur, J ■'too 
 
 When ^a^QF^'sQp^, relates to more than one 
 noun, the verbal participle ^ili is separated from 
 ^Q^<e9p^, and added to every noun with the con- 
 junction 2-tii, either before or after it, as : 
 
 SL^aj&r/^iLjUimu ^3'sJS(ipLDrra3Q^£@(rr}n-, God is righteous and 
 merciful, or /^u-irii^LD ^srs£:LCfnu^LjS(r^sS<^!r, 
 
 With ^Qp^f only slld is added to each noun, as : 
 
 m9{Q/<^!TeS€,e!r {Cj/rajfl^j^LO ^^Lnfresirs(&^Larr^ir,s&r, the unwise be- 
 came wise and righteous.
 
 160 Syntax. 
 
 2. .^LD, the 3(1 person neuter of the future is 
 occasionally united to any finite verb to denote 
 uncertainty, as : 
 
 m^suifs&r ^iliui^SO£'ir«^(^iTSsirml, it seems the^ said so, or "it 
 
 is said that they said so." 
 
 m9leue!r^^j5iriusleisreSLLQuGu!r^<s>riTil, they say that she left her 
 
 htisband. 
 
 Ao'ain ^tl, is sometimes used as an affirming 
 particle yes, in answer to a question. But it is not 
 frequent. The usual way of affirmation is, repeat- 
 ing the verb of the question, thus : 
 
 To .^uui^J^O^iu^mun; hast thou done so'i 
 Tlie answer is : Os=ujGsi^^ I have done. 
 
 Some have used ^li also as the particle yea, or n^hat is more; hut 
 that is not elegant. 
 
 Moreover .^il is used in Poetry as a particle without any meaning, 
 merely to fill up the metre, as: uenfluLiLairOiMenr ^ji Ou(^ss>La 
 
 In plain Tamil : Ou(i^eauiUJrretir^ (crilOurrQ^^tlueafiiLjil. S^emLa 
 ajtrear^^-airtesreSuj^^^esiSiLji}!, i. e., greatness behaves always 
 respectfully ; meanness (always) praises and ornaments itself. 
 
 For another use of ,^lq, see § LIX. 2. 
 
 3. ^etr^^ the 3d person neuter of the ne2;-ative 
 form, is often added to verbal nouns denoting it 
 ought not, must not, as : 
 
 ^ aiiiurreir siwir^Ga^s'ieiruQus^eoirsrr^, thou must not talk bad 
 
 words ; it is not becoming thee to talk, &c. 
 
 ^eurra&r ^n ^®^^mtnujsi-ss&)ff.S!T^, they ought not to walk 
 
 two ways. 
 
 4.^Qj^, the verbal noun of the future tense 
 and its plural .§aiscr, are frequently used as par-
 
 Verbal Nouns. I6l 
 
 tides of introduction, like the English " thus, viz. 
 as/' and is then added to nouns, as : 
 
 ^aBearO^fTSorsBr^fl-su^, he said thus: or that which he said, &c. 
 ^tsuaOs'uj^ .jiipi-l^ijsstrrreuew, the miracles which he did are these. 
 ^(aj6srOd[;/ras!r®fflj^^LJ^/T/f^^ffij«OT/ra/63r, he has brought the jol- 
 
 lowing articles. 
 
 Observe, that in this way the sentence must 
 conclude with cj or ^men^Qea, thus : 
 
 ^easu^Gerr, the things he brought were iron, brass, wood and 
 
 stone. 
 
 Thus also : Quinuiu[r®j^3=^^iuL^<^€j)Lc>, a lie (is J 
 an untruth. 
 
 ^fiu^, is also used as the disjunctive particles, 
 either^ or, and then it is added to two or more 
 nouns which are thus distinguished, as : 
 
 u^esrUiJTLorraJ^O^'^^esrLalJ'uiiraj^^staui—Qeue&rQisi^ fve must get 
 
 cither a palmira or a cocoanut tree. 
 
 bring either silver or gold. 
 
 live either (by) lear?iing sciences, or f %J doing any other 
 
 business. 
 
 5. c^asrsusor, ^ggt^ and ^en^ are used like creSr 
 Ljffljeor and cTSDTLj^ (§ LXIV. 4,) as determinating 
 particles, yet retaining the power of nouns e. g. 
 
 Osirpp^ssreu&r jBeieOUisi^^ewSl<sO, Kottcn is not a good maTl. 
 
 La(rLD£r LDTe9r^^es)SUiLj&retruLpEis'2eir£Qsn-®&lSei^/o^, /he man^o tree 
 
 y ields delicious Jr nit. 
 
 the ter?n Quirs^Q^rreo, (ox noun,) denotes the name of any thing. 
 
 Note.— Xhoui ^iSiSiiLo ^9epjil, &c. see § CIII. and about ^<ss><s 
 tuirei, ^^eonen, and .§i,5stuvf-iiSi^Qeo, see § CIX. 
 
 W
 
 162 Syntax. 
 
 § LXVIL 
 
 The verbs i^;f5&\ ^(5,d?^«^, 0<Bn(B^^So, and ^(B^&), 
 mean " to irive ;" but with this difference, i^^w, is 
 the frivino" of a superior, ^0^^, of an equal, and 
 Q&a(B^^&} of an inferior, e. g., 
 
 SQ^^^irGeii, G^eu^iT (oTe!ir^.(^ <j!/(5^ ffuI/CaiswrOzi, Lord ! give 
 
 vie grace ! 
 
 £(.5^P^ <sr<s!r£(^ ^'(i^^trif^^rrif, the Lord has given grace to me. 
 
 js!r&sr s-ewj® ^(iFjloirfr-QiGpiir, I give thee grace. 
 
 9:Qj5&fiGir .jij^fi.ilju&emsu Oiuet!rsi(^^fiirc^L£, O friend, give me 
 
 that cow ! 
 
 j5irmusKss>QjiLj'iarJ;(^^^(r^&G;o&ir, I give thee the COW. 
 
 creoi'LC'sGear ^&_«sr isBfi{3^u-j^ei!)^£T ear i.@<5O«/r0, my son! give me, 
 
 thine heart. 
 
 fiiTen £r»sreiS(t^^iUjBsafi e-Ljas(^<sOsir(Bi£Gfl«T, I give mij heart 
 
 to thee. 
 
 But this distinction is often neq-lected. 
 
 ^(B^<^ is chiefly used in the 3d person, and that 
 only in certain connexions, as, &iLL^hsvuSiLL^(rm-^ 
 He gave a command, Qs^afBiLi^ir&sr, he gave rice, 
 L5)<F5w<F(L9ilL_n-6cr, he gave alms, &c. Its first verbal 
 participle is also added to other such participles, 
 without any meaninof, as, <2ii^^iil.(BLjQu(r^<oci^ which 
 is the same as sup^Qujin^dr, he came and went. 
 It is also added to some roots, chiefly to form an 
 imperative, as; ^awQ'diJ:^^ have mercy/ Gu9(Bl£>, 
 speak ! see § LVI. 7- vi. 
 
 § LXVIII. 
 
 I he verbs m^hB<Bi), 0^ir&reiT&), <sjnp&)^ ^\eff)L-^&>^ 
 
 Qujsi^^, mean to receive, to get, to take, but with
 
 Verbs. . 163 
 
 this diiFere nee, that the three former require the 
 local ablative, and the two latter the causal abla- 
 tive, e. £'., 
 
 STff'iDireifi—fQei ^(TfiL^si^sJ-Qns^ euirihSQevresr^ or Osrre^QL-tti^ or 
 iff^j}j&03,iTessrQi_ii!'^ J received a book from (my) master, 
 
 er^LcrT(^ei> e^ Q^i^^ss feisi^iu<^i—^Q f^ or O jjtQ/om^ [ received 
 a book from my master, or through his instrumentality. 
 
 The reason seems to be that sutr&^sb, OsnerTetT&)^ 
 and ejf/D^, mean fo receive, simply with reference 
 to the person or place from which it is ^iven ; but 
 ^<s5)L-^&) and Qugii^po mean fo receive, with refer- 
 ence to the receiver himself, as an addition to 
 what he already has. Hence ^es)i_^^ and Qlj^ 
 ^ev, are as much as G^n'^^(^, ■sh.tli—^, which require 
 the causal ablative. 
 
 § LXIX. 
 
 G)Lan L^^&}^ Od'UL-js^ei), ^su^^&o^ ^eirp^eb^ Ljni^eo^ ^lU 
 
 Lci-/^si\ L-j<6(75^a), all these mean " to speak " but are 
 used differently. 
 
 All the verbs from ^,eos^^^&) to the end are used 
 in poetry only ; the rest are also in common life. 
 
 Gs^^eOeQi^ei) is used when the meaning is the same as ^^rJ^aS 1^^, 
 to inform, to make known, to tell, thus : .sisvQ^''ci—C£'^<i«'Gssrosr 
 I told him ; aj/rOajaw-^O^T«u (2)5y , he said, '"'' come." 
 
 Gus^ei is used when it means as much as <rLDLjra^3swri_/6Kir,^i/ *^, 
 to converse^ to speak with, as: jsiru^ Giuff-dOsiieik-Q i—trto, we 
 spoke together; jarem ^&jG<^G i—Gi-j&tlO'SneiTG&jesT^ I shall 
 speak with him. — ^n-eir ers-iaaQf^G L-Gu9.&Qi.&!rwsr'^ O^rn^e)^
 
 164 Syntax. 
 
 SGjsi^y I shall converse for speak J with my master, and then 
 tell or inform (thee). This instance shows exactly the differ- 
 ence between the two words. 
 
 £^n pjr^ is used chiefly in connexion with guilt, as much as " accuse." 
 Thus ^3u<smGL£ipiV,pf(QS'irp^^eiT^ he accused him, lit: he 
 
 said a crime against him. 
 
 s«-^feb is much the same as Os^rr&ieoei, thus : ^^ui^QujikS(i^l.(S 
 Qu>esrjgj,eh-/Si(S)S!i^, he told that it will be so. Some have used 
 
 this word for " to proclaim." 
 
 eSmiluei is the same with Os^rreOeoi), and e^^^^., except that it 
 means also " to proclaim" and hence has come aSsriiLj JLouewr 
 
 nSp^', to make public. 
 
 &.eair^;S»> is the same with 0<F/r«)«;a), but not so much in use. Its 
 
 root s-eatr means also " explanation." 
 
 ^;0sS:FO<s=iju^iffi is the same as Os^rredeoen with the idea of giving; 
 it literally means " to do a favour, to be favourable, to be gra- 
 cious." It is hence used with the sense of " speaking" of supe- 
 riors only, particularly of God, thus : jbit'^ s-m'iesrssiruLJfrfi^Q 
 GjBOm-eirjjj ^cj^edU^'Os^iu^frif, he (viz. God J said, " / will pro- 
 tect thee." It means then also '^ to grant," as: .^sun-^i^iu.^^fjsir 
 OiusBTsCS .siQ^eSJ^Os'iu^n-ir, he has granted me long life. 
 
 ^0SLjefriluflp&>, is composed of ^CJi sacred ; s-erru) ike mind, 
 which stands here for e_ar «^«) / and upjji^eii, which means 
 "/o desire, to will," and therefore ^Q^ojeinMupiS^if means li- 
 terally ^(^'Sijsir^^Q&i ^eo^OsrrekrL-irn-, he desired or willed in 
 (his) sacred mind ; plainly " he spoke or said," it is used only 
 of God, or of Kings and other very great men. 
 
 «r«B^«»r^ does not mean simply " to say," but is used in the joint 
 
 sense of the particle <sresr or OTew-.^ and O<fl=/r«0 je/fi^jj/. Hence 
 
 «r«Br(7psffrj he said, is simply a contraction of m^ ^Os^rr'^^^. 
 
 §LXX. 
 
 The defective verb sp^^Lo, &c., is mostly used 
 with the accusative or 2d case, as : 
 
 ^^I^LoSw ^fifiui^eouj <^i:(^ih, this mountain is equal to that. 
 
 §^fi^e=Qs''ieo ^ ^ ^ s^G s^lsoeaiu epiuajtr^, this cloth is not equal 
 
 to that. 
 
 g)au«3r ^autssr ^^0(I5&Qq)s^^ this man is equal to that. 
 
 g)^^Mi jE;c?«ir epsk^^iOsfTik^ epQjisuLJueik-,mpi, make these trees 
 
 to be equal one with another.
 
 Defective Verbs. 165 
 
 But the participles 9^^ and the verbal ^uumu^ 
 and sometimes also the negative form, require the 
 dative case, as : 
 
 ^^(^smt—ujLDQeaLcsiO'Srr^^LDSeomtiSI&i'Sev, there is no glory like his. 
 uirfruir^-sO<srruiSleo2eo, none is equal to God. 
 
 ^^^i,<s») .^ns^ssps^sOsfriueuiriSiei GeiJ(n)u3'-r^sdeiTn3^^ this 
 stone does not agree with those stones, it is dijj'erent; or sp^'iair 
 
 Oiu/r si/a/ fTLnei), &C. 
 
 Note 1. — Sometimes it is used without any case, as : 
 
 ^fisssrOiu^(iy)^^s=ir^0^m(rr)ei}iti> ^s(mLh, if is the same whether 
 you say ^^Seaw- or .^=0"^, i. e., ^]%m and ^/r^ mean the same thing ; 
 
 tiius also : 
 §i^eijUi ^^eijtl eps(^Lh, this and that agree. 
 
 Note 2. — AVhen Osn-&ri^fi&) is added to the verbal participle <^fiS>i 
 it requires the accusative case, as : 
 
 ^luestfi ep^^£0,sfr&rstrG&Mskr(S!Lh, thou must allow, fconfess, 
 
 acknowledge,) that. 
 
 § LXXI. 
 
 The defective verb Coa-isOT^Ls, &c., is usually con- 
 strued with the infinitive of another verb, and 
 implies necessity, as : 
 
 S<Sr'ietrs<ar jBsij(n)[ljuui^ssQeiiiskr®u>^ children must learn well. 
 ^si'S&rLjflij&^pQev<sSsri_!rLh, you must not backbite. 
 
 ^irearQ^tuujQeue^TL^ujssi^J'O^^iLjQeuesr^ J shall do what is my duty 
 
 to do. 
 
 GT'5Br£(^<3UsrQ6uei^i^ujuessri}!QfiLlu^3u!rrTs:<^, the amount of the mo~ 
 ney (ox the money) which I ought to get, lit: which must come 
 
 to me, is 30 Pagodas. 
 
 .SJeuesT erears(^^0eaLDOjFiuujQeu<s&r(SlsuO^esreBr^ why should he do 
 
 me evil ? what need has he to do, &c. 
 
 Note 1. — The negative Cajss.rz_/rLD, is used only with the 2d person 
 imperatively, as in the above instance ; with the 3d person, sh-u-it^ 
 must be used; see § LXXVIIl. 
 
 Note 2. — When Gsue&r'SLC, Sec, is used with the dative case, it is not 
 this defective, but the regular verb GQjsk-Q&/pjii to desire, to be desir- 
 able, to think, a thing necessary, as :
 
 166 Sjjrifax. 
 
 e_L03(>e»£_tuffl(j5s»!_/Oiuswi(5G'ffl;eOTr®Lo, I desirc yoiiT favonr ; lit: 
 
 your favour is necdjul to me. 
 
 ^au^oTn/_u-'af ® (sr«r<s@Ga;iS!Br®su^^a)3K;, Ms house IS not necessary 
 
 J or me ; I do not rvant his house. 
 
 In the same sense it is used also with the infinitive, as : 
 
 <5»r®L0, those who desire to be happy , must obey God. 
 With O'Sirslri^Sp^', it requires the accusative, as : 
 e_.i«a) ^CauewTi^.iOaK/rarcGjfeG'/f aw, / beseech you. 
 
 Note ?>. — QeiKsSsT'^iuj^ and (Ta/sHsrSau^* do not imply that the trans- 
 action is already tiuishcd, but only that it was, or is necessary, to be done. 
 Hence it is not sufficient to tran>late, for instance, " / was obliged to 
 turn hitti back" by jsr-r. ^-eu^isisr f ^ri^'liSJ:0<srr&TeirQsusSsri^ujs:TttSi(i^^ 
 f^ \ because this does not imply that he actually turned him back ; 
 but only that it was necessary ; hence the additional idea must be ex- 
 pressed, thus : <5n-ss! j/i;'268r^^(5i-jL9<f Qi5/risn-sff(?a/is5!r/^uj^/r6>), ^eu'iesr^ 
 ^(JlI Jl(?ffirr <.J7, 
 
 Note 4. — Gffljs!»i0LD being the future tense, implies in certain phrases 
 also doubt ; like ihe Eugii li " must," thus : 
 
 (Lpfi^ii 6S)i£s=(o> . t^iLLa(i^^<&Ueuem-i>)iu:>^ '"'' as he has planttu all 
 kinds of trees in his garden, the vitie also must be there" 
 though it is still doubiful whether it is actually there or not. 
 
 ^^SLDe^j^-F(S)JirGsir OuiT'Sir '^(i^.k-sQeumr'SiLh^ there must be gold 
 
 among this earth ; imj)lying that naturally it ought to be ; but 
 
 leaving it doubtful whether it is actually there or not. 
 
 § LXXII. 
 
 The defective verb Lo/rtl(?i_eor, &c., denoting- in- 
 cnpabilii}) or inahilitij, not so much irom want of 
 power, as of will, or suitableness, is used with the 
 infinitive of another verb. Thus to the question: 
 
 u.'Trru!Tesr^^j:iriT^s;((^~7(^uu ■: ui'S^emuj&OcSirQLJuirsrrr, will God 
 give heavenly bliss to the 7vic/ced? the answer is: OairBiis 
 iiiirilt—iriT, he will not give; he cannot give ; not because he 
 lias no power, but because he will not, and because it Avould be 
 unsuitable to his natm-e.
 
 Defective Verbs. 167 
 
 ^irm&M.n^uQutrsLLirilGi^'^, I will not go to the village. 
 
 ^ jsi—i-sL£irtLi_!nLj^ thou canst not walk ; thuii art not able, &c. 
 
 uissiL^Qu\u[ULCsn-LLL—!7^^, it will not rain. 
 
 Note. — The affirmative mode Laj-iLQQeuss: ^ LairiLQajiriu, &c., is used 
 by some, as : 
 
 ^/reor ^LLuip-J'Os'iLj'uui/ru-^iGeu^, I may or can do so; liut it is 
 not classical. The simple future better expresses the meaning, 
 
 as: ^/ToOT ^iluuf-^O^u-Qeu^v, 
 
 § LXXIII. 
 
 1. The defective neoative verbs ^w^, &c., and 
 =gy6u«o, &c., differ from each other, in that ^jevSsd 
 denies the existence, and ^ev&) the quahty of a 
 thing". 
 
 Thus to the question: ^,wQsuytfij:iL-jLp(Lp^L^iry 
 are mangoes there'!? ^The negative answer is, ^'e\)3a), 
 wo, there are no mangoes. But the question : §)^ 
 ix^iTLnui^LEiir } Is this a mangoe ? the negative an- 
 swer must be : ^^LO/TLQLJLeiLDgiieO, ^ ^SUn&T tplllW L^tSi ^ 
 
 no, it is not a mangoe, but a plantain. ^e^jBso ahvays 
 cone hides a sentence, and is added to the nomina- 
 tive case ; but j^&'eo may be added to any case, and 
 ahvays requires a clause to the contrary either ex- 
 pressed or understood, which is done in English 
 by the disjunctive but ; thus : 
 
 ^^C^TS)^^so^uja)eu^^<s-«^i5»^tLyewr:_T^s;®o3r, he made Cor 
 
 caused J not joy, hut sorrow. 
 
 @(-D, happiness arises not fro, it vice, but from virtue. 
 
 2. The relative participles of both require the 
 nominative, as : 
 
 there was no tank in that place, rve tventjurther.
 
 168 Syntax, 
 
 L-rr^; a» this man is not a good man, none must believe his 
 
 word. 
 
 3. The verbal participles ^soeOirtc^i) and §)^^ 
 are frequently used as propositions, meaning xcith- 
 out, as : 
 
 ^su^emc^oj ^^sQ irsi^i^eOrrLDp Osu-®uQun-G<^il, (being) 
 
 without his favour, we perished. 
 
 Gs!ruL&eer;B jsins(^uLj^^O'S'n-e!tr^ir, he admonished us without 
 
 anser. 
 
 In the first instance it means ^^sQn-sLS^eon-^ 
 Lj i^iuireo. If the sense is future, it must be thus, 
 
 4. The verbal participles ^ebeciru^i^ and ^^jS, 
 are likewise used as exceptive particles, meaning', 
 besides, except, but, and may be affixed to any case, 
 tense, and person, which receive the expletive par- 
 ticle ei ; they are then naturally followed by a nega- 
 tive verb ; and that word, which is excepted, 
 receives the negative, as : 
 
 only affiiction will be the consequence, not pleasure, lit : except 
 that affliction will be, happiness will not be. 
 
 nS)] su (j^ea L-iu 8(^es>uiS(^(oeOujeiei)rrLaeO t^/5S)(2J«3r,a5® jji'ii jsfd^ u!t& 
 £:uj£:ireS<seirrr<sui[riLQi—irLb, we shall become huppij by nothing, 
 
 except by his grace. 
 
 fiii>es>iMS<s6sr(^0s=iLj@JirQiriu^^i ^£=tl.eaL—uessrisssn^irLL'—!Tft, he will 
 
 never despise, but honour us. 
 
 js&reaLLeaujQiuuueiir^^^naLceiaiu eSQ^^ULDfri^i—n'n; he does not de- 
 sire evil, but good. 
 ^^SLiQiriueist^ u::flQ(Vf(^eL!(i^ilfiAei!eun'eie)), none is good, but he. 
 
 Again, ,5vei^<so/rLDsu and ^m-^ are also conjunctive; 
 in which case the conjunctive particle a-oj, and not 
 the exceptive particle «5r, is inserted after the second
 
 Defective Verbs. 169 
 
 noun ; and also after the first, if it be a verbal noun, 
 and then the ibllowino- verb, may either be in the 
 affirmative or neo;-ative form, as: 
 
 besides that she spake kindly^ she gave also alms, or she not onlif 
 
 spoke kiiidh/, hut gave, &c. 
 utpBi-£^einu^eoirLDfi!Seis)iTe2eiruL^(^fS'{r'^L9il.i—ire!iT^ he eat holh fruits 
 
 a /id sreens. 
 
 Qeuesi!r®ui, we iiiust shopj four J good disposition not only by 
 
 love, but also by humility. 
 
 Again, with the addition of 2_ld, they are used as 
 conjunctions in the beginning of a sentence, or ad- 
 ded to ^js7, ^^, &c., with 2-^, as: 
 
 ^a)6iJ/rai j^LQ (or ^ei^jSiiji^) ^sun^ri^<si^siriliUp;S:^>!rss!r&J^, more- 
 over he spake thus : 
 ^^eJLaeieOrrLneii (or ^^'oyLDsar^) ^su^s;eiT^'&<s^^s-^i-iGu!r£! 
 L^seijLLLjeodiLS^n-s&r, besides, they went to the funeral, and 
 
 made great lamentation. 
 
 It is evident that great care must be taken not to 
 confound this exceptive particle with ^&)eiifru^&} or 
 ^eSrr, for which, see § XCV. 
 
 5. The verbal noun, .^^s^)^ is sometimes used 
 like ^jsve^^cTLaeb or ^<ob-fB, but most frequently it is 
 used as the disjunctive or exceptive particle or 
 like .§r,su^, (§ LXVI. 4,) and may be inserted be- 
 tween any parts of speech, except the verbal par- 
 ticiples, the infinitive and subjunctive modes, as: 
 
 ets>LL&ei!iL-&(^u>, mncli good irill J'ollow, if ive or thet/ overcome 
 
 those wicked people. 
 
 « fr(5«?7"«rf'asuj,^0)6i) J5' QevsiT(BmsfreiPemuJc0jeOe\:'^6u&r6<f<e:&LfiEe!!>'3'^eOgi}^ 
 (X(.6?r6w/E;£'s)niL/fflj/rEj«Ga/«w-®LD, you must buy onions, or garlick, 
 
 or sn'cef potatoes, or radishes. 
 ^seOi^isi'dJiliLJi^ rS^ioeo.^ iSipO^(§0^iT^^-i'Os'iLJ, either learn 
 
 science, or do any olhier business. 
 X
 
 170 Syntax. 
 
 ej,T£;(CffiL_(?63>r#6i;^^(3(-jLj/ruj/r<5, have felloivship with learned 
 men thai are virluuufi, or with (other) men that are good. 
 
 When the sense is not exceptive, it is better to 
 vise e-ti, as: 
 
 ^aSLJU^-LJuil — OLJ,TaJsi;/r/H(5«?OTjpQ;Ffr^«oa^LD^?c8ra-<a:ia^/B.Ki-£_n-^', 
 thou must not speak, nor even think such evil things. 
 
 6. The verbal noun ^-awsroui or ^^xsoirstDiM is often 
 used to Ibrm negative nouns, as : 
 
 ^:ri=EaS«-5r«TOLQ, nnwcrcij'ulness, mercilessness. 
 
 rf^o'csSi' ew^uJIsOeorrsmLD, laziness. 
 ssE.s<si£eo&iiresiLii, cowardice, &c. 
 
 § LXXIV. 
 
 The defective verb p-&t&t^ b-cot®, &c. denotes ex- 
 istence ; of them 
 
 1 . e_6rr or o-^frdefT is usually added to the dative 
 case, as a particle denoting xoitliin, into, as: 
 
 eS tL^sC^-rnQr^Q urrQ (^tl, we went into the hov.se. 
 Lo iff! :F if! 0irii-'^^'£©er (*<?"■ OuireO&iiT^ ^iS-emjpsiSrQ ^(res^ ^ui, evil 
 
 desires arise ivithin the heart of' men. 
 
 Often also the oblique case is used, as : 
 
 <sSiLis)-^is(r ^L-ihQiuOu!r(i^<s(rs&r, the things that are in the house. 
 
 In some connexions, it means of ^ from, among, as : 
 
 ^'sufl^^: ^~srr ^^JiSIJ^iresruiTesr^, of them this is the chief. 
 
 With the verb uQQn)^^ it means to submit, and 
 witli uQ^^Qp^, to .sitbdue ; in both cases requir- 
 ing the dative case, as : , 
 
 ^si rriL^^n-'S&r ^!^ neuem ^s--^LL.ULLL-!Tn''S.6iT, the giants suhmitcd 
 
 to liavanen. 
 ■sysu c-ar ^san-&'ie(r^^esri(^iLu®^^^esr, he subdued them under him .
 
 Defective Verbs. I7I 
 
 2. s_srrOT, is used like a relative participle, and is 
 added to the fourth or seventh case, when it means 
 which is or xvas, as : 
 
 eS^i^^Sreir luireLjijOs iLQuQun-uSeur^ all that was in the house 
 
 pc risked. 
 
 utl-t^esr^^^etrefr ^euriBjStar^eo&S.^/fsefr, the people in the city 
 
 were troubled. 
 
 Occasionally it stands absolute, without any 
 case, as i 
 
 Qforeir l£i ir tL S eauisafleoir en ^ <ir<<sr&(^^&ii (r^arevi^, is VishaOO 
 equal to me in riches, in form, or in any other existing excd- 
 
 leucies ? 
 
 When it is added to the nominative case it 
 makes of the noun an adjective, and qualifies the 
 other noun with which it is connected, as ; 
 
 £!(5s)DLJi4Gw-srrLJirn-LjJ«w-, the gracious God, I. e., God who has grace. 
 
 QsiruQp&rsir^frireuestireiir, the angry Ravanen. 
 ^isjest JB p^emrQf-'etrsir&jiS', he is a good mail. 
 .jyaufg«8>i— u-( ^(j^^ujLL p<5s>iuu^e!risir^, his heart is kind. 
 
 The word e^&r&r^ is also used absolute, meaning 
 it is so, it is truly so, as : 
 
 ^suesr ^uui^s'O^fr^eur^ s-&reir^^ir<^, it is indeed true that 
 
 he said so. 
 
 3. a.g&r®, means there is, there was, as : 
 
 ^Q[urr^^iu;rutl.u^esrQfe&r®, there is (or was) the city J>/odian 
 
 C dude. J 
 cT'^^i—^Sp-Js^S^iljueizrQpessr'Bi, J have ten ffuioms. 
 • u L-is.etsr ^ ^,Q eo s!r .g>iQ '->(Se!isr(b\ there are 100 persons in the cittj. 
 
 As a particle of existence it is frequently united 
 with the verbs ^Qp^, c^uS(r^<sQp^, ^'&(^§p^ and
 
 J 72 Syntax. 
 
 uessr^itQp^ ; the two latter are used either with the 
 nominative or the accusative case, as : 
 
 seosQf,>5&rL-rra3jD^, a tniindt arose 
 
 ^eos(Lpemi-rrii3(ij^^^, there was a tumult. 
 
 ^saTLo/TfTj* J-s»ffiL|6K(r(5)Lj6R!rs!r^(W)a^, he foi'mecl a rvicked religion. 
 
 tf (75^^/fi_/;5(5»fflj<s2sffii.^'(TfCH!rz_/r<&£(S3)7j God created also the fowls. 
 
 § LXXV. 
 
 The defective verb Quir^tl^ &c., requires the 
 dative case, either expressed or understood, as : 
 
 ^^osreued^iT ih'ST'sisr&(^LjQuir^il^ food and raiment are sajficient 
 
 far me. 
 
 ^(t^u^suirirs'^Gun-^ir^, ttveiiti/ pagodas are not sufficient. 
 
 ttJl(g)Gei) (?^2ajri5»iu ^^SLLifr&sQeuem^ii.^ as a corps of 12,000 
 men is not sufficient for the war., (you) must increase it. 
 
 CT'si'' ^eaL—tuOueO'^ ^ ^ ^'■^uOljit fiirestLcaurrei ^Oujeiirs(^ S-^eS 
 O^ula^CfflJswrQiii, i/ou must assist me, as my strength is not 
 
 sufficient for this. 
 
 § LXXVI. 
 
 The defective verb «i_C?^sor, &c., always requires 
 the infinitive of another verb, and thus forms the 
 optative mode, implying- also necessity, as : 
 
 mn-eer s:^ ^eai—^^ p^essr ^es>f£=0s=i»3&£&'S:u.Q'su^, may I over- 
 come my evil natitre ! 
 
 ^jsek(rr)liuue<ssfi<sSsi!)i-Os-iLtLi&:SL-SiJ!riLJ, mayst thou well perform 
 
 (thy) service ! 
 
 ^eSiLjessTL-rrs^SL—sj^', let there he light! 
 
 Sometimes ^« is added to it, without altering- 
 tlie sense, as : 
 
 /(E(^(^,ffi£i;r^/re!irLo/r«Jl(5i«i<si_a?/fsG>r/r.£, may you be peacefid !
 
 Defective Verbs. 173 
 
 § LXXVII. 
 
 The defective verb ^(^m &c,, is used, 
 
 1 . with the dative case, as : 
 
 ^n'lh^Qp^ B-iEJ'SQ^a^^fiQil or ^(^^lu/rui'^Jg;^, // behoves 
 
 you to be merciful. 
 
 Ljpimsi>-^jgidj5Las(^fifisx^^ it does not behove us to backbite. 
 
 Os=iiQ3:iT'kos=Qs'ei}i^^Q/D^ ^iTir£=^i(^s;^<3i'S^^ it becomes a 
 king to rule Righteously ; oi- to sway a righteous sceptre. 
 
 2. With the Infinitive mode, as : 
 
 ^'SpQ(r>)S\i—^^eS(r^&'S^p^il^ it is Jil that thou stayest with tlic 
 
 learned. 
 
 Ly(5iL_«sr ^ssTLn^ssreSeaojiut^S'S^^isn'^, a man ought not to beat 
 
 his wife. 
 
 ^Os=!uiu^^^tr^eaeust0irJ=Os'iu^fnu, thou hast done things which 
 
 thou oughtest not to do. 
 
 ^)^lrselrGu<e^^ssemaJ<s2eirtlQ'-JS'CsumriV!Lh, the?/ must speak the 
 
 things which they ought to speak. 
 
 3. Without the dative case or infinitive mode, as : 
 
 ^auew"^«fl-^fflj«3r, he is an unjil person. 
 
 ^ fi£{r^eSfiLD.TLULljGu£=ish-c—tr^, thou must not speak unbe- 
 comingly, 
 
 § LXXVIIL 
 
 Of the verb sh-QQjo^, to join, to agree ^ the 3d 
 person neuter of the future tense, both affirmative 
 and neg-ative, viz., ^^.(BLn and <6f>-z_n-^, with the 
 relative participle of the past tense, sn-i^iu, or sh-t^esr^ 
 are peculiarly used, 
 
 1. with the 3d case, or instrumental ablative, 
 w^hen it means able, Jit, possible ^ as :
 
 174 Syntax. 
 
 f^3i (STssr^p siJoiih. I am able to do this, lit : this ivUl he (done) 
 
 by me. 
 
 ^^^J'Sfec)L£>eaiui03;ire&r(s!Qu!rQ/DfijT,(S &^<^<S)^si^'—ir^'^ thou art 
 
 not able to carry this burden. 
 
 sTsr^P £h.i^tuLctl(B(^Q£'iLjG&'^, I shall do as much as I can, 
 
 lit : / shall do so far as it cati by mc. 
 
 2. With the infinitive mode of other verbs ; 
 when the 3d person neuter sh-i-n ^ n\Q.7m^ must not, 
 ought not, can not, implying both impropriety and 
 command, as : 
 
 they must not enter into the presence of the gentleman. 
 ^ e_65r c=ir^.'se)iuaO<s(Si^^LJQ'-i!TL—S'Bru.t—!r^, thou must not spoil 
 
 thy caste. 
 
 jsn-il .j>jeuiTs^eir^3^sarutlu(Sl^^J'-sh-i—T_^., we 7n!/<:f not qfflict thetn. 
 
 ^ikssru!Tsu(^Os'iLJiu£:si>-L—^.^<^ss)Suj,Tp jireu^^pQ-s^su-^esTf^-^ 
 
 a3fl)©ai5'/r<sarffd;, because you must not commit siu, keep far from 
 
 every occasion to sin. 
 
 As this verb does not imply ability from strenolh 
 or power, it cannot be used w^here that is to be 
 expressed ; such words as ^Jirseofl, ejj^goszBLo, &c., 
 must be employed, e. g., 
 
 I can do that, is not well rendered by ^f/tsm- ^safis=Os'iutu&<Sn-(Siih, 
 but by ^/ToOT ^em£<FOiffUjQmsi^, 
 
 I cannot (am not able, am too week) to do that, not fitr&ir ^eo^ 
 J'Os'iLJiiJGSh.L^ir^, because that implies impropriety or command, but 
 
 You cannot walk so far^ e_LD£@ ^ijsusiretj^iTLh ^i—ss^^sTfreisi^ 
 aS&i'Sea. 
 
 3. The diflPerence between s^isr^ and LatnlL-ir 
 ^, will be best perceived by stating- the Ibllo wing- 
 questions with the answers, as : 
 
 To jsn-^Qurrsemrmn-.^ May I go? The affirmative ansAver is: 
 OuirseoTLh, yon 7nay go ; or Guir^ go. The negative answer is, ^Quir 
 «siA_:_n-^, thou must not go!
 
 Defective Verbs. 175 
 
 ^(Tih ^(^i—eoaimr^ may 7vc steal? piril) ^(^i—ist-t—K^, wc must 
 
 nut f cannot J steal. 
 
 But to / ^u^il'^'iTutr, will i/Oii walk (which implies: 7vUl you he 
 ahle to walk?) the affinuativo answor is, pn-ek pi^tliQuesr^ I shall 
 walk; the negative answer, is, ^i—si'SLBrrtLQi—-^, I shall not (be 
 able to) walk, or / will not walk. 
 
 ^mssk ^x-, ^^^Q^'i)eSi'r£e(r!r, will you steal again? ^(r^L-Lnjril. 
 
 Q L—fTth., we will not steal. 
 
 4. I add a list of tlie a arioiis forms of question 
 and answer in which these defective verbs are used ; 
 and from which the correct use of them may be 
 more easily learnt. 
 
 To ^,T«5r ^uui^^Os'iLJujeoirLcrr, may, or shall, or must I do so? 
 The affirmative answer, is: Os^ujiu&arLb, you may do so; negative an- 
 swer, 0<B=iuiLJS^-&x-i—!r^, you must not (cannot) do so. 
 
 Os^iuiutTLCiSlQ^i&eotruitr, can T be without doing (so) ? affinnative 
 
 answer, els' ujiurr L£iev.(^£<sei;mh, you may. 
 
 -y f Qd^6uu_'Ca7(s»sr®(ii, } you must do., or you cannot 
 
 ° ' ^0£=ujuun^LQi,-St^&a>^<eh-L—tr^,j bc withvut doiug (so.) 
 
 ^ Os^ajeuTuurr, will you do (so) ? 
 
 affirm, ans. Os^iiiQ&j&x-, I will do. 
 
 negat. ans. 0£=iuiuL£t!ril-Gi—sir. / ;/</// not do. 
 
 j5freiT0^iLjujQsueix>T(ElLcrr, must I do ? 
 affirm, ans. ^ 0s=iLiiuQ<su(5ssrfh>il, you mnst do. 
 
 negat. ans. ^Os'iLJujQeuem-Qeu^&iiteo or GsLeart— ml, you must not (need 
 
 not) do. 
 
 firr^Os'iuiu^sk.L—rr^fr, cannot I do so? may I not? have 
 
 I no right to do .so ? 
 affirm, ans. ^ 0^ujujsi)frt2i, you may do so. 
 
 negat. ans. ^ Os=ujujs:<Bh.i^ir^, you 7n u si not, or ^ Os^ili^uul-it^ 
 you must not, or ^ Os'iLJiu^ffsir^, you ought not to do so. 
 
 Observe that the simple imperative is required 
 w^hen there is no such previous question, either 
 implied or understood. 
 
 Note. — Concemilig «i-t_., see § XCTV.
 
 1 76 Syntax. 
 
 § LXXIX. 
 
 Of the verb Qurr^Qp^ to be like the infinitive 
 CoLj.Too, and the relative participles of the past and 
 future tenses Qunmp and Qun^w, are used with 
 the accusative case, or sometimes with the nomi- 
 native, as : 
 
 ^^Tm-ilQurri^JiQs-iu, do Uhe him. 
 LDir'j:^LjfrcO;§offr^.w^ he stood like a tr6^. 
 
 £=[rfifitasruQuiTi<!rp ^a (TsuessT'Sir Qs'^fiir^^ Kavanen who was 
 
 like Satafi is dead. 
 
 LjaSiesiuj'lQuiTeSjil L^fenrLipuuiLL-^, a cat, like a tigfr went forth. 
 ySssr Lj^iemujil Gurr&iuumu^^^, the cat rushed forth like a tiger. 
 
 Note. — GuireO is sometimes used for Qutr^. 
 
 § LXXX. 
 
 The Tamil pronouns are used as in our European 
 lano'uages ; though occasionally, when no obscurity 
 arises, they may be omitted, particularly in short 
 sentences, as the finite verb itself sufficiently 
 points out the person, thus : 
 
 ^uui^J'O^iTisiQesresr^ I said SO. 
 
 The particular uses of each pronoun are these : 
 1. j^fTil, we is used with reference both to the 
 speaker and the persons who are spoken to, as : 
 
 ^frti)u,raS^icff/riLS(5#is(?®Ln,'«'r are sinners ; this when spoken, c. g., 
 hy a minister to his congregation implies, that Ijoth the former 
 
 and tlie latter are sinners. 
 
 However, great men speak of themselves in this 
 plural number. Thus a master will say to his 
 servant : 
 
 jsrrdi e_«ri@ <s)LJUijL^0^/r^4i)aS«^ uR>uj/r, did I not say so to thee ?
 
 Pronouns. 177 
 
 But pni-isar, we, the other form of the phir?] of 
 the first person, excludes the person or persons to 
 whom we speak, and is therefore properly opposed 
 to ^ibs^, thus : 
 
 jSiTiEj<&errQurrGeufril ^lusizir ^EjQ<s\j3Qil.iSiT,se^frs, we shall go; 
 
 (but J do you sioij here^ 
 
 This also is used by single persons to distinguish 
 themselves still more than ^t/tlb would do. 
 
 2. ^, thou, is always used by superiors to infe- 
 riors ; and on the contrary ^^ and ^m&m are used 
 by inferiors to superiors. Thus even a younger 
 brother will say to the elder, ^^snni^u^. But the 
 elder will address the younser by ^ thou, as ;f, ^/r. 
 Again ^'h&m is more honourable than //r, the latter 
 is used by equals. To say ^ to a superior or even 
 to an equal, would be an aifront. 
 
 3. c^Qjsar and ^suesr, he, are distinguished ; the 
 former, by being used of a person distant or absent ; 
 and the latter, of a person near or present. The 
 same is to be observed of .^^, that, and ^^, this. 
 Also in writing, when two subjects immediately 
 preceding, are referred to, ^ivaeSr and ^^, refer to 
 the first of them, and ^sueor and §)^ to the se- 
 cond, as : 
 
 Satlcn and Koilen came ; the latter (was) a wild maiu (but) 
 
 ihe former a good man. 
 
 , i—rr^i, you do indeed pay filhcs^ hut you show no mercy ; this 
 you ought to do, and that you must not leave undone. 
 
 ^•.^rif.^iir<sir^ ^^ O&je^asna^/DQfielretr^, gold and sihcv are 
 precious metals ; that has a yellow, Vais a ivhiie colour.
 
 17"8 Syntax. 
 
 But this way of speaking- is obscure to a Tamu- 
 lian, and used chiefly in poetry. In common life, 
 it is better to repeat the nouns, particularly when 
 they are remote. 
 
 LDsQesreir ^ffsCjue^OdriTfis't^ m-^ wheii father and son entered 
 the house, ihe father said this is my son. If you say here 
 «s/fflj«-BT, it will mean a person not then present. 
 
 Gs'^arsisrr Qsm^eai—ea'n iliSu^i^^, ^^p i3 fTQeuSl^snrirsi^, the 
 troops took the fort and entered it. If you say, @^«), it will 
 mean some thing different from the fort ; as if the speaker 
 pointed to a house or some other place before him, into which 
 they entered, 
 
 ^S'SrreJ^^LcafisiT ^^SLartuuOuiriLiQuff-Qrn^iT'S&r, the men of 
 this time (meaning the present) are great liars. If you say 
 
 ^i^xireo^^, it refers to any former time. 
 
 It is evident from hence, that these pronouns are 
 always demonstrative, and never merely personal. 
 
 jVVc 1. — Somctimps to affect humility when speaking with others, 
 a person Avill use the 8d person ^eueh- of himself, instead of ;5.t.53-, e. g.^ 
 (S)3ij^ii«0««w«w"0^fPiLjLD, what does this person know ? instead aferear 
 *Qd6Wi«jrQ^Tflii|(-D, what do I know ? 
 
 Note 2. — ^euir, @ajff, in high Tamil arc used as the plural numher ; 
 but in common life merely as an honorific of a siufrle person, as : ^aJr 
 er- QiMeo^^iueuirnSci^fisimT. Again the plural ^isuif&^ is used as a 
 still higher honorific, by an inferior to a superior, when it is often 
 added to the noun denoting the rank, as: ^eajojeun-sar ^tlu i^s:sel.i^ 
 le/raStLL-rrn-seir. If the speaker literally means more than one, ^a»T 
 isiirnsar should be substituted. 
 
 Note 3. — "When ^a/an- or ^suir or cSy^, is put twice, as : ^mjesr&i'^ 
 •g/fflj au/f, it means every one, each one, respectively. The last only is 
 put in the case required, as : 
 
 us iTuS'&sr ^euisreu^s'^^siss^irsLJU&i^esr ^af^uutrir, God will 
 
 recompense so as is due to every one. 
 
 iM!Jm&i^&(^ ^fiP'S' ppQ&ppeSff.La!niji'0'Fiu{uQeiiek[®t2i, you must 
 treat the trees according to their respective natures.
 
 Pronouns. 179 
 
 4. The reciprocal or reflective pronouns ^/reor, 
 ^ai^s&r, &c., are used instead of «gya/ger, &c., when 
 the nominative of the sentence and not another 
 noun is to be referred to, thus : 
 
 ^s'!ri{\tu^^sir(sjen>0!J's:ss>fiiLj®^0&Osfr6SsrL^iri!ir^ means, the priest 
 
 put on his (oniii) garment; if" you say, ^cu^san—ajeuetd^^ 
 
 ^s»^, it means, the garment qf^ another person. 
 
 ^rreSsm-^mslenaSeiiers irs,Qi,0&!Temru.!rn:<seir, the wise men render- 
 ed themselves fools. 
 
 ^auOTT ^egr&(^-(^OstrQ^^fii^es)iu (xp^s^^rTisr, he broke the stick 
 tvhich Cone J had given him. Here ^«8ri@, to himself. 
 
 Qisioir^ s(i^^ ^irsiLL^tetTiiSLLi—irp-, the Lord has commanded that 
 the people shall love him rvith their whole heart. Here ^itiA 
 L-fi^ei, refers to the principal nominative <s(i^^^if ; and ^ms,Sr 
 to <£=o3raj=£sn-, the nominative of the inserted instance. 
 
 Note 1. — Neuter nouns usually do not req[uire the reciprocal pro- 
 aoun, as : 
 
 ui!Tuia<sSOs!T(BsQiii^p^^ the tree gives (its) fruit. 
 
