•<C'^'"'V: ' 'j ''fry.- 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 RIVERSIDE 
 
 Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN "
 
 TRU BNER'S 
 
 ORIENTAL SERIES.
 
 OXFORD: 
 
 BY E. PICKAED HALL, M. A., AND J. H. 3TACT, 
 PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY.
 
 :'^iji 
 
 7'-^
 
 v'MVV,^-^ 
 
 MODERN INDIA 
 
 AND 
 
 4 «- 
 
 
 THE INDIANS ;- ,o~o^^'' 
 
 BEING A SERIES 
 
 OF IMPRESSIONS, NOTES, AND ESSAYS 
 
 BY 
 
 MONIER-WILLIAMS, D.C.L. 
 
 nON. LL.D. OF THE UNIVEESITT OV CALCUTTA, 
 
 nON. MEMBEE OP THE BOMBAY ASIATIC SOCIETY, 
 
 BODEN rKOPESSOE OF SANSKRIT IN THE UNIVEKSITX OF OXFOED. 
 
 Third Edition. 
 
 REVISED AND AUGMENTED BY CONSIDERAULE ADDITIONS. 
 
 LONDON: 
 TRUBNER AND CO., LUDGATE HILL. 
 
 1879. 
 [^All riijTits reserved,']
 
 27^
 
 ADVERTISEMENT TO FIRST EDITION. 
 
 I HAVE frequently been requested to reprint my various 
 communications to the Times Newspaper, Athenaum, Indian 
 Antiquary^ and other periodicals — many of which were 
 written during my recent travels in India. The following 
 pages are put forth in compliance with the request. 
 
 They are not a mere reproduction of what has already 
 appeared. Much additional matter has been added, and 
 an attempt has been made to connect the series in some 
 sort of order corresponding to the course of my travels. 
 They need no preface, nor introduction. They may be 
 left to speak for themselves. 
 
 A further series of Essays embodying my principal 
 researches into Modern Indian religious life will, I hope, 
 be published hereafter. 
 
 OxFOED, Aprils 1878. 
 
 ADVERTISEMENT TO THIRD EDITION. 
 
 This Edition will be found a great improvement on 
 those that preceded it. I have taken care to avail my- 
 self of all such criticisms on particular passages in the 
 previous editions as appeared to me to be just, and I 
 have enlarged the work by considerably more than a 
 hundred pages of additional matter. The chapter on the 
 ' Villages and Rural Population of India ' and several 
 other sections of the work are quite new. Most of the 
 matter in the two Essays on the ' Progress of our Indian 
 Empire ' appeared originally in the Contemporary Beview. 
 
 M. W. 
 Oxford, Sepfcmher^ i^79-
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Five Gates of India — Gibraltar, Malta, Port Said, Perim, and 
 
 Aden i 
 
 First Impressions . . . . . . . . . .27 
 
 The Villnges and Rural Population of India ..... 39 
 
 Samadh, Sacrifice, Self-immolation, and Self-Torture ... 64 
 
 The Towers of Silence, and the Pars! Religion So 
 
 Funeral Ceremonies and Offerings to Ancestors at Bombay, Benares, 
 
 and Gaya ........... 97 
 
 Indian Rosaries .......... 108 
 
 Indian Famines . . . . . . . . . .116 
 
 A Relief Camp 121 
 
 General Impressions and Notes after Travels in Northern India . 125 
 General Impressions and Notes after Travels in Southern India . 180 
 
 Indian and European Civilization in their relation to each other and 
 
 in their effect on the Progress of Christianity . . . -225 
 Indian Muharamadanism in its relation to Christianity, and the 
 
 prospects of Missionary Entei-prise towards it . . . .238 
 The Three Religions of India compared with each other and with 
 
 Christianity .......... 246 
 
 Progress, of our Indian Empire. Part I. ..... 263 
 
 Progress of our Indian Empire. Part II. 301 
 
 Promotion of Goodwill and Sympathy between England and India . 343
 
 MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS. 
 
 THE FIVE GATES OF INDIA — GIBRALTAH, MALTA, PORT SAID, 
 PERIM, AND ADEN. 
 
 The good ship 'Venetia,' which took me to India on 
 the occasion of my first expedition to the East, entered 
 the Bay of Biscay on the 15th of October, 1875. Equinoc- 
 tial gales had been raging for several days previously, 
 and the Atlantic rollers, coming broadside on, soon dis- 
 criminated between the passengers, instituting a process 
 of natural selection^ which resulted in the survival of those 
 alone who were fittest to do justice to the diurnal bill of 
 fare provided by the Peninsular and Oriental Company 
 with a punctuality and regularity altogether weather- 
 proof. 
 
 To be sure our decks were crowded with a motley 
 assemblage of men, women, and children of all sorts and 
 conditions ; for example — a Duke and Prince of the Blood 
 K.oyal, an Italian Countess, a general officer or two, some 
 A. D. C.'s, several captains, one clergyman, numerous 
 Indian civilians of various types, stations, and degrees, 
 from judges of the High Court to the greenest of pro- 
 bationers just escaped out of the clutches of the Civil 
 Service Examiners^ sundry male oddities — long-bearded, 
 short-bearded, and beardless, wived and wifeless — divers 
 eccentric husbandless females of uncertain ages and vague 
 antecedents, a few solitary wives on their way to join their 
 husbands, one or two flirting bachelors, a bevy of pretty 
 unmarried girls, a troop of young engineers from Cooper s 
 
 B 
 
 1
 
 a MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Hill, a batcli of serious commercial men, an unpleasant 
 pack of obstreperous children, and a residuum of unsortable 
 nondescripts, not to speak of a heterogeneous crew of 
 English sailors, Lascars, Negroes, and Chinamen. None 
 of this miscellaneous collection of human beings made 
 their presence felt so plainly as the children. Sea-sickness 
 is a powerful leveller and merciless humiliator, but was 
 powerless either to repress or depress the children. Their 
 self-assertion was only aggravated by the prostrate condition 
 of their natural guardians. Indian nurses easily succumb, 
 and are generally very attenuated and miserable in appear- 
 ance ; but the opposite extreme is occasionally exemplified. 
 We had one Ayah on board, who was quite a curious 
 specimen of abnormal portliness and unnatural hyper- 
 trophy. Another was a tall graceful woman attired in 
 a long red robe, gold necklace, bracelets and bangles. 
 Notwithstanding her ladylike mien, she was, of course, 
 a woman of very low caste, probably a Mhar (or Dhed), 
 She had some very peculiar blue cross lines tattooed on 
 her forehead between the eyebrows, and a similar mark 
 on one temple. Like all Indian women of her station, 
 she had invested all her savings in ornaments, and carried 
 them on her person. 
 
 Our fourth night at sea brought us opposite the mouth 
 of the Tagus, and in sight of the Lisbon lights. At day- 
 break next day we were approaching Cape St. Vincent. 
 
 Life is made up of compensations. Our patient en- 
 durance of four miserable days was rewarded by a grand 
 spectacle. Noble cliflPs rose to a great height out of the 
 sea, some glowing with red tints as if covered with 
 heather, others frowning with black crags, and shelving 
 suddenly into perpendicular precipices or scarps of dark 
 granite, riddled with countless holes and caverns by the 
 sheer force of the Atlantic. Here and there isolated needle- 
 like rocks, and others of fantastic shapes, separated from 
 the cliffs by seething channels, stood out from the main- 
 land, or seemed to thrust themselves forward as if to
 
 GIBRALTAR. 3 
 
 court the first dash of the waves which covered their sides 
 with sheets of foam. In the distance were lofty moun- 
 tains, whose gilded summits appeared loftier throug-h the 
 morning- mist which still clung to them. Cape St. 
 Vincent has a lighthouse and telegraph station. We 
 hoisted our signals, and our approach was instantly 
 notified at Gibraltar. 
 
 At night we were in the Straits (anciently called the 
 Straits of Hercules)^ with the Bay of Tangier on our right. 
 Tangier is a sea-port of Morocco, and is now the property 
 of the Moors under the Emperor of Morocco ; the capital 
 of the province, Fez, being about a hundred miles inland. 
 
 In four days and a half, or 108 hours from the moment 
 of our passing the Needles, we were close to Gibraltar, 
 The night was dark and squally, and great caution was 
 needed. I was kept awake by the intermittent throes 
 and gasps of our engine, which seemed to struggle for 
 breath like a moribund monster dying hard. Very early 
 in the morning its fitfid throbbings suddenly ceased, and 
 the silence of death followed. 
 
 The first sight of the Bay is grand beyond all expecta- 
 tion. It bends round in a long curve or elongated semi- 
 circle, surrounded in the distance by ranges of high hills, 
 the towering rock of Gibraltar — said to be nearly three 
 miles long, and 1400 feet high — overhanging the whole 
 of one side and forming a promontory running north and 
 south, joined to the continent of Spain by a narrow 
 isthmus of land called the neutral ground. The latter is 
 washed on both sides by the Mediterranean. At the 
 furthest extremity of the promontory is Europa Point, with 
 a lighthouse. The town of Gibraltar, resting on a long 
 line of batteries, climbs about one-third of the western 
 side of the rock. Rising conspicuously above the houses 
 is a fine ruined keep — once a strong castle when the place 
 was possessed by the Moors, and still scarred and scored 
 with the marks of subsequent sieges. 
 
 Nearly opposite, on the shore of the bay, is the Spanish 
 B 2
 
 4 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 town of Algeciras. Further inland, on a hill near the 
 bottom of the bay, is San Roque. At both towns bull-fig-hts 
 are popular amusements, and not despised by some of our 
 own people, who resort to them from Gibraltar to relieve 
 the monotony of their cramped and cag'e-like existence. 
 
 The rock of Gibraltar was first known to the Phoenicians 
 nnder the name of Calpe, After them the Carthaginians, 
 Bomans, and Visigoths successfully gained a footing there. 
 It did not rank as a fortress till a. d. 711, when it was 
 fortified by a Saracen army under Tarik (or, according to 
 some, Tarif), a Moorish conqueror, from whom it was 
 called Jibal Tarik, or Tarik's mountain (in Arabic JalaluH 
 tarilc). In 1309 Ferdinand IV took the fortress after 
 it had belonged to the Moors for 598 years, but it was 
 retaken by them in 1462, and held by them altogether for 
 736 years. We took it from Spain in 1704, and to us 
 it has belonged, notwithstanding three attempts on the 
 part of the Spaniards to recover it, for about 175 years. 
 On a hill, at the lower end of the bay, is a stone cairn 
 called the ' Queen of Spain's chair,' because a Spanish 
 queen is said to have seated herself there during one of 
 the sieges, and declared she would not rise from it till she 
 had seen the English flag hauled down. This is such 
 a hackneyed guide-book story that one is almost ashamed 
 to repeat it. 
 
 Opposite Europa Point, on the coast of Barbary in 
 Africa, is Ceuta — a town close under a rocky hill (Mount 
 Abyla) which forms a pendant to the rock of Gibraltar, 
 and represents the second pillar of Hercules. Near it is 
 a much higher, grander, black-looking, craggy, precipitous 
 hill, known as the Ape's Hill, which also claims, and with 
 more apparent justice, to represent the other pillar. From 
 this mountain at some primeval period came the tailless apes 
 jj^hich to this day linger on the rock of Gibraltar like wild 
 aborigines, hopelessly struggling to hold their own against 
 civilized settlers. Eighteen apes are still left, and every 
 one of them is known and held inviolable. To kill or even
 
 GIBRALTAR. 5 
 
 injure any one of them would be an unpardonable otfence. 
 Ceuta belongs to Spain, and is used by the government as 
 a penal settlement. It is a most unpleasant place of resi- 
 dence, convicts being allowed to roam about loose. They 
 cannot escape by land, as, once out of the town, they would 
 certainly ]je kille(J by the Moors, between whom and the 
 Spaniards inveterate eamity subsists. I believe some ec- 
 centric person, or persons, once started the idea that it 
 would be well for England to restore Gibraltar to Spain 
 and take Ceuta in e:s:change. 
 
 On landing at Gibraltar we lost no time in making our 
 way to Europa Point, passing the Alameda — ^a name given 
 to a kind of public square, or esplanade, planted with trees, 
 which is an institution in all Spanish to^vns, and treated as 
 consecrated ground by the inhabitants. The drive led up 
 a hill over the lower slope of the rock, which on the town 
 side is much less steep than towards the Spanish frontier. 
 The vegetation is quite tropical. Prickly pears, cactuses, 
 and pepper trees appeared to be growing luxuriantly, and 
 aloes were as plentiful as blackberry bushes. Europa Point 
 commands an unequalled view of the Straits, the coast of 
 Africa, and Gibraltar Bay. The rock itself from this point 
 reminded us of the Bastei in the district called Saxon 
 Switzerland, near Dresden, 
 
 Returning to the town under a royal salute which 
 announced the landing of H. R, H. the Duke of Connaught, 
 we found it no easy matter to thread our way through the 
 long principal street — crowded as it was with a motley 
 multitude of Moors from Fez, Arabs, Negroes, Jews, 
 Scorpions (or natives of Gibraltar familiarly so called), 
 Spanish peasants, muleteers, English soldiers and sailors. 
 The neutral ground on the northern side, opposite the 
 Spanish lines, affords a striking view of the celebrated 
 galleries which perforate the rock — here most precipitous. 
 We could see the muzzles of monster guns protruding 
 through innumerable port-holes. This, of course, would be 
 the direction of an attack in case of a war with Spain. The
 
 6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 wonderful construction of the g-alleries themselves, which we 
 afterwards visited, is too well known to need description. 
 
 As we steamed out of the Bay the eastern side of the 
 rock, which is much wilder and more crag-g-y in appearance 
 than the town side, showed itself to great advantage. Here 
 a steamer passed us, crowded with Hajjis, or pilgrims from 
 Mecca, bound for Tangier. They were all dressed alike 
 in coarse grey garments, with cowls on their heads, and 
 were packed closely together like sheep in a pen. It is 
 alleged that they never leave the deck, lie down, or change 
 their clothes from the moment they quit Mecca till they 
 reach home. Next, the grand range of the Sierra Nevada, 
 with its sharp serrated outline, came into view on our left. 
 I believe its principal mountain is little short of 12,000 
 feet high. About noon on the sixth day after leaving 
 England, we passed Cape Tenez on the coast of Africa. 
 
 At sunset the whole western sky was on fire, while the 
 serrated line of the African mountains seemed to be cut 
 out of the glowing heavens, as if with a sharp knife, and 
 painted jet black. When night fell we were opposite the 
 Bay of Algiers, and could distinguish the lights of the 
 town. Thence to Malta little of interest marked the ship's 
 course. We passed Zembra, a fine rocky island (occasionally 
 resorted to for coal) on one side of the Bay of Tunis, and 
 about twelve miles west of Cape Bon. The latter is a noble 
 headland on the African coast, with a lighthouse more 
 than half-way down its precipitous sides. Pantelleria, the 
 ancient Cossyra, came in sight — a grand volcanic island 
 eight or ten miles long and thirty in circumference, said 
 to be remarkable for a lake of unfathomable depth at the 
 top of its highest mountain, and two caverns, one intensely 
 hot and the other intensely cold, and hot springs in other 
 parts. The town consists of a long line of staring white 
 houses, with a large church and detached villas dotted at in- 
 tervals over the slopes. I believe the island now belongs to 
 Italy, and, until recently, was used as a convict settlement. 
 
 On the eighth day after leaving England we passed Gozo,
 
 MALTA. 7 
 
 an island twelve miles long (called Gaulos by the Greeks), 
 lying- to the north-west of Malta and close to it, being only 
 separated from the main island by a narrow channel, in the 
 centre of which lies a much smaller island, called Comino. 
 Soon afterwards we anchored in the quarantine harbour of 
 Malta. 
 
 Early in the morning we took one of the boats that 
 crowded round our vessel (in form rather like Venetian 
 gondolas) and lauded at Valetta, the principal town of 
 Malta, built in 1566 by La Valette, the grandmaster of 
 the Order of St. John of Jerusalem^ to which Order the 
 Emperor Charles V of Germany made over the whole island 
 in 1530. The town is regularly built on an elevated pro- 
 montory just behind the fortress of St. Elmo, which, with 
 a lighthouse^ occupies its extreme point. 
 
 On one side of the promontory is the quarantine harbour 
 for merchant ships and steamers. On the other is the 
 great harbour for ships of war, commanded at its entrance 
 by the fortress of Ricasoli, and indented with numerous 
 inlets or creeks, each, forming a small separate harbour, 
 and the whole capable of being swept by the fortress of 
 St. Angelo, bristling with guns on a promontory in the 
 middle. In fact, the entire line of coast on the northern 
 side of the island is hollowed out into creeks by the force 
 of the Mediterranean currents. It is a kind of Connemara 
 on a small scale. One considerable inlet, forming quite a 
 harbour^ is called St. Paul's Bay, because, according to 
 tradition, the ship which contained St. Paul and his fellow- 
 prisoners was cast on shore here. 
 
 On landing we found it impossible to shake off a swarm 
 of importunate natives, either vendors of the produce of 
 the island or would-be guides, who followed us about like 
 tiresome flies intent on settling on us. We visited the 
 cathedral of St. John, where the knights are buried under 
 a beautiful Mosaic floor ; the governor's palace, where 
 there is some celebrated tapestry and a fine armoury, 
 interesting from a well-arranged collection of the armour
 
 8 MODERN INDIA, 
 
 of the Knights of St. John ; and the gardens of San 
 Antonio, five miles in the interior. 
 
 The houses of Malta are all of white stone, with flat 
 roofs. Their architecture has a half Italian, half Oriental 
 character. The streets are built on each side of the rocky 
 promontory in parallel lines, so as to join at right angles 
 a long central main street, which forms a sort of back- 
 bone along the summit of the ridge. One or two are 
 ascended by picturesque tiers of steps. The whole island 
 appears to be one vast rock and stone quarry. Instead of 
 hedges, lines of white walls intersect the interior in every 
 direction, one rising above the other like terraces, with 
 square look-out towers at intervals. Here and there the 
 dull monotony of the stone terraces is relieved by tufts of 
 dark foliage, dotted about promiscuously in every direction. 
 These represent the tops of well-grown trees, which rear 
 their heads above the walls, as if to bear witness to the 
 fertility of the soil in the gardens underneath. It is 
 difficult, indeed, to understand how any garden can be 
 productive when nothing but rock is visible around. The 
 explanation, I believe, is that rich soil is transported in 
 small vessels from Sicily, and kept together by the walls. 
 The Maltese are very industrious. Their commercial in- 
 stincts are certainly developed by their brief and fitful 
 intercourse with their Anglo-Indian visitors, and notably 
 exhibited in the sums asked for the products of their small 
 island. Swarms of petty traders, not content with pes- 
 tering every passenger who lands for a few hours, hover 
 about the decks of the steamers offering lace and coral 
 ornaments at four times their value. The knowing pur- 
 chaser waits till the steamer is just starting, and then bids 
 a fourth of the first price asked. I saw a black lace shawl 
 reduced in this way from ^4 105. to £\. 
 
 The population multiplies so rapidly that the island is 
 quite inadequate to support its inhabitants. Numbers 
 emigrate and spread themselves over the Mediterranean. 
 No less than 10,000 Maltese are said to be settled in
 
 MALTA. 9 
 
 Tunis. Their own peculiar vernacular tongue is a corrupt 
 form of Arabic largely intermixed with Italian words. 
 No one who has seen the position of the noble harbours 
 on the north coast of the island, can have any doubt that 
 so long as we possess India and remain the greatest mari- 
 time power of the world, Malta must be held and its 
 garrisons maintained by us in full efficiency coute qiiil coitte. 
 Protected by the guns of St. Elmo and Ricasoli, Tigne and 
 St. AngelOj almost any number of our men-of-war and mer- 
 chant vessels might find a safe anchorage. Strong north- 
 easterly gales are the only winds that can affect them. 
 
 After leaving Malta we saw no land till we approached 
 Port Said. The whole stretch of sea is, I believe, 900 
 miles long. Here would lie the danger to our commerce 
 in case of any great naval power commanding the Black 
 Sea and the coast of Syria. On Sunday the ship's company 
 was mustered on deck before prayer-time. First, on the 
 port side, appeared a line of twenty-two stewards and 
 waiters, extending from the centre of the ship, every one 
 in characteristic uniform. Next, on the same side, came 
 eight or ten black, thick-lipped African negroes, commonly 
 called Sidis or Sidl boys, from the neighbourhood of Zan- 
 zibar. They were dressed in snow-white garments quite 
 out of keeping with their occupation, which consists in 
 shovelling the coal into the furnaces, and contrasting 
 curiously with their glossy coal-black countenances and 
 dark thick woolly hair. They are a happy smiling race, 
 always in exuberant spirits, though exposed to roasting 
 heat, drinking nothing but water and nourished by a 
 vegetable diet. They may be seen sleeping as soundly 
 on the iron gratings of the engine-room as on a bed of 
 down. Then came the Ag-walas — men employed about the 
 engine and fires. These were described to me as KonkanI 
 Musalmans, from the neighbourhood of Bombay. They 
 w^ere also dressed in peculiar white costumes — picturesque 
 and immaculately clean. This formed the line on the port 
 side. At the stern were the English ofiicers of the ship,
 
 TO MODERN INDIA. 
 
 and nearest the stern, on the starboard side, a few English 
 quartermasters or superior Eng-lish sailors. After them 
 came the long- line of Laskars (or, as they call themselves, 
 Khalasis, ' free,' vulgarly Klasees), marvellously transfigured 
 in appearance, and quite belying their own identity, in 
 spotless dresses, embroidered turbans, and scarves. 
 
 The word Laskar is derived from the Persian lashkar, 
 an army. The name is somewhat sarcastically applied to 
 a crew of Indian sailors who, in their ordinary work-day 
 aspect, have nothing whatever about them suggestive 
 of military smartness or effectiveness. To the uninitiated 
 passenger these Laskars appear a very miserable squad, 
 and no one can look at them without conjuring up 
 fearful pictures of disaster to the ship in the event 
 of cyclones and other possible emergencies. Yet the 
 captain declared that, though comparatively inefficient in 
 a cold climate, they do better than English sailors under 
 a hot sun ; that they are more tractable and docile, and, 
 what is more important, that they never get drunk. They 
 are, of course, Musalmans ; for Hindus even of the lowest 
 caste have an unconquerable religious antipathy to voyages 
 on the ' black water ^.' In fact, the lower the caste in 
 India the more tenacious are its members of caste-purity, 
 and the more pride does each man take in protecting him- 
 self from what he believes to be contamination. Nothing 
 is more essential to the preservation of caste-purity than 
 unpolluted water, and nowhere is it so difficult to keep 
 water ceremonially pure as on ship-board. As to the Musal- 
 man Laskars, the best of them come from Kathiwar (more 
 correctly written Kathi-awad, the abode of the Kathi tribes) 
 and the neighbourhood of the Portuguese settlement of 
 Daman. Their wages are, of course, less than those of 
 English sailors, but if the Company save in this way, a 
 per contra outlay is incurred, because more men are re- 
 
 ' In Hindustani, Kdld pdnl. This phrase is now commonly substituted 
 for the more proper expression Khard panl, 'salt water.'
 
 THE LASKARS. II 
 
 quired to counterbalance the want of muscular power in 
 each individual. 
 
 I asked the captain about their food^ and whether they 
 would eat meat. ' Yes/ he said, ' we sometimes, while in 
 harbour, g-ive them a sheep, which they kill in their own 
 way. On the voyag-e they generally eat dried fish, rice, 
 and dal, and are not very particular about it. Though 
 they are Muhammadans, they will even sometimes eat 
 pork if we have nothing else to give them. They ask 
 no inconvenient questions, but tie the forbidden animal — 
 slaughtered, however, according to the most orthodox rules 
 of Islam — on to the end of a line, and drag it after the 
 ship for an hour or so ; after which one of their number 
 hauls it in, calliug" out with great solemnity as if he were 
 using a formula of consecration, Jao suar idhar do machchl, 
 " go away, pig ; come hither, fish.'^ ' 
 
 The regiment of Laskars was headed in the muster by 
 the Sarang — a title corrupted from Sarhang, the Persian 
 word for a general, and humorously applied to the native 
 boatswain, who, in his turban g-littei'ing with gold em- 
 broidery, and attended by his two Tindals, or boatswain's 
 mates, would assuredly have been mistaken for an Indian 
 prince if he could have been transplanted into the middle 
 of a London crowd. 
 
 Conspicuous among the Asiatics was one Chinaman — 
 the ship's carpenter — in a broad straw hat. The whole 
 company would have well illustrated a lecture on the 
 ethnology of the world. At any rate, they formed a 
 singularly picturesque and interesting line of 132 speci- 
 mens of the human species, methodically arranged for in- 
 spection round the quarter-deck of the ship. The mixed 
 crowd of passengers — some lolling lazily and apathetically 
 in the central space, others standing up to gaze with lan- 
 guid curiosity or serene self-complacency on the miscel- 
 laneous assortment of their fellow-creatures, ranged round 
 them like animals in a zoological show — offered quite as 
 curious an exhibition of diversified humanity in their own
 
 la MODERN INDIA. 
 
 way, while the captain and first ojfficer walked round with 
 an air of calm professional assurance, casting* critical 
 glances of appreciation or depreciation at each member of 
 the ship^s company, and receiving respectful salutes in 
 return. Then at a given signal the Sarang sounded his 
 whistle, the whole circle of unbelievers melted away in an 
 instant, leaving the crowd of believing Christians in the 
 centre to settle down for Divine Service. 
 
 We reached Port Said at 6 a.m. on the 12th day after 
 leaving England. The first sight of Egypt excites no 
 emotions of any kind. The town of Port Said — called after 
 the late Viceroy — is a collection of mushroom buildings 
 which have sprung into existence since the commencement 
 of the Suez Canal. It is now lighted with gas. 
 
 Nor is the entrance to the Canal at all imposing. 
 The adjacent coast for miles is apparently below the sea- 
 level, making the approach to the harbour almost impos- 
 sible except by daylight ; but a lofty lighthouse, which 
 was cleverly constructed by erecting wooden moulds one 
 above the other and filling them with concrete, stands on 
 a pier on the right, and gives out a flashing electric light 
 visible at an immense distance. There are also two long 
 breakwaters, one lower than the other, constructed of huge 
 blocks of concrete, running far into the sea on either side 
 of the harbour, which effectually prevent the sand from 
 drifting inside and choking the mouth of the Canal. 
 
 We entered very cautiously at dawn of day, and moored 
 our ship to two buoys. Two British ironclads — the ' In- 
 vincible' and 'Pallas' — were already in the harbour, and 
 another fine steamer, the ' City of Venice,' was waiting 
 to make the passage after us, while the ' Serapis ' had 
 recently passed on ahead. In half an hour we had paid 
 the dues, which I believe amounted in our case to about 
 £1^00, and had entered the Canal, the entrance being 
 merely a continuation of the harbour, without lock-gates 
 of any kind. Here, on the right, there is a narrow strip 
 of land covered with sheds, owned by the British nation.
 
 PORT SAID AND THE SUEZ CANAL. 13 
 
 I was informed that wlien the works commenced, this 
 land was offered to our Government for ^£800, and was 
 declined. It is said to have been recently purchased by us 
 for 3626^000. This story will not appear incredible to any 
 one old enough to remember the view Lord Palmerston 
 took of the French engineer's great project. 
 
 Although the course of the Canal for the first thirty 
 miles is as straight as an arrow, every mile of it abounds 
 with interesting objects. The first thing noticed is an 
 immense lagoon stretching for miles beyond the right 
 bank, while on the left lies a trackless desert of sand, with 
 here and there patches of what appears to be water, but 
 is really nothing but the mirage produced by heated 
 vapour. Then there are the natives on the bank in their 
 picturesque costumes^ the sturdy, half- naked Arabs at 
 work in the water, the strings of camels with their 
 burdens, the feluccas in the lagoon with their lateen 
 sails, the myriads of water-fowl, and in the horizon long 
 lines of flamingoes extending literally for miles, and 
 standing motionless, like regiments of soldiers in white 
 uniforms. But the one absorbing sig'ht of all is the 
 Canal itself. Such expressions as ' One of the wonders 
 of the age,' ' a triumph of engineering skill,' give an 
 inadequate idea of the magnitude of the work. It must 
 be seen to be estimated at its right value. 
 
 Captain Methven;, the commodore of the Peninsular and 
 Oriental fleet, who watched the progress of the Canal from 
 its commencement, and was one of the first of our fellow- 
 countrymen to predict its success, favoured me with many 
 interesting particulars which may be relied upon for accu- 
 racy. The lower platform at the base of the central channel 
 is almost everywhere fully 70 ft. wide, and as the sides shelve 
 oft' at an angle, there is generally a width of about 100 ft. 
 at the surface of the water, the extreme depth of which is 
 27 ft., with a margin of 10 ft. or 12 ft. of shallow water 
 on each side. The rule first made was that no ship drawing 
 more than 26 ft. should be allowed to pass through. The
 
 14 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 ships in which I made the passag-e only drew about 22 ft. 
 of water, and now it is found that any vessel drawing" more 
 than 25 ft. is likely to come to grief. Two larg-e steamers 
 (the ' Hibernia' and ' Seine'), laden with submarine cable, 
 had just accomplished the passage. One of them, however, 
 drawing 24 ft. 7 in., scraped her keel all through the 
 Canal, and was obliged to steam at full speed to bring her 
 through. The only difference in the level of the sea at 
 the Mediterranean and Red Sea extremities is caused by 
 the difference in the tides, the variation at the Mediter- 
 ranean end being 18 in. in Spring tides, and that at the 
 Red Sea end about 7 ft. or 8 ft. The effect of this dif- 
 ference is to cause a current at both extremities, and of 
 course a tolerably strong flow from the Red Sea towards 
 the great bitter lakes, situated near the centre of the 
 Canal. 
 
 Every six miles there is a station-house (called by the 
 French gare) and siding with signal-posts, fitted with black 
 balls, by means of which the traffic is worked on the block 
 system. As a rule, no ship is allowed to take less than one 
 hour in steaming from one station to the next. 
 
 Two ships advancing towards each other in opposite 
 directions are never allowed to meet while in motion. One 
 is compelled to draw off to a siding while the other passes. 
 This happened to us at a station called Kantara, where we 
 were made to shunt, while the ' Diomed,' a Liverpool 
 steamer, passed us. Here a road — once the great high- 
 way between Egypt and Palestine, and still a high road 
 between Cairo and Syria — leads over the Canal by a kind 
 of flying bridge. A large caravan from Jerusalem, with 
 hundreds of camels and a motley crowd of way-worn 
 travellers — men, women, and children — were waiting to 
 pass over close to our siding. It was a strange and in- 
 teresting sight, which made us think of the going down 
 of the Children of Israel into Egypt. Thence we glided 
 on without interruption, but with the disagreeable ac- 
 companiment of an Egyptian plague of flies, passing on
 
 THE SUEZ CANAL, 15 
 
 the right a statue of Lieutenant Wag-horn, the pioneer 
 and first organizer of the overland route in 1835. 
 
 At considerable intervals steam dredging- machines — 
 four or five of which are now sufiicient to keep the bed 
 clear — were seen in active work. One was of monster 
 proportions^ and appeared to be ingeniously constructed 
 for raising the sand from the bottom and delivering it 
 on an inclined plane over the bank. The desert is occa- 
 sionally dotted with patches of a kind of scrubby bush, 
 the only merit of which is that it serves to relieve the 
 intense glare, and to furnish food for camels. Here 
 and there high banks of sand hid everything from our 
 view. At 4 in the afternoon (having left Port Said at 
 7 in the morning) we emerged into the first bitter lake, 
 called Lake Timsah, and steamed at increased speed close 
 to the new town of Ismailia, named after the present 
 Khedive. Here there is an oasis of green vegetation, 
 and a principal station of the railway between Suez and 
 Alexandria. De Lesseps himself has a house here. There 
 is also a palace built by the Khedive for the sole purpose 
 of receiving the Empress Eugenie, the Emperor of Austria, 
 and other royal personages (but no representative from 
 England) during the festivities at the opening of the 
 Canal in November, 1870 ^. 
 
 On we steamed through the lake, and thence through 
 a cutting to the second or great bitter lake, where we 
 anchored for the night soon after sunset. These two 
 remarkable lakes had nearly dry beds before the making 
 of the canal. That happened to them which is now going 
 on in the Dead Sea. The water had evaporated, and left 
 a deposit of seven or eight feet of solid salt. The French 
 engineers foresaw that this circumstance might be turned 
 to account for the deepening of the central channel. When 
 
 * The Canal was first opened for traffic in 1869, and from 1870 to 1876 
 the net tonnage passing through it rose from 436,609 tons to 2,096,772 
 tons (the gross tonnage to 3,072,107) ; the receipts from £200,000 in 1870 
 to about £1,200,000 in 1875. Of the traffic 75 per cent, was British.
 
 i6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the waters of the Red Sea were allowed to flow in, the 
 layer of salt was dissolved and nearly eight feet of depth 
 gained. The climate in the neighbouring districts is likely 
 to be advantageously affected by the re-ereation of these 
 lakes. We had evidence next morning of an accession of 
 humidity which may one day turn barren ground into 
 fruitful fields. When we attempted to move on soon after 
 daybreak, a thick mist enveloped us, and kept us stationary 
 for more than an hour. Meanwhile, our ship's stem stuck 
 in the sand, but with a little wriggling worked itself off. 
 Then we glided out of the great lake through a deep 
 cutting, which extended for some miles. At one o'clock 
 the same afternoon we had entered the Gulf of Suez, 
 and were steaming rapidly towards one of its spacious 
 open docks and quays (constructed at an immense cost 
 and loss under exaggerated ideas of the future commercial 
 importance of a port, converted by M. de Lesseps' great 
 work into a mere place of call) almost before we became 
 aware that we had emerged from the Canal. We had 
 accomplished the whole distance of lOO miles in about 
 fifteen hours. I was surj)rised to learn on good authority 
 that the total cost from first to last of the miracle of en- 
 gineering skill which had transported our huge ship from 
 one sea to the other so easily and pleasantly, was only 
 eighteen millions sterling. Those who are competent to 
 pronounce an opinion on the result achieved by the out- 
 lay consider that it was cheaply done for that sum. 
 About two millions of the amount was freely given by 
 the late Khedive in money and labour. 
 
 The compulsory labour system was first tried, but soon 
 given up. Cholera broke out, and English public opinion 
 was brought to bear on the matter. Then it was that the 
 genius of M. de Lesseps organized a system of paid labour, 
 the extraordinary success of which in a country like Egypt 
 could never have been predicted. All honour to the in- 
 domitable will and scientific ability of one man, who, fight- 
 ing his way through apparently insuperable obstaclesj —
 
 THE SUEZ CANAL. 1 7 
 
 physical, social, and political, — carried out one of the greatest 
 projects of this wonder- working- century. 
 
 But in appreciating to the full his energy and intellect, 
 let us not withhold an equal tribute to the amazing tact and 
 administrative capacity which enabled one man to train a 
 whole army of ignorant and illiterate labourers, and inspire 
 them with something of his own ardent, energetic, and 
 enthusiastic spirit. Every individual, to the smallest 
 donkey-boy, employed on the Canal seemed to take a 
 pride and pleasure in doing his allotted task well, and 
 contributing something towards the desired end. No great 
 work has ever before been effected in Egypt with so much 
 goodwill, cheerfulness, and activity, and with so small a 
 sacrifice of human life. This will appear more remarkable 
 when it is borne in mind that nearly a hundred steam 
 dredging-maehines were in constant operation, for the 
 effective working of which a large number of men and 
 boys with interdependent duties was indispensable. 
 
 And yet, after all, notwithstanding one's admiration of 
 this great monument of scientific and administrative genius, 
 it is singular that the chief impression it leaves on one's 
 mind is that of incompleteness. The simple truth I believe 
 to be that before the Canal can be pronounced really 
 finished the width of the central channel must be doubled, 
 and the banks from one end to the other lined with stone. 
 If, when the success of the project was assured, and before 
 the costly plant had been sold and the trained labourers 
 dispersed, the principal European Powers had agreed to act 
 in concert, each contributing its quota of a few millions, 
 a really complete result might have been achieved, the 
 capital expended might have been blotted out, and a Canal 
 of the right dimensions presented to the commerce of the 
 world. Now, the whole plant will have to be recon- 
 structed, new workmen and labourers trained, and the 
 entire process reorganized at a vast cost. Nevertheless, 
 English enterprise and capital can do all that is needed, 
 and will have to do it in the end.
 
 1 8 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 So surely as Russia is setting lier face steadfastly towards 
 Constantinople must England concentrate her attention on 
 Port Said, the Suez Canal, and the coast of Syria. The 
 day may be coming — and perhaps must come very soon — 
 when no corner of Europe will be allowed to suffer any 
 longer from the ' impotence ' of Turkish rule. What then 
 is to happen to Egypt? England's duty will be plain. 
 We shall have to take the Khedive in hand ourselves, and 
 peremptorily insist on his governing his own country well, 
 righteously, and economically^. To this end we must help 
 him, not with money, but with men. 
 
 We have a whole band of Indian civilians — men like Sir 
 George Campbell, Mr. Seton-Karr, and Mr. Cust — who 
 have served their time in India and yet have plenty of 
 energy left, which they are ready to devote to the welfare 
 of their fellow-creatures. Let them consent to aid the 
 Khedive, and simply do in Egypt the work they have done 
 in India as commissioners, collectors, judges, magistrates, 
 members of council, and lieutenant-governors. The Pro- 
 vince adjacent to the Indus, commonly called Sinde, has 
 been significantly styled ' Young Egypt.' Old Egypt 
 and 'Young Egypt' have certainly much community of 
 character and many points of resemblance. Those who 
 have made ' Young Egypt ' prosperous under a strong, 
 righteous, and energetic administration, are quite com- 
 petent to raise old Egypt out of the depths of misgovern- 
 ment into which she is fast sinking, and convert her 
 from a poverty-stricken into a rich and thriving country. 
 I submit that this would be a satisfactory solution of 
 the Eastern Question, so far, at least, as England is 
 concerned. 
 
 Soon after our arrival at Suez, a party of us took a 
 Felucca, or native boat, with three men, and sailed up 
 the creek to the town of Suez, three miles distant. The 
 behaviour of our boatmen interested me not a little. It 
 
 ^ Let this be read in the light of present events (July, 1879). It was 
 written in the winter of 1876.
 
 SUEZ. 19 
 
 happened to be the concluding day of the fast of Ramazan 
 (the ninth month of the Muhammadan year), and whether 
 on this accoimt, or because it was the stated hour of prayer, 
 one of the men washed his face in sea-water, and then 
 prostrated himself with his face towards Mecca in the bow 
 of the boat. Soon afterwards we knocked our keel against 
 some rocks and then scraped along a sand-bank, the tide 
 running out very rapidly. Upon this two of the boatmen 
 — very fine-looking fellows, half-naked, with well-developed 
 muscular limbs — started up, seized two long poles, rushed 
 towards the bow of the little vessel, applied the end of the 
 poles to their shoulders, and running with naked feet along 
 the upper edge of the boat's side, while they pushed the 
 poles towards the stern, urged each other to increased ex- 
 ertions in the strongest guttural Arabic, till they had 
 driven us in this manner over rocks and shoals for more 
 than a mile, against a strong contrary wind, to the quay 
 opposite the Suez hotel. 
 
 Their behaviour afforded a parallel to the practice of 
 a certain good Christian, of whom it is recorded that he 
 prayed always as if all results depended on God, but put 
 forth all his energies as if success depended wholly on him- 
 self. It reminded one also of a story told of Muhammad. 
 Travelling on a certain occasion through the desert, he 
 refused to follow the example of his travelling companion, 
 who, on arriving at the evening resting-place, turned his 
 camel loose and then prayed fervently that God would keep 
 the beast from straying ; but, on the contrary, first took a 
 good deal of trouble to tether his camel, and then prayed to 
 God to prevent the animal from breaking loose. 
 
 We walked about Suez for an hour. Donkey-boys 
 mobbed us at every corner, puffing the merits of their 
 donkeys with much originality, if not in the most refined 
 English. ' Dis de Claimant, Sar,' ' Try de Claimant, Sar,' 
 'Dis Sir Roger, Sar,' 'Dis very superior donkey, Sar,' 
 ' Dis Kenealy, Sar,' ^ Dis make loud bray, Sar.' 
 
 The town is a collection of flat-roofed ramshackle old 
 c 2
 
 20 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 houses, most of them in an advanced stage of decay, with 
 crooked narrow irregular streets in which dirt, dust, and 
 bad smells wait upon each other in close companionship. 
 Many of the ruined buildings looked as if they might have 
 once sheltered the children of Israel, who are supposed to 
 have crossed the Red Sea somewhere in the neighbourhood. 
 Our interest in everything triumphed over our disgust, 
 though it was difficult to say which was the strongest feel- 
 ing when we entered the Bazaar, where, in addition to dirt, 
 every hole and corner harboured vast accumulations of 
 cobwebs, left undisturbed for years as a standing menace, 
 I suppose, to swarms of irrepressible flies which settled in 
 millions on the eatables exposed for sale on the open 
 counters. The narrow lanes were thronged with a mixed 
 multitude of turbaned men and veiled women ; some 
 respectably dressed and moderately clean, threading their 
 way through the crowd with calm Oriental dignity ; others 
 ragged and filthy, jostling each other, and vociferating in 
 genuine Suez vernacular. 
 
 On the morning of the fourteenth day we commenced 
 our course down the Gulf of Suez. The line of hills 
 overhanging Suez, called Attdka, looked grand, red and 
 glowing, and stood out in striking contrast to the mar- 
 vellous green and blue of the sea. Soon the rugged and 
 majestic pile of mountains of the Sinaitic Peuinsula, of 
 which Mount Sinai forms a part, opened out upon our left. 
 This peninsula divides the Red Sea into two narrow gulfs — 
 one, that of Suez down which we were steaming, and the 
 navigation of which is extremely intricate, the other, that 
 of Akaba which is not quite so long, and is seldom navi- 
 gated at all. 
 
 Towards evening we came in sight of the lofty range of 
 Mount Aghrib, on the coast of Africa, in Egyptian territory. 
 The highest mountain of the range is alleged to be ic,ooo 
 feet high. I certainly never before supposed that Egypt 
 possessed anything much higher than a pyramid. 
 
 The time consumed in steaming down the Red Sea to
 
 THE RED SEA. 21 
 
 the Straits of Babel Mandeb was five days. The coast is 
 insufficiently lig-hted, and the sea unpleasantly full of coral 
 reefs, sunken rocks, and small volcanic islands, but the P. 
 and O. ships thread their way through all obstructions with 
 as much precision as a well-driven hansom passes through 
 Fleet Street. We had a steam punka in our sleeping 
 cabin, besides the usual punkas in the saloon, but had 
 nevertheless, to sleep on deck when the thermometer rose 
 to ninety. 
 
 One evening we escaped a tremendous sandstorm, which, 
 coming from the deserts of Africa eighty miles off, gathered 
 over our heads in a densely black, ominous cloud. Happily 
 the wind against which we were steaming carried the storm 
 behind us, and we saw it descend in a dark column towards 
 the northern horizon. Had the cloud burst over our heads 
 we should have been half-blinded as well as smothered with 
 sand, and the whole vessel so enveloped that a dense fog 
 would have been less dangerous. The only showers in the 
 Red Sea are showers of sand. 
 
 On the fourth day we passed the twelve rocky volcanic 
 islands called the Twelve Apostles. In some of them coal- 
 black scoria and ashes, looking as if quite recently ejected 
 from crater-like cavities, were intermixed with bright red 
 and yellow rocks and shone brilliantly in the fiery sun- 
 light. 
 
 At daw^n on the fifth day we were opposite Mocha on the 
 Arabian coast, and had to take soundings. Rugged dark 
 lines of mountains, some with sugar-loaf points, some with 
 serrated edges, one behind the other, intensely arid and 
 sterile in appearance, lined the coast. One long line of 
 craggy hills presented the exact appearance of an old worn- 
 out saw lying with its edge turned upwards. The opposite 
 coast of Abyssinia was now drawing towards us. It is 
 fringed with dark barren mountains resembling those on 
 the Arabian coast, and in the distance was a lofty range, 
 with one high peak, said to be somewhere in Abyssinia. 
 The heat was intense, and the draught of air throug^h the
 
 23 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 narrow channel, as the coast on each side began to close in 
 upon us, made it penetrate more searchingly. 
 
 The small island of Perim was on our right as we steamed 
 through the Straits of Babel Mandeb (Arabic bdbu'l mandib, 
 ' gate of tears.' 
 
 The land opposite Perim juts out into a long narrow 
 promontory covered with rugged, rocky hills. Under the 
 principal rock on its barren and burning shore the French 
 have built a large square house. They had once a settle- 
 ment here, and I believe intended converting the promontory 
 into an island by digging a canal across. Had they accom- 
 plished their object, their next engineering operation would 
 liave been a fort to balance ours at Perim, but the excitable 
 and bellicose Arab tribes forcibly resisted the attempt to 
 slice off a portion of their territory, and the French have 
 now deserted the place. The staring house still remains, 
 apparently in good repair, glittering in the glaring sun- 
 light. Not a human being was to be seen about, but one 
 or two deserted Arab fishing-boats were anchored near the 
 shore. 
 
 Every person who passes Perim is sure to be asked whether 
 he has heard the story of the stratagem by which we took 
 possession of the island. I believe the anecdote rests on a 
 basis of fact. But whether it does so or not, here is an 
 epitome of it : — A French captain was sent in a man-of-war 
 about five-and-twenty years ago to take possession of the 
 island, and touched at Aden. Of course the English Com- 
 mandant was too polite not to ask him to dine, and too 
 hospitable not to ply him with good wine till he had drunk 
 enough to exemply the old proverb in vino Veritas and let 
 out the secret of his expedition. Instantly the English 
 Commandant, without leaving the dinner-table, gave private 
 orders for despatching a gunboat with six sappers and 
 miners, and one engineer officer, who landed on the island, 
 planted the British flag on the heights, and next day were 
 ready to receive the French captain and welcome him to 
 British soil.
 
 PERIM AND BABEL MANDEB. 23 
 
 Certainly the island is in an important position, at the 
 very gate of the E-ed Sea, but its utter sterility, without 
 a tree or even a blade of grass or bush to temper the glare 
 of burning suns and cloudless skies, makes it even more 
 entitled to be called an Eden than Aden itself — of course 
 I mean on the lucus a non lucendo principle. It is simply 
 a bare rock, about four or five miles in circumference, rising 
 to an elevation of two or three hundred feet. The channel 
 which separates it from the opposite point of Babel Mandeb, 
 and through which we sailed, is only one mile wide ; but a 
 channel of nearly eleven miles in width on the other side 
 divides it from the African coast, and on that side the 
 island possesses a small but deep harbour. We have built 
 a lighthouse and insignificant fort on the highest point of 
 the rock, and huts near it for a detachment of Sepoys with 
 one or two Europeans. Since the erection of the lighthouse 
 ships generally take the narrow channel. 
 
 We steamed through the channel against a strong heated 
 blast of wind which blows constantly through the straits as 
 through a funnel. In five days after quitting Suez dock 
 we were well out of the Red Sea, and not sorry to see Perim 
 receding from our sight, and our vessel making rapid way 
 eastwards through the Indian Ocean in the direction of 
 Aden, ninety miles distant When night fell, the lightship 
 at the entrance of Aden harbour began to be visible. 
 
 By ten o'clock at night we were safely moored to two 
 buoys near the lights of the town. The dark outline of the 
 great rock of Aden loomed mysteriously in the weird light ; 
 lamps of various colours gleamed on the shore ; native boats 
 with vociferent Arabs crowded round our ship ; half-naked 
 men with dusky skins swarmed over the front of the vessel. 
 It can easily be imagined that a place where rain only falls 
 about once in two or three years must be pleasanter by 
 night than by day. Yet, on the occasion of my second 
 voyage, when we reached Aden by daylight, I greatly 
 enjoyed a visit to the wonderful tanks three or four miles 
 distant, dug out of the solid rock to catch the precious
 
 24 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 rain-water which occasionally makes up for lost time by 
 pouring" down in a deluge. The surrounding- scenery is 
 unequalled in rugg-edness and sterility by anything I have 
 ever seen. In fact, the whole place may be compared to 
 a congeries of gigantic cinders or heaps of colossal coke. 
 Yet it has many most striking and almost sublime features. 
 It is certainly the Gibraltar of the Red Sea. The principal 
 rock is even higher and grander than that of Gibraltar. It 
 stands on a promontory in the same way, and is joined to 
 the mainland by a narrow isthmus. 
 
 Among the institutions of the place are the diving boys 
 — small Somali negroes imported from the opposite coast of 
 Africa — who gather round the ship in their toy canoes, 
 each little curly-headed urchin paddling his own tiny coracle 
 with wonderful dexterity. Their knowledge of English is 
 restricted to the one sentence ' I dive, Sare, I dive,' which 
 they all vociferate with great animation, till on the first 
 sight of a silver coin thrown from the ship, the whole troop 
 suddenly disappear feet uppermost in the water, leaving 
 canoes and paddles to take care of themselves, and heedless 
 of the presence of formidable sharks which usually follow 
 in the wake of steamers, seeking whom or what they may 
 devour. The smallest coin never escapes the lynx-sight 
 of these amphibious imp-like little urchins. The fortunate 
 finder scrambles into his own canoe, first holding up his 
 prize in triumph, then stuflSng it into the hollow of his 
 cheek for safety, and then baling out the water with which 
 his little cockle-shell is half-swamped, while he joins more 
 energetically than ever in the general chorus of ' I dive, 
 Sare, I dive/ which is kept up with spirit as long as any 
 passenger shows himself on deck. 
 
 We left Aden on the morning of the twentieth day of 
 our voyage. The endless serrated line of the hills on the 
 Arabian coast continued in sight for some time. Indeed 
 the whole interior of Arabia — so far as I was able to 
 observe it during my voyages — seems to be shut in by a 
 barrier of ranges of dark rugged sterile mountains, one
 
 ADEN. 2S 
 
 behind the other — some rising" to considerable elevations — 
 which completely enclose it and serve as an effectual bar to 
 the curiosity and cupidity of intruders. At Aden we had 
 an addition of some interesting- first-class passengers — a 
 Khoja, or Bombay merchant of a particular class, who has 
 a house of business in Zanzibar, returning* to India with his 
 wife and family. He was a stout stalwart man, with a 
 handsome countenance. I believe some of the ancestors of 
 the K/iojas (a name corrupted from Khwaja, ' noble ') cen- 
 turies ago were pirates inhabiting* the coast of Kutch. 
 They gradually became rich, turned Muslims, and gave up 
 disreputable practices. But, althoug"h now Muhammadans 
 and followers of a certain Agha Khan, they retain much of 
 their Hindu character and often their Hindu names. Our 
 fellow-passenger told me that the trade of Zanzibar is 
 rapidly increasing" and the place becoming very prosperous. 
 The language spoken there is Swaheli (a kind of lingua 
 franca of Eastern Africa), which the Khoja speaks as well as 
 his native tongue Kutchi, and to which he adds GujaratI, 
 Hindustani, and a little English. He was accompanied by 
 a Pathan or Afghan from Peshawar returning home from 
 the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca, which every true Musal- 
 man endeavours to perform once in his life, the other four 
 religious duties enjoined by Muhammad being prayer five 
 times a day, fasting for a month every year, almsgiving, 
 and repeating the creed daily. We took in at the same 
 time a number of Baniyahs or Hindu traders, who sta- 
 tioned themselves on the forecastle, and were to be seen 
 there every evening dead-asleep, rolled up like their own 
 bales of goods in white winding-sheets. 
 
 The run from Aden to Bombay was accomplished on calm 
 seas and under bright skies in six days and a half. The 
 serenity of the Indian Ocean is rarely disturbed by high 
 winds after the termination of the monsoon. 
 
 The morning of one day was spent in visiting the mail 
 room and post-office. The three mail agents have to work 
 ten hours a day from the time they leave Suez, sorting
 
 26 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 about 46,000 letters and 35,000 newspapers, and distri- 
 buting them in about 250 bags, ready for dispersion all 
 over India immediately on the arrival of the ship at 
 Bombay. The following' is a specimen of the directions 
 which occasionally tax the ingenuity of the sorters (copied 
 literatim) — 
 
 J. Faden 
 Sapper 
 
 Engear 
 
 Bromeday. 
 
 This letter had been sent to three Bromleys in different 
 parts of England before it was suspected that Engear 
 meant India, and Bromeday, Bombay. 
 
 At daybreak on the twenty-seventh day after our de- 
 parture from Southampton, the high land of the Ghats, 
 near Bombay, was visible about fifty miles distant. When 
 the sun rose it disappeared in the haze. A few hours later 
 we entered Bombay harbour, passing the ' Serapis ' and 
 several fine men-of-war lying at anchor. The advent of 
 the Prince of Wales had preceded ours by about two 
 davs.
 
 FIRST IMPRESSIONS. 
 Bombay, November io, 1875. 
 
 We need not quote a Western poet ^ in support of the 
 trite truism that impressions on the mind, to be deep, 
 must be made by scenes actually witnessed. 
 
 There is an Eastern saying* that the distance between 
 the ear and the eye is very small, but the difference 
 between hearing" and seeing is very great. 
 
 Much information can be gained about India from books 
 and newspapers, and much by ashing questions of old 
 Indians who have spent their lives in the country, but, 
 after all, India must be seen to be understood. 
 
 The instant I set foot on the landing-place at Bombay, 
 I became absorbed in the interest of every object that 
 met my sight — the magnificent harbour with its beautiful 
 islands, secluded creeks, and grand background of hills ; 
 the picturesque native boats gliding* hither and thither ; 
 the array of ships from every quarter of the globe riding 
 at anchor — every feature in the surrounding landscape, 
 every rock and stone under my feet, every animal and 
 plant around me on the shore, every man, woman, and 
 child in the motley throng passing and repassing on the 
 quay, from the BhIstI, or water-carrier, who laid the dust 
 by means of a skin slung* on his back, to the boy who 
 importuned me for Bakhshish to exhibit a fight between 
 
 * ' Segnius irritant animos demissa per aurem 
 Quam quae sunt oculis subjecta fidelibus.*
 
 28 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 a snake held in his hand and a mongoose concealed in a 
 basket. 
 
 Though I was born in India, and had lived as a child 
 in India, and had been educated for India, and had read, 
 thought, spoken, and dreamt about India all my life, I 
 had entered a new world. 
 
 On the esplanade, in front of the chief public buildings 
 of Bombay, an extraordinary spectacle presented itself. 
 An immense concourse of people was collected, waiting 
 for the Prince of Wales, who was expected at the Secre- 
 tariat to hold his first lev^e — no dingy crowd of Londoners 
 hustling each other in a foggy, smoky atmosphere, but 
 at least a hundred thousand turbaned Asiatics, in bright 
 coloured dresses of every hue, moving sedately about in 
 orderly groups under a glittering sky. The whole plain 
 seemed to glow and flash with kaleidoscopic combinations 
 of dazzling vai'iegated colours. Rows of well-appointed 
 carriages belonging to rich Bombay merchants, some con- 
 taining Parsi ladies and children in gorgeous costumes, 
 with coachmen in brilliant liveries, lined the esplanade. 
 Gem-bespangled Rajas, Maharajas, and Nawabs dashed by 
 in four-horsed equipages, with troops of outriders before 
 and behind. 
 
 One part of the spacious plain was set apart for 1 2,000 
 children, from various schools — Hindu, Parsi, Muham- 
 madan, Roman Catholic, and Protestant — collected from 
 Bombay and the neighbourhood. The fact that it was 
 possible to bring together from a limited area so vast an 
 assemblage of children, male and female, all under educa- 
 tion in an Eastern country, was in itself full of significance 
 and interest. They were seated in rows, one behind the 
 other, grouped according to the communities to which 
 they severally belonged, a passage being left in the centre 
 for the Prince. Every child was provided with a printed 
 hymn, or poetical address to the Prince in Gujaratl, to be 
 sung by the whole assemblage at the moment of his ap- 
 pearance among them.
 
 BO MBA Y. 29 
 
 I was told that the children were mostly from the 
 middle ranks of the inhabitants of Bombay. Certainly 
 it was difficult to believe in the poverty of their parents, 
 dressed as they were, boys and girls, in rich silks, satins, 
 brocades, and velvets of all colours, from bright red and 
 yellow to simple white, with g-old-embroidered caps and 
 jewels of g-reat value on their feet and arms, necks 
 and ears. 
 
 ' It is no uncommon thing for parents to deck their 
 children on festive occasions with ornaments worth hun- 
 dreds of pounds. Their appearance and bearing suggested 
 an idea that Asiatics think more of beauty of dress than 
 beauty of form, Europeans more of beauty of form than of 
 beauty of dress. 
 
 That same evening I left Bombay and travelled north- 
 wards through Gujarat by the Bombay and Baroda railway. 
 At the very first station out of Bombay, the anthill-like 
 density of India's teeming masses made itself apparent. 
 At least a thousand natives were collected, waiting for the 
 train, some bound for Bombay to see the Prince of Wales, 
 others on their way home after having witnessed the great 
 Tamasha. The vast crowd vociferated and swayed to and 
 fro in an alarming manner. The sound was like the roar- 
 ing of a mighty ocean. We began to think that a second 
 mutiny was imminent, that our carriage would be stormed, 
 and ourselves perhaps shot down on the spot. 
 
 Our fears were allayed on learning that the lower classes 
 of Hindus are in the habit of talking and shouting to each 
 other at the top of their voices, in perfect good humour, 
 whenever they are congregated in crowds ^ Notwith- 
 standing their apparent excitement, noisy demonstrative- 
 ness, and overpowering numbers, they made no attempt 
 (as English excursionists would have done) to force their 
 way into the first or second-class compartments, but sub- 
 
 * Sleeman remarks (' Rambles,' p. 77) that the stentorian voices of the 
 natives are probably due to their meeting and discussing subjects connected 
 with theii- own interests in the open air under trees.
 
 30 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 mitted quite patiently and resignedly to be penned like 
 sheep in third-class carriages, some of which had an upper 
 story. It was evident that no caste-prejudices interfered 
 with their making- full use of our railways. 
 
 As the morning dawned on us in our northward course, 
 sensations of real cold made us forget we were in India, 
 till, looking out, we were reminded of our locality by un- 
 mistakeable signs, and notably by certain ominous streaks 
 of cloud in the horizon, which turned out to be flights of 
 millions of locusts. When they are seen approaching, the 
 natives assemble in crowds, fire guns, and make hideous 
 noises to prevent their settling on their crops. After 
 passing Surat, Broach, and Baroda, I alighted at the 
 Mehmoodabad station, and began my Indian experiences 
 in the Collector of Kaira's camp. 
 
 A brief description of my first day^s adventures may 
 give an idea of the kind of life led by Anglo-Indians when 
 camping out in the country during an Indian winter. 
 
 My only room was of course a tent. It had four doors 
 and no windows, and a fifth door leading into a kind of 
 canvas lean-to or small annex, fitted up with a large bath. 
 Happily no one need trouble himself with a portable bath 
 in India, because this indispensable convenience is found 
 everywhere. The tent had a lining of brown and yellow 
 chintz, and for a carpet a stout blue and white cotton cloth 
 laid on flax straw. All the doors had two coverings or 
 rather flaps, one of the same material as the tent, the other 
 a kind of wire screen, called a chick, to let in air, and 
 keep out as far as possible inquisitive intruders — not men 
 and women, but huge bees, wasps, grasshoppers, squirrels, 
 snakes, and all manner of winged and creeping things in- 
 numerable. For furniture there were two or three chairs, 
 a dressing-table, and a good iron bedstead with hard mat- 
 tresses, woollen pillows, and musquito curtains, well tucked 
 in all round. Let the reader, then, imagine me comfortably 
 ensconced, after my month's voyages and travels, within 
 my four canvas walls, and looking forward with pleasant
 
 CAMP-LIFE. 31 
 
 anticipations to an undisturbed sleep in a veritable bed — 
 my first since leaving England. 
 
 I go through every needful purificatory rite in my 
 strange lavatory, and emerge refreshed from my tent door 
 to peep at the scene outside and take my bearings. I find 
 that we are in a large field or common, on one side of the 
 Mehmoodabad station. The camp consists of about a 
 dozen tents all under large spreading trees, with which 
 the whole park-like country round is beautifully wooded. 
 Most of the trees are new to me — the Mango, the Banian, 
 the Pipal, the Tamarind^ the Nlm^ and the Japanese Acacia 
 with its lovely yellow flowers. No tent is ever pitched 
 under a Tamarind. It is supposed, I believe, to exhale too 
 much carbonic acid during the night-time. The Mango 
 and Nim are the tent-pitcher's favourite trees. Under one 
 Mango there is a large pavilion- like erection for the 
 Collector and his wife. Then there is another double 
 tent, which serves as a dining-room and drawing-room, 
 of ample dimensions, fitted up with carpets, tables, book- 
 cases, easy chairs, sewing machine, and harmonium. Two 
 or three others for visitors like myself; another for the 
 baby and its Ayahs ; another for the Portuguese butler, 
 and of course a capacious tent with annexes, which to- 
 gether serve for the collector's Kutchery (properly written 
 Kacherl or KachaJiri), magisterial court and other offices. 
 
 On one side under the dense foliage of a Banian is 
 a circular canvas erection without any roof. This is the 
 kitchen, where excellent dinners are cooked by means of 
 two bricks and a hole in the ground. A little removed 
 from the tents is the stable, an open space quite un- 
 protected, except by foliage, where four Arab horses and 
 two ponies are tethered by their heels, each attended by 
 its man. Near them stand carriages, carts, and a curious 
 vehicle called a Tonga {Tango), usually drawn by two 
 ponies. It has two seats back to back, suspended on 
 two wheels, and is covered by an awning. Not far off 
 an ail-but nude Bhisti, dark as a negro, is seen plying
 
 32 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 his occupation. He supplies the camp with water, by 
 means of two water-skins slung over the back of a 
 bullock. Ranging about the field in promiscuous places 
 are other bullocks, buffaloes, goats, sheep, geese, ducks, 
 and fowls. The bullocks are for the carts, the buffaloes 
 and goats for producing milk and butter. The other 
 creatures come in usefully as raw material, out of which 
 the excellent dinners before alluded to are supplied. A 
 sheep in these country places only costs, I am told, about 
 four rupees, or eight shillings. It is, however, a me- 
 lancholy reflection that infliction of death is essential to 
 the maintenance of an Englishman's life. For life is every- 
 where exuberant around me, and every living thing seems 
 to enjoy itself, as if it were certain of being unmolested. 
 Natives never willingly destroy life. They cannot enter 
 into an Englishman's desire for venting his high spirits 
 on a fine day by killing game of some kind. ' Live and 
 let live' is their rule of conduct towards the inferior 
 creation. 
 
 I walk about admiring every living creature, particularly 
 the birds — the Hoopoo with its lovely crest hopping about 
 near me, the doves very like those at home, the bright 
 parrots, the jays, the woodpeckers. Then little grey and 
 brown streaked squirrels are playing all around me. They 
 jump about with wonderful agility, peer in at the tent 
 doors, and try to secure little bits of cotton for their nests. 
 The sounds are not always melodious. I hear a screeching 
 note above my head. It comes from a kind of grey and 
 red Toucan seated trustfully on a branch, and quite un- 
 undisturbed by my presence. Then another discordant 
 cry, and a rush — a number of natives are driving away 
 a troop of big, grey mischievous monkeys, some with 
 little baby-monkeys clinging to them. They soon repel 
 the invaders, but only by shouting in rather harsh ver- 
 nacular '^ the monkey-people, the monkey-people ! ' To 
 shoot a monkey would be nothing short of sacrilege. 
 I venture to follow the retreating intruders, but am
 
 CAMP LIFE. 33 
 
 arrested by hedg-es of prickly pear. Then I fall into 
 ecstasies over the creepers, many of them of g-ig-antic 
 size, which twine themselves everywhere, covering- hedges, 
 bushes, and trees with their brilliant red, orange, and 
 white flowers. 
 
 I must not omit to mention that dotted about the field 
 are mounted and unmounted sepoys, with here and there 
 a belted g-overnment servant (called a Patti-wala, or Patta- 
 wala, because distinguished by a belt) — all within call — 
 all ready to answer instantaneously to the Sahib^s sum- 
 mons, and eager to execute his behests. As to the big 
 Collector Sahib himself, in the eyes of the people of his 
 district he is every inch a king*. He speaks like one, acts 
 like one, and really has the power of one. He says to one 
 man ' come/ and he cometh, and to another ' g-o/ and he 
 g-oeth. His title of Collector gives a very inadequate idea 
 of his real duties and authority ; unless it be taken to 
 mean that in him all the administrative functions of the 
 district are collected and comprehended. He not only 
 collects the revenue, but has high judicial powers, and the 
 whole welfare of a small territory is committed to him. 
 He superintends police, civil engineering, road-making, 
 rural economy, municipal government, sanitation, educa- 
 tion, every conceivable matter. 
 
 But if every Collector is a small king, every English- 
 man in India is regarded as a petty prince. Obsequious 
 natives watch his movements, and hang upon his words. 
 I try to stroll about, but as I circle leisurely round 
 the compound, attendant satellites hover about my path. 
 I am evidently expected to develope wants of some kind or 
 other in the course of my ramble. I ransack my store of 
 correct Hindustani just imported from Europe for the most 
 polite way of requesting to be left alone ; but I feel as 
 helpless as a child, and as shy as a new boy at school. 
 Disconcerted and humiliated, I long for a little temporary 
 obscurity, and hastily hide my head within the walls of 
 my tent. But my tenacious followers are not to le shaken 
 
 D
 
 34 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 off so easily. I am conscious of being- vigilantly watched 
 through my barriei' of canvas. By way of experiment I 
 utter the magical formula Qid liai ? [Ko-i hai ?), and 
 a dusky form seems to rise out of the ground as if by 
 magic. There he stands in an attitude of abject reverence 
 and attention, waiting for me to issue my commands 
 either in the best Gujarati or purest Hindustani. But 
 I do not rise to the occasion. I am not sure whether to 
 be exhilarated by the opportunity of bringing my know- 
 ledge of Indian languages into play, or depressed by an 
 uncomfortable consciousness of blank inability to deliver 
 myself of any well-turned and highly idiomatic sentence 
 expressive of a simple desire to know the dinner-houi\ 
 Just at this juncture I hear a commanding voice call 
 out in the distance ' Khana lao.' This is the Collector's 
 brief and business-like order for dinner. I repair with 
 relief to the drawing-room and dining-room. The Col- 
 lector and his wife^ beaming with hospitality, make me 
 sit down at a well-appointed dinner -table. I have a 
 French 7nenu placed before me. I eat a dinner cooked 
 with Parisian skill, I drink wine fit for an emperor, and 
 am waited on by a stately butler and half-a-dozen stately 
 waiters in imposing costumes, who move about with noise- 
 less tread behind my chair, and anticipate every eccen- 
 tricity of my appetite. I am evidently on enchanted 
 ground, and can only think of Aladdin in the Arabian 
 Nights. 
 
 Dinner over, we sit out in the open air. The moon is 
 shining with a lustre unknown in northern latitudes. We 
 recline on lounging chairs round a blazing wood fire, not 
 sorry to wrap ourselves up in our warm plaids. I retire 
 early to my tent and compose myself for the luxurious 
 slumber I had anticipated. But I am too excited to sleep 
 immediately. With difficulty I gain the border-land be- 
 tween consciousness and unconsciousness. What is that 
 sound, half snort, half snuffle, close to my head ? I start, 
 and sit up. Can it be the Brahmani bull I saw just before
 
 CAMP LIFE. -i,^ 
 
 dinner roaming about at large in full enjoyment of a 
 kind of sacred independence ? Cautiously and guardedly 
 I open my musquito curtains, intending to seize the 
 nearest weapon of defence. Clink, clink ! Clank, clank ! 
 Thank goodness, that must be the guard parading close to 
 my tent ; and sure enough there are sounds of a rush, 
 and a chase, and a genuine bull's bellow, which gradually 
 diminish and fade away in the distance. 
 
 Again I compose myself, but as night advances begin to 
 be painfully aware that a number of other strange sounds 
 are intensifying outside and inside my tent — croaks, 
 squeaks, grunts, chirps, hums, buzzes, whizzes, whistles, 
 rustles, flutters, scuffles, scampers, and nibbles. Harmless 
 sounds proceeding from harmless creatures ! I reason with 
 myself. A toad is attracted by the water in my bath- 
 room, a rat has scented out my travelling biscuits, mus- 
 quitoes and moths are trying to work their way through 
 nay curtains, a vampire bat is hanging from the roof of 
 my tent, crickets and grasshoppers are making themselves 
 at home on my floor. ' Quite usual, of course,' I say to 
 myself, ' in these hot climates, and quite to be expected ! ' 
 Ah, but that hissing sound ! Do not cobras hiss ? The 
 hissing subsides, and is succeeded by a melancholy moan. 
 Is that the hooting of an owl ? No ! the moan has 
 changed to a prolonged yell, increasing in an alarming 
 manner. Yell is taken up by yell, howl by howl. Awful 
 sounds come from all directions. Surely a number of 
 peasants are being murdered in the adjoining fields. I am 
 bound to get up and rush to the rescue. No, no, I re- 
 member. I saw a few jackals slinking about the camp in 
 the evening. 
 
 Once more I try to compose myself, disgusted with my 
 silly sensitiveness. Shriek, shriek, and a thundering roar ! 
 The midnight luggage-train is passing with a screaming 
 whistle fifty yards from my head. At last I drop off 
 exhausted into a troubled slumber. I dream of bulls, 
 snakes, tigers, and railway collisions. A sound of many 
 
 D 1
 
 36 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 voices mingles with my perturbed visions. Crowds of 
 natives are eollecting- for the six o^clock train two hours 
 before sunrise. They talk, chatter, jabber, shout, and 
 laugh to beguile the tedium of waiting, At five minutes 
 to six the station bell rings violently, and my servant 
 appears with my cliota hdziri, or little breakfast. I start 
 up, dress quickly, remembering that I am expected to 
 drink a cup of hot tea, and go out like a veteran Anglo- 
 Indian, to 'eat the air' {Iiawd khdna), before the sun is 
 well up. 
 
 I conform to the spirit of the trite precept Si Romae 
 J'lieris, Romano vivito more ; but the Collector and his wife 
 are out before me, and are seen mounting their horses and 
 starting off to scour the country in every direction for an 
 hour or so. I find the morning breeze bite keenly, and 
 am glad to walk briskly up and down the camp. I amuse 
 myself by watching the gradual gathering of natives 
 around the Kutchery — two or three policemen with a 
 prisoner, a cheerful-looking man in a red turban and. 
 white garments carrying a paper or petition of some 
 kind ; several emaciated half-naked villagers bowed down 
 to the dust with the weight of their poverty and griev- 
 ances ; a decrepit old man attended by a decrepit old 
 woman ; underlings who come to deliver reports or receive 
 instructions ; other persons who come to be advised, en- 
 couraged, scolded or praised, and others who appear to 
 have nothing to do, and to do it very successfully. Every 
 one has an air of quiet resignation, and nearly all squat 
 on the ground, awaiting the Collector Sahib's return with 
 imperturbable patience. All these cases are disposed of by 
 the Collector in person after our eight o'clock breakfast. 
 
 At eleven the post comes in ; that is, a running mes- 
 senger, nearly naked, brings in a pile of letters on his 
 head from the neighbouring town. The Collector is im- 
 mersed in a sea of papers until our next meal. Mean- 
 while a visitor from a neighbouring station makes his 
 appearance riding on a camel, and is received in the
 
 CAMP LIFE. 37 
 
 drawing-room tent by the Collector's wife. Then a de- 
 putation of Brahmans is seen approaching. They have 
 come to greet me on my arrival ; some of them are 
 Pandits. A mat is spread for them in a vacant tent. 
 They enter without shoes, make respectful salaams, and 
 squat round me in a semicircle. I thoughtlessly shake 
 hands with the chief Pandit, a dignified venerable old 
 gentleman, forgetful that the touch of a Mlecc'ha (English 
 barbarian) will entail upon him laborious purificatory cere- 
 monies on his return to his own house. We then ex- 
 change compliments in Sanskrit, and I ask them many 
 questions, and propound difficulties for discussion. Their 
 fluency in talking Sanskrit surprises me, and certainly sur- 
 passes mine. We English scholars treat Sanskrit as a dead 
 language, but here in India I am expected to speak it 
 as if it were my mother-tongue. Once or twice I find 
 myself floundering disastrously, but the polite Pandits 
 help me out of my difficulties. Two hours pass away 
 like lightning, the only drawback to general harmony 
 being that all the Pandits try to speak at once. I find 
 that no one thinks of terminating the visit. Native 
 visitors never venture to depart till the Sahib says plainly 
 ' you may go.' I begin to think of the most polite 
 Sanskrit formula for breaking up my conclave, when I 
 am saved from all awkwardness by a call to tiffin. 
 
 In the afternoon the sun acquires canicular power, the 
 thermometer rises to eighty-two, and the temperature is 
 about as trying as that of the hottest day of an English 
 summer. Under the combined influence of tiffin, heat, 
 exhilaration, humiliation, and general excitement, I am 
 compelled to doze away an hour or two, till it is time to 
 walk with the Collector to a neighbouring Baoli, or old 
 underground well (called in Gujai-ati Uuu')^ now unused 
 and falling into ruins, but well worth a visit. It is more 
 like a small subterranean tank than a well, and the descent 
 to it is by a long flight of stone steps, surrounded by cool 
 stone chambers built of solid masonry, and supported by
 
 38 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 handsome pillars. In Eastern countries, benevolent men' 
 who have become rich and wish to benefit their fellow- 
 creatures before they die, construct wells and tanks, much 
 as we build hospitals in Europe. I return with the Col- 
 lector to his <3amp as the sun sets. 
 
 So much for my first day^s experiences, which are so 
 vivid that I may be pardoned for having- recounted them 
 in the present tense.
 
 THE VILLAGES AND RURAL POPULATION 
 OF INDIA. 
 
 One of my first acts after my day's rest in the Collector 
 of Kaira's camp was to visit a neig-hbouring- villag-e called 
 Khatraj. 
 
 The org-anization of Indian villag"es — meaning- by a 
 village not merely a collection of houses, but a rural 
 commune or territorial division of cultivable land — is a 
 highly interesting and instructive study both in its con- 
 nexion with the early history of the Aryan races, and in 
 its bearing on the present condition of rural society not 
 only in India but in Europe. In no part of the world have 
 the collection of communities which together make up the 
 aggregate of a country's population been left so much to 
 self-goverument as in India. Its village system is based 
 on the purest form of Home-rule, which had its origin in 
 the simple patriarchal constitution of society, when the 
 family of brothers — joint owners of the family land — lived 
 together and cultivated the soil, as co-partners under a 
 paternal head. 
 
 Every Indian village is a collection of such families 
 united in intimate corporate relations. And as each family 
 is held together by a close interdependence of interests 
 under a common father, so the members of each village 
 community are united in close association under a presiding* 
 head-man, or chief of some kind. It must be borne in 
 mind that the actual tillers of the ground in an Indian 
 village constitute at least three-fourths of the population.
 
 40 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 In Gujarat these cultivators are called KumLi (Sanskrit 
 Kutumbi). The remaining inhabitants consist of various 
 useful functionaries, artisans and mechanics, to be presently 
 described — men of distinct castes and employments who 
 are indispensable to the maintenance of every society, and 
 minister to its wants in diverse ways. 
 
 Of course the detail of rural org-anization is not uniform 
 in every part of India, nor does the system of self-govern- 
 ment prevail with equal force everywhere. But in every 
 village there is a close intertwining of communal relations, 
 so that the separate existence and independence of any 
 individual of the community is barely recognized. 
 
 The Sanskrit name for a village commune is Grama. 
 It is clear from Manu's law-book that a regular system 
 of village- administration prevailed in some parts of India 
 many centuries before Christ. There was first a supreme 
 village-lord or governor who was called Gramadhipati and 
 who governed looo villages, subject to the king's suze- 
 rainty. Under him were the lords of lOO villages con- 
 stituting a district now called a Parganah, and under these 
 again were the chiefs of each separate village-community. 
 Some similar gradation of administrative authority proba- 
 bly existed long before the time of Manu^s code. But the 
 interconnexion between the village system and the state, 
 the nature of the links which have united the higher with 
 the lower power, and the amount of control which the one 
 has exercised over the other, have varied with each change 
 in the Supreme Authority. What has remained unchanged 
 has been the simple self-contained village corj)oration. 
 This has survived all changes, all political, religious, and 
 physical convulsions — all wars, massacres, pestilences, and 
 famines — in a vi^ord, all the external and internal disturbing 
 forces that have swept over and agitated the country for 
 more than three thousand years. 
 
 At present, under British rule, the village-overseers, or 
 head-men, have different names in different places, accord- 
 ing to their various functions or powers. For example,
 
 VILLAGE-SYSTEM. LAND-TENURE. 4 1 
 
 they are variously called Patel, Mandal, Desa! ( = Desadhi 
 or Desadhipati), Desmukh ( = Desa-mukha), Maha-jana, 
 Lambardar, and Mukaddam. The two last names are 
 more generally used in the Northern parts of India, Lam- 
 bardar being- a mongrel term made up of the English word 
 ' number ' corrupted into ' lambar,' and the Persian word 
 ' dar,' a holder. In some Northern districts a large village 
 will frequently consist of five or six rural communities, 
 each under a distinct Lambardar, to whom a separate lease 
 (pa/a) of a portion of land, with a number inscribed on the 
 written document, is assigned. Sometimes a village is 
 occupied conjointly by Hindus and Muhammadans, who 
 live very amicably and contentedly side by side. In such 
 cases each religious community has its own Lambardar, 
 who is its own special nominee and representative. 
 
 But the tenure under which the land is held by Indian 
 cultivators and. landowners varies throughout India in a 
 very perplexing manner. In some villages the Ryots or 
 immediate tillers of the soil, w^ho constitute the mass of the 
 population, are held to be the only hereditary proprietors. 
 The land is parcelled out among them, and the tax assessed 
 periodically by our own government-officers, all the cul- 
 tivable ground thus divided being liable to further subdi- 
 vision by the Hindu and Muhammadan law of inheritance, 
 which gives an equal share to each son. Sometimes each 
 cultivator holds his own share as a distinct estate, and 
 is himself responsible for the payment of the government 
 demand. Sometimes all the cultivators hold their lands as 
 a common estate^ dividing the profits as co-partners, and 
 nominating their own head-man, or accepting one nominated 
 by the Government, to whom the duty of collecting and 
 paying the State assessment is committed. 
 
 In other villages the immediate cultivators are neither 
 singly nor conjointly proprietors, but hold their lands on 
 lease under one or more hereditary proprietors (sometimes 
 called Pati-diirs) to whom the whole collective area of the 
 village territory, or some portion of it, is supposed to
 
 42 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 belong, and who are responsible to Government for the 
 first charge on the produce, estimated at a certain value 
 and always paid in silver. Again, in some parts of India 
 the large proprietors of land are called Zammdars, or land- 
 holders. Such men not unfrequently have an hereditary- 
 right of property over areas larger than English counties,' 
 and in Bengal, Behar, and Orissa the perpetual settlement 
 of 1793 converted them into actual proprietors who enjoy 
 their estates in absolute ownership, on the sole condition 
 of punctual payment of a fixed sum to the Government 
 exchequer. 
 
 It is clear from these difierenees of tenure that the head- 
 men of the village are not always employed as agents for 
 the collection of the State assessment. Nor have they 
 necessarily any connexion with Government at all. Yet 
 every head-man must be a man of weight and influence 
 among his own people. Indeed, he is elected by the com- 
 munity on account of some supposed superior qualifications, 
 and is generally allowed independent jurisdiction in his 
 own sphere. Frequently he has considerable powers com- 
 mitted to him. For example, he may arrange the village 
 police, enforce sanitation, settle questions of ploughing and 
 sowing, decide disputes among cultivators, provide for the 
 entertainment of travellers. His remuneration consists 
 of a certain proportion of the produce^ or a fixed assign- 
 ment of cultivable land rent free ^ 
 
 It must be noted that he is required to act in concert 
 with the village council, or Panchayat, of which he is the 
 president. In India every village and every town has its 
 Panchayat, whose functions resemble in a manner those of 
 European municipal boards. In fact the Panchayat is a 
 most ancient Indian institution, though difterentl}- consti- 
 tuted in different places. It must have consisted originally 
 of five [2^ancha) members, but is nowhere now restricted 
 to that number. Seven or eight members are now not 
 
 ^ In some parts of In lia he is allowed an acre in every twenty under 
 cultivation.
 
 VILLAGE-SYSTEM. PANCHAYATS. 43 
 
 uncommon. In Manu's time (at least 500 years b.c ) two 
 councils are mentioned, one of four members and the other 
 of eleven \ 
 
 Every caste^ every trade, every separate association has 
 its own peculiar and special Panchayat. At one time even 
 native reg-iments elected their own officers, and small states 
 their own rulers by means of Panchayats. Everything" was 
 managed and settled in this manner, A common proverb 
 is current throug-hout India that ' the voice of God is 
 in the five ' {Panch men Paraviesvara). Happily for India, 
 and for our own tenure of the country, our policy has always 
 been to preserve existing- native institutions as far as 
 possible intact. We encourage the people to settle their 
 own disputes among themselves in their own way. We 
 make a point of upholding the action of native Panchayats, 
 though we do not, of course, give legal validity to all their 
 decisions. 
 
 With regard to the other functionaries of the village, 
 there are at least twelve different kinds of village officials 
 under the head-man, each paid by the cultivators in kind 
 according to the value of the services he renders to the 
 community, and each belonging to a separate caste, deter- 
 mined by the nature of his employment. 
 
 I. First comes the Patwari, or village accountant and 
 registrar, who is a kind of Government land-steward, keep- 
 ing the Jama-bandl or account of the lands, produce, rents 
 and assessments of his village. He sometimes acts as 
 Majmudar (otherwise Majtimdar, corrupted into Mujum- 
 dar) or State Kecord-keeper, and in some parts of AVestern 
 India is called Tahiti. This functionary comes next to the 
 head-man in importance and influence, having often inde- 
 pendent authority, irrespective of his office as a Government 
 agent. He usually receives about half the emoluments of 
 the head-man. 
 
 ^ See 'Manu,' xii. no : 'Any matter of law settled by a council consist- 
 ing of ten law-abiding men under one bead, or by three sueb men under 
 one bead, should not be violated.'
 
 44 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 2. Then secondly there is the village chaplain^ or 
 domestic priest (called in Sanskrit Purohita, and in Gu- 
 jarat! Gor for Guru) — who performs all religious ceremonies 
 for the villng-ers, the impure castes only excepted. He is sup- 
 ported by fixed allotments of grain, and by special presents 
 of food at caste dinners, or by gifts of money on occasions 
 of birthsj weddings, and other family solemnities. He 
 often combines supplementary functions of a kindred nature. 
 For example, he may be astrologer, almanac-maker, and 
 schoolmaster. Furthermore he and his wife are generally 
 the village match-makers, arranging all the marriages of 
 the community with careful attention to caste-usages. 
 
 3. Next comes the Nai, or barber (Sanskrit Napit, Arabic 
 Hajjam, sometimes vulgarly called Warand or Waland, and 
 in Gujarat, Ghaenjo or Ghaeja) — who, with his kit of 
 primitive razors and implements of the rudest description, 
 does all the work expected of him admirably. No man in 
 India thinks of shaving himself. Hence the barber is an 
 important member of the community. His duties are not 
 confined to shaving. He cuts nails, shampoos the limbs, 
 and often acts as village doctor ^. In some parts of India 
 he helps to arrange marriages. 
 
 4. Fourth on the list may be placed the Kumbhar, or 
 potter (Sanskrit Kumbha-kara) — -who by means of a wheel 
 {chahra) of the simplest construction, makes all the earth- 
 enware pots and platters of the villagers with a skill truly 
 surprising. He generally uses a donkey to fetch his 
 materials, and from his cleverness in moulding clay into 
 any shape, is facetiously called Prajapati, ' the creator.' 
 
 5. Fifth must be mentioned the Siitar, or carpenter 
 (Sanskrit Sutra-dhara) — who also with the roughest tools 
 does the village carpentering admirably. He ought perhaps 
 to have been named earlier, as he ranks high in the social 
 scale, and in proof of his superior pretensions even claims 
 the privilege of wearing the sacred thread like a Brahman. 
 
 ' His wife is often the village midwife.
 
 VILLAGE FUNCTIONARIES. 45 
 
 6. Then in close company with the carpenter will always 
 be found the Lohar, or blacksmith (Sanskrit Loha-kara). 
 These two useful workmen together make and mend all the 
 village tools and agricultural implements. 
 
 7. Next comes the Dhobi, or washerman — an important 
 personage, for no family ever thinks of saving money by 
 washing at home. This operation can only be performed 
 by a man of the right caste. 
 
 8. Eighth in the list may be placed the Bhisti (properly 
 Bihishti), or water-carrier — sometimes called Pakhali. He 
 generally carries water in two leather-skins suspended over 
 the back of a bullock, or in one skin suspended over his 
 own back. 
 
 9. Next ought to be reckoned the Darzl (often corrupted 
 into Darji) or tailor — sometimes called Sui from his use of 
 the Siichi or needle, and in the Dekkan Sipl or Simpi. 
 He is not so important a person as in Europe, for the simple 
 reason that an ordinary Indian's clothes need very little 
 stitching. Still such sewing as may be required is always 
 done by the tailor and his wife, never by the women of the 
 family. 
 
 10. The tenth personage in the catalogue is the Mochi, 
 or shoemaker — who repairs the shoes of the community, 
 and makes the leather-work required in yoking the bul- 
 locks. Many of the villagers are content to remain shoe- 
 less, but the cultivators require good thick soles, frequently 
 made of rhinoceros-hide brought from Zanzibar. 
 
 1 1 . Last but one, but not nearly least in importance, 
 comes the Chaukidar, or watchman (in Gujarat called 
 Rakhewad, or Pahari). Of these functionaries there are 
 usually four, and in larger rural communes even fifteen or 
 twenty. Though very poor, their trustworthiness when in 
 charge of treasure or valuables of any kind is remarkable. 
 In some places the watchman is also a Government official, 
 who receives as his pay five acres of rent-free land. In 
 Orissa, according- to Dr. Hunter, he is generally allowed by 
 the villagers to select the largest sheaf of corn in every field.
 
 46 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 12. Under the twelfth head must be placed the impure 
 castes who do all the dirty work of the village : — for ex- 
 ample the Chamar, or tanner (Sanskrit Charma-kara), who 
 prepares and hands over to the shoemaker all the hides and 
 skins of the sheep, oxen and other animals that die in the 
 commune ; the Dhed or Dher ; and the Bhang-i ^ These 
 last two personages are the village menials. Their work is 
 absolutely necessary to the comfort if not to the very health 
 and life of its population. They are not only sweepers and 
 scavengers; they do other menial work, and are often 
 trusted with the important duty of carrying letters. The 
 Bhangi also shows the road to travellers, carrying a bamboo 
 walking-stick with which he removes thorns and briars 
 from the path. Both Dhers and Bhangis are gross feeders. 
 They devour the flesh of cows, buftaloes, and all animals 
 that die a natural death in the village. They also drink 
 spirituous liquor, but rarely become intoxicated. In some 
 parts of Western India the low caste sweeper population 
 are called Mhars. In other parts of India the name Dom 
 is common. 
 
 The various officials enumerated under the above twelve 
 divisions along with the head-man, form the ordinary com- 
 plement of servants and handicraftsmen needed for the 
 maintenance of even the smallest rural communities. They 
 are all paid by receiving portions of the grain or other 
 produce in different proportions, according to the character 
 and extent of their services. 
 
 Larger villages add other distinct functionaries, such as 
 the Gum, or schoolmaster ; the Joshi, or astrologer (Sanskrit 
 Ji/otishl), who names the lucky days for sowing, ploughing, 
 marriages, journeys, &c., draws out horoscopes and alma- 
 nacs, and tells fortunes — a most important personage, for 
 nine-tenths of the people of India are slaves to astrological 
 superstition ; the Vaid, or village apothecary and doctor 
 (Sanskrit Vaidijd) ; the Tell, or oilman (Sanskrit Ta'ill; in 
 
 ^ The proper occupation of the Bhangi is said to be that of breaking 
 (Sanskrit hhanj, to break) reeds to make baskets.
 
 VILLAGE FUNCTIONARIES. CHARMERS. 47 
 
 some places called GhcmcJii) ; the Kasdrl, otherwise Kaserd, 
 or brazier ; the Koll, or weaver ; the Rangdrl, or dyer ; the 
 Hahoai, or confectioner. Then in some villages there is 
 the Gdptirgarl, or hailstorm-charmer, who charms away 
 hailstorms from the crops, and other varieties of charmers, 
 such as the tig-er-charmer, the snake-charmer, and above 
 all the demon-charmer, who exorcises devils and other evil 
 spirits. 
 
 In connexion with the subject of charmers, I extract a 
 passage slightly abridged from Adam's educational report 
 on the district of Nattore in Bengal, adding a few ex- 
 planatory words of my own here and there. 
 
 In Bengal, he says, there is ' a class of pretenders, still 
 lower than the village doctors, who go under the general 
 name of conjurers or charmers. The largest division of 
 this class are the snake-conjurers ; their number in the 
 single police division of Nattore being no less than 732. 
 There are few villages without one, and in some villages 
 there are as many as ten. These take nothing for the 
 performance of their rites, or the cures they pretend to 
 have effected. All is gratuitous, but they have substantial 
 advantages which enable them to be thus liberal. When 
 the inhabitants of a village, hitherto without a conjurer, 
 think that they can afford to have one, they invite a 
 professor of the art from a neighbouring village, where 
 there happens to be one to spare, and give him a piece 
 of land, and various privileges and immunities. He pos- 
 sesses great influence over the inhabitants. If a quarrel 
 takes place, his interference will quell it sooner than that 
 of any one else ; and when he requires the aid of his 
 neighbours in cultivating his plot of ground or in reaping 
 its produce, it is always more readily given to him than to 
 others. 
 
 The art is not hereditary in a family or peculiar to any 
 caste. One charmer I met with was a boatman, another a 
 Chaukidar, a third a weaver. Whoever learns the charm 
 (perhaps consisting of some text from the Atharva-veda
 
 48 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 or from a Tantra) may practice it, but thoi-c are believed to 
 practice it most successfully, who are ' to the manner born '; 
 that is, who have been born under a favorable conjunction 
 of planets. Every conjurer seems to have a separate 
 charm, for I have found no two the same. No charmer 
 objects to repeat his charm. He will even consent to do so 
 for the mere gratification of a stranger's curiosity, and will 
 allow it to be taken down in writing. Neither do such 
 conjurers appear to have any mutual jealousy, each readily 
 allowing the virtue of other incantations than his own. 
 
 Sometimes the pretended curer of snake-bites by charms 
 professes also to possess the power of expelling demons, 
 and, in other cases the expeller of demons disclaims being 
 a snake-conjurer. Demon-conjurers are not numerous in 
 Nattore ; and tiger-conjurers who profess to charm away 
 tigers or cure their bites, although scarcely heard of in that 
 division, are numerous in those parts of the district where 
 there is much jungle infested by wild beasts. 
 
 Distinct from these three kinds of conjurers, and called 
 by a different name is a class of gifted (Sanskrit ynni) 
 persons who are believed to possess the power of preventing 
 the fall of hail on the village crops. For this purpose 
 when there is a prospect of a hailstorm, one of them goes 
 out into the fields belonging to the village with a trident 
 and a buffaloes horn. The trident is fixed in the ground, 
 and the ' gifted ' charmer makes a wide circle around it, 
 running naked, blowing the horn, and pronouncing incan- 
 tations. It is the firm belief of the villagers that their 
 crops are by this means protected from hail-storms. Both 
 men and women practice this business. There are about a 
 dozen in Nattore, and they are provided for in the same 
 way as the conjurers. 
 
 Some of these details may appear unimportant, but they 
 help to give an insight into the character of the humble 
 classes who constitute the great mass of the people, and 
 whose happiness and improvement are identical with the 
 prosperity of the country. And although they exhibit
 
 IMPURE CASTES. 49 
 
 proofs of a most imbecile superstition, yet it is a supersti- 
 tion which has its origin in a childish ignorance of the 
 common laws of nature, not in vice or depravity. Such 
 superstitions are neither Hindu nor MuhammaJan, being- 
 equally repudiated by the educated portions of both classes 
 of religionists. They are probably antecedent to both 
 systems of faith, and have been handed down from time 
 immemorial.' 
 
 I must not omit to mention that one indispensable person 
 in all the larger villages is the Baniya or shopkeeper and 
 trader, who is also a money-lender and a kind of petty 
 banker. In Gujarat he is often a Marwarl. This per- 
 sonage makes advances to the villagers and binds his 
 helpless debtors by stringent penalties. At least half the 
 village is generally in bondage to him, and not vinfre- 
 quently a great part of the land passes into his possession. 
 
 With regard to the impure castes already alluded to 
 as constituting one element of all village communes, it 
 should be noted that although regarded by the Brahmans 
 as impure, their usefulness is not the less recognised. 
 Their services are, in fact, felt to be indispensable^ and 
 the treatment they receive accords with the urgency rather 
 than with the character of their duties. No greater mis- 
 take could be made than to suppose that the condition of 
 the low-caste people of India is one either of serfdom or 
 slavery- Neither the Dher nor the Bhangi are outcastes. 
 Albeit their occupation is of a mean kind they take a pride 
 in doing it well and patiently. They are consequently not 
 only well treated by others but they themselves have the 
 same feelings of self-respect and caste-respect as the other 
 classes of society. Nay, they are often stricter in the 
 observance of their caste rules than men of the higher 
 classes. The Dher is a degree higher in the scale than 
 the Bhangi, and is not a Httle proud of this superiority. 
 He will on no account eat with the Bhangi, and they never 
 intermarry. The Dhers place great faith in the Kalki — 
 a future incarnation of Vishnu — who is to appear on a 
 
 £
 
 50 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 white horse with a flaming sword to take vengeance on 
 unrighteous men, establish justice throughout the world, 
 and restore the low castes to their proper position. Kalki, 
 they say, is to marry a Dher woman, and the Dhers are 
 then to take the place of the Brahmans. 
 
 And I may here remark that the Hinduism of the 
 present day is by no means a system that exists for the 
 Brahmans alone. It is no rigid unbending system of 
 hard and fast lines. On the contrary it possesses great 
 elasticity, and delights in compromises and compensations. 
 If strict in some points it is lax in others ; if it gives 
 power to one caste it gives power of a dilFerent kind, or 
 at least some compensating advantage to another. 
 
 The Bhangi, a man of the lowest caste in Gujarat, 
 may be despised by a few arrogant Brahmans of the 
 type described in Manu's Law-book. His touch, shadow, 
 and very look may be avoided ; yet the Bhangi has his 
 hour of triumph, if not of revenge. The Brahman is 
 omnipotent during the day ; his blessing makes rich, 
 and his curse withers ; but the moment the sun goes 
 down, and darkness sets in, the Brahman becomes power- 
 less for good or evil. The tables are then turned, and 
 the power of the Bhangi of Gujarat begins. This is, 
 curiously enough, displayed in some supposed command 
 over the fords of rivers. No Gujarat Brahman of the 
 strictly orthodox school will cross a ford after sunset, 
 until he has asked permission of a Bhangi. 
 
 With regard to the general character of the rural popu- 
 lation of Western India, I may state that an exj^erienced 
 military officer, for some time Surveyor- General of the 
 Bombay Presidency, recorded, about fifty years ago, the 
 impressions he formed in the course of a minute survey 
 of the country^. At that time the villagers of every 
 caste were found by him and his assistants to be ' simple 
 
 ^ See Lieut. -Colonel Monier Williams' 'Memoir of the Zilla of Broach,' 
 p. io8. In quoting my father's authority, I may mention that his expe- 
 rience of India extended over twenty-four years of unbroken active service.
 
 CHARACTER OF THE VILLAGERS. 51 
 
 and temperate ' in their habits, ' quiet and peaceful ' in 
 disposition, 'obedient and faithful^ in the fulfilment of 
 duty. It was believed that they ' had the advantag-e 
 of Europeans of the same class, not only in propriety 
 of manners, but in the practice of moral virtues.' They 
 had 'no conspicuous vices.' The affection and tender- 
 ness of parents was returned by the ' habitual dutifulness 
 of their children.' Hospitality towards strangers 'was 
 carefully observed/ Everywhere throughout the country 
 ' there was charity without ostentation.' No beggars 
 were to be seen ' except those who were religious men- 
 dicants by profession.' Though there was no poor law, 
 ' the indigent and diseased were always provided for by 
 the internal village arrangements.' There was every- 
 where such mutual confidence that ' no written documents 
 in transactions involving money payments were required.' 
 The cultivators paid their rents and took no receipts. 
 Money and valuables were deposited ' without any other 
 security than the accounts of the parties.' On a par- 
 ticular occasion at an immense religious fair on the banks 
 of the Narbada, two hundred thousand people were col- 
 lected, yet there was 'no rioting, no quarrelling, no 
 drunkenness nor disorder of any kind.' All were intent 
 on their religious duties. The officers employed on the 
 survey had ' no other guard but the village watchmen,^ yet 
 no robbery was committed, nor was the smallest article 
 ever pilfered from the tents. 
 
 I cannot think that much change has passed over the 
 people since this favourable impression made by their 
 behaviour and general character fifty years ago. It is 
 true that they now often appear in a very different light 
 to their rulers. In our courts of justice they are con- 
 stantly guilty of gross deception. But it seems doubtful 
 whether Europeans would be very different in their atti- 
 tude towards state ofiicials under similar circumstances. 
 Here in England a large number of people see no im- 
 propriety in evading the taxes, breaking the laws, and 
 
 E 2
 
 5a MODERN INDIA. 
 
 deceiving the police. In point of fact we are apt to judge 
 the natives of India by the character they present to their 
 foreign rulers, rather than by that they bear towards each 
 other in their own homes. The same men who in our courts 
 of law have no idea of the duty of truth will in their own 
 Panchayats settle disputes with perfect fairness. 
 
 As to the little village of Khatraj, which I have al- 
 ready mentioned as visited by me soon after my arrival 
 in India, I found its inhabitants living in a collection of 
 little better than mud huts and sheds, whose dilapidated 
 walls looked as if they would revert to their primitive 
 alluvium under the first heavy downpour of rain. All 
 Indian agricultural labour depends on the ox, and much 
 of the food of the peasantry comes from cows and buffaloes 
 in the shape of milk and butter. Hence in Khatraj yards 
 for cattle are interspersed everywhere with the mud tene- 
 ments of the inhabitants. Men, women, children, cows, 
 oxen, and buffaloes are huddled together in intimate com- 
 munion and • fellowship, amid dirt, dust, and strong smells 
 of asafcetida and turmeric. 
 
 One curious feature in this village, as in most of the 
 others I afterwards visited, was^ that the walls of the 
 dwellings were daubed with nasty-looking circular cakes^, 
 which looked like confections of mud and clay mixed 
 with pieces of chopped straw. At first I was tempted 
 to suppose that the children of the peasantry were addicted 
 to the mischievous amusement of pelting the sides of 
 their houses with dirt pies, which no one took the trouble 
 to remove. But I found on inquiry that the whole fuel 
 of the village is annually prepared and stowed away, by 
 first kneading the excretions of the cattle into cakes, and 
 then plastering them on the walls, where they are left 
 to bake in the hot sun. It certainly strikes one as re- 
 markable, and much to be regretted, that what ought 
 to be devoted to the nourishment of the soil should be 
 diverted from its proper use, and made to serve as an 
 aliment for fire.
 
 VILLAGE OF KHATRAJ, 53 
 
 Let no one, however, imag-ine that all was dirt, dilapida- 
 tion, confusion, and disorder in this typical little villag-e of 
 Khatraj. On the contrary, I found an organized society 
 subsisting harmoniously and in comfort on the produce 
 of the village lands. 
 
 The plan of the village is very simple. It has one main 
 irregular street crossed by two or three side alleys. Near 
 the centre is an open space, on one side of which is a very 
 primitive town-hall, consisting of a square plot of ground 
 not bigger than the area of a small room, slightly elevated 
 and protected above by a rough roof, supported by rude 
 columns. The structure, though unimposing^ obeys the 
 usual law of adaptation found to prevail everywhere 
 throughout the habitable globe. The thick roof is com- 
 pletely sun-proof, and the four open sides admits as they 
 ought to do, all the winds of heaven. Here, on all 
 needful occasions, the village Panchayat sits in dignified 
 and comfortable coolness, if not in state and ceremony, 
 the head-man of course presiding. In some smaller 
 villages a cleared space under a large tree is the only 
 meeting-place, and its foliage the only shelter from sun 
 and rain. On the other side of the open space is another 
 small raised platform of rough masonry, on which grow 
 the Pipal tree and Tulsl plant, the latter being held sacred 
 as the favourite shrub of the god Vishnu. There is a 
 space all round for reverent circumambulation, as per- 
 formed every day by the women of the community. 
 
