Newell Hawaii, its Natural Resources and Opportunities for Home-Making THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES 60th Congress "I 2d Session / SENATE / Document I No. 668 .^) HAWAII ITS NATURAL RESOURCES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR HOME-MAKING BY F. H.^NEWELL Director of the Reclamation Service ^ January 20, 1909. — Ordered to be printed ■with accompanying illustrations WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1909 HC oo:?^TE]srTs. Pag*?. Introduction 7 Land surface 8 Arid lands 10 [Lands in public ownership 10 [Lands in private ownership 12 [Land subdivision 12 [Land values , 15 gWater supply: Units of measurement 16 Duty of water 16 Prices of water 17 ^Irrigation development: Hawaii 18 Maui 20 Molokai 21 Oahu 21 Kauai 22 [Reclaimable lands 23 [Water rights 25 [Water power 26 iForest preservation 28 [insect pests and blights 32 [Population 34 llndustries: Sugar 38 Rice 39 Diversified industries 40 fLabor: Importing labor 44 iHome making: Homes on public lands 47 Is home making practicable 49 [Summary 50 ILLU8TRATIO]:^S. Page. iFiG. 1. Area of Hawaiian Islands compared with area of Colorado 9 2. Classification of all lands as regards character 10 3. Ownership of land n 4. Distribution of public land 13 5. Classification of public lands 14 6. Forest areas and forest reserves 29 7. Population changes 35 8. Voters, 1908 " 36 9. All school children, 1908 38 10. Production of sugar 40 3 1324553 PREFACE. Under instructions of July 7, 1908. from the Secretary of the Inte- rior I visited the Territor}^ of Hawaii and made the memoranda sub- mitted herewith rehiting to matters of interest in connection witli the possibility of reclaiming the arid public lands and of utilizing these for homes. I arrived in the islands on September 23 and left on November 18, being eight weeks in the Territor}-, spending the greater part of this in travel, during which time I made a circuit of the island of Oahu, visiting in order Maui, Kahoolawe, Hawaii, ]Molokai, and Kauai. In the course of the various trips I traveled approximately 700 miles on interisland steamers, 750 miles by carriage, automobile, or railway train, and 450 miles on horseback. I had an opportunity^ of meeting many people of the islands in their homes, as relatively little time was spent in hotels. I also had opportunities of being present at various popular gatherings and associations where matters of interest relating to the development of the Territory were discussed. In making this report I have tried to present the larger features of a complex situation, and at the same time preserve a certain freshness of impression, amplifying the details which strike the newcomer and which are not readily found in reports or books on the islands. The impressions of a first visit differ widely from preconceived opinions obtained from reports or from descriptions which necessarily deal largely with special features. This will explain why I have gone somewhat fully into matters which are elementary to the people of the islands, but which seem to be overlooked by the average Ameri- can citizen. The descriptions of irrigation and other works dealing with sizes, capacities, and cost have been compiled from memoranda somewhat hastily prepared. There has not been opportunity for securing veri- fication of these data from the owners or engineers of the works. The object of inserting the descriptions has been to call attention to the fact that considerable development has taken place and to indicate in a general way the character of this development. It is hoped that in the future a more careful description may be prepared of these works, and to this end information is being obtained to bring these statements up to date. The purpose of this report is amply served by calling attention to the present knowledge of the existing con- ditions. In my trips among the islands I have had the advantage and per- sonal pleasure of being accompanied by Gov. Walter F. Frear. His broad knowledge of local conditions has been invaluable. He has already thought out and called attention to or put into practice as 5 6 NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. far as possible many of the important principles of conservation of the resources of the islands. His annual report exhibits concisely the existing conditions and calls attention to needed legislation in the line of progress. In it he emphasizes the fact that the sentiment among the thinking public on the islands is rapidly growing in favor of bringing in or encouraging the larger introduction of laborers who are or will become American citizens, thus gradually reducing the proportion of aliens, mainly Orientals, who form over half of the jiOjDulation. A sentiment toward changing the character of the laborers from aliens to citizens has been aroused among the thinking people of the islands. It is accompanied by a realization of the fact that the laborers — who will be voters — must have a home and ownership of a small tract of land if they are to be a stable and conservative force in government. This brings us face to face with the overshadowing problem of home making and home preservation, and through home making the permanent increase of a working population with the civic capacity which is essential to the safety of an x^merican com- monwealth. Many attempts have been made in this direction with little success, but as a result of the experience had in the arid States and Territories it is believed that lands now arid and mainly in public ownership can be reclaimed, divided into small tracts, and the owner- ship gradually passed to American citizens, including both laborers and small farmers. F. H. Newell. December 21, 1908. HAWAII. INTRODUCTION. The Hawaiian Islands are a part of the United States lying 2,000 miles off the coast of California and several hundred miles easterly from the farthest western possessions of the United States in Alaska. These islands are now and have been for eight years (since June 14, 1900) an integral part of the territory of the United States. This fact seems to be not generally appreciated by the great mass of citi- zens on the mainland. As a consequence, the opportunities offered by the islands and the duties of the United States as a whole to the Territory have been quite largely overlooked. The opportunities are those offered by a rich soil, a highly developed civilization, and, most notably, by a climate ideal as regards comfort and suitability for high physical development. The duties of the nation to this Territory arise from the fact that this island outpost is the gateway through which passes most of the traffic to and from the Orient, and where diseases inimical to the human race, also the insect pests or blights injurious to animal and vegetable life, must be caught and destroyed or j^revented from further progress. From the political standpoint the importance of keeping these islands thoroughly American in racial and social affini- ties can hardly be overestimated. There is not sufficient area to develop at once a State so great and independent that its demands will be prominent at the federal capital. It is therefore incumbent upon the National Government to see that this community is given the needed encouragement and support which will lead to its best development along traditional American lines. The health of the bod}^ politic demands that this small but impor- tant territory should have a full recognition and constant considera- tion. It is unnecessary to enter upon any argument along military lines. This has been widely discussed, but it is significant to point out that this gatewa}' to and from the Orient is the abiding place for Orientals now comprising 50 per cent of the population. Counting with these the peoples from southern Europe — landless and largely migratory laborers, with no inherent loyalty to republican institu- tions — the total forms nearh^ three-fourths of the whole jiopulation of the islands. Add to this the fact that the natives, who comprise nearly three-fourths of the voters, are still uncertain in their civil attitude — are easily swayed by specious arguments — and there arises a condition where common prudence demands careful thought, result- ing in a definite plan, followed by action. There is a striking defi- 8 NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. ciency in numbers of what have been called the '• plain people '' — citizens descended from generations of freemen — in whom thrift, energy, and civic virtues are inborn. This lack notably of the "small farmer " has long been recognized. It is the duty of the nation to assist in filling this need. liAND SURFACE. The land surface of the eight inhabited islands aggregates a little under 6,500 square miles, or, in round numbers, a little over 4.000,000 acres, being a little less than the area of the State of New Jersey. The largest island, Hawaii, has an area of 4,015 square miles, or about the same as Connecticut. Compared with Porto Rico, which has an area of 3,435 square miles, the Island of Hawaii is one-sixth larger. In population, however, the islands as a whole have only about 170,000 persons, or 20 per square mile, while Porto Eico has about 1,000,000, or nearly 300 per square mile. In extent the islands cover an area comparable to a belt extending diagonally across Colorado, as illustrated by figure 1. *~Tlie lands are made up almost entirely of lava flows, some of great antiquity, others quite recent. The upper layers of the older lavas, where they have decayed on the surface, furnish soils which, though very fertile, are frequently eroded by ravines or canyons. The lands covered b}^ the most recent lavas are practically valueless, the rough surface, not yet disintegrated by the weather, being bare of vegetation and in many places impassable to man or beast. On the 4,000,000 