THE STUDY OF A NOVEL* BY SELDEN L. WHITCOMB, A.M. (COLUMBIA) ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY D. C. HEATH & Co. TO BRANDER MATTHEWS As CRITIC AND TEACHER OF THE NOVEL IN GRATITUDE AND RESPECT 33447S PREFACE THIS volume is the result of practical experience in teaching the novel, and its aim is primarily pedagogical. It is only within the last few decades that the novel has been given much separate attention in college courses, and it cannot be hoped that any detailed method of study, at so early a date, can be more than an experiment and a tempo- rary contribution. But it has been nearly a half-century since Senior conceived a " treatise on Fiction, illustrated by examples," and some ten years since Professor Newcomer wrote (in a Practical Course in English Composition) that fiction would " require a special treatise even for its tech- nical side." Such fulfilment as has been made of these prophecies has been mainly in the field of the short story. The present writer has ventured into the field of the novel, with a sense that the time had come for tillage, even though the crop might be partly of weeds. The references in the text and in the bibliography will indicate indebtedness to many works. Crawshaw, Henne- quin, Moulton, and Riemann, in particular, have had a large influence on the general method or the specific analyses of this volume. Professor Perry's valuable study appeared after the plan for this study was matured, and has been read for literary enjoyment rather than for critical con- tribution. vi PREFACE For personal encouragement and assistance, the writer is grateful to more friends than can be named here. The completion of the work is due, in no small measure, to the sympathetic attitude of colleagues and pupils at Iowa College ; and especially to the cooperative spirit of Pro- fessor Charles Noble, Dr. John S. Nollen, Dr. Martha Foote Crow, and Mr. DeWitt C. Sprague. Dr. Nollen has given much practical assistance in matters relating to French and German data. His generous service, in many ways, from the conception of the work until the final proof-reading, is acknowledged with pleasure. LAWRENCE, KANSAS, September 30, 1905. INTRODUCTION To THE TEACHER IT has required a long time for prose fiction to attain a dignified and independent position in the world of criticism. This has been due in part, no doubt, to the frailties of fiction, in part to the ungenerous conservatism of the critics. It is no longer deemed necessary to apologize for fiction itself, but a detailed study of its form is still quite generally pro- posed in an apologetic tone. It is frequently said that the novel is written to be read and enjoyed, not to be dissected. It might be replied that " dissection " is, in some cases, to some minds, a source of great enjoyment ; that there is no necessary antagonism between agreeable reading and ana- lytical study, and that if only the primary human values of things were examined, several of the sciences would dis- appear. Flowers are pleasant to see and smell, and may be associated in one's memory with the bridal day or the new-made grave ; yet the microscopic study of botany is not usually opposed on sentimental grounds. The same person may at one time enter the cathedral for personal worship, at another, for professional examination of its structure, without any sense of conflict between the two interests. There may be person^j^P^^^able.to cem- bine the aesthetic enjoyment of literature with systematic study of its nature, but it may be doubted whether they are the best examples of genuine and normal love of literature. Does not a somewhat systematic approach to fiction seem worth while so long as conflicting opinions like the follow- vii viii INTRODUCTION ing are not only possible but representative, in the columns of reputable journals? "This novel has that charm of blended romance and realism, that captivating verisimili- tude, and that nameless power to haunt one with its shame- tinged sorrow and happiness which testify unmistakably of genius." - - " The rankest rot, ethically and artistically, ever published." Teachers of literature are accustomed to the complaint that their subject is vague. The recent tendency towards detailed analysis of literature is, from one point of view, an effort to discover how far thife vagueness is due to methods of study, rather than to the nature of the subject. A little examination of the novel shows that it has, in spite of its amorphous quality, certain fixed values of material and of form, which may repay a systematic examination, and are independent of the personal impressions of the reader. The separate consideration of characters, plot, and settings, and the distinction between characters and characterization, are now fairly well established. Cooperative effort might result in greater uniformity of view, without violence to the nature of the novel, or danger to the liberty of the individual teacher. In this volume the aim has been to " keep the eye upon the object." In the matter of sequence and proportion in analysis, there is room for a wide differ- ence of opinion, and exact uniformity is not to be desired. The order of examination in these pages has been carefully considered, but it may prove satisfactory to few, and may be variously altered without destroying the general plan. Examples of other methods of analysis for the novel inde- pendent, yet not without some tendency towards agreement will be found on pages 265-268. If there is a science of the novel, this work does not attempt to embody it. It is interesting, however, to com- INTRODUCTION ix pare the problems of systematic literary study with similar problems in other fields. In Walker's Political Economy (Briefer Course, page 18), several sections are devoted to "the obstacles which Political Economy encounters." Some of these obstacles, such as the fact that most persons "feel themselves competent, irrespective of study ... to form opinions " on all phases of the subject, and the dif- ficulty of finding a clear, precise terminology, are very familiar to the teacher of literature. The question of the right relations of extensive and intensive study is often harassing. A fairly complete analysis of some single novel seems desirable ; but there is no work which represents adequately all the values of the type, and such a study, pursued in a spirit of real interest in details, would require almost an entire course. On the other hand, some of the richest cultural values of the novel are to be gained only by a liberal reading which brings before one a wide area of historical and social interests. The best general method is perhaps a combination of the two kinds of study in a single course. In an historical course, there are some novels which ought to be examined without complete reading, others which may be read entire, but scarcely repay detailed study. The present vol- ume is intended mainly as a guide to the consecutive and extended study of the individual novel, though the analysif could be distributed among several works, in accordance with their specific values. The experience of the writer has been that it is best, for mature students, to attain as great a general familiarity with a work as possible before a systematic study is attempted. This practise may help to dispel the conception that one who has simply read a work of literature has " had it." The study of the novel offers an opportunity for a X INTRODUCTION review of the formal rhetorical study of exposition, narra- tion, and description. It may give the mind elasticity and a sense of freedom in considering the relations of these rhetorical types, which are liable to become somewhat artificially viewed in prolonged separate study. Any pre- vious study of the short story ought to be advantageous in the examination of the closely allied, but more complicated, form of the novel. The short story has this advantage, that critical study and practical composition can go hand in hand ; but many detached exercises in novelistic com- position might be profitable, at least for advanced students. The intimate relations of the novel to the drama and the epic are obvious, and suggest a frequent reference to masterpieces already familiar, or to new material. In spite of considerable criticism, and even ridicule, the study of comparative literature seems to be making prog- ress in America and in Europe, as a well-defined spirit, aim, and method. In an ideal arrangement, a course in the history of the novel would probably be undertaken from this point of view. It is impossible to gain a satis- factory view of the development of any national fiction without constant reference to the general European devel- opment of fiction. No adequate work in the latter subject exists in English, but the revised editions of Dunlop, with the assistance of various monograph's, will furnish a valu- able background. In the matter of translations, while acquaintance with the originals is always desirable, there is probably less loss through a translation for the novel than for any other type of literature especially for lyric poetry. If a spirit of cooperation exists among the modern language teachers of a school, combined effort can offer some instruction in comparative literature, without offense to the dignity of scholarship. INTRODUCTION xi One reason why the study of the novel has made slow progress, until recent years, is that it could not follow the traditional methods of criticism for the classics. Some classical teachers seem scornful of the study of modern literature, at least in the mother-tongue of the student. These conditions are not entirely discouraging. They may prove a stimulus in the development of a study of literature for its own sake, and in relation to social, ethical, and psychological interests rather than to philology, in its narrower meaning. When the novel is considered as the modern epic, moreover, even Homer and Vergil have a legitimate place in the wide comparative view of fiction ; and Coleridge suggests a tempting study when he writes, " Upon my word, I think the OEdipus Tyrannus, The Alchemist, and Tom Jones the three most perfect plots ever planned" (Table-talk, July 5, 1834). An intensive study of any art ought to increase interest in other arts, and to prove a good introduction, episode, or epilogue in a course of general aesthetics. The novel is often considered the most characteristic art-form of the nineteenth century. It offers one an inviting field for the concrete study of many important principles and problems of aesthetics, some of which have been brought into recent prominence because of its large vogue. Like music, fiction has the advantage of offering its masterpieces to communi- ties remote from the great art centers. The willing, if feminine, assistance the novel may give to ethics, history, psychology, and sociology ought not to be despised. Such studies as are outlined in Chapters X and XI directly concern the last two subjects, which are also touched at many points in the analysis of the form and matter of the novel itself. The psychology of charac- terization, if it does not yield real scientific data, furnishes xii INTRODUCTION an interesting literary comment on the science of the mind. The writer has known an instructor to analyze some of Poe's tales in a course in logic. For such a purpose a technical examination of the methods of motivation would not have come amiss. President King, of Oberlin College, makes contact with the complexity of life one of the three or four essentials of a real educational process. If this judgment is accepted, the large educational value of the novel can scarcely be denied. Complex in its origin, development, form, subject, and appeal, it introduces the mind to a world which has to some degree the aspect of a chaos rather than a cosmos, and yet is not without its laws. Fiction, in its ethics and its aesthetics, its exhibition of the individual, of society, and of religion, challenges the student to review his opinions ; to distinguish truth from error, the significant from the insignificant; to search for the fundamental values of art and the essential meaning of experience. A study of the novel brings one face to face with strong and often restless minds, and invites one, by a slow and patient effort, to learn to know himself. Never perfect as a form of art, never presenting a per- fect individual or a perfect society, fiction represents the limitations, but also the living qualities, of romantic art, as conceived in a broad contrast to the classical ideal, by Browning : To-day's brief passion limits their range; It seethes with the morrow for us and more. They are perfect how else ? they shall never change : We are faulty why not ? we have time in store. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v INTRODUCTION vii CHAPTER 1 EXTERNAL STRUCTURE SECTION 1. Meaning of External Structure I 2. Significance of External Structure 2 3. Characteristics of Novelistic Structure 2 4. The Whole Composition 3 5. The Title 5 6. Length of Composition 6 7. Principal Divisions of a Novel 7 8. Volume, Part, and Book 8 9. The Chapter 9 10. The Paragraph 10 11. Minor Divisions 12 12. Prose and Verse __ i^_ 13. Dramatic and Non-dramatic Form 15 14. Non-dramatic Form . 16 15. Dialogic Form in General 17 1 6. Soliloquy and Monologue 17 17. Duologue 18 1 8. Group Conversation (Conversation) 18 19. Concerted Speech 19 20. Documentary Form in General 20 21. Epistolary Form 20 22. Syntax 22 23. Vocabulary 25 24. Phonology 27 xiii xiv CONTENTS CHAPTER II CONSECUTIVE STRUCTURE SECTION PAGE 25. Significance of Consecutive Structure 28 26. Sequence 29 27. The Principal Masses 30 28. Sequence of Dramatic and Non-dramatic Masses . . . .31 29. Beginning, Middle, and End 32 30. Movement and Situation . 33 31. Event and Incident . 34 32. The Scene 36 33. Episode 4 37 34. Lines of Interest .38 35. The Line of Emotion 39 36. Points .....40 37. Mass in Momentum ... 42 38. The Rate of Movement 43 39. Climax and Foiling 44 40. Reciprocity 45 41. Analysis of Simpler Narratives 46 CHAPTER III PLOT 42. Meaning of Plot 47 43. Necessity and Ideality of Narrative Plot 48 44. Action and Narration 49 45- Stoi 7 - 5 1 46. Story and Plot ..........51 47. The Plot Proper 52 48. The Single Action 53 49. Sequence of Simple Narratives 56 50. The Dramatic Line 57 51. The Climax 59 52. The Catastrophe 60 53. Motivation .....62 54. Motivating Forces 63 55. The Narrator. His Point of View 66 56. Temporal Point of View 67 57. Spatial Point of View 69 CONTENTS XV SECTION PAGE 58. Character Point of View ........ 7 1 59. Generalized Statement of Plot ....... 72 60. Unity of Plot ........... 73 61. Types of Plot ...... .... 74 62. The Judgment of Plot ......... 7 6 CHAPTER IV THE SETTINGS 63. Esthetic Function of Settings ....... 78 64. General Time Setting ......... 78 65. Detailed Time Settings ......... 79 66. General Place Setting ......... Si 67. Detailed Place Settings ......... 82 68. Circumstantial Settings ......... 83 69. Reality, Ideality, and Truth ........ 84 70. Vague and Exact Settings ........ 85 71. Natural, Social, and Socialized Settings ...... 86 72. Author and Dramatis Personse ....... 87 73. Distribution ........... 88 74. Further Economy ....... ... 89 CHAPTER V THE DRAMATIS PERSONS 75. Composition . ....... 91 76. Number ............ 92 77. Chapter Distribution ........ 93 78. Grouping in General ..... .... 93 79. Successive Groups .......... 94 80. Foreground, Middleground, and Background Characters * . .96 -* 81. Central Characters .......... 97 82. Association of Characters ........ 99 83. Relation to the Author ......... 101 84. Reality and Ideality ......... 102 85. Individuals and Types ......... 104 86. Social Groups .......... . 105 87. Psychological Groups ......... 107 xvi CONTENTS / CHAPTER VI ^ CHARACTERIZATION SECTION PAGE ~-^ 88. Character and Characterization . 109 ^ 89. Novelistic Characterization . . . . . . .no 90. Character Unfolding in 91. Appellation , . , .112 92. Physiognomy . . . .113 93. Costume and Physical Environment 114 94. Pantomime 116 95. Utterance 117 96. Physiological Psychology . . . . . . .118 97. Pure Psychology 120 98. Identity, Individuality, and Type 121 99. Character Change 124 ; 100. Direct and Indirect Characterization 125 101. General Methods 127 102. Group Characterization 128 CHAPTER VII SUBJECT-MATTER 103. Subject-Matter and Form . 130 104. Extensive and Intensive Subject 131 105. The Typical and the Individual 131 106. Exhibition and Interpretation 131 107. The Subject of the Novel 132 108. Sociology and History 132 109. Social Composition 133 no. Social Life 135 111. Historical Period 138 112. Historical Interpretation 139 113. Individuality 140 114 The Individual and Society 142 115. Human Nature 143 116. Nature in Man . . * 144 117. External Nature 144 1 1 8. The Supernatural 145 119. General Philosophy 147 120. The Main Theme 148 CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER VIII STYLE SECTION PACK 121. General Conception , .150 122. Objective and Subjective Aspects . . . . . . .151 123. Qualities of Style 151 124. Types of Style ... 152 125. Value of Style in the Novel .... 152 126. The Novelistic Type 154 127. Novelistic Qualities 154 128. Comprehensiveness 155 129. Objectivity 156 130. Concreteness 158 131. Complexity 160 132. Secularity 161 133. Humor 162. 134. Ideality 163 135. Force 164 136. Other Qualities 165 CHAPTER IX THE PROCESS OF COMPOSITION 137. Value of the Study 166 138. The Data for Study 166 139. The Germ of the Work 167 140. The Plan 169 141. The Sources 170 142. The Time Perspective 173 143. Technic of the Process 174 144. Psychology of the Process 176 145. Collaboration 180 146. Fragments 180 CHAPTER X THE SHAPING FORCES 147. General Conception 181 148. The Data 182 149. Individuality of the Author 183 xviii CONTENTS SECTION PACK 150. The Author's Age 184 151. Sex 185 152. Personal Episode 186 153. National and Racial Influences 187 154. Linguistic Influence 191 155. Literary Influence . 193 156. Historical Influence 195 157. Immediate Social Environment e 197 158. Human Nature . . 198 159. The Influence of Nature 199 CHAPTER XI THE INFLUENCE OF A NOVEL 1 60. Popularity of Fiction 202 161. The Data , 203 162. Time Distribution 203 163. Place Distribution 204 164. Influence upon Literature 205 165. Social Groups in General . . . . . . . 207 1 66. Influence upon Individuals 208 167. Kind and Degree of Influence 209 1 68. Perceptual Effect 209 169. Sensational Effect . . 211 170. Emotional Effect 212 171. Conceptual Effect 213 172. Volitional Effect 214 173. The Influencing Elements 214 174. The Causes of Influence 216 CHAPTER XII COMPARATIVE RHETORIC 175. Nature of the Study 218 176. The Forms of Discourse 218 177. Prose and Poetry 219 178. Prose and Verse 220 179- The Short Story 221 180. The Epic 222 181. Biography .. 224 CONTENTS xix SECTION PACE 182. History * 225 183. The Essay 226 184. The Lyric 227 185. Journalism 229 186. Other Types of Literature 230 CHAPTER XIII COMPARATIVE ESTHETICS 187. Relation of the Separate Arts 232 1 88. Classification of the Arts 233 189. Method of Study 233 190. The Drama 234 191. Painting 237 192. Sculpture 239 193. Music ... 241 194. Architecture 243 195. Landscape Gardening ......... 245 CHAPTER XIV GENERAL ESTHETIC INTEREST 196. ^Esthetic Analysis and Esthetic Theory 247 197. Nature and Humanity in a Work of Art . 247 198. Language as External Material ..... 248 199. The Value of Form ......... 249 200. Individuality of a Work of Art . 249 201. Unity General Design . 250 202. Contrast 252 203. Proportion 253 204. The Comic and the Tragic ........ 254 205. The Beautiful and the Unbeautiful 256 206. Artistic Truth 257 207. Artistic Illusion . .258 208. Theories of Art 260 209. Theories of the Novel 262 210. Judgment of a Novel 263 XX CONTENTS AITENDIX PAGE I. Systematic Analysis of a Novel 265 II. Glossary and Topical References 269 III. Types of Prose Fiction 279 IV. Notes on the History of Novelistic Criticism . . . 286 V. Bibliography and References 309 INDEX . 319 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL CHAPTER I EXTERNAL STRUCTURE i. Meaning of External Structure. Like all other artists, the novelist communicates with us solely through a sensuous medium an external material. For the novel- ist this medium is language, considered as already pre- pared for him by nature and society, and significant in the study of an individual work only as an individual novelist has given it a particular structure. This medium itself, differing in no very important respects for all the forms of literature, is considered in the chapter on General Esthetic Interest. The form given to language in a novel, as observed by eye and ear, whether referring to small details or to the whole composition, may be called, for the sake of clear ness, the "external structure." Primarily, and especially from the aesthetic point of view, the appeal of this structure is to the ear. The complete evaluation of the structural interest of a novel can be given only when it is read aloud. Practically, in most cases, the values of the structure as an arrangement of sounds, reach us through the medium of the eye, and this visible structure comes to have a certain, though relatively slight, aesthetic value in itself. A sonnet is more readily appreciated when it is printed compactly on a single page. 2 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL 2. Signiricance of External Structure. The larger units of external structure in a novel have comparatively little aesthetic significance in themselves, as compared with those of the spatial arts. There is no very obvious artistic dif- ference between a novel divided into " parts " and one divided into chapters only ; but these divisions are impor- tant when we interpret them in their relation to the " in- ternal structure." The smaller structural forms, those which the ear distinctly grasps as units the phrase, sentence, paragraph may have a definite aesthetic value in themselves. Elaborate attention to the sound-values of every detail of structure is more characteristic of verse than of prose, and some critics would probably consider it antagonistic to the nature of the novel as a prose form. On the whole, the tendency to develop these values per- sistently is more characteristic of the short story than of longer fictions, and more characteristic of the romance than of the novel. 3. Characteristics of Novelistic Structure. All the structural forms of the novel are found in other kinds of literature. The novel differs from its literary fellows only by a characteristic combination of structural units, and in some cases, by a special adaptation of them. No form of prose literature, in English at least, has a perfectly definite structure determining the type of the whole composition. In comparison with the sonnet, rondeau, ballade, etc., the novel, the essay, the oration, are all " amorphous." The history of the novel shows no very important development in this respect, though somewhat more careful attention to the treatment of structural units is naturally found in the more modern novelists. The novel, in a generic sense including the romance, EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 3 as written to-day, is fairly determinate in the following respects : 1. It is written almost entirely in prose. 2. It contains from fifty thousand to five hundred thou- sand words. 3. It is divided into paragraphs, and the paragraphs grouped into one, or usually more than one, kind of higher division. 4. It has a distinct, separate title or titles, sufficient to distinguish it from all other individual works. (Compare some lyrics, called simply "Lines," "A Song," etc. ; histories identified by the author's name, etc.) 5. It is composed of a significant combination, in alter- nation, of dramatic form (quoted speech) and of non-dramatic (unquoted speech). If the entire novel is supposed to be quoted speech, as in the epistolary and other documentary types, there is a secondary dramatic form within this. Specially characteristic of the novel, as distinct from the drama, is the " described dialogue," as contrasted with the "set" or pure dramatic dialogue. 4. The Whole Composition. The mere determination of the composition is not quite so simple a matter as it might seem. Ordinarily a single novel is taken as a unit for careful study. This frequently includes more than the " story " proper the con- tinuous illusion of the plot. It may be introduced by a " dramatic " preface, with an illusion of its own, as in Scott's Old Mortality, Bride of Lammermoor, etc. In the latter work, Chapter I is supposed to be written by Peter Pattieson, is quite separate from the story proper, and contains an interesting and fairly complete little story in itself. A novel 4 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL may end as well as begin with this dramatic addition to the story proper ; as does, for example, The Heart of Midlothian. The "single novel" may be a member of a group, which must be examined if one is fully to comprehend the isolated member. A familiar example of the grouping of a number of single compositions into a larger whole is found in the so-called "frame." This form has been most frequently used in the short story, notably in the famous examples of the Decameron, Heptameron, Canterbury Tales, etc., but it is occasionally found in the novel. Scott partially carries out the "frame" idea in his Tales of My Landlord. The " frame," in this case, includes several minor charac- ters, as well as the principal ones Jedediah Cleishbotham and Peter Pattieson and a number of interesting incidents and settings. An ex- ample of a long fiction belonging to a larger non-fictive whole is Paul and Virginia, composed as one of Saint-Pierre's u Studies of Nature." This famous idyl can, to say the least, be better understood if one has some acquaintance with the " whole composition," of which it is in a sense a part. One of the most interesting examples of a fictive compo- sition including an expanded part essentially non-fictive is Robinson Crusoe. To most readers, Robinson Crusoe means what Defoe finally considered only the first of three parts of that work. In some cases, to give variety and scope to the study, one may take as the unit of analysis, not a single novel, but a group of related novels. These are properly one com- position only when they were so intended by the author himself ; but this is not a rare case in the history of the novel. The degree of unity in such series, in characters, plot, settings, etc., is very various. In regular "duodrama," trilogy, or tetralogy, a very high degree of unity may be found, worthy of close examination. One form with less definitely planned unity is that of the simple con- tinuation, frequently suggested by another than the novelist, after the publication of the first part, as in Pamela, Don Quixote, etc. Some- EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 5 times such continuation has been forced upon the author by a spurious one. Continuation by another than the original author offers interest- ing material for study of the process of composition. Larger groups may be called series, or cycles. Their organization is sometimes quite complex, as in what is probably the supreme example, the Comedie Humaine of Balzac. For special purposes still looser groups may be studied together : as a novel and its imitations, for example, Robinson Crusoe and the " Robinsonades " of German fiction ; or a work and burlesques upon it, as Pamela and Joseph Andrews, the romances of chivalry and Don Quixote, Gothic romances and Jane Austen's Northanger Abbey. EXAMPLES OF NOVELISTIC GROUPS. Dualogy: Valdes Riverita, Maximina; Goethe Wilhelm Meister's Lehrjahre and Wanderjahre. Trilogy: Scott Waverley, Guy Mannering, Antiquary (see advertise- ment to last, 1829); Zola Lourdes, Rome, Paris; Sienkiewicz With Fire and Sword, The Deluge, Pan Michael ; d'Annunzio Romances of the Lily ; in some sense the novels of Richardson. Series: Freytag DieAhnen; Zola The Rougon-Macquart novels ; Trollope Chron- icles of Barsetshire. Cycle: Balzac Come'die Humaine; Waverley Novels. (For grouping in Scott's mind, see his own introductions.) Even when the composition is a single novel, it may con- tain an intercalated story that is aesthetically quite inde- pendent (Don Quixote, Gil Bias, Tom Jones, Tale of Two Cities, etc.). A unique example of intercalation is the complete drama in Ziegler's Asiatische Banise. 5. The Title. In the introduction of 1829 to Rob Roy, Scott, speaking of the title, says, "A good name [is] very nearly of as much consequence in literature as in 4ife." (Compare Chapter I of Waverley.) In the intro- duction of 1830 to Ivanhoe, he states the theory that a title should conceal the nature of the composition ; yet 6 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL probably the most natural function of a title is to express in some manner the main theme of the novel. It may refer more particularly to characters, settings, or action ; it may be realistic, romantic, impressionistic, etc. A title often has some special significance not apparent on the surface. Note, for example, Joseph Andrews, Sense and Sensibility, Nouvelle HeloYse, TurgeniefF s On the Eve, Comdie Humaine. The titles of English sentimental fiction toward the close of the eighteenth century include : Sentimental Tales, The Tears of Sensibil- ity, The Man of Feeling, The Effusions of the Heart, and many others of like nature. Characteristic of nineteenth century realism are such titles as A Modern Instance (Howells), A Common Story (Gontcharoff), One of Life's Slaves (Lie), Life's Little Ironies (Thomas Hardy). In form, a title may be single or double ; thematic or analytical ; purely individual, or including a type word or phrase. Of such type words story, novel, romance, ad- ventures, history, life, etc., are common examples. Adventures is a common type word in the novel of action, occurring in Smollett frequently, in Robinson Crusoe, Joseph Andrews, Oliver Twist, Kidnapped, etc. History has been common since Painter wrote (preface to The Palace of Pleasure, 1565) of "histories, which, by another term, I call novels." It was specially frequent in the latter part of the eighteenth century ; " secret history " being a somewhat charac- teristic variation. An old-fashioned artificial device is the repetition of the title at the end of the novel, used some half-dozen times by Scott, and in Soil und Haben. Titles of the subdivisions of structure are often important. 6. Length of Composition. Recent criticism has em- phasized the idea that the difference between the modern short story and the novel is not primarily one of length. Still it is true that marked variation in length implies aesthetic difference in the fictions themselves, the process EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 7 of composition, and the effect on the reader. Silas Mar- ner and War and Peace may both be called novels; but the fact that the former contains about seventy-five thousand words and the latter about seven hundred thou- sand concerns every important aspect of the two works. The mere labor of writing and reading the heroic romances those fictions a tongue haleine is indicative of signifi- cant social conditions during the period of their popularity. Richardson was fully conscious of the great length of his novels, and offers apology or explanations therefor. The length of a novel may be given in pages, but the approximate length in words is more convenient for purposes of comparison, espe- cially with compositions in verse. A classification for practical pur- poses may follow some such outline as this : Minor Novel. From 50,000 to 125,000 words. Silas Marner, 75,000 ; Scarlet Letter, 70,000. Paradise Lost contains about 85,000 words; the Divine Comedy about 100,000. Medium Novel 1 25,000 to 250,000 words . Mrs. Radcliife's Romance of the Forest, 130,000; Adam Bede, 200,000. Major Novel. 250,000 to 500,000 words. David Copperfield, 340,000; Daniel Deronda, 320,000. Maximum Novel. More than 500,000 words. War and Peace, 700,000; Clarissa Harlowe, 800,000; Madelaine de Scude'ry's Grand Cyrus, 1,800,000. The entire Come'die Humaine contains something like 4,000,000 words : The Waverley Novels are about the same length. 7. Principal Divisions of a Novel. In a typical novel these are the chapter and paragraph : in longer fictions, the part, volume, and book are frequently added. The epistolary novel often has no further divisions than the letters themselves, frequently given with separate numbers or headings. The narrative quality of Defoe's novels is emphasized by his habitual limitation to the paragraph. Clara Reeve's Old English Baron and 8 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Brooke's Juliet Grenville are other examples of undivided eighteenth century novels. Scott invariably uses the chapter and rarely a higher division, though he is fond of dramatic prefaces, postscripts, etc. Dickens generally has only chapter divisions. In one fiction or another nearly every possible method of division is found. Verri's Notti Romane, nights, colloquies ; White's Earl Strong- bow, nights ; Leland's Longsword, sections ; Gogol's Dead Souls, epic cantos ; Sarah Fielding and Jane Collier's The Cry, scenes. 8. Volume, Part, and Book. When a mere accident of publication, the volume has no artistic significance, but it is often a genuine unit of structure, sometimes with separate title. When both part and book are used, the former is generally the major division. The book is found in the Greek romances, as one of the results of epic influence, and has since been associated with the theory of the novel as the modern epic. Fielding divided all his novels into books, establishing a temporary precedent so strong that the preface 1 to The Cry (1754) refers to "the common divisions of book and chapter/' Mrs. Radcliffe returned to a simple chapter division. There is sometimes a high degree of unity, in these larger divisions, in characters, theme, setting, or action. There may be a distinct dra- matic line. Sometimes there is a more external unity ; as of epistolary structure, Balzac's Deputy for Arcis, or of in- tercalated narrative, Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, Book VI. Balzac frequently uses parts (A Woman of Thirty, Lost Illusions, etc.), and in general a somewhat complicated division. Parts are found in Zola's Downfall and The Soil, Scarron's Roman Comique, Nouvelle He'loise, George Sand's Le*lia and Indiana, and many other well-known fictions. Books are used in Esmond, Corinne, Amadis of Gaul, Wilhelm Meister, Notre Dame de Paris, Hall Caine's The Manxman, Daniel Deronda, Tale of Two Cities, etc. The epic number twelve is found in Gil Bias, Amelia, and Grave's Spiritual Quixote. 1 Probably written by Miss Fielding. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 9 9. The Chapter. While found in other forms of com- position, this is the structural unit most characteristic of the novel. It is used with great freedom, its value depend- ing on relation to the individual work rather than to abstract rhetorical principle. While the chapter bears a certain analogy to the dramatic scene, the number of chapters often greatly exceeds the number of scenes in a well- constructed drama. In length, also, the chapter shows great variation ; but for a given novel there is a certain norm below and above which a true aesthetic quality is lost. The realists, for example Trollope, Howells, Jane Austen, are comparatively regular. The romanticists and the pure humorists are much more capricious. Marked brevity is sometimes a source of humorous effect; occasion- ally a source of tragic effect. The unity of a chapter is generally quite distinct. Ex- ternally it may appear in title, motto, or dramatic form. A chapter frequently has a. definite introductory and con/ eluding paragraph, or begins and ends with marked single effects. Trollope occasionally opens a chapter with the same words that conclude the preceding chapter. (Can You Forgive Her? XII and XIII; Framley Parson- age, IX and X.) The first and last chapters of a novel often have some distinctive form. The first chapter in Trollope rarely contains dialogue ; the first chapters of Scott's Tales of My Landlord are first-person narra- tives by " Peter Pattieson." A chapter is naturally more distinctly unified in respect to the characters, settings, action, process of composition and effect than the larger divisions, and less so than the paragraph. In the novel of character the introduction of important new characters usually demands a new chapter; in the novel of action, important incident. 10 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL EXAMPLES Number of chapters: Peregrine Pickle, 106; Amelia, 115; Tom Jones, 208; War and Peace, 362. Chapter length: Notre Dame de Paris, i to 40 pages (romanticism) ; Gil Bias, I to 60 (humor). Humorous brevity: Tristram Shandy; Bulwer's Paul Clifford, 27. Tragic brevity: Bulwer's Kenelm Chillingly, VIII, 6; Gald6s' Dona Perfecta, last chapter. Mottos are characteristic of the romantic movement, and of ro- mance generally. Scott uses them habitually, perhaps following Mrs. RadclirFe in this respect as in others. See his comment on the practise; Rob Roy, advertisement, The Monastery, Chapter III, and elsewhere. Other famous fictions with chapter mottos are, Vigny's Cinq Mars, Last of the Mohicans, HaufTs Lichtenstein, Kingsiey's Westward Ho ! Definite introduction: Ivanhoe, I, 3, 4, 5, etc.; Last of the Mohi- cans, 3, 9, ii, etc. Definite conchision: Ivanhoe, 3, 6, 9, etc. ; Last of the Mohicans, I, 9, 10, etc. Epistolary form (common): Trollope's Can You Forgive Her ? II, 4 ; Bulwer's Kenelm Chillingly, four ex- amples. Semi-soliloquy: Tolstoi's Resurrection, III, 40. Monologue: Adam Bede, 2. Duologue: Last of the Mohicans, 5, 12, 19, 20, 21; Ivanhoe, 6, 15, 16, 20, 21, 28, 29. Conversation: Last of the Mohicans, 4; Ivanhoe, 5, 7; Silas Marner, 6. Set dramatic form: Fielding's Jonathan Wild, III, 8. Intercalated reverting narrative: The Resur- rection, I, 2, 37; Adam Bede, 45. Essay: Frequent in Fielding, especially in the first chapters of books ; Notre Dame de Paris, III, 2 ; V, 2. Chapter groups occur in nearly every novel, sometimes marked definitely in the external structure, as in Stevenson's Black Arrow, " The Good Hope," " The Good Hope Continued," " The Good Hope Concluded"; and in Trollope's Barchester Towers, 'Ullathorne Sports, Act I, Act II, Act III.' Other examples of chapter groups are found in The Virginians, II, 2 to 4, intercalated narrative] Adam Bede, 6 to 8, 21 to 26, 27 and 28, episodes ; Tolstoi's Resurrection, II, 12 to 18, reverting narrative reminiscence. 10. The Paragraph. The paragraph in the novel is more flexible than in most forms of prose, and is one of the elements in the complexity of novelistic structure. It EXTERNAL STRUCTURE II may be differentiated for narrative, descriptive, dramatic, and lyrical service, and these functions change often in the typical novel. The paragraph has undergone great devel- opment in the course of its history. 1 In the early romance it is frequently exceedingly long, and without artistic unity (Boyle's Parthenissa contains one of over fourteen thou- sand words), while in some of the recent short story writers there is an almost abnormal consciousness of paragraph value. In general, the shorter the composition, the more significant the paragraph division. There is great range of length in the typical novel. In Silas Marner the short- est paragraph is a dramatic speech of two words "That's ended," Chapter XX; the longest, a third-person narrative episode of five hundred words in Chapter IV. As in real life, careful attention to paragraph structure is not characteristic of conversation, but of artificial written speech, the realistic novel is not inclined to elaborate it in dialogic passages. Its chief technical use, in this par- ticular, is to set off the single speech, the connectives, and the author's comment. In the romance and romantic novel, however, it may be devoted to poetical purpose, even approaching the structure and value of the stanza. Other important functions of the paragraph are generali- zation ; transition from one action or character to another ; characterization ; setting ; motivation ; foreshadowing and preparation ; summary of situation, etc. The very short paragraph is often effective for striking dramatic or sensational emphasis. Such usage is characteristic of Hugo. It also aids rapidity and isolation of incident in narrative passages. Various effects of symmetry, monotony, climax, may be gained by the careful construction of a series of paragraphs. Occasionally in compositions 1 See E. H. Lewis's History of the English Paragraph, 1894. 12 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL d passages of a lyrical character a paragraph is repeated in substance or verbatim, as a sort of leit-motif or refrain. Examples are found in d'Annunzio's Triumph of Death and in Dombey and Son. ii. Minor Divisions. The main text of a novel is fre- quently accompanied by one or more of the following accessories : critical or fictitious preface ; dedication ; lists of dramatis personae; annotation; historical document; epilogue, etc. The fictitious preface may relate to the author, to the novel itself, or to almost independent incidents and characters. One of its special services is to introduce the illusion of the imaginary manuscript; another to explain the initial circumstances of a voyage imaginaire. A study of the fictitious prefaces of Scott will reveal most of the con- ventions, powers, and limitations of the form. Examples are found in Quentin Durward (9000 words), Rob Roy, Fortunes of Nigel, Peveril of the Peak, Tales of My Landlord, I Promessi Sposi, Henry Esmond, La Nouvelle Hdloi'se, Castle of Otranto, Holberg's Iter Subterraneum. Final divisions, like epilogue, etc., are usually brief. They may recur to the fiction of the preface, as in the " peroration " of Old Mortality, or outline the future of the characters and action of the novel, or gen- eralize on the picture of life that has been presented. A definitely stated moral, common in medieval fiction, is rare in modern fiction. One occurs at the close of the Heart of Midlothian, I Promessi Sposi, and the original form of Balzac's Peau de Chagrin. Lists of dramatis persona, with some slight characterization, are found in the novels of Richardson and in a few other fictions. Anno- tation of the main narrative by a fictitious character is not an uncom- mon device, and is often an effective means of increasing the illusion of reality. It is used in Old Mortality, Esmond, The Virginians, Stevenson's Master of Ballantrae. Historical document, occasionally found in earlier fiction, may be most conveniently studied in Scott and his school. The novel with a key was prominent in the seven- teenth century (heroic romance ; satire ; political fiction, as in Barclay's Argenis) ; and in the eighteenth century, with its fondness for the " secret history " and intrigues of the aristocracy (for example, Mrs. Hay wood's Memoirs of ... Utopia). EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 13 12. Prose and Verse. In realistic novels verse enters mainly as a subordinate element, either to aid in charac- terization, or to give color to a particular time or place setting, especially in historical fiction. Many lyrics are found in Scott's romances. Examples of more recent realistic use are found in Balzac's Letters of Two Brides, Sudermann's Frau Sorge, Valera's Comendador Mendoza. The logical connection of the verse with the action and the degree of fusion with the fictive illusion as a whole vary considerably. In the fictions of the romantic movement, at the beginning of the last century, the liberal use of verse is characteristic of the lyrical tendency of the period. The novelist himself was frequently a poet, and instinctively selected a character with poetic gifts for hero or heroine; or his desire to arouse poetic emotion in the reader led to the introduction of verse. Mrs. RadclifiVs titles sometimes include the phrase "interspersed with some pieces of poetry. 