 Furthermore, no village in India is without its temple 
 or temples, though they are of a very rude kind. At 
 Khatraj there are two shrines — one to Siva (with his son 
 Ganesa, ^ lord of demons ') in his character of Father of all 
 beings, the other to the local Matii or INIother (otherwise 
 called Amba) of the village, generally identified by the 
 Brahmans with some form of Siva's consort. But it must 
 be observed that the village goddess (devi) has a special 
 character and special name in every district and almost 
 every village. In Khatraj she is called Khodiyar, or
 
 54 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 ' Mischief/ because she is supposed, when in an amiable 
 mood, to shield from harm. She will, however, equally 
 cause harm, when her temper is ruffled by the slightest 
 omission of any formula in the daily process of conciliating 
 her favour. Though euphemistically styled ' Mother/ she 
 has little of a maternal character about her. She not 
 unfrequently sends diseases. If cholera or small-pox break 
 out in the village, the Mother is offended and must be 
 appeased with additional offerings. She is sometimes re- 
 presented by a rudely carved image, sometimes by a simple 
 recumbent unworked stone. 
 
 I soon discovered that the women of India are, like the 
 women in other parts of the world, more regular in the 
 performance of religious exercises than the men. But 
 they are also far more bigoted, intolerant, and superstitious. 
 In most places they confine their religion to a diligent 
 worship of the Tulsi plant. At Khatraj, on the occasion 
 of my visit, a woman was performing circumambulation 
 {^inadahsliina i) round this sacred little shrub io8 times, 
 her simple object being to secure long life for her husband, 
 and a large family of sons for herself. The right shoulder 
 must always be kept towards the object circumambulated, 
 probably with the idea of following the sun's course. 
 
 The men are, howevei", by no means deficient in the 
 practice of religious duties. On the contrary, religion of 
 some kind enters largely into their everyday life. Nay, 
 it may even be said that religious ideas and aspirations — 
 religious hopes and fears — are interwoven with the whole 
 texture of their mental constitution. A clergyman, who 
 has resided nearly all his life in India, once remarked to 
 me that he had seen many a poor Indian villager whose 
 childlike trust in his god, and in the efficacy of his re- 
 ligious observances — whose simplicity of character and 
 practical application of the principles of his creed, put 
 us Christians to shame. 
 
 * Pradaksliina was in all likelihood originally connected with Sun- 
 worship.
 
 NATIVE TOWNS. MEHMOODABAD. ^ 
 
 I asked one of the Kliatraj Brahmans to give me a 
 specimen of his handwriting", or to write any sentence 
 he liked best in the Sanskrit language. Thereupon he 
 wrote as follows : Brahmdnmulam parama-sulchadam hevalam 
 jndna-murtim ekam nityam vimalam atalam sarva-dhi-sdJcshi- 
 bhutam namdmi, that is (freely translated) : ' I bow down 
 before the One God, who is the only existing Being — who 
 is all joy and the giver of all joy, — who is all knowledge — 
 who is eternal, stainless, unchangeable, present as a witness 
 in all consciences.' Another Brahman, when asked to 
 write his autograph, instead of his own name immediately 
 wrote ' Bhagavate namak ' — ' Reverence to God.' Another 
 complied with a similar request for his autograph by writing 
 the sacred monosyllable ' Om ' — supposed to contain three 
 letters symbolical of the three persons in the Hindu Triad 
 of gods. 
 
 So much for rural life in India. 
 
 My next excursion was to the neighbouring towns of 
 Mehmoodabad and Kaira. The name of the first (properly 
 written Mahmud-abad^ the city of Mahmud) is an indi- 
 cation that it was founded by a Musalman ruler. The 
 latter is a mere corruption of the Sanskrit kheda, or kheta, 
 a town. 
 
 More thoroughly Eastern towns could scarcely have been 
 selected for a first introduction to Indian civic life. They 
 are both small in area— especially Mehmoodabad — but 
 densely populated. In the one case about fifteen thousand 
 people, and in the other twenty thousand are packed 
 together in spaces, which in England would not contain 
 half that number. 
 
 Of course self-government prevails in the native towns 
 as well as in the rural communes. Tlie native head of 
 a township, corresponding to the head-man of a village, 
 is called in some parts of India Nagar-sheth or Nagar-seth 
 (from the Sanskrit Nagara-sreshtliin). He has always 
 a Panch or council under him, which in some parts of 
 Western India is called, I believe, Majan (for Maha-jana).
 
 ^6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Our Government is laudably endeavouring- to establish 
 municipal institutions on European principles everywhere 
 throug-hout India, but even a town like Kaira is as yet not 
 advanced enoug-h to bear any form of self-government 
 different from that which it has possessed from time im- 
 memorial. 
 
 Unhappily dirt and disease follow inevitably on over- 
 crowding, and reassert themselves after every effort on the 
 part of the proper authorities to keep them down. Hence 
 both Mehmoodabad and Kaira are redolent with those 
 peculiarly Eastern odours that arise from the absence 
 of all drainage, and the abundant use of asafoetida, and 
 other pungent vegetable products. 
 
 It is well known that the site of Eastern cities has been 
 constantly shifted by despotic rulers, sometimes out of 
 mere caprice, sometimes for the simple reason that each 
 potentate has been ambitious of founding a city of liis own. 
 But a traveller has only to walk through a town like Kaira 
 to understand that the expedient of removing" whole popu- 
 lations from one place to another has often been a matter 
 of sheer necessity. It is frequently the only method of 
 escaping" the diseases engendered by malaria exhaling from 
 a soil loaded with the noxious accumulations of centuries. 
 
 Neither Mehmoodabad nor Kaira have a single Euro- 
 pean habitation, with the exception of the Collector's 
 official residence at the latter, occupied by him for three or 
 four months every year. They are simply enlarged and 
 improved editions of the village of Khatraj. 
 
 Most of the narrow streets of the smaller town are mere 
 lines of thatched-roofed mud cottages, often however orna- 
 mented with wooden projections, the wood of which, under 
 the chemical action of the sun's rays, becomes of a deep 
 brown colour — not unlike that of some Indian complexions 
 —and is often beautifully carved by village artists whose 
 only tools are a hammer, a few rude chisels or rusty nails. 
 
 Kaira — the larger and the more important town of the two 
 — is encircled by an old wall, and is still more remarkable for
 
 NATIVE TOWNS. KAIRA. 57 
 
 its beautiful wood carving-s. It has also many loftier and 
 better residences built of sun-baked bricks, some of which, 
 notwithstanding, look as if they would tumble into ruins 
 on very slight provocation. Here and there the walls 
 of the houses have staring" bright paintings representing 
 animals — generally elephants or monkeys, or the grotesque 
 figures of gods, heroes, and men, and not unfrequently well- 
 known characters in the national epics, drawn with about 
 as much artistic skill as might be expected from a Euro- 
 pean village sign-board painter. 
 
 The streets are constructed with some regularitj^, but are 
 broken up at intervals by cattle-sheds. Not a pane of 
 glass is to be seen in any part of the town. In the bazaars 
 or streets of shops, all the houses have open recesses for 
 shops — without the faintest approach to a glass-window — 
 under projecting wooden eaves covered with cocoa-nut 
 leaves or bamboos. In these recesses all kinds of curious 
 indigenous commodities — notably strange sweetmeats and 
 odd compounds of coarse sugar — are exposed for sale by 
 their half-naked owners. Here, too, artisans of an 
 amusingly archaic type ply their occupations almost in 
 the open air, while just as in villages, beasts and birds 
 mix everywhere sociably, and on the best possible terms, 
 with the inhabitants. Here and there sacred bulls are 
 seen roaming at large about the streets, and insinuating 
 themselves into any open door that takes their fancy. 
 Happening to pass through the streets in the morning, 
 I found nearly all the male population cleaning their 
 teeth outside the doors of their houses. 
 
 What struck me most forcibly was the number of 
 temples, small shrines, and sacred trees. In every Eng- 
 lish town — not excepting our ancient city of Oxford ^ — 
 there is a public-house at every corner. Now, if for every 
 public-house were substituted a temple or sacred object 
 of some kind, an idea might be formed of the proportion 
 
 ' I am told that in Oxford we have one {)ublic-house to every 9S persons.
 
 58 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 such objects bear to the other buildings of an ordinary- 
 native town. Of course many of these shrines are struc- 
 tures of a rough and ready character — often merely niches 
 in walls containing perhaps nothing but a shapeless stone- 
 symbol or grotesque idol smeared with vermilion. Often 
 there is no idol at all but a mere daub of red paint on 
 a wall or old tree. But they are all consecrated places 
 notwithstanding, and the offerings of worshippers are 
 always to be found near them. 
 
 At the very entrance to the town of Kaira there is a 
 large temple dedicated to the great hero Rama's monkey- 
 ally Hanuman. It consists of an extensive enclosure 
 surrounded by a Dharma-sala or kind of cloister for the 
 temporary accommodation of travellers. A rude image of 
 the Ape-god smeared with vermilion — the sacred colour 
 common to this god and Ganesa — and surrounded with 
 offerings of oil ^, occupies a central position under the 
 principal shrine in the centre of the enclosure, while the 
 image of the god Rama, Hanuman's master, is placed 
 quite subordinately on one side. 
 
 Between the two is a Dipa-mala or stone column for 
 holding lamps arranged in circles, and lighted up on 
 festival-days. Here also in the same enclosure is an 
 image of Ganesa and the Lingam, or symbol of Siva, and 
 a shrine to Sitala, the goddess of small-pox, sometimes 
 identified with Kali or Durga, Siva's wife. 
 
 If any one inquires into the meaning of this miscellaneous 
 medley of gods collected together in one locality, he is sure 
 to be told that they all represent diflferent manifestations of 
 one and the same Supreme Being. 
 
 In the centre of the town, as at Khatraj, there is a 
 quadrangular stone platform, on which are planted the 
 Pipal tree and the Tulsl shrub — the former sacred to 
 Brahma the Creator, the latter to Vishnu the Preserver — 
 with a space all round for reverential circumambulation. 
 
 ' These, I was told, were the remains of 80 mands of offerings of oil 
 presented to the idol of Hanuman at a recent festival in his honour.
 
 NATIVE TOWNS. KAIRA. 59 
 
 In a neighbouring street is a temple containing an image 
 of Vishnu as Vithoba. This is the form in which he is 
 worshipped at Pandharpur in the Dekhan. The figure of 
 the god is upright. It is quite black, and in a standing 
 attitude with the arms akimbo. I saw that an offering of 
 flowers and food had been recently presented. Incense 
 was burning and two or three lamps were lighted before 
 the image. 
 
 The priest of the shrine was very obliging and ready to 
 answer all my questions, though he declined at first to 
 accede to my request that the door might be opened, giving 
 as his reason that the god was in the act of taking his 
 midday repast, and ought not to be disturbed. 
 
 I visited another small shrine erected to the honour of 
 a Sadhu or holy man, whose name I understood to be 
 Parinama and who has no large number of followers. 
 There was no image, but only an empty seat or throne 
 (gadi). I was asked to take my shoes off before entering 
 the sacred enclosure. In all Asiatic countries a man must 
 uncover his feet, instead of his head, if he wishes to show 
 respect. 
 
 Passing other temples of less importance I emerged on 
 an open piece of ground, where was a small public garden 
 and a building used as a public library well stocked with 
 standard English works. A sacred bull was reposing here 
 close to a picturesque well. Here also was a small shrine 
 erected over the ashes of a Sati, a faithful wife, who had 
 burnt herself on this very spot with the corpse of her 
 husband many years before. It contained nothing but a 
 flat circular stone on which were her supposed footprints. 
 Such shrines are revered as sacred by all sects and parties 
 and are scattered over the whole of India, bearing witness 
 to the former prevalence of a monstrous superstition, now 
 happily abolished ^ 
 
 ' It must not be supposed, however, that the practice was ever universal. 
 Only an infinitesimally small proportion of the wives of India ever became 
 Satis, and whenever a widow had children, her children saved her.
 
 6o MODERN INDIA. 
 
 And what of the twenty thousand inhabitants? The 
 streets are alive with men, women, and children, and the 
 dark recesses of the ground-floor shops are veritable hives. 
 As I walked alono* I was followed by crowds of curious 
 but respectful observers. They behaved with the utmost 
 decorum, and, if they occasionally pressed upon me a little 
 too closely, were all kept in check by two sepoys. 
 
 By far the majority of the natives in Indian towns, 
 even in times 'of plenty and prosperity, look half-fed and 
 attenuated, and the old people quite emaciated. Here and 
 there one is startled by the opposite extreme of abnormal 
 obesity. A really fat Brahman is a very comical and by 
 no means uncommon spectacle. In fact excessive leanness 
 and its opposite may be studied physiologically to great 
 advantage in India. Very few men are oppressed by a 
 superfluity of clothing, while the children, up to six or 
 seven years of age, run about as they came into the world, 
 without a single encumbrance, except perhaps a necklace 
 and a few bangles. 
 
 The picturesque costumes of the better clothed — espe- 
 cially as shown in the graceful folds of their long loose 
 robes, and the variegated colours of their turbans — the 
 glossy skins of nearly nude youthful figures, and their 
 movements and attitudes in walking or standing, would 
 have thrown a true artist into ecstacies of delight and 
 admiration. 
 
 As for the women, those that one sees in public are very 
 seldom good-looking in any part of India; but nothing 
 can equal the grace and charm of their attitudes and 
 bearing when they go down in troops to the wells, carrying 
 earthenware jars, or copper lotas for water on their heads. 
 Their method of carrying their little children astride on 
 their hips is not equally picturesque. 
 
 Their dress, happily for their husbands, is very simple, 
 for no such thing as fashion exists in India. Indeed it 
 may safely be affirmed that there has been no change in 
 the character of an Indian woman's apparel for 3000 years.
 
 ORNAMENTS AND JEWELRY. 6\ 
 
 Their whole costume consists of two articles — a simple 
 bodice fitting close to the chest, and one long cloth wound 
 gracefully round the person, and often brought over the 
 head. In the case of women of the higher classes, who 
 are rarely seen in public except in the Maratha country^ 
 this long robe, which is called a sari, is at least ten yards 
 long and often of very costly material. Nevertheless what 
 the husband gains by the simplicity of his wife's taste in 
 the matter of her two garments, is more than counter- 
 balanced by her penchant for expensive jewelry. 
 
 And here I may observe that notwithstanding the ap- 
 parent poverty of the common people of ludia^ they are 
 rarely poor to the point of discomfort. Thanks to the 
 climate they have few wants, and are very thrifty. How- 
 ever small the weekly earnings, a little money is sure to be 
 saved, and that little is never wasted on strong drinks. 
 Instead, however, of being laid by as it ought to be, in the 
 Post-office Savings Bank, it is generally invested in jewelry 
 for the adornment of the women and children of the family. 
 Certainly, after looking at Indian females, whether old or 
 young — their arms, legs, fingers, and toes covered with 
 bangles and rings, generally made of silver and not seldom 
 of gold — it is difficult to believe in the poverty, much less 
 in the alleged bankruptcy of India. Scarcely a woman of 
 the poorest families is without a nose-ring in one nostril, 
 and many of the better classes have also necklaces and 
 earrings. Sometimes the nasal organ is decorated with 
 a small circlet of five or six pearls set in gold, with an 
 emerald in the centre. I once saw a woman who lived 
 in a mud cottage, and earned 30 rupees a month as nurse. 
 She had a double row of chased gold beads round her neck. 
 Her nose-ring had six fine pearls, but she had not yet 
 saved enough money for the central emerald, which is sure 
 to be procured and duly inserted a few years hence. 
 
 Again when I was at Ahmedabad, I was invited into the 
 house of a man who has a large family, and who has been 
 earning about ^100 a year as a Government servant for 
 
 A 
 
 G,\,S^ '-^-^ -t-^Yl;-
 
 6H MODE J? N INDIA. 
 
 many years. He took mc into a private room, opened 
 a deal box in the corner and displayed the jewels worn 
 by his wife and children on festive occasions. I believe 
 I am under the mark when I say that they might have 
 been sold in Eng-land for at least ^1500. 
 
 So also one has only to go to a railway station when 
 a local train comes in to see an almost incredible amount 
 of jewelry in the third class carriages. Men and women 
 are packed like sheej), the sexes being kept separate, but 
 scarcely a woman, except the very poorest, is without a 
 nose-ring in one nostril^ or an earring in one ear^ or gold 
 or silver ornaments of some kind. 
 
 Again we were one day taken by the Collector of Kaira's 
 wife to a girls' school. My companions were ladies who 
 inspected it closely. They informed me that 0^^ girls were 
 assembled in the class-room awaiting their arrival with 
 six women superintendants. All the girls, however poor, 
 wore ornaments of some sort or other^ and two or three 
 tiny children of three or four years of age^ though wholly 
 unencumbered with clothing, were literally bowed down 
 by the weight of thick bracelets, necklaces, and ankle-rings. 
 A few, only of the poorest, had necklaces and ornaments 
 made of straw. The teachers^ too. Were profusely de- 
 corated, only one poor widow in sombre attire, and 
 undecorated by a single ornament, stood aloof as if 
 apologizing for being present in the room, or indeed for 
 being present in the world at all. 
 
 The children sang a song in melancholy tones, moving 
 round and clapping their hands. Some read and answered 
 questions in Gujarat!. Others showed their needlework 
 and coarse embroidery. 
 
 As to the boys' schools in towns like Mehmoodabad and 
 Kaira, they are often conducted by native schoolmasters 
 in the open air. We passed one consisting of about forty 
 children. The boys were repeating or rather screaming 
 out the multiplication table up to a hundred times a hun- 
 dred with wonderful energy, and kept time together with
 
 BOYS' AND GIRLS' SCHOOLS. 6^ 
 
 such accuracy, that their combined voices made a piercing 
 roar. I found that most of the bigger boys could read 
 books in the Gujarati character with ease and fluency. 
 
 Of course the teaching of girls, whenever any teaching 
 is given at all either at school or at home, cannot be carried 
 on beyond the age of eleven. At that age they all begin 
 domestic duties in their husband's homes. Most of the 
 evils, religious, moral, and physical, under which India is 
 still suffering, are due to early marriages and the ignorance 
 of its female population. In 1872-73 British India had 
 only 5700 girls receiving public education.
 
 SAMADH, SACRIFICE, SELF-IMMOLATION, 
 AND SELF-TORTURE. 
 
 Kaira Districts, 1876, 
 
 A REMARKABLE attempt at achieving- a kind of canon- 
 ization or saintship, by the accomplishment of an apparent 
 Samadh, occurred in the district of Kaira in Gujarat, pre- 
 sided over by Mr. Frederick Sheppard, the energ-etic Col- 
 lector in whose camp I stayed on my first arrival in India. 
 A brief account of the circumstances attending the dis- 
 covery and interruption of the attempt may be acceptable 
 to an increasing class of readers who take an interest in 
 the various phases and peculiarities of Indian religious life. 
 I propose, therefore, to introduce the narrative by a few 
 remarks about sacrifice, immolation, and self-torture, all of 
 which were once common in India. 
 
 In what may be called the Brahmanical period, which 
 succeeded the Vedic period of Hinduism, human sacrifice 
 must have prevailed among the Brahmanical races. This 
 is sufficiently evident from the story of Sunahsepha in the 
 Aitareya-brahmana. It is even believed by many that 
 the sects called Saktas (or Tantrikas) formerly ate portions 
 of the flesh and drank the blood of the victims sacrificed at 
 their secret orgies. Among the wild Hill tribes and pri- 
 mitive races of India, the chief idea of religion has been 
 the necessity of appeasing the malice of malignant beings 
 by oblations of blood, and on occasions of great emergency 
 by the outpouring of human blood. Their gods thirsted 
 for blood and preferred that of men, while that of children
 
 KANDHS OR KONDHS. 6^ 
 
 was an irresistible delicacy certain to put them in the best 
 of humours. 
 
 Very little more than thirty years has elapsed since 
 the suppression of human sacrifices among- the Kandhs 
 (often written Kondhs or Khonds), an aboriginal tribe of 
 Orissa. Their terrible Earth-god was supposed to send 
 famines and pestilences unless propitiated by blood. Ac- 
 cording- to Dr. Hunter (Statistics of Bengal, xix. 235) ' the 
 victims were of either sex, and generally of tender age. 
 The detestable office of providing them formed a hereditary 
 privilege of the Pans, one of the alien low castes attached 
 to the Kandh villages. Procurers of this class yearly 
 sallied forth into the plains, and bought up a herd of 
 promising boys and girls from the poorer Hindus. Some- 
 times they kidnapped their prey ; and each Kandh district 
 kept a stock of victims in reserve, " to meet sudden de- 
 mands for atonement." Brahmans and Kandhs were the 
 only races whose purity exempted them from sacrifice, and 
 a rule came down from remote antiquity that the victim 
 7misf be hought with a price. 
 
 ' After a village had purchased a victim, it treated him 
 with much kindness, regarding him as a consecrated being, 
 eagerly welcomed at every threshold. If a child, he en- 
 joyed perfect liberty ; but if an adult, the chief of the 
 village kept him in his own house, and fed him well, but 
 fettered him so that he could not escape^. When the 
 time of atonement had come, the Kandhs spent two days 
 in feasting and riot ; on the third they offered up the 
 victim, shouting as the first blood fell to the ground. " We 
 bought you with a price ; no sin rests with us." ' 
 
 Our Government, by Act XXI of 1845, entirely sup- 
 pressed these horrible sacrifices, and established a special 
 agency for enforcing obedience to the order for their 
 abolition. Human sacrifices were offered in the city of 
 Saugor during the whole of the Maratha Government 
 
 ^ A similar practice of feeding, fiittening, and petting consecrated human 
 victims prevailed, I believe, in Mexico. 
 
 F
 
 66 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 up to the year 1800, when they were put a stop to hy 
 the local native Governor, a very humane man. 
 
 ' I once heard,' writes Colonel Sleeman, ' a very learned 
 Brahman priest say that he thoug-ht the decline of the 
 Governor's family arose from this innovation. " There 
 is,'' said he, " no sin in not offering human sacrifices to 
 the g-ods where none have ever been offered ; but where 
 the g-ods have been accustomed to them, they are very 
 naturally annoyed when the rite is abolished, and visit 
 the place and people with all kinds of calamities." ' 
 
 Human sacrifices, however, were probably rare among 
 the purely Aryan races, while the sacrifice of animals be- 
 came universal. The first idea of sacrifice of any kind — 
 whether of grain, fruits, or animals — seems to have been 
 that of supplying the deities with nourishment. Gods 
 and men all feasted together. Then succeeded the notion 
 of the need of vicarious suffering, or life for life, blood for 
 blood. Some deities were believed to thirst for human 
 blood, and the blood of animals was substituted for that 
 of men. One of the effects of Buddhism was to cause a 
 rapid diminution of animal sacrifice. It is now rarely 
 seen, except at the altars of the fierce goddess of de- 
 struction (Kali), or of forms and near relations of Kali 
 (such as the Grdma-devatds, ' village deities,' and Mdtds, 
 ' village mothers,') and at the altars of the tutelary deity 
 Ayenar, and at devil-shrines in the South. I myself 
 saw very few animals sacrificed even to the bloody god- 
 desses, though I took pains to visit them on the proper 
 days. 
 
 Other forms of immolation were once common in India. 
 The Thugs (properly written Thags) maintained that they 
 sacrificed their victims to the goddess Kali. 
 
 Now that Thuggism has been suppressed by us, a good 
 deal of datura-poisoning is practised by the same class 
 of people. Not long ago, an old man and his son were 
 poisoned by a gang of these poisoners for the sake of a 
 new blanket which the old man had purchased and im-
 
 THUGGISM. JAGAN-NATH. 67 
 
 prudently hung on a tree near his hut. The gang ap- 
 peared to be travellers, and effected their object by- 
 making friends with him, cooking their dinner near him, 
 and giving him a portion previously poisoned for his 
 own use. 
 
 The killing of female infants once prevailed extensively 
 in the Panjab and Rajputana, owing to the difficulty of 
 providing daughters with suitable husbands and the im- 
 mense expenses entailed by nuptial festivities. Through 
 our instrumentality the practice has now been discon- 
 tinued, or if rare cases of female infanticide occur, they 
 are perpetrated with great secrecy. 
 
 Again, in former days, self-immolation was common. 
 Many fanatical pilgrims, while labouring under violent 
 excitement amounting to religious frenzy, immolated them- 
 selves at the festivals of the God Siva (the proper god of 
 destruction), and even at the great car-festivals {ratha- 
 ydtra) of the god Vishnu, voluntarily throwing them- 
 selves under the enormous wheels not only of the car of 
 Jagan-nath (Krishna or Vishnu, as ' lord and preserver 
 of the world'), at Puri in Orissa, but of other similar 
 idol-cars also. 
 
 I found such ears attached to every large Vishnu pagoda 
 in the South of India. They are supposed to typify the 
 moving active world over which the god presides, and 
 the friezes of grotesque sculptures, one under the other, 
 with which they are covered, exhibit the world's good 
 and bad, pure and impure characters in disgustingly in- 
 congruous juxtaposition. Some of them are so large and 
 heavy that they require to be supported on sixteen wheels, 
 and on a particular day, once a year, they are drawn 
 through the streets by thousands of people. Every now 
 and then persons are crushed under the wheels ; for a 
 rather unexpected consequence of our civilisation has been 
 to increase religious gatherings among the natives by 
 creating facilities of communication, and the best govern- 
 ment cannot always prevent accidents. 
 
 r 2
 
 68 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Indeed, if the Orissa devotees are true to their own 
 creed, ' accidental death ' ought to be the formal verdict 
 in every case of seeming" suicide at Purl. For nothing, in 
 fact^ is more abhorrent to the principles of all Vishna- 
 worship than the infliction of any kind of death on the 
 most insignificant animal, and to die by one's own hand 
 is a form of destruction to be shrunk from by a true 
 Vaishnava with the most intense religious horror. 
 
 The Jagan-nath festival, writes Dr. W. W. Hunter, in 
 the 19th volume of his Statistical Account of Bengal 
 (p. 59) ^, ' takes place according as the Hindu months fall, 
 in June or July, and for weeks beforehand pilgrims come 
 trooping into Purl by thousands every day. The whole 
 district is in a ferment. The great car is forty-five feet 
 in height. This vast structure is supported on sixteen 
 wheels of seven feet diameter, and is thirty-five feet square. 
 The brother and sister of Jagan-nath have separate cars 
 a few feet smaller. When the sacred images are at length 
 brought forth and placed upon their chariots, thousands 
 fall on their knees and bow their foreheads in the dust. 
 The vast multitude shouts with one throat, and, surging 
 backwards and forwards, drags the wheeled edifices down 
 the broad street towards the country-house of the world^s 
 lord (Jagan-nath), Music strikes up before and behind, 
 drums beat, cymbals clash, the priests harangue from the 
 cars, or shout a sort of fescennine medley, enlivened with 
 broad allusions and coarse gestures, which are received 
 with roars of laughter from the crowd. And so the dense 
 mass struggles forward by convulsive jerks, tugging and 
 sweating, shouting and jumping, singing and praying. 
 The distance from the temple to the country-house is less 
 than a mile ; but the wheels sink deep into the sand, 
 and the journey takes several days. After hours of severe 
 toil and wild excitement in the July tropical sun, a re- 
 action necessarily follows. The zeal of the pilgrims flags 
 before the garden-house is reached ; and the cars, deserted 
 
 ' In twenty volumes, just published by Messrs. Triibner and Co.
 
 JAGAN-NATH. 69 
 
 by the devotees^ are dragged along by the professional 
 pullers with deep-drawn grunts and groans. These men, 
 4200 in number, are peasants from the neighbouring 
 Fiscal Divisions, who generally manage to live at free 
 quarters in Puri during the festival. 
 
 ' Once arrived at the country-house, the enthusiasm 
 subsides. The pilgrims drop exhausted upon the burning 
 sand of the sacred street, or block up the lanes with their 
 prostrate bodies. When they have slept off their excite- 
 ment, they rise refreshed and ready for another of the 
 strong religious stimulants of the season. The world's 
 lord is left to get back to his temple as best he can ; and 
 in the quaint words of a writer half a century ago, but 
 for the professional car -pullers, the god ''would infallibly 
 stick" at his country-house. 
 
 ' In a closely-packed eager throng of a hundred thousand 
 men and women, many of them unaccustomed to exposure 
 or hard labour, and all of them tugging and straining to 
 the utmost under the blazing tropical sun, deaths must 
 occasionally occur. There have, doubtless, been instances 
 of pilgrims throwing themselves under the wheels in a 
 frenzy of religious excitement ; but such instances have 
 always been rare, and are now unknown. At one time 
 several unhappy people were killed or injured every year, 
 but they were almost invariably cases of accidental tramp- 
 ling. The few suicides that did occur were, for the most 
 part, cases of diseased and miserable objects, who took this 
 means to put themselves out of pain. The official returns 
 now place this beyond doubt. Nothing, indeed, could be 
 more opposed to the spirit of Vishnu-worship than self- 
 immolation. Accidental death within the temple renders 
 the whole place unclean. The ritual suddenly stops, and 
 the polluted offerings are hurried away from the sight of 
 the offended god. According to Caitanya, the apostle of 
 Jagan-nath, the destruction of the least of God's creatures 
 is a sin against the Creator. Self-immolation he would 
 have regarded with horror.'
 
 70 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Self-immolation, in other ways, was once extensively 
 prevalent. Arrian, it is well known, describes how, in 
 the time of Alexander the Great, a man named Kalanos 
 — one of a sect of Indian wise men who went naked — 
 burned himself upon a pile. This description is like 
 that of the self-cremation of the ascetic Sarabhanga in 
 Ramayana, iii. 9. Cicero alludes to it in a celebrated 
 passag-e : ' Est profecto quiddam etiam in barbaris gen- 
 tibus praesentiens atque divinans : siquidem ad mortem 
 proficiscens Calanus Indus, cum adscenderet in rogum 
 ardentem; O praeclarum discessum, inquit, e vita.' (De 
 Divin. i. 23.) 
 
 There are some sand-hills in the Satpura rang-e dedi- 
 cated to Mahadeva — supposed, as Mahakala, to preside over 
 destruction. From a rock on these hills many youths have 
 precipitated themselves, because their mothers, being child- 
 less, have dedicated their first-born sons to the god. 
 
 According to Col. Sleeman, ' when a woman is without 
 children, she makes votive offerings to all the gods who 
 can, she thinks, assist her ; and promises of still greater 
 offerings in case they should grant what she wants. 
 Smaller promises being found of no avail, she at last 
 promises her first-born, if a male, to the god of de- 
 struction, Mahadeva (Siva). If she gets a son, she con- 
 ceals from him her vow till he has attained the age of 
 puberty ; she then communicates it to him, and enjoins 
 him to fulfil it. He believes it to be his paramount 
 duty to obey his mother's call ; and from that moment 
 considers himself as devoted to the god. Without breath- 
 ing to any living soul a syllable of what she has told 
 him, he puts on the habit of a pilgrim or religious men- 
 dicant, visits all the celebrated temples dedicated to this 
 god in different parts of India ; and at the annual fair 
 on the Mahadeva hills, throws himself from a perpen- 
 dicular height of four or five hundred feet, and is dashed 
 to pieces on the rocks below. If the youth does not 
 feel himself quite prepared for the sacrifice on the first
 
 BHRIGU-PATA. SATI. 7I 
 
 visit, he spends another year in pilgrimages, and returns 
 to fulfil his mother's vow at the next fair. Some have, 
 I believe, been known to postpone the sacrifice to a third 
 fair; but the interval is always spent in painful pilgrim- 
 ages to the celebrated temples of the god \' 
 
 This mode of suicide is called Bhrigu-pata, ' throwing 
 one's-self from a precipice.' It was once equally common 
 at the rock of Girnar, in Kathiawar, and has only recently 
 been prohibited. 
 
 We have made great efforts to put a stop to these 
 horrors by doing away with the fair. On one occasion 
 our efforts were assisted by the cholera, which broke out 
 among the multitude. This visitation was considered by 
 the people as an intimation on the part of the god that 
 they ought to have been more attentive to the wishes of 
 the ^vhlte men. It is noteworthy that Mahadeva is the 
 only Hindu god represented of a fair colour — probably 
 from his connection with the Snowy Mountains. 
 
 With regard to the immolation of the faithful wife, 
 commonly called Sutee ( = Sanskrit SaU) who followed her 
 husband in death, and burned herself on his funeral pile, 
 everywhere in India I saw, scattered about in various 
 places, monuments erected over the ashes of Satis, and 
 everywhere such monuments (often enshrining the sup- 
 posed footprints of the faithful wife) are still regarded 
 with the greatest veneration by the people. 
 
 Sometimes the poor women in their horror of burning 
 have submitted to the alternative of being buried alive 
 with their husbands. The practice of SatI was for a 
 long period thought to be so intimately connected with 
 the religious belief of the Hindus, that our Government 
 did not venture to put a stop to it. It was known to 
 be enjoined in certain comparatively modern Indian codes, 
 and for some time it was not discovered that the fanatical 
 Brahmans, to obtain the requisite authority for insisting 
 on the continual observance of the rite, had permitted the 
 
 * Sleeman's 'Rambles and Recollections,' p. 133.
 
 7a MODERN INDIA. 
 
 fraudulent substitution of the words agneh^ ' of fire/ for 
 agre, ' first/ at the end of the Rig-veda text (X. 18. 7), 
 thus translatable : ' without tears, without sorrow, be- 
 decked with jewels, let the wives go up to the altar 
 first: 
 
 Our Government prohibited the burning- of any widow 
 except under strict regulations, and except with her own 
 full consent ; but, in consequence of our half-sanction, the 
 number of widows actually returned as burnt in Bengal 
 rose in one year to 839, while in other years the average 
 was 500. In Lord Amherst's time the seven European 
 functionaries in charge- of the seven newly- acquired dis- 
 tricts, one and all declared against the abolition of widow- 
 burning, and such great authorities as Colebrooke and 
 H. H. Wilson were against interference. Yet under Lord 
 William Bentinck's administration a law was passed in 
 1829 (Reg. XVII) which suppressed the practice with 
 entire success, and without difficulty or disturbance of any 
 kind, notwithstanding all the bigotry, fanaticism, and pre- 
 judice brought to bear in opposition to the measure. 
 
 We have also prevented the burying alive of lepers, and 
 others afflicted with incurable diseases, which was once 
 universally prevalent in the Panjab, and common in some 
 other parts of India. 
 
 Of course leprosy in India, as in other Eastern countries, 
 is a kind of living death. Lepers are excluded from 
 society, and can find no employment. They often gave 
 themselves up of their own accord to be buried alive, the 
 motive simply being a desire to be released from physical 
 suffering. 
 
 This burying one's self alive is called performing Sa- 
 madh ( = Sanskrit Samddhi). The word properly means 
 intense concentration of the thoughts on some holy object, 
 or a temporary suspension of all connexion between soul 
 and body by religious abstraction. 
 
 The tomb of a Sannyasi, or holy Brahman, who has 
 given up all worldly connexions and abandoned caste-
 
 BURYING ALIVE AND DROWNING. 'JT, 
 
 obligations, is also called a Samadh [ = Samdflhi). A holy 
 man of this kind is never burnt, but buried ; and his 
 entombed body is supposed to lie for centuries in the 
 Samadh trance. Such tombs are often great places 
 of pilgrimage, resorted to by thousands from all parts 
 of India. 
 
 Colonel Sleeman (in his ' Rambles and KecoUections,' 
 p. 345) describes how he once knew a very respectable 
 Hindu gentleman who came to the river Narbada, at- 
 tended by a large retinue, to perform a kind of water 
 Samadh, in consequence of an incurable disease under 
 which he laboured. After taking leave of his family, 
 he entered a boat, which conveyed him to the deepest 
 part of the river. He then loaded himself with sand, 
 and, stepping into the water, disappeared. 
 
 Self-immolation by drowning was once very common 
 at Benares. Bishop Heber describes how many scores of 
 pilgrims from all parts of India came to Benares every 
 year expressly to end their days and secure their salva- 
 tion. They purchased two large pots, between which 
 they tied themselves. Thus equipped they paddled into 
 the stream, the empty pots supporting their weight. 
 Then they proceeded to fill the pots with the water 
 which surrounded them, and in this manner sank into 
 eternity. The British Government in the Bishop's time 
 had not succeeded in suppressing the practice. Indeed, 
 when a man has travelled several hundred miles to drown 
 himself, it is never very likely that a police-officer will 
 be able to prevent him. 
 
 I now come to the remarkable fact that two attempts 
 at Samadh have occurred in the Collector of Kaira^'s dis- 
 trict quite recently. A certain devotee announced his 
 intention of adopting this extraordinary method of se- 
 curing perfect abstraction and beatitude, and was actually 
 buried alive in the neighbourhood of a village. His friends 
 were detected by the villagers in pouring milk down a 
 hollow bamboo, which had been arranged to supply the
 
 74 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 buried man with air and food. The bamboo was removed, 
 and tlie interred man was found dead when his friends 
 opened the g-rave shortly afterwards. 
 
 The other attempt is still more recent, and I here give 
 Mr. Sheppard's own account of it almost in his own 
 words : ' As I was shooting near my camp one evening, 
 a mounted orderly came up with the news that a Bhat 
 had performed Samadh that afternoon in a neighbouring 
 village, and that there was much consequent excitement 
 there. Not having a horse with me, I directed the or- 
 derly to ride oiF to the village (picking up my police 
 escort as he passed through my camp), to dig up the 
 buried man, and to take into custody any persons who 
 might endeavour to oppose the execution of my orders. 
 
 ' On returning to my camp, I ordered the apprehension 
 of all those who had assisted in the Samadh ; and soon 
 afterwards received a report that the man had been actually 
 buried in a vault in his own house, but had been taken 
 out alive. He was, however, very weak, and died the 
 following morning. It was then reported to me that the 
 limbs, though cold, had not stiffened ; and the people, 
 ready as of old to be deceived, and always inclined to 
 attribute the smallest departure from the ordinary course 
 of events to supernatural agency, declared that the Bhat 
 was not dead, but lying in the Samadh trance. There 
 was, however, no pulse ; and as it was clear that, even 
 if the supposition of the villagers was correct, medical 
 treatment would be desirable, I sent the body in a cart 
 to the nearest dispensary, distant some six or seven miles, 
 and in due time received a certificate of death from the 
 hospital assistant in charge of that institution, together 
 with a report of a post-mortem examination of the body, 
 which showed that death had resulted from heart-disease. 
 
 ' Meanwhile I visited the village and ascertained the 
 following facts : — 
 
 ' The deceased was a man in fairly comfortable circum- 
 stances, and with some religious pretensions. It was well
 
 SAMADH. 75 
 
 known that he aspired to a still hig-her reputation for 
 sanctity, and that with this view he had for several 
 months been contemplating' Samadh. The proper date 
 for this rite had been finally settled after many solemn 
 ceremonies, and the due observance of fasting-, prayer, 
 and charity. 
 
 ' On the afternoon fixed for the Samadh he assembled 
 the villagers, and told them that it had been imparted to 
 him in a vision that the Deity required him to pass six 
 weeks in religious abstraction, and that he felt compelled 
 to obey the Divine command, and to remain in the vault 
 prepared for him during* that period. He then produced 
 and worshipped a small earthen vessel containing" the 
 sacred Tulsl plant, and afterwards carefully planted therein 
 twenty grains of barley, telling the villagers to watch for 
 their growth, as it had been revealed to him that the 
 grains represented his life. If, at the end of the six 
 weeks, the grains had sprouted, the villagers were to 
 understand that the Bhat was still alive. He was then 
 to be removed from the vault, and worshipped as a saint. 
 If, on the other hand, germination had not taken place, 
 they were to understand that the Bhat was dead also, and 
 the vault was in that case to be permanently bricked up, 
 and the Tulsi planted over the grave. 
 
 ' After giving these directions, the devotee recited some 
 Mantras and entered the vault, bidding farewell to the 
 world, and declaring his belief that his life would be 
 miraculously preserved. The vault was then roofed over 
 with boards, and plastered thickly with mud. About 
 two hours after this event, he was removed from the 
 vault by the police under my orders, and placed in the 
 verandah, the house itself being locked up, 
 
 ' After ascertaining the above particulars, I caused the 
 house to be opened, and then discovered that a gross 
 attempt at imposture had been practised. The grave was 
 about three feet deep, being a hole dug in the fioor of the 
 inner room of the house. The wall of the room formed
 
 76 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 one side of the vault. The roof over the latter was a 
 clumsy structure, and had been partly demolished to allow 
 of the removal of the devotee. As usual in India, the 
 only light admitted to the room was through the door, 
 and the unsubstantial nature of the roof was not likely 
 to attract the attention of the villagers. But I satisfied 
 myself that the occupant of the vault might, with great 
 ease^ have demolished the covering which was supposed 
 to shut him off from the world. 
 
 'The vault itself was of course dark. I entered it in 
 order to ascertain how much space had been allotted to 
 the occupant. I found therein the rosary of the deceased, 
 and the chaplet of flowers which he had worn before his 
 self-immolation. There was sufficient room for me to sit 
 in tolerable comfort. On one side of the vault I felt a 
 small wooden plank apparently let into the wall, and on 
 obtaining a light I found that a trap-door about a foot 
 square had been ingeniously contrived to communicate 
 with the other room of the house. The trap-door was so 
 hung as to open inwards towards the vault, at the pleasure 
 of the inmate. On going into the outer room, into which 
 communication had thus been opened, I found that a row 
 of the large earthen jars, which Horace would have called 
 amjjhorce, and which are used in India to store grain, had 
 been arranged against the wall. The trap-door into the 
 vault was efiectually concealed by them, and the supply 
 of air, food, and water to the impostor within thus cleverly 
 provided for. The arrangement was neatly contrived, and 
 was not likely to have attracted suspicion. Had the Bhat 
 been a strong man, and in good health, he might, without 
 any danger to life, and with only a minimum of discomfort, 
 have emerged triumphantly after his six weeks' Samadh, 
 and have earned a wide reputation. But the excitement 
 and fasting were too much for him.' 
 
 As to the practice of self-torture this cannot be entirely 
 prevented by our Government, but is rapidly dying out. 
 Formerly it was possible for devotees, — with the object
 
 samAdh. self-torture. 77 
 
 of exciting admiration or extorting- alms, or under the 
 delusion that their self-torture was an act of religious 
 merit, — to swing in the air attached to a lofty pole by 
 means of a rope and hook passed through the muscles 
 of the back. Such self-inflicted mutilation is now pro- 
 hibited. 
 
 Yet, even in the present day, to acquire a reputation for 
 sanctity, or to receive homage and offerings from the 
 multitude, or under the idea of accumulating a store of 
 merit, all sorts of bodily sufferings, penances, and austeri- 
 ties, even to virtual suicide, are undergone — the latter 
 being sometimes actually perpetrated out of mere revenge, 
 as its consequences are supposed to fall on the enemy 
 whose action has driven the deceased to self-immolation. 
 
 Three Brahmans in a native State, who had their 
 daughters forced from them by Muhammadans beyond 
 the reach of justice, complained to the governor of the 
 province ; but finding no redress, they all swallowed poison 
 and died at the door of his tent. 
 
 The practice of sitting in Dharna was once common, 
 but was made punishable by Reg. VII. 1820. It was 
 thus performed: — A person who wished to compel pay- 
 ment of a debt due to him, sat at the door of a debtor's 
 house and observed a strict fast. If he died from want 
 of food, the consequences of his death were supposed to 
 fall on the debtor, and if the person sitting was a Brah- 
 man, the terrible guilt of Brahmanicide was believed to 
 be incurred. 
 
 I saw a man not long since at Allahabad, who has sat 
 in one position for fifty years on a stone pedestal exposed 
 to sun, wind, and rain. He never moves excej)t once 
 a day, when his attendants lead him to the Ganges. He 
 is an object of worship to thousands, and even high-caste 
 Brahmans pay him homage. 
 
 I saw two tJrdhva-bahus — one at Gaya and the other 
 at Benares — that is, devotees who hold their arms with 
 clenched fists above their heads for years, until they be-
 
 78 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 come shrivelled and the finger-nails penetrate througli 
 the back of the hands. 
 
 Another man was prostrating" himself and measuring 
 every inch of the ground with his body round the hill 
 of Govardhan when I passed. He probably intended con- 
 tinuing the painful process till he had completed a circuit 
 of twenty miles one hundred and eight times. 
 
 In most of the cases I have described, the laudable 
 humanity of our Government in endeavouring to preserve 
 human life has given rise to fresh evils and difficulties. 
 
 In the first place, population is increasing upon us in 
 a degree which threatens to become wholly unmanageable. 
 Then widows never marry again ; not even if their boy- 
 husbands die, leaving them widows at the age of six. 
 A woman is supposed to be sacramentally united to one 
 husband, and belongs to him for ever. Every town, every 
 village^ almost every house, is full of widows who are 
 debarred from all amusements, and, if childless, converted 
 into household drudges. They often lead bad lives. Their 
 life, like that of the lepers, is a kind of living death, and 
 they would often cheerfully give themselves up to be 
 burned alive if the law would let them. The spirit of 
 Sati still survives. 
 
 Only the other day in Nepal, where our supremacy is 
 barely recognized, the widows of Sir Jung Bahadur became 
 Satis, and burned themselves with their husband. 
 
 Then, again, the increase in the number of girls who 
 cannot find suitable husbands is now causing much em- 
 barrassment in some districts. Even the lepers, whose 
 lives we preserve, involve us in peculiar difficulties. These 
 unfortunate creatures often roam about the country, ex- 
 acting food from the people by threatening to touch their 
 children. Here and there we have built leper-villages — 
 rows of cottages under trees devoted to their use ; and we 
 make the towns contribute from local funds to support 
 them, while charity ekes out the miserable pittance they 
 receive.
 
 FRESH EVILS FROM OUR PHILANTHROPY. 79 
 
 Yet notwithstanding- all the fresh evils which our phil- 
 anthropic efforts have introduced into the country, no 
 one will, I think, dispute my assertion when I maintain 
 that the suppression of Samadhs, human sacrifices, self- 
 immolations, and self-tortures are among" the g-reatest 
 blessings which India has hitherto received from her 
 English rulers.
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE, AND THE 
 PARSI RELIGION. 
 
 The Parsis are descendants of the ancient Persians who 
 were expelled from Persia by the Muhammadan conquerors, 
 and who first settled at Surat between eleven and twelve 
 hundred years ago. According- to the last census they do 
 not number more than 70,000 souls, of whom about 50,000 
 are found in the city of Bombay, the remaining ao,ooo in 
 different parts of India, but chiefly in Gujarat and the 
 Bombay Presidency. Though a mere drop in the ocean 
 of 241 million inhabitants, they form a most important 
 and influential body of men, emulating Europeans in energy 
 and enterprize, rivalling them in opulence, and imitating 
 them in many of their habits. Their vernacular language 
 is Gujarati, but nearly every adult speaks English with 
 fluency, and English is now taught in all their schools. 
 Their Benevolent Institution for the education of at least 
 1,000 boys and girls is in a noble building, and is a model 
 of good management. Their religion, as delivered in its 
 original purity by their prophet Zoroaster, and as pro- 
 pounded in the Zand-Avasta, is monotheistic, or, perhaps, 
 rather pantheistic, in spite of its philosophical dualism, 
 and in spite of the apparent worship of fire and the ele- 
 ments, regarded as visible representations of the Deity. 
 Its morality is summed up in three precepts of two words 
 each — 'good thoughts,'' ^ good words,' 'good deeds;' of 
 which the Parsi is constantly reminded by the triple coil 
 of his white cotton girdle. In its origin the Parsi system 
 is closely allied to that of the Hindu Aryans — as repre-
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 8 1 
 
 sented in the Veda — and has much in common with the 
 more recent Brahmanism. Neither religion can make 
 proselytes. 
 
 A man must be born a Brahman or ParsI ; no power can 
 convert him into either one or the other. One notable pe- 
 culiarity, however, disting-uishes Parsiism. Nothing similar 
 to its funeral rites prevails among other nations ; though 
 the practice of exposing bodies on the tops of rocks is said 
 to prevail among the Buddhists of Bhotan. 
 
 And truly among the interesting contrasts which every- 
 where meet the eye of an observant European traveller, 
 when he first arrives at Bombay, may especially be noted 
 the different methods adopted by the adherents of different 
 creeds for the disposal of their dead. 
 
 There in Bombay one may see, within a short distance 
 of each other, the Christian cemetery, the Muhammadan 
 graveyard, the Hindu burning-ground, and the ParsI 
 Dakhmas, or Towers of Silence. These latter are erected 
 in a garden, on the highest point of Malabar Hill — a 
 beautiful rising ground on the north side of Back Bay, 
 noted for the bungalows and compounds of the European 
 and wealthier inhabitants of Bombay scattered in every 
 direction over its surface. 
 
 The garden is approached by a well-constructed private 
 road, all access to which, except to Parsis, is barred by 
 strong iron gates. I obtained leave to visit the Towers 
 on two different occasions, and thanks to the omnipotent 
 Sir Jamsetjee, no obstacles impeded my advance. Each 
 time I made my appearance before the massive gates they 
 flew open before me as if by magic. I drove rapidly 
 through a park-like enclosure^ and found the courteous 
 Secretary of the Pjlrsl Panchayat, Mr. Nasarwanjee By- 
 ramjee, awaiting my arrival at the entrance to the garden. 
 On the occasion of my first visit he took me at once tio 
 the highest point in the consecrated ground, and we stood 
 together on the terrace of the largest of the three Sdyus, 
 or Houses of Prayer, which overlook the five Towers of 
 
 G
 
 Sz MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Silence. These Sagris are indispensable adjuncts to all 
 Pars! burial-towers in large towns such as Bombay, Surat, 
 and Poona, but are not found attached to them in less 
 important localities. They are not only places of prayer, 
 they are sanctuaries for the sacred fire, which, when once 
 kindled and consecrated by solemn ceremonial, is fed day 
 and night with incense and fragrant sandal by a priest 
 appointed for the purpose, and never extinguished. It 
 is noteworthy that the wall of the Bombay Sag-ri has 
 an aperture or apertures, so arranged that the light 
 streaming from the sacred fire, or from a consecrated oil- 
 lamp, kept burning throughout the night, may pass 
 through similar apertures in the parapets of the towers, 
 and fall on the bodies lying in the interior. The view 
 we enjoyed when standing near the principal Sagrl can 
 scarcely be surpassed by any in the world. Beneath us 
 lay the city of Bombay, partially hidden by cocoanut 
 groves, with its beautiful bay and harbour glittering in 
 the brilliant December light. Beyond stretched the mag- 
 nificent ranges of the ghauts, while immediately around 
 us extended a garden, such as can only be seen in tropical 
 countries. No English nobleman's garden could be better 
 kept, and no pen could do justice to the glories of its 
 flowering shrubs, cypresses, and palms. It seemed the 
 very ideal, not only of a place of sacred silence, but of 
 peaceful rest. 
 
 But what are those five circular structnres which appear 
 at intervals rising mysteriously out of the foliage ? They 
 are masses of solid masonry, massive enough to last for 
 centuries, built of the hardest black granite, and covered 
 with white chunam, the purity and smoothness of which 
 are disfigured by patches of black fungus-like incrusta- 
 tions. Towers they scarcely deserve to be called ; for 
 the height of each is quite out of proportion to its 
 diameter. The largest of the five may be described as 
 an upright cylindrical stone structure, in shape and so- 
 lidity not unlike a gigantic millstone, about fourteen
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 83 
 
 feet high and ninety feet in diameter, resting on the 
 ground in the midst of the garden. It is built of solid 
 granite, except in the centre, where a well, ten feet deep 
 and about fifteen across, leads down to an excavation 
 under the masonry, containing four drains at right angles 
 to each other, terminated by holes filled with sand, or 
 in some cases, with charcoal. Round the upper and 
 outer edge of this circular structure, and completely 
 hiding its upper surface from view, is a high stone 
 parapet. This is constructed so as to seem to form one 
 piece with the solid stone-work, and being, like it, covered 
 with chunam, gives the whole erection, when viewed from 
 the outside, the appearance of a low Tower. Clearly, 
 one great object aimed at by the Parsis in the construc- 
 tion of these strange depositories of their dead is solidity. 
 We saw two or three enormous massive stones lying on 
 the ground, which had been rejected by the builders 
 simply because they contained almost invisible veins of 
 quartz, through which it was possible that impure par- 
 ticles might find their way, and be carried, in the course 
 of centuries, by percolating moisture, into the soil. Earth, 
 water, and fire are, according to Zoroaster, sacred symbols 
 of the wisdom, goodness, and omnipotence of the Deity, 
 and ought never, under any circumstances, to be defiled. 
 Especially ought every effort to be made to protect Mother 
 Earth from the pollution which would result if putrifying 
 corpses were allowed to accumulate in the ground [Tan- 
 diddd iii. 27). Hence the disciples of Zoroaster spare 
 neither trouble nor expense in erecting solid and im- 
 penetrable stone platforms fourteen feet thick for the re- 
 ception of their dead. The cost of erection is greatly 
 increased by the circumstance that the Towers ought 
 always to be placed on high hills, or in the highest 
 situations available {Va7id. vi. 93). I was informed by 
 the Secretary that the largest of the five Towers was 
 constructed at an outlay of three lakhs (300,000) of 
 rupees. 
 
 G 2
 
 84 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 The oldest and smallest of the five was Imilt 200 years 
 ago, when the Parsis first settled in Bombay, and is now 
 only used by the Modi family, whose forefathers built it ; 
 and here the bones of many kindred generations are com- 
 mingled. The next oldest was erected in 1756, and the 
 other three during the succeeding century. A sixth Tower 
 stands quite apart from the others. It is square in shape, 
 and only used for persons who have suffered death for 
 heinous crimes. The bones of convicted criminals are 
 never allowed to mingle with those of the rest of the 
 community. 
 
 But the strang'est feature in these strange, unsightly 
 structures, so incongruously intermixed with graceful cy- 
 presses and palms, exquisite shrubs, and gorgeous flowers, 
 remains to be described. Though wholly destitute of orna- 
 ment, and even of the simplest moulding, the parapet of 
 each Tower possesses an extraordinary coping, which in- 
 stantly attracts and fascinates the gaze. It is a coping 
 formed, not of dead stone, but of living vultures. These 
 birds, on the occasion of my visit, had settled themselves 
 side by side in perfect order, and in a complete circle 
 around the parapets of the Towers, with their heads 
 pointed inwards, and so lazily did they sit there and so 
 motionless was their whole mien that, except for their 
 colour, they might have been carved out of the stone-work. 
 
 And now as to the interior of the Towers, the upper 
 surface of the massive granite column is divided into com- 
 partments by narrow grooved ridges of stone, radiating 
 like the spokes of a wheel from the central well. These 
 stone ridges form the sides of seventy-two shallow open 
 receptacles or coffins, arranged in three concentric rings, 
 the last of the three encircling the central well\ The 
 
 * I hear from Mr. Cursetjee Eustamjee Cama (who is a great authority 
 an all points connected with his own religion) that all the Dakhmas have 
 not seventy-two receptacles. Smaller towers have fewer receptacles. The 
 number is not a fixed one, but depends on the needs of the place where a 
 Dakhma is erected.
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 85 
 
 ridges are grooved — that is, they have narrow channels 
 running down their whole length, which channels are 
 connected by side ducts with the open coffins, so as to 
 convey all moisture to the central well, and into the 
 lower drains. The number three is emblematical of Zo- 
 roaster's three moral precepts, ' Good thoughts, good words, 
 and good deeds' [Vand. v. 67), and the seventy-two open 
 stone receptacles represent the seventy-two chapters of his 
 Yasna, a portion of the Zand-Avasta. 
 
 Each concentric circle of open stone coffins has a path- 
 way surrounding it, the object of which is to make each 
 receptacle accessible to the corpse-bearers. Hence there 
 are three concentric circular pathways^ the outermost of 
 which is immediately below the parapet, and these three 
 pathways are crossed by another conducting from the 
 solitary door which admits the corpse-bearers from the 
 exterior, and which must face the east, to catch the rays 
 of the rising sun. In the outermost circle of stone 
 coffins, which stands for 'good deeds,' are placed the bodies 
 of males ; in the middle, symbolizing ' good words/ those 
 of females ; in the inner and smallest circle, nearest the 
 well, representing ' good thoughts,' those of children. 
 Each tower is consecrated with solemn religious cere- 
 monies, and after its consecration no one, except the 
 corpse- bearers — not even a high -priest — is allowed to 
 enter, or to approach within thirty feet of the immediate 
 precincts. 
 
 The first funeral I witnessed was that of a child. While 
 I was engaged in conversation with the Secretary outside 
 the Fire-temple, a sudden stir among the vultures made us 
 raise our heads. At least a hundred birds, collected round 
 one of the Towers, began to shew symptoms of excitement, 
 while others swooped down from neighbouring trees. The 
 cause of this sudden abandonment of their previous apathy 
 soon revealed itself. A funeral procession was seen to 
 be approaching. However distant the house of a deceased 
 person, and whether he be young or old, rich or poor, high
 
 86 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 or low in rank, his body is always carried to the Towers 
 by the official corpse-bearers^ the mourners walking- behind. 
 The corpse-bearers are properly divided into two classes, 
 named Nasa-siilars and Khandhias. The former alone are 
 privileged to enter the Towers, but they are assisted in 
 carrying the bier by the Khandhias, and they carry the dead 
 bodies of little children without the aid of the Khandhias. 
 As these Nasa-salars are supposed to contract impurity 
 in the discharge of their duty, they are obliged to submit 
 to certain social disadvantages. For instance, they are 
 generally expected to eat apart from the rest of the com- 
 munity at social gatherings ^. They enjoy, however, a 
 compensating advantage in being highly paid for the work 
 they have to do. 
 
 Before they removed the body of the child from the 
 house where its relatives were assembled, funeral prayers 
 were recited, and the corpse was exposed to the gaze of 
 the sacred dog, to be afterwards described. 
 
 Then the body, swathed in a white sheet, was placed on 
 a curved metal trough ^, open at both ends, and the corpse- 
 bearers, dressed in pure white garments, proceeded with it 
 towards the Towers. They were followed by the mourners 
 at a distance of at least 30 feet, in pairs, also dressed in 
 white, and each couple joined by holding a white handker- 
 chief between them. When the two corpse-bearers reached 
 the path leading by a steep incline to the door of the Tower, 
 the mourners, about eight in number, turned back and 
 entered one of the prayer houses. ' There,' said the Secre- 
 tary, ^ they repeat certain Gathas, and pray that the spirit 
 of the deceased may be safely transported on the fourth 
 day after death to its final resting-place,' 
 
 The Tower selected for the child's burial was one in 
 
 ^ My authority here is Mr. N. J. Ratnagar, who contributed some 
 valuable remarks on this subject to the January number of the ' Indian 
 Antiquary ' for this year. 
 
 " This form of bier is only used in the case of young children. See the 
 description of the second funeral witnessed by me.
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 87 
 
 which other members of the same family had before been 
 laid. The two bearers speedily unlocked the door^ reve- 
 rently conveyed the body of the child into the interior, and, 
 unseen by any one, laid it uncovered in one of the open 
 stone receptacles nearest the central well. In two minutes 
 they re-appeared with the empty bier and white cloth. 
 But scarcely had they closed the door when a dozen vul- 
 tures swooped down upon the body, and were rapidly fol- 
 lowed by flights of others. In five minutes more we saw 
 the satiated birds fly back and lazily settle down again 
 upon the parapet. They had left nothing behind but a 
 skeleton. Meanwhile the bearers were seen to enter a 
 building shaped like a huge barrel. There, as the Secre- 
 tary informed me, they changed their clothes and washed 
 themselves. Shortly afterwards we saw them come out 
 and deposit their cast-off funeral garments on a stone 
 receptacle near at hand. Not a thread leaves the garden, 
 lest it should carry defilement into the city. Fresh gar- 
 ments w^ere supplied at each funeral. In a fortnight, or 
 at most four weeks, the same bearers return, and with 
 gloved hands and implements resembling tongs, place the 
 dry skeleton in the central well. There the bones find 
 their last resting-place, and there the dust of whole gene- 
 rations of Parsis commingling is left undisturbed for 
 centuries. 
 
 The revolting sight of the gorged vultures made me turn 
 my back on the Towers with ill-concealed abhorrence. I 
 asked the Secretary how it was possible to become recon- 
 ciled to such a usage. His reply was nearly in the fol- 
 lowing words : — ' Our Prophet Zoroaster, who lived 6,000 
 years ago, taught us to regard the elements as symbols of 
 the Deity. Earth, fire, water, he said, ought never, under 
 any circumstances, to be defiled by contact with j)utrefying 
 flesh. Naked, he said, we came into the world, and naked 
 we ought to leave it. But the decaying particles of our 
 bodies should be dissipated as rapidly as possible, and in 
 such a way that neither Mother Earth nor the beings she
 
 88 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 supports should be contaminated in the slightest degree. 
 In fact, our Prophet was the greatest of health officers, 
 and following his sanitary laws, we build our Towers on 
 the tops of the hills, above all human habitations. We 
 spare no expense in constructing them of the hardest 
 materials, and we expose our putrescent bodies in open 
 stone receptacles, resting on 14 feet of solid granite, not 
 necessarily to be consumed by vultures, but to be dissipated 
 in the speediest manner, and without the smallest possi- 
 bility of polluting the earth, or contaminating a single 
 living being dwelling thereon, God, indeed, sends the 
 vultures, and, as a matter of fact, these birds do their 
 appointed work much more expeditiously than millions 
 of insects would do, if we committed our bodies to the 
 ground. In a sanitary point of view nothing can be 
 more perfect than our plan. Even the rain water which 
 washes our skeletons is conducted by channels into puri- 
 fying charcoal. Here in these five Towers rest the bones 
 of all the Parsis that have lived in Bombay for the last 
 200 years. We form a united body in life, and we are 
 united in death. Even our leader. Sir Jamsetjee, likes 
 to feel that when he dies he will be reduced to perfect 
 equality with the poorest and humblest of the Parsi 
 community.' 
 
 When the Secretary had finished his defence of the 
 Towers of Silence, I could not help thinking that how- 
 ever much such a system may shock our European feel- 
 ings and ideas, yet our own method of interment, if 
 regarded from a ParsI point of view, may possibly be 
 equally revolting to ParsI sensibilities. 
 
 The exposure of the decaying body to the assaults of in- 
 numerable worms may have no terrors for us, because our 
 survivors do not see the assailants ; but let it be borne 
 in mind that neither are the Parsi survivors permitted to 
 look at the swoop of the heaven-sent birds. Why, then, 
 should we be surprised if they prefer the more rapid 
 to the more lingering operation? and which of the two
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 89 
 
 systemSj they may reasonably ask^ is more defensible on 
 sanitary grounds ? 
 
 On the occasion of my second visit to the Towers I was 
 permitted to witness the funeral of a Mobed, or one of the 
 second order of priests, whose flowing- white costumes 
 (supposed to be emblematical of purity) are everywhere 
 conspicuous in the Bombay streets. I may here mention 
 parenthetically that I believe the word Mobed is merely 
 a corruption of a Zand word equivalent to Sanskrit Maga- 
 pati, ' chief of the Mag-ians.' Dastur, the name of the 
 high-priest, is a modern Persian word, the best equivalent 
 for which would perhaps be ' chief ruler.' According- to 
 some the name Herbad (or Erwad)^, is applied as a generic 
 term to the whole sacerdotal order. In the Zand-Avasta 
 the entire priestly class are called Athravan (in Pazand 
 Athornan). In the present day the rest of the community 
 — all laymen in fact, who are not Herbads — are generally 
 styled BehadJn, or Behdin, that is, ' followers of the best 
 religion.' They have also the name Osta. 
 
 I reached the garden surrounding the Towers about half 
 an hour before sunset. At that time the funeral procession 
 was already winding up the hill. The deceased man had 
 died early in the morning, and a rule of the Parsi religion 
 requires that no corpse shall be exposed on the platform 
 of the Towers, to be consumed by birds of prey, unless 
 the rays of the sun can first fall on it. Foremost in the 
 procession walked a man carrying a loaf or two of bread 
 wrapped up in a cloth. Then came the bier, which was 
 flat and made of iron bars -, having the body of the de- 
 
 ^ Mr. Cama informs me that Herbad means simply a religious teacher. 
 Another name for a Herbad is Navar, meaning one who has performed the 
 Navar ceremony. Originally it may have meant a new member of the 
 ecclesiastical fraternity. Every son of a priest is a Herbad. But some Her- 
 bads instead of becoming Dasturs or Mobeds adopt a secular profession, 
 discarding the white turban for a dark one. In that case they generally 
 abandon the name Herbad. In fact, priestly denominations have fdlen 
 into disrepute. The title Dastur is ajiplied ironically to every one with 
 a white turban. 
 
 ^ In the case of a child it is a curved metal trousrh.
 
 90 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 ceased stretched out upon it, covered only with a white 
 sheet, and borne by four Khaudhia bearers, accompanied by 
 two Nasa-salars. After the bearers, at an interval of a 
 few yards, followed a man leading* a white dog", and be- 
 hind him a long procession of at least a hundred priests 
 in their robes of spotless white, besides relations of the 
 deceased, also in white g^arments, walking in pairs, each 
 couple following closely on the other, and each man con- 
 nected with his fellow by a handkerchief held between 
 them in token of sympathy and fellow-feeling. The pro- 
 cession advanced to a point about thirty yards distant from 
 the portal of the largest Tower. There it stood still for 
 a minute while the dog was brought towards the corpse, 
 made to look at the features of the dead man, and then 
 fed with bread. 
 
 Meanwhile all who followed the bier turned round, and 
 walked back to the Sdgr'i, or house of prayer erected near 
 the entrance to the garden. There they chanted prayers 
 while the corpse-bearers entered the Tower with the dead 
 body, and exposed it naked in one of the receptacles on 
 the stone platform. Their appointed task being then 
 completed, they instantly quitted the Tower, and were 
 seen to repair to a reservoir of water near at hand, where 
 they went through the usual process of ablution, chang- 
 ing all their clothes, and depositing the cast-off garments 
 in an open stone pit, almost hidden from view, on one 
 side of the garden. And what happened in the Tower ? 
 Scarcely had the bearers closed the portal ere forty or fifty 
 vultures, before seated motionless on the stone parapet, 
 swooped down on their prey. In ten minutes they had 
 finished their work. The body was reduced to a skeleton 
 before the mourners in the Scigri had finished their prayers. 
 There, in the open stone coffin, exposed to the dews of 
 heaven, the bones rested for three or four weeks, till the 
 Nasa-salars returned and reverently placed them in the 
 central well, where the skeletons of the dead, whether of 
 high or low degree, are left to turn into dust together.
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 9 1 
 
 When I enquired about the meaning" of the dog, I was 
 told that, according to the teaching of Zotoaster, dogs 
 as well as birds are regarded as sacred animals 1, and were 
 formerly allowed to consume the dead bodies of Parsis. 
 According to Mr. Khambiita (^ Indian Antiquary,' July, 
 1878), the dog is of all animals the most dear to Parsis, 
 on account of its undeviating faithfulness. Hence they 
 keep up the practice of feeding a dog as a sacred obli- 
 gation. In the present day a representative dog kept 
 for the purpose accompanies the corpse, and is fed with 
 bread as a substitute for the llesh of the dead body. 
 Moreover, dogs are supposed to possess some mysterious 
 power in preserving the spirits of men from the attacks 
 of demons ^. It is on this account that the corjDse must 
 be shewn to a dog, and if a proper dog cannot be found, 
 any common dog taken out of the streets is brought, and 
 the ceremony of exposing the dead body to its gaze, called 
 Sag-did (from the Persian sag, and dulan, to see), is per- 
 formed some time after death. If this is not done, the 
 soul of the deceased is liable to be assailed by evil spirits 
 during the three days which intervene between death and 
 judgment. 
 
 I should state here that in the belief of the Parsis the 
 spirits of wicked persons are supposed to hover about in 
 a restless state for the three days immediately succeeding 
 death, in the neighbourhood of the Dakhmas, where also 
 swarms of evil spirits congregate ^. On the morning of 
 the fourth day the soul is taken to judgment, which is 
 passed on it by Mithra and the angels. It has then to 
 pass a narrow bridge called Chlnvat-peretuvi, ' the bridge 
 where decision is pronounced.' The souls of the sinful, 
 
 ' See Vandiddd vii. 75, viii. 28; Bleeck's Avcsta, Vol. I. pp. 104-109 ; 
 Wilson's Pdrsl Religion, pp. 325-328, 330. 
 
 - Vandiddd (Bleeck) xiii. 25 ; Wilson's Pdrsl Religion, pp. 49, 252. 
 
 ^ So at least says the Avastfi, but according to Mr. Cama the Parsis of 
 the present day do not believe in the presence of evil spirits near the 
 Dakhmas. He informs me that the Dakhmas of the Avasta were sub- 
 terranean vaults and tombs, not towers.
 
 92 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 being unable to pass this bridge, imagined to be sharp as 
 a razor, fall into hell on endeavouring to cross over. The 
 Zand-Avasta even gives the names of certain dogs be- 
 lieved to protect the souls of men from the assaults of 
 evil demons before crossing the bridge. The Fandiddd 
 (viii. 41, 42), moreover, states that a particular devil called 
 Nasus is frightened away by a yellow dog with four eyes, 
 and that such a dog ought to be led along the road of a 
 funeral procession three times. 
 
 On this account, as was explained to me by a learned 
 Parsi, the funeral dog is supposed to be four-eyed — that 
 is to say, it is supposed to have two real eyes and two 
 round spots like eyes, just alx>ve the actual eyes. I was 
 told, too, that many yellowish-white dogs in India have 
 this peculiarity, and that the Parsis try to procure such 
 dogs, and keep them for their funeral processions. I 
 observed nothing of the kind in the funeral dog on the 
 occasion of the particular funeral I have here recorded. 
 It seemed to me that the dog was a mere cur of a very 
 ordinary type ; but it struck me (before I knew that the 
 same idea had occurred to German scholars) that the 
 singular practice of leading a white dog at the head of 
 the procession points to the common origin of the Parsi 
 and Hindu religions. For in the latter system the god 
 of death, Yama, has two four-eyed brindled watchdogs, 
 children of Sarama ^, who guard the road to his abode, 
 and whose favour and protection against evil spirits are 
 invoked every day by pious Hindus when they perform 
 the kdka-bali, or offering of rice to crows, dogs, and 
 animals at the end of the Vaisvadeva ceremony before the 
 midday meal. The mantra recited is as follows : — Bvau 
 svduau hjdma-kibalaii Vaivasvata-Jculodbhavau tebhjd)ti pindo 
 
 * Saram.a is the dog of Indra, and is represented in Rirj-veda X. 14. 10 
 as the mother of Yama's dogs, called in the Mahabhdrata, Adi-parvan 671) 
 Deva-suni. In the Big-veda this dog is said to have tracked and recovered 
 the cows stolen by the Panis. Sarama is even said to be the authoress of 
 part of the Rig-vedu, X. 108.
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 95 
 
 mayu datto raksTietdm patli'i mam sadd, ' May the two (log's, 
 dark and brindled, born in the family of Yama, protect me 
 ever on the road ! To them I present an offering" of food.' 
 
 Having thus attempted to give some idea of the nature 
 of a Parsi funeral, and of the unique arrangements by 
 which the Parsis endeavour to carry out the precepts of 
 their prophet Zoroaster in the disposal of their dead, it 
 will not be inappropriate if I add a brief account of ParsI 
 doctrines, and of the initiatory ceremonies performed on 
 admission of young ParsTs to the Zoroastrian religion, and 
 on their incorporation as members of the Parsi society, 
 
 I may first mention that according to the pure form of 
 the Zoroastrian faith — as propounded by learned Parsis of 
 the present day — Ormazd (sometimes written Hormazd, 
 contracted from the full expression Ahura Mazda) is the 
 name of the Supreme Being, to whom there is no equal, 
 and who has no opponent. It is a mistake to suppose 
 that Ormazd is opposed to a being called Ahriman, com- 
 monly regarded as the spirit of evil. The true doctrine 
 is that Ormazd has created two forces in nature, not ne- 
 cessarily antagonistic, but simply alternating with each 
 other — the one a force of creation, construction, and pre- 
 servation ; the other a force of decay, dissolution, and 
 destruction. The first of these forces is named Spenta- 
 mainyus, while the second or destructive power, is com- 
 monly called Ahriman, or Hariman, for Anhra-mainyus 
 (or Anh'ro-7naini/us=:-^2LnB^x\t Anho-manyu). It is inter- 
 esting to observe the analogy between the Hindu and 
 Zoroastrian systems, Vishnu and Rudra (Siva) in the 
 former being equivalent to Spenta-mainyus and Anhra- 
 mainyus in the latter, while Brahma (neuter) corresponds 
 to Ormazd. In later times the purity of the original 
 doctrine became corrupted, and Ahriman was personified 
 as a spirit of evil. In fact, all the evils in the world, 
 whether moral or physical, are now attributed to Ahriman, 
 while Ormazd is erroneously held to be the antagonistic 
 principle of good.
 
 94 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 In short, it is contended that the Pars! religion, in spite of 
 its apparent dualism, is properly pure Monotheism, and that 
 the elements and all the phenomena of Nature are merely- 
 revered as creations of the one God, and as symbolical of 
 His power. 
 
 There can be little doubt, however, that with the ma- 
 jority of Parsis the elements are regarded as simple mani- 
 festations, or rather as developments of the Deity, and 
 that which is called Monotheism is really a kind of Pan- 
 theism very similar to that of Brahmanism. The absence 
 of all image-worship, however, is very refreshing after the 
 hideous idolatry of the Hindu system. 
 
 So much for the Pars! creed ; and now for a few words 
 as to the form of admission into the charmed circle of the 
 Parsi community. 
 
 It is a controverted point whether if any outsider 
 wished to become a Parsi it would be possible, even in 
 theory, to entertain the question of his being admitted 
 to membership by his making public confession of his 
 faith in the Zoroastrian system. As a matter of fact no 
 one is at present allowed to become a Parsi unless he is 
 born a Parsi. No provision seems to exist for the recep- 
 tion of converts, and the only form of admission is for 
 the children of Parsis, though occasionally the children 
 of non-Parsi mothers by Parsi fathers are permitted to 
 become members of that community. Nevertheless it is 
 certain, from a particular form of prayer still used by 
 Parsi priests, that Zoroaster himself enjoined on his dis- 
 ciples the duty of making proselytes, and had in view a 
 constant accession of fresh adherents, who were all to 
 be received as converts, provided they were willing to go 
 through certain prescribed ceremonies. 
 
 With regard to the children of Parsi parents, every boy 
 is admitted to membership as a disciple of the Zoroas- 
 trian religion some time between the age of seven and 
 nine, but more usually at seven years of age, in the fol- 
 lowing manner. He is first taken to one of the fire-
 
 THE TOWERS OF SILENCE. 95 
 
 temples, and in a room outside the sanctuary made to 
 undergo a kind of baptism, — that is to say, he is placed 
 nearly naked on a stone seat, and water is poured over 
 his head from a lota by a Mobed appointed to perform 
 the rite. Next, the child is taken out into an open area, 
 made to sit on another stone seat, and required to eat 
 one or two leaves of the pomegranate tree — a tree held 
 very sacred by the Parsis, and always planted in the 
 precincts of their fire-temples for use in purificatory cere- 
 monies {Yasna viii. 4). After eating the leaves he is made 
 to drink a small quantity of the water of a white bull ^ — 
 also kept at fire-temples, and held in high estimation for 
 its purifying properties. This completes the first portion 
 of the ceremony. The concluding act is pei'formed in an 
 apartment of the fire-temple, and consists in investing 
 the child with the sacred shirt or under-garment (called 
 sadara), and sacred girdle {kustl). In the case of rich 
 Parsis, several Mobeds, presided over by a Dastur, are 
 employed in celebrating this part of the rite, which is 
 very like the Hindu njianai/ana, or induction into the 
 condition of a twice-born man by means of the yajnopavUa. 
 When parents are poor, two Mobeds may perform the 
 ceremony, or even one may be sufficient, and a private 
 room answers all the purposes of a fire -temple. The 
 Mobeds sit on the ground, and the child is placed before 
 them nearly naked. The sacred shirt is then put on, and 
 the white woollen girdle fastened on around it, while the 
 boy is made to repeat word by word the form of prayer 
 which he is required to say ever afterwards, whenever the 
 girdle is taken off or put on again [Khurdah-Avastd iv). 
 The sacred shirt and girdle are the two most important 
 outward signs and symbols of Parsiism, and an impostor 
 laying claim to the privileges of the Zoroastrian religion 
 would be instantly detected by the absence of those signs, 
 
 * The Bull, whose urine is used, is called in Gujarat! Varaslo, and 
 according to Mr. Khambiltii must be entirely white. If a single hair of its 
 body is not white, the bull is considered unfit for use at fire-temples.
 
 g6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 or by his wrong" use of tliem. But they are far more than 
 outward signs, — they are supposed to serve as a kind of 
 spiritual panoply. Unprotected by this armour, a man 
 would be perpetually exposed to the assaults of evil spirits 
 and demons, and even be liable to become a demon himself. 
 The shirt is made of the finest white linen or cambric. 
 It has a peculiar form at the neck, and has a little empty 
 bag" in front to show that the wearer holds the faith of 
 Zoroaster, which is supposed to be entirely spiritual, and 
 to have nothing* material about it. The sacred shirt has 
 also two stripes at the bottom, one on each side, and each 
 of these stripes is separated into three, to represent the six 
 divisions of each half-year. 
 
 It has also a heart, symbolical of true faith, embroidered 
 in front. The hudt^ or g-irdle, is made of seventy-two 
 interwoven woollen threads, to denote the seventy-two 
 chapters of the Yasna, but has the appearance of a long- 
 flat cord of pure white wool, which is wound round the 
 body in three coils. Each end of the g-irdle is divided 
 into three, and these three ends again into two parts. 
 Every Parsi ought to take off this girdle and restore it 
 to its proper position round the body at least five times 
 a day. He has to hold it in a particular manner with 
 both hands ; and touching his forehead with it to repeat 
 a prayer in Zand invoking the aid of Ormazd (Akura- 
 Mazda) for the destruction of all evil beings, evil doers 
 — especially tyrannical rulers — and imploring pardon for 
 evil thoughts, evil words, and evil deeds. The girdle 
 must then be coiled round the body three times, and 
 fastened with two particular knots (said to represent tlue 
 sun and moon), which none but a Pars! can tie in a proper 
 manner. Every Parsi boy is taught the whole process 
 with great solemnity at his first initiation. When the 
 ceremony is concluded the high-priest pronounces a bene- 
 diction, and the young Parsi is from that moment ad- 
 mitted to all the rights and privileges of perhaps one of 
 the most flourishinsr and united communities in the world.
 
 FUNERAL CEREMONIES AND OFFERINGS TO 
 
 ANCESTORS AT BOMBAY, BENARES, 
 
 AND GAYA. 
 
 When I commenced my researches in India I was pre- 
 pared to expect much perplexing variety in religious and 
 social usages, but the actual reality far outdid my anticipa- 
 tions. 
 
 On one occasion, soon after my visit to the Parsi Towers 
 of Silence, I gained admission to the Hindu burning- 
 ground on the shore of Back Bay at Bombay, and witnessed 
 a curious funeral ceremony there. The body of a man 
 about forty years of age had been burnt the day before. 
 On the morning of my visit about twenty-four men, his 
 relations, gathered round the ashes to perform his funeral 
 rites and soothe his departed spirit supposed to be hovering 
 near in a state of feverish excitement after the fiery process 
 to which the body had just been subjected. They offered 
 no objection to my standing close to them, nor even to my 
 asking them questions. The ceremony commenced by one 
 of their number examining the ashes, and carefully separat- 
 ing any portions of the bones that had not been calcined 
 by the flames on the previous day. These he collected in 
 his hands and carried outside the burning-ground, with the 
 intention, I was told, of throwing them into the sea near 
 at hand. This being done, the whole party gathered round 
 the ashes of the pyre in a semicircle, and one of the twenty- 
 four men sprinkled them with water. Then some cow-dung 
 was carefully spread in the centre of the ashes so as to form 
 
 H
 
 98 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 a flat circular cake of rather more than a foot in diameter, 
 around which a stream of cow's urine was poured from a 
 metal vessel. Next, one of the men brought a plantain- 
 leaf, and laid it on the circle of cow-dung" so as to form a 
 kind of dish or plate. Around the edge of the leaf were 
 placed five round balls [pindas) probably of rice-flour, rather 
 smaller than cricket-balls, mixed with some brown sub- 
 stance. Sprigs of the Tulsi plant and fresh leaves of the 
 betel, with a few flowers, were inserted in each ball, and a 
 coloured cotton cord loosely suspended between them. Next, 
 one of the relations covered the five pindas with the red 
 powder called gulal. Then five flat wheaten cakes were 
 placed on the plantain-leaf inside the circle of the five 
 pindas, and boiled rice was piled up on the cakes, sur- 
 mounted by a small piece of ghi mixed with brown sugar. 
 
 The funeral ceremony being so far completed the deceased 
 man's nephew, or sister's son, took an empty earthenware 
 vase, filled it with water, and held it on his right shoulder. 
 Starting from the north side he commenced circumam- 
 bulating the five pindas and the five wheaten cakes, with 
 his left shoulder towards them, while one of the relatives 
 with a sharp stone made a hole in the jar, whence the water 
 spouted out in a stream as he walked round. On com- 
 pleting the first circuit and coming back to the north, a 
 second incision was made with the same stone, whence a 
 second stream poured out simultaneously with the first. At 
 the end of the fifth round, when five streams of water had 
 been made to spout out from five holes round the five pindas, 
 the earthenware vase was dashed to the ground on the north 
 side, and the remaining water spilt over the ashes. Next, 
 one of the relatives took a small metal vessel containing 
 milk, and, with a betel-leaf for a ladle, sprinkled some drops 
 over the rice piled on the wheaten cakes. After which, 
 taking some water from a small lota — or rather making 
 another relative pour it into his hand — he first sprinkled ^t 
 in a circle round the pindas, and then over the cakes. 
 Finally, bending down and raising his hands to his head.
 
 FUNERAL CEREMONIES AT BOMBAY. 99 
 
 he performed a sort of puja to the pindas, which were 
 supposed to represent the deceased man and four other 
 relations. This was repeated by all twenty-four men in 
 turn. After the completion of the ceremony, the balls and 
 cakes were left to be eaten by crows. 
 
 At Benares, honorific ceremonies and offerings in honour 
 of departed ancestors, called Sraddhas, are constantly per- 
 formed near the Mani-karnika-kund. This is a well, or 
 small pool, of fetid water, not more than three feet deep, 
 and perhaps not more than twenty feet long- by ten broad, 
 lying at a considerable depth below the surface of the 
 ground, and declared in the Kasi-Khanda of the Skanda- 
 Purana to have been originally created by Vishnu from the 
 perspiration which exuded from his body. Its highly 
 sacred character in the eyes of the orthodox Hindu may 
 therefore be easily understood. It is said to have been 
 named Mani-karnika, because Mahadeva on beholding 
 Vishnu^s well was so enraptured that his body thrilled 
 with emotion, causing an earring to fall from his ear into 
 the water. It is also called Mukti-kshetra, ' holy place of 
 emancipation,' and Purna-subhakara, ' cause of complete 
 felicity.' This wonderful well is on a ghat, by the side 
 of the Ganges, and is resorted to by thousands of pilgrims, 
 who may be seen all day long descending the flight of steps 
 by which the shallow pool is surrounded on all four sides. 
 Eagerly and with earnest faces they crowd into the water, 
 immersing their whole bodies repeatedly, while Brahmans 
 superintend their ablutions, repeat and make them repeat 
 Mantras, and receive handsome fees in return. In a niche 
 upon the steps on the north side are the figures of Vishnu 
 and Siva, to which the pilgrims, after bathing, do honour 
 by bowing down and touching the stones underneath with 
 their foreheads. The bathers, though manifestly much 
 dirtier from contact with the foul water, go away under 
 the full conviction that they are inwardly purified, and that 
 all their sins, however heinous, have been washed away for 
 time and for eternity. 
 
 H 2
 
 100 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 There is another well of almost equal sanctity^ named 
 the Jnana-vapi, or ^pool of knowledge,' situated under a 
 handsome colonnade in the interior of the city, between 
 the mosque built by AurangzTb on the site of the original 
 Visvesvara-nath temple and the present Golden Temple. It 
 is a real well of some depth and not a pool, but the water 
 is so abominably offensive, from the offerings of flowers and 
 rice continually thrown into it and left to putrefy, that I 
 found it impossible to do more than take a hasty glance 
 into the interior of the well, or even to remain in the 
 neighbourhood long enough to note all the particulars of its 
 surroundings. All the day long a Brahman stands near 
 this well and ladles out putrid water from a receptacle 
 before him into the hands of pilgrims, who either lave their 
 faces with the fetid liquid, or drink it with the greatest 
 reverence. The supposed sanctity of this well is owing to 
 the circumstance that the idol of Siva was thrown into it 
 when the original temple of Visvesvara-nath was destroyed 
 by the Musalmans. Hence the pool is thought to be the 
 habitation of Mahadeva himself, and the water to be per- 
 meated by his essence. 
 
 On the ghat near the pool of Mani-karnika, on the day 
 I visited it, a man was performing a Sraddha for his mother, 
 under the guidance of a nearly naked and decidedly stout 
 Brahman. The ceremony was the Das'ama-sraddha, per- 
 formed on the tenth day after death. The officiating 
 Brahman began by forming a slightly elevated piece of 
 ground with some sand lying near at hand. This was 
 supposed to constitute a small vedi or altar. It was of an 
 oblong form, but only about eight or ten inches long by 
 four or five broad. Across this raised sand he laid three 
 stalks of kus'a grass. Then taking a number of little 
 earthenware platters or saucers, he arranged them round 
 the vedi, putting tila or sesamum seed in one, rice in 
 another, honey in a third, areca or betel-nut in a fourth, 
 chandana or sandal in a fifth. Next, he took flour of barley 
 i^ava) and kneaded it into one large pinda, rather smaller
 
 SRADDHA CEREMONIES AT BENARES. 10 1 
 
 than a cricket-ball, which he carefully deposited in the 
 centre of the sand vedi, scattering over it jasmine flowers, 
 khaskhas grass and wool, and placing on one side of it a 
 betel-leaf with areca-nut and a single copper coin. Then 
 having poured water from a lota into his hand, he sprinkled 
 it over all the offerings, arranged in the manner I have 
 described. Other similar operations followed : — Thus, for 
 instance, an earthenware platter, containing a lighted wick, 
 was placed near the offerings ; ten other platters were filled 
 with water, which was all poured over the pinda ; another 
 small platter with a lighted wick was added to the first, 
 then some milk was placed in another platter and poured 
 over the pinda, and then once more the pinda was sprinkled 
 with water. Finally the Brahman joined his hands together 
 and did puja to the pinda. The whole rite did not last more 
 than ten or fifteen minutes, and while it was proceeding, 
 the man for whose mother it was performed continued to 
 repeat Mantras and prayers under the direction of the 
 officiating Brahman, quite regardless of much loud talking 
 and vociferation going on around him. 
 
 The ceremony was concluded by another ceremony called 
 the ' feeding of a Brahman ^ — that is to say, another Brah- 
 man was brought and made to sit down near the oblations, 
 while the man for whose mother the Sraddha was celebrated 
 fed him with flat cakes, ghi, sweetmeats, vegetables, and 
 curds placed in a plate of palasa leaves. I observed that 
 these eatables were devoured with the greatest avidity by 
 the man for whom they were prepared, as if he had been 
 nursing his appetite with the intention of doing full justice 
 to the feast. 
 
 I come now to the celebrated Sraddha ceremonies per- 
 formed in the neighbourhood of the well-known Vishnu- 
 pada temple at Gaya. The city of Gaya is most picturesquely 
 situated on the river Phalgu about sixty miles south-west 
 of Patna, near some isolated hills, or rather short ranges of 
 hills rising abruptly out of the plain. The town itself 
 crowns two low ridges, whose sides, covered with the houses
 
 102 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 of its narrow tortuous streets, slope down to an intervening- 
 hollow occupied by the temple and sacred tank dedicated to 
 the Sun. 
 
 But the most sacred temple and the great centre of attrac- 
 tion for all Hindus who wish to perform once in their lives 
 a Gaya-sraddha for their fore-fathers, is the Vishnu-pada 
 templcj situated on one of the ridges, and built of black 
 stone, with a lofty dome and golden pinnacle. It con- 
 tains the alleged footprint of Vishnu in a large silver basin, 
 vinder a silver canopy, inside an octagonal shrine, Pindas 
 and various kinds of offerings are placed by the pilgrims 
 inside the basin round the footprint, and near it are open 
 colonnades for the performance of the Sraddhas. About six 
 miles from the city is the well-known place of pilgrimage 
 called Bodh-Gaya, celebrated for a monastery and numerous 
 temples, but chiefly for the ancient tower-like structure 
 said by the natives to be more than 2,200 years old, and 
 originally a Buddhist monument. It has near it other 
 alleged footprints of Vishnu (probably once assigned to 
 Buddha), under an open shrine. Behind the tower, on an 
 elevated stone terrace reached by a long flight of steps, is 
 the sacred Pipal tree, under which, according to popular 
 belief, the Buddha attained supreme knowledge. The tree 
 must be many centuries old, but a succession of trees is 
 secured by planting a new one inside the decaying stem of 
 the old. In a chamber at the bottom of the tower-like 
 Buddhist monument — now used as a temple — a substitute 
 for the original figure of Buddha (carried off by the Burmese 
 about a hundred years ago) has been placed, for the sake of 
 the Buddhist pilgrims who come to repeat prayers and 
 meditate under the tree ; and in the same place a linga has 
 been set up, to which the Hindus do puja. When I visited 
 the spot many persons were in the act of worshipping, and 
 several members of the Burmese embassy, who had come to 
 meet the Prince of Wales at Calcutta, were to be seen 
 reverentially kneeling, praying, and meditating under the 
 sacred tree.
 
 SRADDHA CEREMONIES AT GAY A. 103 
 
 Before describing" the Sraddhas at Gaya, I may state 
 that I asked several Pandits in different parts of India, to 
 give me the reasons for attaching- special efficacy to the 
 celebration of relig-ious rites for ancestors in that locality. 
 The only reply I received was that in the Gaya-mahatmya 
 and Gaya-sraddha-paddhati it is declared that a powerful 
 demon [asura), named Gaya, formerly resided there and 
 tyrannized over the inhabitants. Vishnu took compassion 
 on them, foug-ht and killed the demon, and left a print of 
 his foot (Vishnu-pada, vulgarly called Bishanpad) on the 
 spot where the fight occurred, ordaining that it should be 
 ever after called Gaya and should be consecrated to him, 
 and that any Sraddha performed there for fathers, fore- 
 fathers, and relatives should be jieculiarly efficacious in 
 securing the immediate conveyance of their souls to his own 
 heaven, Vaikuutha. 
 
 It is also stated in the Gaya-mahatmya that the great 
 Rama, hero of the Ramayana (himself an incarnation of 
 Vishnu), and other heroes set the example of performing 
 Sraddhas to their fathers at Gaya. Brahma is also said 
 to have performed an Asvamedha there, and to have conse- 
 crated the whole locality by this act. The plain truth 
 probably is that as the Indo- Aryans proceeded southwards, 
 the Brahmaus found it necessary to invent reasons for 
 attaching sanctity and attracting pilgrims to other spots 
 besides those already held sacred in the North-West. 
 
 It was on this account that the Mahatmyas of various 
 places were gradually written and inserted in the Puranas. 
 Some of these additions, intended to exalt the importance 
 of places like Gaya, are comparatively modern, and the 
 Mahatmyas of one or two tirthas, such as Pandharpur in 
 the Dekhan, are said to have been added during* the last 
 fifty or a hundred years. I was even told that Pandharpur 
 has become of late years a kind of rival to Gaya. Alleged 
 footprints of Vishnu like those of Gayjl are shown, and 
 the Vithobii sects perform Sraddhas there. 
 
 Models of the Gaya Vishnu-pada are made in brass and
 
 104 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 in black stone, and sold for worship. Several were presented 
 to me. They are often placed, like the Salag-ram stone, in 
 the houses of the natives, for domestic puja. 
 
 With regard to the Sraddha ceremonies generally, there 
 seems to be much confusion of thought and obscurity, be- 
 sides great inconsistency, in the accounts given by Pandits 
 of the exact object and effect of their celebration. It may 
 be well to explain that a distinction is made between 
 Sraddhas and funeral ceremonies {anti/eshti). The latter 
 are amangala, ' inauspicious,' while the former are mangala., 
 ' auspicious.' To understand the reason for this, it should 
 be borne in mind that when a man dies his sthula-Sanra or 
 ' gross body' is burned, but his soul quits it with the linga- 
 Sarira or ' subtile body,' sometimes described as angiishtha- 
 mdtra, ' of the size of a thumb,' and remains hovering near. 
 The deceased man, thus reduced to the condition of a simple 
 individual soul invested with a subtile body, is called a 
 preta, i.e. a departed spirit or ghost. He has no real body 
 capable of enjoying or suffering anything, and is conse- 
 quently in a restless, unsatisfactory and uncomfortable 
 plight. Moreover, while in this condition he is held to be 
 an impure being. Furthermore, if he dies away from his 
 kindred, who alone can perform the funeral ceremonies, 
 and who perhaps are unaware of his death, and unable 
 therefore to perform them, he becomes a pisacha, or foul 
 wandering ghost, disposed to take revenge for its misery 
 upon all living creatures by a variety of malignant acts. 
 I heard it remarked not long ago by a Pandit that ghosts 
 are much less common in India now than formerly, and, on 
 my enquiring the reason, was told that communication was 
 now so rapid that few die without their deaths becoming 
 known and without having funeral rites performed very 
 soon afterwards. Besides, he added, it is now easy to 
 reach Gaya by rail and by good carriage roads. The object, 
 then, of the funeral rites, which are celebrated for ten 
 days after death, is not only to soothe or give santi by 
 libations of consecrated water to the troubled spirit, but
 
 SRADDHA CEREMONIES AT GAY A. 105 
 
 to furnish the preta with an intermediate body, between 
 the linga or ' subtile' and the stkula or ' gross' body — with 
 a body, that is to say, which is capable of enjoying or 
 suffering", and which is composed of gross particles 
 though not of the same kind as those of the earthly 
 gross body. 
 
 In this manner only can the preta obtain gati, or ' pro- 
 gress' onward through the temporary heaven or hell (re- 
 garded in the Hindu system as a kind of purgatory) to 
 other births and ultimate emancipation. On the first day 
 after death a pinda or ' round ball ' (generally of some kind 
 of flour) is offered, on which the preta is supposed to feed, 
 and which endows it with the rudiment or basis of the 
 requisite body, whatever that basis may be. Next day 
 another pinda is offered, which gives it, perhaps, limbs, 
 such as arms and legs. Then it receives hands, feet, &c. 
 This goes on for ten days, and the offering of the pinda on 
 the tenth day gives the head. No sooner does the preta 
 obtain a complete body than it becomes a pitri, when^ 
 instead of being regarded as impure, it is held to be a deva, 
 or ' deity/ and practically w^orshipped as such in the Srad- 
 dha ceremonies. Hence a Sraddha is not a funeral cere- 
 mony, but a worsliip of departed ancestors ; which worship, 
 however, is something different from puja to a god. It 
 is continued at stated periods with a view to accelerate 
 the gati, or ' progress/ of the pitris either towards heaven — 
 and so through the various stages of bliss, called Salokya, 
 Samipya, and Sirupya — -or through future births to 
 final union with the Supreme {saynjya). The efficacy 
 of Sraddhas performed at Gaya is this, that wherever 
 in this progress onwards departed relatives may have 
 arrived, the Sraddhas take them at once to Vaikuntha or 
 Vishnu's heaven. The departed relatives especially entitled 
 to benefit by the Sraddha rites are as follow: — i. Father, 
 grandfjither, great-grandfather ; 2. Mother, mother's father 
 and grandfather ; 3. Stepmother, if any ; 4. Father's mother, 
 grandmother, and great-grandmother; 5. Father's brothers;
 
 106 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 6. Mother's brothel's ; 7. Father's sisters; 8. Mother's sisters; 
 9. Sisters and brothers; 10. Fathers-in-law. 
 
 An eleventh person is sometimes added, viz. the family 
 spiritual teacher [guru). 
 
 Let no one suppose that the process of performing- Srad- 
 dhas at Gaya is either simple or rapid. To secure the 
 complete efficacy of such rites, a whole round of them must 
 be performed at about fifty distinct places in and around 
 Gaya, besides at the most holy spot of all — -the Vishnu- 
 pada temple — the time occupied in the process being" at 
 least eight days, and sometimes protracted to fifteen, while 
 the money spent in fees to the officiating priests (who at 
 Gaya are called Gaywals = Gaya-palas, regarded by some 
 as an inferior order of Brahmans) is never less than E-s. 40. 
 But only the poorest are let off thus easily. The Maharaja 
 of Kas'mir, who is a very strict Hindu, and performed 
 Sraddhas at Gaya the other day on his way to Calcutta, is 
 reported to have distributed Rs. 15,000 to the Gaywal 
 Brahmans. 
 
 With regard to the Sraddhas I myself witnessed at Gaya, 
 they were all performed in colonnades and open courts 
 round the Vishnu-pada temple. One example will suffice. 
 The party celebrating the rite consisted of six men, who 
 were of course relations, and one Gaywal. The men sat 
 on their heels in a line, with the officiating Gaywal (some- 
 times called Panda) priest at their head. Twelve pindas 
 were formed of rice and milk, not much larger than the 
 large marbles used by boys (called ' alleys '). They were 
 placed with sprigs of the sacred Tulsl plant in small 
 earthenware platters. Then on the top of the pindas were 
 scattered kusa grass and flowers. I was told that the 
 pindas in the present case were typical of the bodies of the 
 twelve ancestors for whom the Sraddha was celebrated. 
 The men had kusa grass twisted round their fingers, in 
 token of their hands being perfectly pure for the due per- 
 formance of the rite. Next, water was poured into the 
 palms of their hands, part of which they sprinkled on the
 
 SRADDHA CEREMONIES AT GAY A. 107 
 
 ground, and part on the pindas. One or two of the men 
 then took threads off their clothes and laid them on the 
 pindas, which act is alleged to be emblematical of present- 
 ing* the bodies of their departed ancestors with garments. 
 
 Meanwhile Mantras, or texts, were rejieated, under the 
 direction of the Gaywal, and the hands were sometimes 
 extended over the pindas as if to invoke blessings. When 
 all the Mantras were finished, and one or two added to 
 pray for pardon if any minute point in the ritual had been 
 omitted, the whole rite was couchided by the men putting 
 their heads to the ground before the officiating Brahman 
 and touching his feet. Of course the number of pindas 
 varies with the number of ancestors for whom the Si'addhas 
 are celebrated, and the size of the balls and the materials 
 of which they are composed differ according to the caste 
 and the country of those who perform the rite. I saw one 
 party in the act of forming fourteen or fifteen pindas with 
 oatmeal, which were of a much larger size than large 
 marbles. This party was said to have come from the 
 Dekhan. Sometimes the pindas were placed on betel- 
 leaves with pieces of money (afterwards appropriated by the 
 priests), and sometimes the water used was gradually taken 
 out of little pots by dipping stalks of kusa grass into the 
 fluid, and sprinkling it over the balls. At the end of all the 
 ceremonies the earthen platters employed were carried to a 
 particular stone in the precincts of the temple and dashed 
 to pieces there. No platter is allowed to be used a second 
 time. 
 
 Amid this crash of broken crockery, the tedious round 
 of rites, ceremonies, and vain repetitions, which, if they 
 effect nothing else, certainly serve to enrich a goodly 
 company of Brahmans, is perhaps not inappropriately 
 concluded.
 
 INDIAN ROSARIES 1. 
 