ircres of land surface, probably one-third (see fig. 2) is of little or no use, consisting of fresh lava or of cliifs, canyons, and ravines too steep even for the growth of forest trees. The most valuable land is that now utilized for the growth of sugar cane^ This aggregates about 213,000 acres, of which 34,000 acres belong to the Government. ^The cane land is located on the alluvial flats and lower slopes of disintegrated lava flows. Above or adjacent to these is the belt of land too high or too dry for sugar, but used largely for grazing^ This aggregates about 1,500,000 acres. Higher up the mountain slopes, extending on the windward side to the tops of all but the highest mountains, are the forests, the collecting ground for the water supply of the lower lands. j These embrace over 1,000,000 acres, of which three-fourths have been or will soon be set aside as territorial forest reserves. About 70 per cent of the area of the reserves belongs to the Territory, the remainder being in the hands of individuals or corporations, who are working with the territorial officials in preserving the forest cover. ' Altitude and exposure to the wind governs largely the productive capacity of the land areas. The soil, though all of volcanic origin, varies in quality largely through differences in exposure to the weather, to dryness, ancl consequently to the degree to which the parent rocks have disintegrated. At altitudes below 1,000 feet the climate is truly tropical, especially on the leeward or sheltered side, while on the mountain tops, above 10,000 feet, the climate is almost arctic in its severity. As a whole, NATUBAL. RESOURCES OF HAWAII. only about one quarter of the area of the islands is below 1,000 feet above sea level, another quarter is from 1,000 to 3,000 feet in altitude, and the remainder above 3.000 feet. It is in this belt of land above 1,000 feet and reaching well up on the mountain slope that the r' ! ^ I highest development of small farming and diversified industries appear probable. The elevation is sufficiently great to insure a climate suitable for the comfort of the white race and yet is suf- ficiently warm for the raising of many valuable products-^ 10 NATUEAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. ARID LANDS. Over one-third of the entire land surface of the islands is arid for the greater portion of each year. Taking into consideration only the areas which possess a soil of agricultural value, it may be said that one-half of all the good soils of the islands require the artificial appli- cation of water to be of the highest value in crop production. Much of the lands now used for grazing can be utilized for crops if water can be had at the right time. It is popularly supposed that the islands are saturated with mois- ture. This is because of the fact that at certain points, notably on the windward side, the precipitation is exceedingly heavy and has been Fig. 2. — Classification of lands as regards character. SO frequently commented upon, that this fact of heavy rainfall at a few points has overshadowed the equally important fact that other parts of the island* have a deficient water supply ._, LANDS IN PUBLIC OWNERSHIP. The total area of public lands owned by the Territory of Hawaii is estimated at a little over 1,000,000 acres, or one-third the entire land Burface. Practically all of this is under lease and is being put to some use. Much of it has little value, being composed of recent lava flows, or is cut up by great canyons. About 34,000 acres, or 2 per cent, is now in sugar cane, and about 500,000 is included in various ranches, NATUEAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 11 being cut up usually by stone walls into grazing fields or paddocks. Much of the remainder, or 273,912 acres, is included in territorial forest reserves, and additional area up to a total of about 300,000 acres will be thus set aside. Many of the leases on the larger tracts of public lands were origi- nall}^ executed in the years from 18C0 to 1890, and had a length of life of fifty years or less. As each lease expires the question arises as to the disposition to be made of this particular area. Thus the broad question as to the future of all the i^ublic lands has not been forcibly presented at any one time. Executive action in carrying out any future policy must await the opportunity when each lease expires in turn. Fig. 50 -Ownorship of lands. There is little in the public land situation in the islands which is directly comparable with that on the mainland. On the islands the public lands are now, and have been for generations, occupied and put to some use. They are more or less highly developed, and are under cultivation as far as the arid conditions will ])ermit. They can be compared, perhaps, most nearly to the abandoned military and similar reservations in the arid Western States, Avhere houses have been built, ditches constructed, fields fenced, and a comparatively large population has found a homo. They are included within or are bounded by tracts of private land of equal or greater size, Avhich also have been occupied and used for generations. They do not, as on the mainland, consist of vast stretches whose resources are little 12 NATUKAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. known and where the newcomer must select his homestead on untried areas remote from human habitation; on the contrary, most of the arable public lands on the islands show evidence of former occupa- tion or agricidtural improvement, and has been the home of genera- tions of tillers of the soil. Every little hill and valley and each nat- ural feature has now, or did have, a Avell-recognized name, and com- plicated rights of w^ter have vested from time immemorial. LANDS IN PRIVATE OWNERSHIP. The title to all lands in private ownership dates from about 1848. Prior to that time the lands and waters belonged to the King and were divided by him among his chiefs or followers, who in turn alloted portions to the people. Land tenure was then comparable to that under the feudal system in Europe. In 1846 to 1855 a division of all lands was made, resulting in approximately the following allotments : Acres. To the Crown 1,100,000 To the Government 1,413,000 To chiefs and people 1,647,000 Total 4, 160, 000 This ownership applied mostly to Hawaiians, as the laws until 1859 practically prohibited aliens from such land ownership. There were approximately 11,000 native owners who received an average of from 2 to 3 acres apiece, these being the small kuleanas or taro patches, occupied and tilled by each man at that time. This division of the land illustrates the fact that the needs of the common people were filled and a relatively high state of cidture developed by indi- vidual work on very small tracts; in fact, the native under best conditions, can rarely make use of a larger area. Bishop estate. — The largest private landowner in the islands is the Bishop estate, the lands being those resulting from descent in the extinct Kamehameha line of kings. At present these lands are held as a source of revenue to be devoted to certain schools. The estate is estimated to include 375,000 acres, or about 9 per cent of the entire land surface of the islands, but it is claimed that only 5 per cent of this 375,000 acres is suitable for agriculture. It is probable that in the case of any general system of reclamation being under- taken by the Federal Government this large estate as well as other landowners would cooperate in making available the reclaimable land for settlers on small tracts. LAND SUBDIVISION. r The rectangular form of subdivision adopted throughout the greater part of the mainland, both in the United States and in Canada, is unknown in the island^, and is inapplicable to the phj^s- ical and cultural conditions there existing. This system was origi- nally devised for the broad prairies and plains of the West and is of a special value where the land is of uniform character for hun- dreds of miles. On the islands there is no such thing, the typical condition being that of a mountain mass sunk partly beneath the sea but with the top projecting out of the water. From the moun- NATURAL EESOUECES OF HAWAII. 13 tain top the surface slopes in all directions to the shore. On the windward side this otherwise gentle slope has been abruptly ter- minated at the sea by erosion forming high cliifs and deep gorges. On the leeward side the slope has frequently been prolonged b}^ coral reefs aided by soil washed or blown from the upper lands. Going around the islands there are belts or zones of land having similar climatic conditions, the successive zones becoming less and less trop- ical as the mountain side is ascended. These horizontal belts are, however, deeply cut by canyons or gorges, which radiate from the central cone. , 14 NATURAL EESOURCES OF HAWAII. This ideal arrangement is interfered with on several of the islands by the fact that there are two or more distinct mountain peaks, but the original subdivision of the land by the natives was made largely with reference to this typical condition of topography and of the common needs of the peoplQ'. Each chief Avas allotted by the King a piece of land not lying in a continuous strip along the seashore or on the mountain side, but was given a wedge-shaped slice extend- ing from a point at the mountain top down to the sea, widening out toward the shore. In this way each principal man had a part of the sea frontage for fishing, a little lowland for cocoanuts or taro, some higher ground for dry-land crops, above this some forest for wood for various purposes, including canoe making, and also some of the grazing or waste land^ Thus a diversion was made of all classes . Fig. 5. — Classification of public land. of .surface, the size of each individual holding being proportional to the importance of the chief. The adoption