1 ' Gaston de Blondeville contains a poem of about five hundred lines ; the Mysteries of Udolpho and Romance of the Forest each has some fifteen poems. Other fictions with the romantic use of verse are Werther, Ivanhoe, Madame de StaeTs Corinne, Andersen's Improvisatore, Bulwer's Kenelm Chillingly. In the romance of the Middle Ages and the early Re- naissance we find a more distinctly structural value of verse; though there is no literary form in which the structural relations of prose and verse are definite. The nearest approach to such relation is in works like Dante's Vita Nuova, drama of the Shakespearian type, and the pas- toral romance. This last form originated in the classical metrical pastoral, and always retained more or less dis- tinctly a prosimetrical structure ; usually with definite pre- dominance of verse, as in Belleau's Journee de la Bergerie, or of prose, as in Sannazaro's Arcadia and Lodge's Rosa- 14 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL lind. The arrangement is always an alternation of prose and verse. In the romance of chivalry as a distinct type (it is often combined with the pastoral), the verse is in- herited from the metrical romances of chivalry, long or short. Akin to this type is the prosimetrical saga; for example, the Volsunga Saga. Some of the tales of William Morris revived this early structure. EXAMPLES OF PROSIMETRICAL STRUCTURE Per cent of Verse Per cent of Prose Boccaccio's Ameto 15 85 Sannazaro's Arcadia 28 72 Sidney's Arcadia 7. 93 Cervantes' Galatea 38 62 Morris' House of the Wolfings .15 85 Rhythmical prose, in sustained passages, is far more characteristic of the short story, the romance, and roman- tic novel, than of the realistic novel. It is usually in- troduced without definite structural distinction, but is occasionally found in more formal manner. Important examples are found in the Renaissance attempts to com- bine the values of poetry and prose, as in Euphuism ; and in the Ossianic movement of the eighteenth century. 1 In serious imitation of epic style it is found in Gogol's Taras Bulba; in burlesque imitation, in Swift's Battle of the Books, and in passages of Fielding and Smollett. Mere fragments of rhythmical prose may of course occur in any pas- sage of heightened lyrical expression. Bulwer's Rienzi, Book VII, Chapter 7: " Thrice blessed name ! Immortal Florentine " (perfect " iambic pentameter"). 1 See Riemann's Goethes Romantechnik, pp. 145 ff. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 15 " I tell thee, Brettone, that this loose Italy has crowns on the hedge that a dexterous hand may carry off at the point of the lance ! " (" anapestic coloring ") . 13. Dramatic and Non-dramatic Form. All language that is supposed to belong to a character, historical or Ac- tive, other than the author, may be considered " dramatic." The author's own language when fictitious, as in imag- inary dialogue with a character, may also be included. Language supposed to be reproduced with only partial accuracy may be called " semi-dramatic." When dramatic language within dramatic language occurs, as in the dia- logue of epistolary novels, the including form may be distinguished as "primary," the included as "secondary." This arrangement is characteristic of the novel, and one of the elements of complexity in its structure. For convenience, all language presented as spoken may be called " dialogic ; " all presented as written, " document- ary." A conscious, sustained alternation of dramatic and non-dramatic form is characteristic of both epic and novel. The difference between the two types, in this particular, consists largely in the less frequent change from one form to the other in the epic, resulting in a much less compli- cated structure. The approximate number of transitions in Beowulf is 90 ; in Paradise Lost, 350 ; in so short a fiction as Tolstoi's Master and Man, 625. Different novels show very various proportion and dis- tribution between the two forms, indicative of great dif- ferences in the general nature of the compositions. The three tendencies toward emphasis on the dramatic, empha- sis on the non-dramatic, and equivalence of the two may be expressed by the simple formulas : Narrative-DRAMA ; Dramatic-NARRATivE ; Dramatic-Narrative. 16 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Per cent of Per cent of Narrative-DRAMA Dramatic Form Non-dramatic Theagenes and Chariclea .... 60 40 Book of Ruth 60 40 Paradise Lost 60 40 Dramatic-NARRATiVE Bride of Lammermoor 40 60 Tolstoi's Master and Man . . . 35 65 Goethe's Wahlverwandtschaften . 35 65 Silas Marner 25 75 Defoe's Plague Year 5 95 (This exemplifies Defoe's strong tendency toward pure narrative. Of course the entire Plague Year is dramatic, as purporting to be written by a fictitious character.) Dramatic-Narrative Sense and Sensibility .O. . . . 45 55 14. Non-dramatic Form. In decided subordination to dramatic form, the non-dramatic may precede, accompany, or follow the former. An extended dialogue usually has a definite introduction and conclusion, as well as intercalated comment. In Silas Marner, Chapter VI is introduced by the first paragraph of that chapter and the last of Chapter V. In this chapter the longest comment is in paragraphs 17, 29, and 41 relatively short passages. The merely mechanical dialogic connec- tives are essential to clearness in complicated dialogue, but are some- times omitted in simple dialogue. Scott writes in Chapter I of the Bride of Lammermoor of the "everlasting 'said he's 'and 'said she's'" of his preceding novels. There are some fifty merely mechanical con- nectives in Chapter VI of Silas Marner ; over thirty of them following the monotonous form, said Mr. Macey," " said the landlord," etc. In more independent use, non-dramatic language appears with characteristic structural value, and often with approach to fc set form, for narration of action not directly repre- sented, intercalated narrative, transition from one character, * EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 17 setting, or action to another, statement of situation, exposi- tion, generalization, aside to reader, lyrical expression, de- scription of settings and characters, etc. 15. Dialogic Form in General. Dialogue in a generic sense includes soliloquy, monologue, duologue, group con- versation (which may for brevity be called simply conver- sation), and concerted speech. In the novel these forms shade off gradually from the non-dramatic. The speech of a character may be represented so as to give merely the substance of the thought; or in complete quotation, with accompanying comment, etc. Occasionally dialogue is found in "set dramatic form," the names of the speakers placed as in the text of drama. Set dramatic form has some special interest in connection with^the technical and theoretical relations of the novel, the drama, and literary dialogues like Ascham's Toxophilus, Walton's Complete Angler, etc. In shorter fictions it is sometimes the chief form, as in Bunyan's Mr. Badman; in the novel it rarely occurs except in brief passages. Examples are found in Pilgrim's Progress, the Holy War, Defoe's Plague Year, Colonel Jacque, and Robinson Crusoe, Fielding's Jona- than Wild, Pamela, etc. Scott introduces it only in the dramatic pref- aces of The Fortunes of Nigel and Peveril of the Peak. 16. Soliloquy and Monologue. In soliloquy, in a strict sense, the speaker is alone, or supposes himself to be alone ; in monologue he may have any number of listeners. In the novel, extended, formal use of either (sometimes they are given distinct headings, as in Lodge's Rosalind, Sidney's Arcadia, and Lyly's Euphues) is rarely found except in earlier fiction, where it is probably imitative of dramatic and epic usage. Semi-dramatic soliloquy and monologue, on the other hand, are characteristic of the novel at any period. The most common monologue is that which develops in the course of a duologue or con- 1 8 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL versation ; especially in the form of intercalated narrative. Fictions in the /-form are technically monologic through- out, whether supposed to be spoken (dialogic) or written (documentary), but as a matter of convention they fre- quently include as much dialogue, in as distinct a form, as other types. 17. Duologue. This may be considered the standard dramatic form of the novel. Its predominance is due partly to its importance in actual life ; partly to the influ- ence of drama, epic and didactic dialogue; partly, per- haps, to the relative ease with which it may be written, as compared with conversation. In Silas Marner there are some twenty duologues and only some seven or eight dis- tinct conversations. When the single speeches and the author's comment are given in separate paragraphs, the structure of a duologue appears at a glance. It tends on the one hand to pass into monologue ; on the other to become isometric. The latter structure is sometimes found in early fiction in almost as formal manner as in the stichometric passages of epic, dramatic, and pastoral verse, but it is too artificial for realistic effect. The merely mechanical connectives are not so essential in duologue as in conversation. The novelist is free to interrupt the duologue at will by brief or extended comment, but as a member of a trio he may appear more prominent to the reader than as a member of a larger group of speakers. Comment between speeches is of course less emphatic than that which interrupts a speaker. The mechanical structure of Chapter III of Silas Marner is as follows: Dunstan Cass speaks 15 times, 66 lines ; Godfrey Cass, 14 times, 54 lines ; the author, 13 times (interrupting a speech 6 times), 64 lines. This duologue is therefore decidedly novelistic rather than dramatic. I 1 8. Group Conversation (Conversation). A sustained, realistic conversation of even three speakers is much more EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 19 difficult to compose than duologue, is a sign of true dra- matic imagination, and a distinguishing mark of great novelistic technic. The complexity of its structure is due chiefly to the great possible variety in sequence and length of speeches, and of connectives and comment. In the simplest form of purely dramatic conversation three speakers with two speeches each there are twenty-four possible sequences. In the chief conversational chapter of Silas Marner, Chapter VI, A speaks 10 times, D 10, C 11, D 12, E 4, F 4 a total of 51 speeches by the characters. The author, omitting purely mechanical connectives, speaks 38 times. Viewing the entire dramatic speech of a composition as a conversa- tional form, interesting comparison may be made between the epic, drama, and novel. Number of single speeches Beowulf 45 Paradise Lost 175 Master and Man 350 Silas Marner ....... 530 The Tempest 650 19. Concerted Speech. By concerted speech is meant the utterance of the same words by several speakers at once. In the novel, simultaneous utterance of different words must of course be represented in sequence. In set form, this detail is far more characteristic of the drama than the novel, and is possibly a relic of the classical chorus. It occurs scores of times in Shakespeare, notably in Coriolanus, and its unnatural use is one of the minor blemishes of Browning's dramatic technic. It is, however, occasionally found in early fiction, probably in direct imitation of the drama. In less formal manner it is found in most novels ; for example, in Ivanhoe, Chapters XI, XIII, XXXIII, XLIV, and in the Last of the Mohicans, Chapter XXIX. 20 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL 20. Documentary Form in General. Perhaps the most notable general effect of document is to increase verisimili- tude. The novel itself being an actual document, possibly the imagination more readily accepts fictitious document than fictitious dialogue. Documentary form is found in the earliest novels, the Greek romances, but has in- creased use, with special force and naturalness, since the invention of printing. As a fragment it may appear in very various forms letter, newspaper extract, inscription, legal document, map, musical score, etc., etc. The most important examples of sustained documentary form are the epistolary novel, the diary novel, and the imaginary manu- script. Each of these types has some conventional details of structure, as for example the illegible or missing portions of the imaginary manuscript ; the forged or missent letter, etc. In all of them the introduction of formal dialogue is a convention which the reader accepts on faith ; and in general, the documentary illusion is rarely continuous. In English fiction, the imaginary manuscript has special place in the latter part of the eighteenth century. See Walpole's Castle of Otranto, Beckford's Vathek, Clara Reeve's Old English Baron, Mrs. Radcliffe's Sicilian Romance and The Italian, etc. Scott is rather fond of it. 21. Epistolary Form. The significant origin of the " novel of letters " is usually traced to Samuel Richardson, though there was abundant literary use of epistolary form, in fiction and out of it, before Pamela. 1 Richardson him- self was quite conscious of the peculiarities of his method (see his comparison of epistolary and narrative method in the preface to Clarissa, his explanations of the letter- writing passion of Pamela, etc.), and considerable criti- cal discussion of the epistolary form followed his novels 1 See Jusserand, Roman Anglais, p. 49; and Cross, p. 23. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 21 at once. Analysis of epistolary structure may follow the general method given for dialogic structure. The princi- pal structural points in outline are the number, length, and sequence of letters. The technical difficulties of the form are numerous. Neither Pamela nor Clarissa is ab- solutely epistolary in text, and Richardson gives lists of dramatis personae, with some characterization, arguments, etc., outside the text proper. An interesting example of the breakdown of epistolary form is found in Scott's Redgauntlet. The chief theoretical forms, often combined in the actual novel, may be formulated as follows : 1. Letters from A to B. (Compare the monologue.) 2. Correspondence between A and B. (Compare the duologue.) Examples are Dostoyevsky's Poor Folk, and Balzac's Letters of Two Brides. 3. Letters from A to B, C, etc. (Epistolary monologue in a sense, but clearly quite different from the oral monologue.) 4. Letters from B, C, etc., to A. 5. Correspondence between A and B, A and C, etc. 6. Real "group-correspondence," in which each member of the group exchanges letters with each of the others. The general epistolary structure may be partially represented by a graphic design. In Miss Burney's Evelina the scheme is as follows, A standing for Evelina, B for Mr. Villars, etc.; the figures, for the number of letters sent Other examples of epistolary novels are: Goethe's Werther, Foscolo's Jacopo Ortis, Madame de StaeTs Delphine, Valera's Pepita Jimenez. Novels " in a series of letters 11 are specially common in the English fiction of the latter half of the eighteenth cen- tury, owing mainly to the influence of Richardson. 22 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL 22. Syntax. There is a more or less specialized syntax for descriptive, expository, narrative, argumentative, and lyrical expression. The novel is chiefly characterized by a complex combination of these variations, and specially by contrast between the dramatic and non-dramatic pas- sages, and differentiated syntax for individual characters and character groups. The non-dramatic syntax is partly determined by the type of fiction and the rhetorical nature of the passage, partly by the general influence of the period, the nationality and the individuality of the author. A few details are given here merely as examples of syn- tactical analysis. Variations of mood and tense are often significant. Direct inter- rogative and imperative to the reader may serve to enlist his sympathy, otherwise determine his point of view, or to increase the illusion of reality. The historical present is common in spirited narration, espe- cially in romance. A combination of perfect and present tenses is effective in this sentence from George Eliot's Janet's Repentance: " But Mr. Tryan has entered the room, and the strange light . . . makes," etc. The rare interrogative future easily becomes sensational. This sentence is found in Chapter XII of George Eliot's Mr. Gilfil's Love-story (emphasized by being made a paragraph): "Will she crush it under her feet . . . till every trace of those false, cruel features is gone? " There are several examples of imperative to a character in Dombey and Son. Somewhat characteristic of the novel are epithetical phrases or typi- cal names for characters, groups, and places : The Last of the Roman Tribunes, Dona Perfecta, The Weaver of Raveloe, Poor Silas, Pretty Nancy, The Mill on the Floss, Old Mortality, The Man of Feeling, The Female Quixote, The English Rogue. Here may be included the various names for the same character in disguise as in Amadis of Gaul, Sidney's Arcadia, Lodge's Rosalind. The syntactical qualities of irony, as in Jane Austen ; of satire, as in Rabelais ; of serious imitation, as in Gogol's Taras Bulba ; of burlesque imitation, as in the pseudo-epic EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 23 style of The Battle of the Books, may all be analyzed into characteristic details. Figurative language depends to a considerable extent upon syntax. Expanded figures, especially the more im- aginative figures of personification, apostrophe, and the continuous figurative language of allegory and symbolism, are more characteristic of both short story and romance than of the realistic novel. The romance of chivalry and the heroic romance are characterized by extended figures. When occurring in picaresque fiction and its allies, the figurative language is usually burlesque in spirit. In Silas Marner, as a representative realistic story, the figures, whether those in the dramatic or non-dramatic passages, rarely extend beyond a single sentence, and are most com- monly compressed into a single clause or phrase. They are generally simple similes or metaphors. Other details are the dialogic connectives, noticed in Section 14; catalogues and lists of articles like the romances in Don Quixote, the games in Gargantua (Rabelais) ; the argumentative or expository i, 2, 3 order in Bunyan and Defoe. A repeated word or phrase is sometimes found to give somewhat the effect of a leit-motif, as in the repetitions of " black remnant," " bright living thing," " flame," and "vision" in Chapter XII of Silas Marner. The dramatic syntax varies with the dialogic, epistolary and other documentary form. In the historical novel, the syntax of special periods is important; in the novel of manners, that of social groups ; in the novel of character, the syntax of the individual and his changing mental states. The control of syntactical details in all these cases is more difficult, and in general more significant, than the mere selection of vocabulary. Scott's theory of the shaping of language in historical fiction is given in the dedicatory epistle of Ivanhoe and 24 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL elsewhere. He combines the specialized language of a period and social class with language that " belongs to all ranks and all countries," and to give the general effect of remoteness, even for bygone centuries, finds the language of a few generations past to be sufficient. Thackeray, in Esmond and The Virginians, represents the more modern, more realistic fidelity to the speech of a past period. Dialect, while specially characteristic of the nineteenth century, has considerable place in much earlier fiction. In the picaresque and satirical novel of the Renaissance we have abundant reproduction of the "cant" phrases of the thief, the lawyer, doctor, priest, etc. A famous ex- ample of an original introduction of the terms of a special craft is found in the seaman's language of Smollett. Simple examples of the use of syntax to individualize characters are found in the third person plural with which Dolly Winthrop refers to the Deity (Silas Marner) ; the parenthetical sentences of Bulwer's Squire Brandon (Paul Clifford), and in Dickens, who frequently uses the "gag" with the effect of caricature. George Meredith is a promi- nent example of a novelist (as Browning is of a dramatist) whose own personal syntactical habits overshadow the utterances of his characters. 1 One may conveniently note here typographical 'variations for artistic effects. Italics are characteristic of sentimentalism, and are common in Richardson and his followers. They are used in early fiction to distinguish proper names. Bulwer is fond of italics, small capitals, dashes, and exclamation points. Sterne and other humorists use typo- graphical devices for comic effects. In the history of the English novel, the syntax of Eu- phuism has perhaps been given the most close analysis. A few examples of characteristic vocabulary and syntax of other well-marked historical types may be suggestive. 1 For examples of study of the syntactical peculiarities of individual novel- ists, see Brunetiere on Bourget (Roman Naturaliste), Cross on Stevenson, and Professor F. N. Scott's editorial introduction to'Rasselas. EXTERN KRUCTURE 2$ 1. Heroic Romance. Its formal phrasing is shown by these chance selections from Boyle's Parthenissa : " unintermitted obligations " ; " passionate conjurations of a meritorious servant " ; " accessional force in so ambitionecj a victory." Its complicated sentence structure may be indicated by the fact that Parthenissa contains sentences of over two hundred and fifty words. 2. Ossianic figure and Gothic phrasing may be exemplified from James White's Earl Strongbow (1789): "Like the thunder when it smites the stupendous head of Snowdon, or roars amidst the cliffs and woody pinnacles of Plinlimmon " ; "A range of reverend towers . . . enveloped in ivy " ; " It was a mansion sacred to silence and repose " ; " worm-eaten timbers and rusty hinges " ; " dim Gothic window." 3. The " sentimental school" of the later eighteenth century. From Brooke's Juliet Grenville ; or, the History of the Human Heart : " drowned in tears," "brimming tears"; "flood of tears"; "tears of grateful sensibility" (this same phrase occurs in Catherine Parry's Eden Vale ; compare Morley's introduction to the Man of Feeling, Cassell's National Library) ; " alarming transports " ; " transport of tender endearment " ; " paradisiacal delirium of infantile deliciousness." Compare Section 5. 23. Vocabulary. So far as the novelist creates words, or selects or modifies them for definite artistic 'purpose, they may be considered structural elements. Considered as narrative, the novel employs the power of words to accelerate, retard, produce suspense, surprise, climax, etc. ; as description, it has been prominent in the selection and determination of a specialized vocabulary for interiors, landscapes, physiognomy, the sensations and emotions of the individual, and the mental states of society. As a general type, it is characterized by range and variety of vocabulary ; contrast of dramatic and non-dramatic words ; combination and differentiation of the vocabularies of individuals and social groups. Creative vocabulary has been a special feature of the voyage imaginaire and of allegory. There are abundant 26 THE STUDY pF A NOVEL examples in Campanella's City of the Sun, Gulliver, Paltock's Peter Wilkins, Pilgrim's Progress, etc. Dialectic vocabulary has been prominent in picaresque fiction, satire, and the novel of manners. Glossarial explanation, not unknown in Renaissance fiction, expands till for the Waver- ley Novels a glossary of some two thousand words is neces- sary. In general, the novelist has been a radical in the use of words an iconoclast and a neologist. The aesthetic connotation of many such words as Gothic, sensibility, novel, romance, romantic, picturesque, picaresque, hero, soul, etc., has been largely determined by the usage of the novel. The mere names in a novel are often suggestive of the general type of the fiction. Compare the names of the characters of White's Earl Strongbow (Gothic historical romance), "Richard Fitzwalter," "Sir Reginald Fitzalan," "O'Carrol of Uriel," etc.; of Boyle's Parthenissa (heroic romance), "Artabanes," "Izadora," 4< Callimachus," etc.; of Ingelo's Bentivolio and Urania (didactic allegory}, "Alethion and Agape," " Theosebes and Urania," " Panaretes and Irene," with those of a picaresque novel, a modern novel of manners, etc. A study of special value and wide scope is suggested by the general theory of Stoddard's Evolution of the English Novel the development of interest from the physical to the spiritual. The modern novel shows even \ in its vocabulary a richer aesthetic result in the exploration | and combination of these two interests than any other form Aof prose literature. One may profitably analyze the vocab- 'ulary of form, color, movement (the power of visualization is often mentioned as a chief essential of the great fiction- ist), sound, touch, of vague inner sensation, as in swoon, dream, and delirium ; comparing it with the vocabulary of emotion, thought, and volition. In both cases the develop- ment of the exact, concrete word has been remarkable. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE 27 24. Phonology. Such structural details as alliteration, assonance, melody, pitch, time, etc., may be included under this term. Rhythm has been briefly noticed in Section 12. Phonetic effect for its own sake is not characteristic of the novel, as it is, to some extent, of the romance and certain types of short story. When the sound-value is emphasized, the values of characterization, action, setting, and thought are liable to become dim. But as a means to a less purely aesthetic end, the novelist explores every power of phonetic combination. In narration the clash of consonants or the swiftness of vowel sequences are important agencies ; in description onomatopoetic effects may be introduced, or general impressions of beauty, ugliness, simplicity, or com- plexity emphasized by an appropriate arrangement of sounds. It is in dramatic characterization, perhaps, that the most significant or characteristic use of phonetic resources is found in the novel. One has only to recall the wide variations in the reading aloud of the same dramatic passage by different persons to realize the importance of this point. Alliteration, consonantal friction, etc., may be important indications of the mental condition of a speaker, especially in highly emotional states. Compare the degrees and manner in which the novelist determines the details of utterance in these passages from Chapter XIV of George Eliot's Janet's Repentance : i. tlt Janet !' The loud jarring voice," etc. 2. ltt Perhaps he would kill her.'" 3. "Til cool your hot spirit for you. I'll teach you to brave me. 1 " 4. " ' Let him. Life was as hideous as death.' " CHAPTER II CONSECUTIVE STRUCTURE 25. Significance of Consecutive Structure. A novel may be simply and conveniently considered as a series of parts, each with its own identity, value, and relation to the whole series. The chief significance of this consecutive structure is threefold : it gives, in the main, the order in which the novelist composed, though the original concep- tion may be found in the catastrophe, and there are often other variations ; it is the natural order in which the reader becomes acquainted with the novel ; and it is a very impor- tant aesthetic aspect of the work itself, especially as a nar- rative. As a sequence of divisions shown to the eye, the series is in a sense spatial ; and, though much more definite, if a building is considered as a whole, may be compared with architectural series. As a sequence of sounds, it is essentially temporal; and, though in many respects less definite, may be compared with musical series. These two aspects are exactly those which have been examined under " external structure " ; but a novel also presents a series of images, emotions, and thoughts, belonging to what may be called, for contrast, the "internal structure." Except in the scientific and practical sense in which we grasp several elements at once, every detail of sound, imagery, and thought in the entire novel comes to us at some definite point in the series. Ordinarily one does not attempt to " realize " the minute details of either sound or meaning ; though for special purposes a passage may be CONSECUTIVE STRUCTURE 29 examined syllable by syllable. It is well to acquire the power to outline the entire structure in a well-proportioned manner, with any given scale to review the same novel, for example, in ten minutes or two hours. Thorough ex- amination of the structure consecutively gives, of course, every point in every topic of study based on the actual text of the novel ; but it is often convenient to have some special topic in mind, such as characters, settings, or sub- ject-matter. 26. Sequence. In any series we may notice the mere sequence, as in the numerical series i, 2, 3, etc.; or the deeper relative functions of the members of the series, as, that 2 is to 4 as 4 is to 8, etc. In the study of a novel, these two interests are certainly not entirely distinct ; but for purposes of analysis they may be noticed separately, to some extent. A novel may be considered as a series of masses com- posed of points. These two terms do not need absolute definition, if their relative values are kept in mind. When a considerable number of points referred to the same inter- est or "topic" are grouped together, the rhetorical term in mass may be used ; when points are scattered, the correlative term, in solution. Novels and novelists differ greatly in their use of these two methods, but in general it may be said : most of the chief matters of interest are found to some extent both in mass and in solution ; the most important, as characterization, dialogue, action, tend to be treated in mass ; the less important, as figures of speech, generalization, asides to the reader, etc., in solution. The " points " of any one interest taken consecutively throughout the composition or a portion of it may be called a line. 30 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL An analysis of paragraphs i and 7 of Chapter II, Silas Marner, not- ing some principal points of interest, without special attention to any one interest, may serve as an example. PARAGRAPH i. Plot. Generalized situation, social and psychological, of hero. Settings. Place contrast of new and old ; time detail of morning. Characterization. Generalization of hero as a type. Subject-matter. Exile, memory, religious and ecclesiastical life. Comparative Rhetoric. Essay and lyrical qualities. Genetic Criticism. Compare treatment of religious life in Scenes of Clerical Life and Adam Bede. PARAGRAPH 7. Dramatic Form. " W das ewig Wcibliche, the things that are eternal are unseen, etc. Zola and his school often make the deepest human experiences seem trivial against the majestic background of natural processes. They ring the changes, not always orthodox or hopeful, upon the old question: "What is man, that Thou art mindful of him ? " Ethical thinkers like George Eliot find apparently insig- nificant human actions intimately related to sublime moral laws. Bunyan, in his fiction as in his life, almost loses sight of the concrete material facts in the sense of the enveloping spiritual universe. In all novels, but notably in historical fiction and in the novel of manners and allied types, the detailed back- ground includes the temporary conditions of a social group, with various emphasis upon political, religious, industrial, and other circumstances. In social realists like Jane Austen and Trollope the elaborated settings rarely extend beyond such data. If one chooses to give so subjective a meaning to the term " circumstantial settings," it may include something of the psychological condition of the characters. A mood of memory may serve as background for the present expe- rience ; the emotions of secondary characters may intensify those of the principal characters, or lessen the tension, as in Chapters VI and XIII of Silas Marner. (See Section 35.) 84 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL This last effect, gained through the comic or semi-comic characters of a tragic incident, is common in the novel as well as the drama. In details of natural setting, 'weather has a prominent function. Its changing moods may be in ironical contrast with the human expe- riences they accompany, as in the bright sunlight at the death of Paul Dombey ; or in harmony therewith, as in the wild storm that surrounds the death of Molly Cass. The love of nature developed by the modern romantic spirit appears in the frequent moonlight scenes of the senti- mental school, and the fierce Byronic tempests of the Gothic romance of terror. Detailed circumstantial settings may include all inanimate objects which have definite artistic relation to the incident. In the catastro- phe of Silas Marner, the furniture given to Silas by Godfrey and the recovered gold upon the table have an important relation to the pur- pose and result of the visit itself. Animals are often significant items of background. The contrast between the domesticated and the wild animals of Robinson Crusoe is interesting. 69. Reality, Ideality, and Truth. As already implied, the most general settings of all novels are necessarily real. Realism, in theory and in practise, has made much of fidel- ity to fact in details also. This realistic element may be largely for the sake of the subject-matter, or for the sake of verisimilitude; the first purpose often being scientific rather than artistic in spirit. Idealization takes many forms selection, recombination, typification, symbolism, etc. Probably no novel exists without a great deal of idealization in the specific settings. Ideality is found in the description of the settings them- selves, and in their relation to the action, as in the familiar pathetic fallacy. ^Esthetic criticism, partly in consequence of the pressure of realism, has endeavored to distinguish carefully between fact and truth. Some critics find the highest degree of THE SETTINGS 85 truth in fidelity to the typical. Scott objected to the idea that he slavishly copied the individual buildings and land- scapes which served him as models ; there is scarcely any question that he is faithful to the essential qualities of their types. Another conception of artistic truth, even less obedient to the decree of the realist, is that of consistency. Critics have pointed out the remarkable consistency with which Swift uses both the gigantic and the pigmy scale in Gulliver, though the application belongs to the impossi- bilities of romance. The novelist is unable to give all the data of any social, historical, or natural environment ; but those he does give may correspond with the facts. In a description of the battle of Gettysburg, it may not be possible to follow the historical weather hour by hour, but it is possible to make the details given consistent with a Pennsylvania July. Omission of essential data though it may sometimes be difficult to agree on what is essential will destroy the truth of the description, if not the impression of reality. If it was Booth Tarkington's purpose to give a general view of the life of a Hoosier village in The Gentleman from Indiana, the result is marred by the omission of the ecclesiastical life. Representation of the political life of the city of St. Paul would not be faithful if it omitted the Scandinavian element. 70. Vague and Exact Settings. There are few novels with a perfectly clear and continuous time perspective, and there is frequently dimness in the spatial perspective. Romance gains many characteristic effects from vagueness of setting. Realism inclines towards exact details ; for the sake of illusion, for purposes of characterization, or as a result of the general habit of close observation and analy- sis. Too much detail in description as in narration (Sec- tion 31) may destroy the impression of reality. Phrases such as ' one day,' ' a few weeks afterwards,' etc., are common In most novels. The reader knows neither the day of the week nor of the month on which Eppie is married, in Silas Marner; and the 86 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL dates of both proposals of Darcy, in Pride and Prejudice, though these are respectively climactic and catastrophic events, are left without identification in the calendar. The architectural settings of Balzac and the landscapes of Scott are not infrequently so detailed that it is difficult to form a general picture. Great spatial exactness without confusion is found in The Gold-bug, and is characteristic of Poe's general method. The spot where the treasure is found is located with mathematical precision, by the aid of compass, quadrant, exact dimensions, three circles, and two triangles. In the time analysis of Master and Man, such details as u moments," " an instant," " several seconds," are characteristic of the psychological intensity of the author, and of the experiences he is relating. 71. Natural, Social, and Socialized Settings. In paint- ing, there are scenes in which both foreground and back- ground are entirely lacking in human figures. All the natural backgrounds of the novel are necessarily socialized to some extent, by association with human characters and actions. The tendency of the novel is to extend the human significance of environment far beyond this point of mere necessity. Landscape is interpreted in relation to social labor, art, history, or individual experience. Objects large, or small are often partially personified, as are the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris, the wooden midshipman and the railroad train in Dombey and Son. Animals and super- natural beings are given a more immediate human interest than is characteristic of painting and sculpture. The same tendency appears in the treatment of supernatural places and objects. The inferno of Quevedo's Suefios is even more human than that of the Divine Comedy ; the Holy Grail of Morte d'Arthur is the goal of a human, not an angelic search. Psychological use of the time-sense has just been noted. Its social significance in the novel is indicated by the frequent reference to the tcclesiastical and secular calendars. It is not an accident, from the THE SETTINGS 87 artistic standpoint, that Paul Dombey dies on Sunday, Kielland's poor waif Elsie on Christmas Eve ; or that Eppie comes to Silas on New Year's Eve. In Pride and Prejudice the sense of time is distinctly social rather than individual. The endeavor of Robinson Crusoe to keep the world's calendar during his exile is one of the many effects of a strong social sense in Defoe and his period. 72. Author and Dramatis Personae. In the third-person novel the more elaborate settings are commonly given by the author. The generalized views of social environment in Silas Marner belong entirely to George Eliot no char- acter in the novel could originate them. In the novel of dramatic form such descriptions are either eliminated ; or become artificial, unless justified by the situation of the characters. Robinson Crusoe's itemized account of his island environment is perhaps justified by the nature and situation of the man. Jane Austen shows her keen dramatic sense by omitting description of the surround- ings in which Darcy becomes engaged to Elizabeth " There was too much to be thought, and felt, and said, for attention to other objects." The pathetic fallacy may have a dramatic value and truth. It is probable that a Carker (Dombey and Son) fleeing from human ven- geance may feel that nature also is his enemy ; that a youthful lover, like the hero of Pepita Jime'nez, may feel that Nature in her springtide mood sympathizes with his own erotic passion. But when Thomas Hardy gives his personal impression that nature is ironically hostile to man's moral ideals, he lyricizes. One learns something about Thomas Hardy, but, very possibly, not much of nature or even of the charac- ters of the novel. Except in pure romance, the allegorical, symbolical, and supernatural interpretation of environment is usually more or less dramatized, as in Mrs. Radcliffe, Scott, Hawthorne, and Turgenieff. Often such interpre- tation is a sign of partially morbid condition in the character. The river and boat of Paul Dombey's imagination, and Silas Marner's asso- ciation of Eppie's hair with his lost gold are fragmentary examples. The allegorical element in Robinson Crusoe, whether an afterthought or not, is explained only in the Third Part. 88 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL 73. Distribution. In completely developed scenes, the settings usually appear in distinct masses, in part; but their full value is generally realized only by bringing to- gether the points scattered through many chapters. Many important points in the setting of Paul Dombey's death (Chap- ter XVI) are given before and after the event itself. From Chapter XV one learns that it occurred on a bright Sunday; from Chapter XIV that it was after the iyth of June : one must get the general picture of the neighborhood, the house, and the room, from several chapters. The settings at the principal turning-points of the plot are naturally of special interest. At the beginning, in particular, time and place are often given separate para- graphs. This method of opening a novel may indicate the general realistic emphasis on milieu, as in Balzac. Several points regarding the initial, climactic, and catastrophic set- tings of Silas Marner and Pride and Prejudice have already been given. A few others may be added, to show the contrast between the two works. SILAS MARNER. Initial. The first two chapters are devoted largely to settings ; the development being from the more general to the more specific. The particular place setting which is to be used in climax and catastrophe the weaver's cottage is introduced very early. Lantern Yard and the Red House are also to appear in later scenes. The emphasis on general social circumstances is greater than in Pride and Prejudice, and is characteristic of the wider social philosophy of George Eliot. The very slight mention of the state of war is probably dramatic the international struggle being less significant to the people of Raveloe than their own local affairs. Climactic. This New Year's Eve is highly individualized in the minds of Silas, Godfrey, and Molly, even apart from the specific inci- dent of the climax. The treatment of landscape and the weather is almost symbolical. The interior of the cottage is not only described in considerable detail, but it has permanent meaning in the lives of Silas, Eppie, Godfrey, Dunstan, Mrs. Winthrop, Aaron, Macey it is a unifying setting. THE SETTINGS 89 Catastrophic. The Sunday evening is well individualized. In tem- poral, spatial, and circumstantial settings there are definite reminiscences of the climax. PRIDE AND PREJUDICE. Initial. The action begins at once, with a fairly rapid movement. The omission of detailed settings is charac- teristic of the entire novel. The reader does not know directly the year or season or part of England in which the story opens. Climactic. The time is a late hour of an April evening. The state of the weather is only implied. The day has no significance apart from the specific incident. The place setting is the parlor at Hunsford, which has no particular meaning for the reader or the characters. Catastrophic. Darcy^s successful proposal occurs on a September morning, in the neighborhood of the Bennet home. That is about all one knows of time and place. The circumstantial setting must be gathered largely from preceding and following chapters. 