 Rosaries seem to be common in nearly all religious 
 systems which attach more importance to the repetition, 
 than to the spirituality, of prayers. It might be supposed, 
 a priori, that to no one would a rosary be more useless and 
 meaningless than to a Christian, who is taught when he 
 prays to enter into his closet, to avoid vain repetitions, to 
 pour out his heart before his Father in secret, and to 
 cultivate spiritual intercessions ' which cannot be uttered.' 
 Yet we know that in some Christian countries rosaries are 
 regarded as indispensable aids to devotion. Palladius, who 
 lived in the fourth century, tells of a certain abbot who 
 used to repeat the Lord's prayer 300 times every day, and 
 who secured a correct enumeration of the repetitions by 
 dropping small pebbles into his lap. 
 
 The Kuran enjoins prayers five times a day, and good 
 Muslims are very particular in going through prescribed 
 forms morning, noon, and evening. It cannot, therefore, 
 be matter of wonder that the use of rosaries (called fasbih, 
 ' praise,' and furnished with tassels called shamsa) is common 
 among Indian Muhammadans. In all probability they 
 were common among Hindus and Buddhists long before 
 the Christian era. Indeed, the Indian name for a rosary 
 well expresses its meaning and use even in Roman Catholic 
 countries. It is called in ^a,n^xii japa-mdld, 'muttering- 
 chaplet' (and sometimes smaranl, 'remembrancer'), because 
 
 ' This article and that on Samadh appeared first in the Athenteum.
 
 INDIAN ROSARIES. 109 
 
 by means of its beads the muttering of a definite number 
 of prayers may be counted. But the pious Hindu not only 
 computes his daily prayers as if they were so many rupees 
 to be added to his capital stock in the bank of heaven^ he 
 sets himself to repeat the mere names of his favourite 
 god, and will continue doing so for hours together. 
 
 When I was at Benares, I went early one morning to 
 inspect the temple of the goddess Anna-purna. A devotee 
 was seated at the door, with a rosary in his hand, mutter- 
 ing ' Ram, Bam, Bam ' incessantly. When I had occasion 
 to pass by a long time afterwards, I found him seated in 
 precisely the same position, and engaged in precisely the 
 same occupation, except that instead of repeating the god's 
 name he prefixed to it that of his wife Sita. I have no 
 doubt that the whole day was divided between Bam and 
 Sita-ram, and an accurate account kept of the total number 
 of repetitions. 
 
 In this respect Hinduism is behind the most corrupt 
 forms of Christianity. It has been calculated that about 
 ninety names and attributes are applied to Christ in the 
 Bible. But no Bomanist, however ignorant and super- 
 stitious, so far as I know, attaches any merit or efficacy 
 to the repetition of the mere names of God. 
 
 Muhammadans reckon ninety -nine sacred names, or 
 rather attributes, of the Deity. Some consider that the 
 principal name, Allah, must be counted separately. The 
 tale is thus brought up to one hundred. I saw only 
 ninety-nine names carved on Akbar's marble tomb near 
 Agra, Akbar, 'the Great One,' being one of the ninety- 
 nine. (See note at the end of this chapter.) 
 
 The voracious appetite of a Hindu in any matter con- 
 nected with religious superstition far outdoes that of 
 any other nation on earth. If one hundred titles of the 
 Deity will satisfy the piety of an earnest-minded Muslim, 
 nothing short of that number multiplied by ten will 
 slake the devotional cravings of an ardent Hindu. The 
 worshippers of Vishnu adore him by 1,000 sacred
 
 1 10 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 names, and the votaries of Siva by t,oo8 names. The 
 whole catalogue is given in the Maha-bharata and the 
 Puranas. 
 
 Curiously enough among the names of Siva occur Haya, 
 ' a horse,' and Gardabha, ' an ass ' (Maha-bharata XIII. 
 1 149), which the Vedantist has no difficulty in accepting 
 as suitable titles of the One universal Being with whom 
 the god Siva and every existing thing in the universe is 
 identified. 
 
 It is not unreasonable to conjecture that the original 
 invention of rosaries is due to India. They were as much 
 the offspring of necessity as was the invention of the 
 Sutras, or brief memorial rules for the correct performance 
 of the complicated ritual. No other country in the world 
 stands in such need of aids to religious exercises. Vaish- 
 navas, Saivas, Buddhists, Jains, and Muhammadans depend 
 upon these contrivances for securing the accurate discharge 
 of their daily round of interminable repetitions. 
 
 The rosary of a Vaishnava is made of the wood of the 
 TulasT (vulgarly Tnlsl), or holy basil, a shrub sacred to 
 Vishnu, and regarded as a metamorphosis of Rama's pat- 
 tern-wife Sita. This rosary should consist of 108 smooth 
 beads. That worn by Saivas consists of thirty-two and 
 sometimes sixty-four berries of the Rudraksha tree (EIsbo- 
 carpus). These seeds are as rough as the Tulsi beads are 
 smooth, and are generally marked with five lines, the 
 roughness symbolizing, I suspect, the austerities connected 
 with the worship of 6iva, and the five lines standing for the 
 five faces or five distinct aspects of the god. 
 
 The Musalman tasblk contains one hundred beads, which 
 are generally made of date-stones, or of the sacred earth of 
 Karbala. They are used in repeating the hundred names 
 of God or certain words of the Kuran, every decade of 
 beads being separated by a tassel. Some Sunnis are pro- 
 hibited from employing rosaries, and count by means of 
 the joints of their fingers. 
 
 It might be wearisome if I were to attempt a description
 
 INDIAN ROSARIES. Ill 
 
 of the diverse uses to which different kinds of rosaries are 
 applied in India. 
 
 I was told by a Grihastha, or layman of the Svami- 
 Narayan sect of Vaishnavas, that he was able by help of 
 his japa-mdld to g-o on muttering* Svami-Narayan, Svami- 
 Narayan, Svami-Narayan one hundred and eight times 
 with perfect precision at his morning and evening devo- 
 tions, and that he attributed great efficacy to the act. 
 
 High-caste Brahmans, on the other hand, merely use 
 their rosaries to assist them in counting up their daily 
 prayers, especially the well-known Gayatri from the Rig- 
 veda {Tat saviiur varenyam hJiargo devasya dhlmahi dhiyo 
 yo nail pra^odaydt), which is repeated five, ten, twenty- 
 eighty or one hundred and eight times at the dawn and 
 sunset Sandhyas. The very sound of this precious mantra 
 (called Gayatri, from the metre in which it is composed), 
 qiiite irrespectively of the sense (which may be rendered, 
 ' Let us adore that excellent glory of the divine Vivi- 
 fier : may he enlighten our understandings'), is a mine 
 of inexhaustible spiritual wealth to those favoured beings 
 whose second spiritual birth — conferred by investiture with 
 the sacred thread — entitles them to repeat it. Manu 
 (II. 77) declares that this sacred text was ' milked out' of 
 the three Vedas and ordains that ' a Brahman may attain 
 beatitude by simple repetition of the Gayatri, whether 
 he perform other rites or not,"* and ' that having repeated 
 the Gayatri three thousand times he is delivered from the 
 greatest guilt.' 
 
 It is noticeable, moreover, that the proud Brahman who 
 claims to be the true owner of this valuable piece of 
 religious property is careful to conceal his hand in a sort 
 of bag called a Gomukhl while engaged in counting out 
 his morning and evening store of accumulated Gayatrls. 
 In fact, every Hindu is persuaded that jealous demons are 
 ever on the watch to obstruct his religious exercises, and 
 ever eager, like cunning thieves, to abstract a portion of 
 their merit. This is the true secret of the universal homage
 
 112 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 paid throughout India to Ganesa, lord of the demon-hosts. 
 I have myself often seen Brahmans seated on the margin 
 of sacred streams, with their faces tm'ned towards the east, 
 and apparently intently occupied in gazing on vacancy. 
 On a closer inspection, I found that their right hands were 
 mysteriously concealed in a red bag. Prayers were being 
 repeated and counted up by help o{ the japa-mdld, and the 
 repeater, even if too proud to betray any fear of thievish 
 demons, seemed at any rate to understand that the value 
 of his prayers would be increased by his taking heed not 
 'to be seen of men.' We must not forget, too, that a 
 Hindu is taught by many of his own sacred precepts that 
 the merit of religious exercises is destroyed by ostentation. 
 
 Nothing, however, comes up to the Buddhist's idea of 
 the efficacy of repeated prayers. His rosary, like that of 
 the Vaishnavas, consists of io8 beads, which in China are 
 often arranged in two rings. I never met with any native 
 who could explain the proper meaning of om mani padme 
 7mm, ' hail to the jewel in the lotus ! ' although every 
 Buddhist in Tibet believes that the oftener this six- 
 syllabled formula is repeated by help of rosaries and 
 prayer-wheels the greater merit will accrue to the repeater. 
 According to some, the repetition of the six syllables 
 exercises some sort of protective or preventive influence' 
 with reference to the six Gatis, or forms of transmigration. 
 In China the repeated prayer is ' Omito Fat ' or ' Omito 
 Fo' (for amita Buddha, Hhe infinite Buddha'), or 'Nama 
 Amitabha, and in Japan, ' Namu Amida Butsu ' (for natna 
 amita Buddhaya, ' honour to the infinite Buddha '). 
 
 It is not uncommon to meet Buddhists in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Darjiling who, while they are talking to you, 
 continue whirling their prayer-wheels, held in their right 
 hands, and made to revolve like a child's toy. The wheel 
 consists of a metal cylinder on which the form of prayer is 
 engraved. It must be whirled, by means of a handle, 
 in a particular direction (I think with the sun) ; if made 
 to revolve the other way the number of its rotations will
 
 INDIAN ROSARIES. 1 13 
 
 be set down to the debtor rather than the creditor side of 
 the owner's aeeouut. 
 
 A friend of mine who had to hold a conversation with a 
 pious Buddhist, intent on redeeming- every instant of time 
 for the repetition of prayers, came away from the inter- 
 view under the impression that all Buddhists regard all 
 Europeans as possessed with evil spirits. The Buddhist's 
 diligent gyration of his wheel was mistaken by my friend 
 for a form of exorcism. 
 
 It is said that the Buddhist monks of Ladakh have a still 
 more economical arrangement, and one not unworthy of the 
 attention of monks in other monasteries — when regarded, I 
 mean, from the point of view of an ingenious contrivance 
 for saving time and making the most of both worlds. An 
 infinite number of prayers are repeated, and yet the whole 
 time of the monastery is saved for making money by indus- 
 trial occupations. Long strips of the usual Buddhist prayer 
 are rolled round cylinders, and these cylinders are made to 
 revolve, like the works of a clock, by means of heavy weights 
 wound up every morning and evening. A single monk 
 takes five minutes to set the entire spiritual machinery in 
 motion, and then hastens to join his brothers at their mun- 
 dane occupations ; the whole body of monks feeling that the 
 happiness and prosperity of the community are greatly pro- 
 moted by the substitution of the precept ' laborare est orare,' 
 for ' orare est laborare.' 
 
 It should be mentioned that in times of emergency or 
 difficulty additional weights are attached to the cylinders, 
 and an additional impetus thus given to the machinery, 
 and, of course, increased force and cogency to the rotatory 
 prayers. 
 
 My friend the Collector of Kaira, in whose camp I stayed 
 for about a fortnight, had occasion one day to ascend a hill 
 in his district much overgrown with trees. There to his 
 surprise he came suddenly upon an old hermit, who had 
 been living for a long time without his knowledge in the 
 jungle at the summit. Mr. Sheppard found the ancient 
 
 I
 
 114 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 recluse in a hut near a rude temple, concealed from observa- 
 tion by the dense underwood. He was engag-ed in his 
 evening religious exercises, and, wholly regardless of the 
 presence of his European visitor, continued turning with 
 both hands and with evident exertion a gigantic rosary. A 
 huge wooden roller, suspended horizontally from the posts 
 of the shed, supported a sort of chain composed of fifteen 
 rough wooden balls, each as big as a child's head. As he 
 kept turning this enormous rosary round and round, each 
 ball passed into his hands, and whilst he held the several 
 balls in his grasp he repeated, or rather chanted in a low 
 tone, a short prayer to the god Rama. All the wooden balls 
 underwent this process of pious manipulation several times 
 before he desisted. The muscular exertion and consequent 
 fatigue must have been great, yet the entire operation was 
 performed with an air of stoical impassiveness. Then the 
 devotee went into another shed, where on another cross- 
 beam, supported by posts, were strung some heavy logs of 
 hard wood, each weighing about twenty pounds. Having 
 grasped one of these with both hands, he dashed it forcibly 
 against the side post, and then another log against the 
 first. Probably the clashing noise thus produced was in- 
 tended to give increased eflPectiveness to the recitation of his 
 prayers, 
 
 Sleemau somewhere relates how he happened once to be 
 staying in the neighbourhood of an Indian village, the 
 inhabitants of which were divided into two religious parties 
 — those who advocated a noisy musical worship, and those 
 who attributed greater efficacy to a quiet religious cere- 
 monial. The two parties lived together very amicably, 
 agreeing to set apart certain hours of the day for an alter- 
 nate use of the village temple. When the noisy faction had 
 possession the din was terrific. 
 
 In short, almost every religious idea that the world has 
 ever known has in India been stimulated to excessive growth, 
 and every religious usage carried to preposterous extremes. 
 Hence, if a Hindu temple has a choir of musicians, its ex-
 
 INDIAN ROSARIES. 1 15 
 
 cellence is estimated by the deafening discord it gives out 
 at the morning and evening puja; and if a devotee uses a 
 rosary its effectiveness is supposed to depend on the dimen- 
 sions of its beads, which may vary from small seeds to heavy 
 balls as big as a human skull. 
 
 Note. — The ninety-nine names or attributes of the Deity are called by 
 the Muhammadans Um-iazim, 'The glorious names.' Some of these are 
 as follow :— The Lord (Rabb), the King (Malik), the Merciful (Rahman), 
 the Compassionate (Rahim), the Holy (Kuddus), the Creator (Khalik), 
 the Saviour (Salilm), the Excellent ('Aziz), the Omniscient ('Alim), the 
 Omnipotent (Jabbar), the Pardoner (Ghafur), the Glorious (Majid), the 
 Beneficent (Karim), the Wise (Hakim), the Just ('Adil), the Benign 
 (Latif), the One (Wahid), the Eternal (Baki), the Survivor (Waris), the 
 Last (Akhir), the Guide (Hadi), the Director (Rashid), the Patient 
 (Sabur). 
 
 1 2
 
 INDIAN FAMINES. 
 
 In the course of my travels through some of the famine- 
 districts of India I made notes of a few particulars which 
 came under my observation ? These notes I here give just 
 as they were written down at the time. 
 
 The area of the scarcity and famine is immense, stretch- 
 ing, as it does, from the neighbourhood of Poona, not far 
 from Bombay, to Tinnevelly, near the extreme south of the 
 Madras Presidency. But it must not be supposed that the 
 drought has been equally severe everywhere. Although in 
 many places, where the usual rainfall is thirty-five or forty- 
 five inches, only fifteen or twenty have fallen, yet other parts 
 of the country have been more favoured. Moreover, all the 
 belts of land reached hy the grand system of irrigation, 
 which stretches between the Godavari, Kistna, and Kaverl 
 rivers — fertilizing the soil wherever it penetrates, and 
 forcing even haters of the English rule to admit that no 
 other Haj has conferred such benefits on India — present a 
 marvellous contrast to the vast tracts of arid waste which 
 meet the eye of the traveller as he journeys by the Great 
 Indian Peninsula, Madras, and South Indian Railways. 
 
 A sad feature in the spectacle is the condition of the 
 cattle. As I travelled from one place to another, often 
 diverging from the neighbourhood of the railway to less 
 frequented outlying districts, I saw hundreds of lean, half- 
 famished kine endeavouring to eke out a doomed existence 
 on what could only in mockery be called herbage. When 
 it is remembered that the cow is a principal source of
 
 THE FAMINE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 117 
 
 sustenance to Hindus of nearly all castes, and that no such, 
 animal as a cart-horse is to be found in India — all agricul- 
 tural labour depending* on the os — some idea may be formed 
 of the- terrible calamity involved in a mortality among 
 cattle. Even the cows and oxen that survive will be almost 
 useless. Utterly enfeebled and emaciated, they will have 
 little power left either to yield milk or to drag a plough 
 through soil caked and indurated by months of unmitigated 
 sunshine. 
 
 But the saddest feature of all is the condition of the 
 human inhabitants of this great peninsula. I will simply 
 recount what I know and testify of what I have seen with 
 my own eyes in the Madras Presidency. Only a fortnight 
 ago, I saw many thousands of poor famine-driven creatures 
 from the villages round Madras collected on the shore and 
 on the pier. They were crowding round the saeks of rice- 
 graiuj with which the sands for at least a mile were thickly 
 covered and almost concealed from view, the grain-bags 
 being often piled up in mounds to the height of fifteen or 
 twenty feet. Yet no onslaught was made on the grain. A 
 few men scattered about, armed with canes, were guarding 
 the sacks for the merchants who owned them, and were 
 sufficient to prevent any attempts at depredation though 
 here and there I detected surreptitious efforts, not so much 
 to make incisions, as to enlarge any happy defects apparent 
 in the material which enclosed the coveted food. What 
 generally happened was this : — Very few of the grain-bags 
 were so well made as to make any leakage imj^wssible, and 
 sprinklings of rice were thus scattered about everywhere. 
 The knowledge of this circumstance was the cause of the 
 vast concourse of miserable, half-starved, emaciated creatures 
 who had walked many miles to the spot. Men and women, 
 old and young, even cripples, mothers with infants on their 
 hips, and naked children— all more or less pitiable in their 
 leanness and in their hard-set aspect of misery — were 
 earnestly engaged in gleaning up every grain that escaped 
 from the sacks on the pier and on the shore. Many were
 
 II 8 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 provided with coarse sieves, by means of whicli a few rice- 
 grains were, with infinite pains, separated from bushels of 
 sand. On the pier every crevice was searched, and every 
 discoloured grain eagerly scraped up, mixed as it was with 
 dirt, ejected betel-juice, and filth of all kinds. This is a 
 brief and imperfect description of what I saw with my own 
 eyes. 
 
 And now it will be asked, what measures are being taken 
 to meet and mitigate the impending calamity ? My answer 
 is that, so far as I have observed, the Governments of 
 Madras and Bombay are fully alive to their duty. They 
 are organizing relief as speedily as possible. Before I left 
 Madras, I saw thirty ships laden with grain at anchor in 
 the roads. Large surf-boats were continually plying between 
 the ships and the shore ; heavily laden trucks were passing 
 and repassing on the pier; and dozens of huge cranes, 
 worked by countless coolies, were refilling the trucks as 
 they returned empty. Thirty-five thousand human beings 
 were daily being fed at Madras with cooked food or supplied 
 with raw rice, but of these about two-thirds were taken in 
 hand by benevolent rich natives. Kuddapah, Bellary, Kur- 
 nool, and other towns were also feeding a large number; 
 some as many as 2,000 every day. As I left Madras the 
 rail was blocked with trucks laden with grain. Indeed, all 
 the districts near the railway are tolerably certain of being 
 adequately relieved. But how is it to be conveyed to distant 
 corners of the famine-stricken land ? And, worse still, how 
 is the ' water-famine' likely to ensue two or three months 
 hence to be met ? There is a large tank near here which 
 usually contains fifteen feet of water, and is now nearly dry. 
 Possibly partial showers of rain may yet fall in particular 
 districts. At Trichinopoly, where I have recently been 
 staying with the Collector Mr. Sewell, more than three 
 inches of rain fell on Sunday and Monday last. This 
 downpour will, I trust, check the cholera already gaining 
 ground there. Here at Madura scarcely any rain fell, 
 while the adjoining district was being drenched.
 
 THE FAMINE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 119 
 
 It is evident, indeed, that the most severe trial has yet to 
 come^ and a hard task lies before the Collectors and Deputy- 
 Collectors everywhere. They must not intervene with aid 
 before the proper time, and they must by no means inter- 
 vene too late. They have to inquire when and where and 
 how relief is to be g-iven, and they oug-ht to provide work 
 for all who are relieved. Many Collectors are at work from 
 morning to night in their offices deciding these difficult 
 questions. 
 
 Surely, then, I may be allowed to close this imperfect 
 account of the distressing scenes through which I have 
 lately passed by adding a tribute to the energy and devotion 
 of our fellow-countrymen — the rulers of this land — who are 
 everywhere exerting themselves to the utmost in the present 
 crisis. Numbers who had a right to furlough, or were 
 looking forward to a holiday at Delhi, are remaining cheer- 
 fully at their posts. 
 
 Indeed, my second visit to India has impressed me more 
 than ever with the desire shown by the Queen's officers in 
 this country to govern India righteously and to make our 
 rule a blessing to the people. Evidences of the benefits we 
 have conferred, and are still daily conferring, meet one at 
 every turn. But I crave permission to add a word or two 
 of warning. In our anxiety to conciliate the natives, let us 
 beware of alienating our own officers. Let the Central 
 Governments balance the scales evenly between the two. 
 Our hold of India depends mainly on the personal influence 
 of the representatives of those Governments in the several 
 districts, and the personal influence of these representatives 
 depends mainly on the degree of support they receive from 
 the central seats of authority. Every Commissioner and 
 Collector is a little Viceroy in his own territory. He has 
 vast responsibilities laid upon him, and he ought to be 
 trusted by his superiors. It is right that the British public 
 should be made aware that while the Queen is being pro- 
 claimed Empress at Delhi, and the loyalty of her Indian 
 subjects is being evoked by the holding of Darbars and
 
 T20 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the distribution of rewards to deserving natives in every 
 Collectorate, much irritation of feeling- is apparent among- 
 her European subjects. Over and over again I have heard 
 able officers exclaim, ' I dare not act on my own responsi- 
 bility in this emergency. Cholera may break out ; symptoms 
 of serious riots may show themselves ; people may be dying- 
 of famine ; instant action is needed, but I dare not trust to 
 my own life-long- knowledge and experience of India — I 
 must telegraph for instructions.' There can be no doubt 
 that the energy of the most successful administrator will 
 be paralyzed if he is made to feel that a single blunder or 
 an act of indiscretion will be visited by a formal reprimand, 
 which is sure to find its way into every native newspaper 
 and become the talk of all the bazaars throughout his 
 district. I much fear that the benefits which have accrued 
 to India from the trust reposed by the old East India Com- 
 pany in its ofl^cers are in danger of being sacrificed to the 
 present mania for the centralization of authority.
 
 A RELIEF CAMP. 
 
 In my previous notes on some of the famine districts, 
 I expressed a doubt as to whether any organization for the 
 relief of the sufferers, however complete, would be able to 
 reach every corner of the immense area over which the 
 drought and dearth extend. Now that I have travelled 
 in various directions over a great part of the country from 
 Bombay to Cape Comorin, and noted with my own eyes 
 what is being done to spread a network of this organization 
 over every separate district, so as to embrace the most 
 remote places, I am bound to admit that my fears were 
 unfounded. Indeed, it would be difficult to use exaggerated 
 language in speaking of the zeal, ability, and devotion 
 displayed by Indian civilians and other executive officials 
 in the present emergency. 
 
 I have recently been staying with the energetic Col- 
 lector of Salem (Mr. Longley), and early one morning I 
 visited with him one of the Relief Camps now being 
 constructed in the large district over the welfare of which 
 he presides. The spot chosen for this Camp is an ele- 
 vated piece of ground beautifully situated near a spring 
 of excellent water, close under some chalk hills (supposed 
 by the natives to be formed of the bones of the mythical 
 bird Jatayus, killed by Ravana when carrying off Sita), 
 and not far from the base of the Shervaroy Hills — the 
 sanatarium of this part of India. On this ground nearly 
 twenty long huts or sheds — each capable of accommodating 
 forty persons — had already been constructed with bamboo
 
 122 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 poles, course cocoa-nut matting-, and palmyra leaves. I was 
 told that as only three months of the famine have passed, 
 and at least four months have still to be provided for, it 
 will be necessary to erect lOO similar huts in this one 
 Camp, with accommodation for 4,000 or 5,000 people. 
 
 In fact, these Relief Camps may be described as tem- 
 porary workhouses with wards for the old, feeble, and infirm, 
 where the famine-driven inhabitants of outlying- districts 
 will take refuge, and where they will be comfortably 
 housed, fed, and, if strong enough, made to work, till 
 better times arrive. 
 
 In Mr. Longley's camp the two classes of workers and 
 non-workers into which every camp-community will be 
 divided were plainly distinguishable from each other. The 
 former were engaged in making new huts, breaking stones 
 for a road, clearing the environs of the Camp, and keeping 
 the whole place clean ; while the non-workers were sitting 
 on the ground in three rows, exposed, by their own choice, 
 to the heat of a tropical sun for the sake of the warmth 
 which insufficient food made necessary to them. It was 
 piteous to see the emaciated old men and shrivelled old 
 women, many of them blind or crippled, whose existence 
 is being prolonged for a few months by the minimum of 
 nourishment they are now receiving at the hands of a 
 paternal Government ; but still more sad to look upon 
 the unclothed skeletons of young men, boys, and little 
 children with drawn features, shoulder bones standing 
 out, legs like thin sticks, and ribs enclosing the feeble 
 organs of their shrunk bodies, like bony cages, every bar 
 of which was visible. 
 
 Yet I was told that the great difficulty in Indian famines 
 is not so much the effective distribution of relief as the 
 effective application of any proper method of detecting the 
 vast number of undeserving applicants who ought not to 
 be relieved at all. We were informed that about 300 
 applicants for food, without work, ought to have been 
 present on the day of our visit, but that more than half
 
 THE FAMINE IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 123 
 
 had run off during the night, either because they disliked 
 the confinement to which they had been subjected, or be- 
 cause they had heard of the intended visit of the Collector 
 and other Sahibs, and were filled with vague suspicions 
 and fears of being questioned too closely. Yet no one is 
 admitted to the Camp without a ticket, which is supposed 
 to be given to deserving objects only. Those who were 
 seated on the ground in our presence had empty earthen- 
 ware bowls before them, in each of which about a pound 
 of good boiled rice was placed while we looked on. This, 
 with another meal administered in the evening, is held to 
 be sufficient to keep the body and soul of a non-worker 
 together. The workers are, of course, better fed. It was 
 curious to observe the cleverness with which some of the 
 recipients of the dole of boiled rice quietly pressed down 
 the eagerly accepted ration with their hands, hoping thereby 
 to be served with a little more than the due allowance. 
 Each recipient then made a hole with his hands in the 
 centre of his mess, and waited patiently till the half-pint 
 of pepper-water {tnuUiga tanir), to which every one was 
 entitled, had been poured into the cavity. Finally, by 
 means of the spoons, with which every man was naturally 
 provided, and in a manner which those only can under- 
 stand who have seen a low-caste native seated on his hams 
 with head bent back, mouth expanded to its utmost limits, 
 and all four fingers and thumb converted into a convenient 
 scoop for introducing into the aperture as much rice as a 
 human being is capable of swallowing at once, every grain 
 was disposed of before our eyes — in most cases with the 
 utmost avidity and apparent satisfaction. 
 
 It is intended, I understand, that caste prejudices shall 
 be, as far as possible, respected. Those of the same caste 
 will be grouped together in separate companies, and cooks 
 of sufficiently high caste will be provided. But no genuine 
 Brahman is ever likely to enter a Relief Camp. He will 
 rather starve than submit to the chances of pollution, 
 which to him would be worse than death. Starving
 
 124 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Brahmans, who in some parts of the country may he 
 even more plentiful than starving Sudras, will have to be 
 cared for by their own richer caste-fellows. I am sorry 
 to have to add to this brief narrative that pestilence is 
 followdng closely in the track of famine. At Madras 
 three Europeans have recently succumbed to attacks of 
 cholera, and the number of fatal cases among the natives 
 is increasing every day. In some country towns and 
 villages I have visited I have been cautioned to beware 
 of a bad type of the disease prevalent all around. Of 
 course, I could go into further details, but what I have 
 written will, at least, give an idea of how the seven or 
 eight millions of pounds sterling^ which the present famine 
 is likely to cost will be spent. 
 
 ' The actual cost turned out to be thirteen millions.
 
 GENEKAL IMPRESSIONS AND NOTES AFTER 
 TRAVELS IN NORTHERN INDIA. 
 
 Bombay, March 6, 1876. 
 
 The ' Serapis' is now lying" at anchor before our eyes in 
 Bombay Harbour, reminding us that the Prince of Wales 
 is on his road to this port^ and that England will soon be 
 preparing to welcome his return home. The interest 
 excited by his tour has now culminated, and special cor- 
 respondents are either bound homewards or addressing 
 themselves to an effective winding up of their commu- 
 nications by a telling description of the closing scene. 
 Even after the Prince's return his doings in India are 
 certain to continue a fashionable theme of conversation 
 during the London season of 1876, and the Session will 
 assuredly be marked by a constant recurrence to Indian 
 topics. Every Parliamentary orator will drag in, rele- 
 vantly or irrelevantly, allusions to the expedition and its 
 results for the benefit of his constituents. Newspapers, 
 reviews, and periodicals will contain trenchant articles, 
 bristling with point, epigram, and criticism, if they do 
 not cut the knot of our Indian difficulties. 
 
 Meanwhile, I will endeavour to record, in plain lan- 
 guage, a few particulars relative to our Indian possessions, 
 which have impressed themselves on me most forcibly in 
 the course of my tour in the Prince's track.
 
 126 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 It must be confessed that the impressions of a flying 
 traveller are not generally worth recording ; but as cir- 
 cumstances have given me peculiar opportunities of ob- 
 serving the country, and mixing with the natives, after 
 many years spent in studying their languages and lite- 
 rature, some value may possibly attach to my experiences, 
 which I propose to recount under distinct heads, com- 
 mencing with a few notes on the pohtieal divisions of 
 India, ancient and modern. 
 
 Ancient Political Divisions. 
 
 India has no historical literature of its own. Hence 
 there are only three means of arriving at any knowledge 
 of its early history ; i . By sifting fact from fiction, sober 
 narrative from poetical exaggeration in its early heroic 
 poetry, especially in its two great poems, the Ramayana, 
 and Maha-bharata ; 2. By examining the inscriptions on 
 rocks, pillars, and monuments, on copperplate grants of 
 land, and coins scattered in various places from Kasmir to 
 Kuttack; 3. By putting together all allusions to India, 
 and observations on its condition to be found in the lite- 
 rature of other countries. The accounts written by two 
 Chinese travellers — Fa-hian in the beginning of the fifth 
 century of our era, and Hiouen Thsang in the beginning 
 of the seventh — who made pilgrimages to all the early 
 Buddhist shrines, have done good service in this latter 
 way. 
 
 The very name India is partly derived from a foreign 
 source. It is the European adaptation of the word Hindu, 
 which was used by the Persians for their Aryan brethren, 
 because the latter settled in the districts surrounding the 
 streams of the Sindhu (pronounced by them Hind/m, and 
 now called Indus). The Greeks, who probably gained 
 their first conceptions of India from the Persians, changed 
 the hard aspirate into a soft, and named the Hindus 
 'Ivhoi (Herodotus IV. 44, V. 3). After the Indo-
 
 ANCIENT POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 127 
 
 Aryans had spread themselves over the plains of the 
 Ganges, the Persians called the whole of the region be- 
 tween the Panjab and Benares Hindustan, or ' abode of 
 the Hindus,' and this name is used in India at the pre- 
 sent day, especially by the Musalman population. 
 
 The classical names for India, however, as commonly 
 employed in Sanskrit literature and recognized by the 
 whole Sanskritic race, are Aryavarta, ' abode of the ' Aryas,' 
 and BJidrata-varsha, ' the country of king Bharata ' (a 
 prince of the lunar dynasty, who must have ruled over 
 a large extent of territory in ancient times). The former 
 name is more particularly applicable to India above the 
 Vindhya mountains. 
 
 After its occupation by the great Aryan race, India 
 appears to have yielded itself up an easy prey to every 
 invader. According to Herodotus (IV. 44), it was sub- 
 jugated by Darius Hystaspes (called in Persian Dara 
 Gushtasp). This conquest, if conquest it deserves to be 
 called, probably took place between 531 and 518 B.C., 
 about the time of the rise of Buddhism, and must have 
 been very partial. It was doubtless followed by a certain 
 amount of traffic between Persia and India, and to this 
 commercial intercourse may be due the introduction into 
 India of many new ideas — religious and philosophical — 
 and perhaps also of the Phoenician alphabet, with which 
 that of some of the Asoka edicts and inscriptions is 
 thought to be connected (see p. 129, note i). 
 
 The expedition of Alexander the Great (called by the 
 Hindus, Iskandar, or Sikandar) to the banks of the Indus, 
 about 327 B.C., is a well-known and better authenticated 
 fact. To this invasion is due the first trustworthy in- 
 formation obtained by Europeans concerning the north- 
 westerly portion of India and the region of the five rivers, 
 down which the Grecian troops were conducted in ships by 
 Nearchus. 
 
 The first reliable date in Indian History is the era of 
 Candra-gupta( = Sandrokottus)— the founder of the Maury a
 
 128 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 dynasty, who, after taking possession of Pataliputra (Pali- 
 bothra, Patna) and the kingdom of Magadha (Bebar), ex- 
 tended his dominion over all Hindustan, and presented a 
 determined front towards Alexander's successor, Seleukos 
 Nikator, tbe date of the commencement of whose reign 
 was about 312 B.C. When the latter contemplated in- 
 vading India from his kingdom of Bactria, so effectual 
 was the resistance offered by Candra-gupta that the Greek 
 thought it politic to form an alliance with the Hindu king, 
 and sent his own countryman Megasthenes as an am- 
 bassador to reside at his court'. 
 
 To this circumstance we owe the earliest authentic ac- 
 count of Indian manners, customs, and usages by an in- 
 telligent observer who was not a native, and Megasthenes's 
 narrative, preserved by Strabo, furnishes a basis on which 
 a fair inference may be founded that Brahmanism and 
 Buddhism existed side by side in India on amicable terms 
 in the fourth century b.o. There is even ground for 
 believing that King Candra-gupta himself was secretly 
 a Buddhist, though in public he gave homage to the 
 ffods of the Brahmans. 
 
 Candra-gupta's reign is thought to have lasted from 
 315 to 291 B.C., and that of his son and successor Vindu- 
 sara from 291 to 263 B.C. 
 
 Asoka (who called himself Priyadarsin) the grandson 
 of Candra-gupta, did for Buddhism what Constantine did 
 for Christianity — gave an impetus to its progress by adopt- 
 ing it as his own creed. Buddhism, then, became the state 
 religion, the national faith of the whole kingdom of Mag- 
 adha, and therefore of a great portion of India, For gra- 
 dually during this period most of the petty princes of India 
 from Peshawar and Kasmir to the river Kistna, and from 
 Surat to Bengal and Orissa, if not actually brought under 
 subjection to the kings of Magadha, were compelled to 
 acknowledge their paramount authority. Asoka's reign 
 
 * In the second century B.C. some of the Bactrian kings made conquests 
 in India.
 
 ASOKA'S EDICTS. ROCK INSCRIPTIONS. 1 29 
 
 was remarkable for a great Buddhist council (the third 
 since Buddha's time), held about 246 or 247 B.C., when 
 the Tripitaka or three collections of writings in the Pall 
 language (brought from ancient Magadha, and a form 
 of MagadhI Prakrit, though different from Jain Magadhi), 
 containing all the teachings of Buddha — who is supposed to 
 have never written anything himself — was finally settled. 
 
 Moreover, Anoka's edicts in Pali ^ inscribed on rocks and 
 stone pillars (probably between 251 and 253 B.C.) furnish 
 the first authentic records of Indian history. According 
 to Mr. R. N, Cust ^, ten of the most important inscrip- 
 tions are found on five rocks and five pillars, though 
 numerous other monuments are scattered over the whole 
 of Northern India, from the Indian Ocean on the west 
 to the Bay of Bengal on the east, from the slopes of the 
 Vindhya range on the south to the Khaiber Pass on the 
 north. 
 
 The five most important rock inscriptions are those on 
 (i) the Rock of Kapurda-garhi in British Afghanistan, 
 forty miles east-north-east of Peshawur ; (2) the Rock of 
 Khalsi, situated on the bank of the river Jumna, just where 
 it leaves the Himalaya mountains, fifteen miles west of the 
 hill- station of Mussourie ; (3) the Rock of Girnar, half 
 a mile to the east of the city of Jimagurh, in Kathiawar ; 
 (4) the Rock of Dhauli in Kuttack (properly Katak), 
 twenty miles north of Jagan-nath ; (5) the Rock of Jau- 
 gadha, in a large old fort eighteen miles west-north-west 
 of Ganjam, in Madras. 
 
 The five most important pillars are: (i) the Pillar at 
 
 ' These inscriptions are in two quite distinct kinds of writing. That at 
 Kapurda-garhi — sometimes called Northern Asoka or Ariano-Pali — is 
 clearly Semitic, and traceable to a Phoenician source, being written from 
 right to left. That at Girnar is not so clearly so. It probably came 
 tlu-ough a Pahlavi channel, and gave rise to Deva-nagari. General Cun- 
 ningham believes this character — sometimes called Southern Asoka or 
 Indo-Pilli — to have originated in India. 
 
 - See an interesting article in the ' Journal of the National Indian Asso- 
 ciation,' for June 1SJ9. 
 
 K.
 
 130 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Delhi, known as Firoz Shiih's Liit ; (2) another Pillar at 
 Delhi, which was removed to Calcutta, but has recently 
 been restored ; (3) the Pillar at Allahabad, a single shaft 
 without capital, of polished sandstone, thirty-five feet in 
 height ; (4) the Pillar at Lauriya, near Bettiah, in Bengal ; 
 (5) another Pillar at Lauriya. 
 
 The inscriptions on these monuments present us with 
 the best and most interesting edicts of As'oka. They 
 prohibit the slaughter of animals either for food or for 
 sacrifice, appoint missionaries for the propagation of Bud- 
 dhistic doctrines in various countries, inculcate peace and 
 mercy, charity and toleration, morality and self-denial, and 
 what is still more remarkable, enjoin seasons of general 
 national humiliation and confession of sin every five years. 
 
 Seven Buddhist kings of the Maurya dynasty, under 
 whom the kingdom of Magadha continued to enjoy great 
 prosperity (though probably not an equally extended do- 
 minion), reigned after As'oka, until the year 195 B.C. 
 They were succeeded by the Sanga Rajas, the chief of 
 whom built the great Buddhist tope at SanchI about 
 188 B.C., and by another line of Buddhist kings called 
 Kanwa, who reigned till about 31 B.C. An Andhra 
 dynasty then acquired power in Magadha. 
 
 There were of course many rival principalities existing 
 in India long before the rise of the kingdom of Magadha, 
 some of which traced back the pedigrees of their kings to 
 the ancient dynasties of the heroic period. No one king- 
 dom ever acquired universal dominion, though occasionally 
 a single prince, conspicuous for unusual energy and ad- 
 ministrative power, compelled a large number of less able 
 chieftains to submit to his suzerainty, in which case he 
 was sometimes called a Maharajadhiraja, and sometimes a 
 Cakravartl. 
 
 To fix the chronological order of the most ancient 
 dj^nasties, is of course impossible. It will be sufficient 
 to enumerate some of the most important (with occasional 
 approximate dates) from the earliest times, merely pre-
 
 ANCIENT KINGDOMS OF NORTHERN INDIA. 1 31 
 
 mising that two lines of monarchs were originally domi- 
 nant in the north of India, one of which was called Solar, 
 because fabled to have derived its origin from the god 
 of the Sun, while the other, called Lunar, pretended to 
 trace back its pedigree to the god of the Moon. Some 
 of the modern Rajput princes claim to belong to one or 
 other of these two lines. 
 
 I begin with an enumeration of the chief kingdoms in 
 Northern India ^ : — 
 
 1. The ancient kingdom of Kosala, or Ayodhya, the 
 capital of which was Ayodhya (now Ajudhya) on the river 
 Sarayu, or Saiyu (now Gogra). Here reigned Dasaratha, 
 of the solar race, and afterwards his son Rama, the hero of 
 the Ramayana. 
 
 2. Tlie ancient kingdom of Videha (modern Tirhut) of 
 which the first capital was Mithila, and afterwards Benares, 
 llama's wife, Sita, was the daughter of Janaka, king of 
 this country. 
 
 3. The ancient kingdom of the city of Hastinapur, 57 
 miles north-east of the ancient Delhi (Indra-prastha). 
 These were the capitals of the heroes of the Maha-bharata 
 and kings of the Lunar line, some of whom appear to have 
 dwelt at Pratishthana (Allahabad). 
 
 4. The kingdom of Avanti or Oujein (LTjjayini) in Malwa, 
 reigned over by the celebrated Vikramaditya, whose reign is 
 the starting point of the Hindu Samvat era, ^'] B.C. He is 
 said to have driven out the Sakas or Scythian (Turanian) 
 tribes from Western India, and established his dominion 
 over almost the whole of Hindustan. According to some, 
 he was afterwards defeated by the very tribes he first con- 
 quered. 
 
 5. The kingdom of Magadha already described. 
 
 6. The ancient kingdom of Kanya-kubja or Kanauj, in 
 the neighbourhood of Oudh (Pancala). It was intensely 
 
 * A good summary which I have here consulted, will be found in a ' His- 
 tory of India for Schools,' by Mr. E. Lethbridge. 
 
 K %
 
 132 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Brahmanical and always took part with the Brahmans 
 ag-ainst the Buddhists. A dynasty called Gupta (supposed 
 to be descended from the great Rama) was established here 
 in the second century of our era. This dynasty conquered 
 the Srdi or Sinha ^ dynasty of Gujarat about the middle of 
 the third century, and founded a powerful kingdom and a 
 second capital at Vallabhi in Kathiawar. It may be noted 
 that a dynasty of Bajputs called Rahtor subsequently ruled 
 in Kanauj from about a.d. 470. 
 
 7. The Vallabhi Gupta dynasty, just named, which reigned 
 over Gujarat till about the middle of the 7th century, and 
 extended its dominion into Hindustan and the Dekhan. Its 
 second king", Samudra- Gupta, is said to have conquered 
 Ceylon. One of its monarchs, named Siladitya^ who reig"ned 
 in the fifth century, was converted to the Jaina relig-ion. Its 
 last king", Toraraiina, was expelled by an invasion of Per- 
 sians. The Vallabhi dynasty then mig-rated to Mewar or 
 Rajputana (where it became the founder of the Rajput state 
 of Mewar or Udaipur). It left behind a Rajput tribe named 
 Chaura who became the rulers of Gujarat, and transferred 
 their capital from Vallabhi to Anhalwara, now called Patan. 
 They were superseded by the Salonkhyas, about a.d. 943. 
 
 8. The Rajput state of Mewar or Udaipur founded by the 
 Vallabhi Guptas from Oudh, as described above. 
 
 9. The Chaura kingdom established at Anhalwara (now 
 Patan) as mentioned above. 
 
 10. The Delhi Rajput dynasty, of which the last king 
 was Prithivi Raja (the hero of Chand's poetry), who was first 
 victorious over and finally conquered by Muhammad Ghori 
 in 1 175. 
 
 11. A Brahmanical dynasty settled at Labor, in the 
 Punjab, known by its coins, having a bull on one side and 
 
 ^ The Sahs or Sinhas are thought to have been of Parthian origin, and 
 to have worshipped the Sun. A list of nineteen monarchs of the dynasty- 
 has been deduced from its coins, which are marked by an image of the Sun. 
 Their capital was Sehore, but their sway extended over nearly the whole of 
 what is now the Bombay Presidency.
 
 ANCIENT KINGDOMS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 133 
 
 a horseman on the other. The last king- was Bhimapal, 
 whose predecessor Jaipal was taken prisoner by Mahmud of 
 Ghazni. 
 
 13. The kingdom of Gaur (Gauda) or Bengal. Not much 
 is known of its earliest dynasties noticed in the Maha- 
 bharata. The Pal line of kings^who were Buddhists, reigned 
 from the 9th to the nth century of our era, and one of them 
 was acknowledged as a Maharajadhiraja. They were suc- 
 ceeded by the princes called Sena^ one of whom (Adisvara) 
 invited five pure Brahmans to come from Kanauj to Bengal. 
 These came, attended by men of the Kayastha (writer) 
 caste, and became the ancestors of the five classes of Brah- 
 mans and Writers now found there. The capital of the 
 Bengal dynasty was first Gaur and afterwards Nuddea. 
 
 The following are some of the ancient South Indian 
 kingdoms : — 
 
 1. The Pandya kingdom founded by a man named 
 Pandya who came from Ayodhya. Its capital was Madura. 
 It lasted from the fifth century B.C. till the eleventh cen- 
 tury A.D. 
 
 2. The Chola kingdom, founded by Tayaman Nale. Its 
 capital was Kanchipuram (Conjeveram). For a long period 
 (between 350 B.C. and 214 a.d.) the Chola kingdom was 
 united with the Pandya, but again became independent. 
 Then its capital was transferred to Tanjor. In the four- 
 teenth century it was merged in the Maratha kingdom. 
 
 3. The Chera kingdom comprising Travankor, INIalabar 
 and "Western Mysor. It existed from the first to the tenth 
 century a.d. 
 
 4. The kingdom of Patau on the Godavari in the Dekhan, 
 ruled over by the celebrated Salivahana, whose birth 77 or 
 78 after Christ is the beginning of the Saka era. He him- 
 self was prince of the Sakas or Scythian (Turanian) races, 
 who arrived in India before the Aryans, and were the great 
 opponents of Vikramaditya. 
 
 5. The kingdom of a powerful tribe of Rajputs called 
 Chalukya said to have come from Oudh and established at
 
 134 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 a place called Kalian in what is now the Western part of 
 the Nizam's territory, in 250 a.d. Its power was greatest 
 during the fourth and fifth centuries and then extended 
 over the Paudyas and Cholas in the south, and Andhras in 
 the east. It became extinct in 1182. 
 
 6. The Ballala dynasty which succeeded the Cheras, and 
 ruled at Dwara Samudra in North Mysor. One of its 
 Jaina kings was converted by the Vaishnava reformer 
 Ramanuja in 1133. 
 
 7. The great Andhra kingdom in the eastern part of 
 the Dekhan established at Warangal, to the east of 
 Hyderabad. 
 
 8. The kingdom of Deogarh (now Daulatabad) ruled 
 over by a Yadava dynasty. It was very powerful in the 
 twelfth century, and conquered the kingdom of Kalian. 
 
 9. The kingdom of Orissa ruled over by the Kesari 
 dynasty from an early date till 1131 a.d., and again by the 
 Gajapati line of princes established at Katak. 
 
 10. The Bahmani dj^nasty which held sway for 150 years 
 (from A.D. 1347 to 1526) over a great part of the Dekhan. 
 It ultimately became divided into the five Muhammadan 
 kingdoms next enumerated. 
 
 1 1 . The five Muhammadan kingdoms of ( i ) Bijapur, 
 founded by Adil Shah, a.d. 1489; (2) Ahmad-nagar, founded 
 by Malik Ahmad, a.d. 1487 ; (3) Golkondah, founded by 
 Kutb-ul-Mulkj A.D. 151 2 ; (4) Berar (whose capital was 
 Ilichpur) founded by Fath- Allah, a.d. 1574; (5) Bidar 
 and Galbargah, founded by Barld Shah. 
 
 12. The Hindu kingdom of Vijaya-nagar (Bija-nagar) 
 which became a strong power in the Dekhan, and was nearly 
 co-extensive with the Madras Presidency. It lasted till the 
 time of Akbar in i^^^^^, and at its fall a line of Hindu Eajas 
 maintained its independence in Mysore against the Mah- 
 rattas, the Nizams of the Dekhan and Nawabs of the 
 Carnatic until 1761, when an officer in the Raja's army 
 named Haidar usurped the government and became King 
 of Mysore.
 
 MUHAMMADAN INVASIONS OF INDIA. 135 
 
 One of the princes of Vijaya-nagar was king Bukka, the 
 patron of Sayanacarya, the Rig^-veda commentator. 
 
 I may usefully add here a brief notice of the Muhammadan 
 occupation of India. 
 
 Of course, many of the Hindu dynasties just enumerated 
 were flourishing" at the epoch when Muhammad, the Prophet 
 of Islam, laid the foundation of a new empire in Arabia, soon 
 after his flight to Medina in a.d. 622. 
 
 Muhammad's successors^ after occupying Damascus for 
 about one hundred years, fixed their capital at Baghdad in 
 750, and thence their power extended into Afghanistan. 
 The Arabs, however, never gained more than a temporary 
 footing in India. Under the Khalif Walid I, in 711, 
 Muhammad Kabim was sent at the head of an army into 
 Sindh, which was then added for a time to the Khalifate, 
 but the Muslims were expelled in 750 ; and for two cen- 
 turies and a half India was left unmolested by invaders from 
 the west. 
 
 About the year 950, when the power of the Arabs began 
 to decline in Asia, hardy tribes of Tartars, known by the 
 name of Turks (not the Ottoman tribe which afterwards 
 gained a footing in Europe, but hordes from the Altai 
 mountains)^ were employed by the Khallfs to infuse vigour 
 into their effeminate armies. 
 
 These tribes became Muhammadans and gradually took 
 the power into their own hands. In the province of 
 Afghanistan, Sabaktagin, once a mere Turkish slave, 
 usurped the government. His son Mahraud founded an 
 empire at Ghazni about the end of the tenth century. A 
 zealous iconoclast and great warrior, he made his first of 
 sixteen incursions into India in the year 1000. In one of 
 his later inroads he devastated the shrine of Somnath in 
 Gujarat and carried off the sandal-wood gates of the temple 
 as a trophy to Ghazni. He was the first of a long series of 
 Afghan kings who maintained a dominion in India for 500 
 years. One of his successors was Muhammad Ghori, who, 
 after his assumption of the empire of Ghazni, defeated and
 
 136 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 put to death Prithivl Raja of Delhi, at the second battle of 
 Thanesvar, and became the first Muhamraadan conqueror of 
 Delhi, and the real founder of the Musalman power in 
 Infiia, 1 193 A.D. Nevertheless, Kutb ud din, his lieutenant 
 and successor (i 206-1 210), was perhaps the first real king 
 of Delhi, as Muhammad Ghori returned home after the 
 completion of his conquests. 
 
 During the thirteenth century the Mongol or Moghul 
 hordes, under the celebrated Jangiz Khan, overthrew the 
 Turkish or Tartar tribes; and in 1398 TimQr, uniting 
 Tartars and Mongols into one army, made his well-known 
 invasion of India. After desolating the country then ruled 
 by the Afghan kings he retired, but the sixth in descent 
 from him, Baber {^Bdbar), conquered Afghanistan, and thence 
 invading India about 1526, founded the Moghul empire, 
 which his grandson Akbar (son of Humayun) established on 
 a firm basis in 1556. Previously to Akbar, however, and 
 during the reign of Humayun an Afghan chief named Shir 
 Shah Sur, who had conquered Bengal, usurped, for a time, 
 authority over Hindustan. He was a wise and energetic 
 ruler, and raised the empire to great prosperity. 
 
 The power of the Moghuls was at its height for a period 
 of 150 years. It rapidly increased under Akbar, Jahanglr, 
 and Shahjahan, until it culminated under Aurangzib, began 
 to decline under Shah Alam (Bahadur Shah), Jahandar 
 Shah, and Farrukh-Siyar ; and under Muhammad Shah, the 
 fourth from Aurangzib, took place the Persian invasion of 
 Afghanistan and thence of India, undertaken by Niidir Shah 
 (a.d. 1 738) to avenge on the Afghans their inroads into Persia. 
 
 Hence, it appears that in all cases the Muhammadan 
 invaders of India came through Afghanistan, and generally 
 settled there before proceeding to conquer the Hindus. For 
 this reason, and from the proximity of Afghanistan, it has 
 followed that the greater number of Muhammadan immi- 
 grants have been of Afghan blood. 
 
 As to the development of European influence and British 
 rule in India, a brief account of this subject will be found
 
 MODERN POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 137 
 
 in the first chapters on ' the progress of our Indian Empire ' 
 at the end of this volume. 
 
 Modern Political Divisions. 
 
 Let me note, for the benefit of those who have hitherto 
 given little heed to the progress of our Eastern Empire, that 
 the old tripartite separation of India into three Presidencies 
 gives an inadequate, if not inaccurate, idea of its present 
 political divisions. 
 
 The term Presidency is still conveniently retained for Bom- 
 bay and Madras (whose governments correspond directly 
 with the Secretary of State, and not through the Governor- 
 General), but cannot now be suitably applied to the twelve 
 divisions^ more immediately under the Viceroy, and gener- 
 ally supplied with oflicers from the Bengal Civil Service. 
 
 ' Mr. Trelawny Saundei's in commenting on my Times' letter, June 14, 
 1877, enumerated these twelve divisions, and gave an official explanation 
 of the present political divisions of India, part of which I here extract as 
 useful and instructive, though Lis description of what he states ought still 
 to be called the Bengal Presidency is likely to bewilder the general reader : 
 ' Ever since the reduction of the lower Provinces of Bengal from being the 
 chief Presidency to the position of a Lieutenant-Government, it has been 
 the fashion in certain official quarters to deny the existence of the Bengal 
 Presidency, and, indeed, of the Presidencies altogether. As, however, the 
 officials of Madras and Bombay have not suffered any detraction from 
 their rank as Presidencies, the fashion which prevails in Calcutta does not 
 appear to have extended to Madras and Bombay ; and thus the Professor 
 allows that " the term may be conveniently retained " in their cases. 
 
 ' But the Presidency of Bengal (or, technically, Fort William in Bengal), 
 so far from having been abolished, has become so largely extended as to 
 require that the local Government of the original Presidency should be 
 delegated by the Governor-General of the extended Presidency to a Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor, just as other parts of the Presidency have been. The 
 honours of the Bengal Civil Service are now, therefore, no longer confined 
 to the area under the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, but are disseminated 
 throughout India, excepting Bombay and Madras. A reference to the 
 " India List " will prove that, as a rule, it is Members of the Bengal Civil 
 Service who are employed, not only in (l) the Lieutenant-Government 
 of Bengal Proper, but also in (2) the North-Western Provinces (of Bengal) 
 and Oudh, (3) the Punjab, (4) Rfijputana and Ajmir, (5) Central India, 
 (6) the Central Provinces, (7) Hyderabad and Berar, (8) Mysore and 
 Coorg, (9) Assam, (10) Manipur, a little state, east of Assam, on the 
 frontier of Burmah, (11) British Burmah, (12) the Andaman and Nicobar
 
 ,^1^ 
 
 138 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 It would be better, I think, to speak of Modern British 
 India as divided into eig-ht Provinces, each under its own 
 Government. These are: — i. Bengal (sometimes called the 
 Lower Provinces, consisting of Bengal, Behar, and Orissa) ; 
 2. the North-West Provinces (so called from their position re- 
 latively to Beng-al); 3. the Panjab; 4. the Central Provinces; 
 5. British Burmah ; 6. Assam; 7. Bombay; and 8. Madras. 
 
 Till quite recently the province of Oudh formed a ninth 
 division under a separate Government, but is now attached 
 to the North- West Provinces, "c 
 
 Then there are now nine principal native territories sur- 
 rounded by, or contiguous to, these eight British Provinces ; 
 and of course protected and controlled by us through Resi- 
 dents and Political Agents, viz. i. Rajputana ; 2. Central 
 India (including the dominions of Sindia and Holkar) ; 3. 
 the Bombay Maratha States (especially that of the Gaikwar 
 of Baroda) ; 4. Hyderabad or the Nizam's territory ; 5. 
 Mysor; 6. Travankor; 7. Nepal; 8. Kasmir; 9. Afghanistan. 
 
 The recent war has added Afghanistan to the list. We 
 have had to settle the question whether that country should 
 be Russianized or Anglicized ^. 
 
 Most of these nine native states are independent of us 
 in regard to their internal affairs, but all acknowledge our 
 
 Islands. All these distinct governments, whether under Lieutenant- 
 Governors, Commissioners, Superintendents, or Native Princes, vpith poli- 
 tical agents as their advisers, are supplied vrith British ofiBcials of the 
 Bengal Civil Service, and are subject to the superior control of the 
 Governor-General in Council. The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay 
 cover the remainder of India, and have their ovra distinct Civil Services 
 (making in all fourteen great political divisions). The tripartite organi- 
 zation of India is also determined by this fact — that, although there are 
 fourteen separate governments in India, including Madras and Bombay, 
 the twelve divisions of the Bengal Presidency have no correspondence with 
 the Secretary of State except through the Governor-General. Bombay 
 and Madras, as separate Presidencies, retain that distinction.' 
 
 * In their speeches at the end of the present Session (August 14, 1879) 
 Sir Stafford Northcote and Mr. E. Stanhope well pointed out what the 
 war has achieved for us : viz. absolute control over the foreign relations of 
 Afghanistan ; the appointment of a British Resident (Major Cavagnari) at 
 Kabul ; a greatly improved frontier, both military and political, through the
 
 MODERN POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 139 
 
 supremacy. Hyderabad (where we have a Resident), thoug-h 
 completely environed by British territory, is the largest and 
 most powerful. It is the only great Muhammadan power 
 that has survived the dissolution of the Moghul empire in 
 India. It has an area of 100,000 square miles, and a popu- 
 lation of eleven millions, and maintains an army of 50,000 
 men. No other native state approaches it either in area or 
 population ; Marwar (Jodhpur) in Rajputana, which is the 
 next largest, having an area of only 36,000 square miles, 
 and a population of less tha^ two millions. 
 
 There are, however, five minor Muhammadan states, viz. 
 Khairpur, bordering on Sindh ; Bhawalpur, contiguous to 
 the Panjab ; Rampur in the North-West ; Bhopal (for 
 Bhupal) in Central India ; and Tonk in Rajputana. 
 
 Of course some of the nine principal native territories 
 include an immense number of separate states and princi- 
 palities. For example, there are nineteen Rajputana states, 
 of which the three chief are (i) Jodhpur, or Marwar, (2) 
 Jaipur, and (3) Udaipur, or Mewar ^ These (especially the 
 last) are the most ancient sovereignties of India. Central 
 India includes the state of Gwiilior (with more than 33,000 
 square miles, a population of nearly three millions, and an 
 army of more than 22,000 men), ruled by Sindia ; and that 
 of Indore (with little more than 8,000 square miles and half 
 a million population, and, according to Colonel Malleson an 
 army of 8,500 men), ruled by Holkar. 
 
 The Bombay IMariitha states include (besides that of the 
 Gaikwar of Baroda in Gujarat) a large number of minor 
 principalities in Kathiawar, and in the South, so that the 
 grand total of native states and feudatories great and small, 
 throughout India, is not far short of five hundred. 
 
 occupation of advanced strategical positions which give us the command of 
 all the important Afghan stations and passes, as, for example, Quetta with 
 the Bolan, Khuram, Sibi, Peshin, Ali Masjid with the Khaiber; a com- 
 mercial treaty with Afghanistan, and the opening out of an enormous trade 
 with Central Asia ; and lastly, the j^ower of conciliating, humanizing, and 
 civilizing the lawless mountain tribes. 
 ^ Or Maiwar, said to be a contraction of Madhyawdr, central region.
 
 140 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Geographical and Phi/sical Features. 
 
 It is no part of my plan to describe the physical geo- 
 graphy of India. Let me merely direct attention to eight 
 principal geographical divisions marked in the map which 
 accompanies this volume thus : — 
 
 I. The lower valley or basin of the Ganges, including 
 Bengal, Behar and Orissa ; 2. the upper basin of the 
 Ganges from Patna to the Sutlej, constituting Hindustan 
 proper, this being the only part of India properly called 
 Hindustan ^ ; 3. the whole basin of the Indus, embracing 
 the Panjab and Sindh ; 4. the Indian desert, including 
 Bajputana ; 5. Gujarat, forming with the peninsula of 
 Kathiawar ^, or ancient Saurashtra, a large extent of 
 fertile country of a horse-shoe shape, whose area is about 
 equal to that of Great Britain ; 6. the triangular plateau 
 of Central India, including Malwa, and on the east Ban- 
 delkhand, and in its widest sense comprehending the whole 
 region between the Aravali and Vindhya ranges ; 7. the 
 plateau of the Dekhan, or, more properly, Dakhin, that 
 is to say, the South Country, including part of the southern 
 Maratha country, the central provinces, the Nizam's ter- 
 ritory and Mysor ^ ; 8. the valley of the Brahma-putra, 
 including Assam. 
 
 With a view to clearness, the physical boundaries are 
 
 ' The whole of Northern and Central India from the Himalayas to the 
 Vindhya range is sometimes called Hindustan, to distinguish it from the 
 Dekhan. 
 
 ^ Properly written K.athiawad, and meaning the abode of a tribe called 
 Kathi. 
 
 ^ The whole triangular plateau south of the Vindhya mountains as far as 
 Cape Comorin (Kumarin) is correctly called the Dekhan or South Country, 
 but it would be more in conformity with modern usage to say that the 
 river Krishna divides the south into two plateaux, the Northern of which 
 is the Dekhan proper, while Mysor forms the Southern plateau. In fact, 
 the map of India may be conveniently divided into three broad belts, viz. 
 I. the Northern belt called Hindustan, extending from the Himalaya to the 
 Vindhya range ; 2. the upper Southern belt called the Dekhan, extending 
 from the Vindhya range to the river Kistna ; 3. the lower Southern belt 
 called the Peninsula, extending from the Kistna to Cape Comorin.
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL AND PHYSICAL FEATURES. 14T 
 
 purposely exagg-erated in the map, and with the same 
 object the true hydrographical lines are not quite eon-ectly 
 drawn. 
 
 The first noticeable feature is the vast alhivial plain 
 which bends round in an immense curve from the mouths 
 of the Indus to the mouths of the Ganges. Then, observe 
 how the gigantic Himalayas (the abode of snow') curve 
 round as if to form a stupendous ring-fence towards the 
 two seas ; next, how the less lofty Vindhya ^ and Satpura ^ 
 ranges, traversing the centre of the country, have acted as 
 a line of separation to mark off Central and Northern 
 India, and Hindustan from the table-land of the Dekhan, 
 or Southern India, and helped to preserve a certain degree 
 of individuality in each region ; thirdly, how the line of 
 the Vindhya range and Sone river, taken in conjunction 
 with the line of the Ganges valley, and that of the Chittur 
 range and Chambal river, form the three sides of a central 
 triangular plateau embracing Malvva and Bandelkhand ^, 
 or the Central India native states ; fourthly, how the Ara- 
 vali ^ range, running parallel with the Chittur hills, shuts 
 off Central India, — or, speaking roughly, the country called 
 Malwa — from the desert of Rajputana. 
 
 India, like China, Babylonia and Egypt, owes much of 
 its early prosperity and civilization to its inexhaustible 
 supply of living waters. Indeed the history of the world 
 proves that rivers are a country's very life-blood. If we 
 compare the condition of India in this respect with that 
 of the peninsula of Arabia, which has not a single navi- 
 gable stream, it will not surprise us that rivers, like every 
 
 ' From Sanskrit Mma, ice or snow, and alaya, abode. Where they 
 separate the Panjab from Afghanistan, they have the name Sulaiman, and 
 where they divide Sindh from Biluchistan various local names, such as 
 Halii, &c. 
 
 ^ Vindhya may be derived from the Sanskrit hind, for root Hd, to divide. 
 
 ^ Satpura is probably for Sdt-puda for Sat-pufa, seven folds, or sinuosities. 
 
 * Mdlwa, or more properly 'Mvi\a.va, = Madhya-de^ia, the middle country: 
 Bandelkhand = the country of the Bandela tribe. 
 
 ^ From Sanskrit dra, a point, and dvali a line.
 
 142 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 other oT)joet in nature from which g-reat benefits arise^ are 
 personified and worshipped by the Hindus as actual di- 
 vinities. 
 
 Almost all the rivers in India have significant Sanskrit 
 names. The Indus is properly in Sanskrit Sindhu. It 
 has a special interest of its own, because it g-ives its name 
 to India, the first settlements of the Indo-Aryans having 
 been on its banks. Like the Brahma-putra it has a course 
 of about 1 800 miles. 
 
 But the first in importance, though not in length — its 
 course being only 15 14 miles — is the Ganges, the 'great 
 goer,' its name in Sanskrit being Ganga (from the root 
 gam, to go). It has numerous important tributaries, such 
 as the Jumna (Sanskrit Yamuna), the Chambal, the Gandak 
 (Sanskrit Gandakl) and the Sone (Sanskrit 8ond). 
 
 Both the Indus and the Ganges, through taking opposite 
 courses to the sea, have their sources, along with that of 
 the Brahma-putra, at no great distance apart in the snows 
 of the Himalayas ; and, it may be noted, that the Ganges 
 and Brahma-putra, flowing in the same direction, though 
 on opposite sides of the vast mountain range, have deltas 
 which run into each other and become intermixed in the 
 plains around Calcutta. 
 
 Of the other principal rivers those which flow, like the 
 Indus, into the Western or Arabian Sea, the Narbada ^ — 
 800 miles long — is perhaps the next most sacred river 
 after the Ganges. Hence its proper Sanskrit name is 
 Narma-dd, or 'bliss giver.' Almost every river, however, 
 rivals the Ganges in being held by those who live near it 
 to have more sanctifying power than any other river. 
 
 The Tapti, 400 miles long, on which Surat is situated, 
 takes its name from a word tajmtl'^, derived from the 
 Sanskrit root tap, ^to be warm.' 
 
 ^ Broach (which is probably a corruption of Bbrigu-kacha) is on this 
 river. Its other name is Reva. The territory of the Raja of Kewah 
 (Eeva) surrounds the sources of this river. 
 
 * More properly tapantt, heating, hot, warm. Another name for it is
 
 RIVERS OF INDIA. 143 
 
 The LunP, lying between it and the Indus, may be so 
 called from its saline {lavana) properties. The SabliarmatI '^ 
 is said to be so named from Sanskrit Sabbramatl, but is 
 more probably from Svabhramat!, ' having holes/ [Svabhra 
 being ' the hole of an animal '). 
 
 Then come those rivers which flow like the Ganges into 
 the Eastern Sea, or Bay of Bengal, viz., the great Brahma- 
 putra (meaning in Sanskrit ' Son of Brahma') whose course 
 is chiefly on the other side of the Himalayas ; and the 
 Maha-nadl^ (or ^ great river'), 520 miles long. Then those 
 which descend from the water-shed of the western ghats, 
 such as the Go-davari * (meaning ' water-giver') with a 
 long course of 898 miles; the Kistna (corrupted from 
 Krishna) 800, and the Kaveri °, 472 miles long. There 
 are three smaller rivers nearer to the mouths of the 
 Ganges called the Subanrekha (for Sanskrit Suvarna-rekha, 
 'golden-streaked^), the Baitaranl ^, and the BrahmanI (re- 
 spectively 317, 345, and 410 miles long), and some other 
 less important streams, such as the Punnar and the Vaiga, 
 may be noted in the south. 
 
 Extensive irrigation works have been successfully carried 
 out in connection with the Go-davari, Kistna, and Kaveri 
 rivers. These are due to the skill and energy of Sir Arthur 
 Cotton, and are of incalculable benefit to the country in 
 times of drought and famine. The three districts watered 
 and irrigated by these rivers, especially the Delta of the 
 Kaveri round Tanjore, instead of adding millions to the 
 grand total of famine-stricken people during the recent 
 
 Payoshni, 'warm as milk.' Surat ought to be pronounced Surat; it is from 
 the Persian word for beauty of form. 
 
 ' Loni is probably for Lavani, lavana meaning salt. 
 
 ^ Ahmedabad is on this river. 
 
 ' Mahi in Sanskrit means the earth. Baroda (a name said to be derived 
 from vata, the Indian fig-tree) is near this river. 
 
 * Godilvari may also mean in Sanskrit cow-giver. It is held very sacred. 
 
 " The Kaveri is said by those who live near it to have a fourth more 
 power of washing away sin than the Ganges. It is however called by some 
 Ardha-Ganyd, half the Ganges. 
 
 ^ For Vaitarani, the name of a fabulous river in the infernal regions.
 
 144 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 famine, poured millions of bushels of grain into the starv- 
 ing" reg-ions. 
 
 A study of the most prominent physical features of 
 India makes it less difficult to comprehend how the Indo- 
 Aryan settlers elaborated out of their own imaginations 
 the singular, and to us ridiculous^ system of geography 
 recorded in their Puranas, Extending their immigrations 
 first southwards and then towards the east and west, and 
 surrounded on all sides either by the sea or by vast rivers, 
 which in the rainy season spread themselves out like seas, 
 they imagined India to be a flat circular continent, 
 bounded on all sides by a ring-shaped ocean, to which 
 they added six other ring-shaped continents^, each sur- 
 rounded by its own ring-shaped sea. Far ofi" in the 
 horizon the vast pile of the Himalayas towered upwards 
 into the sky. Hence they believed the furthest ocean 
 to be encircled by an impassable mountain wall, which 
 formed the boundary and limit of the universe. Beyond 
 this barrier neither land nor sea existed, and the lig-ht 
 of the sun could not penetrate. All was blank space and 
 total darkness. 
 
 And, in truth, this self-contained peninsula of India 
 presents the students of physical geography, as well as 
 every other student of nature and every admirer of scenery, 
 with an epitome of the world. Where can be seen more 
 wonderful contrasts, where such amazing variety ? Mono- 
 tonous plains, sandy deserts, noble rivers, fertile fields, im- 
 mense districts wooded like English parks, forest, grove, 
 and jungle, gentle undulation, hill and dale, rock, crag, 
 precipice, snowy peak — everything is here. The one ex- 
 ception is lake scenery. India has nothing to ofier like 
 the picturesque lakes of Europe. 
 
 But the grand distinctive feature which impresses a 
 traveller most is the sublime range which, stretching from 
 
 * The Indians were not so far wrong in their notion of seven continents, 
 for America may fairly be reckoned as two continents, and a seventh conti- 
 nent is supposed to surround the South Pole.
 
 MOUNTAINS OF INDIA. CLIMATE. 145 
 
 the east towards the west, blends with other rang-es north- 
 wards, and surrounds the whole upper part of India (as 
 the Alps surround Europe) with a mighty natural rampart, 
 shutting- it out from the rest of the continent of Asia, and, 
 indeed, from the rest of the world, except from the sea. 
 It is true that constant incursions have taken place from 
 the earliest times through the principal passes of Afghan- 
 istan (especially the Khaiber and Bolan), as well as along 
 the course of the Brahma-putra ; and the later Muham- 
 madan invaders have had little difficulty in following the 
 same route ; but all these invasions occurred before the 
 existence of steam-navies, ironclads, railroads, and tele- 
 graphs. A great aggressive power like Russia may, here- 
 after, give us trouble by stirring up disaffection among 
 the people of Afghanistan, and the excitable tribes in the 
 neighbourhood of the passes ^, but no power that cannot 
 beat us at sea is ever likely to dispossess us of India. 
 
 My first view of the Himalayan range on a clear evening 
 from a point about 150 miles distant was absolutely over- 
 powering. Imagine the Jung Frau piled on Mont Blanc, 
 and repeated in a succession of peaks, stretching apparently 
 nearly half round the horizon in an unbroken line, far more 
 extended than that of the Alps as seen from Berne, and a 
 faint idea may be formed of the sublimity of the spectacle 
 presented by this majestic pile of mountains, some of which 
 tower to a height of nearly 30,000 feet above the plain. 
 
 In regard to climate, too, India, which is in other re- 
 spects a complete world in itself, seems to include all the 
 climates of all countries. Far from being 'deadly' (at 
 least, from November till April), as I have heard it de- 
 scribed, I believe the winter climate of Northern India 
 to be more salubrious than that of England. Perpetual 
 sunshine, balmy breezes, perfect dryness of air and soil, 
 with lovely flowers and summer foliage constantly before 
 the eyes, cannot fail to exhilarate the spirits and benefit 
 
 ^ This was written in 1876, and may be read in the light of recent 
 events.
 
 146 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the health. Many invalids, who habitually resort to Italy 
 to escape the damp and g-loom of our English climate, 
 would do well to devote a winter to India. The facilities 
 now offered by the Suez Canal, and the beautiful weather 
 prevalent in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean from No- 
 vember to April, make the passage itself not the least 
 delightful part of the expedition ; and if English tourists 
 would oftener turn their steps towards our Eastern pos- 
 sessionSj the present lamentable ignorance on Indian sub- 
 jects, amounting in most cases to Cimmerian darkness, 
 would be replaced by a better appreciation of the character 
 of the country. 
 
 Would, too, that a few more students of astronomy 
 could be induced to wend their way towards India ! I in- 
 quired in vain for professional astronomers, and only came 
 across one amateur during the course of my travels in 
 Northern India. The sight he gave me of the planet 
 Saturn through his well-appointed telescope at Allahabad, 
 will remain indelibly impressed on my memory. How is 
 it, then, that there are not more telescopic batteries di- 
 rected against the heavens in an atmosphere unequalled 
 for clearness, stillness, and all the conditions favourable 
 to new conquests in the field of astronomical research ? 
 
 Nor can I refrain from expressing my surprise that 
 zoologists and botanists do not resort in larger numbers 
 to India and revel in the rich fare — the endless variety 
 spread out in every direction, and asking to be appreciated 
 and enjoyed. Eor my own part, I would rather see 
 them abound than sportsmen, of whom, indeed, there is 
 no lack at all. It must be confessed that the omnipresent 
 insects which most people execrate as the greatest pest 
 incident to an Indian climate, are a little too demon- 
 strative for the ordinary traveller and resident. Various 
 appliances may temper extremes of heat and cold, but what 
 can repress the irrepressible mosquito, or check the un- 
 pleasant exuberance of every form of insect life ? ' If I 
 could get £100 in England,' I have often heard irritated
 
 RACES OF INDIA. 147 
 
 young civilians exclaim, ' I would give up my j^8oc a 
 year in this country.' Certainly there are many draw- 
 backs to a life in Eastern climates, and the insect nuisance 
 is not the least of them. But one man's plague may be 
 another man's prize. To an entomologist the study of 
 Indian ants alone would be an inexhaustible subject of 
 interest, while to the ordinary amateur what can be more 
 attractive than the whole butterfly world of India. I well 
 remember how, walking in a secluded lane, I was sud- 
 denly surrounded by a flight of at least a hundred gor- 
 geous specimens of this form of insect life. How is it 
 then that I looked in vain for entomologists and butterfly- 
 collectors in my travels ? 
 
 Races and Languages. 
 
 India, including the slopes of the Himalayas, presents 
 us with examples of all the principal races of the world ; 
 for example, the Caucasian — Aryan in the Brahmans and 
 Rajputs, and Semitic in the Arabs ^ — the Mongolian, and 
 even the Negro, some of the aboriginal hill tribes being 
 manifestly either negroid or negrito. And all races are 
 more or less blended. Yet Brahmans, Rajputs, Jats, Baniyas 
 (in Sanskrit Banijas^ Vai'syas)^ Sudras, and hill tribes differ 
 as much inter se as Greeks, Italians, Saxons, Slaves, Celts, 
 Finns, and Laps. 
 
 In point of fact, the insularity of India, caused by its vast 
 natural barriers of mountain and ocean, enables us to under- 
 stand how it has happened that when the whole country 
 once became filled with Turanian and Aryan settlers, their 
 manners, customs, domestic usages, religious ideas, and 
 languages, have undergone less change through extraneous 
 influences than they have in other parts of the world to 
 which the same races have immigrated. 
 
 For there are really only three principal gateways through 
 the mighty wall of the Himalayas, as roughly indicated in 
 
 * But it must be admitted that there is no great admixture of Arab 
 blood. 
 
 L 2
 
 148 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the map. Two of these are by the passes of the North- 
 west, and the third by the Brahma-putra valley on the East 
 into Bengal. 
 
 Few invaders have entered India except through the long 
 and difficult passages constituting these gateways. Both 
 Turanians' and Aryans came one after the other through the 
 two North-western passes, some through the Khaiber Pass 
 into the Panjab, some through the Bolan Pass into Sindh. 
 
 The Indo-TuranianSj whose original home was probably 
 somewhere in Northern Turkestan, were nomad races who 
 passed into India at different times and were the first to 
 occupy all the Northern and Central regions. 
 
 The Aryans, who were half nomad, half agricultural, 
 came from the more southerly districts of Central Asia and 
 Turkestan — probably from the Pamir plateau and the region 
 surrounding the sources of the Oxus. They, too, entered 
 India by successive waves of immigration, but their incur- 
 sions did not begin till some centuries later. 
 
 The more peaceful Aryan immigrants finding the Tura- 
 nians already in possession of the country settled down with 
 them on the soil, and in conjunction with them formed the 
 great class of the Vaisya or agricultural population ^. 
 
 Other incursions of the Aryan race followed, and those 
 who were intellectually superior took advantage of that 
 growth of religious ideas which generally accompanies 
 political growth, and formed themselves into a body of 
 religious teachers, afterwards called Brahmans, — while the 
 more warlike tribes (afterwards called Kshatriyas), advan- 
 cing southwards, drove the more independent and less sub- 
 missive of the Turanians towards the Southern Peninsula. 
 There these Turanian races retained their own languages, 
 
 ^ This term is properly only applicable to the people of Turkestan, 
 though it is sometimes loosely applied to the omnium-gatherum of all races 
 not Aryan or Semitic. 
 
 * Even now the great mass of the Hindu population are agriculturists, 
 but they are no longer called Vaisyas or ' settlers on the soil ' (from the 
 root vi&), this name being applied to traders. The pure Vaisya caste no 
 longer exists.
 
 RACES OF INDIA. 
 
 T49 
 
 acquired an independent civilization, and were called by 
 a distinct name — Dravidians ^ — though they ultimately 
 amalgamated to a great extent with the advancing Aryan 
 immigrants and became Aryanized in religion, literary 
 culture, and social usages. 
 
 The Dravidians of the South were the Rakshasas, or 
 powerful demons of Indian Epic poetry. The non-Aryan 
 and non-Dravidian races (consisting of the Kols^ Santals, 
 Juangs, &c., of Chota Nagpur, and neighbouring districts) 
 are now usually called Kolarian. Some of them may be of 
 Tibetan origin, while others are rude aborigines whose origin 
 cannot be traced beyond their present locality, and who have 
 a manifest affinity with Negritos and AustraHan savages. 
 The Tibetan tribes probably entered India through the 
 Eastern gateway long before either Indo-Aryans or Dravi- 
 dians. These non-Dravidian and aboriginal tribes were 
 the monkeys of Indian Epic poetry. 
 
 As to the Muhammadan invasions of India, they were 
 really little more than further incursions of Tartar (Turkish) 
 races who had become converted to Islam, and who over- 
 ran Sindh, Gujarat, and the Panjab, after first settling in 
 Afghanistan and fusing to a certain extent with the 
 Afghans. 
 
 The Parsis represent a remnant of the ancient Persians, 
 who, when the Khalifs conquered Persia in the 7th and 8th 
 centuries, retained their own religion, settling first at Yazd 
 in Persia, and afterwards, to escape persecution, emigrating 
 to the Western coast of India. 
 
 It is clear, then, that India has been continually overrun 
 by successive immigrants and invaders from time imme- 
 morial. And of these immigrants the best fitted by physical 
 energy, character and habits to achieve ascendancy were the 
 Aryan races. In point of flict, these races have continued 
 dominant in moral and religious influence, though political 
 power has long since passed out of their hands. They may 
 
 * Properly Dravidilh, from Drfivida, the name given to the extreme 
 South or Tamil part of the Peninsula.
 
 150 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 be called by the general name Indo- Aryans to distinguish 
 them from the Aryans who spread themselves over Europe, 
 and differences distinguish them as great as those which 
 divide European Aryans. 
 
 Indeed, from their admixture with the Turanian and 
 aboriginal races it is difficult to find pure Brahmans^, 
 Kshatriyas ^, or Vaisyas anywhere. A purely ethnical 
 arrangement of the people of India is now practically 
 impossible. 
 
 Heekoning, however, Aryans and non- Aryans, and taking 
 difference of speech as marking and perpetuating separation 
 of populations, though not as necessarily determining dis- 
 tinction of race, we are able to distinguish sixteen separate 
 peoples in India, constituting what might almost be called 
 sixteen separate nationalities. 
 
 First come eight divisions of the Indo-Aryans, all of 
 whose lanffuaffes are more or less Sanskritic in structure as 
 well as in vocabulary. 
 
 1. Hindi, which we may calculate as spoken by about one 
 hundred million persons in Hindustan proper, including 
 the High Hindi and the Muhammadan form of it called 
 Hindustani, and the various dialects, called Braj, KanaujI, 
 Mewarl, Old Purbi, Awadhi, Bhojpurl, and Marwarl, 
 the last being particularly deserving of notice as spoken 
 throughout Jodhpur, the most extensive of all the Rajput 
 states. 
 
 2. Bengali, spoken by about thirty-seven millions in 
 Bengal, a little more than half of whom are Hindus and 
 the remainder Muhammadans. 
 
 3. Marathl ^, spoken by about eleven or twelve millions 
 chiefly Hindus, throughout Maharashtra or the Maratha 
 country in the Dekhan, part of the province of Bombay 
 
 ' The northern division of Brilhmans in Hindustan claim to be of pure 
 descent, especially the Kanyakubja and Sarasvata Brahmans. 
 
 ^ The Eajputs of Rajputana claim to be pure Kshatriyas. 
 
 ^ Mr. Beames considers that Maratbi has been formed by the Magadhi 
 and Sauraseni Prakrits quite as much as by the Maharashtri.
 
 LANGUAGES OF INDIA. 15 1 
 
 and the Central Provinces, including a dialect in the Kon- 
 kan, known as Konkani. 
 
 4. Gvjardt't, spoken by about seven millions in Gujarat, 
 and reg-arded by some as a mere dialect of Hindi. 
 
 5. Panjcib'i, spoken by twelve or thirteen millions in the 
 Panjab, of whom one half are Muhammadans. It is really 
 a mere dialect of Hindi. 
 
 6. Kasnfirl, a sister language of Hindi, spoken (with 
 Dogri, a dialect of Panjabi) by nearly two millions in the 
 kingdom of Kasmir. According to Dr. Biihler there are 
 three varieties of Kasmlri. The Kasmiri Pandits are among 
 the finest types of the Ar}* an race. 
 
 7. Sindhi, spoken by about two millions in Sindh, of 
 whom one fifth only are Hindu, the remainder being 
 Muhammadan. Dr. Trumpp has published a scientific 
 grammar of this language. 
 
 8. Oriya, spoken by about eight millions, chiefly Hindus, 
 in Orissa. 
 
 Next, taking the non-Aryans, we have eight other race- 
 differences, which we may also mark by the names of eight 
 languages. In the first place, six Dravidian races (num- 
 bering nearly forty-six million persons), as follow : — 
 
 1. Tamil., spoken by about fifteen millions throughout an 
 extensive region, beginning with the northern portion of 
 Ceylon, and extending from Cape Comorin northward along 
 the South of Travankor, and what is called the Karnatic ; 
 that is, along the southern part of the Coromandel coast to 
 about a hundred miles north of Madras ^ 
 
 2. Malay dlam^ almost a dialect of Tamil, spoken by nearly 
 four millions in Travankor and along the southern portion 
 of the Malabar coast. 
 
 3. Telugii, called from its softness the Italian of India, 
 spoken by nearly sixteen millions throughout a region 
 beginning from a line about a hundred miles north of 
 Madras, and extending along the northern part of the 
 
 ' Tamil has an imperfect alphabet, and makes use of a separate literary 
 character {granthu) for writing Sanskrit.
 
 1^2 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Coromandel coast, or Northern Circars, and over part of 
 the Nizam's territory. 
 
 4. Kanarese, spoken by rather more than nine millions 
 in Mysore, in the southern portion of the Bombay Presi- 
 dency, in Kanara, and part of the Malabar Coast. 
 
 There are also two semi-cultivated Dravidian dialects 
 scarcely deserving enumeration, viz : 
 
 5. Tiilu, spoken in a small district of Kanara by about 
 300,000 persons, and 
 
 6. Koorg or Koddgu, spoken by only 150,000 persons in 
 the hill district to the west of Mysore. 
 
 Then comes the chief uncultivated Dravidian language, 
 viz : — 
 
 7. Gontp, spoken by nearly two million persons, divided 
 into clansj some of whom are almost savages^ while others 
 are comparatively civilized, inhabiting Gondwana(for Gonda- 
 vana, the forest of the Gonds) in the Central Provinces. The 
 language of the Gond race has been lately systematized and 
 expressed in Deva-nagari characters. 
 
 The other uncultivated Dravidian dialects, viz : — Oraon, 
 E-ajmahalj Khond^ Toda and Kota^ belong to iusignificant 
 tribes rather than to races. 
 
 Lastly come the wholly uncultivated and barbarous non- 
 Aryan and non-Dravidian dialects, called, — 
 
 8. Kolarian, belonging to wild tribes inhabiting the 
 plateau of Chota Nagpur and some adjacent hills ^, and 
 numbering more than three millions. They speak about 
 seven rude dialects, of which the best known are those of 
 the Kols, the Juangs (the most primitive tribe in all India), 
 the Santals, the Mundas, and the Hos. 
 
 In the above enumeration are not reckoned the languages 
 
 * Gond may be a corruption of Govinda, a cow-herd. These tribes 
 straggle southwards into the Tamil country as far as the latitude of 
 Madras. They have adopted many Tamil words. 
 
 ^ The Kols are found not only at Ranchi but also at Sumbhulpur, and 
 in hills belonging to the Satpura range, and even at Nagpur, Elichpur, and 
 stiU fiirther south at Kalahandi. The Bhils are probably Dravidian.
 
 LANGUAGES OF INDIA. 153 
 
 whicli belong", so to speak, to the outer fringe of India 
 proper, e.g. the Pashtu or Pakhtu of Afghanistan, the 
 Nepali or Nepalese of Nepal, the Assamese of Assam, the 
 Burmese of British Burmah, and the Sinhalese of Ceylon ; 
 besides an immense number of dialects spoken by tribes 
 inhabiting the mountains of Nepal, Bhutan, and Assam 
 (some of them coming under the Himalayan family, and 
 many of them more or less connected with Tibetan), making 
 about two hundred languages and dialects, cultivated and 
 uncultivated, in the whole of India. 
 
 We see, therefore, that just as all the principal races of 
 the world are represented in India, so also are all families of 
 languages — Aryan, Semitic and Agglutinative (Turanian), 
 
 Perhaps the chief bond of union between the races is 
 religion. All who believe in the Veda and the Brahmanical 
 system, whether they be Aryan or non-Aryan, may be called 
 Hindus, provided it be clearly understood that the term 
 Hindu has no real ethnical significance. Similarly all who 
 believe in the Kuran and the teaching of Muhammad may 
 be called Muslims or Muhammadans, it being understood 
 that they may have originally belonged to Hindu races. 
 
 Two languages also act as linguistic bonds — Sanskrit and 
 Hindustani. Sanskrit is, as everyone knows, the ancient 
 classical language of all India, and the elder sister of Latin 
 and Greek. It is to the Hindus what Arabic is to the 
 Musalmans. The one is the language of the Veda, the 
 t)ther of the Kuran, Wherever the Hindu religion prevails 
 there Sanskrit is cultivated and venerated. It is a dead 
 language like Latin, but is still spoken fluenth'^ by learned 
 men throughout India as Latin once was throughout Europe. 
 Moreover, though in one sense dead, in another it has the 
 utmost vitality. It lives and breathes in the eight Aryan 
 dialects already enumerated, which are merely spoken forms 
 of it. 
 
 As to Hindustani, it is simply a modern modification of 
 Hindi, serving as a lingua franca for the whole of India, like 
 French in Europe. It is a highly composite language, and,
 
 154 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 like English, reflects the composite character of the people 
 who speak it. In fact, Hindustani scarcely existed as a 
 distinct language till the time of the Emperor Timur — 
 about the year 1400 of our era — when it was finally formed 
 in his Urdu ^, or camp, by the blending of the Arabic and 
 Persian of the conquering Muhammadans with the San- 
 skrit and Hindi of the conquered Hindus. Hence it has 
 an Aryan stock, but has adopted a vast number of Semitic 
 words, and is now taking English words largely from us. 
 Few languages have a greater power of assimilating foreign 
 vocables. 
 
 I have heard it asserted that English is likely to supplant 
 Hindustani as a general lingua franca for the whole popula- 
 tion of India. I see no signs whatever of this. On the 
 contrary, English has scarcely made its way at all among 
 the masses of the people. Nevertheless, the cultivation of 
 the language of the ruling race is becoming increasingly 
 common at all the principal towns. It is taught at all 
 Government and Missionary Schools and Colleges, and even 
 at all larger native schools. Everywhere I found it both 
 cultivated and spoken fluently by most educated Indians — 
 to the neglect, I am sorry to say, of their own vernacular 
 languages. Not that English is often studied for its own 
 sake, but rather, I fear, from purely interested motives, a 
 knowledge of it being an indispensable qualification for 
 Government situations. 
 
 Character of the People. 
 
 I have found no people in Europe more religious — none 
 more patiently persevering in common duties, none more 
 docile and amenable to authority, none more courteous or 
 respectful towards age and learning-, none more dutiful 
 to parents, none more faithful in service. Superstition, 
 
 ' This word, meaning camp, is of Turkish origin, and is often applied to 
 the Hindustani language.
 
 CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. RELIGIONS. 155 
 
 immorality, untruthfulness, pride, selfishness, avarice, all 
 these and other faults and vices, of course, abound, ■ but 
 not more than they do in other countries unpenetrated 
 by the spirit of true Christianity, and not more than will 
 be found among* those merely nominal Christians who, 
 after all, constitute the real mass of the people in Europe. 
 
 While on this subject, let me notice a few leading par- 
 ticulars as to creeds and religious usages. 
 
 Religious Creeds. 
 
 Just as all races and families of languages are repre- 
 sented in India, so are the four principal religious creeds in 
 the world — namely, Brahmanism or Hinduism, Buddhism, 
 Islam or Muhammadanism, and Christianity. 
 
 The term Brahmanism should, in my opinion, be re- 
 stricted to the purely pantheistic and not necessarily 
 idolatrous system evolved by the Brahmans out of the 
 partly monotheistic, partly polytheistic, partly pantheistic 
 religion expressed in the sacred works collectively termed 
 Veda. This system was fully developed in a still later 
 work following- on the Veda, called the Vedanta phi- 
 losophy, where it is designated by the term Advaita — 
 Non-Dualism. Brahmanism, in fact, is a mere assertion 
 of the unity of all being*. Nothing* really exists, it 
 affirms, but the one Universal Spirit (named Brahman, 
 from the root brih, ' to spread and pervade '), and what- 
 ever appears to exist independently is identical with that 
 Spirit. 
 
 But it has also other characteristics. It may be de- 
 scribed as in one sense the most self-annihilating* system 
 in the world, for it asserts that there can be no real self 
 [dlman) existing* separately from the one self- existent 
 Supreme Self — called Faramdtman, as well as Brahman^ 
 and when by the act of that Self the individuated spirits 
 of men are allowed for a time an apparent separate ex- 
 istence, the ultimate end and aim of such spirits should
 
 156 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 be to attain complete reunion with the one Eternal Self 
 in entire self-annihilation, A Brahman, who holds this 
 doctrine, thinks the relig-ion of the Christian, who is con- 
 scious of severance from God, and yearns for reunion with 
 Him, and yet does not wish his own self-consciousness 
 to be merged in God, a very selfish kind of creed, com- 
 pared with his own. It is evident, however, that there 
 may be more real selfishness in the self-annihilating* creed. 
 For whatever may be said about the bliss of complete 
 union [sdyujya) with the Supreme Spirit, the true aim 
 of Brahmanism, pure and simple, is not so much extinc- 
 tion of self, as extinction of personal existence for the 
 sake of release from the troubles of life, and from the 
 consequences of activity. 
 
 The term Hinduism, on the other hand, may be used to 
 express Brahmanism after it had degenerated — to wit, that 
 complicated system of polytheistic doctrines and caste- 
 usages, which has gradually resulted out of the mixture of 
 Brahmanism, first with Buddhism and then with the non- 
 Aryan creeds of Dravidians and aborigines. This system 
 rests on the whole series of Hindu sacred writing's — the 
 four Vedas with their Brahmanas and Upanishads, the 
 Sutras, the laws of Manu, and Kamayana and Maha-bha- 
 rata, the eighteen Puranas and sixty-four Tantras. Hence, 
 Hinduism is something very different from Brahmanism, 
 though the one is derived from the other. It encourages 
 idolatry — that is to say, worship before the images and 
 symbols of Vishnu, the Preserver, and Rudra-Siva, the 
 Destroyer and Regenerator (the highest manifestations of 
 Brahman) and other deities, as a help for weak-minded 
 persons ; and every enlightened Brahman admits that the 
 unthinking and ignorant, who are by far the majority, 
 adore the idols themselves. 
 
 In fact, Hinduism is like a huge irregular structure 
 which has had no single architect but a whole series, and 
 has spread itself over an immense surface by continual 
 additions and accretions. The gradual growth of its con-
 
 BRAHMANISM AND HINDUISM. 157 
 
 g-eries of heterogeneous doctrines is exactly reflected in 
 the enormous mass of its disjointed sacred writings which, 
 beginning with the Rig-veda, about the time of the com- 
 position of the Pentateuch, extend over a period of 2500 
 years. It is perhaps the only religion in the world which 
 has neither any name derived from any single founder, nor 
 any distinct designation of any kind. We may call it 
 Brahmanism and Hinduism, but these are not names 
 recog-nized by the natives themselves. Its present aspect 
 is that of an ancient overg-rown fabric^ with no apparent 
 unity of design — patched, pieced, restored and enlarged 
 in all directions, inlaid with every variety of idea, and, 
 although looking as if ready at any moment to fall into 
 ruins, still extending itself so as to cover every hole and 
 corner of available ground, still holding its own with great 
 pertinacity, and still keeping its position securely, because 
 supported by a hard foundation of Brahmanism and caste. 
 It is only, however, by the practice of a kind of universal 
 toleration and receptivity — carried on through more than 
 2000 years — that Hinduism has maintained its ground 
 and arrived at its present condition ^. It has been as- 
 serted that Hinduism is unlike Buddhism in not being 
 a missionary religion. Certainly Buddhism was once a 
 proselyting system (though its missionary spirit is ex- 
 tinct), and it is very true that a Brahman nascitur nonjit, 
 but it is equally true that Hinduism could not have 
 extended itself over India if it had never exerted itself 
 to make proselytes. In point of fact, it has first borne 
 with and then accepted, and, so to speak, digested and 
 assimilated something from all creeds. It has opened 
 its doors to all comers — and is willing to do so still — on 
 the two conditions of their admitting the spiritual su- 
 
 * Moor, in his 'Pantheon' (p. 402), tells us that a learned Pandit once 
 observed to him that the English were a new people, and had only the 
 record of one Avatiira, but the Hindus were an ancient people, and had 
 accounts of a great many, and that if the Purauas were examined, they 
 would probably be found to record the incarnation of Christ.
 
 158 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 premacy of the Brahmaiis, and conforming to certain caste- 
 rules about food, intermarriag-e, and professional pursuits. 
 In this manner it has adopted much of the Fetishism of 
 the aborigines of India ; it has stooped to the practices 
 of various primitive tribes, and has not scrupled to ap- 
 propriate and naturalise the adoration of the fish, the 
 boar, the serpent, rocks, stones, and trees ; it has borrowed 
 ideas from the various cults of the Dravidian races; and 
 it may even owe something- to Christianity. Above all, 
 it has assimilated nearly every docti'ine of Buddhism ex- 
 cept its atheism, its denial of the eternal existence of soul, 
 and its levelling" of caste-distinctions. 
 
 Buddhism originated in India about 500 B.C. It was 
 a reformation of Brahmanism introduced by a man named 
 Gautama (afterwards called Buddha, ' the Enlightened ') 
 of the Sakya tribe, whose father was king of a district 
 situated under the mountains of Nepal. 
 
 It is noteworthy that the images of Buddha — which are 
 probably, like the pictures of Christ, merely ideal — gene- 
 rally represent him with features and hair of an Egyptian or 
 Ethiopian type, and with the curly hair of a Negro ^. He 
 is usually described as a Kshatriya, or man of the kingly 
 and military class. According to some, it is not impossible 
 that the tribe to which he belonged may have been of 
 aboriginal extraction, or even Mongolian. 
 
 Buddhism was originally no new religion, but a mere 
 modification or reconstruction of Brahmanism, and even 
 now has much in common with it. But the Buddha, in 
 opposition to the Brahmans, refused to admit that the 
 doctrines of a supreme eternal Spirit, and of the eternity 
 of the human soul were susceptible of proof, and repu- 
 diated the authority of the Veda, caste-distinctions, sa- 
 crifices, and sacrificing priests. His own doctrines were 
 afterwards collected in the sacred writings called Tri-pitaka 
 or ' Triple-collection' (written in Pali, the ancient lan- 
 
 ^ It is curious that the figures in the caves of Elephanta have also curly 
 hair.
 
 BUDDHISM AND JAIN ISM. 159 
 
 g-uag-e of the Magadha district closely allied to Sanskrit). 
 He maintained that the only deity was man himself, when 
 brought to a condition of Buddha-hood or perfect wisdom, 
 and he made Nirvana, ' extinction of all being-,' take the 
 place of Sayvjya, ' identification with one sole Being of the 
 Universe,'' as the great end and object of all human effort. 
 His doctrines soon spread to Ceylon, Burmah, and other 
 countries, but pure Buddhism does not exist any longer 
 anywhere. In India it first co-existed with Brahmanism, 
 then met with some persecution, and finally lapsed back 
 into Brahmanism about the ninth century of our era. 
 
 Jainism, the home of cold indifferentism, even more un- 
 worthy to be called a religion than Buddhism, is now the 
 only representative of Buddhistic ideas in India proper. 
 I believe that, according to the last census, the number of 
 Buddhists under our rule in British Burmah amounts to 
 about two millions and a half. The Jainas or Jains, in 
 India proper, only number about 380,000, at least half of 
 whom are in the Bombay Presidency. They congregate 
 most thickly in the districts round Ahmedabad. 
 
 The Jainas maintain that their system originated earlier 
 than Buddhism, and from an independent source. Recent 
 researches tend to show that there is ground for this as- 
 sertion. Jainism and Buddhism probably represent two 
 parallel lines of philosophical inquiry. One thing is cer- 
 tain, that Jainism has much in common with Buddhism, 
 however it may differ from Buddhism in various ways. 
 Perhaps the chief point of difference is that the Jainas 
 retain caste-distinctions, but this again may be a later 
 innovation. They are divided into two sects — the Sve- 
 tambaras, ' clothed in white/ and the Dig-ambaras, ^ sky- 
 clothed' — of which the latter sect was probably the earliest. 
 The doctrines of both sects rest on sacred books, called 
 Agamas (divided into Angas, Upangas, &c.), many of 
 which are common to both. They agree with the Bud- 
 dhists in rejecting the Veda of the Brahmans. Formerly 
 the Dig-ambaras, who are now the least numerous, were
 
 i6o MODERN INDIA. 
 
 forbidden to wear clothing-, and even to the present day 
 they are said to eat naked. 
 
 The principal point in the creed of Jainas (as of Bud- 
 dhists) is the reverence paid to holy men who by long 
 discipline have raised themselves to a kind of divine per- 
 fection. The Jina, or ' conquering- saint,' who having 
 conquered all worldly desires reveals true knowledge, is 
 with Jainas what the Buddha or ' perfectly enlightened 
 saint' is with Buddhists. 
 
 Great numbers of the Marwaris and Baniyas, or traders 
 of Western India, who claim to be Vaisyas, are Jains. 
 If a Jain wishes to acquire religious merit, he either builds 
 a new temple to hold an image of one or all of the twenty- 
 four Jina saints, or a hospital for the care of worn-out 
 animals. No one thinks of repairing the work of his 
 predecessor, though it be that of his own father. At 
 Palitana, in Kathiiiwar, there are hundreds of new temples 
 by the side of decaying old ones. 
 
 Jainism, like Brahmanism and Buddhism, lays great 
 stress on the doctrine of transmigration, or repeated births. 
 Hence Jainas carry their respect for animal life — even that 
 of the most minute infusoria — to a preposterous extreme. 
 Their only worship, like that of the Buddhist, is adoration 
 of human perfection. Though they dissent from the Veda, 
 they regard themselves as Hindus. 
 
 I have already (p. 93) described the religion of the Parsls, 
 or, as it is sometimes called, Zoroastrianism. It represents 
 the religion of ancient Persia imported into India by a 
 small body of Persian immigrants, when driven out of 
 Persia by the Muhammadan invaders, and rests on certain 
 sacred writings called the Zand-Avasta — attributed to the 
 prophet Zoroaster about 500 B.C. — which have suffered 
 more from the inroads of time than any of the other re- 
 ligious books of the world. I may here add that the 
 religion of the ancient Persians had a common origin 
 with that of the Hindus, and that Parslism, like Brah- 
 manism, is based on a kind of Monotheistic Pantheism.
 