 Yet plural neuter nouns, when their respective natures are referred 
 to, receive it ; in which case the reciprocal pronoun is doubled, as : 
 
 u^TiasSr ^u:i^^L£i^s=Fr^D3sirui^ smlQ^sjQsSl^jseur^ trees give 
 fruit according to their (own respective or several) kind. Ob- 
 serve that in the high language ^lo^ ^lb^ is contracted into 
 
 J^ole 2. When the plural ^/tlo is used as an honorific to a single 
 
 person, its preceding noun must be likewise in the honorific form, 
 thus; 
 
 .SIsuR-^il(XfieaL—uj^^ss)iu0^eSuu(Bjg^^g-y he has made known his 
 
 (own) righteousness. 
 
 It is also used instead of //f, by equals: ^uir^trui ^^'^l9^ld<sS 
 ssir *«ui/ruJ(5ite)(2)<«r, 8ir^ the man whom you sent, is in health. 
 
 Note 3. — The plural ^irmsir is used as a still gi-eater honorific by 
 an inferior to a superior, instead of ^ii<s&r, as :
 
 180 Syntax, 
 
 GajawT-Oo), O! Sir, yuu viusl save ( \jour ) hnnible serranl ac- 
 cording to tjonr n'ord. 
 
 Oliserve; that when a native uses, G^em-^ii) in such a connexion, 
 he does not mean properly must, but, / beseech t/ou., it is desirable. 
 
 Note 4. — ^itkot also is used sometimes as an honorific, when a supe- 
 rior writing to an inferior, wishes to avoid the blunt address of /, i. e., 
 fi(r«!r erri^^iu^'l6\csr &ir£ ^uKsufi^Q^-irp S:j^<^ the letter which you 
 wrote and sent has arrived ; or simply, your letter has come to hand. 
 
 Note 5.- — The indeclinable particles /^rrssr and ^irih, must not be 
 confounded with this pronoun. See § CX. 
 
 5. Of the indefiiiite demonstrative pronouns j^jth- 
 €sr and ^scr&sr, the former is not in common use. 
 The use of the latter will appear from the following- 
 instances : 
 
 K^^^LDsS^em ^m(eB)Qs!revT^ OT63r5(5*0^/flu-'/r^, / do not knon" 
 
 who that man is, 
 
 what things happened in ancient times. 
 
 In the same way is used, ^uul^uulLl^, as : 
 
 .^j^<sSa<sGeumrSLh, inform us what Instructions the Lord gave. 
 
 From these instances, it will be observed, that it 
 would be wrong" to use t^ie interrogative pronouns, 
 as in the Eng-iish. Some do say, ^i^^u^(s^l^^ ^Orr 
 
 ^^Q&treo^. -BQh^^n- (cT m goi Q lj a ^ & fEj&'bs(rS=Q<8'iLJ^ it Q it i^t 
 
 ^ ^i£:<sSi£^GsLessriBil ; but this is not elegant. The 
 interrogative can however be used, when the clos- 
 ing verb means, inquire, ask, &c. ; for instance : 
 
 ejv,i^^«z5n^/r ^Qiri}aijj]Q^,&r, ask ivko those men are '^ 
 
 L±[r<^3p^Qs^ (cTm'6^^ ^i—J5^Q^^i^ (5S'.<3'ir^p^sQ<sn&r.
 
 Pronouns. 181 
 
 Inquire what happened in ancient tunes, Szc, and 
 then the preceding clause suggests the question to 
 be put. 
 
 JS^ofe. — We meet ■\\'ith ^ea^ J5!raje3r(^ssr^ he is like a dog; but this 
 — O s-, in not the pronoun, but ^-isr^ar the particle of similarity, and 
 the personal termination. See § XII. 5, and § XX. 7- 
 
 
 LXXXL 
 
 1 . The interrogatives, craveor, lurrajdr^ <^^^, ^: 
 
 &c., are used the same as in onr languages, thus : 
 
 £rfflj(?(2)7z_G'u^(g)sr, tvitli whom did she speak ? 
 
 ^jauftjr toTa;@«»i— uj^/nu^FSBTj rvkose husband, (is) this nian? 
 
 sr^flstrseu^^iT'o-ar^ what did he come Jar '? 
 
 tiT^p&^^.ss>irii3ei:rQ LcQeo M»<sSn-^ what horse iviil yvu mount? 
 ^vxenp-dii^ ^■Tli—^jjj^;i^uGufniJ.ff=£'iTUi3Q»eiSfT^ with whom will yoit 
 
 go to-day and dine ? 
 
 craisSl!—^^eSQ^^^3U(r^3(n)iu, from what place do you come ? 
 
 M Oiuuui^uud-!—^rr&SiLi^ss>^sOsiT(El^^.TULi, what kind of grain 
 
 did you give ? 
 
 2. In point of position, jl/jsusst, er^^, <Er^ &c., 
 in the nominative case only, are often placed at the 
 end of the sentence, in which case the substantive 
 verb to he is omitted in Tamil, thus : 
 
 ^auoBT STeuecir (or tuiTeiie^,) who (is) hc? 
 
 Sifi^tltu<5isbT^keo^sO'S!reasr^&i^seijO'SBTQj^ (or ujiTOi^^ who has 
 brought this rnoney ? lit : who (is) he that brought, &:c. 
 
 §^0^^, what (is) this ? 
 
 Sometimes however the dative of the neuter 
 interrogative <sr^/@, er<^m^^e(^ is used in the 
 same manner, as : 
 
 ^0fi6kesr^^£;(^^ what for (is) this? 
 mS>{Q^fip\^.) what for (is) that?
 
 182 Syntax. 
 
 3. The gender and number must be well observ- 
 ed in every instance ; though the common people 
 usually say : 
 
 ^Q,(6B)T^ ivho (is) that man? 
 ^,3bsirfrir, who (in) that tvoman? 
 
 Instead of c5y<ajir/7/f, or j^eueanuirsijear jfjtsn&r (srsu&r, &C., 
 
 Thus they also say : 
 
 ^suea!T£S(sasrL—fi!T^^ who has seen him ? 
 for c^aisffl(r^aswri_fflj(5»ruj/rau<«ir ; or <a<5RrL_fflj/ruj/r.f. 
 
 4. The interrogative particle cp, connects the in- 
 terrogative pronoun, erajeor, ctsistt, ?r^, with a follow- 
 ing demonstrative pronoun, and thus forms the 
 compound pronoun whoever, whatever, thus : 
 
 e<stra^Os=iLQpajn'S(Sr Greuirs:QeiTrr ^euirsar ^»irLxiiTiT<ssir^ whoever 
 
 steal, they (are) wicked people. 
 
 whoever believetk in him, shall not- perish. 
 
 ^^ Qs,TLLes)L-.OjFe0£i2J'SO£n'ie^9ieij(^£/DaviT£O3neuiT,sQeirir ^sjns 
 (^=f@ ^^^eu^' ir<£i<n £=^\o ^rrei^LaiT^a^Qsfr&siSLJu'Slix, whoever 
 shall fetch 100 kotas of rice, to them will 5 pagodas be given, 
 as a present. 
 
 6u»ir, Whoever is in trouble, let him call upon me. 
 
 the same measure that thou measurcst with, it shall be measur- 
 ed unto thee. 
 
 jB[r^Gu[rQfi> ^i—OmijG&Qturr ^iejGs ^iLjileu TGeuessrQLh^ where- 
 
 ever I go, there thou must come also. 
 
 Note. — Some separate the ^ from the interrogative pronoun, thus : 
 
 eriijGsGu!r£:GpQ(S) «^'b(?« jsu^i-a sua QevexrfBu^ ; but this is not only 
 inelegant, but evidently confusing ideas; because the following de- 
 monstrative pronouns do not correspond to the immediately preceding
 
 Pronouns. 183 
 
 question, @(i5«9c«j(?<u/r ^jg'oCsu — QurrQQpC(^ ^&Qs, are dissimilar 
 to each other. 
 
 5. The particle a.Lo, forms the interrogative pro- 
 nouns ^rffijesT, and ajfrajeoTj into distributive pronouns, 
 every one, all, as : 
 
 ereu^il a/JeijTLD, every one may come. 
 
 uj!rsijQ^iiQ'B(ri^Si'i,(^uQLj!r<sQ&jisssr®Lh, every one (or all) must 
 
 go to church. 
 
 sreS^ajeurrS(Sr iLir&j(^e<^Ui iSi^sms'OsrrQ.sseoml, we men/ give alms 
 
 to any poor man. 
 
 ^0(L:Ei(^^^iiL.'eOfri}>,you may rove about any where, or evo'y where. 
 
 6. Thus also the addition of ^9^tl, or .^^jjUld, 
 chang-es the interro2;^ative into the indefinite pro- 
 nouns, any one, at least one, zchoever, as : 
 
 crsL;(2)9 saiLD(?u^<s(?a/swrfpLc, 07ie or the other must go. 
 
 ekr(Bii, whoever wishes (^or if any one wishes J to attain hea^ 
 
 venly bliss, must know God. 
 
 Note 1. — The difference between b-lo and .^Qs^im is that s-ld fixes 
 the meaning on every one and all ; whereas ^@s^i-d takes one out of 
 the number. Thus sreu^ihQurrsQcue&r'ViLh^ means, all without ex- 
 ception, must go ; but ^ffij(eB)Sj)j/ii)C'un-<sCfflJsmr®ii3, means, at lenst one 
 of them must go ; all need not go. It is then equivalent to 5 0aj(2) S^ld, 
 
 Note 2. — ^/Sja/ii, or ^©jiJ/lc, in its contracted form of the subjunc- 
 tive mode, is often detached from the intenogative noun, and postfixed 
 to the verbal participle ; the meaning remains the same, as : 
 
 crfflJ65rfflj^^/rjj);|CT<F^(?^fra^^«o^u0u^aj/r«3^, whoever comes shall 
 
 receive a present. 
 
 eruQufT^QsiLu-irejuiiOsirQuuirn-, he gives whenever Cone J asks; 
 
 or whenever he is asked. 
 
 7. The interroo'ative noun er&h-^, what ? why ? 
 may stand either before the finite verb, or after the 
 neuter verbal noun, as : 
 
 ^suff (sr65r6jnQ<Ffr«'3r^T^ what did he saij ? 
 
 cSyaj/f 0<Firsi^mQ^«!iesr^ what was it that he said?
 
 184 Syntax. 
 
 When it is decliiiec^, it may stand wherever the 
 force of the sense requires it, thus : 
 
 (ff!-skeffr^^£;<s!rs @ot J'iO^/rO^^/r/r, Jhr what purpose (ox why) 
 
 did he give tkii- ? 
 
 ^euir eriirew^.§^Q&)ii3^fi'2esrQ£[ruiiiiriiSl^^s:iriT, on what accoimi 
 
 was he so angri/ ? 
 
 ^ iiS'lui^'B'Os'iufiOfi^&r^ why hast thou done so? 
 
 8. The interrogative particle cT-eor, is not much 
 used in common language ; the vuloar have chang- 
 ed it into fisreor, or Qiu&sr^ and this they use not only 
 like, <srsw6or, or <sr6Dr6Br^^(63)G*(a), but also as an em- 
 phatic particle of entreatino;-, ^Qs^n-^G&o^, P^^^.V, sf'}J 
 on ! Sometimes they add it also to the future 3d 
 person masculine, as Q<3=n6i)surrGm-drGuireunG&iidT^ &c.; 
 and thus used with any person, as : 
 
 ^ u3uui^,ff:0<Ptrid&j!TGsi!!-sh- why do you say so ? 
 
 jSfTLD .:Sijuui^uQuireiJ(rQe!iresr^ trhy shall we go that way ? 
 
 But this is not classical, and ought not to be 
 imitated. You should say instead, (crmsGr^^^^Gso 
 
 ^uui^S'Q<3'neb^Q(rff>dj, or, ^LUUui^<ff=Qffn&jei>Gei}essr(BsiJ 
 Q^eoracr, &C. 
 
 § LXXXII. 
 
 1. The particle LJi^L, of!, according to, is affixed to 
 any relative participle, or to any noun in the gene- 
 ral oblique case, in ^esr, thus : 
 
 ^SUIT'S iLL—^e(rttSd.i—ui^O<FiLjQ&jei!r^ I shall do as he has commanded. 
 
 Q ^ejajs=eari^iKfruia-fi:—L.iSas;&TiTS^ may you walk according to the 
 
 ivord of God.
 
 Particles. 1 85 
 
 2. uL^, means manner^ 77} easure ; and when used 
 in the obbtive case, ui^utreo, or uu^u^^io^ becomes 
 the particle, because, on account of, by reason of, as, 
 since, and is used only with the present and past 
 relative participles, as : 
 
 ^ ^uui^<FQs=iLj^ut^uj[Tp s^tSl^cSuuLLc-n-iu, because thou ha.st 
 
 done this, thou hast been cursed. 
 
 cSya/sw" ^MQiiLs^essrLnrresrest&j'S'!etrjsi—uiSl£SfiUi^iLirTei), <^ssr Qps ^^ 
 £i^(ipe3ruirs6uirish.L-iT^, he must not come into mxf presence, 
 
 because he practices indecent things. 
 
 ^({^<su^&>&)es>LCiiLje!reireun' jsu^Qfieat—U-iumjQeSQ^sQjsui^tutTed jBiril uiu 
 uLji—QeuexT'Ssu^eOteo, we need not four, as the Almighty is 
 
 with us. 
 
 3. When it is used in the dative case, lju^s;^, or 
 in the adverbial form uL^iuiriu, lji^iustb^ it denotes 
 purpose, end, effect ; and must be rendered by that, 
 so that, to the end that, in order to. It is then na- 
 turally used with the relative participle of the future 
 tense, as : 
 
 i^&OsirearQ LjpuuiLL-[rear^ in order to overcome the gods, 
 Ravanen collected a large host and tvent forth. 
 
 uGutr^n-serr, many people rvent to Kdsi (Benares) to bathe 
 
 in the Ganges. 
 
 In this sense, uu^ also is simply used — ul^s^ is, 
 on the other hand, added also like uu^, to nouns in 
 the oblique case, meaning- the same, as : 
 
 iBSyai(T5ai)i_uj eus^earJj^^ui^sc^ or "| we did according to his 
 
 ^suQ^sai—iu e}j<F«rL!.i_;if.i@,pQ,fi=uj(?^fl-Lc, f word. 
 
 § LXXXIII. 
 
 The particle <©■ is used in the follownig instances. 
 
 z
 
 186 Syntax, 
 
 1 . To give emphasis to any word, which is call- 
 ed G^fpi^ ; i. e., certainty, it means then certain- 
 /y, doubtless, as : 
 
 jspu&)au0£,Qs^flQ ^Ljsifi, praise is doubtless (indeed) due fo 
 
 good poets, 
 
 ^mS(Sr s'rrajQfuSeO^eo, you shall certainly not die. 
 
 2. As a conjunctive conjunction, like e.tx), when 
 it is added to several nouns in succession, as : 
 
 ^e))Qus, ^Gir, fsQvu, eun^Quj^ ^^ti3^e5srL-ir\tSiem-^ earth, water, 
 Jire, and wind, got into existence at the beginning. 
 
 3. As a disjunctive conjunction, which is called 
 LSlffi^^^ ; it may then be rendered by, none other ^ 
 but, only, as : 
 
 §iirir£=Qear Osrr(B^^ir^, none other but the king gave. 
 
 ^^^^^eSsrSJ^Qs'^eaiuGiijOiu^^^'iOsirar, take none other, but 
 
 this piece of cloth. 
 
 4. As an inter ro2:ative particle, in which sense 
 it is however not commonly used, as : 
 
 ^QujuSesi^^^^^fTiu, was it you who gave this ? 
 
 ^/SGeuiiSuui^-'i^Os'iuQ/Bjjp, is this doing knowledge ? \. e., did you 
 
 do this with understanding? 
 
 5. As an euphonic particle, called ^ar«= ^es)fi^ as : 
 
 ^tlu uj!T^0!ritSl^ta(rn'i3pu!nufiO^n'isSs^(e^, the arrow flew and 
 
 lodged in the Elephant's breast. 
 
 In this way it is commonly added to any words 
 without any particular meaning-, as: ui^i^^Qeo, 
 uL^Qiu &c. It is however better to avoid it. 
 
 6. It is the siofn of the vocative case, as : 
 
 j^esarGuj / gentleman ! 
 ^suuGsor ! O father !
 
 Particles. 1 87 
 
 7. It is a particle of exclamation, at the begin- 
 ning of a sentence, chiefly in poetry, and then it is 
 often doubled, as : 
 
 <trQiL.'u3eijOsinr(^^^Gui9-, Oh ! Oh ! this woman alone is an idiot. 
 
 § LXXXIV. 
 
 The interrogative particle fp, has eight applica- 
 tions, and is annexed to the word to which it re- 
 fers, viz. 
 
 1. It simply interrogates, (e9(^), as : 
 
 ^ajQ^ojeieoek^ is he the strong person ? 
 
 ^ojsweufaeoG^, is he jmwerful? 
 
 La^ei!)!rs:(^uG:-iirS(^Q^, does he go to Madura ? 
 LDj§j6iorrsG'£irGurrS(2)eer^ does he go to Madura ? meaning, not to 
 
 another place. 
 
 er^eSi—^0Geiirr^iU6iJiriJiS(T^ilu(rdr^ will he be kind to me? or, to 
 
 another ? 
 
 If there be a question about several subjects, each 
 of the nouns receives «p, and an interrogative pro- 
 noun usually follows, as : 
 
 0«n-^;f (?®<F^^if(?(g)OTaj'icrgu^^/r6B7-^ whocame^ Kotlen, or Saten ? 
 
 C_fi5r t_iTeuLhLaevre!ffi£SLJLJil.i Q ^ ear jyj,s U- 1 ?aruji®»'^(?^/r ©_SBr (_/®a; 
 
 GS)seauj0iLj(B^sj&0sfri3Ssr'SGu!r0&j'^^ siLL-%3tnL3(B£pGfi!r ^^ 
 arsrfl^, which is easier to say (or command), thy sins are for- 
 given thee, or take up thy bed and walk ? 
 
 u^^G<Ffies)iL-'GiLjrr Geu^enirGiuT (sr^^sG'SirLLenL^eaujULSi^^^irif 
 ^eF, whicli fort did they take, Puduchery or Vcllore ? 
 
 Sometimes the concluding interrogative pro- 
 noun is also omitted, as : 
 
 ^!BjG'SaS(^lQfiLD!rijselT ^&} ixi ir Q latr mn- isi n G LCtr , are those trees 
 
 Banian or Mangoe trees ? 
 
 Note. — Europeans are apt to put the interrogating pronoun in Tamil 
 at the beginning, as in English, e.g. ^iT^iijG<Bei:(;^&(^ek ^fTfi)jr>G(^ 
 QairfpGf^, hut thib is improper.
 
 188 Syntax. 
 
 2. It negatives [tr^iTLnst^p), as: 
 
 jsfr^siJ^QfiQ(^, I did not come, lit : did J come ? 
 
 Ljsssremfiiu^Os^tu^fTQ^, he did not perform acts of charity, Ht : 
 
 has he jyerformed acts qf charity ? 
 
 ^:i@LiQuir^ek^ he did not go to heaven by constructing choul- 
 tries, temples and tanks. Qs^liQ^ir is here iox Os^iup^^Q&ar. 
 
 3. As an exceptive particle (l^/FI^^su), as: 
 
 uuffQ(QOs=iT^Qesre!r, I did not speak, viz., I in a company, sepa- 
 rating myself from the rest. 
 
 This however differs very little form the last 
 mentioned subject, er^/rLosg)^. 
 
 4. As a particle of doubt (^ulo,) when the ques- 
 tion is between several subjects. It may then be 
 rendered by whether, and, or, as : 
 
 cSy^.^eOLoirGLD/TLorrui J(?Lar, (I don't know) whether it is a Ba- 
 nian or a Mangoe tree. 
 
 Observe that this is not a question, as in Sect. 1 ., 
 though the form is the same. For instance, A asks 
 B, ■n^:0 ^eCL€>3-QLon- LDfTLQirCoLnir. Is that a banian or 
 a mangoe tree ? Here it is a proper question. B 
 doubts about it, and says, .^^ ^eou^irCou^iT Lon-LcarGuhfr 
 Q^ifliutr^, I do not know ivhether it is a banian or 
 a mangoe tree. But though the question and answer 
 appear the same on paper, yet there is a wide differ- 
 ence in the manner of speaking them. 
 
 5. As an interjection both of wonder and pity^ 
 
 (Pffjoi-/,) as: 
 
 ^spOLJ(fluj<53r^ Oh ! Oh ! jvhat a great man ! 
 (Sf-^Q^iri^iuesT, Oh ! Oh ! what a cruel man !
 
 Particles. 189 
 
 6. It rejects that which is expressed and means 
 another («^l£!u563)5=,) as : 
 
 QwlBoOs='LituQetJ!rQuf(S(sli, you do (not) go to work (but to play.) 
 
 7. fp, is used at the end of a sentence to express 
 regret at something that is gone or lost ; hence it is 
 called si^ev- Foi' instance, suppose a person travels 
 alone, and is killed on the road. A messenger in- 
 forms me of it, saying, ^^^eoT&^eannQei) QssadsoQ&uj 
 ujuuilL^irdr^ fJie has been killed by robbers. J To 
 this I i^eply, js!r£iiQun-sh.i— Lj Quit (^Q eon- ^ meaning 
 
 j5iT^(DLj^<ffh-t— u Quits (T^^imQeo Q<sF^psT<D^. <^^ means 
 here therefore as much as ^LljuL^tusT(^QLntT ? viz., if 
 four 7nen had gone along with him, would it be so ? 
 or it means jj^i^eoCoQjiTS&siLpiliuir^, zvould he not have 
 lived if four men had gone along with him ? 
 
 A master gives orders to all his servants to come 
 at an appointed time. One of them does not come, 
 and is lined 3 rupees. This he relates to me the 
 next day, saying, <cT&u:>^sis!(aisn-&<ST(srm(5s?iL^^^.<so^m^ 
 pf^uiruj ^uiTn-^LD'BjfriijQ.^irs(^ , To this I reply, ^Qjsp 
 ^isup^irQeOfT, meaning^ Qj5n:jj)]i^iTiTir^^i^Q60 uestsrLa 
 Gunu^n)^}!^ or ^Qj5f^'Sii^p!TiUiTim)p^ lj (SssTLnQ ui tr & ir ^, 
 
 A person ruins himself hy not seeking his real 
 good . Another tells me of it, saying, ^®}m ^j^i^eoiu 
 
 u^sssTn-Tru:,fQ&LLu.n(^, he perished, not having known 
 fhisj real good. To this I say, § § ^L£i&GeiT(Tr)^^iq<sssr 
 
 irnGatr, meaning ^lc^-sG <s n- (^^kj^j hj,iLiGG6r m- p ^ n- j- n- ^sv&^^ ^ 
 
 "^05)/_rfS(^(?LCi ^t3SSnT TT ^ pi (6G\G eO &-^ PiG LJIT u9 ^S^^ . 
 
 Thus als^o <so j5^<£ieG''^/5&)e^P(<^Q<g=Lu^ IT Gedn^ meaning, 
 
 if he did virtuous deeds without evil, zvould he not live f 
 
 8. It is a mere expletive, without any meaning 
 
 '^&y)fffiSso, as : fp. fp SLffiJLDsor. reconciliation.
 
 J 90 Syntax. 
 
 J^ote. — The particle, f?, has, by several foreign writers, been used to 
 express the English particle but. For this, however, I find no authority, 
 nor do the natives so use it, unless «?, in any of the preceding instances, 
 may in some way or other be brought to mean but. Thus it is said : 
 
 €1)361), a/l these persons did charity ; but Kotten, or only Kotten 
 did not. Here the English requires but, or some such particle ; 
 but because of the repetition of the verb it is not necessary in 
 Tamil. The Tamulian saj's : '§^sun-sO(srr<si)eorrQ^ ^(T^LB(i^Qs=tu 
 
 Note. — Concerning another peculiar use of ep, see § LXXXI. 4. 
 
 § LXXXV. 
 
 The particle ^, is likewise used as an interroga- 
 tion and as an interjection ; 
 
 1 . As an interrogation, it is added like §, to the 
 word, about which the question is made, as : 
 
 oj^^murr, hast thou come ? 
 
 ^uui^iuiTOs=uj^tr\u^ hast thou done so? (or otherwise.) 
 
 Note. — 1^, is more frequently used as a imple interrogation than ^, 
 because it is less ambiguous. 
 
 2. As an interjection it stands like ^ before the 
 vocative case, as : ^STSumB^ O swamy ! 
 
 §LXXXVI. 
 
 The particle slld^ has likewise various applica- 
 tions ; 
 
 1. It is a proper conjunctivae conjunction, like 
 and, in which sense every word to be connected, or 
 numbered up, as it were, must receive e-tL ; it can 
 therefore never be united to one word only in this 
 sense. With the exception of the genitive and 
 vocative cases, the relative participle and the iinitp
 
 Particles. 191 
 
 verb, all other words may be thus connected by 
 e_LXJ ; as has been sufficiently shown in the preced- 
 ing-pages : see § XLIII, 7. 8. § XLVIII. 4. 
 
 However, thoug-h it is usually necessary and 
 eleg-ant to add this conjunction to all the nouns 
 that are to be connected, it may be omitted in all 
 but the last ; and then the preceding- nouns must 
 be in the nominative ; whatever case the last noun 
 may have, thus : 
 
 «gyL_(5 ueonei i_//r@ urreSssQpQpmrL—ir^, he eat leaves^ meat, milk 
 
 and .sugar. 
 
 ^Q, C^S/tlIl-ie/, (^siriEJ, ^^esifrsletriLjtl ^i^^^tr^^i he destroyed 
 
 the house, garden., tank and horses ; instead of, eS'ileai—iLj^ 
 
 2. It is used sing-ly in the following instances ; 
 i. To point out a negative, called er^^u^&Dp, when 
 it means even, as : 
 
 ^aj«Bra;0^ja;^^^, ^ven his coviing is an evil implying that tis 
 not coining is an evil. See § LVI. 8. and § LVII. 2. about 
 
 e-ti) added to the second verbal participle. 
 
 ii. To point out something understood, called 
 vrk'ffili, as : 
 
 g)irfl-LD^LQsu^^(r«w-, Ramen also has come ; implying that others 
 
 not mentioned, had come before him. 
 
 iii. To point out completion^ entireness, fullness, 
 called Qppjptj^, as : 
 
 «u5Lp^frLl®^(?aj^^(!5LQaj^^n-fT«(wr, (all) the three kings of the 
 Tamil country came ; implying that there were no more than 
 
 three kings. 
 
 *6Mr«8sflxrcwr®<^flaj^^«w, both eyes were red., implying that a 
 
 man has but two eyes. 
 
 gireoil^^jpiihsessTL^irm^, he has seen the three times; viz., the 
 
 past, the present, aud the future. There are no more times than 
 
 these three.
 
 192 Syntax. 
 
 If a-L£i be omitted in these sentences, it will mean 
 that there were more than three kings in existence ; 
 that there are more than two eyes, and three times. 
 Thus also, if a person possesses no more than two 
 cows, we must say ^ir(ak©LJcs®)Qj(L/a) or u-m ^jjcot- 
 6®z_iL/roQs/reOTr®Qjr, bring both thecozvs. But if he has 
 more than two, then we must say, ^o-ismQus^siDeus 
 Q&aessr^suir, omitting a./ij ; which implies that he 
 has more than tivo. 
 
 Again : 
 
 <S(^0S5^,ffi@/E/(?=E,Ti9.si)?6iJ, also in former times, hair was not in 
 the hollow of the hand ; nor had the hare a proboscis, tior the 
 tortoise hair ; also this ass has no proboscis. Here, if e_Lo be 
 not added to (ip^Lj, nor to ^««(jc6»^J@, the meaning Avill be 
 tbat tliougb there were no such things in existence formerly, yet 
 they are noAV ; though this ass has no proboscis, yet others have. 
 
 Under this head may be noticed all interrogative 
 words which by the addition of a-tx^, cease to be 
 interrogatives and become as it were complete, or 
 entire in sense, as : 
 
 era/ ear, who ? crau^Lo, every otie, all. 
 
 "-"^^®^S ^ho ? ujn-aj(5LD, o//, without exception. 
 
 eruuir^^ how ? CTLJUi^i^ii, howsoever. 
 
 eT&jsueira^, how much? oto/suot-q/u), how much,OT how little soever. 
 
 6Til:Ouir(T^^, when? <zruOun-Qp^'l, always. 
 
 crc/g or ctejG'^, where? ct/b.-^Ji, everywhere. 
 
 sr&sir<sOLL, what time? er&streOQpth^ at all times, Sec. 
 
 iv. To point out an extraordinary circumstance 
 called 9pui^, as : 
 
 ^^@;Dsu(3iiiLB(3(6»;/H(5eBrffjLD, this is a mountain of which even its 
 own inhabitants are afraid; implying that it must therefore be 
 
 a very bad place to reside in. 
 
 V. To make the comparative degree by being
 
 Particles. 193 
 
 added to the 5th case, in this sense it is called =^/<^ 
 *Lo, and must be rendered by than, more than, as : 
 
 LjeSii3M>^iEjOs[ri^uji^, (he is) more cruel than a tiger. 
 & i—eSi ^ lqQ u S ^'^ (this is) greater than the sea. 
 
 vi. To point out assurance, certainty, as : 
 
 ^^/sdr^Lceis^)^ this is certain! ij not a good thing. 
 ^^$^Ln<£Oeo^ this is certainltj not a bad thing. 
 
 Observe, that if these two sentences be united 
 thus : 
 
 ^^i^&irjriiLBvi&)^0^u:iei>0), tlie meaning is, this is neither good 
 
 nor bad. 
 
 § LXXXVII. 
 
 The particles srsor^ and a^rcsr are used, 
 
 1. As indicative conjunctions ; like that, as : 
 
 ^eu^^2eojSp-JirOisreh-^srre^i3^ shotv that he 7vill stand Jjrm. 
 For furtlier particulars, see § LXIV. 1. 
 
 2. As particles of similarity, when they may be 
 rendered by as, like, thus : 
 
 ^a-'fiBT ^sjisstiT ^ ^>zi-,uO<ssr&!r ^seanliU€xresS(^s'<!r^ he honored him 
 
 as his father. 
 
 eas'Qiuesr^^SlQajeO^ do not rove about like a sheep. 
 
 3. As numbering- conjunctions like and, as : 
 
 *a)0«osar^ Qfi^rOsir^^ Os'i^Qiu^ jpiQs-nrisrtQ)^^ lie said^ stone., 
 
 thorn and shrub. 
 
 ^esrQpojT ^iTaixrOL-stiT ^ivQpesr GTe&resii(^eiir^ he counted one, two 
 
 and three. 
 
 Xotc. — e-iii may also be added to eaoli. 
 
 A 2
 
 19-4 Syntax. 
 
 4. crew is used as an infinitive, of the verb srmQ 
 p^, as : 
 
 eS!L0ir^uu(E!3U^ ^emjDiLjir^ Oorni/oor is tliat which is called a 
 town ; i. e., that has every thing belonging to a town, and there- 
 fore worthy to be called a town. 
 
 With er^^, the verb 0&(r&}6i), must be added, as : 
 
 5. As an adverb, 
 
 he rose on a sudden. 
 ereWiSi^LJuSOirevr^ @(5^^^, 1 1. e., srewst^L^i^^^ 
 
 Avhich may be rendered, it ivas tearing my bowels; or, mi/ 
 
 bowels yearned. 
 
 Ul—UL—Oajssr^Qajiet)0^iu; i.e., ^emt-eS i—iTLn&i or ^^QiJLamu 
 Gaj2si;0^uj, do the work without intermission, quickly. 
 
 6. In certain cases it means callings or giving a 
 sound, as : 
 
 *i_C)ajsar (*L.0aje5r^) ^^g)<o3r, he ran, calling out koo. 
 
 «a?(8 Loi_Lez_Offljs3r^«S(T^^^^(^ t]ie. house fell vnth a crackling 
 soimd ; i. e., it fell, saying as it were, viada, mada. 
 
 Note. — The native Grammars state 8 modes, by Avbicli nouns may 
 follow each other in succession ; viz., by putting them A^ ithout iuiy 
 conjunction at all ; and by adding to each noun either e_ti, sr, sreer^, 
 eresr, srvsr^rr,^ <^&, or |^®, — all which mean and. 
 
 The total number of the nouns, with e-lq, must be added after the 
 last noun, when they are put together wthout any conjunction at all, 
 or when sr, sr«ar(2j, or ei© has been added to each, as : 
 
 s=rr^^ei:Qs:irfi)jDioiS0su(t^Lhai^^!rn-<3iaT, both Sdten and Kotten came. 
 
 JtiT^^Q*arQ,£iTfi/r>Q<iinSljT£irs=GsKQfaj(^ileu^^rra'S<slr, Sdten,Kotten, 
 
 and Prakasen came. 
 
 ^ QiLi^CTf) ^6LO«]r«a7(2j ^rjsu^LQ GuTe^t'^eir, both you and he 
 
 shall go.
 
 Particles. J 95 
 
 ^, T O ear 6ur (TT) ^OiUi^C^ ^SiiOe!}rear(ny Qpeu(i^ileufiQ ^(Tii, I, t JlOK, iini 
 
 he came. 
 
 A<Taiii 2-Lo, sTssr^ and otsst, may be foUoAved by the total number 
 after the hist noun, or not, as : 
 
 ^edQpil ^(^ihjsiieo or ^.eOQfi^CS l3 !^ eSsr® •! p ^ eO , earth and ivaier 
 
 arc good things. 
 
 the persons called Sdten and Koltcn have not come. 
 ^euOinssr ^Orresr Geuexr^di, both earth and water are necessary. 
 
 Again, OTisar^, and OTsar may be added only to the last noun, vith 
 the addition of the total number, Avith or without the demonstrative 
 letter ^, or ^/f#, as : 
 
 jTawriji-^/aG'aif-iaJasy, tliere is nothing worse than evil actions 
 
 and hatred. 
 
 The total may also be omitted, and a noun common to all the pre- 
 cedmg nomis substituted Avith the demonstrative pronoun, thus : 
 
 QS26sru6»aOiuwr^^^°eiOLQi6<fijgp;^^B9)LoiLS«b86i;, there is no greater 
 
 evil than wicked actions and hatred. 
 
 (Ftrss^ O-sappQesr&ir ^ihin&sHfi^sSr LJit5(fliLz_frr<5s»-, Sdten and 
 
 Kotten tilled the ground. 
 
 Again when sr^^.^i^i is added to every noun s-lo may be added to 
 it, as : 
 
 there was a man called Kotten and Saten. 
 
 Note. — Observe that only e_Lo, erewjru and ep are used as conjunctions 
 in common language. 
 
 § LXXXVIII. 
 
 ^gorssTLD and ^«or^L£), sfin, still longer, yet, until 
 now, are used,
 
 196 Syntax. 
 
 1. With reference to the future time, meaning' 
 
 ^m.Gu^e^Ln, as : 
 
 ^aj«wfflj(5taU9-Q<Fn'«wC«ars3r lauiTeSioi^ ^^arsoTLiiUrTrrilQu&r^ I told 
 him to come; hut he did not come ; — / shall still wait. 
 
 2. With reference to the present time, meaning 
 
 ^^(su33)ir<i(^La, as : 
 
 ^ su esr &i(r^iluL^Os= IT ekG ear &!r ^mr ^u^eu !TeSeO^, I told lihn tocowe; 
 
 hut he has not yet come. 
 
 Observe that this word cannot, like yet, be used 
 with reference to the past time. For instance it 
 
 would be wrono' to say ^eum ^n^mm ^\L^pp^<^^ 
 he beat him still (or yet) more ; here i^m^u^ must 
 be used. 
 
 § LXXXIX. 
 
 The particles (Lpsor, (lp^L-J, (ip^e^lr, or Opdrmu^, 
 before, in the presence of, S&sr, lS^tl-j, Sdrear^, f^ft^r, 
 behind, ^^, under, below, and Gis^<so, above are used, 
 
 1 . W^ith the dative case, in regard to place ; 
 when the thinio-s spoken of are still at some dis- 
 tance from each other, thus : 
 
 ^Lo^@(ipi'3Tuy Ln2ei}serrG^rrssr^esr^ jnoitnfains appeared before vs / 
 
 or, tve got mountains in sight 
 
 eSiL(Sls.^uiSleki^ ^uesm^BQ ^(j^ssi^eSsr®, there are two streets 
 
 behind the house. 
 
 euiresr^^£;g,i.SCLp^LSu^mr®, beneath the sky is the earth. 
 
 jsilQf«oi—iu^^£(Qi{^GLc,Qei} (^((^(^aekupsQ^^eor, birds Jly over 
 
 our heads. 
 
 In this sense ^s is often added to them, as :
 
 Particles. 197 
 
 2. With the obhqiie case, when the things 
 spoken of are closer to each other, thus : 
 
 er^^eaii—uu (^ iLi^issr q^sst ^ssr jjis seijS(e<f,mr^^ there are three 
 
 doors in the front of my house. 
 
 ^^driSesr ^0sseijLair^^ cT QfeSsrGi, behind it there is but one door. 
 
 ^ au (i^w> I— ius.fr eS^SQifi Ojb iruLjGrrQfesir®^ he has blister-s under 
 
 his foot. 
 
 iE«)3n;^_^26UuiIe5rG'Lc<n) Gr/SJ^^d-jml-L-rrem-^ he threw sl07ies upon 
 the head; if" you say, ^'^£(^Gi-aGe^ <orfi!^^QLj(rtLi—!re^, it means 
 
 over the head. 
 
 Nouns ending" in ^, may have these particles 
 annexed in the nominative case, as : 
 
 ^aj63r(3psBr^ before him. 
 
 ^■fflj ew lil ear^ behind him. 
 
 ^eue^S^, beneath him, tinder him, 
 
 ^su'ssrQLa&>, upon him. 
 
 Also the before mentioned difference between 
 the use of the two cases with these particles is not 
 always strictly observed. 
 
 3. (Lpeor and lSoot are used also with respect to 
 time, mostly with the dative case, as : 
 
 •S^^^iSQP^ Gsw-, before that, previous to that. 
 
 ^p^£.'Srreos:,^pCSilii3^L^, after that time. 
 
 Greisr£:(^(Lp'cmei!rQLDtiSl(^^^tretfr, hc wns before me. 
 
 sa_earsi^uiSlmSfi)^Qfidr^ I )vas bom after ijou. ' 
 
 Note 1. — (T/)ssr may be added to the verbal noun of any tense in the 
 dative case, as ; 
 
 jsirmQusi-Qp^mi^QpdiQ^, before I spealc. 
 /B!rsmQu£l^iw^p(^QpemQ.sm-, before I snolce. 
 firremQus^eufip'^QpeerQesr, before I shall speak. 
 
 However the present verbal noun, or the common verbal noun is 
 used for any time, as : 
 
 Qusi-fip^ — J he came b(fore I spake.
 
 198 Si/nfax. 
 
 But lSow- natiu-ally requires always the verbal uoun of the past 
 tense, as : 
 
 fitri^QuiTstsr ppi^uS&iri^, (ijlcr I had gone. 
 
 Again (josSr may be ailcled to the relative participle of the future 
 tense, and i3^ to that of the past tense, as : 
 
 ^irear Os^fredet^Lhofio^QegrGuiT^iir^ he Went before I spake. 
 fiffik Cu/Tawii!-? L/.ffii-<s© ifsiS/— /—n-'sw, heviadea noise (ifter I had gone- 
 Note 2. — Qfi'sarQear has also been used Mith the verbal noun of the 
 
 negative verb, as : fiKow Os^treOeoir^fp^^Qj^esrQeisr^ before I spake j but 
 
 it is not elegant. 
 
 Note 3. — For L51«or, the common people use also iil^(^, {3putr(B; 
 which is likewise not classical. 
 
 4. Q^mQm^ GP'^^Wj a^it^ lSsot/-/, are also used ad- 
 verbially at the beginning- of a sentence, meaning 
 
 former l\)^ and afterwards, as: 
 
 QpiirQeisTiueii'ssr ^ed&>eii(^ii3Q^^fim^ iS!i>^ LjOsLLu^oj^^eir formerlu 
 (ox at first) he was a good man ; but afterwaras he became bad. 
 
 5. q^^, S&sr^ Qi^ and Clo^ are used also ad- 
 jectively, as: 
 
 Qppu&sui, the fronts or lite four part. 
 
 i3pLj£<£LL, the hinder part. 
 
 St-puus^di, the lower part. 
 
 Qu^pu&ALD^ the upper part. 
 
 6. i3^sr^il, Glo^hisi are used as conjunctions, 
 meaning' moreover, again, besides, as : 
 
 i^asT^oi (or Cld^ii),) ^euesr O^irdrfor^irsu^, again, (moreover) 
 
 he said thus. 
 
 7. (xpsor and lSIow^ are also used substantively, when 
 they are declined, as :
 
 Particles. , 199 
 
 Qpi!r^ssruQu!Tei)CjQij9(^&sT^ he spoke as bejore^ informer time. 
 Qpeir ^QecQ uiTt^'^, he went before. 
 
 iS^i: ^QeoGi-irr, go behind ! 
 
 N'ofe. — W1\en Q^ anrl Gtaed are used as substantives, s»m is affixed 
 to tliem; as Stpesna loAvliness, su])jection j GLDssrea>LD, excellence. 
 
 8. CoLQ^) is used also as a particle meaning iipoji, 
 concerning, with the oblique case, as : 
 
 &[^eSi&srQLDi^pL—fi^!T^, he walked on the sea. 
 eQ^jS^nQLBQeouiTL^^^sr^ he sang concerning the Lord., (or <s(r^^^ 
 
 Cenceming S^p and Gldso, see § XLVI. 5. 
 
 9. Cld&) is often used twice with s-m, as Qu^eor 
 Gi^^ili, which means, more and more, increasing- 
 ly, as: 
 
 Gu^sBrG/Jsja/Lo 5r;r5?©frds®r, they ascended more and more, or higher 
 
 and higher 
 
 § xc. 
 
 The particles LdtlO^o, <sue!DnuS&), (ajss)/r<s(^U), LJ^tu^^u^ 
 
 and ^&T(Sijtl>, all meaning nnfil, as, far as, are used 
 with the nominative case : 
 
 1 . is^iKBlL or LotlQii^m, refers principally to place 
 only, as : 
 
 ji]sij&iin-iBil-(B(liQuiTQsu(nl, we shall go as far as that village. 
 
 2, QJoO/roSa), (Susw/r/iS^LD oy isiJ6^a<s^i-D and uifliup^Ui 
 
 refer both to time and place, as : 
 
 jSfTiW'S&r Os=ein'?£m-ULLi^i^i}i(sue)S)Tii3^0s=earn}Qurrnri^, when ire had 
 
 come as far as Madras. 
 
 if-^^G^eir, I was frequently sick of fever until my twelfth 
 
 year of age.
 
 200 Syntax. 
 
 6r^'fflje».T<k(5!i) <bT ^%s!rsij(^^ ^lju®^ ^eS[T<seir^ lion) lov^ ii ill uoii 
 
 trouble me "^ 
 
 La^i5S!sruS(u^fiili^exirffaLDiuiruS(^^^iT^, he was faithful until death. 
 
 3. They are used also with the relative partici- 
 ples, but most frequently with that of the future 
 tense, as : 
 
 do thou not leave the baggage until thou contest to that village. 
 
 null be without Jiearenlij bliss until they repent. 
 
 eu^sn-fr the king performed charitif until his death. 
 
 £0<s/r«ff, take care of my household affairs until I return. 
 
 §XCI. 
 
 The particle ld^jj/, ofherzcise, with or without 
 fii-LD is used adverbially, thus : 
 
 Ln^pQjsssirBuJiasVatruQuSl^T, the spake besides jnany things. 
 utp^^.^ei^sssruiirssreun'^^esi^'S'Seir Otu(ip^.u'!l(i^sQnr)sw^ he has like- 
 wise written other blasphemous words. 
 
 is^pp^ is used adjectively like other, as : 
 
 they gave fsh, greens, and other thifigs. 
 
 Observe, that tnpp must be used when the preced- 
 ini^ nouns are put in the required case with 2.0), as 
 in the above instance, but when they are stated in 
 the nominative case without e-t^, then (tp^enireafmen 
 ^err must follow, as : 
 
 iSik £aoirnLp^«).7swu^/r.T^^E/aSe»riOdrff-®_^_^/r/r<ffi6r, thet/ gave fish. 
 
 greens, and other such things.
 
 Particles. 201 
 
 Observe farther the difference between ld/ /?? and 
 Qsusi ; the latter means other, with respect to kind 
 or distributively, but ld//d, with respect to the 
 whole number; wherefore if of ten persons, two go 
 to the east, but all the rest go southward, you must 
 use Lcff/D to siofnify the rest ; but if two of them ^'o to 
 the east, some others to the south, and again some 
 others to the west, Qsn^ or 9&)n- must be used. 
 
 § XCII. 
 
 The particle ^-oS or ^ssf/CcLDa) hereafter, hence- 
 forth, refers always to the future time; and must 
 therefore have the verb always in the future 
 tense, as : 
 
 ^sttP^Tfiar ^uutp-uQus=istfriLQt—ear^ / shall not hereafter speak 
 
 til us. 
 
 fSts&QtSieU ^^sfieSsri—'^sur^il, In future you will get greater 
 
 punishment, lit : 7nore punishmeiit will come. 
 
 § XCIII. 
 
 The commiserating particle ^(oiun- is used as, oh ! 
 alas ! thus : 
 
 ^Qujir OT//?6jr rSf^ixjfryum, alas! how much injustice! 
 
 ^QLuiT£=seo^(cS)^ij^LD^L^^^Gurr^'isr,alas! he has lost every thing. 
 