74. Further Economy. In general, settings with special artistic quality are either in definite contrast or agreement with their incidents. Sharp contrast is a favorite method with both the romancer and the humorist. Hawthorne uses the cheerful morning as a background for tragic death, with striking effect, in The House of the Seven Gables and in Ethan Brand. Humorous contrast between the real setting and its interpretation by a character is well exemplified in Don Quixote, Sir Launcelot Greaves, and in the Roman camp of the Antiquary^ imagi- nation. Effects are often gained by a conscious inversion of con- ventional settings. " The morning of Friday was as serene and beautiful as if no pleas- ure party had been intended, and that is a rare event, whether in novel- writing or real life." (The Antiquary, Chapter XVII.) The action and reaction between settings and characters is a complex matter, and has already been noticed more than once. The character may not only interpret his envi-^ ronment ; he may to no small extent make it, as notably in Robinson Crusoe. Pessimistic realism, however, prefers \ 90 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL to portray human nature as the 'slave of circumstances.' In novels of any school, the same details often serve as setting and as motivation. The storm in the Antiquary, Chapter VII, is not only a fine background for the tragic incident, but is the direct cause of it. Repetition of specific place settings, with contrasted or similar incidents, is often used with more definite single effects than in the examples given above from Silas Marner. The effect is one of tragic pathos in the "let him remember it in that room, years to come ! " of Dombey and Son. (Chapters XVIII and LIX.) Trollope, in Barchester Towers, and Hardy, in A Pair of Blue Eyes, describe, with ironical effect, a heroine wooed by two lovers, at different times, but in exactly the same spot. CHAPTER V THE DRAMATIS PERSONS 75. Composition. A list of the dramatis personae, for a drama, epic, or novel, will vary according to the interpreta- tion of the term and the degree of analysis desired. If in the drama, appearance on the stage is the basis of inclu- sion, some persons of considerable importance in the plot will generally be omitted. Claribel and Sycorax, for exam- ple, are both of definite value in the plot-development of The Tempest. In the novel, the frequent use of secondary narrative, as distinct from presented action, introduces many characters who would not appear on the stage in a dramatization. In addition to truly individualized characters, a novel al- ways includes many persons with little more than numeri- cal identity whether speaking, present without speech, or given a mere reference. In the remote background are persons merely implied, though some of them may have been clearly conceived by the novelist. In an inten- sive imaginative study, one could scarcely fail to raise some question concerning the mother of Wickham, in Pride and Prejudice; or the father of the hero and the parents of Molly Cass, in Silas Marner. The author himself is a dramatis persona if he has an organic^part in the action as a whole, either in propria per- sona, or in a fictitious disguise which preserves his reaJ identity. 91 Q2 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL In fictions of the type of Smollett's Adventures of an Atom, a per- sonified object is technically the central figure of the action. In Notre Dame de Paris, the cathedral itself has been called, imaginatively, the real hero. In many medieval and some modern stories, an animal plays a similar r61e. Supernatural beings and personified abstractions be- come true dramatis persona?, in romance, whenever they have a genuine function as individuals in the unity of the illusion. " Anxiety," in Silas Marner, serves merely in a figure of speech ; but " Despair " is one of the real characters in Pilgrim's Progress. 76. Number. The absolute number of dramatis per- sonae is of great importance in determining the social area of the novel, and the degree of complexity in its action. The number relative to length of composition affects par- ticularly the rapidity of action, the degree of individualiza- tion, and the reader's sense of sustained intimacy with the characters. In a way, there is decided contrast between the sociological ideal of the novel, demanding an extensive " exhibition " of varied types, and the psychological ideal, intent on profound study of the individual. The epic breadth resulting from a large dramatis personae with little individualization is exemplified in The Plague Year and I Promessi Sposi. The former fiction contains about 165 persons with numerical identity, of whom only 16 are given individual names. In the latter work the corresponding numbers are 150 and 33. EXAMPLES. (Individualized ch; Speaking The Gold-bug ....-* iracters.) Present 2 6 I 4 10 25 Reference Total 3 8 3 '5 6 18 12 28 40 78 30 81 30 ^3 The Ambitious Guest . Master and Man .... Paul and Virginia . . . Silas Marner .... Pride and Prejudice Ivanhoe . 6 . II . 12 . 28 . 26 . 52 For the Waverley Novels, 1 some 1700 characters are enumerated. 1 Library edition; Edinburgh, 1853. THE DRAMATIS PERSONS 93 The above data, with some others, give roughly a proportion of 30 to 40 individuals present in the action, whether speaking or not, to 100,000 words. 77. Chapter Distribution. A table showing the distri- bution of the principal characters according to chapters, if made early in the examination of the novel, is often helpful as a basis for further study of individuals and groups. Such a scheme gives a condensed list of dramatis personae ; the structural iiistory of individuals, in outline ; indicates the consecutive grouping, and serves to recall the general significance of each chapter. In the following example only the most important characters are noted. " S " indicates speech ; " P," presence ; " R," reference. SILAS MARKER CHAPTER i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 *7 18 iQ 20 21 Con. Silas . S P R P S S P S S S R R S R S P Godfrey S R R S S S S R S P P S S S S R Eppie . S S S R S R R S R S S Dun stan S S R R R R R R R Nancy . R R R S S R P S S S S P Macey . (S) S S S S S R R R S Mrs. Winthrop S S S S S S Wm. Dane . S R 78. Grouping in General. The method of grouping and the emphasis on the different groups will depend on the individual novel and the particular purpose with which it is studied. Certain groups, of special importance in techni- cal analysis, are determined by the structure itself ; others are defined or suggested by the author's comment; still others may be perceived or fashioned by the critic. A group may be a real ensemble, composed of persons assembled in some definite, limited space and time, as in 94 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Chapter VI of Silas Marner. While these conditions do not necessarily imply group-consciousness, they are likely to arouse and intensify it. Such a group may be treated as a spatial picture, with a descriptive interest in its phys- ical form ; or as a moral unity, with the emphasis on social psychology. There is sometimes an imaginative, even symbolical tendency to consider the entire group as one person, as in the treatment of city mobs or armies by such modern novelists as Hugo, Balzac, and Zola. Other groups, such as all the whites or all the Indians in The Last of the Mohicans, are based on common qualities rather than common time and place ; and in many cases a clear sense of group-unity may exist only in the mind of author or reader. A group may be composed of a definite number of persons (symbolized by G-4, G-5, etc.) or of an indefinite number (G-). Indefinite groups of a large number of persons masses are characteristic of epic quality, and are almost necessary to give a large social background in historical fiction. In The Plague Year there are masses of servants, surgeons, aldermen, nurses, refugees, etc. In 1 Promessi Sposi there are more objective, ensemble groups of soldiers, worshippers, the plague-stricken, etc. In very many of the Waverley Novels, indeterminate groups, such as archers, knights, Highlanders, gypsies, crusaders, more significant as masses than as composed of individuals, increase the epic breadth and dignity of the social picture. 79. Successive Groups. The scheme suggested in Sec- tion 77 will furnish starting-points for a more careful study of the groups in individual episodes, scenes, events, and incidents. On this basis, characters may be described as episodic (semi-episodic) and persistent; the episodic being more accurately noted as initial, central (climactic), THE DRAMATIS PERSONS 95 final (catastrophic), etc. Even in the loosest types of plot there are nearly always one or more persistent characters. Aside from such unifying persons, in the episodic plot, in autobiographical fictions, and adventure and picaresque forms in general, the group at any stage of the action may be almost independent of the others. In all types of novel, well-marked episodic groups are common. Such groups are especially clear in intercalated narrative; a frequent structural form in most early romance, in Cervantes, Le Sage, Fielding, Smollett and their disciples. The narrator of these intercalations himself is sometimes an episodic character; in closer economy, persistent. In Robinson Crusoe, even Friday is only an episodic (central) char- acter. There are quite independent groups in Brazil, Madagascar, Asia, as well as on the island. In Silas Marner, the most important independent groups are found in the initial Lantern Yard episode, and in Chapters VI-VII. None of the characters in these two groups have an important appearance elsewhere, except Macey, a semi-persistent character, and the hero himself. Eppie is a central-final character. In Pride and Prejudice, Colonel Fitzwilliam is one of the few distinctly episodic persons of any importance. He partly determines the general complexion of the group at Hunsford. The initial, climactic, and catastrophic groups are obvi- ously of great value in the study of the plot, and they are frequently very clearly defined. They are rarely of exact identity, even in economic plots. In general tendency, climactic groups are psychological, concentrating the atten- tion on a relatively small number of individuals and their inner life ; catastrophic groups are often broader, gather- ing together all the principal characters of the plot, and leaving a general impression of social atmosphere. These tendencies are fairly well exemplified in Silas Marner and Pride and Prejudice. There are many exceptions; some notable tragic effects being gained by leaving the reader 96 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL in the presence of isolated individuality at the close of the plot. A somewhat artificial catastrophic ensemble of an old-fashioned type is found in the Sir Roger de Coverley papers. The introduction of new characters near the conclusion may often have a specific aesthetic effect. In the Shakespearian tragedy, this method gives a sense of relief, and suggests the continuous vigor of social life in the face of many indi- vidual calamities. In the last twenty-five pages of The Plague Year, Defoe introduces nine new individuals, but they are not important as individuals the populace of the city of London is the real catastrophic hero. 80. Foreground, Middleground, and Background Charac- ters. The terms "foreground," "middleground," and " background," borrowed from the spatial art of painting, apply to plot-literature only by way of a somewhat loose an- alogy. A foreground character is one that has relatively a great intensity, complexity, or variety of meaning, and as a result seems most immediately before the reader. There is perhaps no single technical test to determine the position of a character in the general perspective of values. All foreground characters are usually given considerable speech, in the novel; but in Pride and Prejudice, Miss Darcy, without recorded utterance, is far more important than " a young Lucas," or Mrs. Hill, who are incidentally quoted. In a sense, the catastrophe is the foreground of a novel, so far as a single reading is concerned. The con- clusion is the emphatic position, the one with the most warmth, immediacy, as the reader leaves the composition. According to the theory of Poe, the author's conception of a plot should originate with the catastrophe, which should then determine the whole perspective. In a painting, the human figures may be concentrated in any one of the three positions, the other two being occu- THE DRAMATIS PERSONS 97 pied by works of nature or of art. In certain types of so- called short stories, nature, or an abstract idea, or a lyrical mood, rather than a character, may in effect dominate the foreground. In the romance of action, it may be events rather than persons that come nearest to the reader. In the representative novel, the foreground is given to highly individualized characters, the background to groups or to individuals whose significance lies in their group relations. In the distinctively social novel, including some historical fictions, novels of manners, and novels of social psychology, the artist may devote even the foreground to the portrayal of groups. In The Plague Year, though written in a per- sistent first-person form, probably to most readers the mass of London inhabitants is more immediate, complex, and intense than the fictitious writer. In all plot-literature, the richness and stability of the illusion depend to a considerable extent on a gradual shad- ing in the value of the characters on a complex variety in the degrees of intimacy established between them and the reader. In our actual experience, of the extended scope which the novel imitates, there are persons of every grade of actuality, from the friend more real than self to the mere nominis umbra. In Silas Marner, the hero himself is clearly the chief foreground character ; Godfrey and Eppie being others, though the last is not even suggested until the climactic chapter. Mrs. Winthrop and Nancy are among the middleground figures, while in the remote background are the boys and girls of Raveloe, the factory hands of Lantern Yard, Jinny Gates, the pedler, and many other individuals. 81. Central Characters. A character or characters may be central mainly as a matter of plot-function, their service being to unify all the incidents of the action ; or central in a deeper psychological or sociological manner, their value 98 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL determining that of all other individuals and groups. Of course the two functions may be combined ; and in either, the degrees of centrality are various. Clear examples of a single central character are often found in auto- biographical fictions ; as in Robinson Crusoe, The Vicar of Wakefield, and David Copperfield. In Paul and Virginia, the first-person form serves mainly as an enveloping frame ; in The Plague Year the first- person narrator aids in unifying the rather diffuse incidents of the action, and gives greater force to the individuality of the other characters. The title often suggests a single central character with sufficient accuracy, as in The Man of Feeling, Tom Jones, Euge'nie Grandet; but in other cases, the "hero" in a traditional sense does not appear in the title r61e. In The Antiquary, while Oldenbuck is near the focus of interest, Lovell corresponds more nearly to the conventional hero. A central character may be so conceived and presented that his significance lies rather in typical than in individual qualities. Lermon- toff writes of his Contemporary Hero, ' My hero is the portrait of a generation, not of an individual.' This statement is almost equally true of some of the chief characters of Turgenieff. Two central characters may be given approximately the same degree of value by the method of contrast, as in Master and Man or Sense and Sensibility. In the love- story of novelistic or dramatic form, the hero and hero- ine are sometimes of equal value ; sometimes one or the other definitely predominates. In Jane Austen the heroine is always more central than the hero ; and this is clearly the case in As You Like It and Romeo and Juliet. In not a few notable fictions, as suggested in the pre- ceding section, a group rather than individuals as such, is in all but a technical sense, the real center of value. All in all, the lovers of I Promessi Sposi are less significant in the mind of author and reader than the masses of ecclesiastical, martial, and municipal figures. Bulwer Lytton's son says THE DRAMATIS PERSON/E 99 with much truth, the real hero of The Parisians is "the Parisian Society of Imperial and Democratic France." 82. Association of Characters. Except in autobiographi- cal fiction, the dramatis personae are rarely all acquainted with the chief central character ; still more rarely are they all mutually acquainted. In any case, the various degrees of intimacy are distinct enough to serve as bases for impor- tant groupings. Even prominent characters may be igno- rant of their mutual existence. Silas Marner must always remember William Dane and Dunstan Cass as the two individuals who have most grievously injured him, but these two men pass through life, each absolutely unknown to the other. In Pride and Prejudice there is in general a fine interweaving of char- acters, but there are several interesting exceptions. Miss Darcy, for ex- ample, meets none of the Bennets except Elizabeth ; nor in the course of the directly presented action does she meet Wickham, though their relations offer material for a very dramatic interview. In this respect the drama is characteristically more compact than the loose epic-like struc- ture of the novel. Hamlet is on the stage, alive, with all of the indi- vidually named characters except Reynaldo, Francisco, and Fortinbras. Rosalind, however, so far as recorded, never hears of the old servant who is so faithful to her lover. The grouping of the dramatis personae as to mutual acquaintance may be tabulated in various ways. In the following arrangement for the chief characters of Silas Marner, each person of any group is at least once pre- sented with each other person of that group. I II III IV V Silas Silas Silas Godfrey Godfrey Godfrey Eppie Eppie Eppie William Dane The Squire Mrs. Winthrop Dunstan Molly (living) Nancy Aaron Macey 100 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL One of the most objective, dramatic, and distinctly struo, tural groupings of the novel is the dialogic. Except in duos and trios exact repetition of any group is uncommon. As in real life, the omission or addition of a single character, even in groups of some size, may essentially change the form and substance of the conversation. Duos and trios predominate in The Last of the Mohicans. The following are four of the most important conversational groups. Heyward is present in all; the Indian element colors three of them. Chingachgook, Hawkeye, Heyward, Alice Munro (Chapter XIII) ; Chingachgook, Hawkeye, Heyward, Munro, Uncas (Chapter XVIII) ; David Gamut, Hawkeye, Heyward, Munro (Chapter XXII) ; Heyward, Magua, Cora Munro, Tamemund, Uncas (Chapter XXX). In Ivanhoe the dialogic groups are in general larger and at the same time more compact in their structure than in Cooper. Good examples are found in Chapter XXVII Ambrose, Athelstane, Bois-Guilbert, De Bracy, Front-de-Bceuf, Giles, Wamba ; and Chapter XXXIII Friar Tuck, Isaac, The Prior, Robin Hood, his " lieutenant," " one of the outlaws, 1 ' the band (in concerted speech) . Groups of great importance in the study of characteriza- tion and of subject-matter are based on personal influence. Many characters are decidedly either active or passive in the general perspective of the plot. According to Goethe's theory, the hero of a drama is primarily active, the hero of a novel primarily passive. In fiction as in life, great depth and great breadth of influence are rarely combined. The more profound character forces of any individual are limited to a comparatively small circle of dramatis personae, or become more shallow as they reach the outer circles. A character may exist, in fiction, mainly to influence other characters, directly or indirectly, as in the conventional plot- functions of the deus ex mac/iina and dramatic providence. William Dane has no life of his own, apart from his relation to Silas Marner, as the novelist presents him. A father or mother may exist, THE DRAMATIS PEl^GN/E IOI artistically, for the sake of influencing 'a/eni'd, (Sec Riemann's treat- ment of the motif 'of " Der Tod des Vaters " ; and compare the opening of Soil und Haben.) In Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth and Darcy are far more influen- tial than the other pair of lovers. In Silas Marner, so far as mutual influence is concerned, Macey, the Squire, Dunstan, and others are quite outside the compact circle composed of Silas, Godfrey, Nancy, Eppie, and Mrs. Winthrop. On the whole, Silas himself exemplifies quite clearly the theory of Goethe given above, Uj.iK*t Ki ro 83. Relation to the Author. Modern realistic theory has frequently insisted that the novelist should be abso- lutely impartial, objective, in reference to his characters ; but this is a doctrine very rarely represented in practise. A mind sufficiently interested in individuals to write a novel does not sincerely value all individuals alike ; and the pre- tence to impartiality often produces the impression of a general hostility rather than artistic objectivity. Brune- tiere l distinguishes the realism of French fiction, as repre- sented by Flaubert, with its scorn for the humble lives it portrays, from English realism, as represented by George Eliot, with its profoundly sympathetic attitude toward the same type of character. Even Jane Austen reveals clearly her personal preferences for certain characters of her crea- tion, and personal dislike for others. Smollett and other eighteenth century writers found in the novel an opportunity to display personal spite or per- sonal approval of real contemporaries, slightly disguised in the fiction. Newman personally sympathizes with the early Christian converts, in Callista. Literary, national, or racial prejudice often leaves a clear stamp on charac- terization, even in novels of a general realistic quality. The novelist may indicate that he opposes certain literary or 1 Roman Naturaliste, 1893, P- 2 3 102 "f'HE -STtJDY OF A NOVEL social conventions by : presenting characters in a spirit of burlesque or caricature. Examples of types so treated are some of the pastoral figures of Sidney's Arcadia, the knight of chivalry in Don Quixote, the prude in Joseph Andrews, the Euphuist in The Monastery. In Soil und Haben, the author shows German prejudice against the Pole and the Jew ; in Westward Ho!, Kingsley reveals English Protestant dislike for the Spanish Jesuit. The partial identification of the author with a character has been noticed in Section 58. Sometimes it is the prin- cipal character, as in The Vicar of Wakefield, David Cop- perfield, Pride and Prejudice ; sometimes a less central personality, as in Anna Karenina. A single character may embody not merely the general Weltanschauung of the author, but his more specific temporary problems or epi- sodes of experience ; as in Oroonoko, Werther, The Pirate, Corinne, Newman's Loss and Gain, War and Peace. A certain character may intermediate, as expositor or as one of kindred temperament or experience, between the author and the reader. In fictions of specially difficult illusion, particularly in the realm of the supernatural, a character is often found whose chief function is to " rationalize " the improbable. The management of such functions is one of the excellencies in Defoe's technic. Examples are also found in Peter Wilkins, Gulliver's Travels, Frankenstein, and Utopia. In much the same way, the intensity of tragedy may be mediated through a comparatively commonplace and unemotional character. Frequently, all the principal characters may be clearly grouped with reference to the main purpose or theme of the novel. 84. Reality and Ideality. As all artistic characterization is an imaginative process, all the characters of a novel are more or less ideal ; but the degrees of ideality may often be distinct enough to serve as a basis for important group- THE DRAMATIS PERSONA IO3 ings. "Real" characters, for the present purpose, are those that represent, essentially, specific individuals or groups from actual life, historical or contemporaneous. In the case of contemporary models the reader may not be able to discover the real situation from the internal evidence of the novel. In giving his own method, Scott states a gen- eral practise in modeling from real life : " I have always studied to generalize the portraits, so that they should still seem, on the whole, the productions of fancy, though pos- sessing some resemblance to real individuals." 1 Many novelists have vigorously affirmed that characters supposed by captious readers to be " copied " from existing indi- viduals, were either purely imaginary, or composites studied from several models. In historical fiction, in the narrow sense, the grouping of the dramatis personae into historical, semi-historical, (typically historical), and non-historical individuals is always possible and usually illuminative. The nature of historical romance, in one way, and the nature of historical real- ism, in another, determine that the majority of historical individuals elaborately presented should be persons of prominent external activity soldiers, statesmen, and reformers, rather than men of a predominant inner life. Purely imaginary individuals may be historical in type, or may be given an historical quality in the illusion by inti- mate association with well-known real characters. Raphael Hythloday, in Utopia, is a follower of Amerigo Vespucci : among the dramatis personse of Westward Ho ! are a com- panion of Pizarro and a grandson of De Soto. Indeterminate groups, except in general outline, must always be largely idealized, for history preserves no record of their individual members, or of their actions in minute detail. 1 Introduction of 1*27 to Chronicles of the Canfngate. 104 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Different types of historical fiction, with corresponding theories, depend on the distribution of historical, semi-his- torical, and non-historical characters as to foreground, middleground, and background. Compare, for example, the theories and practise of Scott, Vigny, Manzoni, Dumas, and Tolstoi. In Ivanhoe, the chief foreground figures are at most only typically historical; King John and King Richard, with the semi-legendary Robin Hood, may perhaps be considered as middleground characters. In Kenilworth, Leicester and Queen Elizabeth; in The Talisman, King Richard, approach the advanced foreground position. In Cinq- Mars, both the Cardinal and the young hero are among the most prom- inent persons. Among the historical characters of I Promessi Sposi are Cardinal Borromeo, Charles II, Richelieu, Philip II, and Wallenstein, but none of these are foreground figures, from a structural point of view. This romance, like many other historical fictions, presents a large num- ber of indeterminate, semi-historical groups in the middleground or background. In Quo Vadis, though Nero, Petronius, Saint Peter, and other historical individuals are prominent, the hero and heroine are both imaginary. 85. Individuals and Types. Every character, in fic- tion as elsewhere, may be primarily considered as an in- dividual, as representative of larger or smaller groups of human beings, or as an embodiment of an abstract idea. In some novels an initial grouping of dramatis personae on this basis may be of advantage. A deeper study of the matter belongs more properly under characterization. Any character dominated by a single quality, habit, or passion tends to become typical. Typification in the direction of caricature is fpund in many novels of a general realistic stamp. Even so sturdy a realist as Trollope introduces characters typically named for example, Mr. Popular Sentiment and Dr. Persistent Anti-Cant following the fashion especially prominent in the Jonsonian comedy of humors, and the eighteenth century English comedy of manners. Such characters, whether named in this manner or not, are notably frequent in Dickens, and in the grea"t humorists' and saftiristS generally.* THE DRAMATIS PERSON/E 10$ Allegorical and symbolical characters are appropriate in certain species of romance. They sometimes appear even in the heart of a realistic novel, but tend to weaken or destroy the unity of realistic illusion. The presence of Mignon, the religious teachers, and other allegorical figures in Wilhelm Meister makes it difficult for the average reader to accept the reality of the plot as a whole. The same confusion may result from a combination of realistic char- acters with caricatures, as in Sidney's Arcadia. In The Midsummer Night's Dream there is such intricate inter- weaving of realism, caricature, and symbolism, that the whole effect can be unified only in the realm of the fantastic. 86. Social Groups. Important in most novels, social grouping of the dramatis personse has a specialized value in many types of fiction the picaresque romance, the pastoral romance, the novel of manners, and the novel of social psychology, for example. The analysis is closely connected with the study of "human life," under subject- matter, but it also has its relations to aesthetic form. In many novels, the guiding principle in social grouping is artistic contrast ; in others there is more delicate shading from group to group. Sharp contrast is characteristic of romanticism ; an intricate interweaving, ceteris paribus, is more realistic. The canon of " epic totality " demands that every generic group of human society be represented. For an elaborate technical classification, one must go to the scientific sociologist; but a simple conception of the classes of society is a matter of general culture, and a necessity for any thorough study of plot-literature. Groups may be based upon sex, family relation, social rank, occu- pation, religion, etc. The novel which fully embodies the epic tradition includes characters of several races or nation- alities, with some conscious study of the qualities of these 106 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL massive groups. Balzac as, in some sense, a scientific student of social psychology, arranges the Comedie Hu- maine in such manner as to indicate clearly a rational analysis of society. His modern, secular classification offers an interesting contrast to the groupings of Dante's dramatis personae, made largely on the basis of medieval theology. The groups according to sex, like several others, might be considered as either sociological or psychological. In certain types of fiction, the number of individualized men naturally far exceeds that of women. This is true of historical romance, and of novels of action, especially of a martial quality. In novels in which love is a primary matter, and in the novel of manners, the relation may be inverted, or a numerical equality approached. Certain theories of the novel, those which emphasize its function in portraying modern social complexity, and in studying the inner life of the emotions, for instance, have a specific bearing on the matter. Again, the historical relations of men and women as novelists and as novel-readers, might be discussed in this connection. In Ivanhoe there are 47 speaking men ; 5 speaking women. (The concerted speeches also are mainly masculine.) In Silas Marner, the corresponding numbers are 20 and 8. Pride and Prejudice, with its ii speaking men and 15 speaking women, illustrates the feminine quality of Miss Austen's experience, her realistic fidelity to that experi- ence, and the tendency of the typical novel of manners. In many novels the family relations of the dramatis personae are intricate enough to demand special examination. This may be true of the family saga, or of historical romances, as it is of Shakespeare's English historical plays. Even in Silas Marner, Pride and Prejudice, Anna Kardnina, and other modern fictions of local societies, the reader is not likely to have a complete and clear conception of these relations without careful attention. In extensive studies of Family traits, as in the Rougon Macquart series, the matter is of deeper importance. THE DRAMATIS PERSONS IO? A good example of aesthetic social grouping is found in pastoral fiction. This generally contains well-marked groups of permanent, genuine pastoral characters, contrasted with groups of courtly aristo- crats, pastoral to some degree, for the nonce. Inhere may also be non- pastoral groups ; or a number of pastoral figures in burlesque, as in Sidney's Arcadia and As You Like It. 87. Psychological Groups. The critic may easily dis- cover in any novel fairly definite groups of dramatis personae based on salient common mental and moral qualities. A conscious elaboration of this analysis on the part of the author belongs mainly to modern fiction, and particularly to the "psychological novel" of the realistic and naturalistic schools. Such groups may be considered in their social aspects, or as psychological, in a more exact sense. In some naturalistic works, in which the psychology rests on physiology, the real interest is biological rather than social, in the ordinary meaning of the word. Characters may be grouped according to age, tempera- ment, normal or abnormal condition, types of mentality, etc. Senior gave some very interesting and illuminative discussion of this matter. His classification into 'simple, mixed, and inconsistent ' characters, 1 is worthy of careful study. Another method of analysis might distinguish sensational, emotional, intellectual, moral, and religious natures. Further technical classification may be adapted from sociological or psychological treatises. Professor Giddings (Inductive Sociology) gives as " types of dis- position," " aggressive, instigative, domineering, creative " ; as " types of character," " forceful, convivial, austere, rationally conscientious " ; "types of mind," "ideo-motor, ideo-emotional, dogmatic-emotional, critical-intellectual." While this nomenclature has been ridiculed by the layman, it is not without practical suggestive value in the close analysis of the psychological novel. 1 Essays on Fiction, p. 358 ff. IOS THE STUDY OF A NOVEL A most important distinction, in respect to novelistic form as well as subject-matter, is that between static and develop- ing characters. One very significant theory makes the novel preeminently a study of the development of individual character. This idea might serve as a basis for a valuable grouping of all the dramatis personae. In most novels there are many persons who undergo no essential change of nature in the course of the action. Characters of very pronounced mental or moral abnormality are usually treated as individuals rather than in groups; but the latter method is not unknown in novels of social psychology. Superstition, fanaticism, the delirium of panic, mob-spirit, the fever of battle, the selfishness or death-like lassitude of populations stricken by pestilence or famine, these are among the most intense forms of social conscious- ness the novelist is called upon to portray. In the domain of individual psychology, Scott made an original study of " double-consciousness " (his own term) in Norna, of The Pirate ; giving medical authority for his conception, long before Zola applied the doctrines of Claude Bernard to the novel. 1 1 See The Experimental Novel CHAPTER VI CHARACTERIZATION 88. Character and Characterization. In a careful an- alysis, one may distinguish the character itself, the reader's conception of it, the author's conception, and his presen- tation. In a broad sense, the last three items belong to characterization ; but in strictly technical meaning, the term applies only to the presentation. Unless they represent actual persons, the characters of a novel exist, as individuals, only in the minds of author and reader; though in a figurative sense we call a char- acter " real " when it produces a distinct illusion of reality. Human beings are fashioned by nature, society, their own wills, and, according to orthodox thought, the supernatural : the characters of fiction are fashioned by the artistic imagi- nation. Association with some fictitious beings may cause a more vital experience than association with some real persons ; but a sane mind will not confuse the two forms of experience. Such common statements as that of Ruskin, "To my father ... the characters of Shake- spearian comedy were all familiar personal friends," 1 have great interest, but we recognize their figurative quality at once. The question whether fictitious individuals really exist as types may be suggestive for aesthetics, but seems to belong more properly to metaphysics. Even if the novelist reproduces the appearance, speech, 1 Praeterita : Macugnaga. 109 1 10 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL or action of historical individuals in accurate detail, the total effect is imaginary, because of the large fictitious element in the environment. Some novelists have affirmed that a character once intensely conceived by the imagina- tion, seems to assume a volitional life of its own. This fact is important in the study of the aesthetic and psycho- logical aspects of the creative process, but it does not alter the scientific truth that the novelist is really the sole creator of his character. The novelist cannot evade the responsi- bility implied in Lanier's question : " What the artist doeth, The Lord knoweth ; Knoweth the artist not ? " l 89. Novelistic Characterization. Characterization is a process common to ordinary experience, several arts, biog- raphy, history, the lyric, and all forms of plot-literature. It has a fairly distinct mode for the novel, in a peculiar combination of points, if not in any one point. No other literary type shows, as a matter of history, a presentation of character in such " Detaildarstcllung"* of environment, physical and social. Yet, in contrast with the stage drama, the novel can at will describe the inner elements of character without any accompanying physical imagery. In no other form of art are the relations of direct and indirect characterization so intricate. The combination of intensive and extensive study of individual character is most striking in the novel. Psycho- logical analysis, in a strict sense, is more elaborate than in any other type of art. In the lyric, it may possibly be as intense and direct, but it cannot be as prolonged. The 1 Individuality. 2 Baumgart : Handbuch der Poetik. CHARACTERIZATION 1 1 1 gradual development of character, according to many; critics, is the special function of the novel. These characteristics are partially explained by the great length of the novel, its facile interweaving of dramatic and non-dramatic form, and its use of prose. Other characteristics may be readily noted. In sculpture and painting there is the medium of a visible image of character ; in the stage drama, the medium of a visible and audible real person. In all forms of literature these sensuous values can only be suggested. 90. Character Unfolding. The scheme given in Section 77 will indicate the first, intermediate, and final appear- ances of important characters, and the general environ- ment of each appearance. The main method of unfolding may be in mass or in solution ; usually there is a distinct combination of both methods. Tendency to mass the chief characterization at the principal turning-points of the plot may be designated as initial, climactic, and catastrophic unfolding. The prevailing method of modern realism is probably cumulative a discovery of character by the gradually increasing momentum of items often trivial enough if taken separately. The first and last appearances have a certain inevitable emphasis. Some conventional methods of introducing characters are apparently modeled after the drama and epic. Initial soliloquy in the drama combines the physi- ognomy, pantomime, and speech. This formula is impos- sible in the novel, and the substitution of an initial physical description followed by speech often seems artificial and ineffective. A preliminary introduction may be given in the title, preface, or prologue. Abrupt introduction often produces the effect of romantic, even sensational, surprise, as to some degree in George Eliot's first mention of Eppie. 112 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Riemann l has made a very interesting analysis of Goethe's methods of introducing characters. A study of the last appearance the "dismissal" may naturally be connected with the general study of catas- trophe (Section 52). Some characters slip out of the nar- rative so quietly one is scarcely aware of their absence. In general, in the modern novel, important characters are given a definite dismissal, though it may not be quite so formal as in early fiction. The hero and heroine are fre- quently last mentioned as still alive, and perhaps their future is sketched. The novelist often seems as reluctant to leave his favorite characters as the political orator is to close his argument. 