 PARSIISM. HINDU RELIGIOUS USAGES. l6l 
 
 It has not, however, advanced beyond the stag-e of regard- 
 ing Fire, Sun, Earth, and Sea as principal manifestations 
 of the one Supreme Being, called by the Parsis Ormazd 
 (the creator of the two forces of construction and destruc- 
 tion, Spentamainyus and Ahriman). It has never lapsed, 
 like Brfihmanism, into gross and degrading idolatry. 
 
 The Parsis are certainly near relations of the Brahmans, 
 but they have kept themselves separate from the other 
 races of India, and retained much of the natural vigour 
 and energy of the Aryan character. 
 
 And now a few words on the subject of Hindu religious 
 services and ritual. Of ancient Vedic sacrificial cere- 
 monial and public religious worship very little is left. 
 Nor is congregational worship performed in temples. The 
 priests in charge of the idols decorate them and bathe 
 them with sacred water on holy days, and do them homage 
 {pyjcl) with lights and a rude kind of music at stated 
 periods, g'enerally both morning and evening. Moreover, 
 offerings of flowers, grain, fruits, &c., are presented to the 
 idols of the most popular gods (practically to the pi'iests) 
 by lay worshippers, and mantras or texts are repeated with 
 prostrations of the body. Common prayer, in our sense, 
 there is none. 
 
 The religion of the mass of the people — much of which 
 is probably aboriginal and pre- Aryan — resolves itself, I 
 fear, into a mere matter of selfish superstition. It is 
 principally displayed in endeavouring to avert the anger 
 of evil demons and in doing homage to local divinities, 
 supposed to guard their worshippers from the assaults of 
 malignant beings, and believed to be specially present 
 in rude idols, trees, rocks, stones, and shapeless symbols, 
 often consecrated with daubs of red ])aint. In place of 
 public worship, however, great attention is given to pri- 
 vate religious usages and to the performance of domestic 
 ceremonies at births, marriages, funerals, &c., conducted 
 by Brahman priests, who have nothing whatever to do 
 with temples or with worship performed in temples. More- 
 
 M
 
 1 62 MODERN INDIA, 
 
 over, homage to ancestors and to tlie spirits of deceased 
 fathers, grandfathers, and great-grandfathers, enters largely 
 into the religious rites of the Hindus as into those of the 
 Chinese. 
 
 All these observances vary with caste, and caste is now 
 so divided and subdivided that even the Brahmans are 
 broken up into innumerable classes and tribes, one claiming 
 superiority over the other. Some of these are little more 
 than groups of families bound together by peculiar usages. 
 In other cases, caste is only another name for an associa- 
 tion of men united by common occupation in a kind of 
 trade union, every such' combination being cemented in 
 the same way by the practice of distinctive religious 
 observances. In fact, caste in India is an essential part 
 of religion. It is no longer to the same extent as it 
 once was, a bond of union among large bodies of men. 
 Its action tends to split up the social fabric into numerous 
 independent communities, and to prevent all national and 
 patriotic combinations. In the present day the family- 
 bond [hJ/dl-land) appears to be stronger than that of caste. 
 Certainly both these ties operate far more powerfully in 
 India than in Europe, because they are both intimately 
 associated with religion. I fear, however, that other ties 
 are proportionately weak, and that Indians, as a rule, have 
 few sympathies and little disposition to co-operate with 
 others beyond the circle of their own families, and none at 
 all beyond the limits of their own immediate castes. 
 
 Indian Muhammadanism, 
 
 Turn we next to a brief consideration of Indian INIuham- 
 madanism. The position of Islam, with reference to the 
 idolatry of India, is very similar to that once occupied by 
 Judaism relatively to the idolatry of Egypt and Canaan, 
 and very similar to its own original position relatively to 
 the Salieanism of Arabia. In fact, Islam may be regarded 
 as an illegitimate child of Judaism born in Arabia in the
 
 MUHAMMADANISM. 163 
 
 seventli century. It was a protest against tlie Sabeanism, 
 idolatry, and fetish stone- worship prevalent in that country, 
 and a declaration of God's Unity made by Muhammad in 
 supposed continuation of the orig-inal revelation transmitted 
 by Abraham through Ishmael, rather than through Isaac ^, 
 
 Indeed at one time it seemed likely that the religious 
 reform preached by Muhammad would develope into a sect 
 of Christianity, and had not the corrupt Christian doctrines 
 with which Muhammad came in contact prevented his per- 
 ceiving that the statement of a Trinity in Unity is also the 
 strongest assertion of a Unity in Trinity, we might have 
 had another Eastern Church in Arabia answering to those 
 founded in Egypt, Syria, Armenia, and Constantinople. 
 
 The name Muhammad is simply the passive participle of 
 the Arabic verb hamada, ' to praise,' and no more admits of 
 any variety of spelling than our word ' praised,' nor can I 
 see why the numerous arbitrary violations of orthography 
 to which the false prophet's name has given rise should be 
 perpetuated any longer. 
 
 It should be noted that although Muhammad was a self- 
 deluded enthusiast, he did not put himself forward as the 
 founder of a new religion, and would have indignantly for- 
 bidden the use of such a term as Muhammadanism. Accord- 
 ing to his own views he was simply the latest of four 
 prophets (the others being Moses^ Elias, and Christ), who 
 were all followers of Abraham, the true founder of the 
 doctrine of Islam, and were all Muslims because all preached 
 the Unity of God and submission to His wilP. In this 
 
 ' The Ka'ba, or small cube-shaped temple of Mecca, is supposed to have 
 been built by Abraham (who is called by Muhammad the first Muslim) 
 over the spot v?here he was about to sacrifice Ishmael. The sacredness of 
 the small black stone imbedded in the eastern angle is probably the result 
 of the fetish stone-worship once prevalent in Arabia. Abraham is supposed 
 to have stood upon this stone when he built the Ka'ba. 
 
 ^ In the Kuran, the Old Testament and the Gospel are Fpoken of with 
 the greatest reverence, as the word of God. Muhammad never threw any 
 doubts on the inspiration of either ; faith in them was enjoined on penalty 
 of hell. But the Kuriin was a later revelation, and therefore a higher 
 authority. 
 
 M 3
 
 164 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 respect he was like the other great reh'gious leaders — 
 Zoroaster, Buddha, and Confucius. 
 
 In the end, however, the necessities of his position 
 obliged him to break away from both Jews and Christians, 
 with whom at first on his flight to Medina (a.d. 622) he 
 contemplated an alliance. Nor did his doctrine, like that 
 of Buddhism, win its way anywhere in the world by per- 
 suasiveness, except on its first propagation. It is true that 
 Muhammad at the commencement of his career fought his 
 way through the idolatry around him with no other 
 weapons but argument and persuasion, but when he had 
 collected sufficient adherents, the force of circumstances 
 compelled him to adopt a more summary method of con- 
 version. His conversions were then made at the point 
 of the sword, Muhammad became a conqueror and a ruler, 
 and Islam became as much a State polity as a religion. 
 
 About forty-one millions of the inhabitants of India 
 ai*e Muhammadans. Indeed, one of the unexpected facts 
 brought out by the last census was the vast increase of 
 Indian Muslims. Great numbers of them are the descen- 
 dants of Hindus converted to Islam by the Muhammadan 
 conquerors, and are much Hinduized in their habits and 
 ways. In some places the lower classes of Musalmans do 
 homage to the Hindu goddess of smallpox, and take part in 
 the Holi festival. It is certain that numbers of low-caste 
 Hindus formerly became Muhammadans with the sole object 
 of raising themselves in the social scale. For all Muslims 
 are theoretically equal, and since there is no equality, nor 
 even any real citizenship, in a Muhammadan State for those 
 who are not Muslims, it has often happened that whole 
 communities have adopted Islam merely to place themselves 
 within the pale of State protection, patronage, jurisdiction, 
 and authority. 
 
 Unhappily, however, the Indian Muslims do not imitate 
 the Hindus in their toleration of each other's sectarian 
 divisions. 
 
 There are, as most people know, two principal sects of
 
 MUHAMMAD AN SECTS. 165 
 
 Muslims, called Snnnis and Slii'as. The Shi'as deny that 
 the three immediate successors of the prophet — AbfdDakr, 
 Omar, and Othman — were true Khalifas. They declare 
 that All, Muhammad's son-in-law, was his first riglitful 
 successor. The Turks and nearly all Indian Musalmans, 
 except those connected in any way with Persia, are Sunnis. 
 All Persians are Shi'as, and the animosity between the two 
 divisions is even greater than between Roman Catholics 
 and Protestants. I have heard it humorously said that, 
 besides the Shi'as, there are seventy-two subordinate sects, 
 each of which considers that the other seventy-one will 
 assuredly go to hell. 
 
 I observed in my travels that the mass of Indian Mu- 
 hammadans, who are ignorant and uneducated, have a 
 tendency to deify either Muhammad himself, or his son-in- 
 law All, or the innumerable Muhammadan saints [P'trs), 
 whose tombs are scattered everywhere throughout Hindu- 
 stan and the Dekhan. Many regard them as mediators. 
 
 Moreover, the Islam of India appears to have borrowed 
 something not only from Hinduism but from Buddhism. I 
 saw relics of Muhammad, including a hair from his head, 
 preserved as sacred objects in Delhi and Labor, and the 
 impress of his foot is revered much as the Hindus and 
 Buddhists revere the footstep of Vishnu and Buddha. 
 When Islam thus lapses into too great exaltation of IMu- 
 hammad, it may fairly be called Muhammadanism. 
 
 The attitude of a Muhammadan towards Christianity is 
 far more hopelessly hostile than that of a Hindu, and it is 
 generally believed that, although Indian Muslims in some 
 parts of India are more active and intelligent than Hindus, 
 the teaching of the Kuran has a tendency to make them 
 more intolerant, more sensual and inferior in moral tone. 
 They are certainly more proud and bigoted, and are often 
 left behind by the Hindus for the simple reason that they 
 refuse to avail themselves in the same way of the educa- 
 tional advantages we offer. 
 
 With regard to Christianity, I have no hesitation in
 
 1 66 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 declaring my conviction that it has more points of contact 
 with Hinduism (notwithstanding the hideous idolatry en- 
 couraged by that system) than with Buddhism, Jainism^ 
 or even Islam. For example — Hindus are willing to con- 
 fess themselves sinful. They acknowledge the necessity of 
 sacrifice. They admit the need of supernatural revelation, 
 and they have a doctrine of inspiration even higher than our 
 own. Their sacred scriptures are not the work of one mind 
 like the Kuran, but represent a process of gradual accretion 
 and progressive expansion like the sixty-six books of our 
 own Holy Bible. They are familiar with the ideas of a divine 
 trinity, of incarnation, and of the need of a Saviour, how- 
 ever perverted these ideas may be. Their Gayatrl, a prayer 
 repeated morning and evening by every Brahman through- 
 out India, might with slight alteration be converted into 
 a Christian prayer. They believe in the ' vanity' of all 
 earthly concerns. They affirm that the Supreme Being is 
 a Spirit, omnipotent and omnipresent, and their dogma that 
 ' God is existence, thought, and bliss,' is only inferior to the 
 Christian assertion that ' God is love.' 
 
 With regard to the progress of Christianity in India, I 
 will only at present record my opinion that the best work 
 done by the missionaries is in their schools. In some im- 
 portant places, such as Benares, the missionary schools are 
 more popular than those of the Government, although the 
 Bible is read and religious instruction given in the former, 
 and not in the latter. Education is, indeed, causing a great 
 upheaving of old creeds and superstitions throughout India, 
 and the ancient fortress of Hinduism is in this way being 
 gradually undermined. The educated classes look with con- 
 tempt on idolatry. 
 
 In fact, the present condition of India seems very similar 
 to that of the Roman Empire before the coming of Christ. 
 A complete disintegration of ancient faiths is in progress in 
 the upper strata of society. 
 
 Most of the ablest thinkers become pure Theists or Uni- 
 tarians. In almost every large town there is a SamdJ, or
 
 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. BRAHMA SAMAJ. 167 
 
 society of such men, whose creed would be well expressed 
 by the first part of the first Article of the Church of Eng- 
 land. They retain the name Brahma as applicable to the 
 Supreme Being-, but they regard him as a personal god, to 
 be addressed by prayer as well as praise. No sooner, how- 
 ever, is a Samaj formed than, as is usual in India, it splits 
 up into subdivisions, some founding their theism on the 
 Veda, others partially appealing to it, and others rejecting 
 it altogether. Even great leaders like Keshab Chandra 
 Sen, of Calcutta, are unable to unite all Indian Theists into 
 one body. 
 
 Christianity has made most progress among people of low 
 caste and with some of the aboriginal tribes, and will pro- 
 bably gradually work its way upwards as it did on its first 
 propagation by our Lord and His disciples. The religion 
 of conquerors is never likely to be popular with either the 
 higher or lower classes, if it offers no political or social 
 advantages; and controversial discussion, though it may 
 convince the head, will not touch the heart. It should 
 always be borne in mind that, unlike the Muhammadans 
 and Roman Catholics, we have abstained, as a conquering 
 government, from enforcing our religion by government 
 influence and authority. Hence conversions to Christianity 
 bear no adequate proportion to the teeming millions of 
 India (as indeed the Indian Bishops themselves allow in 
 their circular of November 27th, 1873). Nor will con- 
 versions, in my opinion, be more common until our religion 
 is presented to the Hindus in a more Oriental form, — that 
 is, in a form more like that which belonged to it on its first 
 foundation at Jerusalem ; and by more Orientalized mission- 
 aries, — that is, by men who will consent to live among the 
 natives and become themselves half Indianized. It is even 
 a question whether certain caste-customs might not be 
 tolerated among Indian converts. 
 
 At any rate, an Indian ought not to be expected to have 
 less caste-prejudices than a European. He ought to be 
 allowed, as a convert to Christianity, to retain such of his
 
 1 68 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 caste-customs as may not be inconsistent with his sub- 
 mitting to the test of baptism, and meeting other converts 
 on terms of perfect equaUty at the communion table. 
 
 Our Administration of the Country. 
 
 No one can travel in India and shut his eyes to the 
 benefits conferred on its inhabitants by English rule. In 
 fact, our subjugation of the country affords an exemplifi- 
 cation of the now trite truth that the conquest of an in- 
 ferior race by a superior, so far from being an evil, is one 
 of the great appointed laws of the world's progress and 
 amelioration. 
 
 We are sometimes accused of governing India in the in- 
 terest of England and English commerce — of making India 
 the corpus vile of political, social, and military experiments, 
 of thinking more of what is called the maintenance of our 
 prestige than of the welfare of the country. Yet the travel- 
 ler has only to look around to see everywhere conspicuous 
 monuments of the good intentions, integrity, and efficiency 
 of our administration. I believe that in no part of the 
 world is so much work done, and so well and conscientiously 
 done, and with such a single regard to the discharge of 
 duty, as by the Queen's servants in India. Even men of 
 inferior energy and mental calibre, who, in England, would 
 do little to benefit society, are, by the circumstances of 
 their position in India, drawn out and developed into useful 
 officers and able administrators. 
 
 And what are the results ? The picture once presented 
 to our view was that of a country devastated by intestine 
 wars, oppressed by despotic rulers, depopulated by famine, 
 and left to succumb unresistingly to the attacks of pesti- 
 lence or to the destructive energy of physical forces. In- 
 stead of which, what do we now find ? The same forces 
 tamed and controlled, steam and electricity made to sub- 
 serve the purposes of traffic and intercourse, good roads, 
 canals, and waterworks constructed, rights of all kinds
 
 INDIAN ADMINISTRATION. 169 
 
 secured, justice impartially administered, education actively 
 promoted, and everywhere a thriving-, law-abiding-, rapidly 
 increasing" population. 
 
 Yet our very anxiety to do all we can for India may 
 sometimes lead to our doing too much. The extension of 
 the telegraphic system has necessarily caused greater cen- 
 tralization of Government authority at Calcutta. But 
 India is a collection of countries which differ so essentially, 
 and require such varied treatment, that each would probably 
 be better g-overned by carefully-chosen men of strong will 
 and judg-ment, if more power of independent action were 
 conceded to them. 
 
 And now, again, submarine telegraphy has led to further 
 centralization, so that India is at present more g-overned 
 from the central terminus of Queen, Lords, and Commons, 
 than by those who are at the Indian end of the wires. 
 Formerly the ignorance and apathy of Parliament w-ere of 
 little importance ; now its interposition may often compli- 
 cate our difficulties. 
 
 Moreover, the possibility of conveying a message back- 
 wards and forwards between the India Office and Calcutta 
 in a few hours fosters a forgetfulness of the enormous 
 distance dividing- the Western from the Eastern Empire, 
 and of the vast g-ulf separating the condition of England 
 and of Eng-lish society and habits of thought from those of 
 India. Hence it is often supposed that Western ideas may 
 be suddenly transfused into an Eastern mind, and Eng-lish 
 institutions abruptly transplanted to an Indian soil, when 
 neither the one nor the other is prepared to receive them. 
 It may certainly be questioned whether we are not prone to 
 too much and too frequent leg-islation, and whether, in 
 many places, we are not fifty, or even a hundred, years too 
 early with some of our laws and regulations, with our civil 
 courts and trials by jury, with our appeals to supreme 
 tribunals, and our modern municipal institutions. 
 
 The Collector of a large district assured me that, as 
 chairman of a municipal board in a large town, he could
 
 I70 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 make native members vote in any way he chose to direct. 
 Clearly that town is not advanced enough for the rate- 
 payers to elect their own municipal authorities. Yet India 
 has for centuries been accustomed to a form of municipal 
 self-government in its village corporations. What is wanted 
 is a wise and cautious progress, a zeal according to know- 
 ledge, a discreet adaptation of legislation to varying con- 
 ditions of time and place. 
 
 Our Conyiectlon with the Native States. 
 
 Ft'W persons are aware that the number of native States 
 and Principalities still remaining in India exceeds 460. 
 They cover an area of about 600,000 square miles and are 
 inhabited by about 50 million persons. They are certainly 
 instrumental in preserving the distinctive nationalities of 
 the separate races of India which ai'e apt to melt into each 
 other or lose the sharpness of their definition under our rule. 
 Some frontier countries, like Nepal, merely acknowledge 
 our supremacy ; others pay us tribute, or provide military 
 contingents. Some have powers of life and death, and 
 most of them are obliged to refer capital cases to English 
 Courts. Nearly all are allowed to adopt on failure of heirs, 
 and their continual existence is thus secured. In fact, we 
 are bound by treaty to maintain them, provided they 
 govern well. Some think that in case of a rising in our 
 own territories, the native States will increase our risks and 
 weaken our position, instead of becoming havens of refuge 
 and sources of strength. No doubt, in such a case, most of 
 the Maharajas would be individually eager to aid us, be- 
 cause they know that their own existence is bound up in 
 ours. Few of them would survive the anarchy that would 
 inevitably follow if we were cruel enough to leave India to 
 govern itself. Hence they would strive to help us. But 
 very few have sufficient personal authority and influence 
 with their own people, and even with their own troops, 
 to control their hostility to us. I fear that the people
 
 NATIVE STATES. 1 71 
 
 generally prefei* maladministration and a limited amount 
 of oppression under their own rulers to good government 
 under ours. 
 
 I ought here, however, to remark that it is naturally 
 considered rather surprising that we only employ an army 
 of 190,000 men (65,000 Europeans and 125,000 Natives) 
 for the government of the 190 millions of people under our 
 own direct administration, while native states with a popu- 
 lation of only fifty million are allowed by us to employ 
 armed men to the amount of nearly 315,000.^ Of these 
 men the troops of the Nizam and of Sindia are the best 
 disciplined ; and in case of a mutiny among our own native 
 army they would probably add very seriously to our diffi- 
 culties instead of helping us out of them. 
 
 Granted that of the others some troops would be con- 
 trolled by loyal chiefs and ruinisters, as the Nizam's soldiers 
 formerly were. Granted, too, that a vast number would be 
 simply contemptible either as allies or as opponents. Yet 
 the expediency of permitting the native feudatory princes 
 to organize and equip, at the expense of their impoverished 
 people, unnecessarily large forces, is certainly a matter which 
 has not yet awakened the attention it deserves. 
 
 The external and internal security of the native states is 
 guaranteed by our administration ; and all they need is an 
 effective police force, the maintenance of which would not 
 drain the resources of their territories as standing armies do. 
 
 I believe tliat the gross revenue of all the feudatory 
 states subject to our rule is about sixteen millions, and that 
 out of that amount a sum of only three quarters of a million 
 sterling is annually contributed towards the Imperial admi- 
 nistration which guarantees to them complete immunity 
 from foreign invasion and from internal rebellion. Surely a 
 portion of the money now wasted on needless armaments 
 and senseless military show, might reasonably be compelled 
 by us to flow into channels which would improve and 
 
 ' Col. Malleson enumerates the fightirig men of the native states thus : 
 241,063 foot soldiers, 64,172 cavalry, 9,320 trained ai'tillerymen, 5,252 guna.
 
 1 7 2> MODE UN INDIA . 
 
 enrich the condition of the people. In this manner each 
 particular state would be enabled to make an adequate return 
 for the protection it receives, both indirectly and directly — 
 indirectly by augmenting the general prosperity, directly by 
 paying an equitable contribution to the Imperial Treasury. 
 
 At Calcutta, and other places in India, during the Prince's 
 tour, I had unusual opportunities of becoming acquainted 
 with the principal Maharajas, and occasional interesting 
 conversations with them and their Ministers. Some are 
 enlightened men. Many have been brought up under our 
 superintendence with great care. But I fear the truth 
 about many of them is this. On coming of age they are 
 allowed to manage their kingdoms, under the eye of our 
 Residents and political Agents, who watch them without 
 direct interference. At first they give great promise^ but 
 soon become surrounded by designing Ministers, who, to 
 serve their own interests — which are better promoted by 
 bad government than by good — encourage the young Rajas 
 in a life of dissipation. Very few resist the evil influences 
 of their surroundings for any length of time. By degrees 
 they succumb and degenerate. In the end they fall into 
 excesses and become debilitated in body and mind. Then 
 their feeble sons, if they have any, generally die early, and 
 an heir is adopted. 
 
 Happily, there are remarkable exceptions to this rule, and 
 examples might be given of good native princes who devote 
 themselves to the welfare of their territories. 
 
 As an illustration I may state that, when I was at Cal- 
 cutta, I accepted the invitation of the Maharaja of Kasmir 
 to pay him a visit at Jammu. He is a son of Gulab Singh, 
 a Rajput chief who served under the Sikhs, and to whom 
 we made over the Dogra district, of which Jammu is the 
 capital, and Kasmir, of which Srinagar is the capital, for a 
 stipulated sum of money after the first Panjab war. The 
 present Maharaja is most desirous of pleasing us, and 
 opens his kingdom to our travellers for eight months in the 
 year, providing them with accommodation at his own ex-
 
 NATIVE STATES. JAMMU. 173 
 
 pense. He himself prefers living in the town of Jammu 
 (probably named from the Jambu tree common in the 
 neig-hbourhood), because it commands the entrance to his 
 territories, which altogether cover an area largrer than Eng-- 
 land. The town most picturesquely crowns one of the 
 undulations which, rising abruptly from the Panjab plains, 
 are succeeded by wave after wave of higher ranges till they 
 terminate in the white crests of the Himalayas. From the 
 King's palace a grand view of the TavT Valley, shut in at 
 the further end by snowy ranges, may be obtained. Another 
 palace, very like a large railway station, was built the other 
 day for the occupation of the Prince of Wales at an alleged 
 expense of <^'6o,ooo. 
 
 The Maharaja, whose appearance is handsome and soldier- 
 like, is unwearied in his royal duties. He rises early, is 
 strict in his devotions, and temperate in his habits, and 
 every morning for several hours may be seen in a room 
 overlooking the courtyard of his palace, surrounded by able 
 advisers, and diligently superintending the affairs of his 
 kingdom. What chiefly deserves mention as distinguishing 
 him from the generality of native Sovereigns is his en- 
 couragement of literature. He is the Augustus of Indian 
 Princes. Not only has he established the best native 
 schools I have seen in India for the teaching of Sanskrit, 
 Arabic, Persian, and English, but he has also set up a 
 press, with a type foundry, and keeps around him a large 
 staff of Pandits and other learned men who are constantly 
 engaged in translating the best European works into the 
 dialects of the country. This dialect is a modification of 
 Panjabi — called Dogra/as belonging to the Dwigarta dis- 
 trict, between the Ravi and the Chenab. Translations 
 have already been made of works on grammar, history, 
 geography, mathematics, surveying, architecture, medicine, 
 and several of the physical sciences. A dictionary has also 
 been commenced in six languages. Moreover, a standard 
 alphabet has been constructed with much skill by em- 
 ploying the Devanagari to imj)rove the imperfect graphic
 
 174 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 system formerly current in the country. The King's zeal 
 for learning- was rather curiously exhibited for my benefit. 
 He had a detachment of soldiers manoeuvred before me that 
 I mig-ht listen to the words of command, which were all in 
 Sanskrit. The spread of education and knowledge in the 
 Maharaja's dominion during the last ten years is most 
 remarkable. 
 
 There are other examples of well-governed States^ notably 
 that of the Maharaja of Travankor ; but the description of 
 one must here suffice. 
 
 Our Education of the Peojde. 
 
 It is commonly alleged that if we go on educating on 
 our present plan we shall soon lose India. No one will 
 dispute that whatever the consequences may be our duty is 
 to continue educating. Whether, however, our system is 
 altogether wise, admits of question. I can certify that a 
 vast work has been effected and is still proceeding. Every- 
 where there are schools — primary, intermediate, middle, 
 and high — besides Colleges and Universities — and every 
 year witnesses an increasing number of scholars and stu- 
 dents. At Bombay I saw 12,000 children — all under 
 education — assembled to greet the Prince of Wales. I also 
 saw 1,263 candidates being examined for matriculation, 
 and among them some young Princes. At Calcutta I saw 
 even a greater number, and the standard of proficiency 
 seemed higher than in England. Yet we have merely 
 penetrated the outer fringe of society. Very little impres- 
 sion has yet been made on the masses of the people, and 
 the chasm separating the educated from the uneducated is 
 enormous. India cannot be said to possess a real middle- 
 class, so that any middle education like that in England is 
 impossible. Even in the case of those supposed to be 
 under the higher form of education, I fear the work 
 effected is rather information than education — rather in- 
 forming the mind than forming the character and raising 
 its tone.
 
 EDUCATION. 175 
 
 This sort of education is, in some cases, better than 
 nothing-, but too often inflates young- men with conceit, 
 unhing-es their faith in their own relig-ion without giving 
 them any other, leads them to despise the calling- of their 
 fathers, and to look upon knowledge as a mere stepping- 
 stone to Government situations which they cannot all ob- 
 tain. I heard it stated (possibly with some exaggeration) 
 that not long ago there were 500 applications for a muni- 
 cipal post at Kurnoul, worth only Rs. 15 per month. Those 
 who are unsuccessful in gaining appointments will not 
 turn to manual labour, but remain discontented members 
 of society and enemies of our Government, converting the 
 little real education they have received into an instru- 
 ment to injure us by talking treason and writing seditious 
 articles in native journals. I believe the defects of our 
 present system are beginning to be acknowledged. Many 
 think we shall be wiser to educate the generality of natives 
 in their professions and callings rather than above them — 
 to make a good husbandman a better one, a good mechanic 
 more skilful in his own craft — and only to give higher 
 forms of education in exceptional cases. 
 
 With regard to female education, although its bearing 
 on the moral and intellectual and even physical progress 
 of India can scarcely be overrated, little impression, I 
 fear, has yet been made on the mass of the population. 
 Scattered efforts are prosecuted with much energy and 
 some success, but too often show signs of languishing. 
 The truth simply is that, before we can raise the women 
 of India, we must first raise the men. We must do more 
 than inform their minds — we must form their whole cha- 
 racters and cast them in a higher mould ; and if we 
 cannot convert them to the dogmas of Christianity, we 
 must instil into them Christian ideas and ways of thinking. 
 When we have thus elevated the men, we may safely leave 
 the women to their keeping. The women will then be 
 raised to the level of the men by the act of the men 
 themselves without our interference. At present Hindu
 
 T75 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 women are generally faithful wives and devoted mothers, 
 and have great influence with their families, but they are 
 grossly ignorant ; and to their ignorance, bigotry, and 
 subjection to the Brahmans, the maintenance of super- 
 stition and idolatry, which would otherwise rapidly lose 
 ground among the men_, is, I suspect, mainly due. 
 
 Dlsj)ositlon and Attitude of the Natives towards us 
 and our Hide. 
 
 In the first place, how are they disposed to us per- 
 sonally? I am sorry to say that my travels in India 
 have revealed to me that between the ruler and the ruled 
 in India there is a great gulf fixed, which, since the 
 Mutiny, has widened and is becoming more and more 
 difficult to be bridged over. The very arrangement of 
 every large town bears witness to the truth of this state- 
 ment, the European residences being collected in a quarter 
 of their own quite distinct from the native town. Another 
 significant fact is that on railways Europeans and natives 
 are never seen together in the same carriages. 
 
 The causes which lead to this separation are mostly 
 patentj but a remedy is not easily applied. First, there is 
 what is called the race feeling, by which is meant the 
 natural antipathy between races of different coloured skins 
 — a feeling which, however manifestly unreasonable, is 
 difficult to overcome. Then there is the caste feeling, 
 which we have quite as strongly in our own way as 
 Indians. With us^ however, it is of a different kind. 
 It is not part of our religion. In the case of the Hindus 
 the principal result of caste, in relation to us Europeans, 
 is that although they may be of the same rank as our- 
 selves they will not consent to eat with us, or to drink 
 water touched by us or our servants. We, on the other 
 hand, are accustomed to regard dining together as essential 
 to social intercourse, and are apt to resent their declining 
 to sit at meat with us, as if we were personally insulted.
 
 ATTITUDE OF THE NATIVES. 177 
 
 But we ought to bear in mind that eating and drinking- 
 is, with a Hindu, bound up with his religion, or rather 
 with its system of purificatory rites ; and that the killing 
 of animals (especially oxen) for food is regarded as an im- 
 pious act, so that the absence of Hindus from our tables 
 ought not to oiFend us more than their absence from our 
 churches. 
 
 Then there is the feeling naturally springing up between 
 governors and governed. A commanding tone of voice 
 may often be necessary for the maintenance of authority, 
 but I fear we rulers are sometimes unnecessarily imperious. 
 We are naturally conscious of our superiority, but need our 
 bearing towards those we are ruling make them feel their 
 inferior position too keenly ? 
 
 An advanced native, of independent character, once com- 
 plained to me that most Englishmen appeared to him to 
 walk about the world with an air as if God Almighty in- 
 tended the whole universe to be English. He had probably 
 been thrown with young civilians recently imported from 
 England. Few others would think of lording it over 
 their Indian brethren in any offensive manner. A re- 
 action in this respect has set in all over India. I could 
 enumerate many cases in which the mild Hindu is not 
 a whit milder in manner than those who are set over him. 
 
 Then there are other feelings springing from early train- 
 ing, habits, and association. It is difficult for a European, 
 who has never been in the East, to estimate the difference 
 in ideas and ways of thinking arising from this source. 
 Not only is there a different standard of taste as shown 
 in dress, music, &c., but even to a certain extent of right 
 and wrong. Eor instance, if a Hindu thinks it wrong to 
 kill animals for food, much more does he object to de- 
 stroying life of any kind for sport. Again, an Asiatic, 
 whether Hindu or Musalman, thinks it highly improper 
 for women to mix familiarly with men who are not re- 
 lations, much more to dance with them. Then there are 
 differences in nearly every common custom. For example^ 
 
 N
 
 1 7 8 MODERN INDIA . 
 
 a Hindu shows respect by covering his head when a Euro- 
 pean uncovers it. In a few cases assimilation of habits 
 has been effected, but when this has occurred the Indian 
 has become more Europoanized than the European has be- 
 come Indianized. It would be foolish to expect these 
 differences to cease. What is really to be regretted is the 
 estrangement they produce. 
 
 And now, in the last place, what is the attitude of the 
 natives of India towards our Government ? The most in- 
 telligent are quite ready to admit that they enjoy greater 
 benefits under our rule than they would under any other ; 
 and the wiser, who know that universal disorder would 
 follow its cessation, even pray for its continuance ; but the 
 mass of unthinking people would rather be badly governed 
 by their own chiefs than well governed by us. In the 
 native states they will acquiesce in exactions which in our 
 territories would be regarded as intolerable. Of course 
 nothing will conciliate those who are determined to dislike 
 us. But even the wiser, who value our rule, consider that 
 they have certain grievances. Why — I have often been 
 asked — are we treated as if in mental capacity and moral 
 tone we were all inferior to Europeans ? Why are we never 
 allowed to rise to the highest executive appointments ? 
 Why are those of us who compete for the Civil Service 
 forced to go to England for examination ? Supposing 
 we are not yet fit for representative government, why 
 are we not allowed deliberative assemblies, like the Houses 
 of Convocation in the English Church, that our opinions 
 may be made known before fresh laws are enacted ? Why 
 cannot justice be administered more cheaply and directly, 
 and with fewer delays ? Why does the Government spend 
 so much of the revenues on public works and give us no 
 new serais and tanks ? These are a few of the complaints 
 I have heard. 
 
 Perhaps some of them are not real, and others are in 
 course of redress. I believe our Government admits that 
 when natives can show themselves mentally and morally
 
 ATTITUDE OF THE NATIVES. 179 
 
 fit for the highest administrative offices thej must be 
 allowed to fill them^. We are certainly doing our best 
 to redress political grievances. Let us also endeavour to 
 do more than we have hitherto done towards bridging 
 over the social chasm that at present separates the two 
 races and complicates the difficulties of our position in 
 India. Our great English Universities may contribute 
 something towards this important object, if they will make 
 facilities for the reception of young Indians and for their 
 intercourse with young Englishmen. I believe that the 
 young men of England and India may learn useful les- 
 sons from each other, and yet preserve their separate 
 nationalities. We must of course be conscious of our 
 own superiority in religion, morality, and general cul- 
 ture ; but let us give our Indian fellow-subjects credit 
 for such excellencies as they possess, and condescend to 
 admit that good may accrue from some interchange of 
 ideas and mutual attrition between the two races. Assuredly 
 a better feeling between them must result from conscious- 
 ness of reciprocal benefits bestowed. 
 
 One thing at least is certain, that India is given to us 
 to conciliate as well as to elevate, even if she oflfers us 
 nothing to imitate. In my opinion the great problem that 
 before all others presses for solution in relation to our 
 Eastern Empire is, how can the rulers and the ruled be 
 drawn closer together ? How can more sympathy and 
 cordial feeling be promoted between them ? 
 
 ^ By 33 Vict. cap. 3, sec. 6, it is no longer necessary for Indians to come 
 to England that they may be eligible for civil appointments. The local 
 governments can nominate a certain proportion (one fifth of the number 
 of Europeans) every year, and the number of civilians selected in England 
 is then diminished in a corresponding degree. The native candidates 
 selected in India are not allowed to be more than twenty-five years of age, 
 except in cases of special ability, and they are obliged to serve on pro- 
 bation for two years. The great difficulty is the adjustment of salaries. 
 How can those of Europeans, working as exiles from their country and 
 homes in a hot climate not always suited to their constitutions, be estimated 
 on the same scale as those of natives % 
 
 N %
 
 GENERAL IMPRESSIONS AND NOTES AFTER 
 TRAVELS IN SOUTHERN INDIA. 
 
 Southern India may be regarded as embracing all India 
 below the twenty-second parallel of latitude — that is to 
 say, speaking roughly, all within the northern tropical 
 line. It will, therefore, include that part of the Bombay 
 Presidency south of the Narbada, of which Bombay and 
 Poona are the capitals ; that portion of the Central Pro- 
 vinces, of which Nagpur is the chief town; Orissa; the 
 Nizam's territory, of which Hyderabad is the capital ; 
 Mysor, and the whole Madras Presidency, with Travankor 
 as far as Cape Comorin. To these may be added the island 
 of Ceylon, the south point of which is within six degrees 
 of the Equator. 
 
 Climate of Southern India. 
 
 I described my experience of a winter in the Northern 
 parts of India as delightful, and now a winter passed in 
 the South has not changed my opinion as to the superi- 
 ority of the Indian climate to our own for at least five 
 months in the year. Indeed, I am satisfied that to those 
 who can retire to the Hills for a time in the hot and rainy 
 seasons, residence in India all the year round is attended 
 with as little risk to health as residence in England, 
 
 But India is like a continent which ofiers every variety 
 of sanitary condition, and it must not be forgotten that 
 the whole of Southern India is within the Tropics. It has
 
 PHYSICAL FEA TURKS OF SO UTHERN INDIA . 1 8 1 
 
 places which are correctly described as deadly in their effect 
 on the health of Europeans, and in certain jungly districts, 
 where there is no lack of moisture and the temperature 
 is persistently high, rank deciduous vegetation generates 
 fever as a matter of course. The rainfall on the western 
 coast is the greatest, and with abundant tropical rain, and 
 abundant tropical vegetation, comes inevitable malaria. It 
 must be admitted, too, that so far as my experience has 
 gone during the past winter, I found the climate of the 
 whole of Southern India more trying to the health than 
 that of the districts north of the Narbada river and 
 Vindhya hills. It is true that there is not the same inten- 
 sity of summer heat in the South, and the temperature 
 from one year's end to the other is more equable, but there 
 are no intervals of bracing cold either in the winter or in 
 the night time. I believe it may be proved by statistics 
 that cholera is always more prevalent in the South than in 
 the North. Certainly, in the beginning of 1877 a bad 
 type of the disease prevailed in some of the districts 
 through which I travelled, and I heard of many Europeans 
 being attacked. Probably, however, the drought, famine, 
 and badness of the water may have caused an exceptionally 
 unhealthy season. 
 
 Physical Features of Southern India. 
 
 What strikes one most in travelling through any part of 
 India is the vastness of the country. No sooner does one 
 land in Bombay than one's whole ideas of distance have to 
 be cast in a new mould. You are told that an old acquaint- 
 ance is residing close to your hotel, and you find to your 
 surprise that a visit to his house involves a drive of ten 
 miles. The sense of vastness is not so overpowering in 
 Southern India as in Northern, and yet the Nizam's ter- 
 ritory alone embraces an area little less than that of the 
 kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Pei-haps the most remarkable physical feature of Southern 
 India is the existence of an immense triangular plateau of
 
 l82 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 table-land caused by the circumstance that the high ranges 
 of hills on the western coast slope down gradually, but with 
 numerous irregular depressions and isolated elevations, to- 
 wards the eastern coast, where the plateau breaks up into 
 lower ranges, leaving much level land between the heights 
 and the sea. The two eastern and western coast ranges, 
 which come to a point near Cape Comorin, are called Ghats 
 because they recede like steps (Sanskrit Ghatta) from the 
 sea-shore ; and the triangle of table-land formed by their 
 junction with the two extremities of tbe Vindhya range 
 which traverses the centre of India, is called the Deccan, 
 from Prakrit DakMii, for Sanskrit DaksJdn, ' the south 
 country.' The great Indian Peninsula Railway from Bom- 
 bay to Jabalpore and Raichor conducts to this plateau by 
 a wonderful piece of engineering skill up the Bhore Ghat. 
 Poona, the capital of our part of the Deccan, is nearly 2,000 
 feet above the sea ; so is our military station of Secundera- 
 bad, close to Hyderabad, the capital of the Nizam's portion 
 of the Deccan ; and our station of Bangalor, in the Mysor 
 country, is about 3,500 feet above the sea level. There is 
 an extensive tract of ugly flat country round Madras, along 
 the Coromandel coast and Northern Circars. But there is 
 no lack of grand scenery on the Western Ghats, especially 
 towards their southern extremity, on the Nilgiri, Animalli, 
 Pulney, and Asambhu hills, some of which rise to an alti- 
 tude of more than 8,000 feet. Tbe ascent to Ootacamund 
 is quite equal to the finest Swiss pass I ever saw. What it 
 loses by the absence of snow is counterbalanced by the 
 glories of its tropical vegetation. Moreover, all Europe 
 cannot boast such waterfalls as the Gairsappa Falls, on the 
 Malabar coast, and those of the River Kaveri in Mysor. 
 The former even in the dry season present a perpendicular 
 fall of a large mass of water 900 feet high. I have heard 
 this called the third sight of India, the Himalayas coming 
 first, and the Taj at Agra second.
 
 MADRAS. 183 
 
 Madras. 
 
 As to the chief town of the Madras Presidency, a situa- 
 tion more unsuited to a great capital can hardly be con- 
 ceived. Madras has no harbour and no navigable river, 
 and the ships anchored in its roads are in constant dang-er 
 of being driven ashore, as the ' Duke of Sutherland ' was 
 the other day. Its drainage — if any is possible where 
 the ground is often below the sea level — is so bad that 
 cholera is never absent. Indeed, so far as my experience 
 goes, Madras is inferior to Bombay and Calcutta, not only 
 in a sanitary point of view, but in nearly every other par- 
 ticular, except perhaps in the one point that more English 
 is spoken by the native servants. Its inhabitants are now 
 making a great effort to improve its trade, and the present 
 Governor, who has a decided penchant for engineering, is 
 developing his taste in the interest of the merchants by 
 promoting the construction of an artificial harbour, the cost 
 of which is to be defrayed out of the revenues of India. 
 Untold sums of money are being thrown into the sea in 
 the shape of huge blocks of concrete, each of them about 
 12 feet long by 10 feet in breadth and 8 feet in thickness, 
 for the formation of a breakwater, which is to encircle the 
 present pier with two projecting arms. But the difficulty 
 of enclosing a sufficient area of water, and the perpetual 
 drifting of sand along the coast, make the success of the 
 undertaking highly problematical. Under any circum- 
 stances, Madras, though large enough to attract a trade 
 of its own, will never overcome its own natural disadvan- 
 tages of position, so as to compete with either Bombay or 
 Calcutta, the former of which is destined to become the 
 great commercial emporium and capital of all India (if not 
 of all Asia), the wealth and importance of which will be 
 vastly increased so soon as the Baroda Railway is connected 
 with Ajmere, Agra, and the North-West. Calcutta, too, 
 is likely to continue the political capital of India, both from 
 the convenience of its situation on the Ganges, in the midst
 
 184 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 of a naturally peaceful and law-abiding population, and 
 from the obstacles its position offers to an attack from the 
 sea. 
 
 Animal and Plant Life in SoutJiern India. 
 
 Perhaps the most striking point of difference between 
 Northern and Southern India is due to the circumstance 
 that the South possesses all the characteristics of the 
 Tropics in the greater exuberance of all kinds of life and 
 vegetation. To realize this exuberance fully one must go 
 to the extreme South and Ceylon. There one may come 
 across almost every animal, from a wild elephant to a 
 fire-fly. There, as one strolls through a friend's compound 
 or drives to a neighbouring railway station, one passes the 
 choicest plants and trees of European hothouses growing 
 luxuriantly in the open air. As to animals, they seem to 
 dispute possession of the soil with man. They will assert 
 with perfect impunity their right to a portion of the crops 
 he rears and the food he eats, and will even effect a lodg- 
 ment in the houses he builds as if they had a claim to be 
 regarded as co-tenants. This is a good deal owing to the 
 sacredness of animal life in India. Not only is there an 
 absolute persuasion in the mind of a Hindu that some 
 animals, such as cows^ serpents, and monkeys, are more or 
 less pervaded by divinity, but most Indians believe that 
 there are eighty-four lakhs of species of animal life through 
 which a man's own soul is liable to pass. 
 
 In fact, any noxious insect or loathsome reptile may be, 
 according to the Hindu religion, an incarnation of some 
 deceased relative or venerated ancestor. Hence, no man, 
 woman, or child among the Hindus thinks it right to kill 
 animals of any kind. HencCj too, in India animals of all 
 kinds appear to live on terms of the greatest confidence 
 and intimacy with human beings. They cannot even 
 learn to be afraid of their enemies the European immi- 
 grants. Musquitoes will settle affectionately and fearlessly 
 on the hands of the most recent comer, leeches will in-
 
 ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE. 185 
 
 sinuate themselves lovingly between the interstices of his 
 lower garments, parrots will peer inquisitively from the 
 eaves of his bedroom into the mysteries of his toilet, crows 
 will carry off impudently anything- portable that takes their 
 fancj^ on his dressing-iable, sparrows will hop about imper- 
 tinently and take the bread off his table-cloth, bats will 
 career triumphantly round his head as he reads by the light 
 of his duplex lamp, monkeys will domesticate themselves 
 jauntily on his roof, and at certain seasons snakes will 
 domicile themselves unpleasantly in his cast-off garments, 
 while a whole tribe of feathered creatures will build their 
 nests confidingly under the trees of his garden before the 
 very eyes of the village boys who play near his compound. 
 I have heard it said in England that the tigers of India 
 will soon be exterminated ; yet I looked down from the 
 heights near Ootacamund on a tract of country swarming 
 with tigers and wild animals of all kinds. Such animals 
 are on the increase in these and other similar localities, 
 notwithstanding the active hostility of rifle-armed English 
 sportsmen. The truth is that those Europeans who venture 
 into such jungles to shoot down tigers are themselves 
 struck down, like Lord Hastings, by jungle fever ; and 
 before we can induce the natives to wage a war of extermi- 
 nation against beasts of prey, we must disabuse them of 
 the notion that men are sometimes converted into wild 
 beasts, and that the spirit of a man killed by a tiger not 
 unfrequently takes to riding about on the animal's head^. 
 
 With regard to plant life, it must be borne in mind that 
 in the creed of the Hindus even plants may be permeated 
 by divinity or possessed by the souls of departed relatives. 
 No Hindu will cut down the divine Tulsl, or knowingly 
 injure any other saci'ed plant. As to the holy Pipal, it may 
 indulge its taste for undermining walls and houses, and 
 even palaces and temples, with perfect impunity. Happily, 
 there is a limit to even the most pious Hindu's respect for 
 plant life. 
 
 ' See Sleeman's 'Rambles and Recollections,' p. 162.
 
 l86 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Perhaps the most demonstrative and self- asserting and, 
 at the same time, most useful of tropical trees is the palm. 
 Palm trees are ubiquitous in Southern India, and yet the 
 eye never wearies of their presence. One hundred and fifty 
 different species may be seen in Ceylon, among which the 
 most conspicuous are the cocoa-nut, the palmyra, the date, 
 the sago, the slender areca, and the sturdy talipot — often 
 crowned with its magnificent tuft of flowers, which it 
 produces only once before its decay, at the end of about 
 half a century. Avenues of palm trees overshadow the 
 roads and even line the streets of towns. The next most 
 characteristic tree of Southern India is the banyan. The 
 sight of a fine banyan tree is almost worth a voyage from 
 Southampton to Bombay, and it can only be seen in per- 
 fection in the South, One I saw in a friend's compound 
 at Madura was i8o yards in circumference, and was a little 
 forest in itself. Then there is the beautiful plantain, with 
 its broad, smooth leaves, rivalling the palm in luxuriance 
 and ubiquity. Then one must go to Southern India to 
 understand how the lotus became the constant theme of 
 Indian poets, as the symbol of everything lovely, sacred, 
 and auspicious. Space indeed would fail if I were to tell 
 of groves of mangoes and tamarinds, clumps of enormous 
 bamboos, gigantic creepers in full blossom, tree ferns, 
 oranges and citrons, hedges of flowering aloes, cactus, 
 prickly pear, wild roses, and geraniums, or even if I were to 
 descant at large on such useful plants as cofiee, cinchona, 
 tea, and tobacco. 
 
 With regard to these last I will merely say that our 
 thriving colony of Ceylon is the true home of the cofiee 
 plant, and that I found cofiee-planting there in a peculiarly 
 flourishing condition. About £^ per cwt. was given in 
 1876 for coffee which formerly realised only £2 \os} The 
 
 ^ According to a correspondent of the Times, 749,870 cwt. of coffee was 
 shipped up to June 20, 1879, ^^ compared with 529,807 cwt. for last year, 
 and 770,679 for the year previous. It apj^ears that there is now a cer- 
 tainty of ridding coffee plantations of that destructive pest — Hemeleia vas-
 
 CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. 187 
 
 island owes much of its present prosperity to Sir William 
 Gregory^s energetic governorship. Coffee in great quan- 
 tities is also grown on the Nilgiris, the hill districts of 
 Mysor, the Wynaad, Travankor, and the Asambhu hills. 
 Cinchona (yielding quinine) is being cultivated with great 
 success in Ceylon, Sikkim^ and some hill stations of 
 Southern India. As to tea, ever since the tea-plant was 
 found to be indigenous in Assam and Kachar, its cultiva- 
 tion has gone on increasing so rapidly that it is likely to 
 become one of the staple products of India, and will vie as 
 an export with rice, opium, cotton, and jute. It is said 
 that 357,000 chests were exported last year from Assam, 
 Kachar, and Darjiling — the three chief tea districts — alone. 
 Tea cultivation is also carried on in other hill stations of 
 Northern and Southern India. I am told that a great 
 future is in store for tobacco, and that it will take the place 
 of opium as a source of revenue should the Chinese demand 
 for the latter cease. All that is wanted is skill in its culti- 
 vation, and more delicate manipulation in the rolling of 
 the leaves of the plant for the manufacture of cigars. Its 
 success in British Burmah is remarkable. But enough of 
 plants ; let me turn to men. 
 
 Character of the Peojde in Southern India. 
 
 If the most apathetic traveller is astonished by the 
 nature of the climate, by the vastness of the country, by 
 the diversity of the scenery, by the exuberance of animal 
 and plant life in Southern India, much more is his wonder 
 excited by the multiplicity of races which constitute its 
 teeming population, by the variety of their costume, man- 
 ners, social institutions, usages, religious creeds, and dialects. 
 Biologists, ethnologists, archaeologists, and philologists will 
 find here (as in Northern India) a rich banquet set before 
 them, from which they may always rise with an appetite fov 
 
 tatrix — popularly known as leaf-disease, by means of a mixture of sulphur 
 and lime recently invented by a certain Mr. Morris.
 
 1 88 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 more. The inliabitants of Bombay, whose number exceeds 
 that of any other city in the British Einpire (except London 
 and Calcutta), may be said to belong partly to Gujarat, 
 partly to the Konkan, and partly to the Maratha country. 
 When we have ascended the Bhore Ghat and are in that 
 part of the Deccan of which Poona is the capital, we are 
 fairly among' the Marathas, who are the principal repre- 
 sentatives of the Aryan race in Southern India. The 
 Brahmans and hig-her classes of this race are often fine 
 intelligent men, and sometimes great Pandits, but withal 
 proud and bigoted. Their women are kept less secluded, 
 and are far more independent than the women in Northern 
 India, where Muhammadan influences are much stronger. 
 It is common to see Maratha ladies walking about in the 
 streets of large towns and showing themselves in public 
 without any scruple. 
 
 The rest of Southern India, not including the Aryan 
 portion of Orissa, is peopled first by the great Dravidian 
 races (so called from Dravida, the name given by the 
 Sanskrit speakers to the Southern, or Tamil, part of the 
 Peninsula), wiiose immigrations into India in successive 
 waves from some part of Central Asia immediately pre- 
 ceded those of the Aryans. These Dravidians are of course 
 quite distinct from the Aryans ; their skin is generally 
 much darker, and the languages they speak belong to what 
 is sometimes called the South Turanian (agglutinative) 
 family. They may be separated into four distinct peoples, 
 according to their four principal languages — Telugu, 
 Kanarese, Tamil, and Malayalam (see p. 15 xV 
 
 Secondly, Southern India is peopled by the wild primitive 
 races, some of them Negroid in complexion, and others 
 Negrito, of a type similar to the savages of Australia. 
 They are now usually called Kolarians ^. Their irruptions 
 preceded the advent of the Dravidians, and they are still 
 
 ^ See p. 149. I believe the convenient designation Kolarian (formed 
 from the word Kol, the name of a particular race) is due to Sir George 
 Campbell, who first used it.
 
 CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. 189 
 
 found in the hills and other outlying localities. Of the 
 Dravidians the Telugu and Tamil speakers are by far 
 the majority, each numbering fifteen or sixteen millions. 
 The Tamil race, who occupy the extreme south from 
 Madras to Cape Comorin, are active, hard-working, in- 
 dustrious, and independent. Their difficult and highly 
 accentuated language reflects their character and possesses 
 quite a distinct literature of its own. The Telugu people, 
 inhabiting the Northern Circars and the Nizam's territory, 
 are also remarkable for their industry ; and their soft lan- 
 guage, abounding in vowels, is the Italian of the East. 
 The Kanarese of Mysor resemble the Telugu race in lan- 
 guage and character, just as the Malayalams of the Malabar 
 coast resemble the Tamils. I noticed that the seafaring 
 Tamils of the Southern coast near Ramnad, Ramesvaram, 
 and Tuticorin are much more able-bodied and athletic than 
 ordinary Hindus. Numbers of them migrate to Ceylon, 
 and at least half a million form a permanent part of the 
 population of that island. They are to be found in all 
 the coffee plantations, and work much harder than the 
 Sinhalese. 
 
 Indeed, all the races of South India seem to me to show 
 readiness and aptitude for any work they are required to 
 do, as well as patience, endurance, and perseverance in 
 the discharge of the most irksome duties. The lower 
 classes may be seen everywhere earning their bread by the 
 veritable sweat of their brow and submitting without a 
 murmur to a life of drudgery and privation. But they are 
 not, as a rule, physically strong, and their moral character, 
 like their bodily constitution, exhibits little stamina. They 
 have, so to speak, little solidity of backbone, either to keep 
 them upright when they are brought into collision with 
 stronger races, or to enable them to rise to the high 
 standard of European morality. It must be borne in mind, 
 too, that Europeans are sometimes strong in vices as well 
 as in virtues ; and that, as the Hindu rarely has the power 
 of assimilating himself to our best qualities, he is apt to copy
 
 190 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 our worst. Even our Administrative Government, with all 
 its moral purity, has introduced temptations which are to 
 him a stone of stumbling-. Yet I have been told by officers 
 of long experience, who have witnessed the growth of much 
 of our Indian Empire, that on the acquisition of newly- 
 acquired territories, the inhabitants have never shown any 
 immediate disposition towards deceit, litigiousness, subtlety, 
 and avarice, or any ot the faults they have afterwards dis- 
 played so conspicuously in our Courts of Justice, and in 
 their dealings with us as rulers. The plain fact is, that 
 the people of India are simply human beings with very 
 human infirmities ; and that, if the professing Christian 
 finds it difficult to bear up against the tide of human care, 
 crime, and trial which ever follows in the track of advancing 
 civilization, much more does the non-Christian Hindu. I 
 doubt, however, whether the worst Indians are ever so 
 offensive in their vices as the worst tjrpe of low, unprinci- 
 pled Europeans. At any rate, their vices are more secret 
 and subtle. As servants, they are faithftil, honest, and 
 devoted, and will attach themselves with far greater affec- 
 tion than English servants to those who treat them well. 
 They show greater respect for animal life than Europeans. 
 They have more natural courtesy of manner, more filial 
 dutifulness, more veneration for rank, age, and learning, 
 and they are certainly more temperate in eating and drink- 
 ing. I once asked a Peninsular and Oriental captain 
 whether he preferred a crew of ordinary Indian or ordinary 
 English sailors, and he unhesitatingly gave the preference 
 to Indians, ' because,' said he, ' they are more docile, more 
 obedient, less brutish in their habits, and can be trusted not 
 to get drunk.' 
 
 Another point to be noted in comparing Indians with 
 Europeans is that the rich among them are never ashamed 
 of their poor relations, and, what is still more noticeable, 
 neither rich nor poor are ever ashamed of their religion.
 
 RELIGIONS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 191 
 
 Religions of Southern India. 
 
 Relig-ion is even more closely interwoven with every 
 affair of daily life, and is even more showily demonstrative 
 in the South of India than in the North. Unhappily, it is 
 not of a kind to strengthen the character or fortify it 
 against temptation. Yet its action on social, domestic, 
 and political life is so potent, that to make clear the con- 
 dition of the people, I must briefly explain the nature of 
 their creeds. 
 
 A distinction has already been pointed out between 
 Brahmanism and Hinduism ^. Brahmanism is the purel}' 
 pantheistic and not necessarily idolatrous creed evolved by 
 the Brahmans out of the religion of the Veda. Hinduism 
 is that complicated system of polytheistic doctrine, idola- 
 trous superstitions, and caste usages which has been deve- 
 loped out of Brahmanism after its contact with Buddhism 
 and its admixture with the non- Aryan creeds of the 
 Dravidians and Aborigines of Southern India. Brah- 
 manism and Hinduism, though infinitely remote from 
 each other, are integral parts of the same system. One 
 is the germ or root, the other is the rank and diseased out- 
 growth. It is on this account that they everywhere co- 
 exist in the same localities throughout the whole of India. 
 Nevertheless, the most complete examples of both creeds 
 are now to be looked for in Southern India, because the 
 North has been always more exposed to Muhammadan 
 influences. In fact, it was the South which produced the 
 great religious revivalists, Kumarila, Sankara, Madhva, 
 Ramanuja, and Vallabha. 
 
 The followers of Sankara (who lived about the seventh 
 or eighth century of our era, and whose successors reside 
 at Sringeri, on the Mysor Ghats) are usually strict Brah- 
 mans. They call themselves Smartas, as observers of Smriti 
 or traditional doctrines and ceremonies, and their creed is 
 
 ' I was the first to suggest this distinction in the use of the terms 
 Brahmanism and Hinduism, and am alone responsible for it.
 
 192 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 generally pure Brahmanism. In other words, they are pure 
 Pantheists. They accept the Vedas, Itihasas, Manu, and 
 Puranas, and maintain the doctrine of one universal Spirit, 
 manifesting himself equally in Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, 
 and developing- himself in every other form of divine, semi- 
 divine, human and demoniacal personality. 
 
 The adherents of Madhva, on the other hand, call them- 
 selves Vaishnavas — as worshippers of the god Vishnu alone, 
 whom they regard as the one Supreme Being, admitting 
 that he has assumed various incarnations for the preserva- 
 tion of his creatures. They also diifer from the Smarta 
 followers of Sankara in maintaining an eternal distinction 
 between the human and Supreme Soul. This is a form of 
 Hindiiism which has more common ground with Christi- 
 anity than any other. I have met with many excellent and 
 intelligent Brahmans and others in the South of India who 
 profess it. 
 
 But the great majority of South Indian Vaishnavas are 
 followers of Ramanuja, who led the Vaishnava revival in 
 the twelfth century. These illustrate the operation of a 
 law which appears essential to the vitality of every reli- 
 gious and political system. They have separated into two 
 grand antagonistic parties — the Tengalais, or followers of 
 the Southern doctrine, who maintain the doctrine of absolute 
 faith in Vishnu, which they illustrate by a kitten's passive 
 dependence on the hold of the mother-cat ; and the Vada- 
 galais, or followers of the Northern, who uphold the doctrine 
 of man's co-operation with Vishnu, illustrated by the young 
 monkey ''s effort to grasp the mother-monkey when she 
 moves from one branch to another. Their opposition is 
 very similar to that which prevails in Europe between 
 Calvinists and Arminians, and not unlike that between 
 Protestants and Roman Catholics. Their quarrels in the 
 present day relate more to the external mark of their sect 
 than to differences in fundamental doctrine, the one party 
 contending that this mark — made with a kind of white 
 paint on the forehead — should represent both Vishnu's feet
 
 RELIGIONS OF SOUTHERN INDIA. 
 
 193 
 
 and should extend half-way down the nose, while the other 
 maintains that the mark should only represent one foot of 
 Vishnu and that the nasal organ is not entitled to be 
 honoured with any paint at all. The proper marking- of 
 the idols in their temples is a special subject of contention 
 and sometimes of litigation. 
 
 The Tengalai frontal mark, which has some resemblance 
 to a trident, is represented below. 
 
 It is, however, no trident, if by that is meant a spear. 
 The two outer lines which resemble prongs really stand for 
 the two soles of Vishnu's feet, while the line which extends 
 down the nose is held to represent a kind of lotus throne 
 on which the feet are supposed to rest, as in the annexed 
 diagram. 
 
 On the other hand the Vadagalai mark, as drawn on the 
 next page, is said to stand for only one of Vishnu's feet. 
 
 o
 
 194 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 The Vadag-alais contend that since the Ganges sprang 
 from the sole of Vishnu's right foot, his right foot should 
 be held in special veneration, and its sign impressed on the 
 forehead. 
 
 Both parties agree in employing a central mark to sym- 
 bolize Vishnu's wife Lakshmi. But, it ought to be stated 
 that educated Vaishuavas rej)udiate the idea of Vishnu's 
 being really married. Vishnu, they say, is merely a name 
 for the Supreme Being or in other words for the Infinite 
 Spirit of the Universe, who cannot have an actual wife. 
 The goddess Lakshmi, according to their view, is no real 
 deity, but simply an ideal personification of the mercy of 
 God. Por the religion of the Vaishnavas is, at least 
 theoretically, one of love, tenderness, and compassion, while 
 that of the Saivas is inclined to take a sterner and more 
 austere view of God's nature. 
 
 Besides these three principal sects there is another, called 
 Lingavats (vulgarly Lingaits), who are the followers of a 
 leader Basava ( = Vrishabha). They are worshippers of Siva 
 (symbolized by the lingam worn round their necks); but 
 abjure all respect for caste distinctions and observance of 
 Brahmanical rites and usages. A great part of the Kanarese 
 population below Kolapore and in Mysor is Lingait. 
 
 In short, Vaishnavism and Saivism (or the worship of 
 Vishnu and Siva as personal Supreme Beings) constitute 
 the very heart and soul of Southern Hinduism. As to 
 Brahma — the third member of the Hindu Triad, and ori- 
 ginal creator of the world — he is not worshipped at all 
 except in the person of his alleged ofispring, the Brahmans. 
 Moreover, Vaishnavism and Saivism are nowhere so pro-
 
 DE VI L- WORSHIP. 1 95 
 
 nounced and imposing" as in Southern India. The temples 
 of KanjTvaram (Kancipuram), Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Ma- 
 dura, Tinnevelly, and Ramesvaram are as superior in maii-- 
 nitude to those of Benares as Westminster Abbey and St. 
 Paul's are to the other churches of London. 
 
 Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that, although 
 a belief in devils, and homage to hhiitas or spirits of all 
 kinds, is common all over India, yet what is called ' devil 
 worship' is far more systematically practised in the South 
 of India and in Ceylon than in the North. And the 
 reason may be that as Dravidians and Aryans advanced 
 towards Southern India, they found it peopled by wild 
 aboriginal savages, whose behaviour and aspect appeared 
 to them to resemble that of devils. The Ar3"an and 
 Dravidian mind, therefore, naturally pictured to itself the 
 regions of the South as the chief resort and stronghold of 
 the demon race, and the dread of demoniacal agency be- 
 came more rooted in Southern India than in the North. 
 Curiously enough, too, it is commonly believed in Southern 
 India that every wicked man contributes by his death to 
 swell the ever-increasing ranks of devil legions. His evil 
 passions do not die with him. They are intensified, con- 
 centrated, and perpetuated in the form of a malignant and 
 mischievous spirit. Moreover, the god Siva is constantly 
 connected with demoniacal agencies, either as superintend- 
 ing and controlling them, or as himself possessing (espe- 
 cially in the person of his wife Kali) all the fierceness and 
 malignity usually attributed to demons. 
 
 Such demons though worshipped, or rather propitiated, 
 have never any imposing temple-like structure dedicated 
 to them. Often a mere heap of earth piled up in pyra- 
 midal shape, or a similar erection formed with bricks and 
 painted with streaks of white constitutes the only devil- 
 shrine, while another heap in front with a flat top does 
 duty for the demon's altar. There is rarely any image, 
 and probably a tree above, or near at hand, is the devils 
 supposed dwelling-place. 
 
 o 2
 
 196 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 In fact, in the South of India, even more than in the 
 North, all evils, especially drought, blight, and diseases, 
 are attributed to devils. When my fellow-travellers and 
 myself were nearly dashed to pieces over a precipice by 
 some restive horses on a ghat near Poena, we were told 
 that the road at this particular point was haunted by 
 devils, who often caused similar accidents, and we were 
 given to understand that we should have done well to 
 conciliate Ganes'a, son of the god Siva, and all his troops 
 of evil spirits, before starting. Of all gods Ganesa is, 
 perhaps, the most commonly conciliated, not, in my opin- 
 ion, because he is said to bestow wisdom, but simply be- 
 cause he is believed to prevent the obstacles and diseases 
 caused by devils. Homage, indeed, may be rendered to 
 the good God, or Supreme Spirit pervading the universe, 
 but he is too absolutely perfect to be the author of harm 
 to any one, and does not need to be appeased. Devils 
 alone require propitiation. Often the propitiating process is 
 performed by offerings of food or other articles supposed to 
 be peculiarly acceptable to disembodied beings. For ex- 
 ample, when a certain European, who was a terror to the 
 district in which he lived, died in the South of India, the 
 natives were in the constant habit of depositing brandy 
 and cigars on his tomb to propitiate his spirit, which was 
 believed to roam about the neighbourhood in a restless 
 manner and with evil proclivities. The very same was 
 done to secure the good offices of the philanthropic spirit 
 of a great European sportsman, who, when he was alive, 
 delivered his district from the ravages of tigers. 
 
 Indeed, it ought to be mentioned that all evil spirits are 
 thought to be opposed by good ones, who, if duly pro- 
 pitiated, make it their business to guard the inhabitants 
 of particular places from demoniacal intruders. Each 
 district, and even every village, has its guardian genius, 
 often called its mother. If smallpox or blight appear, 
 seme mother (especially the one called Marl Amman) is 
 thought to be angry, and must be appeased by votive
 
 DEVIL-WORSHIP AND DEVIL-DANCING. 197 
 
 offering's. There are no less than 140 of these mothers 
 in Gujarat. 
 
 There is also one very popular male god in Southern 
 India called Ayenar [Hanhara-putra), son of Siva and 
 Vishnu, to whom shrines in the fields are constantly 
 erected. A remarkable point is that these guardian spirits 
 — especiallj^ Ayenar — are supposed to delight in riding 
 about the country on horses. Hence the traveller just 
 arrived from Europe is startled and puzzled by apparitions 
 of roughly-formed terra-cotta horses, often as large as life, 
 placed by the peasantry round rude shrines in the middle 
 of fields as acceptable propitiatory offerings, or in the ful- 
 filment of vows during periods of sickness. 
 
 Another remarkable circumstance connected with the 
 dread of demoniacal agencies is the existence in the South 
 of India and Ceylon of professional exorcisers and devil- 
 dancers. Exorcising is performed over persons supposed 
 to be possessed by demons in the form of diseases. The 
 exorciser assumes a particular dress, goes through various 
 antics, mutters spells, and repeats incantations. Devil- 
 dancing is performed by persons who paint their faces, 
 or put on hideous masks, dress up in demoniacal costumes, 
 and work themselves up into a veritable frenzy by wild 
 dances, cries, and gesticulations. They are then thought 
 to be actually possessed by the sjiirits and to become, like 
 spiritualist mediums, gifted with clairvoyance and a power 
 of delivering oracular and prophetic utterances on any 
 matter about which they may be questioned. There seems 
 to be also an idea that when smallpox, cholera, or similar 
 pestilences are exceptionally rife, exceptional measures must 
 be taken to draw ofi" the malignant spirits, the supposed 
 authors of the plague, by tempting them to pass into these 
 wild dancers and so become dissipated. 
 
 I myself witnessed in Ceylon an extraordinary devil 
 dance performed by three men who were supposed to per- 
 sonate or represent three different forms of typhus fever ; 
 and when I was at Tanjor, the learned Sanskritist Dr.
 
 198 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Burnell, who is Judg-e of that district, gave me some intcr- 
 estino- information in reg-ard to the demon-festivals which 
 recur periodically in the district of Mang-alor where he 
 held office for some time. 
 
 One of the most popular of these festivals called Tlled- 
 chida Nema is celebrated every fifteen or twenty years. 
 At another called Kallyata a wild dance is performed every 
 60th year before a particular rock or stone which is sup- 
 posed to tremble and shake periodically. 
 
 Sometimes the performance takes place in a large sbed 
 in the middle of which burns a common lamp under a 
 canopy. Around are imag-es of the Bhutas. At the distance 
 of about a foot in front of the lamp is placed a common 
 wooden tripod-stand, two or three feet high, on which is 
 constructed a square frame of cocoa-nut leaves. Inside 
 this frame a quantity of rice and turmeric is piled into a 
 pyramid into wliicli a three-branched iron lamp is inserted. 
 Around are arranged offerings consisting of fruits and 
 living victims such as fowls and goats. The latter are 
 adorned with garlands, and both fowls and goats are after- 
 wards decapitated, the warm blood being either poured out 
 on the ground or on the altar, or else drunk by the offici- 
 ating priest. The idea is that the demon thirsts for blood, 
 and becomes irritated if his cravings are not satisfied. The 
 sole object of sacrificing animals is to assuage his thirst 
 and appease his anger. 
 
 All this is preliminary to the principal performance 
 which takes place in an open space in front of the 
 slaughtered victims. The priest, or some other devotee 
 who has undergone a long preparatory fasting, comes for- 
 ward to personate a particular demon. He is dressed up 
 in a fantastic costume, often covered with grotesque dang- 
 ling ornaments and jingling bells. Sometimes he wears 
 a hideous mask ; sometimes his face is daubed with paint 
 of different colours. In one hand he holds a sword, trident, 
 or other implement, and perhaps a bell in the other. He 
 then commences dancing or pacing up and down in an
 
 DE VIL-DANCING. 
 
 199 
 
 excited manner, amid beating of tom toms, blowing of 
 horns, and all kinds of noisy music, while an attendant 
 sings songs or recites rude poems descriptive of the deeds 
 of the demons. Meanwhile spirituous liquor is distributed, 
 the performer becomes violently excited, and the demon 
 takes complete possession of him. Finally he succumbs in 
 an hysterical fit, and gives out oracular responses to any 
 inquiries addressed to him. Most of the bystanders con- 
 sult him as to their several wants and destinies, or the 
 welfare of absent relatives, but are not allowed to do so 
 without first presenting offerings.
 
 200 
 
 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 The figure on the preceding page represents a performer 
 dressed up as a particular demon called Panjurli, whose wor- 
 ship is connected with some of the deeds of the god Siva, 
 
 Another mischievous female demon called Kallurti, be- 
 lieved to be addicted to the unpleasant habit of throwing 
 stones and setting fire to people^s houses, is represented 
 below with a torch in her hand. 
 
 This Kallurti is worshipped and conciliated by similar 
 performances. 
 
 With regard to Buddhism, although its importation 
 into Ceylon must have been efiected to a great extent
 
 BUDDHISM, INDIAN MUHAMMADANISM. 201 
 
 from Southern India^ where its imag-es still occasioaally 
 do duty as Hindu gods, yet it no long-er exists there. In 
 Ceylon it is a cold, negative, undemonstrative, sleepy 
 religion, contrasting very remarkably with the showy, 
 positive, and noisy form of Hinduism prevalent on the 
 other side of the Straits. Its only worship consists in 
 presenting flowers before images and relic shrines of the 
 extinct Buddha, and in meditating on his virtues and 
 on the advantages of doing nothing beyond aiming at 
 similar extinction. 
 
 In times of sickness and calamity, the Sinhalese, having 
 no Divine protector to appeal to, betake themselves, like 
 the Hindus, to the appeasing of devils or to the worship 
 of idols borrowed from the Hindu Pantheon, whose temples 
 often stand near their relic-dagobas, I myself saw several 
 such temples near the celebrated dagoba erected over 
 Buddha's eye-tooth at Kandy. 
 
 As to the South Indian Muhammadans, they are, of 
 course, worshippers of one God, but I believe that even 
 more than in the North they have made additions to the 
 simplicity of Islam by the adoration of Pirs, or saints, 
 by the veneration of relics, and by conforming to Hindu 
 customs and superstitions. In the Nizam's territory alone 
 homage is paid to hundreds of Pirs. The great Aurangzlb 
 is buried near the tomb of a celebrated saint at Rozah, and 
 crowds of pilgrims annually throng the shrine of a popular 
 Pir at Galbarga. In times of sickness I have seen the lower 
 orders of Muhammadans resort to Hindu deities, especially 
 to the goddess of smallpox. By far the majority are like 
 the Turks, Sunnis (not Shi'as), but from conversation I had 
 with several learned men, I feel convinced that they have 
 no idea of acknowledging the Sultan of Constantinople as 
 their spiritual head, and that the existence of sympathy 
 between India and Turkey (except perhaps in towns like 
 Bombay) is a figment of political agitators. 
 
 The question now arises how far these creeds have 
 tended to degrade the character and condition of the
 
 202 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 people of India. And here we must guard against eon- 
 fusing cause and effect. In my opinion, the present low 
 intellectual and moral condition of the masses of the 
 Hindu people is as much the result of their social usages 
 as it is the cause of their own superstitious creeds. It 
 is very true that these social usages, enforced by what 
 are called caste-rules, are now part and parcel of their 
 religious creeds, hut they do not properly belong to the 
 original pure form of the Hindu religion. They are 
 merely one portion of its diseased outgrowth, and they 
 are the true cause of that feeble condition of mind in 
 which the later superstitions have naturally taken root 
 and luxuriated. 
 
 Not that the rules of caste have been an unmixed evil. 
 On the contrary, they have done much good service to 
 India. Each caste has been a kind of police to itself, 
 keeping its own members in check and saving them from 
 lawlessness. But the advantage thus gained has been far 
 outweighed by the irreparable harm done to the physical, 
 mental, and moral constitution of the Hindu people by 
 the operation of caste in three principal particulars — first, 
 in making early marriage a religious duty; secondly, 
 in enforcing endogamy — that is to say, in obliging 
 castes, and even subdivisions of castes, to marry within 
 themselves ; thirdly, in surrounding family and home life 
 with a wall of secrecy. The evils of early marriage are 
 too manifest to need pointing out. I have sometimes ex- 
 amined the upper classes of Indian high schools in which 
 half the boys have been fathers. In fact, the chief so- 
 licitude in the minds of parents is, not the education of 
 their children, but their early marriage. When girls 
 of twelve are mothers, and boys of sixteen fathers, it is 
 surely too much to expect vigour of mind or body, and 
 strength of character, either in parents or offspring. The 
 children of mere children will probably remain children 
 all their lives. They may have precocity and intelligence, 
 but are very unlikely to develope manly qualities. More-
 
 CASTE-RULES. 203 
 
 over, the universality of early marriages tends to increase 
 population in a way which adds greatly to our difficulties 
 in times of drought and famine. 
 
 As to the evils of endogamy they are too well known 
 to need pointing out. I believe that physiologists are 
 agreed that when first cousins and other blood relations 
 marry, the resulting off'spring is generally of a feeble 
 type. In the India of the present day polygamy is 
 scarcely known, but endogamy is beginning to be common, 
 and I firmly believe that with increasing subdivisions of 
 caste into mere groups of families, and inhibition of mar- 
 riages out of these families^ serious deterioration of brain- 
 tissues is likely to take place among certain classes. 
 
 The weakness entailed by the two pernicious caste rules 
 I have mentioned might, perhaps, be partially overcome or 
 counterbalanced, if it were not for the third pernicious rule 
 — namely, the seclusion of women and the surrounding 
 of family life with an impenetrable wall of secrecy. All 
 nations are but a collection of families, and as are the 
 homes so will be the condition of the people. In truth, 
 the welfare of a country radiates from its homes — one 
 might almost say from its nurseries. But no one knows 
 what is going on in an Indian home, much less can any 
 one, except a member of the family, enter there. It is 
 so shut in by the close shutters of caste that healthy 
 ventilation is impossible. The fresh air of heaven and 
 the light of God's day have no free entrance. Weakly 
 children are brought up by ignorant, superstitious, narrow- 
 minded mothers in a vitiated atmosphere. Hence, in my 
 opinion, the present deteriorated character and condition 
 of a large majority of the people of India. 
 
 What, then, is the chief hope for the future ? It seems 
 to me to lie in a complete reorganization of the social 
 fabric, in a new ideal of womanhood, and an entire renova- 
 tion of family life. Before the people of India can be 
 much elevated by their connexion with England they must 
 learn from us to abolish caste regulations about early
 
 204 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 raarriag-e ; Indian fathers must keep their daughters under 
 education as long as we do, and members of different 
 castes must intermarry, as peer and commoner do in Great 
 Britain. This, it will be said, amounts to an upheaving 
 of the whole social fabric. Yet it is not, in my opinion, 
 a work of such hopeless magnitude as some would make 
 it out to be. Symptoms of impatience under caste- 
 restrictions are already observable among the wealthier, 
 better educated, and more Europeanized classes of natives, 
 and social reform is openly advocated in some quarters. 
 A great advance may be expected when the increasing 
 contact of Indians with English social institutions in 
 England itself, becomes still more common ; when the 
 visits of influential men to our shores are oftener re- 
 peated, and when the Baniyahs, or wealthy traders of 
 the old Vaisya class (some of whom, nevertheless, are 
 the incarnate curses of India by the facilities they offer 
 for borrowing money), succeed, as they appear likely 
 eventually to do, in interposing a strong- middle class 
 and a firm barrier of public opinion between the Brahmans 
 and the lower grades of society. 
 
 All honour, too, to those noble-hearted missionaries who, 
 like Bishop Sargent and Mrs. Sargent at Tinnevelly, 
 are seeking, by the establishment of female schools, to 
 supply India with its most pressing need — good wives and 
 mothers ; or, like Mr. and Mrs. Lash, are training girls 
 to act as high-class schoolmistresses, and sending them 
 forth to form new centres of female education in various 
 parts of Southern India. 
 
 But let our missionaries bear in mind that something 
 more than mere preaching, than mere education, than 
 the alteration of marriage rules, is needed for the regene- 
 ration of India. The missionary bands must carry their 
 ark persistently round the Indian home, till its walls are 
 made to fall, and its inner life exposed to the fresh air 
 of God's day, and all its surroundings moulded after the 
 pattern of a pure, healthy, well-ordered Christian house-
 
 CHRISTIANITY IN INDIA. 205 
 
 hold, whose influences leaven the life of the family and 
 the nation from the cradle to the grave. My belief is 
 that until a way is opened for the free intercourse of the 
 educated mothers and women of Europe, trained to speak 
 and understand the Indian vernaculars, with the mothers 
 and women of India, in their own homes, Christianity 
 itself, or at least its purer forms, will make little progress 
 either among- Hindus or Muhammadans. 
 
 For Christianity is a religion which, before it can domi- 
 nate over the human heart, requires a clear apprehension 
 of certain great facts, and a manly assent of the reason to 
 the doctrines and practice they involve. Although we 
 Christians are required to be children in guilelessness, we 
 are told to be men in understanding. That, indeed, is not 
 true Christianity which does not make a kind of religion 
 of manliness of character, healthiness of body and mind, 
 and soundness of judgment. Now, it is certain that al- 
 though exceptional cases of men of vigorous intellect exist 
 in India, and its races differ considerably in physique, yet 
 the ordinary Indian has hitherto inherited such a feeble 
 condition of brain, such a diseased appetite for mental 
 stimulants^ such unhealthy biasses and habits of mind from 
 his ancestors, that he is almost incapable of grasping plain 
 facts, much less of incorporating them, like plain food, into 
 the texture of his moral constitution. Nor is he generally 
 at all capable of appreciating the importance of their bear- 
 ing on daily life and practice. Hence the absence of all 
 history in India, and hence the difficulty of obtaining any 
 accurate, unexaggerated, or undistorted narrative of com- 
 mon occurrences. Here, too, in my opinion, lies the prin- 
 cipal difficulty of convincing a Hindu of the superiority of 
 the plain story of the Gospel to the wild exaggerations of 
 the Ramayana. The chief successes of Christianity in 
 India have been hitherto achieved by Roman Catholics, 
 who ofier to the Hindu mind a kind of Ilinduized Chris- 
 tianity, or, at any rate, present him with the images, 
 symbols, processions, decorations, miraculous stories, mar-
 
 2o6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 vellous histories of saints, and imposing ritual of which his 
 present mental condition appears to stand inneed. 
 
 British Administration. 
 
 I am confirmed in the opinion I expressed after my 
 travels in Northern India that the points we have most 
 to guard against in the administration of our Indian 
 Empire are, first, a desire to advance too rapidly and too 
 uniformly ; secondly, a tendency towards the over-cen- 
 tralization of authority. 
 
 It is common to say that India is a poor country. In 
 real truth India is a rich country with a poor population, 
 saddled with a costly Government. Naturally, therefore, we 
 who form that Government are sensitively anxious to do 
 work that shall really be worth the money we cost. Hence 
 we are ever striving to benefit the people by fresh legislative 
 measures, for which the country is not always prepared, 
 and which we are inclined to apply too uniformly. Yet 
 England's worst enemies cannot shut their eyes to the 
 good our administration has effected. Indeed, my travels 
 have convinced me that the Natives of India have no 
 cause whatever to complain of our excluding them from 
 their equitable share in the administration of their own 
 country. Our Government is ever zealous for their in- 
 terests, and ever on the watch to find competent Indians 
 to fill responsible posts. For all the lower grades of execu- 
 tive offices they are now selected before equally competent 
 Europeans. 
 
 In law courts, in police courts, at railway stations, 
 post and telegraph offices, and in every department of the 
 public service one meets with Indian functionaries doing 
 the work which was formerly done by Europeans. English 
 barristers and attorneys are now driven out of the field 
 by Indian Wakeels. The same applies to the Educational 
 Department. Headmasterships of High Schools, which 
 were once reserved for Englishmen, and even filled by 
 Oxford and Cambridge graduates, are now assigned to
 
 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION. 207 
 
 • 
 the ablest Native teachers. Even the highest judicial 
 
 offices are now being* filled by Natives who have gained 
 admission to the Civil Service through the competitive 
 examinations. The Judge of Ahmedabad, Mr. Satyend- 
 ranath Tagore, whose guest I was for a few days, is an 
 Indian of a well-known family at Calcutta. He has been 
 elevated to a higher position in the Service than com- 
 petition-wallahs of his own year, and of at least equal 
 ability. Another Indian gentleman, Mr. Gopal-rao Hari 
 Deshmukh, whom I met frequently at Bombay — a man 
 of great energy and ability, and a well-known social re- 
 former — has lately been appointed joint Judge at Nasik, 
 with the personal title of Rao Bahadur. The title was 
 conferred the other day at a public meeting, and Judge 
 Gopal-rao, in acknowledging the honour, is reported in 
 the Times of India (September 4, 1877) to have said: — 
 
 ' This Sanad is given to me for loyalty and services. 
 I am sure that every sensible and well-informed man in 
 this country is loyal. This country for many past cen- 
 turies had no Government deserving the name. There was 
 neither internal peace nor security from foreign invasion. 
 There was no power in India which could put a stop to 
 the evil practices of sati, infanticide, religious suicide, 
 and human sacrifices. The whole nation presented a scene 
 of stagnation and ignorance ; but the case is now dif- 
 ferent. Under the auspices of a beneficent, civilized, and 
 strong Government we have become progressive. Light 
 and knowledge are pouring in upon the country. Old 
 prejudices and errors are vanishing. We therefore count 
 it a great privilege to be loyal subjects of the Empress 
 of India. There is now security of life and property, as 
 perfect as human institutions can make it. Those who 
 are old enough are aware of the plundering excursions 
 of Pindarls, who, descending from the ghauts, spread terror 
 in the Concan. These professional robbers have been ex- 
 tirpated by the British Government. We enjoy liberty of 
 speech, petition, and press. We enjoy the blessings of
 
 2o8 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 education, useful public works, internal peace, and freedom 
 from foreign invasions.' 
 
 Possibly, we are inclined to g-o beyond our duty in our 
 appreciation of Native merit. It is certain that much 
 bitterness of feeling is being* excited among Anglo-Indians 
 by the present laudable desire to do justice to Native 
 ability. Everywhere I heard Englishmen complaining 
 that their interests are set aside and their claims over- 
 looked in favour of Natives. Language like the following 
 is commonly used by members of the Civil Service : — ' In 
 thirty years,' say they, ' we English Judges and Collectors 
 will be swept out of India. The Natives we have educated 
 are gradually '^crowding us out" of the country. Even 
 our own Government is inclined to make light of our 
 merits. We have harder work than ever laid on our 
 shoulders ; but we get neither thanks nor additional 
 pay. If we were Hindus we should be flattered and 
 honoured, but, being Englishmen, we are snubbed and 
 reprimanded.' Such language, though obviously too 
 strong, may have elements of truth which call for careful 
 consideration. 
 
 In the matter of over-centralization it seems to be now 
 generally admitted that it results from an undue passion 
 for what may be called administrative symmetry in an 
 Empire far too vast, varied, and composite in its races, 
 customs, religions, and climates, to admit of uniformity of 
 treatment by means of telegraphic messages radiating from 
 a central secretariat. Lord Lytton, who is supposed from 
 his seat in the Viceregal council chamber of Calcutta and 
 Simla to command the manipulation of the whole tele- 
 graphic system, was reported not long ago by one of The 
 Times' Correspondents to be in favour of more decentraliza- 
 tion in regard to taxation. I heard intelligent Natives 
 in Madras complain that, although their ryotwary land 
 tenure and their system of cultivation and irrigation 
 bring in a larger revenue than the systems prevailing 
 elsewhere, yet no benefit accrues to any particular dis-
 
 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION. 209 
 
 tricts in their Presidency, because their surplus goes to 
 make up the deficit in other Provinces. 
 
 Nevertheless, it must be confessed that, if decentraliza- 
 tion is carried too far, it will remove some salutaiy re- 
 straints on the eccentricities of inexperienced Provincial 
 governors. If the strings of Government are pulled a 
 little too strongly from the India Office and from the 
 secretariats at Calcutta and Simla, they are also handled 
 a little too freely by the array of secretaries at other 
 central stations. In short, the India of the present 
 period is becoming a little too secretariat-ridden. High 
 functionaries, recently imported from England, are obliged, 
 in their blank inexperience, to trust to their secretaries, 
 and these, again, being often new to their work, have 
 to trust to their under-secretaries, while these, again, are 
 a good deal dependent on their head clerks. Thus the 
 Government of a great Em])ire has a tendency to place 
 too much power in the hands of a few clever under- 
 secretaries' clerks, and to become, if I may be allowed to 
 coin a new phrase, too much of a clericocracy. Half the 
 time of a Collector is now occupied in replying to the 
 inquiries of inquisitive under-secretaries. Every post 
 brings piles of official documents and demands for re- 
 ports and written statistics on every conceivable subject, 
 while, in return, piles of foolscap find their way from the 
 Collector's cutchery into the pigeon-holes of the Under- 
 Secretary's office. There these precious bundles of foolscap 
 are forthwith entombed, and from these graves there is 
 seldom any resurrection to the light of day. 
 
 It is said that a Collector in the North- West Provinces 
 was required, not long ago, to write a report on the habits 
 of the Gangetic porpoise. Certainly it is not uncommon 
 to hear language like the following from Collectors and 
 Commissioners of long standing : — ' It is impossible for me 
 to get through my work as I did formerly. For instance, 
 I cannot ride off 30 miles to the other end of my district 
 to see that order is kept at a large religious fair now going 
 
 P
 
 2IO MODERN INDIA. 
 
 on. I am no longer master of my own movements. I have 
 to serve a dozen masters. I am compelled to furnish 
 returns to the head of the Public Works Department, to 
 Sanitary and Revenue Commissioners, to superintendents 
 of police, to directors of public instruction, and to archseo- 
 logical and scientific surveyors. Then I have lately been 
 politely requested to compile a complete Gazetteer of my own 
 district, with an exhaustive account of its fauna and flora. 
 In short, I am buried in piles of paper from morning- till 
 night.' There is certainly exaggeration in such language. 
 Without doubt the writing of reports and compiling of 
 gazetteers by some able civilians has already produced 
 most valuable results, but the exaggerated language is an 
 indication that in some directions we are attempting too 
 much. At any rate, we are laying too great a burden on 
 shoulders already overcharged. 
 
 In other directions we might do more. For example, we 
 might carry on. a more systematic defensive warfare against 
 drought and famine by the storage of water in tanks, and 
 its distribution by irrigation. India is blessed with abun- 
 dant rivers. Why are not more anicuts, reservoirs, and 
 canals made ? Why should the water of any manageable 
 river be allowed to lose itself in the sea ? More might also 
 be done in forest-management, in encouraging emigration, 
 in developing the agricultural and mineral resources of the 
 country; though judgment is here needed, especially in 
 regard to agricultural improvements. For India, though 
 potentially rich, has a poor population, not sufiiciently 
 advanced for the introduction of steam-ploughs, expensive 
 machinery, and chemical manures. In some localities the 
 land is so subdivided that its cultivation amounts to mere 
 spade husbandry. 
 
 One thing requires instant attention. The connexion 
 between agriculture, meteorology, and astronomy is now 
 admitted on all hands, and no country in the world would 
 be benefited more than India by systematic meteorological 
 and astronomical observations carried on under Govern-
 
 WAKEELS. NATIVE STATES. 21 1 
 
 ment direction. Much is already being done in this way. 
 Yet I could only find one effective astronomical observator}^, 
 and that not adequately supported by Government, though 
 I travelled from Kasmir to Cape Comorin. It is not 
 generally known that from his observations of the present 
 condition of the disk of the sun, in connexion with 
 various atmospherical phenomena, the Madras astronomer, 
 Mr. Pogson, prophesied in 1876 a recurrence of the drought 
 and famine in 1877. 
 
 Again, more efforts might be made to promote the 
 development of those industrial arts in which the natives 
 are already skilled, and to teach them new trades and in- 
 dustries, such as printing, paper-making, book-binding, 
 sugar-refining, and tobacco-curing. 
 
 One crying evil requires immediate redress. A limit 
 should be put by law to the increase of native pleaders. 
 If Indian money-lenders are metaphorically called incarnate 
 curses, Indian Wakeels are rapidly earning a title to the 
 same flattering appellation. I have heard natives com- 
 plain of what they call the oppression of our Law Courts, 
 with their elaborate machinery of expensive processes and 
 appeals. What they mean is not that injustice is done, 
 but that justice is overdone. They might, with more 
 reason, complain of the oppression of their own Wakeels, 
 who live by promoting quarrels, prey upon litigants, 
 and drain the very life-blood out of their own fellow- 
 countrymen. 
 
 The Native States of Southern India. 
 
 Under this head let me merely say that I visited three 
 most prosperous and well-managed States of Southern 
 India — Travankor, Cochin, and Hyderabad. Travankor and 
 the little State of Cochin are both on the Malabar Coast. 
 The former has a wise and enlightened Maharaja, and 
 his Prime Minister is a sensible high-minded man of 
 large acquirements and great administrative ability. I 
 sailed along the coast of Travankor from Cape Comorin to 
 
 P 3
 
 312 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Cochin, and was much struck by the constant succession 
 of thriving villag-es clustering' under beautiful groves of 
 palm trees close to the water's edge. Nearly all were over- 
 looked by the lofty fa9ades of substantially-built Roman 
 Catholic churches, which are conspicuous objects everywhere 
 on the Malabar coast, testifying to the almost superhuman 
 energy and devotedness of the great missionary Xavier. 
 The interior of these churches presents an appearance very 
 like a Hindu Temple. They all contain images of the 
 Virgin Mary, dressed up and decorated much in the same 
 way as the idols of the Indian goddess Bhavani. In every 
 direction Roman Catholic churches force themselves on 
 one's notice. On saints' days they are brilliantly illu- 
 minated, while displays of fireworks and Bengal lights, 
 with explosions of crackers and guns, are made in front 
 of the churches, much to the delectation of the native 
 converts. I was told, too, that their priests endear them- 
 selves to their flocks by living among them very much 
 like Indian Gurus, and by attending to their bodily as 
 well as spiritual needs. Those who come from Europe set 
 our Protestant missionaries a good example in at least 
 two particulars. They are satisfied with wonderfully small 
 salaries, and never think of going home. 
 
 There are also two very singular colonies of Jews at 
 Cochin. The one set are quite white in complexion, and 
 the other quite black. I was present at the service in a 
 synagogue, and saw the richly-decorated rolls of the Books 
 of Moses carried round in procession and kissed by the 
 congregation, after the law had been read by the Rabbis 
 from a central reading-desk. 
 
 My visit to Sir Richard Meade, our able Resident at 
 Hyderabad, enabled me to judge of the condition of the 
 Nizam's territory, which occupies the central plateau of the 
 Deccan, and has a population of 10,000,000 or 11,000,000. 
 It owes its present prosperity, as most people know, to the 
 excellent administration of Sir Salar Jung, who delivered 
 it from a condition of chronic mismanagement. Our large
 
 Sm SALAR yUNG. 213 
 
 military station at Secunderabad, six miles from the capital, 
 contains 40,000 inhabitants, and is under our own juris- 
 diction. We also hold Berar (commonly called the Berars) 
 in trust for the payment of the Nizam's contingent. It 
 was taken by us from the Marathas, and we have ad- 
 ministered it since 1853. It has thriven wonderfully under 
 our management; but as we gave it to the Nizam in 1803, 
 the surplus revenue goes to his treasury. We restored to 
 him the Raichor Doab, between the Krishna and Tunga- 
 bhadra rivers, in i860. Whether Berar ought to be so 
 restored is another matter. Some authorities think we did 
 wrong to give up our claim to Mysor, and that we might 
 with as good reason give up Berar. Probably Berar would 
 not suffer much by being given back, so long as the con- 
 tinuance of so able a Minister as Sir Salar Jung at the 
 helm could be secured. But India is not likely to produce 
 two such men as Sir Salar Jung and Sir T. Madhava Rao 
 more tlian once in two or three centuries. I conversed 
 with both these great Ministers not long since in their 
 own houses (one at Hyderabad, and the other at Baroda) 
 and found them capable of talking on all subjects in as 
 good English as my own. 
 
 Sir Salar Jung (whose person is familiar to many of 
 us from his recent visit to England) showed me his every- 
 day working-room — a room not so large as an Oxford gra- 
 duate's study, plainly furnished with a few book-cases filled 
 with modern books of reference, chiefly English. He has 
 an extensive library in an adjoining gallery, with a window 
 commanding a courtyard, where those who have to transact 
 business with him assemble every day. I may mention 
 as an evidence of his enlightened ideas that on hearing 
 that a deserving young Indian at Oxford was in need 
 of assistance, he at once assigned an annual allowance for 
 his support, stipulating that he ' should be trained for the 
 Nizam's educational service. He has other young Indians 
 under training in London, similarly supported. 
 
 I was told that I should see numbers of armed ruffians
 
 2J4 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 and rowdies in tlic city of Hyderabad^ and that I could 
 not possibly traverse the streets unless lifted above all 
 chances of insult on the back of an elephant. Yet I can 
 certify that I saw very few armed men and no signs of 
 disorder or lawlessness anywhere in the city, and that I 
 dismounted from my elephant and walked about in the 
 throng of people without suffering the slightest ineon- 
 venienee^ molestation, or rudeness. Of course, a town of 
 400,000 inhabitants is liable to disturbances, and it is 
 certain that during my stay an Arab, whose father died 
 suddenly, made a savage attack with his dagger in a fit 
 of frenzy on the doctor who attended him. Nevertheless 
 I am satisfied that the stories about murderous brawls in 
 the streets are much exaggerated. Without doubt it must 
 be admitted that the 7,000 armed Arab mercenaries, who 
 form part of an army of 50,000 men, and the numerous 
 armed retainers of the nobles, all of whom are allowed to 
 roam about without much discipline, are generally ripe for 
 turbulence and mischief. It is, moreover, a significant 
 fact that about three-fourths of the wealth of Hyderabad 
 is concentrated within the limits of the Residency, held to 
 be British territory. These limits are carefully marked off 
 from the rest of the city by walls and lines of streets ; and 
 here a population of 20,000 persons, including the chief 
 rich bankers and merchants of the Nizam's dominions, 
 cluster under the aegis of British jurisdiction and au- 
 thority. 
 
 Education in SoiUliem India. 
 
 South India is not behind the North in its zeal for 
 education. Indeed, if advance of education is to be mea- 
 sured by its promoting" among natives of all ranks the 
 power of speaking English wit\i fluency, the palm will 
 have to be given to the Colleges and Schools of Madras. 
 And here, as in other parts of India, missionary schools are, 
 in my opinion, doing the best work. The education they im- 
 part is openly and professedly founded on a Christian basis.
 
 EDUCATION. MISSIONARY SCHOOLS. 215 
 
 They teach the Bible without enforcing ecclesiastical dogmas 
 on their pupils. Indeed, my second tour has impressed me 
 more than ever with the benefits which India derives from 
 the active efforts of missionaries of all denominations, how- 
 ever apparently barren in visible results those efforts may 
 be. Moreover, I think that the part that they have hitherto 
 played is as nothing compared with the role they are 
 destined to fill in the future of our Eastern Empire. The 
 European missionary is daily becoming a more important 
 link between the Government and the people. He is con- 
 fided in by natives of all ranks, and is often able to do 
 what the Government with its necessary profession of 
 neutrality cannot effect. Missionary schools attract the 
 children of parents of all creeds, though they openly aim 
 at permeating their minds with a spirit hostile to those 
 creeds. It may be very true that their bible-teaching 
 tends to destroy without reconstructing, but it is gradu- 
 ally and insensibly infusing principles incompatible with 
 the pantheistic ideas with which the Indian mind is 
 generally saturated. If it does not always build up the 
 true creed in place of the false, yet it lays the foundation 
 of a future belief in a personal God. It substitutes for 
 the slippery sands of Pantheism a basis of living rock, 
 which may be afterwards thankfully occupied by evan- 
 gelizing missionaries as a common standpoint, when the 
 Gospel is confronted in argument with the Veda and 
 Kuran. 
 
 My conviction is that the vast work of Christianizing 
 India will not be accomplished entirely through missionary 
 instrumentality, but rather through the co-operation of 
 divine and human agencies, working in a great variety of 
 ways. Yet I am equally convinced that it will be prin- 
 cipally effected, and far more slowly, gradually, and in- 
 sensibly than is commonly expected, through impressions 
 made on the minds of children by a process of educa- 
 tion like that which our missionaries are carrying out in 
 their schools.
 
 31 6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Of all such schools visited by me, in Southern India, 
 there were two, the merits and effectiveness of which struck 
 me very forcibly. They were those of the Free Church of 
 Scotland at Madras, under Mr. Miller and Mr. Rae, where 
 about 1,000 pupils are under education; and the Church 
 Missionary schools, under Bishop Sarg-ent, at Tinnevelly, 
 in which latter district there are about 60,000 converts 
 to Protestant Christianity. I regret I was unable to visit 
 Bishop Caldwell's excellent schools at Edeyeng-oody. I 
 could name a hundred others if space and time were at 
 my disposal. Those founded by a native named Pacheappah 
 at Madras and Conjevaram are rendering- good service to 
 the community. The Basle Mission schools at Mangalor 
 are also most efficient and useful, and its members most 
 devoted and self-sacrificing. Their example deserves to be 
 followed in their plan of teaching trades and industries, 
 and of instructing their converts how to be independent and 
 support themselves. The schools of the Parsis at Bombay 
 are also conspicuously good. And let it not be supposed 
 that the work done by our Government schools and colleges 
 is insignificant. Its importance can scarcely be overrated. 
 Nevertheless, it is generally admitted that our whole edu- 
 cational system needs revision and amendment. The great 
 complaint that one hears on all sides while travelling in 
 India is that we are over-educating. We cannot, however, 
 be accused of over-educating if our education is of the 
 right kind. Quality, not quantity, is what is wanted for 
 India. Excellence of quality can scarcely be over-done. 
 
 Probably there are three f)iincipal points that call for 
 amendment in our present system, i. We want more real 
 education. 2. We want more suitable education. 3. We 
 want more primary education. 
 
