n OUR TREATMENT GF THE POOR W. CHANCE. M.A. M 11981 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES OUB TBEATMENT OF THE POOB OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR BY W. CHANCE, M.A. AUTHOR OP "THE BKTTER ADMINIf?TRATION OF THF. POOR LAW,' " CHILDREN UNDER THE POOR LAW," &C. LONDON p. S. KING & SON ORCHARD HOUSE. WESTMINSTER CONTENTS PAGE Introduction 9 A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS. Non-Resident Relief — Out-door Relief and Pajonent of Rents — Liability of Relations — Relief of Unmarried Mothers — Apprenticeship of Children— Distribution of Out-door Relief — Rules for Administering Relief — Relief to the Able-bodied — Relief to Out-of-work Cases — Relief in Cases of Illegitimate Children — Relief to Aged Parents — Relief to Children without Parents — Relief to Female Imbeciles and Idiots — Variation from Orders of Board — Funerals— Statistics — Hints for Good Administration . 17 OLD AGE PENSIONS. Select Committee of the House of Commons, 1887 — Aged Poor Commission, 1893 — Lord Rothschild's Committee, 1896 — Pensions involving Compulsory Contributions — Universal Pensions — Mr. Booth's Scheme — Pensions in Reward of the Exhibition of Thrift and Providence — Pensions limited to Members of Friendly and Benefit Societies — Sir Spencer Walpole's Scheme — Ability of the Working Classes to Solve the Problem — Old Age Pen- sions and Deferred Pay — House of Commons Committee, "1899 61 6 CONTENTS THE ENGLISH POOE LAW AND FEIENDLY SOCIETIES. PAGE History and Growth of Friendly Societies— Decrease in Pauperism — State Interference — Friendly Societies Act, 1894 — Old Age Pensioas — Disenf ranchisement — The Better Policy— Friendly Societies' Members independent of Outside Aid— Relief from Charity and Relief from the Rates 113 PUBLIC AND PEIVATE CHAEITY. Meaning of terms— In-door and Out-door Relief — Inadequacy of latter — Adverse Effect on Independence— Tendency to support Insanitary Dwellings — Discourages the Poor from Co-operation against Sickness and Old Age — Saps the Natural Affection of the Children for the Parents — Arguments in favour of In-door Relief — The Organisa- tion of Private Charity — In Towns — In the Country — Parochial Relief Committees — Diminution of Pauperisin 145 IN DEFENCE OF POOE LAW SCHOOLS. Child Pauperism — Children in Poor Law Schools and Certified Schools — The Workhouse School Proper — The Workhouse Separated School — The District School — The Separate School — The Boarding-Out System — The Sheffield System of " Detached Homes " — Other Systems — Children of all Sorts and Conditions— Their Treatment — Barrack, Block, and Cottage Homes Systems — Success of Girls from Poor Law Schools — Children in Schools to be Limited — The " Pauper " Taint — Infectious Diseases — Individualisation of Children — Advantages of Schools — Town and Country Schools — Supervision of Children 169 CONTENTS 7 APPENDIX A. PAGE Contributory Schemes for Old Age Pensions — The Parlia- mentary Committee's Scheme — Sir James Rankin's Scheme — Rev. J. Frome Wilkinson's Scheme . . . 209 APPENDIX B. Schemes of Old Age Pensions for Friendly Societies only — Mr. Lionel Holland's Scheme — The Bristol Scheme — The Chester Scheme 213 APPENDIX C. Reply of the Bradfield Board of Guardians to the Circular on Old Age Pensions sent to all Boards of Guardians by the Parliamentary Committee on Old Age Pensions . . 217 APPENDIX D. Tables showing the Mean Number of Paupers relieved, the Expenditure on Poor Relief, and the Approximate Cost per Head for Maintenance of Indoor and Outdoor Paupers, during the years 1870-71 and 1897-98, in the Bradfield, Cookham, and Oxford Unions .■ 225 Index 229 INTEODUCTION The interest which the questions dealt with in this volume are exciting at the present time seems to me to afford a sufficient excuse for its publication. The close of the present century is being marked by an outbreak of sentimentality on matters con- nected with the relief of the poor which threatens to get the upper hand of sense. A similar outbreak occurred at the end of the last century, and its evil results are well known to all students of Poor Law history. These results, however, seem to be generally forgotten now, or, if they are remembered, it is argued that circumstances have entirely altered, and that while the interference of the State to do more than merely relieve destitution was undoubtedly wrong in the then state of society, it cannot have the same evil effects now that such an improvement in the condition of the working classes has taken 10 INTRODUCTION place. On the other hand, those who, hke myself, believe that human nature has not altered fundamentally in the slightest degree during the last hundred years, and that if the State undertakes to do more in the way of charity than merely relieve destitidion, the pre- sent progress which the w^orking classes have made towards independence must be at least checked, even if there be not actual retro- gression, should exert every effort to limit the action of the State in this matter as far as possible to its proper function — viz., the relief of destitution only. It is much easier to say what is not, than what is, destitution. I attempted a definition in my "Better Administration of the Poor Law " (p. 53),* where I say : " A person (and the same may be said of a family of persons) may be considered destitute who has not the means of procuring the necessities of bare existence, and whose life may be endangered in consequence." This definition is not entirely satisfactory, because it seems to exclude classes of persons who may un- doubtedly be considered destitiUe in the eyes * Swan and Sonnenschein, 1895. INTRODUCTION 11 of the Poor Law. For instance, a servant seized with an infectious disease in the house of her master and mistress when there are no means of isolation, and who has to be relieved, where there is no infectious hospital to receive her, in the infectious wards of the Workhouse. * Then there is the case of the pauper lunatic. But for such exceptional cases I think my definition will hold good, the main object of the English Poor Law being to save any one from dying of starvation. Destitution can be relieved either inside or outside the Workhouse. The object of my first article, which incorporates the matter of an address recently delivered by me in Exeter, is to show how, without entirely abolishing out- door relief, people can be discouraged from making themselves destitute, and from so becoming paupers. The Atcham Union affords an example of the benefits resulting from the strict adminis- tration of outdoor relief. Further, while much has been heard of ''' In time, no doubt, the general provision of isolation hospitals by the sanitary authorities of the country will cause the infectious wards of every Workhouse to be closed. 12 INTRODUCTION these benefits in unions such as Manchester, Birmingham, Whitechapel, Stepney, St. George's-in-the-East, Ipswich, and Bradfield, the wonderful results of the policy inaugu- rated in 1836 by Sir Baldwin Leighton are too little known. If every Union had followed the example of Atcham we should hear little about Old Age Pensions, for there would be very few aged people on the rates. Thus, while in Atcham there was one person over 65 in receipt of relief (other than medical relief only) on the 1st of January, 1892, to every 20*3 of persons over 65, the corresponding figures for Exeter and the whole of England and Wales were 1 in 5*4 and 1 in 5*2 respectively. The above figures bear out what has been insisted upon over and over again, that the amount of old-age pauperism is largely de- pendent upon administration of poor relief, and in my second article I deal with that question. I am perfectly convinced in my own mind that it is a tremendous fallacy to suppose that Poor Law pauperism will be to any appreciable extent reduced by the crea- tion of a new State pauperism. INTBODUCTION V6 As an Appendix to my second article I have added the crushing reply of the Bradfield Board of Gruardians to those members of Parliament who, having made rash and ill- considered promises at the last General Elec- tion, naturally wish to see them fulfilled. But I ask. Why should a whole nation be made to suffer in order to satisfy the self- respect of a small number of individuals ? For I consider that no greater calamity could fall upon England than an increase in the number of those who are dependent upon the State for their support. In my third article I argue for the inde- pendence of the Friendly Societies, which can only be injured by any interference on the part of the State, which have shown themselves so capable of providing for the wants of their members, and which can and will provide for old-age insurance if their members demand it. In the next article I argue for the restriction of State relief to the narrowest limits, so that charitable effort may have the widest scope for action ; and the concluding article deals with a subject on which, in some quarters, sentimentality has got the upper hand of 14 INTRODUCTION sense to a greater extent even than in the case of Old Age Pensions. From visits to Poor Law schools of different kinds I have come to the conclusion that the District School is, for large Unions, a mistake, at any rate where more than two Unions are concerned with it. It seems to me far preferable to let Boards of Guardians in such Unions provide in the way which seems best to them, subject of course to the approval of the Central Poor Law authority (now the Local Government Board), for the bringing up of the children who become chargeable to the rates. I have been accused of defending Workhouse and Barrack Schools. The charge does not frighten me. I believe that a good school, under good management, and in which the Guardians take a keen interest, is as beneficial to the children brought up in it as any other mode of bringing them up. Under any system which may be devised we shall have scandals now and then if the necessary supervision and attention be absent, for the history of the Poor Law has shown that the success of any system must depend entirely upon administration. INTRODUCTION 15 To conclude, I have often said, and I now repeat it, that the English Poor Law, if administered in the way which its authors intended it to be, is the best Poor Law of any country. Under it destitution can be ade- quately relieved, and the so-called " children of the State " entirely depauperised. If an}^ improvement in its administration is to be made it can only be by the election of Guardians determined to carry out the law without fear or favour, and to deal out equal justice all round. If this little volume should assist in any way towards the attainment of this desirable end, I shall be content. W. C. July, 1899. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS While the advantages of a strict administra- tion of poor relief are generally acknowledged by all who take an intelligent and active part in Poor Law administration, even these do not always see their way quite clearly to practise what they preach. It may therefore serve a useful purpose at the present time to show by means of a concrete example how easy of application the principles of poor relief laid down by the Poor Law Commissioners of 1832 really are. The Atcham Union, Shrop- shire, is perhaps not so well known to fame as other Unions nearer London, such as Brad- field and Brixworth, or as the metropolitan Unions of St. George's-in-the-East, Stepney, and Whitechapel, although it occupies a unique position in Poor Law history as the 2 17 18 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR one Union where the principles referred to have been consistently applied since the date of its formation (November, 1836). The Union is further remarkable in that, although the Incorporation of Shrewsbury with a popu- lation of 27,253 and a large pauperism was joined to the old Union of Atcham in July, 1871, the policy of the strict administration of outdoor relief was applied to the town until its pauperism was reduced to the same level as that of the rest of the Union. It is true that since the passing of the Local Government Act, 1894, the Board of Guardians has shown itself inclined to depart from following the rules and precedents which had from 1836 up to that date governed the administration of relief in the Union, and that at times of elections there is a cry of out- relief, and very large promises are made by some candidates, but so far there has not been such an absolute departure from the old lines of administration as was expected from the changes which the Act brought about. It will, indeed, be seen from the figures given on p. 46 that the number of outdoor paupers has doubled since 1894, but it is to be hoped that A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 19 the reaction is merely temporary, and cer- tainly the increase does not in the least affect the lesson which the history of the adminis- tration of the Poor Law in the Union teaches. Keports upon the progress of the Poor Law administration in the Union were made in 1838, 1856, and 1890. At the time the Union was formed 1,065 families, consisting of 1,395 individuals (271 of whom were bastards), were receiving relief from the rates. In other words, there were 782 paupers to every 10,000 of population. On the 25th of March, 1871, the Union was relieving 192 families, consisting of 293 indi- viduals (including 10 bastards), i.e., there were then 160 paupers to every 10,000 of popu- lation. In July, 1871, the Incorporation of Shrews- bury was, as I have said, joined to the Union. At the end of the first week of the combina- tion 949 individuals were receiving relief — i.e., the 2^er mille of pauperism had risen from 16 to 20, but on the 1st of January, 1894, the i)er mille of pauperism had been reduced to 8*6. It must be noted that the above figures exclude lunatic and vagrant paupers. 20 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR The following table will make the progress of the Union quite clear : — TABLE I. Number op Paupers, excludog Lunatics and Vagrants, RECEIVING Relief in the Atcham Union. Dftte. Commsncement of Union, Nov., 1836 On March 25, 1837.. „ 1838.. 1871.. In July, 1870, Atcham and Shrewsbury re- lieved In July, 1871, end of first week after combination .... On March 25, 1872.. 1894.. 1898.. Population. 17,855 (1831) 18,313 (1871) 45,566 (1871) - 48,346 (1891) iM o5 a a O CQ =■■3 'S-Os 11 •^•§ S-a o Bas inclu astC t— t 1,065 1,395 271 659 880 71 456 651 32 192 293 10 •• 1,062 •• 949 472 584 28 282 415 13 361 465 16 ■Sd 0) 3^ ffl ® 5 7-82 4-93 3-64 1-60 2-33 2-08 1-28 0-86 0-96 These wonderful results have been achieved solely by the carrying out of a consistent policy of restricted outdoor relief over a period of about 60 years, while keeping the estab- * The six Shrewsbury parishes had a population (1871) of 27,253. This population rose to 31,318 in 1891, the borough of Shrewsbury having then a population of 26,967, and the county portion of those parishes one of 4,351. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 21 lishments for the relief of the indoor poor up to a high standard of excellency. The first Keport upon the administration of the Poor Law in the Atcham Union was drawn up by Sir Baldwin Leighton, who was Chairman of the Board of Guardians from 1836 to 1871, and is dated 26th of March, 1838. This Eeport brings out several important points bearing on the administration of the Poor Law in the Union previously to reform being undertaken. Thus : — 1. Non-Besiclent Belief. — It was found that at least half of the total number of persons receiving relief were non-resident in the Union, although they had their settlements there. The relief to most of these persons was cut off at once, and it was refused to fresh appli- cants residing out of the Union, with the result that in only five instances did the applicants leave their residence to obtain it. It would be well if all Boards of Guardians were to take stock of the numbers of non- resident paupers they are relieving at the present time, and to find out whether this 22 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR class of paupers are regularly visited and reported upon by the relieving officers, for I need scarcely say that this is a form of out- door relief which is open to much abuse, and, if granted at all, should be most carefully watched. One of the rules of the Atcham Board runs as follows : — " No permanent relief is to be given out of the workhouse to applicants residing out of the Union." At the present time the Atcham Guardians are relieving only two cases in this way, viz. : — (a) An old woman, aged 96, relieved for many years in the Union, afterwards removed to a daughter's at Warrington. A very exceptional case. Medical certi- cate is sent once a month, when the relief is remitted. (h) A blind man, learning a trade at the Nottingham Blind School, and boarding out in the town. In this ease the relief is sent direct to the Superintendent of the Institution, who pays it to the man. The Superintendent is responsible to the Guardians that the man is properly cared for. 2. Outdoor Belief and Payment of Bents. — Then it was found to be the common practice to give relief by paying rents. It was decided to grant no relief in this form after Lady Day, A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 23 1837, but evidently with some hesitation. Sir Baldwin Leighton said : " I never had the least doubt of the correctness of the principle, but certainly was afraid that some of the poor might have found great difficulty in procuring cottages. I have, however, only heard of one pauper who was turned out in consequence of the Guardians refusing to pay the rent, and that person in a short time afterwards pro- cured a lodging near her former residence." He adds "that, owing to the regulation, the rents for the highest let cottages had fallen by 10 to 15 per cent., and that thus a great boon had been conferred on those who main- tained themselves by their own labour." Now, of course, both the Prohibitory and Outdoor Belief Regulation Orders forbid the payment of rents out of the rates, so that it cannot be done directly. But indirectly it is undoubtedly done, for who can deny that the dole of outdoor relief is employed to a very large extent in this way ? Mr. Bircham, the inspector for Wales, in a recent Report,* says : — * Twenty- Sixth Annual Report of the Local Govern- ment Board, p. IIG. P. S. King & Son, 4s. lid. 24 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR ' "In the more populous communities the incalculable harm done by indiscriminate small doles of out-relief where the dwellings of the poor are so wretched as they, in many instances, are, can only be fully realised by those who personally and carefully visit the so-called homes in question. These vvill often find that the half- crown, so easily given in the Board Eoom, goes but a very little way, and that chiefly in a wrong direction, swallowed up for the most part by the rent so scrupu- lously exacted week by week immediately after pay day, a rent which never ought to be even asked for houses out of repair and unfit for any decent occupation, and a dis- grace to their owners, and the age we live in. In such cases out-relief but helps to crystallise this combination of poverty and wretchedness, and, by paying the rent, allows it to exist." At Atcham, if a cottage was very dirty the •Guardians endeavoured to get it made clean under the threat of refusing out-relief. If rent was M 10s., or even M, in the rural part of the Union, or MQ in Shrewsbury, they only granted relief for a short time until the pauper could obtain a cheaper place. 3. The Liability of Uelations. — Sixty years ago nobody in Atcham thought of calling on children to support their parents. Sir Baldwin Leighton soon got this state of things altered, and the Board did not hesitate a moment in applying the Workhouse test where there were A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 25 relations in a position to support the appli- cant, and it proved effectual in almost every case, the Board having stated at the same time that in case the applicant came into the House, an order for maintenance would be applied for from the magistrates upon the relatives. One of the great advantages of the applica- tion of the Workhouse test, where it is known that there are relations who are in a position to assist, is that it compels them to undertake a duty which they might otherwise be inclined to burden the community with. 4. The Belief of Unmarried Mothers. — One of the scandals of Poor Law administration sixty years ago was the ease with which mothers with illegitimate children got relief from the rates for their support. There can be no doubt that the grant of out-relief to such cases must simply act as an encouragement to immorality of this kind. Nothing is more satisfactory in the history of Poor Law ad- ministration than the reduction in the number of unmarried mothers relieved from the rates. According to the second Eeport of the Poor Law Commissioners (p. 18), no fewer than 71,298 bastards were chargeable to the 26 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR parishes of England and Wales in 1835. The vast majority of them were relieved out- side workhouses. A remarkable change has taken place, for, according to the last Keturn of the Local Government Board, only 6,141 illegitimate children (5,773 indoor and 368 outdoor) received relief from the rates on the 1st of January, 1898, while only 255 un- married mothers were so assisted on the same date. It would be interesting to know what the reduction has been in the various Unions, but I doubt whether many could show as good a record in this matter as the Atcham Union. In November, 1836, no fewer than 271 bas- tards were receiving relief in that Union in a population of 17,855 (1831), or 152 per 10,000, while on the 25th of March, 1898, only 16 such children were being relieved in a popula- tion of 43,346 (1891), or under 4 per 10,000, and, mark, all these 16 cJiildren, with tlieir mothers, were relieved in the Worhlionse. It may be interesting to show how a change of policy as to this class of paupers was brought about, and how in only one year and a quarter the number of bastards on the books of the different parishes of the Atcham Union A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 27 was reduced from 271 to 32. (See Table I. sii/pra^ page 20.) The first step the Guardians took to diminish this number was not to allow any pay to mothers or grandmothers for keeping the children, but, if they were unable to main- tain them, the Board offered to take them into the Workhouse. This, however, was not carried into effect at once, but, as each parish underwent an examination, the out-relief was discontinued to this class. By this plan the House never became crowded with children, for although several were brought in by their mothers or relations, most of them were taken out again in the course of a short time. Several also were ordered into the House, on a representation being made that they were not properly taken care of by the parties who nursed them, and some few were put with other persons, who it was hoped w^ould pay more attention to them. I may remark here that one of the first steps which the Guardians took was to erect a proper Union Workhouse in place of the wretched parish Poor Houses, and to establish a good school in connection with it. 28 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB As illustrating how much can be done by good administration to diminish the numbers of illegitimate children who become charge- able to the rates, I w?ll again quote Sir Bald- win Leighton's words. He said : — " On first looking over the books in December, 1836, I found a great difference in the number of illegitimate children in the several parishes. In one parish, and that not the largest, there were 63, or nearly one quarter of the whole, while 7 parishes did not appear to have any ; thus showing that the manner of administering the Poor Law (for the parish to which I allude was one of the worst managed in the Union) must in a great measure have been the cause of this, although other circumstances might have assisted. Several single women have been confined in the House, but they have generally gone out soon after recovery, thus showing that they were able to provide for themselves and infants. Probably in the course of a few years this class of paupers will almost entirely disappear from our books." The figures given show that Sir Baldwin Leighton's prophecy has proved correct. 5. Apprenticesliip of Children. — I need not describe the old abominable system of com- pulsory apprenticeship under which unwilling masters were forced to receive unwilling ap- prentices. That has gone, I hope for ever. Sir Baldwin Leighton soon got it abolished in A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 29 Atcham, and, owing to the good education and training given to the children in the Workhouse school, no difficulty has ever been found in securing good situations for them in the ordinary way. 6. The Distribution of Oiitdoo?' Belief. — Under the old system the payment of out-relief to paupers was sometimes left to the shop- keepers. Of course the poor considered them- selves bound to expend their weekly pittance with the shopkeeper who paid it to them, and take his articles, whether good or bad, at the price he put on them, or else run the risk of having their pay struck off. This pauper "truck" system has also been banished from our Poor Law, but undoubtedly one of the evils of outdoor relief is that it perpetuates indirectly the same abuse. It is a delicate subject to enlarge upon, and I will merely point out that the grant of medical relief is to a large extent left to the discretion of the overseers, and that Guardians of the Poor are often drawn from the class of small tradesmen who depend for their living upon the custom of the poor, and that the temp- tation to the former to grant medical relief, 30 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR and to the latter to advocate outdoor relief, to applicants in expectation of preserving the custom of the pauper, is a very great one, and there may be some who find it hard to resist it. If outdoor relief was always administered upon strict rules as at Atcham, this danger would be very much minimised. 7. Rules for Achninistering Helief. — This leads me to say something about the necessity of every Board laying down rules for the guidance of the Guardians. Of course if it is not intended to adhere to them when passed, but they are to be considered " as pie crusts made to be broken," they had better not be passed at all. There is, however, no doubt that the de- crease of pauperism in the Atcham Union has been largely owing to the adherence of the Board to the following simple rules of guidance : — " EuLE 1. — That paupers be relieved within the Union only. " EuLE 2. — That except in cases of irremovability from sickness or accident, no outdoor relief shall be granted for the maintenance of bastard children, and if admission to the Workhouse be demanded, that the mother (unless she has absconded) be admitted with the child. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 31 " EuLB 3. — That except in cases of sickness or acci- dent, no outdoor relief be granted to any person occupying a cottage and more than half an acre of land." Eule 3 was passed before the incorpora- tion of the town of Shrewsbury was joined to the Union, and of course could only apply to the rural portion of the Union. The necessity of framing such a rule shows how much abused poor relief must have been. It was also the practice not to give such relief where applicant was renting a dwelling at above the usual rent for cottages, viz., £4 10s. in the rural parishes, and .£6 in the town. " Eule 4. — That except in cases of sickness or accident, no outdoor relief be granted to those paupers who (if reqtiired by the Board) do not produce a certificate from some duly qualified medical practitioner that their children have been vaccinated, or are in an unfit state, (through disease) to be vaccinated." Rule 4 was passed to enforce vaccination, but I am afraid last year's legislation upon the subject will make it impossible, if not illegal, to enforce it. "Eule 5. — That all applications for relief be made in person to the Eelieving Officer by the applicant or some member of his family, except in cases where through sickness or accident the application cannot be made." 32 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR It will be noticed that in the above rules ordinary outdoor relief is distinguished from medical outdoor relief. It is, perhaps, not advisable to make any rules as to the grant of medical relief, although there is no kind of relief that requires so much watchfulness on the part of the Guardians as this. The Keport on the administration of the Poor Law in the Atcham Union made in 1890 by the then Chairman, Mr. J. Bowen-Jones, acknowledges this, and emphasises the well-known fact that one of the most ready entrances into the pauper class is through the District Medical officers attending families in cases of sickness. Where the value of the medical relief can be ascertained, as in the case of medical extras for which special charges are made and the recipient is likely to be able to repay the cost of it, it should always be granted on loan. The two last of the five rules laid down need no further comment, and as to tJie first rule re- lating to the limitation of non-resident relief, I have already referred to the objections to the practice of granting it (see p. 21 supra). It may be well, however, to give the two reasons which led the Atcham Board to enforce it. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 33 First Reason. — That when rehef is adminis- tered by the officers of another Board (the cost being refunded) they have no direct interest in the case, and would not be Hkely to adhere to the principles upon which relief is ad- ministered in the Atcham Union. Second Reason. — That, as the officers of the Union have no means of making personal inquiries, their Board has no means of judging as to the justness of giving the relief. Thus, in several cases of non-resident relief at the commencement of the Union the relief was continued for a considerable time after the death of the paupers. More recently where a neighbouring Union had given non-resident relief for a considerable time to a pauper residing in the Atcham Union, they, having adopted the principle laid down in the Atcham rule, discontinued it, and upon application to the Atcham Relieving Officer it was found that the sons and grandsons were in good circum- stances. The case having been investigated, and the Workhouse offered, the sons im- mediately came forward and maintained their mother. As to the second rule relating to the refusal 3 34 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR of outdoor relief to mothers of illegitimate children, the responsibiHty of the mother for the maintenance of her child must not be forgotten. If the reHef is given to bastard children it not only does away with the responsibility of the mother, but also with that of the putative father, while it is a distinct premium on vice. As to the third rule, it involves the principle that outdoor relief should be refused to any person who is occupying a dwelling at a rent above that which an ordinary labourer in the country, or an artisan in the town, would pay. There is always a greater demand for good dwellings than the supply. Therefore every dwelling occupied by a pauper makes it more difficult for the non-pauper to obtain one unless he is in a position to offer, and does offer, a greater rent than what is paid by the pauper. Indeed the effect of granting the relief is either to compel two or more families to occupy the same dwelling, or for one family to pay a higher rent than their earnings will really justify. The only person therefore who benefits is the landlord, whom the unfair competition caused by the assistance from the A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 35 rates enables to raise rents. The increased rent is thus indirectly paid out of the Poor's Rate. Besides the above five rules, the practice of the Atcham Board in granting relief was also largely governed by precedents which had almost the force of rules. 1. Belief to the Sick Able-bodied. — When relief was offered to an able-bodied labouring man, who was himself ill, and the disease was not contagious, the Board required that some of the children should come into the Work- house during the sickness, and if the man was usually earning good wages, and the sickness did not continue for a long period, the repay- ment of the whole or part of the relief was required. The reasons for adopting this measure in such a case are as follows : — (a) Because the Relieving Officer knows that the man has the full support necessary for his sickness, which would most likely otherwise be partly consumed by the children. (b) Because it leaves the wife more at liberty to nurse her husband, and the recovery is more quick in consequence. 36 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB (c) Because the children are properly looked after and taught. Further, in carrying the method out, it has also been found that it acts as a test of destitution, for in almost every case where the parties have refused to send the children, they have had other means of support, and should not have applied to the Eelieving Officer at all. The reason for recovering the relief or part of it is to show the labouring man that it is better for him to make the necessary pro- vision for sickness by joining a club, and so learn to rely upon his own resources. 2. Belief to Wife and Cliildren of Able- bodied Men. — When the wife and children of an able-bodied man in work were ill, relief was refused, excepting in very serious cases, such as when the family were suffering from a con- tagious or infectious disease, or where many of the family were ill at the same time, or when the man had had much previous sickness in the family and was unable to procure the necessary means for their recovery. Both these last rules are founded upon the belief that all relief given to able-bodied men A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 37 either in sickness or health is an indirect way of paying wages, and the result of their applica- tion has been that the wages of the labouring classes in the Atcham Union are above the average of agricultural labourers throughout the country. 3. Belief to Out-of-tvorh Cases. — No out- door relief was given to any one able to work who was unable to procure work. Such relief is of course prohibited by the Consolidated Order. I wonder if the Order is always obeyed ? That the prohibition is based on a sound principle can hardly, I should fancy, be denied. 4. Belief m Cases of Illegitimate Cliildren. — No out-relief was given when there was an illegitimate child living in the house, except in such temporary cases as were irremovable from sickness, and then it was only given from time to time until the party was removable, and the relief was confined to the supply of the necessities of the person irremovable. 5. Belief to Aged Parents. — The following principles regulated the granting of outdoor relief to aged parents who were unable to work : — 38 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR It was first ascertained whether they would be better in the Workhouse. To arrive at a con- clusion on the point it was taken into account as to whether the persons were so infirm as to be unable to help one another or to attend upon themselves. If they were not able to do so, it was then ascertained whether there were any children living with or near them able and willing to look after them, or, if not, whether there were any neighbours living near who would assist them gratuitously. Much depended also on the condition of the cottage, whether it was overcrowded, unclean or in- sanitary. If the parties were receiving any- thing from a club, the amount of it, together with any other income, was considered. If there were children or grandchildren, or both, able to maintain, no out-relief was given, and if the parties were taken to the Workhouse an order was obtained upon the children. In every case character was carefully con- sidered. 6. Belief to Ahle-hodiecl Widoius without Children. — As to able-bodied widows without children, no out-relief was granted to them unless they were ill, when the case was con- tjLA A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 39 sidered by the Board as to removability, lodgings, overcrowding, character, and so on. 7. Belief to Able-bodied Widows with Children. — In the case of able-bodied widows with children no out-relief was granted except in sickness. If the woman's character was good, an offer was made to her to send such a / number of her children to the Workhouse ^^ school for training as would leave her only such as she would be enabled to provide for as well as for herself. The reasons for the adoption of such a ({jfyU policy are as follows : — {a) That in the majority of cases the ^children of widows have uncles, aunts, and other relations who are able to provide for them and to whom they are sent, and they are thus freed from pauperism. [b) That the system does not pauperise the widow, who by working for herself and one or two children is taught self-reliance, and (c) That the children being educated (if sent to the Workhouse school) and fitted for, and sent out to service, in a short time become able to assist their mother, thereby freeing the family from that permanent pauperism which 40 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB is found to cling to families who have for a long period received outdoor relief. 8. Ghildren witJiout Parents. — Children without parents were relieved only in the Workhouse. The Workhouse school is still kept up to a high standard, and every means is used to give a good industrial and moral training to the children. Eecently the practice has been adopted of sending the girls out to the Atcham National School for their education, but it is by no means a general opinion that they have im- proved by the change. It is now the practice of a large and increasing number of Unions to board out their orphan and deserted children. The dangers which attach to the boarding-out system, and how they may be minimised, have been fullj'' pointed out in mj^ " Children under the Poor Law" (chaps, vii. and viii.),* and I need not enlarge further upon the subject here. I would only say that I cannot imagine any better system for educating pauper children than in such a Workhouse school as the Atcham Guardians are so fortunate to possess. 9. Female Imbeciles and Idiots. — No female * Swan Sonnenschein and Co., 1897. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 41 imbecile or idiot was relieved with outdoor relief, the reason for the rule being that two cases had occurred where these females had illegitimate children whilst in receipt of this relief. 10. Variation from Orders of Board. — No outdoor relief was granted where an order for admission to the Workhouse had been offered by the Board and not accepted, unless the circumstances of the case had been altered, or information (not before the Board when the offer was made) had since been obtained which might have altered the decision of the Board. In such cases the application was recon- sidered. I need scarcely point out how necessary it is for a Board of Guardians, having once come to a decision upon a case, to adhere to it unless under the circumstances referred to in this rule. Any other practice makes the applicant the master of the Board, instead of the Board being the master of the applicant. 11. Funerals. — In cases of funerals the Guardians did everything or nothing, i.e., they would not give the coffin and allow the relatives to do the rest. The orders specially 42 OIJB TREATMENT OF THE POOR stated that no trimmings, plate, or ornament of any kind should be allowed to be put on the coffin, and if the undertaker allowed it he was not paid. This was found to be a great check on parties accepting without cause the funeral provided. The cost was always recovered when possible. Such were the main lines of policy con- sistently followed in the Atcham Union during a period of sixty years, with the conse- quence that pauperism (leaving lunatics and vagrants out of account) decreased from 78 per 1,000 of population to 9 per 1,000. There have, as I have already pointed out, been signs of an inclination to depart from those lines since the Local Government Act of 1894 came into force. From what has preceded it will be seen that the policy of the Atcham Board has been one of . restricted outdoor relief, such relief being granted only upon well-defined rules or precedent. Although these rules and prin- ciples are now beginning to be lost sight of, and expenditure on relief is in consequence gradually rising, the results of the old policy are to be seen, not only in the reduction of A MODEL UNION AND ITS LFSSONS 43 the pauperism of the Union (see Table I. siqjra, page 20), but in the reduction of ex- penditure on rehef. TABLE II. Net Annual Expenditure on Belief in the Atcham Union. Average for 1833 to 1835, £9,768, implying a rate of Is. 4-4d. in the £. . Year ending Lady Day, 1871, £3,792, implying a rate of 5'4d. in the £. [6 Shrewsbury parishes added to Union in July, 1871.] Year ending Lady Day, 1873, £9,116, implying a rate of 7-4d. in the £. Year ending Lady Day, 1898, £6,931, implying a rate of 4'ld. in the £. A better appreciation of the figures given in Tables I. and 11. will be gathered by taking for comparison another Union where a policy of lax administration of outdoor relief has hitherto prevailed. The city of Exeter (population in 1891, 37,564) affords a strik- ing contrast. It makes no difference that the Exeter Union is purely urban, for the borough 44 UUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR of Shrewsbury (population in 1891, 26,967), which is comprised in the Atcham Union, is entirely urban also. There is ample employ- ment to be had in Exeter, and that the com- munity is flourishing may be judged by the fact that the rateable value has increased (with a practically stationary population) from jei40,066 in 1870 to .£202,918 in 1898. In fact, money is constantly being poured into Exeter, as it is not only the best market but the best place for shops of all kinds in the West of England. Both Shrewsbury and Exeter are rich in endowed charities, so there is little to choose between them on that score. That abuse of outdoor relief is the cause of the high pauperism and relief expenditure of Exeter is as certain as that careful administra- tion of relief is the cause of the low pauperism and relief expenditure of Atcham. The results of two different policies will be clearly seen from the following two tables : — A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 45 tH H Q n ^ H m w P o O O O a H a -A ,« 1— 1 t-H f5 < O 1— ( W 1—1 1^ 00 S5 1-* < < H K H M 00 1— 1 6n O Eh ^ H <» H c^ rV OT) i-I 00 -*-j W 1—1 M |T| ^ H ^^ ■< 00 P^ C?) h^ 1-1 O g; a r^ H O 01 o ^ o GO Ch 1-1 H 55 r^ « O on Z 1^ tH M K 05 § fi 00 ^ » iH !« g H Ci IS M 33 o B5 ^ OOt^t-COX01C5 (^ 2 -HS t^-COirat-Oi-f-^iCiW J^fH-^ ,. , O O O >0 t- 05 CO O CO 4^ O O rH O Ci i-*^ :^ i-|_ Ol o * •^"-^05 Oi-I O 1— 1 o QJ (B S «& 0) 0i— llOa:it>; cs a gcS r-T i-T iH CO of co' eo CO CO a M Total elief Ex- enditure. OOlO-^r-tO-^COO CVSOlffiOOrHCO-^OOO lV)t-lO-^ CO 00_i-<_0D_COC^ o^oj^coc^Toc-co T-l i-lr-lrHi-li-li-lrH M Ka CM © ■^ -T)Ht»r-li-ii-l(NOO0O«C © rrOi-iJOOt-aDoaooo '+!OOCOlCCOi-l-*C500 ^4 t 43 lO-^-^^ooooiaio. H O fl © Ot-C0C0t^i-l05C0-* .,, C-?0C005C0Ol0t^t- d a 'Huso '^'^^^"^''^^'^ CO ef f of > r3 c3 05C^c-eoD-t-Tt*tr-oo flQ ■.#lC«OC-t-00CiO5O5 ® >. OOCOOOOOOOOOOOGOOO © ^ >>^ 00 03 00 00 3 03 O CO O CO D 03 C O U5 00 03 o 46 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB EH J» tH H 00 W 05 tH 00 r-( <1 aj EH -* ^ o:) 00 •^ 00 tH Q « ;z; 00 < t~ CO M '-H o " 00 H CD ^ 00 :5 rH > h^ 00 l-H >o w ?s ^ pq Q S < X K H K O ^ H t, ^ o hH ^J K H O Ph <5 H 5 « ^ -5 PM D ^ ^ ■< o ^ _ fa ^ o w < Ratio of Paupers to every 1,000 of Population. Oi O CT5 -^ O CO CO -* t>. o o o rH 1— 1 I— 1 T— I 1— ( «a lO ^ CM 00 ^ O CO t- CO O OD o eg cq CO »o 'vH lo ^ CO O K o o -a a ■e s S oj ^ XO lO ,-, ^ i-H o o r-( CO C^ CO CD Ol CO -* ^ cq T-H CO T— 1 th oq ^ '^ CO H Ratio of Paupers to every 1,000 of Population. O CO O -* tH p lb t^ o CO -^ t?- CO CO -^ CO CO CO Total Paupers. 52 i-H 00 CO oq T-H 1^ t- 00 t~ CO 0:1 ■-H cq_ CO co_ cq__ CO 1— 1 t-Tth i—Ti-Ti-T Outdoor Paupers. 05 rH CO T-l t- t^ cq »o CO c>q 00 i-H p^ i-H t^ oq CO rH ^ 00 10 CO rH 00 CO CM cq CN CO oq oq a 00 CO 00 00 '^ 00 »0 CO t^ CO OT C75 00 00 00 00 00 CO rH rH I— ( rH rH rH 00 00 03 O 00 03 03 Q 00 05 rH fl CO 00 .0 03 03 n O 00 03 rf 03 fl O A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 47 These two tables are very instructive, and it is unnecessary for me to comment on them at any great length. Take the first table, giving the expenditure on poor relief. First, every one must notice the little varia- tion which they show in the cost of relief per head of population in the Atcham Union, varying from 4s. 2^d. to 4s. 9jd., and the great variation under the same head in the Exeter Union, from 5s. lOd. to 9s. 8|d. Secondly, it will be seen that the cost of relief per head of population in Exeter is more than twice as much as that in Atcham. Thirdly, it will be remarked that, while the cost of outdoor relief in Exeter increased from i^5,004 in 1849 to ^5,468 in 1894, the cost in Atcham decreased during the same period from ^868 to ^157. And the result is the more remarkable when one considers that the population of the Atcham Union increased from 19,088 in 1851 to 48,346 in 1891, or by 60 per cent., while the population of the Exeter Union, which increased from 32,810 in 1851 to 37,564 in 1891, shows an increase of 14 per cent. only. Fourthly, since the coming into operation 48 OUB TBEATMENT OF THE POOR of the Local Government Act of 1894, which, as we have seen, has affected the administra- tion of the Poor Law in the two Unions, the out-reHef expenditure has increased in both ; but when the total nicrease in expenditure is regarded we find an increase of over 15 per cent, in Exeter as against one of less than 3 per cent, in Atcham. It takes some little time to overthrow good Poor Law ad- ministration. I do not think that any one who has thoroughly digested the figures can possibly contend that an outdoor relief policy is cheaper than an indoor relief one. I know that many Guardians say it must be cheaper to relieve outside than inside the House, be- cause a pauper who costs the Union only 2s. 6d. per week (say) if relieved outside the Union costs 5s. a week inside. But the vision of such a person must be, I think, somewhat limited, because if he looked a little further he would observe that if the Workhouse test is employed only one out of ten applicants will accept it, while the whole ten will gladly accept relief outside, so that the ratepayers will really be paying 25s. a week for ten out- A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 49 door paupers instead of 5s. for one indoor pauper. This is really the proper way to regard the matter, and I cannot myself see how the argument can be answered. As to an indoor relief poHcy reducing pauperism my second table needs no com- ment ; it speaks for itself. It is, perhaps, not to be wondered at that both Unions show an increase of expenditure and of pauperism since the Local Government Act of 1894 came into force, although the increase in Atcham is very small. In Exeter, up to 1894, expenditure on rehef and pauperism had been decreasing gradually but slowly. The decrease. up to the same year had been rather more rapid in Atcham. But Atcham has suffered much less from the effects of that Act, as might be expected ; for, although the outdoor relief party has again raised its head, and the old rules and precedents have not been strictly followed, the habits of thrift and providence which the people there have learnt cannot be eradicated all at once; and let us hope that that Union will retain its proud position as the only Union in the country, which, since the Keform of 1834, has been 4 50 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR administered on a consistent policy of re- stricted outdoor relief. The Unions which have suffered most from the Local Government Act of 1894 have been those, such as Exeter, where outdoor relief has always been easily obtainable and where habits of thrift and providence have con- sequently received no encouragement. In saying this I must not be understood to infer that the extension of the franchise for local administration was wrong, but it makes it, of course, much harder for those who make the Poor Law a special study to persuade the electorate that relief from the public moneys granted on easy terms is inimical to the best interests of the working classes and can only retard their progress to independence and a better living. I have already anticipated the criticism that the cases of Exeter and Atcham are not similar, that Atcham is partly an agri- cultural Union, while Exeter is purely urban. I will now add that it is infinitely easier to carry out a policy of restricted outdoor relief in an urban Union than in one which is either entirely rural or partly urban and partly rural. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 51 If an illustration is wanted of what can be done in a city where relief is most carefully supervised, I would mention Birmingham. In that parish a splendid infirmary and well- managed cottage homes in the country for the children have been practically built out of the moneys saved by the better and more careful administration of outdoor relief; that is to say, these necessary improvements have not increased the rates one farthing. That the strict administration of outdoor relief acts economically has been proved over and over again. If this policy be adopted, it is absolutely essential to have an adequate number of relieving officers for visiting and inquiring into cases, and the extra cost incurred for the necessary salaries will be saved over and over again. The table on page 45, shows that the Exeter Guardians are expending nearly ^6,000 a year in outdoor relief. They have only two relieving officers (at salaries of J£120 and ^£105 respectively) for a population of 38,000 and for the supervision of over 1,100 paupers. How can those two officers properly perform the work which the orders require them to do with so many people 52 OVB TREATMENT OF THE POOR to look after? The neighbouring Taunton Union, with only 1,000 less population than Exeter, has five relieving officers, and now spends less than £3,000 a year on out-relief. Further, on the 1st of January last that Union had only 592 outdoor paupers as against Exeter's 1,127. I have not the least doubt that if Exeter Guardians would only spend (say) Jg200 more for two extra relieving officers, they could soon reduce their paupers by one-half and save some <£3,000 a year. I may add that the Atcham Union has three relieving officers, while it has only one- quarter of the pauperism of Exeter. Boards of Guardians should never forget that they are trustees for the ratepayers as well as for the poor. It is a mistake to suppose that they will not be benefiting the really deserving poor by a policy of restricted outdoor relief, for it is these who feel the burden of the rates the heaviest in the shape of increased rents and insanitary dwellings, to say nothing of the effect on wages. The compounding house-owner in a town is forced to raise his rent as rates rise, and to spend less in keeping his property in order. And a A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 53 penny rise in the rate generally implies more than a penny rise in the rent. Eent does not advance by pennies. I am afraid, however, that the demon of pauperism will never be overcome until all are united in the assault. Unfortunately, the introduction of politics into Guardians' elections prevents both parties uniting for that purpose. After all, what on earth has the practical administration of the Poor Law to do with politics ? Guardians have a certain law to administer which says that the destitute who apply for poor rehef must be relieved, and there are certain regulations laid down as to how the relief is to be administered. It is possible that a Board may be divided into two parties, one of which wishes to make outdoor relief the exception and indoor relief the rule, while the other takes the opposite view ; but the question is not what is called a party one in the strictly political sense, for it has not yet become so in Parliament. The only result of the two political parties bidding against each other by lavish promise of outdoor relief is to increase pauperism, to destroy the in- 54 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR dependence of the working classes, to raise rents, to add to the burden of the rates, and to put a premium upon unthriftiness and im- providence. Would it not be possible for Conservatives and Liberals in a Union who favour a careful administration of relief to join hands and see if they cannot get the people on their side and win them over to their views ? They could point to the increase in the numbers of persons dependent on the rates, and to the accompanying increase in Poor Law expendi- ture following upon lax administration. They would show how necessary it was to improve Workhouses so as to make it possible to classify the inmates more satisfactorily, to provide proper infirmaries for the sick where they could be carefully tended by trained nurses. They could enlarge on the desira- bility of removing the children of school age from all association with the Workhouse. They could show how these necessary changes could be effected without any increased cost to the rates. I have tried to point out, by a concrete example, on what lines reform might run. A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS bo If Atcham is not considered sufficient, the administration of the Poor Law at Ipswich, at Oxford, or at Birmingham, to mention only a few places, can be studied. On the 1st of January, 1898, Ipswich was relievihg 17,~ Oxford 14, and Birmingham 15 paupers per 1,000 of population, although in none of these three places has outdoor relief been abolished. It has, however, for many years only been granted after most careful inquiry into each application for the relief. Against this, we find that Exeter had on the same date 37 paupers to every r,000 of population, and there are, I am sorry to say. Unions, though possibly not Unions of an urban character, with an even higher rate of pauperism.* I will now sum up shortly what I consider to be the main rules which should guide the administration of relief. . I. The number of relieving officers in any Union should be sufficient to enable the full inquiry to be made into every case which the General Orders require. II. Too much care cannot be taken in the ■'■'• The above figures exclude lunatics aud vagrants. 56 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR selection of these officers, and they should be adequately paid. I have heard it argued, when a relieving officer who has served several years asks for an increase of salary, that it should not be granted because he has not so many cases to look after as when he was appointed. That very fact ought to be the greatest argument in favour of an increase of salary, because it is evidence that the officer has been performing his duty of inquiry conscientiously and well. In fact I am not at all certain that it might not be well to graduate this increase of a relieving officer's salary by the decrease in the pauperism of his district. III. Eules for the guidance of the Board in the administration of relief should be laid down and religiously followed. All the Unions in which the Poor Law is best administered are guided by written rules. The advantages of having rules for relief are very great. They are of the greatest assist- ance to the relieving officers, they help to choke off many undeserving applications for relief, and enable the Board to follow a con- sistent policy of relief. In large Unions where A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 57 the relief is administered through KeHef Com- mittees, the committees are bound to conform to the rules, and, if they think that there are special circumstances in the case which should be excepted from the rule, then the case must be referred for the decision of the whole Board. By means of rules uniformity of decision in similar cases is obtained, and causes for discontent on the part of applicants do not arise. IV. The Application and Eeport Book should be fully entered up. Y. It is a good thing to keep a Eecord Book of cases. This book contains particulars of all cases where applications for relief have been made to the Board. When once started it takes little trouble to keep up, and by means of an index it is made easy for reference. VI. I think that a Guardian should be very careful how he advocates outdoor relief to a case from his own parish or ward. He certainly ought never to induce applications for outdoor relief to be made, or make any promises previously to the meeting of his Board that he will support such an appli- cation. 58 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR VII. Whenever possible, applicants should always be required to attend before the Board, so that Guardians may have an opportunity of questioning them. VIII. If outdoor relief is granted, it should be made really adequate to relieve the necessities of the case. I am, of course, assuming that every source of income of the applicant is known to the Board. IX. There should be close co-operation between the Board and other relief agencies, so that the one may know what the other is doing in the relief of any particular case. The best opinion on this point is, that if charity is helping a case it should give all the necessary relief, while if the Poor Law takes up a case charity should leave it alone altogether. One of the main objects of the organisation of charity is that charity, when it takes up a case, should be able to give all the relief which the case requires. And lastly. No Board of Guardians ought to have a " permanent list." No relief ought to be given for a longer period than three months at most, and then the case should again be brought before the Board. These A MODEL UNION AND ITS LESSONS 59 quarterly revisions of cases, conscientiously made, are of great assistance in preventing imposture and fraud. In another article * I try to show how charity and poor relief can work together to reduce pauperism. I know it is said that charitable relief is as degrading to the recipient of it as relief from the public moneys. I cannot admit this. Charity brings with it a personal interest, binding together both giver and receiver. It need not necessarily take the form of money. The kindly visit or the helpful word of advice is often of more value than any money. There is all the difference in the world between compulsory charity — if we may sanctify the Poor Law by such a name — and a voluntary gift. I will not say one word against relieving officers, but, con- siderate and kind to the poor as they may be, and almost always are, they would probably be the first to admit that the granting of money at the pay stations is not exactly calculated to warm their hearts, especially when they know that the gift is as often as not abused, '^^ Page 145. 60 OTJB TREATMENT OF THE POOR and that it certainly does not raise any feel- ings of gratitude in the hearts of those who receive it. The lavish grant of outdoor relief must always be demoralising. As the late Mr. Fawcett said: "You may always have as many paupers as you choose to pay for." It encourages the idea that public relief is a right, the growth of which idea nearly brought about the destruction of the social fabric of our country seventy years ago." * That idea has always lingered in the minds of our people since we had a Poor Law at all. The fallacy of it, and the dangers attaching to its cultivation, cannot be too often exposed. * See further remarks on the "right to relief," infra p. 141. II OLD AGE PENSIONS " Mine is that masculine species of charity which would lead me to inculcate in the minds of the labouring classes the love of independence, the privilege of self-respect, the disdain of being patronised or petted, the desire to accumulate, and the ambition to rise. " I know it has been found easier to please the people by holding out flattering and delusive prospects of cheap benefits to be derived from Parliament rather than by urging them to a course of self-reliance; but, while I will not be the sycophant of the great, I cannot become the parasite of the poor ; and I have sufficient confidence in the growing intelligence of the working classes to be induced to believe that they will now be found to contain a great proportion of minds sufficiently enlightened by experience to concur with me in the opinion tiiat it is to themselves alone individually that they, as well as every other great section of the community, must trust for working out their own regeneration and happiness. Again I say to them, look not to Parliament, look only to yourselves." — Extract from a letter by Bichard Cohden, Oct. 21, 1836. The agitation which has been going on and growing in intensity during the last twenty 61 62 OVB TREATMENT OF THE POOR years in favour of doing something, other than by means of the Poor Law, to relieve the necessities of the poor when they become old is based on the assumption that it is beyond the power of large numbers of them voluntarily to make provision themselves for their old age, so that they are driven when past work to accept relief, either in the Workhouse, or in the form of outdoor relief, and so to become "paupers." " Post equitem sedet atra cura." The fear of the Workhouse is said to be always haunting the mind of the British working man when his youth is past, and do what he will he can never get rid of it. He would be relieved from this fear, and be so far a happier man, if he felt that when he became old and past work a certain pension would await him, and be paid to him regularly every week to the end of his life. Canon Blackley was the first person of recent years to agitate the question ; for it is by no means a new one, a Bill having been introduced into Parliament so long ago as 1773 on the same subject. He first OLD AGE PENSIONS 63 published his views in 1878. His scheme proposed — to state it shortly — that it should be made compulsory on all young persons, rich and poor, between eighteen and twenty-one, to contribute to a fund. State-collected and State-secured, a sufficient amount (which he then put at £10) to entitle each contributor, when physically unable to earn wages, to a weekly sick pay of 8s., and to an old age pension of 4s. a week after seventy years of age. He assumed that it was possible, if a man or woman began young enough, for him or her to make provision for independence in sickness and old age ; but that, as he knew that this would never be done volun- tarily, the only way was to compel its being done. The Select Committee of the House of Commons, which sat for three years, 1885 to 1887, inquiring into the best systems of National Provident Insurance against Pau- perism, examined his scheme, and reported upon it unfavourably ; it subsequently became merged in the proposals of the National Provident League, to which Canon Blackley gave his support, considering, as he said, 64 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB that half a loaf was better than no bread. But, as the principle of compulsion formed no ingredient of this half loaf, while the principle of contribution from the State did, Canon Blackley must have been very easily satisfied. No one now suggests that any compulsion should be used to force people to insure for old age, while every scheme which has been formulated since Canon Blackley' s provides for a contribution from the State, to pay either the whole or a portion of the pension. In 1893 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire generally into the question of Old Age Pensions. The Commissioners examined all the schemes that had been propounded in the evidence given before them, and reported in 1895. Two paragraphs of the Majority Report ran as follows : — " 23. We have carefully examined the various scheraes for State Assistance to the Aged which have been sub- mitted to us ; and, bearing in mind the labour and thought expended on them, and the high public spirit and deep sympathy with suffering which inspired their authors, we repeat that, in view of the financial and economic difficulties involved, we have been unable to recommend the adoption of any of the schemes as OLD AGE PENSIONS 65 yet suggested, whether for endowment or for assisted insurance. " 24. Having regard, however, to the widespread expectation in and out of ParHament that some provision other than that made by the Poor Law should be devised for the assistance in old age of those among the poor who have led respectable and industrious lives, we do not desire that our inquiry should preclude the future consideration of any plan which may hereafter be proposed, and be free from the objections which have prevented the adoption of the schemes submitted to us. In any case, we cannot but hope that the facts we have collected, the opinions we have elicited, and the searching examination we have made into these schemes may be of material use." * ■•- The Majority Report was signed by ten of the Com- mittee, viz. : Lord Lingen, Lord Brassey, Lord Playfair, Mr. J. J. Henley, Mr. Albert Pell, Mr. Humphreys Owen, Mr. C. S. Eoundell, Mr. C. S. Loch, Mr. Joseph Arch, and Mr. J. J. Stockall. Of the above, Lord Lingen, Mr. Henley, Mr. Pell, Mr. Eoundell, and Mr. Loch objected to paragraph 24, while Lord Brassey, Mr. Humphreys Owen, and Mr. Joseph Arch emphasised the necessity of a further inquiry. Those who did not sign the Eeport, but submitted Minority Eeports, were seven in number viz. : — Mr. J. Stuart, M.P., Mr. J. Chamberlain, M.P., Mr. C. T. Eitchie, M.P., Sir H. Maxwell Bart., M.P., Mr. W. A. Hunter, M.P., Mr. Charles Booth, and Mr. A. Broad- hurst, M.P. Lord Playfair states in a memorandum to the Eeport that the summary of the Eeport, from which para- graphs 23 and 24 are extracted, met with Lord Aberdare's approval before his death. 5 66 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR A majority of the Commissioners, however, asked for a further inquiry, while a Minority Keport suggested that the further considera- tion of the best means of giving effect to the "widespread expectation" above referred to should be at once undertaken by the Government, or should immediately be remitted to a special Commission, less numerous than theirs, and better able to deal with the complicated technical details of the subject in an impartial and scientific spirit. " Such an inquiry," they said, " should not be limited to a careful examination of all the schemes which may be laid before it, but should tend to the construction, if possible, of a practicable scheme either based upon, or altogether independent of, those submitted. We think that the Commission should be enjoined to take evidence from the Friendly Societies as to the effect of any proposals in their interests, and as to how far they are themselves prepared to undertake or co-operate in the work ; and that it should lay down the principles to which any scheme should conform, especially in relation to its financial aspect, including the amount of the funds required and the sources from which they may be obtained, and its bearing on the encouragement of thrift and in habits of self-reliance." The Eeport of the Royal Commission is OLD AGE PENSIONS 67 dated the 26th of February, 1895, but it was not until the 21st of July, 1896, that the committee of experts on the subject, which was asked for, was appointed. The terms of the reference to them was as follows : — " To consider any scheme which may be submitted to them for encouraging the industrial population, by State aid or otherwise, to make provision for old age ; and to report whether they can recommend the adoption of any proposals of the kind, either based upon, or independent of, such schemes ; with special regard, in the case of any proposals of which they may approve, to their cost and probable financial results to the Exchequer and to local rates ; their effect in promoting habits of thrift and self-reliance ; their influence on the prosperity of the Friendly Societies, and the possibility of securing the co-operation of these institutions in their practical working." Now it is important to note the constitution of the Committee ; and when the names of its members and their qualifications to serve upon it are mentioned, it is impossible to conceive how any stronger or more impartial body could have been appointed. The Committee consisted of Lord Eothschild (the Chairman), a veritable "prince of finance"; Sir Francis Mowatt, K.C.B., Secretary to the Treasury; Sir Courtenay Boyle, K.C.B., Permanent 68 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR Secretary of the Board of Trade; Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B., Secretary to the Post Office; Mr. Finlaison, C.B., Actuary of the National Debt Office; Mr. Brabrook, C.B., Chief Eegistrar of Friendly Societies; Mr. King and Mr. Watson, both eminent actuaries, well known to the Friendly Societies world ; and, finally, Mr. Chapman, one of the most distinguished members of the Ancient Order of Foresters. It has been objected to the Committee that while they sat for two years they only suc- ceeded in examining eleven witnesses, giving a day to each. The Committee, however, anticipate this objection by pointing out that the whole of the evidence produced to the Royal Commission on the Aged Poor was before them, while they had also " attentively considered the Report of that Commission, and the Reports laid before it by individual members." They add that the consideration of this evidence had enabled them to restrict to certain special issues the evidence which they themselves had taken. The further charge that they only met to record their preconceived opinion is met by OLD AGE PENSIONS 69 their statement that they approached their task with a deep sense of the importance of the question into which they were charged to inquire, and of the benefit which would be conferred upon the community if a scheme could be elaborated giving encouragement to the industrial classes by the exercise of thrift and self-denial to make provision for old age, while it fulfilled the several conditions pre- scribed by the terms of their reference. They added : " It is only very slowly and with very great reluctance that we have been forced to the conclusion that none of the schemes sub- mitted to us would attain the objects which the Government had in view, and that we ourselves are unable, after repeated efforts, to devise any proposal free from grave inherent disadvantages." The Committee grouped the various schemes, exceeding one hundred in number, into four groups, as follows : — First Group. — Schemes involving compul- sory contribution towards a pension fund, either by way of the German method of deduction by employers from wages paid by them, assisted by a contribution levied from 70 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR the employers, or by way of an annual or a lump payment made by all young persons before a certain age, and accumulated at compound interest until the pension age. Second Gi^oiij). — Schemes providing a uni- versal grant of pensions to all persons upon attaining a certain age, without requiring from them any direct contribution, or examining their merits and their needs. Various modi- fications w^ere suggested, chiefly with the object of fixing the income above which there should be no grant. TJiird Grouy. — Schemes providing special facilities and encouragement to voluntary insurance against old age with material assistance from the State. Fourth Groiqj. — Schemes providing State- aid towards old age pensions for members of Friendly Societies only. Some of these pro- posed that members of Friendly Societies, as such, should, on arriving at a certain age, receive pensions from the public funds, while others proposed that pensioners should receive part of their pension from the Society and the rest from public funds. Pensio7is involving Compulsory Contribu- OLD AGE PENSIONS 71 tions. — The best known of this class of schemes is that to which Canon Blackley's name is attached. His scheme, to which I have ah'eady referred, w^as condemned as im- practicable by the Aged Poor Commission, and although the Old Age Pensions Com- mittee considered it as falling, along with other schemes of the same class, outside the terms of their reference, there can be no doubt that they must have come to the same conclusion had they felt called upon to examine into it. Nor would the German system of com- pulsory insurance be possible in England. "Behind this system, which is based on compulsory contributions from employers and workmen, stands a military state accustomed to obedience and discipline in civil as well as military affairs. There is no question as to the absolute unsuitability of the German system to our climate. The procedure is hopelessly complicated, and very costly, and behind it all stands the drill ser- geant." ■■'' Universal Pensions. -Although these schemes were left on one side by the Committee as also falling outside the scope of their refer- ence, the large and increasing amount of '■^'- Daily Chronicle, January 24, 1899. 72 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR support which is given to one of them makes it necessary to refer to it shortly. Mr. Charles Booth's scheme would give the right to claim a pension of 5s. a week to every person over 65, whether he were rich or poor. The first point to be considered is wiiether the country is prepared to pay the cost of the scheme. In the middle of 1898 there were in England and Wales about one and a half million persons over 65 years of age. Thus the Chancellor of the Exchequer would have to provide (to begin with) £19,500,000, which would have increased by 1941 to £36,000,000. But it is hardly to be supposed that Scotland and Ireland would allow themselves to be left out in the cold, and as there are about 2,000,000 persons in the United Kingdom over 65, the initial cost of the scheme would amount to £26,000,000. Of course it will be said (Mr. Charles Booth says) that the well- to-do people would not take their pension ; but how can the Chancellor of the Exchequer guess how many would accept the £13 and how many not ? I fancy myself that most people would take it, for as the well-to-do would be taxed most to supply the pensions OLD AGE PENSIONS 73 they might well employ it towards the pay- ment of their poors' rates, because it is quite a fallacy to suppose that pauperism will go out when old age pensions come in. What are the classes of persons who form the main part of the Workhouse population ? First there are a number of persons the majority of whom will be in the infirmary or sick wards. How many of the old people to be found there could live on 5s. a week outside if that pension was given to them to-morrow ? Who would be willing to take them in, subject as they are to all kinds of ailments and infirmities ? Some of them, who behave themselves well inside the workhouse, could not be trusted outside. Their 5s. would soon go — it is quite un- necessary to say where ; it could easily be spent in a day, and then the Guardians would have to relieve them for the other six days of the week. It is, indeed, an utter fallacy to suppose that we shall rid ourselves of any great amount of pauperism hy establishing old age pensions. It is not a matter of supposition merely. A short time ago Mr. Vulliamy, the Clerk to the Ipswich Board of Guardians, 74 OVB TEEATMENT OF THE POOR went into the figures for his own Union.* He was considering Mr. Charles Booth's scheme with a view of seeing to what extent it would diminish pauperism, at what cost, how such cost should be defrayed, and the probable effect of such pensions upon the moral and physical well-being of the country. As to the cost, he found that the establish- ment of the scheme would add to the burden of the town in rates and taxes nearly three times the amount of the Guardians' present contribution orders, or 3s. in the £ to the existing rates, if the money was raised in that way. As to the effect of universal old age pensions upon the physical and moral con- ditions of the country Mr. Vulliamy points out : — 1. How it implies the taxation of the weak for the benefit of the strong : — " All would have to bear the burden ; only those who attained the age of 65 would reap the benefit. The * Mr. Vulliamy has since set forth at greater length his views upon the subject. See his paper read at the Central Poor Law Conference this year. (Beport of the Central Poor Law Conference, published by Messrs. P. S. King & Son, Is.). OLD AGE PENSIONS 75 sickly, who could not expect to attain old age, and those whose occupations are unhealthy, and who therefore die young, would be taxed for the benefit of the hale and strong, and of those engaged in healthy occupations." He then goes on to point out that it would discourage thrift : — "There would be no inducement to the ordinary workman to provide for old age if he knew it were assured, if only to the extent of 5s. a week. It is very commonly supposed that he makes no such provision now, or does so very rarely. There can be no greater mistake. Out of the 3,000 people in Ipswich over the age of 65 there are not more than 300 paupers over that age, if so many.'- How do the other 2,700, of whom the great majority must belong to the working classes, live ? In part, no doubt, by their work, but to a great extent also on their savings. The working classes of this country provide, to a great and increasing extent, for the future, not only as regards sickness, but as regards old age as well. They invest largely in the purchase or erection of cottages, in freehold land securities, post- office and other savings banks, gas shares, money clubs, co-operative societies, and such other ways as are open to them. Any legislation, however well-intentioned, which would check this growing spirit of thrift, would be regrettable." •'0-" Then Mr. VuHiamy shows how its tendency would be to lower wag^es. ^&' * This is very different from the usual statement that 1 out of every 3 persons over 65 is a pauper. 76 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB Women's work is, as a general rule, inade- quately paid, because many women are not entirely dependent upon their earnings. If a large section of men workers were similarly not obliged to look wholly to their wages for their support they, too, would be willing to work for lower wages, and so reduce them for all ; so that the inevitable result of universal old age pensions would be that the worker under 65 years of age would find himself taxed to enable the man over that age to undersell him in his labour. This is not theory, but hard established fact based on history, and never, so far, proved untrue. There is, of course, the further objection to the scheme (which also applies to all others) that there is no finality about it. It is well known that old age does not always begin at 65. We should hear of hard cases, and a demand would be made that the age at which the pension was to begin should be lowered. This would of course imply a largely-increased tax on the community ; and I do not myself see how, having once admitted the principle of special relief for old age, which means inability to work, the argument for lowering OLD AGE PENSIONS 77 the age could be met. It is, further, very improbable that a pension of 5s. would be sufficient. It might be enough for the country poor, but would it suffice for dwellers in towns ? It is well known how when one once begins to make an exception, that exception tends to become the rule, and I have not the least doubt that exceptional cases would arise in which the 5s. w^ould have to be increased somehow or other, and then a fresh agitation would arise for raising the amount of the pension to meet such cases. We see how the thing works in the adminis- tration of our Poor Law, the bane of which has always been the legislation for extreme cases. At the present time the exception which forms the argument for the rule of old age pensions is that a few old men and women who have led decent, respectable lives are subjected to the stigma of pauperism, and because of this the wliole country is to be burdened with a heavy taxation, which would fall most heavily on those least able to bear it. Mr. Booth admits that his scheme has no finality, and, further, it is only fair to him to mention that in advocating what he 78 OIJB TREATMENT OF THE POOR calls "a complete system of pensions," he contemplates the entire abolition of outdoor relief, to the evils of which he shows himself fully alive. In a series of articles on " Age and Poverty," which have recently appeared in the columns of the Daily Chronicle advocating old age pensions, the " Special Commissioner " seems to have come to the conclusion that Mr. Booth's scheme is the only one which "holds the field " (issue of Saturday, 14th January, 1899). At the same time he admits, even with regard to this scheme, that its very completeness and symmetry are fatal from a practical point of view. He is frightened at the immense cost of it, to which I have already referred, and then of course he pro- ceeds to propound a scheme of his own, which he announces as being Mr. Booth's scheme in a modified form, and " a com- promise." He says : — " Suppose we were to begin by offering a pension of 5s. a week to people of 65, not including the rich or tlie loell-to-do, but ruling out every one with an income of, say, more than 5s. a week from earnings or savings, or both, or say 7s. 6d. a week for a married couple. It is a OLD AGE PENSIONS 79 low limit, perhaps, for the towns, but it would certainly not debar the great mass of working people from the pension, and in the country it would scarcely be prac- ticable to set a higher limit without encouraging the farmers to reduce wages." The pensions are not to be paid by the Guardians, but by some autliorihj which can start with a clean sheet. A Pensions Board is to be established. This Board is to be constituted by the Town Council or District Council, and reinforced by co-opted repre- sentatives of the Friendly Societies and Trades Union. The following are to be the duties and powers of the Board — (1) To decide whether the applicants are likely to make a reasonably satisfactory use of their pension. (2) To have the discretion in regard to making a lower payment in the case of married people (does the Special Commissioner mean higher ?). And (3) To take into consideration the rate of wages. Apparently the Registrar of Births and Deaths is to be the officer to decide the 80 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB question of age and identity, and to check the appHcant's declaration as to the amount of his income. He will also have to send on the certificates to the bank into which the pension is to be paid, and give the applicant his voucher when the Pensions Board have signified that everything is in order as Mr. Booth suggests. This new "Schemer" estimates the cost of his Pension Scheme at =£8,000,000 a year, which he calls "a liberal, probably an ex- cessive estimate." He says, "If this sum were between the Exchequer and the country the strain would not be an intolerable one." He admits that ratepayers would complain of it, but "their way out," he cheerfully remarks, "is to lay land values under contri- bution, and so restore to the land the cost of the poor, with which it was originally charged." I hardly think I need trouble to criticise this one hundred and fifth scheme, and will only refer to one objection. The scheme assumes that the applicant for a pension, who would be too proud to touch a popularly elected body such as a Board of Guardians with the OLD AGE PENSIONS 81 end of a barge pole, would be willing to go hat in hand to another popularly elected body drawn from exactly the same class of persons. Can any one honestly believe it ? "~ Pensions in Reward of the Exliihition of Thrift and Providence. — The third group of pension schemes, viz., those which provide special facihties and encouragement to volun- tary insurance against old age, include the following typical and important ones: — The scheme of {a) the voluntary Parlia- mentary Committee, commonly known as Mr. Chamberlain's Scheme ; (h) that of Sir James Eankin, M.P. ; (c) that of the Eev. J. Frome Wilkinson; and {d) that of Sir Henry Burdett. All these schemes * were carefully considered by the Treasury Committee of 1896, and all condemned, for the good and sound reasons which are stated in their Eeport. An analysis of the first three of them will, however, be found in Appendix A to this volume (pp. 209- 213), but as to Sir Henry Burdett's scheme I * These schemes are set out in full in the Eeport of the Treasury Committee on Old x\ge Pensions, 1898. P. S. King & Son, Is. 9d. 82 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR have never heard that it has received support in any quarter, and therefore I think I may be spared the trouble of referring to it. I need only mention that the Committee found more objections to it than to any other. Pensions limited to Memhers of Friendly and Benefit Societies. — The various schemes in this group fall into two classes — those where the whole pension is to be paid by the State, and those where part of it only is to be so paid, the balance being paid by the Society. Three of such schemes were considered by the Committee, viz. (a) that of Mr. Lionel Holland, M.P. ; (h) the Bristol Scheme ; and (c) the Chester Scheme. An analysis of each of these schemes will be found in Appendix B (pp. 213-217), together with a statement of the objections to them which the Committee pointed out. Sir SjJence?' WalpoWs Scheme. — There was one scheme proposed by a member of the Committee on Old Age Pensions (Sir Spencer Walpole, K.C.B.) which seemed to the Com- mittee to be open to the fewest objections, assuming that it was desirable for the State to interfere in the matter at all. OLD AGE PENSIONS 83 This scheme contained the following pro- posals — (1) There were to be local pensioning authori- ties, either the Board of Guardians (as Sir Spencer Walpole himself proposed) or local committees of the County Councils. (2) Any person of sixty-five, and possessing a7i assured income of not less than 2s. 6d. and not more than 5s. a week, might apply to the pensioning authority for a pension, who would be bound to grant it if the applicant were eligible. (3) No applicant would be eligible for a pension who required, in the opinion of the pensioning authority, from his physical or mental infirmity, relief in an asylum, infirmary, or as an inmate of a workhouse. (4) If the applicant were held by the pen- sioning authority to be eligible for a pension, he was to receive it as follows — If his income was 2s. 6d., and less than 3s., an additional 2s. 6d. a week. If his income was 3s., and less than 4s., an additional 2s. a week. If his income was 4s., and less than 5s., an additional Is. a week. 84 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR (5) "xlssured income" was defined to mean income derived from — (a) Eeal estate. (b) Leasehold property, the miexpired term of the lease being not less than thirty years. (c) Any security in which trustees are authorised to invest either by Statute or by an Order of the Court of Chancery. (d) Any annuity purchased from the National Debt Commissioners, or through the Post Office, or from a registered Friendly Society, or from an Insurance Office. Or (e) Any security from time to time approved by the Treasury. No allowance of outdoor relief from the rates was to be considered " assured income." (6) The pensions were to be payable from the local rates, the State to contribute not more than one-half of the cost. (7) The receipt of a pension was not to involve forfeiture of any civil right. The Committee balanced the advantages and disadvantages of the scheme as follows : — Its advantages were : — (i.) That it could be brought to some extent into immediate operation. OLD AGE PENSIONS 85 (ii.) That it left the industrial classes free to save in their own way. (iii.) That it required no difficult investment of accumulated funds by the State. And (iv.) That it offered the public aid to all persons of the industrial classes who could make the required contribution. Against these advantages, however, must be set the following drawbacks : — (i.) It imposed on the State generally, and therefore on the industrial classes, a heavy charge for providing pensions for a portion only of these classes. (The cost was estimated to amount to ^£2,300,000 to begin with.) (ii.) It encouraged that amount of thrift only which was required to ensure an income of 2s. 6d. a week at sixty-five, but discouraged any further thrift. For instance, it would hold out a strong inducement to working-men to save sufficient to produce, in one way or another, the quali- fying income of 2s. 6d. a week. But the man whose income (apart from wage-earning) was at sixty-five 3s. a week, would receive from the public authority 2s. If his income 86 OVB TREATMENT OF THE POOB were 4s. a week, he would receive only an additional Is. The motive for thrift would therefore diminish after he had saved enough to produce 2s. 6d. a week. He would feel that his subsequent self-denial only lightened the burden upon the public. If he saved enough to give himself 5s. 6d. a week after sixty-five, he would receive no public aid, and his income would only exceed by 6d. a week that of the man who had saved just enough to give himself 2s. 6d. a week, and received an additional 2s. 6d. a week from the public. In other words, a man who had worked hard enough to lay by a fund of about .£135 would hardly be any better off in old age than a man who had saved no more than about £62. In this way the scheme would seem to encourage thrift up to a certain point, and after that to discourage it. The third drawback was that it would pro- bably tend to depress the wage rate by relieving the industrial poor from the obliga- tion of wholly providing for their old age. As to the pensioning authority, the Com- mittee pointed out that, if it were the Board of Guardians in each Union, the distinction OLD AGE PENSIONS 87 between a pension and an allowance of out- door relief would be lost ; that, if it were the County Council, working through a Com- mittee or Committees, that body not only extended over too large an area to administer pensions with success, but had not the requi- site machinery for doing so ; that if a new body were instituted it would, if efficient, merely be the Poor Law Authority under another name. The Committee went on to point out the difficulties which surrounded the administra- tion of the scheme. To begin with, the ques- tion of settlement would come in. This difficulty would be overcome if the whole of the pension was given out of State funds, but in such a case there would be little or no security for the careful administration of the pensions by the local authority. Then there would be the difficulty of ascer- taining the age and income of applicants for pensions. In many cases no satisfactory evidence could be obtained. If a general scheme of investigation could be devised, so complete as to check widespread fraud and abuse, it would require so large and so highly 88 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB organised a staff as to seriously increase the total cost of the scheme. Then the scheme, in common with other schemes, would shut out from benefiting by it all who had already reached or were near the age of 65, and who, not having foreseen the establishment of the bounty upon savings, had not acquired the necessary contribution. Nor would it help the aged members of Friendly Societies, for, even if they commuted their sick pay for a pension, the commutation would only produce Is. or lOd. a week, and so fall short of the minimum contribution of 2s. 6d. a week. Again, in common with other schemes (which are open, in theory, to all members of the industrial class), it would, in practice, be limited to those who are neither the most numerous nor the most in need of public assistance. Then the scheme proposes that the State contribution should diminish according as the pensioner's income approaches the limit of 5s. It is easy to see how the door is thus opened to fraud and misrepresentation of income. The Committee also pointed out how im- OLD AGE PENSIONS 89 possible it was to distinguish between per- manent income derived from capital invested, and a life income arising from an annuity. "Thus,'' they said, " a man with JE260 invested in a 2f per cent, security, would have an income of 2s. 6d. a week, and be entitled to another 2s. 6d. from public sources, while, on the other hand, if he had a Post Office annuity of 2s. 6d. a week, which would cost at the age of 65 only £62 16s. 8d., he would be equally entitled to a supplementary 2s. 6d. There would be nothing to prevent him from making over to his family £197 3s. 4d. of his capital, and purchasing with the balance an annuity of 2s. 6d. a week, and after so doing he would still be entitled to claim from the pension authority the supple- mentary 2s. 6d., which is the maximum benefit under the scheme." Such are some of the many objections to a scheme which the Committee thought the best — or, I may say, the least bad — of all the schemes brought to their notice. Seeing, then, that the assumed advantages of the intervention of the State to provide old age pensions are more than counterbalanced by the undoubted disadvantages, we are brought back to consider whether it is not possible for the working classes, if they are let alone, to solve the problem for themselves. We must always bear in mind that the aged 90 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOB paupers of the present day are those who never had the opportunities of saving or of insuring themselves against the ordinary acci- dents of Hfe nor the education that their descendants have had, or are having, and that it is more than probable that when they die they will not be replaced by other aged paupers. Nothing is more remarkable in the history of the last 50 years than the raising of the standard of living among the respectable working classes, and the increased desire and ability which they have shown to make them- selves independent of any outside help. This ability is illustrated by the extraordinary decrease in the number of persons who be- come chargeable to the poors' rate for any cause. Thus the average daily number of paupers during the year ending Lady Day, 1849, formed 62-7 per 1,000 of the total popu- lation, whereas the corresponding number for the year ending Lady Lay, 1898, was 26-2. In other words, while we had in 1849 627 paupers of all classes to every 10,000 of popu- lation, the number has been reduced to 262 in 1898. In Unions where the administration OLD AGE PENSIONS 91 of the Poor Law has been strict — i.e., in Unions where great care has been taken that those who have had the opportunity to pro- vide for their independence, but have not done so, shall not be relieved outside the workhouse, the results are still more striking. In a paper which I read at a Poor Law Conference at Oxford in 1894, I showed what remarkable results had been achieved in par- ticular Unions. Thus in the Oxford Union on January 1, 1872, 283 persons over 65 received relief, out of a total of 327 returned as not able-bodied adults ; while on January 1, 1892 (according to Mr. Ptitchie's Ptcturn), only 135 persons over 65 received relief, a reduction of over 52 per cent. In the Brixworth Union (Northampton- shire) 488 persons of 60 years and upwards received relief on January 1, 1872, out of a total of 608 returned as not able-bodied adults, while only 59 over 65 (according to Mr. Eitchie's Return) received relief on January 1, 1892. In the Bradfield Union (Berkshire) on January 1, 1871, 229 persons over 65 received outdoor relief ; while on January 1 , 1892 92 OUR TliRATMFNT OF THE POOH (according to Mr. Ritchie's Eeturn), out of 79 persons over ()5 receiving relief, only 20 received outdoor relief. The lunnber still stood at 20 on January 1. 1891. Many of this small number of 20 were persons wlio were receiving outdoor relief at the connnence- ment of the reform in this Union. There can be no doubt that lax administra- tion of poor relief from tbe rates has had a great deal to do wiili thc^ old age pauperism of the present day. In the large majority of the Unions in this country t be Poor Law has been so administered as to lead large numbers of the poor to look to it for their relief in i^ld age instead of to rely upon themselves to provide against it. The tradition that the 2s. Od. will always be forthcoming has been handed down from generation to generation, and has done more than anything else to prevent the great Friendly Societies from being able to secure to their members superannuati(^n ]iay. For the Friendly Societies can ami will undertake tbe duty wben the agitation for State-aid has subsided. Indeed, tbe albliated Orders have already begun to do so. At the present time the dilliculty in the way of the Svx'iotios atfctuuui^" ^wcuanul $».>lYeucy arisoj? fanu cho tnot of thoir havii^ii to givo sick pjiy to thoii* :igod mombt>rs. Whoa tho Bouollt Tablos woiv ovigiUvHi-Uv workod out> I'tinnancnt s^iok p^v iiris^iiig fiviu old h^o NVA«i not oaloulntod tor. Whilo. howoYor» tho Lo^l^iivs and Courts of the giwU Oixloi"^ juv rapidly jittaiuii\g jiotuimal solvouoVx tlvo loadoi*s of tho Sooiotios t\vl tlu^t tho quoscioii of jNiok pay to agvd luoiulvi's will uovor Ih^ SHti^faotovily settled until suoh pay is ooui- niutod for H pousiou. This^ of ooui'so, iuip^^^^^ tho iuolusion of old a>;o Ivuotits to ivpljuv s-iok pay aftor a oortain ago iu tho lusurawvv Tablos, and that every now n\en\lvr joining a Lodge vM' Court will have fi\^in a eertain date to insuiv nv>t only for siek pay up to a oortain age. but also t\>r a pensio»\ to wplaee tho siek benetit after that age. i\ will, theiv- fore. be i»\teresti»\!^' to know fv^r what, weekly sun\ tl\is extra insuranee eau be tMYev^ttnl. l( will be sulVu ienl for my purpose to reler to tht^ provisions u\ade by the OJvltellv^ws ^^Man Chester I'lnly). Mr. T. W altv>n. a past CJrawd ^last.iM- aiul Pnvetor of tht^ 11 nit \, tv>ld tht^ Old Ag(^ l\M\sioi\;« l\Mui»nt1,iH^ that the ,M«/i- 92 017B TBEATMENT OF THE POOB (according to Mr. Kitchie's Keturn), out of 79 persons over 65 receiving relief, only 20 received outdoor relief. The number still stood at 20 on January 1, 1894. Many of this small number of 20 were persons who were receiving outdoor relief at the commence- ment of the reform in this Union. There can be no doubt that lax administra- tion of poor relief from the rates has had a great deal to do with the old age pauperism of the present day. In the large majority of the Unions in this country the Poor Law has been so administered as to lead large numbers of the poor to look to it for their relief in old age instead of to rely upon themselves to provide against it. The tradition that the 2s. 6d. will always be forthcoming has been handed down from generation to generation, and has done more than anything else to prevent the great Friendly Societies from being able to secure to their members superannuation pay. For the Friendly Societies can and will undertake the duty when the agitation for State-aid has subsided. Indeed, the afiihated Orders have already begun to do so. At the present time the difficulty in the way OLD AGE PENSIONS 93 of the Societies attaining actuarial solvency arises from the fact of their having to give sick pay to their aged members. When the Benefit Tables were originally worked out, permanent sick pay arising from old age was not calculated for. While, however, the Lodges and Courts of the great Orders are rapidly attaining actuarial solvency, the leaders of the Societies feel that the question of sick pay to aged members will never be satisfactorily settled until such pay is com- muted for a pension. This, of course, implies the inclusion of old age benefits to replace sick pay after a certain age in the Insurance Tables, and that every new member joining a Lodge or Court will have from a certain date to insure not only for sick pay up to a certain age, but also for a pension to replace the sick benefit after that age. It will, there- fore, be interesting to know for what weekly sum this extra insurance can be effected. It will be sufficient for my purpose to refer to the provisions made by the Oddfellows (Man- chester Unity). Mr. T. Walton, a past Grand Master and Director of the Unity, told the Old Age Pensions Committee that the addi- 96 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR consider that your agricultural and unskilled labour members could in the large majority of instances increase their subscription from 5d. a week to 7d. a week without an impossible strain upon their resources ? " and he answered : — " Yes, and I am fortified in that opinion by what occurred 33 years ago, when our graduated tables of contributions and benefits were adopted in the year 1864. We were then paying a uniform rate of contribution, with the small addition of an annual charge. We were ad- vised by Mr. Ratcliffe at that day that we were charging too little, and these graduated tables were adopted at that time by the Unity, and are now, I may say, in general use. It has been rather an uphill job for us in the more unenlightened portion of the Unity to get them adopted, and even now we find in some districts that they have not adopted them as they ought to have done, but in the best of our districts in the Manchester Unity they did increase their contributions to all incoming members, and in many of them at the present day they have also made every member, even those who joined before 1864, increase their contributions so as to raise them up to the required scale." Mr. Walton's argument is strengthened by the enormous increase in the membership of the Manchester Unity since 1864 from 338,556 in that year to 787,962 in 1898, for the figures seem to show that the increased contributions OLD AGE PENSIONS 97 demanded have not in any way stopped the increase of membership. It is also a curious fact that some of the strongest and most suc- cessful Courts and Lodges in the Foresters and Manchester Unity are in agricultural districts. (See evidence of Mr. Abbott, Qs. 1338, 1526.) Further, Mr. Abbott made the very suggestive statement that he had taken out the figures of admissions in the Sheffield district during 1896, and that he found 15 per cent, of new admissions in the Courts which had compulsory pension contributions, as against only 5 per cent, in those which had no pension fund (Q. 1442). The leaders of the great Friendly Societies have, from their special point of view, two principal objections to State-aid. They say that it would imply Government interference, such as the Societies would not stand; that it was almost impossible to con- ceive of the State handing over any moneys out of the public funds to Friendly Societies without taking care, not only that they were applied for the purposes of the grant, but that the Society to which the grant was made was always in a position to contribute its own 7 98 OVB TREATMENT OF THE POOR quota of the pension ; for, as we have seen, those who ask for preferential treatment of members of Friendly Societies in the matter have not ventured to suggest that the State should pay the whole 5s. Then they seem to have a fear that the assurance of State-aid would cause an influx of undesirable members. Mr. Abbott ex- pressed this objection as follows : — " Unfortunately we have in our Society some members who join to get out all they can, and pay in as little as they can. It is possible that if Government otfered 2s. 6d. pension we should get an increased number (members who would simply join for the sake of getting the Government aid), and we do not want them — those who have that motive only. A Friendly Society is a Society in which everybody pulls together for the same object. If we get an influx of such members who want to take out all they can get, I think it would injure our Societies." (Q. 13 L3.) It is almost impossible to conceive that Parliament will establish a system of Old Age Pensions which would be limited to members of Friendly Societies alone ; for it has been shown over and over again how few members of good Friendly Societies ever come upon the poors' rate for rehef,* and the State would * E.g., see iiifra, pp. 133-138. OLD AGE PENSIONS 99 be only helping those who are able to help themselves. Old age pauperism is only fed by the Friendly Societies to a very small extent. It is the so-called " submerged tenth " who are the trouble, and old age pensions will not help these. It is quite a mistake to suppose that the poors' rate would be rendered less burdensome to any appre- ciable extent if pensions were established. As the Old Age Pensions Committee remark, however, cost and administration are the least serious part of the question. "We do not question," they say, "that the State could bear the necessary additional burden if the welfare of the community really demanded it. But would a State-aided pension system encourage thrift in the work- ing classes ? Would it not affect the question of wages, and hand over to the employer, rather than to the em- ployed, the benefit of the State contribution ? Would the receipt of State-aid be free from that taint of pauperism which makes the Poor Law relief bitter to the self-respect and independence of the best of the working classes? " At the time of the reform of the Poor Law in 1834, few people would have said that the labourer could afford to make provision for his sickness and burial out of his then earnings. 100 OVB TREATMENT OF THE POOR Suppose the State had stepped in then with a scheme for making provision for him at such a time, can one believe that Friendly Societies could have increased their membership in so marvellous a manner as they have done ? Fortunately the Parliament of the day took a different view. They said you can put by for times of sickness if you choose, and we will not burden the State with the duty. Conse- quently the labourer had to see what he could do for himself, and the Friendly Society movement grew and flourished under the pro- tection, but without the interference of, the State. I believe that to-day the Friendly Societies are capable of undertaking the work of providing adequately for the old age of their members, and will undertake it, if they are let alone. On this point I will make my last quotation from the Eeport of the Committee of 1896. They say : — "Before closing our Eeport we desire to refer to one consideration, which the course of our inquiry has strongly- impressed upon us. It is that a large and constantly increasing number of the industrial population of this country do already, by prudence, self-reliance, and self- OLD AGE PENSIONS 101 denial, make their old age independent and respected. We entertain a strong hope that the improvement which is constantly taking place in the financial and moral condition of labom' will do much to deprive the problem we have had to consider of the importance now attaching to it." I believe this anticipation will be fulfilled. It now only remains for me to draw atten- tion to the fact that we have a Poor Law under which adequate relief can be given to any one who can show himself to be destitute. The Poor Law takes no regard of age in relieving those unable from one cause or another to support themselves without its aid. What we have to see to is that the Poor Law is wisely and justly administered, and that those old people who have to resort to its help as their last resource are kindly and considerately treated, and that, if ill, they are properly nursed and cared for. If the Poor Law wants reforming, by all means let it be reformed ; but by making any separate provision for the relief of the aged poor by the State we shall be merely setting up a new Poor Law, and establishing a privileged class of paupers, among whom will be found many who are now entirely independent of State-aid, while 102 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR we shall not be relieving to any appreciable extent the existing Poor Law of the burden which it now has to bear. Old Age Pensio7is and Deferred Pay. — Events have moved rapidly since the above article was written (January, 1899). The House of Commons has now appointed a Select Committee of its own " to consider and report upon the best means of improving the condition of the aged deserving poor and of providing for those of them who are help- less and infirm ; and to inquire whether any of the Bills dealing with Old Age Pensions, and submitted to Parliament during the present Session, can with advantage be adopted either with or without amendment " (Times, 25th of April, 1899). I hope that this step is merely intended, now that the Eeport of Lord Rothschild's Committee has killed Old Age Pensions, to give the various schemes a decent burial. There is, however, an argument used in favour of them, the fallacy of which, as it seems to have great weight with some people, it may serve a useful purpose to expose. This argument is that the proposal merely OLD AGE PENSIONS 103 involves the extension of a principle already admitted in the case of those who are em- ployed and paid by the State out of imperial taxation or of those employes of certain local authorities who receive what is known as superannuation pay upon their term of em- ployment coming to an end. Mr. Chamberlain, to whose advocacy the present agitation for Old Age Pensions mainly owes its undoubted strength, has often used this argument. Thus in a speech at Bir- mingham on the 19th of November, 1891, he spoke, as reported by the Times, as follows : — " Then there is a second point which I think also is clearly established, and that is that society as a whole owes something to these veterans of industry " (referring to the aged poor). " You see I have not altogether forgotten the doctrine of ransom, although I am very willing to confess that that word was not very well chosen to express my own meaning. But I say that the State has already recognised this claim in regard to its own servants. The soldier and the sailor are pensioned. (Cheers.) Yes, but peace hath her victories no less than war, and the soldiers of industry when they fall out of the ranks in the conflict and competition in which they are constantly engaged — they also have some claim to the consideration and gratitude of the country. The claim has been recognised in the Poor Law, with its annual expenditure of nine millions sterling, and the 104 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR only question is whether a part of this sum may not be expended more humanely, more economically, in pro- moting thrift from the outset rather than in dealing with the worst, the most fatal results of improvidence." I quote this last paragraph of the extract to point out that the Poor Law takes no note, in principle ^ of character, age, or sex, but was estabhshed for the rehef of destitution from whatever cause arising, and to prevent the scandal of any person dying from the want of the bare necessaries of existence. It ought not, strictly speaking, to recognise any other claim. Again, in an article on " Old Age Pensions" which appeared in the National Review for February, 1892, Mr. Chamberlain puts forward the same argument : — " The industrial poor have really some claim on the society that they have served and on the State as its representatives. After a life of unremitting toil at a remuneration which has barely sufficed for daily wants, they ought not to be compelled to receive their subsis- tence at the cost of their self-respect. Those who have been in the direct service of the State, as in the great manufacturing departments or in the Post Office and Revenue services, as well as soldiers and sailors, are provided for in their old age. The veterans of industry also are entitled to some consideration, and this is OLD AGE PENSIONS 105 already frequently recognised by large employers of labour, and by corporations, such as railway and ship- ping companies. In the great majority of cases they must look to society as the universal employers for the aid and stimulus which will enable them to prepare for old age." Mr. Chamberlain's argument was, of course, seized upon by other speakers, and carried considerably further than he probably antici- pated. A letter from the Secretary of the Radcliffe Trade Council submitting that the question of Old Age Pensions should take a more prominent place than it had hitherto done, and pointing out that all statesmen and public officials had pensions to look forward to, gave Mr. Chamberlain an opportunity, which he took advantage of, to try to make his meaning clearer. His reply to the letter, through his secre- tary, was as follows {Times ^ 7th of December, 1898) :— " Your council appears to have come to a decision on in- complete information. It is not true that statesmen have a pension to look forward to, although a very small and strictly limited number of such pensions have been granted from time to time, but not one statesman out of twenty ever takes advantage of the arrangement. As regards the officials of whom you speak, the pension is 106 OUR TREATMENT OF THE POOR taken into account in fixing the salaries, and it is, in fact, only deferred pay. There is therefore not much analogy between existing pensions and anything which may here- after be proposed in connection with the general popula- tion. That subject is one of extreme difficulty, and is not lightly to be dealt with, but Mr. Chamberlain repeats what he said at Manchester, which is, that he hopes the Government will be able to do something in the matter before the present Parhament comes to an end." One would assume from the above letter that Mr. Chamberlain had perceived the flaw in this analogy, at least in so far as public officials were concerned. Unfortunately such is not the case, for in a recent discussion in the House of Commons on Sir Fortescue Flan- nery's Bill (22nd of March, 1899) he again brought forward the argument as follows : — " My own belief is that the only way to solve the question of Old Age Pensions is by approaching it by sections. ^Ye are dealing with it by sections. We have dealt with it in regard to civil servants, police, municipal officials, and school teachers. These are sections, and all objections to dealing with the question by sections would apply with equal force against these " {Times Report). It becomes, therefore, necessary to show how the analogy fails even in the case of those limited classes. Putting aside the universal scheme of Mr. OLD AGE PENSIONS 107 Charles Booth, which takes no account of deserts, all other schemes based on Mr. Chamberlain's argmnent involve the proposi- tion that every one who earns his own living- is thereby serving the State. In a sense this is, of course, true, but only in the same sense that those who are deliberately idle and dis- solute are doing the State a disservice. But it seems to me that until we have arrived at complete Socialism, under which the State directly employs all labour, it is quite im- possible to accept the proposition as a true one. At present the community finds it con- venient to entrust the ministers of its will, i.e., the State, with certain functions which necessitate the employment of labour. In the employment of this labour the State makes its own conditions, and it has thought well to establish a system of deferred pay, certainly not on the ground of moral principle invoked by Mr. Chamberlain, but for some one or other of the following purely practical reasons : — 1. As an attraction to counterbalance the 108 OUE TREATMENT OF THE POOR somewhat stringent conditions of its service (e.g., the service being a bar to any other profitable employment, such as directorship of a company), and so lo secure the best men. 2. In order to ensure continuity of service, so that its work may be both certain to be done and efficiently done. 3. So that it may be able to get rid of its employes at an age when their powers may be supposed to begin to fail. 4. So that promotion in the service may be more rapid, and 5. Because the risk of losing the deferred pay has a distinct tendency to secure honest service. Pensions to the police are also governed by the same considerations. In the special case of soldiers and sailors it is doubtful whether, under our voluntary system of enlistment, the country would get the necessary number of armed defenders unless it established some system of deferred pay to which the men could look forward as the reward of long service and good conduct. At the present time, when trade is good, the OLD AGE PENSIONS 109 attraction is not sufficient to induce as many men to join the army as are wanted. In the case of the employes of local authori- ties the movement in favour of a system of superannuation pay (which is merely deferred pay under another name) has, it must be admitted, generally been started by those very employes. But there any analogy ceases, for these employes consent in ex- change for the superannuation pay that a certain sum shall be deducted from their salaries as they are paid to go towards the cost of that pay. Indeed, the deductions are calculated to cause a very small tax on the pockets of the ratepayers. It is unnecessary to argue whether the system of superannuation pay is a good one, but assuming that it is so, it must be clear that only a system of compulsory insurance for old age generally could bear any analogy to it. And even Mr. Chamberlain admits that such insurance is not universally applicable. " I think myself," he said, in a speech at Portsmouth on April 2, 1891, " that the English working classes are not prepared for a compulsory reduction of their wages." 110 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR So that the analogy fails in this case also. There is, further, one great distinction between Old Age Pensions and deferred or superannuation pay which must be men- tioned. The latter may be entirely forfeited by misconduct, subjecting the public servant to dismissal from the service of the State. An ordinary employer of labour may, indeed, dismiss a man from his service for miscon- duct, but, supposing a system of Old Age Pensions were established by the State, would that dismissal entail the forfeiture of a State pension? Surely not. A may discharge B, and justly, without the pension which might, under other circumstances, at some time or other have become payable to B by A, but it is a very different thing to say that because x\ discharges B, therefore B should lose the pension payable to him by C. It is difficult, indeed almost impossible, except in the higher grades of employment, to secure the conditions of State service pro- perly so-called in the ordinary labour market. It is no doubt true, as Mr. Chamberlain says, that some large employers of labour and OLD AGE PENSIONS 111 corporations, such as railway and shipping companies, have secured the permanent ser- vice of their workmen by the estabhshment of sick benefit and old age insurance funds to which both employers and employed con- tribute. But the ordinary workman, desirous of retaining his complete independence, and influenced to a large extent by the Trades Unions and Friendly Societies, has never been quite comfortable under the restrictions imposed upon him against bringing his work, should the opportunity offer, to a better market, nor is it perhaps desirable that he should in any way lose the liberty to leave his employment without personal loss when he chooses to do so. Although I have felt obhged to argue the matter at some length, does not the question after all lie in a nutshell ? Is not the demand for Old Age Pensions, which is based upon this argument, one which implies that, because A chooses to pension off his servant Bj therefore A should be forced to pension off the servants of C, D, E, F, and so on ad infinitum 'I Surely the statement of the argument in this its barest form should suffice 112 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR to show its utter absurdity. Any way, I hope that I may have succeeded in showing that, by whatever other arguments State-aided pensions for the poor can be supported, the argument in their favour from the analogy of deferred and superannuation pay absolutely fails to hold good.* " Those who are specially interested in the question of Old Age Pensions, and who wish to know more about it should get the pamphlets which have been issued by a Committee specially formed for collecting and printing information and statistics on the matter. The Committee {Chairman, General Lord Methuen, K.C.V.O. ; Hon. Secretary, W. A. Bailward, Esq., 15, Buckingham Street, Strand, W.C.) has already issued the following pamphlets : 1. Committee on Old Age Pensions. (This pamphlet sets out shortly the main objec- tions to Old Age Pensions from the General, Friendly Society, and Poor Law points of view.) 2. Some Considerations on the Question of Old Age Pensions. (Mr. W. A. Bailward.) 3. State-aided Pensions. (Mr. C. S. Loch.) 4. Old Age Pensions. (A Criticism of Sir Fortescue Flannery's Bill.) 5. Abstract of the Eeport of Lord Eothschild's Com- mittee. 6. Pensions and Voluntary Effort. (Mr. J. Martineau.) 7. Mistakes and Misstatements. 8. A Eeply to Mr. Charles Booth's Proposal. Other pamphlets will follow. Ill THE ENGLISH FOOB LAW AND FBIENDLY SOCIETIES In tracing the history of the social progress of the Enghsh nation during the long and pros- perous reign of our Queen — that is to say, from 1837 to the present time — no facts stand out more prominently than the decrease of pauperism, the growth of Friendly Societies, and the increasing efficiency of charitable effort. No persons nowadays would, I think, venture to deny the close connection which exists between these three facts. That the new Poor Law has had the most beneficial effect in forcing those who might be inclined to be dependent to become independent and in giving a freer scope to charity cannot be gainsaid. That such would be the result of 8 113 114 OTTE TREATMENT OF THE POOR the Act of 1834, which prohibited relief being given to the able-bodied, was prophesied by those who supported it in its passage through Parliament, and indeed its effect upon Friendly Societies very soon became apparent. In their very first Eeport (p. 55) the Poor Law Commissioners gave evidence to show how this confident anticipation, which was founded upon the experience of a few Unions where a careful administration of the Poor Law had prevailed prior to 1834, was justified. They quote Mr. Tidd Pratt — whose name has been for years a household word among members of Friendly Societies — as telling thein that, while between August, 1833 and 1834, he had certified 360 Friendly Societies, during the following year the number of Societies certified by him had more than doubled, reaching a total of 750. Li 1836 accounts reached them from all parts of the country of Friendly Societies and Medical Clubs springing up everywhere, as the direct effect of the new Poor Law. But I need not quote the many instances which are given in the early Ke- ports of the Commissioners in proof of the statement. The fact speaks for itself. It is POOR LAW AND FRIENDLY SOCIETIES 115 illustrated by the extraordinary reductions in the general pauperism of the country since 1834, and especially in the male adult able- bodied pauperism. It is impossible, however, to get at any reliable statistics before 1848. Since that year returns known as the " B " returns have been regularly made of the number of paupers relieved in England and Wales on two days in every year, viz., the 1st of January and the 1st of July, and a comparison of the mean pauperism for the years ended Lady Day, 1849 and 1898, shows how remarkably it has decreased. The figures are as follows : — ended y Day. Number of Paupers. Per mille of Paupers to Population. O . Estimated Population. 3'^ Indoor. Outdoor. Total. 1849 1898 101,915 187,664 791,292 525,202 893,207 712,866 51-4 22-9 580 649 17,362,982 31,055,355 Note. — The figures exclude numbers of lunatics and vagrants. There were thus 514 paupers in every 116 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR 10,000 of population in 1849, as against 229 in 1898. The increase in indoor pauperism looks serious on paper, but, considering the in- creased comforts which the Poor Law now provides in workhouses for the sick and infirm, it is not surprising. As a matter of fact, when increase of population is taken into account, indoor pauperism shows only an infinitesimal increase from 5*9 per 1,000 in 1849 to 6-0 per 1,000 in 1898. If the number of paupers had increased in proportion to the increase of population we should have had 1,597,586 instead of 712,866. What has become of these 884,720 possible paupers ? May we not say that a considerable number of them are now connected, directly as men and indirectly as women and children, with Friendly Societies ? * * The membership of the Independent Order of Odd- fellows (Manchester Unity) has increased from 225,194 on January 1, 1852, to 787,962 on January 1, 1898; while that of the Ancient Order of Foresters has in- creased from 76,990 on January 1, 1846, to 731,442 on December 31, 1897, an increase of 1,217,220 members in both Orders. According to Whitakef s Almanack for 1898 (p. 661) the ten largest Friendly Societies in the United Kingdom numbered 2,210,476 members in 1895. POOR LAW AND FRIENDLY SOCIETIES 117 As an example of the growth of the Friendly Society movement, and of the accompanying decrease in general pauperism, I will instance the county of Hants, and it will suffice for my purpose to illustrate the increase in the mem- bership of Friendly Societies in that county by taking the three affiliated Societies which have the largest number of members, viz., the Hampshire Friendly Society, the Oddfellow^s (Manchester Unity), and the Ancient Order of Foresters. The earliest dates for which I have been able to get statistics are 1843 in the case of the Hampshire Friendly Society, 1853 in the case of the Manchester Unity, and 1850 in the case of the Foresters. The figures are as follow, excluding juvenile mem- bers and women : — Society. Date. Numbers of Lodges, Courts, or Branches, Numbers of Adult Male Benefit Members. In- crease. Hampshire End of 1843 22 955 „ „ 1897 101 9,065 8,110 Manchester \ ,, ,, 1853 35 2,540 Unity ... \ n „ 1897 105 28,753 26,213 Foresters... „ „ 1850 29 1,864 „ „ 1897 178 35,071 33,207 118 OUB TREATMENT OF THE POOR Thus we see an increase of membership in these three Societies from 5,359 to 72,889, a gain of some 67,000 members. Now let us consider for a moment tlie figures of pauperism for the county. I am not able, as I have said, to give any statistics which will serve my pur- poses for an earlier date than the year ended at Lady Day, 1849, and it must be borne in mind that by that year pauperism had been considerably reduced all over the country, so that if earlier returns were available the decrease of pauperism would be much more marked. Still, the decrease in the pauperism of the county since 1849 is remarkable enough. The following table gives the decrease in the general pauperism of the county (exclusive of lunatics and vagrants) since 1849 : — CD >!. ^2 . --x7. KiM-^-'lA^ IX APPENDICES 225 n3 OI -^ .^ d a> u "73 .-V rt 03 c3 -t= C3 5 w g fl bC O ►^ "« £f^ "^ , d Q^ CO .rf OJ ^ o c? ■-^ -s c3 (D ^ w ^ o =« ^ o -1= 0^ ^ > d CC ^00 ~ O 05 5:^ 00 u vS'-' CO 05 rt3 < ^a H ea« number of Pau Lady Day, 1871 g r^ d ^ d o -^ O) ->J 6C M d C 5h o '^ - ft o >= o •^ <^ o 1— i Tabl iring O r5 O 43 oS ^o . i-H I-H i-t 1-1 1—1 rH .203 -*^ -t-3 -+3 -|J -t3 -t=> CO t- »o CD 00 r-l S2 CO tH Oi CO CO cq Ota ^ Til cq I— 1 Vi PLh g g &=S.2 CO t-- OS CO CO CO 0^0 !^ en cb CO oq GO CO oq I— ( T— 1 I-H rH cq cq CIS oq c^ CO CO CO ■-^z; 1— 1 t- CO 1—1 1—1 OS'S GO 0^ 00 -* 00 -* - 1 ft2 >o oo"" ^ 1—1 1—1 oS r-\ 1—1 1-1 cq cq cq ^2 >« . >) 1— 1 00 1—1 CO 1-1 00 r>- CT) t- Oi c^ Oi oo GO 00 00 00 CO S^ ;— 1 I-H 1— 1 1— 1 1-1 7-i ^^ •vf a 2 a a ca 5-1 c3 c X C 15 226 APPENDICES 03 U J BO < ^73 C eS ^ O) a o • 1— « c; P c~ 2 00 • )— ( 1—1 ^ 01 TJ ^ fl ^ rrt 0) PQ o X) 1—1 o '^ o 02 c3 ^ Si '^ -J .a s ^ o c3 o o I Hl'M rol-* Hy;i H-1 2fl . ^3 CO CO rH O rH «.2 Mcq o rH 1—1 cq o Oi iO 00 CM »o cq cS o a O) CM CM O -rti CO -^3 S < o" CO co" oo" cS oo" a T— 1 •^H M S-2a lO lO Oi CO CO t^ GO, 00 en 1—1 05 CO -2a CO CO Oi r-i t<^ T—i 1—1 H a-i m S =° o >- ® a . CO o OS C3i CO CO „ S'S o o Qj GO ^ CO 1—1 o t^ CO o lO Costf Loar and Intere cq rH 00 CX) oo CO w o lO o 00 1— 1 tH 00 2? ""13 -2° a ^ 00 1—1 CD o Oi -^ 00 lO 1-J_ CO "^^ l3 rH r-^ r-T " ."S cq CO CT) O T-i Oi J3 QJ CM CO 00 Gi cn 1^1 1— 1 Oi cm" CM_^ cm" cq" cq o 3 D -^ kO^ t>^ '*« ^§ co O GO ^H T—I 1—1 rH 1—1 1— 1 t^ 1— i c^ rH c- 1 CTs 1 1 Oi 1 Oi 1 3 1 o I CO 1 O 1 CD 1 o 1 CO >^ t~ Oi C^ CT> t- Oi 00 CO 00 GO 00 00 rH rH l-l r-{ 1— ( rH cj : 1— H •if a .2 C3 c3 n3 o n3 -^ o c3 O CM s-i O M m Q o APPENDICES 227 u a < IS O °o nS '"1 o ^ o >, a a c3 c3 & O O [3 03 © cS o • «-H 03 X O CO ^ -^ &.« o ;=! ^ 03 Eh 5 CD c3 00 1 r6 C^ CO lO t^ . to CO -^ CO CO 00 7— t « CD '^ Cfl CD CO lO P •< A4 s o o cr^ mH i^' Ci t> 00 o 1-5 o 6 CO t"- (M lO g rH Grt -^ lO -rH •73 -* 0:1 o t>: °? • cq --I -rH to to T— ( T— 1 tH CO s fH crt 05 CO (i< 1—1 1— 1 p ^ DOOR Hsi H| o INDEX Able-bodied, relief to families of, 36 Administration of Belief, hints for good, 55-59 Aged Parents, relief to, 37, 38 Application and Report Boole, 57 Applications for Belief, 31, 57, 58 ApjJrenticesJiip, 28 "^.£.5.," the, 205 Atchavi fJmoTC, pauperism, 46-48; progress, 19-21,42; reHcf expenditure, 43, 45 Bastardy, 24-28, 30, 34, 37 ; statistics, 26 BlacUeij, Canon, 62-64, 71 " Bloch " Sijstem, the, 184 Boarding-md, 179, 183, 188, 199, 203 Brabrook, Mr., 134-136 Bradfield Union, old age pensions, 217-224; statistics, 91, 225-227 Bristol Scheme, 82, 215 Brixworth Union, statistics, 91 Burdett, scheme of Sir H., 81, 82 Burials, 41 Chamberlain, Mr. J., old age pensions scheme, 81, 209 ; on deferred and superannuation pay, 103-111 CJuirltable Relief, 59, 141, 142, 158-166; in country parishes, 163 ; organisation of, 158 229 230 INDEX Charity Organisation Society, 158-160 Chester Scheme, 82, 216 Children, numbers of pauper, 170 ; supervision of, 204 Children without Parents, relief to, 40 Committees on Old Age Pensions, Committee of 1885, 6o ; of 1896, 67 ; of 1899,' 102 Compidsory Insurance, 68, 64, 69, 71, 109 Contributory Schemes of Old Age Pensions, 70, 81 Co-oi)eration between Poor Law and Charity, 58, 59 " Cottage Homes " System, 183 " Daily Chronicle " Scheme, 78-80 Deferred Pay and Old Age Pensions, 102-112 " Destitution," definition of, 10 Disenfranchisement, 129, 130 District Schools, 176-178 Dixon, Rev. J., 165 Eden, Sir F. M., 133 Exeter Union, pauperism, 46 ; relief expenditure, 45-48 ■ " Exmouth;' the, 172, 178 Foresters, 94, 95, 97, 137 ; growth of the Order, 116, 117 Friendly Societies, Act of 1834, 99, 114-119 ; Commission of 1874, 122. 123-127, 130 ; growth of, 116-119 ; independence of, 119-121, 132-138 ; old age pensions, 70, 82, 92-101 ; preferential treatment, 122-131. See also Disenfranchise- ment, Outdoor Belief Friendly Societies Act. Friendly Societies and Pauperism, 133-138. See also Bra- brooJc, Stead, Vulliamy. Frome Williinson, Rev. J., 81, 211 Hampshire Friendly Society, growth of, 117 Hearts of Oak Friendly Society, 95, 137 Hereditary Pauperism, 190, 191 Holland, Mr. Lionel, 82, 213 Illegitimate Children, 24-28, 34, 37. See also Bastardy. Imbeciles, relief to female, 40 INDEX 231 Indoor Relief, 48, 49, 147-149 ; cost of, 147 Institution Life, 198 Kirkdale Indtistrial Schools, 200 Leighton, Sir Baldwin, 21 Local Government Act of 1894, 18, 48, 49, 50 Lord Lymington's Beturn, 133-136 Maidenhead Union, 225-227 Manchester Unity, 93, 94, 96, 97, 137 ; growth of, 96, 116, 117 Medical Clubs, 139 Medical Relief, 32 M. A. B. Y. S'., the, 185, 204 Murray-Browne, Mr. T. L., on "institution life," 198 Non-resident Relief, 21, 22, 30, 32-33 Old Age Paniyerism, amount dependent on relief administra- tion, 91, 92 Old Age Pensions, see Bradfield Union, Bristol Scheme, Burdett, Chamberlain, Chester Scheme, Committees, Comjnilsory Insurance, Contributory Schemes, Deferred Pay, Friendly Societies, Frome Wilkinson, Holland, Rankin, Royal Commission, Superannuation Pay, Uni- versal Pensions, Voluntary Insurance, Walpole. Ophthalmia in Poor Laio Schools, 191-194 Out-of-Work Cases, 37 Outdoor Relief, abuses, 29 ; acts cruelly, 149-156 ; charity and, 161; cost of 48, 147; effect on "earnings," 151-153; inadequacy of, 149 ; payment of rents by, 22-24, 34. See also Relief. Outdoor Relief Friendly Societies Act, 1894, 121 Overlapinng oj Charity, 158 Oxford Union, statistics of, 91, 225-227 Pauperism, diminution of, 90, 115-119, 166 " Pauper Taint;' the, 188-191 Permanent List, the, 58 Politics in Elections, 52 232 INDEX Poor Laio Schools, advantages of, 196-199 ; class of children in, 180-182 ; individualisation, 194-196 ; infectious diseases in, 191-194; number of children in, 172; size of, 188; success of children in, 185, 187, 200 Private Charifi/, definition of, 145 Prohibitory Order of 1844, 119 Public Charity, definition of, 145 BanTcin, Sir James, 81, 211 Record Bool<, 57 Relations, liability of, 24, 25 Relief, able-bodied sick, 35, 36 ; aged parents, 37, 38 ; Accham rules, 30-42 ; burials, 41 ; female imbeciles, 40 ; hints as to administration of, 55-59 ; illegitimate children, 37 ; medical, 32; non-resident, 21, 22, 30, 32-33; orphan and deserted children, 40 ; out-of-work cases, 87 ; rents and, 52 ; right to, 59, 60 ; should be adequate, 58 ; unmarried mothers, 25-28, 34 ; variation from orders as to, 41 ; widows, 38-40 ; wives and children of able-bodied, 36. See also Charitable Relief, Indoor Relief, Outdoor Relief, Right to Relief. Relieving Officers, 51, 55. Rents, outdoor relief and, 22-24, 34, 52, 150 Right to Relief, 59, 60, 140-142 Royal Commission on Aged Poor, 64-67 Rules for Relief, 30-42, 56 Scattered Homes, 179, 202 Separate Schools, 178 Sick, the relief of the, 35, 36 Stead, Mr. T. Lister, 137 Superannuation Pay, 92, 93, 109-112 Taunton Union, relief expenditure and pauperism of, 52 Universal Pensions, 70, 71-78 ; luuited scheme for, 78-80 Unmarried Mothers, relief of, 25-28, 34 INDEX 233 Vaccination, 31 Voluntary Insurance for Old Age, 89 ; by means of Friendlj Societies, 92-101 VulUarmj, Mr. A. F., 74, 75, 137 Walpole, Sir Spencer, 82-89 Widotos, relief to, 38-40, 157, 201 WorJcJiouse Schools, 174-176 ; at Atcham, 40 ; at Derby, 176 •Cbc ©rcsbam iprcea, UNWIN BROTHERS. WOKINQ AJJD LONDON Established 1819 in PARLIAMENT STREET. P. S. KING & SON, Removed fi-om Orchard House, 2 & 4, Great Smith Street, 12 & 14, King Street. 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