91. Appellation. The names and other designations of a character may be realistic or romantic ; individualizing, or typical of nationality, historical period, occupation, tem- perament, etc. Occasionally usually with romantic con- notation an important character is designated as "the unknown" or "the unnamed." Minor characters are often indicated only by type, after the models of the herald of Greek drama, or the clown, servant, citizen of Shakespearian drama. The title of a novel frequently gives a suggestive appellation for the chief character, as in the Man of Feeling, Last of the Barons, the Wan- dering Jew. In early types of romance there may be repeated epithetical formulas, similar to those in epic poetry. Different aspects of the same character may be indicated by different designation. In Jack Wilton, the hero is variously known as "my young lad," " wise young Wilton," " King of the Drunkards," " King of the Pages," etc. A radical change of name, especially in romance, may denote pronounced change in the external or inner history of a 1 Goethes Romantechnik : Die Einfiihrung der Personen. CHARACTERIZATION 1 1 3 character. The career of Amadis of Gaul is so marked in part : in Euphues, the conversion of a character is emphasized by changing his name from Atheos to Theophilus. When these different names are distributed between the author and the dramatis personae, they may have considerable importance in dra- matic characterization. To George Eliot, her hero is generally " Silas " or "poor Silas," even when he is imagined as much older than herself; among the dramatis personre, he is "dad," "old Marner," "the miser," etc. The heroine of Pride and Prejudice is almost invariably " Eliza- beth " to her creator ; but to the other characters she is known as Eli/a, Lizzie, Miss Bennet, Miss Elizabeth Bennet, and so on. 92. Physiognomy. The physical appearance may have a pictorial interest for its own sake, or it may be of great service in revealing the mental and moral nature. It is almost entirely through bodily phenomena that we become acquainted with character in real life, and the novelist often makes detailed and effective application of this truth. The physiognomy of an individual combines a nearly constant element, including stature, moulding of the fea- tures, color of eyes and hair, etc., with an element always changing according to physical and mental condition. Both elements are frequently given close attention in the novel ; the latter is of particular value in all genuine study of the dynamic relations of soul and body. It is comparatively easy to image and remember striking individual details of physiognomy, or general types of figure and face ; the middle ground is much less impres- sive. It is difficult for the average mind to retain a dis- tinct image, even of an intimate friend, for any considerable period, without the aid of actual presence or photographic suggestion. Again, the effect of a given bodily appearance depends much on the state of the observer himself. Strong moral idealism may dwell so intently on beauty of character that 114 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL the physical defects which happen to accompany it disap- pear from consciousness. In Pippa Passes, the shoulders of Ottima are at one time fascinatingly beautiful to Sebald ; at another, terribly repulsive. In this sense, the Spense- rian conception that " soul is form and doth the body make " may be a truth of real experience. The spatial point of view also greatly modifies the impression of physical appearance. The first close observation of a face long familiar at a greater distance, is a revelation. Complexion, in particular, has a marvelous increase or decrease of value as the point of view changes. In the novel, these and similar "kinetic" aspects of physiognomy affect the author, the reader, and the dramatis personae. They may suggest the great difficulty, and hint at some of the better methods in artistic description of physical personality. In general, it seems better to leave much to the imagination and habit of observation in the reader. A fully itemized description is, in fact, usually one of the least success- ful methods of reaching realistic result. Defoe (in Colonel Jacque) thus defends a brief conventional summary : " It is a subject too surfeiting to entertain people with the beauty of a person they will never see." The novel rarely portrays the unclothed human body. This may be a serious limitation, so far as pictorial interest is concerned, but the loss to higher characterization seems trifling. The conventional nude portraits of the Elizabethan sonneteers and Herrick add little to our sense of mental and moral individuality. (Cf. Laokoon, V.) 93. Costume and Physical Environment. When one sees a friend for the first time in academic or ecclesiastical garb or in military uniform, the effect on one's general conception of the character is often surprisingly strong. Costume has its special values in the novel of manners, the romance of chivalry, historical romance, and other types of fiction. Disdainful criticism of Scott's attention to costume has perhaps underrated the significance of dress in historical and social characterization. But Scott is by no means the CHARACTERIZATION 1 1 5 first to note its value. For familiar reasons, description of costume is very common in Elizabethan literature. In Jack Wilton there are several passages of striking and concrete description, in various connotation, like the following : " I had my feather in my cap as big as a flag in the foretop; my French doublet . . . my long stock ... my rapier pendant . . . my cape cloak of black cloth," etc. Defoe perhaps paid little attention to dress in general, but the island costume of Robinson Crusoe is given in significant detail. Change of costume sometimes indicates important change of situation or character, though Thoreau's suggestion that new garments should always mean moral renovation is not strictly observed. A familiar detail is the donning of masculine garments by a woman romantic in Lodge's Rosalind; realistic in Defoe's Moll Flanders and Mrs. Chris- tian Davies. The photographer and portrait painter recognize the value of physical background in characterization. Such background has an increased value when selected or fash- ioned by the character himself. This and other vital rela- tions of the dramatis personae and the material environment are noticed in Sections 72 and 74. Certain traditional relations are found in some special types of fiction. Pastoral figures appear against a background of typical landscape ; the heroine of the novel of manners is painted as the queen of the ballroom or the promenade ; the conventional European appears in a new light sur- rounded by pygmies, giants, or other semi-human figures, in the voyage tmagmaire ; the knight of the romance of chivalry is the shining center of the tournament. Of special importance in dramatic characterization is the relation of the single figure to the group. The imaging of Silas Marner among the village boors at the Rainbow, and among the village aristocrats at the Red House, adds greatly to the impression of his character. The fact that he never appears in any considerable group except in Il6 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL physical as well as mental contrast to his fellows, until the end of the story, symbolizes his moral isolation and is due to the author's instinctive genius or conscious art. 94. Pantomime. Human beings express their individu- ality as well as typical qualities by weeping, laughter, swoon, blush, gesture, and pose. It is a matter of common note that these means of expression often have a more ele- mental and universal value than speech itself. In many situations absence of customary pantomime is also a reve- lation of character. In artificial society, gesture as well as speech may be used to conceal the real attitude of the spirit. Criticism 1 points out that Sterne was one of the first novelists to give extensive and specialized treatment of pantomime; but it had its definite if subordinate place before the great schools of the eighteenth century. Nash gives us such concrete touches as these, in Jack Wilton : " One pecked like a crane with his forefinger at every half syllable he brought forth, and nodded with his nose like an old singing man. . . . Another would be sure to wipe his mouth with his handkercher at the end of every full point. And ever when he thought he had cast a figure so curiously, as he dived over head and ears into his auditors' admiration, he would take occasion to stroke up his hair, and twine up his mus- tachios twice or thrice over, while they might have leisure to applaud him." The " sentimental school " of the late eighteenth century was fond of sighs, tears, swoonings, and the attitudes of languorous and mysterious melancholy. Professor Mor- ley enumerates the weepings in the Man of Feeling. 2 The pages of the famous Clarissa and the representative 1 Jusserand, Roman Anglais, p. 64; Masson, p. 153; etc. See the ex- tended study of " Physiognomik und Mimik " in Kiemann. 2 Introduction to Cassell's National Library edition. CHARACTERIZATION I r 7 Juliet Grenville (by Brooke) offer quite as rich opportunity for such statistics. Pantomime has a particular human value in the novel of manners ; in modern naturalism, it inclines to the opposite tendency of animalism. 95. Utterance. Careful analysis of the speech of a char- acter might note general habits of loquacity or silence, carelessness or accuracy ; the quality and intonation of the voice ; vocabulary and syntax, etc. In the novel, the modulation of the voice can be only slightly indicated by direct means, and the indirect often seem ineffective or unreal. (Compare Sections 22-24.) This is especially true of the singing voice. No refinement of literary de- scription can rival the histrionic art in interpreting the tragic pathos of the songs of Ophelia and Desdemona. It is interesting to speculate just what imagery of sound and just what interpretation of character underlie Jane Austen's frequent state- ment that Elizabeth Bennet "cried" her words. Detailed attention to enunciation, in the service of romantic sentimentalism, is found in some of the short stories of Hendrik Conscience. He repeatedly uses such descriptive terms as " unintelligible," " almost inaudible," " mur- mured," " whispered," " scarcely articulate," etc. In several cases he follows the development of the voice from a very low utterance to loud- ness in a single speech. In vocabulary and syntax, the limitation of the character by the author himself is often very noticeable. Unreality or falseness is liable to appear in attempts at highly specialized technical, professional, or historical language. Extended and coherent speeches by characters suffering from great pain or great weakness are often improbable to the imagination, even if they are scientifically possible. The speech of children is an interesting detail. William and Anne in Browning's Strafford are curiously mature in vocabulary and syntax. Contrast the extended and lifelike talk of Tom and Maggie Tulliver. Il8 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL The children in Sense and Sensibility are " full of monkey tricks," and express themselves by screams, sobs, pinches, and kicks instead of words. (See Chapter XXI.) Propriety, in an untechnical sense, frequently forbids a complete record of the imagined utterance of a character. Profanity and vulgarity have been defended on the princi- ple of dramatic " decorum " since the days of Chaucer, at least ; but the novelist has often hesitated to carry out his theoretical right. The expression of very intense passion, secular or religious, is often perceptibly toned down. Sid- ney records the beautiful prayer of Pamela, and Richard- son displays the most personal and profound religious emotion of Clarissa ; but such frank exhibition of the sacred privacy of passion, though still common, is not in complete accord with the cultural taste of our own time. 96. Physiological Psychology. In few novels, even of recent date, is the human soul considered as merely the temporary result of chemical and physical forces. Modern materialism, in its complete formula, has not yet proved attractive or feasible for many literary artists. Average criticism of the day rebukes both the tendency of the naturalist to reduce all psychic experiences to physiologi- cal terms; and the tendency of the pure psychologist to study the soul as though it were independent of the body. Physiological psychology, broadly interpreted, is not a new element in the novel. The physical and mental characteristics of sexual love are causally related in Daphnis and Chloe and other Greek romances, as they are in corresponding Elizabethan descriptions. In Jack Wilton there are some vigorous strokes to indicate the physical effects of a long-continued spirit of revenge : " My tongue with vain threats is swolen, and waxen too big for my mouth. My eyes have broken their strings with staring and looking ghastly, as I stood devising how to frame or set my countenance when I met thee," etc. CHARACTERIZATION 1 19 A fundamental conception of the sentimental school, in its analysis of "sensibility," was the rapid response of the body to the easily agitated soul. Many of the heroes as well as heroines of the period might have said, with a character of Karamzin, " I am a mere mortal, the slave of sensibil- ity ; " or quoted sympathetically this longer exposition from Brooke's Juliet Grenville: " O madam, what kind of a frame is this frame of our mortality ? We die with pain ; we die with pleasure ; we can bear nothing in excess. We turn away from things indifferent . . . and yet, when our sensations rise to a certain pitch, the degree becomes quite insufferable, whatever its nature may be. Imagination, like an executioner of the pitiless In- quisition, keeps his rack ever in readiness ; he stretches us thereon at pleasure, and strains the cords, and we lie panting and expiring beneath the tension." In the same novel, the heroine is one day discovered, at the age of five, with her doll undressed : u The moment that we en- tered, you started, as greatly alarmed ; and your face, neck, and bosom were instantly covered with scarlet, in your dread that the men should see the nakedness of your baby." When such heroines arrive at matur- ity, they prefer drowning to a rescue which demands disrobing. Recent naturalism has often become biological or even " animalistic " in its view of the relations of body and soul. It has analyzed the physiological elements of all kinds of sensation, the muscular and nervous aspects of thirst, starvation, mutilation, and the death agony. It has elabo- rated the physiological psychology of " love," degeneracy, religious frenzy, insanity, and many other forms of abnor- mal consciousness., It has described with gusto, also, the merely animal joy of robust, " red-blooded " vitality. Nat- uralism of this type is characteristic of Zola, d'Annunzio, the Goncourt brothers, Dostoyevsky ; in somewhat less degree of Tolstoi, Bjornson, in his later work, and Hardy. It has relatively little place in American fiction. 120 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL In George Eliot there are many touches of this kind, but she is never primarily a physiologist. The physical effects of grief are shown in Adam Bede, and the approaching motherhood of Hetty Sorrel is described partly in the spirit of physiological psychology, but with the emphasis clearly on the moral experience. In Silas Marner, the cata- lepsy of the hero is rather obscurely treated, on its physical side ; and the love relations of Eppie and Aaron, Godfrey and Nancy, Godfrey and Molly even, are given a very slight basis in the flesh. 97. Pure Psychology. The types of character given in Section 87 may suggest deeper study of the individual soul. The consciousness of a character may be considered under such forms as imagination, memory, observation, generaliza- tion, sensation, emotion, volition, etc. Its subject, so to speak, may be the individual himself, sex, age, occupation, nationality, race ; or the wider conceptions suggested by such phrases as "cosmic emotion" and Weltschmerz. The consciousness of nationality is very strong in the characters of Westward Ho ! and Soil und Haben ; it is hardly recognizable in the villagers of Silas Marner. Balzac analyzes the specialized conscious- ness of the Parisian in many characters. If by religious consciousness one means the sense of the existence of God, it is distinct in Dolly Winthrop, dim and uncertain in Silas Marner ; practically latent in Elizabeth Bennet, and not even suggested in Queen Esther. In the direct portrayal of self-consciousness proper, the novel departs widely from life. In actual experience, one can acquire only a vague and fragmentary acquaintance with the inner life of any other being. The novelist may of course transfer his own experience to his character, with such modification as imagination permits ; or he may content himself with the typical. Inference, analogy, generalization, dramatic power, and human sympathy may vastly enlarge his insight into individuality ; but no author CHARACTERIZATION 1 2 1 can solve the mystery of the individual. In the case of historical characters, the novelist may to some extent utilize their own records of experience; but these are imperfect and liable to misinterpretation. He is scien- tific, in a true sense, only when he presents the typical. The novelist may explore the region of the " sub-con- scious " ; or the mysteries of child, animal, and supernat- ural consciousness ; but these belong, for the most part, to the odds and ends of characterization. In describing the mental life of supernatural beings, anthropomorphism is inevitable. One may perhaps conceive other forms of thought and feeling than the human, in the abstract ; but if the attempt is made to embody them in the concrete, they tend to be transformed into the familiar shapes of our present " type of consciousness." In general, the novel has been occupied with the more intense experiences of the soul ; though realism has given attention to the more ordinary mental history of domestic, professional, and political life. Abnormal psychology may be approached with the romantic craving for the strange and mysterious; or in an ethical spirit, as in Hawthorne ; or in a somewhat scientific spirit, interested in the light thrown on more universal experience, as to some degree in Poe and Balzac. The tendency of such characterization is toward physiological psychology, for obvious reasons. 98. Identity, Individuality, and Type. The Bertillon and similar methods of identifying criminals emphasize the unique form of every human body. The early novelists made frequent use of such distinguishing details as birth- marks, scars, moles, etc. In fictitious literature, confused physical identity sometimes due to bodily resemblance, as in the Comedy of Errors ; more commonly to disguise by costume may be a rich source of comic or tragic 122 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL effect. Confused moral identity is capable of large ethical and psychological value, as in the Induction to the Taming of the Shrew. Double consciousness has been mentioned in Section 87. Compare Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Poe's William Wilson, Aldrich's Queen of Sheba, etc. Triple consciousness, studied at some length in James' Principles of Psychology, has received little or no attention in the novel as yet. In physical and moral history each individual is easily identified, if the details are noted. No two individuals can occupy the same place at the same time ; nor do they ever have the same sequence of emotions or thoughts. Every character in all fiction is perfectly distinct from every other, though the distinction may not always merit study. Moral individuality, in any important artistic sense, is of course a much deeper matter. Its problem, stated philo- sophically, but in a form applicable to the art of the novel- ist, is given thus in Royce's Conception of Immortality : " Individuality is something that we demand of our world, but that, in this present realm of experience, we never find. It is the object of our purposes, but not now of our attainment ; of our intentions, but not of their present fulfilment ; of our will, but not of our sense nor yet of our abstract thought ; of our rational appreciation, but not of our de- scription ; of our love, but not of our verbal confession. We pursue it with the instruments of a thought and of an art that can define only types, and of a form of experience that can show us only instances and generalities. The unique eludes us, yet we remain faithful to the ideal of it, and in spite of sense and of our merely abstract thinking, it be- comes for us the most real thing in the actual world, although for us it is the elusive goal of an infinite quest/ 1 Many of the methods of characterization noted in the preceding sections may be used either for individualizing or typifying. Certain social and psychological types will CHARACTERIZATION 1 23 be suggested by the previous grouping of the dramatis personae. Excellent examples of fairly pure types are found in the " characters " of Overbury and La Bruyere. Recent study of the development of fiction has given some attention to their influence on the novel. Burlesque often throws light on character types. In this and other forms of imitation or conscious contrast, acquaintance with the original conceptions is essential. Don Quixote must be compared with the knights in serious romance of chivalry ; Joseph Andrews with Pamela ; Jacopo Ortis with Werther; Marianne Dashwood with such heroines as the one noted in Section 96. Occasionally serious and burlesque treatment of the same type occur in a single composition ; for example, the pastoral type in As You Like It, and Sidney's Arcadia. A character at first quite original for fiction often tends to pass rapidly into conven- tional type, like the fierce hero of Jane Eyre, or the sceptical sufferer in Robert Elsmere. Specific knowledge of history is of course necessary to understand fully many of the character types in fiction. It is impossible to interpret Turgenieff and other modern Russian novelists rightly without some acquaintance with Russian social movements. Carlyle's Chartism may be of value in the study of Kingsley's Yeast and Alton Locke. Single characters often represent quite distinctly several minor and major types. Silas Marner is a type of the English weavers of his period ; of all human beings morally exiled by the treachery of their fellows ; of all souls experi- encing a tragic separation between their present and their past. The general value of allegorical and symbolical charac- ters was suggested in Section 85. The allegorical interest may be very vague, as in Robinson Crusoe ; more definite, as in Wilhelm Meister; or approaching " isomorphic " value, as in Pilgrim's Progress. Double allegory, after 124 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL the fashion of the Faery Queen, seems quite rare in prose fiction. 99. Character Change. Lotze's clear and simple state- ment that " the slow shaping of character is the problem of the novel," l suggests a vast field of historical, technical, and theoretical interest. Character change, in some form, is found in nearly all extended fictions, but in early works it is often too rapid, or too crude in motivation to be a genuine study of the " problem." The sudden transforma- tions in the characters of Romeo, Proteus, Bertram, and Ferdinand are due in part, no doubt, to the limitations of the drama ; but the novel prior to Richardson offers many analogous examples. There is some study of gradual devel- opment of character, however, in Euphues, Rosalind, and Jack Wilton. That Defoe takes no low rank in this respect is proved by reference to Colonel Jacque and Moll Flanders, as well as Robinson Crusoe. Character development may be conceived as mainly an unfolding of original tendency, often with distinct emphasis upon heredity ; or as the result of natural or social envi- ronment, the influence of the supernatural, or the will of the character himself. The last process is given the general term " characterization " by Giddings, 2 and its prin- cipal methods are designated as " persistence, accommo- dation, self-denial, and self-control." The development of a character is generally greatly modified not only by reac- tion upon the traditions, habits, and will of social groups, but by relations to other individuals. The influence of individual upon individual can be more extensively and more intensively studied in the novel than in any other form of art ; and more concretely than in sociology. 1 Outlines of /Esthetics ; translated by Ladd. 2 Inductive Sociology. CHARACTERIZATION 1 25 Character development may follow many lines that of general culture, as in Wilhelm Meister and the educational novel; of emotional power; of artistic genius; of public influence, theological belief, etc. The study which appeals most strongly to many novelists is that of moral develop- ment, upward or downward. Bunyan's Mr. Badman gives, in the limited space of a short novel, a very original por- trayal of downward movement. Defoe studied both dete- rioration and improvement. It has often been noted that novelists seem to prefer the development of the bad rather than the good as a subject for careful analysis. It is not difficult to give some reasons for this, based on the nature of art ; and perhaps some based on ethical and psychologi- cal interests. For one thing, progress downward more often shows a symmetrical movement than progress upward. 100. Direct and Indirect Characterization. The most direct manner in which a character appears before the reader is in his speech, actions, and thoughts. His physi- cal presence can be suggested only by the author's descrip- tion, or the effect on other dramatis personae. Soliloquy, in the set form found in early fiction, is now practically obsolete ; but in modified form it is often perfectly natural to the character, and it serves a unique and valuable func- tion in characterization. Self-characterization, whether in soliloquy or elsewhere, is in a sense less direct than uncon- scious revelation of character. The analyses and opinions of the author introduce a third party between the character and the reader, though with very various degrees of intrusion. " Dramatic objec- tivity " may be violated even in the description of physiog- nomy. The novelist's approval, hostility, or apology in reference to moral qualities are more important offences against that critical canon. 126 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL In John Brent, the author, Theodore Winthrop, gives two paragraphs to his heroine's nose, expressing the opinion that the other facial fea- tures are "only tributary to the nose, standing royally in the midst, and with dignity presiding over its wayward realm." He is an anarchist, however, in respect to a certain type of nasal sovereign : " Positive aquiline noses should be cut off. They are ugly ; they are immoral ; they are sensual." George Eliot is quite a sinner in the matter of apology, and seems to fear that the reader may identify author with characters. In Adam Bede, for example, she reminds us that Adam "had the blood of the peasant," and gives a satirical analysis of Hetty's character for the " philosophical reader." On this matter in general compare Sections 58 and 83. In a strictly dramatic novel, the most important indirect characterization is by means of the dramatis personae. Theoretically complete survey of any character would include the opinions or unconscious attitude of friend and foe, child and adult, animal and God. In practise, com- pleteness yields to artistic selection, but each point of view has its own peculiar value. A man often has a new con- ception of his own character in the presence of children or animals not always pleasing to self-conceit. In real life, the supposed opinion of God is often an important element in self-characterization, and in a man's judgment of his fellows. Except in a limited way, the novelist usually gives this opinion only as it appears in the minds of the dramatis personae. The fact that any characterization of B by A may clearly reveal the nature of A as well as B is often utilized with much dramatic effect in the novel. The children of Jane Austen are introduced largely to indicate the character of adults; those of George Eliot frequently have a more independent value, but Eppie, as a child, exists mainly to enrich the characterization of Silas and Godfrey, and focus it. CHARACTERIZATION 127 101. General Methods. Some methods of characteriza- tion are based on literary conventions; others on the inherent nature of character study. Such formulas as "indescribable," "not to be analyzed," "a paradox," etc., may be the sincere expression of genius ; or may result from incapacity or slovenly talent. The character cast mainly into the mould of a " dominant passion," largely an eighteenth century conception, but imitated in such studies as Pere Goriot and Quasimodo, is frequently of literary rather than vital quality. Vague or light impression of character may be quite legitimate in romance aiming to liberate rather than discipline the reader's imagination, or to place the aesthetic emphasis upon plot. In real life, a satisfactory view of individual character is usually a combination of analysis and synthesis. Speaking of over-analysis in artistic characterization, Veron 1 says : " We want a mental stimulus, not a treatise on anatomy." Right relations between analysis and synthesis can be attained only by dramatic power, psychological instinct, and human sympathy. " Hedging," " foil," climax, contrast, and similar methods are effective and based on reality, though often used with much artificiality. Contrast in particular, whether studied in the individual or in a wider area, is an almost indispen- sable resource ; but when realistic, is rarely complete or carried out into antithetical detail. The economic treat- ment is suggested by Royce : 2 "The consciousness of likeness and of difference help each other; and theiefore in a measure it is true that the more we get of one of them, before our knowledge, the more we get of the other. So they decline altogether to be known separately." 1 Esthetics. 2 Conception of Immortality, 128 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL The principle of inference is of wide application, and one constantly employed in the finer effects of characteri- zation. In the relations of soul and body, it is comparatively immaterial to the novelist whether one trembles because he is afraid, according to the old psychology, or is afraid because he trembles, according to Professor James' hypothesis. In either case the traditional inferences from the physical phenomena are correct for practical purposes of character study. Many important differences between the presentation of character in the novel and in real life are apparent. In the novel the entire history of a character unfolds before us in a few hours. Our later intimacy may extend over many years, and our conception may undergo great trans- formation, but the character itself presents no new data. In real life association with human beings involves our influence upon them. The characters of a novel have influenced real persons in countless ways, one famous example is found in the suicides that followed Werther, but there is no possible influence in the opposite direction. In the novel, again, every character is interpreted in rela- tion to a certain fixed number of persons, events, places, times, emotions, and ideas, and no others; that is, it appears in a plot a type of unity which has no exact model in life itself. These and similar facts have important effects on the problem of characterization in the novel. Among other results is possibly that of a necessary exaggeration, if the character is to appear in a perspective resembling that of our experience. 102. Group Characterization. In the group, there is always a possible interest in the group itself, and in the individuals composing it. In some ways these two in- CHARACTERIZATION 129 terests are antagonistic ; in some ways complementary. Without some distinction of individuals, a group which we can neither actually see nor hear, tends to become a mere abstraction. Partial individualization, not obscuring the group, is found in the Shakespearian formula, " first citi- zen," etc. Concerted speech, mentioned in Section 19, is an artificial method of unifying the mental and moral characteristics of the group. Considered as a unit, a group may be characterized in many respects like an individual ; but it tends to become typical, it rarely appears more than a few times with ab- solute identity, and it does not often embody any elaborate study of mental or moral development. CHAPTER VII SUBJECT-MATTER 103. Subject-Matter and Form. In the entire novel, and in its separate passages, the main interest of the author or the critic may be concentrated upon either of these elements, or it may be concerned with their intimate, complex relations. In every type of literature, all the subject-matter is given linguistic form. ' In the novel, if a subject is considered for its service to the plot, its relation to the illusion, one is concerned with novelistic form ; when the emphasis is laid on thought for its own sake, one studies thematic values which are essentially the same in all forms of art. The ideal relation, for most critics, is found only when a significant subject is "bodied forth" in an appropriate and significant form. The subject landscape, when introduced simply as a background for incident, has primarily a formal value ; when made a topic of conversa- tion by the characters, its value may be partly formal, partly thematic ; when discussed for its own sake, in the author's comment, the value may be almost purely thematic. In the novel of pure dramatic structure, every subject is, in the first instance, formal subordinate to the char- acters and the situation. In the short story and the romance, the interest in form is often more complete and continuous than in the novel. The terms " tale " and " story " suggest the predominance of form ; the terms " study, 11 " pur- pose-novel, 11 etc., imply a larger attention to subject-matter for its own sake. Allegory and symbolism, at their best, attain a rich harmony of the two interests. Examine the relations of subject and form in semi- novelistic works, such as the philosophical dialogue of Plato and his imitators, the " letter-essay, 11 Toxophilus, The Complete Angler, etc. 130 SUBJECT-MATTER 1 3 1 104. Extensive and Intensive Subject. The novelist, to some extent, must choose between the consideration of a large variety of subjects, and the detailed study of a more limited field. He may choose gladly, instinctively, or with a sense of artistic renunciation. He may attempt to combine an extensive survey in general with an intensive treatment of specific subjects ; but a novel is not often of equal value as a "large diffused picture" of life (Smollett) and as a profound study of a concentrated theme. This distinction may be kept in mind throughout the present chapter. 105. The Typical and the Individual. Typification is an important method of enlarging the scope of a novel without losing the force of an intensive treatment. Any " section of life " may be interpreted in such manner as to bring out the values of an historical period, of the general organization of society, or of human experience as a whole ; as a robin may be studied as representative of the thrushes, of all bird-life, or of the vertebrates. This typical quality may be clearly expressed by the novelist, or it may be merely suggested to the reader. It may be found in all the elements of the novel in setting, conversation, motiva- tion, as well as in incident and character. 1 06. Exhibition and Interpretation. The selection of certain data rather than others, the proportion of emphasis upon those chosen, and the moulding of them into the unity of a plot, give a real interpretation of life in every novel. Beyond this inevitable " criticism of life " the novelist may be as silent as possible, or he may consider his direct interpretation as equally important with the pic- ture itself. The various " isms " of the schools may be compared from this point of view. A frank statement of impressionism, as offering an array of human phenomena without any attempt to explain their real meaning, 132 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL is quoted from Thomas Hardy, on page 303. The chief value of the philosophical novel is in its effort to give some unified explanation of all the material it brings together. Note the opinions of Masson and Scherer quoted in Section 119, and Lotze's definition of art, in Section 208. 107. The Subject of the Novel. Probably few critics would oppose the idea that the principal subject of every true novel is humanity, in one or more of its infinite aspects ; and this in a sense which really distinguishes the novel from most if not all other forms of art. All art is an expression of the humanity of the artist himself, but the novelist always, in large measure, discovers his humanity by observation of the life of other men. The question, just what aspect of this vast subject is the true field of the novel, cannot be so easily answered. Two theories which can be clearly distinguished consider, re- spectively, the life of society and the life of the individual to be the essential theme of the novel. These two views are not necessarily antagonistic, and in every great novel there is matter enough on both themes to repay separate study. The following outline of analysis must be treated flexibly, and adapted to the needs of a concrete study. For more systematic analy- sis of specific phases of subject-matter, reference must be made to the underlying sciences of sociology, psychology, history, and ethics. 1 08. Sociology and History. The novel does not con- sider humanity in the abstract, as a scientific Genus Homo, or a dramatic Everyman ; but as it appears in some limited social and historical relations. The sociological interest concerns those forms of social organization and life that are comparatively permanent ; the historical interest takes account of the conditions belonging to a particular period and locality. 1 Both of these interests are important in 1 See Giddings, p. 8. SUBJECT-MATTER 133 every representative novel, but now one predominates, now the other. It might be said that the artistic imagination inclines toward the transitory phases of human experience, toward the contrasts and shadings which history continu- ally affords ; and that the scientific mind finds a deeper sat- isfaction in examining the permanent elements in social life. In the Comddie Humaine, the inclusive scheme is historical the primary aim being to picture the French society of a limited epoch ; but there is a very rich exhibition of general social relations. In Anna Kardnina, the sociological study seems more significant than the purely historical ; while in the novels of Turgenieff, the temporary conditions of Russian life are brought more decidedly into the foreground, ficott's interest is often historical in the main ; While George Eliot is always deeply interested in the permanent aspects of society, even when she studies historical variations in some detail. 109. Social Composition. The importance of social composition in the novel is partly indicated by the list of types given in the appendix. In the representative social novel there is much interpretation as well as exhibition of the organization of social groups. While comprehensive- ness requires some attention to all the chief types of social groups, many of the characteristics of man as a " socius " may be studied in any one group ; the family, for in- stance, may be viewed as a kind of social microcosm. Many of the great European novels, however, are interna- tional in scope of subject. The Family. The root idea of the family may be found in the relations of man and wife, or of parents and children. A comprehensive survey of family organization is found in Anna Kardnina. This novel exhibits the relation of master and servants, husband and wife, man and mistress, sister and brother, parents and children, etc. Its principal limitation, in this theme, is that most of the family life shown is in the aristocratic circles of society. 134 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Other novels with important exhibition or interpretation of the family group are Utopia, Amelia, The Vicar of Wakefield, Pride and Prejudice, and The Mill on the Floss. The Community. Aside from the common types of rural village and city quarter, the novel may picture the social groups of the prison, hospital, barracks, camp, factory, business house, etc. Compare the studies of a great business house its esprit de corps, discipline, ranking of members, etc. in Soil und Haben and Dombey and Son. Contrast the romantic view of a cathedral community in Notre Dame de Paris with the realistic view in Barchester Towers. Hospital life appears in La Debacle, under military conditions, in time of war ; and in I Promessi Sposi, under municipal conditions, in time of pestilence. Social Caste. The very term caste denotes a group that is defined by its relations to other groups. In the processes by which a class emerges from the general social composition, or is reabsorbed in it, in the comedy or tragedy of class rivalry, and in the movements of an individual from class to class, the novel of manners, and the novel of social psychology find a rich field. Fielding warns the novelist that " a true knowledge of the world is gained only by conversation, and the manners of every rank must be seen in order to be known." (Tom Jones, XIV, I.) He finds that many English writers fail in describing the upper classes, because of ignorance of the subject a criticism frequently made of Dickens. In recent realism, a similar failure is often apparent in the picture of the lower classes. To one who is an actual member of a given trade or profession, familiar in daily life with its labor, traditions, language, and ideals, the descriptions of it in the novel often seem curiously unreal. Nationality and Race. The unity of a national group may be considered in its physical, linguistic, industrial, or religious aspects, as well as in the purely political. A comprehensive view of any great nation must include some SUBJECT-MATTER 1 3 5 picture of different races. One of the largest social sub- jects in the novel is the composition of empire, whether conceived in a semi-scientific spirit, or exhibited as a moral unity, its elements fused together, perhaps in a period of special stress, by " The prayer of many a race and creed, and clime. 1 ' Note the types of fiction listed in the appendix, for examples of dif- ferent treatment of this subject. Among series of novels in which nationality is an important theme, are the Waverley Novels, the Come'die Humaine, and Gald6s' Episodios Nacionales the ' epic of modern Spain. 