 As to the first point : — To secure more real education 
 we have to make our native teachers understand that the 
 human skull, which is their field of operations, is not in 
 childhood a mere rigid case, or empty cavity, to be packed 
 like a portmanteau with a given amount of knowledge
 
 EDUCATION. 217 
 
 in a given time, but rather an assemblage of organs and 
 capacities to be gradually and carefully shaped, moulded, 
 and expanded. We in England sometimes require to be 
 reminded that the duty of an educator ought to be in 
 accordance with the etymology of the word — that it should 
 consist in gently drawing out rather than in roughly 
 hammering in. Indian educators of Indian children are 
 still more forgetful of this truth. Nor do they sufficiently 
 bear in mind that the most valuable knowledge is that 
 which is self-acquired when the faculties are matured, and 
 that teachers are doing their business most effectively when 
 they are teaching their pupils to be their own future 
 self-teachers. I am afraid our Indian colleges and schools 
 are turning out more well-informed than well-formed men, 
 more free thinkers than wise thinkers, more silly sceptics 
 than honest inquirers, more glib talkers than accurate 
 writers, more political agitators than viseful citizens. I 
 do not mean to imply that our European principals and 
 professors and directors of public instruction, generally 
 chosen with care from our English Universities, are not 
 perfectly aware of the defects in our system. On the con- 
 trary, I believe they are doing their best to make Indian 
 education a reality. I have met, too, with native school- 
 masters who are really able educators. What I mean is 
 that a larger number of good normal schools and a better 
 system of teaching how to teach are urgently needed in 
 India, and some security is required that the applicants 
 for masterships have really received adequate training. 
 It is certain that assistant masters and subordinate teach- 
 ers are too often found in positions for which they are 
 not thoroughly qualified. Even in England the heads of 
 our great public schools are beset with similar difficulties. 
 Every one admits that national schoolmasters must be cer- 
 tificated as teachers, but no one dares to cast a suspicion 
 on University first-class men, who would feel themselves 
 humiliated at the bare suggestion that first-class scholar- 
 ship and first-class teaching are two very different matters.
 
 31 8 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 The next point is that we want more suitable education. 
 The sons of persons of low social status ought not (except, 
 of course, in special cases when they show evident sig-ns 
 of unusual ability) to receive an education above the rank 
 of their fathers. Let their training- be the best of its kind, 
 but let it be suited to their position and prospects. 
 Furthermore, greater efforts should be made to co-ordinate 
 the education of daughters with that of sons. In brief, 
 we ought to aim at educating children in their fathers' 
 stations, rather than above them — at making the son of 
 a potter a better potter, the son of a carpenter a better 
 cai-penter. To this end I submit that we should im- 
 mediately raise our school and college fees for high-class 
 education. Not that I would place obstacles in the way 
 of the lower castes elevating themselves, but I would at 
 once correct the mistake of putting too low a price on 
 the highest form of education. No parent of inferior rank 
 will then be ambitious of a University degree for his son 
 unless he is likely to repay with interest the outlay 
 necessary to secure it. When I was at Poena, I found 
 on inquiry, that a student at the great central Deccan 
 College there could obtain a first-class education by pay- 
 ing rather less than i^. 6(1. per month for his room-rent, 
 \QS. per month for his tuition, and 185. or 2,0s. per month 
 for his board. Of course Indian students are much more 
 simple in their habits than Oxford undergraduates. They 
 are satisfied with one chair, one table, and a mattress on 
 the ground. They make free use of the College library, 
 and they eat little except rice, with perhaps once a day 
 a modicum of curry-powder. But even for Indians, the 
 present charge for room-rent, board, and tuition at a first- 
 class college is ridiculously small. 
 
 Further, I submit that in all our Indian colleges and 
 schools we pay too much attention to the linguistic and 
 literary element in education, and too little to the prac- 
 tical and scientific. A great improvement, however, is 
 observable in this respect in some parts of India.
 
 EDUCATION. VERNACULAR LANGUAGES. 219 
 
 With regard to lang-uag-es I cannot help thinking that 
 a great mistake is committed — a mistake which calls for 
 the immediate consideration of the directors of public 
 instruction. We do not sufficiently encourage the ver- 
 naculars. The classical languages receive due respect and 
 attention, but the vernacular dialects of India, which ought 
 to be stimulated to draw fresh vitality and energy from 
 Sanskrit, are everywhere showing signs of serious de- 
 terioration. Be it observed, however, that they are by 
 no means dying out. It would be simple folly to suppose 
 that we can impose English on 240 millions of people. 
 But by enforcing English as a sine qua non at our ma- 
 triculation examinations, and by making a knowledge of 
 it the only road to employment in the public service^, we 
 are dealing a fatal blow at the purity of the vernacular 
 languages. My conviction is that unless more is done to 
 encourage their cultivation, some of them will soon lapse 
 into vulgar hybrid dialects. A highly-educated Maratha 
 gentleman told me that he scarcely knew a man among 
 his own fellow-countrymen who could write good Marathi. 
 Even the right spelling of the words derived from the 
 Sanskrit, which ought to be carefully preserved, is be- 
 coming hopelessly corrupted. A vicious style of ver- 
 bose and inflated composition, copied from Dr. Johnson's 
 ' Rambler,' is becoming common, and English words are 
 ostentatiously imported into it, when far more suitable 
 expressions might be drawn from a Sanskrit source. Such 
 great native poets as Tukaram and Morapant ai*e becoming 
 neglected; and intelligent men, who might do much to 
 develope and improve their own languages, waste their 
 time in concocting, and even printing and publishing, 
 wretched Eno-lish verses which no Englishman can read 
 without a smile. The result of such a mistaken system 
 is that India is flooded with conceited and half-educated 
 persons who despise and neglect their own languages, and 
 their own religious and political systems, without becoming 
 good English scholars, good Christians, or good subjects
 
 220 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 of the Queen. And hence we are confronted with a diffi- 
 culty which, even if it does not endanger our rule in India, 
 is becoming- more embarrassing every day — the difficulty 
 of providing suitable employment for the thousands of 
 young men we have educated badly and unsuitably. For 
 excessive and misdirected education cannot be carried on 
 with the same impunity in India as in England, where 
 we have the safeguard of our Colonies and an outlet in 
 India itself. 
 
 The third point is that we do not everywhere pay 
 sufficient attention to Primary Education. It is superfluous 
 to remark that no system of education can be satisfactory 
 which does not begin at the right end, and rise from the 
 lower to the upper strata of the community. In the 
 villages and the indigenous rural schools a good system 
 of teaching the vernacular dialects, with reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic, is needed. And here is another reason 
 for encouraging by every possible means the cultivation 
 of the vernaculars, and their development and improve- 
 ment by means of Sanskrit. I have seen a few excellent 
 village schools, conducted in the open air under trees, 
 where the children are taught to write on palm leaves, 
 and can repeat the multiplication table up to a hundred 
 times a hundred, and even multiply fractions together in 
 their heads. The difficulty is to secure good village 
 teachers. Sir George Campbell, and Sir Richard Temple, 
 following his predecessors lead, did admirable service in 
 this way and started an excellent plan of primary in- 
 struction by trained teachers in Bengal. Much has been 
 effected in the same direction all over India. In 1873 
 there were 30,477 primary schools, with 963,000 pupils. 
 These seem sufficiently large figures, but remembering the 
 increasing density of the population we have to deal with, 
 we ought not to be satisfied till our system of primary 
 instruction has really penetrated to the remotest corner 
 of the lowest stratum of Indian society.
 
 ATTITUDE OF THE NATIVES. 221 
 
 Disposition and Attitude of the Natives toioards us and 
 our rule. 
 
 I confess that in travelling* through Southern India it 
 seemed to me that there is even less social fusion be- 
 tween the rulers and the ruled in Madras than in Bombay 
 and Calcutta. Doubtless there are faults on both sides. 
 The longer we continue to hold the country, the more 
 its condition before we took it in hand is forgotten. In 
 those parts of the Madras Presidency which have been 
 long"est under our rule, the people having had no personal 
 experience of the evils from which their fathers were de- 
 livered through our intervention, are unable to cherish a 
 due sense of gratitude towards us. I fear that Englishmen, 
 unless they are plainly and sensibly benefactors, are not 
 otherwise liked for their personal qualities. They are 
 thought to be proud, cold, and reserved. Very much the 
 same, however, might be justly said by us of the natives 
 of India. The Hindus, we mig-ht fairly allege, are even 
 more exclusive than we are. They have little sympathy 
 with any one outside their own caste. The impenetrable 
 barrier with which they surround their homes and their 
 refusal to sit at meat with Europeans are fatal to mutual 
 friendliness and sociability. On the other hand. English- 
 men, by reason of a concurrence of changed conditions, are 
 certainly living in India more like strangers and pilgrims 
 who have no abiding resting-place there. Increased facili- 
 ties of communication between Europe and Asia, which 
 ought to have drawn the two races closer together, have 
 only tended to widen the separation between them. In 
 former days it was not uncommon for a civilian or mili- 
 tary officer to remain a quarter of a century in India 
 without going home. He had then time and opportunity 
 to identify himself with the people, and interest himself in 
 their interests — to form friendships among them and win 
 their affection. Now, if he has only three months' leave, 
 he rushes to England, via Brindisi, in three weeks, and
 
 2aa , MODERN INDIA. 
 
 undergoes inordinate fatigue, that he may spend six weeks 
 in the old country, and then rush as quickly back to the 
 land of his exile. 
 
 The competitive system, too, has had a bad effect in 
 severing some of the ties which once bound the two races 
 together. It has deprived India of the successive genera- 
 tions of Outrams, Prinseps, Macnaghtens, and other old 
 families who were drawn towards it by a long train of 
 inherited associations, who were inspired with goodwill 
 towards its people by the examples of their forefathers, 
 and who imbibed Indian tastes^ ideas, and predilections 
 with their earliest education. 
 
 Let no one, however, from this time forward, accuse us of 
 want of sympathy with our Indian fellow-subjects in their 
 hour of trial and affliction. There may be increasing race- 
 antagonism, less social blending, and more frequent mis- 
 understandings between the governing and the governed 
 in India, but the best practical proof has now been given 
 of our disinterested desire for the well-being of the great 
 country committed to our charge. The voluntary sub- 
 scription of more than half a million pounds sterling in a 
 few months for the relief of the famine-stricken districts, 
 and the self-sacrificing courage, zeal, and energy displayed 
 by every one of the Queen's officers, from the Viceroy down- 
 wards, in their efforts to alleviate the sufferings of the 
 people, have for ever wiped away the reproach that the 
 attitude of Great Britain towards its Eastern Dependency 
 is cold and unsympathetic. I believe there have been no 
 less than four Indian famines during the past ten years, 
 and these have finally culminated in a period of distress 
 the like of which has not afflicted the land since 1833. 
 Yet this last famine, however deplorable in the present 
 suffering it is causing, will have effected a great benefit, if 
 it opens our eyes to India's needs and to our own short- 
 comings ; if it convinces our Indian subjects of England's 
 devotion to their welfare ; if it evokes feelings of gratitude 
 in return for the active sympathy displayed ; if it helps to
 
 CAUSES OF DISCONTENT. 223 
 
 draw the rulers and the ruled closer tog-ether by bonds of 
 mutual kindliness, confidence, and cordiality. 
 
 Let me, in conclusion, point out one or two causes of 
 discontent which, so soon as the remembrance of our present 
 efforts for the relief of the country has passed away, will 
 most surely bring- our rule into increasing disfavour with 
 certain classes of the population. One cause is the con- 
 stant necessity we are under of revising- the land assess- 
 ment. On the acquirement of any new territory, we have 
 been obliged, of course, to settle the land revenue, and the 
 first settlement has always been, very judiciously, a mild 
 one. At the end of thirty years a new assessment has 
 generally been made, and the necessary increase in the 
 rate of payment has been demanded from the cultivators. 
 Very naturally, this has always caused an outbreak of 
 great discontent. Of late years a still more microscopic 
 and, perhaps, occasionally vexatious revision of the assess- 
 ment has led to still further irritation. The cultivators 
 cannot be made to understand that with an increase in the 
 value of land a higher rate of tax is justly due, and they 
 will not be convinced that the Government is not breakina* 
 faith with them. There can be no doubt that Lord Corn- 
 wallis's permanent settlement of the Government demand in 
 Bengal, Behfir, and Orissa, though it has proved a lament- 
 able loss to the Indian revenue, has had its advantages, 
 and nothing would tend to conciliate the whole population 
 of India more than the application of a simihu' principle 
 everywhere. This, however, in present circumstances, is, 
 I fear, almost an impossibility. 
 
 Another source of dissatisfaction is now looming in the 
 horizon. The maximum age for competing for the Indian 
 Civil Service will be fixed in 1878 at nineteen, and the 
 minimum at seventeen. Many Indians have complained 
 to me that this lowering of the age will practically exclude 
 natives from the competition. ' How can we send mere 
 boys,' say they, ' on a long voyage at a great expense to 
 a place like London to prepare for an examination of such
 
 224 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 difficulty ? The risks will be too great. A certain number 
 of appointments oug-ht to be set aside for India — say six 
 every year — and the printed questions might then be sent 
 out under seal to the local Governments, who would ap- 
 point examining- committees.' There is, doubtless, much 
 justice in this proposal, and I hope it will receive due 
 consideration. If it is eventually adopted, all selected 
 native candidates ought to be positively compelled to go 
 to England for two years^ probation. I fervently hope, 
 too, that the Government scholarships which were formerly 
 founded to enable deserving young Indians to complete 
 their education in England, but which were for some in- 
 scrutable reason abolished before they were fully tried, will 
 be re-established. In this regard our Government ought 
 to follow the example so wisely set by Sir Salar Jung. 
 Let the residence of Indians among us be encouraged by 
 all means, and let them return to India — not, indeed, de- 
 nationalized — but imbued with some of our most refining 
 and purifying home influences, elevated by intercourse 
 with some of our best men and women, and penetrated 
 with an earnest desire to aid in the regeneration of their 
 country by assimilating, as far as possible, its social insti- 
 tutions to those of England.
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN 
 THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER AND 
 IN THEIR EFFECT ON THE PROGRESS 
 OE CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 The kind of civilization to which I shall first advert 
 is not that which we Eng-lishmen have introduced into 
 India, but that which has existed in India for at least 
 three thousand years. 
 
 Of course very different ideas may he attached to the 
 word civilization, and some may doubt whether, if religion 
 is an ingredient of civilization, the Hindus have ever pos- 
 sessed any true civilization at all. But when a people have 
 a refined lang-uag-e, an extensive literature, an organized 
 social system, fixed forms of government, with elaborate 
 religious and philosophical systems, however false such 
 systems may be, and have, moreover, made some progress 
 in the arts and sciences, they may surely be called civi- 
 lized, though their civilization may be very different in 
 kind from that of other ancient peoples, or from that of 
 modern Europe. 
 
 Doubtless every civilized nation is inclined to pride itself 
 on its own institutions and to despise other countries. 
 The Chinese, for example, look down with contempt on 
 Europeans, and distinguish Englishmen in particular by 
 epithets equivalent to foreign devils and uncivilized bar- 
 barians. Similarly, the Greeks called all other nations 
 barbarians, and in the same way the Indians call us 
 Mleiihas. This was originally a contemptuous term ap- 
 plied by the Indo- Aryans to those who could not pro-
 
 226 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 nounce their sacred Sanskrit. It is now commonly ap- 
 plied by learned Hindus to Europeans. But this term 
 by no means represents the amount of disrespect in which 
 the rulers of India are held by Brahmans of the old 
 school. I have met with bigoted Pandits, whose con- 
 tempt for us and our boasted civilization, notwithstand- 
 ing" they travel by our railways, use our telegraphs, and 
 live in security under our rule, and albeit they take 
 pains to conceal their real estimate of our character, is, 
 I am convinced, quite as great as the contempt of their 
 forefathers for any non-Aryan savages, whether styled 
 Dasyus or Nishadas. 
 
 I may mention, in illustration, that I often wondered, 
 when in India, why certain great Pandits preferred calling 
 on me very early in the morning, till I found out acci- 
 dentally that, by coming before bathing, they were able 
 afterwards to purify themselves by religious ablutions from 
 the contamination incurred by shaking hands and talking 
 with me. 
 
 Nor have the Muhammadans, as a rule, any greater 
 respect for us, for our social institutions, or for our re- 
 ligion. "When they are less scornful than usual they 
 confine themselves to calling us Kafirs, unbelievers. But 
 in India this epithet scarcely represents the amount of 
 contempt with which we are commonly regarded by 
 bigoted Muslims, Many of them have been seen to 
 spit on the ground on leaving the houses of eminent 
 civilians, after interviews in which the most courteous 
 expressions had been interchanged. 
 
 The point, then, which I wish to bring out strongly on 
 the present occasion is, that the chief hindrance to the 
 progress of Christianity among the people of India is their 
 intense pride in their own supposed moral, religious, and 
 even intellectual superiority. What says a member of the 
 Brahma Samaj, in a letter written about a year ago to the 
 editor of the Times newspaper — 
 
 ' I am convinced,' he says, ' that the state of the poor
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 227 
 
 in the Christian countries of Italy, France, and England 
 (all of which countries I have visited), especially in the 
 larg-e towns, is infinitely more wretched, godless, degrad- 
 ing, and barbarous than it is in heathen India/ 
 
 The fact is that the Hindus beheve that their whole 
 national life and civilization, far from being heathenish, 
 have been favoured above all countries with the special 
 superintendence of the Supreme Being. Divine interpo- 
 sition commences with their very alphabet. 
 
 We in England think our A, B, C, a very human 
 invention, which we owe to the Phoenicians, whereas to 
 a Hindu every stroke of his complicated characters is 
 thought to be due to direct supernatural inspiration. 
 His Deva-nagari alphabet, as its name implies, came di- 
 rectly from the gods. 
 
 In the same way all the other elementary processes 
 which lay the foundations of knowledge are divinely su- 
 perintended. The whole of a Hindu's education is regu- 
 lated directly by his god's guidance. We are accustomed 
 to regard our European grammars as very human, and 
 mostly very imj^erfect productions, whereas to a Hindu 
 the great grammar of Panini — the source of all other 
 grammars — is not only the perfection of linguistic ana- 
 lysis, but Panini himself is an inspired sage, who did 
 not compose his own grammar with the painful thought 
 with which such works are commonly elaborated, but 
 saw it supernaturally, the opening rules having been di- 
 rectly revealed to him by the god Siva. 
 
 Then, when we pass on to language and literature, we 
 in England take a pride in the gradual welding together 
 of our native tongue into one compact whole by Saxon, 
 Dane, and Norman, but a Hindu prides himself on the 
 alleged fact that the divine Sanskrit came ready-made 
 from the goddess Sarasvati. 
 
 IMoreover, in matters of literature our ideas are far be- 
 hind those of a pious Hindu. We admit a human element 
 even in our most sacred Scriptures, whereas to a Hindu, 
 
 Q 2
 
 328 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 not only is the Rig'-veda believed to have issued like 
 breath from the Self-Existent, but every one of a hundred 
 other works, constituting' what may be called the canon 
 of Hindu revelation, is either attributed directly to his 
 g-odj or is thought to be more or less written under special 
 Divine superintendence. 
 
 For example, the moral and political code propounded 
 by Manu was revealed to that inspired sag-e by Brahma 
 himself. 
 
 Then, as to social institutions, it is difficult for us 
 Europeans, notwithstanding our own peculiar caste feel- 
 ings, to understand how the pride of caste, as a Divine 
 ordinance, interpenetrates the whole being of a Hindu. 
 He believes that his god created men different in caste, 
 as he created different kinds of animals. Nay more, in 
 the Rig-veda the Brahman is declared to be the actual 
 mouth of Brahma, soldiers are his actual arms, husband- 
 men his actual thighs, while Sudras or servants issued from 
 his feet. No wonder, then, that a Hindu looks upon his 
 caste as his veritable god ; and those very caste-rules 
 which we believe to be a hindrance to his adoption of the 
 true religion are to him the very essence of all religion, 
 for they influence his whole life and conduct. And the 
 lower the caste, the more do its members appear to regard 
 the observance of its rules as an essential part of all re- 
 ligion and morality. To violate the laws of caste is the 
 greatest of all sins. 
 
 For example, marriage is a Divine institution closely 
 connected with caste. It is declared to be a SansJcdra, or 
 sacramental purificatory rite. Every man, as soon as he 
 is old enough, is under absolute religious obligation to 
 have his own wife, and every woman her own husband. 
 For a man not to marry, or to marry out of his caste, is, 
 with rare exceptions, a positive sin, fraught with awful 
 consequences in a future state. Husband and wife are 
 sacramentally united. The wife is half her husband's 
 body. They ought not to be parted, even by death.
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 229 
 
 Furthermorej all the caste-rules about food, its prepara- 
 tion, and the persons in whose company it may be eaten, 
 are strictly a matter of religion. A Hindu abhors, as the 
 most impious of being's, any one who allows himself un- 
 restrained liberty in eating and drinking. Not only 
 purity of blood, but religious purity also depends on 
 purity of nutriment, and the distinction between lawful 
 and unlawful food is even more observed as a Divine 
 ordinance than it was with the Jews. No high caste 
 will eat with a lower caste, and not even a low caste will 
 eat with Christians. 
 
 Then, finally, in regard to the dead, funeral ceremonies 
 among the Hindus are of course solemn acts of religion, 
 as in all other countries. But far more than this — the 
 bodies of deceased Hindus must be burnt by certain near 
 relatives according to carefully prescribed rites, on pain 
 of bringing misery on the disembodied spirits ; and such 
 rites must be repeated periodically. To maintain the per- 
 petual memory of the dead, to make periodical offerings 
 to the spirits of fathers, grandfathers, and great-grand- 
 fathers, is a peremptory religious duty. 
 
 But what are a Hindu's ideas about the nature of that 
 God who thus superintends every act, and directs every 
 step of his existence from the cradle to the grave ? It is 
 here that his pride in his own superiority may be said to 
 culminate. The very point in which we think the Hindus 
 most mistaken is the very point in which they pride 
 themselves most of all. We admit that they might, with 
 reason, be proud of the perfection of their alphabet, of the 
 symmetry of their language, of the poetry in their litera- 
 ture, of the subtlety of their philosophy, of the acuteness 
 of their logic, of their invention of the ten arithmetical 
 figures, of their advance in mathematics and science when 
 all Europe was wrapped in ignorance, and even of the 
 elevated sentiments in their moral code ; but wo cannot 
 understand their being proud of their false ideas of the 
 Supreme Being. The Hindus, we affirm, have no know-
 
 230 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 ledge of the true God. They have not one God, but 
 many. They degrade their deities to the level of sinful 
 creatures by the acts, characters, and qualities they attri- 
 bute to them. 
 
 Yet the Hindus themselves maintain that they are not 
 polytheists at all, but worshippers of one God, who mani- 
 fests Himself variously, and that they have conceived sub- 
 limer notions of this Deity than any other people, ancient 
 or modern. ' Our sacred books,' say they, ' insist on the 
 unity of the Supreme Being", and abound in the grandest 
 descriptions of His attributes.^ 
 
 He is ' the most Holy of all holies ; the most Blessed of 
 the blessed ; the God of all gods ; the Everlasting Father 
 of all creatures ; omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent ; He 
 is the Life in all; the Father, Mother, Husband, and 
 Sustainer of the world ; the Birth, the Death of all ; the 
 Incomprehensible ; the Ancient Sage, without beginning 
 or end ; the Universe's Maker ; the one God hidden in all 
 beings, and dwelling as a witness within their hearts.' 
 
 And are not we Christians bound to accept and approve 
 such sublime descriptions of the attributes of the Deity, 
 though we well know that in the books from which they 
 are taken, abundant false conceptions are mingled with 
 the true, and that a Hindu's boasted theism is simple 
 pantheism, behind which, as behind an impregnable for- 
 tress, he retires whenever his polytheism and idolatry are 
 attacked ? 
 
 There is, however, one point left in which we think 
 educated Indians must at last acknowledge themselves 
 inferior to Christian nations. 'Your religion,' we affirm, 
 ' leads to the grossest idolatry. Everywhere in India 
 idol -worship and superstition are hideously rampant ! ' 
 How great, then, is our astonishment when we are as- 
 sured in India by the educated Hindus that they are 
 not really idol- worshippers. ' Worship hefore images, not 
 to images,' say they, ' is practised by us as a condescen- 
 sion to weak-minded persons. The highest form of wor-
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 231 
 
 ship is the Mdiiasa-pujd and the Nirdkdra-jnijd — heart- 
 worship and formless worship.' 
 
 Hear what Mr. Pramada-Das Mitra, of Benares, in a 
 recent address delivered at the Benares Institute, replied 
 to one who accused his fellow-countrymen of the grossest 
 idolatry : ' If by idolatry,' he said, ' is meant a system of 
 worship which confines our ideas of the Divinity to a mere 
 image of clay or stone, which prevents our hearts from 
 being elevated with lofty notions of the attributes of 
 God — if this is what is meant by idolatry, we disclaim 
 idolatry, we abhor idolatry, and deplore the ignorance and 
 uncharitableness of those that charge us with this grovel- 
 ling system.' And he then goes on to point out that, so 
 far from worshipping material images, the Hindus are too 
 spiritual to believe even in the existence of matter, the 
 only really existing essence being (according to a dogma 
 of their philosophy) the one universal spirit, of which the 
 numerous gods, represented by images, are but mani- 
 festations. 
 
 Clearly, then, the chief impediment to Christianity 
 among Indians is not only the pride they feel in their 
 own religion, but the very nature of that religion. For 
 pantheism is a most subtle, plausible, and all-embracing 
 system, which may profess to include Christianity itself 
 as one of the phenomena of the universe. An eminent 
 Hindu is reported to have said, ' We liindus have no 
 need of conversion ; we are Christians and more than 
 Christians already.' 
 
 In short, it is the old story. Pride and self-complacency 
 are the chief obstacles to the entrance of truth into the 
 human mind. We go to the Hindus with a true revelation 
 and the good news of God^s love and good-will towards 
 them in becoming incarnate for their sakes, and we find 
 that they claim to have possessed a true rcvehition of 
 their own, incarnations of their own, and a more excellent 
 way of salvation suited to themselves, long before Europe 
 had any revealed religion at all.
 
 232 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 I could proceed to point out other great hindrances in 
 the Hindus themselves, such as their peculiar mental con- 
 stitution, their incapability of appreciating- historical facts, 
 their appetite for wild leg-ends and monstrous exag-gera- 
 tions, their natural dislike to the doctrine of sanctification 
 as the only evidence of regeneration ; but it is time for 
 me to come nearer home, and to direct attention to the 
 hindrances arising from our own self -complacency ^ our own 
 pride in our own boasted civilization. 
 
 Let me begin with the pride of race. It is now well 
 known that, notwithstanding the recent demonstration of 
 the original oneness of the Indo- Aryan and English races, 
 there is at present little or no social blending between 
 the rulers and the ruled in India. Both Indians and 
 Englishmen may be equally in fault, and each lays the 
 blame upon the other ; but the simple fact is, that Indians 
 and Englishmen keep as distinct from each other as oil 
 and water. Even Christianity does not overcome this race 
 feeling. It is, indeed^ generally acknowledged that if a 
 highly-educated Brahman becomes a Christian, and thereby 
 consents to sit at table with Christians, he ought to be 
 admitted into the best European society, but the pride of 
 race is generally too strong for the sense of duty, and I 
 fear that, as a matter of fact, few English homes, except 
 those of the missionaries, are really opened to high-caste 
 converts. 
 
 Thus it arises that well-bred men, who are quite our own 
 equals in rank and education, are deterred from an open 
 profession of Christianity through the want of any respect- 
 able circle of society to which they can be admitted in the 
 adopted religion. If the force of conviction compels them 
 to seek baptism at any sacrifice, they are instantly excom- 
 municated by their own community, and then, if no mis- 
 sionary family be near, have no choice except to live alone 
 or put up with the society of low-born native converts, 
 with whom, perhaps, they have nothing in common but 
 their adopted faith.
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 233 
 
 Then there is the pride of knowledge. The English in 
 India must, of course, be conscious of their superiority in 
 civilization and scientific knowledge, but they bring dis- 
 credit on Christianity and hinder the missionary cause 
 when they take no pains to conceal their contempt for 
 Hindus and Muhammadans ; and, forgetting that India 
 was given to us to elevate rather than to humiliate, make 
 them feel their own inferiority too keenly. 
 
 But perhaps the greatest hindrance arising from our- 
 selves is the pride of religion. We cannot glory too much 
 in our possession of the Gospel of Christ. God forbid that 
 we should not glory in what we believe to be the only 
 power of God unto salvation to Jew, Greek, Hindu, and 
 Muhammadan ! But if our love for our Gospel truth 
 leads us to shut our eyes to the elements of truth that 
 underlie all false religions, how are we even to approach 
 those religions, much less bring any force of argument 
 to bear upon them ? 
 
 The missionary who goes to a believer in the Kuran or 
 the Veda with the Holy Bible in his hand, has no choice 
 but to search diligently for a common standpoint. ' Any- 
 thing in your Bible,' the Musalman will say, ' which 
 agrees with my Kuran I will accept, otherwise I will not 
 even listen to it.' The same language will be held by 
 the Hindu with regard to the Veda. It may, indeed, shock 
 Christians in this Christian country of ours to think of 
 our missionaries placing the Bible on the same platform 
 with the Kuran and the Veda; but there is really no 
 alternative. 
 
 Young and enthusiastic missionaries must not be sur- 
 prised, nor must we in England blame them, if they are 
 forced to imitate St. Paul — to become Muslims to the 
 Muslims, Hindus to the Hindus (without, however, giving 
 up one iota of the truth which they themselves hold), in 
 order that both Muslims and Hindus may be won over to 
 Christ. 
 
 And is there really no common ground for the Christian
 
 334 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 missionary, the Muhammadan, and the Hindii to stand 
 upon ? Are there not certain root-ideas in all relig-ions 
 which bear testimony to the orig-inal truth communicated 
 to mankind? Hinduism, at any rate, may be shown to 
 be a system which, on a solid basis of pantheism, has 
 brought tog-ether almost every idea in religion and philo- 
 sophy that the world has ever known. Even some of the 
 greatest truths of Christianity are there, though distorted, 
 perverted, caricatured, and buried under superstition, eifor, 
 and idolatry. 
 
 And is it not a proof of the Divine origin of Christianity, 
 and its adaptation to humanity in every quarter of the 
 globe, that some of its grandest and most essential dogmas, 
 and, so to speak, its root-ideas, do indeed lie at the root of 
 all religions, and explain the problems of life which sages 
 and philosophers in all ages of the world have vainly at- 
 tempted to solve ? Is it not the fact that all the gropings 
 after truth, all the religious instincts, faculties, cravings, 
 and aspirations of the human race which struggle to ex- 
 press themselves in the false religions of the world, find 
 their only true expression and fulfilment — their only com- 
 plete satisfaction — in Christianity ? 
 
 When I began the study of Hinduism, I imagined that 
 certain elementary Christian conceptions — such as the 
 Fatherhood of God, the Brotherhood of God, and the 
 indwelling of God in the human heart — were not to be 
 found there, but a closer examination has enabled me to 
 detect not only these, but almost every other rudimentary 
 idea of our holy religion. They are nearly all to be found 
 in Hinduism, like portions of adamantine granite beneath 
 piles of shifting sedimentary strata, and they ought to be 
 eagerly searched for by the missionary as a basis for his 
 own superstructure. 
 
 Hinduism, in fact, is a mere general expression, invented 
 by Europeans for all the innumerable phases of pantheistic 
 worship which exist in India. And, verily, I believe that 
 much has yet to be done before all the shapes, and, so
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 235 
 
 to speak, dissolving- views of tins Protean system are 
 thoroug-hly comprehended. 
 
 At any rate, we students of India (including" missionary 
 students) have not as yet produced, though we are trying 
 to do so — witness the series of books just published by 
 the Christian Knowledge Society — any thoroughly ex- 
 haustive and trustworthy account of Hinduism. We have 
 not sufficiently studied it in its own sacred Sanskrit. We 
 under-estimate its comprehensiveness^ its receptivity, its 
 subtle compromising spirit, its recuperative hydra-like vi- 
 tality ; and we are too much given to include the whole 
 system under sweeping expressions, such as 'heathenism' 
 or ' idolatry,' as if every idea it contains was to be eradi- 
 cated root and branch. 
 
 Again, our religious pride will operate prejudicially to 
 the missionary cause if it leads us to expect a complete 
 and universal adoption of our own form of English 
 Christianity. We cannot indeed glory too much in our 
 loved Church of England, in her organization and her 
 Book of Common Prayer ; but is our zeal altogether 
 according to knowledge if we attempt to force the Act 
 of Uniformity with too iron a hand on all our Indian 
 fellow-subjects ? Depend upon it, that when the fulness 
 of time arrives, and the natives of India everywhere 
 openly accept Christianity, they will construct for it a 
 setting of their own. And bearing in mind that our 
 religion originated in the East, and that the Bible itself 
 is a thoroughly Eastern book, we shall not only expect, 
 but joyfully acquiesce in an Indian framework for Indian 
 Christianity. 
 
 I will merely allude to two other obvious hindrances 
 which beset the missionary cause in India, — I mean our 
 own divisions and our own inconsistencies. As to the 
 first, after travelling from Kasmlr to Cape Comorin, 
 I am able to certify that I have found, as a general 
 rule, Christians of all denominations working together 
 harmoniously, and forgetting in their conflict with a
 
 336 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 common foe their own conflicts of opinion in unessential 
 matters. 
 
 Still, grave differences have recently arisen in some 
 localities ; and I venture to submit that it may be well 
 not to forget that in the first struggles of Christianity 
 with the paganism of the Roman Empire, the one mark 
 by which all Christians were singled out from the rest 
 of the world was their love for each other. ' See how 
 these Christians love one another.' 
 
 As to our inconsistencies, let me quote the same mem- 
 ber of the Brahma Samaj. 'Why,' he says, 'do you not 
 make more Christians among" the respectable classes of 
 society ? Because there is little to recommend itself in 
 your Christianity. Does it make your merchants honest 
 men ? Are their goods pure and unadulterated ? Does it 
 make your soldiers polite and moral?' 
 
 It is satisfactory, however, to note, as I have lately 
 done, that although some professing- Christians may still 
 walk as if they were the enemies of the Cross of Christ, 
 no glaring scandals are now common in India. Nor can 
 it be said of us by the natives, as it was to Mr. Terry (the 
 first Eng-lish clerg-yman, I believe, who ever visited India) 
 in 16 16, ' Christian relig-ion devil religion ; Christian much 
 drunk. Christian much do wrong-, Christian much beat, 
 Christian much abuse others.' 
 
 And surely there is comfort in the thought that our 
 hindrances in India under our own friendly rule are not 
 g-reater than tlie obstacles in Europe under the hostile 
 Boman Empire ; nor are they greater anywhere than they 
 always have been everywhere and may be expected to 
 continue. And is it not the case that a steadily advancing 
 cause thrives best under impediments, and that success is 
 only the last step in a series of failures, difficulties, and 
 discouragements ? 
 
 At any rate, it is certain that men may hinder and men 
 may impede, but the living waters of the river of God's 
 truth will flow on for ever. Nay more, it is certain
 
 INDIAN AND EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION. 237 
 
 that thoug-h barrier and embankment may obstruct their 
 course, the heaped-up waters will only gather strength 
 and volume, till, with accumulated force, they spread 
 themselves irresistibly over every region of the habitable 
 globe ^. 
 
 ' The above was delivered as an address at a Missionary Congress held 
 in Oxford on May 2, 1877.
 
 INDIAN MUHAMMADANISM IN ITS RELATION 
 TO CHRISTIANITY, AND THE PROSPECTS OF 
 MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE TOWARDS IT\ 
 
 In my travels through India, I repeatedly passed from 
 Hindu to Musalman places of worship, and my spirit, 
 troubled by the hideous idolatry witnessed in the temples 
 of Vishnu and Siva, was instantly tranquillized by the 
 severe anti-symbolism conspicuous in all the surroundings 
 of Muhammadan mosques. 
 
 It is true that the transition was a little too abrupt. 
 The atmosphere and aspect of the mosque seemed to strike 
 me with a sudden chill ; I appeared to have jumped from 
 tropical glare to Arctic ice. But when I beheld the 
 earnest bearing of Muslims prostrating themselves in 
 adoration on the cold stone, and apparently worshipping 
 God in spirit, if not in truth, I felt that there was 
 nothing in the outward appearance of either building or 
 w^orshippers incompatible with the spirit of Christian 
 prayer. Nay more — I felt as I watched the devout Mus- 
 lims, that I also might have prayed in the same place in 
 my own way, and even learnt from them to pray with 
 more solemnity and reverence of manner than I had ever 
 before practised. 
 
 On such occasions I frequently asked myself the ques- 
 tion — How is it that the attitude of Islam towards Chris- 
 tianity is far more hopelessly hostile than that of the 
 other two great false systems of the world, Brahmanism 
 
 * Speech at the Croj'don Church Congress, October 1877.
 
 INDIAN MUHAMMADANISM. 239 
 
 and Buddhism ? Have we not read of hundreds and 
 thousands of Hindus and Buddhists converted by Chris- 
 tian Missionaries ? but where are the Muslims ? Why is 
 it that so few Muhammadans are found to g-ive glory to 
 God in the knowledge of Christ ? We are verily guilty 
 concerning forty-one millions of our Indian brethren, and 
 we are bound to search and try our ways, and see where 
 our fault lies. 
 
 In the first place^ how do we meet the present intolerant 
 bearing of Islam towards other religions ? Our Govern- 
 ment is wisely neutral, but in our Missionary efforts are 
 we not inclined to fight Islam with its own weapon? do 
 we not sometimes oppose intolerance by intolerance ? 
 
 There is, I admit, a false and true tolerance. But do 
 we bear with all that we can, and denounce as little as we 
 can in a system whose founder, however fiercely intolerant 
 of idolaters, never denounced the Founder of our own 
 religion ? 
 
 In an excellent work by a faithful Missionary, recently 
 published \ I find it advocated that the attitude of Chris- 
 tianity towards the religions of India ought to be one of 
 true intolerance. And what is his reason ? ' Because,' 
 he says, ' there is none other name under heaven but one, 
 given among men, whereby we must be saved.' 
 
 But need we give up one iota of this precious truth, 
 because we welcome everything good in Muhammad''s sys- 
 tem, and because we hold that we can best overcome the 
 uncompromising intolerance of modern Muslims by eon- 
 fronting it with the charity and forbearance of our Lord 
 Himself, and the first Missionaries, His Apostles? 
 
 Let us never forget that however bitter the feelings of 
 hostility now displayed by the followers of Muhammad 
 towards the followers of Christ, the attitude of Muhammad 
 himself towards Christ Himself and the Gospel, as ex- 
 hibited in the Kuran, was not only tolerant, but friendly 
 
 ' Robson's 'Hinduism, and its relation to Christianity,' p. 297.
 
 240 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 unci reverential '. Indeed, the more I have reflected on 
 the present want of success in winning* Musalmans to our 
 own most holy faith, the more surprise have I felt that 
 we do not oftener advance to meet them on the common 
 g-round which belongs to the Bible and the Kuran — that 
 we do not oftener remind them that the Kuran itself 
 exalts Christ above humanity and teaches a manifold 
 connexion between Islam and the Gospel. 
 
 We ought to bear in mind that the people we call 
 Muhammadans call themselves Muslims, that is, persons 
 who were taught by Muhammad to believe that salvation 
 consists in holding" as cardinal doctrines the Unity of God, 
 and resignation to His Will. Muhammad himself never 
 claimed to be the originator of these doctrines, and never 
 allowed them to be called by his name. He was, in his 
 own view of his own mission, the latest of four prophets 
 (the others being Moses, Elias, and Christ), who were all 
 followers of Abraham, the true founder of the doctrine of 
 Islam^, and were all Muslims, because all preached the 
 Unity of God and submission to His Will. 
 
 O for more of the wisdom and courage of the great 
 Apostle of the Gentiles ! Were he at this moment un- 
 folding- before Muslims the unsearchable riches of Christ, 
 
 ' Sir William Muir (p. 157 of his excellent work, ' The Life of Mahomet') 
 shows that no expression regarding either the Jewish or Christian Scrip- 
 tures ever escaped the lips of Muhammad other than that of implicit 
 reverence. Both Jews and Christians, however, are repeatedly accused 
 of having falsified certain texts (see Kuran, Sura II. 39, 134). 
 
 Islam was really an illegitimate child of Judaism, and Muhammad owed 
 much of the sternness of his monotheism to the teaching of the Jews. 
 Christians as well as Jews are styled in the Kuriin ' people of the Book.' 
 The Pentateuch, and sometimes the whole Old Testament, is called Taurat, 
 and the New Testament Injil. All three — the Law, the Gospel, and 
 Kuran — are spoken of as the Word of God, and belief in them is enjoined 
 on pain of hell, but the Kuran, according to Muhammad, was the latest 
 revelation. See Kuran, Sura III. 2 ; V. 52. The miraculous birth of 
 Christ is asserted in Sura III. 40-42. 
 
 ^ Muhammad always called Abraham the first of Muslims. Islam and 
 Muslim are from the same Arabic root salama, signifying ' to submit to 
 God's Will,' ' to trust in God.'
 
 INDIAN MUHAMMADANISM. 241 
 
 would he not beg-in by saying", ' I also, like Abraham, am 
 a Muslim. I believe as strong-ly as you do in the Unity of 
 God. I resign myself as submissively as you do to the 
 Will of God. Whatsoever things are good, are true, are 
 lovely, are of good report in your system, I think on them, 
 I accept them, I welcome them, nay more, I call on you to 
 hold them fast' ? 
 
 And ought not every Missionary to begin by meeting' 
 the Muslim on the ground of his own Kuran, for the very 
 reason that he may more effectually combat its soul- 
 destroying errors. 
 
 I fear that the present position of the Church Militant 
 on earth is making cowards of us all. We shrink from 
 Unitarian Islam as if we dreaded the infection of a disease 
 easily communicated. We are living in the midst of ma- 
 larious influences — some outside, some inside our camp. 
 Every man suspects the soundness of his neig-hbour's re- 
 ligious opinions. What excites especial alarm in our 
 Indian Mission-fields is the spread of theistic and pan- 
 theistic ideas among educated natives. Even the relig-ious 
 atmosphere of Europe is believed to be largely impreg-- 
 nated with the subtle g-erms of many forms of deistic and 
 materialistic philosophy. In our dread of wandering un- 
 guardedly into the neig-hbourhood of these contag-ious 
 errors we are doubtless rightly careful to take our stand 
 firmly on the sure foundation of the divinity of God the 
 Son. But ought we on that account to insist less forcibly 
 on the doctrines of God's Fatherhood and of Christ's 
 humanity which equally lie at the very foundation of 
 sound Christianity ? 
 
 I trust I shall not be misunderstood if I venture as a 
 layman deferentially to inquire why it is that nearly 
 every sermon I have heard for many years, whether in 
 India or England, has been eloquent of God the Son — 
 few sermons of God the Father, and God the Holy Spirit? 
 Why is Christ so constantly held up to believers and
 
 242 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 unbelievers as the one God — so rarely as the Man Mediator 
 leading us by one Spirit unto the Father ? 
 
 We cannot, indeed, wonder that deeply religious Chris- 
 tians should concentrate their affections on the Saviour of 
 the world. Nor can they render to the world's Redeemer 
 more love than is His due. Yet it seems to me that in 
 combating Unitarianism in our Indian brethren we may 
 possibly ourselves be fairly charged with lapsing into a 
 subtle form of Unitarianism, if we habitually place the 
 One Mediator in the position of the One God. 
 
 Let me not be mistaken. I trust no one believes more 
 firmly than I do in the necessity for insisting on Christ's 
 Divine nature. But I am persuaded that if we would 
 achieve more success in our Missionary dealings with Mu- 
 hammadans, our first care should be to convince them that 
 Christianity alone satisfies the yearnings of the human 
 heart for mediation and atonement, because Christianity 
 alone presents us with the One perfect Mediator between 
 God and men, the Man Christ Jesus. 
 
 For if Muslims admit that their own prophet believed 
 himself to be an imperfect man who needed every day to 
 pray for the pardon of his own sins^, they are on that very 
 account more likely to be impressed with the contrast, 
 when we set before them Christ as the One perfect Re- 
 presentative of our race^ — the One divine Mediator whose 
 atonement was efficient, because He was in all points 
 tempted like as we are^ yet without sin. 
 
 Depend upon it that in seeking to win Muslims to the 
 true faith, we require to cultivate more of the wisdom of 
 the serpent. We require to creep into their hearts by a 
 frank admission of the Unity of the Godhead, and of the 
 excellence of Muhammad's teaching in regard to this and 
 other doctrines. We may then perhaps induce them to 
 meet us half-way — to relax a little of their stern mono- 
 theism — to concede that sinful man's necessity may have 
 
 » See Kuran, Sura XLVIII. 2.
 
 INDIAN MUHAMMADANISM. 
 
 243 
 
 acted, like a prism on light, to exhibit a triple manifes- 
 tation of the One God ; and so may cautiously, tenderly, 
 gradually, lead them on to a full sense of the complex 
 existence of the Almighty Being Who created us in His 
 own Image, and to an unqualified acceptance of the great 
 central dogma of our Church. But even when we have 
 brought the need of an everliving Mediator and eternal 
 Paraclete home to their hearts, we may wisely hesitate 
 to force upon them, before they are able to bear it, the 
 acceptance of merely ecclesiastical terms not found in our 
 Bible. 
 
 I know that we members of the Church of England are 
 rightly jealous for the term Trinity. I know that half 
 the Sundays of the ecclesiastical year remind us of our 
 Trinitarian creed. I know, too, that we rightly fence 
 round our great central doctrine with every possible eccle- 
 siastical safeguard. But in our first efibrts for the con- 
 version of Muslims, we shall be equally right to bear in 
 mind that the language of the Bible preceded the Book 
 of Common Prayer, that Christ Himself declared the first 
 of the commandments to be, ' The Lord our God is One 
 Lord,' that in the first Article of our Church, and in all 
 our Creeds, the Unity of the Godhead is asserted before 
 the triple Personality. 
 
 Before I conclude let me express a doubt whether we 
 Christians, who claim divine inspiration for the Bible, 
 believed by us to be the only true Word of God, delivered 
 through the minds of men, are quite as fair as we ought 
 to be towards the book believed by Muhammadans to be 
 a record of the actual words of the Almighty. 
 
 In travelling from Kasmir to Cape Comorin, I scarcely 
 met a single Missionary who professed himself conversant 
 with the language in which the Kuran is w^ritten. His 
 chief knowledge of the book, held to be the direct word 
 of God by forty-one millions of our Indian fellow-subjects, 
 is derived from translations made by Christians who utterly 
 disbelieve even its partial inspiration. 
 
 R 2
 
 244 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Moreover, although innumerable commentaries on the 
 Kuran have been written in Arabic by pious Muslims, 
 not a single one is generally studied by our Missionaries, 
 nor has a single one ever been translated into English ^, 
 nor do our Missionai-ies think of accepting any other 
 interpretations of difficult passages than those given by 
 unbelieving Christians. 
 
 I ask then what should we think of Indian Musalmans 
 if, after organizing a mission to convert England to Islam, 
 they were to send us Missionaries who judged of our Bible 
 not from their own knowledge of the original text, or even 
 of our own English translation, but from translations into 
 Indian languages made by unbelieving Muslims ? 
 
 Or again, if Musalman controversialists were to inter- 
 pret all the difficulties of our sacred Scriptures, not from 
 the point of view of such Christian writers as Butler, 
 Pearson, or Hooker, but from that of hostile Muslim 
 commentators ? 
 
 One reflection more before I conclude. If only the self- 
 deluded but fervent-spirited Muhammad, whose whole soul 
 was stirred within him when he saw his fellow-townsmen 
 wholly given to idolatry, had been brought into associa- 
 tion with the purer forms of Christianity — if he had ever 
 listened to the true ring of the Gospel — if, from the 
 examples which crossed his path he had formed a cor- 
 rect ideal of the religion of Christ, he might have died 
 a martyr for the truth, Asia might have numbered her 
 millions of Christians, and the name of a Saint Muhammad 
 miffht have been recorded in the calendar of our Book of 
 Common Prayer. 
 
 As it was, alas ! the only Christianity presented to the 
 Arab enthusiast, thirsting for the well of living water, was 
 
 ' The two Arabic Commentaries of highest repute, and indispensable 
 for a right understanding of the Kuran, are those of Zamakhshari and 
 Baidhawi, the latter especially valuable for grammatical and historical 
 explanations. There are excellent editions of these Commentaries by 
 Lees and Fleischer, but no English translation. Two other well known 
 Commentai-ies are by the two Jalalu'd-dins,
 
 INDIAN MUHAMMADANISM. 245 
 
 that adulteration of the truth prevalent in the seventh 
 century, which he believed it his mission to supplant by 
 a purer system. It has somewhere been affirmed that the 
 religion of Jesus, and the precepts of the Gospel, may be 
 found scattered piecemeal through the pages of the Kuran. 
 What should rather be alleged is that the religion of a 
 spurious Jesus, and the precepts of a spurious Gospel, may 
 be extracted from such parts of Muhammad's pretended 
 revelations as were communicated to him by the followers 
 of a debased form of Christian doctrine. 
 
 Think, then, of the difference in the present condition 
 of the Asiatic world, if the fire of Muhammad's eloquence 
 had been kindled, and the force of his personal influence 
 exerted on the side of veritable Christianity. 
 
 Ought not this thought to intensify the sense of re- 
 sponsibility in those of us who are living among Mu- 
 hammadans? What examples are Christians setting in 
 Muhammadan countries ? What ideal of Christianity are 
 they presenting to millions of Muslims in our own Indian 
 territories ? 
 
 It is I fear too true that the pages of the Kuran are 
 ever presenting to the pious Musalman yearning like our- 
 selves for a perfect Mediator, the image of a counterfeit 
 Christ and a counterfeit Gospel ; yet the spuriousness of 
 the copy will not be so clearly manifested by argument 
 and controversy as by the exhibition of a true reflection 
 of the Divine Original in the lives, acts, and wo'^d-s of 
 Christian men.
 
 THE THREE RELIGIONS OF INDIA COMPARED 
 
 WITH EACH OTHER AND WITH 
 
 CHRISTIANITY. 
 
 Let me beg-in by declaring* my conviction that the 
 time is approaching", if not ah-eady arrived, when all 
 thoughtful Christians will have to reconsider their po- 
 sition, and, so to speak, readjust themselves to their 
 altered environments. 
 
 Be it observed, I do not say readjust their most holy 
 faith — not the doctrines once for all delivered to the 
 saints, which cannot chang-e one iota with changing- cir- 
 cumstances — but readjust themselves and their own per- 
 sonal views. All the inhabitants of the g-lobe are being' 
 rapidly drawn tog-ether by facilities of communication, 
 and St. Paiil's grand saying-, that God has made all na- 
 tions of the earth of one blood, is being- brought home 
 to us more forcibly every day. 
 
 Steam-presses, railroads, electric telegraphs, telephones, 
 are producing effects quite without a parallel in the re- 
 cords of the past, and imposing on us Englishmen, the 
 principal colonizers of the world, new duties and respon- 
 sibilities. 
 
 A mighty stir and upheaving of thought is shaking 
 the foundations of ancient creeds to their very centre ; 
 and those not reared on the living Rock are tottering 
 and ready to fall. Thinkers, speakers, and writers, Chris- 
 tian and anti-Christian, throughout Europe, America, and 
 Asia, are eagerly interchanging ideas on all the unsolved 
 problems that have for ages baJSled the powers of the 
 human mind.
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 247 
 
 Christians, whether they will or no, are forced to regard 
 the most sacred questions as admitting- of other points of 
 view besides their own. Christianity itself is tested like 
 everything- else — its time-honoured records placed (so to 
 speak) in the crucible; its cherished dogmas submitted to 
 that potent solvent, Reason. 
 
 Muslims, Brahmans, Parsis, and even Buddhists and 
 Confucianists, no longer ignore our Bible, presented to 
 them in their own languages. Intelligent and educated 
 adherents of these creeds are found to look upon Chris- 
 tianity with respect, though they regard it from their own 
 respective stand-points, and examine it by the light of 
 their own hereditary knowledge and traditional doctrines. 
 
 In fact, a conviction is everywhere deepening in men's 
 minds, that it is becoming more and more the duty of all 
 the nations of the world to study each other ; to inquire 
 into and compare each other's systems of belief; to avoid 
 expressions of contempt in speaking of the sincere and 
 earnest believers in any creed ; and to search diligently 
 whether the principles and doctrines which guide their 
 own faith and practice rest on the true foundation or not. 
 
 And thus we have arrived at an important epoch in the 
 history of the human race. Thoughtful men in the East 
 and West are fairly trying to understand each other^s 
 opinions, and impartially weig'hing all that can be said in 
 favour of every religion opposed to their own. 
 
 And we Christians are taking the lead, and setting* the 
 example. We are labouring to translate our own Holy 
 Scriptures into all the languages of the world. We are 
 sparing no expense in printing and distributing them 
 lavishly. We are saying- to unbelievers everywhere : ' Read, 
 mark, learn,' judge for yourselves. 
 
 But this is not all. We are doing for the adherents 
 of other religious systems what they are slow to do for 
 themselves. We are printing-, editing, translating, and 
 publishing the ancient books which claim to be the in- 
 spired repositories of their several creeds. And thus to us
 
 248 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Christians is mainly clue that now, for the first time, it is 
 possible for the adherents of the four chief antag-onistic 
 systems prevalent in the world — Christianity, Brahmanism, 
 Buddhism, and Islam — to study each other's dogmas in the 
 books held sacred by each. 
 
 Here, then, we have before us four sets of books. First, 
 and in the forefront, our own Holy Bible. All honour to 
 our Bible Society ! this sacred book, which we hope may 
 one day be carried into every corner of the globe, has 
 already been translated into 210 languages ; and if we in- 
 clude the labours of other societies, 296 different versions 
 of it exist. Secondly, the Veda, a word meaning* know- 
 ledge, on which Brahmanism rests. There are four Vedas 
 (namely, Big, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva, written in an 
 ancient form of Sanskrit), each containing three divisions — 
 Mantra, Brahmana, and Unpanishad — nearly all of which 
 have been edited and nearly all translated. Besides the 
 four Vedas, there are the eighteen Puranas which con- 
 stitute the bible of popular Hinduism. Thirdly, we have 
 the Tri-pitaka, or three baskets, that is, the three collec- 
 tions of writings on which Buddhism rests (written in an 
 ancient language of the Sanskrit family, called Pali). Three 
 important portions of these collections have been edited by 
 European scholars, and recently translated into English. 
 They are called the Dhamma-pada, ' Precepts of Law ; ' 
 SvUa-nijmfa, ' occasional discourses ; ' Jdtaka, ' previous 
 births of the Buddha.^ Fourthly, we have the Kuran, in 
 Arabic, a word meaning ' the book to be read by all,' on 
 which, as every one knows, Islam rests, and of which Sale's 
 excellent English translation has been long available. 
 
 I now give specimens of select passages from the Veda 
 and Puranas, from the Tri-pitaka, and from the Kuran. 
 
 From the Atharva- Veda (IV. 16). 
 
 The mighty Varuna, who rules above, looks down 
 Upon these worlds, his kingdom, as if close at hand. 
 When men imagine they do ought by stealth, he knows it.
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 249 
 
 No one can stand, or walk, or softly glide along. 
 
 Or hide in dark recess, or lurk in secret cell; 
 
 The God detects him, and his conduct spies. 
 
 Two persons may devise some plot, together sitting 
 
 In private and alone, but he, the king, is there — 
 
 A third — and sees it all. This boundless earth is his. 
 
 His the vast sky, whose depth no mortal e'er can fathom. 
 
 Both oceans find a place within his body, yet 
 
 In that small pool he lies contained. Whoe'er should flee 
 
 Far, far beyond the sky, would not escape his grasp. 
 
 His messengers descend, for ever traversing 
 
 This world and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates. 
 
 Whate'er exists within tliis earth, and all within the sky. 
 
 Yea, all that is beyond, the mighty king perceives. 
 
 From the Katha Upanishad (Valli 2). 
 
 The good, the pleasant, these are separate ends. 
 
 The one or other all mankind pursue. 
 
 But those who seek the good, alone are blest. 
 
 The careless youth, by lust of gain deceived. 
 
 Knows but one world, one life ; to him the Now 
 
 Alone exists, the Future is a dream. 
 
 The highest aim of knowledge is the soul ; 
 
 This is a miracle, beyond the ken 
 
 Of common mortals, thought of though it be. 
 
 And variously explained by skilful teachers. 
 
 MTho gains this knowledge is a marvel too ; 
 
 He lives above the cares — the griefs and joys 
 
 Of time and sense — seeking to penetrate 
 
 The fathomless unborn eternal essence. 
 
 The slayer thinks he slays, the slain 
 
 Believes himself destroyed, the thoughts of both 
 
 Are false, the soul survives, nor kills, nor dies ; 
 
 *Tis subtler than the subtlest, greater than 
 
 The greatest, infinitely small, yet vast. 
 
 Asleep, yet restless, moving everywhere 
 
 Among the bodies — ever bodiless — 
 
 Think not to grasp it by the reasoning mind ; 
 
 The wicked ne'er can know it : soul alone 
 
 Knows soul, to none but soul is soul revealed. 
 
 From the Vishnu-purana (V. 23). 
 
 Lord of the Universe, the only refuge 
 
 Of living beings, the alleviator 
 
 Of pain, the benefactor of mankind,
 
 250 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Show me thy favour and deliver me 
 From evil ; O creator of the world, 
 Maker of all that has been and will be, 
 Of all that moves and is immovable, 
 Worthy of praise, I come to thee, my refuge. 
 Renouncing all attachment to the world. 
 Longing for fulness of felicity — 
 Extinction of myself, absorption into thee. 
 
 From the Tri-pitaka {I)hamma-padd). 
 
 Conquer a man who never gives, by gifts ; 
 Subdue untruthful men by truthfulness; 
 Vanquish an angry man by gentleness ; 
 And overcome the evil man by goodness. 
 
 The following is a prophecy from the Lalita-vistara of 
 what the Buddha was to do for the world (translated by 
 Dr. John Muir). 
 
 The world of men and gods to bless. 
 
 The way of rest and peace to teach, 
 
 A holy law thy son shall preach — 
 A law of stainless righteousness. 
 
 By him shall suffering men be freed 
 
 From weakness, sickness, pain, and grief, 
 From all the ills shall find relief 
 
 Which hatred, love, illusion, breed. 
 
 His hand shall loose the chains of all 
 
 Who groan in fleshly bonds confined; 
 
 With healing touch the wounds shall bind 
 Of those whom pain's sharp arrows gall. 
 
 His potent words shall put to flight 
 
 The dull array of leaden clouds 
 
 Which helpless mortals' vision shrouds, 
 And clear their intellectual sight. 
 
 By him shall men who, now untaught. 
 
 In devious paths of error stray. 
 
 Be led to find a perfect way — 
 To final calm at last be brought. 
 
 From the Tri-pitaka {SuUa-nipdta). 
 
 How can a man who has fallen into a river, having bottomless water 
 and a swift-flowing current, being himself carried away, and following the 
 current, cause others to cross it ?
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 251 
 
 As one, skilful, attentive, and acquainted with the mode of steering, 
 going on board a strong ship provided with oars and rudders, causes by- 
 means of it many others to cross the ocean ; even so he who has attained 
 the knowledge of religious paths, being devoted to meditation, very learned, 
 and of an unmoved nature, can teach others who listen with attentive ears 
 to his preaching. 
 
 Drinking of the water of a life of seclusion and of the water of sub- 
 jugating the passions, drinking also of the pleasant beverage called the 
 perception of truth, one becomes freed from emotion and sin. 
 
 Thou art the Buddha, thou art the Teacher, thou art the Vanquisher of 
 the evil one {Jtldni), thou art the Sage ; having cut off all thoughts, and 
 crossed the sea of repeated births, thou hast taken over these beings to the 
 other shore. 
 
 From the Kuriin (Chapters II, VIII). 
 
 To God belongeth the east, and the west ; therefore, whithersoever ye 
 turn to pray, there is the face of God ; for God is omnipresent, and 
 omniscient. And when he decreeth a thing, he only saith unto it, ' Be,' 
 and it is. 
 
 The Jews say, the Christians are grounded on nothing, and the Christians 
 say. The Jews are gTounded on nothing ; yet they both read the scriptures. 
 But God shall judge between them on the day of the resurrection concern- 
 ing that about which they now disagree. 
 
 Verily the true believers are those whose hearts fear when God is 
 mentioned, and whose faith increaseth when his signs are rehearsed unto 
 them, and who trust in their Lord ; who observe the stated times of 
 prayer, and give alms out of that which we have bestowed on them. 
 These are really believers. They shall have superior degrees of felicity 
 with their Lord, and forgiveness, and an honourable position. 
 
 true believers ! answer God and his apostle, when he inviteth you unto 
 that which giveth you life ; and know that God goeth between a man and 
 his heart, and that before him ye shall be assembled. 
 
 O true believers ! deceive not God and his apostle, neither violate your 
 faith, against your own knowledge. And know that your wealth and your 
 children are a temptation unto you, and that with God there is a great 
 reward. 
 
 Having", then, these books before us, it is clear that we 
 ought not to despise documents held sacred by our fellow- 
 creatures, as if they were too contemptible even to be 
 glanced at from the elevated position on which we stand. 
 Rather are we bound to follow the example of the great 
 Apostle of the Gentiles — who, speaking to Gentiles, did
 
 252 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 not denounce them as atheists or idolaters, but appealed to 
 them as Aeto-iSai/ixoyea-repoi;?, very God-fearing ; and even 
 quoted one of their own poets in support of a Christian 
 truth — and who, writing to Christians, enjoined them not 
 to shut their eyes to anything true, honest, just, pure, 
 lovely, and of good report, wherever it was to be found ; 
 but that if there was any virtue anywhere, or any praise 
 anywhere, they were to think on these things. 
 
 And have not we Englishmen, in particular, to whose 
 rule India has been committed, special opportunities and 
 responsibilities, brought as we are there into immediate 
 contact with these three principal religious systems — 
 Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Islam? 
 
 Let us look for a moment at any modern map of India. 
 The first glance shows us that it is not one country but 
 many. Nor has it one race, language, and religion, but 
 many races, languages, and religions. Mr. R. N. Cust, 
 late a distinguished member of the Bengal Civil Service, 
 and a member of the Legislative Council at Calcutta, has 
 recently published a map of India (including all the ter- 
 ritories subject to British imperial authority) in which 
 the boundaries of all the languages are marked out. It 
 is accompanied by a table which classifies the languages 
 under eight heads. These are as follow: — (i) Aryan, 20 ; 
 (2) Dravidian, 12 ; (3) Kolarian, 7 ; (4) Tibeto-Burman, ^6 ; 
 (5) Khasi, I ; (6) Tai, 5 ; (7) Mon-Anam, 5 ; (8) Malayan, 
 '^'^•y in all, 139 distinct languages. At least 100 dialects 
 are not included in the above classification. We may 
 safely affirm, therefore, that the languages and dialects 
 of India amount to at least 200. 
 
 Its population, according to the recent census, now 
 exceeds 240,000,000. 
 
 Of these, about 185,000,000 are Hindus, nominal adhe- 
 rents of Brahmanism. 
 
 Then, secondly, nearly 41,000,000 are Muhammadans, 
 adherents of Islam — so that England is by far the greatest 
 Muhammadan power in the world, and the Queen reigns
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 253 
 
 over about double as many Muslims as the representative 
 of the Khalifs himself. 
 
 Then, thirdly, there are about 3,000,000 Buddhists, 
 including the Jains (whose peculiar tenets' and sacred 
 scriptures are described at p. 159). This will appear a 
 small number to those who are aware that there are 
 nearly 500,000,000 nominal Buddhists now in the world, 
 the numbers of nominal Christians being far less — only 
 about 360,000,000. 
 
 Nevertheless, the original home of Buddhism was India, 
 which it did not finally leave till about the eighth or ninth 
 century of our era. It is now found in the Chinese 
 empire, Ceylon, Burmah, Nepal, Assam, and scattered here 
 and there throughout India in the form of its near relative, 
 Jainism. 
 
 For what purpose, then, has this enormous territory 
 been committed to England ? Not to be the ' corpus vile' 
 of political, social, or military experiments ; not for the 
 benefit of our commerce, or the increase of our wealth — 
 but that every man, woman, and child, from Cape Comorin 
 to the Himalaya mountains, may be elevated, enlightened, 
 Christianized. 
 
 Let us now, therefore, briefly inquire what are the 
 leading ideas which characterize these chief religions of 
 the world, as represented in India ; and in doing so let 
 us rise from the false to the true. 
 
 I. To begin with Brahmanism. 
 
 This has two sides — two aspects — and a vast chasm 
 separates the two. One is esoteric, the other exoteric ; 
 one is philosophical, the other popular ; one is for the few, 
 the other for the many. 
 
 What, then, is the highest or philosophical form of 
 Brahmanism ? Its creed, which rests on the Upanishad 
 portion of the Veda, has the merit of extreme simplicity. 
 It may be described in two words : Spiritual Pantheism ; 
 or, in the original Sanskrit, Ekam eva advitlyam, One 
 only Beinr/, no second — that is, nothing really exists but
 
 254 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the one self-existent Spirit, called Brahma (neuter) ; all 
 else is Maya, or illusion. In other words^ nothing exists 
 but God, and everything existing is God, You, he, and 
 I are God. We do not know that we are God, because 
 God wills for a time to ignore Himself. When this self- 
 imposed ignorance ceases, all distinction of personality 
 vanishes, and complete oneness of being is restored. This 
 is true philosophical Brahmanism — ihe unity of all heing. 
 
 An enormous gulf separates this pure pantheism from 
 the popular side of Brahmanism, which may be called 
 Hinduism, and which rests on the Puranas, and is prac- 
 tically polytheism. But the gulf is bridged over by 
 the word emanation. In the philosophical creed, every- 
 thing is identified with Brahma ; in the popular, every- 
 thing emanates from Brahma. Stones, plants, animals, 
 men, superior and inferior gods, good and bad demons, 
 and every conceivable object, issue from the one self- 
 existent universal soul, Brahma, as drops from the ocean, 
 as sparks from fire. Men emanate in fixed classes. They 
 cannot alter their social status in each separate existence. 
 Born Brahmans, they must remain Brahmans ; born sol- 
 diers, they must remain soldiers ; born tillers of the 
 ground, they must remain tillers of the ground ; born 
 menials, they must remain menials. 
 
 But what of stones, plants, animals ? The spirit of men 
 may pass into any of these, if their actions condemn them 
 to fall in the scale of being ; or, on the other hand, it may 
 rise to gods. 
 
 And what of gods ? There have been direct emana- 
 tions from the Supreme Being in the form of personal 
 gods : and it is noteworthy that these divine personalities 
 are generally grouped in threes or multiples of three. In 
 the Veda we have sometimes three principal gods, some- 
 times thirty-three gods named. The Vedic triad consists 
 of — I. Imlra, or the atmosphere personified ; 2. Agni^ Fire ; 
 3. SHrya, the Sun. The latter and better known triad 
 consists of — I. Brahma (masculine), the Creator; 2. Vishnu,
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 255 
 
 the Preserver ; 3, Rudra-Siva, the Dissolver of the world, 
 and its reproducer. 
 
 This leads to the doctrine of Incarnation. The god 
 Vishnu, as Pervader and Preserver, passes into men to 
 deliver the world from the power of evil degnons. 
 
 His most popular and best known incarnations are those 
 of Krishna and Rama. The history of E-ama is told in 
 the great epic poem called Ramayana. 
 
 Again, many stories of miracles worked by Krishna — 
 the other principal incarnation of the god Vishnu — are 
 told in the second great epic, called Maha-bhiirata. He 
 is there represented as fighting with and destroying many 
 evil demons, notably one in the form of a serpent (Kaliya), 
 on whose head he is sometimes depicted as trampling. 
 
 What, then, is the end of Brahmanisra ? Men, animals, 
 plants, stones, pass through innumerable existences, and 
 may even rise to gods. But gods, men, animals, plants, 
 and every conceivable emanation from the supreme Soul, 
 aim at, and must end by, re-absorption into their source, 
 Brahma. This is Brahmanism. 
 
 2. Turn we now to Buddhism. 
 
 Buddha was the son of a king who reigned in Kapila- 
 vastu, a district to the east of Oudh and south of Nepal. 
 He was, therefore, of the royal caste. The name Buddha 
 is merely a title meaning the Enlightened. His other 
 names are Gautama, Sakya, Siddhartha. He lived about 
 500 years B.C. ; that is, about contemporaneously with 
 Pythagoras, Zoroaster, and Confucius — all wonderful men. 
 He was a great reformer of Hinduism ; but it is a mis- 
 take to suppose that he aimed at an entire abolition of 
 Brahmanism, with the philoso]ihical side of which his 
 system had really much in common. His mission was 
 to abolish caste, to resist sacerdotal tyranny, to preach 
 universal charity and love, and to enjoin self-mortification 
 and self- suppression through perhaps millions of exist- 
 ences, as the only means of getting rid of the evils of 
 life and self-consciousness bv an extinction of all being.
 
 256 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 He was himself the model of a perfect ascetic. He never 
 claimed to be a g-od, but only the ideal of that perfection 
 of knowledge and self-subjugation to which every man 
 might attain. 
 
 The Buddha had himself passed throug-h millions of 
 births, and was about to become extinct; but before his 
 own attainment of Nirvana, or annihilation, he was enabled, 
 by perfect knowledge of the truth, to reveal to the world 
 the method of obtaining it. He died, and exists no 
 more. He cannot, therefore^ be worshipped. His memory 
 only is revered. Temples are erected over his relics, 
 such as a hair or a tooth. The Dathavansa, a history 
 of one of his teeth, has recently been translated from 
 the Pali. In the same manner every man must pass 
 through innumerable existences, rising or falling in the 
 scale, according to his conduct, until he also attains Nir- 
 vana, and becomes extinct. The Buddha once pointed 
 to a broom in a corner, which he said had, in a former 
 birth, been a novice who had neglected to be diligent 
 in sweeping out the Assembly Hall. 
 
 In Buddhism, then, there can be no God ; and if no 
 God, then no prayer, no clergy, no priests. By ' no God ' 
 I mean no real God. Yet action is a kind of God. Action 
 is omnipotent. Action is all-powerful in its effects on 
 future states of being. 'An evil act follows a man through 
 a hundred thousand transmigrations, so does a good act.' 
 By ' no prayer' I mean no real prayer. Yet there are two 
 forms of words (meaning, when translated, 'reverence to the 
 jewel in the lotus,' ' honour to the incomparable Buddha,^) 
 which repeated or turned in a wheel either once or millions 
 of times, must produce inevitable corresponding results 
 in future existences by the mere mechanical law of cause 
 and effect. By ' no clergy,' I mean no real clergy. Yet 
 there are monks and ascetics by thousands and thousands, 
 banded together in monasteries, for the better suppression 
 of passion and attainment of extinction. Many of these 
 are religious teachers but not priests.
 
 comparison: of the religions of INDIA. 257 
 
 Has Buddhism, then, no morality ? Yes — a lofty system 
 of universal charity and benevolence. Yet extinction is 
 its ultimate aim. In this respect it is no improvement 
 upon Brahmanism. The more the depths of these two 
 systems are explored, the more clearly do they exhibit 
 themselves in their trae light as little better than dreary 
 schemes excogitated by visionary philosophers, in the vain 
 hope of delivering themselves from the evils and troubles 
 of life — from all activity, self-consciousness, and personal 
 existence. 
 
 3. We now pass to Islam, sometimes called Muham- 
 madanism, but not so called by Muhammad himself, who 
 never claimed to be the founder of a religion. Its creed is 
 nearly as simple as that of esoteric Brahmanism. The one 
 is stern pantheism; the other stern monotheism. The one 
 says everything is God ; the other says God is one, but 
 adds an important article of belief — ' Muhammad is the 
 prophet of God.' In short, the mission of Muhammad, 
 according to himself, was to proclaim the unity of God 
 {tmolilcX) and absolute submission to His will [islam). What 
 is its end ? 
 
 The Kuran promises to its disciples a material paradise 
 (Jannat) or paradises (for there are seven), with shaded 
 gardens, fresh water — two great desiderata in Arabia 
 — black-eyed Huris, and exquisite corporeal enjoyments. 
 It also declares the existence of seven hells. The seventh 
 and worst is for hypocrites ; the sixth for idolaters ; the 
 third for Christians ; the second for Jews. 
 
 Islam is plainly a corruption of Judaism and Christi- 
 anity, and in point of fact began by admitting the truth 
 of both. 
 
 The end or aim then of Brahmanism is absorption into 
 the one Soul of the universe ; of Buddhism is extinction ; 
 of Islam is admission to a material paradise. 
 
 4. So much, then, for the three great religious systems 
 confronting Christianity. Now for Christianity itself, 
 which, creeping onwards little by little, is gradually sur-
 
 258 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 rounding" them on all sides — sometimes advancing on ttem 
 by indirect approaches, sometimes pressing on them by- 
 direct attack. And here I desire to speak reverentially, 
 deferentially, and with deep humility. But I have the 
 highest authority for what I am about to state. Chris- 
 tianity is a religion which offers to the entire human race 
 access to God the Father through Christ by one Spirit. 
 
 The end and aim, therefore, of Christianity is emphati- 
 cally union with God the Father, but such a union — mark 
 here the important point — such a union as shall secure the 
 permanence of man's personality, energy, and individuality ; 
 nay, even shall intensify these. 
 
 Let us now, the better to compare the four systems, 
 inquire by what means the end of each is effected. And 
 here let us change the order, and begin with the religion 
 which we believe to be the only true religion in the world. 
 
 Christianity, then, asserts that it effects its aim through 
 nothing short of an entire change of the whole man, and a 
 complete renovation of his nature. 
 
 The direct means by which its end is accomplished may 
 be described as a kind of mutual transfer, leading to an 
 interchange and co-operation between God and man's 
 nature, acting on each other. 
 
 Man — the Bible says — was created in the image of God. 
 But the first representative man fell, and transmitted a 
 taint to his descendants which could only be removed by 
 suffering and death. Hence the second representative 
 man, Christ, Whose nature was divine and taintless, vo- 
 luntarily underwent a sinner^s suffering and death, that the 
 taint, transferred from the tainted to the Taintless One, 
 might be removed. 
 
 This is not all. The grand central truth of our religion 
 is not so much that Christ died as that He now lives and 
 lives for ever. It is Christ that died — yea rather, Who is 
 risen again — that He may bestow, first, life for death : 
 secondly, a participation in His own divine nature for 
 the tainted nature He has removed.
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 259 
 
 This is the mutual exchange that marks Christianity — 
 an exchange between the personal man descended from 
 a corrupt parent, and the Personal God made man and 
 becoming our Second Parent. We are separated from a 
 rotten root and grafted into a living root. We part 
 with a corrupt nature and draw re-creative force — a new 
 nature — from the ever-living Divine stem of the Second 
 Adam, to which by a simple act of faith we are united. 
 
 Other religions have their doctrines, their precepts of 
 morality, which, detached from much that is worthless, 
 may even vie with those of Christianity. 
 
 But Christianity has what other religions have not — 
 a Personal God, ever living to supply the regenerating 
 Spirit and Life by which man, being re-created and again 
 made God-like, and again becoming 'pure in heart' — yet 
 still preserving his own personality — obtains access to God 
 the Father, and fitness to dwell in His presence for ever. 
 
 Secondly, Islam. What are its means of effecting its 
 end ? Muhammad was the prophet of God, says the 
 Kuran, but nothing more. He claimed no combination 
 of Divinity with humanity. Even his human nature was 
 not asserted to be immaculate. He made no pretensions to 
 mediatorial or vicarious functions. He died like any other 
 man, and certainly did not rise that his followers might 
 find in him eternal springs of divine life and power. Even 
 Muslims do not regard him as the source of any re-creative 
 force, capable of changing their whole nature. Muhammad 
 sets forth faith in Islam and in his own mission, repentance, 
 the performance of prayer, fasting, alms, pilgrimages, and 
 the constant repetition of certain words (especially parts 
 of the Kuran), as infallible means of obtaining Paradise. 
 In one place, patience, perseverance, walking in the fear of 
 God, and attachment to Him, are insisted on. Yet it must 
 be admitted that the Kuran elsewhere maintains that good 
 works have no real meritorious efficacy in procuring Para- 
 dise, and that the righteous obtain entrance there through 
 God's mercy alone. Indeed, every action in Islam is done 
 
 s 2
 
 36o MODERN INDIA. 
 
 ' in the name of God, the merciful, the compassionate ' 
 {h'tsmillah ar-rahmdn ar-rahm). But it should be borne in 
 mind that the Kuran is by no means systematic or con- 
 sistent. It was delivered in detached portions according 
 to the exigencies of the moment, and, being often confused 
 and contradictory, had to be explained and developed by 
 traditional teaching. It has some noble passages. 
 
 In one thing the Muslim sets the Christian an example 
 — submission to the will of God. But can the submission 
 enjoined in the Kuran bear comparison with the sublime 
 example of the Redeemer in the Garden of Gethsemane ? 
 Is it the submission of a slave to the will of a master, or 
 the dependence of a child on a loving Father for life and 
 breath and all things ? 
 
 Thirdly, Brdhmanism. What are its means of attaining 
 its ends ? In fairness we must allow that the lines of 
 Brahmanical and Hindu thought often intersect those of 
 Christianity. 
 
 In the later Hindu system the end of union with a 
 Supreme Spirit is effected by faith in an apparently per- 
 sonal God. But this seeming personality melts on scrutiny 
 into a vague impersonal essence. 
 
 True, God becomes man, and interposes for the good of 
 men. There is a seeming combination of the human and 
 divine — an apparent interchange of action. Most remark- 
 able language, too, is applied to Krishna (in the Bhagavad- 
 gita) as the source of all life and energy. But how can 
 there be any permanent interaction and co-operation be- 
 tween divine and human personalities when both must 
 ultimately merge in the Oneness of the Infinite ? 
 
 Fourthly and lastly. Buddhism. What are its means of 
 accomplishing its end ? Extinction of being is effected by 
 self-mortification, by profound contemplation, and by ab- 
 stinence from action. The Buddha himself is extinct. He 
 cannot therefore, of course, be the source of eternal life. 
 Nor can indeed eternal life ever be desired by those whose 
 highest aim is to be blown out like a caudle.
 
 COMPARISON OF THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 261 
 
 It is refreshing- to turn from such unsatisfying* systems 
 — however interspersed with sublime sentiments and lofty 
 morality — to the living, energizing Christianity of European 
 nations, however fallen from its true standard, however dis- 
 graced by the inconsistencies of its nominal adherents. 
 
 One more observation before I conclude. 
 
 Brahmanism is not a missionary religion, and from its 
 very nature never has been nor can be. Trades may be 
 associated in castes, and such associations are even now 
 admitted into the modern caste-system of Hinduism ; but 
 trade combinations are no part of its true creed. Brahman- 
 ism cannot make a Brahman, even if it would ; and so far 
 from distributing in other countries the texts or translations 
 of its own sacred Vedas on which its creed rests, prohibits 
 the general reading and repeating of them by its own 
 people, indiscriminately. As to printing and editing these 
 books, even for philological purposes, orthodox Brahmans 
 regard them as too sacred to be defiled by printers' ink. 
 Had it not been for the labours of Christian scholars, their 
 contents would have remained for ever a ' terra incognita ' 
 to the majority of the Hindus themselves. Brahmanism, 
 therefore, must die out. In point of fact, false ideas on 
 the most ordinary scientific subjects are so mixed up with 
 its doctrines that the commonest education — the simplest 
 lessons in geography — without the aid of Christianity, 
 must inevitably in the end sap its foundations. 
 
 Buddhism, on the contrary, when it first arose in India, 
 was pre-eminently a proselyting system. Hence its rapid 
 progress. Hence it spread as no other false system has 
 ever spread before or since. But its missionary zeal has 
 now departed, its philosophy has lapsed into superstition, 
 and of real religion it has none, nor ever claimed to have. 
 Hence its fate in India, and hence the fate that awaits it 
 everywhere. Buddhism does not seem to have been driven 
 forcibly out of India ; it simply pined away and died out. 
 It could not maintain its hold upon the Hindus, who are 
 essentially a religious people, and must have a religion of
 
 262 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 some kind. Take away Brahmanism, and they cannot 
 again become Buddhists. They must become Christians, 
 Muslims, or Theists. 
 
 Young- Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, educated and 
 Europeanized without being Christianized, may glory in 
 Positivism ; but these are not the real population of India. 
 The masses will never be satisfied with mere European 
 knowledge, or with systems of philosophy and oppositions 
 of science falsely so called. Christianity has many more 
 points of contact with their ancient faith than Islam has, 
 and when the walls of the mighty fortress of Brahmanism 
 are encircled, undermined, and finally stormed by the 
 soldiers of the Cross, the victory of Christianity must be 
 signal and complete. 
 
 And how does the case stand with Islam ? Here we 
 have a system which is still actively proselyting, and 
 therefore still spreading. Indeed, if Christians do not 
 collect and concentrate their energies so as to stem the 
 tide of its progress in Africa, the advancing wave of the 
 Muslim faith — a faith attractive to uncultured minds from 
 its simplicity — will rapidly flood that whole continent. 
 
 But of no other religion can it be affirmed so emphati- 
 cally as of Christianity that the missionary spirit is of its 
 innermost essence; for Christ, Who is the Life and Soul 
 of Christianity, was Himself a missionary — the first and 
 greatest of all missionaries. And if He had not ordained 
 the Apostles to be His missionary successors, and if they 
 had not ordained other missionaries, there would be no 
 Christianity among us here, no Christianity anywhere in 
 the world.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Part I. 
 
 Macaulay, in his essay on Lord Clive^ asserts that every 
 English schoolboy ' knows who imprisoned Montezuma, 
 and who strangled Atahualpa/ but doubts ' whether one 
 in ten, even among English gentlemen of highly cultivated 
 minds, can tell who won the battle of Buxar, who perpetrated 
 the massacre of Patna, whether Sujah Dowlah ruled in 
 Oude or in Travancore, or whether Holkar was a Hindu or 
 a Musalman.' Macaulay 's review was written nearly forty 
 years ago. 
 
 Whether the Tom Browns and Julian Holmes of the 
 present day are equally well ' posted up ' in IMexican 
 history^ and whether, when turned out into the world as 
 educated men, they are equally ignorant of Indian history, 
 admits of question. Probably the main facts of the material 
 development of British India are better known than they 
 were when Macaulay wrote his essays in the Ed'mburgh. 
 Yet at a time when great statesmen speak of our Eastei'n 
 Empire as ^ founded on criminal ambition,' and when other 
 politicians accuse Russia of a desire to extend her territorial 
 possessions in a manner equally unscrupulous, it may not 
 be unprofitable to recall attention to the irresistible current 
 of circumstances which has landed us in our present position 
 
 ' This and the following Essay appeared firet in the Contemporary 
 Bevietc,
 
 264 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 in India, and made British Indian interests and British 
 Indian duties important elements of the momentous Eastern 
 problem which the recent war has not yet finally solved. 
 
 The history of European enterprise in the East beg-ins 
 with the maritime supremacy of the Portuguese. The 
 journeys of the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, in Central 
 and Eastern Asia, between 1291 and the close of the thir- 
 teenth century, and the narrative of his visit to the coast 
 of India, excited much interest in Europe, and stimulated 
 travellers and navigators to feel their Avay eastward. 
 
 Our fellow-countryman. Sir John Mandeville, left England 
 in 1327, and, after wandering for thirty-three years through 
 Europe and Asia, returned home and wrote his well-known 
 narrative, which was printed in 1499. The marvels ' of 
 Inde ' which he described probably contributed to stimulate 
 the prosecution of maritime discovery, though it is doubtful 
 whether he was ever in India at all. Nicolo Conti, a noble 
 Venetian, is said to have travelled in India between 141 9 
 and 1444 ; Athanasius Nikitin, a Russian, between 1468 
 and 1474 ; Hieronimo di Santo Stefano, a Genoese, between 
 1494 and 1499 ; Ludovieo di Varthema between 1503 and 
 1508 ^. The Portuguese navigator, Bartholomew Diaz, suc- 
 ceeded in rounding the southern promontory of Africa, 
 called by him the Cape of Storms, and was the first real 
 pioneer of the ocean route to India, about the year 1487. 
 Ten years later his countyman, Vasco da Gama — whose 
 tomb or cenotaph I saw in a large Protestant church at 
 Cochin — sailed round the Cape and reached Calicut on the 
 I ith May, 1498. The Portuguese found India torn asunder 
 by internal dissensions, and were the first to take advantage 
 of its condition of chronic disunion and so gain a footing 
 on the western coast. But the Portuguese were not mere 
 traders as we originally were— mere commercial speculators 
 
 * Dr. George Birdwood is my authority here. I had not had the advan- 
 tage of reading his valuable Report on the Miscellaneous Old Records of 
 the India Office when I wrote this and the succeeding paper for the Con- 
 temporary Eeview.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 26 j 
 
 who went to India to make money, and to return home 
 with it when made. They aimed from the first at 
 settling- in the country, at establishing- themselves there 
 as a conquering nation, and achieving political dominion. 
 
 Their first Indian viceroy was Almeyda. The second, 
 Albuquerque, landed in T508, took Goa from the king-dom 
 of Bijapur, and made it the capital of the Portuguese 
 possessions. The Portuguese, however, never possessed any 
 considerable territory in India beyond the limits of their 
 factories. Their progress was too rapid and their career 
 too adventuresome to be lasting-. In less than a century 
 their power began to decline, and by 1640 nearly all their 
 ports and forts were wrested from them. Bassein was taken 
 from them by the Marathas in 1765, and only Goa, Diu, 
 and Daman, on the western coast, now remain. Yet 
 the Portuguese have left their mark on India — a more 
 abiding mark, in the opinion of some persons, than the 
 impression we should leave if our rule were to cease to- 
 morrow. 
 
 The Dutch succeeded the Portuguese in the maritime 
 supremacy of the Eastern seas. Their chief settlement was 
 in Bengal, at Chinsurah, near Hugll, which remained in 
 their hands till 1824, when it was ceded to the English in 
 exchange for our possessions in Sumatra. All their other 
 settlements have gradually been made over to us. 
 
 The Danes never possessed more than two settlements 
 in India — to wit, Tranquebar and Serampur (Sri-rama- 
 pur), on the Hugli, which our Government bought in 
 1845. 
 
 The English soon became rivals of the Dutch. The first 
 Englishman known to have reached India via the Cape of 
 Good Hope was a man named Thomas Stevens, or Stephens 
 (also called Stephen de Buston, or Bubston, in Dodd's 
 Church History, ii. 133). He belonged to the diocese of 
 Salisbury, and, having given proof of ability, was sent as a 
 student to Rome, where he became a Jesuit, It is stated 
 that he was once a member of New College, Oxford, but no
 
 266 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 such name is on the books ^ His superiors despatched him 
 as a missionary to the East Indies in one of five ships 
 which left Lisbon on April 4th, 1579, and readied Goa in the 
 following October, Thence he wrote a letter to his father, 
 which is preserved in Hakluyt's collection of voyages (ist 
 edition, p. 160). He resided at Goa about forty years, 
 during- five of which he was rector of a Jesuit college there. 
 The inhabitants respected him as a kind of apostle. His 
 familiarity with the dialects of the country is proved by his 
 having published three works — a Konkani Grammar, an 
 Account of Christian Doctrine, and a History of Christ, 
 which he called a Purana. I have seen an edition of his 
 Grammar in the India Office library, but have never met 
 with his other two works. 
 
 In 1583, a merchant of London, named Ralph Fitch, 
 ^ being desirous to see the countries of the East Indies, 
 shipped himself in a ship of London, called the T^gre, for 
 Tripolis, in Syria.' He was accompanied by another English 
 merchant, ' Mr. John Newberie,^ who was the bearer of a 
 letter of recommendation from Queen Elizabeth to ' Echebar 
 (Akbar), King of Cambay ' (Hakluyt's Voyages, ii. 245). 
 Messrs. Fitch and Newbury journeyed through Syria and 
 by the Euphrates to Basora, whence they took ship to Goa. 
 There the Portuguese authorities, jealous of the intrusion 
 of two rich English merchants, found some pretext for 
 throwing them into prison. Happily, the English Jesuit, 
 Father Stevens, was already a man of influence, and procured 
 their release. They fled from Goa to Bisapor (Bijapur), 
 where they saw ' idols standing in the woods, some like a 
 cow, some like a monkey, some like buffaloes, some like 
 peacocks, and some like the devil, with four arms and four 
 hands.' The account they published of their travels (pre- 
 served by Hakluyt) would well repay republication in a 
 modern form, especially if illustrated and annotated like 
 Colonel Yule's ' Marco Polo.' 
 
 ' I find that one Thomas Stevyns took his degree at St. John's College, 
 Oxford, in June, 1577.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 267 
 
 On the 31st December, 1600, little more than two hundred 
 and seventy-nine years ago, the East India Company was 
 incorporated by Queen Elizabeth. Though a second company 
 was formed in 1698, it was amalgamated with the first in 
 1702. 
 
 As Queen Elizabeth gave Mr. Newbury a letter to Akbar, 
 so James I sent Captain Hawkins to Surat, in 1608, with 
 a letter to the Emperor Jahangir, who permitted the En- 
 glish to establish four factories in his dominions. Our first 
 settlement was at Surat (improperly called Surat), near the 
 mouth of the River Tapti, in 1611, and here the Portuguese, 
 the Dutch, and subsequently the French, — who made their 
 first expedition to India about 1604, — ^ erected factories near 
 to ours. As early as 1608 Surat is described as 'one of 
 the most eminent cities for trade in all India.' It had 
 been conquered by Akbar in 1573, and was then called a 
 first-class port. I have twice visited this place — the first 
 focal point of all our operations in the East, and the centre 
 of all our commercial dealings with the people of India. 
 Every part of the town is suggestive of interesting reminis- 
 cences. The boundaries of the Portuguese, Dutch, English, 
 and French factories may still be traced, and the fort built 
 by the French is kept by us in good repair. 
 
 T e first name of the town is said to have been Suraj 
 (Sanskrit, Sfirya), ' City of the Sun.' A Muhammadan 
 ruler, wishing to change its Hindu name into one more 
 significant of Muslim domination, converted Suraj into 
 Surat, ' a chapter in the Kuran.' Another name given to 
 it was Bab ul Makka, ' gate of Mecca,' and one part of 
 the town is to this day called the Mecca quarter, because 
 the Muhammadan s of India made this western port their 
 starting-point for the hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. 
 
 It is greatl}^ to be regretted that the River Tapti, once 
 deep and navigable, has been allowed to accumulate silt till 
 large vessels can no longer enter. 
 
 In 1 6 15 Jamef^ I sent Sir Thomas Roe as his ambassador 
 to the Moghul Court. It is not surprising that a man so
 
 268 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 disting-uished for diplomatic ability and conciliatory manners 
 should have secured the concession of many advantages to 
 the British merchants. But he recommended the Company 
 to be satisfied with quiet trade, and warned them against 
 using force to promote their commercial objects. ' If the 
 Emperor/ he wrote^ ' were to offer me ten forts, I would 
 not accept of one.' 
 
 It is moi'e remarkable that the extension of our commer- 
 cial privileges on the western coast and in Bengal should 
 have been due to the professional skill of an English doctor 
 who lived at Surat. A certain Dr. Broughton cured the 
 Emperor Shah Jahan^s daughter in 1636, and rendered 
 similar services to his Viceroy in Bengal. This good man 
 must have been a model of unselfish patriotism, for he 
 might have enriched himself, but preferred to secure 
 commercial benefits for his country. Another generous 
 doctor, named Hamilton, procured similar privileges for the 
 Company in the same way in 17 16. 
 
 And here a point, too often forgotten, ought to be 
 brought out conspicuously. The position of the English 
 in India was at first merely that of a Company of com- 
 mercial speculators, who had invested a large amount of 
 hard cash in their speculation and wanted a good dividend. 
 For a long period after their first settlement in Surat, they 
 were simply a body of keen traders. They had no other 
 thought than the improvement of their commerce, no other 
 aim than the realization of good interest for their capital, 
 no other policy than peaceful negotiation. They were 
 willing to undergo toil, hardship, suffering, perils by land 
 and sea, if money was to be had. But they were not 
 fighting men. It was only when absolutely compelled to 
 take up arms for the defence of their property, that they 
 built forts and factories side by side. Rather than threaten 
 force they were willing to stoop to the employment of lan- 
 guage which nothing but long familiarity with Eastern 
 servility could justify. 
 
 Even so lately as 1712, the President of the Bengal
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 269 
 
 settlements, Mr. Russell, is reported to have petitioned 
 
 the Emperor of Delhi to the following effect : — 
 
 ' The supplication of John Russell, whose forehead is the top of the foot- 
 stool of the absolute monarch and prop of the Universe. We Englishmen 
 having traded hitherto in Bengal, Orissa, and Behar, custom-free, are your 
 Majesty's most obedient slaves. We have readily observed your most 
 sacred orders, and have found favour. We crave to have your Majesty's 
 permission in the above-mentioned places as before, and to follow our 
 business without molestation.' 
 
 The first spark of England's military glory in India 
 was kindled when the peace-loving, money-loving Com- 
 pany of British traders nobly defended Surat in 1664 
 against the founder of the Maratha power, Sivaji, who 
 attempted to wrest it from the Moghul Empire. Our 
 gallant defence of the town when deserted by the other 
 European traders was rewarded by the concession of further 
 commercial privileges. 
 
 It was then that military organization became a condi- 
 tion of our very existence in India. To the Siirat merchants 
 belongs the honour of having quickened the first germ of 
 our now gigantic Eastern Empire. Naturally, therefore, 
 the right of presiding over British Indian interests first 
 devolved on these Surat traders. The Presidency of Surat 
 was the first Indian Presidency, and with Surat the privi- 
 lege of presiding over every other English factory remained 
 till Bombay was given to Charles II by the Portuguese as 
 part of the dowry of his Queen Catharine of Braganza in 
 1 66 1. Bombay was delivered up in 1665 and made over 
 to the East India Company in 1668. Its commanding 
 position, and its magnificent natural harbour, gave it the 
 superiority. It was then that the Presidency over British 
 Indian commerce naturally passed from one town to the 
 other, and Bombay became the chief centre of British trade 
 on the western coast of India. 
 
 But even then no dream of empire disturbed the purely 
 mercantile spirit of our fellow-countrymen. Money was 
 their motive, money was their guiding principle, money 
 was their end, intrigue and negotiation their modus
 
 370 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 operandi. In a paper of instructions issued by the Direc- 
 tors of the Company in i6(S9 occurs the first hint that 
 territorial jurisdiction might become necessary for the 
 security of their property. 
 
 Turning" now to the Bengal side of India, we find that 
 the first factory was established on the Hugli, in 1640-42. 
 The first fortress was erected in 1656. It is noteworthy 
 that the Company had to encounter far more opposition 
 from the natives in this part of India than they had ex- 
 perienced on the western coast. 
 
 The site of Madras was obtained by Francis Day, then 
 president of the mercantile community on the eastern 
 coast, as a grant from the Hindu King of Vijayanagar, 
 and a factory was founded there about the same year as the 
 Hugh factory (1639). Only a few fishermen's huts were 
 then to be seen on the spot. Soon afterwards Charles I 
 built Fort St. George, round which clustered the nucleus of 
 the future Madras. At the same time he conferred on the 
 fort the privilege of presiding over the factories of the 
 Coromandel coast, the term ' presidency ' merely denoting, 
 as before, superintendence over the other trading commu- 
 nities in that part of India. 
 
 It was not till about 1 700 that the germ of the future 
 Calcutta {Kdll-Jcataka, village of Kdlt) was planted, not far 
 from Hugli, and the celebrated temple of the goddess Kali. 
 Here a collection of villages, originally obtained by the 
 English settlers as a grant in return for a present to a 
 son of the Emperor Aurangzib, was converted by the Com- 
 pany's principal agent in Bengal, Mr. Charuock, into the 
 nucleus of the great metropolis, whose population (794,645 
 according to the last census) now outnumbers that of every 
 other city in the British Empire, London only excepted. 
 A fort was commenced, but the ' Maratha ditch/ now 
 almost obliterated, was not excavated till about 1743. Its 
 object was to protect the Calcutta settlements from the at- 
 tacks of the omnipresent Maratha armies which then overran 
 the whole of India, demanding tribute (significantly called
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 271 
 
 cJianth, ' a fourth '). Fort AVilliam was completed soon 
 afterwards. 
 
 The idea of founding" an empire in India originated, not 
 with the Eng-lish, but with the French. The man on 
 whose mind the conception first flashed was the French 
 Governor, Dupleix. A French East India Company had 
 been formed, under Louis XIV, in 1664, and a factory 
 established near that of the English at Surat. Ten years 
 afterwards Martin, to whom the French owe the foundation 
 of the power they afterwards acquired in India, obtained 
 Pondicherry from the King of Bijapur, and fourteen years 
 later Chandarnagar (Chandernagore), on the Hugli, was 
 received from Aurangzlb. It was not till 1741 that Du- 
 pleix was appointed Governor-General of the French Indian 
 possessions. His aspiring genius not only conceived the 
 idea of conquering India, but devised the expedient of 
 making use of the Indians themselves to aid in subjugating 
 their own territory. He was the first to discover any 
 soldier-like qualities latent beneath the mild, apathetic 
 exterior of the Indian character. He beheld around him 
 men, if not equal in muscular power to Europeans, yet 
 naturally careless of life, temperate, faithful, docile, and 
 submissive. Drilled and disciplined they might be turned 
 into an effective army. This was the brilliant conception 
 which, emanating from Fi-ench intelligence, was developed 
 and improved upon by English administrative energy. It 
 was evident that the ability of Dupleix was equal to the 
 task of carrying his bold design of founding a French 
 Eastern Empire into execution. But no sooner had he 
 developed his plan of acquiring territorial dominion, than 
 the English perceived that they would have to fight or 
 abandon their property to French cupidity. Instantly our 
 troops of merchants were transformed from peaceful traders 
 into resolute soldiers, determined on disputing every inch 
 of ground with their European rivals. 
 
 The history of India was now, for at least ten years, the 
 history of the struggle between the French and English for
 
 272 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 political ascendency and territorial dominion. The Car- 
 natic — a strip of country on the south-eastern coast from 
 the river Kistna, north of Madras, to Cape Comorin — was 
 the theatre of the conflict. For some time successes and 
 reverses balanced each other on either side. At one period 
 it appeared as if the French were about to g-ain the upper 
 hand. The days of the English in the Carnatic seemed to 
 be numbered. But this was never really so, although once 
 (on September 21st, 1746) the English governor, Morse, 
 was compelled to surrender Madras to La Bourdonnais, the 
 colleague, and, happily for us, the rival of Dupleix. Defeat 
 to an Englishman is almost a necessity of victory; not 
 indeed to the traditional John Bull, surly, corpulent, and 
 combative, but rather to the more worthy representative of 
 English energy, the typical Tom Brown, trained at our 
 public schools, reared in an atmosphere of discipline, taught 
 to subdue self and sacrifice ease to duty. Our fellow- 
 countrymen gathered strength from opposition, disap- 
 pointment, and repulse. They were wholly disinclined to 
 unsheathe their swords ; but when their martial spirit was 
 once roused, they were only beaten back to advance with 
 more tenacity of purpose. Their blunders were their best 
 teachers; their failures were the steps by which they 
 mounted to ultimate success. The determination of the 
 French to reign supreme and expel us from India was the 
 principal factor among the various causes which resulted 
 in the foundation of our Indian Empire. But many other 
 circumstances combined at this time to force territorial 
 dominion upon either the French or English. 
 
 The vigour of the Moghul conquerors of India was won- 
 derfully shortlived. It commenced with Akbar's conquests 
 in 1570, and endured barely as long as the career of the 
 British conquerors of the Moghul conquerors has already 
 lasted. It reached its culminating point under Aurangzlb, 
 and began to decay at his death, in 1707. The constituent 
 elements of the empire rapidly disintegrated during the 
 first half of the eighteenth century. It was as if the im-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 273 
 
 perial crown, studded with the jewels of Golconda, had 
 suddenly fallen to the ground, and a scramble had taken 
 place for the scattered g-ems. Those who took part in the 
 struggle were first the emperor's own Muhammadan depu- 
 ties, and secondly his ovv'n Hindu subjects. Among the 
 former were the Nawab of Oudh, the Nawab of Bengal, the 
 Nizam ul Mulk, or administrator of the Dekhau, and the 
 Nawab of the Carnatic, nominally subject to the Nizam. 
 Among the latter were the Marathas, a powerful tribe of 
 marauding freebooters, who first acquired power in the west 
 of India under Sivaji, about 1650, establishing themselves 
 on isolated hills whose basaltic summits formed natural 
 forts, and fixing the seat of their dominion at different 
 central localities, first at Satara, then at Poona (under the 
 Brahman Peshwa, or Prime Minister ^), and finally at Nag- 
 pur, Gwalior, Indore, and Baroda. 
 
 Each of these principal dependents of the Moghul 
 Empire engaged in the struggle for dominion, and the more 
 ambitious not only converted their own territories into 
 independent sovereignties, but aimed at conquering the 
 possessions of their neighbours. The French took advantage 
 of the general disorder. They were not, like the English 
 traders, averse from military operations. Contending chiefs 
 sought their aid and solicited their alliance. Nothing 
 could be more natural than that our French rivals, while 
 intriguing with chiefs and ministers, and increasing by 
 intervention the chaos of conflicting parties, should have 
 thought more of constructing an empire of their own than 
 of helping to build up that of any native potentate. 
 