by the natives of this method of land subdivision is a natural consequence of the topographic structure. They had originally in their language no expression for the points of the com- i:)ass, but instead of fixed directions, commonly used two words, which pass current even with the white men, that is, the term " mauka," to signify toward the mountain, and " makai " toward the sea. It is curious to note that even though a man is accustomed through long usage to speak of directions as north or south, east or west, as is done habitually on the mainland, yet on coming to the islands he quickly falls into the habit of indicating directions by the simple NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 15 ■words '' mauka " or '•' makai," as every point on the islands is thus quickly described with reference to other adjacent points. Instead of describing a place as being on the right or left hand side of the road, it is always *' mauka *' or " makai '" of the road. These native subdivisions, or ahupuaas, the result of j'ears of expe- rience, became crystallized into definite holdings at the Mahele of 18-1:8. Their boundaries were as a rule general in character, and it has been a work of great magnitude to establish and mark upon the ground the exact limits of these ahupuaas. This delimiting each holding would have been comparatively easy were it not for the fact that within each of these larger holdings there are smaller tracts, averaging 2 or 3 acres, kuleanas of the natives. To each of these there attaches a more or less definite right to certain waters used from time immemorial in cultivation of taro or other crops on the kuleanas. The descriptions of all lands, whether public or private, is neces- sarily by metes and bounds and not by any simple numerical system such as that made easy by the rectangular surveys on the mainland. Every tract of land, no matter how insignificant, has its individual name. From the fact that the Hawaiian alphabet is limited to a few letters, and certain sjdlables are in frequent use, it results that the names of these lands are frequently similar in sound or the same ame is repeated in various localities and are thus confusing to the stranger. The land surveys, considering the difficulty of the work, have been made with extraordinary accuracy. They are based upon triangula- tion, and the original maps are a matter of public record. Titles may be registered and transferred b}^ the Torrens system. LAND VALUES. Land values appear to be very high compared with those existing throughout the arid West of the United States. It is, however, diffi- cult to make comparisons as the crop-producing capacities of the lands are so different. On the sugar lands, for example, eighteen months is required for producing a crop, while in the case of some other products two or even three crops a year can be had. Few if any agi'icultural lands are on the market. Even city or suburban lots were obtainable with great difficulty until within a few years. The lack of real estate agents in the islands is very noticeable, especially when a person has become accustomed to the constant importunities of men offering agricultural and other lands for sale in the vicinity of every town or city on the mainland. Leasing real estate instead of selling is prevalent, and it is a matter of surprise to learn the large sums received for tillable lands, such as those rented by the orientals, notably the Chinese, for rice produc- tion; $20 to $25 per acre per year is not uncommon, and instances have been seen where rents as high as $40 or even $60 per acre per year are collected. For banana land the prices may be from $5 to $15 per acre. The tendency is for the orientals, and to a less extent the Portuguese, to rent rather than obtain an absolute title to the land. It is impossible to assign any one cause for the condition, anomalous in American territory, of high rentals and few if any sales. 16 NATURAL EESOUECES OF HAWAII. The origin of the custom lies in the history of the land titles and in the peculiar character of the population. Up to the time of the establishment of a permanent government there prevailed such uncer- tainty as regards the future that investors preferred to keep tlieir money in negotiable securities. Even after the establishment of the territorial government there was little tendency to invest in land or speculate in the rise in value of real estate. The sugar planters have, of course, endeavored to purchase the lands needed for their business. Failing in this they have leased from the government, the Bishop estate, and other holders. The lands which might be useful for other purposes have not as a rule been put upon the market and would-be jDurchasers of small tracts have difficulty in obtaining any land suit- able for farming. The leasing system has been denounced by some as the curse of the country, although it is recognized that there are conditions such as those surrounding the occupation of the land by the natives where the long-time lease is the only way by which they can be assured of a permanent home. The high prices of land have also forced men of small capital to lease land so that they might use their resources in cultivation and marketing the crops. AVATER SUPPLY. There is probably no part of the United States where in as small an area there is as great a diversity in the quantity of water and its availability. At one point the annual rainfall may be over 300 inches in depth; only a few miles distant, extreme aridity prevails. Even with the heavy rainfall on the mountain slopes, which are exposed to the trade winds, there are relatively few rivers or living streams. Much of the water sinks into the porous lava and penetrates to the innumerable pipes or tunnels left by the fluid rocks as they originally flowed toward the sea. Units of measurement. — In statements regarding the quantities of water the unit commonly employed in the Hawaiian Islands is the United States gallon of 231 cubic inches. The flow of streams is given in millions of gallons per twenty-four hours. Transferring this unit to the one in ordinary use in the United States of the cubic foot per second (or second-foot), there is found to be a convenient relationship in that a stream delivering a million gallons during twenty-four hours is equivalent to a flow of a little over 1.5 second- feet. The second-foot is roughly equivalent to two-thirds of a mil- lion gallons per twenty-four hours, or is 50 " miners' inches," thus making the million gallon per twenty-four hours equivalent to about 75 miners' inches. The common unit of volume of water — for example, that contained in a reservoir — is in the United States the acre-foot (13,560 cubic feet) . A volume of a million gallons is thus equivalent to 3.06 acre- feet, or 1 acre-foot equals a little less than a third of a million gallons. Duty of ivate7\ — The duty of water in irrigation of the arid lands is stated generally to be a million gallons per twenty-four hours, flow- ing continuously, for 100 acres of sugar cane. Many soils require a larger quantity of water and a million gallons (or 1.5 second-feet) will irrigate considerably less than 100 acres, in some cases as low as 60 acres or even less, where the ground is excessively sandy or porous. NATURAL ItESOUECES OF HAWAII. 17 The sugar cane is grown in furrows about 5 feet apart, into which water is turned from the distributing ditches. The newly planted seed is watered every three or four daj's. Later, water is applied once in ten to sixteen days if available. If water can not be had, the sugar cane will continue for some weeks or even months without serious deterioration, but will not make any notable growth. There is a limit to its endurance, and when once passed subsequent irrigation will not revive the plant. Sufficient water is applied to the cane fields to cover them to a depth of from 10 to 12 feet each year. Without irrigation sugar cane is said to yield a profit where the rain is not less than 3 inches each month. Xot only is water developed for use in irrigation, but it is also employed in creating electric power, which, after transmittal, is in turn used for pumping water for irrigation. Large volumes are also used for conveying the ripe sugar cane to the mills from the fields situated at distances of several miles and at several hundred feet greater elevation. INlany of the cane fields are on steep slopes, and from these it is impossible to convey the cane at reasonable cost ex- cepting by flowing water. The water is conducted in V-shaped flumes built of so-called " northwest " lumber or Douglas fir. The California redwood is more permanent as regards freedom from decay, but has been found to be too soft for conveying the cane, as the friction quickly wears it out. Pi'ices of tcater. — Water for irrigation is not generally sold, most of the ditch systems having been built by the plantations. In a few cases water not needed by the plantation has been sold at the rate of from $6 to $8 per million gallons, or, in round numbers, from $2 to $2.50 per acre-foot. For a continuous flow of water the prices have ranged from $2,000 to $3,G00, or even in one case as high as $G,250 per annmn per million gallons per twenty-four hours of continuous discharge. This is at the rate, in round numbers, of $1,100 to $2,100 up to $1,000 per cubic foot per second, a price which would be prohibitory in the arid region of the United States, as on a basis of 100 acres to the second-foot this would be an annual charge of $11 to $21 or $10 per acre. The highest charge known on the mainland, excepting in extraordinary emergen- cies to save an orchard, is rarely above $5 a year per acre. IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT. There are now under irrigation, mainly in sugar cane, about 110,000 acres. The investment in ditches, tunnels, reservoirs, pumps, etc, amounts to over $15,000,000, or at a rate of about $110 per acre. The older ditches — some in rock tunnel — were begun by the natives in prehistoric times. The latter larger works have been built mainly by the sugar planters. Irrigation development in the islands differs widely from that on the mainland in the character of construction and cost per unit of water handled. On the mainland the greater part of the water is taken from perennial streams and carried in broad, shallow canals having a capacity of several hundred cubic feet per second. On the islands most of the water is taken from very small streams. The ditches head in high and exceedingly rough mountain regions, the S. Doc. GGS, GO-2 2 18 NATUEAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. ridges being so narrow and the slopes so steep that the water is con- veyed Largely in tunnels. The tendency is more and more to do a\vay with open ditches, and practically honeycomb the catchment region with underground works. Storage reservoirs on the islands are small compared with those on the mainland. There are no large natural basins adapted to holding water. In most cases the underlying rock, consisting of lava, is very porous, and water is held only by the relatively thin layer of soil on top of the lava, in which there is usually little or no clay. On the island of Hawaii considerable difficulty has been experienced, as the soil of the basins there used as reservoirs has been penetrated by roots, which, decaying, form almost innumerable passages from the surface to the porous lava. Water may stand in such a reservoir at a depth of say 10 feet without serious loss, but when the height is increased to say 15 feet many holes will develop. Attempts have been made to pack the soil by turning in cattle and sheep, in the hopes that the constant tramping will close all openings. Expensive tests have also been made of various ways of plowing the soil and subsoil and compacting this by heavy rollers or hammers. In each case, although temporary relief has been had, the increase of pressure on the reservoir has resulted in breaking through the earthy lining. The cost of completely stripping the reservoirs and of relining them is practically prohibitory. Pumping water for irrigation has been developed on the islands to an extent far in excess of anything in the United States, over GO per cent of the water used on plantations being pumped. On the main- land a height of 30 or 40 feet is considered for most crops the limit, but in the islands with higher crop values pumping to 10 times this height is not unusual. Much valuable experience has been obtained as a result of experiments made on a large scale with various forms of pumping apparatus. The direct-acting, slow-moving pump has been generally done away with, and most of the new pumps are of the relatively' high speed, fly-wheel type, with triple expansion cylin- ders and piston velocity up to 500 feet per second. These elevate water to a height of a little under 200 feet up to a maximum of 550 feet, at a cost of approximately $7.85 per million gallons (or $2.50 per acre-foot) for 100-foot lift^ For different heights the costs are given as follows per million gallons : Cost of pumping, per mUUon gallons."' 100-foot lift $". 85 200-foot lift 11. 57 250-foot lift 13. 44 300-foot lift 15. 30 350-foot lift 17. 17 There are reported to be 111 pumps in operation, with a capacity of 580 million gallons for twenty-four hours, or 900 second-feet, sup- plying about 60,000 acres of land, about a million gallons to 100 acres or 1 second-foot to 64 acres. One acre requires about 5 million gallons or 15 acre-feet to produce a crop. The following paragraphs give some of the more striking details of the irrigation works now in use: Hawaii. — On the largest island of the group, Hawaii, having an area of over 4,000 square miles, there is a much larger proportion of " Planters Monthly, October, 1904, p. 417. NATURAL EESOURCES OF HAWAII. 19 cultivated land depending directly on rainfall than on the other islands. Of the six districts in which the island is divided, there is only one, that embracing the greater part of the Koliala Mountains, in wliich irrigation construction has reached a considerable degree of completeness. On the windward side, throughout the greater part of the Hamakua coast, and especially in the Hilo district, there is an abundance of rainfall, and the principal use of water by the sugar plantations is in conveying sugar cane from the fields to the mills. In Puna the rainfall is also usually sufficient for crops. The westward or Kona side of the island, although protected from the trade wind, has considerable rainfall, this being due probably to the fact that the great height of Mauna Loa gives rise to local pre- cipitation independent in part of the typical island conditions. In the district of Kau, on the extreme southern side of the island, water has been developed mainly for use in fiuming sugar cane by means of tunnels driven into the forested slopes at altitudes of about 4,000 feet. There is not a sufficient precipitation to form perennial streams similar to those on the Hamakua side, but there are innumer- able marshes or soft places where small quantities of water can be collected by tunnels driven a short distance beneath the surface. It has been found as a rule that deep tunnels do not obtain any con- siderable increase of water over those that penetrate to a horizontal depth from about 100 feet to 150 feet. Along the seashore, especially near Punulua. are many fresh-water springs, resulting from the fact that most of the rainfall on this side of the island penetrates beneath the surface and, gathering presum- ably in volcanic pipes or tunnels, finds its way to sea level. Many attempts have been made to trace the course of these underground or percolating waters, but with little success. It is believed, however, that the value of the water is such as to justify further systematic search carried on under the guidance of a competent geologist and engineer. It is probable that no investment will yield larger returns to the plantations than a small amount of money systematically ex- pended under competent guidance through a number of years. In the extreme northern part of the island in the Kohala Mountains there has been considerable activity in ditch construction. Here are found also prehistoric ditches popularly said to have been built by Kamehameha I, but probably antedating his time. The excavation of the solid rock in the process of tunnel building is especially notable because of the fact that this was done by stone implements, the rock being presumably first disintegrated by fire. Most of the water occurs at or near the summit of the Kohala Mountains and on the northeastern or windward slope. This has been deeply cut, forming great canyons or gulches with nearly vertical sides. There has recently been built two water-supply systems, one known as the Kohala ditch, extending northwesterly parallel with the coast and capable of extension to reach arid lands on the western slope of the Kohala Mountains; the other s^'stem consisting of the upper and lower Hamakua ditches extending easterly and southerly toward the Hamakua district. Kohala ditch. — fhis ditch, completed in January, 190G, supplies water for the Kohala plantations, in the extreme northerly part of the island of Hawaii. It receives the water at an elevation of 1,030 20 NATURAL EESOUECES OF HAWAII. feet from Honokane and adjoining streams. In ordinary seasons it carried about 20 million gallons per day, and lias an extreme capacity of TO million gallons. The flow of 1907 varied from a maximum of 30 million gallons in July to a minimum of about 10 million gallons in November. For a great part of its length it is in tunnels, there being 44 of these, 7 feet high and 8 feet wide. Fourteen miles of ditch have been built out of 21 miles projected. The cost is estimated at $600,000. Vfyer Hamahua ditch. — This heads in the Kohala Mountains, about 5 miles south of the head of the Kohala ditch, and at an eleva- tion of about 4,000 feet. It receives water from several small streams before these fall over the palies or cliffs into the Waipio Valley. It continues, by a series of tunnels and semicircular steel flume running along the upper edge of the palies, through the forest reserve and easterly to the open country, where a series of small reservoirs are being constructed. The total length is 23 miles. The flow is 11 million gallons per day, and the capacity of the reservoirs 350 million gallons. The cost was about $300,000. Lotoer Hamahua ditch. — This ditch heads near the intake of the ujDper Hamakua ditch, but about 3,000 feet lower. It receives water from springs and also a small quantity from the surplus left b}^ the upper ditch. Its tunnels are in a general way parallel to the upper ditch covering the lower part of the same plantations; flow, 65 to 70 million gallons per day ; cost, $800,000. Maui. — The principal sources of w^ater on this island are on the northeastern side, on the windward or Koolau district. Here, as in the case of the Hamakua coast on Hawaii, the rainfall retained for a time in the marshy forested area soon finds its way into the deep canyons which run back from the coast. A number of ditches have been built, intercepting waters of the small streams and taking these out by means of tunnels carrying the water northwesterly to the depression or low-lying plain which lies between the two great mountain masses which make the island. Here the climatic condi- tions are such as to render sugar cane highly productive. The earlier ditches took water out at elevations of about 200 feet, but later and more complete sj'stems bring it to higher altitudes. The western portion of this depression is also supplied with water from the mountain region of west Maui. The earliest ditch on Maui, known as the Hamakua ditch, was built by H. P. Baldwin in 1878 to take water for the Haiku and neighboring plantations. The next year another ditch, known as the Haiku ditch, was built in the same section by Claus Spreckels, to take water to the vicinity of Spreckelsville. This is about 20 miles long, has a capacity of 50 million gallons daily, and delivers water at an elevation of 250 feet. This ditch was later supplemented by the Lowrie ditch, built in 1900, delivering water at an elevation of 450 feet. Lowrie ditch. — This is one of the earlier ditches on the island of Maui. It was completed in September, 1900, with a capacity of 60 million gallons. Its total length is 22 miles, of wdiich 4 miles con- sist of tunnels, 1 mile of flumes, and 17 miles of open cut. In ditches built at a later date the proportion of tunnels has been in- creased, as the experience with this ditch has shown that greater NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 21 economy is secured b}' keeping the ditch under ground as far as possible. The ditch heads at Kailua at the same point with the older Haiku ditch. The latter delivers water in the vicinity of Spreckelsville at an altitude of 200 feet, while the Lowrie ditch delivers it at an altitude of 457 feet. The total cost is approximately $-250,000. Several siphons have been built with a diameter of 4-t inches. The total area irrigated is G.OOO acres. Koolau ditch. — This was built for the Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Company, suj^plying water to the Haiku and Paia planta- tions. It was completed in 1904. It is 10 miles long of which nearly 8 miles are in tunnels. There are 38 of these. They are 7 feet high with a maximum width of 8 feet. The daily capacity is 85 million gallons. It takes water from the Xahiku rain belt at an elevation of 1,250 feet and discharges into the lower older ditches. The tunneis were excavated by Japanese working with hand drills, and the finished cost was about $7 per linear foot. The cost was approximately^ about $315,000. yVaUiee Canal. — This takes water from the Waihee stream and car- ries it to the sugar lands in the vicinity of Wailuku on the island of Maui. The head is at an altitude of 650 feet and on the stream at a distance of 2| miles from the ocean. The total length is about 10 miles, of which over 3 miles is in tunnels, numbering 22, with a height of Gi feet and greatest width of about 6^ feet. There are also 39 flumes. This ditch is 225 feet above the level of the old Waihee ditch. Starting from a dam in the Waihee stream, the ditch passes along the south bank and into a series of tunnels to the north bank of the lao Valley, back of the town of Wailuku ; this valley is crossed by an inverted siphon. The water is then conveyed to new cane lands near Waikapu and Puuhele, where there are located several reser- voirs. The steel pipe crossing lao A'alley is 1,250 feet in length and 3 feet inside diameter. The capacity is 45 million gallons per day, or about 70 second-feet. The cost was about $160,000. Ilonolialiaii difcJi. — This ditch, on West Maui, has a capacity of 30 million gallons daily; it is 13^ miles long and has 200 feet of 36-inch siphon pipe and 3^ miles of tunnels. It cost $185,000, and delivers water at 700 feet elevation. It takes water from the Hono- kahau Valley to the cane fields in the vicinity of Lahaina. MoLOKAi. — An attempt was made about 1900 to develop water for irngation for the lands on the south side of the island by means of artesian wells. Large expenditures were incurred in erecting pumps, laying out cane fields, building a railroad, and putting up buildings, but after the pumping plant was installed it was found that the water obtained was too brackish for irrigation. The work was at once abandoned without, apparently, testing the limits of supply. The water resources of the island have been reported upon by Wal- demar Lindgren, an abstract of his report being printed as " Water- Supply Paper No. 77 " of the United States Geological Survey. Oahu. — The principal part of the water supply comes from the Koolau Range on the windward or northeasterly side of the island. The amount obtained from relatively small forest-covered areas is remarkably large. There is also a very heavy artesian flow obtained on the southerly side of the island, where there are found a number of large springs. The water rises in the artesian wells from 25 to 22 NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 35 feet above sea level. It is pumped to altitudes as high as 500 feet above sea level. The aggregate yield of all the wells on the island is roughly estimated at 300 cubic feet per second. Several storage reservoirs have been built, the most notable of which is that at Wahiawa. A dam 136 feet high and 4G1 feet long" has been built below the junction of the forks of the Kaukonahau stream, and forms a narrow, winding lake extending for 7 miles through the fields of the Wahiawa Colony. The total drainage area above the lake is 8,000 acres, located on the slope of the Koolau Moun- tains. The capacity of the reservoir is 2,500 million gallons, or about 7,500 acre-feet. The cost was $300,000. Water is used for the Waia- lua plantation, the outlet of the reservoir extending through 4 miles of ditch and tunnels and issuing on the sugar lands at an elevation of 730 feet above sea level. This ditch brings 12,000 acres of cane land under gravity flow. The altitude of the reservoir is about»l,000 feet. The water is sold at the rate of $6.17 per million gallonSj and is measured by automatic registers. Water for the Wahiawa land is not obtained from this reservoir, but by a ditch system at a higher altitude, taking water from the Koolau Mountains through 4 miles of main ditch, including 38 tun- nels. This ditch was used during the construction of the dam for sluicing earth. It not only supplies water to the colony lands, but will be used for power purposes, the surplus flowing into the reservoir. Kauai. — The greater part of the water supply of this island comes from the high mountain or plateau on the north side. The fall of the streams is very rapid, there being many localities where power has been and can be developed. Beginning on the southwest side of the island and extending east- erly around the island, the principal works for supplying water are as follows : Kekaha ditch takes its water from Waimea River, 8 miles from the sea, at about 550 feet elevation. It passes through a series of tunnels and crosses Waimea Valley by means of an inverted siphon of 48 and 42-inch diameter, 2,190 feet long. The tunnels are 6 feet high and 8 feet wide, and have an aggregate length of nearly 2 miles. The ditch has a capacity of 55 million gallons per day above the siphon and 45 million gallons below. The water supplying the low- land is used to develop 750 horsepower. Other drops can also be utilized. The total cost was $275,000. Waimea River also supplies the town of Waimea by a conduit having a capacity of 6 cubic feet per second. The Makaweli lands are supplied by two ditches, the first the Hana- pepe, built by H. P. Baldwin in 1890, taking water from the stream of that name; the second the Olokele ditch, built in 1903. The Hana- pepe ditch delivers water on the plantation at an elevation of 450 feet. It has over 7,000 feet of 40-inch riveted steel siphon, over 1,000 feet of tunnel, and nearly 3 miles of flume in a total length of 10 miles, of ditch. The capacity of the Hanapepe is 35 million gallons. The Olokele ditch delivers water at an altitude of 1,075 feet and has a capacity of 60 million gallons. It has 8 miles of tunnel 7 feet high and 7 feet wide. The total cost was $360,000. A droj) has been ob- tained for use for electrical power; reservoirs have been built to regulate the supply. NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 23 The McBryde plantation has several storage reservoirs for storm water with a permanent flow from mountain streams. The principal supply, however, is pumped from wells by power obtained from a hydro-electric j)lant on the Waniha River on the north side of the island. This was finished in August, 1906, and is one of the most notable developments in the Territory. The power canal heads at an elevation of 710 feet and extends with a fall of 2 feet in a thou- sand for a distance of about 7 miles at an altitude of G55 feet. There are 32 tunnels 6 feet wide and G feet high, the total length of these being a little over 3 miles. At the end of the power ditch there are two 42-inch outlets having a length of 1,700 feet and dropping from an altitude of G55 feet to 90 feet above sea level. The pipe tapers to 30 inches where it enters the power house. The Avater is delivered against two Pelton wheels, direct connected to two 1,200-kilowat generators. From the power house power is transmitted over a j)ole line 35 miles long, practically encircling the island and leading to the pumps of the McBryde plantation. Power is generated at 2,200 volts and transmitted at 33,000 volts, aluminum wire being used. The efficiency of the appa- ratus has been estimated as follows: Water wheel 80 to 83 per cent, generator 95 per cent, step-up transformers 97 per cent, line 92 per cent, step-down transformers 97 per cent, and motors 92 per cent. Taking this into account the amount of power actually delivered 35 miles awa3'*is Gl per cent of the theoretical jDower in the water. With an efficiency of 7G per cent from the pumps the total water which can be delivered will be -IG per cent of tiie actual water flowing into the Y>ipe line above the power house. (See also page 2G.) AVhat is known as the Marsh reservoir of the Koloa plantation has a capacity of approximately 1,500 million gallons, or 4,500 acre-feet. It is located in the southern part of the island of Kauai, and receives water mainly from storms on the drainage basin of the river, in- creased by water brought by the Wilcox ditch from Kuia River in Lihue. This has a capacity of 80 million gallons per twenty-four hours. The cost of construction of this reservoir and feed ditches was a little over $100,000. The annual cost of maintenance of the system, including loss of crop from the land covered Ijv the reservoir, is $16,000. On the easterly side of Kauai, in the vicinity of Lihue, in Kapaa, and adjoining lands, water for irrigation is derived from small mountain streams, several storage reservoirs having been built for regulating this. RECLAIMABLE LAXDS. The impression derived from a general examination of lands and waters on the islands leads to the belief that there are excellent op- portunities for reclamation of public and private lands suitable for homestead purposes. The sugar companies have, as a rule, already irrigated most of the lands suitable for the production of cane, but there are considerable tracts of other lands not as well adapted to sugar cane which will have a great value when water is brought to them and they are intelligently cultivated. It is not practicable nor would it be desirable to attempt to point out at this time any par- ticular localities, but sufficient has been seen to justify a thorough 24 NATUEAL EESOUECES OF HAWAII. survey and examination such as would result from the making of a topographic map, the measurement of streams, and the combining of the facts thus obtained with necessary engineering data. It is probable that over 100,000 acres of land now practically use- less or furnishing only indifferent grazing can be reclaimed. Any estimates at the present time must be mere guesses, as there are no general data on the water supply available or the opportunities for storing floods. On this basis, however, it would be possible to furnish 5,000 farms having an average size of 20 acres each. This would be ample for most purposes, although in some instances the area of the farm should be larger, in others smaller. In laying out these farm units, they would probably include, besides an average of 20 acres of irrigated land, an additional area not irrigated, but suitable for other agricultural purposes, such as pasture and places for buildings. On this basis there would be added to the population of the Terri- tory at least 20,000 persons, including 5,000 land-owning voters. Before any comprehensive system of reclamation can be wisely undertaken, either under territorial or federal auspices, it will be necessary to bring together all available data, and with these as a basis to take up systematically the collection of knowledge of the surface elevations and of the water supply; in other words, it is essential to have a good contoured topographic map of the islands such as that being made by the United States Geological Survey throughout the arid regions. Such a map, showing all elevations of the surface, the location of streams, and the position of the forested areas, gives at a glance the outline of the catchment of the streams, the position and size of natural reservoir sites, and other facts needed in a general cognizance and broad understanding of the relative position of the mountains, the streams, and the irrigable lands. There are, of course, other engineering data which must be studied and obtained by subsequent field examination, but the topographic map is the basis on which general j)lans must rest. Coordinate with the making of a good contour map should be car- ried on the systematic examination of the w^ater resources. Much valuable information has already been brought together by indi- viduals and corporations in connection with the proposed develop- ment of specific areas. Much of this material can doubtless be had by official inquiry, but it must be supplemented by further and more general investigation. It should be rounded out by studies relating to all of the streams, as well as those now known to be needed for particular tracts of land. Work of this kind has been conducted systematically since 1888 by the water-resources branch of the United States Geological Survey under general authority of law to investigate the extent to which the arid regions can be reclaimed and under specific appropriations for such work. The same system should be extended on this territory of the United States. Through the information thus given by a contour map and by data on stream flow, it will be possible to make broad and comprehensive plans for development of waters by tunnels, by storage reservoirs, by pumping, or other means. These plans, not confined to any par- ticular tract of land, will necessarily be somewhat ideal in character, but once having the ideal system fully in mind it will then be practi- cable to fit this system in part at least to existing conditions of vested NATURAL EESOUECES OF HAWAII. 25 rights in lands or Avaters. Experience on the mainhmd has shown that, having a broad, comprehensive project, it has been possible to adjust the various difficulties or complications of vested rights and to secure a favorable outcome without recourse to condemnation or any form or force other than the pressure of enlightened public opinion. With the knowledge at hand it is apparent that there are excess or flood waters and some reservoir sites not yet utilized, and various tracts of public and private land which can be reclaimed, but to de- termine Avhether these particular localities are the best there must be a broad survey or general " taking account of stock." WATER RIGHTS. On the mainland two distinct systems are recognized as regards ownership and control of the flowing waters : First, that in the east- ern humid States, where riparian rights prevail and where each land- owner is entitled to enjoy in perpetuity the flow of streams along or through his land, undiminished in quantity and quality; second, in the arid States, where water is the basis of all land values and where the doctrine of appropriation prevails. In the most advanced stage of the theory of appropriation, the ownership of all flowing water resides in the people. Any individual can lay claim to unappropriated water, and having put it to beneficial use is thereafter entitled to continue that use. The first in time is first in right, and beneficial use is the basis, the measure, and the limit of that right. Position on a stream or away from it confers no bene- fits, as a prior appropriator, located near the lower end of the stream or 10 miles away from it, can compel persons above him or nearer the stream to permit the water to pass by them untouched. In the Hawaiian Islands a system radically diflerent from either of these has grown up, largely as the result of ancient usage. There water is considered as appurtenant to the land upon which it orig- inates and as belonging to the owner of that piece of land. He may lease it or sell it separate from the land itself, and may convey it to distant tracts of land, subject, however, to any vested rights which may come down from ancient times or more recently have been ac- quired by prescriptive use, such, for example, as the rights of the natives to the use of the water on their small taro patches. Riparian rights do not appear to be recognized excepting for water for domes- tic purposes, nor does the theory of appropriation hold excepting in the cases above noted of ancient or prescriptive rights which have grown up through the needs of the people. There is no system in vogue of ascertaining officially the amount of water available nor the amount which has alreach^ been claimed and put to use. There appear to be many unsettled questions which must be taken into consideration in advance of any future general system of development; in fact, an essential preliminary to any thorough project of utilizing the water resources of the islands is the prepara- tion of a code of water laws covering the question of ownership and control of the flowing streams and of the waters which may be held in storage reservoirs. 26 NATUEAL EESOURCES OF HAWAII. WATER POWER. The absence of coal and similar fuel, the limited supply of firewood, and high price of imported fuels have resulted in attention being- directed to water as a source of power for pumping for irrigation and for other incidental purposes. A report on the subject has been pre- j^ared for the territorial conservation commission by Alonzo Gartley, chairman of a connnittee on waters. From this report the following general facts have been obtained : Among other matters, it is pointed out that developments have already been made which are of con- siderable economic value, and there are great possibilities for future development. At the present time practically all the water power is in use generating electric power to supply motive power for irrigating pumps, the most important one being the Kauai Electric Company on the island of Kauai, where two 1,200 kilowatt generators are in- stalled in Wainiha Valley, on the north side of the island, utilizing some 40 million gallons per day (or 60 cubic feet per second) at a head of 575 feet. Power is transmitted 35 miles around the island to the south side of the McBryde Sugar Company's plantation and there utilized in operating six multiple-stage centrifugal pumps di- rect-connected to motors of an aggregate horsepower of 4,000. These jDumps have a cajDacity of 31 million gallons, or 45 second-feet, at a head of 175 to 400 feet, thus serving to irrigate over 3,000 acres of cane. (See page 23.) At Kekaha, Kauai, water is taken from a high-level irrigating ditch and dropped 275 feet to irrigate the low-level lands. At this point a 600-kilowatt generator is installed to furnish power for four motors direct-connected to multiple-stage centrifugal pumps having an aggregate horsepower of 700, the pumps having a capacity of 7 million gallons at a head of 300 feet. The water for these pumps is taken from an irrigating ditch and pumped to a level above the ditch, thus rendering 700 acres of good cane land available. The Pioneer Mill Company, at Lahaina, Maui, has installed a 250- kilowatt generator, operated by water power, which furnishes current for a 200-horsepower motor operating a triplex reciprocating pump which delivers 9 million gallons of water against a head of 100 feet. The Oahu Sugar Company, on the island of Oahu, takes water from an irrigating pipe line and develops 120 kilowatts which sup- plies a 100-horsepower motor direct -connected to a centrifugal pump. The Makee Sugar Company, at Keakia, Kauai, has installed and in operation a 300-kilowatt generator supplying current to a 225-horse- power motor operating a reciprocating pump having a capacity of 2,8 million gallons of water against a head of 250 feet. The Waianae Sugar Company, on the island of Oahu, has installed two 200-kilowatt generators supplying current to motors of 375 horse- power to pump 6.5 million gallons of water against a head of 150 to 280 feet. The Hilo Electric Light Company, on the island of Hawaii, de- velops 750 horsepower to operate a generator of an aggregate capacity of 450 kilowatts to supply light and power for the city of Hilo. The Territory of Hawaii has installed and has in operation in Nuuanu Valley, island of Oahu, water-power-driven generators of 400 kilowatts capacity for supplying arc lights and territorial govern- ment lighting in the city of Honolulu. NATURAL EESOURCES OF HAWAII. 27 There are several small water-power developments in mills varying from 10 to 50 horsepower which are used for operating machinery or electric generators. The aggregate of these developments is approximately 6,500 horse- power. It is impossible to make an estimate of the prospective power development, and at best only a few can be mentioned. These are such powers as have been rendered available through partial devel- opments made for irrigating purposes, or where the possibilities are self-evident. The conservation and development of water at high levels for irrigating purposes will render many other plants both possible and expedient. A close approximation of the ultimate i^os- sibilities can only be made when complete survej^s of the watersheds, records of the rainfall, and the cost and economic value of the developments are obtained. The island of Kauai presents a fertile field for future development, and there are at the present time some 2,000 horsepower additional at Wainiha which is not being utilized ; possibly 4,000 horsepower at Hanalei; and 1,500 or 1,800 horsepower at Makaweli; 500 or 600 horsepower at Hanaj^epe, and by the development of reservoirs back at Waimea, Wahiawa, Koloa, Wailua, Kapaa, Anahola, and Kalihiwai several hundred horsepower can be made available. On the island of Oahu possibly 2,000 horsepower can be developed at Wahiawa and from the new high-level reservoir in Xuuanu \'alley. On Maui the Hawaiian Commercial and Sugar Company at Kanai and in lao Valley can develop about 2,500 horsepower; and there are several hundred horsepower available at "Waihee in the development of the Wailuku Sugar Company. Some 1,200 horsepower could be rendered available at Lahaina from the development of the Pioneer Mill Company. The power resources of the island of Molokai are practically un- determined. On the island of Hawaii it is estimated that in the AYaipio Gulch some 8,000 horsepower can be rendered available by the present irri- gating-ditch development, and on the north coast from Waipio to Hilo there are large quantities of water going to waste, or in use for fluming cane, Avhich could be developed. Xo estimate of the amount of this power is available, but it would amount to several hundred horsepower. Storage capacitj^ constructed in the Kohala Mountain would ren- der power available, but at present the quantity is entirely undeter- mined. At many places the permanency of the flowing streams is not assured, but the development of storage capacity would render the power secure, and in manj^ cases would increase the estimate of the amount available. However, the broken character of the country Avhere these powers are available and the limited amount of arable land and water available for this land make the economic value of the development of these powers questionable. The production of fertilizers from atmospheric nitrogen by the use of electricity may render the water power extremely valuable at such places where the power can not be used for pumping Avater for irri- gating purposes. 28 NATURAL. RESOURCES OF HAWAII. FOREST PRESERVATION. ''The primary need for forest preservation on the islands arises from the fact that the permanent water suppl}' comes mainly from forest areas, and its quantity and time of occurrence is vitally affected by the character of the forest. There is probably no part of the United States where the relations between available Avaters and forest cover are more intimate and more delicate. The natural balance is easily disturbed. Changes made by man, too slight to be noticed by ordi- nary observation, have produced disastrous results. The island forests have use as furnishing a wood supply and some commercial timber, but, speaking broadly, nine-tenths of the value of the forest resides in its protection of the water supj^ly. The rapid diminution in area of the forest has led to corresponding decrease in available waters and to the abandonment of hundreds of acres formerly cultivated, but now barren of vegetation. The retreat of the forest has been due primarily to unregulated grazing. Cattle, sheep, and goats tramping through the forest eating some of the underbrush jDroduce a condition which, although hardly \isible to the eye, is unfavorable to the best growth of the forest. "With weakened vitality the trees quickly succumb to the attacks of insect pests or blights. These enemies exist at all times, but under a healthy and undisturbed condition of the forest their presence is not apparent. The very delicate relations which exist can hardly be appreciated unless by actual observation. A forest absolutely free from intru- sion by cattle will usually have its floor covered with a heavy plant growth; the soil is marshy to a degree that it is almost impossible to traverse the area< Let a few cattle run in the forest, making paths and nipping the younger foliage, and that although the ab- sence of the plants can hardly be detected, yet there is a rapid drying out of the ground. The stranger will see an apparently untouched forest, and yet he finds that the soil is not marshy, and that the trees have begun to assume an unhealthy appearance and pests abound. It results from the peculiar character of the forests that, as a rule, lumbering can not be carried on, nor the mature trees removed without destruction of the forest or injury as regards its capacity to protect the water supply. This is notably the case with the Ohia Lehua {Metrosideras ijolymoryha Gand), where the cutting of the larger trees lets in the sunlight and quickly results in destruction of the wooded area. This important tree is parasitic in origin, has no tap root, and depends for its life largely on protection afforded by smaller trees and shrubs. In the case of the Koa, the so-called Hawaiian mahogany i^Acacia Koa Gray), the conditions are different, as the removal of the older trees is not so injurious, and if men and cattle are excluded and the Hilo grass {Paspalum, conjugatum Berg) gains no foothold, the young Koa trees will rapidly increase and in ten or fifteen years a good start toward commercial timber can be had^ There are a few forests so situated that their influence on the water supply maj^ be neglected, and these can be safely lumbered without injurious effects, but taking the forests as a whole, it must be said that the development of the islands requires that they be NATUEAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 29 permanently reserved, protected by fencing, and carefully supervised b}^ qualified rangers. In this respect a beginning has been made, but it is apparent that larger expenditures are absolutely necessary to aft'ord full protection to the forest growth, and consequently to the water supply upon Avhich in turn depends the value and capa- bility of the agricultural lands to support a dense population. The general conditions of the forests have been discussed by a subcommittee of the Territorial Conservation Commission of Hawaii, consisting of Ralph S. Hosmer and xUonzo Gartley. From their unpublished report the following facts are taken. This'^report calls attention to the fact that for a clear understanding of the forest situation in Hawaii it is necessary that one be acquainted with the 30 NATURAL EESOUECES OF HAWAII. conditions of topography and local climate. As the Hawaiian Islands lie in the belt of the northeast trade winds and are mountainous, they have a climate characterized by contrasts. On the windward slopes of the mountains is an area of high precipitation; in the leeward districts scant rainfall, even approaching aridity, is the rule. These facts, coupled with the remarkable porosity of the soil, due to its volcanic origin, have a very direct bearing on the forest situation. There are two main classes of forest in Hawaii. Both are of eco- nomic value; one because it helps to conserve the water needed for irrigation, power development, and domestic supply; the other be- cause it produces wood and timber. The forests of the former class are, as a rule, situated on the moist, windward slopes of the higher mountains. They are essentially " protection forests " in that their main value rests in the Avater that can be got from them. Those of the latter class, the commercial forests, are found in the districts where because of the absence of running streams watershed protection does not figure. The