1 Cycle of Civilization. Common interests in religion, commerce, diplomacy, science, or general cultural con- ditions, may fashion a considerable number of separate political units into a larger whole, full of dramatic interest and problematic quality. In all such extensive groups there are discordant elements, and abundant material for artistic contrast and shading. In modern European civilization, Russia and Turkey are not com- pletely assimilated to the dominant tone of society ; and the entrance of the Orient into the sisterhood of western nations offers an inter- esting spectacle. The gypsy, the Jew, the negro, and the Indian have given picturesque material to many novels. no. Social Life. The relation of the mere organiza- tion of society to its rich variety of mental and moral life, might be compared with the relation of artistic structure to style, or the relation of anatomy to the personality of the body. Domestic Life. A study of this subject may include the ideals of privacy and hospitality, the emotional har- mony of the family, the attachment to home for its own sake, etc. Interpretation often takes the form of a con- trast of the domestic ideal with the ideal of other types 136 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL of social life, as in The Cloister and The Hearth, and ~ Middleman: h ; or with the ideal of individual life, as in Pilgrim's Progress. In both Silas Marner and Robinson Crusoe there is a detailed picture of domestic life without marriage. Industrial Life. Agricultural labor has been a subject in the novel from the beginning, though the early treat- ment was usually idealized in a high degree. The differ- ence between the rural industry in Daphnis and Chloe and in La Terre is conspicuous, whether viewed from the social or the artistic point of view. Early romance gives a picture of life in which labor in general has a very subordinate place. Modern realism has explored the world of humble labor, has sympathized with its weariness and suffering, and not rarely has found in it the most essential elements of human experience. Deloney's Jack of Newbury may be mentioned as an Elizabethan fiction which gives both an extensive and an intensive study of a special industrial class the weavers of England. In the eighteenth century there was a sturdy revolt against the artificiality of pastoral imagination, and an increasing sense of the value of real labor as an artistic subject. It is interesting to note, in the field of epic poetry, that the hero of Thomson's Castle of Indolence is no romantic representative of chivalry, but a modern Knight of Arts and Industry. Political Life. Satire on contemporary political con- ditions, and plans for an ideal political life, are common in the fiction of the Renaissance. In the main, the novelist has been a liberal in politics, in both his dream and his practical attitude. Recent realism has given attention to the routine of political life, to its corruption, its relations to religion, and to general society. Often the descriptions of the novelist are based on considerable personal experience. SUBJECT-MATTER 1 37 The romanticists were allied with the political reforms of their time, and Victor Hugo's famous statement is a representative one: "Le romantisme, tant de fois mal ddfini, n ? est. . . . que le libe'ralisme en lit- tdrature. ... La libertd dans Part, la libertd dans la socie'te', voila le double but auquel doivent tendre d'un meme pas tous les esprits con- sdquents et logiques." (Preface to Hernani, 1830.) Hugo himself, and several Russian novelists of the last century, suffered some form of polit- ical punishment for the expression of a liberal political creed. Religious Life. This subject may be considered from an ecclesiastical, historical, ethical, or artistic point of view. In its deeper aspects, it is often associated with the individual rather than with social groups. The novelist has usually been a champion of human nature, of a secular ideal, as contrasted with any narrow type of religious ideal. (Compare Section 132.) Since the Renaissance, the novelist has had constantly before him the spectacle of a divided Christendom, a sub- divided protestantism, an academic or aesthetic classical paganism, and, environing all, the superstition or irreligion of untutored human nature, whether in the Indian or the diplomat. In the last century, the development of a new type of scientific agnosticism, and the conscious separation of the ethical element in religion from its historical and supernatural associations, have offered comparatively new themes to the novel. Hawthorne's interest in Puritanism is ethical rather than purely religious. Mrs. RadclifiVs Italian, and The Castle of Otranto, represent the artistic introduction of Catholic life, characteristic of the romantic movement. In Rob Roy, it is the historical and dramatic interest that mainly appeals to Scott. Compare the attitude toward Catholic faith in Manzoni, Newman, and Fogazzaro. The struggle of medieval religion with the modern secular spirit, in a country where the former is particu- larly strong, is studied in La Espuma, Dona Perfecta, Pepita Jimdnez, and La Fe\ 138 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Cultural Life in General. The novel gives one a more extensive picture of social culture than any other form of art. Its medium of expression, language, and its chief structural form, dialogue, must always suggest some special type of cultural life. Art, travel, and education are among the social phenomena which distinguish one state of culture from another. Each of these subjects is a major theme in one or another kind of fiction. The interpreta- tion of culture by the novelist often has a touch of irony, for the imagination sees manners in their relative values, in which there is always a suggestion of comedy. in. Historical Period. Every novel is historical, in so far as it pictures the life characteristic of a particular period. In a narrower sense, a novel is historical when the author lays conscious stress upon such life, even if it belongs to his own time. Spielhagen defines the historical novel in a third and more common sense, as one portraying a time "auf welche dieses Licht [der Erinnerung der jetzigen Generation] nicht mehr vollkraftig fallt." 1 A given period may be selected for genuine historical purposes, or for the sake of its ethical, sociological, or artistic value. If it is chosen simply as an artistic back- ground, the novel cannot be considered truly historical. In Gothic romance, the middle ages are often selected because of their picturesque quality and their remoteness from the prose of contemporary life. The first centuries of the Christian church made a definite religious appeal to Newman ; in Ebers' Homo Sum, their interest is partly historical, partly artistic. Even in the true historical novel, the material is not all equally characteristic of the period. Some of the details are usually fully historical ; others are typically historical ; 1 Technik des Romans; Das Gebiet des Romans. SUBJECT-MATTER 1 39 and others are not characteristic of any special period, or are even out of keeping with the particular period in ques- tion. The main historical value may be found in the char- acters, incidents, settings, language; or in the dominant mental and moral tone. Thackeray's eighteenth century novels are wonderful successes in this last respect. The exact period is not always easily stated, for a small section of history may be viewed as representative of a much larger area. Of about 1500 novels mentioned in Baker's Guide, the historical distribu- tion is as follows : Ante-Christian period ... 40 1500 to 1600 185 A.D., i to 700 85 1600 to 1700 315 700 to 1400 130 1700 to 1800 420 1400 to 1500 80 1800 to 1850 235 The distribution of Scott's historical survey as given in the Library Edition of the Waverley Novels, may be summarized as follows : 1000 to 1400 5 1600 to 1700 8 1400 to 1500 3 1700 to 1750 7 1500 to 1600 4 1750 to 1800 8 112. Historical Interpretation. The reader's sense of the particular nature of a period may be gained through an extensive array of characteristic details, by an intensive study of striking features, or by some general formula. To over-emphasize the peculiarities of an epoch, however, is to destroy a true historical quality ; for underneath all the transformations of society lie a common human nature, and practically uniform types of social organization. The author's interpretation will depend on the degree to which historical imagination has been developed in his generation, as well as on his personal power to re-create the past. It will vary according to the nearness and the familiarity of the historical field he selects. The backward 140 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL glance of George Eliot at the catastrophe of Silas Marner covered only some thirty years; but for the present-day reader, nearly a half century more intervenes, and George Eliot herself is an historical figure. An interesting pamphlet might be made of the views of history by different novelists. Discussion of the relation of history to fiction is almost as old as fiction itself. Several of Scott's ideas have already been noticed. Vigny's preface to Cinq-Mars is an important contribu- tion. Mdrimee wrote, in the preface to the Chronique du Regne de Charles IX, " I don't care for anything in history except anecdotes." (Gilbert.) Dumas declared that Lamartine had " elevated history almost to the dignity of the novel." (Ibid.) See also the quotations from Hugo and Brunetiere, in the history of novelistic criticism, in the appendix. 113. Individuality. In one aspect, the life of the indi- vidual is a series of external phenomena, which the novelist may observe as he observes the manners of society. Some of the phases of that external life are sex, age, health and disease, social success and failure, repose and activity, isolation and companionship. In the matter of age, the novel has laid stress upon the central portions of life. Infancy and early childhood have received more attention in recent educational psychol- ogy than in the novel ; and old age has rarely been a major subject in extended fiction. Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy gives this tribute to the study of adolescence in the novel : " The storm and stress periods of Goethe and John Stuart Mill, of Tolstoi and Marie Bashkirtseff, no less than the masterly delineations of George Eliot's Gwendolen Harleth and Maggie Tulliver, form a valuable and suggestive contribution to the psychology of adolescence." (Article on Adolescence.) The maturing of the individual is not a new subject of the last century. It is forcibly presented in Daphnis and Chloe, and in Paul and Virginia, in connec- tion with first love. SUBJECT-MATTER 141 In the inner life of the individual the novel finds a field particularly adapted to its own powers. Lyric poetry may be a strong rival in some respects, but in elaborate and varied study of the development and experiences of moral individuality, the novel has no successful competitor, unless it be such poetry as Browning's Inn Album, Red Cotton Night-Cap Country, Sordello, etc., which is itself novelistic. Browning's formula in the dedication of Sordello, "my stress lay on the incidents in the development of a soul : little else is worth study," does not cover the entire scope of the novel, but it is applicable to very many of the great- est novels. Brunetiere says that " the novel is nothing if not psychological." The inner life may be viewed as simple or complex, as a chaos or a cosmos, as temporary or eternal, as a revelation or an unintelligible mystery, as having value in itself or only in its relations to society. Elements in its composition are memory, sensation, emotion, thought, and volition ; among its episodes are those of special activity and of languor, of the domination of single passions, of faith and doubt, of self-reliance and humble submission. Some lives, especially in the short story, are interpreted through some single moral experience. This is the conception of many love-stories ; but modern realism often considers experi- ence as a continuous " stream of consciousness," in which no quiet pool or wild cataract can be viewed as final. The episodes of mental and moral life may be less easily examined than those of the outer history. In inter- pretation of other individuals the novelist is liable to the " psychologist's fallacy " of transferring his own experience to his character. A clear image of the physical person- ality and its activities helps to overcome this tendency. 142 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL The life of the sensations is exhibited with marked emphasis in Frankenstein, in a semi-scientific spirit. The word sensation itself occurs some thirty times ; and the experiences of hunger, thirst, bodily fatigue and pain, and consciousness of organic disturbance, are all impressed upon the reader. The conception that the emotional life is the true field of the novel has not disappeared, but it is no longer held with the old dogmatism ; and the emotion of love, in par- ticular, is now viewed as only one of many aspects of spiritual history the novelist is free to study. Compare the quotations from Novalis and Madame de Stael, in the history of novelistic criticism, in the appendix. In Silas Marner, love, as a sexual passion, is less important than other phases of love and other emotions. In many recent novels, the emotional struggle between faith and doubt is a central theme. There are notable studies of this subject in Anna Kardnina, Children of the Soil, and ValdeY La Fd. Memory often has a large place in romantic psychology, especially in the sentimental school. The reflective side of life is best exhibited in the philosophical novel, as in Rasselas and Wilhelm Meister. 114. The Individual and Society. The relation of these two forces may be interpreted as a natural harmony, an unceasing conflict, or a necessary compromise. Not a few novelists have been strong advocates for the rights of the individual, not only against social conventions, but even against moral law, as society has conceived it. The moral isolation of the individual who rebels against the social will is a frequent tragic theme, and the comedy of petty resist- ance to social demand has been largely exhibited in fiction. The moral isolation of all deep individual life, even when it craves sympathy from its fellows, is a less common theme. The lovers in a novel usually arrive at a fairly complete understanding, as compared with those described in Browning's Two in The Campagna : SUBJECT-MATTER 143 "Just when I seemed about to learn ! Where is the thread now ? Off again I The old trick ! Only I discern Infinite passion, and the pain Of finite hearts that yearn." The profound religious solitude of Levin, in Anna Kardnina, in refer- ence to his wife, recalls the autobiographical confessions of the author. Such a theme belongs mainly to nineteenth century fiction, but The Princess of Cleves describes the emotional isolation of a husband and wife, who are in complete mutual confidence and respect. In Robinson Crusoe, it is interesting to note the large measure of social quality in the mental life of the hero during his long period of physical solitude. Yet in its way, this novel is a real and deep study of the " solitude of the soul." 115. Human Nature. Humanity in its totality never appears as a subject in art, unless in symbolical treatment, which is alien to the spirit of the novel. Through the imagery of limited social and historical conditions, all the great novels exhibit and interpret the enduring elements of human nature. In the first chapter of Tom Jones, Field- ing tells the reader that the sole dish of the feast is to be Human Nature ; but he adds that there is little danger that an author will " be able to exhaust so extensive a subject." Comprehensiveness requires that the good and the bad, the dignified and the trivial, the pleasant and the repulsive qualities of our common nature be exhibited ; but usually there is some central conception which serves as a guide in interpretation. In most cases, such a conception is ethical rather than purely artistic or scientific. Man may be viewed as inherently bad, or warped from his natural goodness by the force of unkind circumstances. Many novelists delight to show human nature throwing off the disguises under which society has endeavored to hide it. 144 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL \J Often such broad qualities as restlessness, lack of self- knowledge, or ironical divergence between ideal and practise, are dominant notes in the conception. 116. Nature in Man. By nature, in this connection, is meant a combination of qualities found in man, but asso- ciated with his animal life, rather than with his humanity proper, or with his supposed divinity. Nature, so inter- preted, may appear in heredity, instinct, health or disease, buoyancy or depression of spirits, and in the lower passions. It may be exhibited in the individual or in social groups. It is not identical with ferocity, for there is an animal repose, temporary gentleness, which is often in striking contrast to the restlessness of the intellectual life, and the agonies of the saint's aspiration. The interpretation of man as a child of nature may be optimistic or pessimistic. Nature may be viewed as a force to be gladly accepted, as the normal guide of life, or as the arch-enemy of the rational and the religious ideal. From Daphnis and Chloe to Pepita Jimenez, natural instinct has often been approved by the novelist, as more authoritative than any prin- ciple of self-denial. Since the Renaissance, the naturalism of Greek culture, or even the uncultivated naturalism of the savage, has often been considered more attractive than any form of asceticism. Within the church itself, such conceptions as that of " muscular Christianity * have offered a protest against the medieval praise of bodily morti- fication. Goethe's Wahlverwandtschaften is one of the famous novels in which naturalistic philosophy is applied to the passion of love. On the other hand, in George Eliot, a principal cause of moral mistake and crime is the weak indulgence of natural instinct. Pater's Marius the Epicurean is a notable exposition of the refined animalism of ancient philosophy. 117. External Nature. Some exhibition of natural environment is essential to the illusion of an expanded novel, for there is no representative individual or social SUBJECT-MATTER 145 group whose life history is not partially determined by such environment The human body itself is an object in nature, and to a large extent the human mind is occupied in observing, utilizing, and interpreting natural phenomena. Language is constantly referring the reader, directly or indirectly, to external nature. In relation to man's moral life, nature may be considered as helpful, hostile, or ironically indifferent. In one of Matthew Arnold's sonnets, the idea of a moral companion- ship with nature is treated with scorn : " Man must begin, know this, where Nature ends ; Nature and man can never be fast friends. Fool, if thou canst not pass her, rest her slave." To the novelist, as to the lyric poet, and to the essayist Emerson, nature has often appeared as something illusive, unresponsive, hindering rather than helping man's search for reality and truth. Important specific subjects in the novel are climate, animal life, and landscape. The early forms of romance had their own types of land- scape, in the main artificial and without basis in careful observation. Artificial also, to a large degree, was the eighteenth century interest in landscape gardening ; represented in the Spectator, though this journal gave some foretaste of the romantic return to nature. The Gothic and the sentimental schools developed new phases of the subject. In Sense and Sensibility, Marianne says " admiration of landscape scenery is become a mere jargon," and Edward adds, "I like a fine prospect, but not on picturesque principles. I do not like crooked, twisted, blasted trees. I admire them much more if they are tall, straight, and flourish- ing," etc. (Chapter XVIII). This is presumably the sentiment of the author. Mrs. Radcliffe was one of the early novelists to develop a treat- ment of landscape in detail ; and since Scott prose fiction has elaborated every phase of the subject, often beyond the point of plot-economy. 118. The Supernatural. In the novel, the supernatural may be introduced in the structural values of character, 146 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL background, motivation, or subject of conversation. It is never a main theme in the realistic novel. The lighter phases of mythology may be viewed as quite remote from the serious consideration of theology. Fairies, demons, ghosts, are usually treated in a fanciful rather than deeply imaginative manner, in late fiction. The Supreme Being, whether conceived as a personal God, or as fate, force, or chance, cannot be considered by a true artistic spirit, except in a reverent manner. The life of man after death is a conception of deep human interest, at least in so far as it affects the activities and the thought of this life, and is therefore not alien to the spirit of the novel. The European novelist ought not to complain of lack of variety in this subject of the supernatural. He is familiar with the mythology of classical antiquity ; he finds ample treatment of Gothic mythology in art ; he inherits the ideas of Christian supernaturalism, and he may easily explore the kindred ideas of uncivilized races. Classical and Gothic mythology have appeared in prose fiction in both a serious and a fanciful treatment, as they did in Shakespeare. The modern novel has rarely if ever reembodied the primitive Germanic religious ideas with the majesty or dramatic power of the Wagnerian opera. A curious tribute to the occasional practical atheism of the novel is quoted from a Comtist, in reference to The Princess of Cleves, in an introduction to that fiction by Anatole France. The treatment of the supernatural is often entirely dramatic, the views belonging to the dramatis personae and not to the author; the virtual subject being therefore man. In Silas Marner, the theology of the characters is essentially different, even in terms, from that of the novelist. It is only the characters who refer to the Supreme Being as God, or Providence ; to George Eliot, the SUBJECT-MATTER 147 idea is better expressed by such phrases as The Invisible, The Unseen Love, etc. For a discussion of the theology of modern English novelists, see the volume by S. Law Wilson. 119. General Philosophy. The interpretation in a novel may give a philosophy of separate subjects of society, his- tory, nature, etc. or it may give a more general view of the meaning underlying all these aspects of experience. Such interpretation may be the real purpose of a novel, or it may be incidental, perhaps unconscious. It may be in solution, completely embodied in the warp and woof of the illusion, or appear as outside exposition, in occasional com- ment or in extended generalization. Consistency may per- haps be expected from the author, but disagreement among the dramatis personae may be a sign of true dramatic power in the writer. Masson writes : " In short, the measure of the value of any fiction, ultimately and on the whole, is the worth of the speculation, the philosophy, on which it rests, and which has entered into the conception of it.' 7 (Page 33.) This may seem to be a characteristic English emphasis ; but it is in harmony with the view of at least one great French critic. Edmond Scherer says that " philosophy is the real final desideratum in a novel." In practical analysis, the philosophy of a novel may be examined by a comparison of all the stated or implied minor generalizations ; or by finding the largest generalizations and following them out into details. EXAMPLES AND STUDIES In Voltaire 1 s Candide, compare the presentation of pessimism by persiflage and by serious argument; by concrete example and by .speculative idea ; negatively and positively. Compare the philosophy in general with that of Rasselas. 148 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL In Wilhelm Meister, unify into a general philosophy the interpretations of art, travel, culture, education, love, and religion. Sense and Sensibility. The philosophy is mainly social. It is found in solution, no single paragraph being entirely given to generalization. Compare and unify the following views, and relate them to similar utter- ances in the other works of the author : " Unlike people in general, she proportioned [her words] to the number of her ideas " ; " an apparent composure of mind, which in being the result ... of serious reflection, must eventually lead her to contentment and cheerfulness " ; " almost all labored under one or other of these disqualifications for being agree- able want of sense, either natural or improved want of elegance want of spirits or want of temper ; " " Lucy does not want sense, and that is the foundation on which everything good may be built." In Robinson Crusoe, there is considerable social and religious philos- ophy, in solution, in the first two parts. Note the interpretation of middle-class social position, of Providence, reason, industry, religious toleration, etc. Compare this with the more expanded and direct exposition of the third part. In Ivanhoe, the philosophy is mainly historical. Compare the gen- eralizations in the first five paragraphs ; in the first paragraphs of Chap- ter VII ; in Chapter XIV, on the character of King John ; in Chapter XXIII, on the manners and morals of the period. In Silas Marner, the ethical and psychological facts of life are looked at in a large way. The longest direct generalization is on religious trust. Note also paragraphs in Chapters I, II, III, IX, and XVII. N / 120. The Main Theme. Some rhetoricians have said that the central theme was more obscure in narration than in any other type of literary structure. It is often difficult to give it a clear statement in the novel^ because it is so thoroughly wrought into the general fiber of the action and characterization. It is frequently obscure in romance, but generally more clear in the short story. Sometimes it is found in a motto, preface, moral, or epilogue. The main theme may be more closely identified with the plot or with the characters, with a single character or a group. It is likely to be apparent at the principal turning-points of the SUBJECT-MATTER 149 plot, especially at the climax and catastrophe. In some works of art, the central idea is virtually technical in spirit, but in the novel it is usually on a broader basis, being ethical, social, historical, or psychological in spirit. It may be identical with the original germ, or define itself as the process of composition proceeds. A theme, like a plot, may be stated in various degrees of abstraction ; and it is usually helpful to consider it in direct relation to the individual work, and in comparison with other works in which it is of similar value. In Robinson Crusoe, the main theme may perhaps be stated as the conquest of the individual over circumstances, through the power of reason, patience, and reliance on Providence. In Soil und Haben, the theme, stated concretely, is the moral excel- lence of the German commercial character ; more abstractly, the moral excellence of German national character ; still more abstractly (perhaps beyond the conscious purpose of the author), the superiority of sane, well-regulated life over the life of passion and capricious emotion. In Wilhelm Meister, the education and self-culture of the individual, through social experience and reflection, is one conception of the main theme. In Romola, the contrast between self-indulgence and self- renunciation, as moral habits, is at least a very important theme. CHAPTER VIII STYLE 121. General Conception. For present purposes, three of the numerous shades in the meaning of style may be noted : (1) The whole causal relation of the qualities in an artistic structure to the mind of the artist the objective- subjective bond. It is clear that in this sense every work of art has style. (2) Adequacy of expression. This is substantially the idea in Spencer's principle of " economy," and is one com- mon conception of a " good style." It does not necessarily imply beauty or rarity of expression, for the mind expressed may lack these qualities. In this sense, style is of high excellence in Boccaccio, Cervantes, Rabelais, Defoe, and Jane Austen ; less successful in Scott, Balzac, Tolstoi, and Zola. It is often unattained in George Meredith, because he fails to convey his ideas to the average reader, or to distinguish the language of his characters from his own, as he apparently attempts to do. (3) Conscious adaptation of means to purpose. This conscious control of the medium of expression may be highly intellectual, critical, associated with the labor limes, or more spontaneous. It is most naturally and most severely tested in details, as commonly implied in the phrase, "a great stylist." In this sense, Goethe, Manzoni, Hugo, Flaubert, and Stevenson are eminent stylists. 150 STYLE 151 122. Objective and Subjective Aspects. The fully objec- tive aspects of style appear directly in the external struc- ture, and are readily distinguished from the author's intention and the reader's interpretation. The differences between vowel melody and consonantal friction, the interrogative and the imperative sentence, or iambic and anapestic rhythm, are external, and may be examined without reference to their shade of meaning. (Compare the structural details noticed in Sections 8, 9, 19, 23-24, 2,^ passim in Chapter I.) Only when this meaning is considered, does one pass into the study of style, properly speaking. The frequency of such words as " fortune," " good-breeding," " gen- tleman, 1 ' " manners," etc., in Jane Austen, suggests elegance as a quality of her own mind. Defoe's itemized lists of articles, and his numerical division of expository passages indicate concreteness in his observation and thought. The elaborate divisions of the Come'die Humaine paragraph, set dramatic speech, all kinds of document, part and book are evidences of complexity in Balzac's own nature. (See the footnote, page 24.) But language is the most subjective of all artistic medi- ums, except possibly musical sound, and it is convenient to give a wider meaning to objectivity. Whatever values are determined by a general social consent, as distinguished from the individual interpretation of writer or reader, may be considered as at least semi-objective. In the sentence, " She's a very pretty, nice girl, isn't she, Nancy?" the simplicity is fully objective clearly marked in vocabulary and syntax ; the degree of pathos depends on the reader's power of memory and imaginative association, with reference to the whole plot. In the sentence, " All I say is, it's a lovely carkiss," the humor in the mispro- nounced word and the unusual phrase appeals to the majority of readers, as it did to the author. (Examples from Silas Marner, Chapters XX and VI.) 123. Qualities of Style. The above analysis suggests that the qualities most clearly stylistic are such as have both objective and subjective significance. Ductility can 152 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL be predicated only of matter, timidity, only of the mind ; complexity and concreteness may appear both in the mate- rial structure and in the mental attitude. This distinction is blurred by the common application to the mind, in a figurative sense, of qualities such as weight, color, and smoothness, which refer in a literal sense only to matter. The analysis here in question is a practical one, without attention to psychological subtlety. For ordinary purposes, any quality of mind may be called stylistic when it is revealed by the objective structure. Introspection is dis- covered in George Eliot by such words as " memory," " consciousness," " self-questioning," and " rumination " ; though language itself, viewed as audible sound, is not introspective. 124. Types of Style. A fairly determinate combination of qualities, characteristic of a certain source, kind, or medium of expression, may be called a type. Types may be based on forms of art e.g. architectural, literary; on kinds of literature e.g. novelistic, epic; on rhetorical form e.g. descriptive, narrative ; on schools or periods in artistic history e.g. pseudo-classical ; on nationality, race, or individuality. Style is the immediate expression of an individual mind, but the individual is always modified by the thought and feeling of social groups, and is representative of human nature in general. Some critics incline to limit the study of style to the first of these values, but the wider view appeals to those interested in the social meaning of art. Some types of style having particular association, in various degrees, with the history of fiction, are the Euphuistic, picaresque, Rabelaisian, heroic, and naturalistic. Such broad types as the last, and the senti- mental, pastoral, romantic, and realistic, may be studied with sole reference to the novel, but they are really general aesthetic types, and are often more profitably examined as such. 125. Value of Style in the Novel. Style in the first sense given in Section 121 is worth careful study in any STYLE 153 great or widely representative novel; in the other and narrower meanings, style is a very variable value in fic- tion. On the whole, the novel has not been characterized by such adequacy or conscious control in the details of expression, as the drama, epic, or short story. The length of the novel and its amorphous nature are somewhat antagonistic to perfect, sustained correspondence of lan- guage with delicate shades of thought and feeling. Such intensive ideals of style, aesthetic or psychological, as those of Poe or Professor Raleigh, 1 require the short story rather than the novel for satisfactory embodiment. The frequent mention of the laborious apprenticeship of Maupassant and the strenuous efforts of Stevenson, possibly indicates the rarity of such stylistic conscience in the field of fiction. The value of style varies greatly in different national literatures, as well as in individuals. In the main, French and Italian fiction are of more eminent excellence, in this respect, than English or German. The numerous inconsistences in Cervantes, Rabelais, and Scott are well-known. If Robinson Crusoe was really intended to be allegorical, Defoe has not clearly impressed this idea upon the reader of the first and second parts. Balzac, Flaubert, and Zola do not adequately carry out in practise their ideals of realism. In longer works, a frequent cause of imperfect style is radical change of plan or extended interval during the course of composition. Com- pare Don Quixote, Gil Bias, Joseph Andrews, Waverley, and Wilhelm Meister. Spielhagen traces the tangled structure of Middlemarch largely to the change of conception after the novel was begun, and emphasizes the necessity and difficulty of keeping a single point of view throughout a work. 2 Among novels in which style is of exceptional importance are Atala, .Taras Bulba, La Peau de Chagrin, II Trionfo della Morte. Perhaps d' Annunzio is the greatest living stylist in the domain of the novel. 1 See his monograph on Style. * Technik des Romans ; Der Held im Roman. 154 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL 126. The Novelistic Type. The novel has always had aesthetic enemies who have denied it any distinctive style ; and its friends have not always offered a spirited defense. For something like a century, however, serious criticism has given the novel its own peculiar and respectable place among literary types. According to Lanson, it became a grand genre 1 in the early part of the last century. The novel is sometimes considered as essentially de- scriptive, sometimes as mainly narrative, and again as a characteristic combination of descriptive and narrative styles. Some of the best German and French critics approach it as a species of the generic " epic " type. Artand calls Ivanhoe " la veritable e'pope'e du moyen age," 2 and an anonymous romanticist adds that "since Homer, the epic has been given only three new forms, one by Dante, one by Ariosto, one by Scott." 8 Compare Spielhagen : " Der historische und der moderne Romane sind die beiden Erben des alten Epos ; " 4 other passages in the same work, and in German aesthetics and poetics generally. Many critics have defined the novel by comparison and contrast with the drama ; and others note the frequent inclusion of the lyrical spirit. (See the glossary, under "lyrical.") In a liberal interpretation of style, Clarissa might be analyzed as an example of the dramatic type ; I Promessi Sposi, of the descriptive ; Robinson Crusoe, of the narrative ; and Atala, of the lyrical. 127. Novelistic Qualities. Each important kind of novel has some fairly determinate qualities of its own ; as for example, elegance in the heroic romance, simplesse in pastoral romance, weirdness in Gothic romance, and democracy in the picaresque novel. 1 See the glossary. 2 Maigron, p. 150. 8 Ibid., p. 152. 4 Technik des Romans; Finder oder Erfinder. STYLE 155 In the following sections, no attention can be paid to these distinc- tions, or to the fascinating study of style in the individual novel. The aim is to examine such qualities as are historically found in the novel as a generic type, or are emphasized in important theories of the novel. The analysis may perhaps be suggestive of further study and more satisfactory statement of results. 128. Comprehensiveness. According to Spielhagen, "ist der epische Stoff unendlich," 1 and the novelist should give the reader the " moglichst vollkommene Ueber- sicht der Breite und Weite des Menschenlebens. " 2 Breadth of view is to be found in the plot, characters, settings, and generalizations. The Shakespearian drama is in some respects not so all-inclusive as many of the great novels of Europe. Balzac includes almost every variety of document in the Come'die Humaine ; Shakespeare is in the main limited to the epistolary form. The dramatist gives a very restricted view of Christian thought, of democratic ideals, and of the daily life of the common people. In the last point, compare Fielding, or any picaresque novel ; in the matter of religion, compare Wilhelm Meister, Robinson Crusoe, ValdeV La Fd, Quo Vadis, or Callista. The opposite quality of concentration is characteristic of the lyric, and, to a great extent, of the short story. One might turn to the latter as Wordsworth turned to the sonnet, weary of the " weight of too much liberty ; " but the amorphous freedom of the novel, though sometimes offensive to creative or critical ideals, has, for centuries, proved attractive to many minds desiring an expansive mental outlook. The novelist himself is usually extremely broad in interests, ideals, and experience. As a class, novelists have been men of the world, travelers, wide readers and 1 Technik des Romans; Das Gebiet des Romans. 2 Ibid. ; Novelle oder Roman. Compare his frequent use of " Totalitat." 156 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL students, philosophers in spirit if not in accomplishment. To no small extent the novel has resisted the modern tendency toward specialization in science, art, and life itself. The pure specialist would not and could not write a great representative novel. Balzac was interested in law, medicine, theology, music, journalism, and politics. Examine the outer and inner history of Cervantes, Rabe- lais, Fielding, Thackeray, and Tolstoi. Goethe is one of the most com- prehensive minds of his century, and his novels are a logical part of his self-expression. The women novelists of eminence Maria Edge- worth, Madame de Stae'l, George Sand, George Eliot have been among the most advanced minds of their time. In breadth of knowledge and speculation, the philoso- pher doubtless bears away the palm from the novelist. Bacon, Humboldt, Lotze, Spencer, have no rivals in fiction, so measured. Large knowledge of mathematics or of natural science is rare in the novelists. On the other hand, the novelist may often claim a wider experience in personal emotion and passion, a broader domain of natural and social imagery; and his world is always a combination of observed and created data. 129. Objectivity. All style has a certain objectivity, as noted in Section 122, but in a special sense this quality is characteristic of the " epic " imagination, and of an ideal of the novel which influences much theory and practise. The social sense in the novelist and the social element in the novel itself, are related to this quality. Compara- tively few great novels were written from purely lyrical impulse from the mere craving for self-expression. The sense of an audience has been strong in the history of fiction, whether directly expressed, as in the phrase " gen- tle reader" (centuries old), or implied in choice of subject STYLE 157 and treatment. In all novels the influence of the social consciousness, in respect to time, place, character, man- ners, and ideas, is incalculable. In personal life, the representative novelist has been a considerable figure in society. Observation is another phase of the objective quality, as it appears in the novel. Realism is concerned, for re- ality is distinguished from unreality largely by the test of objective value. A sketch of the history of this quality in English fiction might be interesting. The following are fragmentary data. Impersonality is the dominant note from Morte d' Arthur, with its epic tradition, to the middle of the eighteenth century. In neither Euphues, Rosalind, nor Jack Wilton does the author appear in propria persona. Defoe has a remarkable power of close observation and description, and of " self -estrangement " in narrative. Few of the experiences recorded in Colonel Jacque, The Plague Year, or Robinson Crusoe were part of his personal his- tory. Richardson chose a form which naturally required dramatic objectivity. Jane Austen is in many ways more impersonal than Shakespeare, with whom she has been compared. (As interesting exceptions, compare the transi- tional sentence, "/ come now," etc., in Chapter XXXVI of Sense and Sensibility, with the example noted in Section 56.) The influence of Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne was largely in the opposite direction. The romanticists are habitually lyrical, coloring their whole view of life by personal experience, and the moods of their individual temperaments. The realistic reaction has produced a new phase of objectivity, more determined and conscious than any that preceded. 