 In the middle of the eighteenth century (about the year 
 1750), the power of the French reached its climax, and 
 Dupleix erected a column, with an inscription in four lan- 
 guages, to commemorate his victories. It was then that 
 a French army under Bussy utterly defeated our ally, 
 Muhammad Ali, Nawab of the Carnatic. The fortunes of 
 
 * The first of these ministers was Baluji, and the second, his son Baji 
 Rao I.
 
 274 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the English in India seemed hopelessly ruined. At this 
 critical jiinctui*e, Clive's indomitable courage and extra- 
 ordinary ability came to the rescue. A mere youth changed 
 the whole aspect of affairs. With only 200 Europeans and 
 300 sepoys, he seized Arcot (in the year 1751); defended it 
 for seven weeks against overwhelming numbers, and added 
 victory to victory till the power of the French was com- 
 pletely broken. The final blow was given at the battle of 
 Vandivash (Vandvas), in December, 1759, when Colonel 
 Eyre Coote (Clive having been called to Calcutta to avenge 
 the Black- Hole atrocity) completely routed the French 
 armies under Lally and Bussy. 
 
 The idea of a European Empire in India then, as it were, 
 changed minds. It was abandoned by the French, to be 
 taken up by the English. Not that any such conception 
 had as yet really taken hold of the East India Company at 
 home, whose sole aim continued to be money, and not war 
 or political supremacy. Nor did the idea at once enter the 
 minds of their daring representatives in India — Clive and 
 Warren Hastings. It was forced upon them by the 
 exigencies of the situation in which they found themselves. 
 More than once they endeavoured to return to their stools 
 and their desks ; but the irresistible course of events hurried 
 them away. The East India Company made them clerks and 
 book-keepers. Necessity transformed them into conquerors 
 and rulers. What, in fact, was the state of affairs at this 
 momentous period of Indian history? Two of the com- 
 petitors in the general scramble for the scattei'ed jewels of 
 the crumbling crown of Delhi were obliged for a time to 
 retire from the field — the French disabled by Clive and 
 Coote, the Marathas paralyzed by their defeat at Panipat. 
 There remained the Nawabs of Bengal, of Oudh, and of the 
 Carnatic, the powerful Nizam of Hyderabad in the Dekhan, 
 the Muhammadan usurpers of Mysor — Hyder Ali and his 
 son TippCi. Each of these aimed at expelling the English 
 from India, hoping to clear the field for their own ambitious 
 designs. The English had again to accept the alternative
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 275 
 
 of defending themselves by sheer hard fighting- from the 
 bitter hostility of the various competitors for empire, or 
 abandoning the country altogether. They could not retire 
 like cowards from the sphere of activity in which circum- 
 stances had placed them. They were drawn into the 7nelee. 
 A peaceful policy was possible among the Directors of the 
 trading company at home — impossible among the English 
 on Indian soil. 
 
 For example, what happened in Bengal, where the Nawab 
 Alivardi Khan had been succeeded by the atrocious Suraj- 
 ud-Dowla? This man seized the English factory near 
 Murshidabad, taking the officers prisoners (Warren Hastings 
 among the number), and marched on Calcutta. There the 
 garrison capitulated, and the Black-Hole tragedy was 
 enacted. Colonel Clive, then at Madras, came again to the 
 rescue of the British arms. With a handful of Europeans 
 and 2,100 sepoys he defeated Suraj-ud-Dowla on the cele- 
 brated field of Plassey (so called because planted with groves 
 of the Palasa tree), on the 23rd June, 1757. It was then 
 that the Zamlndari of the twenty-four Pargannahs round 
 Calcutta was made over to the English, and the germ of 
 our vast Indian Empire was first thrust upon us. What 
 was to be done ? Were we to decline the gift, and hand it 
 over to monsters of the Suraj-ud-Dowla type — to any of 
 those unprincipled and unscrupulous adventurers who 
 swarmed everywhere, eager for political power and intent 
 on enriching themselves at the expense of the natives? 
 True, we found ourselves strong enough to annihilate the 
 Black-Hole miscreant, but the country gained nothing by 
 the substitution of our creature, his successor, Mir Jafir. 
 
 Mir Jafir's administration of Bengal was corruption 
 worse corrupted. We dethroned him in 1760, and set up 
 his son-in-law, Mir Kasim Ali. This man began well, but 
 turned out as great a monster as Suraj-ud-Dowla ; for when 
 we attacked him at Patna in 1763, with the intention of re- 
 instating Mir Jafir, he had 148 English prisoners massacred 
 by a German serving in his army, under the name of 
 
 T %
 
 276 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Sumru (the native equivalent of Sombre) ^ No one else 
 would undertake the l)loody task. Mir Kasira took refuge 
 with Shuja-ud-Dowla, the powerful Nawab of Oudh, with 
 whom was the then less powerful Shah Alam, emperor of 
 Delhi. The three combined ag-ainst us, but our victory, 
 under Munro's g-eneralship, at Buxar, in October, 1764, 
 made us virtually masters of the whole country from 
 Calcutta to Delhi. 
 
 We were compelled, however, to clear Hindustan of 
 certain troublesome Afghan tribes in the Rohilla war of 
 1775. Then other wars were forced upon ns ; for as we 
 had either to fight the Nawabs of Bengal and Oudh, or 
 basely abandon that part of India to their tender mercies, 
 precisely so had we to fight the other unprincipled com- 
 petitors for empire — the usurpers, Hyder Ali and Tippu of 
 Mysor, and the Marathas, From the breaking-up of the 
 Hindu kingdom of Vijaya-nagar a line of Hindu kings had 
 reigned in Mysor till 1761, when Hyder Ali, a Muhammadan 
 officer in the Hindu army, usurped the throne. The four 
 Mysor wars followed, viz. those of 1767-9, 1780-4, 1790-2, 
 and 1798-9. Finally we stormed Seringapatam, conquered 
 Tippu, and brought part of his territory under our own 
 jurisdiction in 1799. 
 
 As to the Marathas, although their power had been 
 broken at Panipat (7th January, 1761) by the Afghan 
 chief, Ahmad Shah Abdali, or Durrani, on his third invasion 
 of India, yet in their case also four wars ^ had to be under- 
 taken by us before they were subjugated. The treaty of 
 Bassein, by which the Peshwa (Baji Rao II) engaged to 
 receive a British subsidiary force, and to pay for its main- 
 tenance, ended the first war, and broke up the INIaratha 
 confederacy. The chiefs were then disunited. Sindia and 
 Bhonsle would not accept the treaty, and prepared for the 
 
 ' His real name was Reinhard. He was a native of Salzburg, and first 
 served under the French, who nicknamed him Sombre, from his melancholy 
 cast of countenance. The well-known Dyce Sombre was his grandson. 
 
 ^ These were the wars of i J80-82, 1803, 1804-5, ^"^^ 1817-19.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 277 
 
 second war, during which Wellington defeated the Maratha 
 army on the renowned field of Assai (September 23, 1803). 
 Two other wars followed. The Maratha chiefs did not 
 venture on open hostility, but excited the Pindaris — wild, 
 predatory tribes, the Bashi Bazouks of the Maratha armies 
 — to attack us. All these marauding- powers were put 
 down during the administration of Lord Hastings. The 
 last Maratha hill-fort was taken in 181 9. 
 
 In the case of Hyderabad, we made a treaty with the 
 then Nizam, in 1798, by which he was bound (and is still 
 bound) to support a contingent of 6,000 troops, and dismiss 
 all French or other European officers from his territory. 
 In the case of Oudh, we made the then Nawab an inde- 
 pendent king in 1818 ; but his country fell into such utter 
 disorder tliat it had to be annexed under Lord Dalhousie's 
 administration. 
 
 Clive was appointed Governor of Bengal a second time 
 in 1765, and on the 12th of August in the same year the 
 Emperor of Delhi, Shah Alam, conferred on the East India 
 Company the DlwanI, or right of collecting the revenue — 
 equivalent to the whole sovereignty — of Bengal, Behar, and 
 Orissa. Warren Hastings was our fir.st Governor-General, 
 from 1774 to 1785. With all his faults he was perhaps 
 the greatest of our great Indian rulers. He was the parent 
 of our whole civil administration. In England the mistake 
 was made of judging him by European standards of poli- 
 tical morality. In spite of occasional acts of injustice, op- 
 pression, and extortion — the excusable result of bewildering 
 difficulties and brain-disturbing complications — his conduct 
 on the whole was marked by a high-minded integrity re- 
 dounding greatly to his honour. He made all the servants 
 of the Company sign a covenant not to accept presents or 
 engage in any kind of private traffic. Thenceforward they 
 were no longer merchants and traders, but administrators. 
 At that time our possessions in India were (i) Bengal, Behar, 
 Orissa, and Benares, (2) a jagir of land round Madras, and 
 the strip of country on the eastern coast, called Northern
 
 278 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Circars, (3) the island of Bombay. A few subsequent 
 acquisitions may be here enumerated ; for instance, the 
 Carnatic in 1801 ; the upper Doab in 1803; Assam in 
 1826; Sindh in 1843; the JuUunder Doab in 1845; ^^^ 
 Panjab and Satara in 1849; Peg-u in 1852; Nagpur and 
 Jhansi in 1853-54; Oudh in 1856. Ceylon was taken 
 from the Dutch in 1795-96. It was first annexed to 
 Madras, but was made a Crown colony in 1803. 
 
 We see then that by a concatenation of circumstances 
 unparalleled in the world's history, the whole of India from 
 Kasmir to Cape Comorin^ from Karachi to Assam and 
 Burmah, has gradually fallen under our rule. 
 
 Let us next inquire what statistics exist which will 
 enable us to institute a comparison between the state of the 
 country when its administration was first made over to us 
 and its condition in our own time. Every good Government 
 is sensible of the duty of making statistical investigations — 
 of collecting, classifying, registering, tabulating, and com- 
 paring the facts of the every-day existence of the people 
 committed to its rule. The Ayln-i-Akbarl remains a monu- 
 ment of the great Emperor Akbar's efforts in this direction. 
 He was far in advance of his age, and his successors were 
 not equal to the task of carrying on his investigations. 
 The East India Company, however, was never unmindful 
 of its duties in this respect. Returns have occasionally 
 been called for by the House of Commons. In every district 
 a vast mass of knowledge on every conceivable subject 
 relating to the condition of the country and its inhabitants 
 has been collected, digested, and committed to writing ; 
 and from time to time the information thus gained has 
 been carefully arranged and formulated. The first effort of 
 this kind in Bengal dates from 1769, four years after that 
 province began to be administered by the East India 
 Company. In 1 807, Dr. Buchanan- Hamilton was formally 
 appointed to carry out a statistical survey of the Bengal 
 Presidency. This survey, which only embraced the northern 
 districts, including Behar, extended over seven years, but
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 279 
 
 was never completed, though twenty-one thick volumes of 
 manuscript were produced. 
 
 In fact, great difficulties have always impeded the 
 progress of statistical investigation. Even to this day the 
 natives of India are not sufficiently enlightened to under- 
 stand our real motive. They have been so long accustomed 
 to exactions, that, to their minds, government is only 
 another name for oppression. They persist in expecting 
 our little finger to be thicker than the loins of our prede- 
 cessors. They are haunted by suspicions that every unusual 
 inquiry is the precursor of a fresh assessment. During the 
 taking of the census in 1871-72, a man detected in the act 
 of hiding his babies gave as his excuse that they v/ere too 
 young to be taxed. Besides, designing agitators are 
 always at hand to thwart the good intentions of our 
 Government by exciting the superstitious fears of a credulous 
 peasantry. In Murshidabad, the surplus population, accord- 
 ing to popular report, was to be blown away from guns ; 
 in other places it was to be drafted to the hills, where 
 coolies were wanted. 
 
 Sir William Muir, in his Report on Indigenous Schools, 
 mentions that at the beginning of the inquiry a rumour 
 spread among the natives of the North- West Provinces 
 that four Christian missionaries, whom the Oriental imagina- 
 tion of the inhabitants converted into magicians, had come 
 from Benares. One of them, it was alleged, was about to 
 visit their houses in the garb of a mendicant ; he would 
 stretch a magic wand over the heads of their children, 
 compel them to follow him, and turn them into Christians 
 by witchcraft. 
 
 Notwithstanding these difficulties, the collection and 
 registering of accurate information has proceeded with a 
 certain degree of continuity, though in an unsystematic 
 manner. The energy and wisdom of Mr. Thomason, who 
 was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West 
 Provinces in 1843, devised the first organised scheme. 
 Every magistrate and collector was required to throw
 
 38o MODERN INDIA. 
 
 tog-ether and arrang-e all the information — historical, geo- 
 graphical, economical, educational — he could obtain regard- 
 ing his own jurisdiction. These compilations were to serve 
 as guides and companions for every district. One of them, 
 by A. Shakespear, published in 1848, gives the result of a 
 first census of the whole province, and the most minute 
 information as to the area of revenues of each pargannah. 
 A second census was made under Mr. Thomason's instruc- 
 tions on the night of December 31st, 1852. The results 
 were published, and no such valuable returns were ever 
 before obtained. 
 
 The year 1847 saw the first formation of a regular 
 statistical department at the India-house, and the merit of 
 constantly stimulating its activity belongs to one of the 
 old Company's directors, the late Colonel Sykes. In 1853 
 this statistical office published the first series of statistical 
 papers relating to India, illustrated by useful maps. A 
 great deal of fairly accurate information was given under 
 various heads, in sixty-seven folio pages. The latest orders 
 of the Court of Directors on the subject of statistics were 
 issued in 1855, three years before the government of India 
 passed from the Company to the Crown. In 1867 the 
 Governor-General in Council, in obedience to orders received 
 from Her Majesty's Secretary of State, directed the prepara- 
 tion of a statistical account of each of the twelve great 
 provinces of India. 
 
 In 1 87 1 a department of revenue, agriculture, and com- 
 merce was established at Calcutta, having under its charge 
 various statistical surveys — geological, ethnological, lin- 
 guistic, archaeological, industrial, and literary. Dr. W. W. 
 Hunter was appointed Director-General of Statistics in 
 India. He became the central guiding authority to all 
 the local collectors of information ; and great praise is due 
 to him for the effective plan of operations he inaugurated. 
 
 In 1873 there issued from the India Office the first of a 
 new series of statistical statements. It exhibited the moral 
 and material progress and condition of India from 187 1-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 281 
 
 72. This was a great advance on all previous Blue-books. 
 A volume for 1872-73 followed. This was a revised and 
 improved edition of that for the previous year. Since then 
 supplementary statements have been published annually; 
 but that for 1872-73 — by Mr. Clements B,. Markham — is 
 incomparably the best work of the kind that the Home 
 Government of India has ever produced. Its pages, though 
 by no means free from inaccuracies and inconsistencies, are 
 full of valuable information on every subject connected 
 with our Eastern Empire — even including missionary pro- 
 gress — and the carefully-drawn maps with which it is 
 illustrated are a highly instructive study in themselves. 
 Its pTirely literary excellence is not the least of its merits. 
 Every decennial period will, I believe, be marked by the 
 publication of a similar volume. 
 
 Perhaps still greater praise, in respect of scientific com- 
 pleteness and accuracy, is due to Sir George Campbell's 
 exhaustive report on his own administration of Bengal 
 during 1872-73. This forms a thick octavo volume of 
 about nine hundred pages. It is a perfect mine of valuable 
 information. 
 
 Dr. Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal in twenty 
 volumes^ is the crowning production. Considering the diffi- 
 culties with which the editor has had to contend, and, not- 
 withstanding a few errors, omissions, inconsistencies, and 
 repetitions, unavoidable in statistical returns comprising a 
 record of the condition of countries and populations more 
 numerous and varied in character than those of Great Britain, 
 Norway, Holland, Switzerland, and Italy put together, we 
 must pronounce this work to be a monument of scientific 
 skill and patient elaboration. It shows the extent to which 
 a desire for correct information has been diffused through 
 all grades of the executive service. It represents the first 
 effective advance towards a complete knowledge of the 
 country. When Dr. Hunter commenced his labours, no 
 
 1 A Statistical Account of Bengal. By W. W. Hunter, B.A., LL.D. 
 London : Triibuer & Co. 1877.
 
 283 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 regular census of the population had been taken ; and the 
 enumeration of 1872-73, which gave the enormous result 
 of 240 millions for the whole of India, inclusive of the 
 native States, disclosed that the official estimates had been 
 wrong- as regards Lower Bengal alone, by more than 25 
 millions of souls. The estimate had stood at 40 millions 
 for that province, whereas the total by the census amounted 
 to 66| millions. The population of British India alone 
 was about 190 millions, and the whole of India contained 
 twice as many Muhammadans as the whole Turkish Em- 
 pire. The result revolutionized our ideas in regard to the 
 amount of the population, its distribution in different dis- 
 tricts, its classification according to races, occupations, and 
 religions. It quite altered our calculations in respect to 
 the incidence of taxation, the consumption of salt, and 
 many other matters. 
 
 When it is borne in mind that Dr. Hunter's twenty 
 volumes represent the statistical account of the Province 
 of Bengal alone, and that the materials for an Imperial 
 Gazetteer of the whole of India, whose population exceeds 
 that of all Europe exclusive of Russia, have already been 
 collected, it must be admitted that our Government is 
 doing its duty to the full in endeavouring to acquire a 
 correct knowledge of the vast country committed to its 
 rule. 
 
 But now comes the question : Are we availing ourselves 
 of that knowledge for the benefit of the people ? Having 
 made ourselves thoroughly acquainted with what India 
 was and is, do we make it our first endeavour to improve 
 her own ancient institutions, to stimulate her own inherent 
 energies, to utilize and develop her own existing resources, 
 to direct and extend her own inherited civilization, to 
 guide, mould, and expand her own deep-seated religious 
 instincts, feelings, and convictions ? Do the statistics we 
 have collected furnish sufficient data on which to ground a 
 fair opinion as to whether our government is advancing, 
 stationary, or retrograde ? Do they bear witness to the
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 283 
 
 justice, the disinterestedness, the wisdom of our rule ? Do 
 they tell of order, organization, and progress in every de- 
 partment of our administration ? 
 
 For example, do we find in India a thoroughly efficient 
 system of education ascending from the lowest strata of 
 society, pervading every corner of the social fahric, and 
 supported by the State, the municipalities, the landhold- 
 ers, and the parents of the children ? Is the education 
 imparted something more than mere information ? Does 
 it have regard to forming the character as well as inform- 
 ing the mind ? Is there adequate machinery for training 
 qualified teachers, for supplying good class-books, and for 
 testing the value of all instruction given ? Are there good 
 schools of science and art, equipped with effective labora- 
 tories, libraries, and museums ? Is the press free ? Are 
 the native newspapers, for the most part, loyal in tone, 
 and generally engines of good rather than of evil ? Is 
 there entire toleration by the State, and by the people, 
 of every form of public worship, so long as such wor- 
 ship does not offend against police regulations and public 
 morals? Is the welfare and contentment of the people 
 secured by a wise adjustment of the sources and incidence 
 of taxation ? Is the State assessment on land fairly and 
 judiciously fixed, either in perpetuity or for the average 
 lifetime of a generation? Is the revenue collected by 
 honest and efficient officers ? Does the collection cause 
 sales, ejectments, or imprisonments ? Are there courts 
 of civil and criminal justice presided over by independent 
 and properly qualified officers, not afraid to decree against 
 the powerful, using the vernaculars of the people, and 
 guided by laws of procedure fixed and published ? Are all 
 men equal before the law ? Is any class precluded from 
 giving testimony, from conducting suits, or demanding 
 justice, on account of religion or civil status ? Is there 
 any form of disguised or open slavery, helotry, serfage, 
 unlawful apprenticing, &c. ? Is there unlimited license of 
 petition from the poorest to the highest official ? Are
 
 384 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 State oflScers bound to receive and dispose of all petitions 
 and record an order upon each several petition, a copy of 
 which can be claimed by the petitioner with a grant of 
 appeal to the officer of hig-her grade ? Are the civil and 
 executive officers constantly moving- about in suitable 
 weather from village to village, and living unarmed among 
 the people ? Are odious and abominable practices, such as 
 female infanticide, burying alive, burning widows, human 
 sacrifices, self-immolation, sitting in Dharna, hook-swing- 
 ing, allowed or winked at, in any class from raja to pea- 
 sant ? Are capital executions rare ? When they take 
 place, are they conducted with decency ? Are the gaols 
 strictly supervised ? Is it possible to imprison without a 
 legal warrant? Is the formation of good roads, bridges, 
 canals, irrigation-works, railways, telegraphs, postal com- 
 munication, sedulously promoted in every province ? Is 
 travelling safe by night and by day ? Are all bands of 
 robbers, Thugs, and poisoners extirpated ? Are measures 
 taken to prevent or alleviate famines ? Are sanitary ar- 
 rangements promoted everywhere ? In time of pestilence 
 and scarcity are the sick and starving properly cared for ? 
 Are there abundant hospitals and dispensaries? Is there 
 any military conscription ? Have the military authorities 
 any power whatever beyond the limits of the cantonments? 
 Do the people show confidence in the honour and integrity 
 of the State ? Do they avail themselves of the post-office, 
 the money-order offices, the savings banks, the State loans? 
 Are the public officials paid regularly by a fixed salar^^, 
 and rendered absolutely incapable of all corrupt practices, 
 bribery, malversation, and oppression ? 
 
 It is not too much to say that the most cursory ex- 
 amination of the India Office Statistical Returns must 
 convince even a hostile critic that a favourable reply may 
 be given to nearly all of these questions. Tried by these 
 tests in 1879, the Government of India may hold up its 
 head, and look its enemies in the face. Tried by some of 
 these tests fifty years ago the Government of India must
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 285 
 
 have sunk humiliated to the dust, with almost as much 
 ig-nominy as the Turkish Government does now. In proof 
 of this assertion let me next give a more particular account 
 of the progress of India under two or three principal heads, 
 commencing with education. 
 
 No one now disputes the proposition that one of the 
 most sacred duties of every government is to promote and 
 superintend the education of its subjects. We rulers of 
 India are at length fully sensible of the obligation under 
 which we lie to deliver the masses from the io-norance and 
 superstition which have for centuries enslaved them. We 
 are at length bestirring ourselves to bring the blessings of 
 sound and useful European instruction within reach of the 
 poorest and most insignificant member of the Indian body 
 politic. 
 
 Yet fifty or sixty years ago the very reverse was the 
 case. Our rule was believed to be accepted by the people 
 as a boon after the oppression of their own masters. They 
 longed for rest, and our supremacy secured it. They needed 
 tranquillity, and our government enforced it. They had no 
 desire for knowledge, and we had no desire to impart it. 
 Quieta non movere was thought to be a maxim even more 
 suited to Asiatics than to Europeans, To educate the 
 masses was to sow the seeds of disquietude. To give them 
 knowledge was to give them power, or at least to puff 
 them up with a conceit of their own ability to govern 
 themselves. Our security in India was believed to be 
 bound up with the continuance of a blissful condition of 
 crass ignorance in two hundred millions of living souls. 
 Hence, when at the renewal of the Company's Charter in 
 18 13, an agitation was set on foot (chiefly I believe at the 
 instance of a party inspired by William Wilberforce) for 
 the promotion of education among our Indian subjects, 
 very little effect was produced. Yet the House of Com- 
 mons resolved at that time that a sum of <^io,ooo a year 
 was to be set apart out of the Indian revenue for ' the en- 
 couragement of the learned natives of India, and for the
 
 286 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 introduction of a knowledge of European sciences among- 
 the people.' It is noteworthy that two distinct objects — 
 the revival of Eastern learning- and the introduction of 
 European science — were clearly set forth in that resolution. 
 It was not forgotten, in fact, that all Hindus of the Aryan 
 stock were already literary people. At a time w'hen our 
 ancestors were clothed in skins, and could neither read nor 
 write, the Hindus had made great advances in science and 
 art. They were the first cultivators of the science of 
 language. They fashioned for themselves one of the most 
 complete alphabets, they constructed for themselves one of 
 the most perfect grammatical systems, they elaborated for 
 themselves by a process of analysis {vydkarana) and syn- 
 thesis [sanskai'ana) one of the most finished languages that 
 the world has ever seen. They were the original inventors 
 of the ten arithmetical figures and invaluable decimal nota- 
 tion, which have done such good service in Europe. They 
 devised their own processes of arithmetic and algebra. 
 They calculated eclipses and made many shrewd astrono- 
 mical guesses centuries before the existence of Copernicus 
 and Kepler. They investigated for themselves the laws of 
 thought, and contrived a logical method, which, if not 
 equal to that of Aristotle, has peculiar merits of its own. 
 They excogitated for themselves six most subtle systems 
 of philosophy, of which all European systems are mere 
 repetitions and reproductions. They w^rote learned trea- 
 tises on theology, long before any European thinker had 
 bestowed a thought on the nature of God, or the relation- 
 ship of spirit to matter. They cultivated the imaginative 
 faculties more diligently, if not more successfully, than 
 European nations, and composed long epic poems very 
 little inferior, and in some respects — for instance, in the 
 portrayal of domestic life — superior, to those of Greece 
 and Rome. 
 
 It was thought that a people so acute in intellect, so 
 remarkable for erudition, so successful in industrial arts, 
 and the actual possessors of vast literary treasures, ought
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 287 
 
 first to be encouraged to develop their own resources, to 
 make use of the immense literary capital inherited from 
 their ancestors, and then to make good their own de- 
 ficiencies and extend their own acquirements by cultivating 
 the more fruitful fields of European lore, and drawing fresh 
 life from the fountain of European scientific truth. 
 
 But three main hindrances have always impeded the 
 advance of education among the people of India. The 
 first has arisen from the pride and selfishness of those 
 who in ancient times secured the monopoly of all learning. 
 The Brahmans, having obtained possession of the temple 
 of knowledge, resolved to keep the key in their own hands. 
 They soon discovered that the maintenance of their intel- 
 lectual supremacy, no less than the promotion of their ma- 
 terial interests, depended on their excluding the prqfanum 
 vulgus from access to the interior shrine. They never, it 
 is true, discouraged the communication of mere rudimen- 
 tary instruction to the people in the vulgar tongue, but 
 instruction in their sacred Sanskrit — the repository of their 
 literature, religion, science, and law — has ever been reserved 
 for their own sacred order. 
 
 A second hindrance has arisen from the utter narrow- 
 mindedness of Indian Pandits. They have believed the 
 whole circle of human knowledge to be contained in San- 
 skrit writings. To this very day, the most bigoted are 
 fully persuaded that to learn anything beyond the Sastras 
 is quite useless. 
 
 A third hindrance has arisen from the peculiar organi- 
 zation of Indian society. The Hindus have always been 
 great believei's in division of labour as a divine institution. 
 Learning, with them, has ever been regarded as the pro- 
 vince of learned men. Pandits, writers, and accountants 
 have formed, like agriculturists, soldiers, and merchants, 
 separate divisions of the community. Each has belonged 
 to a distinct caste, and each caste has been expected to 
 confine itself to its own business. A fourth hindrance, to 
 which I propose recurring hereafter, has been caused by
 
 288 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 the difficulty of teaching the complicated Indian alpha- 
 bets. 
 
 Under such circumstances it was not surprising* that 
 the promulgation of the House of Commons' resolution of 
 1813 was received in India with apathy and indifference. 
 The rulers feared the evil consequences of education for the 
 ruled, and the ruled anticipated no good results for them- 
 selves. It was not till the 17th July, 1823, that action 
 of any kind was taken by either one side or the other. 
 This date marks the commencement of what may be called 
 the first educational epoch in India. On that day it was 
 resolved by the Governor-General in Council that a General 
 Committee of Public Instruction should be constituted for 
 the purpose of ascertaining the state of public education, 
 for the introduction of useful knowledge, and for the en- 
 couragement of native literature. Of this committee Sir 
 Charles Trevelyan. who, when a member of the Bengal 
 Civil Service, published a valuable little volume on Indian 
 Education, was one of the most active members. 
 
 Two institutions were already in existence for the en- 
 couragement of Oriental learning — the Madrassa or Arabic 
 College established by Warren Hastings at Calcutta in 
 1 781; the Sanskrit College founded by Mr. Jonathan 
 Duncan at Benares in 1791, 'with a view to endear our 
 Government to the Hindus by exceeding, in our attention 
 to them and their systems, the care ever shown by their 
 own native princes.' 
 
 A third college was founded in 1816 by the voluntary 
 contributions of the natives themselves. This latter semi- 
 nary v^ras called the Hindu Maha-vidyalaya, ' great Hindu 
 seat of learning/ but its principal aim was to instruct 
 young Indians in English literature and the sciences of 
 Europe. It owed its origin to the exertions of Sir E. H. 
 East, Mr. David Hare, and Raja Ram Mohun Roy, but 
 was taken in hand and improved by the new committee 
 of public instruction. 
 
 The committee also opened a Sanskrit College at Cal-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 289 
 
 cutta, in 1824, and another College at Delhi in 1825, 
 for instruction in the three classical languages of India, 
 acting no doubt under the inspiration of the then cele- 
 brated Orientalist, and future Boden Professor, H. H. 
 Wilson. There were also a few schools, and notably those 
 founded at Chinsurah in 18 14 by a worthy dissenting 
 minister, Mr. May. 
 
 Here, then, we have the two distinct educational lines 
 indicated in the House of Commons' resolution of 181 3, 
 definitely laid down. The one line led to the desired 
 goal through the classical languages of India — Sanskrit, 
 Arabic, and Persian ; the other through English. Both 
 were recognized as media for the communication of Eu- 
 ropean knowledge. Nevertheless, for the greater part of 
 what I call the first or Orientalizing educational epoch, 
 Oriental learning was in the ascendant. In the com- 
 mittee there was internecine war. Orientalists and Angli- 
 cists were irreconcilable. Each party contended for the 
 exclusive application of its own instrument of education. 
 Neither was tolerant of the other. In 1833 the committee 
 consisted of only ten members. Five were for educating 
 by means of Oriental learning. These were' Messrs. Thoby 
 Prinsep, James Prinsep, H. Shakespear, Macnaghten, and 
 Sutherland. Five were Anglicists, viz. Messrs. C. E. 
 Trevelyan, J. R. Colvin, Bird, Saunders, and Bush by. 
 The latter were not only for imparting an European edu- 
 cation through the medium of English ; they were for 
 cutting down the sum annually lavished on the support 
 of Oriental students, and on the printing of Sanskrit and 
 Arabic translations. The fundamental difference of opinion 
 between the two halves of the committee ended in a dead 
 lock. No movement either forward or backward could be 
 effected, because of the perfect balance between the two 
 parties. 
 
 At this juncture (about the close of 1834) Macaulay 
 arrived in India. The conflicting opinions of Orientalists 
 and Anglicists were laid before him in his capacity of 
 
 U
 
 390 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 legislative member of the Supreme Council, and called 
 forth his celebrated Minute of February 2nd, 1835, 'All 
 parties,' he wrote in that Minute, ' seem to be agreed on 
 one point, that the dialects commonly spoken among the 
 natives of this part of India contain neither literary nor 
 scientific information, and are, moreover, so poor and rude 
 that, until they are enriched from some other quarter, it 
 will not be easy to translate any valuable work into them. 
 It seems to be admitted on all sides, that the intellectual 
 improvement of those classes of the people who have the 
 means of pursuing higher studies can at present be effected 
 only by means of some language not vernacular amongst 
 them/ He then decides in favour of English, and goes 
 on to say : — 
 
 ' The question before us is simply whether, when it is in our power to 
 teach English, we shall teach languages in which, by universal confession, 
 there are no books on any subject which deserve to be compared to our 
 own; whether, when we can teach European science, we shall teach 
 systems, which, by universal confession, whenever they differ from those 
 of Europe, differ for the worse ; and whether, when we can patronize ' 
 sound Philosophy and true History, we shall countenance, at the public 
 expense, medical doctrines, which would disgrace an English farrier, — 
 astronomy, which would move laughter in girls at an English boarding 
 school, — history, abounding with kings thirty feet high, and reigns thirty 
 thousand years long, — and geography, made up of seas of treacle and seas 
 of butter.' 
 
 This Minute — all the more misleading because penned 
 by the most effective writer of his time — was followed 
 by Lord W. Bentinck's equally celebrated Resolution of 
 the 7th March, 1835, in the second clause of which his 
 Lordship in Council expresses his opinion, ' that the great 
 object of the British Government ought to be the pro- 
 motion of European literature and science amongst the 
 natives of India.' The concluding paragraph directs that 
 ' all the funds at the disposal of the committee be hence- 
 forth employed in imparting to the native population a 
 knowledge of English literature and science, through the 
 medium of the English language.' The date of this Re-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 291 
 
 solution marks the commencement of what I venture to 
 call the second or Anglicizing educational epoch. 
 
 Of course the Governor-General's decision was final. 
 The Anglicists were triumphant, and, to clinch the whole 
 matter, Macaulay was made President of the Committee. 
 Then followed the establishment of twelve new Seminaries, 
 and a series of corresponding measures for the promotion 
 of English studies. Dr. Duff sided with the Anglicists. 
 A sudden passion for European literature, and its cul- 
 tivation through the acquisition of English, sprung up 
 among the higher classes of Bengalis. English became 
 an object of ambition, as the only avenue to good ap- 
 pointments, and to an improved position in society. Nor 
 need it excite surprise that our Government should have 
 encouraged the upper classes in their desire to become 
 good English scholars. What strikes one as extraordinary 
 is, that such a man as Macaulay should have set himself 
 against vernacular education. To force English on the 
 unlettered millions of India was, of course, impossible. 
 Though we English-speakers in Great Britain are by far 
 the majority, we have not yet succeeded, after more than 
 a thousand years of close contact with the Welsh people, 
 in inducing them to adopt our own language. Is it likely 
 that in a vast and remote country, a few thousand Eng- 
 lishmen, who, although conquerors and rulers, are every 
 year less disposed to treat India as their home, will ever 
 succeed in imposing English on two hundred and forty- 
 one millions of Asiatics, who possess about two hundred 
 different dialects of their own, and whose organs of arti- 
 culation and habits of thought, framed under opposite 
 climatic and social conditions, are generally incapable of 
 adapting themselves to European peculiarities of utterance, 
 idiom, and syntax ? 
 
 In Henry VIII's time there was scarcely anything to 
 read for an Englishman who could not read Latin. So 
 in India, in Lord Macaulay's time, there was scarcely 
 anything worth reading for a native of Bengal who could 
 
 u 2
 
 293 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 not read Sanskrit. Indeed, Sanskrit was to all India 
 more than what Latin was to all Europe. And what 
 happened in Eng-land ? The vernacular of the people, 
 instead of decaying", drew vitality and vigour from the 
 very language whose influence for a long" time kept it in 
 abasement. Strengthened and enriched by Latin, and 
 recruited from other sources, English has grown into the 
 most sturdy, copious, and effective of all languag-es. It 
 has produced a literature more valuable than that of Rome 
 or Greece. 
 
 Lord Macaulay did not seem to see that the same 
 process had been going* on in India. The vernaculars 
 of India were quite as capable of being- invigorated by 
 Sanskrit and Arabic as European vernaculars were by 
 Latin and Greek. In point of fact, this had been par- 
 tially effected long before Macaulay's time. A lingua 
 franca, like French in Europe, had existed in India since 
 the invasion of Timur, a.d. 1400. Hindustani, a language 
 formed by engrafting the Persian and Arabic of the 
 Musalman conquerors on a Sanskrit- Hindi stock, had 
 already been generally adopted by the natives of India 
 as a common medium of communication. It was a 
 thoroughly composite and eclectic language, which, like 
 English, had a jDeculiar power of extracting from other 
 languages the materials for its own expansion and de- 
 velopment. It had naturalized Turkish and Portuguese 
 words, and was assimilating English. It was a living 
 and a growing language — so instinct, indeed, with life 
 and growth, that the Hindustani of the early part of 
 this century, as represented by the Bagh o Bahar, may 
 be said to be already obsolescent. What Lord Macaulay 
 and the Committee ought to have aimed at was first the 
 improvement and enrichment of Hindustani by the in- 
 troduction and assimilation of more words and expressions 
 from Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, English, and other modern 
 European languages, and secondly the composition of good 
 Hindustani class-books, and the formation of a pure mo-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 293 
 
 dern Hindustani literature. And if the natives of Bengal 
 and of other parts of India were incapable of being- in- 
 structed in European science through the medium of Hin- 
 dustani class-books, their own vernaculars, Hindi, Bengali, 
 Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu were capable of being am- 
 plifiedj improved, and made the vehicle of scientific truth. 
 And here it is to be observed, that although the Oriental- 
 ists on the one side, and the Governor-GeneraFs Resolution 
 of March 7th, 1835^ on the other, very unaccountably 
 omitted all mention of the vernaculars, a majority of the 
 Education Committee seem in the end to have come to the 
 conclusion that the exclusive encouragement of English 
 could only be a temporary expedient, and ' that the for- 
 mation of a vernacular literature was the ultimate object 
 to which all their eftbrts ought to be directed.' Even 
 Mr. (now Sir Charles) Trevelyan, the most enthusiastic 
 and energetic of all the Anglicists,, to whose educational 
 labours India is deeply indebted, was of the same opinion. 
 He looked through a vista of English to a time when 
 Hindustani and Bengali would become well fitted for every 
 purpose of literature and science. 
 
 Lord William Bentinck, too, was far too wise, clear- 
 sighted, and sagacious, not to have discerned the only 
 possible method of reaching the mass of the people. A 
 great impulse was given to the cultivation and development 
 of the spoken dialects under his administration. Act XXIX 
 of December ist, 1837, abolished Persian and substituted 
 the vernaculars as the language of all revenue and judicial 
 proceedings in our Courts. 'The extraordinary ease,' 
 wrote Mr. Trevelyan, ' with which this change was effected 
 proves that it took place in the fulness of time. In Bengal 
 the Persian language had disappeared from the Collectors' 
 offices at the end of a month. It melted away like snow.' 
 
 Perhaps a still more important step had been taken pre- 
 viously. It was thought that before the Government did 
 anything for the country, steps should be taken to ascertain 
 what the country had done and was doing for itself. In a
 
 294 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Minute, written as far back as January 20th, 1835, Lord 
 W, Bentinck pointed out that at a time when the establish- 
 ment of education upon the largest basis had become an 
 object of solicitude, it was essential to ascertain the number 
 of indigenous village-schools already existing in India, the 
 nature and amount of instruction imparted in them, with 
 all the particulars of their foundation and support. And 
 he expressed his belief that the ' important end might be 
 attainable, of making these institutions subsidiary and con- 
 ducive to any improved general system which it might be 
 hereafter thought proper to establish.' Accordingly an 
 experienced, painstaking missionary, Mr. W. Adam, versed 
 in the spoken dialects, was appointed to conduct an edu- 
 cational survey of Bengal. The investigation extended 
 over three years, and a report was published containing 
 valuable statistics and important information in regard to 
 the intellectual condition of the peasantry. What that 
 condition must have been in 1835 may be inferred from 
 the fact that in 1873 (according to Sir George Campbell's 
 statistics) only 2I per cent, of the population of Bengal 
 could read and write. The proportion for all India was 
 only I in 400, while in England it was i in 7|. 
 
 Nevertheless, it is remarkable that the number of Hindu 
 indigenous schools, and of Maktabs or Muhammadan schools 
 attached to mosques, was found to exceed all expectations. 
 They were ascertained to be most numerous in secluded 
 parts of the country remote from European influence, and 
 from the disturbing effects of wars and invasions. 
 
 The Hindu indigenous schools are of two kinds — schools 
 of Sanskrit learning, called in Bengal Tols, and vernacular 
 schools for instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, 
 conducted by village schoolmasters, and called Patha-salas. 
 These two kinds of schools have no interconnection. Pupils 
 never pass from one to the other. 
 
 I made a point of visiting the well-known Sanskrit Tols 
 at Nuddea, and found them frequented by students from all 
 parts of India, some learning grammar, which may occupy
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 295 
 
 from seven to twelve years ; some law, whicli may require 
 a ten years' course ; and a large number studying the 
 Nyaya system of logic, which may necessitate from thirteen 
 to twenty-two years' curriculum. Both teachers and stu- 
 dents in these schools of learning are of course Brahmans. 
 
 The Pandits, so far from receiving money from their 
 pupils^ not unfrequently contribute towards their support, 
 being themselves supported by rich patrons. When the 
 students have finished their course of instruction they 
 receive from their masters an honorary title, which they 
 retain for life. I also visited schools of native learning in 
 other parts of India, and arrived at the conclusion that the 
 old type of Pandit/ trained to repeat whole departments of 
 Sanskrit literature by heart, is dying out. On the other 
 hand, it seemed to me that Sanskrit learniog, as encouraged 
 by us and learnt on principles of European philology, is 
 decidedly on the increase. 
 
 Again, in traversing the country I often came across 
 village vernacular schools, conducted in the open air or 
 under trees. And here I may remark that no people in 
 the world have been so long accustomed to self-government 
 as the inhabitants of India. The whole country is studded 
 with little independent republics. Every village has its head- 
 man, its council of five [Panchd^at) , its regularly organized 
 society, its complete assortment of servants, functionaries, 
 and officials necessary to the corporate existence and well- 
 being of the whole community. Among them is a school- 
 master [guru), from whom the children of the leading vil- 
 lagers receive a rude kind of education. We have elsewhere 
 noticed a proverb current among the natives — Punch men 
 paramesvarah, ' the voice of God is in the council of five ; ' 
 and the village school, no less than the village council, is 
 in its way regarded as a kind of divine institution. Wars, 
 revolutions, rebellions have desolated the land ; famines 
 and pestilences have decimated the population ; but the 
 school system has survived all convulsions — not, however, 
 everywhere equally, and not always in its entirety. In
 
 396 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 some parts of the country vernacular schools have been 
 swept away, while Sanskrit schools have survived. In 
 other districts rural schools abound, while schools of learn- 
 ing" are unknown. 
 
 Of course, nothing is learnt in the village vernacular 
 schools but the merest elements of reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic. No books are employed. The children are 
 taught to read and write on the sand or on palm-leaves. 
 What struck me as a remarkable feature of the teaching 
 was the skill attained in multiplication. The multiplicand 
 generally ascends to forty and often higher. The whole 
 class of, perhaps, a hundred children repeat their tables 
 together as if with one voice, the accumulated force of 
 which rises to a deafening scream. They can all multiply 
 by fractions, particularly by f, i^, i|, and 2|, and they can 
 multiply 2^, 3^, and 4^, by the fraction \. 
 
 Many of the punishments employed would probably be 
 considered peculiar from a European schoolmaster's point 
 of view. For instance : A boy is condemned to stand for 
 half-an-hour or an hour on one foot. A boy is made to sit 
 on the floor with one leg turned up behind his neck. A 
 boy is made to hang for a few minutes with his head 
 downwards, from the branch of a neighbouring tree, A 
 boy is put up in a sack along with nettles, or a cat, or 
 a noisome creature of some kind, and then rolled along the 
 ground. A boy is made to measure so many cubits on the 
 ground, by marking it with the tip of his nose. A boy is 
 made to pull his own ears, and dilate them to a given point 
 on pain of worse chastisement. Two naughty boys are 
 made to knock their heads several times against each 
 other. Some of these punishments are now discontinued. 
 
 The suggestion for basing all schemes of Indian edu- 
 cation on existing indigenous institutions seems to have 
 originated with Mr. W. Adam, in 1835. The idea was 
 taken up, as we have seen, by Lord William Bentinck, but 
 the merit of first carrying it into execution belongs to Mr. 
 Thomason, who, ten years later, when he was Lieutenant-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 297 
 
 Governor of the North-west Provinces, organized a plan 
 for utilizing" the existing village schools, and training the 
 native schoolmasters. He was the first to start what is 
 called the Halka-bandi system, about the year 1845. A 
 number of villages were linked together in a Halka or 
 circle, and a central school under a trained native teacher 
 was established within reach of each village, the expense 
 being met by a local cess of i per cent, on the land-revenue, 
 nominally voluntary. Unhappily, the efforts made to train 
 the village Gurus did not always succeed, and the whole 
 indigenous system had to be rehabilitated. But one great 
 merit of Mr. Thomason's scheme of popular education was 
 that it contained in itself great aptitude for internal deve- 
 lopment and improvement. His method was adopted as 
 a model by other Governments, and led in the end to the 
 celebrated educational Despatch from the Court of Directors 
 to the Governor-General of India (Lord Dalhousie), dated 
 July 19th, 1854. 
 
 This remarkable document — on which the whole system 
 of education at present in force throughout India is 
 founded — was really written by Sir Charles Wood (Lord 
 Halifax), when President of the Board of Control, assisted 
 by the late Viceroy, Lord Northbrook, wdien acting as his 
 secretary. It commenced what I venture to call the third 
 or Anglo-vernacular educational epoch. 
 
 As the main principle of the first educational epoch (com- 
 mencing in 1823) was the prominence given to the learned 
 languages of India, and of the second (commencing in 1839) 
 the stress laid on English as an exclusive medium of edu- 
 cation, so the special characteristic of the third was the 
 importance assigned to the vernaculars. In fact, the first 
 object of the great Despatch of 1854 was to insist on the 
 communication of correct European knowledge to the mass 
 of the people through the medium of their own spoken 
 dialects. The second object was to lay down a complete 
 scheme of higher education in which, without neglecting 
 the vernaculars, English and the Indian classical languages,
 
 298 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 but especially English, were to be made the principal in- 
 struments of education. 
 
 And here it may be observed that as there is really as 
 yet no considerable middle class in India, so there can be 
 really only two principal kinds of education, higher and 
 lower. It is true that what are called middle-class (Zillah) 
 schools have been established, but the distinguishing feature 
 of these seems to be that they combine the superior lower 
 with the inferior higher kind of education. 
 
 With regard to the higher, the Despatch declared that 
 the time had arrived for the founding of universities at 
 Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, not as places of education, 
 but to test the value of the knowledge received in colleges 
 and schools, and to confer degrees. 
 
 All the principal colleges, collegiate institutions, and 
 schools already existing throughout the country, whether 
 founded or aided by Government or independent, and con- 
 ducted by persons of every variety of religious persuasion. 
 Christians, Hindus, Muhammadans, Parsis, Sikhs, Bud- 
 dhists, and Jains, were to be affiliated to the universities, 
 and to lead up to them. The indigenous schools were to 
 be improved by Government aid and superintendence^ and 
 were to supply suitable education to the villages and rural 
 population. The so-called middle-class Zillah schools (an- 
 swering to the Tashlli schools of the North-west Provinces), 
 established at the chief towns of each district, were to 
 educate the townspeople and prepare them for the high 
 schools. The high schools, established at the larger towns 
 and attached to every college, were to educate the higher 
 classes up to the university matriculation examination, 
 English being in that case the medium of instruction. 
 The colleges were to admit matriculated students, and 
 educate them up to examination for Bachelor degrees. 
 The whole system was to be tied together by means of 
 scholarships, which were to lead selected pupils from the 
 Zillah to the high schools, and from the high schools to the 
 colleges. The first university examination after matri-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 399 
 
 culation was to be called First Arts (F.A.) examination, and 
 to take place after a two years' course at the colleges, and 
 the examination for the Bachelor's degree was to follow 
 after a further interval of two years. The final university 
 examination was to be for the Master of Arts degree, 
 which was to be a real distinction, only attainable by a 
 select few who could give proof of high intellectual cul- 
 ture. 
 
 All these provisions and arrangements were gradually 
 carried into execution. The three Universities of Calcutta, 
 Bombay, and Madras were incorporated in 1857. They 
 were quietly founded during the worst troubles and most 
 appalling terrors of the Sepoy insurrection. A great 
 stimulus was given to education everywhere. New colleges 
 were founded and old ones improved. The Calcutta and 
 Madras Presidency Colleges, the Bombay Elphinstone 
 College, the Poona Deccan College, the Thomason Engineer- 
 ing College at Roorkee, and a large number of other 
 colleges and schools were quickened into vigorous vitality. 
 In short, a vast moral and intellectual revolution was 
 inaugurated, and that, too, at a time when the downfall of 
 our power was confidently predicted, and the very founda- 
 tions of the Indian social system appeared likely to be 
 upheaved. The undisturbed progress of Sir Charles Wood's 
 great scheme of education is a valuable evidence that the 
 agitation caused by the Sepoy revolt never spread among 
 the masses of the people. And what are the results ? 
 
 At the commencement of 1823 only two Government 
 colleges existed in India, the pupils in which might possibly 
 have numbered 300. In 1824, soon after the establishment 
 of several new seminaries by the Committee of Public 
 Instruction, the number of pupils in Government institutions 
 rose to rather more than 3,000. In 1854 there were about 
 1 2,coo pupils. In 1859 educational institutions of different 
 kinds had increased to such an extent that the pupils 
 amounted to more than 180,000. The latest statistical 
 returns from all India in 1875 showed that the number of
 
 300 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 pupils in colleges and schools of all kinds — Government, 
 missionary, aided, and unaided — amounted to 1,689,138. 
 
 Yet we have hitherto made little or no impression on the 
 countless millions reachable only through the vernaculars. 
 The chief end aimed at by Sir Charles Wood's Despatch of 
 1 854 has as yet been very imperfectly attained. Too much 
 importance is assigned to English, and too little encourage- 
 ment given to the native dialects. English is made a sine 
 qnd noil at the matriculation examinations. I saw 1,263 
 candidates being examined for matriculation at Bombay in 
 1875, and among them some young native princes. But 
 not more than 12, or at most 15 per cent, of those who 
 matriculate proceed to prepare for the degree examination. 
 The great object is to gain a knowledge of English, and 
 through that knowledge employment under Government. 
 
 Lord Lytton, in an eloquent address delivered the other 
 day before the pupils of the Martiniere College, Calcutta, 
 very significantly reminded his youthful audience that the 
 object of education was not the improvement of their positions, 
 but the improvement of their characters. I fear we too 
 often wean boys from the plough, the chisel, and the loom, 
 to make them ambitious of Government appointments, 
 which they cannot all obtain.
 
 PROGRESS OP OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 It is related of the Moghul Emperor Baber, that when the 
 idea of conquering- India first took possession of his mind, 
 he resolved not to embark on so vast an enterprise till he 
 had made himself thoroughly acquainted with the country 
 and its people. The better to effect this object, he is said 
 to have disguised himself as a religious mendicant, and to 
 have traversed the Panjab and Hindustan, noting the best 
 approaches, marking the strongest positions, collecting the 
 most minute information, and planning the whole scheme 
 of his future military operations. 
 
 The result of his circumspection and forethought is well 
 known. It cannot be said of our great generals that they 
 were equally wise in their generation. They conquered by 
 dint of dash and daring, combined, it may be, with occa- 
 sional master-strokes of strategic skill and astute policy. 
 They were aided by a strong* tide of concurrent and co- 
 operating circumstances. But they were innocent of long 
 antecedent explorations of the enemy's ground. They were 
 guiltless of deep-laid plots and tedious predeliberations. 
 
 Yet the present Empress of India is more securely seated 
 on the throne of Delhi, than the most successful of the 
 Mogul invaders. English pluck and prowess have effected 
 more than Baber's forethought and energy, Akbar's wisdom 
 and vigilance, AurangzJb's cleverness and cunning. We 
 have surpassed all other conquerors in the completeness of
 
 302 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 our material conquest. No power disputes our supremacy 
 over a range of territory extending" 2,000 miles from the 
 Himalaya mountains to Adam's Peak. Are we inclined to 
 be puffed up with the conceit of what we have effected? 
 Let the knowledge of what remains to be done dissipate 
 every thought of self-complacency. Let the sense of our 
 failures neutralize all tendency to pride in our successes. 
 
 True, we are entitled to some credit. We are able, with 
 a mere handful of our fellow-countrymen, to control two 
 hundred and forty-one millions of Asiatics, to make laws, to 
 administer justice, to preserve the peace. We have changed 
 the whole face of the country by our railways, roads, 
 canals, telegraphs, and public buildings. We have done 
 more than any other Raj to promote the physical prosperity 
 and welfare of the people. We have even laboured success- 
 fully to stimulate the intellects and instruct the minds of 
 the upper classes. We have founded Universities, established 
 colleges, built schools, trained teachers, appointed directors 
 of public instruction, and spent large sums on educational 
 institutions, old and new. 
 
 All this we have done. Yet infinitely more has been left 
 undone. We have yet to take in hand the poor benighted 
 ryots ; to elevate, to enlighten the myriads upon myriads 
 of those who till the ground in the veritable sweat of their 
 brow; to deliver the masses of the population from the 
 tyranny of caste, custom, ignorance, and superstition. The 
 moral conquest of India remains to be achieved. And to 
 effect this second conquest we are wisely discarding all the 
 dash and daring by which our first conquest was secured. 
 We are advancing with careful predeliberation. We are 
 even perhaps a little too tard}^ in our preliminary investi- 
 gations. We have only recently instituted a thoroughly 
 organised system of statistical inquiry, of which Dr. Hunter's 
 twenty volumes of Bengal statistics are the first-fruits. 
 
 I closed my last paper with a summary of the present 
 educational status in India, and I pointed out that Sir 
 Charles Wood's despatch of 1854 is the basis on which the
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 303 
 
 whole system rests. Excellent and carefully worded as the 
 whole tenor of that despatch undoubtedly is, it makes one 
 cardinal mistake. It encourages the false idea that instruc- 
 tion is a co-extensive term with education. The despatch 
 had, as we have seen, two main objects. One was to 
 promote the instruction of the hig-her classes in European 
 science through the medium of English. The other was to 
 provide proper teaching for the lower classes by means of 
 the vernaculars. Its words are : ' We look to the English 
 language and to the vernacular languages of India together 
 as the media for the diffusion of European knowledge.' 
 
 And if our whole educational responsibility is bounded 
 by the instruction of the upper classes of the people in 
 European knowledge, we may perhaps take credit to our- 
 selves for a fairly respectable fulfilment of our obligations. 
 
 But if our mission be to educate as well as instruct, to 
 draw out as well as put in^ to form the mind as well as 
 inform it, to teach our pupils how to become their future 
 self-teachers, to develop symmetrically their physical as 
 well as mental, moral, and religious faculties, then I fear 
 we have left undone much that we ought to have done, 
 and acquitted ourselves imperfectly of the duties our position 
 in India imposes upon us. Let me first glance at our so- 
 called higher education. 
 
 In traversing India from north to south, from east to 
 west, I visited many High Schools, examined many classes, 
 conversed with many young Indians under education at our 
 colleges, and was brought into contact with a large num- 
 ber who had passed the University matriculation examina- 
 tion, as well as with a few who had taken their degrees, 
 and earned distinction for high proficiency. I certainly 
 met some really well-educated men — like Rao Bahadur 
 Gopal Hari Deshmukh, lately appointed a joint-judge — 
 who, by their character and acquirements, were fitted to 
 fill any office or shine in any society. But in plain truth, 
 I was not always favourably impressed with the general 
 results of our higher educational efforts. I came across a
 
 304 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 few well-informed men, many half-informed men, and a 
 great many ill-informed and ill-formed men — men, I mean, 
 without true strength of character, and with ill-l)alanced 
 minds. Such men may have read a good deal, but if they 
 think at all, think loosely. Many are great talkers. They 
 may be said to suffer from attacks of verbal diarrhoea, and 
 generally talk plausibly, but write inaccurately. They are 
 not given to much sustained exertion. Or if such men act 
 at all, they act as if guided by no settled principles, and as 
 if wholly irresponsible for their spoken and written words. 
 They know nothing of the motive power, restraining force, 
 or comforting efficacy of steadfast faith in any religious 
 system whatever, whether false or true. They neglect 
 their own languages, disregard their own literatures, abjure 
 their own religions, despise their own philosophies, l)reak 
 their own caste-rules, and deride their own time-honoured 
 customs, without becoming good English scholars, honest 
 sceptics, wise thinkers, earnest Christians, or loyal subjects 
 of the British Empire. 
 
 Yet it cannot be said that we make higher education 
 consist in the mere imparting of information, and nothing 
 more. We really effect a mighty transformation in the 
 character of our pupils. We teach a native to believe in 
 himself. We deprecate his not desiring to be better than 
 his fathers. We bid him beware of merging his per- 
 sonality in his caste. We imbue him with an intense con- 
 sciousness of individual existence. We puff him up with 
 an overweening opinion of his own sufficiency. We inflate 
 him with a sublime sense of his own importance as a dis- 
 tinct unit in the body politic. We reveal to him the 
 meaning of ' I am,' ' I can,' ' I will,' ' I shall,' and ' I know,' 
 without inculcating any lesson of ^ I ought,' and ' I ought 
 not,' without implanting any sense of responsibility to and 
 dependence on an Eternal, Almighty, and All-wise Being 
 for life, for strength, and for knowledge — without, in short, 
 imparting real self-knowledge, or teaching true self-mas- 
 tery, or instilling high principles and high motives. Such
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 305 
 
 a system carries with it its own nemesis. After much 
 labour we rulers of India turn out what we call an edu- 
 cated native. Whereupon he turns round upon us, and, 
 instead of thanking" us for the trouble we have taken 
 in his behalf, revenges himself upon us for the injury 
 we have inflicted on his character by applying- the im- 
 perfect education he has received to the injury of his 
 teachers. 
 
 The spitefully seditious writing which our Government 
 has lately found it necessary to repress by summary mea- 
 sures is due to this cause. 
 
 And how have we discharged the debt we owe to the 
 lower classes ? Let the truth here also be told with all 
 plainness. In their case we have not yet matured any 
 effective scheme — not even for the proper informing of 
 their minds, much less for the proper forming of their 
 characters. 
 
 Mr. Thomason, as we have seen, started a system of 
 careful statistical inquiry. He ascertained the generally 
 benighted condition of the masses within the area of his 
 own administration. He was also the first to conceive the 
 idea of stimulating the people to co-operate in educating 
 themselves. It occurred to him that the necessity for 
 registering land under the revenue settlement of the 
 North-western Provinces might be turned to good ac- 
 count. He determined to use it as an incentive to the 
 acquisition of so much knowledge of reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, and measurement as would qualify each man 
 to look after his own rights. Thereupon he organized a 
 scheme of primary education based on the utilization of 
 indigenous village schools. His method was held up as a 
 model to other local governments. It was wisely followed 
 and improved upon by other administrators, and notably 
 by Sir George Campbell in Bengal. A good beginning 
 has been made in some parts of India. But I fear we have 
 as yet barely stirred the outer surface of the vast inert 
 mass of popular ignorance and superstition. 
 
 X
 
 3o6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 WherCj then^ lies our fault? Are we carryino- into 
 execution the admirable views expressed in Sir Charles 
 Wood's despatch? Are we doinq" our best to encourage 
 the improvement and enrichment of those vulgar dialects 
 throuffb which alone the masses can be instructed ? I 
 think not. What says the despatch ? 
 
 ' It has hitherto been necessary, owing to the want of translations or 
 adaptations of European works in the vernacular languages of India, and 
 to the very imperfect shape in which European knowledge is to be found 
 in any works in the learned languages of the East, for those who desired 
 to obtain a liberal education, to begin by the mastery of the English lan- 
 guage as a key to the literature of Europe ; and a knowledge of English 
 will always be essential to those natives of India who aspire to a high order 
 of education. But it is neither our aim nor desire to substitute the English 
 language for the vernacular dialects of the country. And any acquaintance 
 with improved European knowledge which is to be communicated to the 
 great mass of the people, — whose circumstances prevent them from acquir- 
 ing a high order of education, and who cannot be expected to overcome the 
 difficulties of a foreign language, — can only be conveyed to them through 
 one or other of these vernacular languages.' 
 
 If, then, the Government of India were true to its own 
 principles it would give more encouragement to the culti- 
 vation of the vernacular dialects. It would not expose 
 them to the danger of degenerating into jargons — of be- 
 coming unfit to be converted into vehicles of European 
 knowledge. It would not appoint any one to superintend 
 educational work as a Director of public instruction^ or as a 
 principal or head master, without requiring him to give 
 evidence of complete familiarity with at least two spoken 
 lanffuaufes — Hindustani and one other. It would not make 
 proficiency in English an indispensable condition of ma- 
 triculation examinations. It would be satisfied with pro- 
 ficiency in general knowledge displayed through the 
 medium of any one or two of the principal vernaculars, 
 Hindustani, Hindi, Bengali, Telugu, and Tamil — especially 
 through Hindustani, which should be encouraged to be- 
 come the common medium of communication for the lower 
 classes throughout all India, just as Sanskrit is for the 
 learned.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 307 
 
 And here I must advert to a point wliich, in my opin- 
 ion, has an important bearing on the spread of European 
 knowledge among the masses of our Indian subjects, I 
 mean the application of the plain and practical Roman 
 alphabet to the Indian vernaculars, especially to Hin- 
 dustani. 
 
 I have elsewhere striven to show that the Indo-Aryans 
 probably derived their alphabets from foreign sources. 
 The first Indian idea of grammar was not that of a col- 
 lection of written rules (ypd/xjua). It consisted simply in 
 the analysis [vi/dJcarana') of language and the solution of 
 etymological problems by means of brief memorial aphor- 
 isms so contrived as to be transmitted orally. In time, 
 however, a growing literature defied even the prodigious 
 memories of indefatigable Brahman Pandits. Suitable 
 graphic symbols had to be employed, and in all probability 
 particular symbols were introduced into India by those 
 trading nations whose commercial necessities led to the 
 invention of writing. The first notion of representing 
 ideas and language by pictorial signs seems to liave origi- 
 nated in Egypt. Thence it passed into Phoenicia where a 
 syllabic system w^as developed. This led to the phonetic 
 alphabet afterwards adopted by the Greeks, and subse- 
 quently improved upon by the Romans. Doubtless some 
 forms of writing found their way into India, but, like the 
 acute Greeks, the subtle-minded Hindus felt the imperfec- 
 tion of the consonantal systems current among Semitic 
 peoples. If they received some symbols from foreign 
 sources, they altered their forms and developed them in 
 their own way. Moreover they invented for themselves 
 their own system of vocalization, just as they worked out 
 their own theory of grammar. 
 
 Nor did any ordinary standard of completeness satisfy 
 the requirements of Indian scholars. With their usual 
 love of elaboration they excogitated a philosophically exact 
 system. But they overloaded it with symbols. They over- 
 did the true theory of the necessary vocalization of con- 
 
 X 2
 
 308 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 sonants. They declared it impossible for any slng-le 
 consonant to stand alone without its inherent or associated 
 vowel. Hence, we have an immense assortment of simple 
 and conjunct letters, necessitating- the employment of five 
 hundred distinct types in the printing of the most ordi- 
 nary Sanskrit book. Such an overstraining of alphabetical 
 precision was to the learned Hindus a great recommenda- 
 tion. The perfection of its structure made the Deva-nagarl 
 alphabet a fit medium for the visible embodiment of their 
 divine Sanskrit. Even the very letters themselves came to 
 be regarded as divine. 
 
 Now this superstitious adoration and quasi-deification of 
 an intricate alphabet as the medium for the expression of a 
 sacred language like Sanskrit, was perhaps natural and 
 excusable. But when it led to the employment of compli- 
 cated symbols for the ordinary work-day spoken dialects, 
 it placed a serious obstruction in the path of advancing 
 education. And what is the actual fact at present in 
 India ? The process of learning to read is surrounded by 
 a kind of thorn fence, bristling with a dense array of 
 crooked strokes and tortuous lines. Difficulties unknown 
 to an English child have to be surmounted at the very 
 outset, and make every step painful. I am only now 
 speaking of the Indian printed alphabets. What shall be 
 said of the written characters ? The worst English hand- 
 writings are no measure of their illegibility. The difl[iculty 
 of deciphering them increases in a kind of compound ratio. 
 Who, except grey-bearded scholars, can penetrate the m3's- 
 teries of the inscrutable Shikasta? Who but veteran ex- 
 perts can unravel the intricacies of the Kaithi, or Hindi 
 running-hand employed by the writer caste ? of the Modi, 
 or written scratches in use amoiig' the Marathas ? of the 
 hopelessly illegible Marwari and equally indecipherable 
 handwriting prevalent in Sindh ? of the twists, twirls, and 
 convolutions current in Southern India ? If any one thinks 
 I am here exaggerating, let him turn to a volume of speci- 
 mens of different written characters which daily pass
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 309 
 
 through the Indian Post Office, published by the Post 
 Office authorities. 
 
 For this reason many eminent Indian administrators and 
 scholars — at the head of whom must be placed Sir Charles 
 E. Trevelyan, a true friend to Indian educational progress 
 . — have long felt that the application of the simple Roman 
 alphabet to the Indian vernaculars would greatly facilitate 
 the diffiision of knowledge among the unlettered millions 
 of our Indian Empire. The recent formation of ' The Roman- 
 Urdu Society ' by educated Indians at Lahore, and the pub- 
 lication of an able Journal by that Society in support of 
 the Romanizing movement, is a significant fact. I may 
 mention, too, that successful employment of what may be 
 termed an Indo-Romanic alphabet — that is, the Roman 
 letters adapted to Indian requirements by the use of dots 
 and accents — in the printing of Sanskrit books, is an evi- 
 dence of its applicability to the Aryan languages of India 
 with as much suitability as to the Aryan languages of 
 Europe. But inveterate custom, early association, and in- 
 herited bias, are forces too strong to be easily overcome by 
 the most beneficent and energetic of reformers. Changes, 
 however manifestly advantageous, have no hope of general 
 acceptance. Here in England we continue to resist the 
 introduction of a decimal system ; we adhere with obsti- 
 nacy to all our worst spelling-anomalies, and we ridicule 
 such convenient astronomical expressions as thirteen or 
 fourteen o'clock, which correctly mark the rotation of our 
 earth, and which, if adopted, would be an invaluable boon 
 to the students of Bradshaw. In the same manner, with- 
 out doubt, many generations must pass away before the 
 superstitious veneration for existing alphabetical symbols 
 is abandoned in India, and the simple Roman alphabet 
 adopted for the expression of the more ancient Aryan 
 vernaculars, Hindi, Marathi, and Bengali. With regard 
 to the more modern Hindustani, which ought to be taught 
 as a lingua franca in every school of India, the case is 
 different. It has really no alphabet of its own, and the
 
 310 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Directors of Public Instruction might reasonably, in ray 
 opinion^ insist on its being- expressed by the Indo-Romanic 
 letters. 
 
 I come now to a subject which is perhaps the most 
 momentous of all, in its relation to the progress of India 
 and the promotion of Indian civilization. In England it 
 has been said that the working pec^le are our masters, 
 and that we must educate our masters. There is another 
 saying — equally true in India and England — that 
 
 ' She who rocks the cradle sways the world.' 
 
 In plainer language, it may be said, that if the working 
 men rule the world, the women rule, or at least influence 
 the working men, and so become the world's mistresses. 
 Clearly, then, it is important that the world should take 
 the most direct and decided interest in the education of its 
 own mistresses. 
 
 And here I must recall attention to a point to which 
 I have before adverted, that, in all our schemes for edu- 
 cating and elevating the teeming millions of our Eastern 
 Empire, we have to deal with a people who were among 
 the earliest civilized nations of the earth, who in the best 
 periods of their history were active promoters of social and 
 intellectual progress, who have a literature abounding with 
 lofty moral and religious maxims, who still preserve a pro- 
 found veneration for learning, and who still maintain two 
 lines of educational institutions, suited to the upper and 
 lower classes of the male population, and distinct from the 
 systems introduced by us. Manifestly, therefore, before 
 propounding any scheme of our own for the education 
 of the women of India, we have to ask the question. Is 
 India herself doing anything, or has she ever done any- 
 thing herself, for the promotion of female education ? To 
 answer this question properly, it will be necessary to 
 glance first at the condition of women in ancient times, 
 as depicted in early Indiaa literature ; and, secondly, at 
 their present condition, as shown by the statistics prepared 
 under Government authority.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 311 
 
 In regard to the first point, no one can read the Vedic 
 hymns without coming- to the conclusion that, when the 
 songs of the Rishis were current in Northern India (four- 
 teen or fifteen centuries B.C.), women enjoyed considerable 
 independence. Monogamy was probably the rule, though 
 polygamy existed and even polyandry was not unknown. 
 In Rig-veda i. 62. 11, it is said, ' Our hymns touch thee, 
 O strong god, as loving wives a loving husband.' The 
 Asvins had only one wife between them (i. 119. 5). 
 Women were allowed to marry a second time (Atharva- 
 veda ix. 5. 27). Widows might marry their deceased 
 husband's brother (Rig-veda x. 40. 2). There were even 
 allusions to a woman's choosing her own husband {svayam- 
 vara), which was a common practice among the daughters 
 of Kshatriyas in the heroic period. One hymn reveals 
 a low estimate of feminine capacity, declaring that women 
 have minds incapable of instruction [aMs^a) and fickle 
 tempers (viii. ^^. 17). 
 
 The condition of women, as represented in the laws of 
 Manu several centuries later (perhaps about 500 B.C.), was 
 one of less liberty. But the contradictions in the code 
 show that no settled social organization unfavourable to 
 women prevailed at that epoch. True, a woman is said 
 to owe her condition of inferiority to sins committed in 
 former births. She is declared to be unfit for indepen- 
 dence. She belongs to her father first, who gives her 
 away in childhood to a husband, to whom she belongs 
 for ever. Marriage is the final cause of her existence — 
 to bear children the sum of her duty and the great end 
 of her being. Women, says Manu (ix. 96), were created 
 to be mothers. As a mother, he declares, a woman is 
 entitled to more respect than a thousand fathers (ii. 145)- 
 And, to this day, marriage and the hope of giving birth 
 to a family of sons form the sole object of ambition — the 
 one all-absorbing subject which engrosses every Indian 
 woman's mind. On the other hand, in one place Manu 
 alludes to circumstances under which a maiden might be
 
 SI 2 MO BE UN INDIA. 
 
 allowed to choose her own husband, although he visits 
 her with penalties for doing so (ix. 92). He makes no men- 
 tion of SatI [suttee), and permits — as the Mosaic law did 
 (Dent. XXV. 5, St. Matt. xxii. 24) — a widow, under certain 
 circumstances, to marry a deceased husband's brother. 
 
 As time went on, the jealousy of the opposite sex 
 imposed various restraints, restrictions, and prohibitions. 
 A more settled conviction as to some inherent inferiority 
 and weakness in the constitution of women took posses- 
 sion of men's minds. Yet throug-h the whole heroic 
 period of Indian history, and up to the commencement 
 of the Christian era, women had many rights and im- 
 munities from which they were subsequently debarred. 
 It cannot, indeed, be said that any Eastern nation has 
 ever been free from a tendency to treat women as in- 
 feriors. Even the Greeks and Romans were wanting- in 
 that reverence for the female sex which marked the Teu- 
 tonic races, and was the result of their believing 'inesse 
 feminis sanctum aliquid.' Nevertheless, in India, mothers 
 have always been treated with the greatest reverence. We 
 may note, too, that something of the spirit of chivalry 
 was displayed in the tournaments of Indian warriors, who 
 contended for the possession of the heroine of the Sva- 
 yamvara. Women were certainly not yet incarcerated. 
 They were not yet shut out from the light of heaven 
 behind the Pardah or within the four walls of the Zanana. 
 It is even clear from the dramas that the better classes 
 had received some sort of education, or could at least read 
 and write ; and it is noteworthy, that although they spoke 
 the provincial dialects, they understood the learned lan- 
 guage, Sanskrit. They often appeared unveiled in public. 
 They were not confined to intercourse with their own 
 families. Sita showed herself to the army. Sakuntala 
 appeared in the court of King Dushyanta. Damayanti 
 travelled about by herself. -The mother of Rama came 
 to the hermitage of Valmiki. Rama says in reference 
 to his wife, ' Neither houses, nor vestments, nor enclosing
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 313 
 
 walls are the screen of a woman. Her own virtue alone 
 protects her.' All these characters may be more mythical 
 and ideal than historical, but they are true reflections of 
 social and domestic life in the heroic age of India. Nothing- 
 can be more beautiful than the pictures of the devoted wife 
 in the two great Indian epics. Sita's noble pleadings (in 
 the Ramayana) to be allowed to accompany her husband 
 into banishment are well known. Addressing him, she 
 says : — 
 
 ' Thou art my king, my guide, my only refuge, my divinity. 
 It is my fixed resolve to follow thee. If thou must wander forth 
 Through thorny trackless forests, I will go before thee, treading down 
 The prickly brambles to make smooth thy path. Walking before thee, I 
 Shall feel no weariness : the forest thorns will seem like silken robes ; 
 The bed of leaves, a couch of down. To me the shelter of thy presence 
 Is better far than stately palaces, and paradise itself. 
 
 Protected by thy arm, gods, demons, men shall have no power to harm me. 
 Roaming with thee in desert wastes, a thousand years will be a day ; 
 Dwelling with thee, e'en hell itself would be to me a heaven of bliss.' 
 
 Many other examples of noble language expressive of 
 conjugal fidelity might be adduced from Indian literature, 
 and notably that of Savitri, whose story is told in the 
 other great epic (the Maha-bharata). When the god of 
 death appears to summon her husband Satyavan, who was 
 doomed to die a year after his marriage, she pleads pas- 
 sionately for a reprieve : ' Let my husband live ! Without 
 him, I desire not happiness, not even heaven itself.' 
 
 Yet obviously such sublime devotion to a husband as to 
 a god, was incompatible with independence of character. 
 It is evident that any such useful domestic institution 
 as a sternly critical wife was very unlikely to be common 
 in a nation which made Sita its paragon of female ex- 
 cellence. 
 
 Nor is there any evidence that the women of the heroic 
 period had received much systematic education. They 
 were certainly not thought capable of as high a form 
 of religion as men, and seclusion must have been more 
 or less practised by the upper classes, as indicated by
 
 3 r 4 MODERN INDIA . 
 
 Panini's epithet for a king's wife, asur^am-pasj/d, one who 
 never sees the sun. Marriages were generally arranged 
 without reference to the wishes of either bridegroom or 
 bride. Polygamy prevailed among the richer classes, and 
 polyandry, though a non-Aryan custom, to a certain ex- 
 tent counterbalanced it. Dasaratha had three wives. One 
 of Pandu's wives became a Sati. Draupadi married five 
 brothers together. 
 
 All this shows that woman's downward course of de- 
 gradation commenced in the earliest times. Step by step 
 the decline went on, and every century added to her de- 
 basement. The introduction of Muhammadan customs 
 after the first Muslim invasion of India (about a.d. iooo) 
 greatly hastened the deteriorating process. 
 
 And what has been the condition of women under our 
 own rule ? 
 
 In Warren Hastings' time a number of the best Pandits 
 were invited to Calcutta from all parts of India. They 
 were directed to draw up an authoritative summary of 
 Hindu law as laid down in their sacred works, A com- 
 pilation was carefully made by these learned men from 
 the code of Mauu, and from all the best legal authorities 
 of later date. A certain Mr. Halhed was directed to 
 translate it for Government. The introduction is curiously 
 characteristic of Hindu toleration. 
 
 ' The truly intelligent well know that the differences of created thinsrs ai'e 
 a ray of the glorious essence of the Supreme Being. He appointed to each 
 race its own faith, and to every sect its own religion ; and having introduced 
 a multiplicity of different customs, he views in each place the mode of 
 worship respectively appointed to it. Sometimes he is with the attendants 
 upon the mosque; sometimes he is in the temple at the adoration of idols — 
 the intimate of the Musalman, the friend of the Hindu, the companion of 
 the Christian, the confidant of the Jew.' 
 
 Here are some specimens from the chapter on women : 
 
 ' A man both niglit and day must keep his wife so much in subjection 
 that she by no means be mistress of her own actions. If the wife liave her 
 own free will, she will behave amiss. A woman must never go out of the 
 house without the consent of her husband. She must never hold converse
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 315 
 
 with a Strang's man. She must not stand at the door. She must never 
 look out at the window. She must not eat till she has served her husband 
 and his guests with food. She may, however, take physic before they eat. 
 It is proper for a woman after her husband's death to burn herself in the 
 fire with his corpse.' 
 
 Warren Hasting-s wrote a letter to the Court of Di- 
 rectors in 1775, commending' this compilation to their 
 attention. We must bear in mind that law, according- 
 to Hindu ideas, is part and parcel of divine revelation. 
 It is promulgated by human lawg-ivers ; but they are 
 divinely inspired. Smriti rests on Sruti, These ideas 
 had acquired the greatest intensity when Warren Hasting-s 
 was laying the foundation of our Empire. All the utter- 
 ances of Manu and the later lawyers were accepted as 
 echoes of the voice of God. They were held to be in- 
 fallible guides. They represented women as created inferior 
 to men ; as born with evil dispositions ; as incapable of 
 education ; as made worse by knowledge. Wives were 
 divinely ordained to be the servants of their husbands. 
 Their natures were too weak to stand upright, unsup- 
 ported by the strongest safeguards. There was no securit}'' 
 for their virtue but the absence of temptation. They were 
 the absolute property of their husbands in death as well as 
 life. Hence for a long* time our Government felt that it 
 would be dangerous to prohibit the pi'actice of SatT. The 
 Hindus believed it to be enjoined by inspired authority. 
 Nor was it discovered till quite recently that modern 
 Hindu lawyers, to obtain the hig-hest sanction for their 
 deliverances, had fraudulently substituted the word agneh, 
 ' of fire,' for agre, ' first,' at the end of a well-known Rig-- 
 veda text (x. 18. 7. See p. 72). In one year the number 
 of widows burnt in Bengal alone was 839. In other years 
 the average was 500. This after all is no very large num- 
 ber when considered in relation to the density of the popu- 
 lation. It proves, at any rate, that the custom was not 
 universal. 
 
 And what is the present position of women in India ?
 
 31 6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 A little study of the India Office Statistics reveals a 
 condition of prostration which even the most sanguine 
 mig-ht pronounce hopelessly irremediable. One hundred 
 millions of women, supposed to be actual subjects of the 
 British Empire, are, with few exceptions, sunk in absolute 
 ig-norauce. They are unable to read a syllable of their 
 mother-tong-ue^ they are never taught the rules of life and 
 health, the laws of God, or the most rudimentary truths of 
 science. In fact a feeling exists in most Hindu families 
 that a girl who has learnt to read and write, has committed 
 a sin which is sure to bring* down a judgment upon herself 
 and her husband. She will j)robably have to atone for her 
 crime by early widowhood. And to be a young widow is 
 believed to be the greatest misfortune that can possibly 
 befall her. 
 
 Not indeed that an Indian woman's married life can be 
 described as a blissful elysium. The women of India are 
 victims of the worst form of social tyranny. They are 
 allowed no voice in the selection of their own husbands. 
 According to Dr. Hunter's Statistics (i. ^6^, infants are 
 sometimes betrothed when but two or three months old. 
 
 ' As soon as a daughter (of a particular tribe of Brahmans) is born, the 
 father immediately looks out for a male child belonging to a family equal 
 in rank with himself. When he has succeeded in his search, and obtained 
 the consent of its parents, he returns to his house, summons his relatives 
 and neighbours to a feast, and solemnly affirms before them that his daugh- 
 ter is betrothed to such and such a man's babe. Nothing will induce him 
 to break the oath which he thus takes.' 
 
 This is exceptional. As a rule, girls are betrothed at 
 three or four (a barber being sometimes the match-maker) 
 and married at six or seven to boys of whom they know 
 nothing. They are taken to their boy-husbands' homes at 
 the age of ten or eleven. From that moment they lose 
 their freedom and even their personality. They merge 
 their individuality in the persons of their husbands. They 
 may be loved, and they are rarely ill-used, as they too 
 frequently are in Christian countries, but they are ignored
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE, 317 
 
 as separate units in society. They never pronounce their 
 husbands' names, and they are never directly alluded to by 
 their husbands in conversation. For another person to 
 mention their names or inquire after their health would be 
 a gross breach of etiquette. They never appear unveiled 
 before their husbands in the presence of a third person. 
 They often become mothers at eleven or twelve. Their life 
 is then spent in petty household duties, in cooking for their 
 families, in gossiping- with female friends, in arranging 
 the marriages of their children, in domestic jealousies and 
 envyings, in a thousand foolish frivolities, in a wearisome 
 round of burdensome religious ceremonies imposed by 
 exacting priests. Add to this that the upper classes are 
 cooped up behind Pardahs or in the stagnant atmosphere of 
 Zananas. There they are prisoners in apartments set apart 
 for their exclusive occupation. They have no opportunity 
 of listening to the intellectual conversation of educated 
 men. They are shut out from every wholesome influence, 
 and debarred from every healthy occupation likely to con- 
 duce to the improvement of their physical condition, or to 
 their social, moral, and intellectual elevation. They be- 
 come enfeebled in mind and worn out in body at a period 
 of life when European women have barely reached their 
 prime. They are neither fit for independence, nor have 
 they any desire for it. 
 
 And what of the young widows ? If a young wife has 
 no individuality apart from her husband, a young widow 
 has practically no existence. It is true that our law has 
 prohibited a widow from being burnt with her dead hus- 
 band. It is true, too, that an old widow is cared for by 
 her children if she has remained a wife long enough to 
 have a large family. She is even more than cared for. 
 Every mother in India is an object of veneration to her 
 offspring. As a wife she may be nothing. But as a 
 mother, even though a widow, she is all in all to her 
 children. It is only a young widow or a childless widow 
 who is regarded as worse than dead. But nearly every
 
 31 8 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 household possesses a widow of this kind. Such a widow 
 belongs for ever to her dead husband. A widower may 
 marry again, but a widow never. She is made a household 
 drudge. She is expected to get up at four a.m. before the 
 servants of the family. No one will supply her with water. 
 She must go to the well and fetch water for herself. It is 
 unlucky to meet her. She is supposed to be in eternal 
 mourning for her deceased lord, though she may never 
 have seen him except at her child- wedding. She must 
 practise a perpetual fast, and only eat one meal a day. If 
 her young husband had acquired property of his own before 
 his death and the household is still undivided^ all such pro- 
 perty is taken by her brothers-in-law. She retains nothing 
 but her ornaments, which she must on no account wear. 
 She is told that she cannot have food given to her till she 
 has ' eaten her jewels.' In other words, she is expected to sell 
 her ornaments to prevent herself from starving. In short, 
 she suffers a living death, and would often cheerfully give 
 herself up to be burnt, if the law would allow her. 
 
 Of course, there are exceptions to all this. In some parts 
 of India — as for instance in the Maratha country — women 
 of all classes are more independent, and assert themselves 
 with more boldness. 
 
 There is also a bright side to the picture of female life 
 and character. Hindu women must be allowed full credit 
 for their strict discharge of household duties, for their per- 
 sonal cleanliness, thrift, activity, and practical fidelity to 
 the doctrines and precepts of their religion. They are 
 generally loved by their husbands, and are never brutally 
 treated. A wife-beating drunkard is unknown in India. 
 In return, Indian wives and mothers are devoted to their 
 families. I have often seen wives in the act of circum- 
 ambulating the sacred Tulsi plant io8 times, with the 
 sole object of bringing down a blessing on their husband 
 and children. In no other country in the world are family 
 affection and reverence for parents so conspicuously ope- 
 rative as in India. In many households the first morning
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 319 
 
 duty of a child on rising from sleep is to lay his head on 
 his mother's feet in token of filial obedience. 
 
 Nor could there be a greater mistake than to suppose 
 that Indian women are without influence. If there is any 
 one thing that would lead a thoughtful person to despair 
 of the regeneration of India, it is that female influence is 
 as stronp" there as in other countries. For it must not be 
 forgotten that the word family in India means much more 
 than in England. An Indian family does not merely 
 consist of husband, wife, and children. The universal 
 prevalence of early marriages leads to an indefinite en- 
 largement of the family circle. It is said that a Hindu 
 family sometimes consists of a hundred members, including 
 great-grandfather and great-grandchildren. Anarchy is 
 prevented and harmony maintained by vesting supreme 
 authority in the hands of the oldest member, whether male 
 or female. A father often has no voice in the management 
 of his own children. A grandmother or great-grandmother 
 may be omnipotent. Unhappily her influence is generally 
 exerted on the side of ignorance and error. Even in small 
 families the women are powerful for harm. They mould 
 the character of the younger children. They are often 
 adepts in artifice and stratagem. They know how to hide 
 their power over husbands and brothers under the guise of 
 a simulated submission. To them is mainly due the main- 
 tenance of superstition and idolatry. The men would 
 willingly emancipate themselves from the tyranny of caste, 
 from the despotism of Brahman priests, and from the 
 bondao-e of senseless religious forms and absurd relio-ious 
 creeds, but they are prevented by female influence. Many 
 an educated Indian is as bold as Luther in his public 
 character, but sinks to the condition of a timid, priest- 
 ridden, caste-ridden, wife-ridden imbecile in private life. 
 He is a lion out of doors, but a lamb at home. He is 
 cowed and crestfallen in the presence of the women of 
 his family. 
 
 In some Native States women secretly pull all the wires
 
 320 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 of Government with consummate craftiness and ability. 
 Great Britain itself is scarcely so opposed to a Salique 
 regime as some Indian Principalities. Women not only 
 reign, they are the real rulers and administrators. Even 
 comparatively young* widows have often great authority, 
 if, at least, they have gained much previous influence as 
 mothers. In the same manner ordinary families are often 
 practically subject to feminine jurisdiction. A single old 
 widow will sometimes keep order among a number of sons 
 and daughters-in-law all living together under one roof. 
 Her household is like a magazine filled with the most in- 
 flammable materials ; yet she knows how to allay outbreaks 
 of jealousy, keep down rivalries, and calm down explosions 
 of temper. 
 
 Nor must it be supposed that the women of India are 
 generally unhappy; that they regard themselves as slaves ; 
 that they long for independence ; that they protest against 
 seclusion; that they hanker after knowledge. They are 
 too feeble-minded and apathetic to be conscious of de- 
 gradation, too wedded to ancient customs to repine under 
 absence of freedom or want of education. They esteem it 
 an honour to wait on their husbands. The necessity for 
 privacy, and the undesirability of a woman's learning let- 
 ters, are ideas so intermingled with their earliest feelings — 
 so interwoven with the whole texture of their moral being 
 — that they have become cherished customs with the women 
 themselves. They are more than customs : they are sacred 
 religious obligations. So far from submitting to these 
 restrictions from compulsion, no respectable woman would, 
 as a rule, show herself freely in public, or allow herself to 
 be taught reading and writing or any feminine accomplish- 
 ment, even if permission were accorded to her. She has no 
 conception of any benefit to be derived from a knowledge 
 of letters, except for the promotion of female intrigue ; and 
 she would prefer to be accused of murder than of learning 
 to dance, sing, or play on any musical instrument. She 
 loves ornaments, but she regards ignorance as her truest
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 321 
 
 decoration. She considers herself disgraced by sterility of 
 body, but glories in sterility of mind. Education, music, 
 and dancing are supposed to go together, and are to her 
 badges of a life of infamy. When a sister is observed 
 imitating a brother's first childish attempts at penman- 
 ship, she is peremptorily ordered to desist, and that too by 
 the women of the household. 
 
 Is there, then, no remedy for this great social evil ? Are 
 we Englishmen, who are responsible for the welfare of our 
 Indian Empire, and who derive so much of our own welfare 
 from the purifying and elevating influence of our own 
 home-life, chargeable with indifference to the condition of 
 the women of India ? We have made, and are still making, 
 strenuous efforts to bring some sort of education within 
 reach of certain classes of the male population. What are 
 we doing, and what have we already done, to supply India 
 with its greatest need — good wives, good mothers, and 
 well-ordered homes ? 
 
 All that can be affirmed is that we have been engaged 
 for more than half a century in feeling our way towards 
 the desired end. 
 
 In the case of male education the natives themselves have 
 always, as we have seen, been ready to co-operate with us. 
 Nay, they have eagerly seconded our efforts. Their own 
 indig-enous institutions have furnished a common stand- 
 point for concerted action. The ground has been prepared 
 and the way smoothed for the introduction of European 
 knowledge. The same men who would have wasted their 
 powers in elaborating ingenious word-puzzles in Sanskrit 
 verse, or in trying to comprehend the incomprehensible 
 abstractions of Sanskrit philosophy, have devoted them- 
 selves to the acquisition of scientific truth, through the 
 medium of English. But in the case of female education 
 all the conditions have been reversed. No basis of common 
 action has been found, no ground has been cleared, no open 
 door has invited us to enter. Every avenue of approach 
 has been barred and barricaded. The natives have been 
 
 Y
 
 322 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 more than content to leave their women eng-ulphed in the 
 depths of profound ig-norance. They have opposed every 
 attempt at raising- or enlightening- them as an offence 
 against religion and morality. Without doubt, any scheme 
 of direct Government interference for the education of 
 Indian women would have threatened the people with vast 
 social changes. It would have contravened the sacred 
 usages of the most obstinately conservative nation in the 
 world. 
 
 Wisely, then, has our Government proceeded in this 
 matter with caution and circumspection. Something, 
 indeed, has been effected by private efforts, by missionary 
 operations, and even by indirect Government assistance. 
 The first attempt to teach native girls in a regular school 
 was made, I believe, by the worthy Dissenting missionary, 
 Mr. May. He was the pioneer of lower female education, 
 as he had already been of male. He opened a girls' school 
 at Chinsurah, shoi'tly before his own death in 1818, but it 
 had so little success that its continuance was discoun- 
 tenanced by our Government. In April, 18 19, other 
 Baptist missionaries, wishing to commence an organized 
 scheme of female education, circulated an appeal for help, 
 in which it was stated that ' in the province of Bengal 
 alone, at least ten thousand widows were annually sacri- 
 ficed ; and thirty times a day a deed was repeated, which 
 ought to call forth our tenderest pity.' Such an ex- 
 aggeration was rather inexcusable, but it had the effect 
 of rousing the sympathies of a number of English ladies, 
 who thereupon founded the Calcutta Female Juvenile So- 
 ciety, for the education of native females. At the end 
 of the first year the number of its scholars amounted to 
 only eight. At the end of five years it reckoned a hundred 
 and sixty pupils in six schools. 
 
 In 1 81 8, an institution called the ' School Society' was 
 founded at Calcutta. Its object was male education. But 
 in the course of its preliminary inquiries into the educa- 
 tional status of the people generally, it ascertained tliat
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 323 
 
 out of forty millions of Hindu females, not four hundred 
 could read or write. When the appalling- fact was known 
 in Eng-land, the British and Foreig-n School Society se- 
 lected Miss Cooke, afterwards Mrs. Wilson, and sent her 
 to Calcutta in 1821 to prepare herself for the delicate 
 task of opening" a girls' school. She commenced opera- 
 tions under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society 
 in 1822, and on the 28th of January in that year, seven 
 pupils assembled round her in one of the rooms of the 
 School Society. In 1825, the number of scholars in 
 various little day schools had increased to four hundred. 
 But to bring the g-irls together it was necessary to employ 
 a female messenger, who received a small gratuity from 
 the Society for each child, and a breakfast of rice had to 
 be given to each pupil^ which the mother accepted as an 
 equivalent for the loss of her child's services. In 1826, 
 a wealthy Babu (Raja Baidanath Roy) came forward and 
 gave <^^2,ooo to promote female education by the erection 
 of a central school in the heart of the native city, with 
 a residence for the European female superintendent, Mrs. 
 Wilson took possession of this building in 1828, and here 
 all her subsequent labours were concentrated. She was 
 a noble-hearted, energetic woman, and her exertions were 
 rewarded for a time with considerable success. 
 
 Similar efforts were attended with partial success in 
 other parts of India, notably in the Bombay Presidency, 
 and in Bombay itself, where the ParsTs, who number 
 about fifty thousand, were among the first to set an 
 example of promoting female education. Their schools 
 are to this day a model of good management, and are 
 attended by nearly as many girls as boys, seven hundred 
 and seventy girls being at this moment under instruction 
 in three schools in the town of Bombay. 
 
 As a rule, however, female education has not hitherto 
 extended beyond the lowest of the population, while male 
 education has not extended beyond the higher classes. 
 None of the female children of respectable or high-caste 
 
 Y 2
 
 324 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 natives are permitted to leave their houses. It has not 
 hitherto been possible to reach the Zananas, or female 
 apartments, of the better classes, except by a system of 
 house to house visitation. This plan has been tried with 
 some success in Bengal, and has been carried on here 
 and there in the Bombay Presidency, and in other parts 
 of India, But competent lady visitors are greatly needed. 
 No lady is fit to undertake the arduous and delicate 
 task, who is not thoroughly conversant, not only with 
 the vernaculars, but with female manners, female habits 
 of thought, female phraseology, and even female 'slang' 
 (zanana-boll). 
 
 Something, too, has been done in the way of training 
 native school-mistresses, especially under the auspices of 
 the Church Missionary Society at the Sarah Tucker In- 
 stitution, Palamcottah. I visited this institution in the 
 beginning of 1877, and can testify to the reality of the 
 work effected by its managers, Mr. and Mrs. Lash. 
 They have successfully trained a large number of native 
 female teachers, and established them at various centres 
 in the Tinnevelh' district. They have even succeeded in 
 attracting high-caste girls to some of their best schools. 
 
 It is clear, then, that a few energetic missionaries and 
 a few philanthropic private individuals have been the 
 pioneers of female education in India. It is clear, too, 
 that the British Government for a long time purposely 
 abstained from acting towards its female subjects as it 
 acted towards the male. It refrained from any systematic 
 establishment of girls' schools. It doubted the wisdom 
 of direct interference with long-cherished social usages, 
 and deep-seated religious prejudices. 
 
 Lord Dalhousie was the first to commit the Government 
 to a more active interest in the instruction of Indian 
 women. In 1849 he ventured to announce that the 
 British Government would encourage female education 
 by its ' frank and cordial support.' And he was not a 
 man of mere words. This great ruler boldly aided ex-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 325 
 
 isting girls' schools by considerable grants of money from 
 the revenues of India, and took care to bestow honours 
 on all founders of such schools. It was during his ad- 
 ministration that the Bethune schools were established 
 for the education of the daughters of the respectable 
 citizens of Calcutta, and when the founder died, Lord 
 Dalhousie himself defrayed the cost of supporting them 
 out of his own pocket. 
 
 Sir Charles Wood's great Education Despatch of 1854 
 only devoted one paragraph out of one hundred to the 
 important subject of female education ; but it expressed 
 concurrence in Lord Dalhousie's declaration. Paragraph 
 ^3 begins as follows : — 
 
 ' The importance of female education in India cannot be over-rated, and 
 we have observed with pleasure the evidence which is now afforded of an 
 increased desire on the part of many of the natives of India to give a good 
 education to their daughters. By this means a far greater proportional 
 impulse is imparted to the educational and moral tone of the people than 
 by the education of men. We have already observed that schools for 
 females are included among those to which grants in aid may be given, 
 and we cannot refrain from expressing our cordial sympathy with the 
 efforts which are being made in this direction.' 
 
 Here there is a clear promise of sympathy and of indirect 
 support, but no allusion to direct Government action or 
 interposition. 
 
 Soon after the mutiny Lord Canning's Government 
 declared that unless female schools were really supported 
 by voluntary aid they had better not be established at all. 
 In 1867 a circular was issued which practically admitted 
 that Government had no desire to take the initiative 
 in the case of girls' schools as it had done in that of 
 boys, but was ready to encourage existing schools by 
 grants in aid. 
 
 Nevertheless it cannot be denied that some direct action 
 was taken. In 1870 out of ^316,509 of jmblic money 
 spent on education in the whole Bengal Presidency a sum 
 of ^1,173 was assigned to Government girls' schools, and 
 .^4,463 to aided schools, chiefly in the North-west and
 
 326 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 Panjab. In Bombay out of ,3^198,182 a sum of about 
 <^4,ooo was allotted to Government female schools. In 
 Madras not a single girls' school was directly maintained 
 by our Government. 
 
 In the year 1872 out of about 1,100,000 children in 
 Government and non-Government schools of all kinds, 
 only fifty thousand were girls, and only twenty -two 
 thousand in Government schools. In 1873 there were 
 only one thousand six hundred and forty girls' schools 
 of all kinds in British India ; but an American lady 
 had organized a system in Calcutta by which forty or 
 fifty governesses taught native girls in their own homes. 
 In 1875 there were about one thousand Government 
 female schools, with about thirty-four thousand pupils, 
 in all the eight Provinces under Governors, Lieutenant- 
 Governors, and Commissioners. 
 
 In some places and in some years there appears to 
 have been a falling off ratlier than an increase. Thus, 
 in 1872 the Government female normal school at Cal- 
 cutta was abandoned as a failure, and the Lieutenant- 
 Governor was inclined to think it ' dangerous to give 
 native women education and a certain freedom of action 
 without the sanction of some religion.' 
 
 In short, there is clearly as yet no constantly-increasing 
 demand for either female teachers or female pupils. What 
 demand really exists is generally confined to the low-caste 
 population. Even those girls who are placed at schools 
 are only half instructed, because they are removed to 
 become wives at the age of ten or eleven. 
 
 The great question then is : Ought our Government 
 to make direct efforts for female education in the same 
 way as for male? And is this a mere question of supply 
 and demand ? And if there is no demand among the 
 people of India, ought its rulers to create a demand ? 
 Ought they to force into existence what does not exist 
 voluntarily ? 
 
 In my opinion the demand ought to be created. But
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 327 
 
 we oug-ht to create it in the right way, and beg-in at 
 the right end. We require to elevate and enlighten 
 the men of India, before we can hope to elevate and 
 enlig'hten the women. We require to raise up a whole 
 g-eneration — perhaps two or three generations — of really- 
 educated men — men, not only well instructed in scientific 
 truth, but well imbued with moral and religious truth — ■ 
 with the spirit, if not with the letter of Christian teach- 
 ing — and with European views on all social subjects. 
 And to this end, we have not to denationalize the men 
 of India : we have to strengthen and consolidate their 
 own nationality. We have not to extinguish their own 
 civilization : we have to refine and elevate it. We have 
 not to sweep away their social institutions : we have to 
 shape and mould them according to a higher pattern. 
 We have not to erase every feature of their moral code : 
 we have to expunge the bad and retain the good. We 
 have not even to exterminate their religions : we have 
 only to lay the axe to every root and fibre of error, and, 
 after eradicating the false, to engraft the essential doc- 
 trines of Christianity on pre-existing germs of truth. 
 
 When we have thus elevated the condition of the men, 
 the elevation of the women will follow as a matter of 
 course. The men will themselves raise their own women. 
 They will throw down the barriers which at present 
 surround their homes. They will tear down their Par- 
 dahs, pull down the shutters of their Zananas, throw 
 open the doors of their inner apartments, invite us to 
 enter in — entreat us to do for their wives and daughters 
 what we have done for themselves. 
 
 But how is this previous process of elevating and Chris- 
 tianizing- the men to be effected ? We must be«-in with 
 the schools. Our Government has wisely decided to be 
 neutral in religious teaching. We have abstained from 
 imitating the conquering Musalman — from enforcing our 
 religion by Government influence and authority. It would, 
 indeed, be doubtful morality on our part to take money
 
 3^8 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 out of the pockets of native parents, and with it to pay 
 teachers to teach the children of those parents a religion 
 which they believe to be false. Nor under any circum- 
 stances could a sufficient number of Christian teachers 
 be found. But our neutrality need not, and should not, 
 imply indifference and inaction in regard to moral teach- 
 ing; nor even in regard to instruction in certain funda- 
 mental truths common to all religions. The principles 
 of true morality, be it remembered, are not confined to 
 Christianity. They are to be found in Hinduism, in 
 Buddhism, in Islam. Nay, I do not hesitate to affirm, 
 that certain lines of rudimentary religion are discoverable 
 in the texture of two of these false systems. I contend that 
 a warp-like basis of truth is traceable in both Hinduism 
 and Islam, though concealed by a thick woof of error 
 and delusion. The fundamental threads of God's attri- 
 butes and perfections, of His wisdom, goodness, omni- 
 potence, and love for His creatures — of His indwelling as 
 a guide and monitor in the human conscience — of man's 
 duty towards Him as his Maker, and of man's duty 
 towards his fellow-creatures — are all there, and ought to 
 be carefully preserved. Even some essential threads of 
 Christian doctrine (such as the Unity and separate per- 
 sonality of God, man's original corruption, the need of 
 purity of heart, the uselessness of external forms) are 
 there, and ought to be thankfully made use of, while 
 every cross-thread of falsehood, superstition, and fatuous 
 delusion is ruthlessly torn away. Nor are the sacred scrip- 
 tures of India wholly destitute of true teaching in regard 
 to the principles of domestic economy and social science. 
 
 My conviction is that we are bound to search for, and 
 utilize educationally, every true idea in Hinduism, Buddh- 
 ism, and Islam. And just as we have endeavoured to ground 
 our system of literary instruction on inherent literary 
 tendencies, and inherited literary knowledge already ex- 
 isting among Hindus and Muslims, so we should ground 
 our moral and religious teaching- on their inherent moral
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 329 
 
 and religions tendencies, and such inherited rudimentary 
 truth as their own scriptures contain. We should collect 
 their best moral, social, and religious precepts, separating 
 them from everything false. We should teach them 
 in conjunction with scientific truth in our Government 
 schools. In this way we shall best prepare our Indian 
 school-boys for a voluntary acceptance of Christian truth 
 when their judgments are matured. 
 
 And more than this. We should strive to develop our 
 youthful Indian physically as well as mentally, morally, 
 and religiously. We should endeavour to introduce some- 
 thing of our public-school manliness of tone into Indian 
 seminaries. We should aim at educating the whole man 
 in his quadruple constitution of body, mind, soul, and 
 spirit. In a word, we should convert our ' Directors of 
 public instruction,' who are generally able and efficient 
 officers, into ' Directors of public education.' 
 
 And when we have formed our real man, whether Hindu 
 or Muhammadan, we should admit him to our homes. 
 Having destroyed his caste-feelings, we should give up 
 our own caste-feelings. We should receive our educated 
 Hindu and Muhammadan on terms of social equality. In 
 no other way, and by no other process, can we hope to 
 reach the women of India. 
 
 The really educated and enlightened native who has 
 been freely admitted to an English home, will return to 
 his Indian home penetrated by the conviction that, if 
 he would assist in raising his country, he must begin 
 by raising his own household. He will accept the Chris- 
 tian truth that woman was created to be a help-meet for 
 man. He will enter into the meaning of the Christian 
 allegory that, when God formed woman, she was taken 
 out of man's side to be his coadjutor ; not out of his 
 head, to be his intellectual rival ; not out of his feet, to 
 be trodden down and kept in subjection. He will educate 
 his daughters, and keep them under education till they 
 are eighteen years of age. He will on no account allow
 
 330 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 them to become wives and mothers till their bodily and 
 mental powers are matured. He will aim at educating 
 them up to the Enf^lish poet's standard of an ideal wife — 
 
 ' A perfect woman, nobly planned, 
 To warn, to comfort, and command.' 
 
 He will permit them to choose their own husbands. He 
 will open his house-doors to every refined and educated 
 guest of whatever caste. He will expose the inner life 
 of his own family to the fresh air of God's day. He will 
 endeavour to mould his household after the fashion of 
 a pure, healthy, well-ordered Christian home, whose in- 
 fluences leven the life of each of its members from the 
 cradle to the grave. 
 
 I have left myself little space for two other tests of 
 national progress to which I ought to advert, however 
 briefly. One of these is the improvement in means of 
 communication. I can bear testimony to the present ex- 
 cellence of the roads in various parts of India. I travelled 
 over some which were as smooth and hard as a billiard- 
 table, and unequalled by anything I have seen in Europe. 
 On the other hand, my whole frame seems still to ache 
 at the bare recollection of the joltings I endured in less 
 frequented places. One of my contemporaries at Hailey- 
 bury, Mr. Gust, has favoured me with a few notes of his 
 journey from Galcutta to Delhi in 1843. He hired a 
 palanquin in Galcutta, and set out in the cool of a January 
 evening. Borne on the shoulders of coolies, and travelling 
 all night and for a greater j)art of each day, he was five 
 days in reaching Benares. The journey thence to Alla- 
 habad took another whole day. At Allahabad his palan- 
 quin was placed on a truck, and drawn by horses to 
 Gawnpore. Thence to Agra and Delhi the palanquin 
 was borne in the usual way by coolies. Travelling in 
 this manner without a single day's rest, he was a month 
 in reaching Delhi from Galcutta. The only line of car- 
 riage-road was between Allahabad and Gawnpore, and in 
 no other part of the route were the streams bridged.
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 331 
 
 The year 1845 witnessed the introductiou of what was 
 called an equirotal carriage. A palanquin was fitted to four 
 equal wheels, and pushed by coolies. This was a proof of 
 a great advance in the metalling' of roads. Then followed 
 the comparative luxury of the Dak ghari. These carriages 
 were drawn by relays of Government post-horses, on what 
 became at last the great trunk road traversing the entire 
 country between Calcutta and Delhi. The jaded and dust- 
 smothered traveller emerged half-stupefied at the end of 
 his journey with the rattle of a ten days' continuous roll 
 concentrated in the orifice of his ears. The Dak system of 
 travelling was not perfected till about the year 1852. 
 
 The turning of the first sod of the first railway line in 
 India took place in 185 1. In that year the East India 
 Kail way was commenced, and in September, 1854, a dis- 
 tance of thirty-seven miles was opened for traffic. In 
 February, 1855, the line was opened as far as K-anlganj, a 
 distance of 121 miles, and about ten years later as far as 
 Delhi. The line between Bombay and Madras was com- 
 pleted on the 1st of May, 1871. The total mileage open 
 on all Indian railways in 1866 was 3,472, and the number 
 of passengers carried in the year was nearly thirteen mil- 
 lions. Ten years later, in 1875, the mileage open was 
 6,352, and the number of passengers carried nearly twenty- 
 seven millions. 
 
 The late Lord Lawrence once told me that when he first 
 went out to India he was allowed six months to find his 
 way from Calcutta to Delhi. The journey may now be 
 performed in forty-four hours. One of the most remark- 
 able sights in India is aff'orded by the throng of natives 
 of all castes, and conditions at the principal railway sta- 
 tions. The popularity of this mode of travelling, with 
 people who are supposed to dread indiscriminate contact 
 with each other, is astonishing. About thirty years ago, 
 when the expediency of introducing railroads into India 
 was first talked about, a great authority, Professor II. H. 
 Wilson, expressed an opinion that they were quite unsuited
 
 S3^ MODERN INDIA. 
 
 to the habits of the natives, and that the rules of caste 
 would prevent their being much used. What is the fact? 
 To every solitary European lolling at full length amid 
 rugs and cushions in a first-class compartment, hundreds 
 of natives will be found jammed together in the third-class 
 carriages. Crowds alight at every small town, and crowds 
 are ready to take their place. No one can doubt that rail- 
 ways are among the greatest boons our rule has conferred 
 on the country. 
 
 Next to railways come canals. But in India^ as in 
 Europe, the day of canals as effective lines of way and 
 transit is over. No canals can ever be as effective as rail- 
 ways in conveying passengers or merchandise, or in trans- 
 porting the surplus produce of a fertile province to remote 
 districts whose crops are liable to fail in regularly recur- 
 ring seasons. Besides, Indian canals have not sufficient 
 water to serve for both navigation and irrigation. It is 
 for purposes of irrigation that they are of incalculable im- 
 portance. In times of severe drought, tanks and wells 
 become dry, while canals are supplied with a perpetual 
 stream of running water from mountain springs. Where- 
 ever it is physically and geographically possible to con- 
 struct canals without ruinous outlay, and with some 
 prospect of a return for the capital expended, there, with- 
 out doubt, no amount of public money is likely to be 
 thrown away in their construction. Nor has our Govern- 
 ment been as unmindful of its duty in this matter as 
 some critics have lately alleged. The Ganges canal — the 
 greatest irrigation work ever constructed — is entirely the 
 creation of British engineers. It was commenced in 1846, 
 and opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854. I heard natives 
 complain that this canal has brought fever to previously 
 healthy localities ; and I believe that whenever a canal is 
 constructed, drainage should be carried on simultaneously, 
 to prevent the adjacent soil from becoming swampy and 
 waterlogged. 
 
 Other gigantic works have been undertaken in the basin
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. ^2>3 
 
 of the Ganges, as. well as in that of the Indus, and in the 
 portion of Orissa watered by the deltas of the Maha-nadI, 
 BrahmanT, and Baitarani rivers. While I was traversing* 
 the famine districts in 1876 and 1877, I witnessed a mar- 
 vellous contrast in the regions fertilized by the grand 
 system of irrigation which stretches between the Godavarl, 
 Kistna, and Kaveri rivers, and the vast tracts of arid 
 wastes where no streams penetrate. Let no one doubt the 
 good effected by the energetic and enthusiastic Sir Arthur 
 Cotton. 
 
 No country in the world is so rich in running water as 
 India. Any one who has observed with his own eyes what 
 the country owes to its rivers, will not be surprised at 
 their being deified by a people who connect every advant- 
 age they enjoy with direct divine agency. No wonder 
 that the rain-god Indra — for ever battling with the demon 
 of drought and darkness — is the chief god of the Rig-veda. 
 No wonder that the Ganges is believed to have its source 
 in the foot of Vishnu ; that its waters are believed to de- 
 scend from heaven, cleansing from all sin ; that its very 
 sight is supposed to confer beatitude ; and that every river 
 of India is personified and worshipped by those who derive 
 their wealth, their food, their health, their life from the 
 beneficent influences of flowing streams. 
 
 No wonder, too, that the people of England are asking 
 with some impatience : why is a single drop of this 
 precious liquid allowed to find its way into the ocean ? 
 Without doubt, more might be done in storing up these 
 fertilizing waters. Tanks and wells ought not to be suf- 
 fered to fall into decay. It might even be possible, say 
 some, by means of anicuts to intercept the onward flow of 
 streams, and diffuse every particle of liquid by a network 
 of small channels and feeders over every tract of arid 
 country. But such admirable theorists forget that the 
 dry regions of India are often on table-land, and that no 
 engineer can make water flow up hill. Nor can even the 
 most skilful cope with the vagaries of mighty unmanage-
 
 334 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 able rivers, which at one season roll down millions of tons 
 of water with ungovernable fury, at another shift their 
 channels, and shrink to tiny rills at the bottom of immense 
 beds of burning" sands. 
 
 Happily, the prevention of famines does not depend on 
 anieuts and canals alone. Railroads have already done 
 much, and will hereafter do more. After all, perhaps, the 
 best remedy lies in the improvement of the condition of 
 the people. 
 
 One important result of improved means of communi- 
 cation is an increase in postal facilities. Letters are now 
 delivered in every village of India. In 1866, sixty-one 
 millions of letters, newspapers, and packets passed the 
 various post-offices. In 1875 the number had risen to 
 more than one hundred and sixteen millions. 
 
 With regard to steam communication between England 
 and India, most middle-aged people can remember that 
 Mr. Waghorn was the pioneer of what was called the 
 Overland Houte. He was employed in this capacity by 
 the Bengal Steam Committee between 1827 and 1835. 
 No man ever deserved more credit, and ever received less, 
 for successfully battling with every kind of difficulty and 
 discouragement. A steamer called the Hugh Lhidsay was 
 the first to accomplish the voyage between Bombay and 
 Suez. Every arrangement connected with its equipment 
 and navigation was organized by Mr. Waghorn. She 
 succeeded in passing up and down the Red Sea six times 
 between 1830 and 1835 without encountering any accident, 
 notwithstanding numerous dangers from unknown rocks 
 and reefs. Her shortest run between Bombay and Suez 
 was in thirty-one days and a half. The next steamer, 
 called the Forbes, took sixty-nine days in the voyage from 
 Calcutta to Suez. This vessel broke down after her first 
 voyage. The first P. and O. steamer to reach India was 
 the Hmcliistdn. She sailed round the Cape towards the 
 end of 1842, landed passengers at Calcutta, and thence 
 proceeded to Suez, whence she returned to Calcutta at the
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. ^-^^ 
 
 beginning of 1843, taking about six weeks to accomplish 
 the latter run. A mail service was also established be- 
 tween Suez and Bombay, but was worked for some time 
 by steamers of the Indian navy. Since then, facilities of 
 steam transit between England and India have steadily 
 advanced every year, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 
 1869, has converted the dreaded voyage from Southampton 
 to Bombay into a pleasurable trip of twenty-six and even 
 sometimes twenty-five days, while that from London via 
 Brindisi is often effected in nineteen days. 
 
 I cannot conclude my sketch of Indian progress without 
 touching on the important subject of finance. Of course 
 the crucial test of a well-managed State, as of a well- 
 ordered household, is its financial condition. Do those 
 who administer its affairs make both ends meet ? Is the 
 expense of governing the country covered by the revenue 
 it can be made to yield ? Is there any surplus capable of 
 being laid out either in clearing off debt, or in diminishing 
 the burdens of the people, or in public works of national 
 utility ? or is there a deficit making it constantly neces- 
 sary to borrow money ? 
 
 The capital expended by the East India Company in 
 establishing itself in India was nominally six millions 
 sterling, the interest for which (36^650,000) had to be paid 
 out of its Indian income. It was agreed that in consider- 
 ation of the successful issue of a great commercial specula- 
 tion, the shareholders were to have their principal reckoned 
 as if doubled, making ,^12,000,000 of East India Stock. 
 In addition to this, under Clive, the first conqueror of 
 Indian territor}^, money had to be borrowed to the amount 
 of about two millions. In the ten years from 1775 to 
 1785, we spent a great deal in extending our territory, and 
 the debt increased to about eight millions sterling. War- 
 ren Hastings left a considerable revenue and surplus. For 
 Bengal alone the income was nearly five and a-half mil- 
 lions ; expenditure, nearly four and a-half millions ; sur- 
 plus, about one million sterling. Under Lords Cornwallis
 
 ^^6 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 and Teignmonth the debt did not increase. Expensive 
 wars were carried on by the Marquis Wellesley (1798- 
 1805), and with great extension of territory in 1 805, came 
 an augmentation of the debt to about twenty-five and 
 a-half millions. 
 
 Lord William Bentinck's administration (1828-35) was 
 one of peace and prosperity. He conciliated the natives, 
 abolished Satl, put down the Thugs, encouraged European 
 education, and converted a deficit into a surplus of nearly 
 one and a-half millions. 
 
 Then came the Afghan war under Lord Auckland, the 
 conquest of Sindh under Lord Ellenborough, the two Sikh 
 wars, and of course a consequent augmentation of the 
 debt. 
 
 Lord Dalhousie's administration was marked by the 
 greatest vigour and activity. He is said to have doubled 
 the area of our Indian possessions. Besides conquering 
 the Panjab, and establishing our supremacy from Cape 
 Comorin to the Himalayas, he undertook a second Burmese 
 war, and annexed Pegu (British Burmah). 
 
 Then came the annexation of Nagpur and the Central 
 Provinces in 1853, and that of Oudh and Tanjor in 1856. 
 Our progress was too rapid. Our debt nearly doubled 
 itself and reached about fifty millions. A reaction became 
 inevitable. 
 
 Lord Canning succeeded in 1856, and found much ex- 
 citement prevailing among the native populations. Mali- 
 cious agitators spread a rumour that all India was to be 
 forcibly Anglicized. The English language was to be 
 everywhere imposed on the country ; religious prejudices 
 were no longer to be respected ; the Enfield cartridges were 
 to be greased with the fat of cows and pigs ; caste was to 
 be summarily put down, and the Bengal army to be en- 
 listed for general service. This agitation led to the mutiny 
 of 1857, but the stability of our Empire was never really 
 endangered. The mass of the people were unaffected by 
 the Sepoy rebellion, and, when it was suppressed, the
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 337 
 
 country settled down into immediate tranquillity, as if 
 nothing had occurred. As a matter of course, however, 
 our debt and obligations went on increasing rather 
 alarmingly. 
 
 We have not space to follow out all the statistics. Let 
 it suffice to note that repeated wars, annexations of terri- 
 tory, and famines, have caused repeated borrowings, and 
 the return for 1875 gives no less a sum for our Indian 
 debt than .3^130,493,284. The gross revenue for that 
 year is returned at ^^50,570,171 ; the expenditure at 
 ^54,500,545 ; the deficit ^€'3, 930,374. Of that income 
 ^21,296,793 came from land, ^6,227,301 from salt, and 
 ^8,556,629 from opium. Nearly eight and a half mil- 
 lions were produced by Excise, Customs, and Stamps. 
 These are the six principal sources of Indian revenue. 
 The income for the year ending on the 31st March, 1877, 
 was ^■'56,022,277 ; the expenditure .^^58, 205,055 ; deficit 
 ^2,182,778. For the year which closed at the end of 
 March, 1878, the revenue was expected to be ^56,310,900. 
 During the year 1876-77 about ten millions were spent on 
 the moral and material improvement of the country — on 
 education and public works of all kinds. No one can 
 say that this sum, large as it is, w^as not well expended. 
 Dr. Forbes Watson has shown that a gigantic trade has 
 sprung up in articles formerly of small importance ; for 
 example, in grain, cotton, jute, wool, tea, and coffee. The 
 exports of tea in 1857 were equal to 131,000 lbs., in 1877 
 to 2,607,000 lbs. 
 
 With these figures before us we may well ask ourselves 
 the question : How is it that India — a country possessing 
 unusual natural defences, vast internal resources, a perfect 
 network of rivers, rich alluvial plains, a population easily 
 governed because incapable of political combination, and, 
 as a rule, singularly industrious, submissive, docile, peace- 
 able, and law-abiding — is not able to pay the expense of its 
 administration ? 
 
 The Muhammadan Emperors were conquerors like our- 
 
 z
 
 S3^ MODERN INDIA. 
 
 selves, yet under them the Empire generally had a full 
 treasury, spent a good deal on public works, and never 
 contracted debts. How is this remarkable fact to be ex- 
 plained ? It is obvious that imperial crowns, military 
 pomp, princely palaces, gilded halls^ a full treasury, and 
 even good roads, railways, telegraphs, and canals, may all 
 consist with abject penury, wretchedness, and degradation 
 in the mass of the people. 
 
 The Emperor Akbar aimed at governing for the good of 
 his subjects, but even under his administration the con- 
 dition of the ryot was one of utter destitution. A yawning 
 chasm separated the palace and the mud hovels of the 
 cultivators. No intermediate links existed, by help of 
 which the gulf might be bridged over. Under his suc- 
 cessors the peasantry were ground down. The whole 
 revenue system became corrupt. There was no idea of a 
 reciprocity of duties between the governors and the go- 
 verned. Nor did the Muhammadan Emperors permit, as 
 we do, rich native states and principalities, possessing 
 fertile tracts of soil, to enjoy the full revenue of their 
 lands, and yet benefit by the general order and security 
 maintained at the cost of the districts subject to imperial 
 taxation. 
 
 Perhaps, some may contend that the condition of the 
 peasantry under our rule is not one whit better. For my 
 own part, after travelling over a great part of India I 
 arrived at the conviction that there is more general com- 
 fort and happiness among the people than in any other 
 country of the world. Certainly the peasantry are poor, 
 but their condition under our administration has improved 
 beyond all expectation during the last thirty years. It 
 must, of course, be borne in mind that the wants of th& 
 natives of India are few. They never require more than 
 two good meals a day. But not a single person (except in 
 times of famine) ever has less. Nor is any one without a 
 hut to shelter him at night. A labourer may not earn 
 more than threepence a day, but he may purchase two
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 339 
 
 pounds of nourishing grain for about a halfpenny. In 
 Orissa the family of a husbandman, consisting of six per- 
 sons, would be considered in good circumstances if able to 
 spend sixteen shillings a month in food, and would con- 
 sume every day ten pounds of rice valued at fourpenee, 
 vegetables, split peas, and fish, to the value of three 
 farthings, oil and spice to the value of three farthings — in 
 all fivepence halfpenny (Hunter's Statistics, xix. 93). With 
 wants so easily satisfied it is difiicult to make out cases of 
 destitution when the seasons are propitious. 
 
 It is true that the cultivators of the soil, who constitute 
 at least three-fourths of the whole population — instead of 
 one-fourth as in Europe — are generally improvident. They 
 live from hand to mouth. They have no reserve fund to 
 fall back upon in times of scarcity, and, if able in any one 
 year to save money, are prone to squander it in marriage- 
 feasts, in caste entertainments, in jewelry, and personal 
 decorations. It is true, too, that the financial condition of 
 the country cannot at present be considered satisfactory. 
 Famines are periodical. Deficits recur annually, and the 
 public debt increases. What, then, is the remedy ? Is 
 more to be extracted out of a people already taxed to the 
 utmost limit of their capabilities ? Can more be wrung 
 out of the three principal sources of revenue — land, salt, 
 and opium ? The slight turn of the screw to which the 
 salt-tax has been recently subjected will weigh, like an 
 additional incubus, on the poor, while the rich are left 
 unafiected. 
 
 As to opium, a feeling in England seems to be gaining 
 ground — not that it ought to yield more — but that this 
 source of revenue ought to be wholly abolished. The 
 Government is constantly reproached for sending poison to 
 the Chinese. Let the finances of India be ruined, say these 
 conscientious critics, rather than prop them up by an in- 
 iquitous traffic. Can it be right for our Government to 
 degrade itself by dealing wholesale in a poisonous drug 
 which it also produces and manufactures ? On the other 
 
 z 2
 
 340 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 hand, the defenders of opium have plenty to say for them- 
 selves. Opium, in moderation, say they, is no more 
 poisonous than spirituous liquor. In some parts of Assam, 
 as well as in China^ occasional doses are positively needed 
 for the preservation of health. At any rate to abolish the 
 distillation of spirits in Great Britain would be easier and 
 involve a far less financial catastrophe. Besides, it is cer- 
 tain thatj if our Government, yielding- to the outcry, were 
 to give up the opium monopoly, they would save their 
 credit at the expense of both consumers and cultivators. 
 The Chinese would certainly be more poisoned under a 
 system of free trade, and the cultivators would probably be 
 oppressed. At present we regulate both the strength and 
 purity of the drug — we make advances to the ryots and 
 treat them justly. I believe it is admitted on all hands 
 that a system of excise in opium would be preferable to 
 direct Government traffic. Excise has been already sub- 
 stituted in the case of salt. But how should we provide 
 for the interval of transition ? The revenue would collapse 
 during the period needed for private companies to take up 
 a vast concern involving complicated arrangements and an 
 enormous outlay of capital. 
 
 It is clear that the abolition of what is styled an ini- 
 quitous traffic is easier to talk about than to carry into 
 execution. 
 
 It is equally clear, however, that our hungry Indian 
 finance-ministers cannot expect to grow fatter on opium 
 any more than on salt. There remains the piece de resist- 
 ance — land. One of the great questions of Indian admin- 
 istration is : Do the rulers of India own the land ? High 
 authorities, like Lord Lawrence and Sir Fitzjames Stephen, 
 deny that they do. What the Government claims, say 
 they, is what all previous Governments have claimed — not 
 any proprietary right in the soil, but the first charge on 
 the crops. The people are the real owners of the soil. It 
 was the object of Lord Cornwallis' permanent settlement 
 to protect and create private property in land, and en-
 
 PROGRESS OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE. 341 
 
 courage the outlay of capital for its improvement by fixing 
 the Government demand in perpetuity. That this policy 
 was wise is as certain as that it was badly carried out in 
 Bengal, where a number of persons called Zamindars or 
 landholders, who were not the real landowners, were con- 
 verted into proprietors and allowed to reap all the benefits 
 of a far too liberal assessment. It is well known that the 
 Zamindars show no pity to their tenants. The last anna 
 is extorted from the impoverished ryot ; the Government 
 is deprived of about half its due, and the money so gained 
 is squandered. No part of it is spent on improvements. 
 
 Unhappily the bad application of a good principle in 
 Bengal has prevented its wise application elsewhere. On 
 the annexation of new territories we have generally fixed 
 the assessment for a term of thirty years, and as favour- 
 ably as possible to the cultivators. At the end of the 
 term the land has been revalued, and a fresh assessment 
 made. At present (as I am told by Sir William Muir) the 
 rule in the North-west is that, if the gross produce of a 
 piece of land is worth, say, Bs. 104 or 105, four or five 
 rupees are taken for what are called cesses — that is, extra 
 charges on the land for road-making, police, education, 
 &c. — and one-half of the remainder, or Bs. 50, for the 
 Government demand. It is admitted that if a landholder 
 by skill, industry, and the employment of capital, improves 
 the productive qualities of his holding, the Government, 
 which does not take part in the industry or improvements, 
 has no right to share in the increased value of the pro- 
 duce. The tax can only be justly augmented on general 
 considerations, such as an advance in the prosperity of a 
 country caused by roads, railroads, canals, and new mar- 
 kets. As a matter of fact, however, the fear of fresh 
 microscopic revaluations at the end of periods of thirty 
 years paralyses the productive energies of the people. 
 Wells are filled up, land is allowed to deteriorate, and 
 various expedients for its depreciation are resorted to when 
 a fresh assessment is impending.
 
 342 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 In the opinion of those who know India best, a more 
 moderate Government charge on the produce of the soil — 
 not necessarily uniform, but adjusted to suit the circum- 
 stances of particular provinces — would in the end improve 
 the financial condition of our Indian Empire, Our truest 
 wisdom, it is thought, would be to encourage the outlay of 
 capital on lands already under cultivation, and to attract 
 capital towards those vast potential sources of revenue 
 latent in lands not yet brought under culture, or not yet 
 thoroughly cultivated. We can only effect this by securing 
 fixity of tenure — by closing the account and fixing the 
 assessment permanently when a district has been cultivated 
 to the fullest extent. In this way we shall create a class 
 of well-to-do contented landed proprietors, whose increased 
 wants will help to fill the State treasury, and whose in- 
 terest in the soil will be the best guarantee for the main- 
 tenance of our rule. Nothing will tend more to conciliate 
 the people, to consolidate our empire, and make our 
 revenue balance our expenditure. The extraordinary pro- 
 gress of the country during the last thirty years proves 
 that India, with all her supposed immobility, is capable 
 of rapid expansion, and responds instantaneously to the 
 efforts of those who strive to develop her resources. Her 
 potential income is beyond all calculation. If we educate 
 the cultivators of the soil to be self-rehant and provident, 
 to keep out of the clutches of the money-lender, to invest 
 their savings wisely, and accumulate a reserve against 
 times of scarcity, part of their growing wealth will as 
 surely find its way into the coffers of the State, as run- 
 ning water flows into the sea. This is the true remedy for 
 our present financial difficulties. Nevertheless, in the ap- 
 plication of this, as of all other Indian remedies, there is 
 need of cautious progress, slow haste, and a wise consider- 
 ation of varying conditions, circumstances, and interests.
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL AND SYMPATHY 
 BETWEEN ENGLAND AND INDIA. 
 
 Any remarks on the best method of promoting goodwill 
 between England and India may appear at the present 
 moment^ somewhat ill-timed. Two nations in the East 
 of Europe have been locked together for the last few 
 months in a deadly embrace. Their struggle has been 
 marked by worse incidents of savagery than ever dis- 
 graced the world's first periods of primeval barbarism. 
 Raging passions have been let loose. A portion of this 
 fair Europe of ours — the boasted home of true Christianity 
 — has been converted into a scene of deplorable atrocities. 
 We Englishmen^ who have happily played no part in 
 the dreadful tragedy, have nevertheless watched with a 
 kind of fascination the ebb and flow of the blood-stained 
 tide of war. We have allowed our minds to be en- 
 grossed with graphic narratives of military evolutions ; — 
 our thoughts to run on fortresses and sieges ; — our curiosity 
 to be directed towards the efljectiveness of terrible instru- 
 ments of destruction, Krupp guns, breech-loaders and 
 torpedoes ; — our imaginations to be excited by the horrors 
 of the battle-field, by images of dead and dying soldiers, 
 mangled bodies and stiffened corpses ; — our hearts to be 
 torn by tales of inhuman cruelty, borne with superhuman 
 resignation. 
 
 1 This was delivered as an address at a Meeting of the National Indian 
 Association, held, December 12th, 1877, at the Langham Hall, London, the 
 Earl of Northbrook in the Chair. Peace had not tlien been concluded 
 between Russia and Turkey.
 
 344 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 At ?uch a time, I may be told, it would be more appro- 
 priate to discuss the best means of" restoring peace and 
 promoting goodwill between the two nations engaged in 
 mortal strife. Or supposing it to be admitted that the 
 exciting tragedy of the present war ought not to en- 
 gross our attention to the exclusion of other interests, 
 still I may be confronted, at the outset of my remarks, 
 with a very natural enquiry; — Is this a suitable moment 
 to plead for the display of more sympathy between the 
 people of England and the people of India? 
 
 England has just given a conspicuous proof of her pro- 
 found sympathy with her Indian brethren. She has volun- 
 tarily subscribed more than half a million sterling in a few 
 months for the relief of the famine- stricken population, 
 and in India itself every member of our Government — 
 from the Viceroy downwards — has displayed the most self- 
 sacrificing zeal and energy in efforts to prevent death and 
 alleviate suffering. All this is of course true. And yet, 
 I am persuaded, there is no one in this room with any 
 experience derived from actual residence in India, who will 
 regard an address on the subject which constitutes the 
 very raison cVetre of the National Indian Association, as 
 either out of place or out of time at a season like this. 
 The sympathy of the English people has indeed been 
 evoked by a terrible calamity. And deep down in the 
 lowest depths of the great British heart there is always 
 a spring of true sympathy ready to gush forth and flow 
 at the cry of suffering, whether towards wounded Turks, 
 mutilated Russians, or famine-driven, fever-stricken Indians. 
 If it is a sad reflection that war and famine are never 
 likely to cease out of the land, there is at least some 
 comfort in the thought that the battle-fields of Europe 
 and the famine-desolated fields of India are never likely 
 to be cut off from the healing, quickening influences of 
 the perennial stream of English sympathy and English 
 charity. 
 
 Let me, however, remind my hearers that there is yet
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 345 
 
 another field, which, though it gives forth no hurthng 
 sound of shot or shell, no piercing cry of wounded soldiers 
 or famished peasantry, is not the less a field of conflict, 
 of suffering, of loss and gain, of defeat and victory. 
 I mean the battle-ground of daily life and daily work — 
 with its fightings within and its fears without, its grap- 
 plings with duties, its wrestlings with temptations, its 
 struggles with opposing forces, wills and interests. It is 
 on this arena that the people of England and the people 
 of India are brought together, not as enemies fighting for 
 the victory over each other, but as fellow-soldiers striving 
 together for the mastery over every form of evil ; as 
 fellow-subjects yielding allegiance to the same sovereign ; 
 as fellow-men and brethren, members of the great human 
 family, owing love and sympathy and tender consideration 
 towards each other. 
 
 And is not mutual sympathy needed by all who meet 
 together as fellow -labourers on this common working- 
 ground of daily duties and monotonous occupations — 
 needed all the more because too frequently believed to be 
 uncalled for and superfluous? Is it not needed by mem- 
 bers of the same household, however nearly drawn together 
 by bonds of family relationship ? Is it not needed by 
 people of the same country, however closely bound to- 
 gether by ties of social union and interest ? Much more 
 then is it needed by two peoples of two widely different 
 countries, thrown by the force of circumstances into in- 
 timate political association, though separated from each 
 other as far as the East is from the West by diversities 
 of language, religion, customs, habits of thought, and 
 social institutions. 
 
 What then are the best means of promoting this much- 
 to-be-desired goodwill and sympathy between the people 
 of England and the people of India ? This is the question 
 I have set myself to answer in the present lecture, and 
 the answer is not difficult. I have nothing new to suggest, 
 no special nostrum, no wonder-working panacea of my own
 
 34^ MODERN INDIA. 
 
 to proclaim, no startling discovery to announce. I can 
 only insist on principles well known to every one around 
 me ; I can add nothing to the trite truisms already familiar 
 to all of us. How are goodwill and sympathy promoted 
 between any collection of individuals of widely different 
 characters who have to live in daily intercourse with each 
 other ? They must learn mutual forbearance, they must 
 consider one another to provoke unto little acts of kind- 
 ness — little abstinences and wise reticences — they must 
 be charitable in judging of each other, in making allow- 
 ance for each other's infirmities, in thinking no evil of 
 each other, in bearing, believing, hoping and enduring 
 all things. In a word, they must cultivate mutual 
 charity. 
 
 Are, then, the people of England and the people of 
 India wanting in this most excellent gift of mutual 
 charity ? Let Indians look into their own hearts, and 
 examine their own consciences. My business as an Eng- 
 lishman is to enquire particularly into our own short- 
 comings. The question is one which cannot be lightly 
 set aside. For if we are wanting in common charity, — 
 including, of course, in that term the exercise of kindly 
 feelings towards the people committed to our rule, — then 
 it is clear that all our doings in India are nothing worth. 
 We may make laws, administer justice, preach the Gospel, 
 educate the people, lay down railroads, telegraphs, and 
 telephones, develope the resources of the country, tame 
 and control the forces of Nature for the public weal, — 
 nay, more, we may bestow all our goods to feed the 
 famine-stricken poor, — but our rule will not be rooted 
 in the hearts of the people, our legislation will be as 
 hollow as sounding brass, our preaching and teaching 
 as unmeaning as the tinkling of a cymbal, our Empire 
 as insecure as a tower built on sand, which some great 
 storm will suddenly sweep away. 
 
 Now I am not here to look at the black side of any- 
 thing, not even of my own character as an Englishman.
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 347 
 
 I believe there is no nation in the world so abounding in 
 true charity as the great British nation. I appeal to 
 obstinate facts. I appeal to stubborn statistics. Never- 
 theless, without agreeing with those who consider it their 
 privilege as Englishmen to be ever finding fault with 
 themselves, I desire to face the plain truth. I am ready 
 for my own part to confess that we are not all of us as 
 charitable as we ought to be in our everyday ordinary 
 relations with our Indian brethren, — not as fair as we 
 ought to be in our judgment of their character, our es- 
 timate of their capacities, our toleration of their idio- 
 syncracies, our appreciation of what is excellent in their 
 literature, customs, religions and philosophies. And I am 
 persuaded that both our want of charity and our want of 
 sympathy proceed from no innate incapacity for charitable 
 and sympathetic feelings, which are always ready to show 
 themselves on great occasions; nor from any real want 
 of fairness, which is usually a conspicuous feature in our 
 national character, but simply and solely from our in- 
 sufficient knowledge of India, its people and its needs. 
 To put the matter plainly, we are only unsympathetic and 
 uncharitable when we are ignorant. 
 
 Certain Hindu philosophers assert that all the pheno- 
 mena of the universe are caused by ignorance. We can- 
 not, however, quite go with the Vedantist to the length 
 of affirming that this beautiful world, this wonderful city 
 of London, this fine Hall and everything good in it owe 
 their origin to ignorance. But thus much, I think, we 
 may allow, that all sin and misery, all war and enmity, 
 all evils great or small that mar the fairness of God's 
 earth — doubtings, difficulties, jealousies, misunderstand- 
 ings, envyings, wrath, seditions, heresies, — all these are 
 rooted in ignorance, and in ignorance alone. And is it 
 not the case that we Englishmen often go to India with 
 minds more ignorant than they ought to be of India's 
 condition and India's needs? Sometimes, I fear, we do 
 not even know enough to know that we do not know,
 
 348 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 and when we commence work on Indian soll^ the pressure 
 of necessary duties makes the task of acquiring any 
 thoroug-h knowledge of the country and its people very 
 difficult of accomplishment. 
 
 Let me not be misunderstood. I am quite aware that 
 many of the Queen's Indian officers, in spite of insufficient 
 early training-, become able Indian statesmen, and accom- 
 plished Indologists. What I am speaking of is the general 
 ignorance of India — of its moral, religious, and intellectual 
 history and condition — which prevails among younger men 
 on their first arrival, who nevertheless become in the end 
 quite conversant with the aifairs of their own districts. As 
 to thq ignorance of India and its wants, which is nearly 
 universal in this country, and even conspicuous in some of 
 our most distinguished University men, — our first-class 
 men and wranglers, our professors and writers, our ma- 
 gistrates and legislators (happily, however, not in all), — 
 I cannot do better than quote the words of a citizen of 
 Bombay who came to England as an agent of one of the 
 native States, and in a letter to the Times wrote as fol- 
 lows (December 21, 1874) : — ' In my own experience among 
 Englishmen, I have found no general indifference to India, 
 but rather an eager desire for information. But I have 
 found a Cimmerian darkness about the manners and habits 
 of my countrymen, an almost poetical description of our 
 customs, and a conception no less wild and startling than 
 the vagaries of Mandeville or Marco Polo concerning our 
 religion.' 
 
 I come, therefore, to what may be called the keynote of 
 all I have to say in this lecture, namely, that if we wish 
 to promote goodwill and sympathy between the people 
 of England and the people of India, we must labour to 
 promote mutual knowledge — that is — a correct knowledge 
 of England in India, of India in England. And here, I 
 may observe, that if want of sympathy is rooted in want 
 of knowledge, it must not be assumed that the absence of 
 knowledge is all on one side. The people of India are
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 349 
 
 even more wanting- in correct knowledge of England than 
 we are in cori-ect knowledge of India. Let Indians look 
 to their own deficiencies. My present concern is to look 
 at home and ask the questions : — What are our otvn short- 
 comings ? What are our own needs ? 
 
 Many they are, and of various kinds and in various de- 
 grees. Even our ablest Indian statesmen have to confess 
 ignorance about many things. Such men would be the 
 first to tell us that if we wish to promote a better know- 
 ledge of India among ourselves we ought to begin at the 
 right end. We ought to introduce Indian studies as an 
 element of education at our Schools and Universities. 
 
 I deeply regret that the study of Indian and Oriental 
 subjects generally is practically under a ban at my own 
 University, because Eastern acquirements are at present no 
 avenue to a degree, but rather a hindrance. Any under- 
 graduate who devotes himself to Oriental studies is likely 
 to imperil his place in the class-list, and if he remains in 
 England, his future prospects in life. That we English- 
 men, with our enormous Indian and Colonial Empire, our 
 vast Eastern commerce, our increasing interest in Egypt, 
 Turkey, Mesopotamia, Burmah, Tibet, and China should 
 show such indifference to studies which other nations, with 
 little interest in the East, regard as important branches 
 of education, seems, indeed, wholly unaccountable. For 
 the most superficial observer must be convinced that the 
 political interdependence, and, so to speak, solidarity of 
 England and India, are becoming every day more com- 
 plete, the afiairs and interests, the loss and gain, the 
 honour and dishonour, of the two countries more and 
 more interwoven. Witness the increasing space accorded 
 to news from India in our leading journals. Witness the 
 vacation speeches of our leading legislators. Witness 
 the debates on India and the Eastern question in both 
 our Houses of Parliament. In fact, the improvements in 
 telegraphy are constantly causing increased centralization 
 of authority, and India is at present more governed by
 
 350 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 mandates and influences emanating* from the central ter- 
 minus of Queen, Lords and Commons, than by orders and 
 enactments issuing from the Council Chambers of Calcutta, 
 Madras and Bombay. 
 
 Surely, then, we are bound to ponder our heightened 
 duties, our deepening responsibilities. We are bound se- 
 riously to lay to heart the undoubted fact that our rule 
 over two hundred and forty-one millions of the human 
 race depends more than it has ever done before — not only 
 for its excellence but for its very continuance — on the 
 promotion of a better knowledge of the history and con- 
 dition of India among the few hundred individuals con- 
 stituting our two legislative assemblies, most of whom 
 have been educated at our public schools and Universities. 
 It may be very true that the old ignorance and apathy 
 of Parliament have passed away, and that the commence- 
 ment of an Indian debate no longer acts like a dinner- 
 bell on hungry members. Yet, I venture to assert, that 
 no little indifference and a good deal of sciolism still pre- 
 vail, and that urgent need exists for securing by early 
 training a more solid foundation of correct knowledge on 
 all Eastern subjects among all classes of the community : 
 in other words, — that the neglect of Oriental knowledge, 
 as a department of education, calls for immediate attention 
 at the hands of our educators. 
 
 Let me substantiate my assertion by a few instances, 
 beginning with the simple subject of Geography. An 
 educated European may perhaps be pardoned for betraying 
 ignorance of the exact position of Quetta, but is it not 
 somewhat startling to be asked by men of rank and edu- 
 cation in this country whether Lahore is near Benares, and 
 whether Calcutta lies south of Bombay ? Even in India 
 itself I have met with many able civilians who have con- 
 fessed to me their inability to pass an examination in the 
 geography of India outside their own Presidency. 
 
 Much the same may be said of physical geography. 
 India is blessed with numerous magnificent rivers, yet, even
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 351 
 
 among Anglo-Indians, how many of those long resident 
 in particular districts would be able to give an accurate 
 account of India's marvellous network of running water, 
 or the best method of utilizing it ? Then how little is 
 generally known of the Zoology and Botany of India ! 
 Doubtless there are scientific men to whom the fauna 
 and flora of certain districts are familiar, but few Eng- 
 lishmen have an adequate conception of the marvellous 
 wealth of India's animal and plant life. Sportsmen in- 
 deed abound everywhere by hundreds, but how many 
 care for animals except to kill or eat them ? It may 
 be very true that some forms of life are a little too ex- 
 uberant. Yet what country affords such beautiful speci- 
 mens of the insect world? And how is it that Indian 
 Zoologists and Entomologists may be counted on the 
 fingers ? 
 
 Then as to the vegetable kingdom. Nowhere in the 
 world are there such opportunities for the study of botany, 
 and nowhere is a knowledge of botany less common. Even 
 well-informed persons have to confess their ignorance of 
 India's vast and varied agricultural capabilities. For ex- 
 ample, much has yet to be learnt about India's capacity 
 for developing the cultivation of cotton. Again, quite 
 within living memory the remarkable discovery has been 
 made that the tea-plant is indigenous on Indian soil. 
 Much ignorance, too, remains to be dissipated about the 
 culture and preparation of coffee, cinchona, ipecacuanha, 
 and above all of tobacco. Who can tell how far the latter 
 may one day supply the eight or nine millions of revenue 
 which must be sought for somewhere, should the con- 
 science of Great Britain become too sensitive to permit 
 her Indian Government to continue its dealings in opium ? 
 Who can tell, too, how far drought and famine may be 
 averted when more is known about irrigation, the storing 
 of water and the conservation of woods and forests ? As 
 to geology and mineralogy, it is difficult to estimate 
 how much has yet to be ascertained about India's mineral
 
 ^^2 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 resources — the exploration of coal-fields, the production 
 of salt and iron, the exploitation of gold, silver, copper, 
 and lead. 
 
 Archaeolog-y, again, presents an unbounded field, not 
 yet adequately investigated. We are scarcely yet alive 
 to the duty of searching out and preserving India's 
 valuable antiquities, and of copying important historical 
 inscriptions, all traces of which the climate is rapidly 
 obliterating. I will not enter on the boundless subject 
 of ethnology, except to remark that some of the oldest 
 amongst us can remember the time when the near re- 
 lationship of Englishmen to Brahmans and Rajputs was 
 barely suspected. I may mention, too, that no one in 
 India could give me any clue to the ethnical classification 
 of the Bhils, and that the existence of Negrito and Ne- 
 groid races on the hills is a mystery. 
 
 Perhaps I should scarcely be believed if I were to relate 
 with richness of detail the story of an intelligent young 
 person, supposed to be fully educated, who was present the 
 other day at a lecture on Zanana work, and was heard to 
 inquire with much naivete whether the Zananas were not 
 a tribe of Afghans. As to Indian history, all that can be 
 said, I fear, is that the minds of most men are a perfect 
 blank — a complete tahila rasa. 
 
 In regard to the languages and dialects of India, culti- 
 vated and uncultivated, how many persons are aware that 
 their number amounts to at least two hundred ? To know 
 even two of these well is, of course, as much as can be 
 expected of our administrators, and I willingly admit that 
 they are generally well versed in at least one language. 
 But I may be pardoned for bemoaning the almost universal 
 ignorance of the classical languages of India, — Sanskrit, 
 Arabic and Persian, with their respective literatures. I 
 have often been asked by learned Europeans — Has Sanskrit 
 any literature? The fact is that since the abolition of 
 Haileybury in 1858 the study of Sanskrit has remained 
 voluntary. It is much to be regretted that few Indian
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 353 
 
 probationers address themselves to this important lan- 
 guage, and that those who begin learning it, rapidly drop 
 all the knowledge they have gained in this country as soon 
 as they commence their official duties. 
 
 Still more to be regretted is the neglect of Sanskrit by 
 missionaries. Happily there are signs of a better appre- 
 ciation of its value in the future, and I even look forward 
 to its eventual adoption in England as an element of 
 linguistic training. Let us not forget that Sanskrit is 
 as closely allied as Greek to our mother-tongue, that 
 its symmetrical grammar is the key to all other grammars, 
 that its system of synthesis is as useful to the mind as the 
 study of geometry, and that its literature contains models 
 of true poetry and some of the most remarkable treatises 
 on philosophy, science and ethics that the world has ever 
 produced. 
 
 Above all, let those who are preparing for an Indian 
 career bear in mind that Sanskrit is the only source of 
 life, health and vigour to all the spoken languages of 
 the Hindus, the only repository of Hindu religious creeds, 
 customs and observances. ' The popular prejudices of the 
 Hindus,' said my illustrious predecessor at Oxford, 'their 
 daily observances, their occupations, their amusements, 
 their domestic and social relations, their local legends, 
 their traditions, their fables, their religious worship, all 
 spring from and are perpetuated by the Sanskrit language.' 
 Yes — to know a country, its people, its needs, and neces- 
 sities, its mistakes and errors, all these things must be 
 known and understood. Without such knowledge no re- 
 spect can be felt for all that is good and true, no success- 
 ful attempt made for the eradication of all that is evil, 
 false and hurtful. 
 
 Indeed, I am deeply convinced that the more we learn 
 about the ideas, feelings, drift of thought, religious and 
 intellectual development, eccentricities, and even errors of 
 the people of India, the less ready shall we be to judge 
 them by our own conventional European standards — the 
 
 A a
 
 354 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 less disposed to regard ourselves as the sole depositories of 
 all the true knowledge, learning-, virtue and refinements of 
 civilized life — the less prone to despise as an ignorant and 
 inferior race the men who compiled the laws of Manu, 
 one of the most remarkable literary productions of the 
 vrorld — who composed systems of ethics worthy of Chris- 
 tianity — who imagined the Ramayana and Maha-bharata, 
 poems in some respects outrivalling the Iliad and the 
 Odyssey — who invented for themselves the science of 
 grammar, arithmetic, astronomy, logic, and six most subtle 
 systems of philosophy. Above all, the less inclined shall 
 we be to stigmatize as benighted heathen the authors of 
 two religions, however false, which are at this moment 
 professed by about half the human race. 
 
 And this leads me to express my sense of our remissness, 
 whether as laymen or missionaries, in neglecting to study 
 the sacred works on which the various religions of India 
 rest. We cannot, of course, sympathize with all that is 
 false in the several creeds of Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, 
 ParsTs, Sikhs and Muslims. But we can consent to ex- 
 amine them from their own point of view, we can study 
 their sacred books in their own languages, Sanskrit, Pali, 
 Prakrit, Zand, Gurumukhl and Arabic, rather than in 
 imperfect translations of our own. We can pay as much 
 deference to the interpretations of their own commentators 
 as we expect to be accorded to our own interpretation of 
 the difficulties of our own sacred Scriptures. We can 
 avoid denouncing in strong language what we have never 
 sufficiently investigated, and do not thoroughly under- 
 stand. 
 
 Yes, I must speak out. It seems to me that the general 
 ignorance of our fellow-countrymen in regard to the re- 
 ligions of India is really worse than a blank. A man, 
 learned in European lore, asked me the other day whether 
 the Hindus were not all Buddhists. Of course ignorance 
 is associated with indiffijrence. I stayed in India with an 
 eminent Indian civilian who had lived for years quite
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 355 
 
 unconsciously within a few hundred yards of a celebrated 
 shrine, endeared to the Hindus by the religious memories 
 of centuries. Another had never heard of a perfectly unique 
 temple not two miles from the gate of his own compound. 
 Ignorance, too, is often associated with an attitude of 
 unmitigated contempt. Another distinguished civilian, 
 who observed that I was diligent in prosecuting my re- 
 searches into the true nature of Hinduism, expressed sur- 
 prise that I could waste my time in ' grubbing into such 
 dirt.' The simple truth, I fear, is that we are all more or 
 less ignorant. We are none of us as yet quite able to 
 answer the question : — ' What is Hinduism ? ' We have 
 none of us as yet sufficiently studied it under all its aspects, 
 in its own vast sacred literature stretching over a period 
 of more than two thousand years. We under-estimate 
 its comprehensiveness, its super-subtlety, its recuperative 
 hydra-like vitality ; and we are too much given to include 
 the whole system under sweeping expressions such as 
 ' heathenism' or ' idolatry/ as if every idea it contains was 
 to be eradicated root and branch. 
 
 Again I must speak out. I deeply regret that we are 
 in the habit of using opprobrious terms to designate the 
 religious tenets of our Indian brethren, however erroneous 
 we believe those tenets to be. Unfortunately it is diffi- 
 cult to find any substitute for the convenient expression 
 ' heathen,' but we ought to consider that the translators 
 of our Bible only adopted this word as an equivalent for 
 Gentile nations, and that the term is now frequently ap- 
 plied to wicked, godless people. I have constantly heard 
 it so applied by our clergy when speaking of the most 
 degraded section of the population of our large cities, — 
 atheists, thieves, lawless people and criminals of all kinds, 
 such as, in former times, congregated on wild heaths, re- 
 mote from civilized towns. AVe are surely untrue to our 
 own principles when we associate all unbelievers in Chris- 
 tianity with such people, by the use of a common term for 
 both. Does not our own religion teach us that in every 
 
 A a 2
 
 35^ MODERN INDIA. 
 
 nation he that feareth God and worketh righteousness is 
 accepted with Him ? 
 
 I deplore, too, the ignorance displayed in regard to 
 Indian religious usages. A recent book on India by an 
 eminent Member of Parliament describes the mark on the 
 forehead of the Southern Ramanujas as the trident of 
 Siva, whereas it really represents the footprints of Vishnu. 
 Errors of this kind swarm even in the works of mission- 
 aries, and are generally caused by ignorance of Sanskrit. 
 As to caste, its working is very imperfectly understood, 
 and few are aware that the Hindus regard it as an im- 
 perfect condition of life, and hold that to attain supreme 
 happiness caste must be abandoned. Again, we are apt to 
 indulge in a wholesale condemnation of caste and to advo- 
 cate its total abolition, forgetful that as a social institution 
 it often operates most beneficially. Doubtless caste-rules 
 are generally a great hindrance to progress, but their very 
 connection with religious faith and practice may often 
 furnish a salutary check where the mere belief in Vishnu 
 and Siva is powerless to exercise any restraint at all. 
 
 Then, how often do we offend caste prejudices simply 
 from ignorance of their strength and of their connection 
 with venerated religious usage and deep religious feeling ! 
 
 I, for my part, can believe that an earnest-minded 
 Englishman might well hesitate to eat the flesh of oxen, 
 while resident in certain districts of India where Hindu 
 religious prejudices continue strongest, and where cow- 
 killing is regarded as nothing short of impious sacrilege, 
 remembering the words of a high Christian authority, 
 ' if meat make my brother to offend, I will eat no flesh 
 while the world standeth.' The Deputy-Commissioner at 
 Rohtak was murdered the other day by a fanatical Hindu, 
 who never spoke afterwards till the moment of his exe- 
 cution, except to whisper that he had a call from heaven 
 to destroy cow-killers. 
 
 When I was at Jammu, one of the Maharaja's Ministers 
 told me that the punishment in Kasmir for killing oxen
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. t,^'] 
 
 was imprisonment for life, and that he himself had such a 
 horror of eating the flesh of oxen that, if the alternative 
 were submitted to him of tasting* beef or being beheaded, 
 he would unhesitatingly choose decapitation. 
 
 It is said that a holy Brahman who lived near Saugor 
 determined to wrestle with the Deity till he should reveal 
 to him the real cause of the general scarcity under which 
 the land was groaning. After three days and nights of 
 fasting and prayer, he saw a vision of some celestial being, 
 who stood before him in a white mantle, and told him that 
 all the calamities of the season arose from the slaughter of 
 oxen by Englishmen and Muhammadans. Colonel Sleeman 
 asserts that this actually occurred, and that it created a 
 great sensation in the neighbourhood. At any rate, we may 
 learn from such stories how deep-seated are the religious 
 convictions on which the sacredness of the cow is based, 
 and can understand how our practice of eating beef may 
 generate bitter feelings of ill-will towards us. Let us sup- 
 pose for a moment an imaginary case. Let us ask our- 
 selves what our own feelings would be if a number of 
 Chinese were to settle down in this country, and insist 
 on constantly eating boiled rats with chop-sticks before 
 our eyes. Yet our disgust would be as nothing compared 
 with the revulsion in the mind of a pious Hindu caused 
 by our devouring with avidity the flesh of animals which 
 from his infancy he is taught to believe permeated with 
 the essence of divinity. 
 
 Of course, I am not advocating a general abandonment 
 of beef-eating throughout India. I am aware that many 
 consider it a duty to show openly their disapproval of what 
 they consider the absurd prejudices of a weak-minded people, 
 and I admit that when religious customs are degrading 
 and do violence to nature and humanity, like the rite of 
 Sati, they ought to be put down. All I maintain is, 
 that the time-honoured usages of particular districts, when 
 intimately bound up with religious feelings, ought, as far 
 as possible, to be respected. Ought we not, too, without
 
 ^^S MODERN INDIA. 
 
 making any -concessions to what we believe utterly false in 
 the religions of India, to be more diligent in searching for 
 some common religious ground on which Europeans and 
 Asiatics may take their stand together ? Is it not the 
 ease that, among ourselves, people of the most opposite 
 opinions find their religious differences softened down and 
 their sympathies evoked by meeting face to face on the 
 common platform of Conference and Congress Hall ? Has 
 England advanced with such gigantic strides beyond 
 Eastern nations that no points of agreement in ideas, 
 customs, usages, and religion can be found with an an- 
 cient people who had a polished language, an extensive 
 literature^ and a developed civilization when our forefathers 
 were clothed in skins and could neither read nor write? 
 Is so great a gulf now fixed between two races who once 
 occupied the same home in Central Asia that no com- 
 munity of thought, no interchange of ideas, no reciprocity 
 of feeling is any longer possible between them ? I verily 
 believe that an unfairly low estimate of the moral, social 
 and religious condition of the people of India, and of their 
 intellectual capacity, is really the principal obstacle to the 
 promotion of sympathy between the two races. 
 
 The great historian Mill, whose History of India is still 
 a standard work^ has done infinite harm by his unjustifi- 
 able blackening of the Indian national character. He has 
 declared (I quote various statements scattered through his 
 work) that ' the superior castes in India are generally de- 
 praved, and capable of every fraud and villany ; that they 
 more than despise their inferiors, whom they kill with less 
 scruple than we do a fowl ; that the inferior castes are 
 profligate, guilty on the slightest occasion of the greatest 
 crimes, and degraded infinitely below the brutes ; that the 
 Hindus in general are devoid of every moral and religious 
 principle ; cunning and deceitful, addicted to adulation, 
 dissimulation, deception, dishonesty, falsehood and perjury; 
 disposed to hatred, revenge, and cruelty ; indulging in 
 furious and malignant passions, fostered by the gloomy
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 359 
 
 and malig-nant principles of their religion; perpetrating 
 villany with cool reflection ; indolent to the point of 
 thinking death and extinction the happiest of all states; 
 avariciouSj litigious, insensible to the sufferings of others, 
 inhospitable, cowardly ; contemptuous and harsh to their 
 women, whom they treat as slaves ; eminently devoid of 
 filial, parental, and conjugal affection.' 
 
 No wonder that young Englishmen, just imported from 
 the ruling country, and fresh from the study of Mill's 
 History, sometimes affect a supercilious air of superiority 
 when first brought into contact with their Indian fellow- 
 subjects. No wonder that Mr. Nowrozjee Furdoonjee should 
 have delivered a lecture three or four years ago before this 
 Association and attempted to prove that the natives of 
 India are often treated by Europeans ' with incivility, 
 harshness, and even contempt and personal violence — that 
 they are frequently stigmatized as Niggers, a nation of 
 liars, perjurers, forgers, devoid of gratitude, trust, good- 
 nature, and every other virtue, as rude barbarians and 
 inhuman savages/ 
 
 Of course, we know that this Indian gentleman has 
 overstated his case, and that his description applies to a 
 condition of things which may have partially existed 
 thirty years ago, but which has to a great extent passed 
 away. Still, it cannot be questioned that, conscious of our 
 own superiority in religion, science, morality, and general 
 culture, we are too apt to under-estimate the character and 
 acquirements of our Indian brethren. We may regret that 
 they are not Christians, that they have not the moral 
 stamina of Englishmen, that their social institutions are 
 a source of weakness and an obstacle to all fusion be- 
 tween European and Asiatic races, their caste-rules a bar 
 to progress, and the low condition of their women fatal to 
 their elevation. We may tell them plainly that we aim at 
 raising them — men and women — socially, morally, intel- 
 lectually, to our own standard. But we must bear in mind, 
 all the while, that they are human beings like ourselves,
 
 360 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 with feelings and infirmities like our own. We must give 
 them credit for whatever is good, true, and lovely in their 
 own national character ; we must even be ready to admit 
 that in some points — such as patient perseverance in com- 
 mon duties, courtesy, temperance, filial obedience, reverent 
 demeanour towards their elders and betters, dutiful sub- 
 mission to governors, teachers, spiritual pastors and masters, 
 faithfulness in service, tenderness towards animal life, 
 toleration of religious diversities in foreigners and each 
 other — they may possibly be our equals, if not our 
 superiors. 
 
 Contrast with Mr. Mill's estimate of the Hindu cha- 
 racter the opinion of the great Abul Fazl (well called 
 ' the father of excellence'), Akbar's celebrated Minister, 
 who, though a Muhammadan, wrote in his Ayln-i-Akbari 
 — ' The Hindus are religious, affable, courteous to stran- 
 gers, prone to inflict austerities on themselves, lovers of 
 justice, given to retirement, able in business, grateful, 
 admirers of truth, and of unbounded fidelity. Their cha- 
 racter shines brightest in adversity. Their soldiers know 
 not what it is to fly from the field of battle. When the 
 success of the combat becomes doubtful they dismount 
 from their horses and throw away their lives in payment 
 of the debt of valour. They have great respect for their 
 tutors ; and make no account of their lives when they can 
 devote them to the service of their God. They believe 
 in the unity of the Godhead, and although they hold 
 images in high veneration, yet they are by no means 
 idolaters, as the ignorant suppose.' 
 
 I must admit that in another place he says that the 
 Hindus differ widely in different places, and that some 
 have the disposition of angels, others of demons. 
 
 If I may be allowed to speak of my own experiences, 
 I confess that to me the Indian character has seemed 
 neither angelic nor demoniacal. But if the best Chris- 
 tian found a law in his members bringing him into cap- 
 tivity to the law of sin, so that when he ' would do good,
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 361 
 
 evil was present with him,' how much more must this be 
 true of the best Hindu ! Surely, then, on the common 
 ground of conflict with evil^ both Christian and Hindu, 
 though equip]3ed for the fight with armour of very dif- 
 ferent temper, may meet and sympathize with each other. 
 And if his own religion is to the one a power and to the 
 other a weakness, surely the strong man armed may have 
 some strength to spare for the encouragement and support 
 of his more feeble brother. 
 
 I will not enter into the question of how far the social 
 gulf which is now separating the two races is capable of 
 being bridged over. When I was at Calcutta I found all 
 the highest State functionaries — Lord Northbrook him- 
 self, our noble Chairman here, — the late high-minded 
 Bishop Milman, and many others I could name, vying 
 with each other in their efforts to conciliate the natives, 
 and bring about more social fusion between the rulers 
 and the ruled. I found, too, many of our devoted fellow- 
 countrywomen doing their best to work their way lovingly 
 and tenderly into the interior of many an Indian family. 
 The present Viceroy, Lord Lytton, is not a whit behind his 
 predecessors in endeavouring to counteract, by his personal 
 example, the estrangement caused by race-antipathies. 
 But I fear that little success will be achieved till the im- 
 penetrable barrier which now surrounds the homes of India 
 is thrown down, till Hindus and Muhammedans consent 
 to eat and drink with Europeans, and till Indian wives, 
 mothers, and daughters are elevated to their proper posi- 
 tion in the family circle. 
 
 Nor will I now discuss the question of the duty of 
 redressing so-called Indian grievances, because this is 
 acknowledged on all hands. Traversing India as I have 
 recently done from Kasmir to Cape Comorin, I have found 
 all intelligent natives generally satisfied with our rule. It 
 is useless, however, to conceal from ourselves the existence 
 of much discontent, chiefly among the men we have 
 educated above their stations. When I have inquired of
 
 362 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 such men : What are your grievances ? What does India 
 want which India has not got ? ' We want,' they have 
 replied, ' complete social and political equality ; we want 
 admission to the highest executive offices ; we want a more 
 economical Government ; we want a more permanent and 
 moderate settlement of the land-tax ; we want less tedious 
 and costly litigation ; we want power of sending a few 
 representatives to the House of Commons ; we want a 
 certain number of covenanted civil appointments to be 
 competed for in this country.' These are a few specimens 
 of alleged wants. If any of them are real wants which it 
 is possible and proper to meet, the Government seems to me 
 to be inclined to go even beyond its duty in endeavouring 
 to meet them. Our Indian Government, too, is now doing 
 its best (just as the Emperor Akbar did more than 300 
 years ago) to organize in India systematic efforts for the 
 acquisition and dissemination of accurate information on 
 all the points I have mentioned in this address, and in- 
 deed on every minute particular bearing on the condition 
 of the people committed to its rule. 
 
 The best evidence of this is afforded by the statistical 
 account of Bengal, in twenty volumes, just completed by 
 Dr. W. W. Hunter, Director-General of Statistics, and 
 published in London by Messrs. Triibner and Co. 
 
 Yet in the preface of this great national work — a monu- 
 ment of exemplary industry as well as of literary ability 
 — Dr. Hunter owns that it represents the first organized 
 advance towards a better knowledge of India. ' When 
 I commenced,' he says, ' the survey, no regular census 
 had been taken of India, and the enumeration of 1872 
 disclosed that the official estimates had been wrong as 
 regards Lower Bengal alone by more than twenty-five 
 million of souls. No book existed to which either the 
 public or the administrative body could refer for the most 
 essential facts concerning the rural population. Districts 
 lying within half-a-day's journey of the capital were 
 spoken of in the Calcutta Review as " unexplored." '
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. 363 
 
 What I plead for, then, is a similar systematic org-ani- 
 zation and concentration of effort in this country for 
 instilling a better knowledge of India into the rising 
 generation. Unless we bestir ourselves, England will 
 rapidly lose its position as the proper centre and focus 
 of Eastern learning in Europe. Germany, France, and 
 Kussia are doing their best to take our place. Even 
 Holland and Italy are rivalling us. All these countries 
 have established chairs of most of the Indian languages, 
 especially of Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian. Even now 
 we often have to go to Germany for our Indian Pro- 
 fessors, Librarians, Secretaries, and Cataloguers of manu- 
 scripts \ 
 
 What are our requirements, then, with a view to more 
 systematic organization for the promotion of Indian studies ? 
 In my opinion principally four, namely: — i. Formal Uni- 
 versity recognition by the establishment of an Indian School 
 for obtaining degrees. 2. The appointment of Professors 
 and Teachers of Indian subjects at Colleges and Schools. 
 3. The encouragement of Indian students by the foundation 
 of Indian scholarships and fellowships. 4. Local centrali- 
 zation by the founding of Indian Institutes, containing 
 libraries, museums, and lecture-rooms, at great educational 
 centres — for example, here in London (according to the 
 plan long advocated by my friend. Dr. Forbes Watson), 
 and especially at Oxford. But why, it may be asked, es- 
 pecially at Oxford ? I reply for two reasons : — ist. It can 
 be proved by statistics that a large proportion of our mem- 
 bers of Parliament — the real rulers of India — are Oxford 
 men. I believe the majority over Cambridge is at present 
 represented by 136 over 100, and there are now eight Ox- 
 ford first-class men in the Cabinet, including the Secretary 
 of State for India himself. 2ndly. Our Oxford system, 
 
 * I am told that there is not in England a single person who knows 
 Tibetan, although teachers of this language are to be found in Germany, 
 France, and Russia, and although it is spoken by numbers of our own 
 subjects and by millions inhabiting neighbouring countries.
 
 364 MODERN INDIA. 
 
 which lays great stress on languages, history, law, and po- 
 litical economy, affords the best training for every kind of 
 Indian career. 
 
 At last, therefore, I come to the goal to which my 
 remarks have been converging — the need of founding at 
 Oxford an institution which shall be a centre of union, 
 intercourse, inquiry and instruction for all engaged in 
 Indian studies. The Indian Institute will, I hope, be 
 equipped in the most effective possible manner — both 
 materially and personally. It will have Lecture-rooms, 
 Museum, Library, and Reading-room, all aiding and illus- 
 trating each other, and closely connected with it an ample 
 staff of University Professors and teachers, many of whom 
 will have resided in India and have an intimate know- 
 ledge of the country. It will I trust, adapt itself to the 
 needs of young Indians, who often go astray in this vast 
 metropolis from the want of proper supervision ; and who, 
 as soon as our Oxford Indian School and Indian Institute 
 are established, will probably frequent our University more 
 than they have hitherto done. Oriental Fellowships, Indian 
 Travelling Fellowships, Scholarships for Indians pursuing 
 their studies at Oxford, Scholarships for Englishmen pur- 
 suing Indian studies, will, I trust, in time be connected 
 with the Institute. It will, I hope, give prizes for essays 
 on Indian subjects, and will invite able natives to deliver 
 lectures in its lecture -rooms, where meetings and con- 
 ferences on various topics relating to the welfare of our 
 Indian fellow-subjects will occasionally be held. In brief, 
 its one aim will be to concentrate and diffuse accurate in- 
 formation on every subject connected with the condition 
 of our Indian Empire ; its one loork will be to draw Eng- 
 land and India closer together, by promoting mutual know- 
 ledge, by furthering interchange of ideas, by encouraging 
 reciprocity of feeling, by fostering goodwill and sympathy 
 between the two countries. 
 
 This great aim — this great work, cannot and must not 
 rest with the University of Oxford alone. Every society,
 
 PROMOTION OF GOODWILL. ' ^6^ 
 
 every individual interested in the well-being- of our Eastern 
 Empire^ will, I trust, lend a helping- hand. The National 
 Indian A>:sociation, with whose operations both in England 
 and India I have cherished the warmest sympathy ever 
 since the late lamented Miss Carpenter and myself met 
 together for the promotion of similar aims in various parts 
 of India, will, I am sure, co-operate with the Oxford 
 Indian Institute, and both will direct their best endea- 
 vours towards the same hig-h objects. 
 
 And need I add how much I believe the maintenance 
 of g-oodwill and sympathy between Eng-land and India 
 depends on the attitude and bearing of those who are 
 highest in authority ? It is said that what distinguished 
 the great Emperor Akbar from all previous rulers was his 
 personal attention to all the minutiae of government, and 
 his deference to the opinions of his subjects, however con- 
 flicting or opposed to his own. It would be impertinent 
 in me to speak in praise of our noble Chairman on this 
 occasion, but it seems to me that the success of Lord 
 Northbrook's administration was not more due to his con- • 
 versancy with every detail of State affairs than to his tact 
 in preserving harmony between the discordant elements of 
 wliich the Queen's Indian Empire must always consist, 
 and his unvarying kindness and courtesy of manner to- 
 wards every individual, whether Englishman, Hindu, or 
 Muhammadan, with whom, as the Queen's representative, 
 he was brought into contact. 
 
 The problem before us, then, has been — How can more 
 cordial and sympathetic feeling be promoted between the 
 people of England and the people of India ? The solution 
 of this problem may have been demonstrated by words, 
 but the desired end will not be effected till the people of 
 both countries join heart and hand in united efforts for the 
 conciliation of each other's goodwill, and for the verifica- 
 tion of the sublime doctrine — for the establishment of the 
 eternal truth — that ' God has made all nations of men of 
 one blood.'
 
 ORIENTAL WORKS 
 
 BY 
 
 MONIER WILLIAMS, D.C.L., 
 
 BoDEN Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. 
 
 1. AN ENGLISH-SANSKRIT DICTIONAEY, in one vol. 
 
 4to. Published under the patronage of the Court of Directors of 
 the East India Company. W. H. Allen & Co., Waterloo Place, 
 London. 1851. Price £3 3s. 
 
 2. A SANSKRIT-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, in one vol. 
 
 4to. Published for the University of Oxford by Macmillan & Co., 
 Bedford Street, Covent Garden, London ; also W. H. AUen & Co., 
 London. 1872. Price £4 14s. 6d. 
 
 'This is a most laboriously and carefully constructed and excel- 
 lent work, which no student of Sanskrit can do without.' — W. D. 
 Whitney, Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in Yale 
 College (from the Harvard College Courant). 
 
 3. A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF THE SANSKRIT 
 
 LANGUAGE, arranged with reference to the Classical Languages 
 of Europe, for the use of English Students. Fourth Edition. 
 Published for the University of Oxford by Macmillan & Co. ; also 
 W. H. Allen & Co., London. 1864. Price 15s. 
 
 ' I am accustomed to recommend Williams's Grammar to any 
 one who takes up the study of Sanskrit by himself, without a 
 teacher, because it is more intelligible and easily managed.' — 
 W. H. D. Whitney (from the Harvard College Courant). 
 
 4. A SANSKRIT MANUAL, containing the Accidence of 
 
 Grammar, and Progressive Exercises for Composition. Second 
 Edition. W. H. Allen & Co., London. 1868. Price 7s. 6d. 
 
 5. S^AKUNTALA; a Sanskrit Drama. The Devanagarl Re- 
 
 cension of the Text, with Critical Notes and Literal Translations. 
 W. H. Allen & Co., London. 1853. Price 21s. 
 
 6. SAKUNTALA. A Second and improved Edition of tlie 
 
 above, with Index. Published for the University of Oxford by 
 Macmillan & Co. 1876. Price 21s. 
 
 7. A FREE TRANSLATION IN ENGLISH PROSE 
 
 AND VERSE OF THE SANSKRIT DRAMA SAKUNTALA. 
 Fourth Edition. W. H. Allen & Co., London. 1872. Price Ss. 
 
 8. ANOTHER EDITION OF THE ABOVE, illuminated 
 
 and illustrated. Stephen Austin, Hertford. 1855. Price £2 2s.
 
 Works by Professor Monier Williams (contimied). 
 
 g. VIKRAMORVAS'I ; a Sanskrit Drama, published as a 
 Class- Book for the East India College. W. H. Allen & Co., London. 
 1849. Price 5s. 
 
 10. STORY OF NALA; a Sanskrit Poem, with full Vocabu- 
 
 lary, and an improved version of Dean Milman's Translation. 
 Second Edition. Published for the University of Oxford by Mac- 
 millan & Co. 1879. Price 15s. 
 
 11. THE STUDY OF SANSKRIT IN RELATION TO 
 
 MISSIONARY WOEK IN INDIA. Williams & Norgate, 
 London. 1861. Price 28. 
 
 12. INDIAN EPIC POETRY. WUliams & Norgate, London 
 
 and Edinburgh. 1863. Price 5s. 
 
 13. A PRACTICAL HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR. Second 
 
 Edition. Longmans & Co., London. 1865. Price 5s. 
 
 14. AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 HINDUSTANI. Longmans & Co., London. 1859. Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 15. HINDUSTANI PRIMER. Longmans & Co., London. 
 
 1859. Price IS. 8c?. 
 
 16. BAGH BAHAR; the Hindustani Text, with Notes and 
 
 Introductory Essay on the Application of the Roman Alphabet 
 to the Languages of India. Longmans & Co., London. 1859. 
 Price 6s. 6d. 
 
 17. ORIGINAL PAPERS illustrating the History of the 
 
 Application of the Roman Alphabet to the Languages of India. 
 Longmans & Co., Loudon. 1859. Price 12s. 
 
 18. INDIAN WISDOM; or Examples of the Pi^ligious, 
 
 Philosophical and Ethical Doctrines of the Hindus. Third Edition, 
 W. H. Allen & Co., London. 1877. Price 15s. 
 
 19. HINDUISM. Published by the Society for Promoting 
 
 Christian Knowledge. Sixth Thousand. 1S78. Price 2s. 6d. 
 
 20. MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS; being a 
 
 Series of Notes, Impressions, and Essays. Third Edition. Triibner 
 & Co., London. 1879.
 
 TRUBNER'8 ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 " A knowledge of the commonplace, at least, of Oriental literature, philo- 
 sophy, and religion is as necessary to the general reader of the present day 
 as an acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics was a generation or so 
 ago. Immense strides have been made within the present century in these 
 branches of learning; Sanskrit has been brought within the range of accurate 
 philology, and its invaluable ancient literature thoroughly investigated ; the 
 language and sacred books of the Zoroastrians have been laid bare ; Egyptian, 
 Assyrian, and other records of the remote past have been deciphered, and a 
 group of scholars speak of still more recondite Accadian and Hittite monu- 
 ments ; but the results of all the scholarship that has been devoted to these 
 subjects have been almost inaccessible to the public because they were con- 
 tained for the most part in learned or expensive works, or scattered through- 
 out the numbers of scientific periodicals. Messrs. Trubner & Co., in a spirit 
 of enterprise which does them infinite credit, have determined to supply the 
 constantly-increasing want, and to give in a popular, or, at least, a compre- 
 hensive form, all this mass of knowledge to tlie world." — Times. 
 
 NOW READY, 
 Post 8vo, pp. 568, with Map, cloth, price 163. 
 
 THE INDIAN EMPIRE : ITS HISTORY, PEOPLE, 
 AND PRODUCTS. 
 
 Baing a revised form of the article "India," in tlie "Imperial Gazetteer," 
 
 remodelled into cliapters, brought up to date, and incorporating 
 
 the general results of the Census of 1881. 
 
 By W. W. hunter, CLE., LL.D., 
 Director-General of Statistics to the Government of India. 
 
 "The article 'India,' in Volume IV., is the touchstone of the work, and proves 
 clearly enough tlie sterling metal of which it is wrouijrht. It represeuts the essence 
 of the 100 volumes which contain tl)e results of the .'-tatistical survey conducted by 
 Dr. Hunter throughout each of the 240 districts of India. It is, moreover, the only 
 attempt that has ever been made to show how the Indian people li.ave been built up, 
 and the evidence from the original materials has been for the first time sifted and 
 examined by the light of the local re.scarcli in which the author was for so long 
 engaged." — Times.
 
 TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 
 THE FOLLOWING WORKS HAVE ALREADY APPEARED.— 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, cloth, pp. xvi. — 428, price i6s. 
 
 ESSAYS ON THE SACRED LANGUAGE, WRITINGS, 
 AND RELIGION OF THE PARSIS. 
 
 By martin HAUG, Ph.D., 
 
 Late of the Universities of Tubingen, Giittingen, and Bonn ; Superintendent 
 
 of Sanskrit Studies, and Professor of Sanskrit in the Poona College. 
 
 Edited by Dr. E. \V. WEST. 
 
 I. History of the Researches into the Sacred Writings and Religion of the 
 Parsis, from the Earliest Times down to the Present. 
 II. Languages of the Parsi Scriptures. 
 
 III. The Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis. 
 
 IV. The Zoroastrian Religion, as to its Origin and Develoi^ment. 
 
 " ' Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings, and Religion of the Parsis,' by the 
 late Dr. Martin Haug, edited by Dr. E. W. West. The author intended, on his return 
 from India, to expand the materials contained in this work into a comprehensive 
 account of the Zoroastrian religion, but the design was frustrated by his untimely 
 death. We have, however, in a concise and readaljle form, a history of the researches 
 into the sacred writings and relisfion of the Parsis from the earliest times down to 
 the present — a dissertation on the languages of tlie Parsi Scriptures, a translation 
 of the Zend-Avesta, or the Scripture of the Parsis, and a dissertation on the Zoroas- 
 trian religion, with especial reference to its origin and development." — Tiiats. 
 
 Post Bvo, cloth, pp. viii. — 176, price 7s. 6d. 
 
 TEXTS FROM THE BUDDHIST CANON 
 
 COMMONLY KNOWN AS " DHAMMAPADA." 
 
 With Accompanyin(j Narratives. 
 
 Translated from the Chinese by S. BEAL, B.A., Professor of Chinese, 
 University College, London. 
 
 Tlie Dhammapada, as hitherto known by the Pali Text Edition, as edited 
 by FausboU, by Max Mtiller's English, and Albrecht Weber's German 
 translations, consists only of twenty-six chapters or sections, whilst the 
 Chinese version, or rather recension, as now translated by Mi\ Beal, con- 
 sists of thirty-nine sections. The students of Pali who possess FausboU's 
 text, or either of the above-named translations, will therefore needs want 
 Mr. Beal's English rendering of the Chinese version ; the thirteen above- 
 named additional sections not being accessible to them in any other form ; 
 for, even if they understand Chinese, the Chinese original would be un- 
 obtainable by them. 
 
 "Mr. Beal's rendering of the Chinese translation is a most valuable aid to the 
 critical study of the work. It contains authentic texts gathered from ancient 
 canonical books, and generally connected with some incident in the history of 
 Buddha. Their great interest, however, consists iu the light which they throw upon 
 everyday life in India at the remote period at which they were written, and upon 
 the method of teaching adopted by the founder of the religion. The method 
 etnployed was principally parable, and the simplicity of the tales and tlie excellence 
 of the morals inculcatedj as well as the strange hold which they have retained upon 
 the minds of millions of peoj^le, make them a very remarkable study." — Tiiut.i. 
 
 " Jlr. Beal, by making it accessible in an English dress, has added to the great ser- 
 \ices he has already rendered to the comparative study of religious history." — Acodtmy. 
 
 " Valuable as exhibiting the doctrine of the Buddhists in its purest, least adul- 
 terated form, it brings the modern reader face to face with that simple creed and rule 
 of conduct which won its way over the minds of myriads, and which is now nominally 
 professed by 145 millions, who have overlaid its austere simplicity with innumerable 
 ceremonies, forgotten its maxims, perverted its teaching, and so inverted its leading 
 principle that a religion whose founder denied a God, now worships that founder as 
 a trod himself." — Scots)nan.
 
 TRUBNER'S ORIENTAL SERIES. 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, clotli, pp. xxiv. — 360, price los. 6d. 
 
 THE HISTORY OP INDIAN LITERATURE. 
 
 By ALBRECHT WEBER. 
 
 Translated from the Second German Edition by John Mann, M.A., and 
 Theodou Zachariae, Ph.D., with the s:inction of the Author. 
 
 Dr. BuHLER, Inspector of Schools in India, writes: — ""When I was Pro- 
 fessor of Oriental Languages in Elphinstone College, I frequently felt the 
 want of such a work to which I could refer the students." 
 
 Professor CowELL, of Cambridge, writes :— "It will be especially useful 
 to the students in our Indian colleges and universities. I used to long for 
 such a book when I was teaching in Calcutta. Hindu students are intensely 
 interested in the history of Sanskrit literature, and this volume will supply 
 them with all they want on the subject." 
 
 Professor Whitnev, Yale College, Newhaven, Conn., U.S.A., writes :— 
 " I was one of the class to whom the work was originally given in the form 
 of academic lectures. At their first appearance they were by far the most 
 learned and able treatment of their subject ; and with their recent additions 
 they still maintain decidedly the same rank." 
 
 " Is perliaps the most comprehensive and lucid survey of Sanskrit literature 
 extant. The essays contained in the volume were originally delivered as academic 
 lectures, and at the time of their first publication were aoknowledKed to be by far 
 the most learned and able treatment of the subject. They have now been brouglit 
 
 up to date by the addition of all the most important i-esiilts of recent research." 
 
 Times. 
 
 Post 8vo, cloth, pp. xii. — 198, accompanied by Two Language 
 Maps, price 12s. 
 
 A SKETCH OF 
 THE MODERN LANGUAGES OF THE EAST INDIES. 
 
 By ROBERT N. CUST. 
 
 The Author has attempted to fill up a vacuum, the inconvenience of 
 which pressed itself on his notice. Much had been written about the 
 languages of the East Indies, but the extent of our present knowledge had 
 not even been brought to a focus. It occurred to him that it might be of 
 use to others to publish in an arranged form the notes which he had collected 
 for his own edification. 
 
 " Supplies a deficiency which has long been felt." — Tiiiies. 
 
 " The book before us is then a valuable contribution to philological science. It 
 passes under review a vast number of languages, and it gives, or professes to give, in 
 every case the sum and substance of the opinions and judgments of the best-informed 
 writers." — Saturdatj Revieio. 
 
 Second Corrected Edition, post 8vo, pp. xii. — n6, cloth, price 5s. 
 
 THE BIRTH OF THE WAR-GOD. 
 
 A Poem. By KALIDASA. 
 
 Translated from the Sanskrit into English Verse by 
 Ralph T. H. Geiffith, M.A. 
 
 " A very spirited rendering of the Kxandrasarnhhara, which was first published 
 twenty-six years ago, and which we are glad to see made once more accessible." — 
 J'imes. 
 
 " Mr. Griffith's very spirited rendering is well known to most who are at all 
 interested in Indian "literature, or enjoy the tenderness of feeling and rich crontive 
 imagination of its author."— /7!<;i«?i AntU/uari/. 
 
 " We are very glad to welcome a second edition of Professor Griffith's admirable 
 translation. Few translations deserve a second edition hcticr."—Ath(itauyn.
 
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 Post 8vo, cloth, pp. 432, price i6s. 
 
 A CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF HINDU MYTHOLOGY 
 
 AND RELIGION, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, AND 
 
 LITERATURE. 
 
 By JOHN DOWSON, M.R.A.S., 
 Late Professor of Hindustani, Staff College. 
 
 In this work an endeavour has been made to supply the long-felt want of 
 a Hindu Classical Dictionary. The main portion of this work consists of 
 mythology, but religion is bound up with mythology, and in many points 
 the two are quite inseparable. 
 
 This work will be a book of reference for all concerned in the government 
 of the Hindus, but it will be more especially useful to young Civil Servants, 
 and to masters and students in the universities, colleges, and schools in India. 
 _ " This not only forms an indispensable book of reference to students of Indian 
 literature, but is also of great general interest, as it gives in a concise and easily 
 accessible foim all that need be known about the personages of Hindu mythology 
 whose names are so familiar, but of whom so little is known outside the limited 
 circle of savants." — Times. 
 
 " It is no slight gain when stich subjects are treated fairly and fully in a moderate 
 space ; and we need only add that the few wants which we may hope 'to see supplied 
 in new editions detract but little from the general excellence of Mr. Dowson's work." 
 — Satunlai/ Kevieio. 
 
 Post 8vo, with View of Mecca, pp. cxii. — 172, cloth, price 9s. 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE KORAN. 
 
 Ey EDWARD WILLIAM LANE, 
 Hon. Doctor of Literature, Leyden, <fec., &c. ; Translator of " The Thousand and One 
 « Nights;" &c., &c. 
 
 A New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with an Introduction by 
 Stanley Lane Poole. 
 "... Has been long esteemed in this country as the compilation of one of the 
 greatest Arabic scholars of the time, the late Mr. Lane, the well-known translator of 
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 relative's work by divesting the text of a great deal of extraneous matter introduced 
 by way of comment, and prefixing an introduction." — Times. 
 
 " Mr. Poole is both a generous and a learned biogi-aj^her. . . . Mr. Poole tells us 
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 and for literary skill to present them in a condensed and readable iorm."— English- 
 man, Calcutta. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. vi. — 368, cloth, price 14s. 
 
 MODERN INDIA AND THE INDIANS, 
 
 BEING A SERIES OF BIPRESSIONS, NOTES, AND ESSAYS. 
 
 By MONIER WILLIAMS, D.C.L., 
 
 Hon. LL.D. of the University of Calcutta, Hon. IMember of the Bombay Asiatic 
 
 Society, Bodeu Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. 
 
 Third Edition, revised and augmented by considerable Additions, 
 
 with Illustrations and a Map. 
 
 This edition will be found a great improvement on those that preceded it. 
 
 The author has taken care to avail himself of all such criticisms on particular 
 
 passages in the previous editions as appeared to him to be just, and he has 
 
 enlarged the work by more than a hundred pages of additional matter. 
 
 " In this volume we have the thoughtful impressions of a thoughtful man on some 
 of the most important questions connected witli our Indian Empire. . . . An en- 
 lightened observant man. travelling among an enlightened observant people, Professor 
 Monier Williams has brought before the public in a pleasant form more of the manners 
 and customs of the Queen's Indian subjects than we ever remember to have seen in 
 any one work. He not only deserves the thanks of every Englishman for this able 
 contribution to the study of Modern India— a subject with which we should be 
 specially familiar— but he deserves the thanks of every Indian, Parsee or Hindu, 
 liiiddhist and Moslem, for his clear exposition of their manners, their creeds, and 
 their necessities." — Times.
 
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 Post 8vo, pp. xliv. — 376. cloth, price 14s. 
 
 METRICAL TRANSLATIONS FROM SANSKRIT 
 
 WRITERS. 
 
 With an Introduction, many Prose Versions, and Parallel Passages from 
 Classical Authors. 
 
 By J. MUIR, C.I.E., D.CL., LL.D., Ph.D. 
 
 "... An agfi-eeable introduction to Hindu poetry." — Times. 
 
 " . . .A volume which may 1)0 taken as a fair iJhistration alike of the rcligiouF. 
 and moral sentiments and of the legendary lore of the best Sanskrit writers."-- 
 Edinburgh Daily Review. 
 
 In Two Volumes, post 8vo, pp. viii. — 408 and viii. — 348, cloth, price 28s. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ESSAYS RELATINQ TO INDIAN 
 
 SUBJECTS. 
 
 By BRIAN HOUGHTON HODGSON, Esq., F.TJ.S., 
 
 Late of the Bengal Civil Service ; Con-e^ponding Member of the Institiite; Chevalier 
 . of the Legion of Honour ; late British Minister at tlie Court of Nepal, &c., &c. 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 
 
 Sectiox L — On the Kocch, Bodo, and Dhinial Tribes. — Part I. Vocabulary.— 
 Part II. Grammar. — Part III. Tlieir Orii^in, Location, Numbers, Creed, CustomSj 
 Character, and Condition, with a General Description of the Climate they dwell in! 
 — Appendix. 
 
 Section II. — On Himalayan Ethnology. — I. Comparative Vocabulary of the Lan- 
 guages of the Broken Tribes of Nepal. — II. VocabuUir3' of the Dialects of the Kirauti 
 Language. — III. Grammatical .\nalysis of the Viiyu Language. Tlie Viiyu Grammar. 
 — IV. Analysis of the Balling Dialect of the Kiranti Language. The Bdhing Gram- 
 mar. — V. On the Viiyu or Hayu Tribe of the Central Himalaya. — VI. On tiie Kirauti 
 Tribe of the Central Himalaya. 
 
 CONTENTS OF VOL. II. 
 
 Section III. — On the Aborigines of North-Enstern India. Comparative Vocabulary 
 of the Tibetan, Bodo, and Garo Tongues. 
 
 Section IV. — Aborigines of the North-E.istern Frontier. 
 
 Section V. — Aboiigiues of the Eastern Frontier. 
 
 Section V[. — The Indo-Chinese Borderers, and their connection with the Hinia- 
 layans and Tibetans. Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Chinese Borderers in Arakan. 
 Comparative Vocabulary of Indo-Cliinese Borderers in Tenasserim. 
 
 Section VII. — The Mongolian Afhiiities of the Caucasians. — Comparison and .\na- 
 lysis of Caucasian and MouKolian Words. 
 
 Section VIII.— Physical Type of Tibetans. 
 
 Skction IX. — Tlie Aborigines of Centi-al India. — Comparative Vocabulary of the 
 Aboriginal Languages of Central India. — Aborijiines of the Eastern Ghats. — Vocabu- 
 lary of some of tlie Dialects of the Hill and Wandering Tribes in tlic Northern Sircars. 
 — Abori'.,'ines of the Nilgiris, with Remarks on tluir Affinitie.s. — Supplement to tlio 
 Nilgirian Vocabularies. — The Aborigines of Southern India and Ceylon. 
 
 Section X. — Route of Nepalese Mission to Pekin, witli Remarks on the Water- 
 Shed and Plateau of Tibet. 
 
 Section XI. — Route from Kathmiindti, the Capital of Nepal, to Darjceling in 
 Sikim. — Memorandum relative to the Seven Cosis of Nepal. 
 
 Section XII. — Some Accounts of the Sy.stems of Law and Police as recognLTcd in 
 the State of Nepal. 
 
 Sf.ction XIII. — Tlie Native Method of making the Paper denominated Hindustan 
 Nepalese. 
 
 Section XIV. — Pre-eminence of the Vernaculars; or, the Anglicists Answered: 
 Being Letters on the Education of the People of India. 
 
 " For the study of the loss-known races of India Mr. Brian Hodgson's ' Miscnllano 
 ous Essays ' will be found very valuable both to tuo philologist and the etnnologist." 
 
 —ri flies.
 
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 Third Edition, Two Vols., post 8vo, pp. viii,— 268 and viii, — 326, cloth, 
 price 2 IS. 
 
 THE LIFE OR LEGEND OF GAUDAMA, 
 
 THE BUDDHA OF THE BURMESE. With Annotations. 
 
 The Ways to Neibban, and Notice on the Phongyies or Burmese Monks. 
 
 By the Right Rev. P. BIGANDET, 
 
 Bishop of Ramatlia, Vicar-Apostolic of Ava and Pegu. 
 
 "The work is furnished with copious notes, which not only ilhistrate tlie subjcct- 
 mattor, but form a perfect encyclopiedia of Liuddhist lore." — Times. 
 
 " A work which will furnish European students of Buddliism with a nio.st valuahle 
 hclji in the prosecution of their investigations." — Ediaburgli Daily Review. 
 
 " Bishop Bigandet's invaluable work, . . . and no work founded — ratlier trans- 
 lated — from original sources presents to the Western student a more faithful picture 
 thiui that of Bishop Bigandet." — Indian Aatiqaart/. 
 
 " Viewed in this light, its importance is sufficient to place students of the subject 
 under a deep obligation to its author." — Co.laUla Review. 
 
 " This work is one of the greatest authorities upon Buddhism." — Dublin Review. 
 
 "... A performance the great value of which is well known to all students of 
 Buddhism." — Tablet. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xxiv. — 420, cloth, price i8s. 
 
 CHINESE BUDDHISM. 
 
 A VOLUME OF SKETCHES, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL. 
 
 By J. EDKINS, D.D. 
 
 Author of "China's Place in Philology," "Religion in China," &c. &c. 
 
 " It contains a vast deal of important information on the subject, such as is only 
 to be gained by long-continued study on the spot." — AUieiuev.m. 
 
 " It is impossible within our limits even to mention the various subjects connected 
 with Buddhism with which Dr. Edkins deals." — Salurdai/ Rtviev;. 
 
 " Upon the whole, we know of no work comparable to it for the extent of its 
 original research, and the simplicity with which this complicated system of philo- 
 sophy, reli<;ion, literature, and ritual is set forth." — British Quarterly Rcvieio. 
 
 " The whole volume is replete with learning. ... It deserves most careful study 
 from all interested in the history of the religions of the world, and expressly of those 
 who are concerned in the propagation of Christianity. Dr. Edkins notices in terms 
 of just condemnation the exaggerated praise bestowed upon Buddhism by recent 
 English writers." — Record. 
 
 Second Edition, post 8vo, pp. xxvi. — 244, cloth, price los. 6d. 
 
 THE GULISTAN; 
 
 Or, rose garden OF SHEKH MUSHLIU'D-DIN SADI OF SHIRAZ. 
 
 Translated for the First Time into Prose and Verse, with an Introductory 
 Preface, and a Life of the Author, from the Atish Kudah, 
 
 By EDWARD B. EASTWICK, C.B., M.A., F.R.S., M.R.A.S., 
 Of Merton College, Oxford, kc. 
 " It is a very fair rendering of the original." — Times. 
 
 "The new edition has long been desired, and will be welcomed by all who take 
 any interest in Oriental poetry. The Gulistan is a typical Persian verse-book of the 
 highest order. Mr. Eastwick's rhymed translation . . . has long established itself in 
 a secure position as the best version of Sadi's finest work." — Aceidctny. 
 " It is b_)tii faithfully and gracefully executed." — Tablets
 
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 Post 8vo, pp. 496, cloth, price i8s. 
 
 LINGUISTIC AND ORIENTAL ESSAYS. 
 
 Written fkom the Year 1846 to 1878. 
 
 By ROBERT NEEDHAM CUST, 
 
 Late Member of Her Majesty's Indian Civil Service ; Hon. Secretary to 
 
 the Royal Asiatic Society; 
 
 and Author of " The Modern Languages of the East Indies." 
 
 " We know none who ))as described Indian life, especially the life of the natives, 
 with so much learning, sympathy, and literary talent." — Academy. 
 
 " It is impossible to do justice to any of these essays in the space at our command. . . 
 But they seem to us to be full of suggestive and original remarks."— Si. James's (jnzcttc. 
 
 " His book contains a vast amount of information, . . . of much interest to every 
 intelligent reader. It is, he tells us, the result of thirty-five years of inquiry, 
 reflection, and speculation, and that on subjects as full of fascination as of food for 
 thought."— rai^ct. 
 
 " The essays exhibit such a thorough acquaintance with the history ancl 
 
 antiquities of India as to entitle him to speak as one having authority." — EdinOv.rgh 
 Daihj Hevieu: 
 
 " The author speaks with the authority of personal experience It is this 
 
 constant association with the country and the people which gives such a vividness 
 to many of the Tpages." —AthenuAun. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. civ.— 348, cloth, price i8s. 
 
 BUDDHIST BIRTH STORIES; or, Jataka Tales. 
 
 The Oldest Collection of Folk-lore Extant : 
 
 BEING THE JATAKATTHAVANNANA, 
 
 For the first time Edited in the original Pali. 
 
 By V. FAUSBOLL ; 
 
 And Translated by T. W. Rhys Davids. 
 
 Translation. Volume I. 
 
 " These are tales supposed to have been told by the Buddha of what he had seen 
 and heard in his previous births. They are probably the nearest representatives 
 of the original Aryan stories from which sprang the folk-lore of Kurope as well as 
 India, and from which the Semitic nations also borrowed much. The introduction 
 contains a most interesting disquisition on the migrations of these fables, tracing 
 their reappearance in the various gi-oups of folk-lore legends respectively known as 
 ' j-Esop's Fables,' the ' Hitoi>adosa,' the Calilag and Uamnag series, and even ' The 
 Arabian Nights.' Among other old friends, we meet with a version of the Judgment 
 of Solomon, which proves, after all, to be an Aryan, and not a Semitic talc."— Times. 
 
 " It is now some years since Mr. Rhys Davids assort(d his right to be heard on 
 this subject by his able article on Buddhism in the new ..lition of the • Kncyclopajdia 
 Britannioa.'" — Leeds Mercury. 
 
 " All who are interested in Buddhist literature oujrht to feel deeply indebted to 
 Jlr. Rhys Davids. His well-established reputation as ;l Pali scholar is a sufficient 
 guarantee for the fidelity of his version, and the style of his translations is deserving 
 of high praise." — Academy. 
 
 " It is certain that no more competent expositor of Buddhism co\ild be found than 
 Mr. Rhys Davids, and that these Birth Stories will be of the gi'catest interest and 
 importance to students. In the Jataka book we liave, then, a priceless record of the 
 earliest imaginative literatm-e of our race ; and M r. Rhys Davids is well warr:uited 
 in claiming that it presents to us a nearly complete picture of the social Ufe and 
 customs and popular beliefs of the common people of Aryan tribes, closely related to 
 ourselves, just as they were passing through the first stages ol civilisation."— St. 
 James's Gazette.
 
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 I'ost 8vo, \>\\ xxviii. — 362, cloth, price 14s. 
 
 A TALMUDIC MISCELLANY; 
 
 Or, a thousand AND ONE EXTRACTS FROM THE TALMUD, 
 THE MIDRASHIM, AND THE KABBALAH. 
 
 Compiled and Translated by PAUL ISAAC HERSHON, 
 Author of " Genesis According to the Talmud," &c. 
 
 With Notes and Copious Indexes. 
 
 " To obtain in so concise and handy a form as this volume a general idea of the 
 Talmud is a boon to Christians at least."— r«Hie«. 
 
 "This is a new volume of the 'Oriental Series,' and its peculiar and popular 
 cliavacter will make it attractive to general readers. Blr. Herslion is a very com- 
 petent scholai-. . . . The present selection contains samples of the good, bad, and 
 indifferent, and especially extracts that throw light upon the Scriptvu'es. The 
 extracts have been all derived, word for word, and made at first hand, and references 
 are carefully given." — British Quarterly lieviao. 
 
 " Mr. Hershon's book, at .all events, will convey to English readers a more complete 
 and truthful notion of the Talmud than any other work that has yet appeared."— 
 Daily News. 
 
 " Without overlooking in the slightest the several attractions of the previous 
 volumes of the ' Oriental Series,' we have no hesitation in saying that this surpasses 
 them all in interest."— Ediiibiirgh Daily Review. 
 
 " Mr. Hershon has done this ; he has taken samples from all parts of the Talmud, 
 and thus given English readers what is, we believe, a fair set of specimens which 
 they can test for themselves." — The Record. 
 
 " Altogether we believe that this book is by far the best fitted in the present state 
 of knowledge to enable the general reader or the ordinary student to gain a fair and 
 unbiassed conception of the multifarious contents of the wonderful miscellany which 
 can only be truly luiderstood — so Jewish jsride asserts — by the life-long devotion of 
 scholars of the Chosen People."— /ii^uin'r. 
 
 " The value and importance of this volume consist in the fact that scarcely a single 
 extract is given in its pages but throws some light, direct or refracted, upon those 
 Scriptures which are the common heritage of Jew and Cln-istian alike." — John Bull. 
 
 " His acquaintance with the Talmud, ifec, is seen on every page of his book. . . 
 It is a capital specimen of Hebrew scholarship ; a monument of learned, loving, light- 
 giving labour." — Jewish Herald. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xii. — 228, cloth, price 7s. 6d. 
 
 THE CLASSICAL POETRY OF THE JAPANESE. 
 
 By basil hall CHAMBERLAIN, 
 
 Author of " Yeigo Heiikaku Shiran." 
 
 " A very curious volume. Tlie author has manifestly devoted much labour to the 
 task of studying the poetical literature of the Japanese, and rendering characteristic 
 specimens into Eiiulish verse." — Daihj A'tivs. 
 
 " Mr. Chamberlain's volume is, so far as we are aware, the first attempt which has 
 been made to interpret the literatiu-c of the Japanese to the western world. It is to 
 the classical poetry of Old Japan that we must turn for indigenous Japanese thought, 
 and in the volume before us we have a selection from that poetry rendered into 
 graceful English verse." — Tablet. 
 
 "It is undoubtedly one of the best tran.slations of lyric literature which has 
 appeared during the close of the last year." — Celestial Umpire. 
 
 "Mr. Chamberlain set himself a difficult task when he undeitook to reproduce 
 Japanese poetry in an English form. But lie has evidently laboured con amm-e, and 
 his efforts are successful to a degree." — London and China E.i:jircss.
 
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 Post 8vo, pp. xii. — 164, cloth, price los. 6d. 
 
 THE HISTORY OF ESARHADDON (Son of Sennacherib), 
 
 KING OF ASSYRIA, B.C. 681-668. 
 
 Translated from the Cuneiform Inscriptions upon Cylinders and Tablets in 
 the British Museum Collection ; together with a Grammatical Analysis 
 of each Word, Explanations of the Ideogi-aphs by Extracts from the 
 Bi-Lingual Syllabaries, and List of Eponyms, &c. 
 
 Bv ERNEST A. BUDGE, B.A., M.R.A.S.. 
 
 Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge, Member of the 
 Society of Biblical Archfeology. 
 
 " Students of scriptural archajology will also appreciate the ' History of Esar- 
 haddon.' "^Tinics. 
 
 " There is much to attract the scholar in this volume. It does not pretend to 
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 Assyriologist and to the ordinary non-Assyi-iological Semitic scholar the means of 
 controlling its results." — Academy. 
 
 "Mr. Budge's book is, of course, mainly addressed to Assyrian scholars and 
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 thanks are due to him on that account for the way in which he has acquitted himself 
 in his laborious task." — Tablet. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. 448, cloth, price 21s. 
 
 THE MESNEVI 
 
 (Usually known as The Mksneviyi Sherif, or Holt Mesnevi 
 
 OF 
 
 MEVLANA (OUR LORD) JELALU 'D-DIN MUHAMMED ER-RUMI. 
 
 Book the First. 
 
 Together loith some Account of the Life and Acts of the Author, 
 
 of his Ancestors, and of his Descendants. 
 
 Illustrated by a Selection of Characteristic Anecdotes, as Collected 
 by their Historian, 
 
 Mevlana Shemsu-'D-Din Ahmed, el Eflaki, el 'Arifi. 
 