forests of the first class are by long odds the most important, for in Hawaii the relation between sustained stream flow and a watershed protected by a forest cover is intimate and pecul- iarly direct. HaAvaii is a country essentially dependent on agriculture. The main crop is sugar cane. On more than half of the plantations irri- gation is essential for successful cultivation, for although the soil in the leeward districts is rich, it requires water to be made commer- cialh^ productive^; Water is also needed on the nonirrigated planta- tions for the development of power and for the fluming of cane. The important part that irrigation plays in Hawaii may perhaps be made more apparent by the statement that over $15,000,000 has been expended, wholly by private enterprise, in developing the irri- gation S3'stems that supply water to the cane fields of the irrigated plantations. The importance of the forest is generalh' recognized in Hawaii and has led to a strong public sentiment in favor of forestry. This finds expression in a Territorial Forest Service charged with the creation and administration of forest reserves and with the prosecu- tion of other forest v^'ork. During the past five years under a definite forest policy systematically followed 16 forest reserA^es haA^e been set apart, with an aggregate total area in 1908 of 444,116 acres. Of this area 273,912 acres, or 61 per cent, is land belonging to the terri- torial government. The remainder, 170,204 acres, or 39 per cent, is in priA^ate oAvnership, but for the most part the owners of the lands, fully aware of the benefits of forest protection, cooperate actiA'^ely Avith the territorial government in the management of the forest reserves. '"There are three main types of forest in Hawaii, the Koa and Ohia forest lying between the elevations of two and six thousand feet; the Mamani forest, a pure stand of another native Hawaiian tree, found on the upper slopes of the higher mountains; and the introduced Algaroba forest, which occurs at the loAver leA'els on the leeAvard side of each of the larger islands. The typical HaAvaiian forest is of the first type. The forest con- sists of a dense jungle of trees, high-growing shrubs, tree ferns, and climbers, with much undergrowth and a heavy ground coA^er of ferns NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 31 and bracken. Altogether it is a plant community admirably adapted for the conservation of moisture, for preventing erosion, and for serv- ing as a reservoir to feed the springs and streams that rise within its bounds. The most important trees are Ohia Lehua {Metrosideros polymorpha) and Koa {Acacia Koa).j The forest in all the forest reserves is of this type. A recent com- pilation of the forest areas of the Territory shows that the Koa and Ohia forest covers approximately 1,175,000 acres. Of this area it is estimated that eventually about three-cjuarters of a million acres will be included within forest reserve boundaries, of which about 70 per cent will be Government land. ^bove the level of the Koa and Ohia forest, on the slope of Mauna Kea (elevation, 13,825 feet) on the island of Hawaii, is found a nearly pure stand of another native Hawaiian tree, Mamani (So- phora chrysophyUa). This forest occurs in a belt Wing between the elevations of 6,000 and 8,500 feet. The area of the Mamani forest on Mauna Kea is G3,500 acres. Mamani occurs elsewhere in the Terri- tory, but does not at the present time form what may be called for- ests. It is, however, spreading rapidly, so that in future years it will play a much larger part than it does now.j Mamani makes excellent fence posts, for which purpose the trees in the upper forest belt are cut for local use. Xo accurate figures as to the number cut are now available. Otherwise this type of forest is unimportant commercially. The Algaroba (Prosopis juUfora) is the mesquite of the southwest. This tree was introduced into the islands in 1837. It has now sj)read so as to cover between 50,000 and 60,000 acres below an elevation of 1,000 feet in the leeward districts of the larger islands of the group. It is spreading rapidly along the leeward coasts and is also gradualh' climbing to a higher elevation^^ The algaroba forest is the largest single source of fuel supply in the Territory. It is estimated that over 3,000 cords are sold annu- ally in Honolulu. The price varies from $12 to $14 a cord, delivered. The algaroba forests are further of value because the pods make good stock feed and also because the tree is one of the important plants locally for bee food. It is estimated that for the calendar year 1907 the total amount invested in apiaries and other equipment for the manufacture of algaroba honey was $125,000 and that the gross receipts for algaroba honey products for the vear were over $25,000. It has already been shown that the primary value of the Hawaiian forest rests in the influence it exerts on the conservation of water, and that the connnercial aspect relatively takes second place. But in the leeward districts on the island of Hawaii are considerable areas where oAving to the great porosity of the soil there are no per- manently running streams.^ Here the main value of the forest rests in the wood and timber that it can be made to produce. The two Hawaiian woods of commercial importance are the koa and ohia lehua. Both are heavy, close-grained hardwoods. Koa is used for interior finish, furniture, cabinetwork, and veneering. It is now sold in the markets of the American mainland under the name '' Hawaiian mahogany."' Ohia is valuable for railroad ties. The systematic lumbering of this class of Hawaiian forest began in Octofjer, 1007, when a contract for 90,000,000 board feet of ohia railroad tie 32 NATURAL EESOURCES OF HAWAII. material was made between a local compan}^ and the Santa Fe Rail- way Company. A tie mill with a daily capacity of 2,500 ties has recently been erected. The first regular shipment of ties is to be made in the win- ter of 1908-9. No accurate estimate either of the amount of timber or the exact area covered by forests of the commercial class have j^et been made, but the area is sufficient and the stand heavy enough to justify the continuation of lumbering operations for a considerable time. The fact that none of the native trees in Hawaii furnishes con- struction timber has led to extensive tree planting, both by the terri- torial government and by private interests. This work has been going on for the last thirty years and is constantly increasing in extent and importance. The trees principally planted are several kinds of eucalyptus, the Australian ironwood and silk oak, and the Japanese cedar. Wood and timber cut from the planted forests in Hawaii are now being used for fence posts, railroad ties, bridge tim- bers, and wagon work. Practically all the construction timber used in Hawaii is imported from Puget Sound and northern California, mainly redwood and northwest (Douglas fir). In the reports of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor it is stated that for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1907, there were imported into Hawaii from the mainland 30,003,000 feet b. m. of timber, boards, and planks, valued at $565,425. For the same year 17,476,000 shingles, valued at $39,207, and other unmanufactured lum- ber to the value of $116,756 were also imported, making in all a total of $721,388 for unmanufactured wood products. The value of manu- factured wood products imported during the same fiscal 5'ear was $214,648. Further comment on the desirability of doing even a little toward securing a local source of supply is unnecessary. A forest fire law similar to that of California was enacted by the territorial legislature at the session of 1905. The territorial superin- tendent of forestry is ex officio chief firewarden, and provision is made for a corps of district firewardens to be paid for duty actually jDerformed. As a matter of fact plantation managers and other influential citi- zens agreed to take these positions without remuneration. The law provides j)enalties in case of damage resulting from the careless or malicious use of fire. Since its enactment there have been few fires of consequence, due in large part to a better public sentiment created by the presence of the law on the statute books and to the interest aroused in the matter at the time of the enactment of the law. INSECT PESTS AND BLIGHTS. In consideration of new agricultural industries or increase of present products one of the greatest difficulties met is in the insect pests or blights. AVlien the islands were first discovered the country Avas singularly |ree from these. The fly and mosquito quickly came with the Europeans, and from, time to time other insects have been accidentally introduced. Freed usually from natural enemies the conditions on the islands have been remarkably favorable for the spread of insect life as well as of plants and animals. The uniform climate, the absence of frost, the fertility of the soil, and the absence NATURAL RESOURCES OF HAWAII. 33 of enemies have resulted in a rapid spread of new life almost un- precedented in the history of other parts of the world. This is true also of parasitic or similar diseases of men and animals. The islands have furnished a wonderful breeding ground and held for experiment. A recognition of this fact has led to the establishment of as strict a quarantine as possible, not only against the diseases of human and animal life, but also against the enemies of plant life. This quaran- tine, however, was begun too late to intercept some of the worst pests. Already the losses to the sugar business alone through insects have amounted to millions of dollars annually. It has thus been necessary to vigorousl}^ fight these pests and endeavor to restore the equilibrium, such as that brought about by nature in other parts