158 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL Spielhagen lays frequent stress upon objectivity as an ideal. Com- pare the essay on Objektivitat im Roman (Vermischte Schriften), and numerous passages in the Technik des Romans. " Das Gesetz der Objektivitat. Sie ist fur ihn [the novelist] das strikteste Gesetz." It is not so important for the novelist, " dass die Welt ihn begreift, als dass er die Welt begreift." A consistent objectivity is not easily at- tained, in our introspective age, but the artist " strebt durchaus nach Totalitat des Weltbildes." It is an insult to the reader to explain the characters to him. (Compare Section 100.) Verga is perhaps the greatest recent representative of realistic theory and practise in Italy. Note the remarkable third paragraph of L 'Amante di Gramigna: "Intanto io credo che il trionfo del romanzo ... si raggiungera allorche I 1 affinita e la coesione di ogni sua parte sara cosi completa che il processo della creazione rimarra un mistero, come lo svolgersi delle passioni umane ; e che 1' armonia delle sue forme sara cosi perfetta, la sincerita della sua realta cosi evidente, il suo modo e la sua ragione di essere cosi necessarie, che la mano dell' artista rimarra assolutamente invisible, e il romanzo avra Timpronta delP avvenimento reale, e I 1 opera d' arte sembrera essersi fatta da s2, aver maturate ed esser s6rta spontanea come un fatto naturale, senza serbare alcun punto di contatto col suo autore," etc. The above doctrine comes into apparent conflict with impressionistic theory, represented in Henry James' defini- tion of the novel as " a personal impression of life ; " 1 but even in this conception it is an impression of life that is desired, not an introspective view of the world within the artist's mind. 130. Concreteness The novelist aims to produce an illusion of life by means of "solidity of specification" 2 in vocabulary, characters, dialogue, settings, events, and ideas. When he explores the territory of modern sociol- ogy, psychology, or history, he finds himself in a region of almost oppressive detail. It is partly this attention to minute detail that suggests the satirical view of the novel 1 Art of Fiction. 2 Ibid. STYLE 159 as essentially feminine, or, as one critic states it, " gossip ethcrealized." 1 The opposite quality of vagueness may be studied in the ballad and the lyric. Classicism, with its preference for type over individual, has never aided much in the develop- ment of the novel. A mind primarily interested in the abstract values of experience would not enter the field of the novel with zest, or much probability of success. Emer- son moves habitually from the concrete toward the abstract. Bacon, in the Wisdom of the Ancients, changes semi- novelistic material into anti-novelistic. Balzac "bodies forth " his general ideas of life in what is perhaps the greatest exhibition of individualized detail in the history of art. (The detail of a great cathedral is immeasurable, but much of it is typical.) In vocabulary, an interesting comparison may be made between Bacon's essay on Youth and Age, and the treatment of the same theme in Silas Marner. Bacon has many such expressions as settled business ; conduct and manage of actions; consideration of means and degrees; powers of understanding; virtues of the will and affections, etc. In Silas Marner there are more than a score of expressions referring to Eppie in which the adjectives "little," "small," or " tiny" are used little one; like a small mouse; little naked foot; deep little puss; etc. Note also the concreteness of many other phrases : a small boy without shoes or stockings ; blond dimpled girl of eighteen ; face now bordered by gray hairs ; a voice that quavered a good deal ; feeble old man of fourscore and six ; simple old fellow, etc. In characterization, compare the heroine of an Elizabethan sonnet sequence with any novelistic heroine. In Astrophel and Stella, Stella is not directly quoted at all, is described almost entirely in conven- tional manner, and appears in only some half-dozen specific incidents or settings. Spielhagen expresses the relation between comprehensiveness and 1 Dallas : The Gay Science. 160 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL concreteness as a " Widerspruch zwischen dem epischen Mittel der konkreten Darstellung und dem unausrottbaren Zuge der epischen Phantasie in das ... Grenzenlose." 1 131. Complexity. The novelist cannot lose himself entirely in the outer world, like the scientist, or in the realm of personal feeling, like the lyric poet. He must combine these two regions of experience as best he may. In novelistic form, the problem of synchronization, the frequent changes from dramatic to non-dramatic structure, and from the specific to the general, are among the com- plicating elements. The hero of a representative novel is more complex in character and experience than the average hero of ballad or epic. In historical fiction, the twofold consciousness of the present and the past is often highly complex. Other aspects of this quality have been suggested in the preceding chapters. The great novelists have generally been individuals of pronounced complexity, in nature or experience. This seems particularly true of some of the Russian novelists Gogol, Dostoyevsky, and Tolstoi among them. The man of entirely "simple life" may possibly be a reader of novels, but it is difficult to imagine him as an habitual novel-writer. The novel has flourished most in periods of complex social life, when antagonistic currents of thought were meeting, giving rise to social, ethical, and aesthetic prob- lems. The origin of the form was in the sophism of Greek decadence ; its second birth coincides with the conflict of Renaissance and medieval spirit; its develop- ment in the eighteenth century is related to the battles of pseudo-classicism with romanticism, scepticism with a 1 Technik des Romans; Der Held im Roman. STYLE l6l revival of faith, and monarchism with democracy; its full fruition is associated with the complicated mental and social life of our own era. In fact, the specific function of the novel, according to many critics, is the portrayal, possibly to some extent the solution, of the complexity of modern experience, material and moral. g* has been characteristic of more than one school of novelists, but rarely if ever a true simplicity Pastoralism, as before suggested, offers a good example of this distinction. 132. Secularity. If one considers the religious ten- dency in its extreme form of asceticism, the secularity of the novel is readily perceived. The priest is an important character in fictions as various as Robinson Crusoe, Mrs. Radcliffe's Italian, Romola, Barchester Towers, and Quo Vadis, but the authors' interest in him is not mainly religious, and he appears in a secular environment. The language of intensely religious life may be introduced, but it does not give dominant tone to any great novel. Even in the "religious novel," the secularity becomes clearly defined if comparison is made with such works as the Apocalypse, Saint Augustine's Confessions, or the Imita- tion of Christ. The Biblical fictions of Ruth and Esther are surprisingly non-religious in tone ; the latter, so far as direct evidence is given, being practically atheistic. Both the cosmopolitanism and the nationalism of the novel are quite independent of ecclesiastical interest. The catholicity of fiction is that of general culture, or of modern democracy; its patriotism is political, historical, social, or aesthetic, rarely religious in any definite sense. When the novelist has given an extended consideration to the church, he has usually expressed little satisfaction in 1 See Matthew Arnold: On Translating Homer; Last Words. 162 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL its concrete conditions, and has often been antagonistic to its fundamental principles and purposes. This statement does not imply that the novel is anti-religious, though this is of course true in isolated cases. The general secularity of the great novelists as individuals and of the chief periods of novelistic activity requires no discussion. Spiel- hagen gives a vigorous summary of the whole matter: the novelist occupies a position "auf dieser unserer Erde, der festgegrlindeten, dauernden, die nicht eine Vorstufe des Himmels odcr der Holle ist, sondern der Grund und Urgrund, aus dem unsere Leiden und Freuden quellen, das Rhodus, auf dem wir tanzen miissen, es tanze sich gut oder schlecht." * 133. Humor. This quality is perhaps logically de- duced from objectivity plus comprehensiveness. The tragic depends largely on concentrated intensity, and subjective attitude toward life. It is hardly possible for a normal mind to conceive the general course of society as entirely tragicparicl personal tragedy becomes less em- phatic by contact with broad impersonal interests. The existence of morbidly tragic fiction may be explained by temporary social or individual conditions, rather than the essential nature of the novel. Many of the great novelists have been masters of humor, and few of them have lacked a decided alloy of the quality. In the novelistic structure, the looseness of form, the trivial details in dialogue, settings, and incident, the great variety of interests and of aesthetic values, are causes or results of humor. A sharp separation of the tragic and comic is less frequent than in eighteenth century drama, and the interweaving of the two is generally less formal than in Shakespearian drama. Humor is often essential to the production of realistic illusion, and an important 1 Technik des Romans; DasGebiet des Romans. STYLE 163 agent in unifying the entire plan of a novel. It may appear in the characters themselves ; or, as in Fielding and Thackeray, largely in the author's personal attitude. The modes of humor, in a generic sense, may vary from caricature, through wit, satire, and irony, to a general sanity of view. Its relations to pathos have been fre- quently studied in criticism. Caricature is common in Smollett and his disciple Dickens ; wit is characteristic of Lyly and George Meredith ; satire, of a savage type at times, may be studied in Swift and Gogol; irony is characteristic of Fielding, Jane Austen, and Thackeray; sanity of view is well repre- sented in Trollope and Howells, among the realists, and in Scott, among the romanticists. The humor that is akin to pathos is familiar in Cer- vantes, Sterne, and Goldsmith. vi34. Ideality. All artistic narrative must be imagina- tive to an appreciable degree, but the novel is ideal primarily because it is fictitious narrative. 'Pure observa- tion or logical induction from observation could never produce any novel : there must be strong persistent momentum toward the creation of character and incident in order to fashion a worthy novel. Genius is the first divinity in Fielding's invocation. (Tom Jones ; XIII, i.) ,On the other hand, even in the wildest romance, the foundations are in reality, and the relations of the imagi- native to the real offer a fascinating study in every fiction. Idealization assumes many forms selection or re-combi- nation of real data ; creation of ideal individuals modeled upon real types ; allegory, symbolism, etc. Ideality may be studied in every element of the novel, from the single effect to the plan as a whole. Perhaps the plot is the most satisfactory basis for a single general test of the imaginative power. (Compare Section 43.) 1 64 THE STUDY OF A NOVEL In Silas Marner, the coming of Eppie is a more imaginative type of incident than the conversation at the Rainbow. Probably nowhere else in fiction, and so far as the author knew, never in real experience, had a waif child come from its dead mother to a lonely workman. A group of country laborers conversing at the village inn, on the contrary, is a common scene in life and in art. Of course this episode is highly imaginative in details of individual character and speech. In Robinson Crusoe, the footprint on the sand is probably a unique single eifect ; and the detailed picture of Robinson's homemaking is remote from anything Defoe had observed or read. The general con- ception of a man left alone for years on an island far from civilization was given to Defoe by another writer. In Ivanhoe, the tournament, the castle siege, and the life of Robin Hood's band, in their general idea, are not proof of great imagination in the author. Of the visit of Richard to Friar Tuck, Scott himself says, " The general tone of the story belongs to all ranks and all coun- tries " ; * and he refers to his own particular model. The distinction between imagination and fancy was elaborated by Coleridge and his contemporaries. 2 Of the two, imagination is the main expressive quality in all great novels, but the fanciful may serve as a decorative element, and add much to the total interest. In Silas Marner, the description of Eppie's wedding dress, the picture of Nancy on horseback, and the dialogic form of Godfrey's argument with Anxiety might be called fanciful. There is comparatively little fancy in Jane Austen, but much in The Castle of Otranto. The charac- ters of The Gold-bug are mainly imaginative, but some of the incidents are fanciful. To many readers, much of the figurative language of George Meredith shows the caprice of pure fancy. 135. Force. Objectively, this quality may appear in nature, man, or the supernatural ; revealing itself either in activity or in endurance. Respecting rhetorical form, it is apparent in rapidity of narration, vigor of description, and 1 Introduction of 1830. a See Professor Cook's edition of Leigh Hunt's What is Poetry ? STYLE 165 intensity of lyrical feeling. In spite of Goethe's theory of a passive hero for the novel (see Section 82), there are many examples of notable activity. The actions of a dramatic hero may reveal a greater intensity, but range and duration of achievement are other elements to be examined. Hamlet breaks a woman's heart, awes his mother, escapes from pirates, and kills his enemies. Robinson Crusoe makes a fortune, destroys wild beasts, domesticates others, forms many new acquaint- ances, travels in three continents, founds a miniature state, converts savages, and saves his own soul. He is in most respects much more a master of circumstances than Hamlet, Macbeth, or Othello. In the novelist himself, force is necessary for the large plan of a work, and still more for the laborious execution. A weak or impatient mind could not complete a long and complicated novel ; much less such extended series as the Waverley Novels or the Comddie Humaine. In many novelists moral force appears also in antagonism to social evils and in ideals of social reform, or in earnest devotion to high conceptions of art. 136. Other Qualities. Many other qualities may be desirable in the novel for example, elegance and clear- ness without being essential to its type. Figures of speech may be studied, as in other forms of literature, but they seem to have less characteristic significance for the novel than for the epic and lyric. In all dramatic structure, propriety is obviously an essen- tial quality. Comment on its violation, in both epistolary and dialogic form, has been previously given. CHAPTER IX THE PROCESS OF COMPOSITION 137. Value of the Study. Some critics give little atten- tion to the process by which a work of art comes into existence ; others consider this one of the most important matters in the study of an art, even for those who do not practise it. As a typical process, the composition of novels throws light on the general nature of artistic creation, and is a fascinating phase of the imaginative effort of the mind, in its entirety. In an individual novel, many struc- tural details cannot be understood fully, and the examina tion of style cannot be satisfactory, without some knowledge of the evolution of that particular novel. Critics who are also novelists Scott, Spielhagen, 1 an Dow- den, of Atala) ; R. (Dunlop, Scott, etc.) 114. Psychological Comedy; Drama; N; R. 115. Purpose, N. of. 116. Realistic N. 117. Religious N ; R. 118. Revolutionary N. (Masson.) 119. Rogue N ; R. of Roguery. 73. 120. Romance. 121. Romantic Love, R. of. (Lewis.) 122. Satirical Fiction ; N. 123. Scenes (T.T.) ; Fiction of Scenery. (Senior.) 124. Scientific Experiment, Tale of. (MacClintock) ; Scientific N. 125. Sensation N. (Baker.) 126. Sentimental N. 127. Serious R. (Scott.) 128. Short N; Story; Long Short- Story ; Storiette. 129. Sketches. (T.T.) 130. Socialist N. 112, 289. 131. Social Comedy ; N ; R ; Study; Society N. 132. Spiritual R. (Hallam; Scott, con- trasted with Temporal R.) 133. Sporting N. 134. Story. (Common in titles.) 135. Study. (As a type of short story, frequently.) 136. Supernatural Phantasy, N. of. (Masson.) 137. Tale. 138. Temporal R. (Scott, contrasted with Spiritual R.) 139. Terror, Gothic Tale of. 52. 140. Theological N. 141. Third-Person N. 142. Tragic Drama ; N ; Pastoral ; Tragi-Comedy. 143. Traveller's N. (Masson.) 144. Ubiquitous N. (Walter Bagehot.) 70. 282 APPENDIX 145 . Utopian N ; R . 146. Vision. 147. Volume N, Single ; Three. 148. Weird Story. (Barrett.) 149. Wonder, Story of. (Barrett.) 150. Yarn. FRENCH 151. Active, R. de la Vie. (Jusserand.) i. 152. Amour, R. d'. 153. Analytique, R; R. d* Analyse intellectuelle ; morale. 154. Arcadien, R. (Jusserand.) 200. 155. Archeologique, R. (Lanson, of Salammbd.) 156. Autobiographique, R. 157. Aventure, Conte d'; R. d'; Aventures. (T. T.) 158. Bourgeois, R. 159. Burlesque, R. 160. Cape et d'Epee, R. de. 71. 161. Champe'tre, R. 162. Chevaleresque, R. 163. Chretien, honnSte et familier, R. (Gilbert.) 164. Clef, R. a. 165. Coeur, R. de. 166. Comique, R. 167. Conte. 168. Devot, Conte. 169. Epique, R. (Maigron; Jusserand) ; Epopee-roman (Jusserand). 170. Exotique, R. (Gilbert.) 334. 171. Experimental, R. (Zola.) 172. Fabliau. 173. Famille, R. de. 174. Fantaisiste, R. 175. Fees, Conte de. 176. Feuilleton, R. 177. Gothique, R. 178. HeroTque, R. 179. Historique, R; Histoire. (T. T.) 180. Humoristique, R. 181. Idylle. 182. Impressioniste, R. 183. Intellectuelle, R. d'Analyse. 69. 184. Intrigue, R. d'. 185. Lettres, R. par. 186. Longue Haleine, R. a (of Heroic Romance) 187. Lyrique, R. (Lanson, of George Sand.) 188. Memoires. (T. T.) 189. Militaires, R. de Mceurs. 190. Misanthropique, R. (of Flaubert). 102. 191. Moeurs, R. de. 192. Mondain, R. 193. Morale, R. d'Analyse. 194. Nationaux, R's. (Erckmann-Cha- trian.) 195. Naturaliste, R. 196. Nocturne, Conte (title used by Hoffman). 197. Nouvelle. 198. Oriental, R. 199. Pastel. 200. Pastoral, R. 154. 201. Personnel, impersonnel, R6cit. 202. Philosophique, R. 203. Picaresque, R. 204. Plaisant, Conte. 205. Poetique, R. (Lanson.) 206. Politique, R. 207. Psychologique, R. 208. Realiste, R. 209. Roman. 210. Romantique, R. 211. Rustique, R. 212. Satirique, R. 213. Scenes. (T. T.) 214. Scientifique, R. 215. Sentimental, et personnel, R. (Lanson ; Gilbert) ; R. d'Analyse des Sentiments. (Jusserand.) 216. Social, R. 217. Symboliste et occulte, R. (Gil- bert.) 3. 218. Tendance, R. a. 219. Tiroirs, R. a. 220. Utopiste, R. 221. Voyage Imaginaire. 297. 222. Voyage, R. de. TYPES OF PROSE FICTION 28 3 GERMAN 223. Abenteuer ; roman ; und trans- oceanischer R. 224. Allegorischer R. 225. Anekdotenroman. 226. Aristokratischer R. (Vischer.) 227. Autobiographischer R. 265, 323. 228. Backfischroman. 229. Bauern novelle ; roman. 230. Bettlerroman. 231. Bildungsroman. 276. 232. Briefroman ; R. in Brief en. 233. Biirgerlicher R. 234. Burlesker R. 235. Charakterroman. 236. Dialogroman. (Riemann.) 237. Didaktischer R. 238. Dorfgeschichte. 239. Eklektischer R. (Jeitteles.) 240. Emanzipationsroman. 309. 241. Ernster R. (Vischer, Aesthetik; Jeitteles.) 242. Erotischer R. 243. Er-Roman. 244. Erzahlung. 245. Ethnographischer R. 246. Familienroman. 247. Feengeschichte. 248. Feuilletonistischer R. 342. 249. Frauenroman. (Mielke.) 250. Gedicht-geschichte. (Birken, in 1679.) 251. Geisterroman. 252. Geistlicher R. 253. Geographischer R. 254. Geschichtlicher R. 255. Gesellschaftsroman. (Mielke.) 327. 256. Gespensternovelle. 257. Heldenroman. 258. Heroisch-galanter R. 259. Herzgeschichte. (Spielhagen.) 260. Hintertreppenroman. 261. Hirtenroman. 262. Historischer R; halbhistorischer R. 263. Humanistischer R. 264. Humoristischer R, 265. Ich Erzahlung; R; Brief- roman. (Riemann.) 227. 266. Idealroman. (Korting.) 267. Idylle; Idyllischer R. (W. Sche- rer.) 268. Judenroman. 269. Jugendroman. 270. Kinder- und Hausmarchen. 271. Kolportageroman. 272. Komischer R. 273. Komodiantenroman. (Riemann, of Roman Comique.) 274. Kosmopolitischer R. 275. Kriminal geschichte ; roman ; anthropologischer R. 276. Kultur roman ; geschichtliche Novelle. 231. 277. Kunstroman ; Kunstlerroman. 9. 278. Landschaftsroman. (Mielke.) 279. Legende. 280. Leidenschaftsroman. (Riemann.) 281. Liebes roman; historic. (Jeit- teles.) 282. Liigenroman. 283. Marchen. 284. Mode-Roman. (A. W. von Schle- gel, 1798.) 48. 285. Moderner R. (Spielhagen, in defi- nite sense, contrasted with his- torical novel.) 86. 286. Moralischer R. 287. Musikernovelle. 288. Naturalistischer R. 289. Nihilistischer R. 130. 290. Novelle; Novelette. 291. Objektive Erzahlung. (Spielhagen.) 292. Opposition, R. der. (Korting.) 293. Orientalischer R. 294. Padagogischer R. 295. Pantomimischer R. (Riemann.) 296. Pastoralroman ; Antipastorale. (Korting, of Berger Extrava- gant.) 318. 297. Phantastischer R ; Reiseroman. (Korting.) 221. 284 APPENDIX 298. Philosophischer R. 320. 299. Politischer R. 329. 321. 300. Pornographischer R. 322. 301. Prohlemroman, moralphiloso- 323. phischer. 302. Professorenroman. 324. 303. Psychologischer R; Situations- 325. roman. 304. Rahmenerzahlung. 326. 305. Rauberroman. 306. Realistischer R ; Realroman. (Kor- ting.) 327. 307. Reise fabulistik (Rohde) ; ~ 328. feuilleton ; roman. 329. 308. Religioser R. 330. 309. Revolution, R. der. (Mielke.) 331. 240. 332. 310. Ritter geschichte; roman; 333. und Rauberroman. 334. 311. Robinsonade. 312. Roman. 335. 313. Romanskizze. (Spielhagen.) 336. 314. Romantische Novelle. 337. 315. Romerroman. (Mielke.) 338. 316. Sagen geschichte; und Ritter- roman. 339. 317. Satirischer R. 340. 318. Schaferroman. 296. 341. 319. Schauer licher R (Jeitteles, of Mrs. Radcliffe) ; roman. 59. 342. Schelmenroman. 73. Schwank. Seeroman. Selbst biographischer R ; bio- graphic. 227. Sensationsroman. Sentimentaler R ; Sentimentalitats- roman. Sitten gemalde ; roman ; und Familienroman. (Jeitteles, of Richardson.) Socialer R. 255. Soldatenroman. Staatsroman. (Riemann.) 299. Stoff roman. 107. Tendenzroman ; Tendenzioser R. Theaternovelle. Theologischer R. Trans atlantischer R ; ocean- ischer R, Abenteuer- und. 170. Umwandlungsroman. Unterhaltungsroman. Vaterlandischer R. Volks buch; marchen; roman ; volkstiimlicher R. Wundermarchen. Zauberroman. (Hildebrand.) 92. Zeit geschichtlicher R ; roman. (Mielke.) 38. Zeitungsroman. (Mielke.) 248. ITALIAN AND SPANISH 343. Amatoria, Novela ; R. d' Amore ; Historia amorosa. 344. Analitico, R. 345. Brevo, Racconto. 346. Caballeria, Novela de; Libro de ; R. di Cavalleria. 347. Campagnuol (a; o), Novella; Rac- conto. 348. Capa y Espada, Novela de. 71. 349. Comico, R. 350. Corta, Novella. 351. Cuadros. (T. T.) 352. Cuento. 353. Exemplares, Novelas. (Cervantes.) 354. Fabula. 355. Fantasia. 356. Historia; Novela Historica; His- torieta; Historion. 357. Idilio; Idillio. 358. Impressionisto, R. 359. Intimo, R. 360. Istoria; R. Istorico. 361. Legendario; Leggenda; Leyenda. 362. Naturalista, R. 363. Novela. 364. Novella. 365. Obiettivo, R. (Robiati.) 381. 366. Pastello. 367. Pastorale, R; Novela Pastoral; Pastorela. 368. Patrana. 369. Picaresco, R; Novela Picaresca. TYPES OF PROSE FICTION 28 5 370. Politico, R. 371. Popolare, Racconto; Libro; Narracion. 372. Psicologico, R. 373. Racconto. 374. Realisto, R. 375. Relacion. Popular, 376. Romanzo. 377. Rusticana, Novella. 378. Satirico, R. 379. Sintetico-obiettivo, R. (Robiati.) 380. Storia; Storiella; Storietta. 381. Subiettivo, R. (Robiati.) 365. 382. Suenos. (T. T.) IV. NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM No volume devoted to this subject has appeared, so far as the present writer is aware. The following works are helpful, as giving the general background of the development of criticism, or as con- taining specific reference to the novel. (Works not identified in these Notes will be found listed in the Bibliography.) Brunetiere : L'Evolution de la Critique. Roman Naturaliste. Borinski. Braitmaier. Dunlop. See the extended, though poorly arranged bibliography prefixed to the text. (Bohn edition.) Gayley and Scott. Hamelius : Die Kritik in der englischen Litteratur des I7ten und iSten Jahrhunderts. (Leipzig, 1897.) Haym. Korting. Mai- gron. Moulton : Library of Literary Criticism. Raleigh. Rie- mann. Rocafort. Saintsbury : History of Literary Criticism. (Referred to as "S" in the following pages.) Spingarn : History of Literary Criticism in the Renaissance. (N.Y., 1899.) Warren. Wylie : Evolution of English Criticism. (Boston, 1894.) The following notes are a slight introduction to a vast field. Criticism of immediate interest to the student of the novel is found in works on the general history of literature, in aesthetics, in works on the epic and drama, etc., etc. Indexes to periodical literature show an accumulation of material it would take years to assimilate. Much of the best criticism is found in biographies of the novelists. It may be noted that the novel itself has often been a mode of criticism, since the beginning. Kastner and Atkins say of Anatole France, "The critical spirit pervades the whole of his thought, so much so that his novels are almost as much of criticism as romance." Individual novels, especially parodies, are frequently criticisms of other novels, or schools of novelists. 286 HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 287 GR^ECO-ROMAN PERIOD Aristotle. The Poetics influenced the theory of the novel, to some extent, in the Renaissance and the i8th century. Cf. S., II., p. 58. Plato. Use and exposition of didactic allegory. His treatment of the social effect of fiction influenced Renaissance defenses of poetry. The romances themselves were the product of a critical spirit. See also Dunlop, I., pp. 36 ; 96 ; 105. THE MIDDLE AGES TO 1400 "From the 5th to the I5th century . . . humanity was obliged to do as well as it could without the solace of novels." (Warren.) " The Middle Ages were not critical." (S.) Defense of realism in Boccaccio, Chaucer, etc. Religious application of fiction, as in the Gesta Romanorum. Critical consciousness in the saga and verse romance. On the relations of epic and romance, see Ker, and Saintsbury's Flourish- ing of Romance. Eustathius. Hysmenia and Hysmene. A caricature of Tatius. (Rohde- Dunlop.) Photius. Myriobiblion. (pth century.) Abridgments and fragmentary criti- cisms of Greek and Latin romances. (Dunlop.) THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY Caxton. Critical work as editor, translator, expositor, and defender of ro- mance. His preface to Morte d' Arthur is " memorable as marking the beginning of prose fiction." (Raleigh.) Martorell. Tirante el Blanco, (cir. 1450.) Is a "predecessor of Don Quixote and ... no less a parody on the genuine romances of chiv- alry." (Warren.) Sannazaro. Arcadia. On its critical significance, see Garnett, and Warren. THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY The numerous critical treatises scarcely touched prose fiction, though discussing many matters related to it, such as the use of vernacular, epic theory and technic, allegory, etc. 288 APPENDIX Pastoral romance continued to represent classical scholarship and artistic motive. Picaresque fiction was a critical as well as creative reaction from the older romance spirit. ENGLISH " A singular scorn for the older romances is displayed by the men of the later i6th century." (Raleigh.) Ascham. The Schoolmaster. Severe criticism, from a Protestant and Eng- lish point of view, of Morte d' Arthur, and the Italian novelle. See below, 1 8th century, English, Warton. Lyly. The Euphues embodies a theory of poetical prose. See also its prefaces and dedications. Painter. The Palace of Pleasure. (1566.) The preface gives some expo- sition and defense of the novella. Sidney. Arcadia. Burlesque of pastoral romance and romance of chivalry ; the author's disdain for the work. Defense of Poetry. Much that is essentially applicable, though not applied, to prose fiction. FRENCH Brugis. (Belgian.) Nonis Aprilis. (1523.) Satirical attitude toward romance of chivalry. See Goedeke : Grundriss zur Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung (1884), I., p. 340. ITALIAN See S. on Castelvetro (II., p. 84), and on Cinthio and Pigna (II., p. 214). Giraldi. Discorsi intorno al comporre dei Romanzi. (1554.) SPANISH For the critical relations of early picaresque fiction, see Chandler and Warren. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY ENGLISH Some of the tendencies suggested by the following references are : Indifference toward romance on the part of scholars ; gen- HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 289 eral hostility of the idealists, especially the Puritans ; the vogue of the aristocratic heroic romance ; the democratic sub-current ; the debased realism of the Restoration; conscious distinction between romance and novel. Bacon. Wisdom of the Ancients. Theory of allegory implied and stated. Advancement of Learning. Dunlop quotes a famous passage, with "fiction" substituted for the "poetry" of some translations. (Introduc- tion.) In the main, Bacon seems afraid to linger in the domain of romance. See S. on his general position. Barclay. Argenis. (1621.) The allegorical purpose is explained (II., 14) according to the current sugar-coated pill idea. Bunyan. See Masson, p. 82, and cf. Defoe, below. Bunyan's influence on Defoe and realism in general was unintentional. Congreve. Incognita. (1692.) See Raleigh, p. 101. Davenant. Preface to Gondibert. (1651.) See S., II., p. 368. Dryden. Much criticism on matters related to prose fiction, such as heroic poetry, satire, allegory, etc. A novelistic method of acquiring materials is recorded in the preface of Annus Mirabilis. Head, The English Rogue. (1665-71.) The prefatory matter defends realistic method in about the same spirit shown by Defoe, Fielding, Smollett, etc. "Though it may seem a romance . . . there is nothing but the truth, naked as she ought to be," etc. Burlesque of high-flown style, and other points of critical interest. Ingelo. Bentivolio and Urania. (1660.) Prefaces. " Examined with a judi- cious eye [romances] would appear to be full of the grossest indecorums of invention, as odious misrepresentations of Divinity, unnatural descriptions of Human Life, improper and profane allusions to sacred things, frequent and palpable contradictions, sottish stories and in short, all the absurdities of wild imagination." The lovers of romance "read Fables with such affection, as if their . . . best interests were wrapped up in them. . . . How unsatisfied are they till the end of a paper combat ! What fears possess them for the Knight whose part they take. . . . How are they taken with pleasure and sorrow for the good and bad success of the Romantic Lovers," etc. Jonson. See S., II., p. 208. Mackenzie. Aretina. (1661.) See Raleigh. Milton. Examine Paradise Lost, opening of Bk. IX.; and note the tendency of the Areopagitica, as to popular reading. 2QO APPENDIX FRENCH For criticism of prose fiction in general, see Korting and Maigron. Boileau. Les Heros de Roman. See Cross, and S., II., p. 292. Calprenede, La. Pharamond. The preface objects to the word " roman," because it confuses historical works with pure inventions like Amadis. (Maigron.) " Durch ihn kommt die Romandichtung zuerst gleichsam vollig zum Selbstbewusstsein," etc. (Korting, I., p. 362.) He ob- served unity of place. (Ibid.) Chapelain. Sur la Lecture des Vieux Romans. See S., II., p. 260. Fancan. Le Tombeau des Romans. (1626.) See Dunlop, II., p. 344. Fresnaye, Vauquelin de la. Art Poetique. (1605.) See S., II., p. 131. FuretiSre. Roman Bourgeois. (1666.) See S., II., p. 554, and Raleigh, p. 115. Huct. De 1'Origine des Romans. (1670.) See S., II., p. 275, and Dunlop, introduction and passim, Molidre. Les Precieuses Ridicules. As a burlesque on the love motifs of Scudery, see Cross. Scarron. Roman Comique. As a burlesque. ScudSry, Georges de. Preface to Ibraham. " Mais entre toutes les regies qu'il faut observer, celle de la vraisemblance est sans doute la plus ne- cessaire." (Quoted in Maigron.) See also S., I., p. 266. Scud6ry, Madeleine de. See Maigron, and under " vraisemblance," Glossary. Sorel. Berger Extravagant. (1627.) As a burlesque " antipastorale." GERMAN Birken. Kurze Anweisung zur deutschen Poesie. (1679.) Considers the relations of romance to pastoral, history, epic, etc. Zesen. One of the most popular fiction writers of the century, but does not mention the romance in his poetic theory. (Borinski, p. 278.) SPANISH Cervantes. Don Quixote. See S., II., p. 347. Note, however, these pas- sages in the novel: I., I., 6; I., L, 21. See above, Martorell. There is a bit of pastoral criticism in the preface to Galatea, and of realistic ethics in the preface of the Novelas Exemplares. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY This is the period in which the " modern novel," in one sense, arose, and it is a period of special critical activity. These two facts are doubtless closely related. HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 291 There is vigorous criticism of the novel in England and Ger- many ; perhaps less notable criticism in France. Among the general phases of this criticism one may note : The defense of realism, and the rise of romantic doctrine ; specific criticism of the Gothic romance, and of the sentimental movement ; increased attention to the theory and technic of prose fiction ; more careful effort to distinguish romance from novel; considerable attention to the history of fiction, and to biographical sketches of novelists ; the development of book-reviewing in the periodicals ; a general neglect of prose fiction in the histories of literature, and in works of general literary criticism ; considerable hostility to fiction, with reference to its great popularity, and the evil effect of circulating libraries. ENGLISH Blair, Hugh. Rhetoric (1783). "There remains to be treated of another species of composition in prose, which comprehends a very numerous, though, in general, a very insignificant class of writings known by the name of romances and novels. These may, at first view, seem too in- significant to deserve that any particular notice should be taken of them." But it is explained that the trouble is with the authors rather than with the nature of the species ; and Blair gives a fairly generous, though very brief, treatment of prose fiction. Defoe. Defense of realism, and relation of fiction to fact in his prefaces ; the doctrine of allegory in the Third Part of Robinson Crusoe, with reference to the Biblical parables. See Geissler. (Halle dissertation, 1896.) Fielding, Henry. Much theoretical, technical, and ethical criticism in his prefaces and intercalated essays. See prefaces of Amelia, Joseph Andrews, David Simple, Letters of David Simple, Tom Thumb, and Covent Garden Tragedy ; Joseph Andrews, I., I and 7, II., I, III., I ; Tom Jones, first chapters of Books V., VI., VIII., IX., X., XL, and XVI.; Jonathan Wild, I., I ; and essays on Conversation, and Knowledge of Men. Also note his burlesque element. See p. 265 in this Appendix. Fielding, Sarah. Theoretical, technical, and ethical criticism in the pref- aces of The Cry and The Countess of Dellwyn. Discussion of chorus, episode, characterization, relations of the novel to the drama and the essay, definition of "humors," and of "romantic," etc. "The motives to actions, and the inward turns of mind, seem, in our opinion, more 2Q2 APPENDIX necessary to be known than the actions themselves; and much rather would we choose that our reader should clearly understand what our principal actors think than what they do." (Were these notable pref- aces written or inspired by Henry Fielding ?) Gentleman's Magazine, The. Reviews many novels toward the end of the century; giving a half column to Evelina, five columns to Juliet Grenville, ten columns to Humphrey Clinker, etc. Goldsmith. Citizen of the World. Criticism of " Bawdry and Pertness " (an attack on Smollett) in No. 53 ; and see also No. 33. Gray. For his views of Ossian, The Castle of Otranto, etc., see Phelps. Hurd. Letters on Chivalry and Romance (1762). See S., Vol. III. Johnson. Definitions of romance and novel in the Dictionary ; The Rambler, No. 365 ; Preface to Shakespeare ; many passages in Boswell. See Section 166 of the present volume. Kames. Elements of Criticism (1762). An elaborate aesthetic treatise, / hardly mentioning prose romance. Law. Serious Call. (1726.) This famous ascetic work, influencing the Methodist movement, unconsciously supports the theory and practise of the realistic novelists : " If you are told only in the gross of the folly and madness of a life devoted to the world, it makes little or no impres- sion upon you ; but if you are shown how such people live every day ; if you see the continual folly and madness of all their particular actions and designs, this would be an affecting sight," etc. (Chapter XII.) Leland. Longsword. (1762.) See Phelps. Moore, John. View of the Commencement and Progress of Romance. Life of Smollett. (Both prefixed to Smollett's Works, 1797.) Reeve, Clara. The Progress of Romance. (Two vols., Dublin, 1785.) " While many eminent writers have . . . skimmed over the surface of this subject, it seemed to me that none of them had sounded the depths of it. ... Of metrical Romances they have treated largely, but with respect to those in prose, their informations have been scanty and imper- fect." (Preface.) While beginning with Greek romance, the considera- tion of 1 8th century fiction is liberal. Particular attention is given to the differences between the " old [medieval] Romances," " modern [heroic] Romances," and "the Novel." The prefaces of The Phoenix (translation of Barclay's Argenis), and of The Old English Baron, are of considerable critical importance. Preface of The School for Widows. Criticism of the reigning sentimental school; and distinction between true and false sensibility. Richardson. Exposition of epistolary technic, and of ethical interest, in critical addenda to Pamela and Clarissa. HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 293 Smollett. Preface and Chapter I. of Ferdinand, Count Fathom ; burlesque of Gothic method in Sir Launcelot Greaves. "A novel is a large dif- fused picture, comprehending the characters of life, disposed in different groups, and exhibited in various attitudes, for the purposes of an uniform plan, and general occurrence, to which every individual figure is sub- servient. But this plan cannot be executed with propriety, probability, or success, without a principal personage to attract the attention, unite the incidents, unwind the clue of the labyrinth, and at last close the scene, by virtue of his own importance." (Preface of F. C. F.) Walpole. The Castle of Otranto. See Phelps. Warton, Thomas. History of English Poetry. (1778-81.) Answers Ascham's attack on the Italian novelle, and devotes about eighteen pages to them (Section LX.) ; defends an interest in romance in general (Section V.). See S., III., p. 70 ff. See also prefaces of Brooke's Fool of Quality ; Day's Sandford and Merton ; Graves' Columella, and The Spiritual Quixote ; Johnstone's Chrysal; and many other novels of the century. FRENCH For the novelistic doctrine of the Encyclopaedists in general, see Rocafort, Chapter IV. Diderot. Eloge de Richardson. (1742.) Famous for its " superstitious ad- miration." In a well-known passage he places Richardson beside Moses, Homer, Euripides, and Sophocles, to be read by turns. " Par un roman, on a entendu jusqu'a ce jour un tissu d'evenements chimeriques et fri- voles, dont la lecture etait dangereuse pour le gout et pour les moeurs. . . . le fond de son drame est vrai ; ses personnages ont toute la re"alite possible ; ses caracteres sont pris du milieu de la societe; ses inci- dents sont dans les moeurs de toutes les nations policees ; ... les passions qu'il peint sont telles que je les eprouve en moi ; . . . il me montre le cours general des choses qui m'environnent." See S., III., p. 92. Fresnoy, Lenglet du. L'Histoire justifiee centre les Romans. (1735.) Rousseau. Preface to La Nouvelle HeloTse. (1760.) On the relation of the novel to social degeneracy, etc. References to fiction, especially his own novels, in the Confessions. Voltaire. Criticism of Rousseau, Sterne, and Swift, etc. See S., II., p. 5 16. 294 APPENDIX GERMAN For the criticism of the latter part of the century, see Braitmaier, Haym, and Riemann. Blankenburg. Versuch fiber den Roman. (1766.) See Riemann, p. 4 and passim. Bodmer. " Bodmer, in dealing with prose fiction, recognizes, as few critics had recognized, the second greatest division of the imaginative literature of the world." (S., III., p. 25. See the whole of the passage.) Goethe. Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre, V., 7. On the relations of drama and novel. Gottsched. Kritische Dichtkunst. (1730.) "Ihre Verfasser [of the com- mon novels] verstehen oft die Regeln der Poesie so wenig, als die wahre Sittenlehre : daher ist es kein Wunder, wenn sie einen verliebten Laby- rinth in den andern bauen, und eitel Thorheiten durcheinander flechten, ihre wolliistige Leser noch iippiger zu machen, und die Unschuldigen zu verfuhren. Wenn sie erbaulich seyn sollten, miissten sie nach Art eines Heldengedichtes abgefasset werden, wie Heliodorus, Longus, Cervantes und Fenelon gethan haben." (Third ed., 1742, p. 167.) Beitrage zur kritischen Historic. (1732-44.) " Ein Roman muss sowohl als andere Schriften, nach geivissen Regeln abgemessen und eingerichtet werden. Sein erster Hauptzweck soil dieser sein, dass er dem Leser allezeit die Tugend belohnt und das Laster bestraft vorstelle. Alle diejenigen, welche hierwider anstossen, entfernen sich von einem Ziele, welcher der- gleichen Schriften allein leidlich macht." See also S., II., p. 555 ff. Lessing. Some criticism of La Nouvelle Helolse, in Hamburgische Drama- turgic, Nos. 8 and 9. Mendelssohn, Moses. Criticism of La Nouvelle Helolse in his Letters con- cerning Contemporary Literature. See also Braitmaier, II, p. 236 ff. Nicolai, Friedrich. Preface to Sebaldus Nothanker. (1773.) "Alle Bege- benheiten sind in unserer Erzahlung so unvorbereitet, so unwunderbar, als sie in der weiten Welt zu geschchen pflegen. . . . Die Personen . . . sind ganz gemeine schlechte und gcrechte Leute," etc. Novalis. "Die Liebe ist das liochste Reale, der Urgrund ; alle Romane, wo wahre Licbe vorkommt, sind Marchen, magische Bcgebenheiten." "Der Roman ist gleichsam die freie Geschichte, gleichsam die Mythologie der Geschichte." All must be " so natvirlich und doch so wunderbar, dass man glaubt, es konne nicht anders sein, und als habe man nur bisher in der Welt geschlummert und gehe einem nun erst der rechte Sinn fur die Welt auf." See also S., III., pp. 388-9. Schiller. See S., III., p. 381 ff. HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 295 FIRST HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY In this period the novel became, in the view of many critics, and largely owing to Walter Scott, a "grand genre." The critical theory of the romantic school was inclined to accept the novel, on account of its freedom from traditions, its ready adaptation to the individual writer, and the lyrical mood. The lingering traces of classical criticism appear in continued disdain of romance in gen- eral. Specifically, criticism was at first largely occupied with Scott, partly with the new-old question of the relations of history to fiction raised by the Waverley Novels. Later, realistic reaction against the romantic movement appeared in theories of fiction, as elsewhere. For the purposes of the general student, this is the period in which American and Russian criticism first became of significance. AMERICAN Some general tendencies may be noted in the periodicals; among which The Portfolio (1801-27), The North American Review (established, 1815), The Knickerbocker (1833-58), and The Dial (1840-44) are important. Fuller (Ossoli), Margaret. Brief notes on American novelists. Poe.i" Preface of Murders in the Rue Morgue; periodical reviews, and essay on The Philosophy of Composition. The last has become a classic in the criticism of the short story, though written with lyric poetry mainly in mind. Compare also, "The Poetic Principle." Prescott, W. H. Biographical and Critical Miscellanies include Memoir of C. B. Brown, Cervantes, Sir Walter Scott, Chateaubriand's English Literature, and Poetry and Romance of the Italians; all of which have some reference to prose fiction. In the Chateaubriand, he touches at some length on the relation of history to fiction. Whipple, E. P.