 ^Qiuir has been used to express also the English 
 woe ! and then affixed to the dative case, as ^^^(^ 
 ^Quir,x€oebetotheef But this is incorrect. It can 
 never be used as a noun ; in this sense Q^^^^esr, ^essr 
 i—^esr, or any other such word, must be added, a« : 
 
 f^GiuiT e_«w jigCa/ j?»!ra)j0LD, jvoe he to fhee, lit : alas ! there will 
 come distress to Ihce ! or alas ! thou shall be unhappi/ or 7ni- 
 
 serable. 
 
 b2
 
 202 Syntax. 
 
 § XCIV. 
 
 ,ffn.i_ together, is frequently added to the social 
 ablative, either in cpO or ^i-Qm^ as : 
 
 ^euQ(ej)Ci—sh-L-uGun-Gesrear^ I went along with him. 
 
 ersk ^ i_Qstn-si>.L-uui:^uGufi(T^ff,iB!(2}iTsar^ there are ten persons 
 
 with me ; i. e., united with me. 
 
 § xcv. 
 
 ^©Sj and ^ifi'i-i, except, are used either with the 
 nominative or accusative, as : 
 
 take all the cloths, except Cov but J these two. 
 
 £^v k p'^ O'Sn' pjD0'stsre9LjisLin''£0einrL^uj, iJip/r)ujrreu0!EiSLpuuLLt^(i^£ 
 S®fr«srr, all have submitted except Satteii and Kotten. 
 
 Note. — The word cei^uj Las also })een used for unless, and thus ad- 
 ded to the subjunctive mood, as : ^isis&r m^uu^iLjiL i3p^^rrOsofrtfiuj, 
 unless you be born again j hut it is not classical, and the negative verb, 
 with aSili—frci), ought to be substituted, as : ^m&(SrLD^ui^mln3peiitr 
 
 § XCVI. 
 
 <sTpS(^<s!^piu, about, more or less, is placed before 
 the number to which it refers, as : 
 
 ^ps(^emptju §7(^au0si^^^<E@L!/iil6jrLy, after about seven years. 
 
 ^p&(^is>p\Li ^[TeoiTuSis ihaj(t^e^s^Qeo Q^eri)^UL3p^firrr, Christ 
 
 was born in about the 4000th year. 
 
 <s!^eii)s^^<i<n ^0^fiirm^ Coustantine lived about 300 years 
 
 after Christ. 
 
 Q^&i>.^Lj[3pfifi^p(^<^ps(^QSipiu^(lg,^^iSiJ(^<Si^ms(eif,s^Qfies!Qesr 
 ^^frujrr^^as:sfiiif:iiSi(i^^^n'if, the prophet Isaiah lived about 
 
 700 years before Christ.
 
 Particles. 203 
 
 § XCVII. 
 
 ^P off] from, without, is used with the nomina- 
 tive case, as: 
 
 ^euTeerssirfiflQ^i^i^^e^, he cut off his ea)\ lit: he cut h'rm so 
 
 that the ear Jell off\ 
 
 erei!r^eai—UJS'^Qfi<s:LDpuGu0^if^ he spoke so us to remove my 
 
 doubt. 
 
 In common life the ignorant use ^p also in this 
 way, 
 
 sr&rear ^puui^^ ^stJig)suQus^S(rr)iu, what do you tall- as ove 
 
 that has learnt much ? 
 
 ^iuiuir ^p&0<s[r(Bes>u:iQ<s=ujs:[r^^ Sir, he has done much cruelty. 
 In wliich examples, =sy^ means i^(^^iuiriu. 
 
 § XCVIII. 
 
 (^5£), (^^^^, or@5^^^'^<ffi/r«RsrO, and <mpiB, round 
 about, surrou?iding, require the accusative case, as : 
 
 6ToT?6sr<^@Lp^^a//r(75/E/«sH- Ycwne around me! 
 6r63v?6)(r<F<s^^(su/r0iB<*sp", I 
 
 Note. — Sometimes si-p/Ss^jtl (the ablative witli 5_LQof«;5^) has 
 . been used for <«• p/fS, without necessity, and without authority, s^pjSgaiuk 
 means also around ; for instance, Gsn-LLeB)L^i5ls^s^^;Se)^u:sGurri]S(sir, go 
 also around the fort, (not only within). In this case &p^ is a noun. 
 
 § XCIX. 
 
 ■ffiOcs, and (Lp(Bs, cjuick/y, hastily, and QiM&iei^ 
 slowly, are used adverbially, thus : 
 
 ,ffi®<3;aj_5_^/r6sr^ he came hastihj ! 
 
 QP®si-'Qu!r^ssr^ he went quicklij. 
 OLOffieOfiL—^^irisr^ he walked slowly. 
 
 OuiedeO'FQs^tuuajek j5'isr(n)uj^Q£=tu6uiT^, he who works ^or does a 
 
 thing) gently, will do it welL
 
 204 Syntax. 
 
 §c. 
 
 icu^gj spo7ifaneous/i/, freely^ precedes a verb, as : 
 
 euaSuj^^ J^//r«5r, he gave of his own accord, spontaneously. 
 euei>\iUiljQu!r(^^^ he went oj himself . 
 
 This must not be confounded with susSiu, the ad- 
 jective meaning- strong', which is joined to nouns, 
 ai d does not require the following «, «=, ^, or u to 
 be doubled, as : 
 
 ajeSius=(^uuil^ the strong serpent. 
 
 §CI. 
 
 (^/B,^^, concerning, abont, ivith respect to, re- 
 quires the accusative, as : 
 
 ^^^s='Fims^eafije.(^i3^^ JSir^ er^earO^ireieoeorrtl, what shall 
 
 I say concerning this affair? 
 e_«" ?ajr<l (^S,s^Oii-i!TS'^esT'jekr^)jQeu^, I shall consider about you. 
 ^im^&r sjea^ssr&i^jSf^^ ^LpGeueixir(B6iJ^eo2tso, you need not weep 
 
 about me. 
 
 Note. — Cu/flffsD has been used instead of (35^/^, which is however 
 not Tamil ; it seems to have come from the Teloogoo. 
 
 §CII. 
 
 Conceniino' ^^eop-Laeb, and ^eveon-LD^^ see § LXIX,]! 
 3, 4, as for ^'o\)&oireSilL-iT^^ if not, unless, it is al- 
 ways added to the nominative, or used absolutely 
 v/ith reference to the preceding- verb, as : 
 
 uessria'Si>eO!reStl.i—(Tei snl'Ui^uiSfemLp'ZQuinh, how shall we live 
 
 unless we hitve money ? or without money ? 
 
 ss)fJ:Qs'-iu ^&i&)iTQSL-i—frei>^^6&nf-&<£ilu(Bltufruj, do this, or 
 
 you will be punished.
 
 Particles. 205 
 
 § cm. 
 
 1. The subjunctives ^^^^il, ^.ttSjjvLo, ^9jj5)/x), 
 meaning-, a/though if be, are used as disjunctive 
 conjunctions, at the commencement of a sentence, 
 meanino: but, a/fhouo^h, yet. But here the same 
 distinction must be observed which has been point- 
 ed out, § LVl. to be between the 2d and 4th sub- 
 jimctives ; for, as ^'^^i^, or ^9s^il, implies 
 merely supposition, it cannot be used when the 
 thina;- acttially exists, or has been already done ; in 
 which case j>,ui-jL^tiS(^^^Lh, nwif^t be used. ^Q^ui 
 &c. always require the tbllowing- verb to be in the 
 future tense, with a negative, either expressed or 
 understood, as : 
 
 n-'S&r, sintiers will go to hell ; ijd f/iet/ will not get good sense; 
 meaning, alfhoi/gh sinners go to hell, thcif tvill not improve. 
 
 Here Q'-Jiremraseir ^S^-l% is the same as Guir^jsgiLh. 
 
 'Seir, sinners will remain wicked though they should go to heaven. 
 
 But, 
 
 is^v3(^^^il, LDs<^^iTs<s!rLDssr^^(T^LjusSeo^^ the Lord has said, 
 that sinners shall go to hell; yd, they do not repent. 
 
 2. Again c^9e^LD^ or, ^^s^u^, is affixed to 
 nouns in succession, when it denotes either, or ; and 
 with a negative verb, neither, nor ; as : 
 
 neither the Icina nor the beggar will enter the heavenly kingdom, 
 unless they turn unto God. 
 
 Note. — In this sense srewSja/tii has been used instead of the last 
 ^ksm^', but upon no proper authority.
 
 206 Syntax. 
 
 3. Again ^9jj5jld, or ^©jj^tL may be added 
 only to one noun ; and then signifies at least, 
 even ; as : 
 
 ^eu^esrujrfQsiitlieuirJ^Os'rrQie)}]^ tell hm at least to come. 
 ^(3._j<5»T^sii)^ujr£j)2//HO<5n"®i«<£<'fi^i— ff^rr, cannot you give even 
 
 a fanam ? 
 Concerning its being af3&xed to words of interrogation, see 
 § LXXXl. 6. 
 
 §CIV. 
 
 The particles <sj^\j^ and ^m'^, signify the 
 same as ^Q^ls^, in the following instances. 
 
 1. When affixed to a single noun, they mean, 
 even, at least, as : 
 
 ^5®«iw6or sTiijsuerrQ'SU^LLLj^^ujstsii—ujLDrrLLL—iri^, Sarkwinen rvtll 
 not get sense in the least. Here <sreu3^mQimj^ih is the same as 
 
 CT Qj 6U aur 61) fr S j)S lS . 
 
 u^^uuessrQ iCi^ihQ'3i!r®, give at least ienfanams. 
 
 2. When added to two or more nouns, <ct^i1, 
 means eithe?% or ; and if the following verb be nega- 
 tive, neither, nor, as : 
 
 npesr<sS«!rpOLn\uaS<oiiQLaed .£>j s IT Q m ^ tl ^<S !tQ iB^ileuc^il, i. e., 
 
 ^saui or ^«5"Lo (^ or @) ?'.y put on the preceding consonant. 
 
 OutT'^Qew^L^ OeiJ&refflGtu^(^Os=LhQu^'mQ£fT(Sl^ give (me) 
 
 either gold, or silver, or copper. 
 
 give me neither rice, nor pulse, mij hunger will not he satisfied 
 (or unless you give me either rice or pulse.) 
 
 3. (ST^il, is also added, though rarely, to the 
 finite verb, when it means although, as : 
 
 Lysw/ryXTfT/f Lj^^QiLnrQi— jsi—fi^rrn-sQeir^^^'^'-iil^ihsir^, al- 
 though the people of Pureiyoor should walk wisely, persecution 
 
 will ?iot cease. 
 SijJSihs<s!r'S(t^J=Sjg^e!irQ3u^il ^ujiaQsQuirsGeuemSlil, you must 
 
 go thither, although the lions roar. 
 Note. — ^^Lc, is not much used in common life.
 
 Particles. 207 
 
 §CV. 
 
 Liiirp^iTil, ^jefTQ^, ptesr, and ^tem , are words de- 
 notino- measure ; and are used with the demon- 
 strative and interrogative pronominal prefixes, as : 
 
 ^LQLO/r^^JLD, ^'ffljajwrsi/, ^ss'^jgsr^ cSV^^'S®"'', 
 ^tii^ir^^Jii), ^ajeuetreii^ §al^^'^^^-, ^^^.Sen"', 
 <orl2iLQn's^s li) (zreusueireij^ srs^^eer^ sr^^&sar^ 
 
 They all mean that quantify, this quantity, what 
 quantity? or thus much, &c. They are used, 
 
 1. Substantively, as: 
 
 @^^O^a)j)i' (^iMLDirs^^jril, Jioiv much paddy is this? 
 
 ^uuemLa sr^jajsrreij, how much money is this? 
 
 ^'^u&mrixt sr^^^esT, how much vwiicy is this? 
 
 ^iMiiSeir^pprstrei^ ^ilLDirfi^n-G LD, thus viuch is the circumference 
 
 of the earth. 
 <&iQ^ei^il, GT^^^exr, how many years? 
 
 2. iVdjectively, thus : 
 
 ^Qjsusfreijueissr^isafi ^Os=e06iJL§s<seOirLC:ir, ought you to have spent 
 
 so much money ? 
 m^muh!T^^!T^siireSiLisies>^sOsir®^^ir&!r^ he gave ^o much grain. 
 er^^^esrjBn-iLiSiTujiTeissnl, hon> many days Journey ? 
 ^^^s(^t^ ^LDLDirs,^'jT LD ^LpLLiriiSQ^s&.'os- p^^ this ditch is sodeep. 
 ^fi^^^exrG:J=Q£=2so ^isjsu(srreij^<srrL£imS(i^sSlmP^, that piece of 
 
 cloth is so long. 
 
 3 . Again Lutr^^jTil^ is used as a particle of restric- 
 tion, meaning only, but, and is then affixed to 
 nouns in any case, thus : 
 
 j5irdrLnrrs^!Tileu^G^<sar^ J only have come. 
 ^esismfT ff ^ 1(^.0 jFfr&>ei}i^ say ihi,s only. 
 
 uJfn'Uir^S(^tMfr^^3'(^,s=Q^3ueueOe09aLaiLjisst>T(Sl, God only has Al- 
 mighty power. 
 
 4. Again u^rr^^irm, in the ablative of location, 
 added to participles, means as soon as, immediately y 
 at the instant, thus :
 
 208 Syntax. 
 
 LceiDLfiOuiLijSiiirr^^ir^^Qeo e^<sSl^^s:Os!risesrQL—iTUi^ jve hid our- 
 selves as soon as it began to rain. 
 
 uSsiri ^esfru-iTixirLDfr^^JT s'^Qe^) ^io-QfsLps<3^QfiQfieasri^rr(^ih^ the thun- 
 der follows immediately upon the lightning. 
 
 5. ^erre)^, and ^Skjt, with the conjunction a-trt, 
 added to each, are arfixed also to the future parti- 
 ciple, and mean loiti/, zvhiist, as : 
 
 ^aj0LOOTay(2 ^rj^'^jQuesr^ / shall wait till you come. 
 
 Q ^<Siik(!^<sia.j aj(3^^?6Bri4^0^iiI<i«Ca/SKiT®:2), we wtist pray, until 
 
 we obtain grace. 
 
 §CVI. 
 
 Lj^ii, and LjfTa), which mean apart, the side, are, 
 
 with the prefixes of the demonstrative pronominal 
 
 letters, used asadverhs, viz., ^L/Lj^rei) and ^ui-ipu^, 
 
 further on that side, ^i^uir^ and ^UL^pis>^ hither, 
 
 on this side, as : 
 
 ^uLi^(^Os=rreie0, say on ! or further. 
 
 ^uLiJsj^sunr^ come hither J 
 
 ^•l.'^irQecQuiT, go further ! 
 
 ^luiTQeossi^, put (it) this way, or this side. 
 
 When united with nouns of place, they require 
 the dative case, as : 
 
 ^P^iiSLjL^pui QLJiTQ(Qtl or ^p^S'SL.LjjD k^Qed (?u/rC(2)LC, we 
 
 went to the other side the river. 
 
 0<B=eB7'2£iiruiLup-ssr^!s'flSuu!rQ&) uei>eo&(S<^A^'^i the palankeen 
 
 came on this side Madras. 
 
 Ag-ain, in opposition to a-srr, within, inside, t^pt^ 
 means ivithout, outside, and is thus used : 
 
 ^.oT^LQLjpifiLh, within and without. 
 
 Lj/D -f^QcvuSlisy^J'Os'iTAiDyn-^ri^iliuirujrrs, do not say this out of doors. 
 aSil.ih!a(^uLjfi^^(Bei){ox t-jfl^^)uQun, go out of' the house/
 
 Particles. 209 
 
 Hence is also the appellative up^piuir<^, a man 
 who is not of the fa mill/ but a stranger, i^p^^iur^, 
 such a woman &c. ; however these are not classical 
 words. 
 
 § CVIL 
 
 Qu(T(i^tlQ^ the contracted form of Ou!r(rF,&r^, is 
 used with the future participle, to express purpose, 
 design ; and means that, in order to, for the pur^ 
 pose of. It can therefore be used only of rational 
 beings, as : 
 
 aSjeuf jsuis(^^^Os=tuu^ihOuir0iLQ eu^^srn-, he came in order to 
 
 render Justice to us. 
 For Ou!r(^tL(Sl, also Oufr(^iLL-rr<s is used. 
 
 As a noun it is added to the 6th case of the neu- 
 ter pronouns, as : ^^^QuirQ^tlO, ^^mQuir(i^tL(B, 
 for that — this purpose. 
 
 § CVIIL 
 
 fiiS^^ui, or 0L^^^ui>!r&^ for the sake of on ac- 
 count of, is used with the nominative or general 
 oblique case, as : 
 
 ^suu ^lS^^ LLiT'SuustruST &!r^^&Q ITS (QOs'iuQ(Sfr, for his sake. 
 
 God is gracious. 
 
 ^^.iiSi&Siij&fi^^^^uuu®eSirs(Sr, you will be persecuted on account 
 
 of righteousness. 
 
 §CIX. 
 
 ^<5S)siu[r&), ^^eoir&), ^efsruL^i^li^Qeo, are words 
 used as causal conjunctions, wherefore, therefore, 
 at the beginning of a sentence, as : 
 
 ^^^^ifS^sauOftueurr^ ^^eotrfi)<s=^Q ^ire^LniraSl^, the Lord will 
 
 be gracious ; therefore be ghd ! 
 
 c 2
 
 210 Syntax. 
 
 Or they may be reo-arded as concluding the 
 clause which contains the cause or reason for the 
 admonition, &c., and then they may be rendered by 
 for, because, since, as : 
 
 LdGSiifiOutumli ,^'ss)SUJ!Tp'3 !r iu!T essT LdiTfLjLjQ uirsEsgh-t-.!r ^^ we can~ 
 not commence our journey, because it will rain, &c. 
 
 §CX. 
 
 The particles ^/rsor and ^/tld, with or without ecr, 
 affixed, the former with singular nouns, and the 
 latter with pliu'al nouns, are used emphatically to 
 denote certainty, reality ; and mean indeed, very, 
 self. They may be added to nouns in any case, as : 
 
 ^^ear^irs^eu^^rreur^ he himself came. 
 ^^^ueauesiiu^^irGearOstre&rSeiJtr^ bring that very bag. 
 
 ««ya/sffr^LJ!_/9-^Q>FujiuGfflJ6»TtfL.[u^^(rsOT-, he ought indeed to have 
 
 done so. 
 
 <5(5^^/r^/r(?Lou_//E/<sSsir^^(a8(rif-uu/r/r, the Lord himself will punish 
 
 you. 
 
 Note. — QLD[u^/r«or or ^^OLDiu^rre^, {. e., that is true, truly, cer- 
 iainly, is put in Tamil always at the end of the sentence of Avhich 
 it is an affirmation, and not before or in the middle, as in English. 
 Olouj^/tot must follow a verbal noun ; but =sy^ Old oj^ff ear, any finite 
 verb, as : 
 
 uiTe&ri^iu ^s'irs^rreiis(g LairetmfJ&'Seuirs^'SiT Lc^^fiiumiSl^c^^^^ Oldiu 
 ^/reor, it is indeed true that Manikavasagar was minister fa 
 
 Pandiya Rajahs 
 
 (^^tu&T^L&<oaiu^&p;BQ\ufr®Q(yr)'a!r ^^OmiLj^rrek^ the sun certain- 
 ly moves round the earth. 
 
 §CXI. 
 
 Q^irjjiil (or Q^/rjj/tL, as used in poetry), is a par- 
 ticle which means every one, without exception, and
 
 Particlts. 211 
 
 unites with nouns in the nominative case, and with 
 the relative participle of the future, e. g. 
 
 fiirQi—tr^ih (jsirmC ^rrjruii^ <surr come every day, i. e., daily. 
 
 jsireir suQ^QCflQesrek^ efSlsarQ^ir^dt G u (T uL' s=0 S" rr eO ejn ^ go to 
 
 every house and say that I am coming. 
 
 OM=irpO(!>)^ui (or 0^frflSefrQs=[r juii^ G^e^O-JS-L^Qeir/D^^ from 
 every word Jiopjs (or drops) hoaey ; where 0<F/rsO^Q^ir^L3 
 
 stands for Os'irp'a:er(Lp(ipsu0e)3iL£(i^^^. 
 
 ^mnOs^n'eO^fiG ^irjffiuj ^G'SLL&G&jmr^ih, whenever he speaks^ 
 
 you must hear. 
 
 ^euir upuuQ^Gfiirjj/LiiLoeiaifiOuiLiQ^p^, whenever he sets oiit^ 
 
 it rains. 
 
 ^ote. — In this latter sense some have used OuiT(i^O^ii60frLo, thuig 
 ^euaOs'ffeO^LkQuiTQ^Q^eOeofTih, but this is not a proper composition, 
 G^iT^Ln must not be confounded with ^^euQa/r^, the latter means 
 one by one, separately of every kind, e. g. 
 
 fif®yOa//r0 Lj^^<s&Qsrr(Bth, please to give a hook of every kind. If 
 rve say Lj^^s^GfiirjruijQ&ir^Lb, it will mean : give me books 
 
 of all kinds, or of every sort. 
 
 (?aj36»)<s«fr3"(T5<s:(5 <Sy:idOen!T(^uessr lots iO sir®, give to every labourer 
 a fanam, lit : givejanam byfanam to the labourers. We can- 
 not say: e^suOsiJirQ^Qeulajl'^ira ^&(^ 'spr^uessrmOsir®, neither 
 u&fsr^Lc fiTj^iih ; but we may suy, epa/Oau/r^u iMiaSfi ^i.(^ e^ij- 
 Qsur^uessTiBjOArr®, give to every man a fonatn, lit: givejanam 
 byjanam to man by man. 
 
 § CXII. 
 
 The nouns, (sreoeOfftl^ (neut.) (sreoe^ffQF^u:^ (m. and f.) 
 (TLp(i^®jj5jLD, and (Lp(L^&j)Laqil^, (neut.) s''SeO(LpLh^ (neut.) 
 ^Sscr^^LQ, (neut.) c5!/Ssj5rsij0LD, (m. and f.) ujirei^iii 
 (neut.) luneuQ^il, (m. rnd f.) mean a// with respect 
 to number. Of <s=««)ld, the oblique case «=<S0O is 
 like an adjective always prefixed to a noun of any 
 gender, and requires s-m, at the end of the noun. 
 
 rtp(i£iffij^'LCi, ^asjT^^^, ^^goraJ^LD, iL;ff<a/txianduJ/raj0LO, 
 
 are always affixed to nouns and then put in any
 
 212 Syntax. 
 
 case that may be required, cra^soirtri, and er^ecirQi^il, 
 may be either prefixed or affixed ; the manner of 
 doing- this has been explained § XXIIl. e. g. 
 
 u5 (5 s e; .5 O sir ^ 61) /r LD , 
 
 <j2 (5 « (B « srr (ip (1^ aJ ^ lii , 
 
 1/8 (5 <5 E/ « SIT ?6»r ^ ^ LO , 
 
 LD (sS^ IT'S err ^esreuC^Ln, 
 
 :} 
 
 all 
 
 men. 
 
 Of these words, (tpQ^oj^tli and (LpQ^mu^qLo, only 
 can be used to denote the entireness of a things 
 which thing is then put in the singular number, as : 
 
 @0^ujLD(ip(T^su^'Lc, the whole heart. 
 Gsiiei:^i^QP(ipeu^ijSi^^^Gi-iriiSlfl^, the whole cloth is torn. 
 
 Qessrp^s sekresi^frQpQ^eii^'ih ^eap^ ^!rii3 p^^ all the water of the 
 well is already drawn out. In this instance, ^essresifOfredeoiTta 
 is also used ; probably from tbe consideration that water consists 
 of many drops. 
 
 Gfiiru-i—tlQfiQfeu^iil ^n-iliuiril'J^SlQesr^, I have watered the whole 
 garden ; here also QfiirtLL-OLDeOeoiTLL may be said, meaning 
 Q piTL-L-^^efii&rtcfr ^i—ijsOsfreiieOiTLh, all the places of the 
 gar deft. 
 
 Xofe 1. — (Lp(T^enLoiLjil and QpQf>eu^tl, unite only •with neuter nouns, 
 and these onl\' Avhen signifying inanimate creatures. We cannot there- 
 fore translate he eat a whole sheep by ^^ QpQ^&j6si^iLi(c^s=iruiSil-i—rr^^ 
 but by epjTiTu-i^6s>A''^'^Q^Q£isiies)SiLjf^s^irilji3il.L^fr<^, i. e., he eat all the 
 Jiesh of a sheep, the former means: he eat all the sheep (of a flock.) 
 Thus also the Lion swallowed a whole cow, must be rendered by 9ei 
 ^t2iLCiirtleoL—6S(i^ijSpj}/, and not, LcrrfBQf-Qp&jeia^iLjil, which means all 
 the cows. So neither can we translate the whole man is corrupt, by 
 
 ^tiiLOesf^sar npfigeu^'lEjG'£(S&r(srreijew', but by LOarF^^«B£_UJ .^^^ldIT 
 
 jfI? !T th(ipQ^eu^tk]G'S(tiar<sires>aie&r, i. e., the whole body and soul of the 
 man are corrupt, ^s:^LLfr(Lp(ipsu^'di, the whole soul, £=1?!t ihopopeu^ib 
 the whole body, may be said ; but Qfioasij^u^ does not agree with losbA 
 ^6ffr. Hence it is incorrect to say ^^^ lahS^^ QfiQ^aj^iiQiil.®tli
 
 Negatives . 213 
 
 '& 
 
 (blj/t^sbt, though we sometimes hear the common people say so; ^sj 
 emO&i—^LjQLjn-^sin is quite enough. 
 
 Note 2. — Some have abridged (^(jtfiwuj and sre^eOTti), and put them 
 as adjectives before nouns to expi-ess entireness, thus, (tp-t^ ''^(5^^(}f'^, 
 isjeOeorr <^q^^ lury^ih, all the heart or the whole heart ; but this is incorrect. 
 
 Note 3. — The word s^Q^evQfLt all, has sometime since been intro- 
 duced into the Tamil from the Samscrit. It is used the same as 
 s=seOQpLt^ thus s'(SeiJ6ijeOeoeiaLaiij(Lfjee>i-aj a0^^/r, the Almighty God. 
 
 § CXIII. 
 
 Two neg-atives destroy each other ; wherefore if 
 the clause containing' the purpose or design of a 
 subject, be in the negative, the following clause 
 leading to it cannot be in the negative too ; but 
 must be in the affirmative form, and vice versa, if 
 the latter clause be in the negative, the former 
 must be in the affirmative form, as : 
 
 s^^s^s=Qs=^tliw!r!Tirfiuisf-s(^ ^a/aS'—^^Ca'/Ssi^jar, remain in 
 
 this place list ijoiir eye be injured ; or 
 
 do not leave this place, lest your eye be injured. 
 
 The propriety of this will appear plain, if you 
 separate and invert the clauses, thus : 
 
 <B=Qs^^LhisLi(^Lh^ and the former sentence ^sueS ^ ^^SQev ^ieoe/a 
 
 Note. — This must not be confounded with such sentences as these : 
 ^ uemsTikeLHTEi&rrLaeCKsurrn'rTQ^^ do not come without bringing the moneyy 
 ^ ut^iufrmsiilinrG^, do 7iot be without learning. 
 
 § CXIV. 
 
 The clause containing the resolution, determina- 
 tion, assertion or command, always follows the 
 purpose, design or eiid of that resolution, thus : 
 
 S^L^^^eO f^'^)' umiS(i^ui3ifa&r[r<Sy love your enemies, thai i/ou may 
 
 be the children of God.
 
 214 Syntax. 
 
 <5wrsrr/fi(3iS(i5rr«is»-, there are many thieves on that road, so thai 
 
 there is great danger. 
 
 This order can never be deviated from, because a 
 sentence in Tamil never closes without a finite verb, 
 except in cases of ellipsis which will be stated 
 hereafter. Hence if in the course of a narrative, 
 the clause stating the purpose, end or desi2;-n can- 
 not conveniently precede the other, stating the 
 resolution, &c., the former may succeed the latter, 
 but it must be followed by the repetition of the 
 principal verb of the preceding clause, or a suitable 
 substitute ; thus : 
 
 lu L3sff&tr«4.ir/r(L9(5<D^@LDLjif-,ffi(g ^UL^i^s^Os^iLJiLjiKJ'Sar, love your 
 enemies. (Do so) that you may be the children of God. 
 
 §cxv. 
 
 The clause containing the effect or inference 
 generally follows that containing the cause or rea- 
 son, as : 
 
 we did not proceed quickly, because the wind blew hard. 
 
 ujmi3(n}iEiaeir, trust ye in God ; for he is very gracious. 
 
 LDiTuSi(r^uiSj-<seir!r&, rejoice; for your reward wilt be great in 
 
 heaven. 
 
 Unless the sentence be very long, to invert this 
 order, as in English, and say, ^/r^ ^fi^uo>iTuuj5i—<s<s 
 
 or LJirtrLJjreSi—^^(sbj5LDLS<^(5S),3iLja'aS(TF)!SJ'Sdr^ <sr^isar^^i{^ 
 Qiooeof (7)5>a) rjijeu^ lS(^p^ QQ^€!DLjajrruSi(j^^Q(Tfj>n-j is awk- 
 ward and feeble.
 
 Ellipsis. 215 
 
 § CXVI. 
 
 Respecting' Ellipsis in Tamil. 
 
 1 . When the attributive noun signifies the same 
 thing or person as the subject ; or when the sen- 
 tence ends in a pronoun, or interrogative pronoun, 
 the finite verb ^u^^'sQp^, is properly omitted, as : 
 
 ^a;sBr^(75i_«OT^ he (is) a thief. 
 
 ^^(sj^ewiii, this (is) wisdom. 
 
 jBtT'sa'uireS, I (am) a sinner. 
 
 ^Qiu .sjeueir^ thou (art) he. 
 
 ^ajQeareueir^ n,ho (is) he? 
 
 ^^ cra/ausway, how muck (is) this ? 
 
 er^^Outresr^ which (is) gold? 
 
 2. But when the attributive noun expresses only 
 a quality or an attribute of the subject, the finite 
 verb must be used, as : 
 
 L/xr/ruJeartogsOTLDiun-iLSdJsSc!?^, God is glorious, If jou say : ustt 
 
 u ST 6vr La 8 em Ld, it means, that the glory itselj is God. 
 
 ^ajem^0L-.(^uLS(^i8(n)eSir^ he is a thief, i. e,, a thief by habit ^ 
 
 thievery is his quality. 
 y^iSujtfistruSQ&Q^/i)^, the earth is beautiful ; should you say, 
 
 yufiiijip(a5, it would be unintelligible. 
 
 ^eLi&rs=^Q^tT<si^La(ra3(^s-Q(n)!Sr, she is joyfil; sliould you say, 
 
 ^su&r^^Q^ire^Lh ; it will mean, that she is the person called 
 
 Sandosham. 
 
 ^eSjs^aaLoiu!rii30fi^.gi, the light was good, epeS^esresyLc, means 
 
 the light is goodness itself but, *^afl ep^^ssranoj, means the 
 
 light is one of the thing.s- that are good. 
 
 In some sentences however both forms may be 
 used without diiference in the sense, as : 
 
 ^^ersjeueireij and ^^eT&jaJsrrajfruS(^s3(X!rfl^^ how much is this? 
 
 It may easily be ascertained whether the verb is 
 required or not, by exchanging the nouns ; i. e. by 
 putting the first for the second, and the second 
 for the first ; if both make sense .^Sqf^&Qp^, may 
 be omitted ; if not, it must be added.
 
 216 Syntax. 
 
 3. Exceptins;' this ellipsis of ^u^Q^'sQp^^ not so 
 much for brevity's sake, as for expressing- a parti- 
 cular sense, no others are used in Tamil ; for avoid- 
 ing- the repetition of a word in the same sentence, 
 can hardly be called an ellipsis ; because, thoug-h 
 the word itself may not be repeated, yet a suitable 
 substitute is usually put, thus: 
 
 He is a wise and good man, ^aj'^'^n-esrQfuljspr^essrQ^QfxsirtsffUisS 
 fiesr, here imsSs.^-si is not repeated, but the conjunction e-lq, with 
 
 &-&rsir, sufficiently supplies its place, ^sjm (e^irear(xpiSr3irLa<o;^^ ^ 
 taruli ;5p ^sssr^srrar LDosfi^^tD/ruJ)(5<ste/(2)Sin-j is also allowable, 
 though not elegant. 
 
 Wlierever precision and perspicuity are at stake, 
 repetition cannot be avoided in Tamil, as an in- 
 stance I shall add the passao;-e, Matth, v. 34, 35, 
 which has in the Greek and in the other European 
 lano-uajres repeated ellipsis ; but which cannot be 
 imitated in Tamil without q-reatly obscuring- the 
 sense. It ought to be rendered, thus: 
 
 e:rr LDiTiiSlQ^sS/D'-ii^iUfreO euirear ^^^Q tap s^^^uuLDueSir&mreorrair^. 
 y,u2 uJTiruiT ^siDi—iuu/r^uui^ujfni3(^akflui^uj(riD^L^uSiirQLLp 
 ^^^iuil'- e&reBi!ra.iirsrr^'. <ZT(i^£=Gei>LD OutPoj^mrs^^eaL—iuui—i^ 
 ear Larresr ui^iufTed <iT(^s=QeOi&'i3!Q inp s= ^^inih^esiTissisreoir'^ir^j &C. 
 
 Thus also, ^m^m-LjQun(s<)LJiSp<S(f\i—^^,&) ^iscrL^,ffiu0 
 
 (cuaiutrs, is not clear ; and may even be misunder- 
 stood, so as to mean love thy neighbour, who is like 
 thyself. It is better therefore to repeat the verb 
 
 thus : 2L.(bW(53fl/_^^aJ ^^L^Sh-Q^Qp^Gt-JneOLJ Sp&^i—^ 
 
 § CXVII. 
 
 Wlien something' is said of a subject both ne- 
 gatively and affirmatively; the negative always
 
 Conjunctions. 217 
 
 precedes the affirming- clause, by which the use of a 
 disjunctive conjunction becomes unnecessary, thus: 
 
 ^fipu<ss>u!k:ieii s^fTsQiTsin^iuirals iriup Qs=mliue\)mi5cr§sQ(;fr)esr^ this 
 
 hoy is not di/igciif, but lazy. 
 @ifiiij«arii)j"<sr<FEjO=5/ri_/rLDtoT)L06i5)^^^(3^^/r«57, the sun did ?i at shine 
 
 bill was hid. 
 
 0ULj/r6ar^ he that follorvs vie, shall not walk in darkness but 
 
 will have light. 
 
 In En2;lish, the clause may be inverted, thus : 
 this boy is lazy and not dilif><nit, &c,, but this can- 
 not be done in Tamil ; a circumstance which must 
 be attended to. Hence also the fine passage 1 
 John i. 5. 
 
 God is light, and in him is no darkness at all, must he rcnrlorocl 
 thus: uiT/ruiTOTi OTojaj^waj/rSja/ii; ^'^eSeHeomMeO epeSuu[Tii3(<^siQ^[r. 
 
 In a few cases this order need not be observed, 
 but then the negative must not be the opposite of 
 the affirmative, and the latter must close with an 
 auxiliary verb, thus : 
 
 u'2£srs2eir^^(s!rsmr^(^ui3iT,seir(r:S, believe in your beneficent crea~ 
 
 tor, and do not break his commandments. 
 
 §CXVIII. 
 
 In comparisons the thing compared must follow 
 that with which it is compared, thus : 
 
 ^eudrQsrfreareiirjsjQuirei} ^iLj(^rOs^n-ei£ii, say .thou, as he said. 
 
 &e3rjD^, the cold on the mountains is greater than in the valley. 
 
 uufv^^aearedeo, he that loveth son or daughter more than mCy 
 
 is not worthy of me. 
 
 If you put the latter sentence thus : LQ«2c5rtL|Lo t^stwrtjLD OTssTto-fffljjj/La 
 
 ^^siM[r\L:£'&Q ^Q&Qfl'Sj^, &c., it will mean, he that exceeds 
 
 me in loving son and daughter, &c. 
 
 D 2
 
 218 Syntax. 
 
 e_«w(?iA65 ^^LiSh-(^S.p^Gurreo^L3j3siir>L—^0ei};il<siesrutniS(T^, love 
 (thij) neighbour as ihijselj] (or as thou lovesl thyself. 
 
 iQeirjD^, tliif word is more precious than gold, 
 
 § CXIX. 
 
 As for the proper position of words in a sentence^ 
 it may be observed, as a s;eneral rule, that the words 
 belonging' to the nominative and those belonging' to 
 the finite verb must not be mixed together, but 
 kept distinct, and that those words which are the 
 least important must be placed first, and the most 
 important last, that is, nearest to the words to which 
 they refer. A few instances will elucidate this rule. 
 
 0^=ssr2aruilt5i-6OT^^(?«i).^/H5irQ51/HcsO-ci5nruajsBfl(T5^^/r5Br^thismeans: 
 there was a certain Sankaralingam in Madras; the most 
 important part of it is " the person" and not the city. But, 
 
 JFisi-a: iTsSiasQLBiirusudr Os:£sr%sn--JiLis)-eBT^^QeoiiSl0^^rrdr^ means: 
 Sankeralingam was in Madras ; the principal relation being, 
 not that such a person was, but that that person was in Madras. 
 ^e>j(^eiai—tu eurriiSleSl(f^^^ <s lj i._ O la /rssrj;/ lb Ljfi)iliui—e3ei>2eo, no de- 
 ceit whatever proceeded out of his mouth. This sentence would 
 be weakened by placing <su'_OLCi/r«ar^iii, before; imless you 
 mean to say, that no deceit proceeded out of his mouth. 
 
 flcpsar, he that seeketh great riches trouhleth his household. It 
 would be very obscure to say : ^ iai-'^®Lcu^es>^ =s/^*^ iraSuj/aj; 
 ^3»r ^ (? ^ (5) S ^ au sor fflj (Tj ^ ^ LJ LJ (?) £) (^ «2"" . 
 ^^^ eS sfT & ^g <3: or Sr ^sSliiSIr^ ^s:{^ i^ea £=<S2SQ sold iE!';^^60fr sar e^eiflQaius 
 OsrrS^^esr, those lamps cast but a faint light upon the sur- 
 rounding huts. Here, if you place the LDiac^^eorretir epeSesau, 
 before .s/cil, &c., the sentence will not express clearly the 
 author s mind. 
 
 ^Q^ijiusOsj-QiljiSQriir^QsLLt^rriTsen; they asked. Lord, wilt 
 thou at this time restore the kingdom for government J to Israel ? 
 As the principal part of the question is the time, ^ssrreo^^ 
 Qeoir, is properly placed immediately before the finite verb. If 
 @sKi)ir(?fflja)(3a@, be put in its place, the meaning ^^^ll be : wilt 
 thou give it at this time to Israel or some other nation ? and 
 again, if @ Jfr=Fffli«^6»^, be put immediately before the verb, 
 it means, wilt thou give at this time to Israel the kingdom or 
 something else ?
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 As mucli depends upon a right understanding and use of tlie pre- 
 positionSj conjunctions, and other such particles, each of which has in 
 most languages many significations, I shall in this Appendix paiticidar- 
 Ij point out the manner in which the Tamulians express the various 
 meanings of each of the English particles, wherehy the student will see 
 much of the Tamil idiom, and -the necessity of ascertaining well the 
 meaning of the English particle hefore he translates it. I shall also at 
 last notice a few other peculiarities of the English language, and show 
 how they must be disposed of in Tamil. 
 
 The Particles are arranged alphabetically. 
 
 1. The Articles A and The. 
 
 The Tamil has no Articles. 
 
 1. The indejinite Article, however, is well expressed by the numeral 
 «j?(T5, Avhen the meaning is one among many, or any, thus : 
 
 Give (me) a book, epQ^Uj^^ssieia^&OsrrQ. 
 
 He run off' with a piece of cloth, cp(5 ^essrQ^Qs^leDsoujQiuQ^^ 
 
 A man brought a Jowl, Gp^LQssfl^sw" ^(5 Qefr^eaajdO^Birisiisr^iBuJ; 
 
 When it points out one of a certain class of men, it is better to 
 express it accordingly, thus : 
 
 A Poligar revolted, urrsirUJs:srrJriBQeorr0eu^ .s«i;«(^0^u!'^/r«3r, 
 A Pharisee invited Christ to supper ; u^Qs^uuilOeorQ^euear ^&e 
 
 AJruit seller stands without, u^iw&'^^pSipsiJiT'SeSOeofra^'S'Js^ (or 
 uj-piE)'Siar<sSpsi^LDM'.fiO(^'j^enear\ QajeSuSlGev/S pzi,(2)f^. 
 
 2. The dejinite article may often be expressed by the demonstrative 
 pronouns -sy^^ and Sb>^fi, as : 
 
 Bring (me) the book, ^^^CLj^^s^emfi&Osn-e^Qeutr. 
 
 The countrif is not fertile, '^^^^G ^s'(^Q<Fi^uu&r<sn-fie!)eo. 
 Thou art the man, fiQiu^^^LasS^nsT, 
 
 Personal nouns, and particularly noims of Office are often pointed 
 out A\ithout 'Sffi^ or '^^^, by having ^ssra/ow affixed, as : 
 
 The King has given orders, ^Sfreireturesreuirsil.L—'^eirs'ieirsO-sn-Q^ 
 
 ^irn- (or simpli/ ^Jftr^^ir.)
 
 220 Appejidix. 
 
 The Priest came in high style, ^.FmPiiuf^esreussr i^i^^^Q^fteo^ 
 
 Q ^ ir<J L—eu ^ ^ rreir . 
 
 3. When tlienomi is cjualifietl, ncitlier ^(5 nor <sifi^ is required, as : 
 The man who brought fruits is gone, ut^iEisl&rsQsn-^Qeu^^ 
 
 He is an agreeable companion for me, ^su^ (srew s-iiSln-uuirih'Sesr 
 
 or &-iiSliT^G'S!rt^ai'. 
 She (is) a good woman, ^euetrjsedeitOuear. 
 
 He is the best foiend I have, isreOeD/r/fljiJ/ii) ^euek Ere>!rs(^j5eiei> 
 
 ^ (? ^5 £1 ^ (2>(l9 (5 i S CP ear . 
 
 In some cases however they may be added, thus : 
 
 A good man came here (this) morning, jseOedt^eixrQpe'sieir c^^Lostifl 
 
 He smote the rich King, ^susm ^sreui^iu(Lpeireir ^^^ ^ sr ir s= rr esisu 
 
 4. The different virtues, vices, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, &c., 
 require no article ; though ,g*Br^ may be affixed to them, as : 
 
 Prudeiice is commendable, eSQsusi}^ (or eSQeusLairetfr^') LjsLfiuu 
 
 Falsehood is odious, Quiriu (or Ouinuiurreer^ or OutnLjGu<a-Qfi}^) 
 
 Anger ought to be avoided, Gstru^0f(^ eSsD.s(?aj(Sj»rSLQ. 
 AsLrononrij (is) a very useful science; Qs^fr^L-e it<si:)^s ti^^'^Qti^T 
 
 ^ 6sr LD IT ear tSeOeS. 
 
 To proper names ersBJ^uaj'SBr, or .^awsje^r^ may be affixed, as : 
 
 In the opinion of all good men, Alexander was a great robber, 
 
 ^Oeo-F^^n- (or ^0aj,f^^0'r6Brt_;Qj63i) Ouiftu setrsfj^nS^^sir 
 Oesr&ir^- p eOei:i^ssi'.^nsQmisie(i!T(§^^i^ tan <sSi&(r)!r &w. It this 
 sentence be translated, thus: ;3e<>eo Lasfr^OfeOiciTQrieoi-uj 0n-LQir 
 esr^^sarui^ ^su^sr OuSliu£e!rsiT ^iiSlQ^^irek^ the meaning will 
 be, that all good men resolved on his being a great robber, and 
 that he was one accordingly. 
 
 2. About. 
 
 1. When it means around is rendered by <s-pnS, the verbal participle 
 of a-pjiiBp^ ; or by @Lp, the infinitive of t^QpSp.^ ; both require the 
 accusative case, as : 
 
 The people came about me, s=eiiriiselrSTar7serJ=,s;-^;Sleu^^irir<sefr. 
 
 2. When it means more or less, nearly, with respect to number, ^fls 
 ^an^uj, or s^pGppe^empiu, expresses it. Examples, see § XCVI. 
 
 3. When it means, concerning, with regard to, &c. ©^^^5 is used, as :
 
 Enolish Particles. 221 
 
 Various opinions exist about the author of the book of Job, Qiuir 
 
 Otlier examples, see § CI. 
 
 4. When it means, engaged in, ernploi/ed in, &c., the Tamulian has 
 no particular expression for it, but changes the phrase altogether. Thus : 
 
 What is this to t^ou? go about your business! ^^(^Qeov ears 
 Os&rair, £ e-sw ^use'jL—uuGeii^OiB'U-iuuQurr, lit : n'hal is it to llcee 
 
 from (or by) this go to do thy business! 
 I am about my business, (simQ&i'ieoQis=iuQQf>^ir. 
 
 3. Above. 
 
 May frequently he rendered by the comparative or by Qll^o, some 
 times the phrase must be altogether changed. 
 
 1. When it means, higher in place. 
 
 You are above the door, / .s^oS^tl &-UJsrijciirit3(i^£,£(ti)iu. 
 
 2. More in quantity and number. 
 
 In this piece of cloth there are above twelve yards, §.)^^^^A® 
 
 3. Higher in rank or excellence. 
 
 The king is above the ministers, ^iTrrrrr lo^^/j?.^©.?© Q LdQ^ireur 
 su/f, or u^ ^ ^ S s> eS e)2j Lb ^ixirs^ir GLOtJ swtoiL^iiffli—iuau/r. 
 Love is above faith, ^ein-j eS&eurrs'^^i.i;^ Qu^&nr^^. 
 