 Translated, and the Poetry Versified, in English, 
 
 By JAMES W. RED HOUSE, M.R.A. S., &c. 
 
 " A complete treasury of occ\ilt Oriental \oro."— Sal v.nlct;/ lieview. 
 
 '■This book will be a very valuable help to the reader ignorant of Persi.i, who is 
 desirous of obtaining an insight into a very important dci)artment of the literature 
 extant In tliat language." — Tablet. 
 
 Post 8vo, pp. xvi.— 2S0, clotli, price 6s. 
 
 EASTERN PROVERBS AND EMBLEMS 
 
 Illustrating Old Truths. 
 
 By Rev. J. LONG, 
 
 Member of the Bengal Asiatic Society, F.R.G.S. 
 
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 reading." — liccnrd. 
 
 " Altogether, it is quite a feast of good things."— 67o6e. 
 " Is full of interesting matter." — Antiquary.
 
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 Post 8vo, pp. viii. — 270, cloth, price 7s. 66.. 
 INDIAN POETRY; 
 
 Containing a New Edition of tiie " Indian Song of Songs," from the Sanscrit 
 of tlie "Gita Govinda" of Jayadeva ; Two Books from "The Iliad of 
 India" (Mahabharata), " Proverbial Wisdom " from the Shlokas of the 
 Hitopadesa, and other Oriental Poems. 
 
 By EDWIN ARNOLD, C.S.I., Author of "The Light of Asia." 
 
 " In this new volume of Messrs. Triibner's Oriental Series, Mr. Edwin Arnold doe.s 
 good service by illustrating, tlirough the medium of Ids musical English melodies, 
 the power of Indian poetry to stir European emotions. The ' Indian Song of Songs ' 
 is not unknown to scholars. Mr. Arnold will have introduced it among popular 
 Englisli poems. Nothing could be more graceful and delicate than the shades by 
 which Krishna is portrayed in the gradual process of being weaned by the love of 
 
 ' Beautiful Radha, jasmine-bosomed Radha,' 
 from the allurements of the forest nymphs, in whom the five senses are typified." — 
 Tiwen. 
 
 " The studious reader of Mr. Arnold's verse will have added richly to his store of 
 Oriental knowledge . . . infused in every page of this delightful vohmie. . . . No 
 other English poet lias ever thrown his genius and his art so thoroughly into the 
 work of translating Eastern ideas as Mr. Arnold has done in his splendid paraphrases 
 of language contained in these mighty ei\>\c&." —Daily Telegraph. 
 
 " Tlie poem abounds with imagery of Eastern luxuriousness and sensuousnc ss ; the 
 air seems laden with the spicy odours of the tropics, and the verse has a ricbness and 
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 " The translator, while isroducing a very enjoyable poem, has adhered with toler- 
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 "We certainly wish Mr. Arnold success in his attempt 'to popularise Indian 
 classics,' that being, as his preface tells us, the goal towards which he bends his 
 efforts." — Allen's Indian Mail. 
 
 Post 8vo, f>p. 336, cloth, price 16s., 
 
 THE RELIGIONS OF INDIA. 
 By a. earth. 
 
 Tran.slated from the French with the authority and assistance of the Author. 
 
 The author has, at the request of the publishers, considerably enlarged 
 the work for the translator, and has added the literature of the subject to 
 date ; the translation maj% therefore, be looked upon as an equivalent of a 
 new and improved edition of the original. 
 
 "This last addition to Messrs. Triibner's 'Oriental Series' is not only a valuable 
 manual of the religions of India, which marks a distinct step in the treatment of 
 the subject, but also a useful work of reference." — Academy/. 
 
 "This volume is a reproduction, with coi-rections and additions, of an article 
 contributed by the learned author two years ago to the ' Encyclopedic des Sciences 
 Religieuses.' It attracted much notice when it first appeared, and is generally 
 admitted to present the best summary extant of the vast subject with which it 
 deals."— Tablet. 
 
 " This is not only on the whole the best but the oidy manual of the religions of 
 India, ajiart from Buddhism, which we have in English. The pi-esent work is in 
 every way worthy of the promising school of young French scholars to which the 
 author belongs, and shows not only great knowledge of the facts and power of clear 
 exposition, but also great insight into the inner history and the deeper meaning of 
 the great religion, for it is in reality only one, which it proposes to describe." — 
 Modern Rcriew. 
 
 " The merit of the work has been emphatically recognised by the most authoritative 
 Orientalists, both in this country and on the continent of Europe, and Messrs. Trtlb- 
 ner have done well in adding it to their 'Oriental Series.' But probably there are 
 few Indianists (if we may use the word) who would not derive a good deal of informa- 
 tion from it, and especially from the extensive bibliography provided in the notes.'' 
 — Dublin Review. 
 
 " . . . . Such a sketch M. Earth has drawn with a master hand, and his bold, clear 
 method of treating his difficult subject is scarcely marred by a translation which 
 would have rendered a less ijerspicuous style utterly incomprehensible." — Critic 
 iV'ciC York).
 
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 Post 8vo, pp. Tiii. — 152, cloth, price 6s. 
 
 HINDU PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 The SANKHYA KAEIKA of IS'WAEA KRISHNA. 
 
 An Exposition of the Sj'stem of Kapila, with an Appendix on the 
 Nyaya and Vais'eshika Sj'stems. 
 
 By JOHN DAVIES, M.A. (Cantab.), M.R.A.S. 
 
 The system of Kapihi is the earliest attempt on record to give an answer 
 from reason alone to the mysterious questions wliich arise in every thouglitful 
 mind about the origin of the world, the nature and relations of man and his 
 future destiny. It contains nearly all tliat India has produced in tlie dei)art- 
 nient of pure philosophy. Other systems, though classed as philosophic, are 
 mainly devoted to logic and phj'sical science, or to an exposition of the Vedas. 
 
 "Such a combination of words is discouraging to the non- Orientalist, but fortu- 
 nately for him he finds in Mr. Davies a patient and learned gu'de who leads him into 
 the intricacies of tlie jjliilosophy of India, and supplies him with a clue, that he may 
 not be lost in them — nay more, j^oints out to him the similarity between the 
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 and Explanations. Bv the Rev. Ernst Faber, Rhenish Mission Society. 
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 MuNAVA-DHAEMA-CasTRA ; or, Laws of Manu. A new Translation, 
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 JiiTDPHisT Records of the Western "World. Being the Si-yit-ki by 
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 CoxTENTS — I. Vajra-chliedikft, the "Kin Kong King," or Diamond Sutra. Translated from 
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 " Mo ho-po-ye-po-lo-mih-to-sin-king," i.e. "The Great Paramita Heart SOtra." Translated 
 from the Chinese by the Rev. S. Beal, Chaplain, R.N. — III. On the Preservation of National 
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 Financial, and Military Statistics of Ceylon. By E. R. Power, Esq. — V. Contributions to a 
 Knowledge of the Vedic Theogony and Mythology. By J. Muir, D.C.L., LL.D. — VI. A Tabular 
 List of Original Works and Translations, published by" the late Dutch Government of Ceylon at 
 their Printing Press at Colombo. Compiled by Mr. Mat. P. J. Ondaatje, of Colombo. — VII 
 Assyrian and Hebrew Chronology compared, with a view of showing the extent to which the 
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 J. W. Bosanquet, Esq. — VIII. On the existing Dictionaries of the Malay Language. By Dr. 
 H. N. van der Tuuk. — IX. Bilingual Readings : Cuneiform and Phoenician. Notes on some 
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 Major-General SirH.Rawlinson, K.C.B., Director R. A. S.—X. Translations of Three Copper-plate 
 Inscriptions of the Fourth Century a.d., and Notices of the Chalukya and Gurjjara Dynasties 
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 Life, according to the Rig-Yajur-, and Atharva-Vedas. By J. Muir, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D.— XII. 
 On the Jyotislia Observation of the Place of the Colures, and the Dale derivable from it. By 
 
 illiara D. Whitney, Esq., Professor of Sanskrit in Yale College, New Haven, U.S. — Note on 
 the preceding Article. By Sir Edward Colebrooke, Bart., M.P., President R.A.S.— XIII. Pro- 
 gress of the Vedic Religion towards Abstract Conceptions of the Deity. By J. Muir, Esq., 
 D.C.L., LL.D.— XIV. Brief Notes on the Age and Authenticity of the Woik of Aryabhaia, 
 Varnhamihira, Brahmagupta, Bliattotpala, and Bhaskaracharya. By Dr. Bhau D.aji, Hono- 
 rary Member R.A.S.— XV. Outlines of a Grammar of the Malagasy Language. By H. N. Van 
 der Tuuk.— XVI. On the Identity of Xandrames and Krananda. By Edward Thomas, Esq. 
 
 Vol. II. In Two Parts, pp. 522, sewed. 1S66-7. 16s. 
 
 Contents. — I. Contributions to a Knowledge of Vedic Theogony and Mythology. No. 2. 
 By J. Muir, Esq. —II. Miscellaneous Hymns from the Rig- and Atharva-Vedas. By J. ;\Iuir, 
 Esq. — III. Five hundred questions on the Social Condition of the Natives of Bengal. By the 
 Rev. J. Long. — IV. Short account of tlie Malay Manuscripts belonging to the Royal Asiatic 
 Society. By Dr. H. N. van der Tuuk. — V. Translation of the Amitabtia Sutra from the Chinese. 
 By the Rev. S. Beal, Chaplain Royal Navy. — VI. The initial coinage of Bengal. By Edward 
 Thomas, Esq. — VII. Specimens of an Assyrian Dictionary. By Edwin Norris, Esq.— VIII. On 
 the Relations of the Priests to the other classes of Indian Society in the Vedic age. By .1. Muir, 
 Esq.— IX. On the Interpretation of the Veda. By the same. — X. An attempt to Translate 
 from the Chinese a work known as the Confessional Services of the great compassionate Kwan 
 Yin, possessing 1000 hands and 1000 eyes. By the Rev. S. Beal, Chaplain Royal Navy. 
 — XI. The Hymns of the Gaupayanas and the Legend of King .Asamati. By Professor Max 
 Miiller, M. A., "Honorary Member Royal Asiatic Society.— XII. Specimen Chapters of an Assyrian 
 Grammar. By the Rev. E. Hincks, D. D., Honorary Member Royal Asiatic Society. 
 
 Vol. III. In Two Parts, pp. 516, sewed. With Photograph. 1868. 22s. 
 
 Contents. — I. Contributions towards a Glossary of the Assyrian Language. By II. F. Talbot. 
 —II. Remarks on the Indo-Chinese Alphabets. By Dr. "a. Bastian.— III. The poetrv of 
 Mohamed Rabadan, Arragonese. By the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley.— IV. Catalogue of the Oriental 
 Manuscripts in the Library of King's College, Cambridge. By Edward Henry Palmer, B.A , 
 Scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge ; Member of the Royal Asiatic Society , Membre de la 
 Societe Asiatique de Paris.— V. Description of the Amravati tope in Guntur. By J. Fergussou, 
 Esq., F.R.S.— VI. Remarks on Prof. Brockhaus' edition of the Kathasarit-Ragara, Lambaka IX. 
 XSIIl. By Dr. H. Kern, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Leyden.— VII. The source 
 of Colebrooke's Essay " On the Duties of a Faithful Hindu Widow." By Fitzedward Hall, Esq., 
 M.A., D.C.L. Oxon. Supplement: Further detail of proofs that Colebrooke's Essay, "On the 
 Duties of a Faithful Hindu Widow," was not indebted to the Vivadabhangarnava. By Fitz- 
 edward Hall, Esq.— VIII. The Sixth Hymn of the First Book of the Rig Veda. By Profes.sor 
 Alax MuUer, M.A. Hon. M.R.A.S.— IX. Sassanian Inscriptions. By E. Thomas, Esq.— X. Ac- 
 count of an Embassy from Morocco to Spain in 1G90 and KiOl. By the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley.— 
 XI. The Poetry of Mohamed Rabadan, of Arragon. By the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley.— XII. 
 Materials for the History of India for the Six Hundred Years of Mohammadan rule, previous to 
 the Foundation of the British Indian Empire. By Major W. Nassau Lees, LL.D., Ph.D.— XIII. 
 A Few Words concerning the Hill people inhabitimr the Forests of the Cochin State. By 
 Captain G. E. Frvcr, Madras Staff Corps, .M.R.A.S.— XIV. Notes on the Bhojpurf Dialect of 
 Hindi, spoken in Western Behar. By John Beames, Esq., B.C.S., Magistrate of Cliuniparun. 
 
 Vol. IV. In Two Parts, pp. 521, sewed. 18G9-70. 16s. 
 
 Contents.— I. Contribution towards a Glossary of the Assyrian Language. By H.F.Talbot. 
 Part II.— II. On Indian Chronology. By J. Fergusson, Esq., F.R.S.— III. The Poetry of 
 Mohamed Rabadan of Arragon. By the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley.— IV. On the Magar Language 
 of Nepal. By John Beames, Esq., B.C.S.—V. Contributions to the Knowledge of Parsee Lite- 
 rature. By Edward Sachau, Ph.D.- VI. Illustrations of the Lamaist System in Tibet, drawn 
 from Chinese Sources. By Wm. Frederick Mayers, Esq., of H.B.M. Consular Service, China.—
 
 8 Linguistic Publications of Truhner ^ Co., 
 
 VII. Khuddaka P5tha, a PSli Text, with a Translation and Notes. By R. C. Childers, late of 
 the Ceylon Civil Service. — VIII. An Endeavour to elucidate Riishidnddin's Geofrrapliical Notices 
 of India. By Col. H. Yule, C.B.— IX. Sassanian Inscriptions explained by the Pahlavi of the 
 Parsis. By E. W. West, Esq.— X. Some Account of the .Senbyu Pag-odaat Mens^un, near the 
 Burmese Capital, in a Memorancium by Capt. E. II. Shulan, Political A^ent at MandalC-; with 
 Remarks on the Subject by Col. Henry Yule, C.B. — XI. The Brhat-Sanhita ; or. Complete 
 System of Natural Astrology of Varaha-Mihira. Translated from Sanskrit into English by Dr. 
 H. Kern. — XII. The Mohammedan Law of Evidence, and its influence on the Administration of 
 Justice in India. By N. B. E. Baillie, Esq.— XIII. The Mohammedan Law of Evidence in con- 
 nection with the Administration of Justice to Foreifrners. Bv N. B. E. Baillie, Esq.— XI V. .V 
 Translation of a Bactrian Pali Inscription. By ProL J. Dowson.— XV. Indo-Parthian Coins 
 By £. Thomas, Esq. 
 
 Vol. V. In Two Parts, pp. 463, sewed. With 10 full-page and folding Plates. 
 1871-2. 18s. 6f/. 
 
 Contents.— I. Two JStakas. The original Pali Text, with an English Translation. By V. 
 FausbolL— II. On an Ancient Buddhist Inscription at Keu-yung kwan, in North China. By A. 
 Wylie.— III. The Brhat Sanhita ; or. Complete Svstem of Natural Astrology of Varaha-Mihira 
 Translated from Sanskrit into English by Ur. H. Kern.— IV. The Pongol Festival in Soutliern 
 India. By Charles E. Cover.— V. The Poetry of Mohamed Rabadan, of Arragon. By the Right 
 Hon. Lord Stanley of Alderley.— VI. Essay on the Creed and Customs of the Jangams. By 
 Charles P. Brown.— VII. On Malabar, Coromandel, Quilon, etc. By C. P. Brown.— VIII. On 
 the Treatment of the Nexus in the Neo-Aryan Languages of India. By John Beames, B.C.S.— 
 IX. Some Remarks on the Great Tope at Sanchi. By the Rev. S. Beal.— X. Ancient Inscriptions 
 from Mathura. Translated by Professor J. Dowson.— Note to the Mathura Inscriptions. By 
 Major-General A. Cunningham.— XI. Specimen of a Translation of the Adi Granth. By Dr. 
 Ernest Trumpp. — XII. Notes on Dhammapada, with Special Reference to the Question of Nir- 
 vana. By R. C. Childers, late of the Ceylon Civil Service.— XIII. The Brhat-Sanhita ; or. 
 Complete System of Natural Astrology of Varaha-mihira. Translated from Sanskrit into English 
 by Dr. H. Kern.— XIV. On the Origin of the Buddhist Arthakathas. By the Mudliar L. Comrilla 
 Vijasinha, Government Interpreter to the Ratnapura Cuurt, Ceylon. With an Introduction by 
 R. C. Childers, late of the Ceylon Civil Service. — XV. The Poetry of Mohamed Rabadan, of 
 Arragon. By the Right Hon. Lord Stanley of Alderley.— XVI. Proverbia Communia Syriaca. 
 By Captain R. F. Burton. XVII. Notes on an Ancient Indian Vase, with an Account of tiie En- 
 graving thereupon. By Charles Home, M. R. A. S., late of the Bengal Civil Service.— XVIII. 
 The Bhar Tribe. By the Rev. M. A. Sherring, LL.D , Benares. Communicated by C. Home, 
 M.R.A.S., late B.C.S.— XIX. Of Jihad in Mohammedan Law, and its application to British 
 India. By N. B. E. Baillie. — XX. Comments on Recent Pehlvi Decipherments. With an Inci- 
 dental Sketch of the Derivation of Aryan Alphabets. And Contributions to the Early History 
 and Geography of Tabaristan. Illustrated by Coins. By E. Thomas, F.R.S. 
 
 Vol. VI., Part 1, pp. 212, sewed, with tv7o plates and a map. 1872. 8«. 
 
 Contents. — The Ishmaelites, and the Arabic Tribes who Conquered their Country. By A. 
 Sprenger. — A Brief Account of Four .Arabic Works on the History and Geography of Arabia. 
 By Captain S. B. Miles.— On the Methods of Disposing of the Dead at Llassa, Thibet, etc. By 
 Charles Home, late B.C.S. The Brhat-Sanhita; or. Complete System of Natural Astrology of 
 Varaha-mihira, Translated from Sanskrit into English by Dr. H. Kern.— Notes on Hwen 
 Thsang's Account of the Principalities of Tokhiiiistan, in which some Previous Geographical 
 Identifications are Reconsidered. By Colonel Yule, C.B. —The Campaign of ^lius Callus in 
 Arabia. By A. Sprenger.— An Account of Jerusalem, Translated for the late Sir H.M.Elliot 
 from the Persian Text of Nftsir ibn Khusrii's Safanamah by the late Major A. R. Fuller.— The 
 
 oetry of Jlohamed Rabadan, of Arragon. By the Right Hon. Lord Stanley of Alderley. 
 
 Vol. VI., Part II., pp. 213 to 400 and Ixxxiv., sewed. Illustrated vpith a Map, 
 Plates, and Woodcuts. 1873. 8s. 
 
 Contents. -On Hiouen-Thsang's Journey from Patna to Ballabhi. By James Fergusson, 
 D.C.L., F.R.S. — Northern Buddhism. [Note from Colonel H. Yule, addressed to the Secretary.] 
 — Hwen Thsang's .Account of the Princip.alities of TokhSristan, etc. By Colonel H. Yule, C.B. — 
 The Brhat-Sanhita; or. Complete System of Natural Astrology of Varaha-mihira. Translated 
 from Sanskrit into English by Dr. H. Kern.— The Initial Coinage of Bengal, under the Early 
 Muhammadan Conquerors. Part II. Embracing the preliminaiv period between a.h. 614-634 
 (a.d. 1217-1236-7). By Edward Thomas, F.R.S.— The Legend of Dipaiikara Buddha. Translated 
 from the Chinese (and intended to illustrate Plates xxix. and l., ' Tree and Serpent Worship '). 
 By S. Beal. — Note on Art. IX., ante pp. 213-274 on Hiouen-Thsang's Journey from Patna to 
 Ballabhi. By James Fergusson. D.C.L., F.R.S.— Contributions towards a Glossary of the 
 Assyrian Language. By H. F. Talbot. 
 
 Vol. VII., Part I., pp. 170 and 24, sewed. With a plate. 1874. 8s. 
 
 Contents. — The Upasampnda-Kammaraca, being the Btiddhist Manual of the Form and 
 Manner of Ordering of Priests and Deacons. The Pali Text, with a Translation and Notes. 
 By J. F. Dickson, B..A., sometime Student of Christ Church, Oxford, now of the Ceylon Civil 
 Service.— Notes on the Megalithic Monuments of the Coimbatore District, Madras. By M. J. 
 Walhouse, late Madras C.S. — Notes on the Sinhalese Language. No. 1. On the Formation of 
 the Plural of Neuter Nouns. By R. C. Childers, late of the Ceylon Civil Service.— The Pali 
 Text of the Mahdparinibbnna Sulfa and Commentary, with a Translation. By R. C. Childers, 
 late of the Ceylon Civil Service.— The Brihat-Sanhita ; or, Comi)lete System of Natural Astrology
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C. 9 
 
 of Varaha-mihira. Translated from Sanskrit into English by Dr. H. Kern. — Note on the 
 Valley of Choombi. By Dr. A. Campbell, late Superintendent of Darjeeling. — The Name of the 
 Twelfth Imam on the Coinage of Egypt. By 11. Sauvaire and Manley Lane Poole. — Three 
 Inscriptions of Parakrama Babu the Great from Pula^tipura, Ceylon (date circa 1180 A. u.). Hy 
 T. W. Rhys Davids.— Of the Kharaj or Muhammadan Land Tax ; its Application to British 
 India, and Effect on the Tenure of Land. By N. B. E. Baillie.— Appendi.N. : A Specimen of a 
 Syriac Version of the Kalilah wa-Dimnah, with an English Translation. By W. Wright. 
 
 Vol. VII., Part II., pp. 191 to 394, sewed. With seven plates and a map. 1875. 8» 
 Contents. — Sigiri, the Lion Rock, near Pulastipura, Ceylon ; and the Thirty-nintb Chapter 
 of the Mahavamsa. By T. W. Rhys Davids.— The Northern Frontagers of" China. Parti. 
 The Origines of the Mongols. By H. H. Howorth.— Inedited Arabic Coins. By Stanley Lan- 
 Poole.— Notice on the Dinars of the Abbas?ide Dynasty. By Edward Thomas Rogers.— The 
 Northern Frontagers of China. Part \\. The Origines of tlie Manchus. By H. H. Howorth. 
 —Notes on the Old Mongolian Capital of Shangtu. By S. W. Bushell, B.Sc, M.D.— Oriental 
 Proverbs in their Relations to Folklore, History, Sociology ; with Suggestions for their Collec- 
 tion, Interpretation, Publication. By the Rev. J. Long.— Two Old Simhalese Inscriptions. The 
 Sahasa Alalia Insciiption, date 1200 ad., and the Ruwanwceli Dagaba Inscription, date 1191 a.d. 
 Text, Translation, and Notes. By T. W.Rhys Davids. — Notes on a Bactrian Pali Inscription 
 and tlie Samvat Era. By Prof. J. Dowson. — Note on a Jade Drinking Vessel of the Emperor 
 Jahangir. By Edward Thomas, F.R.S. 
 
 Vol. VIII., Part I., pp. 156, sewed, with three plates and a plan. 1876. 8«. 
 
 Contents. — ^ Catalogue of Buddhist Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Possession of the Royal 
 .Asiatic Society (Hodgson Collection). By Professors E. B. Cowell and J. Eggeling.— On the 
 Ruins of Sigiri in Ceylon. By T. H. Blakesley, Esq., Public Works Department, Ceylon.— The 
 Patimokkha, being the Buddhist Office of tlie Confession of Priests. The Pali Text, with a 
 Translation, and Notes. By J F. Dickson, M.A.. sometime Student of Christ Church, Oxford, 
 now of the Ceylon Civil Service.— Notes on the Sinhalese Language. No. 2. Proofs of the 
 Sanskritic Origin of Sinhalese. By R. C. Childers, late of the Ceylon Civil Service. 
 
 Vol. VIII., Part II., pp. 157-308, sewed. 1876. 8.s. 
 
 Contents.— An Account of the Island of Bali. By R. Friederich.— The Pali Text of the Maha- 
 parinibbana Sutta and Commentary, with a Translation. By R C. Childers, late of the Ceylon 
 Civil Service. — The Northern Frontagers of China. Part ill. The Kara Khitai. By H. H. 
 Howorth. — Inedited Arabic Coins. II. By Stanley Lane Poole. — On the Form of Government 
 under the Native Sovereigns of Ceylon. By A. de Silva Ekanayaka, Mudaliyar of the Depart- 
 ment of Public Instruction, Ceylon. 
 
 Vol. IX., Fart I., pp. 156, sewed, with a plate. 1877. 8s. 
 
 CoNiENTS. — Bactrian Coins and Indian Dates. By E. Thomas, F.R.S. — The Tenses of the 
 Assyrian Verb. By the Rev. A. H. Sayce, M.A. — An Account of the Island of Bali. By R. 
 Friedericb (continued from Vol. VIII. n.s. p. 218). — On Ruins in Makran. By Alajor Mockler. 
 — Inedited Arabic Coins. III. By Stanley Lane Poole, — Further Note on a Bactrian Pali Inscrip- 
 tion and the Samvat Era. By Prof. J. Dowson. — Notes on Peisian Beluchistan. From the 
 Persian of Mirza Mehdy Khan. By A. H. Schindler. 
 
 Vol IX., Part II., pp. 292, sewed, with three plates. 1877. 10*. 6f/. 
 
 Contents.— The Early Faith of Asoka. By E. Thomas, F.R.S.— The Northern Frontagers 
 of China. Part II. The Manchus (Supplementary Notice). Bv H. II. Howorth. — The Northern 
 Frontagers of China. Part IV. The Kin or Golden Tatars, By H. H. Howorth. - On a Treatise 
 on Weights and Measures by Elivii, Archbishop of Nislbin. By JI. 11. Sauvaire.— On Imperial 
 and other Titles. By Si- T. E. Colebrooke, Bart., M.P.— Affinities of the Dialects of the Chepang 
 and Kusundah Tribes of Nipal with those of the Hill Tribes of Arracan. By Captain C. J. F. 
 Forbes F.R.G.S , M.A.S, Bengal, etc.— Notes on Some Anticiuities found in a Mound near 
 Damghan. By A. H. Schindler. 
 
 Vol. X., Part I., pp. 156, sewed, with two plates and a map. 1878. 8s. 
 
 Contents.- On the Non-Aryan Languages of India. By E. L. Brandrcth, Esq.— A Dialogue 
 on the Vedantic Conception of Brahma. By Pramada Dasa Mittra, late Officiating Professor of 
 Anglo-Sanskrit, Government College, Benares.— .An Account of the Island of Bali. By R. 
 Friederich (continued from Vol. IX. N. S. p. 120).— Unpubli.-^hcd Glass Weights and .Measures. 
 By Edward Thomas Rogers.— China via Tibet. By S. C. Boulger.— Notes and Recollections on 
 Tea Cultivation in Kumaon and Garhwal. By J. H. Batten, F.R.G.S., Bengal Civil Service 
 Retired, formerly Commissioner of Kumaon. 
 
 Vol. X., Part II., pp. U(), sewed. 1878. 6s, 
 
 Contents.— Note on Pliny's Geography of the East Coast of Arabia. By Major-fieneral 
 S. B. Miles, Bombay Stafi' Corpo. The Maldive Islands ; with a Vocabulary taken from Fran\'ois 
 Pyrard de Laval, l(i02— 1607. By A. Gray, late of the Ceylon Civil Strvice.- On Tibeto-Burinan 
 Languages. Bv Captain C. S. F. S. Forbes, of the Burmese Civil Service Commission. -Burmese 
 Transliteration! Bv H. L. St. Barbe, Esq., Resident at Mandclay.— On the Connexion of tlie 
 Mons of Pegu with' the Koles of Central India. By Captain C. .1. F. S. Forbes, of the Burmese 
 Civil Commission.— Studies on the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, with 
 Special Reference to .Assyrian. By Paul Haupt, The Oldest Semitic Verb-Form.— Arab Metro- 
 logy. II. ElDjabarty. By M. II. Sauvaire.— The Migrations and Early History of the White 
 Huns ; principally from Chinese Somccs. By Thomas W. Kingsmill. 
 Vol. X., Part III., pp. 204, sewed. 1878. 8s. 
 
 Contents.- On the Hill Canton of Sdlar,— the most Easterly Settlement of the Turk Race.
 
 10 Linguistic Publications of Trilbner ^' Co., 
 
 By Robert B. Shaw. - Geoloffieal Notes on the River Indus. By Griffin W. Vyse, B.A., M.R.A.S., 
 etc., Executive Engineer P.W.D. Punjab. — Educational Literature for Japanese Women. By 
 Basil Hall Chamberlain, Esq., M.R.A.ri.— On the Natural Phenomenon Known in the East by 
 the Names Sub-hi-Kazib, etc., etc. By J. W. Rcdhousc, M.R.A.S., Hon. Memb. R.S.L.— On 
 a Chinese Version of the SSnkhya KArikA, etc., found among the Buddhist Books comprising 
 the Tripitaka and two other works. By the Rev. Samuel Beal, M.A.— The Rock-cut Phrygian 
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 Biddulph. — Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh. By Major J. Biddulph, 
 B.S.C., Political Officer at Gilgit. Svo. pp. 340, cloth. 1880. 15s.
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.G. 21 
 
 Blochmann. — School Geography of India and British Eurmah. By 
 
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 Bombay Code, 'The. — Consistins: of the Unrepealed Bombay Regula- 
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 Governor of Bombay in Council. With Chronological Table, lloyal 8vo. pp. 
 xxiv.— 774, cloth. 1880. £1 Is. 
 
 Bretschneider. — Notes on Chinese Mediaeval Travellers to the 
 West. By E. Bretschneider, M.D. Demy 8vo. sd., pp. 130. os. 
 
 Bretschneider. — On the Knowledge Possessed by the Ancient 
 
 Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Coloxies, and other Western Coun- 
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 of the Russian Legation at Peking. 8vo. pp. 28, sewed. 1871. Is. 
 
 Bretschneider. — Notices of the Medieval Geography and History 
 
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 By E. Bretschneider, M.D. 8vo. sewed, pp. 233, with two Maps. 1876. 12s. 6d. 
 
 Bretschneider. — Arch^ological and Historical Researches on 
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 Bretschneider. — Botanicon Sinicum. Notes ou Chinese Botany, from 
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 228, wrapper. 1882. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Budge. — Assyrian Texts. See p. 47. 
 
 Budge. — History of Esarhaddon. See " Triibner's Oriental 
 Series, p. 4. 
 
 Biihler. — Eleven Land-Grants of the Chaulukyas of Anhilvad. 
 
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 May, 1874. By James Bukgess. With 56 photographs and lith. plates. 
 Royal 4to. pp. viii. and 45. 1875. £2 2s. 
 
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 With Map, Inscriptions, Photographs, etc. Roy. 4to. half bound, pp. x. and 
 242. 1876. £3 3s. 
 
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 price 6s. ; or with Thirteen Photographs, price £1.
 
 22 Linguistic Publications of TriVmcr (f- Co., 
 
 Burnell. — Elements of Sotjth Indian PALiEOGEAPHT. From the 
 
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 and Enlarged Edition, 35 Plates and Map. 4to. pp. xiv. and 148. 1878. 
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 Carpenter. — The Last Days in England of the Ra-tah RAMMomiN 
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 272, cloth. 7s. 6cl. 
 
 Cesnola. — The History, Treasttres, and Antiquities of Salahis, 
 IN THE Island of Cyprus. By A. P. Di Cesnola, F.S.A. With an 
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 Seven Hundred Illustrations and Map of Ancient Cyprus. Eoyal 8vo. pp. 
 xlviii.-325, cloth, 1882. £1 ll<s. 6d. 
 
 Chamberlain. — Japanese Poetry. See " Triibner's Oriental Series," 
 page 4. 
 
 Chattopadhyaya. — The Yatras ; or the Popuhir Dramas of Bengal. 
 
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 Clarke. — The English Stations in the Hill Regions of India : their 
 Value and Importance, with some Statistics of their Produce and Trade. By 
 Hyde Clarke, V.P.S.S. Post 8vo. paper, pp. 48. 1881. Is. 
 
 Colebrooke. — The Life and Miscellaneoits Essays of Henry Thomas 
 
 Colebrookf. In 3 vols. Demy 8vo. cloth. 1873. Vol.1. The Biography by 
 his Son, Sir T. E. Colebrooke, Bart., M.P. With Portrait and Map. pp. sii. 
 and4i)2. 14s. Vols. 11. and III. The Essays. A New Edition, with Notes 
 by E. B. CowELL, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Cambridge, 
 pp. xvi.-544, and X.-520. 28s. 
 
 Crawford. — Recollections of Travels in New Ze.vland and Australia. 
 By J. C. Crawford, F.G.S., Resident Magistrate, Wellington, etc., etc. With 
 Maps and Illustrations. 8vo. cloth, pp. xvi. and 468. 1880. 18s. 
 
 Cunningham. — Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Yol. I. Inscrip- 
 tions of Asoka. Prepared by Alexander Cunningham, C.S.L, etc. 4to. 
 cloth, pp. xiv. 142 and vi., with 31 plate*. 1879. a2s. 
 
 Cunningham. — The Stupa of Bhaehut. A Buddhist Monument, 
 ornamented with numerous Sculptures illustrative of Buddhist Legend and 
 History in the third century B.C. By Alkxander Cunningham, C.S.L, CLE., 
 Director-General Archseological Survey of India, etc. Eoyal 4to. cloth, gilt, 
 pp. viii. and l*^, with 51 Photographs and Lithographic Plates. 1879. £3 3s. 
 
 Cunningham. — The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist 
 
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 By Alexander Cunningham, Major-General, Eoyal Engineers (Bengal Re- 
 tired). With thirteen Maps. 8vo. pp. xx. 590, cloth. 1870. 28s. 
 
 Cunningham. — Arch^ological Survey of India. Reports, made 
 
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 to 1881. By R. N. Cust, late of H.M. Indian Civil Service, and Hon. Sec, 
 to the Royal Asiatic Society. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. x. and 346. 1881. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Cust. — East Indian Languages. See " Triibner's Oriental Series," 
 page 3. 
 
 Cust. — Linguistic and Oriental Essays. See " Triibner's Oriental 
 Series," page 4.
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E. C. 28 
 
 Dalton. — Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal. By Edward Tuite 
 
 Dalton, C.S.I., Colonel, Bengal Staff Corps, etc. Illustrated by Lithograph 
 Portraits copied from Photographs, ^i. Lithograph Plates. 4to. half- calf, 
 pp. 340. £6 Qs. 
 
 Da Cunha. — Xotes on the History and Antiquities of Chaul and 
 
 Bassein. By J. Gerson da Cunha, M.R.C.S. and L.M. Eng., etc. 8vo. 
 cloth, pp. xvi. and 262. With 17 photographs, 9 plates and a map. £\ 5s. 
 
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 Davids. — Coins, etc., of Ceylon. See " Numismata Orientala," Vol. 
 I. Part VI. 
 
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 those countries, together with Pekin, Yeddo, Hong Kong, and Macao ; forming 
 a Guide Book and Vade Mecum for Travellers, Merchants, and Residents in 
 general; with -56 Maps and Plans. By W. F. Mayers, F. R.G.S. H.lNI.'s 
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 C. King, Lieut. Roj'al Marine Artillery. Edited by N. B. Dennys. 
 Svo. pp. 600, cloth. £2 2s. 
 
 Dowson. — Dictionary of Hindu Mythology, etc. See " Triibner's 
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 Duncan. — Geography of India, comprising a Descriptive Outline of 
 all India, and a Detailed Geographical, Commercial, Social, and Political Ac- 
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 Tenth Edition (Revised and Corrected to date ft'oni the latest UiBcial Infor- 
 mation). 18mo. limp cloth, pp. viii. and 182. 1880. Is. 6d. 
 
 Egerton. — An Illustrated Handbook of Indian Arms ; being a 
 Classified and Descriptive Catalogue of the Arms exhibi'ed at the India 
 Museum ; with an Introductory Sketch of the Military History of India. ])V 
 thellon. W. Egerton,M.A.,M.P. 4to. sewed, pp. viii. and 162. 1880. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Elliot. — Memoirs on the History, Folklore, and Distribution op 
 THE Races of the North Western Provinces of India ; being aa 
 amplified Edition of the original Supplementary Glossary of Indian Terms. 
 By the late Sir Henry M. Elliot, K.C.B., of the Hon. E. India Co.'s H.C.S. 
 Edited, revised, and re-arrangtd, by John Beames, M.K.A.S., B.C.S., etc.; 
 In 2 vols, demy 8vo., pp. xx., 370, and 396, cloth. With two Plates, and four 
 coloured Maps. 1869. 36i-. 
 
 Elliot. — The History of India, as told by its own Historians. The 
 Muhamraadan Period. Com))lete in Eight Vols. Edited from the I'osthumous 
 Papers of the late Sir II. M. Elliot, K.C.B., E. India Co.'s B.C.S., by 
 Prof. J. DoAVsoN, M.R.A.S., Staff College, Sandhurst. Svo. cloth. 1867-1877. 
 
 Vol.I.pp xxxii.and,542. £4 4«.— Vol. II. pp. x. and ."iSO. I8s.— Vol. III. pp. xii. 
 and 627. 24s.— Vol. IV pp. x. and 563. 21s.— Vol. V. pp. xii. and 576. 2Is. 
 —Vol. VI. pp. viii. and 574. 21s.— Vol. VII. pp. viii. and 574. 2Is.— 
 Vol. VIII. pp. xxxii., 444, and Ixviii. 24^. 
 
 Farley. — Egypt, Cyprus, and Asiatic Turkey. By J. L. Farley, 
 
 Authorof "J'he Resources ot Turkey,'' etc. Demy 8vo. cl., pp. xvi. -270. 1878. 
 lOs. 6d. 
 
 Featherman. — The Social History of the Races of Mankind. Yol. 
 V. The Aramaeans. By A. Featherman. To be completed in about Ten 
 Volumes. Svo. cloth, pp. xvii. and 664. £1 Is. 
 
 Fenton. — Early HEBitEw Life : a Study in Sociology. By John 
 Fenton, Svo. cloth, pp. sxiv. and J 02. 1880. 5s.
 
 24 Linguistic Publications of Tnlhner 8f Co., 
 
 Fergusson and Burgess. — The Cave Temples of India. By James 
 Fkkgusson, D.C.L., F.Ii.S., and James Bukgess, F.R.G.S, Imp. 8vo. half 
 bound, pp. XX. and 536, with 98 Plates. £''2 '2.v. 
 
 Fergusson. — Thee axu Sekpext WoEsniP ; or, Illustrations of Mytho- 
 logy and Art in India in the First and Fourth Centuries after Christ. From 
 the Sculptures of the Buddhist Topes at Sanc'ii and Amravati. Secdnd 
 Edition, revised, corrected and in great part re- written. By J. Fergusson, 
 D.C.L., F.K.S., M.R.AS., etc. 4to. half bound pp. xvi. and 276, with 101 
 plates. 1873. £5 5s. 
 
 Fornander — An Account of the Polynesian Race: Its Ono:in and 
 
 Migration, and the Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of 
 Kamehameha I. By A. Fornanuer, Circuit Judge of the Island of Maui, 
 H.I. Post 8vo. cloth. Vol. I., pp. xvi. and 248. 1877. Is.&d. Vol.11., 
 pp. viii. and 400, cloth. 1880. iOs. 6(^. 
 
 Forsyth. — Eepoet of a Mission to Tarkund in 1873, under Command 
 of Sir T. D. Forsyth, K.C.S I., C.B., Bengal Civil Service, with Historical 
 and Geographical Information regarding the Possessions of the Ameer of 
 Yurkund. With 45 Photographs, 4 Lithographic Plates, and a large Folding 
 Map of Eastern Turkestan. 4to. cloth, pp. iv. and 573. £n bs. 
 
 Gardner. — Parthian Coinage, See "Numismata Orientalia. Yol. I. 
 Part V. 
 
 Garrett. — A Classical Dictionakt of India, illustrative of the My- 
 thology, Philosophy, Literature, Antiquities, Arts, Manners, Customs, etc., of 
 the Hindus. By John Garrktt. 8vo. pp. x. and 798. cloth. 28s. 
 
 Garrett. — Supplement to the above Classicax Dictionary of India. 
 
 By John Garrett, Director of Public Instruction at Mysore. 8vo. cloth, pp. 
 160. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Gazetteer of the Central Provinces of India. Edited by Charles 
 Grant, Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Central Provinces. Second 
 Edition. With a very large folding Map of the Central Provinces of India. 
 Demy 8vo. pp. clvii. and 582, cloth. 1870. £1 4«. 
 
 Geiger. — Contributions to the History of the Development of the 
 
 Human Race. Lectures and Dissertations by Lazarus Geiger. Translated 
 from the German by David Asher, Ph.D. Post 8vo. cloth, pp. x. and 156. 
 1880. 6s. 
 
 Goldstiicker. — On the Deficiencies in the Present Administration 
 
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 sociation on the 8th June, 1870. By Theodor Goldstucker, Professor of 
 Sanskrit in University College, London, &c. Demy 8vo. pp. 56, sewed. 1*. 6d. 
 
 Gover. — The Folk-Songs of Southern India. By Charles E. Gover. 
 
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 Griffin. — The Rajas of the Punjab. Being the History of the Prin- 
 cipal States in the Punjab, and their Political Relations with the British Govern- 
 ment. By Lepel H. Griffin, Bengal Civil Service; Under Secretary to the 
 Government of the Punjab, Author of " The Punjab Chiefs," etc. Second 
 edition. Royal 8vo., pp. xiv. and 630. 1873. 21s. 
 
 Griffis. — The Mikado's Empire. Book I. History of Japan from 
 660 B.C. to 1872 a.d. Book II. Personal Experiences, Observations, and 
 Studies in Japan, 1870-74. By W. E. Griffis. Illustrated. 8vo cl., pp. 
 626. 1877. £1. 
 
 Growse. — Mathura : A District Memoir. By F. S. Growse, B.C.S., 
 M.A., Oxon. C.I.K., Fellow of the Calcutta University. Second Edition. 
 Illustrated, Revised, and Enlarged. 4to. boards, pp. xxiv.and 520. 1880. 42s.
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E.G. Q5 
 
 Hahn. — Tsuni||Goam. See Triibner's Oriental Series, page 5. 
 
 Head. — Coinage of Ltdia ai^d Persia. See " Numismata Orientalia." 
 Vol. I, Part III. 
 
 Hebrew Literature Society. See page 71. 
 
 Hodgson. — Essays ox the Languages, Literature, and Religion 
 OF Nepal and Tibet ; together with further Papers on the Geography, 
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 Hodgson. — Essays o^ Indian Subjects. See "Triibner's Oriental 
 
 Series,'' p. 4. 
 
 Hunter. — The Imperial Gazetteer of India. By W. W. Hunter, 
 
 C.I.E., LL.D., Director- General of Statistics to the Government of India. 
 
 Published by Command of the Secretary of State for India. 9 vols. 8vo. 
 
 half morocco. 1881. £3 3s. 
 
 " A great work has been unostentatiously carried on for the last twelve years in India, the 
 
 importance of which it is impossible to exa.S!?erate. This is nothing- less than a complete 
 
 stiitistical survey of the entire British Empire in Hindostan. . . . We have said enough to show 
 
 that the ' Imperial Gazetteer ' is no mere dry collection of statistics ; it is a treasury from whicli 
 
 the politician and economist may draw countless stores of valuable information, and into which 
 
 the general reader can dip with the certainty ol always finding something both to interest and 
 
 instruct him."— Times. 
 
 Hunter. — A Statistical Account of Bengal. By"W. W. Hunter, B.A., 
 LL.D. Director-General of Statistics to the Government of India. 
 
 VOL. VOL. 
 
 I. 24 Parganas and Sundarbans. 
 II. Nadiya and Jessor. 
 'III. Midnapur, Hugli and Hourah. 
 IV. Bardwan, Birlihiira and BankurS. 
 v. Dacca, Bakargauj, Faridpur and Mai- 
 
 mansinh. 
 VI. Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cbitt^igor.g, 
 Noakhali, Tipperah, and Hill Tipperah 
 State. 
 VII. Meldah, Rangpur and Dinajpur. 
 VIIL RajshShf and Bogra. 
 IX. Murshidabad and Pabna. 
 
 X. Dsirjiling, Jalpaigurl and Kuch Behar 
 XI. Patna and Saran. [Slate. 
 
 XII. Gaya and Shahabiid. 
 
 XIII. Tirhut and Chanipdran. 
 
 XIV. Bhagalpur and Santal ParganSs. 
 XV. Monghyr and Purniah. 
 
 XVL Hazaril)agh and Lohardagd. 
 XVII. Singbhiim. Cbutia, Nagpur Tributary 
 
 States and Manbhiim. 
 XVIII. Cuttack and Balasor. 
 XIX. Puri, andOrissa Tributary States. 
 XX. Fisheries, Botany, and General Index 
 
 Published by cooimand of the Government of India. In 20 Vols. 8vo. half- 
 morocco. £5. 
 
 Hunter. — A Statistical Account of Assam. By "W". W. Hunter, 
 
 B.A., LL.D., CLE., Director-General of Statistics to the Government of 
 India, etc. 2 vols. 8vo. half morocco, pp. 420 and 490, with Two Maps. 
 
 1879. 10s. 
 
 Hunter. — Famine Aspects of Bengal Districts. A System of Famine 
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 7s. 6d. 
 
 Hunter. — The Indian Musalmans. By W. W. Hunter, B.A., LL.T)., 
 
 Director-General of Statistics to tlie Government of India, etc.. Author of "The 
 Annals of Kural Bengal," etc. Third Edition. 8vo. cloth, pp. 219. 1870. 
 10.S. (id. 
 
 Hunter. — An Account of the British Settlement of Aden 
 
 in Arabia. Compiled by Captain V. M. HuntkK, F.K.G.S., F.R.A.S., 
 Assistant Political Resident, Aden. Demy 8vo. half-morocco, pp. xii.-232. 
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 Hunter. — Indian Empire. See Triibner's Oriental Series, page 5. 
 
 Japan. — Map of Nippon (Japan) : Compiled from Native Maps, and 
 the Notes of recent Travellers. By 11. II. Bkunton, M.I C.E., F.E.G.S. 
 
 1880. In 4 sheets, 2Ii. ; roller, varnished, £1 Us. (5d.; Folded, in case, 
 £1 bs. (id.
 
 26 Linguistic Publications of Triibner ^ Co., 
 
 Leitner. — Sinin-T-Islam. Beinnj a Sketch of the History and 
 
 Literature of Muhammadanism and their place in Universal History. For the 
 use of Maulvis. By G. W. Leitner. Part I. The I'.arly History of Arabia 
 to the fall of the Abassides. 8vo. sewed. Lahore. 6«. 
 
 Leland.— Ftjsang ; or, the Discovery of America by Chinese Buddhist 
 Priests in the Fifth Century. By Charles G. Leland. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. 
 xix. and 212. 187o. 7s. &^l. 
 
 Leland. — The Gypsies. See page 69. 
 
 Leonowens. — The Romance of Siamese Hakem Life. By Mrs. Ani^a 
 
 H. Leonowens, Author of " 'I'he P^nglish Governess at the Siamese Court." 
 With 17 Illustrations, principally from Photographs, by the j)ermission of J. 
 Thomson, Esq. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. viii. and 278. 1873. 14s. 
 
 Leonowens. — The English Goveexess at the Siamese Cotjet : 
 
 being Recollections of six years in the Eoyal Palace at Bangkok. By Anna 
 Hahkiette LeonoiVens. With Illustrations from Photographs presented to 
 the Author by the King of Siam. 8vo. cloth, pp. x. and 3-32. 1870 12s. 
 
 Lillie. — Buddha axd Eaely Buddhism. See page 35. 
 
 Long. — Eastern Proverbs and Emblems. See Tiijbner's Oriental 
 Series, page 4. 
 
 Linde. — Tea ix Ixdia. A Sketch, Index, and Register of the Tea 
 
 Industry in India, published together with a Map of all the Tea Districts, etc. 
 By F. LixDE, Surveyor, Compiler of a ]\Iap of the Tea Localities of Assam, 
 etc. Folio, wrapper, pp. xxii. -30, map mounted and in cloth boards. 1879. 635; 
 
 McCrindle. — The Commerce and Navigation of the Eiythraean Sea. 
 Being a Translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraei, by an Anonymous Writer, 
 and of Arrian's Account of the Voyage of Nearkhos, from the Mouth of the 
 Indus to the Head of the Persian Gulf. With Introduction, Commentary, 
 Notes, and Index. Post 8vo. cloth, pp. iv. and 238. 1879. 7s. 6rf. 
 
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 Aerian. Being a Translation of the Fragments of the Indika of Megasthenes 
 collected by Dr. Schwanberk, and of the First Part of the Indika of Arrian. 
 By J. W. AIcCrixdle, M.A., Principal of the Government College, Patna, 
 etc. With Introduction, Notes, and Map of Ancient India. Post 8vo. cloth, 
 pp. xii.-224. 1877. 7s. Hd. 
 
 McCrindle. — Ancient India as described by Ktesias, the Knidian, 
 
 being a translation of the abridgment of his "Indica," by Photios, and the 
 fragments of that work preserved in other writers. By J. W. AIcCrindle, 
 M.A., M.R.A.S. With Introduction, Notes, and Index. 8vo. cloth, pp. viii. 
 —104. 1882. 6s. 
 
 Madden. — Coins oe the Jews. See " Numismata Orientalia." Yol. II. 
 
 Malleson. — Essays and Lectuees on Indian Histoeical Subjects. By 
 Colonel G. B. Malleson, C.S.I. Second Issue. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. 348. 
 1876. 5s. 
 
 Markham. — The Naeeatives of the Mission of Geoege Bogle, 
 B.C.S., to the Teshu Lama, and of the Journey of Thomas Maiming to Lhasa. 
 Edited, with Notes and Introduction, and lives of Mr. Bogle and Mr. Manning, 
 by Clements E. Markham, C.B., F.R.S. Second Edition. Demy 8vo., with 
 Maps and Illustrations, pp. clxi. 314, el. 1879. 21s. 
 
 Marsden's Numismata Orientalia. New International Edition. 
 8ee under Numismata Ohientaha.
 
 57 mid 59, Liodgate Hill, London, B.C. 27 
 
 Matthews. — Ethnology and PniLOLOGT of the Hidatsa Txdiaxs. 
 
 By Washington Matthews, Assistant Surgeon, U.S. Army. Cotitciits : — 
 Ethnography, Philology, Grammar, Dictionary, and English- Hidatsa Voca- 
 bulary. 8vo. cloth. £1 lis. Gd. 
 
 Mayers. — Treaties between the Empire of China and Foreign Powers. 
 Together with Regulations for the Conduct of Foreign Trades. By W. F. 
 Mayers, Chinese Secretary to H. B. M.'s Legation at Peking. 8vo. pp. viii. 
 225 and xi. 1«77. Cloth £2. 
 
 Mayers. — China and Japan. See Dennts. 
 
 Metcalfe. — The Ei^glishman and the Scandin avian ; or, a Comparison 
 of Anglo-Saxon and Old Norse Literature. By Frederick Metcalfe. M.A., 
 Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford ; Translator of " Gallus" and " Uharicles; " 
 and Author of " The Oxonian in Iceland. Post 8vo. cloth, pp. 512. 1880. 18s. 
 
 Mitra. — The ANHQniiES of Omssa. By Rajendealala Mitra. 
 Published under Orders of the Government of India. Folio, cloth. Vol. L 
 pp. 180. With a Map and 3G Plates. 1875. £Q 6s. Vol. IL pp. vi. and 178. 
 1880. M 4s. 
 
 Mitra — Buddha Gata ; the Hermitage of Sakya Muni. By Rajen- 
 dralala MiTBA, LL.D., CLE. 4to. cloth, pp. xvi. and 258, with 51 plates. 
 1878. £Z. 
 
 Moor. — The Hindu Pantheon. By Edward Moor, F.R.S. A new 
 edition, with additional Plates, Condensed and Annotated by the Hev. W. O. 
 Simpson. 8vo. cloth, pp. xiii. and 401, with 62 Plates. 186-1. £^. 
 
 Morris. — A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Godavery 
 
 District in the Presidency of Madras By Henry Morris, formerly of the 
 Madras Civil Service. Author of a "History of India for Use in Schools" 
 and other works. 8vo. cloth (with a map), pp. xii. and 390. 1878. Vis. 
 
 Notes, Rough, of Journeys made in the years 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, 
 1872, 1873, in Syria, down the Tigris, India, Kashmir, Cejlon, Japan, Mon- 
 golia, Siberia, the United States, the Sandwich Islands, and Australasia. 
 Demy 8vo. ]ip. 624, cloth. 1875. 14s. 
 
 Numismata Orientalia. — The International Numismata Orientalia. 
 
 Edited by Edward Thomas, F.R.S., etc. Vol. I. Illustrated with 20 Plates 
 and a Map. Royal 4to. cloth. 1878. £Z los. &d. 
 
 Also in 6 Parts sold separately, viz.: — 
 
 Part T. — Ancient Indian Weights. By E. Thomas, F. R.S., etc. Royal 4to. sewed, 
 pp. 84, with a Plate and a Map of the India of Manu. 9s. 6d. 
 
 Part II. — Coins of the Urtuki Turkumans. By Stanley Lane Poole, Corpus 
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 Archaic Characters. Georgian. Japanese. Sanscrit. 
 
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 Chinese. Hieratic. OldSlavonic(orCyrillic). Tibetan. 
 
 Coptic. Hieroglyphics. Palmyrenian. Turkish. 
 
 Croato-Glagolitic. Hebrew. Persian. Wallachian. 
 
 Cufic. Ilrbrew (Archaic). Persian Cuneiform. Wendish (or Sorbian). 
 
 Cyrillic(or01d Slavonic). Hebrew (Rabbinical). Phffiuician. Zend.
 
 40 Linguistic Publications of Truh77er b; Co. 
 
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 augmented by an Analysis. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. xii. and 504. 10s. Qd. 
 
 Whitney. — Oriental and Linguistic Studies. By W. D. Whitney, 
 
 Cr. 8vo. cl. 1874. Pp. x. and 418. I2s. 
 First Series. The Veda; the Avesta ; the Science of Language. 
 Second Series. — The East and West — Religion and Mythology— Orthography and 
 
 Phonology — Hindu Astronomy. Pp. 446. 12s.
 
 42 Linguistic Publications of Triibner 8f Co. 
 
 GRAMMARS, DICTIONARIES, TEXTS, 
 AND TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 
 Bleek. — A Comparative Geammak of Sottth African Languages. By 
 
 W. H. I. Bleek, Ph.D. Volume I. I. Phonology. ll. The Concord. 
 Section 1. The Noun. 8vo. pp. xxxvi. and 322, cloth. 18G9. £\ 16^-. 
 
 Bleek. — A Brief Accotjnt of Bushman Folk Lore and other Texts. 
 By W. H. I. Bleek, Ph.D., etc., etc. Folio sd., pp. 21. 1875. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Bleek. — Betnaed the Fox in South Africa; or, Hottentot Fables. 
 Translated from the Original Manuscript in Sir George Grey's Library. 
 By Dr. W. H. I. Bleek, Librarian to the Grey Library, Cape Town, Cape 
 of Good Hope. Post. 8vo., pp. xxxi. and 94, cloth. 1864. 3s. Gd. 
 
 Callaway. — Izinganekwane, Nensumansumane, Nezindaba, Zabantu 
 
 (Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the Zulus). In their own words, 
 with a Translation into English, and Notes. By the llev. Henry Callaavat, 
 M.D. Volume I., 8vo. pp. xiv. and 378, cloth. Natal, ISUti and 18ti7. 16?. 
 
 Callaway. — The Beligious System of the Amazulu. 
 
 Part L — Unkulunkulu ; or, the Tradition of Creation as existing among the 
 
 Amazulu and otherTribes of South Africa, in their own words, with a translation 
 
 into English, and Notes. By the Rev. Canon Callaway, M.D. Svo. pp. 128, 
 
 sewed. 1868. 4s. 
 Part n. — Aruatongo; or, Ancestor Worship, as existing among the Amazulu, in 
 
 their own words, with a translation into English, and Notes. By the Rev. 
 
 Canon Callaway, M.D. 1S69. 8vo. pp. 127, sewed. 1869. 4s. 
 Part in. — Izinyanga Zokubula ; or, Divination, as existing among the Amazulu, in 
 
 their own words. With a Translation into English, and Notes. By the Rev. 
 
 Canon Callaway, M.D. 8vo pp. 150, sewed. 1870. 45. 
 Part IV. — Abatakati, or Medical Magic and Witchcraft. Svo. pp. 40, sewed. Is. Gd. 
 
 Christaller. — A Dictionary, English, Tshi, (Asante), Akra ; Tshi 
 
 (Chwee), comprising as dialects Akan (Asante, Akem, Akuape'm, etc.) and 
 Fante ; Akra (Accra), connected with Adangme ; Gold Coast, West Africa. 
 Enyiresi, Twi ne' Nkraii | Eiilisi, Otsui ke Ga 
 
 nsem - asekyere - iihoraa. ' wiemoi - asisitSomij- wolo. 
 
 By the Hev. J. G. Chuistaller, Rev. C. W. Locheb, Rev. J. Zimmermann. 
 16mo. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Christaller. — A Grammar of the Asante and Fante Language, called 
 
 Tshi (Chwee, Twi) : based on the Akuapem Dialect, with reference to the 
 other (Akan and Fante) Dialects. By Rev. J. G. Christaller. Svo. pp. 
 xxiv. and 203. 1875. lOs.Gd. 
 
 Christaller. — Dictionary of the Asante and Fante Language, called 
 
 Tshi (Chwee Twi). With a Grammatical Introduction and Appendices on the 
 Geography of the Gold Coast, and other Subjects. By Rev. J. G. Christaller. 
 Demy 8vo. pp. xxviii. and 672, cloth. 1882. £1 os.
 
 57 and 59, Liulyate Hill, London, E,C. 43 
 
 Duhne. — The Foxtr Gospels in Ztjltj. By the Rev. J. L. Dohne, 
 
 Missionary to the American Board, C.F.M. 8vo. pp. 208, cloth. Pietermaritz- 
 burg, lS6ti. 5s. 
 
 Dohne. — A Zulu-Kafik Dictionary, etymologically ex[)lained, with 
 copious Illustrations and examples, preceded by an introduction on the Zulu- 
 Kafir Language. By the Rev. J. L. Dohne. Royal 8vo. pp. xlii. and 418, 
 sewed. Cape Town, 1857. 21s. 
 
 Grey. — Handbook of African, Australian, and Polynesian Phi- 
 lology, as represented in the Library of His Excellency Sir George Grey, 
 K.C.B., Her Majesty's High Commissioner of the Cape Colony. Classed, 
 Annotated, wnd Edited by Sir George Grey and Dr. H. I. Bleek. 
 Vol. I. Part 1.— South Africa. 8vo. pp. ISG. 20*. 
 
 Vol. I. Part 2.— Africa (North of the Tropic of Capricorn). 8vo. pp. 70. 45. 
 Vol. I. Part 3.— Madagascar. 8vo. pp. 24. bs. 
 Vol. II. Part 1.— Australia. 8vo. pp. iv. and 44. 
 
 Vol. II. Part 2. — Papuan Languages of the Loyalty Islands and New Hebrides, compris- 
 ing those of the Islands of Nengone, Lifu, Aneitum, Tana, and 
 others. 8vo. pp. 12. ^s. 
 Vol. II. Part 3.— Fiji Islands and Rotuma (with Supplement to Part II , Papuan Lan- 
 guages, and Part I., Australia). 8vo. pp. 34. Is. 
 Vol. II. Part 4. — New Zealand, the Chatham Islands, and Auckland Islands. 8vo. pp. 
 
 76. 7s. 
 Vol II. Part 4 {cmitinnatinn).—Vo\ynes\?L and Borneo. 8vo. pp. 77-154. 7s. 
 Vol. III. Part 1. — Manuscripts and IiicunaWes. 8vo. pp. viii. and 24. 2s. 
 Vol. IV. Part 1.— Early Printed Books. England. 8vo. pp. vi. and 266. 12s. 
 
 Grout. — The Lsizxjlu: a Grammar of the Zulu Language; accompanied 
 with an Historical Introduction, also with an Appendix. By Rev. Lewis Grout. 
 8vo. pp. lii. and 432, nloth. 21*. 
 
 Krapf. — Dictionary of the Suahili Language. Compiled by the 
 Rev. Dr. L. Krapf, Missionary of the Chiu'ch Missionary Society in East 
 Africa. With an Appendix, containing an Outline of a Suahili Grammar. 
 Royal 8vo. cloth, pp. xl.-434. 1882. 30s. 
 
 Steere. — Short Specimens of the Vocabularies of Three Un- 
 published African Languages (Gindo, Zaramo, and Angazidja). Collected 
 by Edward Steere, LL.D. l2mo. pp. 20. (Jd. 
 
 Steere. — Collections for a Handbook of the Nyamwezi L.\nguage, 
 
 as spoken at Unyanyembe. By Edward Steere, LL.D. Fcap. cloth, pp. 100. 
 Is. Qd. 
 
 Tindall. — A Grajimar and Yocabulaky of the Namaciua-Hottentot 
 Language. By Henry Tindall, Wesleyan Missionary. Svo.pp. 124, sewed. 6s. 
 
 Zulu'Izaga; That is, Proverbs, or Out-of-the-Way Sayings of the 
 Zulus. Collected, Translated, and interpreted by a Zulu Missionary. Crown 
 8vo. pp. iv. and 32, sewed. 2s. Qd.. With Appendix, pp. iv. and 50, sewed. 3s. 
 
 AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 Byington. — Grammar of the Choctaw Language. By the Eev. Cyrus 
 Hyington. Edited from the Original MiS.S. in Library of the American 
 Philosophical Society, by D. G. Hri.nton, M.D. Cr. 8vo. sewed, pp. 56. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Ellis. — Peruvia Scythica. The Quichna Language of Peru : its 
 derivation from Central Asia with the American languages in general, and with 
 the Turanian and Iberian languages of the Old World, including the Basque, 
 the Lycian, and the Pre-Aryiui language of Etruria. By Rohejit Ellis, B.D. 
 8vo. cloth, pp. xii. and 219. 1875. 6s.
 
 44 Linguistic Publications of Truhner ^ Co. 
 
 Howse. — A Geamitar of the Crke Language. "With which is com- 
 bined an analysis of the Chippeway Dialect. By Joseph Howse, Esq., 
 F.R.G.S. 8vo. pp. XX. and 321, cloth. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Markham. — Ollanta: A Drama in the Quichua Language. Text, 
 
 Translation, and Introduction, By Clements R. Markham, F.R.G.S. Crown 
 8vo., pp. 128, cloth. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Matthews. — Ethnology and Philology of the Hidatsa Indians. 
 By Washington Matthews, Assistant Surgeon, U.S. Army. 8vo. cloth. 
 £1 lis. 6^/. 
 Contents: -Ethnography, Philology, Grammar, Dictionary, and EngUsh-Hidatsa Vocabulary. 
 
 Nodal. — Los Vinculos be Ollanta y Cusi-Kcutllor. Drama en 
 Quichua. Obra Oompilada y Espurgada con la Version Castellana al Frente 
 de su Testo por el Dr. Jose Fernandez Nodal, Abogado de los Tribunales 
 de Justicia de la Republica del PerCi. Bajo los Auspicios de la Redentora 
 Sociedad de Fil&.ntropos para Mejoror la Suerte de los Aborijenes Peruanos. 
 Roy. Svo. bds. pp. 70. 1874. In. 6d. 
 
 NodaL — Elementos de GramAtica Quichua 6 Idioma de los Yncas. 
 
 Bajo los Auspicios de la Redentora, Sociedad de Filantropos para mejorar la 
 suerte de los Aborijenes Peruanos. Por el Dr. Jose Fernandez Nodal, 
 Abogado de los Tribunales de Justicia de la Eepublica del Perii. Royal Svo. 
 cloth, pp. xvi. and 441. Appendix, pp. 9. £1 Is. 
 
 Ollanta: A Drama in the Quichua Language. See under Markham 
 
 and under Nodal. 
 
 Pimentel. — Cuadro descriptivo y comparativo de las Lenguas 
 IndIgexas de Mexico, o Tratado de Filolugia Mexicana. Par Francisco 
 Pimentel. 2 Edicion unica conipleta. 3 Volsume Svo. Mexico, 1875. 
 £2 2s. 
 
 Thomas. — The Theory and Practice of Creole Grammar. By J. J. 
 Thomas. Port of Spain (Trinidad), 1869. I vol. 8vo. bds. pp. viii. and 135. 12s. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 March. — A Comparative Grammah of the Anglo-Saxon Language ; 
 
 in wbicli its forms are illustrated by those of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, 
 Old Saxon, Old Friesic, Old Norse, and Old High-German. By Francis A. 
 March, LL.D. Demy Svo. cloth, pp. xi. and 253. 1877. 10s. 
 
 Kask. — A Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue. From the Danish 
 of Erasmus Rask, Professor of Literary History in, and Librarian to, the 
 University of Copenhagen, etc. By Benjamin Thorpe. Third edition, 
 corrected and improved, with Plate. Post Svo. cloth, pp. vi. and 192. 1879. 
 5s. 6d. 
 
 Wright. — Anglo-Saxon and Old-English Yocabularies, Illustrating 
 the Condition and Manners of our Forefathers, as well as the History of the 
 Forms of Elementary Education, and of the Languages spoken in this Island 
 from the Tenth Century to the Fifteenth. Edited by Thomas "Wright, Esq., 
 M.A., F.S.A., etc. Second Edition, edited, coUattd, and corrected by Richard 
 Wulcker. [/» the press.
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London, E. C. 45 
 
 ARABIC. 
 Ahlwardt. — The DivAns of the Six Axciext Arabic Poets, Ennabiga, 
 
 'Antara, Tarafa, Zuhair, 'Algama, and Imriiolgais; chiefly according to the 
 IVIHS. of Paris, Gotha, and Leyden, and the collection of their Fragments : with 
 a complete list of the various readings of the I'ext. Edited by W. Ahlwahdt, 
 8vo. pp. XXX. 340, sewed. 1870. \2s. 
 
 Alif Lailat wa Lailat. — The Aeabian Nights. 4 vols. 4to. pp. 495, 
 
 493, 442, 434. Cairo, a.h. 1279 (1862). £i 'is. 
 
 This celebrated Edition of the Arabiiin Nights is now, for the first time, offered at a price 
 which makes it accessible to Scholars of limited means. 
 
 Athar-ul-Adhar — Traces of Centuries; or, Geographical and Historical 
 Arabic Dictionary, by Selim Khuri and Selim Sh-hade. Geographical 
 Parts I. to IV., Historical Parts I. and II. 4to. pp. 788 and 384. Price 
 Is. Qd. each part. [//* course of publication. 
 
 Badg"er. — An English-Arabic Lexicon, in which the equivalents for 
 English words and Idiomatic Sentences are rendered into literary and colloquial 
 Arabic. Bv George Percy Badger, D.C.L. 4to. cloth, pp. xii. and 1248. 
 1880. £9 9«. 
 
 Butrus-al-Bustany. — i^j\.'C^\ jjiV^ l-Jc^ An Arabic Encylopsedia 
 
 of Universal Knowledge, by Butrus-al-Bustany, the celebrated compiler 
 of Mohit ul Mohit (U^jsM k;»^'*), antl Katr el Mohit (k-^M ki"> 
 
 This work will be completed in from 12 to 15 Vols., of which yols. I. to 111. 
 are ready. Vol. I. contains letter 1 to C_-JI ; Vol. II. t_-Jl to '^ j ^ol. III. 
 j\ to c^ Vol. IV. z\ to ^\ Vol. V. L) to j^J Small folio, cloth, pp. 800 
 each. £\l\s.6d. per Vol. 
 
 Cotton. — Arabic Primer. Consisting of 180 Short Sentences contain- 
 ing 30 Primary Words prepared according to the Vocal System of Studying 
 Language. By General Sir Arthur Cotton, K. C.S.I. Cr. 8vo. cloth, pp. 
 38. 2s. 
 
 Hassoun. — The Diwan of Hatiji Tai. An Old Arabic Poet of tlie 
 Sixth Century of the Christian Era. Edited by R. Hassoun. With Illustrar 
 tions. 4to. pp. 43. 3s. 6rf. 
 
 Jami, Mulla. — Sal'^han U Absal. An Allegorical llomance ; being 
 
 one of the Seven Poems entitled the Haft Aurang of MuUa JumT, now first 
 edited from the Collation of Eight Manuscripts in the Library of the India 
 House, and in private collections, with various readings, by Fokbes 
 Falconer, M.A., iM.R.A.S. 4to. cloth, pp. 92. 1850. 7.v. 6d. 
 
 Koran (The). Arabic text, lithographed in Oudh, a.h. 1284 (1867). 
 16mo. pp. 942. 9*-. 
 
 Koran (The) ; commonly called The Alcoran of Mohammed. 
 Translated into English immediately from the original Arabic. By George 
 Sale, Gent To which is prefixed the Life of Mohammed. Crown 8vo. cloth, 
 pp. 472. Is. 
 
 Koran. — Extracts from the Coran in the Original, tvith English 
 Rendering. Compiled by Sir William Muir, K.C.S.I., LL.D., Author of 
 the " Life of Mahomet." Crown 8vo. pp. 58, cloth. 1880. ^s.M. 
 
 Ko-ran (Selections from the). — See " Triibner's Oriental Series." p. 3. 
 
 Leitner. — Introduction to a PniLOsornicAL Gramm^ui of Arabic. 
 Being an Attempt to Discover a Few Simple Principles ill Arabic Grammar, 
 By G. W. Leitner. 8vo. sewed, pp. 52 Lahore. 4s.
 
 46 Linguistic Puhliccdiom of Tr'uhner (^ Co. 
 
 Morley. — A Descriptive Catalogue of the Histokical MANcscuirTS 
 
 in the Arabic and Persian LanguaGks preserved in the Library of the Koyal 
 Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. By VV'illiam H. Mokley, 
 M.R.A.S. 8vo. pp. viii. and 1()0, sewed. London, 1854. 2s. Qd. 
 
 Muhammed. — The Life of Mtthammed. Based on Muhammed Ibn 
 Ishak. By Abd El Malik Ibn Hishain. Edited by Dr. Fehdinand WUsten- 
 FELD. The Ai-abic Text. 8vo. pp. 1026, sewed. Price 21». Introduction, 
 Notes, and Index in German. 8vo. pp. Ixxii. and 266, sewed. 7s. &d. Each 
 part sold separately. 
 
 The text based on the Manuscripts of the Berlin. Leipsic, Gotha and Leyden Libraries, has 
 been carefully revised by the learned editor, and printed with the utmost exactness. 
 
 Newman. — A Hajstdbook of Modern Arabic, consisting of a Practical 
 Grammar, with numerous Exam|)les, Dialogues, and Newspaper Extracts, in a 
 European Type. By F.' W. Newman, Emeritus Professor of University 
 College, London ; formerly Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Post 8vo. pp. 
 XX. and 192, cloth. 1866. 6s. 
 
 Newman. — A Dictionaey of Modern Arabic — 1. Anglo-Arabic 
 
 Dictionary. 2. Anglo-Arabic Vocabulary. 3. Arabo-English Dictionary. By 
 F. W. Newman, Emeritus Professor of University College, London. In 2 
 vols, crown Svo., pp. xvi. and o76 — 464, cloth. £,\ Is. 
 
 Palmer. — The Song of the Reed ; and other Pieces. By E. H. 
 Palmer, M.A., Cambridge. Crown Svo. cloth, pp. 208. 1876. os. 
 Among the Contents will be found translations from Hafiz, from Omer el Kheiyilm, and 
 from other Persian as well as Arabic poets. 
 
 Palmer. — Hindustani, Persian, and Arabic Grammar Simplified. 
 B. E. H. Palmer. M.A., Professor of Arabic at the University of Cambridge, 
 and Examiner in Hindustani for H.M. Civil Service Commissioners. Crown Svo. 
 pp. viii.-104, cloth. 1882. 5s. 
 
 Rogers. — Notice on the Dinars of the Abbasside Dynasty. By 
 Edward Thomas Rogers, late H.M. Consul, Cairo. Svo. pp. 44, with a 
 Map and four Autotype Plates. 5s. 
 
 Schemeil. — El Mtjbtaker; or, First Born. (In Arabic, printed at 
 Beyrout). Containing Five Comedies, called Comedies of Fiction, on Hopes 
 and Judgments, in Twenty-six Poems of 1092 Verses, showing the Seven Stages 
 of Life, from man's conception unto his death and burial. By Emin Ibrahim 
 Schemeil. In one volume, 4to. pp. 166, sewed. 1870. 5s. 
 
 Syed Ahmad. — A Series of Essays on the Life of Mohammed, and 
 Subjects subsidiary thereto. By Syed Ahmad Khan Bahadou, C.S.L, Author of 
 the " Mohammedan Commentary on the Holy Bible," Honorary Member of the 
 Eoyal Asiatic Society, and Life Honorary Secretary to the AUygurh Scientific 
 Society. Svo. pp. 532, with 4 Genealogical Tables, 2 Maps, and a Coloured 
 Plate, handsomely bound in cloth. 1870. £1 10s. 
 
 Wherry. — Commentary on the Quran. See Triibner's Oriental Series, 
 page 5. 
 
 ASSAMESE. 
 
 Bronson. — A Dictionary in Assamese and English. Compiled by 
 M Bronson, American Baptist Missionary. Svo. calf, pp. viii. and 609. £2 2.'..
 
 67 and 59, Ludgate HiU, London, E. C. 47 
 
 ASSYRIAN (Cuneiform, Accad, Babylonian). 
 
 Budge. — AssYEiAiir Texts, Selected and Arranojed, with Philological 
 Notes. By E. A. Budge, B.A., M.R.A.S., Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's 
 College, Cambridge. (New Vohime of the Archaic Classics.) Crown 4to. ch)th, 
 pp. viii. and 44. 1880. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Budge. — The HisioEr of Esarhaddox. See " Triibnor's Oriental 
 Series," p. 4. 
 
 Catalogue (A), of leading Books on Egypt and Egyptology, and on 
 Assyria and Assyriology, to be had at the athxed prices, of Trlibner and Co. pp. 
 40. 1880. Is. 
 
 Clarke. — Researches in Pre-historic axd Puoto-historic Compara- 
 tive Philology, Mythology, and Arch.eology, in connexion mth the 
 Origin of Cnltnre in America and the Accad or iSumerian Families. By Hyde 
 Clarke. Demy 8vo. sewed, pp. xi. and 74. 1875. 2s. Qd. 
 
 Cooper. — An Archaic Dictionary, Biographical, Historical and Mytho- 
 logical ; from the Egyptian and Etruscan Monuments, and Papyri. By W. R. 
 Cooper. London, 1876. 8vo. cloth. 15s. 
 
 Hincks. — Specimen Chapters of an Assyrian" Gr\mmar. By the 
 late Rev. E. Hincks, D.D., Hon. M.R.A.S. 8vo., sewed, pp. 44. Is. 
 
 Lenormant (F.) — Chaldean Magic; its Origin and Development. 
 Translated from the French. With considerable Additions by the Author. 
 London, 1877. 8vo. pp. 440. 12s. 
 
 Luzzatto. — Grammar of the Biblical Chaldaic Language and the 
 Talmud Babylonical Idioms. By S. D. Luzzatto. Translated from the 
 Italian by J. S. Goldammer. Cr. 8vo. cl., pp. 122. 7s. Gd. 
 
 Rawlinson. — Notes on the Early History of Babylonia. By 
 Colonel Rawlinson, C.B. 8vo. sd., pp. 48. Is. 
 
 Rawlinson. — A Commentary on the Cuneiform Inscriptions of 
 
 Babylonia and Assyria, including Readings of the Inscription on the Nimrnd 
 Obelisk, and Brief Notice of the Ancient Kings of Nineveh and Babylon, 
 by Major H. C. Rawlinson. 8vo. pp. 84, sewed. London, 1850. 2.s'. (id. 
 
 Rawlinson. — Inscription of Tiglath Pileser I., King of Assyria, 
 B.C. 1150, as translated by Sir H. Raavlinson, Fox Talbot, Esq., Dr. Hincks. 
 and Dr. Oppert. Published by the Royal Asiatic Society. 8vo. sd., pp. 74. 2.v. 
 
 Rawlinson. — Outlines of Assyrian History, from the Inscriptions of 
 Nineveh. By Lieut. Col. Raw^linson, C.B. , followed by some Remarks by 
 A. H. Layakd, Esq., D.C.L. 8vo., pp. xliv., sewed. London, 1852. Id. 
 
 Records of the Past : being English Translations of the Assyrian and 
 
 the Egvptian Monuments. Published under the sanction of the Societv of 
 Biblical" ArchaBology. Edited by S. Birch. Vols. 1 to 9. 1874 to 1879. 
 £1 11«. 6d. or 3s. Gd. each vol. 
 
 The Same. Vol. I. Assyrian Texts, 1. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Co.NTENTs : {Secntid Edition.) Inscription of Rimmon-Nirari; Monolith Inscription of 
 Samas-Rimmon ; Bab\ Ionian Exocisms; Private Will of Sennacherib ; .Assyrian Private 
 Contract Tablets; Assyrian Astronomical tablets; Assyrian ('alendar; Tables of Assyiian 
 Weights and Measures. By Kev. A. H. Sayce, M.. A. — Inscription of Khannnurabi ; Hel- 
 lino's Cylinder of Sennacherib ; Taylor's Cylinder of Sennacherib ; Lcfccnd of the Descent 
 oflshtar. By H. Fox Talbot, F.R.S.— Annals of Assurbanipal (Cylinder A). By George 
 Smith. — Behistun Inscription of Darius. By Sir Henry Rawlinson, K. C.B. , D.C.L.— Lists 
 of further Texts, Assyrian and E^'vptian." Selected by George Smith and P. Le Page 
 Benouf.
 
 48 Linguistic Publications of Truhner 8f Co. 
 
 The Same. Vol. III. Assyrian Texts, 2. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3». 6i. 
 
 CoNTKNTs: Early History of Babylonia. I?y George Smith - Tablet of Ancient Accadian 
 Laws ; Synchronous History of Assyria and Babylonia ; Kurkh Inscription of Shjilmaneser ; 
 An Accadian Liturgy ; Babylonian" Charms. By Rev. A. II. Sayce, M.A.— Inscription of 
 Assur-nasir-pal. By Kev. J. M. RodwcU. M.A. — Inscription of Esarhaddon ; .Second 
 Inscription of Esarhaddon; Sacred Assyrian Poetry. By H. F. Talbot, F. U.S. — List of 
 further Texts. 
 
 The Same. Vol. V. Assyrian Texts, 3. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3.?. M. 
 
 Contents : Legend of the infancy of Sargina I. ; Inscription of Xabonidus. Inscription 
 of Darius at Nakshi-Kustam ; War of the Seven Evil Spirits against Heaven. By 11. F. 
 Talbot, F.ll.S. — Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I. By Sir Henry Kawlinson. K.C.B., D.C.L., 
 etc. Black Obelisk Inscription of Shalnianeser 11.; Accadian Hymn to Istar ; Tables 
 of Omens. By Rev. A. H. Sayce, M.A. — Inscription of Tiglath-Pileser II. ; Inscription of 
 Nebuchadnezzar; Inscription of Ncriglissar. By Rev. J. M. Rodwell, M.A. — Early 
 History of Babylonia, Part II. By George Smith.— List of further Tests. 
 
 The Same. Vol. VII. Assyrian Texts, 4. Crown 8vo. cloth. Zs. &d. 
 
 Contents: Inscription of Agu-kak-rimi ; Legend of the Tower of Babel. By W. St. 
 Chad Boscawen. — Standard Inscription of Ashur-akh-bal; Monolith of Ashur-akh-bal ; A 
 Prayer and a Vision ; Senkereh Inscription of Nebuchadnezzar; Birs-Nimrud Inscription 
 of Nebuchadnezzar; The Kevolt in Heaven. By 11. Fox Talbot, F.R.S —Annals of Sargon; 
 Susian Texts ; Median Version of the Behistun Inscription ; Three Assyrian Deeds. By 
 Dr. Julius Oppert. Bull Inscription of Sennacherib. By Rev. J. M. Rodwell, M.A.— 
 Ancient Babylonian Moral and Political Precepts; Accadian Penitential Psalm; Baby- 
 lonian Saints' Calendar. By Rev. A. H. Sayce, M.A. —Eleventh Tablet of the Izdubar 
 Legends. By the late George Smith. — Lists of further Texts. 
 
 The Same. Vol. IX. Assyrian Texts. 5. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3*. &d. 
 
 Contents : Great Inscription in the Palace of Khorsabad ; Inscriptions of the Persian 
 Monarche ; Inscription on the Sarcophagus of King Esmunazar. By Prof Dr. Julius 
 Oppert. — The Bavian Inscription of Sennacherib. i?y Theophilus Goldridge Pinches. — 
 Inscription of Merodach Baladan III. By Rev. J. M. Rodwell, M.A. — Annals of Assur- 
 banipal. By the late George Smith. — Babylonian f ublic Documents. By MM. Oppert and 
 Menant.— Chaldean Account of the Creation; Isbtar and Izdubar; The Fight between 
 Bel and the Dragon. By H. Fox Talbot, F.R.S. The Twelfth Izdubar Legend. By 
 William St. Chad Boscawen —Accadian Poem on the Seven Evil Spirits; Fragment of an 
 Assyrian Prayer after a Bad Dream. By the Rev. A. H. Sayce.— Lists of further Texts. 
 
 The Same. Vol. XI. Assyrian Texts, 6. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3s. &d. 
 
 Contents: Inscription of Rimmon-Nivari I. By Rev. A. H. Sayce. - Record of a 
 Hunting Expedition. By Rev. W. Houghton.— Inscription of Assur-izir-pal. By W. 
 Booth Finlay. Bull Inscription of Khorsabad. By Prof. Dr. Julius Oppert.— Inscription 
 of the Harem of Khorsabad. By Prof. Dr. Julius Oppert. Texts on the Foundation-stone 
 of Khorsabad. By Prof. Dr. Julius Oppert.— Babylonian Legends found at Kiiorsabad. 
 By Prof. Dr. Julius Oppert. — Nebbi Yunus Inscription of Sennacherib By Ernest A. 
 Budge.— Oracle of Istar of Arbela. By Theo. G. Pinches.— Report Tablets. By Theo. G. 
 Pinches.— Texts relating to the Fall of the Assyrian Empire. By Rev. A. H. Sayce.— 
 The Egibi Tablets. By Theo. G. Pinches.— The Defence of a Magistrate falsely accused. 
 By H. Fox Talbot, F.R.S —The Latest Assyrian Inscription. By Prof. Dr. Julius 
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 Vols. I. to XII., 1874-79. 3s. Grf. each. (Vols. I., III., V., VII., IX., XI., contain 
 Assyrian Texts.)
 
 66 Linguistic Publicatio?is of Trdhner 4' Co. 
 
 The Same. Vol. II. EoYrTiAN Texts, 1. Crown 8vo. cloth. Zs. 6d. 
 
 Contents {Second Edition). 
 
 Inscription of Una ; Statistical Tahlot ; Tablet of Thothmes III. ; Battle of Megiddo ; 
 Inscription of Amen-em-heb. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 
 Instructions of Amenemhat. By G. Maspero. 
 
 The Wars of Ramescs H. with the Khita. By Prof. E. L. Lushington. 
 
 Inscription of Pianchi Mer-Amon. By Rev. F. C. Cook, M.A., Canon of Exeter. 
 
 Tablet of Newer-Hotep. By Paul PieVrct. 
 
 Travels of an Egyptian. By Francois Chabas. 
 
 The Lamentations of Isis and Neplithys. By P. J. De Horrack. 
 
 Hymn to Amen-Ra ; The Tale of the Doomed Prince. By C. W. Goodwin, M.A. 
 
 Tale of the Two Brothers. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
 Egyptian Calendar; Table of Dynasties; Egyptian Measures and Weights. 
 
 Lists of further Texts, Assyrian and Egyptian. Selected by George Smith and P. Le Page 
 Kenouf. 
 
 The Same. Vol. IV. Egyptian Tests, 2, Crown 8vo. cloth. 3s. Qd. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Inscription of Anebni ; Inscription of Aahmes ; Obelisk of the Lateran ; Tablet of 400 
 years ; Invasion of Egypt by the Greeks in the Reign of Menephtah ; Dirge of Menephtah ; 
 
 PoHsessed Pi-incess;"Rosetta Stone. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 
 Obeli.sk of Raraeses II. ; Hymn to Osiris. By Francois Chabas. 
 
 Treaty of Peace between Kameses II. and the Hittites ; Neapolitan Stele ; Festal Dirge 
 of the Egyptians. By C. W. Goodwin, M.A. 
 
 Tablet of Ahmes ; Inscription of Queen Madsenen. By Paul Pierret. 
 
 Stele of the Dream ; Stele of the Excommunication. By G. Maspero. 
 
 Hymn to the Nile. By Rev. F. C. Cook. 
 
 Book of Respirations. Bv Rev. P. J. De Horrack. 
 
 Tale of Setnau. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
 List of further Texts. 
 
 The Same. Vol. VI. Egypti.4.n Texts, 3. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3s. Qd. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Sepulchrallnscription of Ameni ; The Conquests in Asia ; Egyptian Magical Text, By S. 
 Birch, LL.D. 
 
 Great Harris Papyrus, Part I. By Professor Eisenlohr and S. Birch, LL.D. 
 
 Inscription of Aahmes, son of Abana. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
 Letter of Panbesa ; Hymns to Amen ; The Story of Saneha. By C. W. Goodwin, M.A. 
 
 Stele of the Coronation ; Stele of King Ilorsiatef. By G. Maspero. 
 
 The Inscription of the Governor Nes-hor. By Paul Pierret. 
 
 Inscription of the Destruction of Mankind. By Edouard Xaville. 
 
 The Song of the Harper. By Ludwig Stern. 
 
 The Tale of the Garden of Flowers. By Francois Chabas. 
 
 List of further Texts. 
 
 ■ The Same. Vol. VIII. Egyptian Texts, 4. Crown 8vo. cloth. 3s. Qd. 
 
 Coments. 
 
 Inscription of the Gold Mines at Rhedesieh and Kuban ; Decree of Canopus ; Inscription 
 of Darius at El-Khargeh; The Praise of Learning. By S Birch, LL.D. 
 
 Great Harris Papyrus, Part II. By Professor Eisenlohr and S. Birch, LL.D. 
 
 Fragment of the First Sallier Papyrus ; Hymn to Ra-Harmachis. By Prof. E. L. Lush 
 ington, LL.D., D.C.L. 
 
 Abstract of a Case of Conspiracy. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
 Great Mendes Stele. Translated from Bi'ugsch-Bey. 
 
 The Litany of Ra. By Edouard Naville. 
 
 The Papyrus of Moral Precepts. By M. Theod. Deveria. 
 
 List of Further Texts. 
 
 ■ Thk Same. Vol. X. Egyptian Texts, 5. Crown 8to. cloth. 3s. &d. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Inscription of Haremhebi. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 
 The Stele of Beka ; Obelisk of "Alexandria ; The Magic Papyrus. By Francois ChabaB. 
 
 The Stele of Iritesen ; Inscription of King Nastosenen. By Prof. G. Maspero. 
 
 The Pastophorus of the Vatican. By P. Le Page Renouf. 
 
 Addresses of Horus to Osiris. By Edouard Xaville. 
 
 The Book of Hades. By E. Lef^bure. 
 
 Ancient Festivals of the Nile. By Ludwig Stem. 
 
 Inscriptions of Queen Hatasu. By Johannes Diimichen. 
 
 Contract of Marriage. By E. Revillout. 
 
 Tablet of Alexander ^Egus II. By S. M. Drach. 
 
 List of fui'ther Texts.
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate HiU, London, E. C. 57 
 
 The Same. Vol. XII. Egyptian Texts, 6. CroM-n 8vo. cloth, 3*. Qd. 
 
 Contents. 
 The Book of Hades. By E. Lefebure. 
 Scaiabaei of Amenophis III. Bv S. Birch, LL.D. 
 Dream of Thothmes IV. By S. Birch. LL.D. 
 
 The Foundation of the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis. By L. Stern. 
 Inscription of Ameni-Ameuemlia. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 Inscription of Chnunhctep. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 Libation Vase of O^or-ur. Bv P. Pierret. 
 
 The Great Tablet of Rameses'll. at Abu-SimbeL By Ed. Naville. 
 Inscription of Prince Nimrod. By S. Birch, LL.D. 
 Spoliation of Tombs (.xx Dynasty). By P. i. de Horrack. 
 
 Inscriptions on the Statue of Bak-en-Khonsu (six. Dynasty). By P. J. de Horrack. 
 The Papyrus, I. 371 of Leyden (xx. D^-nasty). By G. Maspero. 
 
 Inscription of Queen Hatasu on the base of the Great Obelisk of Karnak. By P. Le 
 Pase Renouf. 
 Sepulchral Inscription of Panehsi. By E. L. Lushington, LL.D. 
 Alphabetical Table of Contents of the Series of XII. volumes. 
 
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 fession of Priests. The Pali Text, with a Translation, and Notes, by J. F. 
 
 Dickson. Svo. sd., pp. 69. 2«. 
 FausbiJll. — JlTAKA. See under JItaka. 
 Fausboll. — The Dasaratha-Jataka, being the Buddhist Story of King 
 
 Rama. The original Pali Text, with a Translation and Notes by V. Fausboll. 
 
 Svo. sewed, pp. iv. and 48. 2s. &d. 
 Fausboll. — Five JItakas, containing a Fairy Tale, a Comical Story, 
 
 and Three Fables. In the original Pali Text, accompanied with a Translation 
 
 and Notes. By V. Fausboll. Svo. sewed, pp. viii. and 72. 6s. 
 Fausboll. — Ten Jatakas. The Original Pali Text, with a Translation 
 
 and Notes. By V. Fausboll. Svo. sewed, pp. xiii. and 128. 7s. 6d. 
 Fryer. — Yuttodata. (Exposition of Metre.) By Sangharakkhita 
 
 Thera. a Pali Text, Edited, with Translation and Notes, by Major G. E. 
 
 FiiYER. 8vo. pp. 44. 2s. QH. 
 
 Haas. — Catalogue of Sanskrit and Pali Books in the Library of 
 THE British Museum. By Dr. Ernst Haas. Printed by Permission of the 
 Trustees of the British Museum. 4to. cloth, pp. 200. £1 Is. 
 Jataka (The) ; together with its Commentary. Being Tales of the 
 Anterior Birth of Gotama Buddha. For the first time Edited in the original 
 Pali by V. Fausboll. Vol. I. Demy Svo. cloth, pp. 512. 1877. 2Ss. 
 Vol. II., cloth, pp. 452. 1879. 28s. For Translation see under "Buddhist 
 Birth Stones." 
 The "Jataka" is a collection of legends in Pali, relating the history of Buddha's trans- 
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 by its forming part of the sacred canon of the Southern Buddhists, which was finally settled at 
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 fables, and as the most original attainable source to which almost the whole of this kind of 
 literature, from the Panchatantra and Pilpay's fables down to the nursery stories of the present 
 day, is traceable; and it has been considered desirable, in the interest of Buddhistic studies as 
 well as for more general literary purposes, that an edition and translation of the complete 
 ■work should be prepared. The present publication is intended to supply this want. — Atherimitm.
 
 57 and 59, Ludgate Hill, London^ E.C. 79 
 
 Mahawansa (The) — The Mahawansa. From the Thirty- Seventh 
 
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 Text in Sinhalese character, pp. xxxii. and 436. Vol. II. Sinhalese Transla- 
 tion, pp. lii. and 378 half-bound. Colombo, 1877. £2 2s. 
 Mason. — The Pali Text op Kachchayano's Grammar, with English 
 
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 12«. 
 
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 Haswe]l. — Grammatical Notes and Yocabitlary of the Peguax 
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 and Translations of the Gosht-i Fryano and Hadokht Nask. By Martin 
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 and 1 to 168, and Vol. II. pp. xxxii. and pp. 169 to 440. 1877 and 1879. 
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 Catalogue of Arabic and Persian Books, Printed in the East. Con- 
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 W. H. MoRLEY, Barrister-at-law, M.Il.A.S. To which is added a Series 
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 is 18. Is. 6d. 
 
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 Palmer. — The Song of the Reed; and other Pieces. By E. H. 
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 Among- the Contents will be found translations from Hafiz, from Omer el Kheiyim, and from. 
 
 other Persian as well as Arabic poets. 
 
 Palmer. — A Concise Dictionary of the Persian LANorAOE. By E. 
 H. Palmer, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. 
 Sqnare 16rao. pp. viii. and 364, cloth. 10s 6^^. 
 
 Palmer. — The Poems of Hafiz of Shiraz. Translated from the 
 Persian into English Verse by E. H. Palmer, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the 
 University of Cambridge. Post 8vo. cloth. (In preparatiuu.) 
 
 Palmer. — Persian Grammar. See page 45. 
 
 Redhouse. — The Mesnevi. See " Triibner's Oriental Scries," page 4. 
 
 Kieu. — Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts in the British 
 Museum. By Charles Kieu, Ph.D., Keeper of the Oriental MSS. Vol. I. 
 4to. cloth, pp. 432. 1879. £15*. Vol. XL 4to. cloth, pp. viii. and 446. 
 3881. 2r),v 
 
 Whinfield. — Gulshan-i-Eaz ; The Mystic Rose Garden of Sa'd ud 
 din Mahmud Shabistani. The Persian Text, with an English Translation and 
 Notes, chiefly from the Commentary of Muhammed Bin Yahva Lahiji. By 
 E. H. Whinfield, M.A., late of H.M.B.C.S. 4to. pp. xvi." 94, 60, cloth. 
 1880. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Whinfield. — The Quatrains of Omar Kha^tIm. Translated into 
 English Verse by E. H. Whinfield, M.A., late of Bengal Civil Service. Post 
 8vo. cloth, pp. 96. 1881. 5s.
 
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 PIDGIN-ENGLISH. 
 
 Leland. — PiDGiN-EifGLisn Sing-Soxg ; or Songs and Stories in the 
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 CoWell. A SHORT IXTRODTJCTIOJiT TO THE OEDrNAET PkAKEIT OF THE 
 
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 Cowell. — Peakeita-Peakasa ; or, The Prakrit Grammar of Yararuchi, 
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 PUKSHTO (Pakkhto, Pashto). 
 Bellew. — A Geammae of the Ptjkkhto oe Pfkshto Language, on a 
 
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 Exercises and Dialogues. By H. W. Bellew, Assistant Surgeon, Bengal Army. 
 Super-royal 8vo.,pp. xii. and 156, cloth. 21s. 
 
 Bellew. — A Dictionaey of the Pukkhto, oe Pitkshto Lan^gtjage, on a 
 
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 Plowden. — Teanslation of the Kaiid-i- Afghani, the Text Book for 
 
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 and Explanatory. By Trevor Chichele Plowden, Captain H.M. Bengal 
 Infantry, and Assistaut Commissioner, Panjab. Small 4to. cloth, pp. xx. and 
 395 and ix. With Map. Lahore, \%lh. £2 10s. 
 
 Thorburn. — Banxu ; or, Our Afghan Frontier, By S. S. Thoebtjex, 
 I.C.S., Settlement Officer of the Bannu District. 8vo. cloth, pp. x. and 480. 
 1876. 18s. 
 pp. 171 to 230: Popular Stories, Ballads and Riddles, and pp. 231 to 413: 
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 Trumpp. — Geammae of the Pasto, or Language of the Afghans, com- 
 pared with the Iranian and North-Indian Idioms. By Dr. Ernest Trumpp 
 8vo. sewed, pp. xvi. and 412. 21s.
 
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 RUSSIAN. 
 
 Riola. — A GKADtJATED "RussiAx Reader, with a Vocabulary of all the 
 Eussiau ^Yol■ds contained in it. By H. E,iola. Crown 8vo. pp. viii. and 314. 
 1879. lO.s. 6^. 
 
 Riola. — How to Learn- Russian. A Manual for Students of Russian, 
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 Key to the above. Crown 8vo. cloth, pp. 126. 1878. os. 
 
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 Nutt. — Fragments of a Samaritan Targum. Edited from a Eodleiau 
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 Pratt. — A Grammar and Dictionary of the Samoan Language. By 
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 Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rig Veda. 2 vols. See under Haug. 
 
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 57 and 59, LmJgate Uill, London, E. C. 93 
 
 Wilson. — A. Dictionary in Sanskrit and English. Translaferl, 
 amended, and enlarged from an original compilation prepared by learned Natives 
 for the College of Fort William by H. H. Wilson. The Third Edition edited 
 by Jagunmohana Tarkalankara and Khettramohana Mookerjee. Published by 
 Gvanendrachandra Rayachoudhuri and Brothers. 4to. pp. 1008. Calcutta, 
 1874. £3 3s. 
 
 Wilson (H. H.). — See also Meglia Duta, Rig-Yeda, and Vishnu- 
 
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 Yajurveda. — The White Yajurveda in the Madhyandina Recen- 
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 SHAN. 
 
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 Gushing'. — Elementary Handbook of the Shan Language. By the 
 Eev. J. N. CusHiNG, M A. Small 4to. boards, pp. x. and 122. 1880. 12«. Gd. 
 
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 SINDHI. 
 
 Trumpp. — GRAiiiiAR of the Sindhi Language. Gompared with the 
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 lished) pp. xxxii. and 244, sewed. 1877. 8*. fid. 
 
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 Formation of the Plural of Neuter Nouns. By the late Prof. R. C. Childers 
 Demy Svo. sd., pp. 16. 1873. Is. 
 
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 Civil Service. Crown fJvo. cloth, pp. xii. and 260. London, 1871. 6.«. 
 
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 Beschi. — Clavis Humaniorum Litterarum Sublimioris Tamulici Idio- 
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 Deeds, Complaints, Official Documents By Rev. G. U. Pope. Third edition, 
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 Csoma de Koros, — A Dictionaey Tibetan and English (only). By 
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 Council. Koyal 8vo. pp. xxii.-672, cloth. 30s. 
 
 Lewin. — A Manual of Tibetan, being a Guide to the Colloquial Speech 
 of Tibet, in a Series of Progressive Exercises, prepared with the assistance of 
 Yapa Ugyen Gyatsho, by Major Thomas Herbert Lewin. Oblong 4to. cloth, 
 pp. xi. and 176. 1879. £1 Is. 
 
 Schiefner. — Tibetan Tales. See " Triibner's Oriental Series," page 5. 
 
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 Shaw. — A Sketch of the Turki Language. As Spoken in Eastern 
 
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 Political Agent. In Two Parts. With Lists of Names of Birds and Plants 
 by J. Scully, Surgeon, H.M. Bengal Army. 8vo. sewed, Part I., pp. I'M. 
 1875, 7s. Gd.
 
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 Gibb. — Ottoman Poems. Translated into English Verse in their 
 
 Orig:inal Forms, with Introduction, Biographical Xotices, and Notes. Fcap. 4to. 
 pp. Ivi. and 272. "With a plate and 4 portraits. Cloth. By E. J. "W. Gibb. 
 1882. £1 \s. 
 
 Hopkins. — Elementary Grammar of the Turkish Language. With 
 
 a few Easy Exercises. By F. L. Hopkins. M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge. Cr. 8vo. cloth, pp. 48. 1877. Zs. &d. 
 
 Eedhouse. — On the History, System, and Varieties of Turkish Poetry, 
 Illustrated by Selections in the Original, and in English Paraphrase. With a 
 notice of (he Islamic Doctrine of the Immortality of Woman's Soul in the 
 Future State. By J. W. Redhouse, M.R.A.S. Demy 8vo. pp 64. 1879. 
 (Reptrinted from the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature) sewed, 
 is. M. ; cloth, 2s. Qd. 
 
 Redhouse. — The Turkish Campaigner's Vade-Mecum of Ottoman 
 
 Colloquial Language ; containing a concise Ottoman Grammar ; a carefully 
 selected Vocabulary, alphabetically arranged, in two parts, English and Turkish, 
 and Turkish and English; also a few Familiar Dialogues; the whole in Knglish 
 characters. By J. W. Redhouse, F. K.A.S. Third Edition. Oblong 32mo 
 pp. viii.-372, limp cloth. 1882. 6s. 
 
 UMBRIAN. 
 
 Newman. — The Text of the Iguvine Inscriptions, with interlinear 
 
 Latin Translation and Notes. By Fkancis W. Newman, late Professor of 
 Latin at University College, London. 8vo. pp. xvi. and 54, sewed. 1868. 2s. 
 
 URIYA. 
 
 Maltby. — A Practical Handbook of the TJrita or Odita Language. 
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