^ Literature and Life. (1849.) A chapter on Novels and Novelists contains some general theory, criticism of the sentimental school, selection of Wilhelm Meister as "perhaps the greatest single novel," etc. ENGLISH Barbauld, Mrs. Introduction to Correspondence of Richardson. (1804.) Outline history from Greek romance to Rousseau, etc. 296 APPENDIX Bulwer Lytton attempts serious historical or aesthetic criticism in a con- siderable number of prefaces, and in a few essays. Carlyle. Severe criticism of the Waverley Novels in the essay on Scott " not profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for edification, for building up or elevating in any shape," etc. He criticizes Scott's facility, but praises his effect on the conception of history. Essays on German literature, and preface to Wilhelm Meister. Coleridge. Chapter 23 of Biographia Literaria contains severe criticism of Clarissa and of Gothic romance. See also Statesman's Manual, para- graph 12; Table-Talk, passim ; many fragments in his lectures of 1818; Sections 160 and 165 of the present work, and Tuckerman, p. 200. De Quincey. " Novels are the one sole class of books that ever interest the public, that reach its heart, or even catch its eye. And the reason why novels are becoming much more licentious, and much grosser in the arts by which they court public favor, lies undoubtedly in the quality of that new reading public which the extension of education has added to the old one." (Quoted by F. N. Scott.) Condemnation of Wilhelm Meister, in Essay on Goethe. See S., III., p. 479. Dickens. Prefaces of several novels ; mainly on the sources, process of composition, purpose, etc. Dunlop was remarkably defective in reference to Russian and Scandi- navian fiction. His distribution of space is about as follows : from Greek romance to Boccaccio, 480 pages ; from Boccaccio to 1 700, 490 pages ; the 1 8th century, 50 pages. See p. 266 in this Appendix. Hallam. Literature of Europe. (1837.) "Fiction" is a regular heading in the latter part of the work. Hazlitt, William. English Poets, Chapter I. ; Age of Elizabeth, Lectures VI. and VIII.; English Comic Writers, chapter on novelists; and the essay, Why the Characters of Romance are Insipid. See also S., TIL, p. 251 ff. Jeffrey -reviewed a great deal of fiction during the first quarter of the century, in the Edinburgh Review. His technical interest may be indi- cated by the terms used in February, 1818 (Rob Roy) : scene, underplot, structure, situation, action, coloring, and design. In March, 1817 (Tales of My Landlord), he gives this general approval of fiction: "If novels, however (generally regarded as among the lower productions of our literature), are not fated to last as long as epic poems, they are at least a great deal more popular in their season ; and slight as is their structure, and imperfect as their finishing may often be thought in comparison, we have no hesitation in saying that the better specimens of the art are incomparably more entertaining, and considerably more instructive." HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 297 In 1843, Jeffrey wrote an introductory note to collected Reviews of Novels, Tales and Prose Works of Fiction, in which he gives a very interesting " corrected impression " of the novel in general. Kingsley, Charles.*^ Preface and epilogue of Yeast ; preface of Alton Locke, and of his edition of The Fool of Quality. See S., III., p. 539. Mangin, Edward. Preface to Richardson's Novels. (1810.) Contrasts Richardson's works with the debased "circulating novel" of his own time. Newman, J. H. Prospects of the Anglican Church. (1839.) A brief but significant approval of Scott, as preparing "men for some closer and more practical approximation to Catholic truth." . . . Contrasted with " the popular writers of the last century, with its novelists, and some of its most admired poets, as Pope, [Scott's poems and romances] stand almost as oracles of Truth confronting the ministers of error and sin." Scott. His numerous and various prefaces contain a mine of interesting matter. The essay on Amadis of Gaul is a noteworthy study of the romance of chivalry. On the Supernatural in Fictitious Composition (a review of Hoffman). Essay on Romance. Lives of the Novelists. The Journal (published, 1900). Talfourd. The essay on British Novels and Novelists includes a general defense of romance. In this and in other essays, Talfourd wrote on Defoe, The Fool of Quality, Fielding, Goldsmith, Godwin, Mackenzie, Maturin, etc. Thackeray. His burlesque fictions are criticisms of current types or indi- vidual novelists. Jerome Paturot contains " Consideration on Novels in General," and the Paris Sketch Book includes a " Plea for Romances in General." See also the consideration of novelists in English Humor- ists ; Chapter I. of Henry Esmond, and the preface of Pendennis. See S., III., on Lockhart and Macaulay. FRENCH The general development of the criticism of the Romantic Movement is to be traced in Saintsbury, and in all histories of French literature. For the criticism of Scott, see Maigron, especially Book II., Chapter I. On page 158, Maigron gives a glimpse of the artificial criticism of late classicism, with its twenty-six conditions for perfect tragedy, twenty-three for comedy, twenty- four for epic. Balzac. Dedications and prefaces ; especially the preface of La Peau de Chagrin. Chateaubriand. His general relation to the Romantic School. Essai sur 298 APPENDIX la Litterature Anglaise. Genie du Christianisme. See American criti- cism, Prescott, above. Gautier. See S., III., p. 339 ff. Girardin, Saint-Marc. See Bibliography. Hugo. See the authorities noted above. Preface of Notre Dame de Paris. " L'Histoire dit bien quelque chose de tout cela ; mais ici j'aime mieux croire au roman qu'a 1'histoire, parce que je prefere la verite morale a la verite historique." (Quoted in Maigron.) Hulot. Instruction sur les Romans. (1825.) Moral argument against romance. MSrime'e. See S., III., p. 348 ff. ; Dowden, French Literature, p. 410, note. Sainte-Beuve. There is much criticism of novelists in the Causeries, Por- traits Contemporains, Portraits Litteraires, and Chateaubriand et son Groupe Litteraire. Sismondi. Litterature du Midi de 1'Europe. (1813-29.) Some 35 pages out of 1000 are given to prose fiction, Cervantes receiving most attention. Stael, Mme. de. Essai sur les Fictions. (1795.) "L'art d'ecrire des romans n'a point la reputation qu'il merite, parce qu'une foule de mauvais auteurs nous out accables de leurs fades productions en ce genre, ou la perfection exige le genie le plus releve, mais ou la mediocrite est a la portee de tout le monde. . . . Un roman tel qu'on peut le concevoir ... est une des plus belles productions de 1'esprit humain, une des plus influentes sur la morale des individus, qui doit former ensuite les mceurs publiques. . . . On regarde (les romans) comme uniquement consacres a peindre 1'amour, la plus violente, la plus universelle, la plus vraie de toutes les passions. . . . L'ambition, 1'orgueil, 1'avarice, la vanite, pourraient etre Pobjet principal de fictions dont les incidents seraient plus neufs et les situations aussi variees que celles qui naissent de 1'amour. . . . On peut extraire des bons romans une morale plus pure, plus releve"e, que d'aucun ouvrage didac- tique sur la vertu. . . . Les evenements ne doivent e*tre, dans les romans, que 1'occasion de developper les passions du coeur humain. . . . Les romans que 1'on ne cessera jamais d'admirer . . . ont pour but de reveler ou de tracer une foule de sentiments dont se compose, au fond de 1'ime, le bon- heur ou le malheur de 1'existence, ces sentiments qu'on ne dit pas parce qu'ils se trouvent lies avec nos secrets ou nos faiblesses et parce que les hommes passent leur vie avec les hommes, sans se confier jamais mutuelle- ment ce qu'ils eprouvent. . . . Observer le coeur humain, c'est montrer a chaque pas 1'influence de la morale sur la destinee. ... II n'y a qu'un secret dans la vie, c'est le bien ou le mal qu'on a fait. . . . Cest ainsi que 1'histoire de 1'homme doit Sire representee dans les romans, c'est ainsi que les fictions doivent nous expliquer, par nos vertus et nos sentiments. HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 299 les mysteres de notre sort." De 1'Allemagne. Preface of Delphine, and Quelques Reflexions sur le But Moral de Delphine. Stendhal. (Beyle.) "Qu'est-ce que le roman de Walter Scott? De la tragedie romantique, entremelee de longues descriptions." (Quoted in Maigron.) Vigny, de. Reflexions sur la Verite dans 1'Art. (Preface of Cinq-Mars ; 1826.) "On doit s'abandonner a une grande indifference de la realite" historique pour juger les oeuvres dramatiques, poemes, romans ou trage- dies, qui empruntent a 1'histoire des personnages memorables. L'Art ne doit jamais tre considere que dans ses rapports avec sa beaut e ideale," etc. GERMAN For the romantic critics, see Haym. Bouterwek. Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit, etc. (Twelve vols., 1805-19.) Vol. III., English translation, " History of Spanish Litera.- ture." (Bohn Library.) This volume gives some attention to prose fiction, particularly to Cervantes. " The result [of Cervantes' initiative] has proved that modern taste, however readily it may in other respects conform to the rules of the antique, nevertheless requires in the narration of fictitious events, a certain union of poetry with prose, which was un- known to the Greeks and Romans in their best literary ages." Jeitteles gives excellent articles on the Novelle and the Roman. Goethe. See S., III., 363, and 366 ff. Richter. Vorschule der Aesthetik. (1804.) "Der Roman verliert an reiner Bildung unendlich durch die Weite seiner Form, in wekher fast alle Formen liegen und Happen konnen. Ursprunglich ist er cpisch ; aber zuweilen erzahlt statt des Autors der Held, zuweilen alle Mitspieler. . . . Aber die Neuern wollen wieder vergessen, dass der Roman chcn sowohl eine romantische dramatische Form annehmen konne und angenommen habe. Ich halte sogar diese scharfere Form . . . fur die bessere, da ohnehin die Laxitat der Prosa dem Romane eine gewissc Strengigkeit der Form notig und heilsam macht." From a passage on the theory of the novel. See also S., III., p. 384 ff. Schlegel, A. W. Vorlesungen iiber schone Litteratur und Kunst. (1803- 04.) On the different relations of prose and verse in ancient and modern literature. " Und so wircl der Roman nicht als Beschluss und Ausartung, sondern als das erste in der neueren Poesie gesetzt ; eine Gattung, welche das Ganze derselben reprasentieren kann. . . . One who cannot under- stand Cervantes "hat wenig Hoffnung den Shakespeare zu begreifen." 300 APPENDIX See also his essays on Lafontaine, Schulz, "Ueber den dramatischen Dialog," etc. Schlegel, Friedrich. Geschichte der alten und neuen Litteratur. (1815.) Some historical account of the novel, with some theory. His roman- ticism appears in the criticism of Cervantes and Richardson. In the later eighteenth century, " Romance . . . grew to be a favorite mode of composition with those whose enthusiasm for nature found no vent in any of the older existing forms : for it was exempt from all those fetters that cramped aspiring effort in other departments of poetry. . . . Ro- mance became in the hands of these men of genius exactly what each of them wished." (Translation in Bohn Library.) Elsewhere he calls the novel " the highest reach and the sum of all poetry, the ideal and typical romantic form." See also his essays on Boccaccio, Goethe's works, etc.; and S., III., p. 401. Solger. Vorlesungen iiber Aesthetik. (1829.) An example of the early treatment of the novel in German aesthetics. Definition of the novel as a form of epic ; relations of novel, short story, etc. The romantic con- ception of the free form of the novel is embodied in the quotation given under " lyrical " in the Glossary of this Appendix. Schopenhauer. Some interesting references to the novel in his literary essays. See S., III., p. 566 ff. See S.,111., on Heine and Tieck. RUSSIAN The movement from romanticism, through realism, to naturalism may be suggested by these three citations : Karamzin, an admirer and imitator of Sterne, defined the aim of art in some such words as these : "to pour forth floods of emotion on the realm of the sentimental." Gogol speaks of his realistic method as follows : " Pushkin . . . used to say that no author had, as much as I, the gift of showing the reality of the trivialities of life, of describing the petty ways of an insignificant creature, of bringing out and revealing to my readers infinitesimal details which would otherwise pass unnoticed. In fact, there is where my talent lies. The reader revolts against the meanness and baseness of my heroes. . . . They would have forgiven me if I had described some picturesque theatrical knave, but they cannot forgive my vulgarity. The Russians are shocked to see their own insignificance." (Letter, quoted in Pardo Bazan, p. 201.) Byelinski. (181 1-48.) " Nature is the eternal model of art, and the greatest and noblest subject in nature is man. ... Is not for the anatomist and HISTORY OF NOVELIST1C CRITICISM 301 physiologist the organism of a wild Australian as interesting as the or- ganism of an enlightened European ? For what reason should art, in this respect, differ so much from science," etc. (Quoted in Wiener, II., p. 206.) THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY i In this period, one notices first the greatly increased amount of criticism of prose fiction, and the even more significant fact that few of the great critics have failed to make some contribution. Serious consideration of the novel becomes common in works of general criticism, in aesthetics, and in all domains of literary history. German criticism has probably done most for technical study, and perhaps for detailed historical investigation ; French criticism has applied its fondness for formulas, and its clear, rapid examination of problems, to the field of the novel. While many critics now consider the novel as one of the highest forms of art, dissenting voices may still be heard. Viewed as accompanying the creative movement, criticism is at first mainly realistic, then naturalistic, then reactionary in the direction of a new idealism, or neo-romanticism. A few further aspects may be noted : The considerable number of extended works in the history of national fiction ; works on the art of fiction by novelists or others, intended for practical guidance to beginners ; the increased number of monographs of all varieties in this field ; fresh consideration of fiction in the light of new sociological, psychological, and ethical views; increased attention to the short story as a distinct type; work in the educational domain university theses, edited masterpieces, pamphlets, and books for the systematic study of fiction, syllabi of lecture courses etc. AMERICAN Garland, Hamlin. Crumbling Idols. The " new spirit " of American realism appears in vigorous fashion. There is much general reference to the 302 APPENDIX novel, exposition and defense of "veritism," consideration of "local color," and a striking theory of " the local novel." Hawthorne. Notes on his sources, method, etc. Preface of The House of the Seven Gables, on the nature of romance. Howells. Criticism and Fiction. My Literary Passions. Heroines of Fiction. Magazine editorials. In general, exposition and defense of the realistic position, with special interest in continental realism, including Russian. James, Henry. < Periodical articles. Hawthorne. French Poets and Novelists. The Art of Fiction. "The analogy between the art of the painter and the art of the novelist, is, so far as I am able to see, complete. A novel being a picture . . . how can a picture be either moral or im- moral ? " " The only reason for the existence of a novel is that it does compete with life. " "The air of reality (solidity of specification) seems to me the supreme virtue of a novel." Cf. Stevenson, below. See also under " impression," in Glossary. Lanier. There is severe criticism of his English Novel in S., III., p. 643. Mabie, H. M. has given some attention to fiction. Matthews, Brander. Theoretical, technical, and historical criticism. Special exposition of the short story, as an independent type. See the Bibliography, under C. S. Baldwin Barrett Burton Canby Chandler Cody Cook Crawford Crawshaw Cross David- son Dixson Dye Forsyth Hammond Lewis MacClintock Moulton Nettleton Frank Norris Perry Scudder Simonds L. W. Smith Stoddard Thompson Tuckerman Van der Velde Warren. ENGLISH Dallas. May be noted for a low opinion of the novel at a late date. The " novel is but a fictitious biography." ..." A novel may be described as gossip etherealized, family talk generalized." Dowden has given special attention to George Eliot and to Goethe, in various essays and studies ; some attention to the novel in the French Revolution, and the History of French Literature. Eliot, George. A vigorous defense of realism in the preface of Adam Bede; essays on Story-Telling, Lady Novelists, Silly Novels by Lady Novelists; and material for study of her own work in Cross's Life. Gosse has made something of a specialty of the novel, discussing theory as well as history. Northern Studies. Questions at Issue. In his history of Eighteenth Century English Literature he gives a good account HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 303 of the rise of the novel. Also note his numerous introductions to trans- lations of continental novels Dutch, Scandinavian, Spanish, etc. Hardy, Thomas. Prefaces of Return of the Native, Mayor of Casterbridge, A Pair of Blue Eyes, and Jude the Obscure. In the last, he gives this realistic, impressionistic statement : " Like former productions of this pen, Jude the Obscure is simply an endeavor to give shape and coherence to a series of seemings, of personal impressions, the question of their con- sistency or their discordance, of their permanence or their transitoriness, being regarded as not of the first moment." Helps. See S. Meredith, George. The prelude of The Egoist is a defense of satire in art, especially in fiction. Cf. the Essay on Comedy. Chapter I of Diana of the Crossways touches the relation of fiction to philosophy. Ruskin. Characteristic reference to fiction in many passages. Attack on realism in Fiction, Fair and Foul. Consideration of Scott in Part IV., Chapters 16 and 17, and incidental mention of other novelists, in Modern Painters. Comment on fiction in Fors, especially Letter 31 and follow- ing, on Scott. "Of the four great English tale-tellers whose dynasti.-s have set or risen within my own memory Miss Edgeworth, Scott, Dickens, and Thackeray I find myself greatly at pause in conjecturing, however dimly, what essential good has been effected by them, though they all had the best intentions. Of the essential mischief done by them, there is, unhappily, no doubt whatever." Cf. Carlyle and Newman, above. Saintsbury has been a wide reader of fiction, as of most forms of litera- ture, and has recorded many of his impressions. French Novelists. Corrected Impressions. Volumes in the history of English literature, and in Periods of European Literature. Miscellaneous essays. Edi- torial introductions to the novels of Balzac, Defoe, Fielding, and others. Stevenson. His criticism is partly an expression of the neo-romanticism of the closing decades of the century. See passages in his letters, and the essays, A Gossip on a Novel of Dumas', A Gossip on Romance, Victor Hugo's Romances, and A Humble Remonstrance. The last is directed in part against the Art of Fiction, by Henry James. (See above.) "The novel, which is a work of art, exists, not by its resemblances to life . . . but by its immeasurable difference from life, which is designed and sig- nificant, and is both the method and material of the work." Traill, H. D. See S., III. Trollope, Anthony. The Autobiography contains, besides much mate-rial on his own fiction, a chapter on Novels and the Art of Writing Them, and a chapter on English Novelists of the Present Day. The first of these opens with the statement, " It is nearly twenty years since I pro- 304 APPENDIX posed to myself to write a history of English prose fiction." It is interest- ing to note that this time coincides with the date of Masson's work the first important history of English fiction. See the Bibliography, under Baker Besant Jack Ker Masson W. E. Norris Raleigh Robertson Senior Turner Wilson Wors- fold. FRENCH Bourget. Criticism of French novelists in Etudes de Psychologic Contempo- raine, and in Etudes et Portraits. Brunetidre. Many separate studies in Etudes Critiques, Questions de Cri- tique, Essais sur la Litterature Contemporaine. Victor Hugo. Notable attention in the Manual of French Literature. Le Roman Naturaliste is probably one of the best five or six volumes of aesthetic criticism in the whole field of the novel, for the average student. It was " largely instrumental in hastening the end of naturalism." (Kastner and Atkins.) Of the novel he says : " nul autre genre ne se prete plus complaisamment a des exigences plus diverses." " Par Pimprevu de ses combinaisonsinfinies, par la variete des formes qu'il peut presque indifferem- ment revStir, par la liberte de son allure et 1'universalite de sa langue, il convient particulierement a nos societes democratiques." Of historical romance : " ni du roman ni de 1'histoire, ou plutot qui sera de 1'histoire si vous y cherchez le roman, mais qui redeviendra du roman si vous y cherchez de 1'histoire." Lemaitre. Impressions de Theatre. Contains notices of dramatizations of Pere Goriot, Crime and Punishment, and Germinie Lacerteux. Montegut. Dramaturges et Romanciers. Ecrivains Modernes de 1'Angle- terre is largely upon novelists. See also S. Pellissier. The following may be quoted as a representative recent view of the novel by an historian of general literary movements : " Tenu par les anciens et mSme par notre Sge classique pour un divertissement frivole, le roman avait echappe" ainsi aux definitions et aux regies d'une critique que ne daignait pas s'en occuper. II n'y a guere plus de cinquante ans, Villemain osait a peine le faire entrer dans 1'histoire litteraire, et ne 1'admet- tait du moins qu'en langue grecque. La nature meme du genre se prStait d'ailleurs a tous les sujets et a tous les tons ; aussi, favorise par les con- ditions sociales, devait-il en notre temps prendre les formes les plus diverses et refleter les multiples aspects de 1'dme mod erne. Et, s'il n'est au XIX C siecle aucun sentiment, aucune idee, qui n'y trouve son expres- sion, il n'est aucune ecole de quelque importance qui n'ait tente d'en renouveler la formule d'apres ses vues particulieres, aucune conception HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 305 de 1'art & laquelle il ne se soit accommode*. II avail etc d'abord une effusion de sensibilite personnelle. II s'appliqua ensuite a faire revivre les siecles passes dans leurs personnages, leurs moeurs et leurs costumes. Quittant 1'histoire pour la societe contemporaine, il se divisa cnfin, sans sortir de ce cadre mSme, en deux genres bien distincts et repondant a deux tendances irreductibles de 1'esprit : les uns, regardant la vie reelle a travers leur imagination Uprise de beaute, de vertu, de bonheur, en rendirent un tableau toujours idealise dans sa verite me"me ; les autres, armes d'une analyse sagace et penetrante, s'etudierent a la voir tclle qu'elle est et a la representer telle qu'ils 1'avaient vue." (Fourth edition, Paris, 1895, P- 2 32.) Paris, Gaston. Important for medieval fiction. Sand, George. Prefaces to several novels. Scherer, Edmond. One of the chief critics of George Eliot in France. Cf. Le Roman Naturaliste : Le Naturalisme Anglais, Etude sur George Eliot. See pp. 205 and 206 of the present volume. Taine. " He undoubtedly gave considerable impetus to the Naturalistic movement, but it is entirely unfair to make him responsible for its exaggerations and excesses." (Kastner and Atkins.) Cf. Lanson, p. 1060. V6ron. " It has been the fashion for the last fifty years to abuse novels on every opportunity. Would-be serious criticism looks down upon them as beneath its notice," etc. Against such a view Veron affirms the " poetic character " of the novel. Vogue", de. "The Neo-Christian movement [is due] in great measure to his critical studies on the great Russian novelists." (Kastner and Atkins.) Zola. Brunetiere's Roman Naturaliste is in part an answer to his theories as well as practise. See S., and many monographs and essays. See S. on Amiel, Barbey d'Aurevilly, Baudelaire, Doudan, Flaubert, Gautier, the Goncourt brothers, Planche, Texte, etc. See Bibliography, under Albert Chassang Do umic Gilbert Guyau Jusserand Lanson Le Breton Le Goffic Maigron Morillot Rocafort Texte. GERMAN Baumgart. " Der Prosaroman ist viel zu fest an die Detaildarstellung gebunden, als dass er jemals sich ganz zu der Hohe des Epos erheben konnte, wo das Kennzeichen aller echten Poesie die Darstellung des Besondern in lebendigster Gegenwartigkeit zugleich mit der Wirklichkeit wetteifert und doch uberall das Allgemeine in sich chliesst." (p. 315.) 306 APPENDIX Beyer, C. Deutsche Poetik. About fifty pages are given to the novel a good example of its treatment in later German poetics. " Der Roman ist das Prosaepos der Gegenwart . . . jene umfangreiche Prosa-Erzahlung, welche Entwickelungsgang und Geschick eines Helden vom ersten Ahnen oder Beginnen seines Strebens bis zu einem gewissen Abschluss einer Reihe von Begebenheiten (bis zur Erreichung eines Zieles oder bis zur Sichtbarwerdung der poetischen Gerechtigkeit, d. i. der Vollendung der poetischen Idee) in abgerundeter Form und poetischer, das wirkliche Leben und den jeweiligen Charakter der Zeit wiederspiegelnder Weise darstellt. Mit andern Worten : der Roman bietet die poetische Ge- staltung eines individuellen, einheitlich bestimmten bedeutenden Lebens in der Form geschichtlicher Erscheinung ; die Spiegelung dieses Lebens mit seinen sittlichen Hohen und Tiefen ; das Bild dieses durch Erfah- rung gereiften, durch Gefahren erprobten, zuletzt zu einem sichern Stand- punkt gelangten Lebens, wie es beispielsweise bei der homerischen Erzahlung der Irrfahrten des Odysseus entgegentritt." (Third edition, Berlin, 1900, II., p. 347.) Borinski. Interesting as an example of the study of the theory of the novel in the general history of criticism. Brandes discusses a number of novelists in Moderne Geister and Menschen und Werke, as well as in Hauptstromungen. In the last work he treats the " historical and ethnographical naturalism " of Scott at some length. Carrie" re. Aesthetik. (1885.) "Die Poesie hat sich ins Gemiith gefliichtet, die Entwickelung der Individuality in einer vielfach widersprechenden prosaischen Welt verlangt nun ihre kiinstlerische Wiedergeburt, und diese ist der Roman." Freytag. The analysis of plot in the Technik des Romans has been applied to the novel by various critics. Some theory and technic in the essay on Wilibald Alexis. Preface to Soil und Haben. " Dem Schonen in edelster Form den hochsten Ausdruck zu geben, ist nicht jeder Zeit ver- gonnt, aber in jeder soil der erfindende Schriftsteller wahr sein gegen seine Kunst und gegen sein Volk. . . . Gliicklich werde ich sein, wenn . . . dieser Roman den Eindruck macht, dass er wahr nach den Gesetzen des Lebens und der Dichtkunst erfunden und doch niemals zufalligen Ereignissen der Wirklichkeit nachgeschrieben ist." Ludwig. The novel "verlangt erstens Ruhe, Abwcisen jeder Art Ungeduld, zweitens je grosser, d., h., langer, reicher er ist, desto mehr eine gewisse Ausserlichkeit. . . . Eine Hauptkunst des Romanschreibers ist ferner das Arrangement, das Verschweigen von Dingen, die man gern wissen mochte, das Zeigen von Personen und Dingen, deren Verhaltniss zum HISTORY OF NOVELISTIC CRITICISM 307 Ganzen noch unbekannt, das Ahbrechen, das Verschlingen, das Ver- bergen des Innern hinter dem Aussern, der Absichten der Personen." Meyer. Konversations-Lexikon. " Das eigentlich Charakteristische des Ro- mans im heutigen Sinne dieses Wortes, besteht clarin, dass der Roman in hoherm Grade und in umfassenderer Weise als jede andre, auch jede andre epische Dichtungsart, auf die analysierende Darstellung des vielver- schlungenen Getriebes des seelischen Lebens und seiner innern Geschichte gerichtet ist, oder mit einem Worte : in seinem eminent psychologischen Charakter. Steht dem Drama besonders nahe." (Fifth edition, 1896.) Nietzsche. SeeS., III. Nordau, Max. Cf. the treatment of Tolstoi and Zola as degenerates, with Robiati and Merejkowski. Chapters in Paradoxes, on The Import of Fiction, etc. Riemann. One of the most suggestive volumes of recent criticism in the field of the novel. See p. 267 of this Appendix. Scherer, W. Kleine Schriften, II. Includes essays on George Eliot, Auer- bach, etc., and on technic of the modern short story. See Bibliography. Spielhagen. In addition to volumes given in the Bibliography, there are chapters in Aus Meiner Studienmappe on Auerbach, Bjornson, and Feuil- let. This contribution to the much-discussed relation of drama to novel may be quoted : " Der Roman ist in jeder Beziehung des Stoffes, der Oekonomie, der Mittel, ja selbst, subjectiv, in Hinsicht der Qualitat der poetischen Phantasie und dichterischen Begabung, der voile Gegensatz des Dramas." Schmidt, Erich. Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe. Charakteristiken also contains much on novelists. See the Bibliography, under Bobertag Bolsche Braitmaier Cholevius Eichendorff Gottschall Heyse Koberstein Korting Kreyssig Mielke Reborn Rohde Volkelt. ITALIAN d' Annunzio. The preface of II Trionfo della Morte is interesting as show- ing the Italian traditions of language, and the fine sense of art. Robiati. His critical theory is distinct if not original : " Per me la critica ha P ufficio di studiare il movimento del pensiero di un popolo . . . studiare 1' opera d' arte non in se, ma come segno di una data epoca, di un determinato periodo storico." For each of the principal novelists studied he has a formula : "In Verga ho studiato lo sviluppo del ro- manzo naturalista da noi ; in Rovetta una nuova forma di pessimismo ; in Fogazzaro 1' influenza germanica presso di noi ; in Ottone di Banzole 308 APPENDIX 1* arte di decadenza." He defines the naturalistic novel as one " che cerca le leggi matematiche con cui un individuo od un gruppo sociale agisce o deve agire in date circonstanze, in determinati ambienti." See also p. 189 of the present volume. Verga. The novel is "la piu completa e la piu umana delle opere d' arte." See also Section 129. RUSSIAN Gorki gives a severe criticism of realism, with some reference to his own work, in Poet-Lore, summer, 1904. Merejkowski. The volume given in the Bibliography is one of the ablest and most stimulating criticisms of Dostoyevsky, Pushkin, and Tolstoi, accessible in English. In a sense it is a review of the major tendencies of Russian fiction throughout the century. Tolstoi. What is Art, while not directly on the novel, is of large interest to the student of that form of art. Preface to edition of Maupassant. SPANISH Pardo Bazan, Emilia. Fiction is considered in the volume on Russian literature and life. The influence of Russian naturalism on French and Spanish fiction, etc. Discussion of realism and naturalism in several other critical works. Vald6s. Los Novelistas Espafioles. Brief chapters on Alarcon, Galdds, Valera, etc. Valera. Royal Academy addresses on Amadis of Gaul, Don Quixote and methods of judging it. Preface to later editions of Pepita Jimenez. Nuevo Arte de Escribir Novelas. V. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES THE following list includes : I. Some works mentioned elsewhere in this volume without sufficient bibliographical clearness. II. A few important references in the fields of, 1. The theory and technic of fiction, including the short story, as that is usually discussed in comparison with the novel ; 2. The study or methodical criticism of fiction ; 3. The history of European fiction, in large areas, and when it is the principal subject of a work ; 4. The history of theory. III. A few other works of such nature as to be of special value in connec- tion with the above interests. Suggestion for much more extensive reading is given in the Notes on the History of Novelistic Criticism. In the present list, a f indicates that the author (not always the individual work) is mentioned in those Notes. A * has been placed before those works which are entirely or mainly concerned with fiction. ALBERT, PAUL : La Prose. Paris, 1887. About 20 pages on the novel. * BAKER, E. A. : A Descriptive Guide to the Best Fiction. London, 1903. Limited to English originals and translations. BALDWIN, J. M. (editor) : Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. Three vols.,N.Y., 1901-03. Defines or discusses many aesthetic, ethical, psychological, and socio- logical terms found in the criticism of fiction. (References elsewhere are to this work.) * BALDWIN, C. S. : American Short Stories. N.Y., 1904. Selections ; with introductory essay on the short story. * BARRETT, C. R.: Short Story Writing. N.Y., 1900. Theory ; technic ; classification, etc. tBAUMGART, H.: Handbuch der Poetik. Stuttgart, 1887. 309 310 APPENDIX * BESANT, WALTER : The Art of Fiction. London, 1884. A brief work on the theory, "laws," and technic of the novel as a form of art ; from a novelist's point of view. BETZ, L. P.: La Litterature Comparee. Essai Bibliographique. 2d ed., Strassburg, 1904. Lists many studies in the international relations of fiction, f BEYER, C. : Deutsche Poetik. 3d ed., three vols., Berlin, 1900. * BOBERTAG, F. : Geschichte des Romans und der ihm verwandten Dichtungs- gattungen in Deutschland. Two vols., Berlin, 1877-84. BOLSCHE, W. : Die naturwissenschaftlichen Grundlagen der Poesie. Pro- legomena einer realistischen Aesthetik. Leipzig, 1887. Consideration of Zola is included, f BORINSKI, K. : Die Poetik der Renaissance. Berlin, 1886. About 30 pages on the novel. BRAITMAIER, F. : Geschichte der poetischen Theorie und Kritik von den Diskursen der Maler bis auf Lessing. Two vols., Frauenfeld, 1888-89. A little discussion of the novel. fBRANDES, GEORG: Die Hauptstromungen der Litteratur des igten Jahr- hunderts. 5th ed., six vols., Berlin, 1897. Translated from the Danish. English translation, N.Y. and London, six vols., 1901-05. BRAY, J. W. : History of English Critical Terms. Boston, 1898. Valuable within its field ; but " critical " is understood as judicial, and there is no consideration of strictly technical terms. f* BRUNETIERE, F.: Le Roman Naturaliste. New ed., 1893. Broad aesthetic and ethical criticism of realism, naturalism, impres- sionism, the experimental novel, etc. Illustration chiefly from French fiction, with an essay on "Le Naturalisme Anglais: Etude sur George Eliot." (References elsewhere are to this work.) BRUNETIERE, F. : L'Evolution des Genres. 1890. * BURTON, RICHARD : Forces in Fiction. Boston, 1902. BURTON, RICHARD : Literary Likings. Boston, 1898. (1903.) Besides criticisms of individual novelists, includes four essays on gen- eral " Phases of Fiction." *CANBY, H. S.: The Short Story. N.Y., 1902. A pamphlet ; mainly theoretical. Revised as the Introduction to Jessup and Canby's Book of the Short Story. N.Y. and London, 1903. * CHANDLER, F. W. : Romances of Roguery. Vol. L, N.Y., 1899. Mainly historical research in the Spanish field. * CHASSANG, M. A. : Histoire du Roman et de ses Rapports avec PHistoire. 1862. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 311 *CHOLEVIUS, L. : Die bedeutendsten deutschen Romane des lytcn Jahr- hunderts. Leipzig, 1866. * [CODY, SHERMAN] : How to Write Fiction. Especially the Art of Short Story Writing. London, 1895. A defense and exposition of technical method. * COOK, MAY E. : Methods of Teaching Novels. Chicago, n. cL A pamphlet for secondary schools. * CRAWFORD, F. M. : The Novel : What It is. N.Y., 1903. CRAWSHAW, W. H. : The Interpretation of Literature. N.Y., 1896. Pedagogical ; special outlines for the study of the main types of litera- ture. See p. 267 of this Appendix* * CROSS, W. L. : The Development of the English Novel. N.Y., 1899. A standard work, covering the entire history of the English novel, conceived as an evolution d'un genre. Cf. Stoddard. Much material on the form of the novel. t DALLAS, E. S. : The Gay Science. [Criticism.] Two vols., London, 1866. A chapter on the novel. * DAVIDSON, HARRIET A. : The Study of Ivanhoe; Romola; Silas Marner, etc. Albany, and in some cases, N.Y. Suggestive analytical pamphlets. * DAVIDSON, HARRIET A.: The Creative Art of Fiction. (Pamphlet.) Albany. *DixsoN, ZELLA A.: Subject-Index to Universal Prose Fiction. N.Y., 1897. * DOUMIC, RENE : Contemporary French Novelists. N.Y., 1899. Translated from the French. t*DuNLOP, J. C.: History of Prose Fiction. London, 1814. Revised ed., with important additions, two vols., London, 1888. See p. 266 in this Appendix. * DYE, CHARITY : The Story-Teller's Art. Boston, 1898. A brief analytical treatise for secondary schools. * EICHENDORFF, J. VON: Der deutsche Roman des iSten Jahrhunderts in seinem Verhaltnis zum Christentum. Leipzig, 1857. FITZMAURICE-KELLY, J : History of Spanish Literature. N.Y., 1898. * FORSYTH, WM. : Novels and Novelists of the i8th Century. In Illustration of the Manners and Morals of the Age. N.Y., 1871. fFREYTAG, GUSTAV : Die Technik des Dramas. 1863. 8th ed., Leipzig, 1898. English translation, Chicago, 1895. GARDINER, J. H. : Forms of Prose Literature. N. Y., 1900. t GARLAND, HAMLIN : Crumbling Idols. Chicago, 1894. GARNETT, RICHARD : History of Italian Literature. N.Y., 1898. 312 APPENDIX GAYLEY, C. M., and F. N. SCOTT : Introduction to Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism. Vol. I., Boston, 1899. GIDDINGS, F. H. : Inductive Sociology. N.Y., 1901. * GILBERT, EUGENE : Le Roman en France pendant le XIX e Siecle. 2d ed., 1896. GIRARDIN, SAINT-MARC : Cours de Litterature Dramatique. Five vols., 1843 S< 1' Includes considerable direct reference to the novel pastoral romance, heroic romance, etc. The treatment of the psychology of the drama, in reference to love, jealousy, suicide, etc., is applicable in part to the novel. GOTTSCHALL, R. VON : Poetik. 5th ed., Breslau, 1882. About 30 pages on the novel and short story ; classification of fiction. GUYAU, M. : L'Art au Point de Vue Sociologique. 1889. Quite extended treatment of the novel. * HAMMOND, ELEANOR P. : Class Questions for Analysis of Narrative Fiction. University of Chicago, 1899. A pamphlet of technical analysis. HAYM, R. : Die Romantische Schule. Berlin, 1870; reprint, 1902. Excellent on the theory of the novel held by the romanticists. HENNEQUIN, EMILE : La Critique Scientifique. 1890. See p. 266 in this Appendix. HEYDRICK, B. A. : How to Study Literature. 3d ed., N.Y., 1903. For secondary schools ; brief but sound analysis for the separate types of literature. * HEYSE, PAUL, and H. KURZ (editors) : Deutscher Novellenschatz. Introduction, on theory of short story. * HITCHCOCK, A. M. : How to Study Fiction. Boston and Chicago, 1899. A brief pamphlet for secondary schools, f* HOWELLS, W. D. : Criticism and Fiction. N.Y., 1895. * HOWELLS, W. D. : Heroines of Fiction. Two vols., N.Y. and London, 1901. *JACK, A. A. : Essays on the Novel as Illustrated by Scott and Miss Austen. London, 1897. t* JAMES, HENRY: Art of Fiction. Boston, 1885. Theory of the novel, from a realistic position. * JAMES, HENRY : French Poets and Novelists. N.Y., 1878. (1884 ; 1893.) JAMES, WILLIAM : Principles of Psychology. Two vols., N.Y., 1890. t JEITTELES, IG. : Aesthetisches Lexikon. Two vols., Vienna, 1835-37. * JUSSERAND, J. J. : Le Roman Anglais. Origine et Formation des Grandes Fxoles de Romanciers du XVIIP Siecle. 1886. * JUSSERAND, J. J. : The English Novel in the Time of Shakespeare. N.Y. and London, 1890. Translated from the French. Entertaining as well as scholarly. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 313 KASTNER, L. E. and H. G. ATKINS : Short History of French Literature. N.Y., 1901. KER, W. P. : Epic and Romance. London, 1897. A scholarly consideration of the medieval transition from epic to ro- mance, in the main viewed as a degeneration, with close analysis of both types. KOBERSTEIN, A. : Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationallitteratur. 5th ed., 5 vols, Leipzig, 1872-73. About 100 pages on the novel ; including theory of prose narration, and particularly the iSth century theory of the novel, in Germany. * KORTING, C. : Geschichte des franzosischen Romans im I7ten Jahrhundcrt. Leipzig, 1885-87. * KREYSSIG, FR. : Vorlesungen iiber den deutschen Roman der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1871. (1891.) f* LANIER, SIDNEY : The English Novel and the Principles of its Develop- ment. N.Y., 1883. LANSON, GUSTAVE : Histoire de la Litterature Francaise. Ed. of 1901. Detailed critical discussion of types as well as individual novelists. * LE BRETON, A. : Le Roman au XVII e Siecle. 1890. (1898.) * LE GOFFIC, CHARLES : Les Romanciers d'Aujourd'hui. 1890. LEVEQUE, C. : La Science du Beau. 1872. * LEWIS, E. H. : Types of American Fiction. (Syllabus of lecture course.) University of Chicago, 1896. Presents a method of analysis, applied to individual works. LOTZE, H. : Outlines of ^Esthetics. Translated and edited by G. T. Ladd. Boston, 1886. f* LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-65) : Romanstudien (one vol. in Schriften, six vols.). Leipzig, 1891. Important for theory, technic, and classification. * MACCLINTOCK, W. D. : Studies in Fiction. (Syllabus of lecture course.) University of Chicago, 1897. Suggestive and detailed ; quite technical analysis. * MAIGRON, L. : Le Roman Historique a 1'Epoque Romantique. Essai sur PInfluence de Walter Scott. 1898. *MASSON, DAVID: British Novelists and Their Styles. London, 1856. (Boston, 1892.) Historical review from Morte d'Arthur to date of writing. Some theory and technic. See p. 266 in this Appendix, t* MATTHEWS, BRANDER : Philosophy of the Short Story. N.Y., 1888. (1901.) * MATTHEWS, BRANDER : Aspects of Fiction. N.Y., 1896. 314 APPENDIX * MATTHEWS, BRANDER : The Historical Novel and Other Essays. N.Y., 1901. Several essays on fiction; one on "The Study of Fiction." t MEREJKOWSKI, D. : Tolstoi as Man and Artist. With an Essay on Dos- toievski. English translation, N.Y. and London, 1902. * MIELKE, H. : Der deutsche Roman des iQten Jahrhunderts. 4th ed., 1900. " The best work on the [German] fiction of the century." f* MONTKGUT, E. : Dramaturges et Romanciers. 1878. (1890.) MONTEGUT, E. : Ecrivains Modernes de 1'Angleterre. Three vols., 1892. * MORILLOT, PAUL : Le Roman en France depuis 1610 jusqu'a nos Jours. 