 4. Unattainable by. 
 
 The Samscrit language is above my reach; <iFLasSf^^urresi^ 
 
 fiirit3Q^iS;D^, i. e., to learn the Samscrit language is too diffi- 
 cult for me. 
 It is above my power to give you hundred Pagodas, e-Las(^ jsir.:S>' 
 eusriT'Ssek Q&irQas <ii&:(Q)Qeo iBr^i—[r^ or e-ix!<ff@ ,$;r^ajii /TcSsSt 
 
 0&n'®i:s (STem-si^^^mresSSeiiteo. 
 This doctriiie is above my coin prehension, ^fip &.uQ^<s=ui istmjt 
 
 u^^<s(^QLo<s\}fret!r^ or ■STL-i—rrsiji^, 
 
 5. Superior to. 
 
 She is above disguise, ^su&r ay^<F^s3rQ;Ful"iJLQ/rilL_/r^, i, e., she 
 cannot disguise or deceive or ^susw- eij(eyj--'^m-<cis)uj£<si—^s-3u&r, 
 she has passed deceit. 01)serve, tluit if you here would say lit : 
 ^susw- aj(2^tf=2G!!r,5@G'tn«i)/r«Brfi> sff, the sense would ho, she is even 
 worse than disguise itself; i. e., she is exceedingly hypocritical.
 
 222 Appendix.. 
 
 4. After. 
 
 Is usually expressed by lileor, til ear l/, i^^ts^eo, see § LXXXIX. 
 when it means, 
 
 1. Behind, with regard to place. 
 
 He came after me, ^eudr <^e9rs(^LJ\3airfiL-p^eiifi^ir&r. 
 In this connection, it may be expressed by numerals, as : 
 
 First came the king ; after him followed the priest ; after the 
 priest came the servant, Qpseodau^ <^!Trrs=!r<s^w ^ it em- l-itsu ^ 
 @(»5a^Lo ^sr(rriisu^ sisL ;^ 'JJ & •s IT ST ,^ Lo j5t-.^^su^^rriT&(s;r, or Qfi^ 
 eoiTsu^ ^iT/r^/rayiii ^&j(^s(^iSlesrLj(^Q^(SijLh ■fiyaij0i@LJL96srL/, &c. 
 
 2. According to. 
 
 After this manner, he has acted for four years, ^ij^^unrrvu (or 
 
 3. In imitation of. 
 
 Believe after Ahrahajn's example, ^■SliTsTileSs^eufrS^^^Qurr»> 
 
 o. Against. 
 
 1. When It refers to hostile opposition, aSG/r/r^Larruj, M-ith the dative 
 usually expresses it, as : 
 
 All are against me, <sTededn-(T^th eresrei;^ eSlGrriT^LairiiSl0£:S(Tr)iT<sar. 
 He wrote against idolatrij, eSs^Qtrs ^jr/r^Safri^ eSQinr^LnrrOiu 
 
 Of ^^ sir. 
 
 This is against the laws of the country, @^ Q^s=^geari3ju:.frmr 
 
 2. AVhen it means, opposite in place, the words ot^SC/t, er^striu^ 
 express it, as : 
 
 The Ships anchored against the mouth of the river, ^pjuqfi^s^ 
 
 lit: the sailors cast the anchor opposite to the opening of the 
 river. The Tamulian would not say merely, the ship. 
 
 3. When it refers to the hurt of a person, the Tamulian expresses it 
 accordingly, as : 
 
 Tliis circtimslance will he against me ; ^^^s--£friBiuij> eresr£:.^<Br 
 
 4. When it means, in expectation of, it must be paraphrased, as : 
 We are provided against the time of famine, u(^s=s;rreo^0Qeoj5Lo
 
 Ens:Iish Particles. 22 
 
 n 
 
 y fr«BWLQff'iLS(3JS^^, lit: ive have enough (or plenty)^ so that 
 ive shall have no want in time of famine. 
 
 6. Ah! Alas! Oh! 
 
 These interjections are commonly expressed by ^, ^, gCiufr, ^aan 
 Qiuir. Of them ^, signifies joy and admiration; the rest pity and woe, as: 
 
 Ah! are you come, ^, eu^^sr/r. 
 
 O virtue! how amiable art thou! ^ Ljs&ressrliuQuil / Oiu^r^esr 
 
 Oh ! I have alienated my friend, ^Qtuir <orei-9G^S,g=^£sr0ujesrs(^ 
 
 Alas! I fear for life ! ^Quurr srsi-^sudrQun-igGLD^ I fear cannot 
 well be expressed without making the lamentation to conceni 
 his fear and not his life, as: ^Qtuir <sr'^ ^sueerQurr(^QLCi^jj; 
 
 uiuuuQQiQ pG esr , 
 Oh ! what a worthless fellow ! ep ^em-L-rrsirear, 
 Ah! woe me ! gaoiuGiun' er«w ,5^ Gaj^SesraLi^ii, 
 
 7. Already. 
 
 1. When it means at this present time, it is expressed by §^lOurr 
 ^^', or simply by the present tense, as : 
 
 He is already come, ^euear ^:lOuirQp^ eii^^(i^^Q(ir)^, or ^euear 
 
 If it refer to the present time in the past, it cannot be rendered, thus : 
 
 He had already com7nenced speaking, when the soldiers entered 
 the hall ; ^emTsr Gu<s=^O^fru-iijk'cijiQuT(ip^,GuiT^J:G£-eiJsr s^x 
 
 SsuiiS^Jl^ GeuS^/irn-sar. 
 
 2. When it means so soon it is expressed by ^^^^/sar^sQsTLainu, as : 
 Are you already come ? //f ^^^Sasr ^iQa-Lamueu^^jrir. 
 
 3. When it implies accomplishment before the present time, it must 
 be expressed by ^ix3p^, added to the verbal participle of the verb, as : 
 
 / have already told him the affair, ^rreir ^^^s's-iis^esiajiL'Oj^s 
 
 ^s^O'S^trebeSujiriiiip^. 
 When I came, divine worship was already fnished ; jsrresre'^^ 
 
 OuiTiw^G ^<3Uir^rr ^'ieerOs^iLj siTuSipjp). 
 
 4. When it means before the present, it must be expressed by '^fp 
 
 ^(Tp«w-CsBr or Qfi'ssr Q ear , as : 
 
 The sun must be already risen, ^/Pajsar ^^pi^Qp^Qesr G^ir^jSl 
 
 5. When it means tintil now, ^^euisiaiv&f^iM, is re<juired, as :
 
 224 Appendix. 
 
 All the world shall he Jilled with the knowledge oj the Lord. 
 Already many nations have received it, &(^^^tT6SiW[ufi'&\p ^jSeij 
 
 uQup^sQ&[r&sri^Q^s'&i(n)ii'S,(sir. 
 
 8. Also. 
 
 Is expressed by a- ") added to any part of the sentence, to which it 
 belongs, excepting the finite A^erb, which never can receive it, as : 
 
 He also gave money to the poor, ^eu^tl wenLpsi^ii^uiSlJ^eB)^ 
 
 He gave tnoney also to the poor, ^(swsw ^smLp-s<^<s^uueissr^es)^a.jih 
 
 He c^ave money to the poor also, kS^oisot ueissr^e>!)fi ^esitfiS(^s(^m 
 
 Q iS fr(Sl 3 ^ fT ek , 
 
 9. Although, see Though. 
 
 10. Among. 
 
 Is u«!ually expressed by the dative with s-'sirQeir, as: 
 
 There are thieves among them, ^aj/f<®(S5i@isF(?ar ^0i—fi(^sQ 
 
 When it means associated with, the ablative social mth .fln_i_, may 
 also be used, as : 
 
 The kin'T was amongst them, ^irirs^ir .sieun-si^u.Qe^sh-i-<^(^^ 
 
 ^triT, or (^.J>jeuiTS(ei^&^&rQan;^ 
 
 11. As. 
 
 Requires various renderings. 
 
 1. AVhen it stands unconnected Avith any other particle, 
 
 i. Meaning because, since, ui^aS&Qeo or ^ea-siuirei, expresses it, e. g- 
 
 As this is a case of great moment, we niiisf be circumspect, @^^i 
 
 &nS\ajii> uSls'SjijsearLcirii^Q^s^Sfiui^ujired (or @^ Quiflujsn-SiuiM 
 
 As the matter rests\pon me, I shall attend to it, ^^fisarrSuj^ 
 ea0 ^sixQesr eS'FiriBssiQsumria-ujui^tuireO (or (?sussr®au^,T«), ^or 
 
 jSiresr cSj'cro^ eS jf it n\ u (a u ^osr . 
 ii. meaning like, Gu^■b^>, epuutnu, must be used, as : 
 
 27i>s is as the overthrow of Sodom, ^^ Q^rrQ pir^n-si^i^S'SuuiL 
 
 ill. JTcaning thus, in this manner, wh^n quotations are made, the 
 Tomulian uses .^ifflj j5;, with the singular ; ^ajtin-, -with the plural, OTeBrsw 
 C)ajfew(nja), Avith any number, &C.5 as : 
 
 s
 
 English Particles. 225 
 
 He spoJce vm'ious evil words, as : you are a thief, a rohher, and 
 so on, ^qlis-^ u^^ecOuiTeOevrrfieu.e'effrijs^&ruQuSl&OiSfTeisru.rrdr 
 ereeTserOets^e'rrrjtsO, ^^(Vjt—csr^ ^Osfr&T^eirff sirs' m Qfi ^eoiresreaenS 
 
 Geir. But it is often more idiomatic, to invert the order of the 
 clauses, and say thus: /^0:_«ii" S,0&rren'iaf£&a iT'Osi ereir^eaaLj 
 (jp s en ' ear ^ p ^ei) O uiireO&y IT /SeuiF ear ISJ s: 'He/r ^ Q s' fTcSf ^ iir. 
 He told another parable, as: ^svif GeuO(^(i^ &-&jsn'ji&s)ajJ=Qs^iretT 
 
 He told other parables, as : ^eur Q^su^ a-6uc»a2cs?<3»r^G)^fr''«^0)/f, 
 
 ^ es) 6u lu /r 6LJ ear . 
 
 iv. When it means, according to, ui^, must be used, as : 
 
 He did as God commanded him, uirirujTesr ,stli_?eini5tl(_ui9- 
 
 «g)/a/n's' Ql£^[u SlTek. 
 
 2. WHien it stands connected with other particles, e. g. 
 
 i. With as, meaning' similarity in quality, Clj/tw), ut:^, or any other 
 suitable word must be used ; thus : 
 
 She is as amiable as her sister, ^su&r ^dr s^Qsirs^Slea^uQun-ii 
 
 He is as good as his word, ,ji]&i&!r ^^ eufra^eo^nSe^ui^Quj 
 Os^tusvrretjr, or ^au ^eai—uj aufr/f^on^afflU-'Ljffu/Tgi) ^eu ^<ss> l—uj 
 
 I am as well as can be expected,- ;Birm<sx.i^\uLSiiL(El(iH s^ajsQu-iLair 
 aS.'i^i.k'Q P'<"', or e^(j^<auir jrii£:&j£'SdJLLira3(§i'&Qp^^. 
 
 You must give a reason for this as well as far that; f^^pstr&eijui 
 ^s psirsGinh ^\ujtTiU(ZyOs'!TeieoQey€kr(Bih. But if the sense be, 
 that for the one, the reason has already been given, and that he 
 must likewise give one for the other, it must be expressed, thus : 
 «^o5}^^«(j5^i jy ^ j§iurruj(^Os=aei!'isr^Gufrei ^ea^st^jS^^^ 
 
 But when it means equality in number, it is expressed thus : 
 
 Give him as manij hoes as he wants, ^a/^/gCa-'^wr^-iu lccmt 
 
 ii. With so following, as : 
 
 As the stars so shall thy seed be, fiLL£=f'^JTiEjsOetrsi^'iesrQiuir ^^ 
 
 As the sun gives us light hi/ day so does the moon by night, 
 
 Q^&iui<!r u<eei&Qe\) j5l£i&(^ ^ei!l6S)iusOsfr®^Sp^Qu(r60<FS'^^iT eir 
 
 As the one dieth so dieth the other, (c^ei)ei!(T(^(z^ s^trSnr^rs&r, i. e., 
 
 all die, or s-ireuiTLL^^i.ii^psu'rs&r ^(jau^fjoflaJSeu. 
 
 if you say literally, cp^swosr tafiiSp^Guired ixppeu^u^ tnrf? 
 
 *ffii(vpesr, then the particular kind or manner of death will be 
 
 pointed out, 
 
 E 2
 
 2'26 Appendix. 
 
 iii. With so preceding. 
 
 / desire to see ihij g/on/, so as I have seen if in thy sanctuary 
 
 Pompey was not so great a man as Caesar, ea'S^/rn-GurreoilOuir 
 
 ihQ '^' iLjO u iP lu su ear ei)eO. 
 My house is ?iof so large as yours, CTS3r_^ss)i_uj ofti) e_LC(jD6»i_uj 
 
 eSil.eat—uGufr&)uOuif^^ei)fO. 
 
 iv. With such when it is in fact a relative pronoun, the Tamulian 
 uses the verbal noun in this case, or the relative participle with a noun 
 or pronoun, as : 
 
 Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own con- 
 duct, Lap)p^!TS^^(^LJ u^ ^J^Os^rreOeii^ ^eeS&p&in'£«r fikjS(sfr 
 Os'ir^^ j5i—£isiaS6s>aj fi«si(n)iijG p!Ts.&ss i—euir&eir. 
 
 V. With /or, or to, meaning with respect to, it is not expressed, thus : 
 As for this horse, it was starved to death, @^,=F<l®^s»/ruili9-«jf iJ 
 
 @(?6D 0£=^^uGurr\t3pjii. 
 
 As for that matter, we must farther consider it, ^^fissrrf^iu^ 
 es>pi,@i&^^ ^,tlo @6ar.eouti) (or mS{^<su:rrau) GiUiT<Fljssrt-jekrsis!fr 
 
 G QJ0XIT&LDr 
 
 vi. With though or if 
 
 He acted as though he were his own master, ^/r(?esr^«ir<5(5 er^uar 
 QssreirQpti^eseilJ^Q^iLjjgn-isir or better ^/rCsw srs=LOfrewGi-.rreoiB=Os= 
 
 JVe beseech you as though God did beseech you, uirrruires' e_(B«Ss«r 
 Gajessn^s<0&a eSsr [_n' pGun «^ jSiriEj^sek e_/i/<sSGff Gw^uf-sOsireni^ 
 QG(n)ui, or better ujJiruiresT s^th&^ar G GLem-L^&O&tressri—ireO sru 
 ut^GtufT ^juui^GiLj jsiriEjs&r &c. 
 
 12. At. 
 Has likeAvise various significations ; 
 
 1. When it means neai; it must be expressed by ^qG-s, £=lSu 
 
 ILfTIU, &C. 
 
 He is at the river, ^eudr ^p/Si^ «s!/(3G'<sui(3<sSc5«sr. 
 
 2. When it means in a place, the locative ablative must be used, as ; 
 
 When we arrived at Madras, we saw the superstition of the na- 
 tives, jBfrih^aT O^esi'issruLLi^'Ssr^^jvG'S'iT^^OuiTQ^^, s^eurEi'S^ 
 
 eai—iu ^'i^u^^saujuuh'if^G^iTii. 
 He lives at Pondicherry, ^aussr Lj^£=G-s'^aSiGe>)eijrr^LMfni3(;f^ils!<yr)&T, 
 
 3. Before a word signifying time or business, the same ablative is 
 \ised, as : 
 
 He ruse at 10 o'clock, u^faili^mliG^^^^Geo Oiuq£^^(S^P^^
 
 English Particles. 227 
 
 This hoy is busy at his task, ^^^ilemuiueo ^^Qeu%^ii3p s^rrsQir 
 
 4. Signifying the condition of a person it should be expressed by 
 the adA'erbial form, as : 
 
 Let us be at peace with all men, jsrril OT60«o/ru:s»fl^C/r/r©(^.FLa/r 
 
 ^irearL£nTuSl(i^S'S£i<3: L—GeuiTLD. 
 
 5. Signi^y'mg in im77iediate conseqtience of it is expressed variously, 
 thus : 
 
 He went to Jaffna at my request, ^rr^ Q'SiLu-ui^^^Gei a>feuem- 
 
 lurri^u'-JiTesfr^^p ■^ilQurr^'^, 
 
 He sivooned at the sight of the fire; OjB(^ues)uis^e^L_uirr^^!r^ 
 
 ^Qeo or s;eS!ri_e>ju.Qesr or simply seSsrQ, Gs=iriTj;^QuiT^dr. 
 
 Atone blow he cut off his head, ^Qit'OsuiLl-its ^eu^enL^iu ^2n) 
 
 He came at a call, jsirsir sh^uLSIiLL-eLjL^Qesr ^'qjsbt su^^/rsw-, 
 
 6. Signifying subjection, as much as under, thus : 
 
 These things are all at my command, ^^^isrrfiiuiEjs&rujir'at^ii 
 
 OT6OT- ^^<srrJrs;^£;(^iLuil.L-&!>eij<seir. 
 
 7. When connected with all, it is rendered by (sruut^iLjii, en^eS^^ 
 yil, OTa/susra^Lfl, or any such word denoting entireness, as : 
 
 At all events I shall come to-morrow, ^rreir sruui^iLj'Jt j5iT%m£:(^ 
 
 eu^ffsuejr or ST ear ear eiS (J^ ^ ^ [T e)}j lb J5ir&sr jSfr^G)Ts;(^eu(^Q<suear, 
 
 He did not do this business at all well, ^^p Geu^-eaiutueuair erij 
 
 He must not go there at all, ^eueh- sj(3#<5frja/LD ^swQ'S Quir&s 
 
 JUx^i—tr^ or ^euesT ^EiGsQutT'sG&jSk.L-ir^, 
 
 Not at all may be rendered also by, uil\J=Gj=^tL or ^(^eS^^^^^ih 
 or g-«G'^<FLQ/nu/r(W) j>j/(i, with a negative verb, as : 
 
 He must not marry at all, ^gysusro-Ljjp^ff^^Lc (or ^'^Q^s=Larrujir 
 
 13. Before. 
 
 Is usually expressed by, QpivGesr QpevrLj Qpan-urrs Qp&r(^Qe)), when 
 referring to place, as : 
 
 My house is before that of the Doctor's, erfc^a?® euaSJ-^giuQ^esiL-iu 
 a?il® J;^(TfewCcar (or (jo«o^@«) ^Q^J.Sear/D^ 
 
 They are go?ie to the camj) before us, ^oi^&iar <sT!Ejsm,&(^ Qp^ 
 
 urr<stZuireiriu^^Si''^t~-GufT(^iT,seir. 
 We halted before the mountain, LoSsDiLSenr ^is^ix3Ge)) ^/siw&Gi^di. 
 Stand before him! .sjeu^sr^ Qpairuira^si)^. 
 
 When it means in presence of, particularly of God, or of great rnen^ 
 it is better expressed by £=eveS^irfsr^.^Gs\), as:
 
 228 Appendix. 
 
 Lei us go before God with thank s g'lvi » f^ ! j}iB},fQecrrQi_ u^ir 
 
 The phrases before your eyes, before your face, before yon, mcnj 
 be literally rendered by, ^-ihserr <seSfrs!&f;'^;^(LpeaiLjrr<s^ s-esr cy^^ 
 ^^i:(^QpeiTLJir'S, &_esrs'^(if.esru!T:S ; or by f ms &r lj a i' s'"£ / f ^^ s 
 
 ^/r-ff, &c. 
 
 The phrase from before thee, means from thy sight or from thy face, 
 fvhich must he expressed accordingly, as : 
 
 / ivill drive them out from before thee, .Sf^^'S&T P-es tser^u-Q i_ir 
 
 ii. Wlien it refers to time, Qp^' Qenr or (Lp&a-earQLD is used, as : 
 
 J arrived here before voH, ;?!rsi'p_Lcs''-,Fnp<ss (Tisr ^ihQs'Qs-i'; JiQ c«dr. 
 He died before him, ^su^ii^QpeoesrQm ^'su»vr ^s^^Q- rr^isr, 
 
 iii. When it means iii prefere?ice to, the phrase must be expressed 
 in vaidous ways, as : 
 
 Abel was accepted before Cain, struS^esrajeOeo ^Qu'Sso ^i^jSsfi^ 
 ^irrr, i. e.. He accepted, not Cain, but Abel. If it be UtenJly 
 rendered, 'S!ra3 ^sog^xf^'onQm- ^^Gu^eo ^^Eiisi'sS/ ^irn', it means 
 that Cain also was accepted only later than Abel. 
 
 14. Behind. 
 
 Like after is translated by L?)a5r^ lSIsbtl/^ i3<^(g)Geo, I mention here 
 only such phrases as require a different rendering. 
 
 At my leaving England, I left various things behind me ; /Fflrsar 
 
 ^mjs'ieaeSLl.® eu^Q^esr, If it Avas from forgetfulness, then it 
 must he thus: ueoeueosiuirear u^/Tit^ ^lEJJu'&str LOfiK^ ^lL(B eu^ 
 (?^«r, because the former implies design. 
 He is not behind him in doing good, fiQLiimi-9-^eirJ:0s'iljSp^ec .^Jaj 
 
 15. Beneath or Below. 
 
 ^^len it meaas, 
 
 1. Under, lower in place, Sifi, expresses it, as: 
 
 It stands beneath the table, .^^ ueoes>s'j3'^Qi^^^Q«ris^. 
 The earth is beneath the sky, yjiSlsuirear^^p^sSi^cT^selesi m^. 
 
 2. Under, as oTerborne or overwhelmed by some pressure, the 
 phrase must have another form, as : 
 
 / sink beneath the oppression of that man^ .^^^uisif.fi^Q^tLjSja
 
 English P articles . 22.9 
 
 I faint because of the oppression, &c., cr ^^fiLa&fi^esr Qs^iu 
 
 3. Lower in rank, excellency^ &c., ^n-^Qp^, expresses it, as: 
 The minister is below the king, Lo^^iPiiurresreudr ^!Tir^^s;^^ 
 
 4. Unworthij of, unbecoming, the phrase must he given accordingly, as : 
 To slander is beneath the character of a virtuous man, Lofijosun- 
 
 fi'^ir^ or ^*i)sv)!=L(S5fltf ^&Q<seoiT ^. 
 
 16. Besides. 
 
 1. As a preposition, when it means, 
 
 i. Near, the Tamuliau uses, ^^G-s, 8lLl-, uss-f 0Geo, as . 
 
 He stood beside me, ^euem- ermesr^i^Qs ^atr^e^ or sr^ues^^Qeo 
 
 ii. Over and above, ^eOeoiruoi), or ^em jSi, is used, as : 
 
 Besides the congregation there were also tiro Priests, s-eautuir 
 
 Is there a God beside me? Gr^^eisnu<i^ j^ Qeu^Q ^eu,^ekrt—iT. 
 
 2. As an adverh, at the heginning of a sentence, ^eOeoini^su^, or 
 ^esr^u-jLD, expresses it. See § LXXIII. 
 
 17. Between. 
 
 Is usually expressed hy putting the two nouns in the Dative case 
 with e_Lc, affixed to each, thus : 
 
 What is the distance between Madras and Madura ? O^i^lar 
 
 u iL i^ ear ^^S''^ ill u;^s®n"^igLC sreu^Gir&j,^JT tx. 
 
 But ohserve, that though between usually rerjuires two things or 
 persons, the Englisii oftcu expresses only one of" them, implying the 
 other ; in Tamul this cannot he done, without obscuring or changing 
 the sense ; hoth must he expressed, as : 
 
 Between us there is no difference, e_«srJ@Lo <zre3r^(^il eSJifiiuir^ 
 uSsoSnj, between thee and me. See, we maif indeed sai/, jsui.(g 
 
 eS^^iurr£=L£a>2eti, hut that is ambiguous. 
 
 18. Beyond. 
 
 When it means, 
 
 1. On the further side of, ^ulj;sld, ^ui^pfi^Qeo, or ^uLjjVLDirtu, 
 is proper, as :
 
 230 Appenchx, 
 
 We went beyond the tow??, jsirili ^s>r.(;^s<suuptlQun-Q(^i_h, 
 We halted beyond the river, ^^^ssuLjp^^i^ ^iei'-sQ^ld. If 
 the sliore be particularly meant, then ^cseairaSiQ&i must be 
 
 used. 
 
 2. Exceedi??g, above, surpassing, the phrase must receive another 
 form, as : 
 
 He was afflicted beyond ?neasure, ^eireSedeon^ s-u^^sr&j^ea^ 
 Do not act beyond your sphere, &-esr^@s)i^uj ^'^'sau^ic^QLaQeo 
 
 19. Both. 
 
 Is expressed by affixing, s-il, to both nouns, as : 
 
 Let Ihem both come, ^eu'^ssru-ji-k ^su'SeiriLjil^u s'J'OjFfreie^ or ^fTessr 
 
 (SQuemfru-jLheu ff ^QtF/rci)^. 
 He killed both the tygcr and the elephant, LjeSeaiuiLjili uj/r2sfr«aiu 
 
 20. But. 
 When it means, 
 
 1. Except, the Tamulian uses, ^q5 'r, epi^uj, or ^■ssr/S, as : 
 
 All came but Vedamootoo, Q&i^Qp^.^^^t^n iereieO!r(f^i}i a/^^/r/f 
 
 &ar. 
 He b?'onght every thing but one box ; ^ri^ OuiLu^ ^eSfTLDpjDtlu 
 
 2. When it means o?ily, nothing more than, Lnrr^^irui expresses 
 it, as : 
 
 He spoke but two sentences, @i7"ewr® euir&3uj!Ei<s2iKrLairjS^ii'(^OJFir 
 
 Stai/ but one day, ^Qi^js'^&ris^fr^^!'' u^Oun-^, that is, if stay mean 
 be patient, but if it mean, to stop, to remain, Oi-jit^^^(^ or 
 
 s>ijS<±S(^, must be said instead of Qi-j/r^. 
 
 3. When it means not more than, even, the Tamulian expresses it by 
 ^^rreir, or ^rrQ^cur, or merely by the emphatic ©", as : 
 
 Your demand is but reasonable, / Q^tl.yB'iOsrrekru^^ ^uufriujk 
 
 fiiT'isr or jSujitiljQld. 
 It is but what is necessary, ^^Qeussn-fBeij^^iresr. 
 He came but now, ^ajew ^LlOuiTQp^i^rrm aj^^/rssr. 
 
 4. When meaning otherwise than, the Tamvdian uses the emphatic, 
 v, as : 
 
 / cannot but cry out, i. c., / must cry out, ^/tsbt^/^uSl- Oeumr
 
 Emslish Particles. !231 
 
 o 
 
 5. When it foUoAvs a negation, tJic Tamulian changes it and the nega- 
 tive into the positiA'e foi-rn, as : 
 
 There is no day but he comes to my house, i. e., he comes every 
 daij lo mil house, ^&j<^ jsaQ i—ir ^ih sr&sr e^il.(Sl-sr^ei.^Q!;ir)^-iT to 
 say, ^ew^ <sv^i'Te^i^fB£C3eijfrs',Tfij5iTeS&)2ffj^ would define or deter- 
 mine the time rather than his comings 
 
 There is none but knows it, iuirQj(^ui ^ea^iLijSieuiriT-efr or <#'3»^ 
 
 6. When it merely connects two sentences, or simply points out a 
 contrary condition or circumstance, the TamuUan does not particularly 
 express it, as : 
 
 / went to see him, but he was not at home, ^/reor ^su'ZesriseSfr'd 
 
 He is not diligent, but lazy, ^s/ausar s^irsSireisi^ujrtjSlsirLnjbG^fnJi 
 
 He told me the affair, but I would not believe it, .^su-^. ^^^ssw 
 
 rf]uj^ss)^0iij6w,|@<F0<Fn'«3T,g)jw, jstrsir ^es>^ fiLDU6S'c\''te)} 
 
 He came not to do evil but to do good, as, ^ew^ ^eoLosniu uj4ieo 
 
 This will not be done by human ponder, but by the powjr of God, 
 
 6Dsa)u3iiS(g)(?«uii-;/r@Lb, or <^£^ui'S(r fi(i^e<f>'—iLj euedeO'ssi ^oSi^^eo \utrs 
 unTLLi—tT^ u i! rru iT ^eai—iusueOeu&nLCiiiS^GeOiuir^La or ^^-iSTir 
 
 J^ote. — It is evident that but in such sentences is expressed hy the 
 negative. When however but heads a ncAv sentence in an argument 
 it is by no means proper to use .^©«>^, as is fretiuently done ; })ecause, 
 ^@6>) being the subjunctive mode of ^"x^p^; means properly // // 
 be so, but by .g((g)j(ia>, ^^'jU/^c .j>^il.ui^u3(3^j^il, in the application 
 of which the "sense must be considered, and the use discriminated 
 according to § CHI. LVl. 8, LVll. 2. 3. 
 
 21. By. 
 
 When it denotes, 
 
 1. The agent or cause, by which any thing is effected or obtained, 
 the instrumental ablative expresses it, as : 
 
 This Jlower was plucked by me, ^^^ul^ eT(^(^1eo ujSss\a 
 
 ui^i—jsi or @^ ^rrmujSi^^ y. 
 The fever came by a cold, @eS^s='-f^i\}S\(^leo .si-J lissu^^^. 
 
 2. When it means the instrument, the same ablative instrumental 
 is used, or O^/rsRini', with the accusative case; or the phrase is turned 
 altogether, as :
 
 •» 
 
 232 Appendix. 
 
 The wound was made hy a knife, ^^fi&Sfriums^^.aSK^s^mn—rr 
 t3p^. Observe, the Taniulian would not saj', &.mrL^a&'SU 
 utLi—^', because the knife was not the active instrument, 
 Avhich was a person. If" the phrase be he wounded me bij (with) 
 a knife, then he woukl say thus, ^suek e^^ &fi^»aiu^Q^rr 
 
 3. When it means the method in which any progressive action is 
 performed, as : 
 
 The business was done hy Utile and little, ^pfissn-BiuihQsir^s^mi 
 
 O iS /r (CTj <F LO /r UJ <£= O cF ul' K-' LJ LJ il. i_ ^' , 
 
 4. When it means quantity, the noun must be doubled, as : 
 
 I bought these chairs hy the dozen, L/eorasfi JwSir® LjOTrs5fiirswri_/r<s 
 
 ®^^ jSirptiFrreS'Slisirsuma's'Qeariiar . 
 This house fell hy pieces, ^^^af3l^~sxrS^essrL-rr<s ^i^^^Qurr 
 
 5. When it denotes the object of expla?iation ; the Tamulian changes 
 the phrase altogether, as : 
 
 What do you mean by spirit ? ^,^Qiu^uf'p^^ ^^^^f-^OLosarsw 
 or ^eSO'J-iem'_jQ;j?&: 6sr or r^sSi^^'suQ ^^ ear, should you say ^^ 
 &s>ius,Osr-'£ssr® ^ ^?eBrJ&7£)0^ew-6ar, the meaning will be, what 
 do you think by means of (or through the spirit). 
 
 6. When denoting place, Qu^ei, or some other suitable preposition is 
 required, as : 
 
 They fought by sea, e^Qj^^^ff ^^MTQiaeO (or ■f (ip ^ ^ rr ^ ^Q ed) 
 
 7. When denoting permission, ui^, ui^uS^Qeo, or another form is 
 required, as : 
 
 You may go hy my leave, ^rr&ir ^^^JTeijOsirQ^^ui^ (or O-sirfS 
 
 ^ Guiraeoirii. 
 
 8. When denoting the difference between two things, the Tamulian 
 
 turns the phrase, as : 
 
 Rice is now cheaper than formerly hy a fanam a marcal, Qpem- 
 
 9. Wlieu denoting passage, eut^iuirtLj with the oblique case is 
 required, as : 
 
 We came hither hy Tranqucbar, jSTiiSen- ^irijstluiTi^itSeifr euj^ 
 
 10. When denoting near to ^n^Qs, ^i—^^i» or any such word 
 is required, as :
 
 Particles. 233 
 
 The General stood by the King, G£'(S)^i-i.9 ^^-rrs^irsuQ^Qs (^irir 
 
 11. Wlien denoting the absence of all others, the Tamulian uses 
 ^es?,Qiu ; or turns the plirase altogether, as : 
 
 lie came by himself, ^a/sar ^s^ffujaj s^^/rsw". ^ 
 
 They came by thonsclvcs, QmQ;^.Q^^^<JC)eo[rLC}ii en^frr^sxtr or 
 
 12. When denoting the solemn form of swearing, it must be exjjress- 
 ed in Tamil according to the sense of the connexion, as : 
 
 By my life! thou shall die, ^s^irojcO'j^&r ^ OT«OT^ou<5ar G!x>Qa> 
 
 13. When it denotes, within a short time, it must be rendered ac- 
 cordingly, as : 
 
 He will come by and by, Qstr^s^^s^freos^sc^im-Qsir (or 0^rr!^<F 
 
 Note. — By the by, a phrase to call the attention of another, cannot 
 "he well expressed in Tamil ; perhaps we may say, g)iar«rrti) ep(^Cui^ 
 Sl(^sQm^ Qsar, i. e.. There is still another subject; hear ! 
 
 14. When denoting substitution, or by proxy of, the Tamulian 
 circumscribes it, as : 
 
 He appeared by his attornei/, ^evesr sn-^etunriri^ei^^^ sT^tui 
 «ir J2eBrjj^i-JJ!@)«ir. i. e., he himself did not come ; he sent 
 
 his attorney. 
 22. Either, or. 
 
 When they mean both, it is expressed by adding e-ii to both nouns 
 or actions, as : 
 
 Averse either to contradict or to blame, er^lrs^^LljQusuluu^s'^.im 
 
 But when they mean separate things, the Tamulian expresses them 
 hy adding ^au^ to both nouns, &c., as : 
 
 Either this man or that woman is guilty cf the crime, '^^^ms^.^ 
 
 But frequently they are expressed by ^eieo^ or ^'AeoOeudr^&)y 
 placed before every clause that is proposed, except the first, thus : 
 
 Either stay to see the end of the affair, or go and be silent about 
 
 «w"(5«^ ^es'^'rf®^^^ ^'isvjyjihQtJs^iTLapQuir, lit: staij ! till 
 you see the end of the affair. If not, (\. e., f you say, I will 
 not stay.) then go, &c. 
 
 F 2
 
 234 Appendix. 
 
 Either gold or silver or hra.is will he foioid here, ^ejQs Ourr^ 
 
 ^&)0i)^ Oajsrretfl ^«Oso^ (iI;^_^?8W <S/r«wrL!.LJ®LD, 
 
 We must (cither) believe or perish, /siril eSs^svirS^sQeueKrfSm. 
 
 ^^eo^ Q<sil.(SuGu(r<xQ&jea!r(BlLh. 
 
 23, Except. 
 
 ^Tien it means hut, exclusively of, it is expressed as stated § XCV. 
 
 T\'lien it means unless it is expressed by tlie negative verb with 
 
 eStlf—zTa), as : 
 
 Except a man he horn again, he cannot see the kingdom of God, 
 
 24. For. 
 
 1. The conjunction, is expressed by u^nJl^Co), with a relative par- 
 ticiple, or by the causal ablative of the verbal noun, or by ,^sn=su_//ra), 
 ^^eorr&> or ^■sm-Ljt^ijS:(^Gei\ added to any sentence which states the 
 cause or reason of some eflect or consequence. This sentence usually 
 precedes that containing the eft'ect, &c., as : 
 
 / will send an angel hcfore thee ; for I will not go up in the midst 
 of thee,Jor thou art a stiff-necked people, ^mstSr euessrimsrT^sna 
 
 S^'StT'SiT S" o^iassfTfTes! u L^uSi^QeO jBT'sa S-iE]St^i QesrjB>-i auJLQT" 
 
 lLQi—'S^. ^^eofTtx) ej^i^^^sTesr iLjiastemsQ, Q^eir js i_sis ^^^ilu 
 
 Geum-. This last .^^purso is even not required ; and the sen- 
 tence may be given thus, ^irdr j5._:_LlG''i_i/r<s/rai6i, G^0,^^2i3«r 
 
 MI'S! S^SI^Qp eat mr LSS ^ ^ u, uQ eu esr , 
 
 See farther on the subject and other instances § §. LXXXII. 
 CIX. CXY. 
 
 When a long argument follows, the effect may be first stated, and 
 the causal sentences introduced by (srihem-^ ^^Oeo^arie!), or st'Ijuu^Qiu 
 6W(vpa) or er'ssr&srsi^^OseSed, as the sense may require. But even then 
 it is proper at the end of the argument to repeat the effect. See § CXY. 
 
 2. The preposition is variously rendered, 
 
 i. When it means for the sake of, in advantage of, in order to. &c., 
 the Dative case with .^cE, or the relative participle with u9-<s@ ex- 
 presses it, as : 
 
 Lahour not for the meat that perisheth, ^]^^^Qu!r(^ih Quir^esr 
 ^^&&TT& (or CufTiFsarii) cSye»^'L/'-Q!-"f-'E©) ui3^ ujirs=--Ui—ir 
 
 He wrote for moneij, ues^si^s^irs <5T(jp^©s3^. 
 
 ii. AVhen it means duration, and is united with words of time, the 
 Tamulian expresses it by the nominative, as :
 
 Particles. 235 
 
 He has not come for many daifs^ ^Qjss: jsfr^ ^mjsTraijjTeSffi'Se)}. 
 
 iii. When it means accommodation^ adaptatio7i, belonging to, becom- 
 ing, capabilili/, in proportion to, the Dative case expresses it, as : 
 
 I ayn not fit for this work, j5,recr ^^^QeulEOs-(^^^(^^uj!r'oar<siimiieo. 
 Commanding is for the king. Ohedience for the subjects. slLl^ 
 
 etasusar. 
 
 It is hard for me to learn, ut^&Sp.^ (sresr^s^^^rSQ^&Sp.^, or 
 
 He is tall for his age, ^su^aat—iu euius^J^^^^s^^; eustrirj^^^i^ 
 (d a2€DfriLSr5<£.fic!9«w-, or Q-UJif^0Q^sQ(n)^ or @ajew O J5 L^esi i—uu eer , 
 
 He is small for his age, |i)a/.^=f(5 sniua-iiVi^ ^is^sustrp- ^ ^uSeotieo^ 
 
 or ^au«3r (^ tLisa i—uu &!r , 
 
 iv. When it means in exchange, instead of the dative Avith either 
 ^<5 or u^eoivs is used, as : 
 
 I gave him a ground for his house, ^eu-^ sSil.(^.s--£:irs (or eStl.Q 
 
 V. When it means in remedy of in search of, or \vhen it stands con- 
 nected with certain verbs, it must be expressed accordingly, as : 
 
 This medicine is for the fever, <§^p ^iiiQ^^^ s^!t ^smff ^i(^il ot 
 
 He went for the sheep, ^sucTrr^®s'2eir^G^L—tlQurrQ)eir. 
 
 He waited for the Gentleman, .^^emj euQ^Spsu ss> its QEJstr^ 0q^^ 
 
 They lay for dead three days, ^esv ^jSirSr ^suirsarOs'si^euiT&erF 
 
 Gurren&Qi—^^n'if&Qr. 
 He wished for peace, .f^Lo/r^^/rewi®!) JaS(3(2LS(«3>ow, 
 
 25. From. 
 
 Has also many significations as : 
 
 1. Its primary meaning of away, denoting privation, separation, 
 transmission, emis-ion, is expressed by the locative ablative with ^(5 
 J:^, or ^esr^^ or by the accusative with ailtl®, as: 
 
 The land was taken from him, G^s^lL .^susSsSq^.^ ^J^^u 
 
 My friend departed from me, and united himself to another, sr^ir 
 
 k^GjiS^esT OTSBrSsjrffiS^®, GeuO^rfr^^ ,^ i__Gesr ^sn.e=^^rrew-. 
 
 The Governor sent troops from Madras, Ouf uj^sa.r Qs^ssi'^esr 
 
 2. When it means reception or attainment, the ablative ^i-^^&y 
 expresses it, as: ^^
 
 236 Appendix. 
 
 I learned this from him (of him^) fis^ §U'Ss>^ uueufiL-si^p^^js 
 
 <& G * "" cwr G L- ear , 
 
 He got only ten thousand Rupees from mc^ ^su^u^(SiuSljTu. ^-nT 
 ujuiiTs^.sui sr &"' eS L- ^ ^ pQ i-j p ^£ Q&iTessr i^^tr^. 
 
 3. ^^^len it denotes procession or descejit, the iustrumental ablative 
 is used, as : 
 
 From ignora7ice of the true God proceeds wickedness, GLaiuiun-esr 
 
 His lavishncss proceeds from kindness, ^ujeS(&)Qeo ^suif ^eti)^ 
 
 &t3irJ=Qs'e\)<siJi^<i£i(^iT, lit: he spends (his J riches from kindness. 
 
 From thee, kings shall proceed, e-6o-<^Seo '^j iT<Firi&&r Q^tres' joi 
 
 But David descended from Ahraham, ^ireS^ ^•3!rsfri£<^<sr s pp 
 ^liSGeoiSl^p^/rT'o-'^, i. e., David was born in the posterity of 
 
 Abraham. 
 
 4. When it means exemption, tlie Tamullan uses ^eOeoincied, as : 
 Christ was free from sin, @^,&i)j^ji^freiiL£ei)eoiT^eu JiruSlri^^fifrn-. 
 
 5. When it implies succession of time, Qp^ei or Qfi^pQ-saekr®, must 
 be used, as : 
 
 The gentleman ivus engaged from morning till night, ^earr^-^iu 
 
 Frojn the beginning of the world such things have not been heard, 
 
 e-ensQfem-L—iTcsr^ Qp ^, pQ e ireasr(Sl ^lj ui^iIuu-l-. <s!ri\iuiki&eir 
 
 G .ffi ar q3 lI. t-J /L_ aS el) 26i> . 
 
 Note, — Tlie phrase from generation to generation, is expressed, 
 thus: f'^Qfietop ^^(ipsapiuiruj. 
 
 6. ^Mien it is united with verhs denoting deliverance, it is some- 
 times expressed by th(; ablative of motion \vith @(5/^, or jSew-^ ; 
 sometimes by the dative, sometimes the phrase must receive a differ- 
 ent form, as : 
 
 See that you be saved from your sins, ^^^nuTsuihseSisBi^^ ^ihQ 
 ^ - tl.QJ;3:uu®Lh-^i^£(^ui^irn uLjfriuir<s or simply ss-ear uireiiisi 
 
 Christ only can deliver us from hell, jsitiI ^irs^^^p'^ilG'^'irsn-js 
 ut^ir<g;J:S;Dlen>^i'LD!r^^i: in^ileaLa ilSIu dSis^s e&eu^. Observe 
 that you cannot say here, j5iTsi^Tsri6m-^^LD<ie>La (iiJil^J©La 
 Li9_,5(g, &c., lieeause tliis supposes that we are already in it. 
 This is to be observed also in the following sentence ; 
 
 Sir, deliver us from prison ; if we are already in it, we may say, 
 
 es>T(f.i[M. But if we are not yet in, it must be rendered, g3"-'j/, 
 
 ppQa,e«rS'Lb.
 
 Particles. 237 
 
 Deliver nsfro^n this dangerous sickness, Gu:rrs=/ es>s:IQ^ir(Bi<^La 
 
 The poor people have been exempted from paying fajres, ^e6>L^s=s= 
 eariEj'^ar eui'iOs' ^^ fir ffLji^&(^ e-^^,S:Saj Qup^jn &&t, i. e., the 
 poor people hate received permissio7i (or order J not to pay 
 taxes. 
 
 26. How, 
 
 1. When the sentence is properly interrogative, it is rendered hy 
 
 ertl/utj)-, aauouoTci/, <s\ s,p,%ssr, erojeS^Laa uu, & ^(^G(^, &c., according to 
 the connexion, as : 
 
 How can these things be? ^s«a/ Qajuut^ivrLh. 
 How large was the sum ? ereu&ieiTeLju&xn m '§j)(^^f^. 
 How did this come to pass? ^.S^ f^euS^LLiriu^u^^s^xi. 
 
 2. When it simply denotes the manner, the Tamulian omits the 
 interrogation, as : 
 
 How a seed grows np into a tree, and how the mind acts vpon the 
 body, are mysteries which we cannot explain, oTen/^ u^iiiMiri&p 
 
 Hemembcr how kind he was to us, ^si,rr jSLaei^ei ^lueun-aSr^^^ 
 eafjS'Zssr^^d^QdCfTeir, (or w ^ fi^Bsr ^ lu &: it nji Q^ ^ fiirGtr ear ^') 
 
 3. When it is used in exclamation to denote greatness and wonder, 
 the interrogative may be used with ej^, or ^, prefixed, as : 
 
 How dreadjul is this place! ^, ^^f^fiedih cr^^^srLjujEiQ^/rO 
 
 How admirably is this done ! ^, ^^ sidjeusTreij ^J=^fiiuuLjt—^ 
 
 ^^e fiiHL.<e'-Q)£ iuiulJi-jlLi_^. 
 
 God how excellerd is thy name in all the earth ! ^, un iruu Gear 
 
 e_LL.(u,aai—aj fi (i^ js IT l2 ld liuxGuuieji^im &; ^ ^ Sesr li lo ei' «a j. (l ff" il). :5 
 
 But "vvhen the wonder is at any thing which causes regret or sorrow 
 it is better to use, ^Gn. ir, without the interrogative, thus : 
 
 How few can be found whose activity has not been misemployed ! 
 
 ^GiLj{rfiij£6(r ^.s iTessrl&'ieir &iiluiru-:^Gl<e'S^;S^ ^ii /Gun Aarr iFievrTLLfr 
 ^'f^ff mjSilTi£ixrLji_,(Sl&(ir)lfjr.&r, It" we 8ilV iT <Siisu<s\ie^Qi-ia, it will be 
 ambiguous, mtfaning as well many asfw. 
 How wretchedly is this man going on! S'i"-"^ @^^lo«ii?!^6w uf.s 
 
 OJiujQ&LLi—jBU-^iitiifi&'iiin'i' (2)u_'i0mfc> (3)»or. 
 
 27. However. 
 
 1. When it means in whatsoever manner, sruui^iLfix, eruui^ujnS 
 ^LD, £/«jaiS^^°^j!2/Lc, 01 £1 Qj sS ^LL fT £ ^ ui , cxfresses it, as:
 
 238 Appendix. 
 
 J must however go thilhcr, (sruut^ujtrQ^il frr&r ^ihQ^ Quirs 
 
 2, When it means at all events, happen what ivill, as : 
 
 However ill I may 6e, / shall go to Canjepooram, snsxrii^ sroiav 
 
 3. When it means nevertheless^ yet, but. Sec. ^ljui^jS!(^^^l1i, ^u 
 
 Uifi-tti;3;^/ff-ji2/Lc, ^,s!ji2)tii, ^i^ssji^, will express it. 
 
 The body was ordered to remain there for many days ; in the 
 night, however, it was taken down, stirs' ui ^^imQ-s ^Gjs^sjsir 
 
 uu^ ^p6-,s:iliuil.i—^i, lit : order was given that the body should 
 
 remain therefor many days ; nevertheless it was taken, &c. &c. 
 
 Tlie intentions of that Gentleman were always good ; however he 
 
 was a wan of lavish expcnce, ^^;s^^.es)!T i^ZiOuirQ^^th jsen&y 
 
 28. //. 
 
 Is expressed by the subjunctive mood of the verb in ^&), or ^&>, as : 
 If he be but discreet, he will succeed, ^<3do^i^s,^iuinu (or eSQeus 
 
 Jf she is sincere, I shall be happij, ^su&r s^mreau^wielrGfrsLiGiriT^eit 
 (or aJ^/ru-S(5^^freO) (cT^m i(^!e'jF^(efifrei^(ipmrL-.irii3(f^s(^Lh. 
 
 When not supposition but time is implied, the sense must be given 
 accordingly, as : 
 
 Jf thou be afflicted repine not, &.esrs.(^P-u^^^QjiliLDQ^ms[reop^«d 
 (or eij(5LD0u/ra^^) e^ <s= ■stir u u l- it ^(^lsu it iurr'S. 
 
 When if is connected with 7iot, it must be rendered by <^'^eoiTeSil. 
 L-ired or better by repeating the verb negatively and adding a3ili_/r®), as : 
 
 Jf he come, J will speak with him ; if not, I cannot help him^ 
 
 ^iTisr ^^j^si^ s^seSiQs^ujQujeir, Here ol)serve that ^eHenir 
 eSil.i—iTeb merely, refers to either eu^^ir&i or Qu^Qeu^. 
 
 29. Jn. 
 
 1. When it denotes the place or time where and when any thing is 
 present, the ablative in ^»i), (Gth case,) is used, as: 
 
 Jle is in the house, eSLLi^QeouSlQ^s;S(iriesr. 
 
 He lives in Madras, k^sjit Q;e"Sir%ssTLJu.i^m-^^Qiso Qi;rs'ilue^mB
 
 Particles. 239 
 
 This happened in the savie year^ ^jp ^fis:&j(t^'^f^Qedisi—^s:^, 
 He is steady in the pyrsuil of thnf science; ^ ^ .^ f- -^^ en sS ss^vu 
 
 2. When denoting the slate or thhtg present at any time^ tlie 
 Tamulian puts the noun -which expresses the state or condition, in the 
 foi-m of a verb or adverb, as : 
 
 He is in prosperity^ ^su/r eurrL^^^^cmsiScrjiT or ^jsL'ir Gurd^aea 
 
 aj€Q I— ljsu fr or SLifTLf sSs'Si0s<s(2)ir. 
 He went away in anger, rS^suesr Q a!tu lchtiuuQ uj^^'^ , or Q^iru 
 
 J^.G^irGi—, &c. 
 I will lie down in peace and dwell in safetij, jsiresr ^Lhrr ^!T&r ^ 
 
 The upright in heart, s-.<5^€Si Jbu-^ekstr ^(^s^iu(Lfes)'—iusu^£iaT or 
 
 £ u I— La eii eo IT S: ^Q^^ujQp&Tsireijn'<3:eir. 
 He came in haste, ^su<^^ ^isjfrLLfr£ieii^^fr'i!rr, 
 
 It is in his power to do it, ^bjss^ ^■ljui^i'Os--iLj'dj suJiiei^estLcu^emi— 
 
 lueuesr or ^^,Ji;<sv(^GeO jBi—Si(^UJ. 
 
 It was useful in promoting domestic concord, ^(tfs^irJ^^p s=uiir 
 
 ^fr^w s^eiji.SujQpmri—n-Qfi}^;^!'^ @<#^ i3 J GiUfrs^sitrLDTtiSlQ^^^^. 
 
 3. When connected with behalf, meamngfor, the dative with ^ J, 
 expresses it, as : 
 
 He spoke in my behalf, ^ojIt (zresrs^sirsZGuQt^T. 
 
 4. In several phrases the causal case expresses it, as : 
 
 In that he said a new covenant, he abolished the old, i^§s-rrear 
 &^1—W'-J!^a>eisis0tu'sisr^ ^suiTOs" [rear SOT ^(^GeO uLptu s> i / r, i , (y ^ 
 
 In as much as all men are sinners, thcif are all under condemna- 
 tion, ereOeOir Ln<sSs.irs^ui ui}'<5S&<stririi3(<^£Q,;D ffred ^lew^tsOwei) 
 
 eOlT(i^dj ^sSl'?JSsr&G'S^eijfTaSl0sS(fr)n'JEe!r. 
 
 Into is more particularly expressed hy the dative with s-ir, often also 
 by the ablative : in ^«>), as : 
 
 Tlie hady returned into the room, ^LhiDTerrsun-seh- .sjemp&-^eirGsr 
 
 ^ (^ LL Lj eu ^ s- IT r<Birr. 
 
 In this, as in all other particles, much dejicnds upon the verb Avith 
 which it stands connected, agreeably to Avhich it must be expressed, 
 thus : 
 
 He introduced me to his family, ^suit ^tlnponi—iu LotoroI'sMajiL/tS 
 L5sw-2sn-<2:2»rii^Lb <5T6BrJgJ.£,ril9-@/f, Ht : he shelved me his wife 
 
 and children. 
 
 The fatigue threw me into a fever, ^'sinl i^ srewi.f^J^s^'TLhsaQ^th 
 tj'f-c5(o<s^ajiT«J(V5j5jS^, or ^leniliu sr^^i2i5sr<F<3i-i!'^^<s^eirGefr
 
 2-10 Appendix. 
 
 30. Lest, or That 7wt. 
 
 Is often expressed bj the negative participle with ui^sc^, as : 
 
 / hide it, lest it shoidd be lost, ^^ @5?^^ Quir.srr ^ut^s,:^ 
 
 He gave kirn vicSicine, lest he should die, ^'eu^ s^ireinr^ui^sr^ 
 (^OY s^frsijir^(Qi ^tbui^s^^ ^su^J;^ i-Ci(i^Ji^OsiT(B^^irn'. 
 
 But when tlie other part of the sentence also has a nej^ative, this 
 mode Avill he A'erv anihi^iinus. The Tamulian makes two sentences of 
 it, and repeats the verb in the subjunctive mode, as : 
 
 Ye shall not eat of the fruit, lest ye die, ^tasalr ^fis-^ss^xPetiiu 
 ^'s^irLLtSi—ssh-u-ir^ ^!vln3i^L-!r p^!r(sS^&ir, lit: tjoii shall not 
 
 eat the fruit ; if you eat, yon will die. 
 Love not slce-p, lest thou come to poverty, .s/rs^s^emf eSa^diLJir^(iy 
 
 Do not go up the innvrit to^fighf, lest ye be slain, u_/#j;(i)LJS!»r.^Mii> 
 
 31. More. 
 
 The particle denoting the comparative degree, answered by than, see 
 the ai'ticle than. 
 
 32. Most. 
 
 1. The adjective most, when it signifies the superlative of some or 
 many, is expressed by ereOeon-il, and by vr&i&)ir(^LD, the noun beino- then 
 put in the ablative ^eo, with e_LC, as: 
 
 Leprosy is the most dreadful disease, erebeoireSiu.T^seSeisiEK^LLL- 
 Ramasamy is the most obstinate of manJcind, sre^ieoir'-b.TJi' s,n£ei^ih 
 
 God is most high, uiriruirek CTa^eU/r/fljuui Q LdeOfrssnauiJ. 
 
 The ablative of comparison may be followed also b}- iJIseLjLh, or u?® 
 
 ^^, as, in the above instances, uSssi^Ls^QurreOeorr^^, iSi(^^fiQ/:i(^cLL-ir 
 ili_(Tf^OT-ajfcW &c. ; but this is not necessary. 
 
 2. When it is used as a substantive, ^^<stl, ^G/s<sil^ or Lolg;^, 
 Avill answer it, tlius : 
 
 Most of the churches ivcre pulled down, G'S:ru3eOs&n^i^^iumLj 
 @£9-isoLjil£_6w, or the Tamulian will rather say QsinSeos&r 
 u.T^sr^QiMeorr^ ^i^i,^uutLu.esr, i. e., more than half (f the 
 churches. 
 
 Tenfanams ic the most I will give, u^^uestsr^^^^ ^^suimu 
 
 sQ'£[r6i<d-SLairil.Q L-&T,
 
 Particles. 241 
 
 3. When it is used adverbially with a/, it must he varieusly rendered, 
 thus : 
 
 His dotvnfal rvill he protracted a few days at the ynost, cg/sueor 
 
 A hundred rupees at most will suffice for the building, 6i?®^tl-t- 
 Ca/«wr®Lcn"(3)sO .^ ^^•-irTuj<k(^Q LnQtO Os^^eOu^ml-L-rr^, lit : 
 if you will fjuild the house, it will not cost beyond 100 rupees. 
 Here Qaiasr^,Lnir^ei> is necessary, because of u^irtLt—ir^. But 
 if the phrase were in the affirmative, as: // will cost 100 ru- 
 pees to build the house, then the dative will be proper, as : a?© 
 
 33. Neither, Nor 
 
 Are expressed by s-d>, affixed to the nouns, with the verb in the 
 negative form, as : 
 
 Neither light nor air entered our room, epeSiLjEiairfi^Lh (snsi'Setr 
 
 ^issijDiiSled aj jT fflS si) Sei). 
 Ye shall neither eat of it, nor touch it, ^isjs&t c^'6n^LI•OL//^,S^s<^^ 
 
 Neither despise nor oppose what thou doest not understand, &-s^rs 
 (^^O s:fiuuiT^as)^ ^ .Ji/s' Lssii^LJ em ems: eLjiSieSQ IT IT ^<£ -a eij IE] -Bh-L-fr^, 
 
 The dog would neither eat the straw himsidf nor suffer the ox to 
 eat it, jSiTiufreisr^ ^^^esiai<rG£fr2eo^s^!r^ ^■i<!''esri6ijLaie02e\) lq/t® 
 
 ^'m ^L£iUi^i;(Q ^i—iEiO'SfrQiti^seijL^&i'Seo. 
 
 When the verb is in the future tense .^Sjb/lc, or ^©jfi/t^, may be 
 used for e-ta, as : 
 
 Neither good nor evil shall be done to you, js^es)ijiujirS^^^ssiLa 
 Neither gold nor silver nor estates rvill make you truhf happy. 
 
 In this instance e-ti, or .^a/^, will do as well. 
 
 34. Notwithstanding or Nevertheless 
 Is generally expressed by the third verbal participle, as : 
 
 Notwithstanding all the opposition which exists in Ireland to the 
 cause rf Bible education, it is on the increase, Q^eusu^v-ars-^^ir 
 
 G Loe^: lLsu'j: J; 'X LniTW esr fit ^. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, he came, ^tLui^uStn^fi^ih ^^sum eL.'^^ir^'sr, 
 
 G 2
 
 242 Appendix. 
 
 35. Now 
 
 Is literally expressecl by ^L-OurrQ^^^ but it cannot be used unless 
 the present time be indeed meant, as : 
 
 Now seek to be.saved, ^L-OurrQp^ ^srtLSilesiutu&yL-tLjiiui^ 
 
 Wben, therefore, 7?07i^ is used merely as an emphatic or expletive 
 particle, it requires no rendering in Tamil. It may often be regaided 
 as a conjunction, to introduce an explanation of the preceding sen- 
 tence, and then it may be rendered by a corresponding word in Tamil, 
 ^«»^o^@ ff5<^^, or such like, as : 
 
 This man asserts thai Vishtnoo is the true God; now you must 
 understand that, &c., eJil®.®)/ OLcu"-'U-i/r[L,,iG^aj®iii'0<efe©G^«^ 
 
 When it is unitedwith then, the Tamulian expresses it by ^i^isi^, as: 
 Now and then he said, there is a Ghost there, ■.siihQ'S ^Gaua^OiA 
 
 36. 0! Oh! See under Ah! 
 
 37. Of. 
 
 This preposition also has in English many significations, -which must 
 be duly considered and expressed in Tamil accordingly. 
 
 1 . When it denotes possession, the tith (or Genitive) case, or the 
 oblique case ^«w, is used, as : 
 
 The justice of God is unimpeachable, u-rtru^ ^emi—iu /^ (j^ 
 The goodness of Cod is very great, u ff rru ir ^J6S)i—tu s iueij iMr^^ 
 
 Jacob was the son of Isaac, ^ujrriG'iciTLj fr'S^friSss^^c^iMiJ jresr. 
 
 Em-opeans are apt to use the 6th case in Tamil indiscriminately for 
 the genitive case in English, or Greek ; by which the language is not 
 a little obsciu-ed, and the sense misinterpreted. Here are a few instances. 
 
 I'he righteousness (f God : is uffsruir ^S5>i—iu ^^, namely, the at- 
 tribute of God; but in Horn. iii. 21, the same expression must 
 be rendered, uSiruJ^sQs.n^p^^, or u!T!t<-js ^e^Qpsisr 
 LJ!TS: J^Os^eO^j'isfi) ^^, or uSTfTU'i&a S-'S^t'') uessrest^.ear ^ ^,^ thf- 
 
 righteousness which is act epted of God, or irhich God has made. 
 The Jaith of Jesus Christ is, ^^lus, sQ;S.efd^eS^i£S)L—UJ eSsieuT 
 <Fix, namely, the faith which Christ himself had ; but in Rom. 
 iii. 21, it must be §i,iQiusri&r£<sfd^&»siJuup^iM s^a^eutr^ui, the 
 faith which lays hold on Christ.
 
 Particles, 243 
 
 The knotvJedg" of Gorl, u ir ir u it ^aa t—iu ^^a/, means, the know- 
 ledge which God, himself has ; but if the meaning he our know- 
 ledge of God^ it must be, uinruiT^esruj/SS/s ^jSleij. 
 The fear of God, cannot be rendered, uirirwr ^qhl-uj uiuii, 
 which means, the fear which God himself has; but ua-iruir,^ 
 
 S(^l1i'—Iujl1ju®Qjduujld. 
 
 The praise of the Saviour, ^!TtL£=s(t^ss)'—iu S'^, means, the 
 
 praise which he himself sets forth ; but ^^ LLs^^emfrff^^sSjo 
 
 ^,9, the praise nhich praises him. 
 
 The zeal of God, in Rom. x. 2, is evidently the zeal for God, 
 
 and must therefore he rendered accordingly, u jt iru sr ^uji^rrs 
 
 fflJliS JiT<ffi@UJLC. 
 
 The stone of stumbling, ^L-^fijb^fi^&ssed, not @^^^eiS otu 
 
 2. When it denotesyVom among, out of, the ablative in @a) with ^ei), 
 or some such word, must be used, as : 
 
 You may eat of all the fruits in the garden, Q ^iriLi—^^sH'^'^ 
 
 He is a friend of mine, ^sun sriJ'SQ^Sisn^asSOeorrQgiiiT. 
 
 At last all the people of the world shall be judged, ses>L-9iLSGeo 
 
 Take 12 pieces of the 24, ^^« ^CJ^^^O)"'^':^ ^s»r<^5srf;^ uear 
 
 3. When it means concerning, relating to, ®/*^^ is used, as : 
 When I told him of the affair, he was amazed, jsir^ ^^^sxrrffnj 
 
 4. When it is the sign of a Genitive, qualifpng its governing word, 
 tresT ^ih must be used, as : 
 
 The land of Judea, yC^oj/r cr®-^^(3'^<Fti, or merely, ^Qs^turr 
 
 He anointed him with the oil of gladness, ^mCfira^Ouiei-^ ^^ 
 He has clothed me with the garment of righteousness, /-^Oujs^ 
 
 5. When it denotes properti/ or condition, meaning as much as 
 hav'imr, the TamuUan uses e-emL-tu, E_sJr«rr ; and if the meaning be 
 negative, ^^eoir^, as: 
 
 He is the king of glory, ^&jQn-La<Seiais><jj^ss>t-\u ^irir^^rr, (or lsS 
 
 He is a man ff fortune ; ^eusir ^eib^sler L^wai—iueue^. 
 
 He has no couch of his own, Os^(T^^'^!risru£«rc^ujeu(5iS&)2e)).
 
 244 Appendix. 
 
 She is a woman of great abilities, ,£>jeiJeirL£^^^Lj^^ets)iuiLjesi!—ujaiar, 
 
 6. When it denotes power or choice, as the cause of a thing, the 
 ahk^tive causal is used, as : 
 
 C)f ourselves tve can do no real good, jsu^Lcn-Qeo OiniLjujfrewjseireiDLa 
 
 7. When it denotes extraction, or belonging- to, and in a few other 
 connexions, it must be given according to the sense in Tamil, thus : 
 
 He is of an ancient family, ^euew- y,/f«i?au»;7sar qQlbu'^^P-Sjd^ 
 
 seuear. 
 
 This is an affair of the cabinet, @^ i^inrs^s^ea'-isQ'Bppsn-S'i'xjui. 
 
 1 am of the Tamil nation, ^irekfi^Lpioir. 
 
 Of necessitu GeLiesfrQsu^rrtu, ^ajSiuuifnu. 
 
 Of a truth, OLDiuiuiruj, jSJ^s'iuLcfruj. 
 
 Of late he has not come, QuffsarLarr^^^Qeo (or Gun-ear&ifrir 
 
 38. On, or upon. 
 
 1. With regard to place or situation, it must be rendered by Cldcd, 
 or by the ablative of place, as : 
 
 A city set on a hill cannot be hid, loSsuilSsw (?>£«) (or ldSsdilSci)) 
 Bombay stands on a island, UihssiuiluL-i^earLa e^^^eSQeo ^(5^ 
 
 Qstr p^^ 
 
 The guilt be upon your head, ^fi^it^p/Oih &-«ar ^SeuaJlew^CLosolcg 
 
 2. When it denotes a particular day, the same case in @a) must be 
 used, as : 
 
 He died on the I2th of March, ^su'dr u!a(^'sSLn!r^ili uDa. Q ^lu 
 
 3. When it means in immediate consequence of, iLT^^jr^^Qeo or 
 e- 1— Gear expresses it, as: 
 
 Upon one kind word he was reconciled as: jBedeiaiirlr^esi gseSiii 
 e^G(rajiriT^es>fi&s)UJ<FOiS=fr'st!r<ssrL6n'^^£i'^^G&)(^orOtB=ir6iir6BTeiji_Gear) 
 
 The ablative causal may also be used, particularly when it means 
 simpl}'' in consequence of, as : 
 
 He valued himself much upon his high birth, ^rr^ &-ujr(^eo^^p 
 i3p^^^(es)QeO (or e-UJiT^&)^ fiiT^ssr^i^QeO^ uSseijUi GiDiireiDUi
 
 Particles. 245 
 
 4. When it means I'elating to, with respect to, ®^^^', must be 
 used, as : 
 
 Locke wrote tipon Government, e-Oeoir^Os emu suit ^lemtr^s^ewr^ 
 
 I was silent upon questions which I did not understdnd, toTe3r<i@ 
 ^OfifitufrsiB iTifiujiEJ'S^ea'S'^iS s: ^ SIT so' Q u<e=f!' LaeC,(i^^G ^'^'^ . 
 
 5. When it means in consideration of, the Tamulian usses ^'Jssr 
 ^^, tljuiTp-ff^, Q'SlL®, jsiIlS, or any other verb suiting tlie 
 connexion, as : 
 
 He surrendered upon splendid promises, l&^^s^ LSls-Qturrs^esrofsTerr 
 
 I do it up07i your word, jsiresr &_LC-(ipsiat—.iu<3an-ns'.emfetsi'ujBiLL9£'0£^ 
 uj&GjDiisr, or pn' Os'iT'^saT ^(^Qeo O'Fuj&G/O'sa , or e_(_i(i/)«5) t_uj 
 
 euiriTS:ets>^a3smGL£iffi ^^sm^J'OiFujSQ/Dtiw, 
 
 6. When it denotes l>t/, the means of support, the causal ablative 
 must be used, as : 
 
 He lives solely upon water and rice, G s^ it p ;S (^ e^ ^ ff_ essrest^ f ^ sn 
 LhinirsQ^' il^ i^eaLQ&siQj^'sar or G£^n'^ise^esi^(^LhLSirr^^]^(ei.^n'L-j 
 
 l9 tl ® LJ l5) S83 i^ tf K (2? 63r . 
 
 7 In different connexions, it must be differently expressed; a 
 variety of instances is here given, as : 
 
 Upon such terms I also would undertake the business, ^uui^ 
 
 uutr^eO, jsrr^iih ^^^Geu'SeoesiujJ'Os'ujGeusiT. 
 On God's providence our hopes depend, unfruffsar eSs^inBiljup-OiT 
 
 ear ^ ^irth pLti\3s.s:tT ^^&Offrreisru)^Q^£.&G(fr)LL, or merely ^UjLjQ 
 
 Gi^ih, or ui!'iru3'^ieS)i—ujeS<FtrfiLliLSl>otirGu:iGei> fitaiSis&a^iuiriiSQS 
 
 QG(n)Lb. 
 They went on foot, ■srrtsdn-eO jsi—fi^Gutr^^s&r, 
 I came on horseback, ^^eafTidstsiG LaQeojSieu^G ^^ or (^^es)rrii3^ 
 
 Q LneOisu^G ^arr, 
 Jt happened on a sudden, ^^s^'Sl^turnujSL-^s;^. 
 He did this on purpose, ^sueh icxsn-s^^nu <^'1i'ui^<s=0s=iusbt^. 
 Do not go there 0)i pain of death, uio essr^^i.i^ s, ^uuGsueesris^eH 
 
 ^ikiG'zGuirSir^Qj, ov ^tuiaGsQuir^ssh-L—rr^. G-j[T(^eO,s-»3r£r^ 
 
 From on high, ^-lu ir s^.^eSlQf,^^i. 
 
 On the contrary, ^s;pOs^JiTs. 
 
 She plai/ed on the harp, eif'^essremiueufrSlsf^irw; 
 
 On my part, there is no objection, fimar sp^^ (sSGn-ir^(ip(^,Os'ir^eti 
 
 Lairtl-Gt—ear. 
 
 Upon this he said as follows, rSi^\<A^i^^ lj (or ^'sw^iCsil®)
 
 246 Appe7idix, 
 
 39. Or. 
 
 For the meaning of this conjunction, when it answers to either^ see 
 Hilhcr. 
 
 When it stands alone, and denotes opposition, it must be rendered 
 
 by ^«)e»)/raSili— /reO, or ^eiecOsu^(,ir)eC)^ thus : 
 
 Give me to eat, or / die, erm^(v,£=e=!Tilju!T®^D-Qw<skr(Siih. ^e^ejir 
 
 Repent, or you will perish, Laesr^^(i^uLj ^eieoOi^iat(rr,pOsil.^u 
 
 GurraifTiu. 
 
 When it signifies distiibution, ^eu^ vnW express it, which must be 
 added to every word or clause which is distributed, thus : 
 
 Send (me) gold, silver, copper or lead, Oun-i^^tcsnuireu^, Oeum-efi 
 
 Or ^<^ei)jii may be prefixed to every such word, except the first, 
 thus : 
 
 Let the carts bring lime or sand or stones, ue^i^s&r<s-mri^tleinu 
 
 These subjects are usually taken from the scriptures or from the 
 life of some saint, ^lilji^uulLi— Qun-Q^me^ sG^eueus^em-^^ 
 
 oj^ (ST(1?_J^iO:5/rsrrQj/rffcFsrr. li' ^jeOe))^ be Used, then sr®^^ 
 £Os!Tefr&JtrF!'S&r must be put also after the first @(5^^', thus : 
 Q ^eueuS'ssr^^sSc^^^ erQ^^iOs rrerrsutriT-s&r, ^eOeo^ cj^^g QpeS 
 liS^etai—OJ, &C. &C. 
 
 40. Otherwise or Else 
 Is literally expressed by uuppiliui^, or Qe^^'3 ^ airiru^n-'S, but nei- 
 ther will always suit ; the former is the least proper ; the latter may 
 be used when otherwise stands adverbially, as : 
 
 <^ 
 
 Jfyou act otherwise, J shall get awxry. / Qaijit -Slrsmr Lan-iL<^ 
 Os^^j^irpQsrruLarrtiSldF'ilGueiir, (or GsujjieSfL^iriLj) 
 
 But in other cases, the Tamulian repeats the verb of the preceding 
 action, which is affected by otherwise or else, put in the subjunctive 
 mode, as : 
 
 Thou desirest not sacrifice, else I would give it, uaS^^eff^/ff^^aj/P/f 
 
 He did not pay the money ; otherwise I should^ hare given hint 
 the (roods, Leesr^&apiusuisr O^ja/l/^aSebSei;, <f O^ «8'^^®©©;5 
 
 LJ«»T L_ IE <« Sariu au ^ <£ (g i O'S T® lI (» LJ «2n" . 
 
 41. Over. 
 1. With regard to place, is expressed by Gu^eo, as :
 
 Particles. 247 
 
 He poured tvaler oner m}/ head, ^oje^ isr^^isoiiS'SSTQuip^eiSiresgf.T 
 
 aj (T fr ^ Si IT ssr 
 
 2. When it denotes superiority, QiLeon-tu, or Q'-c^^emunLnnu, with the 
 dative, expresses it, as : 
 
 The king is over his ministers, ^!Tir£^fr^^'^^<sa(—uj La^^iB<S(3^ 
 
 3. When it means through, diffusely, sna :^ih, is used, as : 
 
 His fame spread all over the country, ^sucf^^L^ivSir^^ Gs^Olb 
 
 m(^(iT,0<B=esT p^ or uSfeS^^. 
 
 42, Out. 
 
 1. When it means outside adverbially, it is expressed by, QsueSQiu^ 
 Lf/pihGu, as ; 
 
 He is out, ^guf^QeueSQujiiSl(T^s3(»)eBr. 
 
 2. When united with of, it must frequently be differently expressed ; 
 though G&jeSQuj, &c., may often be used when it is opposed to inside ; 
 yet much depends upon the verb with which it stands connected, as : 
 
 He is out of the house, ^3umOsueSa3Gei)iiSlr^sS!(fr)s^. 
 HeiVe7ltoutofthe house, ^Sfeu^ e?Llsa)£_aS<-l'50aue<fl(?Uj(?Ufl-(2)sar. 
 He is out of the camp, ^^a!ru;rs<Tiu^^£(^il\-^jDusiQuii3(^i'^(n)&!r. 
 In the morning all the ships were out of sight, ■s!T6oQlci («^26VjJ«J) 
 eredei)n'-s:iSLji-J&>s:^iEj^eisr,^ij£(^ <s! LLi—rr ^ ^ 3' LSiTiLH-jQiJn'iS'^sr, 
 He is out the king's favour, ^sirs',7eS^saL-UJ^u-iesiSLiaSlLp^^^tr'iar. 
 He is out of humour, ^gy^/^wj ir6«LQO«.TSOTri9-(5tfi&C!9»'w-, or ^auesr 
 
 s=^£=eOQfe!rsirBU(^n3Q^s3(n)eir, 
 He is now out of debt, ^suM'^'3^0ufr(ip^su.esi'ei>2eo, or ^eu^ 
 
 I went out of the way, aJi^esi'ueS^'^sSeo&G^e^. 
 He is out of danger, ^•su^i''^GLDrrs=L£<Jo'2e)). 
 The f re is out, Ojsd^d^i-j^sS^^GufriiS^^^. 
 
 He was distressed out of measure, ^swosr ^sireSeOeofr^ ^^lj^^^oj 
 uuiLi^rr^, or if the sense be active, ^su<^ uSsojd^ LS(^^iUirtLj 
 
 3. When out of means the same as because of the causal ablative is 
 required, as. 
 
 / save him 20 pagodas out of compassion, ^^ss^^i^Geo ;5!r<^ 
 
 iksi a_(0 eij3' [T^s^ser, &c. 
 
 4. Sometimes it means /row, when the ablative of place with ^CJ^s 
 ^ or @C5^-^> is required, as : 
 
 He plucked the book out of my hands, <si<^is>sii3eS(T^^^ n^^s^ 
 
 S» ^ LJ J ® /Q is (g) «W".
 
 248 Appendix. 
 
 He took till' things out of the box, OuLLi^tiSli^,Q^^^ uekn^mis^of 
 Tliis h'l.slorii is taken out of the Bible, <^^ ^s^s's'^^i^u ier£=^S:Uj 
 
 43. Perhaps 
 
 M:\y be renciercd by «r0Gfflj?c»r, but it often happens tliat it cannot 
 be rendered at all, and the sentence must either receive another form, 
 or when the word means it may be, the simple future tense will express 
 it, thus : 
 
 Perhaps he will eome, <^(^Qeu'ieir suiTjau/rcsr. 
 
 // was perhaps negligence which brought him into these embar- 
 rassments, cjyauiTo. ^Lj ui^LluiLL-euQ^^^^^eb ^s il,uiLi_s ^(^ 
 
 The simplest method, perhaps, will be to dismiss him, ^'s^'her^ 
 
 44. Rather. 
 
 Cannot be rendered by any particular word in Tamil ; the sense 
 must be determined and accordingly rendered, thus. 
 
 // would rather retard than proinote instruction, ^^ =gy^<ay ^J 
 
 ©LQ. 
 
 / had rather you go and ask for the bill, ^QirQuaiuiLi-KssevliU^ 
 
 Rather than lose my soul, I shall give up sin, srbvi (^^^ll it jS^ 
 
 ^' iL. eu tT L£ es> 'su tiji u fi ^L Qufr:Sir^ui^'S(^LliLjrr&iS6Sifi suli_(SaS(i. G ajea;". 
 
 This is rather to much rain, ^^^Laa»ip^(5^<£=£^^u3/rtt50i@LC. 
 
 45. Since. 
 
 1. When it means jTrww Qpfi'^, or (Lp^flOstre^®, expresses it, as: 
 
 Since times immemorial, men have departed from the way of 
 trulli, jstasic^ sQ si^u^^ ^ ^u ^ <s s .t eoihQfiS pQs nessrf^ LCiseti^ir 
 
 2. When adverbially used, meaning ago, before this, Qpfie^, M-ith the 
 corresponding paiticle, e.«»,r.5(gai, or Lj/t)u-/^^ix), may be used, or simply 
 the verbal participle, as : 
 
 It is now twelve years since the earthquake took place, l4,l^ tu^ir 
 
 ^ ^ sast L^!T i<sr Sii xp ^. ei> ^^euemrrffi^La ues' eS H' eikr@ eu^L—LaTuSp^, 
 
 or ^LoliLj^iT^s^e^L—iTSi LJLjSiiTe^J essrQ)) ev(i^!—LDiriLSp.£U. 
 
 3. When it means because that, whereas, as, ul^|lS(Q)^cev, v>'ith a 
 relative participle, or the cau^sal ablative must be used, as :
 
 Particles. 249 
 
 Since' then great circumspection is required, he careful to tise it, 
 
 ufi«ay(CT J- /Ta/^.T ear LD/r 05(75^,4 G°aj£S!>Ti^iijLJif-iij/r 61) (^gy Q ev 6isr®eu ^ rr (^ii^ 
 
 Since ye believe in Christ, do as he has commanded you, ^ihs&r 
 
 The expression ever since is sufficiently expressed by Qp^pOstrear®^ 
 as in the before mentioned instances, 
 
 46. Still. 
 
 When this adverb means nevertheless, 7iotwithstanding, the subjunc- 
 tive mode expresses it, as : 
 
 Wlien it means in an increasing degree iSdr^di, vnll express it, as : 
 
 He ivent on still faster, ^sw^S&sr ^^ih ^^seSemrreijmijjSL—^fiiTdr, 
 When it means in continuance ; LSis^^m, will be proper, as : 
 
 He still studies the Veda, ^e^j^iSl^ar ^d^ Q<sus^ ^ea^uLji^^Q(n)m-, 
 
 If ^saTKfTiii be put, the sense Avill be, that hitherto he did not get 
 
 on in learning, and that therefore he still learns. 
 
 When it means besides, <^^esrih expresses it, as : 
 
 / have still another piece of news ^mssrih i^(^Qs=iL^\i^em®. 
 
 47. Than. 
 
 Is expressed in Tamul by the dative, and by the ablative in g)^, 
 "VAath e-LD, without any change in the adjective or adverb, though occa- 
 sionally =5/^^, or .j)i^<sLairuj, may be added, as: 
 
 This is better than that, @^^^ .Sj^^eOeo^, or ^cDLOfriJI^ia 
 
 I am greater than he, ^aussPj^Lo jsir^OuSluuisu'^. 
 This writing is worse than the other, =gy/^£r(Ti)/^ja;LQ ^^i ^su 
 
 eo L— £=: eesr LLiT uSq^aQi es: p _^- 
 
 Observe that these forms imply that both have the same quality 
 only the one is better or worse ; when therefore the sense is that the 
 one, Avith which another thing is compared, has nothing of the quality 
 at all, or one contrary to it, the comparative form caniiot be used iii 
 Tamil ; one of the qualities must be directly denied, thus : 
 
 It is better to say the truth than to lie, OumLjQu£^n-mps=s:^ijuLair 
 earem^^O^ireOefijSpQsifieVLti. Here if you say Ou/ruj GusrQp 
 ^:Mii^, it implies that to a certain degTe'e falsehood also is o-ood. 
 
 It becomes ns more to love than to hale our neighbour, l^p^sbtu 
 ussiSsQp^eOeo, ^<sueSL-^^<si .^;<skLjSh.(i^SpG^ jBuisr^s^£-(^^ 
 
 H 2
 
 ^50 Appendix. 
 
 It is belter to suffer than to do evil^ ^asii^saiuJ^O^iuSjSfeieo, 
 
 Note. — Concerning the comparative degree, see § XLVI. 8. and 
 XLVll. 2. 
 
 48. That. 
 
 This conjunction is expressed, 
 
 1. When it means because or on account of, by the dative, with ^s, 
 or by (^fi^^., as : 
 
 / am sorry that I cried out, ^rr^«>-i(^^ ii'-imresinlssrfipsn-<£ Lcesr 
 
 2. AVhen it refers to a consequence, the clauses must he inverted, and 
 the causal particle used, as. 
 
 He was so frightened that he Jied, ^suisr i^sajLLutu^^^i^Qeo 
 
 (or simply uuu^^y ^^CGurr^sir. 
 
 3. When it qiiotes another sentence, srsw-^ and other modifications 
 of sr&srQjD^ are used, or the mere verbal noun in such a case as the 
 following verb may require, as : 
 
 Acknowledge that men are sinners, taeS^n-s&r uireSseirn-iiSlQ^s^Q 
 
 Know this day that Jehovah is God, u ^ iru aGear Q s^si<Om-<^ jji 
 
 Jtemember that thou wast a servant in Egypt, etQuu^^G ^•f^ 
 
 / shall demonstrate that the earth moves round the sun, }^lS'^^iu 
 ^est ^a- js/SiG lu ir(BSfiQ ^ &ru fi. p ^ S-^'inrestsnas^^O^freOeiiiG&jiir 
 
 or sresr^Sc^i t n'jF^uLj(Sl^o ^G^'^i^. 
 
 4. When it denotes ajinal end, ui^, ui^&(^, or ut^'jutruj expresses 
 it, as : 
 
 Do thou work, that they may live, ^suirs&r i3saLps(^iiut9.i(^ ;f 
 
 49. Then. 
 
 1. When it means simply at that time, or after that, is expessed by 
 
 m^LjOuiTQ^^, or ^s-sfreo^^Geo, ^^Qjs^^^GeD, ^^/B^L/Jew-ty. 
 
 2. When it means that time, the Tamulian expresses it thus, as : 
 Till then, let us watch, .j)js<srreOtMisues>iTs;(^d} (or ^^'a/ewrJ^Lc) 
 
 3. When it means if it be so, it must be expressed accordingly, as ;
 
 Particles. 251 
 
 Then let me go and smite him, ^Ljui^iuir^S), ^irdrQuiruj ^sula^ 
 
 What shall I then do? ^uuc^iun-iSfeOjSiTear ermemQ^iuujeOiTLa. 
 
 Note. — When then follows after a subjuuetive, the former need not 
 be expressed in Tamil, as : 
 
 If it be so, then I shall come, ^uui^ujrr(^&> jstresr SLfc^Qeu'^. 
 Sometimes it is proper to translate it by, nSfuOutTQ^^. 
 
 50. Thence, Thenceforth. 
 
 These adverbs mean /row that place or time, or, for that reason, and 
 must be expressed accordingly, as : 
 
 Thence we departed, -^fi^ @i_^#6»^aiSil0f-!LyjT)i^ijtlG'L_n-Lo. 
 Thenceforth they did not join us any more, ^^Qp^e6, (or Jt^^^ 
 6SfreOihQfifiei\ ^suirs^La^ui^ii^Lh sr isj s tsn- J^Q^ if eSeii2e)}, or <crm 
 
 Thence it was that I rejected his offer, ^sy^oC'eo (or ^k^.q^sit 
 
 51. There, thereabout, thereafter, thereat, thereby, therefore, there- 
 from, therein, thereinto, thereof thereto, thereupon and there- 
 with. 
 
 1. The adverb M^reisinraost acceptations expressed by ^ihQs, or 
 .^eueSi-^^Qeo. When it is used as an exclamation directing some- 
 thing at a distance, it may be expressed by ^Qfiir, as : 
 
 There he comes ! ^G^:reu(i^&(rr)<sw. 
 
 When it is expletive, it cannot be rendered, thus: 
 
 There was a man in Sadras, whose name was Subaroycn, s^^sr 
 
 QcBTusT ^Q uir. 
 
 2. Thereabout. When it means, near that place, is expressed by 
 ^iaj<sSi—s;^Qeo, or .^su^'^^^^ ^s^s^Jiu'^mu. When it means, nearly, 
 ^jDs:^eafSiu must be used. When it means, concerning that matter, 
 ^s»^«@^^ jj; will be proper. 
 
 3. Thereafter. When it means according to that, or accordingly, 
 ^^^ilui^, expresses it. 
 
 4. Thereat. When It means nt that place, .j>i3usS^^^.S<leo must be 
 used. But when the meaning is at that, on that account, it must be 
 rendered by ^is(S)Qeo, ^^^L^^gjsdi. 
 
 5. Thereby is well rendered by ^^(^Qeo, ^^^npeoLaj^. 
 
 6. Therfore (and wherefore) are expressed by, ^sasiu:ieO, ^j^eosr^^ 
 4^etfrLJi^iU[reO, cT/^^Ga), ^cvr^freO, see § CVI.
 
 252 Appendix. 
 
 Besides these, ^ear^'OesrisSsr® has also been used, hut upon no au- 
 thority. 
 
 7. Therefrom is expressed by ^^ffl3)(3^^', ^Si^e^^, or ^^(ip^A. 
 
 8. Therein and thereinto are rendered by ^fieo, or ^^pi^&rQeir: 
 
 9. Thereof, for instance, the earth and all the fidlness thereof yuJ 
 
 10. Thereon is rendered by ^sy^SooiCtreJ). 
 
 11. Thereto and thereunto are expressed by ^s p^. 
 
 12. Thereunder, is rendered by ^^arSip. 
 
 13. Thereupon, when it means ?/pc»rt ///«/, is expressed by ^^dr 
 Ql£i&) ; Avhen it means ?'« consequence of that, ^^(g)Qeo expresses it. 
 When it means ivimediatelij, s-i—Gesr must be used. 
 
 14. Therewith, when it signifies wUh that, ^^Q(^Ql- expresses it ; 
 when it means ininiedialely s-i—Q&sr will be suitable. 
 
 15. Therewithal, when it means at the same time, ^£<siTeo^§Gei> 
 expresses it; when it signifies 7vith that, ^^Q(^Ql- must be used. 
 
 52. Though or Although. 
 
 Is expressed both by the verbal participle with e_Lo, and by the sub- 
 junctive mood with e_Lo, the diiference between them, which ought to 
 be carefully observed, is pointed out in § LVl. and LVII. 
 
 He shall live though he die, .Slanar La^^^iT^sim iSlemi-puuiresr^ 
 
 which implies that he is not yet dead. 
 He will not renounce Christ though he should die, ^eu^s(^LLir 
 
 Althoush my house is not large, yet I remain in it, sresra?® 9^ 
 ^/ruJ)(5^^LD, fiiTcir .^^Qeou3(^£&Gis<iir, Here the smallness 
 
 of the house is a certainty. 
 
 But although the house should not be large enough, I shall take it, 
 
 ^^fi af®<0^^/TiLS)(5^^,Tj2/LQ ^/resr .^es>^eufris](^Qeij^, where 
 
 the smallness of the house is still a doubt. 
 
 53. Through. 
 
 1. "When it denotes passage, a^^uj/rtu expresses it, as: 
 
 JVe passed through Tanjore on our way to Cochin, jsmasetr ^(^ 
 
 Go through the strait gate, O^Q^JiSLoir&ir euiruSie^i'sireuL^ujinuuGuT
 
 Particles. 253 
 
 2. "When it means from end to end, e-rjaJ, the infinitive of e_(3sj/9 
 fs^, or some other suitable phrase, expresses it, as : 
 
 An axis is imagined to pass through the earth, 'spjiJ^si-ilLj^L^s^aiu 
 
 (?LJ/r<S'bor/DO^ 85^,42', &c. 
 
 He pierced him through the bodij, ^su^oai—iu s-u^teoiLjQ^suJ-r^^ 
 We went through the town, ^n-iluLLi^ssr ^^p'^ semQ i-QuirQ^ih. 
 
 3. When it signifies by means of, the causal ablative, or adverbs 
 denoting cause, as ^eoLasnu, will express it, thus : 
 
 It was through indolence that he became so poor, Qs^rnlusSi^Qeo 
 
 Through this man is forgiveness of sins preached unto you, ^euir 
 
 Here you cannot say ^jsuJirGeo, because that would refer to the 
 preaching. 
 He helped them much that had believed through grace, S(3««i_/iiJ! 
 (&) Q ev eS <» 3u (T VI ^emr ear eun'<s<sf^£^(^ inl<sajLD s- fi eS lu ir ii3 (j^ ^ fi tr sv . 
 
 54. To. 
 
 i. As an adverb ; 
 
 1. When it denotes the infinitive mode, simply pointing out the 
 verb, the fourth indefinite or infinitive mode expresses it, as : 
 
 / begin to fear, jsrr'^uajuui—^O^irL-mj^SQ/o^. 
 
 You ought to go thither, ^uurnQsQufrsQeuesurQih. 
 I love to read, jsfrsmui^s^eSQ^ilLjSiGpesr, 
 
 2. When the infinitive mode "in English is the subject of the sen- 
 tence, the Tamil verbal noun must be used, as : 
 
 To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the 
 innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and ?iohle em- 
 ployments, G7«B5{^<S(ej<i@ s:^(i^LD^ Os'IljS/D^'^ ^ssilu® 
 Qpenir&'^^Q ff p^Qp^iEi (^/D/niSledeorrs&iiTs'SetrS'Srruuirpjjj&'/s 
 ^LD urr^^ !reufresra(st^s(ViLJLjeo'2£i!rsOsir(S£3/D^ui Lc>ssr. s^ Q^&Q s: 
 fipOu!^tuQf'emuj'S<sirfrii3Q^sQ^3^ps!sr, or ^(j^Las^Qs^iu s ^K,Q ^ pp 
 JJ2//H, 'SiTiL'-nrpp^ih, Osir®fis;eji]il, &:c. 
 
 3. When it is the object of another verb, the same verbal noun in 
 tlie accusative case must be used, as : 
 
 / hate to steal, ^.Q^'^Spsst^ilueass.QQp^, 
 Cease to do evil, ^ss)L::^O^ujSpem^eS'Sliis&r.
 
 254 Appendix . 
 
 4. When it denotes intention or purpose, ut^i(g, with a future 
 participle, must be used, as : 
 
 He came to kilt me, <sr&ir'iBirsQsir'koQ,F{utLjilut^£^ aj^^/rear. 
 as the verb aififiir^t is here alone, the simple infinitive also 
 
 will do, Osir'ieoOs=iuuLi&i^S(r&!r. 
 They spoke thus to destroy me, eres.tetr iLiL^i^Ltui^i(^ ^lut^ 
 
 uQuQ^n-s&r 
 Christ came to save sinners^ un-aSi&ir itSlJTu-^£;gLhui^&(9sQj6l 
 
 5. When it simply denotes tendenci/, the verbal noun in the dative 
 case with or without sr^su/r^ expresses it, as: 
 
 This will serve only to injiame the passions, ^^^iJ'iroo.s'slmr Qiu 
 
 Why should you blaspheme the name of God to destroy your soul? 
 
 ^ri^^msifleia Si ^.Sirei^'S^fHii'S G&iisxrQsijQ ^•drtgr, or s~<^ (^^^luit 
 <a«>aj&0<s®&'S s fi e<s sir's .\ 
 
 il. As a Preposition. 
 
 1. When it denotes motion towards a place, or opposition to, the 
 dative is used, as : 
 
 / went i/esterday to town, Q pp^^rr&sr ee!!Lri^.l(^uQuiriusu^(c^<^. 
 
 Note. — The Tamulian usually adds eumQ^sair^ J came, because the 
 speaker says this after his return from town. 
 
 He sent Jifty asses to Vannarpettah, ^a/ff ^tlu^ £(ues>s^'Sletr 
 
 Note. — When it is connected with journeying to a place, the Tamu- 
 lian puts Q^tTsQ, A\Tith the accusative, as: 
 
 He travelled to Kasi, (i. e., Bcnaris.) ^eutar .sirSleaitiOjFrl.Qu 
 
 2. When it denotes ^notion towards a person, the ablative loc : ^nth. 
 ^i—fi^eo (or '^i—Ifip,^,) is required, as: 
 
 / went to the Gentleman, jsxesr ^miTiiS^i—fi^p (or ^i—^^p^u) 
 
 Take the money to the Guru, u&ssr^es}fi£(^0eS -^i^J^^p^sO'Srr 
 
 6ssr'biQuiTiu&0<s:rr®. 
 I have given (to) him the Pooranas, lj Trrsts^iEj^liar iusijiBl-^§^ 
 
 3. When it stands in a peculiar connexion, the phi-ase must be ex- 
 pressed according to the sense, thus : 
 
 Myjriend was true to his trust, srfi- SiQ jsQ^'^ ^egr&OsinlLjeSs 
 
 JB til Lj u- L-.9s> 3 e^em'seitxtuj(rajS!'S!r^^£.0<eirf«rL~rr«>fi',
 
 Particles. ^55 
 
 The king sent him troops to the number of 60,000 men. ^o-rrs=tr 
 
 55. Towards. 
 
 1. When it means ih direction to the Tamulian uses, GjBi-iQ with 
 the accusative, or Q^sinu with the dative, as: 
 
 He proeeded towards the south, c5ya/«w O ^^ ^. sa ■if emoj Q p its Qili 
 
 GufT(^iir. 
 
 We are journeying towards Madras, jsrrtissen- Os^^^eevuili^ear^ 
 The currents drive towards the sea, ^GiTfrili^(^^np^^ir J &jr^ 
 
 2. AVhen it means in direction to a person, near to, <plSuumtuj, or 
 ^0C«, or the ablative with ^l-^^bo, is used, as : 
 
 The danger now comes towards him, GLors'Lh ^ilO'-in-Q^^ ^aj 
 
 ^^i^J=^£=LSuLafriu&i(i^Q'^p^, or ^euetSi—^^eOeuQ^kict. p^, or 
 
 ^' fflj ssr (ff G° <s su (Tj ffl) ^ ^ . 
 
 3. When it means with respect to, it is expressed by the dative or 
 local ablative, with a suitable verb, thus : 
 
 Jlis love towards us was great, ^euir ^L£i<f@,5<sn-a»rtil_^_^ ^ssri^ 
 OLJ^^iTiiStQ^ S: ^, or jSttL^L-^^eOeasu^^ «^ow i^, or ^lb^Q ULeii 
 
 This was thejirst act towards a breach, iSieiisSsri_iT^jDs:jt(^ ^^ 
 
 bQ. Under. 
 
 1. When it means in a state of subjection, inferiority, below in place^ 
 opposition, Sl^, s-irtp or s-&r with a suitable verb, must be used, as : 
 
 We are all under the king, ^trOia&)&:(r0il ^3Tr,Ffr<s^£:.<^iSLfuutl. 
 
 L—euns&r or ^STir£=ireij,£(W)LLL^iLL-&jirs&r. 
 The sword was under the cloak, «/L*(^,^n-6i)an<2JuJ)»w S;^(t^^^^. 
 ^ Soodra is under a Bramin, @^^J€ot- [3!t fnj:.eist>T^j^(i^3 ^(tit^ 
 
 ^(3<Efe'(3)«or^ or Sifi^s'^Qjik, 
 
 I am a man under authority, <5!T<s!r ^^sirs-^^pr^J^QL^uuiLi—aj^. 
 
 We are all under sin, jFiTOLD&)e))fr(i^ui ufreu/^jp(S;U-uLLi_6uifS6rr, 
 
 or ^fr(?u:ibT)«)iT0LO uirenQp&r'sn'i^ensr ^ee)^a^eaL-uj(SiJa&eir, 
 
 2. In a variety of phrases, under must be rendered according to the 
 sense, as : 
 
 The sword was under his cloak, siLsih ^eii^es)L-iu,F!T&>siaajii3&) 
 u.<isip/S.0^^^j^ but if the sense be that the sword lay on a 
 place, and the clock upon it ; S^p, may be used, as under JS'o. J.
 
 ^56 Appendix. 
 
 He acted under a misconception of yni/ order, ^ausw tsrAr ^Qm^iu 
 
 s: lL !_'ieir ii3 ii>^ O u rr (i^^etr 1^ essr !T fT Lc ed ^l— b£:^^'.^. 
 
 It was sold under twenty Pagodas, ^^ §)(^u^ ensrtre^&i^eir 
 
 etnrsi^iDSLjL^LLL-^, where under meansybr less than or within. 
 
 Nothing under royalty contented him, ^^ ir<s=iliuLLi—Loiir^ Q<3uO(rr) 
 
 //(' escaped under the appearance of a messenger, ^euecr ^(i^^^^ 
 toSTL-iQuTedeu^^^LJLSl^GLjfri^^, or ^aj«3i-sp(Y5^T^«'w Ca/a^^gjo^ 
 
 & ^^ S ^ S- SiiL t3 1-^ G u iT (W) dr , 
 
 He fainted under his load, fieifrQiaeSd^^^-s-eBiijiuSl^Geo G^itit^^ 
 Gufr(^sar^ or if tlie place merely is to be referred to, ^aj«OT_^<sar 
 
 <S s» LD J sw ff Lf <F C ^ /Tff^^Jr J5j (^ £_/ s" (g) sar . 
 
 I was under great anxielt/, prnsf uS@^^ eS^'m Qf:<srrsireij(^^in^^ 
 
 Gpek, or ^iTisi lS(^^ ^i^s=ir!T ^esi^ ujeis>L-^^Os ireisri^o^^G ^■ss'', 
 
 or e^s^ir a s,^i&(Vj(streSQf)^G ^^. 
 He ads under legal restrai?its, /^ ^ujirojihseS^Geo (or j^s^irs'ir 
 
 aSiw,£iI.£_&rrai)©5'6ij) ,s L- l^lj u lL® -8= O S" lu Q (n)&!r , 
 
 He sunk under his father's influence, ^^sk ^«^ ^siuu^esa—iu 
 O s= lums 'jSi (^G &) ^aSt^^^Ci-jn-^sOT, or ^L^^^G'-irr^scr 
 J am under Jijiecn years of age, srsirsuiu^i- u^tesr^^£:(^arsifi0s 
 
 Under your direction I am safe, ^^mLQirGeo^i—^^iluiL® ^Bfnsr 
 
 usi^^ LnruSlQ^sSiG^oeBr, 
 
 This took place under Constantine, ^^Oa!Tesren)s:ex!n2.0earet!r^^ui 
 
 ^ !i(r uj ^esi i—Uj s tT eo ^ ^G eo JSi—fi^S'' 
 It is mentioned under two heads, =gy^ ^ Js»t® eupilLjs-.^&fipQs^ir 
 
 ei>sSln3(^£;S<ovp^. 
 I gave it under my hand, jsrreir ereme>asOiLi(ip^^uGuiril-® ^ieofi 
 
 s:Os!r(Bs Gfi^. 
 
 All this was under consideration, ^aaeuOiuei>eO!reupis,jDiLjiEJ(S/!SI^^^ 
 
 G lu /r<f ?6!in-j sssr arafl (S O ■« /r 6wriji.0 ^^ /r/r <s sJr. 
 Their hopes are in you under God, Qfifieorr&j^ uJrrruJTesTGiMs^ui 
 
 or uSTirusr ^J-.r^iljSltiru e^LL^eai—iuG LaGe)) ^tnLSieasujiraS^s 
 
 He was under his uncle's care, ^eueyr ^esr 9i;Biu ^silu^ea'—iu 
 
 57. Unless. 
 
 Is expressed, like if not or except, by the negative A'erh with the 
 subjunctive mode of ^^-sS/r^, or aSSfe,®^', as : 
 
 Unless the Lord had been my support, I should have perished, 
 
 uLSiiliGi-JirGeii^. 
 
 Do not go thither, unless you wish to expose yourself, / u-jswif^^ 
 
 ^^iS)^euQRaSs<£(^n^iluireSlLLL..[reO. Tor LBear^eOeotreSi^i—freO,^ <^mi 
 
 Q& Qu IT'S rr^ij^uuinu ITS.
 
 Particles. 257 
 
 58. When, Whenever, &c. 
 
 1. Tlie arlverb when, is expressed by the noun, OuiT(ip^, as a particle 
 of time, added to any relative participle, thus : 
 
 Wheii he conies to Madura, ^sussr u^^ss)iT&c§mQ^QpOutTri^si- 
 When he came to Madura, ^susir Lc^^eta-ricS'su^^Oufrap^. 
 When he will come to Madura, ^suesrLD^iets>,T£r^eijQi^LaQ'-Jir(w^. 
 
 When it means whilst, during, the verbal noun in the ablative 
 case is also used, as : 
 
 When he entered the fort, the troops gave a shout, ,3l3^^QsriL 
 
 (or lSI j(?au^<s!sv?30Ljn"(ip^,) 
 
 When it is used interrogatively, <snl'OuirQ^^, sr^Q j5!T s:^Qeo, or 
 eriSc£iTeos-0Geo is required, as : 
 
 When did he come ? uruQuiTQp^ieu^^ir&r, 
 
 2. Whenever or whensoever, meaning at whatsoever time, is ex- 
 pressed by Q^rrjrfiil, added to the future verbal participle. See Q^ir 
 .awLQ § CXI. 
 
 But if the meaning is simply at the time when, then Ouirn^^ is 
 sufficient, thus : 
 
 Whenever men shall begin to despise the Bible, their morals will 
 decrease, LajS^ir&&r Qs^siiso^ ius= C-esn—UeSsressr ^ Q &n'i_mi'<s^ik 
 
 O^iTL—mj^ihstreii^^Gvi) 
 
 59. Whence, Whensoever. 
 
 1 . Whence, when it means yroTO a place, is expressed by cS/^aS/^^^^ 
 
 or .SjeafeSiL®, thus: 
 
 Whence he proceeded to Calcutta, ^^s-S(i^^^, (or .j)is!n^eS/—(B) 
 
 S p^s fi!reuS''^i-'Qi-i[T(^ jar. 
 
 When it meansyVow? a person^ the pronoun in the same case must be 
 
 used, viz., ^suasfltiS^^^, .^auSasroSil®. 
 
 When it means jT/'o/m a cause or a source, ^^(^Qei\ is required, or 
 
 Qeo, or any other such word as suits the coimexion. 
 
 When it is intcrrogativehj used, stiej!sI(i^^^, ot/e/CsilS^tj^^ or era/aS 
 i—^^sS^^^, is required, as: 
 
 Whence do you come ? eriEjQ-suSl((^^^gii(^S(;r)uj. 
 
 2. Whcnccsoevcr is variously expressed accordingly to the conuesion. 
 
 i2
 
 258 Appendix. 
 
 Whencesoever you viay have got the squirreU you must take it 
 back again, ^ uS^^ ^et!iiflpi3e!r'^<stres)'iJeufriEjQs'0siTe^®<sii^^ ^i— 
 
 Whencesoever the people came, we must receive them, ^^^<B=s=esr 
 
 60. Where, whereas, whereabout, wherever, wheresoever, where- 
 fore, whereof, whereupon, and wherewith. 
 
 1. The adverb where is expressed, 
 
 When it is used intcr7-ogatively, by <sriB(?dF, as : 
 
 Where is the man? ^^fiuieifi^<^ gtieiQ^s. 
 
 When it means at which or what place, or at the place in which, 
 it is expressed like the relative pronoun which by the participles, as : 
 
 The place where the body was laid, Q ^s^se*^ emeue^uutLu. 
 
 The house where the robbers entered, setreirp-i^nQisiQ^fieS®. 
 The corner where the birds made their nest, (^(^eSlserr s^-'Sl O^p 
 
 When it is answered by there, (sr^QsQiuir .sjmjQs, is required, as : 
 Where the slain are, there is the eagle, 0<srr2eoOs'iuiuuuL^L—euiTs 
 
 When it is united with aiiy, enhQsujrrQsinil mil be proper, thus: 
 You may stay any where, / OujiaQ<sujirSsSi^0'S'Se\)iTiii. 
 
 2. Whereas. When it means but on the contrary, yet, or but, the 
 particle ^uut^nSc^js^LL, must be used, as: 
 
 Thou hast dofic me good ; whereas I have done thee evil, / Oiu 
 
 esr£,(gjSiii<ssiLaO£^{lj£:iTUJ, ^ilui^-n^Q^^^'Lh ^/Tcsar S- ear ^ (^ s 0<sib La 
 Os'vuG ^«>vr, or ^ Oiuegrs^(^jS^eta:iDA'i&rs=Os'iu^Ui, jiireii, &c. &C., 
 or ^OuJ«!^J''I^Jseares>LDOs=iJUfiiriLJ, ^ff'aw e.sBr^jg, &c. 
 
 TVTien it means since, because, uip.aS^Qe\}, should be used, as : 
 
 Whereas it is commanded, that no man shall injure another, we 
 ought carcfullif tooheij the command, ep^euew LDpO(^0eu^<B!^ 
 s^0ets)LDe»iuS'Os^tuius<Bi,-L—n'O^.6ar^ ,s l1.i—^uSil1-i^qrsQ/d [_/iQ_iiJ 
 @(?6U jsiril ^^earui^Quu 0,euJiLjUiuip-£(^ icj J^^iB seas njo' 1x30 ss 
 Gaj6wr®LD. 
 
 3. Whereabout, when it is used interrogatively, is expressed by 
 eriLQ'S, thus : 
 
 Whereabout did you drop the Rupee, OeuelreSssn-ans^ / ermiQs
 
 Particles. 259 
 
 When it means about which, or concerning which, near which place, 
 it must be expressed by a relative participle, as : 
 
 Let no man know any thing of the business, whereabout I send 
 thee, fiSTehr e_6Br?eBr oj ^'^i-jkipsiTifliLJ^e!!)^ er^a/fjJ^^O^/flujLJ 
 
 The town whereabout the battle took place, iLj^^LhjSL-^^uiLi^sarLh. 
 
 4. Wherever, and wheresoever, answered by there, will be expressed 
 by G^/r^ii), or eriaQsQujrr ^ieiQs, thus : 
 
 Wherever the rain drops, there is a hole made, LassiLp^^eSseh- 
 eSaaSjD ^i—iEis@rQ^ir^ij(^;;^iUir(^ii, or simply, LcenLp^^eSsetr 
 
 eSfT^'&ip ^'—^^GeO(^L^, &C. 
 Wheresoever the carcase is, there will the eagles be gathered to- 
 gether, L9et:srOLCiEjG<sQuJir ^iEiQ<s <sa^(^Sen>Bii.i:^eu(T^Ui. 
 
 "Without there, sriiQs and the subjunctive with s_ix will be prope^ 
 thus : 
 
 Wherever the thief may be, we must go and find him out, ^^fis 
 
 5. Wherefore, see therefore, § 51, 6. 
 
 6. Whereof, meaning of which, and 1 are expressed by the relative 
 
 7. Whereupon, meaning upon which, /participle, as : 
 
 The business whereof I told you, jsirek &_m-&:g,^Qs=tT^esrxirBajui. 
 The text whereupon I enlarged in my last discourse, s<sai-9iujiTetir 
 
 When it commences a sentence, whereupon may be rendered by 
 
 8. Wherewith or wherewithal, meaning with which, must be render- 
 ed by the relative participle, thus : 
 
 The hammer wherewith the smith struck the anvil, OsirAe^sir 
 The sword wherewith he pierced the rogue's body, ^eut^T ^^sh 
 
 When it is used interrogatively, meaning ivith what ? sr^(^Q&> must 
 be used, as : 
 
 Wherewith shall I pay the debt ? er^iQfQeo ^ir^ok ^z_2a(r^C)j^j^^ 
 
 61. Whether. 
 
 1. When it is answered by or, is expressed by a repetition of the 
 subjunctive mood with s-ld, as :
 
 260 Appendix. 
 
 Whether you come or jiot, I shall go, / eu^^irsaji ajrrjr/r^Q^^^ir 
 
 Whether you send the horse hack to me or keep it, I shall he glad, 
 
 Qi § Starr em 'jj j§it ^ "S^ eS '—^^/.f^ s: ^(t^ihu ^^'li3(^^ai^n- ^en^ 
 6s>^s^&Os:(r6ikrL—ir^(^ie=fi(cs<rrei^LCifritSl(^uQu'ow. 
 
 If in fliis cnse, whether and or refer to nouns, then, ^©ja/ii) or 
 ^s!ja/ti or j>i,mj^, must be added to each of them, as : 
 
 Whether you or he come I shall be glad ; ^ajr (g) ja/tri ^sva' ©(sb) jpjlo 
 
 2. Tn inten'ocfative sentences, ivhether and or are expressed by <sp 
 added to eacli part of tlie sentence, followed by <zrem^ and a pronoiin, 
 or witliout either, tlius : 
 
 Tell me whether you will come or not ? / eu03ufrQiLifrLjc^irLLu.rrQujT 
 ^iT<ikn^Osoir^(ssip<FOs=!TisO^^ lit : tell me one of two things, will 
 
 you come or not. 
 I do not know whether this will he good for you or not f ^^ e-sar 
 
 Note. — In English the negative part of the question is often omitted; 
 but in Tamil it must be expressed, as : 
 
 Let me know whether yoti mill purchase the Elephant ? uu rriasreauj 
 eucnh^eS iT rr. euriEis 'Mrril.ut.!Trr, .jiieta^s^oj^eSA'sQeueiSsrQLa. 
 
 Whether he he a sinner I know not, ^ojtirurreSGuJir (.si&ieoQeiiir^ 
 «£!/6<n J:^"-'.i!5I"-/ic/rL.(?L_«sr. If you translate it by =gyajosr ufreSOtu^ 
 uetas jBiTivr ^jSiGtw^, the sense is, that he is a sinner ; only 
 you knew it not. 
 
 62. With. 
 
 1. Denotes primarily connexion, in which sense the Tamil ablative 
 social, with or without <ffii-t_, corresponds ^^dth it, as : 
 
 He went with them, ^auew .sjed[rsi&hL-.QeBrsn.i—uQuiT(^^, (or' 
 
 .SfsL'n s^Qsirn'Q i—£h~i — ) 
 / have made an agreement with him, fiire^r ^aj(?(ra)G'i_e_i_LCLj£9_« 
 
 0S) s U eSsr esefl G ear or . 
 
 2. If it mean in the same place, the ablative of place, ^i~^^^, is 
 used, as : 
 
 You were with me where it occur I'cd, .si^;si-^s,Ou[rQ^^ / Oiu 
 
 iST eiSi L— s ^sS (Tf) S ^ [Tiu , 
 It is difficult to live with bad rnen, Oufr&)eoirs:eniTseSL-^^&> 6uirs= 
 
 I shall be with you within an hour's time, '^j^cr^iaemiG ;ss ^3'^®'^ 
 
 G«r s^thiMi—^fipGs^nG'^ssr,
 
 Particles. 261 
 
 3. When It means on the side of, on the pari qf^ umQQeo or uss^^ 
 Geo is required, as : 
 
 Fear not! I am with thee, uiuiliui—n-^n^^ jsrr&tr s-evruiEj3sSni^.s3 
 
 " Qpik or s-<5^'Q(^Q i—ii3(!^},QQfl5Br. 
 
 We have many enemies, hut God is with us, ^Q jss s^^^n^-i.seh- 
 
 <B«i)uuju5«b3a). This last additional clause is implied in th6 
 English, though not expressed ; in Tamil we must express it. 
 
 4. When it means the cause or means, the causal ablative is require 
 ed, as : 
 
 / am sick with sorrow, .F^s^eou^rrSiu eSturr^uuQSiQ /oeir, i. e., 
 
 I have the sickness which is sorrow. 
 He won him over with sweet promises, ^euem ^druLCKresr eutrsi^^ 
 
 ^"^ ULLiT SOT <sii<F SOT {BJ'S 2s,T^0iF[r&) eS, LUAi^esr^s^ilurr^^srrear, 
 
 He was stricken with a hailstone s^^saLpiiS^Geoujeu^ir .sn^^su 
 
 uu-L—ircir, or sesTLassiLpO'-iiu^ ^su^anui^Aff^. 
 
 With God all things are possible, u jr iru ir (^Q &) Oiu^ayLD/r^La, 
 
 or OT(sOistf/rLDfr(^ii). 
 
 63. Without. 
 
 i. When it stands singly as an adverb, OsueiflQiu, OeustfluSlQeo, or lj/siI 
 Qu, expresses it, as : 
 
 Without are the unclean, ^s^^^^ LipilQuu^c^eQ^n^astsr. 
 
 n. As a preposition, 
 
 1, When it means outside, not within, the same words are used, as : 
 Without the citlj, LJtLi^S!r^^sr^uLjfliMQu,ucLi^esr^^&rQsijeSGiu. 
 
 2. When it means non existence, ^ainJ/TLoo), ^eiSsi;, or ^4^-^^ is 
 required, as : 
 
 The place shall be without men and without beast, <§^fi^fi^ei>LD 
 
 La eS. ^ B eO eo !r La Sj}j ^ L£!(i^eiEJSeSei!eorrLSiejiiL£(_f^<e:(^LL. 
 
 Theij abode without a king, .jijeu^^setr ^ Lrn-<F,TeS!&>e)}irLosS0^^frif<s<s!r. 
 
 I am without clothes, <STesr^-^eu&i)^J L£iei)'ieo, or /sir&sr ev&t^!Ti£ei 
 
 eOfTLneSQ^SsQjn^. 
 
 My mind was many days without peace, arew-Loew^ ^Gj5<sjB:rui. 
 
 e:La!r ^!r<sBruSeJ6))iTLa'sS(i^^^^, or .=s>jG ^^ ^rrerr sT'si' LQesr^s^(^J=^ 
 
 LDT^rrearuSeOteO. 
 
 Without doubt, he is afraid to come, =sya/s»r aj!ruuujLj--i®S(n)Ossr&!r 
 
 However when the verb is negative, without is also expressed in this 
 sense by «gy«^/l, ^ei>isO[ru^<Jo, as:
 
 262 Appendix. 
 
 Without me \jou can do nothings sTx^'iffSTtLiearfSi ^murea- ep'^ ^(pO^ 
 
 luujuairiLiSLn'a&r. 
 
 64. Yea. 
 
 "Wlien it means yes, truly, OLciLjuuinu, expressf^s it, as : 
 
 Yea, the God of this world has blinded their ei/es. OLauuiumu @a; 
 
 When it means not only so but more than so, ^^^, Avith e-ii, ex- 
 presses it : 
 
 He brought costly spices, yea, and gold too, (^"ieoOupp <s^!rs(^.s2e<r 
 
 uj 631- ^ il O J /r oZfT ?6Br a / (Ej O ■£ fr gjer ® a; ^ ^ fT «3r . 
 
 Thei/ reviled him, yea, they spit in his face, ^auScsr/S^^/^-T/f^er, 
 
 .Jlj^iur^ Jijsu ^0a'—iu(t^S^^^^£^'liS(9^n-£eir, or <S,' eu'iesr ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Note. — Some have interpreted yea like yes, by ^ld, but this is in- 
 correct. 
 
 Q5. Yes and No. 
 
 These particles are most frequently expressed by repeatino^, in the 
 answer, the word contained in the question either in the affirmative or 
 negative, as may be required, thus : 
 
 Is he come ? a/^.^ff/r®. 
 
 Yes, 6u^^(5i3(^s3r. 
 
 The words .^lc and e_«!R(r®, are also used to express yes, and .^iied 
 and @«i)26U, no; .^ld and .4i!eieo, affirm or deny the same quality or 
 quantity of a thing, and ©.ssw-B and ^bOScu, affix-m or deny the exist- 
 ence of a thing. This distinction must be carefully observed. The 
 following instances will elucidate the subject. 
 
 Is this rice ? ^^ ^fiSturr. 
 
 y^es, ^^^rresr or @^ .=s>jfi@^ireir, or (^^.) 
 No, (it is wheat) .Sje^eo ^^ Qsir^il&au. 
 
 Is there rice? ^rfiPu-/6»rz_/r. 
 Yes, £-<5wr®. 
 No, @»-^2nJ. 
 
 7* not this what you said? '^31 ^tkisSrOs^rr^etr seieo&ar. 
 
 Yes, it is, ^i-£ or ^^ jsrriij£e!rOs=frs3:em-^^x^. 
 No, it is not, ^^ fiiTisJ<sarO<frr<st!Tear^»>&). 
 
 Bid you not say this? ^oa^ ^ij£arOs=!T^e\)6S<^2e\)iUir. 
 Yes, Q,fi^n"«a (?©tD. 
 No Qs'n-eOevsSed^ (or ^eoSetf.)
 
 Particles. 263 
 
 Did you not say this ? ^em^iu^eoQ^r ^las^O^rreBTeeFirserr. 
 
 Yes, ^LL or ^sn^/^/rsar (or ^ea^Qiu) O-ft 
 
 No, ^eafiiu&ieo. 
 
 Did you not say this ? ^esi^ ^mjseir&ieoQevirOs'irev^eoPir'Xerr. 
 Yes, «^'-^ or pTtkisQsirOs'irsjTQ^iii, 
 No, jS!rmjs<3rr9ieO. 
 
 When yes is used emphaticallj, like yea indeed, the particle ©•, is 
 affixed to the vord on which the emphasis is to be, thus : 
 
 Yes, my friend, the hour of your relief is come, otsw- ffQjsQsQear^ 
 Yes, you despise the man, ^ lu ^ fi la ^S ^'iesr uu^L-vaL-Gtu uexr^t 
 
 QQ. Yet. 
 
 1. The conjunction, is rendered in the same way as neverthless^ 
 notwithstanding ; which see. 
 
 2. The adverb is variously rendered according to the connexion. 
 When it means beside, over and above, ^ekenTLh. will express it, tbus : 
 
 This furnishes us with yet one more reason, <^j^ ^ssresriM ^(j^ 
 
 When it means still, without any alteration, it cannot be sepai'ately 
 expressed ; the sense is contained in the present tense, as : 
 
 While they were yet heathen, at^ean-sSr ^(^^iTsS-seiriTnSI(i^seasii3e}. 
 
 ^Tien it means once more, ^emearui expresses it, as : 
 
 Yet a moment I will wait for you, e-esrisfrs ^ drear Li ^(§ ^ufla^(» 
 
 TMien it means at this time, or so soon, Avith a negative before it, it 
 cannot be expressed but by the present tense, as : 
 
 Thales, being asked when a man should marry, said: young men 
 not yet, old men not at all, fj^^^ir snlO-nrnn^! ^^ursth'^es^sesr 
 G&ie^T'blOLaesr^^ ep(^eu^ ^irQsi^Os=^U3U-:St—s;0pGs:iLL—Ourr(i^ 
 ^, eufTsSu JT iTu^Slri^ sterns iiS^ ue&rssgr^^.sfr^ eSr^^smli3iuS mar 
 iS'SSTLj uHs^Qj^sulLjeSn-susrssfi-L—ir^i. For uiBJ'Q<Fs;ui^ we may 
 also say, 5(5 eSs^<s^(S)0i'-^ or ^sQ f-FLairiuirtv^BHili, 
 
 When it means hitherto, ^^ajswn"* '^lo or ^^arisjrii) will express it, as : 
 The master is not yet come, ws'Lainir ^^a.eia's:^LCsu J eSe62e\)^ or 
 
 When it means continuance and extension, it must be expressed ac- 
 cording to the nature of the sentence, thus :
 
 264 Appendix. 
 
 The storm grew louder and yel louder^ Ou(TfiiasiTfl^ .Sj^si^^s 
 
 Lciriij '^ix>iT^^j§i. 
 
 When it means even^ after aU, connected ^vith a negative, it cannot 
 be expressed, but by cbaugiiig the phrase, thus : 
 
 The tiger is not far off, but yet not near, LjeSSi—J-Qp^i-^^irir 
 (3PLo»T)ei)^,tf^LS^(iLpuDia)ei;, Ut : the place where the tiger lies, is 
 
 neither far nor near. 
 
 It is not difficult to learn the Tamil language, but yet it cannot 
 be called easy, ^k^tpiluireei&^eeiiuuui^&isp^ ^^^eOeo, ereS 
 
 1 shall now notice a few other particulars, which may facihtate the 
 ti-anslation of our Eui-opean ideas into Tamil. 
 
 67- Certain Verbs. 
 
 Many of the English prepositions are also used adverbially, and there- 
 fore belong to the verb with which they are connected. V^rbs so con- 
 nected have often very different meanings from the simple verb, as, 
 undertake, nudersfand, Sec. Tamil prepositions are not used in this 
 manner. Prepositions and verl>s united togetlier, retain, with very few 
 exceptions, their original meaning, as maybe observed from the follow- 
 ing specimen. 
 
 s^iLuQQo!^, to get in, to submit. 
 
 QLapu®&p^, to be over, to excel (intrans.) 
 
 SLptJuQS/B^, to be under, to submit, obey 
 
 Ljfiui:jrr@/o^, to be out, to be excluded. 
 
 e_Llu®_^^g^^^ fo cause to go tinder, to subdue. 
 
 QllP-iQ^^Qjo,^, to cause to be over, to exalt. 
 
 SLpuu®s;^9p^, to cause to be under, to subject. 
 
 L^pilufTsc^&ijD,^; to cause to be out, to exclude. 
 
 e_i—0<s!rerr(ei^Qp^, to take in ; to keep. 
 
 The sense of the advei'bial prepositions in English ought there-for* 
 to be well ascertained, when those A^erbs are to be rendered in Tamil. 
 Sometimes a simple and sometimes a compound word answers to the 
 English verb and preposition ; and consequently will often require a 
 different government from that of the English compound verb, as : 
 
 He tinder-took the business, f^^^-&'S!Ta\iu^esifi QiupjjisOsirtm- 
 
 He sent-for me, sr ear 'iesruj^mLpu Si ^^ it '^sr or (ST&sr'iesr luemtpsf^ixLjL^ 
 
 He under-valued the piece of ground, ^^^ ^eos;^^i>'<sS?is))<smuj^(S 
 
 He under-stood me ; jsmc!TOs:frdr^.^ .^a/^ j(g^O^/f)^^^. 
 It was imprinted on wax, ^^QHnQ^QGeOL^^s^uui^i^CS,^^^''
 
 Parenthesis. 265 
 
 He forbore to upbraid me, ^eu^lr (cr-sr.lesr&'Si^^MiOsn-eirniirir^ut^ 
 
 God has forbidden stenling, ^((^i—ssi^L-rrO^eyr jpi uirrruJT^^u. 
 
 Throw the parcel b^j, i^^^ssil-esiL-.uui-s^^Qecaa^^^^^Q'-jtr®. 
 Throw the letter out, '^^^i.srrnS^^ea^ Oaj®^^uQurr(B, or far 
 
 He cast the plate down, iSih^rT'h;!!r£:SG^s^eh-eS^5Br, 
 JBe not cast down, (^£=eisrijLJU-ir ^(^^ or •fc^^so^ul^itQ^, 
 Let us carry-on the business, ^i^s;^0ffri^2eo^!ni^ Os^iLiuS'Sl^ 
 
 GsuiTih. 
 Let the water in, ^e^ssi^ir &-eirQ<sir3u3'L^uekr,^ii. 
 
 When prepositions coalesce witli neuter verbs, the verb usually 
 governs the same case as the preposition, as : 
 
 ^su(i^3;(^i!_uL-i^(!^ or «iy3U(3tS@-rSi^Lji_;<5!iafl^^(5, submit to him, 
 ^eu(i^s(^ QLapuQeuirtLHTS, maij you exceed hint. 
 ^eLi(fF)&(^ui3sarOsFeO^, follow him ! 
 
 But when the verb is active, both the verb and preposition govern 
 their proper cases, as : 
 
 They excluded him from the congregation, ^aj?eBr<Fj^sK)U<E@L L^^d 
 
 We subdued them, ^guit<s.^ ^ l£:&(^£;S i^tlju® s:^Q ^ld. 
 
 They exalted me above others, oS/su/faar sre^rtsw LDfpeuiTSia^sr^ 
 
 G LQ nj !_/ ® ^ ^ (g) T e-- (ar . 
 
 The Judge consigned him to punishment, ^j-jmLin-$u^^<3v'bsisr^& 
 
 £ tor 5 @ lIlj ©^ ^; (2) dr. 
 
 68. Parenthesis. 
 
 The parenthesis, so fi*equently used in European languages, cannot 
 be admitted into a Tamil sentence. If parenthetic clauses are to bo 
 rendered in Tamil, separate sentences must be made of them, unless 
 they can be otherwise conveniently united with the principal sentence. 
 I shall add a few instances. 
 
 Seven or eight ( Sozomus makes it ten J months Julian staid at 
 Constantinople, ^y,sSujiTOesresi ^l£I n rruj'S^^' Osir&naiif ^^^an i^i] 
 uSIGeo '9iO[fiLl-®L£i(rsL3(^^ ftr^a , uf,-^La!rfiL£Q^fififrOearm^ O^ir 
 OiB^irQpOeiieBrueuem C)^ireOeSiiiSl(r^i^Q(fr}^. 
 
 Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) virtue alone is 
 happiness below, ^dieij&)s^S,Geo s"ssrLa[rif,££;fJs'^G&)Liiirs;^jrLh 
 
 K 2
 
 266 Appendix. 
 
 69. Peculiar expressions. 
 
 In translating from one language into another, it uill always be 
 found that there are some peculiar and happy expressions which cannot 
 he rendered exactly. The genius of the Tamil and English languages 
 are so different, that instances of this kind will continually meet and 
 perplex the student. In such cases, it will be proper to weigh the 
 literal meaning of the English word apart from its metaphorical 
 sense ; and to consider the precise signification which it bears in the 
 sentence under translation. If this be done, it will be usually found, 
 that there exists some proper Tamil Avord, which may well supply its 
 place ; Init if such word be altogether wanting, or if it be antiquated 
 and uncommon, it will be necessary to new-mould the sentence alto- 
 gether. I subjoin a few instances of such dilficulties with their solution, 
 in order to convince the student that the road, though sometimes 
 rough, is not impassable, thus : 
 
 Of himself, man is confcssedlij unequal to his duty, ^ms&r sl— 
 
 LCisjS^Q^sSleii'Set), luirenQ^LD ^uui^£=Os'n'ei)ej2i@(rr)n-<£&r, lit: man 
 is destitute of the strength which is needful to enable him to 
 fulfill his duties, this all admit (or confess.) 
 This is a daugeroits road, @^ GLarrs=iijO<sir@sSlp La[ri?£SLarruSI(i^ 
 
 This is a very pernicious error, ^^ uil®^^ ^esru^^pQs^ 
 
 It is a frightful place, ^^uvu(Tf.<5SsrL^!TS(QS.p ^i—il. 
 
 The idea of thankfulness is rendered by G^rr^^iTil, ^^, which 
 literally means praise, thus : 
 
 For all blessings be thankful to God, ^9iT<sLi[r^im<sOeir^ye))irajp^ 
 J3e tlianlful to men also for their favours, u^'sSs,n-s:&rO<iFiuiLjiJi e_u 
 
 But when the person himself is addressed, the expression is varied, as : 
 
 Sir! I thank you for your great kindness, g^ofr! ^#Oufluja_u«/r 
 £r^6iDfiJ=0£^Lu'^Gfr pir j;-'SaT(rr)aSI(i^LJiSiJ ns, lit : Sir you have done 
 
 fiucj a great favour, may you be well! 
 
 Js^ote. — That as G^rr^^JTil, lit: means praise, it cannot be used in 
 this place. If it be used s^em-i—iretj^rrs, or &.eesrL_ir^s<si—eu^, must be 
 added, thus: giu/r! ^tas'^^G ^ir^^s lt. (or LjSLfJ=S,) S-eS!r!—ireu^[r<s. 
 
 Observe further, that when I say to a person, ^n- <sresrs:(^iJOu^iu 
 
 fi!r&sr^TessreS«i)'ko, this is in fact praising him {Gstr^^STm or i^SLp^9,) 
 when I add: ^n-fi6kQr)u3Q^isJiau.<sSJ-, e^tl)Qpeai—u su/rtp^/rOT (^ekQj
 
 The Tenses. 267 
 
 ^Q^uu^iTS^ or sucli like, that is eum^^^ia or expressing good wishes 
 towards him. By both expressions 1 sliow him my thankfulness. In 
 common life the natives express their thanks by <FeD,Tiii ^'jua\ which is 
 evidently a foreign word. 
 
 It is a curious circinnstance that none before Columbus discovered 
 
 America, O-sir siiLcQuesr usijQfs (^ Of: ekQesr sp-^su^Lb cg!/(?LQ(fU<sfr 
 
 a- s sisr i_ ^ es) ^ J; iS (T ^ ^ ^ ^<s=s^irlaJL:ifriiSl(i^sS'ssTp^, 
 
 It is curiously wroutxlit, ^^i eS&jg^ii LarrLuJ'0<s=iLjujLluil.i—^. 
 
 These are curious people, ^^^•es'eanh&eir Geuu^.sQsi'SumTs^eS^LA 
 
 He is a curious man, ^su^ ^(3 e^ r, u^ns^sr (^onrcip&rsirLasiv ^■iir, 
 T'he administration crfj.ustice in England is good, ^eh&'so^^ Q ^ 
 
 That mans character is not good, '^^ ^ LBaS^.^s<ai—iu j5L-s:es)s 
 
 JS eO eo ^ edsO , 
 
 Christ Jesus is applied to by his people in the character of an 
 advocate, ^Qius^sQ^&i)^ ^thQpemL^iu s=€3riE]-S(e^&(^s3:rrfiius 
 sir^rnnu ^sup-semreO Gsue^i^sO&ir&T'struuQ&cn^n', or S/Slen)^e3 
 
 tSjais&ir GeuimnfsO<Sfrerr(st^QQ!yirsiar. 
 
 70. The Tenses. 
 
 It is necessary to say a feAv words more about the tenses. In 
 § LVI. 7, it has Ijeen observed that by the help of the verb @c5^s'/d^ 
 something like the Perfect, pluperfect and the second futm^e tenses, 
 are formed. I now observe fm-ther, 
 
 1. That the perfect tense in English cannot always be expressed by 
 joining @(3<£SG/!5»3r to a verbal participle, nor is it necessary; the 
 Tamil past tense will often be sufficient. For instance, 
 
 / have finished my letter, is well expressed by, jsrr^ S[rQ^&<ss>^ 
 
 Oiua^^y:>uf-sQ ^esr^ The Tamulian does not say simply s/rfiiu 
 
 s^esi^Qpi^^Q ^ii^, but inserts stq^^, 9vriti?ig, leaving out otsSt. 
 
 I have seen the person that was recommended to me, jBeieowO^ser 
 
 'ssr ^ .jij ^1 eS £: ^ u u lL [_ LCtetS ^ tears :S eon- Q i—'^'^. 
 I have been there this morning and done what was necessary, .sf& 
 
 QsQurnuGeus^i^uuemfi^'Os^iLjQs^sitr. 
 
 He has travelled much this year, '^p^ eu(T^si^s:^Geo ^eum- ^G jss 
 
 ^i—iEi3^(^'^(^u i3 ff iu^retzrimnLi'—iGurriQeir. 
 
 2. So also the Pluperfect is often sufficiently expressed by the sim- 
 ple Past, as : 
 
 / had finished my letter before he arrived, ^sije^eu^Qpsm^QpiiSr 
 
 GesrerrS^J.Qa^OuuQp^Qfii^^G^'^.
 
 2G8 Appendix. ^ 
 
 Theij had 7iot yet gone far, when a tiger sprung forth, ^aj/f<a;(^ 
 
 When he had spoken those words, he Ifted up his eyes and said 
 thus, ^>^^6ii{rjf^6sif,s'SeiT<s'0£^irarssr0u!r(ip^ ^&-,t s;u:,Qf.esi'—iU 
 sexrs'iBd'j^'jun- s^'^i'Os'fT^'. esr^/reu^. Here, however, in order to 
 express the finishing of the sajdng the Tamulian adds Qpi^A&fl^ 
 to the yerbal participle, as, ^^^eurrn-s^es^<steirJ:Os^rr&>eo!^i<)_si^ 
 Oun-Q^^, &c., i. e., when he had finished saying those words. 
 
 3. The second future tense is frequently well expressed by the 
 simple future ; sometimes also by the past, as : 
 
 The Parliament fvill havefnished their business, wheji the Kin^ 
 
 conic; to prorogue it, '^s tTs^n-surrm-eun- ■s^&s^^ireair ^ju^mlLSleSKBih 
 
 ^e!a&)^^:a.0sirmn^Qi)!2jurrif<seir. Here easu^ ^^-Qsaessr® must 
 
 be inserted in order to express the finisliing of the business 
 
 before the King's comin";. 
 nhcn we shall have done all that we were comviarided to do, let 
 
 us say rvc are unprofitable servants, ^■-^^(^■kstLL-'^iSL-Ljuil. 
 
 L— e-ji OS'S O SIT eOeOT SI- ^ein;DiLj(fp; O •£= {u ^ -3 &s i^ fimh ^'ilnSi sQuJU^=F&!^ 
 When you will have done this work, then do that, ^^^Gsu2a)e5iijuj' 
 
 O^-tufiLS^sTLj ^es>^<FOs'iu. Here S\^lj, sufficiently expresses 
 
 the futurity of the action. 
 When you will have gone about 4 kadams you will meet ivilh a 
 
 large stone, ^thseir jstreiji ssr^^ 3'ih jsi—^^iS^lj epri^ Olj/Auj 
 
 When you will have become \Q years (f age, then you may think 
 on marrying, ^ u^<^^ euiu^&refrsaetrn'itSiQ^ii^LhOufrn^^, aScajiT 
 &^zs>^i(^^i^ ^ Giufrs'Tesruessreisisreomii (or &-e3r^(^'liu^(^^eu\u 
 
 4. When the action is still continuing, the verb should be in the 
 present tense, as : 
 
 My brother is writing, srdrs^Q^fr^ireBr cr^zp^S^^sBr. 
 She is knitting, ^su&r ee)^&Q(nr>^lr. 
 
 i). In the same case the Imperfect is expressed by the present tense 
 or by adding eiu(i^Sp^, to the verbal participle, as : 
 
 When my brother was writing, a thunder bolt struck him dead, 
 sr*3r ^QsFrpiT&ir etnn^eaeiSeC) (or srQc^suQ^GistStiSled^ @i9- ^'sw 
 
 2esr -J :5 /r Sei> ,5= uj « ^' . 
 JSIy sister was playing the j)iano, when the postman came in, er^ 
 
 apQ SiT ^^ Q&iTesrSriea^eufrQ^^sijQ^esiSaSleO (or enirS^eia^iiSa)) 
 
 .^/r ^ cJ -s /r £) ^ (£ -s; /r J 6K" a ; ^^ /r eSr . 
 
 Whilst we were walking, it began to rain, jsrijseir ;5i—^^Qu.r
 
 Participles. 269 
 
 6. The auxiliary shall he, added to tlie present participle, requii-es the 
 addition of 0sire^ij^Q)d:8fl^, in the futiu-e to the verbal participle, as : 
 
 Wkefi you will come to morrow I shall be writing, / ^/r?si(ri(^ay(;f5 
 When our friends arrive, we shall be drinking tea, jSLCQjiQSii—uj 
 
 7. The avLsiliary do, did, in reply to some one who asserts that Ave 
 do not or did not a certain action, is expressed by addinng ©■ to the 
 verljal participle, as : 
 
 She doth walk, .=S>jeueir fiL-^QseuQQcnrjetr. 
 
 I did eat the rice, jBirsir G <B=fr^£= it lj lSI iL® s: O ,s tr e&rQ i^^oSIq^^Q ^ ear. 
 
 We ojten do go to his house, ^irm&Sr ^i^i'Si^ ^eu^jeni—iu &^il. 
 
 (Bi£i^LlGufrGiu.ijSl(i^<tkG(^LD. 
 
 We did tell her oj" the danger, ^aj(S5<s@ G LQrrs'il&jQ^OLaeTr ^ ^au 
 
 He did speak a lie, ^suisr OutriuOs'rreOsSGuju'^Q^J^^n ear or r^eueir 
 
 71. The Modes and Participles. 
 
 About the indicative, ir.perative and infinitive modes, enough has 
 been said in the spitax. But the potential and subjimctive modes and 
 the participles require a little more elucidation. 
 
 1 . The potential mode in its various forms Avill be best explained by 
 the following phrases. 
 
 It may rain, ld6s>lp0ljiljiliQld. 
 
 He may go or stay, ^eu<cin- Gun-^edirih ^eoeo^i ^(i^s;3:eO!Tih. 
 I can ride, jsir^^i' (^, ^safTuSlesiG ld Get) ^S'lilGurrG e>je:yt or <v^csnfr u.S' si: G La 
 
 G eo j£i il G >—i iT -s (oT6W(ea) m^^®La. 
 He would walk, .^ajssr JSU.i,&Lt&!rjFmtSiQr,&Q(n)ei!T. 
 
 They should learn, .jtjeijasw- ui^s&GeusBsrSlui, i. e., it is necessary 
 
 that they learn. 
 They ndght have done better, ^eun-sSr (@6»^) .si^^s jsbit(n)iii=Os= 
 
 luiueOtrG La or Gs'OJeutra.sGen-. 
 We may always act uprightly, ^/tld snl^OurrQ^^il s-mrisiLDiun-iu 
 
 ^ l—.<5 t£ &) [tG LC , 
 
 He was generous and would not take revenge, ^;&jdr ^eO£t}isu(e3)QS)s 
 
 iLirrp UL^euditi'S LDesr^eiieiirfi(^^s.rr'Svr, 
 
 We should resist the allurements of vice, ^&sr iafrn-s^^p(^ ;bueaLa 
 
 {i3(iT)£:-Qp<S!T IT ensnk&GefnrG L—srSf^ fi.3 ^< psGeii<3m(E'<ih. 
 
 I could formerly indulge myself in things erf which. I cannot now 
 
 think but with pain, ^tLOu[r(iD^ ^]%ssri.(v.^G ;^ir^Lh G fi nesxstj s 
 
 0&[r(S:sQp ,^Gj5'Sisj<S[rfliuiis^is<r QpsxGesr £--^Gfi'r&^^G^frGi— 
 
 G<F iLiGeyiir,
 
 270 Appendix. 
 
 2. On the subjunctive mode, see §§ LYI. and LVII. Here arc a 
 few more instances : 
 
 I tvill respect him, though he chide me ; ^eu&r 'zre^%ssrs<si^^^ 
 
 Were he good he would be happy, ^eudr ^isoei)su(^iSiQ^^^!r p uirs 
 
 S UJ (T/>(S?r err au (W) iJ) • '5 u Lj /r «i3r . 
 If he desire it, I will perform the operation, ^eusar aS.ojLo J(e5)^ 
 
 If he were present, he was highly culpable, =§Yaj<,w- mi.i^'i9ri^^s(ri^ 
 
 3. The participles are often expressed by the verbal participle, or by 
 the relative participle with a particle, as : 
 
 Knoiving him to be a mischievous man. I aiwded him, «jj/sus3r Qutr 
 
 ^ ^ lJ ^ ilS) fW) C so . ) 
 
 Admired and applauded he became vain, nSyajsw ^J=s=iBuj^em;SiLji2i 
 
 us LpS'^iSiniLiu^Lii ^esiU-^^ (or ^s»i_^ *^(g)(?a)) ei?s5BT(C3)(2)63r. 
 Having /i»ished his ivorh, he submitted itjor examination, ^sudr 
 
 When the participle has a different nominative from that of the sen- 
 tence, the Tamil relative participle must have, subjoined to it, one or 
 the other of the before mentioned particles, as 
 
 The conly having brought the fire, the cook boiled the rice, sh-eSs 
 
 Jt being still hot, we cannot go up the mountain, QsuiuuSieorreas 
 
 lUfT^} (or OzLituuSleOTenrui^ujfreO^ jsrril: Ld^eiinS^ Q LsQei^psS'-t—ir^. 
 
 The sun having set, we descended from the mountain, (^Siu^ 
 
 The moon rising, we co umcncrd our journei/, s^^^iGrrfr^iULDrretas 
 
 uSIeO (or £'^^!Tmr s-SjujicrretnOurrnD^, or ^&}eLj G ^(r^s! rSiiorOi-irr 
 QP<^) JSTiksek iSI ST oj IT &!srLafnutlLjn:)Ljuil.G I— ml}. 
 
 The infinitive mode may also be used in these instances, as : 
 
 The teacher having delivered various doctrines, the disciples put 
 many questions, (^Q^suirsBreun'ueO e-uG j?<FE;«?eyr<FOaFiTei)sij J^a^fr 
 
 cSar cS!/G'^«LDaS(g)aS©'?<s«Jr. 
 
 When the participles stand as substantives, they must be rendered 
 accordingly, or by a relative participle with a particle, thus : 
 
 The generals being attached lo the l:ing secured his crown, Q'S' 
 
 (2)@u^ ^n'trs'iTemsuuupjiSisO'SireSsrL-^ ^irirs^ireSM"^'—^ 
 Qfi2)-ee)susstT&@ps:p'^ eT^3uiTnSI(;^^^^i, or up^&Q'SJexn—^
 
 Phrases. 271 
 
 John's having been writing a long time had wearied him, Qiufreurr 
 
 72, The Personal Pronouns. 
 
 The English to me, my, is not always required in Tamil, Avlien the 
 other parts of the sentence, naturally imply these pronouns, the Tauiu- 
 lian omits them, as : 
 
 Give (me) the book, .sj^^iIlj^ss S^eo^aOstr®. Here to add «r«J<r 
 
 i;@ would be stiff. It means none else, if another person is 
 
 meant, then .^3u^i^, &c., must be added, 
 
 / have Jinished my letter, jsiT'ssr siaS^^eei^ Oiuq^^ (ipi^^Q fiea . 
 
 Here otsw is not necessary; it is sufficiently implied in jsir^'^. 
 
 Thus also the second personal pronoun thee in imperative phrases 
 is not necessary in Tamil, as : 
 
 Make (thee) an arli-,<^0QuesiLpeauj<FOs'iLiajrrajrrs.liere s_6wj@ is 
 unnecessary and stiff; unless thee be rendered /or thee then 
 
 SL-esrsrSiTs may be said. 
 Hew (thee) two tables of stone, ^irei^Q apueo@s)&<s'?isti£'Os=iu. 
 Go, get (thee) down, ^ixSpth&iliQuiT. 
 
 Thus also the reciprocal Pronouns his, its, it, are unnecessary, as : 
 
 A tree bringeth forth (his) fruit in (his) season, ^(^^.ajfrenTStr 
 eO^^Qeo eS(^il.<s=u:ifrm-^ s:st^s1e(r<lOs:tTQs;QiirjD^j, here ^'^<^ 
 
 dfesfl, ^esr^ffeo^^Geo^ would not be Tamil. 
 
 He broke the stick I gave (him,) ^irdrQ.sn-Q^s^ ^i^emiuQfi^i^ 
 
 suresr. Here ^«r5©<£0«/rG)^^ is unnecessary. 
 
 73. Certain Phrases. 
 
 The dog barks, ^,tu!/ ^emtrsQ^P.^. 
 
 The hog grunts, •siriLQuu&i'^S s-.su(tpQ^p^. 
 
 The pig squeaks, um ^j ^esinSesTp^. 
 
 The horse neighs, @^s»/r a?e5ri;i£l»w/>^. 
 
 The cock crows, Gs^eueO &_Qy£«ar/D^. 
 
 The ass brays, <£(i^e>a^ a^^Searfi^j^ or *-L;til®flp^. 
 
 The cat fmrrs, y^esr s-^QpSi'^ fi^. 
 
 The kitten mews, ySsw^^ilif. j&_tlL5)©g^^ or uSu-'/r l&ujit 
 
 The bull bellows, sir'leir jsTevrsSp^. 
 
 The cow lows, us- •s^ssrsSp^. 
 
 The calj bleats, s<^ ^ sk.Ljd(BQpsi. 
 
 The sheep bleats, ^Qi sn-iLi^Qlk^p^ ox *'iesTG'^Pjfi.
 
 272 
 
 y, 
 
 ippendix. 
 
 The lion roars, 
 The wolf honls. 
 The elephant roars, 
 7V/e tiger growls, 
 The fox harks. 
 Mice squeak, 
 The frog croaks, 
 The sparrow chirps. 
 The swallow twitters. 
 The rook caws. 
 The pigeon cooes. 
 The turkey gobbles, 
 The peacock screams. 
 
 luir'hvr S(!T)S=Si;Q€!STflj§!. 
 
 pS\ sss.ieiru3QQmp_^ or <R._u_SlS)3^^. 
 
 ^e»<SQ3fcT)ciJfreaT(^0Q3 sh-utSQQ^fi)^'. 
 euiT'Sr.QsrT}^ S^^Qisrp^ £h^uiSl®Sp, 
 
 c?, 
 
 LnililiO Si^Gij^lCsrjr,^'. 
 
 The beeth'ior wasp )]iums,eu<s^® ^emrQ^sr p ^. 
 The cluck quacks, ^ tr it tr s sh^e^Q sir p _^ . 
 
 The goose cackles, emr^^^^ssh-GiiQesi p^. 
 
 Monkies chatter, @ J(B(fj=£e-fl- £h-iljiSISi3esrpssr. 
 
 The owl hoots, - ^fiea^ ,sh--2jiSlQ&<i°^p^. 
 
 The screech owl shrieks, s^it(^(i^sS ,a>.uLS®@esrp^i. 
 The snake hisses, ufTLhuj^sofrSieirp^. 
 
 MISCELLANIA. 
 
 74. The Measures. 
 
 The largest grain-measure is called sediL or seosyr ; and is marked eir. 
 
 1 . Kalam is marked, <5sYr or -ssrr, 
 
 2. ..!...<. e_srr. 
 
 4. ■ <S=OT-, &c. &c. 
 
 A kalam is divided into 12 smaller measm-es called Lnsrs&irei ok 
 
 (^jjjsmi, and marked u ; 
 
 2. <^^esiM is called up s<^, 
 
 3 C^«@ ^csS, 
 
 4 .S^essrl, , . . 
 
 O. ^Ei^^iml, 
 
 fi s^esSuiLJ ps-(^, . . « • 
 
 7. CTfT^^^ssw), 
 
 8 ^(SMi^, .b .... 
 
 9 @25.^6i!!!fii:(3;^S!«f?, .. 
 
 10 @(5,#/ri53;ffliI'LJ_i5i(5, .. . 
 
 11 <^Qr,j§lTS!SlM(LpS,(QjruSSISt]^ .. 
 
 12 -^^i^ 
 
 and marked 
 
 . . . • • * 
 
 ihJ 
 p. 
 
 p[5J 
 
 QJS 
 
 QJS-J 
 
 euhw 
 
 Qj&fEl 
 
 Sttt
 
 Miscellania. 273 
 
 A (j^ssBf! is again divided into 8 parts, called ;5iri^ or uld. and 
 marked <o\-. 
 
 \. fi IT i^^ is called ^(SJsrrL^, and marked «i_. 
 
 2. .. .. ^Ji3.'»"'i^, ^jru. 
 
 3. .. .. QfA^^i^, ..-. .. .. '^e\ 
 
 4. .. .. ,^ "■(55^-^.5 • .. .. -Fisi^. 
 
 5. ...• £3,l^ry9, ,. ,,,, .. (^inV-. 
 
 6. •••• rSf ^JBfTL^, ...... ... <«r6l_. 
 
 7. (STO^^fT^, .... OT,X. 
 
 8. .... ig^aaafl, •••• 
 
 (_/. 
 
 A jsfTL^ or LJ^u is divided into 8 smaller parts, one of which is called 
 ^ipirii^, marked erp. 
 
 2. .^Lp^J@, is called ©_tp,B(a5, or supi^i^^ marked (|rT. 
 
 3. ■ s-i-pi-£rrLf,irJ:.r^, v65,gC/- 
 
 4. 2-(fl or .JVGio/rLJu.^, ^/P- 
 
 5. 
 
 6. ^^^^^^(^ or Qfis^tr/Dui^, (Bi'^gu,. 
 
 7- ■ Qf<S^^£<^!ri^lTS(^^ /E-^^gC/. 
 
 8. J^i^i^, •• •• ...• (Sl_. 
 
 A r9iip!Ti(^ is suhdivided into 5 parts called Q<f«3® (>"ulg. *ej® and 
 G^frQ,) and marked ^g^- 
 
 1. G).^siS.^, I* c«//ec? ^-rj^O^aS®, <«f#^. 
 
 2. ^(T5^G)*=si3®, .. e_e^'^. 
 
 3. QfJ=0s-aSl9, .. flii-<g:S 
 
 4. firrfO(eeSl(B^ • • f^^^. 
 
 Observe that when the term ■Beoui, is united with any of the above 
 subdivisions, the ix is changed into «" and ct is added, thus : ^(V^^eo 
 Q<cm.^ersS Q^e'^iaeQesniSo^^ssstl^ &c. &c. In general also <s6i;»Tn" is 
 more in use than 'SeoLa. 
 
 75. Dai/s, Months, and Years. 
 
 The day, distinguished from the night, is called u^eo, and the 
 night ^^ T. , 
 
 A day consisting of 24 hours in called ;E,Tsr, when considered as 
 a part of the month ; but JS^fewLo, when it is considered as a })art of 
 the week; Q^tu^., or Qfi^, the day or date of the month, marked e_, 
 it is called ^^i, with respect to the age of the moon. — The day is 
 divided into O'O parts, called ^n-^&»a ; (vulg : fitri^, A\hich is equal to 
 our 24 hours ; and a fiirt^esi^ is divided into 3<j0 parts called O^fn^ 
 or j^L^i—ii. The night, viz., from sun set to sun rise, is divided into 
 4 ]>arts, called ^itllld or lu/rLDih. Therefore Q^fieofrfSf-s-TLnLD, is from 
 6 o'clock in the evening till 9 o'clock ; ^J6»rL_/r@#^/rLou3, from U t© 
 
 L 2
 
 27 -L Appendix. 
 
 12. (Midnight is called ^'^.^^i-ldlo,) Qp^(rr)(^^frLBil, is from 12 to 
 3 o'clock : and ^/^6D/^^p«-T/J:;Lo, fi-om 3 to 6 o'clock in the morning. 
 
 The week is called feVrc© j2 or eutrnix. It consists, like ours, of 
 7 days; which receive their names from the 7 Planets, called &!T&ih ; 
 in which the natives include the sun; to which the term fii^aom is 
 added, as : 
 
 Sunday. 
 
 Mondaif. 
 
 Tuesday. 
 
 Wednesday. 
 
 Thursday. 
 
 Friday. 
 
 Saturday. 
 
 The month is called ts^<T^il, or ti)fr,FLl, and marked trf^. The first 
 month of the year is ft^^s®/r, coiTesponding to nearly half of our April 
 and May. 
 
 «b3u<5,tS, do. May and June. 
 
 «^'«^5 do. June and July. 
 
 <iji^, do. Jiify (ind August. 
 
 .^ajsw3, do. August and September. 
 
 ^ iLi^rrS, do. Scptejnber and October. 
 
 ^luQ (vulg : ^ipuS') do. October and November. 
 
 ^trif^^ems^ do. November and Deceinber. 
 
 LOT/r<st^, do. December and January. 
 
 <s»^, do. January and February. 
 
 1 r^, do. February and March. 
 
 do. March and April. 
 
 
 the Sun, 
 the Moon, 
 
 
 W«*= QisurriLS, 
 
 Mars, 
 
 Os' eusumusS L^es)LD, 
 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 Jupiter, 
 
 Venus, 
 
 
 £=eiS, 
 
 Saturn, 
 
 s=<ssr£Q,L^se>J^, 
 
 LD'. 
 
 The year is called aj^a^ti, or .^swr®, and marked @y But when 
 the age of a person is meant, eu(mei^Lb, is not used, but &juj^', or «juj*, 
 or i3 jt rru- LD ; which literally signifies age : For instance, / am 10 years 
 old, must be rendered by eresri(^uus^^'euuj^.eKr®, not u^.^:euQ^-o^il ; 
 but, / ivas born 10 years ago, must be expressed by a^a^iii, viz., ^rrdr 
 iSfi _i^--'^^eLj(i^&^LXirra3^ J3J. 
 
 The Hindoos have also a kind of cycle, consisting of 60 years, to 
 each of these years, they give a separate name, subjoined is a list of 
 them, mth the year according to our reckoning. 
 
 1 
 
 lSj-usu, 
 
 
 a;(5a^L0, 
 
 1807 8. 
 
 2 
 
 «S_.'fflj, 
 
 
 @0 
 
 1808 9. 
 
 3 
 
 *■<£»'«), 
 
 
 
 1809 10. 
 
 4 
 
 iSnQuar.^ ^ 
 
 
 
 1810—11. 
 
 5 
 
 S '^Qs^iffLj^ 
 
 ^, 
 
 
 1811 12. 
 
 6 
 
 ^isjSjTs', 
 
 
 
 1812 13. 
 
 7 
 
 ^iP«, 
 
 
 
 1813—14.
 
 Miscellania, 
 
 275 
 
 8 
 
 uej, 
 
 «j(T^a^(2, 
 
 9 
 
 14 a/, 
 
 @) 
 
 10 
 
 ^n-^', 
 
 5» 
 
 11 
 
 w-s=si-!r^ 
 
 51 
 
 12 
 
 C) aj (^ ^ /r «or ciif! uj J 
 
 >J 
 
 13 
 
 lilJLcr^, 
 
 » 
 
 14 
 
 aSJ-QiTas, 
 
 »i 
 
 15 
 
 e51^, 
 
 »J 
 
 16 
 
 i^ff^!TU(TSP', 
 
 5J 
 
 17 
 
 *Lj/r^J, 
 
 ?J 
 
 18 
 
 ^iT JsjRiT, 
 
 ?? 
 
 19 
 
 UfTlT^^lO}, 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 eSiiJ, 
 
 55 
 
 21 
 
 ^(I^SLlQ^^, 
 
 55 
 
 22 
 
 ^(i^sii ^rrfi^ 
 
 55 
 
 23 
 
 aS(?Tr^, 
 
 55 
 
 24 
 
 6lS«(T5^, 
 
 55 
 
 25 
 
 .5^, 
 
 55 
 
 26 
 
 ;F^j;»i5r, 
 
 55 
 
 27 
 
 6lS<FUJ, 
 
 55 
 
 28 
 
 <«^IiJ, 
 
 55 
 
 29 
 
 LD«3r LO^, 
 
 55 
 
 30 
 
 ^«5^(3pS, 
 
 55 
 
 31 
 
 ©■a5 ■'^iiiLS, 
 
 55 
 
 32 
 
 c55^i-o J, 
 
 55 
 
 33 
 
 eS^/r/fl, 
 
 55 
 
 34 
 
 •F^ifaj/fl, 
 
 55 
 
 35 
 
 lilsUa/, 
 
 55 
 
 36 
 
 *Ljg(3^, 
 
 55 
 
 37 
 
 (cs'iruSn^^, 
 
 55 
 
 38 
 
 ^Girtr^, 
 
 55 
 
 39 
 
 eS sfsvrreus?, 
 
 55 
 
 40 
 
 u iT irujeu^ 
 
 55 
 
 41 
 
 LS«iJajiE;<s, 
 
 55 
 
 42 
 
 £6U=«, 
 
 55 
 
 43 
 
 ^GljL^UJ, 
 
 55 
 
 44 
 
 ■F/r^/riT'sBsr, 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 ei3(?/r/r^3(5^, 
 
 55 
 
 46 
 
 LJ/ff afToS, 
 
 55 
 
 47 
 
 lSI Jlc/tjs^, 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 •a^f^, 
 
 55 
 
 49 
 
 S !TlLs= ^^ 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 ^<sir^ 
 
 55 
 
 51 
 
 Smjsetr^ 
 
 55 
 
 52 
 
 iSiTeOtLi^^^ 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 S^S-fTIT^^^ 
 
 55 
 
 1814—15. 
 1815—16. 
 1816— 17. 
 
 1817—18 uajrr, 
 
 1818—19. 
 
 1819—20 i^^. 
 
 1820—21. 
 
 1821—22. 
 
 1822—23. 
 
 1823—24. 
 
 1824—25. 
 
 1825—26. 
 
 1826—27. 
 
 1827—28. 
 
 1828—29. 
 
 1829—30. 
 
 1830—31. 
 
 1831—32. 
 
 1832—33. 
 
 1833—34. 
 
 1834—35. 
 
 1835—36. 
 
 1836—37. 
 
 1837—38. 
 
 1838—39. 
 
 1839—40. 
 
 1840—41. 
 
 1841—42. 
 
 1842—43. 
 
 1843—44. 
 
 1844—45. 
 
 1845—46. 
 
 1846—47. 
 
 1847—48. 
 
 1848—49. 
 
 1849—^0. 
 
 18.50—51. 
 
 1851—52. 
 
 1852—53. 
 
 185.S— 54. 
 
 1 854—55. 
 
 1855—56. 
 
 1856—57. 
 
 1857—58. 
 
 1858—59. 
 
 1859—60,
 
 276 Appendix. 
 
 54 
 
 iray/^/fl, 
 
 eua^si^Lh, 
 
 1860—61, 
 
 55 
 
 ^ oiT U3 g. 
 
 ^ 
 
 1861 62 
 
 56 
 
 ^^ff^'LtJ, 
 
 
 1862 63, 
 
 57 
 
 (i^iiQinrA^iTiP, 
 
 
 1863—64, 
 
 58 
 
 ^ '^/.fTL^gl^ 
 
 
 1864 65, 
 
 59 
 
 ^QrriT ^sar^ 
 
 
 1865 66 
 
 60 
 
 ^tLs^uj, 
 
 
 1866 67. 
 
 They "se these names chiefly in legal transactions ; bnt ''n fnmily 
 concerns, which are for perpetuity, as well as in the inscriptions of 
 temples, they join to the name of the v'^ar, the year of the aera of 
 Salivanana and that of the 4th age. About the Hindoo ages I shall give 
 an account presently. 
 
 As for the epoch of Salivahana (^s="''^e}jir^^il^^ it is the most 
 memorable among tiie Hindoos, from which ti\oy re^lcon their years. 
 This epoch dates from the death of Salivahana, king of Visnagar, which 
 happened in the 3179th year of the 4th age, and eorrespon.ls with the 
 78th year of the Christian sera, *=n-ffl3au.T=s6WLc, means the vehicle of the 
 cross, or crossbearer. Who can help thinking that this alludes to our 
 Lord Jesus Christ ? Many circumstance coincide to make us believe 
 that the whole account of s^tTsSeuirsevrui is a perversion of tlie history 
 of Christ. See more on this subject in the Asiatic Researches, vol. 
 
 iMoreover the Hindoos make the duration of the world to be 4 ages, 
 called ii^-«i-c, each of which consists of a large number of years. 
 
 The first a.iSdt>, is called s\Q?r ^hilisiIi^ i. e., the age of innocence ; the 
 golden age of the Greeks. It consisted of 1,728,000 years ; in it the bull 
 of justice stood on 4 legs. The second i4«ii, is called ^In-^iru^sih^ 
 or the silver age ; consisting of 1 ,296,000 years. It Avas inferior to the 
 former ; and the bull stood on three legs. The third ii,«LD, is called 
 ^euTu!Tu^sil or the brazen age ; consisting of 864,000 years. It was 
 still worse, and the bull had only tAvo legs. The fourth ajSLb, is called 
 ^eSiL^stl, i. e., the age of strife and misery ; the iron age ; consisting of 
 432,000 years. This is the age in which we now live ; and the bull is 
 left standing on only one leg ; Avhich allegory aptly represents the 
 tottering state of virtue, and the prevalence of sin. 
 
 In the kanda puranum, we are informed of the manner in which these 
 ages have been calculated. It is thus : 
 
 The time that is necessary for the middle finger resting on the thumb, 
 to be taken off quickly, is one instant, equal to the twinkling of an 
 eye; this time is called iMir^^esitr or seSsremiflemiji. 
 
 make 1 SlilLjO-ii. 
 
 1 ■& esS! LD . 
 
 1 fi rr tfiiasiS , 
 
 1 s'lTLisLb, or /he 8th part of a daij. 
 
 1 ^/raV, or dai/. 
 
 1 uasii), or half a month. 
 
 2. 
 
 uiirs^^<^f^. 
 
 10. 
 
 ^L LyJii), 
 
 12. 
 
 <FSWIi£, 
 
 60. 
 
 aS®i^, 
 
 7. 
 
 jSfTL^sms, 
 
 8. 
 
 JP/TLOi-C, 
 
 15. 
 
 JSlTar,
 
 Miscellania. 277 
 
 2, usxtl,^ make \ Lnr^il, or a month. 
 
 12. ixff-^ii, 1 au (5 si^Lii, or a ^ear. 
 
 100 euQ^&^tl is the common term of the life of man. 
 
 These 100 years multiplied by 360 (because each year contains so 
 many clays) make 36,000. This number multiplied by 6, on account 
 of the 6 subdivisions, i-riT^gomr, Qili^rtt, &c. makes 216,000 whicli 
 is tlie basis of the calculati)ns, respecting the durations of the 4 ages. 
 The calculation then proceeds tiius : 
 
 216.000 multiplied by 2, in honour of the quality of virtue, and of 
 rice, gives the number of 432,000, which expresses the duration of the 
 «siSii^,si2, or fourth age in which we now live. 
 
 216,000 multiplied by 4 in honour of tlie 4 vedams makes 864,000, 
 which is the number of years of the ^ajn^u J"it,i«u5, or third a;;e. 
 
 216,000 multiplied by 6 in honour of the six Shastrams, makes 
 1,296,000, wliich is the number of the years of the ^Qfr^u^-stl^ or 
 second age, and lastly, 
 
 216,000 multiplied by 8 in honour of the eight points of tbe compass, 
 produces 1,728,000, being the number of years of the &Q r ^^slc^ or 
 first age. 
 
 The united years of these 4 ages make the number of 4,320,000 
 called s'^iriLiXLh, i. e., the 4 ages of the world. 
 
 2000 s^^iTu^sLb, (i. e. 8,640,000,000,) make 1 day, and 1 night of 
 Brahma, or 24 of his hours ; 60,000, ■e-^ j iq^ii), are one of his months; 
 12 such months, one of his years, and 100 such years are the term of 
 his life. 
 
 The duration of the life of Brahma makes only 1 dny of Yishtnoo's 
 existence ; 30 of such days form one of his months, and 12 such montlis, 
 one of his years, after 100 such years, he will die, and then Siven alone 
 will exist. 
 
 This calculation is certainly ingenious ; but at once points out what 
 we have to think of the boasted antiquity of the Hindoo.s. It does 
 not rest on any history whatever, and is a mere invention of the brain. 
 
 The Bramins prepare aruiually an almanac, which Is called ut^s^rriEi 
 •sil, a Sanscrit word, composed of lj(ct^, i. e., five, and ^insis:, a 
 member : It is so called, because it contains five points of information, 
 viz. 1. It shoAvs the ^^, the day according to the age of the moon; 
 2. a/j-JLo, i. e., the day of the week. 3. fi'—s-^g.^a-Lc, i. e., the con- 
 stellation in which the moon enters every day, 4. GojfTsdi^ i. e. the 
 good and bad days; 5. susudtlc,, divination, augury.
 
 278 Appendix. 
 
 76. The Points of (he Compass and Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 A region, or point in the horizon is called Bsas^ or ^s^. The 4 
 chief points are: 
 
 SLpJ-.'fj or Si^^e<D,F or Sf^^^stOiF, the East. 
 
 Qiap''^ or Q LapS(ssiS= or QLoeo^^eas^, the West. 
 
 0/p^'^ or C)^sin^9«n<F, the South. 
 
 eut—s^ or fflj^^sB)^, the North. 
 
 The 4 intervening angles are called gy^Sei), viz. 
 
 0^657 gLp/@, belwee7i East and South. 
 
 O^eirQ LD^-^^ South and West. 
 
 euL-GLDp(^^ West and North. 
 
 eui—Qi^s;.^, North and East. 
 
 In each of these 8 points, the Hindoos imagine a God to reside, 
 TN'hom they call ^^(^uujeosif^ the keepers or guardians of the points. 
 They ai'e these : 
 
 ^l^jisr, the chief of the gods, in the East. 
 
 ^isssfl, the god vj' fire, in S. E. 
 
 ^uuLDc-w^ the god of death, in the South. 
 
 ^v5j^, a king whom they esteem the most potent and liberal, 
 
 in S. W. 
 
 eu(v,3»T'^, the God of the waters, in the West. 
 
 eurriLj, the Gad of the winds, N. W. 
 
 @CLjir«sr, the God of riches, in the North. 
 
 tf ,ff rrsw ear ^ Siveu himself, in N. E. 
 
 fT- £^ iTisr ih, is one of the Jire faces qf Siven : 
 
 The above terms, are also used as adjectives, thus : 
 
 Si^Q s^s-ih, the eastern countri/ or region. 
 
 £lP«c_«), the eastern sea. 
 
 QinvdQ ^.Fih or Qi^f>Q^s=ih or (eiaeo^G^s^tl, the western country.^' 
 
 Gxs^^i— «> or Qi-cieii,Bsu.Q), the western Sea.* 
 
 O^eiiGP'Ftii, the southern country. 
 
 O^^SL^eO, the south sea. 
 
 6ui—Qf<Fti, the north country. 
 
 «u (_«!_«), the north sea. 
 
 S-f 'ljJ^lo, the east side. 
 
 G LDsiu&siM or G r<sOilu£Sih, west side* 
 
 Q^«aru£=iF(ii south side 
 
 oji—ussld, north side 
 
 * Li' these words be \ATitten Gmp^ps'il, it Tvill mean the upper 
 country; GLnflSu.») the tipper sea; GmpussLh the upper side.
 
 Miscellania. 
 
 279 
 
 The signs of the 
 
 Zodiac are called @ 
 
 3- IT 9. Their names are these 
 
 Gmei^ut or GiMi—il, 
 
 y4 /•?>*, 
 
 
 in March. 
 
 /fla^LJii) or ^L—uui, 
 
 Taurus, 
 
 
 in April. 
 
 L^s^ecTLh^ 
 
 
 Gemini, 
 
 
 in May. 
 
 tf ^7i=Si_c5i£i, 
 
 
 Cancer, 
 
 
 in June. 
 
 ^/E/cELD, 
 
 
 Leo, 
 
 
 in July. 
 
 &(obr<si^^ 
 
 
 Virgo, 
 
 
 in August. 
 
 ^'eorrtxi^ 
 
 
 Libra, 
 
 
 in September. 
 
 6iS(5/^«ld, 
 
 
 Scorpio, 
 
 
 in October. 
 
 ^.giJcBf, 
 
 
 Sagilfarius, 
 
 in November. 
 
 LC^iTLC, 
 
 
 Canricor 
 
 mts. 
 
 ill December. 
 
 t£, 
 
 )LLULD, 
 
 ear La. 
 
 Aquarius, in January. 
 Pisces, in February. 
 
 77- Terms of Consanguinity. 
 
 The Tamulian's call their relationship Qprnp or ^piatj- for instance, 
 a_(E/a^b5<ffi@OT-(?s)rr(;lp«s;^(o')^L«ffi637■, of wliA relation are you (tocach olhcrj? 
 Paiticulars are these 
 
 The father is called, ^■suueir, ^uu&sr^ ff^sm^, or iS^ir. 
 TheJ'at'ier's brothers, do do. 
 
 But the elder brother of the father, OuSujuueir, 
 
 younger do. ^i^p^U'si'. 
 
 The niotlier, ^mu, .^'iJ, ^Lhtnireir, .^liiJ^S, ^'iisaoui. 
 2' he mother's sister, do. do. 
 
 But the mother's elder sister, O-^iBuj^'iSI. 
 do. younger, do. &sai ew^aSl. 
 The grand father, both on the father and mother side, uirL-t^e^. 
 The grand mother, both on the father and mother's side, uiin-t^; 
 
 The father's sister \ 
 
 2 he mother of one's nife or husband, j'^'" ** 
 
 The brother cffhe mother, ^iSLortsr, s^:nuL£itrLassr, 
 
 Jirolhers and sisters, £h.L—ili3ffi.^euirselT or ^Q&irff s^^siSt. 
 
 The elder brother ( oj' the same father and mother) ^^emn-dr^ 
 
 The younger brother of do. ^lolSI. 
 
 The elder sister cf do. ^^■srrelr or ^lo^s»«. 
 
 The younger sister f of the same fat her and mother,) ^ijs^9, or 
 
 A man, Ly^i-eJr^ td'cS^^, ^s^<F{r$. 
 
 A woman, eri^fi. 
 
 Q 
 
 uesFT, 
 
 Ot-i^ssr^Fir^. 
 
 The husband, ^/roj^ear^ seasr&jein^ LnassreviTstr'^: , Qs ir^ipjs^, ua^x 
 
 f"T, or uirfftr, ^^SLCLjesiL-UJiT'cm^ (A'ulg : ^ili^emi—ujirdr^'^ ^-C. 
 2'he tvife, Outkn—sriLi^^ u-taraS, ^iriuQ, ^itjJlc.
 
 280 Appeyidix. 
 
 A hrofher in larv, es>u^^i;^ei!r^^ (vulg : Lo^PeweJr, Lns^ffirear^'^ '^ 
 means also a couf in who is the mother's biothei''s son or the 
 father's sister's son. 
 
 A sistr in law, siOLo/^jsr^, (vulg : iLs^SieS, ms'Si's^ £=Si^') also the 
 wife's younger sister, or the younger brother's wife ; also a cousin 
 mIio is the mother's brother's daughter, or the father's sister's 
 daughter. 
 
 The wife's elder sister, Qsitq^^^. 
 
 The hiishand's hroClier, Qst^ 0^,5^"^. 
 
 The htshand's sister ;Bir^ s (gfir. 
 
 ' Persons who have married two sisters call each other, j^s-ecear. 
 
 Persons who have married two brothers, are called, gsujiIiLVif-iL/rr, 
 
 Several women, married to one man, call each other, s'SSbtr^^. ; 
 A J'a! her in law, ui/tlqw , 
 A mother in law, tx-rLS. 
 
 A son in law, u^jy^s^- ; also the son of a man's sister or of 
 
 a woman's brother. 
 A daughter in law, u^.^ias.^, also the daughter of a man's sister, 
 
 or of a Avoman's brother. 
 A grandson, Gusre}-^ Qu!rtZ9&T'^, 
 
 A granddaughter, Gljt^S, also a sister's grand son. 
 A grandson's son, L^'Lt-eur, 
 A grandson's daughter, y-'f-. 
 
 Note. — That the Tamulians often add .^/f, as an honorific to these 
 several terms, as : 
 
 <ff^L!/u@'r, s^mjurr/r, Lnrr'r(^', LDirLSajrrir^ ^enixiu^iT, ^ Lussmeujfrir. 
 
 &c., LofTiT, or LD;T/r <«<5rr, is also added to form the Plural, as : 
 
 LDifLD^ LDfrifsaT, G u irem u^irifseir, G uft ^^Ldtrn'S&r, &c. 
 
 78. On Figures. 
 
 The natives often employ. figurative language, especially in poetry; 
 where they sometimes run into extravagance. I shall state a few 
 instances of each particular figure with notes. 
 
 1. The figure, called, metaphor, (s_d5fflj=?£2,) e. g., 
 
 A good Minister is the pillar of a stale /feOeOLD^^if^iurreareuevr 
 ^ jrrJ:&ujJ^.0ia- ,^6ssr^ (or ©f^LcuLo.) Were we to say .^^iiS^s^Si^vtir^ 
 we make a simile ; and lessen the beauty of the sentence. 
 
 / will he Ufilo her a wall of fire round about, jsircsr .jt/su^airJ^s^p/S 
 ^'£-SstfiJ'G'S{nleis>u-tu!rti3i;[fLLGLjev^ the finite verb here is neces- 
 sary on account of .^,su'>js«£'s pj3. If it be expressed with the 
 dative, it is not necessaiy, as: jsirek .j>ieu(^ic'3 ^iislea^J'G'SiTtL 
 sai—, which does not define any time, but only the bare fact. 
 
 Thy 7vord is a lamp to 7m/ feet, and a light to mij path, lit : a-te
 
 Miscellania. 281 
 
 SS'siri'^iiitrsiS^sQ'jd^^ this is not good in Tamul, The 
 Tamulian questions the propriety of giving a ^O&jlLu^, to the 
 LJir^LD, because (lie foot cn?tnot see, the ^OeuiLi^, is for fhe eye. 
 Besides no lamp is without light ; hut in this sentence the light 
 is separated from the lamp, and hoth clauses are united as if the 
 lamp and the light were two different things. It is better there- 
 fore to express it thus : e.Lo^^fi^suoFswLQ srswu/r/ aj 1.^^(5 Liilii" 
 &frs^(kO'Xir®&Q/D^OsuLLt9-^ or make two sentences of it thus: 
 jssr&r Os^thesiunuiTiu p i—S&p^s. p'^ s^ld^sliS^ esrih ej Q^^OentLuf-. 
 
 There is not a single view of human nature, ivhich is not sufpci- 
 enl to extinguish the seeds of pride, lit : ld eS ^ <&■ u rr eu ^ ^ ^em i—iu 
 
 &Qpg:pCS'^QLjiT^!rs--^eieo ; this is unintelligihle, the English also 
 is improper, making two inconsistent metaphors meet on one 
 object; for a ^;^eM; does not extinguish ; nor are seeds to be 
 extinguished. It ought to be: ^s^enpuurrQtu eSe«>s;s'&s<riui^ 
 iQpfip(^ LDSiS^ •s?urrsiis;es>fi ujirji rriLSp Q jsn's-siEj^&flOeOfTeirQp 
 GuiT^ih. The affirmative form Guirj^ith, is better here than 
 Quit fisr^^eieo. 
 
 The Tamulians have many instances of this figure, thus : 
 
 A strong 7n an is called JSiTleir, a bull, as: ,s!G^iTsrr^eirsu(i^Q(r)m- 
 behold ! the bull comes (meaning the mighty man.) It is an 
 honorable term. 
 
 l_/L^iL/(CT:jrrsw-aj/r(TpLo ujr, i. e., ui^&(^ ^(iFS=rr^'<-Ji3)-s(^ eurr/ipSpusr 
 an ox that lives fearless of sin ; meaning a man that does so. 
 urr'^Qtan-i^, a word as sweet as milk, ufnxir is lj^"^. 
 G^sor Ouari^, a word as sweet as honey. 
 
 2. Allegory and simile (called s-susmLo,) is very common in Tamil.' 
 The native books are full of fables, parables, and comparisons. They 
 make animals and inanimate objects, speak and act like men. I shall 
 adduce only a few instances of the simile, as : 
 
 The actions of Princes are like those great rivers, the course of 
 ■which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by 
 few, lit : '^ly !Ts=frs>-s^^ee)i—aj O^tueaseSr O-'fluJ ^^s'SetruQurr 
 eSnhsweirp^, ^(ssiewseSesr e^LLu-sem^ uu[raj(^i-a uirr •Bisli^n's^ar. 
 ^a»fflj«erf?«07- sSSLpJJjJ'&eOt^J-.i^LaiTi.^sJ^ Q ^fr<siT ^&eir p^ • but 
 
 it is better to invert the sentence thus : Oufiiu .^^seSssr s^il, 
 
 QesT pear. 
 As the mountains are round about Jerusole?n, so the Lord is round 
 about his people, toSeVcSsn- sr(t^,FGei)ss)LDJ=(^LpK^r(^d&ip^Gu,TeOt2t 
 
 As wax would not be adequate to the purpose of signature, if it 
 
 M 2
 
 282 Appendix. 
 
 had not the power to retain as well as to receive the i7npression, 
 the same holds ofihe soul, with respect to sense and imagina- 
 tion. Sense is its receptive power ; imaginalion its retentive. 
 Had it sense without imagination, it would not be as wax but 
 as water; where though all impressions arc instantly made, 
 yet as soun as they are made, they are instantly lost, OLaQ^str 
 ear ^ Qp^ ^smiremajiZ Olj ^^ eci<^^, ^eafiil'UpjiSiAO^n'&r^^ ^eir 
 
 G uj IT ^^asriu IT ear ^ ^eny^sZu p^,<&0^ fT eh (Sff^ ps it esr <«0aS. Guuirs' 
 
 \ tesrujfT&'iU c50siSa-P«3. ^ ^ rSteuiriiuj <S(T}eS leut^ ^U (if.ee) i—uu^fT^ <^ 
 
 n^fi^'LDir Qin.-xcesi'S^ilG u[rei^e\'<F cF«t>_J;«s> J i_Gt_J /railed" @ijj. £? lI/lj 
 
 i^Ouussfl p s=ei> I, ^' Geo ^seif iu IT •^ em (^^^!siJJ iMir tut-' uj£i<^^6)i fTih: u^ 
 
 ^fSLjU-G'S^ ^^G^ fT'om(fr)IMpGurTLL, 
 
 A few instences from tlie Tamil. 
 
 ^if\LDfi0iT ihLj(^^s;ireorT%BirLC:0uLjt2i^ 
 
 ji fi js eeiifiuSeO, 
 
 eutr ^(S^Q pnuLaiSOiu 6)1 iIljibs ^ ^su^^&r 
 
 G(yegjUi^e\)rr&iGsuj}ie«rGi—n'0'ff=n'ei. 
 
 In plain Tamil : 
 
 Siij'S^^^siaL-UJ (s^es>'Sa3pi^ffQ'3LsQ^^ir9d ^%ssr\i3&!r LD0ueauiJLji^ 
 trScarayo) LSffarrSi&p Qp^^ss'Zeiru-jLCi Oi-ipeorril:, jsfiuSi ^&aL—aj 
 ^■QDLpuSlGeo S^IULJ LD^aSeir eufT^th CT^ldlj/e/ 'S(U,<sis>f\i3^ss)i—iU 
 G ^n-e)^G LDujem^ Gsu^eSsrGi—n O'e-frenejU, i. e. " If thou enter 
 the Lion's den, thou wilt obtain ivory and bi'ightly shining 
 pearls ; but, in the hole of a fox, tell ! rvhether thou wilt Jind 
 there any thing else but (ass's) tails, colt's hones, and ass's 
 skin ? " The moral drawn from this is : Associating with the 
 nohle and good, thou Avilt enrich thy hody and mind, but con- 
 versation with the mean and Avicked yields nothing but trash. 
 eS/ffl, is Lion ; lo^I^Jlo, a mansion, ^^ lc^^^'J ix stands for ^fl 
 u3^es)i—iUL&^^ J ^^eH or Q^&nsiiSeO ; ^^ser loq^lI i_j, i'or ^^eer aSi ^ 
 es)i—iu LD(i^uLj, the horn of an FJephant, i. e., ivory; Oi- Q^Osir 
 wfluj, is Oi_;0(5, and ep&fluj ; jSiP^eaL^, is jsSdS^netai^iu^^eaLp, the 
 hole of a fox. Si^tu lojB, for Ldj&nS^&ai—uj, the colt of an ass j 
 izs^istsuih, an ass ; .jtj^eorreO, is for ^eOevmLO). 
 
 LjeSuQ^^rrp Ljeo'^^^^ ^ldit. If the tyger be hungry, will he 
 eat grass ? i. e., will a gi-eat man when he is in distiess go (for 
 
 relief) to a mean person ? 
 
 3. Metonomy, or the cause for the effect, &:c. Tamulians use this 
 figiu-e, but not to the extent as in English ; for instance they will say : 
 
 ^Q^O^eiGeneSopopeij^La ^iiGseu^^Q^s^Qp^, All Tinnevelly is 
 
 come together here.
 
 MisceUania. 283 
 
 aj/rflir^^,£(5 (or u JT LDemi—ei}^^fi(Sj^ ^Qitit fi Lairs £,(^pp(^ Qs^iu 
 
 Q ^esr, I have sinned ugahisl heaven. 
 i_//r?iswOi_; r/E/3/-(5, Has the pot boiled? 
 
 ^^fiilurleer sr ^fi^jeisrui^tufi^lOu!TiEi(^Lh, how manij measui'es of 
 
 rice will this pot boil ? 
 O'B^iEiQsfrleouLSi^si^rTif He assumed the sceptre. 
 
 But tliej could not use the following speeches : 
 
 Thet/ read Milton, lit : ^aiFsm l& Jo l Q ^ ir'^jssr aiirS!s-£(n)iTs<^r, they 
 ivill say i^iii^Q sir^ii 0^i/ju.ji2s»rau/r^<ife(2J.*r ■;;«»•. the I*oetiy of 
 
 JMilton. 
 
 Grey hairs should be respected., lit: ;seaTmnS'eis>Ts:3-eBr(^ Os^iuiu 
 
 Geue^^LD, they sav q^^G ^irsmir or sSq^si^ (tlL Si u-smiris' o~jT(^.C?dFiLj 
 
 iuQeLesstQih. 
 
 4. Synecdoche, -where the whole is put for a part, or a part for the 
 whole. The Tamulians use this figure also, but not in all cases like in 
 English, thus : 
 
 A jleet of twenty sail, ^a^u^urrni&r&T xuups,-i^i—Lh ; they say 
 
 better, ^(/^■-i^<suJLje)}jstron£h-'—L—LC. 
 How many hands are there? <cT^^'iesrsmsu-jmr9, they rather say 
 
 er ^ A tcjr G fflj Sei* £ « jT J" «»T S) . 
 But the following phrases are common. 
 
 aarjflG'gi) «T_^^?e»r^26ui;<2ril®, lit : hoiv many heads for pieces of 
 
 heads J are in the village ? i. e., how many persons are there. 
 
 ^26D QuijesisresSs's^Lhuen-^ea^&O&rr®, lit : count the heads (i, e. the 
 
 persons) and give ftheinj their tvages. 
 
 OauOTiT^sis3/r@£P(r^rsiJLc, the earth surrounded by the /rhite wave ; 
 
 where ^'sro/r, the wave, is for <fqp^^.jll, the sea, (^^ is the root 
 
 for @cp/^. 
 OsLijs;£1eo jsL-i—n-^, he planted the beetle leaf (instead of the 
 
 branch.) 
 ^^u^ilQfiJT^ii, the six feet make a noise, .=iy^u^L3, i. e. ^.^ 
 urr^LB, 6 feet instead, eueikr®, the wasj) with 6 feet. 
 eSiistrs(§Qpfi^fi^, the light burst ; for eSl&rs(^^fieistir'S', the caudle- 
 sticky 
 OjS(^<B^OjBiT^^^, the mind jjained ; for LLirifuj, the chest. 
 
 5. Personification or Prosopopoeia is frequent. The Tamulian will 
 well understand, for instance, the following. 
 
 The ground thirsts for rai?i, ^©Jlq m^Lrn^wnQ Uiii^kfi(r.sLii-^n3ms 
 
 The earth smiles with plenty, yufi oFLiy ^(s»r^^(GB)C«3 j^esis&Qiir 
 
 p.3^, Tlie Tamulian would not sa}', •s'u.t^^ essrsQ ^wGi 
 
 Ambition is restless, ^^LOfTilLj ^ea ^^sSleOeo'iTLaiiilQ^s&i/D^. 
 When Israel wetit out of Egypt, the sea saw it and fed ; Jordan 
 fvas driven back; the mountains skipped like rams, and the
 
 284 Appendix. 
 
 little hills like lamhs. What ailed thee, O thou sea I that thou 
 Jleddest ? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven hack ? ye moun- 
 tains, that i/e skipped like rains, and ye hills like lambs ? 
 Tremble, thou earth! at the presence of the Lord, ■SL-eoirear^ 
 
 ^sn) J Csijci)^ GrQuu^emsi eSLl.(?luLjfiLliu(BSjDes>sJ:sem(Sl qScoSlj 
 GurraSp ^. Quurrn'J;T(oir'3oiTS<^siruui^L-.^. LDSeU^arSi— /ruj^SairLJ 
 
 s L—Geo, ^ ^eoQi^jQ utrQp ^ p'fiih fp Qujirn'^irQm-, ^ S&sr^s^ 
 ^ Sr stnli ^1® £' p ^^ ^ "^ i-!i |p, UiSeiidsGar, ^iki&eir Qt-.rrtjiZ^&ruQLjrreoeij 
 
 Here are some purely Tamil instances : 
 
 y, jsemsg^Qp^, the flower laughs. 
 
 L-i&r6S^:Bii.L—Lh QfiLpij(^Sp^, the school roars, i. e., the boys in the 
 
 school, &c. 
 e_LD(T/)«»L_uj LnesrQtLO'Ffr&yesiiLh, thy own mind will tell. 
 QfisO'ieosBir (Lp^sustS^^ssn-Lli^eur, the Mullei-shrub laughs and 
 
 points out (viz. the coming of rain.) 
 ^ !T s^^'hsstr OiLiiEj^(^Os=&>e0Ui^ the king's command runs every 
 
 where ^rrs^^, for ^^!Ts= ^^ai—uj. 
 ^a/ajL^ ursiriuiEjQsrrL-ani—s^ilGuirQiirp^^ this road goes to 
 
 Palamcottah. 
 
 6. Apostrophe is likewise considered elegant in Tamul, thus : 
 
 Death is swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? 
 O grave! where is thy victory, Qs^iu^^^A Lauessrili eSi^iasu 
 tJtl-L—^. <zp, Ldii (SserQ LQ s-^Oi-ifeBLCiOiuimQs. ep^ uir^treirQio e_e9r 
 
 O thou sword of the Lord ! how long will it be ere thou he quiet ? 
 put thyself up into thy scabbard, rest and he still! How can it 
 he quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge against Ash- 
 kalon, and against the sea shore, |p, .sq^^ pireS ^ee>i—uj slLs 
 Glci, ^ ^ODta^eoesx—Sp^^i^ ers^^'iesr 'Sfrei)(^0<Fei>sULC. e_sBr 
 
 Georr^i;^iij s; i—Qeorr a ^^pr^ih eSGrrn'^ Ldtrs ^ ^^{^&s; [L.L—^eir 
 Os(T®fi^ui^ii3(^Geii stZl^i^iu^ ^esiLD^eorruLS((^£i^th. This is 
 as in English except the clause put thyself up, &c. The Tamu- 
 lian does not say so, but simply^ go into thy scabbard. 
 
 A few Tamil instances : 
 
 ^«OLn<^,G<FGsi—i^, Hear! O thou dark blue cloud! G^siLc^, ig 
 
 for Gasir0, the poetical form of the imperative second person. 
 
 mjir!rmuuii—0^(^Gs', O thoti stuped mind! come away ! viz., a 
 
 poet addresses his own mind to call it off from ro^•ing abroad. 
 
 eu/riTdiu, is the same as etjir, the imperative.
 
 Miscellania. 285 
 
 a exr i—'20!r Q iij ireu fr ij^, ^ I— eii , 
 In plain Tamul : «^, euiTL^sje^sn—uj-SL-Qeo^ ^a-jilisi'0Q(^iu, GuiTS(n)uj^ 
 
 ^'hot!ri.Sfi>Oi-Jfrap^, ^ (Lfii-aitennlQutreveOeoGsu. ueO^^S Gfitr^striL^einL-iU 
 Q<siTe<afi@s>>ui<si^i~.n'Q[UT^ translated tlius : 
 
 prosperous Ocean ! thou also (like myself) contest and goesf, thou 
 art troubled., thou dost not sleep ; thou beatest f the shore J and roaresf, 
 when ( J ) consider (thee) thou art not as formerly. Hast thou (per- 
 haps) seen the strong shouldered king ofMaleyalani f In the above A'erse 
 the form a/(5^, Oljujit^, &c. is the poetical form of the second person 
 of the present tense ; Quitq^^Qjs^, is Qimr^SjD^ ; .£0^E;cE/r<a),is«(g 
 ^S/DOurTQ^^ ; ugwrif-tssr, is the same as (T/)«.'y?6S7-, and ^eo^. is ^«&eiJ. 
 The affix ^ei), is merely expletive; uiri^, is ueos^^ ; Q^rnL, is G^rrm, 
 the shoulder ; G'Sireafi, is Q<e=3-ear^ the King qf Malei/ahnn ; <sejwr£_2<5sr 
 is the second person of the past tense, the same as 'Sexri—iriLj, eurri^, is 
 ajfTLpeLjoai—iu ; dL-ci) is here for .st—Geo, the vocative. 
 
 7. Antithesis. The Tamul well admits all the various modes of con- 
 trast or opposition of two objects, as in English, thus : 
 
 If you wish to enrich a person., study 7iot to increase his stores, 
 but to diminish his desires, //f 6^0aj?«n- gts-su/flujau/r®^* aSfjiii 
 
 «S (5 Jj LJ i 6» ^ <S (5 6»^ <£ <« lI l9 J" UJ n",F LJ LJ® a? iT /r.£. 
 
 If you regulate your desires according to the standard of nature, 
 you will never be poor ; if according to the standard of opinion, 
 xjou will never be rich, ^iksen- j^uirsuLJUt^ o^ihseir ^ea^s^si 
 ® ^L—isjOsrT(Bs:^rr^ epQ^s^strejUih izreifl£nLDtLj0rsireLiiT'S&rir<SL£i!Ti—ie- 
 P'-ziSr. e_ 61) =ar su (^ <5 « ^^vOTLj 19. .^aasucs (05i:(^ ^L^iiiOsrrQ^^iT&i, ep 
 d^SiS fr^ih ^si-oj^iusutr sir ^ s<r IT'S iMirLLi£^ir&<sfr. 
 
 Hon'ARD has visited all Europe, not to survey the sumptuousness 
 of palaces, or the stateliness of temples ; not to make accurate 
 measurements of the remains (f ancient grandeur, nor to J or m a 
 scale ojtlie curiosity of modern art, not to collect medals, or 
 collate manuscripts ; but to dive into the depth of dungeons, to 
 plunge into the infection qf hospitals ; to survey the mansions 
 of .sorrow and pain ; to take tkc gauge and dimensions of 
 misery, depression, and contempt ; to rem.ember the forgotten ; 
 to attend to the neglected ; to visit the forsaken, and compare 
 and collate the distresses of all men in all countries, eperreuirf^ 
 O^evrusuiT ^ if irs'(Ts:seS ^eoi—iu ^ !J eSsrseS^ GsiTed^em^ uuiii 
 G 'S IT uSI eO ^ eS ■^ 0-J(^es>LDe!ajJiLjLD ^iT/rujayLQ y,iT af s; s^ ^ eO LCusssiLo
 
 286 Appendix. 
 
 LDfTiLJ ^imss&jih ^J-,:srreos:^^ euifiiEi(^@jD eS S ^ S rr im r ear Q^rr 
 i^e!iS(^s(^ spj etreijQ&n-lei's'O^iuULjeijdi yi,if e>f s ^ a t «■ i s ^ar J= Q s= it s; 
 
 ^eijili eS((^Lh'-jn LDp, (^p^gijrrf.S<£tefr ^eaL-SSui-iiLL- ^eas&eSp 
 iS\ir(J<suSa-seLiLa Q fi.TeiJfreSs(Bf^eisiL-.uj ^ps^ ^Qpt^err sJ'S'aE(5m<c ^^ 
 
 uTS'dtud) ep(Ba:sLD jS^ea^ aS.sn si/ « erf? •ow ^sceaajuumrSsajLh ldjd 
 
 eSOs^it-'uj<s^iEj 65) >a5i_Lj!_jiI-(_aj'T<ffi?eir<F^^^J<iEsiy^ s= s: ei)Q ^ s= ih s bS 
 
 Qlc aStTJ'-aiS), ^Q n- IT u Lj rr s isssr —Qlc'B':^ll LSH^tuireairLLinuuGurr^T. 
 
 8. Hyperbole is very common in India, thus : 
 
 As swift as the wind, sirpjjitljQiJireo eSsofrsutriu. 
 
 I told it him a thousand times, fi freer .^aiJ^^jti ^ssi^siusu^i 
 
 I saw their chief, tall as a rock, his spear, the blasted Jir ; his 
 shield the rising moon; he sat on the shore like a cloud of 
 mist on the hill, aeO mtevQuJeOLJ Oi-iiPiuau(^Quu «syaL'/r<?(GffiSB3i— /u 
 
 LQJLiGurreoeijLh ^sd ^ss)i—uu G<sl^si1 S-^iULarrmip s^ ^s ^ !T %ssr lj 
 G LjTei^euL^^^^esr. LcleiJiSsirG LD^mefT u sSG LasihGuiTeO^'SeairiiSl^ 
 
 Tamil instances : 
 
 a(/riLj(?su=ELQTul,ff=Q:Fc^j*S®uj, thou runnest as swift as the wind. 
 ^ 3n f& p fi ^ Lj (ssar 'ir, Q^eosui^^ ^tr^iir, he Spent immense money. 
 
 9. Vision, when in animated and warm composition, instead of relat- 
 ing something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as 
 actually passing before our eyes. The Tamuliaus use this likewise. 
 Thus : 
 
 / behold this citi/, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all 
 nations, suddenh/ involved in one conflagration. I see before 
 7ne, the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the 
 midst of their ruined countrij. The furious cotintenance of 
 Cethegus i ises to my view, while with a savage joy, he is triumph- 
 ing in ijour miseries, yafiiiJlcOT- ^U H eBbT(LpLaTIL.'J^S=ilSr£Sn-tLL-mS 
 OsneaeOrQ^esiL-iu ^& iT Qf.L^!rtx3(i^sisip ^^ ^iliLjLLi^esr(er; s^Q^uSla) 
 
 iff til ue^sssruut—'!' L£>p Si—£;l£ipee)^iLfLci LfoSlQpsQfisir'Str Q^ ^Q ^.^ 
 0,F «5' u su oST ^<s\^i_.(r^s<^.^iu <iF fiG ^ n' ei^ f G fi (tG L— S-iEJ,serr e_LJ^ 
 ^^'suiEJfeSf^^eo '^ ^LDTues>U(li i-iir if iTLLi^&Qsir<sssruf.i^sSpes>fi 
 ULjiEJ S!rsssr^Gp..s . 
 
 10. Int^rro^fation, wh^n it is not a simple question, but an expres- 
 sion of the strongest confidence of the truth of our sentiment, and an
 
 Miscellania. 287 
 
 appeal to our hearers for the impossibility of the contrary is likemse 
 agreeable to the Tamil, thus : 
 
 Hath God said it? and shall he not do it? u^rrujreyr Os^rr^^sSl 
 
 0-51 si t? .^ O off: uj uj T Lo aJ J, Lj /r jr /r , 
 Is he a man thai he should lie? ^su,t OuiTLuQ^irebe,iuSfi)Mpc^ 
 
 How long will i/ou, Catali?ie, aln/se our patience? Do yon not 
 perceive that your designs are discovered ? sp, ^s^-^si)/®, cte/jsw- 
 Ourr^esiiC'oinuj sr^eustafrs:^(^ (e<FiT§lil tSif. s^LhQpeeiL—ujQujir^'iiesr 
 'Self OeueSuULLu^(i^&!dpes>fi tu/61ujeS^26Vuutr. 
 
 11. Exclamations are likewise in use. For instance : 
 
 Woe is me that I sojourn in Mesech^ that I dwell in the tents of 
 Kedar ! ^Qiurr jsTdr O'^Qs^s^Sp-Pf^s'^^Sii^j G =s ^ ,t S ejn ^v- en- nh- 
 
 Only the Tamulian would like to put the clause with aufr,fi=Lc/r 
 ilSIq^S'S;!}^ before that oi s=(^s'ifi-i;S;o^, as more natm-al. 
 that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, 
 that I might weep day and night for the slain of the daughters 
 of my people! sresr s^dvahe'eSeO 03uL-i^tl,\^i^i_su^ Si^ii^ir^ JBT 
 
 12. Irony ((S^^i-j) is not uncommon in Tamul, thus : 
 
 You have taken great care indeed, Oldujujituj ^ jsddeo sn-a/Ssu^ 
 
 Q-FlL^ ITIU, 
 
 You are a very clever 7nan ! ^ uen^^ OsL-ts^&sirJ (^ uSiQ^v &(;r;iLj. 
 
 Cry aloud, for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is on a 
 
 journey, or peradventnre he sleepeth, js^-'^'T(ff)iLjJ= <F^^LS''9iEj£&r, 
 
 m^isiiir C ^ su SBT si) (SI) au if , spQi^Qeu'^ ^■-cuireL^'Seissr l^ ssisr .ma eu tr ^ ^ei>eci^ 
 
 iS fftuirsssrLafriLJiljGuirisjiTif, ^eOeo^ .^lEJC^eurrir. 
 
 Here follow a few Tamul instances from poetry. 
 
 ^uSaOufi^Lh/Si^^ i. e., ^iTuS<seijLh ^^^^(i^s-Qj^n-, you know a 
 great deal; meaning yo« know nothing. /ulSI.t, is //f, ^jS^r, 
 is a poetical form of the past tense ; The same as ■^■S.^^n-. 
 
 sp-£;Sis^^j5emsil.L—mLj, i. e., having bitten a stone (in the rice) 
 he addresses the cook: thou hast boiled (the rice) well, fie^n-^^ 
 
 good, and ^(B&p.^^, to boil, to cook. 
 
 ueis^rr^ ^G!Tu<sOs:!rm jSGir, 
 
 uuj^eOQpuiSlpueO^rrvST jffG(r. 
 
 In plain Tamul ; ep, ue\) ^j:Seq-^^i!irujeaL—^ssuGrr, ueo ^^iSiSi^stetr 
 HJeeii—^^euGiT, lS s^ sn t—UJ (Lpetr'^i-jG'^n'ek m fiemTes)UJa.)ih (ip'0P' ^ ^ 
 ^emrriLjcrreff ffeijtisiruLKLpemi—UJ uedstfiebeOiT^ eSQ^^^iriliiSiu^ ^Geo 
 ueo ^^,eij<s'it(nues>L—^^suGiT, thou man (f knowledge ! Oh
 
 2S8 Appendix. 
 
 thou man of knowledge ! wise in age which is Jruitless, only 
 rjith gray hair like the^fins oj fishes and with entirely wrinkled 
 cheeks ! .p/rsa? ^^ is ^j£i<slj^ ^(riswCj^iif, is ^/Si'SijemL-Ujeuifserr; £^rreir 
 
 jSQr, has the termination of the second person, with the 
 sign of the vocative. See § XXXVII. .siijci), is lSsbt ajish ; c<4eir., 
 is a thorn, the fins of a fish ; ^^wgar^ is a comparing particle, 
 like GuiTi^ p ; qp^it, is the root ; for Qfi^irjss:, i. e.,J'ull grown, 
 entire; ^s«t, wrinkles; •sie^err, the cheek ; LJujsBf?®), isfor t-jiusuflei) 
 90irs5, ueoeSedeO!T^ ; QpuLj, is old age ; ^tliisi), in old age. 
 
 e_ a; /r dr « i_ so eor S8T O <fi= »J au (5 (Tp srr (? T , 
 £l essr p jjir pp -car ^ ^tqLD>r0?Brr(?iu, 
 
 fi ^ aS 3su J .ff ff" SI) ^ ^ /r aJ) .gi; il , 
 In plain Tamil, ^l-uLj-ss L-.s^iQsiruuire3rOs'»^etjiT ^(i^s:S(^n-sQsir 
 
 OsiT®^^ erihs&rseOeS'S'^sO'iir&rueLiCBesr, ^ ueosrreomi(^eiapujrr 
 ^ eurTLpssL—freuiLJ, i. e., there are rich persons that are like 
 the salt sea ; thou art like the fountain of a well. Let the great 
 riches of those rich men alone. Mayst thou for ever prosper 
 without failing, thou, who even at this time of scarcity, when 
 none can give any thing, hast received our instruction, and 
 afforded the needful supply ! This is an address of a Poet to 
 a liberal man whom he compares to the fountain of a well, and 
 praises for his liberality ; whilst he calls other rich persons, 
 ironically, the large Ocean, which only }'ields salt water, e-sufr 
 is E-UiU salt ; ^sgresr is QuiTss! p, like ; Os=ei>eiJif is Os^ensu 
 (tpeau-ujiajn'setr, the rich; e_«rr(?,T is e-«js(r®, or ^(t^sSc^'r.sQstr, 
 ^ci^imQitJ is composed of ^'r the root of ^(3@<p^ to he full, 
 and s_2err(?iij a peculiar appellative noun with a verbal significa- 
 tion in the second person. (See § XXXVII.) the meaning of 
 ^^asirffuj is the same as ^^^^0i*(2J(?"-'. ^") is fiihQfiesiL-iu ; 
 Ou/Qjii is O'-jfiiu ; ^(5 is LDsew'-o or Os=^euih ; e_^*, is the opta- 
 tive of e-^sJ/ the same as e-ptUSiih, i. e., ^(ji^tlOii. ^sl/.tl^uj^, 
 i. e., / euirLpisL-euiTuu. Tlie athx f? is merely expletive. O^i^ 
 Q fi, is ^eapiurrQ fi, not failing, not diminishing. i^eouseO, many 
 dat/s, for ever. i^iu,t is the negative participle of p?is'p^, to give 
 and belongs to a^n-soui, the time in which none is able to give ; 
 £)^siS3ai is small sale ; and fl^^aSasui^/reULo, is a time in which 
 there is very little to be sold, a time of scarcity, e.^ is ^c$0 
 luiresr ; Ou ir(r^ '— ^ O ^ (^ is Oi-HTQ^stT ^ fi^ (srikj^en- ; <i>r^2.0<F'^ei>, 
 is <sTiij3e!r0.inr&>, our word or instruction; QsirelrQeuniu is the 
 poetical fonu for QstrelrusuQesr.
 
 Miscellania. 289 
 
 13. Amplification or climax is v»'ell suited to tlie Tamil, thus : 
 
 It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is the height of 
 gtiilt to scourge him ; liitJe less than parricide to put him to 
 death; what name then shall we give to the act (tf crucifying 
 him ? s^Q IT iraa La u tZ. i^ear^^ IT tssr eS«)JE;S'/i(?i_'/rL_<«) f^ppih^ =iva/ 
 26!(r ai//r/f!@si) ^u^^s^.eO uJ!@^^ t^p/DiD ■^sutesr£,G<sir2svQriu s:&t 
 i3^iTeas:iS'Os;tT2so0^ujSpu(r^'S ff^pCf'^s'pQ p p!ri^s^!T{i3(%i:;^Lby 
 
 After we have practiced good actions a while, they become easy ; 
 and when they are easy we begin to take pleasure in them ; 
 and when they plea.se us, me do them frequently ; and hif fre- 
 quence) a thing grows into a habit ; and conjfrriied habit is a 
 kind of a second nature ; and so far as any thing is naiuraly 
 so far it is necessary, and we can hardly do otherwise ; nay 
 tve do it mam/ tijnes when we do not tliink of it, SeO'^freOih fp 
 Q,^ss>\Ls&%ses=Off[LS^eiifi awed ^.l^L^i^s^Os^iLiSp^ pir ff !T<srrLair(^th 
 ^inTirsiruiiriwOun'Qp^, ^eta&j^seSp L9SujQpe&ri^.fr^il, tSlfiajopem" 
 L-rv etsr Ou IT Qp^, cSysinsu^fer ^i^e&i^Os^uLiQisiJSTdi, ^i^esi^Os'iu 
 Qpp(^Q<sii ^smsusdiT fiu:i'S(^suLps<s to rrQ^th, ^^ psut^s^<s LDjSLeiS(^ 
 s^x-LJirajtairr^i}^^ ^^ j5LCiff(^ (oTuOufTQXi^Lh (?<aj«s!r®aj^,T(5L0 
 i3^i^Tfri]iQeu0^iigr'oS)pu-fLheS(^Lhi-JiTLaeS(r^LjGurrLh jsfril SitssruLOTui 
 e3Q^<S(^LbO'-Jirnn^La ^'Ijut^QiuOe'UjQeuinl, 
 
 79. Specimen of the Nanmil, a part of the 4th rule of the 
 
 UiSsOL-QJir j!:ir'S(i^ujiT0'?eissrLCip^aS(T^e!reireij L£l&)eoei^Lao%/Si^e!!sr, <srevr^,e5r 
 ^^^fiQpeinpiiJfTQeariLSn^^i^eissrijjiTLCiir^eixfrjS'p,^}/ ^~eir. llss^^Q s^eunnp jr 
 ^nKopiua ^lemsmjir LheueafrQiuiTL^^ p eSeoih^Q^^eSiiueu'j3Q^e!T3aesr<sJLa SleoSIr 
 (ip^is3iueiju3!P&)eoear£ijLDo°aj:S'Sise^ujrrOLD'ci!rpsu[r^. Lci'^CJi— Q;/f /s ir ^ Q t csr u 
 LjQ^ei&jdiaiujirseasiLj QptiSlQr^mjsh-i^^sm psut^ lu tr p eSieareasij i^ ^ ^ s; eu i^'J.' ili 
 Geu^<B;0^ujsui^iLiLh&jQ^iiSemiriLi Qpi—iheauii^ (ipiiSiifli^eoeareun'Suj eu ^^^ ii^ ^ssir 
 iuir£sQ<sire!re)rLliuGlOu:^eoT£. eSffOihi^np^eSliueijp^: ^a3((^!—LLUSier^ lD'S^sst 
 Las;<sefrn;suLSpK^ L^<smesSuj uireucSliup^, ojuus^Teaniuu Lol'^jBujirpQpaj 
 STrrti^ih uireuL£!(^^uuir^JT£rrfriLjLh tSp^^oSear Lai'.'sQL—eii^jBiTsQirmJ's'ir 
 ^esr^-rs^^^iu.^LposypQiLieasussifrOiresrs, ^sr j3 tLjLnrrR i^ lu ir O s rr ed ^ ir ilj S oj t 
 e.iij /f^&sBT QiussT Ln(^T Lass iLsi-L-Q t— Otu^Qp^ssr iT£&,_^iLJi3s!rear^(Sj 
 Geuearsu/SliLj lc^ fi^^ u-sSeOeuirSiu Opiue>](^s^^is^'jU Ouiurr Qp^eSuiienreLf 
 Qpiulr ^.HeiPiT LCiQ^iarS' p uiTei)LSfl^^ea^s;(g Q'^etsr6,<Bi<-p^. ^uun^'kissfljun'pLjiSi 
 ^^, LD£'3:QL-suifjBirx(r^iuir^2esiir OuuinfrQpQnpOfiiB^ij ^fr^g(^ OirearJiGair 
 z_j)2/LQ/rQLCii5Br<ffi', ^ SsBsr^ 61) Ey;ggi;Q (63) ^n<s^s^ QCDvirueuf <seSlppi2si!srOujei^ ^Jca 
 ueoQuiTQ^ Qsfrrr(r^Os'iTeOeSe«iT®£:(^&}^^'2iegr u-^essra ^si^^eurp^^ S-tLi a ^"asssr 
 
 j£_aj/faJ/ruj@6i;ii) ^0%^eir6B>L0UJSutriLJ(^et)0LQfareSSiuLh, &C. 
 
 N 2
 
 2.90 Appendix. 
 
 Explanation. 
 
 ^ jjjJ" ^- (Lf emjViurrG'otn- aSlQ^TesurujiTLiirr^ensr o p^. 
 
 Analysis: tnssG u-euir is LassefrGs^euo'; of which ®r jf are in the former 
 contracted into <_ by the rules of sundhi ; L^l-sek'^ means men ; Qseuir, 
 gods-; and fi s &,t deynons ox devils. These are ^^iu^ ^'^mn-^ that is of 
 the high caste. — ^lun stands for e_ujff^ j, the relative participle, and 
 ^^tessr means cast., sex. i-Cip^ii3(i^^sir<3ijL^eO&)eLjLh is Lapjn ^^u3(^-sir<s!r emeus 
 gjii a,u.Sff!ii.i)i5i)/r^toina/*(65LD, i. e., the other beings both animate and in- 
 animate., are =s^o°o/26w, that is, 7wt of high caste, the word is composed 
 of ^gyoO^Seoir, uhere eo^ is changed into ^syol^, =^60 is the same as ^&> 
 eoa^ and means not. 
 
 Thus far the rule is in verse. The author then proceeds, and says : 
 ^isTeSssT^ this is a contraction of (srei^u^ ^i^iXLh .jif^cv -117(^0 sir ehr 
 etsrQeueSes: ■ and contains the beginning and the ending of this sentence, 
 erearu^ is a verbal noun introduceing the poetry, and means here as 
 much as this, viz., this isthe @i^jx tt, i. e., the rule; .^^isiOuiT(^Osrrear 
 ««rOa/girf/«r^ i. e., if you ask nhat isthe import of it? srewsBfear^ is the 
 same as er.rr'ifb, it is this. ^ ^k & nj.es> pti. trQem, \. e., according to the 
 above establsshed order, (viz. in the precedmg rule) ttJ!(T5_gS6B5rujn-LO(r^, 
 the way in ivhich the two castes arise, ^em-srm^^ this is a contraction 
 of S-miTiT^^sedsJ/eitp^, containing the first and the last sylables, and 
 means : // ( viz., the rule J declares or gives the information. ;S^s^^, 
 the infinitive, ought to be ^^k^esr, the relative participle of j8 ^^^ 
 &JS.S}, to establish ; or it is the relative partici; le of j^^i&p^i, to 
 weigh, and then ^, ^^sQpsap, means the order which was before 
 weighed or examined and stated. Qpenpu-KrQsvr isQfieapujfrGeo, the abla- 
 tive of i^^sn^, order, series; .^'-d is ^@lc, the relative participle of the 
 futm-e of <^^vy^', and relates to the folloAving noun, ^^, which means 
 a way or manner, and stands here for the accusative case, governed by 
 s-easr n- fi ^ ^ eH , an active verb, signifying to make to understand, to in- 
 form ; it is a verbal noun, and stands here likewise for the accusative 
 case, because of sj^eSp^, the 3d person singular of the past tense of 
 ^is ^^.ps,i to consider, to declare, to point out. Its governing subject 
 as @ i ^^ ih, a, rule. 
 
 The translation of this sentence is thus : This is (the fourth) rule. 
 Its import is to point out the way in which the two casts arise, accord- 
 ing to the order before stated. 
 
 The author then proceeds, @srr, which is a contraction of @^«^ 
 Ou!T(i^^ of which it is the first and last letters. AVe must add ^a/^', 
 viz. ^^ffFOuiT(i^efriTeu^, i. e., its meaning is this. 
 
 uiks^^G ^eij(i^js !T<s(j^(ipuj T ^.^eisi!TUJ!rth, i. e., 7nen, gods and demons 
 are of the high caste, viz., words signifying men, &c. 
 
 Jifeueeur OujfrL^^s^e36\)EJ'^(Lp^eSaj eij uSI 0s!r srrear(SLjLhj§eO^' if (jpfiei^hu ejuS 
 fiei>60e3re>jLDo°o^i^emiuirOLasf' flsuiTjpi, i.e., excepting them, (viz.
 
 MisceUania. 291 
 
 the men, gods, &c.,J the beasts aiid all other animate beings, 
 and land, water, and all other inanimate beings are not of high 
 caste, ^euetsiir is for ^ajn-s^jea, referring to the jirecediiig tcar-ssir. 
 &c., 9i^;?# is the relative participle, belonging to a-uJl -^sn-wrear; 
 this stands for s-ail^sw-arsjasucssrr, and £_uJ)/P(si)si;«njr, fur £-ai)/fl<a)aJir 
 SeiasutSisfr* ST'Ssr psLiir ^ is st sir ^Qs^rreO ^Qp ^^. 
 
 Tie Tamil here is rather obscure ; and puzzles even the learned, 
 
 U3^=ffiOL_su/f K iT£^OiTow earLlLj®s eo^ is the nominative case of the 
 sentence, and literally means : I'he saijiiig ('or calling cj) men 
 gods and dejnons (viz., to be of the high caste e_iLif i/^fesr, 
 which must be understood.) Its verb is ^fieSi^'^- i. e., because 
 it is; from ^£p^', ^faS'sir {g the same as ^.enffiurreo. ett^ 
 means here ^/_15;ia\ which has the participles sh-i^jS-- p, i. e., 
 in which are united; ^'diaidi h ^^j/ J, i. e., their respec- 
 tive; tutriesis is Gs-siL, body ; sluSu} is life or the soul; these 
 nouns are nominatives, governing •a^uf-^imp; ^s-snaj those, refers 
 to uj,T<F«o« and e-Jr^ LS/fl^^-rsut^iLjLc means lSIiA^^ §)'—^^3''j^ 
 or til/fl^^ Oi_'/r(T^^ii), ivhen they are separated, i. e., when the 
 life or the soul departs from the body; Gsu ^ s^Q^^nu a. i^.u Ji 
 means Qsu^^&A(r^^uiOu!rQ^^iih^ when we consider them dif- 
 ferent, even in life time, i. e,, vs'hen we consider the body or the 
 soul separately ; ^suff is ^wiTs;(Gt^es)L-.uj, viz., of the men, gods, 
 and demons; e-nilejom^us, the soul, s-i—ihesiuiLiLa the body; these 
 accusative cases are governed by the following QinSfsu, i. e., 
 to take.,to adopt, to accept; s-iL^iBedevesreuir&iu ^o^c/^SsssT-iun-.ff, i. e., 
 as .^o°e/^26Bzir, or HO cast, which the inanimate beings are, Os^t^ 
 eiruLjOu!, is not the passive voice; but Osir&r&r retains its ac- 
 tive sense, and uOlo, is a mere expletive; or means as much as 
 Qeumr®Lh. srear^ is the polite imperative, the same as erssTtS/f-ff 
 eiTir^z,; and means here, as much assr^a'^ .^pieSn'&efrn^s;, an 
 address to the students. In plain Tamil, the sentence may be 
 rendered thus; lds&ot G^euir ^ jr<s jr rr^srsuir s^f&Tjes)i_uj Gs^&QjjLh 
 e_ttJ)(5ixQL-//r(5^^iii)('(5,ff@LoOLJ«"(af^ cSi'au/fsfar a. ilj /f ^, few Ouj «>sr ,^ 
 
 iSlS^^Guir^VLE.OurrQ^^u:, psrui ^6S)sus2eirGeuj}iGeu(rr),s GuufSs; 
 
 ujirssOsiTelrstruuGQuiesr ^ .jij ^i eS n s e<r tr s . Know that men 
 gods, and demons are called e-uj/f^&m, i. c., of hish caste 
 when their respective bodies and souls are united together ; but 
 when they (viz., the bodies and souls) are separated, or con- 
 sidered separately (whilst they are united) their bodies and 
 .souls mu.st be taken as ^^^^,Issst^ i.e., of no caste, like other 
 iuanimate beings. 
 eSeoij('^ip^ts3ujsijp^^ttSi;^i—i}>Ljs^Lastn-itsr, analy. eS&iiujc^ i$bca,';t;
 
 292 Appendix, 
 
 Qfi^eStueufljSi^ is (ys^«i)/rsws!nfflj:5(35(ani_iw. e_(iJ)/f soul S-t—ilu 
 body ; the plural termination of the last noun, puts also the first 
 into the same number ; e_ix) means here also^ or is here the 
 completing conjunction, as there are but two subjects spoken of, 
 the beasts, &c. ^ii^ssr-, means are the same, ^^^^'i'6e)LaturriiS(§ 
 £:Q6srfi)iiar, In plain Tamil, eSeOEKg Qp^eO!rk;re>asiiseS^mL-aj 
 B-'j3(^Lh &^i_ilLjLh ,sj^^'S!res)LDiLiirsi,0<£treireiTLJu(Bu:, translated : 
 the life (or soul) and body of beasts, &c., have the same cha- 
 racter J- viz., have the same gender, (viz., ^syol^S^^r before 
 mentioned.) 
 
 G/DeuiT [ru-jt-h uireu uS eg uj rr esr sr <s U mLiih iSjDS^eS^ un&sQ i—ajn" 
 jSff&Ojss; J:s=(T ^ s:r £=!r^^uj (Lp&sipQiu ea&i s^ firrOn'itsT s. Anal. 
 iM'SseffiTSili'^p^^, those horn as men, lSI^^^ stands for lSI^^^ 
 ajtrssir. L^exrssStu ufreuiSuup/Si ; i-je&ressflajLh is vh'tue, uireuth sin, 
 ^lu^^i is Os'iLj^ or jsi—i2jiSl^^ doing or performing, which 
 governs Ljessresafliutx: and ufTsuLQ in the accusative, for which 
 however the nominative stands; ^■iLjsiireim^ajLSfg^.iLJirpQpsu 
 JTiTu^iM the oblique case LjsSsresSu stands for Ljsxremsfluu^^^eoi—iu, 
 of virtue; iB(^^iuirt,b by the multitude, or rather, the greater 
 7nnllitude ; GsieuiXfrtLjLL as gods' u!reuLS(^^iLiirssriraiT[riLjLh ; 
 . uitsul£{^0iu,t<o\) by the greater multitude of sins; jb jr s it rr tLj ld as 
 demons or devils; iSlp^^eS^ i. e., iSI/Ds;fieoirs3rLJi^uj{r&), or 
 iS/DsS'jDui^iLirrffi)- LDssOi—eurTjsjr^Orreirr, of which otsst is st&t ^, 
 the conjunction; s^ir^sars^rr^^iuQfenpGuj, of which <err^esrLh 
 means the cause, s=n-^^\uil the effect, Qpemp, order, QfempQuu 
 in the order; easufisiirn' he (■viz. the author of the rule) has put; 
 eraor<5 is er^iSir^eirir'S, or srear^ ^/^lofifsetrrrs. In plain Tamil, 
 
 lliS^ ^Lji-jeSsr&sSiu ^^ ^eis>!—uj LS(^^iLS^ei>^G^eu 3' iTiLjLh urreu^ 
 ^^63>i_uja2@^iL9(g)«i fiiJs3'!riLjil.i3p3^&pui^iiSitS)Geo, =syfflj,f<5&ir 
 Lns-sar G ^'sun' J5 3 •sQirssr ^ s'lrfiems^ir ^^iu^^sk QpsapG^i-i eaeu^ 
 ^n-OirssTjpi ^^aSnseirir^. Translated, beings born*as men, per- 
 form virtuous and sinful actions ; and by the abundance of vir- 
 tuous actions are born as gods, and by the ahundauc^f sinful 
 actions are born as devils ; know that for this cause, (the 
 ajdhor of the rule) has placed men, gods, and devils in this 
 manner, according to the natural order of cause and effect. 
 
 sn^G i—OuJ'ssr (ip^etrrsr sSk-^UiS ^earfisuQsLiesreu^tLjLCfi^^ siLas 
 Si&)eufr£:iu 0^(Ljeu(^ sfLLi^iuQuiuir Qp ^eSujesreijQf.ujn' ^2assr LaQ^isj 
 QpjLJFeO L9iB^^eas^scf:0LLetn-£Sh,peS ^aiuir ^"^sssTuurr pu®^ ^lds 
 ^Olsuit j5!rs(i^uJiT^t6Ssr0iLJear (ipes>p0^fi^G ^rr^^O'TssrJ^G'Ziri^ 
 £iiLin-Ou:t&ir^. Anal : ^S^^iuif Q^n-&)-3:rtliSlu.iiT, The teacher or 
 Professor Tolkapiyer, Qpei'esrir in the ffrst place; •Bh-rS has 
 declared, or staled ; sieSr for sr&r ^ that; er«wu3©/f i. e., ei^ ^
 
 Miscellania. 293 
 
 Os^n-ei ffi! SUIT IT'S &r ; the nominative to this verb is not expressed 
 andmust be understood, ^i v. Qfi&siQ^n-sSr theancienls; for ucAsstr 
 lq^sSbtt, men ; ^-ojif^^em- for s^ujif^26!iiirtu~<s^ to be of the high 
 caste; srC-Qi— is the root of the verb &L-®£p^^ i. e., (5/o"<s 
 &p^^ and stands here for si^LLQSpssi^ or sul-QSp^n-mihslaie ; 
 0- is expletive. LS'^arear^^'^^terivards, ■sh.paS&ir^ i. e., sh^^esiut^ 
 ujTia), becnuse he declared, isr«w, for eraw^ that. ^ojOsuearsujSeLj 
 ci/^ii, of which ^^sul means the end, viz., the terminations 
 of a Avord otherwise called aS®^; ^jSiLjdb the future participle, 
 
 htj which (ive) know, ^euQsuesr for ^ssreirQ^esr^^ what (sex) 
 it is, ^Uii;Seoa}irSujO^£jai(f^si-il^i^tuGuujiTQps=sSu.jSBreLji]i^of\\\nch. 
 ^La<s:&eoeu,TSuj is for s LasSeOeoirf^irSiiu, which (viz., the ter- 
 mination or .si^^ui) is not to them, ^'j:.&(^ is the reciprocal 
 pronoun referring to the following Ofiu-ievi^si-iLi^ujO'-JujifrLps^eS 
 u-isansijin, i. e., the names, &c. &c., of the gods, ^tlifuu is (5^^^, 
 governing O^iueuih in the accusative case ; ap^eSujear&jLD is Qfi^ 
 e^iiuemaisfe^ix., and becomes the nominative to ^s»=Fi(<5L0 -which 
 means ■sirLLfBih, i. e., thei/ show, Qp^&Suussr however is here 
 perfectly mmecessarj, Qi^iLjei}(^,s-il-t^'ijQua&<sir or jsiriMiasi&r is 
 quite sufficient ; oy O^iueuil.Q^^eon'esrQun's&r ; S-iu it ^^essr Ls^m 
 £)a), i. e., at the high cast ; or un^ihSen at, stands for £=jn p^, 
 e-ujiT02essrs!D'jjJ=^ir(:^s^, u[rei) for uit'Sm the gender, governed by 
 ^ee)3=£(sdi. iSliB^^ means here OeLi&jGeu(rr).s, i, e., separately, 
 e-iLjff^36is5r!_j/ra) is ^-UJ f ^lessr \i^ i_ ^ ^ eO , u®^^ is Qs'fr^^, La&s 
 Gi—euir fisr ^^(t^ujif^^emOiuear QpQsip0^lf^^G^!r^(^if^ of 'whicll 
 Qpsap stands for Q^empeoiu, the order or class, O^ifl^^ is ^nff 
 tSs;^, and fj^^^iT is Os^irecn^if ; OTsw is sTisr ^^ that ; Gstri—sii 
 lditld, consists of(fl=sn"t_6i, 2_ti) and .^'lo ; GsiTL—ed is a contraction 
 of 'Os/TSTT J61), i. e., Oc£fr6fr(C5 «6i), the first short vowel being 
 changed into along one; e-ti is the conj auction, also, and ^th 
 is ^''f)iii, and ereardj is eniriSifssfrirs or st^^ ^ jS a? ir s err rr s: , 
 In plain Tamil: ^eirj^u^jiM (Lpsi-iGlg)iT<sisr tas^^eax e^uj if ^^ensr 
 lUiT'S-s^^jii^^iTif&Osirii'r^ ^Sii^uj u ir&ojOsiTeds [TLJiSLUir Qpmearjr 
 £;,Si-^ul3'^Lj Sh-^iearQ ^ew e(jiO&i^(iT)ed, ^esr sarufrOeOssT ^ ^SfTtl^ 
 (SlL eS (-^ ^s eS ffuei) it s G sieurr'S^<^i(^jf's£p fiiTuiiEistar SL-uuirs^'hotsuresuLi 
 J^S^rrr K^ ut'^sO OeusjGsu(nF)SS£ii' lL-QQims^ ^ <gh-^iei!rui^iiSi(^GeO, 
 «Sy^^ J*? c^^eu/f-spJiSBX—uj Guemir s^iuif^^essniSstfi i—^^p G<b=it s^, 
 Lo<S'S(05^(?^aj(3LO/5ir,«0Lo,r£uj ^svir^&r S-uu^^lessTQuueir ^(Xfiemp 
 esiiu uj^qS =s^'<iFOif /Toy (6a)0T«ar^ O <3: (T BT srr aj ld Gsveixir® Qusssr ^ 
 ^/SieSn ^emrs. Translated, know further, that the teacher Tul- 
 kapiyer having first declared, thai the ancients denoted LLSseir 
 (^or fnenj to be of high caste, afterwards declared also, that the 
 names of the gods, having no terminations showing, of what 
 gender they are, belong to the high caste, and show the gender 
 separately ; and therefore he (viz., the author ) added the 
 names of the gods to the high caste, and taught that men, gods, 
 and demons are qf high caste. This also must be adopted.
 
 294 Appendix. 
 
 Osir.T(TfiO'FiTeOffuei!rif&;^&)^^'^ei!ru_^ei!srifs^ jS^'jV^. Anal: B^ensr 
 stands for gSessrijjn-ear^, i. e., the ivord ^7ess!^ ^tx or ^^Lc means 
 here signj/ie.f, jSeoil land or place ; (^&)i>Tr or (^eouc. sex or class ; 
 ^Q£S(^ order. ot«otu is sTiiruiT or <oreisr ^Os^iTei)£iii<sun-if<ffe!r, ^s&j;&) 
 is ^easiijrr&\ Avliich however is not necessary here, ^^emOiuear 
 ^m ueoOuiTQ^QeirTQ^Oe'n-eO^ {. e., ueoOi^tT(i^(ei^arirr ^SrwQiusot" 
 .^f^^O^n-"^-, the word ^'Sessr having various significations, if-eesr(Sl 
 is ^auaSt—^^sii), here, @eiJ^.g*ta(r is (v^eofes)^ the sex or class, 
 s_<555r^l^ i. e., ■soTtLi^, ^^•s'p^, is for ^^2p^ or ^rj^sSjv^. 
 In plain Tamil, ^TesisT lu rr ew ^ jSeo^eiofuLj!E.'(v,e))^ss>^iULh 6p^<f«ndc 
 
 £Sfril.i^iiSl-i^s3<^ fi>^. Translated: as the teachers declare that 
 the word ^^eeur s^ignifies place, sex, and order, that word ^Ssusr 
 having several significations, means here (or in this rule) @eOLCt, 
 thai is, sex or class. 
 
 e_uj/r_@S3!!ariu^sij/r^^86!isr lu r,%/S^e!si!r 0'u<^stsrutjil.i—^, This is clear 
 Translated, /Ac^Sesar, which is not s-tL.fr ^,'2estsr ^ is called ^^^jS'^efir. 
 
 ^wsS i-' (^'^Lbuessri-jFOsirres)'!:. Anal. ^araS J (SJBtOld, these two, viz„ 
 s-iun-^lensr and cSy,*^ rfSafsr, usxtlj is (^sbstlu or adjective, and 
 stands here for LJ(eMrJcare_0q, or the mark of an adjective, 
 O^irems is contraction. In phiin Tamil, ^auaS-'ssirfii) C)<F/r/-.S(G5ui 
 uexrSl^s-(T^uL^Aeo!rLQpff-(^iij3j§fls,io'S/Dsiir. Translated: These 
 two words (e_ujff^SOTT- and .J>l °^;Si'?em) have not the form of 
 the adjective, expressed, refening to the words e_uj/f and -^o°o 
 or ^1^. 
 
 s_u_/(fajn"ii-'@6»)LC =9/o°o;5^«s'LC'iJsu/n/j(56i;Oii3 6sr_j]|,aS,flii^Lo. Anal. e-iLZ/f 
 fflj/ruj is s-tursuirQtu that which is high; ^•^o^^'^^ is ^<^^soir 
 fieia&jseiT those which are not, \\z., of the high cast, ^tu^.eo-Ja 
 is .^£ujr56i)LD, ersBT is otcot-^^^ a5/fltL|LD it is explained, \'\z., the 
 Offrres)^. In plain Tamil : ,J>;^^ 10^ rrsias est uj eSifijes,!Tea, b-iu it 
 
 Translated, j/^/i^o.ye //i'o words arc explained, or written without 
 contraction, it will be, the caste which is high, and the caste 
 which is not of that high caste. 
 
 FINIS.
 
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