1893. * MORILLOT, PAUL: Scarron et le Genre Burlesque. 1888. MORLEY, HENRY : Character Writings of the Seventeenth Century. London andN.Y., 1891. Only English works are included. MOULTON, C. W. (editor) : The Library of Literary Criticism of English and American Authors. Eight vols., Buffalo, N.Y., 1901-04. Includes systematically arranged criticisms of novels and novelists. * MOULTON, R. G. : Stories as a Mode of Thinking. (Syllabus.) University of Chicago. * MOULTON, R. G. :. Four Vears of Novel Reading. Boston, 1895. A record of literary club work. Introduction on the study of fiction. MOULTON, R. G. : Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. N.Y., 1885. (1901.) A defense and program for systematic analytical criticism. Much that is applicable, mutatis mutandis, to the novel. (References elsewhere are to this volume.) NETTLETON, G. H. : Specimens of the Short Story. N.Y., 1901. NICHOL, JOHN : American Literature. 2d ed., Edinburgh, 1885. fNoRDAU, MAX: Degeneration. Translated from the German. N.Y., 1895. NORDAU, MAX : Paradoxes. (1885.) Translated from the German. Chi- cago, 1895. * NORRIS, FRANK : The Responsibilities of the Novelist and Other Literary Essays. N.Y., 1903. Realistic, democratic, and American position ; defends technical study, and includes a chapter on "The Mechanics of Fiction." * NORRIS, W. E., and others : On the Art of Writing Fiction. London, 1894. Rather light essays on special types and elements of fiction, by novelists, largely by way of advice to beginners. t PARDO BAZ/N, EMILIA : Russia ; its People and its Literature. Translated from the Spanish. Chicago, 1890. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 315 fPELLissiER, GEORGES: The Literary Movement in France during the Nine- teenth Century. Translated from the French. N.Y., 1897. * PERRY, BLISS : A Study of Prose Fiction. Boston, 1902. The first important work in English on the theory, technic, and general study of fiction, as distinct from historical works. PHELPS, WM. L. : The Beginnings of the English Romantic Movement. Boston, 1893. * RALEIGH, WALTER : The English Novel. N.Y., 1894. An historical review from Chaucer to Waverley. * REHORN, K. : Der deutsche Roman : Geschichtliche Ruckblicke und kri- tische Streiflichter. Cologne, 1890. f* RIEMANN, R. : Goethes Romantechnik. Leipzig, 1902. ROBERTSON, J. M. : Essays towards a Critical Method. Two vols. " Es- says," 1889; "New Essays," 1897; London. On critical method in general, and its application to individual writers, including Poe and W. D. Howells. f* ROBIATI, G. : II Romanzo Contemporaneo in Italia. Milan, 1892. (Written in 1888.) in pages. ^Esthetic, sociological, and psychological discussion of schools and individual novelists. ROCAFORT, J. : Les Doctrines Litteraires de PEncyclope"die. 1890. Five or six pages on the theory of the novel. * ROHDE, E. : Der griechische Roman und seine Vorlaufer. Leipzig, 1876. t* SAINTSBURY, GEORGE : Essays on French Novelists. London, 1891. SAINTSBURY, GEORGE : The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory. N.Y., 1896. SAINTSBURY, GEORGE : A History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Europe. Three vols., N.Y., Edinburgh, and London, 1900-1904. Invaluable as a general background for the historical student of the novel and its theory, f SCHERER, EDMOND : Etudes sur la Litterature Contemporaine. Nine vols., 1863-1889. A selection translated by Saintsbury, "Essays on English Literature," London, 1891, includes three studies of George Eliot. t* SCHERER, W. : Die Anfange des deutschen Prosaromans. Strassburg, 1877. t SCHMIDT, ERICH : Richardson, Rousseau und Goethe. 1875. SCUDDER, VIDA D. : Social Ideals in English Letters. Boston and N.Y., 1898. For the novel, the development of the subject is traced in More, Swift, Dickens, Thackeray, and George Eliot. * SENIOR, N. W. : Essays on Fiction. London, 1864. Still valuable for its theoretical and technical, as well as historical matter. 316 APPENDIX SIMONDS, W. E. : Introduction to the Study of English Fiction. Boston, 1894. Mainly a selection of texts, but with some critical and historical matter. * SIMONDS, W. E. : School edition of Ivanhoe. Chicago, 1900. (References elsewhere are to this volume.) * SMITH, L. W. : The Writing of the Short Story. Boston, 1904. t* SPIELHAGEN, FR. : Beitrage zur Theorie und Technik des Romans. Leip- zig, 1883. One of the most important works on its subject. SPIELHAGEN, FR. : Neue Beitrage zur Theorie und Technik der Epik und Dramatik. Leipzig, 1898. Some discussion of the novel. * STODDARD, R. H. : The Evolution of the English Novel. N.Y., 1900. A standard work, but not as extensive in historical scope as Cross. SYMONDS, J. A.: Essays Speculative and Suggestive. Two vols., London, 1890. TAYLOR, H. S. : The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages. N. Y., 1901. TEXTE, J. : J.-J. Rousseau et les Origines du Cosmopolitanisme Litteraire. 1895. English translation, N.Y., 1895. Distinctly conceived in the spirit of comparative literature. Liberal discussion of the eighteenth-century English novelists. * THOMPSON, D. G. : The Philosophy of Fiction in Literature. London and N.Y., 1890. Important discussion of the aesthetic, ethical, psychological, and social aspects of fiction ; chapters on "The Construction," and " The Criticism," of a Work of Fiction. fTRAlLL, H. D. : The New Fiction and Other Essays. 1897. Includes discussion of the political novel, the novel of manners, and the " novel of humours." *TUCKERMAN, B. : A History of English Prose Fiction. N.Y., 1882(1899). * TURNER, C. E. : Modern Novelists of Russia. London, 1890. Excellent for the period covered. TURNER, C. E. : Studies in Russian Literature. London, 1882. (The references of the present volume are to this work.) t* VALDES, A. PALACIO : Los Novelistas Espafioles. Madrid, 1884. * VAN DER VELDE : French Fiction of To-Day. Two vols., N.Y., 1891. fVERON, EUGENE: ^Esthetics. Translated from the French. London and Philadelphia, 1879. VISCHER, F. T. : Aesthetik. Three vols., 1846. f* VOGUE, E. M. DE : Le Roman Russe. Paris, 1886. English translation, Boston, 1887. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES 317 VOLKELT, J. : Aesthetik des Tragischen. Munich, 1897. Illustrations are in part from fiction Tolstoi, Zola, etc. WALISZEWSKI, K. : La Litt6rature Russe. Paris, 1900. English translation, N.Y., 1890. Much historical and critical matter on the nineteenth-century novelists. * WARREN, F. M. : A History of the Novel previous to the Seventeenth Cen- tury. N.Y., 1895. A standard work for the history and characteristics of Greek romance, pastoral romance, romance of chivalry, etc. * WELLS, B. W. : A Century of French Fiction. N.Y., 1898. A study of the development of the novel as a form of art in the nine- teenth century. WIENER, LEO : Anthology of Russian Literature. Two vols., N.Y., 1902-03. Indispensable to the average American student of Russian fiction. * WILSON, S. L. : The Theology of Modern Literature. Edinburgh, 1899. Largely with reference to the English novel. Chapters on the theology of George Macdonald; George Eliot; Mrs. Humphry Ward; Hardy; George Meredith, and the " Scottish School of Fiction." WORSFOLD, BASIL : The Principles of Criticism. London, 1897. One chapter on " The Novel as a Form of Literature." t * ZOLA, EMILE : Le Roman Experimental. 1880. English translation, N.Y., 1893. * ZOLA, EMILE: Les Romanciers Naturalistes. 1881. * ZUEBLIN, C. : Social Reform in Fiction. (Syllabus.) University of Chicago, 1897. By a professor of sociology. Studies of Hard Times, Alton Locke, All Sorts and Conditions of Men, Marcella, and David Grieve. INDEX Action and narration, 49. Action, the single, 53. Addison, 246; Sir Roger de Coverley, 96, 194, 198, 229; The Spectator, 145, 208, 229. ^ESTHETIC INTEREST, GENERAL, 247- 264. ^Esthetics, analysis and theory in, 247. ESTHETICS, COMPARATIVE, 232-246. Age of the author, 184. Aldrich, T. B., The Queen of Sheba, 122. Aleman, Mateo, Guzmdn de Alfarache, 195- Allen, Grant, Physiological /Esthetics, 248, n. Amadis of Gaul, 8, 22, 113, 206. American Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 268, 295, 301-302. Analysis of the novel, vii ff. ( 265-268. See also Glossary, 269. Analysis and theory in aesthetics, 247. Andersen, H. C., The Improvisatore, 13, 82. Annunzio, Gabriele d', 119, 192, 194, 195, 211, 307. Romances of the Lily, 5. Tr ion/o della Morte, 153, 189, 192, n., 194, 307. Architecture and the novel, 243. Aristotle, 212, 287. Arnold, Matthew, 145, 161, n., 188, 199. Art, the novel as. See /Esthetic Interest, and ./Esthetics, Comparative, theories of, 260. Arts, classification of the, 233. relation of the separate, 232. Ascham, Roger, The Schoolmaster, 288; Toxophilus, 17, 130. Augustine, Saint, 51, 161, 209. Austen, Jane, 9, 22, 67, 83, 98, 101, 126, 150, 151, 163, 164, 186, 197. Northanger Abbey, 5. Pride and Prejudice, 32, 33, 54, 55, 58, 60, 62, 65, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 99, loi. 102, 106, 113, 117, 120, 134. Sense and Sensibility, 6, 16, 33, 46, 98, 118, 123, 145, 148, 255. Author, the, age of, 184. and dramatis personae, relations of, 101 ; in respect to settings, 87. episodes in his life, 186. individuality of, as a shaping force, 183. sex of, 185. Azeglio, Massimo d', Ettorre Fieramosca, 169, 170. Background, middleground, and fore- ground characters, 96. Bacon, Francis, 156, 159, 245, 289; The New Atlantis, 193. Baldwin, J. M., Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, 140. Balzac, Honore de, 8, 86, 94, 106, lao, I2i, 150, 153, 155, 156, 159, 176, 178, 183, 184, 190, 235, 297. Comidie Humaine, IM, 5, 6, 7, 106, 133. 135, ISL 170, 173. J 78. Deputy for Arcis, The, 8. Eugenie Grandet, 33, 98, 184. Letters of Two Brides, 13, ai. Lost Illusions, 8. Peau de Chagrin, La, 12, 153, 170, 397, Pere Goriot, Le, 33, 127. Woman of Thirty, A, & 319 320 INDEX Barbauld, Anna L., 295. Barclay, John, Argents, 12, 192. Baumgart, H., Handbuch der Poetik, no, n., 305- Beautiful, the, and the unbeautiful, 256. Beckford, William, Vathek, 20, 33, 173, 177, 211. Beethoven, 241. Beginning, middle, and end of composi- tion, 32. Behn, Mrs. Aphra, 186; Oroonoko, 102, 180. Belleau, Remi, Journee de la Bergerie, 13- Beowulf, 15, 19. Besant, Walter, 180; Art of Fiction, 167, 174, 179- and James Rice, All Sorts and Condi- tions of Men, 214. Beyer, C., Deutsche Poetik, 306. Bible, The : Book of Esther, 120, 161, 258 ; Genesis, 46 ; Revelation, 161 ; Book of Ruth, 16, 161. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES, 309- 317- Biography and the novel, 224. Birken, Kurze Anweisung zur deutschen Poesie, 290. Bjornson, Bjornstjerne, 119, 187, 190, 242. Blair, Hugh, Rhetoric, 279, 291. Blake, William, 228. Boccaccio, 150, 287 ; Ameto, 14 ; Decam- eron, 4, 206. Bodmer, J. J., 294. Boileau, Nicolas, Les Heros de Roman, 290. Book, the, as a unit of structure, 8. Borinski, K., Die Poetik der Renaissance, 306. Boswell, James, Life of Dr. Johnson, 209. Bourget, Paul, 24, n., 195, 304 ; Cosmop- olis, 82. Bouterwek, Fr., History of Spanish Litera- ture, 299. Boyle, Roger, Parthenissa, u, 25, 26. Brandes, Georg, 306. Bronte, Charlotte, Jane Eyre, 123, 186. Brooke, Henry, The Fool of Quality, 209 ; Juliet Grenville, 8, 25, 117, 119. Browne, Sir Thomas, Religio Medici, 189, Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, Aurora Leigh, 221. Browning, Oscar, Life of George Eliot, 172, 201. Browning, Robert, xii, 19, 24, 117, 141, 142, 199, 221, 224, 228, 232 ; Pippa Passes, 114. Brugis, Nonis Aprilis, 288. Brunetiere, Ferdinand, 188, 215, 304; Roman Naturaliste, 24, n., 101, 140, 141, 168, 172, 304. Buffon, Comte de, 207. Bulwer Lytton, 194, 296; Kenelm Chil- lingly, 10, 13, 43; Last Days of Pompeii, 82 ; Last of the Barons, 112; Parisians, The, 99; Paul Clifford, 10, 24, 43; Pausanias, 180; Rienzi, 14, 22. Bunyan, John, 23, 83, 198, 224, 289 ; Holy War, The, 17; Mr. Badman, 17, 125; Pilgrim's Progress, 17, 26, 71, 92, 123, 136, 185. Burney (D'Arblay), Frances, 186; Eve- lina, 21, 31. Burns, Robert, 209, 228. Burton, Robert, Anatomy of Melancholy^ 195- Byelinski, Vissarion G., 300. Caine, Hall, The Manxman, 8. Campanella, Tommaso, Civitas Solis, 26. Carlyle, Thomas, 176, 196, 296 ; Chartism, 123 ; Correspondence, 230 ; French Revolution, 48; Sartor Resartus, 230. Carriere, M., Aesthetik, 306. Catastrophe in plot, 60. Caxton, William, 287. Central character, 97. Cervantes, 95, 150, 153, 156, 163, 290. Don Quixote, 4, 5, 23, 33, 89, 102, 123, 153, 174, 179, 185, 189, 194, 195, 205, 206, 215, 224, 255, 290. Galatea, 14. Chapter, the, 9. distribution of characters, 93. Character and characterization, 109. CHARACTERIZATION, 109-129. Character point of view, 71. INDEX 321 CHARACTERS, The, 91-129. association of, 99. author, and, relations of, 87, 101. central, 97. change (development) in, 124. composition of, 91. costume and physical environment of, 114. foreground, middleground, and back- ground, 96. grouping of, 93-108. identity, individuality, and type in, 121. names of, 112. number of, 92. pantomime of, 116. physiognomy of, 113. psychological grouping of, 107. settings, and the author, 87. social grouping of, 105. successive grouping of, 94. typical and individual, 104, HI. unfolding of, in. utterance of, 117. Chateaubriand, 297 ; Atala, 153, 154, 281. Chaucer, 118 ; Canterbury Tales, 4. Chesterfield, Letters, 230. Chopin, Frederic F., 241, 242. Circumstantial settings, 83. Classics, the, and the novel, study of, xi. Classification of fiction, 279. Climax and foiling, 44. Climax of plot, 59. Clough, A. H., Amours de Voyage, 221. Cody, Sherman, How to Write Fiction, 167, 174, 178. Coleridge, S. T., xi, 164, 203, 207, 209, 296. Collaboration, 180. Comic, the, and the tragic, 254. COMPARATIVE ^ESTHETICS, 232-246. Comparative literature and study of the novel, x. COMPARATIVE RHETORIC, 218-231. Complexity in the novel, xii ; as a qual- ity of style, 160. COMPOSITION, PROCESS OF, 166-180. Composition, the whole, 3; beginning, middle, and end of, 32 ; germ of, 167; length of, 6; plan of, 169; sources of, 170. Comprehensiveness, as a quality of style, 155- Conceptual effect, 213. Concerted speech, 19. Concreteness, as a quality of style, 158. Congreve, William, preface of Incognita, 289. Conscience, Hendrik, 117. CONSECUTIVE STRUCTURE, 28-46. Contrast, 252. Conversation, group, 18. Cooper, J. F., 204 ; Last of the Mohicans^ 10, 19, 55, 62, 94, loo, 224. Costume of characters, 114. Crabbe, George, Tales, 221. Crawshaw, W. H., The Interpretation of Literature, 267. CRITICISM, NOVELISTIC, NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF, 286-308. American, 295, 301-302. Eighteenth Century, 290-294. English, 287, 288, 289, 291-293, 295- 297, 302-304. Fifteenth Century, 287. French, 288, 290, 293, 297-299, 304- 305- German, 290, 294, 299-300, 305-307. Grseco-Roman Period, 287. Greek, 287. Italian, 287, 288, 307-308. Middle Ages, 287. Nineteenth Century, First Half, 295- 301 ; Second Half, 301-308. Russian, 300-301, 308. Seventeenth Century, 288-290. Sixteenth Century, 287-288. Spanish, 287, 288, 290, 308. Cross, J. W., Life of George Eliot, 168, 176, 177. Cross, W. L., Development of the English Novel, 20, n., 24, n., 52, 260. Cyrano de Bergerac, Histoire Continue des Etats et Empire de la Lune, 193- Dallas, E. S., The Gay Science, 159, 302. Dante, 106, 192; La Divina Commedia, 7, 86, 177 ; La Vita Nuova, 13. Daudet, Alphonse, 173. 322 INDEX Davenant, Sir William, preface of Gondi- bert, 289. Defoe, Daniel, 7, 16, 23, 102, 115, 125, 150, 151, 157, 184, 196, 198, 202, 291. Colonel Jacque, 17, 114, 124, 225. Moll Flanders, 115, 124, 202. Mrs. Christian Dames, 115. Plague Year, Journal of the, 16, 17, 51, 64, 65, 76, 92, 94, 97, 98, 226, 260. Robinson Crusoe, 4, 5, 6, 17, 33, 67, 70, 71, 74, 75, 84, 89, 95, 98, 115, 123, 124, 136, 143, 148, 149, 153, 154, 155, 161, 164, 165, 172, 174, 185, 188, 192, 205, 215, 291. Deloney, Thomas, Jack ofNewbury, 136. De Quincey, Thomas, 296. Design, general, 250. Dialogic form, 17-19. Dickens, Charles, 8, 24, 82, 104, 163, 184, 195, 198, 214, 296. David Copperfield, 7, 71, 98, 102, 185. Dombey and Son, 12, 22, 80, 84, 86, 87, 88, 90, 134, 201. Edwin Drood, 180. Old Curiosity Shop, 82. Oliver Twist, 6. Pickwick Papers, 184. Tale of Two Cities, 5, 8. Diderot, Eloge de Richardson, 293. Divisions of a novel, 7-12. Documentary form, 20-22. Dostoyevsky, Fy6dor M., 119, 160, 206, 235 ; Poor Folk, 21. Dowden, Edward, 302. Drama, the, and the novel, 234. Dramatic and non-dramatic form, 15-16, Si- Dramatic line, the, 57-61. DRAMATIS PERSONS. THE, 91-108. See CHARACTERS. Dryden, John, 289. Dumas, pere, Alexandre, 104, 140, 180, 191. Dunlop, J. C, History of Prose Fiction, x, 266, 296. Duologue, 18. Earle, John, Microcosmography, 230. Ebcrs, Georg, Homo Sum, 52, 138. Edgeworth, Maria, 156, 186 ; Castle Rack- rent, 82, 184. Eeden, Frederik van, 211. Effects of a novel, particular, 209-214; in general, see INFLUENCE OF A NOVEL. \ \ I Eliot, George, 83, ;0i, 126, 133, 140, 144, 152, 156, i&j, 168, 170, jffl, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 184, 185, 192, 193, 198, 199, 201, 205, 206, 228, 302 ; see Cross, J. W. Adam Bede, 7, 10, 120, 126, 168, 170, 172, 173, 174, 203, 222. Daniel Deronda, 7, 8, 171. Felix Holt, 171. Janet's Repentance, 22, 27,46, 57, 59, 73. Middlemarch, 136, 153, 170, 175, 185, 188. Mill on the Floss, 22, 71, 117, 134, 170, 171. Mr. Gilfil's Love Story, 22. Romola, 79, 82, 149, 161, 168, 176, 177. Scenes of Clerical Life, 170, 222. Silas Marner, 7, 10, II, 16, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 3, 3i, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 50, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 66, 68, 70, 72, 73- 76, 77, 78, 80, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 9i, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101, 106, in, 113, 115, 120, 123, 126, 136, 140, 142, 146, 148, 151, 159, 164, 168, 170, 174, 176, 203, 2IO, 222, 225, 228, 236, 238, 239, 240, 243, 245, 251, 253, 254, 255, 26l. Emerson, R. W., 145, 159, 188, 230. Emotional effect of the novel, 212. Emotion, line of, 39. English Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 265-266, 287, 288, 289, 291-293, 295-297,302-304. Environment of the author, immediate social, 197. Environment of characters, physical, 114, Epic, the, and the novel, 222. Episode in plot, 37. Episode in the author's life, 186. Epistolary form, 20, 31. Erckmann-Chatrian partnership, 180. Essay, the, and the novel, 226. INDEX 323 Eustathius, 287. Event and incident, 34. Everyman, 198. Exhibition and interpretation of subject, 131- Extensive and the intensive, the, in subject-matter, 131 ; methods of study, ix. External material, language as, 248. EXTERNAL STRUCTURE, 1-27. Fiction. See Ideality, Illusion, Prose Fiction. Fielding, Henry, 8, 10, 14, 74, 95, 134, 143. 155. 156, iS7. 163, 169, 179, 184, 185, 192, 194, 198, 221, 223, 224, 226, 234, 265, 291. Amelia, 8, 10, 134, 172. Jonathan Wild, 10, 17. Joseph Andrews, 5, 6, 102, 123, 153, 169, 179. Tom Jones, xi, 5, 10, 33, 76, 98, 185. Fielding, Sarah, 8, 172, 291. and Jane Collier, The Cry, 8, 291. Fitzmaurice-Kelly, J., History of Spanish Literature, 179. Flaubert, Gustave, 101, 150, 153 ; Madame Bovary, 178. Fogazzaro, Antonio, 137, 184, 195. Foiling and climax, 44. Force, as a quality of style, 164. FORCES, THE SHAPING, of a novel, 181- 201. Foreground, middleground, and back- ground characters, 96. Form and subject-matter, 130. Form in art, value of, 249. Forms of discourse, 218. Foscolo, Ugo, 190; Jacopo Ortis, 21, 123. Fragments of a composition, 180. France, Anatole, 146, 286. French Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 266, 288, 290, 293, 297-299, 304- 3<>5- Freytag, Gustav, 306; Die Ahnen, 5; Soil und Haben, 6, 33, 101, 102, 120, 134, 149, 188, 203; Technik des Dramas, 47, n., 306. Froude, J. A., Life of Carlyle, 224. Fuller (Ossoli), Margaret, 295. Furetiere, Antoine, Roman Bourgeois^ 290. Gald6s, Perez. See Perez Gald6s. Garland, Hamlin, 198 ; Crumbling Idols, 301. Garnett, Richard, History of Italian Literature, 188, 196 ; Vathek, 173. Gentleman's Magazine, The, 202, 292. German Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 267, 290, 294, 299-300, 305- 37- Germ of a composition, the, 167. Gesta Komanorum, 287. Giddings, F. H., Inductive Sociology, 107, 124, 132, n., 207. Gilbert, Eugene, Le Roman en France pendant le XIX" Siecle, 178, 277. GLOSSARY AND REFERENCES, 269-278. Godwin, William, Caleb Williams, 193. Goethe, ico, 112, 140, 150, 156, 165, 167, 184, 206, 209, 224, 225, 230, 234, 244, 294, 299. Wahlverwandtschaften, Die, 16, 144. Werther, 13, 21, 102, 123, 128, 169, 182, 183, 184, 185, 190, 205, 206, 214, 255. Wilhelm Meister, 5, 8, 33, 105, 123, 125, 142, 148, 149, 153, 155, 174, 180, 183, 184, 192, 206, 295. Gogol, Nikolai V., 160, 163, 171, 176, 180, 183, 187, 206, 300. Dead Souls, 8, 180, 189, 195, 224. Taras Bulba, 14, 22, 153, 170, 224. Goldsmith, Oliver, 163, 292; Citittn of the World, 229 ; Vicar of Wake- field, 98, 102, 134, 172, 185. G6mez de Quevedo y Villegas, Fran- cisco, Suenos, 86. Goncourt, de, Edmond and Jules, 119, 172. Gontcharoff, Ivan A., A Common Story, 6, Gorki, Maxim, 308. Gosse, Edmund, 170, 174, 275, 277, 302. Gottsched, J. C., 294. Graves, Richard, The Spiritual Quixote, 8. Gray, Thomas, 208, 292. Greene, Robert, Alcida, 171, n. Grieg, Edvard H., 242. 324 INDEX Group Conversation, 18. See Concerted Speech, Dialogue. Grouping of dramatis personae, 93-108. Groups, character, characterization of, 128. Gummere, F. B., Handbook of Poetics, 218. Hallam, Henry, Literature of Europe, 296 ; Middle Ages, 48. Hardy, Thomas, 87, 119, 132, 182, 198, 228, 303; Life s Little Ironies, 6; A Pair of Blue Eyes, 90. Harte, Bret, 195. Hauff, W., Lichtenstein, 10. Hawthorne, Julian, 204, 210. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 87, 121, 137, 172, 182, 302; The Ambitious Guest, 6, 92, 222; Dolliver Ro- mance, 180; Ethan Brand, 89, 222; House of Seven Gables, 33, 82, 89 ; Scarlet Letter, 7, 33, 51 ; Septimius Felton, 180. Haywood, Mrs. Eliza, Memoirs of a cer- tain Island adjacent to Utopia, 12. Hazlitt, William, 296. Head, Richard, The English Rogue, 22, 289. Hegel, G. W. F., 249. Heine, Heinrich, 228. Heliodorus, Theagenesand Chariclea, 16. Hennequin, Emile, La Critique Scien- tifique, 184, 207, 266. Heyse, Paul, 82. Historical influence on the novel, 195. Historical interpretation in the novel, 139. Historical period in subject-matter, 138. History (as a type of literature) and the novel, 225. History and sociology in subject-matter, 132. Hobbes, Thomas, 203. Hogarth, William, Marriage a la Mode. 238. Holberg, Ludwig H., Iter Subterraneum, 12, 192. Howells, W. D., 9, 163, 175, 302; A Modern Instance, 6. Huet, Pierre D., De VOrigine des Ro- mans, 290. Hugo, Victor, n, 45, 94, 137, 140, 150, 184, 198, 206, 228, 234, 241, 244, 298 ; Les Miserables, 43, 185 ; Notre Dame de Paris, 8, 10, 86, 92, 127, 134 ; Quatre-vingt-treize, 79. Hulot, Instruction sur les Romans, 298. Humanity and nature in a work of art, 247. Human nature, in the author, 198; as subject-matter, 143. Hume, David, 196. Humor as a quality of style, 162. Hunt, Leigh, What is Poetry?, 164, n. Hurd, Richard, Letters on Chivalry and Romance, 292. Ibsen, Henrik, 68 ; Hedda Gabler, 81. Ideality, in narrative plot, 48 ; and reality in characters, 102; reality, and truth in settings, 84 ; as a quality of style, 163. Identity, individuality, and type, in char- acters, 121. Illusion, artistic, 258. Incident and event, in plot, 34. Individual, the, and society as subject- matter, 142; and the typical, in subject-matter, 131. Individuality, in the author, 183; and type, in the characters, 104, 121 ; as subject-matter, 140; of a work of art, 249. Individuals, influence of a novel on, 208. INFLUENCE OF A NOVEL, THE, 202-217. Influences shaping a novel. See FORCES, SHAPING. Ingelo, Nathaniel, Bentivolio and Urania, 26, 289. Interpretation and exhibition of subject- matter, 131. Interpretation of history in the novel, 139. Italian Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 287, 288, 307-308. James, Henry, 191, 238, 302; The Art of Fiction, 158, 167, 273, 278, 302. James, William, Principles of Psychology, 122, 128. Jeffrey, Francis, 296. INDEX 325 Johnson, Samuel, 169, 208, 292; The Idler, 229; The Rambler, 229; Rasselas, 24, n., 142, 147, 169, 174. Jokai, Maurus, 205. jonson, Benjamin, 104, 208, 289; The Alchemist, xi. Journalism and the novel, 229. Judgment, of a novel, 263 ; of plot, 76. Jusserand, J. J., Le Roman Anglais, 20, n., 116, n. Kames, Lord, Elements of Criticism, 292. Karamzin, 119, 190, 226, 300. Keats, John, 228. Kemeny, Zsigmond, Baron, 205. Kempis, Thomas a, Imitation of Christ, 161. Kielland, Alexander, 87, 191, 242. Kingsley, Charles, 198, 231, 297; Alton Locke, 51, 123; Yeast, 123; West- ward Ho ! 10, 102, 103, 120. Kipling, Rudyard, 53. La Bruyere, Caracteres, 123. La Calprenede, 290. La Fayette, Comtesse de, La Princesse de Cleves, 143, 146, 186, 188, 198. Lamartine, 140. Landscape gardening and the novel, 245. Language, as external material, 248; in- fluence of, on the novel, 191. Lanier, Sidney, The English Novel, 78, 215, 220, 302; Individuality, no. Lanson, Gustave, Histoire de la Littera- ture Francaise, 154, 172, 178, 187, 273, 274- Law, William, Serious Call to the Uncon- verted, 292. Lazarillo de Tonnes, 195, 206. Lcland, Thomas, 186 ; Longsword, 8, 292. Lennox, Charlotte, The Female Quixote, 22, 194. Lermontoff, Mikhail Y., A Contemporary Hero, 98. Le Sage, 95, 195 ; Gil Bias, 5, 8, 10, 73, 153, 174- Lessing, Hamburgische Dramaturgie, 294; Laofcoon, 114, 237. LevSque, C., La Science du Beaux, 275. Lewes, G. H., 180, 261. Lie, Jonas, 190, 242; One of Life's Slaves, 6. Line of emotion, the, 39. Lines of interest, 38. Literary influence, from a novel, aoj; upon a novel, 193. Literary types and the novel. Sec COM- PARATIVE RHETORIC. Lodge, Thomas, verse quoted, 199; Rosalind, 13, 17, 22, 115, 124, 157. Longus, Daphnis and Chloe, 118, 136, 140, 144. Lotze, Hermann, Outlines of /Esthetics (translated and edited by G. T. Ladd), 124, 132, 261. Ludwig, Otto, 306. Lyly, John, 163; Euphues, 17, 24, 57, 113, 124, 157, 208, 288; Love's Meta- morphosis, 163. Lyric, the, and the novel, 227. MacClintock, W. D., 54. Mackenzie, Henry, The Man of Feeling, 6, 22, 25, 98, 112, 116, 176. Mackenzie, J. S., Manual of Ethics, 257, n., 264, n. Maigron, L., Le Roman Historique a I'Epoque Romantique, 267, 273. Malory, Sir Thomas, Morle d Arthur, 48, 86, 157. Man, nature in, as subject-matter, 144. Manzoni, Alessandro, 104, 137, 150, 190, 195, 234, 241 ; / Prornessi Sfosi, 12, 33, 92, 94. 98, 104, 134. 154. *75, 185, 205. Masses (of structure) in a novel, 30 ff. Masson, David, British Novelists and their Styles, 132. 147, 183, 266, 304. Matthews, Brander, 180, n., 187, 189, 195, 302. Maupassant, Guy de, 153, 176. Mendelssohn, Felix, 241, 242. Mendelssohn, Moses, 294. Meredith, George, 24, 150, 163, 164, 228, 303- Merejkowski, D., 206, 308. MeYimee, Prosper, 140, 298. Meyer, Joseph, Konversations- Lex ikon, 3<>7. 326 INDEX Milton, 289; Paradise Lost, 7, 15, 16, 19, 289. Moliere, 290. Momentum, mass in, 42. Monologue ^and soliloquy, 17. Montegut, E., 304. Montemayor, George of, Diana, 206. Moore, John, 292. Moore, Thomas, Lalla Rookh, 221. More, Sir Thomas, Utopia, 102, 103, 134, 192. Morley, Henry, 25, 116. Morris, William, 14 ; House of the Wolf- ings, 14. Motivating forces, 63. Motivation, 62 ff. Moulton, R. G., Shakespeare as a Dra- matic Artist, 47, 49, n., 54, 259, 263, n. Movement, rate of, in narration, 43. Movement and situation, 33. Music and the novel, 241. Names of characters, 112. Names of novels. See Title, the. Narration and Action, 49. Narratives, simple, sequence of (in plot analysis), 56. Narratives simpler than the novel, analy- sis of, 46. Narrator, the, and his point of view, 66 ff. Nash, Thomas, Jack Wilton (The Un- fortunate Traveller), 112, 115, 116, 118, 124, 157. National and racial influences on the novel, 187. Natural, social, and socialized settings, 86. Nature, and humanity in a work of art, 247. external, as subject, 144; influence on a novel, 199. human in the author, 198; as sub- ject, 143. in man, as subject, 144. Navarre, Margaret of, Heptameron des Nouvclles, 4. Newman, J. H., 137, 138, 183, 194, 195, 198, 209, 224, 231, 297; Callista, 101, 155, 194 ; Loss and Gain, 102. Nichol, John, American Literature, 204. Nicolai, Friedrich, 294. Nietzsche, F. W., 176, 307. Nordau, Max, Degeneration, 176, 307; Paradoxes, 208, 307. Norris, Frank, Responsibilities of the Novelist and Other Literary Es- says, 167, 174, 178. Norris, W. E., and others, On the Art of Writing Fiction, 167. Novalis, 294. Novel, the, analysis of, vii, 265-268. and other types of art, 232-246. and other types of literature, 218-231. as a type of literature, 218-231. as a work of art, 232-264. characterization in, no. criticism of, notes on the, 286-308. definitions of, 273, 275-276, 293. external structure in, 2. judgment of, 263. laws of, 274, 294. popularity of, 202. study of, vii-xii, 265-268. style in, 152-165. subject-matter in, 132 ff. technical terms in criticism of, 265- 278, 296. theories of, 262, 272, 273, 274, 275- 276, 278, 293, 294, 298, 299, 302, 303, 304-305, 306, 307. types of, 279-285. Objective and subjective aspects of style, 151- Objectivity as a quality of style, 156. O'Shaughnessy, Arthur, 196, n. Ossian, 14, 208. Overbury, Sir Thomas, Characters, 123. Painter, Palace of Pleasure, 6, 288. Painting and the novel, 237. Palacio Valdes, Armando, 308; Es- puma, 91, 137, 198; La Ft, 137, 142, 155 ; Maximina, 5 ; Riverita, 5. Paltock, Robert, Peter Wilkins, 26, 102. Pantomime of characters, 116. Paragraph, the, 10. Pardo Bazan, Emilia, 235, 308. Paris, Gaston, 305. INDEX 32; Parry, Catherine, Eden Vale, 25. Part, the, as a unit of structure, 8. Pater, Walter, Marius the Epicurean, 144. Patmore, Coventry, quoted, 189 ; Angel in the House, 221. Pellissier, Georges, The Literary Move- ment in France during the Nine- teenth Century, 304. Perceptual effect of the novel, 209. Perez Gald6s, 187; Episodios Nacio- nales, 135; Dona Perfecta, 10, 22, 33. 5 1 - 5 2 . 73. 76, 137- Philosophy, general, in subject-matter, 147. Phonology, 27. Photius, 287. Physiognomy of characters, 113. Physiological psychology, in character- ization, 118. Place distribution, in the influence of a novel, 204. Place settings, 81-83. Plan of a composition, 169. Plato, 130, 193, 287. PLOT, 47-77. See also STRUCTURE, CONSECUTIVE. -action and narration in, 49, 53-57. analysis of, 49-71. climax and catastrophe in, 59-62. (dramatic line, the, in, 57-62. generalized statement of, 72. ideality of, 48. judgment of, 76. ^meaning of, 47, 52. motivation and motivating forces in, 62-65. narration and action in, 49, 53-57. narrator, the, in, 66-72. necessity of, in narration, 48. point of view in, 66-72. proper, 52. story, and, 51. s^ types .of, 74. unity of, 73. Poe, Edgar Allan, 33, 96, 121, 153, 168, 175, 206, 295; The Gold-bug, 86, 92, 164, 222 ; Tales, xii ; William Wilson, 122. Poetry and prose in the novel, 219. Point of view in the plot, 66-72. Points, in the structure, 40-45. Pope, Alexander, 297 ; Essay on Man, 199; Rape of the Lock, 208, 224. Popularity of fiction, 202. Prescott, W. H., Biographical and Criti- cal Miscellanies, 295. Proportion, 253. Prose and poetry in the novel, 219. Prose and verse in the novel, 13, 220. PROSE FICTION, TYPES OF, 279-285. Psychological effects. See Effects of a Novel, Particular, groups of characters, 107. Psychology, in characterization, 118 ff. ; in subject-matter, 140-144. of the process of composition, 176. Pushkin, Alexander, 171, 180, 191, 198, 206, 221, 228, 241. Quevedo. See G6mez de Quevedo. Rabelais, 22, 23, 150, 153, 156. Racial and national influences on a novel, 187. Radcliffe, Mrs. Ann, 8, 10, 13, 63, 64, 80, 82, 87, 145, 186, 244; Gaston de Dlondeville, 13 ; Italian, The, 20, 80, 137, 161 ; Mysteries of Udolpho, 13 ; Romance of the Forest, 7, 13 ; Sicilian Romance, 20. Raleigh, Professor Walter, 153 ; The Eng- lish Novel, 235. Reade, Charles, The Cloister and the Hearth, 46, 52, 136, 185. Reality, and ideality in characters, 102; ideality, and truth, in settings, 84. Reciprocity, in structure, 45. Reeve, Miss Clara, Old English Baron, 7, 20, 186; Progress of Romance, 202, 204, 292. Reich, Emil, Hungarian Literature, 205. Reynolds, Sir Joshua, Discourses, 175. RHETORIC, COMPARATIVE, 218-231. Richardson, Samuel, 5, 7, 21, 24, 68, 157, 175, 184, 185, 190, 197, 221, 292, 293. Clarissa Harlowe, 7, 21, 116, 118, 154, 185, 206. Pamela, 4, 5, 17, 21, 66, 72, 123, 169, 172, 174, 208. Richter, Jean Paul, 299. 328 INDEX Riemann, R., Goethcs Romantechnik, 14, n., lor, 112, 116, n., 267, 307. Robiati, G., // Romanzo Contcmporaneo in Italia, 176, 184, 189, 195, 307. Rossetti, D. G., 169, 228. Rousseau, J.-J., 155, 176, 193, 224, 235, 293 ; La Nouvelle Helo'ise, 6, 8, 12, 185. Royce, Josiah, Conception of Immortality, 122, 127, 252; Spirit of Modern Philosophy, 195. Ruskin, John, 109, 209, 243, 261, 303. Russian Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 300-301, 308. Sainte-Beuve, 298. Saint-Pierre, Bernardin de, Etudes de la Nature, 4 ; Paul et Virginie, 4, 92, 98, 140. Saintsbury, George, 303. Sand, George, 156, 187, 305 ; Indiana, 8 ; Ulia. 8. Sannazaro, Jacopo, Arcadia, 13, 227, 287. Santayana, George, Sense of Beauty, 49. Scarron, Paul, Roman Comique, 8, 290. Scene, the, as a unit of structure, 36. Schasler, Max, System der Kiinste, 237. Scheffel, J. V. von, Ekkehard, 203. Scherer, Edmond, 147, 178, 205, 206, 275, 305- Scherer, W., 307. Schiller, 180, 230, 294. Schlegel, A. W., 299. Schlegel, Friedrich, 189, 206, 300. Schmidt, Erich, 307. Schopenhauer, Arthur, 300. Scott, Sir Walter, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 20, 23. 37, Si. S 2 , 63, 73, 80, 82, 85, 86, 87, 103, 104, 108, 114, 133, 140, 145, X 5. 153. 163, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176, 177, 178, 186, 187, 190, 197, 198, 214, 223, 235, 244, 275, 295, 296, 297, 299, 303, 306. Abbot, The, 216. Anne of Geierstein, 171. Antiquary, The, 5, 89, 90, 98. Bride of Lammermoor , The, 3, 16. Fortunes of Nigel, The, 12, 17, 51, 73. 173, *9S- Guy Manner ing, 5, 170, 172. Heart of Midlothian, The, 4, 12, 172. Ivanhoe, 5, 10, 13, 19, 23, 33, 35, 36, 51, 52, 62, 68, 70, 92, loo, 104, 106, 148, 154, 164, 171, 216, 224. Kenilworth, 104, 216. Lady of the Lake, The, 168. Monastery, The, 10, 73, 102, 169, 172, 216, 217. Old Mortality, 3, 12, 22. Peveril of the Peak, 12, 17. Pirate, The, 102, 108, 172. Quentin Durward, 12, 217. Redgauntlet, 21, 170. Rob Roy, 5, 10, 12, 102, 137. St. Ronan's Well, 187. Tales of My Landlord, 4, 9, 12, 33. Talisman, The, 79, 104, 224. Waverley, 5, 153, 168, 174, 185, 186, 206. Waverley Novels, The ,5,7, 26, 92, 94, ^S. *39. I 6 5. l6 9 X 7 6 2I 4. 216, 296. Scudery, Georges de, 290. Scudery, Madeleine de, 278, 290; Le Grand Cyrus, 7. Sculpture and the novel, 239. Secularity, as a quality of style, 161. Senior, William N., Essays on Fiction, v, 107, 203, 205, 217, 277. Sensational effect, 211. Sequence, in structure, 29. See also STRUCTURE, CONSECUTIVE. of dramatic and non-dramatic masses, 31 ; of simple narratives, 56. SETTINGS, THE, 78-90. aesthetic function of, 78. author, and dramatis personae, 87. circumstantial, 83. distribution of, 88. economy, general, of, 89. ideality, reality, and truth in, 84. natural, social, and socialized, 86. place, 81-82. reality, ideality, and truth in, 84. social, socialized, and natural, 86. time, 78-81. vague and exact, 85. Sex in the author, 185. Shadwell, Thomas, The Squire of At- safia, 195. INDEX 329 Shakespeare, 13, 19, 96, 112, 129, 146, 155, 157, 162, 236; As You Like It, 98, 107, 123; Comedy of Errors, 121,255; Coriolanus,\g\ Hamlet, 99, 117, 165, 199; Macbeth, 165; Merchant of Venice, 45, 236 ; Mid- summer Night's Dream, 105, 255 ; Othello, 117, 165; Richard Third, 257; Romeo and Juliet, 98, 124; Taming of the Shrew, 122; Tem- pest, The, 19, 79, 91, 124; Two Gentlemen of Verona, 124. SHAPING FORCES OF THE NOVEL, THE, 181-201. Shelley, Mary, 186 ; Frankenstein, 33, 45, 57, 102, 142, 169, 201, 211, 212, 216. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 228 ; Defense of Poetry, 220. Sheridan, R. B., 208. Short Story, the, and the novel, 221. Sidney, Sir Philip, Arcadia, 14, 17, 22, 43, 102, 105, 107, 108, 123, 203, 288; Astrophel and Stella, 159; Defense of Poesy, 220, 226, 258, 288. Sienkiewicz, Henryk, 190, 195, 242 ; Chil- dren of the Soil, 142 ; Deluge, The, 5 ; Fire and Sword, With, 5 ; Pan Michael, 5; Quo Vadis, 51, 55, 62, 82, 104, 155, 161. Sisraondi, Jean de, Litterature du Midi de T Europe, 189, 298. Situation and movement, 33. Smollett, Tobias, 6, 14, 24, 74, 95, 131, 157. 163, 195, 197, 198, 221, 224, 251, 255, 292, 293 ; Adventures of an Atom, 92; Ferdinand Count Fathom, 293 ; Peregrine Pickle, lo; Roderick Random, 66; Sir Launcelot Greaves, 43, 44, 89, 255- Social composition in subject-matter, 133. environment of the author, immedi- ate, 197. grouping of the characters, 105, ff. groups, influence of the novel on, 207. life, in the subject-matter, 135. socialized, and natural settings, 86. - Society and the individual, in subj matter, 142. Sociology and history, in subject-matter, 132. Solger, K. W. F., Vorlesungen iibcr Aesthetik, 274, 300. Soliloquy and Monologue, 17. Sorel, Charles, Le Berger Extravagant, 290. Sources of a novel, 170. Spanish Criticism of the Novel, Notes on, 287, 288, 290, 308. Spatial point of view, 69. Speech of characters. See Utterance. Spencer, Herbert, 150, 156. Spenser, Edmund, 114; The Faerie Queene, 124. Spielhagen, Fr., 206, 307; Technik des Romans, 79, 138, 153, 154, 155, 158, 159, i&z, 172, 175, 178, 204, 307. Stael, Mme. de, 156, 298 ; Corinne, 8, 13, 82, 102; Delphine, 21, 299; Essai sur les Fictions, 298. Stendhal (Henri Beyle), 299. Sterne, Laurence, 24, 116, 157, 163, 183, 190, 203, 231 ; Tristram Shandy, 10, 185, 195. Stevenson, Robert Louis, 24, n., 74, 150, 153, 167, 180, 303; Black Arrow, The, 10 ; Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, 122; Kidnapped, 6; Master ofBal- lantrae, 12. Stoddard, R. H., The Evolution of the English Novel, 26, 200, n. Story, in a technical sense, 51. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 214 ; Uncle Tom's Cabin, 82, 203, 217. STRUCTURE, CONSECUTIVE, 28-46. STRUCTURE, EXTERNAL, 1-27. STRUCTURE, INTERNAL, 47-129, 267. Study of the novel, vii-xii, 265-268. STYLE, 150-165. in general, 150-152. in the novel, value of, 152. novelistic qualities of, 154-165 ; com- plexity, 160; comprehensiveness, 155; concreteness, 158 ; force, 164; humor, 162; ideality, 163; objec- tivity, 156 ; secularity, 161. novelistic type of, 154. ibject- jSubjective and objective aspects of style, 330 INDEX SUBJECT-MATTER, 130-149. exhibition and interpretation of, 131. extensive and intensive, 131. form, and, 130. history in, 132, 138-140. human nature in, 143. individual, the, and society in, 142. individuality as, 140-142. interpretation and exhibition of, 131. in the novel, 132. main theme in, 148. nature as, 143-145. philosophy in, 147. society as, 132-138, 142. supernatural, the in, 145. typical and individual values of, 131. Sudennann, Hermann, Frau Sorge, 13, 203. Sue, Eugene, The Wandering Jew, 112. Supernatural, the, in subject-matter, 145. Swift, Jonathan, 163, 176, 196; Battle of the Books, 14, 23, 224; Gulliver's Travels, 26, 69, 75, 76, 85, 102, 174, 193. 2I 5- Symonds, J. A., quoted, 189. Syntax, 22. Taine, H., 188, 200, 305. Talfourd, Thomas N., 297. Tarkington, Booth, The Gentleman from Indiana, 85. Tasso, Torquato, Jerusalem Delivered, 224. TECHNICAL ANALYSIS OF THE NOVEL, 265-268. TECHNICAL TERMS IN THE CRITICISM OF FICTION, 265-285. Technic of the process of composition, 174. Temporal point of view, 67. Tennyson, Alfred, Harold, 68 ; Idylls of the King, 45, 135, 197, 198, 224, 238; In the Children's Hospital, 228 ; The Princess, 221. Terence, Adelphi, 195. Thackeray, W. M., 24, 139, 151, 156, 163, 194, 195, 206, 228, 297 ; Henry Es- mond, 8, 12, 24; Pendennia, 33; Vanity Fair, 184 ; The Virginians, 12, 24. Theme, the main, in a novel, 148. Theories of art, 260. of the novel, 262, 272, 273, 274, 275- 276, 278, 293, 294, 298, 299, 302, 33. 304-305. 306, 307. Theory and analysis in aesthetics, 247. Thomson, James, The Castle of Indo- lence, 136. Thoreau, H. D., 115, 229. Time distribution of influence, 203. Time perspective of the process of com- position, 173. Time settings, 78-81. Title of a novel, 5. Tolstoi, Count Lyof N., 104, 119, 140, 150, 156, 160, 189, 190, 198, 206, 209, 224, 234, 308. Anna Karenina, 33, 71, 82, 102, 106, 133, 142, 143, 176, 185, 189. Master and Man, 15, 16, 19, 46, 76, 79, 86, 92, 98. The Resurrection, 10. War and Peace, 7, 10, 102, 176, 224. What is Art?, 261, 308. Tragic, the, and the comic, 254. Traill, H. D., 303. Trollope, Anthony, 9, 104, 163, 167, 175, 178, 198, 303 ; Barchester Towers, 10, 90, 134, 161, 175, 178, 188 ; Can You Forgive Her f, 10 ; Chronicles of Barsetshire, 5 ; Small House at Allington, 82. Truth, artistic, 257. Truth, ideality, and reality in settings, 84. Tuckerman, Bernard, History of English Prose Fiction, 48. Turner, C. E. Studies in Russian Litera- ture, 180, n., 189, 206. Turgenieff, Ivan S., 87, 98, 123, 133, 189, 195, 206, 214; On the Eve, 6; \ Smoke, 189. Typical, the, and the individual, in char- acters, 104, 121 ; in subject-matter, 131- TYPES OF PROSE FICTION, 279-285. Unity general design, 250-252. of plot, 73. Utterance of the characters, 117. INDEX 331 Vague and exact settings, 85. Valdes. See Palacio Valdes. Valera, Juan, 308 ; Comendador Mendoza, 13 ' Pepita Jimenez, 21, 33, 87, 137, 144, 169, 170, 189, 194. Van Dyke, John, 188. Verga, Giovanni, 158, 308. Veron, Eugene, ^Esthetics, 127, 233, n., 248, n., 305. Verri, Alessandro, Notti Romane, 8. Verse and prose in the novel, 13, 220. Vigny, Alfred de, 104, 299; Cinq-Mars, 10, 104, 140, 188. Vischer, F. T., Aesthetik, 272. Vocabulary, 25. Vogue, E. M. de, Le Roman Russe, 305. Volitional effect of a novel, 214. Voltaire, 196, 293 ; Candide, 147, 188. Volume, the, as a unit of structure, 8. Waliszewski, K., 170, 189. Walker, Francis A., Political Economy, ix. Walpole, Horace, 186, 230, 244 ; The Cas- tle of Otranto, 12, 20, 67, 137, 164, 169, 174, 196, 208, 216, 293. Walton, Isaac, The Complete Angler, 17, ISO- , Mrs. Humphry, Robert Elsmere, 123. Warton, Thomas, History of English Poetry, 293. Wesley, John, 209. Whipple, E. P., Literature and Life, 295. White, James, Earl Strongbow, 8, 25, 26, 69. Wilson, S. L., The Theology of Modem Literature, 147. Winthrop, Theodore, 204; John Brent, 126. Wordsworth, William, 155, 167, 172. Zangwill, Israel, 190. Zeising, A., Aesthetische Forschungen % 233- Zesen, Philip von, 290. Ziegler, H. A. von, Die Asiatische Banise, 5- Zimmermann, R., /Esthetik, 62. Zola, Emile, 49, 83, 94, 119, 149, 150, 153, 178, 193, 206, 211, 235, 305; As- sommoir L', 203; Debacle, La, 8, 33, 134, 203 ; Lourdes, 5 ; Paris, 5 ; Roman Experimental, 49, n., 108; Rome, 5; Rougon-Macquart t Les> S, 106; Terre, La, 8, 13. 3 $*< RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO ^ 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1 month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing the books to the Circulation Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6, 60m, 1 /83 BERKELEY, CA 94720 YB 74347 BERKELEY LIBRARIES UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY