OF TH*; UNIVERSITY o OF i^oCATION IIBR,' "\ji^' r o> /■> Among the Giant Redwoods of the Coast Ranges THE NEW PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHIES DEVELOPED ACCORDING TO THE PROBLEM METHOD CALIFORNIA BY HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS, PH. D. Author ot Home and Its Relation to the World Topical Outlines of the Geography of the Continents Developed According to the Problem Method Copyright 1920 H. W. Fairbanks 1921 HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. SAN FRANCISCO CALIFORNIA ;^. ^^^- ju-y^^^'^^^ ETUCATTON LTBR; PREFACE The new series of Elementary School Geographies of which this volume forms a part has been worked out along lines entirely different from any other American text. The two-time-over plan has been abandoned for a progressive course in which each country is studied but once. The descriptive method in which the memory plays the chief role has been replaced by one in which reason and thought, based on experience, are the moving forces. The aim of this, the second book in the New Series, is two- fold: first, is to give the child such a conception of his own state as will be of some real use to him in daily life; and second, to afford a foundation for an intelligent study of the world at large. When the child understands how people about him are influenced by their environment he has acquired the ability, with the aid of a good physical map, to form conclusions as to how people in dis- tant lands are affected by their environments. This view leads us to look upon facts not as the aim but rather the tools by the aid of which true geographic understanding is reached. To accomplish this aim, a readjustment of emphasis is neces- sary. Instead of giving a few weeks here and there in the course to the home, state or natural region in which the child lives, and thus making the home region incidental to world geography, the method employed in the present series assumes that an understand- ing of the home is the indispensable prerequisite to a real know- ledge of the world. Working the above out by means of the problem method, the study appears to the child to take on a definite purpose. It be- comes intensely interesting and leaves a permanent impression. From the point of view outlined, no apology need be offered for putting within reach of the children of California this book, which is intended as a basis for a year's study. Such a study nat- urally falls in the fifth year and before formal world geography is commenced. H. W. FAIRBANKS. Berkeley, Cal., April, 1920. \Q- D CONTENTS r I i Page Preface 3 Chapter I 7 Topic I. A Land of Gold 7 Topic II. California, a Land of Fruitful Gardens 8 Topic III. California as the Home of the Indian 13 Topic IV. California as the Home of the Spaniard 14 Summary 18 Review Questions 19 Practical Lessons 19 Chapter II 21 Topic I. The Main Routes by Which the Pioneers Reached California 21 Topic II. The California Coast Presented Many Difficul- ties to the Early Explorers 23 Summary 38 Review Questions 38 Practical Lessons 39 Chapter III 41 Topic I. The Natural Resources of Our California Garden 41 Topic II. The Natural Resources of Our California Gar- den Are Very Rich, But They Will Not Last Unless We Take Care of Them 48 Topic III. How the Growth of California Has Been Af- fected by the Character of Its Surface, Its Streams, and Its Climate 55 Topic IV. California Has Such Wonderful Scenery that People Come from All Parts of Our Country to See It.. 64 Topic V. Some Thoughts on the Study of California 69 Summary 73 Review Questions - 73 Practical Lessons - - 75 Chapter IV 77 The Great Valley : The Granary and Future Garden of California 77 Summary 91 Review Questions 92 Practical Lessons 92 M58705a Page Chapter V 95 The Coast Ranges : A Region of Mountains and Innumer- able Park-Like Valleys Whose Fertile Soil and Agree- able Climate Make This An Attractive Land 95 The Northern Coast Ranges 98 The Clear Lake District 104 The Southern Coast Ranges 106 The San Francisco Bay and Region About 113 Summary 134 Review Exercises 136 Practical Lessons 137 Chapter VI 139 The Sierra Nevada Mountains 139 Summary 156 Review Exercises 156 Practical Lessons 157 Chapter VII 159 Southern California 159 Summary 205 Review Exercises 206 Practical Lessons 207 Chapter VIII 209 The 'Great Basin 209 Summary 217 Review Exercises 218 Practical Lessons 219 Chapter IX 221 The Klamath Mountains 221 Summary 227 Review Exercises 227 Practical Lessons 228 Chapter X 229 The Volcanic Plateau 229 Summary 235 Review Exercises 236 Practical Lessons 236 Index 237 ARGUMENT FOR THE NEW PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHIES DEVELOPED ACCORDING TO THE PROBLEM METHOD BY Dr. H. W. Fairbanks The following plan of a new series of school geographies has been worked out as a result of the conviction on the part of the author that the subject of school geographj' needs remodeling along new and wholly differ- ent lines and that none of the present text-books meet the demand of this more modern and rational view of the subject. The proposed geographies diflfer from those now in use in three impor- tant particulars, namely: — in method, in distribution of emphasis, and in the handling of the map question. 1. Method. — The current texts are based in great part on the idea that geographv is a study of facts about the earth. These books are filled wnth an almos't innumerable number of facts which according to the method usually followed are acquired through memorizing with little inquiry into the matter as to whether these facts are really understood. In the New Series an attempt is made to practically do away with the memorizing of facts as facts. The vast amount of detail found in all the current texts is dispensed with. The thinking powers of the pupils are aroused through the development of the causal relationship which exists among facts, and which relationship alone leads to true geographic knowl- edge. . , J • One of the primary objects in the method of presentation employed in the new texts is to develop the interest of the pupils through the use of "problems." By this means the otherwise dead facts are clothed with life. The method of presenting all facts in the light of their natural associa- t'ons and from the point of view of their influence upon life might be called the "biological method." It not only makes the subject matter of the geog- raphy seem worth while to the pupils, a very important thing in itself but it brings out clearly the scope and bounds of geography, a notion which is lacking in the current texts as well as actual school-room practice. In the biological method of approach all materials are presented from the standpoint of their relation to the earth as a living organism. A moun- tain for example, is not studied merely as a physical feature of the earth but 'from the point of view of its relation to the people who live at its base. Every fact that has any vital relation to elementary school geography is thus made significant. The two-time-over plan in current use is discarded as it is believed to be wasteful of time and effort and not to lead to the best results. A progressive course is substituted for the present one and in this course the world is gone over in a formal manner but once. The objection sometimes raised to this plan that some children may leave school before the con- tinents have all been studied is met by the statement that m the latter half of the fourth vear there is a general survey of the world, and that it is of far greater importance that such children should have a working knowl- edge of their home, state and native land than that this should have been neglected and their time spent in memorizing meaningless facts about distant ^2 ^Distribution of emphasis:— To make geographical relations in distant lands really intelligible the new plan not only emphasizes home geography, but goes much farther and assumes that an understandmg of the home is the indispensable pre-requisite to a real knowledge of the world. It is only when the pupils have gained a working knowledge of the relation botween the people about them and their environment that they are able to under- stand the environments of peoples in distant lands. The extended study of the home called for by the plan of the New Series results in remarkably rapid and intelligent progress when the pupils reach the study of distant lands. The knowledge gained of life relations in the home is carried directly over to the new land, no matter in what part of the world it is situated. When a good map is furnished the pupils they are able to reason out conclusions as to life conditions wherever life is studied. 3. The problem of map study: — The New Series of Geographies is to be illustrated with half tones and colored plates but maps are to be excluded from the text-books and bound in a separate volume or Atlas. This has long been the established custom in the leading foreign countries, and is likely soon to be the rule in the United States. One of the most serious defects of the current geographical texts is not only the small size of the maps but their usually poor character. The advantages of an atlas might be stated as follows: — 1. The maps can be printed on a scale large enough to make them clear and comprehensible. 2. The atlas can more easily be preserved as a handy book of reference when not encumbered with the text. 3. The text can be bound in a more conveniently sized volume than when an attempt is made to adapt it to the needs of maps. 4. An atlas bound in one or two parts could be made to last for the whole school course. The New Geographies can be divided conveniently into four volumes as follows: . tt ^ i i • . Vol I. Fourth Grade: — An elementary text in Home Geography which includes iii the latter half a discussion of the peoples of other parts of the world through the interchange of products between them and the people of the California home. This introductory work is made as real as possible through the use of pictures and the globe or map of the hemispheres. Vol II. Fifth Grade:— California and other parts of our country as they are related to California. A good wall map or relief model a necessity. (A small atlas of California is to be prepared to accompany this Volume.) Vol. III. Sixth Grade: — North America with emphasis laid upon the United States. Physical wall maps a necessity. Vol IV. Seventh and Eighth Grades:— The remaining portions of the world taken up in that order which brings the most important regions early in the course. North America is naturally followed by South America, Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. . . , . . , • j- ,, The Geography of Current Events should be introduced periodically throughout the course. . , c- .u r- j ^ It is not at all essential that Europe be taught in the Sixth Grade to meet the needs of Sixth Grade history. All the geography which is needed for the history can better be given as a part of the history. The author has employed the historical development of the different lands as a motive through the series but this does not imply that geography should be made subservient to history as is often done. CHAPTER I. Topic I. — A Land of Gold. A Land of Fabulous Riches to Reach Which the "Gold Seekers" or "Argonauts" Suffered Untold Dangers and Hardships. How were the Pioneers of California like the Argonauts of the Old Legend? According to the ancient Greek story, Jason and his comrades set sail on an expedition to a distant region in search of the Golden Fleece. These adventurers are known as Argonauts. So it came about that the Pioneers who started out from the Eastern States to find the hidden gold in far away California were called "Argo- nauts." Was there much known about California at the time of the discovery of gold in 1848? Although explorers had described California as an attractive land blest wnth perpetual spring, it had at the time of the discovery of gold few inhabitants besides Indians and easy-going Spaniards. Southern California and the valleys of the Coast Ranges had been occupied for many years by the Missions and scattered Spanish ranches. Daring American explorers had crossed the mountains and deserts to the Great Valley. Captain Sutter had built a fort near the junction of the American river with the Sacramento and had commenced to raise stock and cultivate the land. General Fremont, known as the "Path Finder," had explored much of the interior and had nearly lost his life in crossing the Sierra Nevada Mountains in midwinter. How did the discovery of gold affect the story of California? 1. The land filled quickly with thousands of people: The Mexi- can War had just ended and California had become a part of our country when Marshall made his great discovery of gold in a mill race in El Dorado county. The news spread quickly and in a few months thousands of peo- ple were on their way to the land where the stream gravels were reported to be full of gold which w^as to be had merely for the digging. In less than a year San Francisco Bay had filled with ships from all parts of the world and an almost continuous line of ox-wagons filled with gold seekers marked the newly opened road across the continent. Soon prospectors spread through the foothills of the Sierra Nevada and Klamath Mountains. Their camps were scattered all along the streams, while little towns sprang up where the "bars" were richest in gold. Thus life and bustle suddenly replaced the quiet which had ruled in California for so long. 8 New Progressive Geographies 2. If it had not been for the golden magnet, California would have settled slowly, as did Oregon and Washington: Before the discovery of gold, Marcus Whitman had led the way to the rich farming lands of Eastern Oregon, but because this region was so far removed from the Eastern settlements, and the dangers of the journey to the Far West were so great, the country settled slowly. It was very different in the case of California. The tales of gold aroused a great excitement over the whole country The journey to this region, although more difficult than the one to Oregon, did not, nevertheless, prevent thousands from attempting it, and so the population increased rapidly. 3. The growth of other industries: For a time mining was the only thing thought of. Ships were deserted by their crews; clerks left their stores and farmers abandoned their fields. But there were many who did not "strike it rich" and soon returned to their pre- vious occupations. Stock raising had been the leading industry of this region from the earliest days of the Spanish settlement, but hides, wool and tal- low were the only products for which there was any sale. With the coming of thousands of emigrants there arose a great demand for meat. The growing of grain, fruit and vegetables also became important, for all farm products brought fabulous prices. The great distance of California from any point where manu- factured products could be obtained soon led to the establishment of many industries to supply the needs of the growing population. Topic II. — California, a Land of Fruitful Gardens. A Pleasant Land of Mountains and Valleys in Which is Found Every Sort of Climate and Where Grows Almost Everything That One Could Wish. How California received its name. A Spanish story written long ago tells of a fabulous island in the "South Seas." This island was called California. It was said in the story to be inhabited by Griffins and to abound with gold. Spanish sailors sailing westward from Mexico came to what they thought was an island lying far out in the Pacific Ocean. To this land they gave the name of California, although no Griffins were found in it, and many years passed before its golden treas- ures came to light. The land thus discovered is now called Lower California, but Upper California, the land in which we live, was not visited until many years later. Lower California is really a peninsula, as you can see from the map, instead of an island, and extends south from our California. Upon the old Spanish maps the whole of California is pictured as an island with a long, narrow strait separating it from the main- land. We now know that this land is not an island. The southern end of the supposed strait is the Gulf of California, and the upper end is Fuget Sound. California 9 Where lies California? Our California home is far away to the westward of where the Pilgrims landed and upon the opposite side of North America. It faces west toward the broad Pacific Ocean, along which it stretches for nearly one thousand miles. The boundaries of California were once very indefinite, but much greater than they are now. It in- cluded all that land reaching from Mexico on the south to Oregon on the north and from the Pacific Ocean east to the Rocky Mountains. The states of Utah, Nevada and a part of Arizona have been -Auto Club of .Southern California. Giant breakers in Santa Monica Bay. made out of this vast territory and what remains forms the Cali- fornia of today which we are going to study. What sort of land is California? If we sail along the coast of California, as did the early navi- gators, we find that it has a very even shore line and apparently few bays that oflfer protection from storm. Viewed from the sea this land appears to be mostly mountains through which occasional val- leys open, and we are thus at first led to believe that its surface is too rough to support many people. We discover finally that there are more bays than we at first supposed and that in and behind the coast mountains there are many great valleys. Entering San Francisco Bay we are led through the mountains that guard the coast and far into the interior. Rich and beautiful valleys lie among the mountains, but it is 10 New Progressive Geographies not until we have passed the strait of Carquinez that the largest one comes in sight. An almost boundless plain, known as the Great Valley, now stretches out before us. Far to the east we get a view of the snow- covered Sierra Nevada Mountains. To the north we may be able to see Mt. Shasta, one of the highest volcanic peaks in the United States. To the south are other mountains, but too far away to be seen. Thus this great valley is inclosed upon all sides except for the opening through which we enter. It is so rich and of so vast an extent that even if there were no others California would never- theless be a wonderful land capable of supporting many millions of people. But this is far from being all of the land that we are studying. Away to the south, beyond mountains and desert, lies the Los An- geles-San Bernardino Valley. This is another vast lowland which, unlike the Great Valley, is open to the sea and is broken by hills and mountains. This valley is shut in on the north and east by lofty mountains. From the summit of San Gorgonio, the highest of their snow-clad peaks, we see that these mountains separate the fertile valleys of Southern California from trackless deserts which extend farther than our eyes can reach. The strange thing which we note about these deserts is that their slopes do not lead to the sea but form basins instead. None of the rain which falls in these basins ever reaches the sea. Why is California such a pleasant and fruitful land? California is, then, a land of mountains, valleys and desert plains. Each of these slopes has its own climate and each has its own pro- ductions which are different from the others. So agreeable is the climate in most parts; so varied are the natural resources, and so attractive is the scenery, that w^e speak of this land as a pleasant and fruitful garden. How has Nature made a garden of California? 1. California has a fertile soil: The soil is formed from the rocks, and since there are in California many kinds of rocks, there are also many kinds of soil, each suited to growing certain plants best. The rocks are slowly crumbling, and everywhere, except upon the steepest slopes, a mantle of soil has accumulated over them, forming the smooth surface of the land. The soil is richest and deepest in the valleys, where the rains have washed the finer par- ticles from the steepest slopes. 2. California has a favorable climate: A favorable climate is the first thing that Nature requires for a garden. The soil may be rich but, unless there is the right amount of water and a warm sun, plants will not thrive. We have taken the natural gardens of this region, cultivated the soil, added water where it was needed, set out in them plants from many other parts of the world, and now, because of the many California 11 sorts of climate which they possess, we raise almost everything which one could wish. We can say then truly, that, with the exception of the very hot and moist tropics, we grow in California food products native to all the climates and countries of the world. The valleys along the coast are cool and moist and the temper- ature varies but little between winter and summer. The climate of the mountains is warm in summer and cold and snowy in winter. Behind the mountains, where the sea winds do not reach, the summer is very hot and the rainfall is small, while still farther in the interior are dry and burning deserts. 3. California has a rich plant and animal life: When first dis- covered by white people California was found to support a won- derful variety of plant and animal life. The forests were not sur- passed by any others in the whole world. The mountains and val- leys were alive with animals and land birds, while the marshes, lakes and shores were covered with water birds. Is all of California a luxuriant garden? A favorable climate and fertile soil are needed to make a gar- den. Nature has not given these equally to all parts of California. As we journey through the valleys and over the mountains we see that the animals are more abundant and the vegetation richer in some places than in others. It rains more toward the north, so that in that direction the forests are heavier. The valleys near the coast receive more rain than those of the interior. The mountains receive more rain than the valleys. If we climb to the summit of the Sierra Nevada Mountains we find that it steadily becomes colder. We reach a region at last where it is so cold that the trees grow only to the size of bushes or disappear entirely. Here there are few animals and no vegeta- tion but Arctic flowers and mosses. From the summits of the Sierra Nevada and Sierra Madre Moun- tains we can look down upon vast desert plains shut off from the cool, moist winds of the coast. The animals and plants that inhabit this region are curious and unfamiliar, for they have become changed by living where there is little rain. We learn, then, that Nature has bestowed her gifts very un- evenly over California. Certain parts are barren because of too little rain, while other parts are barren because of too great cold. The larger part, however, has a climate suited to the making of a vast' and fruitful garden. What led to the settlement and cultivation of this garden? 1. Our California Garden remained for many years much as Nature made it: The Indians inhabited California for hundreds of years, but they had no use for the forests, nor did they cultivate 12 New Progressive Geographies the soil. Wild game, fish, roots and nuts furnished enough for their simple needs. When the Spanish came they, too, found little need for work. From the fertile soil and from the increase of their herds they ob- tained, with little exertion, all that they required. 2. The discovery of gold and the coming of an energetic and industrious people: When gold was discovered everything was sud- denly changed. Thousands of brave, active and energetic men poured into California from the Eastern States. They overcame untold dan- gers on the long journey and suffered many hardships in the new land. Thus it came about that, after many years of quiet, the great state of California was born almost in a day and is now one of the most important in our country. 3. The growth of a market for produce and the opening of a Placer miners panning the gravel for gold. way to reach this market: The greater part of the people of the United States live east of the Rocky Mountains, far from California. The mild climate of the valleys of our state permit the growing here of manv things which cannot be grown in the East and which the people there are glad to get. But until we had secured a cheap and easy means of sending our produce to this market, there was no use in raising more than we needed at home. Hides and tallow had been shipped away by water since the earliest days. After the discovery of gold the growing of wheat, California 13 oats and barley became, next to the raising of cattle and sheep, the most important farm industry, for they, too, could be shipped by water. The building of the railroads finally opened the Eastern mar- ket and led to the rapid settlement of the fertile valleys. Many thou- sands of carloads of fruit and vegetables are now sent East across the continent every year, while the opening of the Panama Canal affords still other markets. Topic III. — California as the Home of the Indian. Where did the Indians come from, and have they been here long? When white people first visited California they found it settled thickly with Indians. There were many different tribes, each speak- ing a different language, but their features, their habits and cus- toms were much alike. It is believed from the resemblance of the features and customs of the Indians to those of the natives of Northeastern Asia (Siberia) that their ancestors came from that region. They could reach Alaska across Behring Strait, and then it was easy to migrate southward. There are several reasons for believing that the Indians have been here thousands of years. One is that they speak so many dif- ferent languages. It must have taken many thousands of years for languages so distinct to grow out of the common language which their ancestors probably spoke. Another reason is furnished by the shell mounds. The Indians used to gather along the shores of the ocean and bays for feasts of shell-fish. The refuse from these feasts slowly accumulated and finally formed mounds ; the largest of these are at Shell Mound Park and at Richmond on the shore of San Francisco Bay. These mounds were begun so long ago that since that time there have been changes in the level of the sea and land. The bases of these mounds are now sunken below the level of the bay. Something about the life of the Indians. The climate of much of California is so mild that the Indians wore little clothing. Their huts were very simple and easily made. A common form was a circular one, made by placing poles in the ground and bending them over and tying them at the top. These poles were covered with skins, bark, reeds or branches, and then sometimes plastered with mud on the outside. They did not cultivate the soil, but had no difficulty in getting what they wanted to eat. The water was full of fish and the land abounded with game. Besides these, there were berries, nuts, acorns and many kinds of roots. Because of their custom of digging roots, these Indians have often been called "Diggers." They made no pottery or cloth, but wove beautiful baskets which we now prize very highly. They crushed their food in stone mortars, which were sometimes mere hollows worn in a large flat rock. 14 New Progressive Geographies Why have the Indians so nearly disappeared? Once the villages of the Indians could be seen thickly scat- tered along the streams and about the springs. We can still tell where they were by the dark rich soil filled with fragments of bone, shells and flint arrow points. Xow we seldom see an Indian except in the wilder and less settled parts of the state. The Padres tried to civilize them and make them live in houses, but they became sickly and rapidly died off. The most of those that still remain live upon lands called Reser- vations, which are held by the Govern- ment for their use. They get a part of their living from cultivating the land and a part from hir- ing out to white farmers. Our treatment of the Indians has not always been just or wise. We should protect them and al- low them to live the sort of life for which Xature has fitted them. Topic IV. — California as the Home of the Spaniard. How was it that California was settled first by the Spaniards? 1. Because of nearness to Mexico with a direct route by sea: When Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean he claimed for Spain all the lands bordering upon it. A Digger pine, so named because the nuts are used by the Digger Indians. Found in the Coast Ranges and foothills of the Sierras. California 15 After the conquest of Mexico the Spaniards embarked upon the new ocean for the purpose of taking possession of its lands and converting the natives to the Catholic religion. They- first landed upon Lower or Baja California, which they took to be an island. Then they sailed northward and reached the land about which we are studying and called it Upper or Alta California. 2. Because the American colonies were far away and separated by hostile Indians, mountains and deserts: The first American set- tlers had all they could do to establish their homes upon the At- lantic Coast without attempting to explore and settle the vast land which extended away into the interior of the continent. Besides this there were many more barriers in the way of such explorations than lay in the paths of the Spaniards. In the first place, forests inhabited by savage Indians stretched westward over the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi Valley. Beyond this valley were broad plains reaching to the Rocky Alountains; then A Klamath River Indian. 16 New Progressive Geographies hundreds of miles of deserts, and, last of all, the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Our New England forefathers knew nothing of all this region, nor had they heard of California and its attractions. Even as late as the Mexican War and the conquest of California, many of the people in the East thought the Far West was a worthless, barren region which it would never pay to bother about. Why was it that most of the Spaniards settled near the Coast of CaHfornia? It was easier to reach California by sea than by land, for many hundreds of miles of sandy desert lay between this region and Mex- ico. For this reason the land journey was not only dangerous but required a long time. It was but natural, then, that the first settlements should be made at those places upon the coast, such as San Diego and Mon- terey, where there was protection for ships. The valleys near the sea offered attractive places for settle- ments. Here there was water for irrigation and large areas of rich land. Inland the climate was found to be drier and besides there was more danger of attack by Indians. What influenced the Padres in their selection of Mission sites and towns? The Padres soon learned that the new land had long, dry sum- mers, like those to which they had been accustomed in Mexico and Spain. To grow successful gardens in such a climate it would be necessary to irrigate them, and hence their settlements were made where there was plenty of water. The Padres also had in mind the quality of the soil. Hence every Mission was placed in a rich and well-watered val- ley. The places selected were also determined, in part, by their nearness to the villages of large numbers of Indians, so that they could be more easily induced to attend religious services. Why did the Spanish settlers cultivate so little of these rich lands ? Each mission or rancho had its own carefully-kept garden and grain-fields to supply the home needs, but it was useless to raise more, for there was no market. As a result most of the land remained unplowed and covered with its natural carpet of wild grasses. On these pasture lands countless thousands of cattle and sheep fed. However, even they were of little value, for hides, tallow and wool were the only pro- ducts for which there was a market. Trading vessels, which occa- sionally visited the coast, took these things in exchange for various manufactured articles. Santa Barbara. A Typical Mission Scene California 17 How the geography of Northern Cahfornia hindered that region from becoming a Russian province. The Russians discovered and claimed Alaska and built trading posts along its shores. They had great need of fresh meat and veg- etables in this far northern region, and, searching for a place in which they could supply themselves with these things, sailed down the coast to California. Finding the land unoccupied they landed a few miles north of the mouth of Russian River and built a stockade to which they gave the name of Fort Ross. They explored the adjoining country, went on hunting expeditions to the Farallone Islands, and even entered San Francisco Bay. They would have liked to have taken possession of this fair region, but feared to disturb the Spanish, who had already established the Presidio of San Francisco and laid claim to all the surrounding region. The Russians never extended their territory inland from Fort Ross, for the unbroken Coast Ranges, steep and difficult to cross, shut away from them the warm and fertile valleys of the interior. As a direct result of the obstacles which Nature had placed in the way of the Russians enlarging their holdings, they finally aban- doned the fort and sailed away. How did Cahfornia appear when in 1848 it became a part of our country? If we could have visited California at this time we should have looked upon a vast region of forested mountains, oak-dotted valleys and almost boundless plains. The whole country still remained almost as Nature made it. A few white settlers occupied the valleys near the coast. A string of missions stretched from San Diego to Sonoma and close to them had grown up a few small towns. The chief of these were San Diego, Los Angeles, Ventura, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, Monterey, Santa Cruz and San Jose. As the Spanish settlers came they were given grants of land by the Mexican government. Nearly all the best lands of the coast region were thus divided into ranchos which were often many miles in extent. Here and there were the white-washed adobe ranch houses with their many outbuildings and corrals. There were no fences, but each man's cattle were known by the "brand." Twice a year each man held what was called a Rodeo or "Round Up," which simply meant the gathering of all his cattle. The spring round-up was for the purpose of branding the calves, while that of the fall was for separating the stock intended for market. The Rodeo, as well as the sheep-shearing time, were the occa- sions of merriment and festivity. Antelope, elk and deer abounded. The thickets were filled with 18 New Progrkssive Geographies Fort Ross — Coast Ranges in background. Boat loading by cable in foreground. bear and other predatory animals. The forests were almost un* touched and most of the land was unplowed. In the spring the valleys and plains were covered with the brilliant poppy and other wild flowers. The end of the quiet California days. The discovery of gold a few months after the conquest of Cali- fornia made a wonderful change. Gold seekers began to pour into California from every direction. They came in through the Golden Gate and passed up the Sacramento River. They crossed the moun, tains and deserts in their ox-wagons by way of Oregon, by way of Arizona, but, in greatest numbers, by the main overland trail through Nevada and across the Sierra Nevada Mountains. They came by the thousands and scattered through the foot- hills of the gold belt and then spread into the fertile valleys. Life and bustle succeeded the quiet which had reigned here so long. SUMMARY. The discovery of gold in California led to the rapid settlement of a region remote and difficult to reach. When mining became less profitable the pioneers turned to the cultivation of the fertile valleys, and soon this state, which first be- came widely known as a land of gold, became even more celebrated for its golden fruits and agreeable climate. Neither the Indians nor the Spanish made use of the natural California 19 resources of California. In a short time after the coming of the Americans these were developed more than they had been during all the past history of the region. REVIEW QUESTIONS. -•,. Why is gold so earnestly sought after? ~ <<^v ^ Why was it so difficult to reach California in the early days? Describe any Indians which you have seen. Tell what you can about their w^eapons and utensils. Why did the Indians disappear so quickly from the most of Cali- fornia? Did any American Indians cultivate the soil before the whites came? Why did the Spanish settlers give the most of their attention to stock raising? Why did they not settle the interior valleys? By what routes and by what means is produce now shipped out of California? Mention some of the most important things which w^e export. What other country besides Russia would have liked to obtain California? Tell from your own observations something about the differences in the climate of the coast, the mountains, and the interior. Tell what is needed in order to raise a good garden. How are lands, in those parts of California w^here the rainfall is not sufficient, made to produce abundantly? PRACTICAL LESSONS. A country of mountains and valleys has a more varied climate than a level country. Men W'ill undergo the greatest hardships and dangers and go to the most distant regions in the hope of getting gold. If the geography of California had been different it might never have become a part of the United States. A garden may be ever so rich, but it will produce little but use- less weeds if not cultivated. California w-as so far aw^ay and so difficult to reach that if it had not been for gold it would have settled up slowly. Civilized people make much more use of the natural resources of a country than do savages. PHYSICAL MAP * OF CALIFORNIA CHAPTER IT. Topic I. — The Main Routes by Which the Pioneers Reached CaHfornia. Did the Pioneers have maps to guide them in tlieir journey across the continent to the new land? Before the discovery of gold little was known of all that vast region between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Coast. The first men to penetrate the recesses of the Rocky Mountains were the trappers and traders in search of furs. Then came the noted expedition of Lewis and Clark which was the first to cross the Rocky Mountains and reach the Pacific. The route followed was, however, far to the north of that used by the gold seekers, lying as it did much of the distance along the Missouri, Snake and Co- lumbia Rivers. General Fremont did more than any one else to make known the routes to California, and for that reason has been called the "Pathfinder." He and his party nearly perished in mid-winter on the summit of the Sierra Nevada Mountains while trying to find a river which they supposed rose in the Rocky Mountains and flowed westward into San Francisco Bay. They found, instead of a river, a lofty snow-covered range of mountains called by the Spanish Sierra Nevada, meaning snowy range. If such a river had really existed it would have been easy for the pioneers after crossing the Rocky Mountains to follow it down to California. Many perished while seeking out new trails, for they did not know of the dangers ahead of them. The first maps of this region, as in the case of that used by General Fremont, were worse than no maps, for they were so incorrect. The water routes to California. There were two ways of reaching California by water. The shorter way was down the Atlantic Coast to the Isthmus of Panama, and then up the Pacific to San Francisco. Thousands came this way, but many died of fevers while crossing the Isthmus. The longer water route was around Cape Horn, the southern point of South America. This journey took six months and was also dangerous because of the frequent and severe storms around the cape. A large part of the supplies for California came around Cape Horn in the early days, and continued to do so down to the time of the opening of the Panama Canal. The land routes to California. We must remember in the first place that the vast region which lay between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean was almost unknown at the time of the gold excitement. It was made up of 22 New Progressive Geographies broad plains, mountain ranges and deserts. The mountains were difficult to cross, while the deserts were almost without water and forage. The roads or "trails" must for these reasons follow cer- tain routes where there were streams or springs and cross the moun- tains at points where they were lowest — that is, through mountain passes. There were a number of different routes which we ought to know something about. A. The Great Salt Lake and Carson Trail : This was the direct route used by most of the emigrants. It started at St, Louis and followed the Platte River much of the way across the plains. Pass- ing through the Rocky Mountains a little north of Great Salt Lake, it crossed the deserts of Utah until, reaching the Humboldt River in what is- now Nevada, it descended this river to the "Sink of the Carson." Here was the broad, much dreaded, desert in which the waters of the Carson River sink. After the crossing of the desert came the Sierra Nevadas. If it was summer their cool forests and refreshing waters were greatly enjoyed. At other seasons its winds were icy and snows blocked the trails. When once these mountains were passed it was easy to reach the gold fields which lay along their western base. B. The Santa Fe Trail: The Santa Fe Trail was the old trad- ing route from St. Louis to New Mexico and Old Mexico. The emigrants followed this trail to Santa Fe and then turned west across Arizona toward Southern California. This route was more dangerous than the northern one because there were more deserts and the Indians were more savage. After reaching Fort Yuma, on the border of California, they had still the dreaded Colorado Desert to cross before reaching San Diego or Los Angeles. Strange work of the waves at Point Buchon near San Luis Obispo. California 23 C. The Oregon Trail: It was difficult to go from Oregon into California in the early days. The steep mountains and deep, nar- row canons which lay in the way could not be traversed until years later, when costly roads had been built. Peter Lassen opened a rough road across the volcanic plateau of Northeastern California. It passed near the great volcano now- called Lassen Peak. Few emigrants came by this route. D. The old Mormon Trail: A trail used by some of the early Mormon settlers of Southern California started at Salt Lake City and led in a southwesterly direction across Southern Nevada. It crossed the broad Mohave Desert and ended in the Valley of San Bernardino. This route was not used much because of the almost continuous desert with little water and feed for cattle. Topic II. — The California Coast Presented Many Dififi- culties to the Early Explorers. The difficulties of the early navigators. We read in the tales of the early navigators who sailed along the California coast that they found the shore rocky and mountain- ous with few places where they could anchor their ships in safety. They also report many storms and head winds which continually beat them back. None of them got farther north than Cape Mendocino. Both Drake and Vizcaino sailed past the Golden Gate, and, probably because of fog, did not see the narrow entrance to the magnificent Bay of San Francisco. How did the mountainous coast hinder exploration by land? There would have been little difficulty in going from San Diego to San Francisco and northward even to Oregon if the explorers Morro Rock — nearly 600 feet high. The grandest monument on the coast of California. 24 New Procressive Geographies could have followed the shore all the way. This was impossible, however, because in many places the mountains come directly down to the sea so that there is not room for a road or even a trail be- tween the rocky clififs of the ocean and the steep slopes of the mountains. How would travel along the shore be made easier if the land should rise a little, exposing a strip of the ocean floor? Many soundings have been made in the ocean along the coast so that we know much about the bottom. The water has been found to be shallow in most places and the bottom almost as even as a floor. If the land now stood as high as it did once the shore would be many miles out under the blue waters of the Pacific. The smooth floor of the ocean thus exposed would have ofifered an open highway for travel the whole length of California if peo- ple had only been here to make use of it. Unfortunately the land sank long before any one came to these shores. Now mountains and deserts form a serious barrier betw^een Southern and Northern California. What more can we learn from the soundings along the Cali- fornia Coast? The soundings tell us also that the bottom of the ocean along our coast is quite like a plain in most places and that the w^ater is shallow for some distance out from the shore. The strip of shal- low water is about ten. miles wide along the coast of Northern Cali- fornia, but broadens toward the south until it finally becomes nearly tw^o hundred miles across. Outside of the shallows the bottom of the ocean floor descends very steeply to the deep Pacific, so that if the water could be taken away and we could see the bottom it would appear like a shoulder along the border of the land. This shoulder, although now below the sea, marks the western edge of the continent. It has the form of a plateau beneath the sea and so we call it the submerged continental plateau. How would the shore be afl:'ected if the land should rise one thousand feet? The change in the shore line would be so great that we would hardly recognize the new land as California. The present bays would all become dry land, while new ones far out under the pres- ent water would take their place. Thousands of acres of fertile valley land would be added to the state. The new shore would lie outside the Farallone Islands which would become a part of the mainland. A long, narrow bay extend- ing up nearly to the present mouth of the Salinas River w^ould take the place of Monterey Bay. The Santa Barbara Islands would be- come a part of the mainland also and have a great bay behind them. Farther south Santa Catalina and San Clemente would still remain California 25 islands and many shoals forming new islands would appear above the water. What reason have we for beheving that most of the islands have been a part of the mainland? Upon the Santa Barbara Islands have been found the bones of animals that once lived in California but which are now extinct. Among- these were the mastodon and horse. These animals could have reached the islands only when they were connected with the mainland. Topic III. — The Slopes of the Land, and the Position of the Mountains and Rivers of California Made it Dif- ficult for the Pioneers to Reach the Mines by All but One Route. Introduction. Nature has placed many obstacles in the way of our getting those things which we prize most, and we shall now see how true this was of our California gold. The most important placer mines were found in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada Mountains on the eastern side of the San A wave-cut terrace and caves near Port Harford. Made when the ocean stood ten feet higher, 26 New Progressive Geographies Joaquin-Sacramento Valley, and in the Klamath Mountains at the north end of this valley. Except for the single 'outlet through which flows the Sacra- mento River, this great valley is rimmed all about by mountains, while beyond these are other mountains and deserts. How did those who came by water reach the mines? 1. The Colorado River could not be used as a route to the mines: Why could not the "gold seekers" coming by ship to Cali- fornia have sailed up the Gulf of California and have entered the Colorado River? This great stream, as the map shows us, forms the southeastern boundary of California and appears to offer an easy way far inland toward the north. In reality, however, the Colorado River is almost impassable for boats except the smallest flat-bottomed ones. The current is rapid and the water shallow and full of ever shifting sand-bars. The lower course of the river is through deserts, while its middle part is in a mighty canon. 2. What can we say of the Klamath River as a possible route from the coast to the mines? Our map shows that the Klamath is a large river rising in Oregon and following westerly across North- ern California. If we could visit this region we should discover that its course is through the Klamath Mountains in a deep canon and that there is no harbor or landing place at its mouth. The Klamath River and tributary streams were rich in placer gold, but the stream was no use to the miners in reaching this region. They had to cross the very rugged country which lay be- tween its basin and the Sacramento Valley. 3. San Francisco Bay and Sacramento River route: After hav- ing searched in vain along the coast of California for any other prac- tical route to the mines, we turn to San Francisco Bay and the great river which empties into it. We now learn why all the ships with their loads of gold seek- ers from all parts of the world came to San Francisco. Here was perfect protection from the storms. Here was a great bay opening far into the interior. From the head of this bay a navigable river led almost to the mining camps. Once at San Francisco all the gold seekers had to do was to embark on river boats. This took them up through San Pablo Bay, the Strait of Carquinez and into Suisun Bay. Here they were in the delta region of the Great Central Valley. In this delta two streams were found coming together. The one from the northern arm of the Great Valley was called the Sac- ramento, the one from the southern arm of the valley was called the San Joaquin. Following up the river which came from the north they came to the town of Sacramento, which had grown up near Sutter's Fort. It was an important point for distributing supplies and was also the end of the overland trail. California 27 Farther up the Sacramento River was Red Bluff at the head of navigation. This tov^n w^as an important supply point for the north- ern mines in Shasta and Siskiyou Counties. The farthest point reached by boats on the Feather River, a branch of the Sacramento, determined the site of Marysville, an- other distributing point close to the mines. The miners who wished to go to the southern mines took a boat for Stockton, a town which had sprung up at the head of navigation on a branch of the San Joaquin River. What difficulties still lay in the way of those who came over- land after they had at last reached the boundaries of California? 1. The Sierra Nevada Mountains: The mighty Sierra Nevada Mountains could not be avoided, for they stretched north and south for four hundred miles directly in the path of the Salt Lake trail by which most of the emigrants came. After they had crossed the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the deserts of Utah and Nevada, the Sierras had to be passed before they could enter the Golden Land. The Sierra Nevadas are covered with heavy snows during a large part of the year and so the journey had to be planned to reach them in summer or early fall. We must remember also that the emigrants who came first had to make their own roads. They had to get over sharp, rocky ridges and across precipitous caiions where sometimes the wagons had to be taken apart and pulled up or let down with ropes. Freighting on the Sacramento River. 28 New Progressive Geographies 2. The deserts and mountains between Southern California and the Great Valley: The route to the mines by the Santa Fe trail was much longer and offered difficulties even after San Diego or Los Angeles had been reached. Nature has placed many obstacles in the way of travel between Southern and Northern California. To understand what these are let us take a train from Los Angeles to Bakersfield. We shall have to cross three mountain ranges, two of them by "passes" and one by tunnel. Altogether there are fifty miles of mountains and then the Mohave Desert covering fifty miles more. If we travel over the old stage road we find the country equally difficult to cross. The Mohave Desert forms a wedge pointing westward and with its inclosing mountains divides California into two parts, and for a long time formed a serious barrier to travel and trade. The only way by which the early traveler could escape this barrier was by taking the old trail used by the Padres and known as the Camino Real. This trail lies through the valleys near the coast, but it also had to cross several mountain ranges. To avoid the mountains between Ventura and Santa Barbara the trail descended at one point to the base of lofty ocean cliffs beneath which the traveler could pass only at low tide. 3. The mountains shutting off Oregon: The northern end of the Sacramento Valley is inclosed by mountains which are many miles across and were almost impassable in the early days. This difficulty of making a wagon road from Redding to Shasta Valley was very great. When this road was finally opened there remained still the Siskiyou Mountains to be crossed before Oregon could be reached. Those who tried to escape these mountains by entering California over the Lassen trail found that they had many miles of rough lava fields to cross. Topic IV.— Climate Has Had Much to Do With the Settle- ment and Development of Our California Garden. Introduction. The discovery of gold led to the rapid settlement of California, but it is its climate which has had more to do with its permanent growth and present importance than anything else. Because the surface of California is so varied, because there are many high mountains whose tops are cold, because there are lowland valleys where the sun strikes very hot in summer, because there are coast lands cool and moist from the sea winds, one may find here almost any sort of climate he wishes. As a result of the many sorts of climate there is grown here a greater variety of fruits, nuts, vegetables and grains than in any other country of the same size in the whole world. We find heavy forests in the north and upon the mountains. In the southeast there are deserts where little grows. In the warmer California 29 valleys we find oranges, and even dates, and in the cooler ones all the fruits of the temperate climes. How is it that the early Spanish settlers found themselves at home in the climate of this region? These early settlers came from Mexico and Spain. In both countries they were used to long, dry summers and had learned the need of irrigating their gardens with water from the streams. MAP SHOWTNa rusxRiBtrxiON or RAINFALL IN CALIFOKXIA I I 0-10 Inches 10-20 •< [ j 20-30 .' 30-40 " 40-80 •« Thus it was natural that in California with a similar dry sum- mer they should know what to do and should pick places for the mission settlements and for the ranch houses where water could be had for the all-important gardens. In how far was the climate of California new to the emigrants from the Eastern States? As a usual thing rains fall frequently enough in the Eastern States to keep the gardens fresh so that irrigation is not neces- 30 New Progressive Geographies sary. There arc seasons, however, when the rains do not come and the gardens dry up. It took the newcomers some time to understand the climate of California. The summer season w^as found to be without rain for from three to five months. During this time the interior valleys be- came very hot, but the air was so dry that they did not feel the heat so much as they did in the East. The valleys did not usually get cold enough in winter for snow to fall, although ice sometimes formed at night. On the mountains only a few miles from the valleys the climate was found to be cold with deep snows in winter. In all the lowlands of the state, excepting the deserts of the southeastern part, there was usually rain enough to grow the com- mon farm crops. Irrigation seemed a clumsy way of helping Nature supply a sufficient amount of water and besides it required much work. It was a long time before the emigrants came to appreciate the advantages of irrigation and to use it on a large scale. How can we account for the vast deserts which the emigrants had to cross to reach CaHfornia? 1. The farther the valleys lie from the coast, and the more mountains there are between, the drier they are: We will take an imaginary journey, starting at Monterey and going east, to learn what we can about this. Monterey, like other coast places, has a mild even climate with cool, foggy winds from the sea in summer. We go but a few miles across the hills to the Salinas Valley and find ourselves already in a climate which is drier and much warmer. A scene on the new State Highway (the Camino Real) in a beautiful valley of the Central Coast Ranges. California 31 We next cross the Gavilan and Mt. Diablo Ranges, and de- scending from this elevated region, where there is an abundant rain- fall, reach the western side of the San Joaquin Valley. So little rain falls here that the countr)^ has much the appearance of a desert. The reason for this is that the mountains offer a barrier to the storm clouds and winds, and take so much of their moisture that little remains for the valley behind them. We now cross the San Joaquin Valley and begin to climb the Sierra Nevadas. The higher we go the cooler it becomes, and we can tell by the forests of great trees that much more rain falls here than in the valley. As we approach the summit of the mountains the trees become smaller and finally disappear, leaving bare earth and rocks. The winters are as cold as in the far north and the snow lasts eight months of the year. Far below to the east lies Owen Valley, to which we descend. Here we are behind the great mountain wall of the Sierras. The summers are hot and the rainfall is very small. Now the Inyo-White Mountain Range has to be crossed, but the few stunted trees even on its lofty summit tell us that the Sierra Nevadas take so much of the moisture from the air that little remains for the country to the eastward. We continue our journey and soon pass from California into Nevada. Before us for hundreds of miles stretch desert valleys and barren mountains. We have now crossed so many mountain ranges and have gone so far from the ocean that we have lost the sea winds loaded with water particles. Unless we carry water with us we shall be obliged to turn aside in search of some one of the few scattered springs hidden away in the canons. In some parts, especially in Death Valley, the heat of summer is so great that it is hardly safe to undertake a journey except at night. Although we call this region a desert there is no place that does not receive a little rain. There are many curious plants and animals that have become accustomed to living with very little water. Occasionally summer thunder storms occur and then the rain pours down so fiercely that we call them "cloudbursts." Torrents of water laden with mud, sand and even boulders sweep down the caiions for a few hours and then dry up, while their waters sink in the sands of the desert valleys. There is no desert in California as dry as the Sahara of North Africa. 2. Most of the storms come from a westerly direction: We must remember in studying the climate of our state that, although there is much fog and cloud along the coast in the summer, nearly all the rain falls during the winter months. We shall discover, if we watch carefully, that the storms gen- erally come from the west, for in that direction the clouds first appear, but that the wind which brings the rain is a southerly one. We shall learn the reason for this a little later, but want to re- 2i2 New Progressive Geographies member now that throughout most of the year the wind blows from a westerly direction — that is, from the sea — toward the land. The fog which is brought in with the west wind in summer buries the coast lands and the west slope of the first range of mountains in a cool blanket, through which the sun may not shine for days, while the country on the eastern side of these mountains enjoys warm, bright sunshine. The storms of winter also strike the western side of the moun- tains more severely, giving heavier rain there than they do in the valleys on the eastern side. The storms are heavier also high on the mountains because of the cold air there, which changes more of the fine water particles to rain-drops. The farmer there may get all the rain he needs, while another farmer at the base of the mountains receives very little. The air as it comes from the sea can carry only a certain quan- tity of water particles, and the more mountains there are in the way, and the higher and colder these mountains are, the more com- pletely will it be robbed of these water particles. The farther the moist sea air goes inland the more water it loses, until finally there is so little left that no more rain falls and the clouds disappear. This is one of the reasons why there are vast deserts in the heart of our continent. 3. Near the coast the summers are very little warmer than the winters, but in the interior they are very hot: The land warms quickly under the bright summer sun and cools ofif again when win- ter approaches. The great ocean behaves very differently, as you would learn if you could bathe in it some miles off the California A glacier on the north slope of Shastina. California 33 coast. You would there find the water uncomfortably cool at all times of the year. Because the ocean remains at so nearly the same temperature the winds that blow across it and onto the land also have an even temperature. They make the winters warmer than they otherwise would be and the summers cooler. As the winds pass over the land they are warmed in summer and chilled in winter. The farther they reach into the interior the hotter and drier the air becomes in summer. Thus it is that the valleys of this region that lie far from the ocean, and separated from it by lofty mountains, are not only very dry but exceedingly hot. 4. The mountain ranges extend across the course of the winds and storms: We have already learned that the great deserts lie be- hind the mountains, where the cool, moist winds do not reach. This means that the storms do not have a free passage toward the east, but that the mountains block them and make them drop so much of their moisture that the lands to the eastward are desert. If the mountain ranges extended in the same direction as that in which the storms move, the interior valleys would be cooler and would also receive more rain. There would then be no great des- erts and the pioneers would have had a much easier time in reach- ing California. 5. Toward the south the mountains are higher and the storms less frequent: If we should go northward along the coast from San L>ancisco through Oregon and A\"ashington we would find that the rainfall increases and the rainy season becomes longer. The Cascade Range lying back of this part of the coast is not high enough to break the force of the storms and the valleys of Central Oregon and Washington receive a moderate amount of rain. If we should go southward toward San Diego we would find that it rains much less, for the winter storms are fewer in number. The Sierra Nevada ^Mountains extend north and south through Eastern California for nearly four hundred miles and for much of this distance are more than tw^elve thousand feet high. To the east and south of this range, which, together with other mountains, cuts off the sea winds and storms, are the driest and hottest deserts in the United States. Death Valley, the Mohave, and Colorado Deserts could tell many stories of suffering and death. \\'hy the south wind brings rain. We have learned that the winds commonly blow from the ocean toward the land and that the storms come from the same direction. Then why do we say that it is going to rain when the south wind blows, since the storms come from the west? The ocean of air at the bottom of which we live is always in motion. The main current in this ocean over California is from the sea toward the land. W^hen a storm appears drifting in from the ocean with this air current the air about this storm is very much 34 New Progressive Geographies disturbed and blows from different directions. It has a whirling motion similar to the motion of a dust whirl. The whirling air which sucks up the column of dust behaves exactly like one of our winter storms. The only difference is that the dust whirl is small and carries dust, while the storm carries rain and spreads over many hundreds of miles. We say it is going to rain when the "south wind" blows because we feel the wind first from that direction as a storm approaches. The rainy season is longer and the storms more frecjuent in the north than in the south. Why is it that latitude has so little to do with the climate of California? The latitude of a place is its distance north or south of the equa- tor. The farther we go from the equator the cooler the climate ordinarily becomes, because the sun does not rise so high and thus gives less heat to the land. California stretches a long distance from north to south, cov- ering many degrees of latitude. We should expect for this reason that the northern part would be much colder than the southern, but this is not so. Oranges grow as well in the northern end of the Sacramento Valley as they do at San Diego. This is because the winds that blow across the Japan Current and onto the land have almost the same temperature the whole length of the state. They make the lands of the south cooler and those of the north warmer than they otherwise would be. One of the highest peaks of the Sierra Nevadas; Mt. Ritter, from near the timber line. California 35 If we should measure along the Atlantic Coast southward from New York a distance equal to the length of California we should find that, while in New York it is very cold in winter, at the southern end of the line oranges and vegetables are growing in the open air. This is because the Eastern States do not have the tempering winds from the sea to modify the natural climate which latitude gives. Why do we give the name "Great Basin" to the deserts of Eastern Cahfornia and Nevada? When the early explorers first entered the desert region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas they were surprised to find the lakes with no outlets and the water filled with salt and soda. We speak of a river basin as including all the land that slopes toward one river, but such is not a true basin, for the water flows out at one side. In this strange desert the explorers found hundreds of true basins, each with a rim of high land all around it. General Fremont gave the name "Great Basin" to all this desert region, because he found it to be a true basin with a rim of higher land extending completely around it. No rain that fell wuthin the slopes of this basin could ever reach the ocean. If it should rain in the Great Basin as much as it does along the coast of California the little basins would fill up and form lakes. The higher lakes would overflow into the lower ones and finally so much water would gather in the latter that they would break over the outer rim of land and send rivers away to the sea. It rains enough now to form a number of lakes, such as Honey, Mono and Owens, but not enough to make them overflow. Because they have no outlets the most of them contain so much salt, soda and other minerals that no fish can live in their waters. Long ago it rained more than it does now and some of the lakes overflowed and their waters became fresh. The largest of these was Great Salt Lake, which overflowed into the Snake River in Idaho. What can we learn as to the dangers of the desert from the Death Valley expedition? In 1849 a party of emigrants, thinking they could reach Cali- fornia and escape crossing the Sierra Nevada Mountains, sought out a new way, far to the south of the main overland trail. They turned south of Great Salt Lake and made their way across Southern Ne- vada. They knew nothing of the mountains and deserts to be crossed or where they could obtain water and forage for their stock. At last they reached what we now call Death Valley in a fam- ishing condition. The most of their cattle had died and they could go no further without help. They thought the mighty Panamint Range which rose in front of them might be the Sierra Nevadas. If so they would soon come to water and green meadows, while the fertile valleys of California would lie just beyond. 36 New Progressive Geographies Men went ahead to explore, but found that two rugged moun- tain ranges still remained to be crossed before reaching the longed- for Sierras. One man finally reached a ranch in the mountains far to the southwest in the direction of Los Angeles and came back with help to rescue those remaining alive. What do the troubles of the Donner Party tell us as to the climate of the high mountains? In the late fall of 1850 a party of emigrants reached what we now know as Donner Lake, high on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Their farther progress was blocked by cold and snow and so they made a permanent camp, hoping to be res- cued or that they might live through the winter until spring. Fifty miles more and they would have reached the sunny valley of Cali- fornia where snow and cold were unknown. Their food gave out and before rescuers reached them many had perished. Thus we learn that on the high mountains of California, within a few miles of where oranges are hanging on the trees, there is an almost Arctic climate. To be caught unprepared in the cold and snow of the mountains is almost as dangerous as to attempt to cross the deserts of the Great Basin without first learning where the springs of water are. Although the mountains formed a serious barrier to the early settlers, yet they have such an important influence upon the climate that without them California could never have become a rich garden. 1. The mountains give variety to the climate and productions: We have already learned that the high mountains of California have a cold Arctic climate, while the valleys at their base are almost tropical. Part way up the slopes the climate is neither hot nor cold and is the most healthful and delightful in all the world. In ascending the mountains we pass through all the different kinds of climate which we would in the long journey from Southern California to Alaska. The many sorts of cHmate enable us to grow a wonderful variety of products. 2. Because the mountains cut off the cool ocean winds the interior valleys are very warm: On the coast there is but little difference in the temperature between summer and winter. The farther we go from the ocean and the more mountains we cross the hotter the valleys become in summer and colder in winter. This also adds to the variety of products which can be grown in Cali- fornia. Many plants do not thrive near the coast, while they do well in the interior. 3. The mountains take so much rain from the clouds that the far interior valleys are deserts: The mountains affect the rainfall as well as the temperature of the air. There would, perhaps, be no deserts if the mountains lay parallel with the direction of the winds and storms instead of across it. California 37 A mountain lake of glacial origin on the head of the South Fork of the Merced River. The deserts are, however, not waste and useless land. Where water can be obtained for irrigation they produce abundantly. 4. The mountains add much to the yearly rainfall: We have doubtless all discovered that storms are heavier on the mountains than in the valleys. The cold air of the high lands changes to rain or snow water particles which, if it were not for the mountains, would float on easterly and give little or no rain. The mountains, then, add greatly to the rain or snowfall and this in turn supplies the streams whose waters are so much needed for irrigation in the lower valleys. 5. More rain falls on the v^^estern than on the eastern slopes of the mountains: Since the storms come from the ocean the west- ern slopes of the mountains receive the most rain. This is a for- tunate thing, as the western slopes of nearly all the ranges are long and gentle, affording much more land suitable for farming than the eastern slopes. 6. If there were no mountains a large part of California would be an uninhabitable desert: Just how important our mountains are we learn most clearly from a study of Southern and Eastern Cali- fornia. The rain and snowfall upon the higher mountains of this region is very heavy, and numerous permanent streams fed by springs and melting snows flow down their slopes. The rainfall in many of the valleys is so small that most crops do not grow well without irrigation. If it were not for the moun- 38 New Progressive Geographies tain streams we would find in place of the hundreds of square miles of luxuriant gardens and orchards only the uncultivated des- ert wastes. SUMMARY. The journey to California either by water or land, was long and dangerous. The explorers and pioneers endured great hard- ships in opening new trails through a vast unknown land of deserts and mountains. There were four main overland trails whose routes were determined by the mountain passes, the springs and forage for stock. The early navigators had difficulty in exploring the California coast. The land traveler was equally hindered by the fact that the mountains came close to the ocean. The coast has, however, not always offered the present obstacles. The land has been moving up and down and was once so much higher than now that most of the present islands, which rise from a submerged plateau, formed a part of the mainland. The two main routes to the mines were the Great Salt Lake trail, used by those who crossed the continent, and the Sacramento River, used by those who came by water and landed at San Fran- cisco. Nature had made It so difficult to reach the mines by other routes that few attempted them. As a result of the presence of many lofty mountains, the posi- tion and direction of these mountains, and the fact that the winds and storms generally come from the ocean, California has a more varied climate than any other land of equal size. The climate has been an important factor in the development of the state. The long, dry summers made irrigation necessary in many parts, and as soon as its advantages were understood luxuri- ant gardens spread over the valleys which Nature had left so dry and desert-like. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Why is exploration of the desert particularly dangerous? What difficulties are met with in exploring in the mountains? Read and tell the story of General Fremont's journey in mid-winter across the Sierra Nevadas. Why do trails and wagon roads use mountain passes? Describe the route of the Great Salt Lake trail. In what way was the Santa Fe trail more difficult? Why is the entrance to San Francisco Bay difficult to discover from the ocean? Why is the bottom of the ocean so much smoother than the land? What parts of California would be flooded if the land should sink one thousand feet? Using the relief map, make a sketch of the California coast when the land stood one thousand feet higher than now. Describe some delta that you have seen. California 39 Describe a journey from Los Angeles to Bakersfield. Why was it so difficult to reach California from Oregon? Tell from your own observations if the rains always fall when the garden needs them. What are some of the advantages of irrigation? Mention some of the diflferences between the climate of California and that of the Eastern States. Tell what you can about the climate of the mountains of California. Describe some desert that you have seen or read about. Tell what you can about a "cloudburst." How do people manage to live in the desert where there is no water? Tell how the sky changes as a storm approaches. What is the difference betw^een fog and clouds? What time of the year is there the most fog on the coast? Is there any fog in the interior valleys, and when? In what general direction do the California mountains extend? How would the climate of Death Valley change if there were no high mountains between it and the ocean? Where are the highest mountains in California? If the highest mountains were near the coast, what would be the effect on the climate of the Great Valley? If the winds blew from the land, would there be any oranges raised in Northern California? What part of California receives the most rain? What the least? Describe the vegetation in each of these places. Describe some dust whirl that you have seen. What is meant by the "equator"? And point out on a globe the position of California with reference to it. Describe some stream basin that you have seen. How does the Great Basin differ from a stream basin? What becomes of the water that is flowing into lakes without outlet? In what part of California do oranges grow at the foot of snow- capped mountains? Mention different ways in which mountains affect the climate of your home. How does the ocean affect the climate where you live? PRACTICAL LESSONS. It is dangerous to depend upon a map which is not correct. A coast with few bays is more difficult to explore than one with many bays and islands. A new land Is more easily reached if there are waterways leading to it than if the journey has to be made by land. Deserts, lofty snow-covered mountains and dense forest jungles form the greatest obstacles to travel. The shore line is not always the true edge of a continent. One is much surer of raising a crop if he depends upon irrigation than if he depends upon irregular rains. 40 New Progressive Geographies A land over which the ocean winds blow has a more even climate than one where the winds blow from the land to the ocean. A mountainous land has a much more varied climate than a level land. True basins are found only in those lands where little rain falls. Nearly all deserts receive some rain and contain plants and animals. Oak forest in the Coast Ranges south of San Francisco, ground at Crystal Springs. Camp CHAPTER ITT. Topic I. — The NatiiraT Resources of Onr California Garden. Introduction. By Natural Resources we mean the soil, the minerals, the for- ests, the water and the animal and bird life. We mean, in other words, those gifts of Nature which make it possible for the people of a country to become rich and prosperous. The land was filled with wild animals and birds. When the pioneers came they found California filled with a great variety of wild animals and birds. Now the larger animals have become so scarce that most of us have never seen them in their homes. The grizzly bears have gone from the thickets where they used to be so abundant and no wild ones are known to exist in the state today. To see even a brown bear we have to go into the remoter parts of the mountains. The antelopes no longer roam the valleys w^here the early set- tlers saw them in countless numbers. At the present time only one small band remains in western Fresno County. The elk were once abundant over much of the state. A few still roam the walder parts of the Northern Coast Ranges, while a partly domesticated band has been protected in the hills west of Bakersfield. In the Spanish days the deer were very thick and were easier to approach than the range cattle. The deer are still found in the mountains, but their numbers, except in the National Parks, where they are protected, are decreasing year by year. There are many predatory animals, such as the mountain lion, wildcat, coyote, fox, coon, etc. The mountain lion is one of the worse enemies of the deer and young stock and a bounty has been placed upon its head. The coyote kills many young stock, but is too cunning to be exterminated. Since its numbers have been reduced, the jack rab- bits and ground squirrels have become numerous and very destruc- tive to crops. Wild geese and ducks once stopped in California in such count- less thousands during their migrations that it was thought hunters would never reduce their numbers. Although they are numerous still, especially in the Sacramento Valley, where they are attracted by the rice fields, they must be protected or they will eventually become extinct. Most of the game birds, song birds and shore birds are still with us, and are so well protected by law that we shall not lose them. A few thousand years ago California was inhabited by many strange animals and birds diiTerent from any living here now. Some 42 New Progressive Geographies of the animals were huge and fierce, like those of the tropic jun- gles in distant parts of the world. We should never have known much about these if it had not been for a group of tar springs near Los Angeles. The animals used to come to these springs long ago to taste the salty and alkaline water. Many of them fell into the sticky tar and died. The tar preserved the bones and now thousands of skeletons have been dug out, many of them in an almost perfect condition. Among the animals that have been found are the elephant, mastodon, camel, llama, tapir, buffalo, lion, tiger, and rhinoceros, besides many smaller ones, and some birds. Our forests are uneqiialed in all the world. Every one has seen or read about the "Big Trees" of the Sierras and the redwoods of the Coast Ranges. But these are only two of the many kinds of cone-bearing trees forming the magnifi- cent forests of California. Among our important trees are the sugar pine, yellow pine, spruce, fir, and cedar. Forests cover all the moun- tain slopes except the higher ones, where it is too cold, and the lower ones, where it is too dry. There are two main arms of the forest belt. One covers the Sierra Nevadas, the other the Coast Ranges north of Santa Cruz. The two arms unite in Shasta County and extend through Oregon and Washington into the fax north. The lower mountains and valleys, where there is rain enough, are covered with a scattered growth of beautiful oaks of different kinds. The oaks give the valleys a park-like appearance. The wild flowers are remarkable for their variety and brilliancy. The unplowed valleys are covered in spring with flowers of many colors. Most prominent among these is the orange poppy, the state flower. Why is it that California has such a variety of plant and animal life? 1. California lies between very warm and very cold lands: We have learned that Northwestern California has a very heavy rain- fall and a dense vegetation, and that the southeastern part is a desert, because it has so little rain. We have also learned that the coast climate is mild, both w'inter and summer; that the interior valleys are hot in the summer, and that the higher we go on the mountains the colder it becomes. The greater part of California has the climate of the warm tem- perate belt. By this we mean that it is neither too hot nor too cold, but that the temperature and rainfall are suited to the most com- fortable, healthful life and the growing of the greatest variety of products. 2. California stretches for many hundred miles along the Pa- cific Ocean: The length of California is about three times its width, and it stretches from northwest to southeast through ten degrees California 43 of latitude. Because it is so long from north to south we should expect the climate of the north to be much colder than that of the south, but in reality there is little difference. 3. The prevailing winds blow from off the ocean: The mild climate of California is due to the fact that the prevailing winds blow off the ocean. The ocean changes very little in temperature throughout the year, and therefore the w^inds which blow from it have a mild and uniform temperature. The cool Japan Current which flow^s southerly along the coast warms very slowly, so that the average temperature at San Diego is only little above that at Eureka. Because California lies lengthwise to the ocean, a larger part is affected by the ocean winds than if it were narrow on the sea and long from east to west. The many mountain barriers, however, which the winds encounter make their influence felt a much less dis- tance inland than it otherwise would be. If the winds blew from the land toward the ocean, as the pre- vailing winds do in the Eastern States, we should have a climate hot in summer and cold in winter. We should have a continental climate instead of a sea-coast climate. 4. California has a varied surface: There are valleys like the Sacramento - San Joaquin, so large that we might truly call them plains, where an abundance of w^ater produces a luxuriant vegeta- tion. There are desert plains which for lack of water must always remain barren. There are gentle hill slopes, inclosing thousands of beautiful val- A party of teachers on the summit of Mt. Whitney, the highest land in the United States outside of Alaska. 44 New Progressive Geographies leys blest with everything that Nature has to offer. There are coastal plains and mesas with a character of their own. There are steep hills and mountain slopes, the home. of our magnificent forests. There are mountain valleys, plateaus and table lands suited either for pastures or farms. There are high mountain valleys where it is so cold that only grasses will grow. Over all, bare rocks and picturesque crags rise thousands of feet in a clear, cold, arctic region with an arctic climate. 5. California has the highest land in the United States outside of Alaska: Mount Whitney, the highest peak of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, rises 14,502 feet above the sea. There are many other peaks almost as lofty. At this great height only a few stunted arc- tic plants are found. 6. California has the lowest land in the United States: From the top of Mount A\'hitney, the highest land, we can almost look into Death Valley, the lowest and hottest land in our country. This valley is 276 feet below the level of the sea. Only one other desert in the world is lower and that is the Valley of the Dead Sea in Palestine. Far to the south of Death Valley lies the Colorado Desert, the lowest part of which is known as the Salton Sink, 260 feet below the sea level. This sink, which was once occupied by a salt marsh, has been flooded by an overflow from the Colorado River and is now a large lake. The heat of these deserts which lie below the level of the sea is almost unbearable in the summer and many people have perished attempting to cross them at that season. 7. California has many kinds of rich soil: The soil comes in the first place from the crumbling of the rocks. There are so many kinds of rocks in our state that we should expect to find many kinds of soil. Among these we may mention red volcanic soil, sandy gran- ite soil, sandy loam and heavy clay or adobe soil. There is the soil formed directly from the crumbling rocks on the hill and mountain sides. There is the soil in the valleys which has been washed from the steeper slopes and is deeper and richer. There is the soil of the deltas of inexhaustible fertility. There is the soil formed on what was once the bed of the ocean or of dried up lakes which often contains much salt, soda and other alkalies. How has the distribution of the rainfall and vegetation influ- enced the settlement of California? The early Spanish ranchers came from Mexico, where they were dependent upon irrigation to raise their crops. That country has few trees and they lived in homes made of "adobe" bricks or stone. These people felt at home in the drier valleys of California, not minding the absence of trees if there were only water for irrigation. The emigrants from the East were accustomed to summer rains and to homes built of logs or lumber. They distrusted the treeless parts of California and settled for the most part in the northern val- leys where there was more rain and timber. It was not necessary California 45 for them, however, to clear the forests, as their ancestors liad done in the East, for there was an abundance of open land. How the distribution of vegetation affected the industries. The hilly and mountainous part of the state outside the main forest belt was found to offer the best pasturage for cattle. For many years the Coast Range region was one vast cattle range, for it is well supplied with wild grasses and other forage plants. Sheep were ranged in great bands all over the state from the forest regions to the deserts and from the valleys to the summits of the mountains. After a time it was found that the sheep were doing great in- jury to the young trees and destroying the protecting cover of the soil so that it began to wash. Now their ranges are much restricted. Dairying first be- came important in the cool, moist val- leys of the Coast Region where the grasses remain green longest. The moun- tain valleys were also valued by the dairymen, for there the meadows were green all summer and the cool air is favorable to butter making. There are now many dairies in the warm, dry valleys where alfalfa is kept green by irrigation and the air of the dairy-houses is cooled with ice. The grain farm- er sought the great open valleys where A forest of white fir on the slope of Mt. Shasta. lie did not have to 46 New Progressive Geographies do any clearing of the land and he could plow furrows miles in length. The first saw-mills were built in the Coast Ranges where boats could carry the lumber to San Francisco, and in the Sierras at points near the mines. For a long time there were few roads and the mountain streams were generally too rocky and swift to float the logs down to the valleys, and so it was only the easily accessible timber that was cut. Saw-mills have now been built far back in the mountains. Rail- roads bring the logs to the mills, and flumes float the lumber down to shipping points in the valleys. Has mining or farming helped most to build up California as a land of pleasant homes and gardens? Most of the pioneers came expecting to get rich quickly and then go back to their old homes in the East. Having no idea of staying in this far-away land they put up cheap and temporary habitations. The mining settlements changed from month to month. As soon as the placers in the vicinity of any town were worked out, most of the people moved away to other places. Many of the old-time mining towns have completely disap- peared. We find everywhere tumbled-down houses and stone chim- neys standing alone. The population of the foothill counties of the gold belt, although now increasing, is still much less than it was during the mining excitement fifty years ago. In the search for gold the value of the soil was not thought of. Thousands of acres of rich bottom land along the streams were turned upside down and left a mass of barren boulders. Finally the importance of mining became less and that of agri- culture increased. The wonderful richness of the soil and the health- ful and agreeable climate led more and more of the new-comers to take up farming and make their homes in the new land. The miner and lumberman go to a new country with a different purpose from that of the farmer. They expect to remain only so long as there are minerals in the ground or trees to be cut. The farmer builds a permanent home and surrounds himself with as many comforts as he can, for he expects to remain. The farmer tries to improve the fertility of the soil, instead of robbing it of its plant food, for his living depends upon it. Although mining has been, and still is, the source of much of our wealth, yet it is not such a lasting industry as farming. It does not leave the country permanently richer as farming does. What are the most important minerals found in California? For many years California was known only as the "Land of Gold." Finally many other valuable minerals were discovered and now the production of petroleum is so great that we might truly call it the Land of Oil. California 47 There are several methods by which gold is obtained. The first used is the simplest. It required only a pick and shovel, a few pieces of board, some nails and quicksilver. This method is called "placer mining." Most of the gold was found on the "bedrock," at the bottom of the stream beds. To get it the top gravel was shoveled off and that at the bottom put through a rocker or sluice and the gold which it contained was collected by the aid of quicksilver. After a time gold was found at the bottom of very thick beds of gravel which formed the channels of streams that flowed long ago. This gold was too deep to be reached with pick and shovel and so the miners made use of water. They brought it in pipes under great pressure and turned it against the banks of gravel. The stream was larger and more powerful than that from a fire engine and rapidly washed away the gravel so that the gold could be ob- tained. This process is called hydraulic mining. Last of all came quartz mining, by means of which most of the o-old is now gotten from the earth. The miners traced the gold found in the placers back to its original home in veins of quartz ex- tending through the rocks. To reach this gold shafts have to be sunk or tunnels run into the hillsides. Some of them extend nearly a mile into the earth. When gold became more difficult to find, other minerals were sought for. Through nearly all the mountains of Eastern California veins of silver and lead weVe discovered. Great beds of copper ore were found in many places, particularly in Shasta County. Here also are beds of iron. In the Coast Ranges valuable quicksilver de- In the Kern River oil fields. 48 New Progressive Geographies posits have been worked for many years. Valuable deposits of salt, soda and borax occupy the beds of the dried-up lakes in the deserts. How is it that California has so Httle coal, but such valuable deposits of petroleum? The story of coal is not at all like that of petroleum. Where we find beds of coal there were once marshes and swamps in which vegetation grew rankly. The decaying leaves and stems collected in thick layers, which after a time were deeply buried in the earth and there changed to coal. California has but little coal and that not of the best quality. Petroleum comes from bodies of minute sea animals and plants which collected on the bottom of the ancient ocean once covering Western California. When after a long time the beds containing these bodies had been turned to rock, they were lifted above the ocean to form dry land.- Then, when prospectors found springs of gas and oil issuing from these rocks, they drilled deep holes in the earth nearby and struck the deposits of these valuable substances buried far beneath the surface. Petroleum, or oil, as it is commonly called, is obtained at many points in the Coast Ranges, along the borders of the San Joaquin Valley, and in Southern California. It now forms the most impor- tant mineral product of the state. Single wells have produced as much as fifty thousand barrels of oil in a day. What efifect did the discovery of oil have on manufacturing? The growth of manufacturing in California has been slow. One of the chief reasons for this is the lack of cheap coal of good quality. Most of the coal used had to be brought a long distance either by ship or railroad. This made the price so high that it was difficult to carry on many kinds of manufacturing and compete with the Eastern States, where coal and labor w^ere cheaper. The discovery of vast deposits of oil suitable for fuel has made a great change. Oil has replaced coal in engines of all kinds be- cause it is cheap and can be used for nearly every purpose where coal is used. Topic II. — The Natural Resources of Our California Garden Are Very Rich, But They \\'ill Not Last Unless We Take Care of Them. Introduction. California is becoming one of the most important states in the Union because of its great area and the richness and variety of its resources. We must, however, learn to use these gifts more wisely than we have been doing. We have cut and burned the forests; we have overstocked the slopes, causing the soil to wash away, and w^e have almost exterminated some of the useful animals and birds. We have done these things not thinking of what the results will be. California 49 We shall have to learn to do differently or Xature will punish us, as she has punished people of other parts of the world who have wasted their resources. What do we mean by Conservation, and why is it of special importance to Cahfornia? By Conservation we mean the careful use of our natural re- sources so that they will remain as rich and abundant for our chil- dren as they are for us. Conservation is especiall}- important in California because of the long rainless summers, which make it necessary to save the water, to guard against forest fires and protect the surface from being washed by the rains. The need of water in the summer. We know that when it rains the water runs away quickly from bare, rocky slopes and almost as quickly from hard, bare ground. Where there is soft earth covering the rocks a part of the rain- water sinks in and less runs away. If the surface is covered with a growth of bushes and trees a still smaller amount of water runs away, for the decaying leaves and branches form a carpet over the surface like a sponge. This decaying vegetation we call humus. The water which the humus holds finally sinks down into the crev- ices in the rocks and feeds the springs. The high mountains are the homes of the heaviest storms. The amount of rain or snow that falls upon them is much greater than that which falls in the valleys. If we would have water for summer use we must leave these mountain slopes undisturbed. We must see that the forests are not cut away. We must see that the meadows are not destroyed by cattle and sheep. We must take care in plowing and cultivating the soil that we leave it in such shape that it does not wash during the win- ter storms, or our country will become dry and barren. What is the result of the careless treatment of the surface of our California Garden? 1. The rains wash the soil from pastures where there are too many cattle: In our walks over the hills we have seen here and there how the rain-water is cutting deep gullies in the soil. Some of the gullies start in old roads and trails. Alany others appear in the pasture lands where there are so many cattle that the grass is eaten into the ground and the surface tramped hard. The destruc- tion of the grass permits the water to get at the soil and it soon begins to cut channels which grow larger with every rain. The muddy torrents which we see during a heavy storm tell us that the soil is being carried away. 2. Careless farming of the hillsides causes loss of the soil: When we clear the trees and bushes away and plow the hillsides \\t must use care to keep the soil from washing. We should either 50 New pRodKESsivE Geographies keep the surface loose so that the water will soak in or grow some crop upon it which will prevent the water from carrying away the soil. It would be better if we left the steeper hillsides covered with the protecting plants which Nature placed there. 3. The earth washed from the slopes fills up the streams and bays: When too much sand and mud are washed into the streams they cannot carry it all away and their channels begin to fill up; we can learn this from any Httle torrent formed during a rain. When the channels become filled the waters overflow their banks and wash mud and sand onto the adjoining fields. Navigation of the Sacramento River is more difficult than it used to be because of the earth washed into it from the hydraulic mines. Many little arms of San Francisco Bay are slowly being filled by the mud brought down by the streams that enter them. Some of the small bays along the coast have been nearly filled in this manner since the state was settled. Morro Bay is a good example. What is the final result of wasting the soil? The loss of soil finally changes a fruitful land into one which is barren and desert-like. When the vegetation which once clothed the surface has been destroyed, the soil is left unprotected. The water gathers in rivulets and runs away quickly, tearing out gullies. The ground dries and the springs become smaller. We can see all over California how water has been at work upon the soil. Our careless plowing, thoughtless waste of the for- Scene in the San Mateo hills south of San Francisco showing how the rain washes the soil when cattle kill the grass covering. California 51 ests and over-stocking of the ranges has not only injured the soil upon which the most of us depend for a living, but has in some places decreased the summer water supply. Where are our forests mostly found? Our forests are found wherever there is an abundant rain or snow-fall and the climate is not too cold. If we study the rainfall map of California and trace the boundaries of that color which marks thirty inches or more rain we shall obtain a pretty good idea of where our forests lie. In the northern part of the state the lowlands receive thirty inches or more rain and are covered with forest trees. As we go south the rainfall in the valleys becomes less and we have to ascend the mountains to find a region where it rains enough to grow forests. In Shasta County the yellow pine, one of the most important of the lumber trees, grows as low as 1000 feet above the sea. When we have gone as far south as San Bernardino County we find that we have to climb up to an elevation of 5000 feet to reach the yel- low pine forests. The distribution of our forests is, therefore, determined by the rainfall. The rainfall is so small in the valleys of the southern half of the state that there would be no forests in this region if it were not for the lofty mountains. The value of our forests as sources of lumber and fuel. The forests of California are among its most important re- sources. If we use these forests with care we shall have not only enough for ourselves and our children, but to sell to the people of other countries. The waste in our forests from fire and careless cutting amounts to a very large sum every year. \\'e waste more than we use. If we could only see how people in many other parts of the world sufifer from the lack of both fuel and material for building their homes, we would appreciate more the wealth which we have in our forests. How our forests protect the soil and aid in holding back the rainwater for summer use. 1. Roots hold the soil so that it does not easily wash away: If you will examine any bank by the side of a road or along a stream you will find that the roots of the trees and smaller plants form a perfect network for perhaps two feet downward from the surface. In some places you will see that the earth beneath the root layer has crumbled and fallen away, leaving the top overhanging. This shows how strongly the roots protect the surface. In places where there is no vegetation at the top of the bank you will notice that it is no longer steep, for the top has washed away. 2. The leaf mold and humus aid in holding the water: If dur- ing a rain you will walk out into the open fields and then into the woods, you will see that there is much less water running down the 52 New Progressive Geographies slopes ill the woods than there is in the open fields. The water that does run away from the wooded slopes is clear, while that which runs off of the cultivated lands is muddy. The layer of decaying wood and leaves lying under the trees takes up the water like a sponge. 3. Where there are forests the flow of the springs is larger and more even: If we will go into the hills we shall see that the streams start in little springs at the head of small ravines. These springs are fed by the water which seeps down through the crevices in the rocks from the layer of humus and soft earth spread over the surface. Where there is little rain, as in the desert, there is only a small amount of humus and soil over the rocks. When the rain comes the water runs quickly off and gathers in torrents in the cafions. There are few springs in the mountains of the desert partly because there is so little covering over the rocks. 4. If the mountain slopes are left as Nature made them, the danger of floods is less and the flow of the streams is more even: We suffer from floods in the winter and early spring in nearly all parts of the state. These floods have their start in the mountains where the slopes are steep and the storms heavy. Anything which disturbs the surface so that the water will run away more quickly will make the floods worse and leave less water for summer use. The more perfect the sponge-like covering which the forest helps to form, the less danger there is of sudden flood. We should, then, use every care in the management of our moun- tains. We should take care of the forests that we may always have What the water has done to the soil in Southern CaHfornia where the protecting bushes have been killed. California 53 lumber and fuel. We should see that the layer of humus, or leaf mold, is not destroyed through the stripping off of the forests or pasturing the slopes too closely. The time may come when, if we are careless, as people have been in other countries, our California garden will be poor and barren. What has happened in other countries where the forests have been destroyed? We will take an imaginary journey to some far-away countries on the other side of the world and see how poor the people are in many places. We will visit Spain, Italy, Palestine and China. The people in these lands have been cutting down their trees for thou- sands of years regardless of the troubles which they were bringing upon themselves. Their forests are nearly gone and the best of the soil has been washed from the slopes, which are gullied and torn ; and the valley lands have been injured by the mud, sand and boul- ders which the floods have left upon them. Fuel is so high in price and so scarce that it cannot be used to keep the homes warm in winter, but only for the needs of cook- ing. Women and children have to wander miles gathering twigs and small brush which they bring home on their backs. The vakte of our mountain forests as parks for summer rec- reation. No other part of the world has a finer climate than the moun- tains of California. There are many months of beautiful weather. The air is warm, but not too w^arm. There is an abundance of pure water and magnificent scenery. In the shady forests of these re- gions are the most delightful summer camp grounds. The map shoW'S what a large area in California our Government has included in the National Forests and reserved from sale. These are free for us to camp in if we are careful about fire. There are in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in addition to the National Forests, the Yosemite, Sequoia and General Grant National Parks where no trees can be cut nor wild game killed. In the Coast Ranges we have Sempervirens Park and Muir Woods, and other beautiful camp grounds where the primeval for- ests will be left as Nature made them. If it were not for the forests our mountains would be without much of their present attractiveness and w^e would not care to spend our vacations in them. We may say, then, that for the encouragement of healthful out- door life, if for nothing else, large areas of our forests should be left in their wild beauty. To the many thousands of people who go into the mountains in the summer, the forests are of far more value than if they were cut down and made into lumber. The vahie of the trees as homes for the birds. Many kinds of birds use the trees for nesting places. If most of the trees were cut down the birds would leave us. Although a 54 New Progressive Geographies few birds are destructive, almost all of them do far more good than harm. They eat large numbers of insects which injure our fruit trees and gardens. Besides this, the birds make beautiful music which we should miss sadly if they were gone. The wild life of our State. 1. Shall we permit the wild animals to be exterminated? There are many wild animals, such as the deer, antelope, elk and mountain sheep, which do no harm, while they add much to the pleasure of out-door life. Laws have been passed to protect these animals and we should see that they are strictly enforced. The numbers of the predatory animals, among which are the California lion or cougar, the coyote, wildcat, besides other smaller ones, can be easily kept down by hunting, so they can do little harm. In order to prevent the extinction of wild life still remaining, the National Parks have been made game preserves. No guns are allowed in them and the animals live their natural lives without fear from men. The wild life has been further protected by the establishing of closed seasons. Deer, for example, can be hunted only two months in the year, and the number that can be killed by one person is lim- ited to two bucks. The fish of the streams, lakes and ocean are an important source of food, but because of the selfish and destructive methods employed by many fishermen laws have been made governing the time and manner in which fish may be taken. The effect of fires on the forests at the head of Tejunga River, San Gabriel Mountains, Southern California. California 55 The great value of bird life. Because of the thoughtless, selfish and cruel treatment which many people give the birds, it has been found necessary to protect them also, by very strict lav^s, to prevent many species from being exterminated. Ducks, geese, quail and some others are known as game birds and are hunted for food. Many of the water and shore birds have been hunted for their plumage. The owls, hawks and some of the song birds have been hunted because of the damage they were sup- posed to do. As a result of the examination of the crops of many different kinds of birds it has been learned what sort of food each takes. Many live almost wholly upon insects. Others live partly upon in- sects and partly upon fruit and grain. The birds destroy enormous quantities of insects which if left alive would do great damage to our fruit trees and gardens. Many even of the hawks and owls, which were once thought to be harmful, have been found to be very beneficial because of the mice, rats and other rodents that they destroy. We must not forget also how much pleasure we take in the companionship of the birds. The world would be less attractive without their music. We should take care also of our mineral resources. Nature was a very long time in making the veins of gold, sil- ver, copper, lead and quicksilver which we find in our state. In a few places where there are hot springs, these minerals are still being formed, but most of them were deposited long ago. When we have dug out and used all that we can discover of these valuable sub- stances, we shall either have to do without or go elsewhere for them. It is in the oil fields that the most mineral waste occurs. Some- times wells cannot be controlled and large quantities of oil are lost. For many years the gas, that comes out of the earth with the oil, and is so valuable for hghting and heating purposes, was allowed to escape into the air. The loss has been more than we could calculate and can never be replaced. Topic III. — How the Growth of California Has Been Af- fected by the Character of Its Surface, Its Streams and Its Climate. There was little farming in the old Spanish days. Each mission and ranch had its own garden and grain fields, but these were only large enough to supply home needs. There was no market for any products of the soil. The vast herds of cattle and sheep which roamed the hills formed the wealth of the people. The climate was so mild and grasses so abundant that they required little attention except at branding time. 56 New Progressive Geographies The only parts of the animals that had any value were the hides, tallow and wool. These were shipped by occasional trading vessels which brought much prized luxuries in return. Travel was slow and difficult before the building of wagon- roads. Travel is now so easy between most parts of California that we do not realize how difficult the numerous mountain ranges made a long journey in the early days. There were then no roads across the mountains which lay between the diiTerent valleys and travel had to be on foot or horseback, over rough paths or trails. Many of these were old Indian trails. The Indians on their part often made use of the trails of the wild animals which in their wanderings naturally sought the easiest routes over the mountains. Trails are much more easily built than wagon roads and can be made where the mountains are too steep and rocky for roads. Even now they are the only means by which we can travel through the higher and more rugged mountains of California. Although trails seem ill suited to freighting, yet large quantities of goods are taken over them on pack horses or mules to remote mmmg settle- ments which can be reached in no other way. The "overland trails" were really wagon roads, although usually very rough and steep. The Camino Real, the name which we give to the great highway leading north from San Diego through the whole length of the Coast Ranges to Sonoma, was for many years merely a trail not suited for wagons. The destructive effect of avalanches in the high Sierra Nevada Mountains. California 57 There are two vast mountain regions in the state into which no roads have yet been built, and if you wish to see their wild and picturesque scenery you will have to go through them either a- foot or on horseback. So rugged are the Northern Coast Ranges that the first wagon road across them was not finished until 1914. This road runs from Eureka to Red Blufif. How did mountain passes make possible the settlement of California? If you will look at a range of hills or mountains you will notice that its crest is very uneven. There are high points, called peaks, which are often very steep. Between the peaks you will see saddle- like depressions where the slopes are less steep and often easy to cross. Low places of this kind we call mountain passes, or simply passes. If there had been no passes in the lofty, rugged mountains which shut ofif California from the East, or in those mountains which break up its surface into so many separate valleys, it would have been much more difficult to build wagon roads and railroads, and our state would have remained unsettled much longer. If there had been no gaps in the mountains separating South- ern from Northern California, there would probably have been two states instead of one. What are the mountain passes which proved of so much im- portance in the early days? If we were placed aniQng the mountains of a land that was strange to us and our lives depended upon finding a way through them, we could then understand with what anxiety the pioneers hunted for passes through the mountain ranges that blocked their paths. The easiest and most direct route across the Sierra Nevada Mountains, although not the lowest, proved to be that by Donner Pass, and so most of the emigrants came that way. A little to the south of Donner Pass is Carson Pass, by which some of the pioneers came, and to the north is Beckwith Pass, which was used to some extent. Although the latter is one of the easiest passes in the Sierras, yet the rough mountains between it and the Sacramento Valley offered as great obstacles to the building of a wagon road in the early days as they did later to the building of a railroad. The lowest and easiest crossing of the Sierra Nevadas is Walker Pass, away to the south. This pass was named after a noted trapper and explorer. No emigrants came this way because of the vast Mo- have Desert on the east and the impassable canon of the Kern River on the w'est. The Santa Fe trail led, for the most part, through an open but desert country. At Fort Yuma it divided; one branch going north- west across the Colorado Desert and through the San Gorgonio 58 New Progressive Geographies Pass, and the other branch going west across the Peninsula Range to San Diego. The San Gorgonio Pass is a remarkable gateway be- tween two of the loftiest mountains of Southern California. The Peninsula Range is rugged, with no low passes. San Diego has recently been benefited by a railroad constructed along the border from San Diego to Yuma. The old Mormon Trail across Southern Nevada reached South- ern California through the Cajon Pass. This route was but little used, for it did not lead to the mines. Although the pass is 4000 feet high' it forms a great gap between the San Bernardino and San Gabriel Ranges, two of the most difficult mountain ranges to cross in the south. How the railroads made use of the mountain passes. If there had been no mountain passes, the building of the over- land railroads would have been delayed for many years. Without the rail- roads the fruit and agricul- tural industries would not have developed because of the impossibility of sending their products to market. As we might expect, the first railroad to California was built through Donner Pass ; the one which the pioneers had found easiest and most direct. It is so high, however, that the snow falls very deep and lasts many months. In or- der that the trains may be kept running throughout the winter, it has been found necessary to build many miles of snowsheds. It is now proposed to tunnel the mountains and so escape the snow as well as the steep grade over the summit. Beckwith Pass is now used by the Western Pacific Railroad and has the ad- vantage of being much less snowy. Siskiyou Pass has been found to be the only prac- tical route for a railroad The new State Highway in Gaviota Pass, through the mountains to Santa Barbara County. Oregon. Both of the passes. California 59 giving access to San Bernardino Valley from the east, are used by railroads. The San Gorgonio is used by the Southern Pacific Rail- road and is the broadest and easiest pass leading to the Pacific Slope, for it is only 2000 feet high. The Cajon Pass is used by Santa Fe and Salt Lake Railroads and is of much more importance now than it was in the early days. How was the exploration of the Cahfornia region affected by the fact that there are few navigable streams? If we were exploring a new country in which there were no roads or even trails, we would find that if there were rivers and lakes upon which we could travel in boat or canoe we would make much better progress than if we had to make our way across the land. When we study the different trails to California, that were traveled in the early days, we see that none of them made any use of lakes or rivers. The early trappers ascended the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers, but these do not lead in the direction of Cali- fornia. The Arkansas River was too shallow and swift. In some places the Snake and Columbia Rivers offered opportunity for the use of rafts or boats, but they were not on the route to California. The ocean, of course, offered an open highway to California. But for the people of the East the long sea voyage around Cape Horn, or the shorter one by the Isthmus of Panama, was more to be dreaded than the overland route. The only navigable water ways within the state are San Fran- cisco Bay and its branches, the short tidal streams entering these branches, the Sacramento River and its tributaries, and the San Joaquin River. These waterways made travel to the mines from San Francisco very easy, but are of no advantage to the most of the state. We can say in conclusion, then, that the settlement and growth Freighting on the desert before the time of the railroad. 60 New Progressive Geographies of most of California has been much slower than it would have been had it possessed many deep bays, navigable rivers and lakes. Farming could not become an important industry until there was some means of getting produce to market. There would be no use in raising large quantities of fruit and vegetables if we had no means of shipping them where they were needed. Until the building of the railroads farming and fruit growing could not become an important industry. The home market re- quired but a small part of what the soil could be made to produce. The navigable streams emptying into San Francisco Bay reached only a short distance into the interior. Even the ocean could not be used for shipping perishable products because of the long time required to reach the eastern market. The lack of summer rains also delayed the development of farming. Stock raising continued for a long time to be the most impor- tant industry next to mining, partly because of a lack of market for produce and partly because large areas of the state which furnished wild forage suitable for cattle were thought to be too dry for cul- tivation. The open ranges finally, however, began to be fenced; farmers spread into the drier valleys and found that good crops of grain could be grown if the seed was put into the ground early enough to get the winter rains. But it was not until the advantages of irri- gation were understood that the desert valleys of Eastern and South- ern California were considered of any value. In these dry regions, under an almost cloudless sky, the farmers, by the aid of irrigation, have been able to build up comfortable homes surrounded with green fields and orchards. The period of the great grain ranches. In studying the growth of California, we find that as stock raising became less important, the production of wheat, barley and oats increased. The larger valleys throughout the whole length of the state, wherever the rainfall was sufficient, were turned from cattle ranges into vast grain fields. In the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys one could ride in the spring for many miles through fields of waving wheat. The growing of grain is still an important industry, but many of the great ranches are being cut up into smaller ones where diver- sified farming is now carried on. The growing of grain did little more than cattle raising to fill our great valleys with comfortable homes. The grain ranches were large, like the stock ranches, and the homes were usually surrounded with few comforts because of the lack of water. Farm life in California did not begin to be attractive, as Nature intended it should be, until people learned how to preserve and California 61 make use of water for irrigating the dry fields. The careful culti- vation of a small piece of land with the aid of water brings a better and surer living than the poor cultivation of a large piece and de- pendence upon chance rains. Irrigation has made farming the most important industry in California. The early emigrants from the East looked upon the long, dry summers as a great drawback to farming in California. We now know, however, that this was a mistake, for they are really an advantage. In the first place the lack of rain makes the hot climate of the interior valleys much more healthful than it otherwise would be. In the second place it is a great advantage, as we have already learned, to be able to turn the water onto the fields just when they need it. It almost seems as if Nature had arranged purposely a supply of water at a time when there are no rains. She has placed high mountains all about the valleys. The heavy storms on their summits and the snowbanks which melt slowly furnish the water needed for summer use in the valleys. All the California farmer has to do is to build reservoirs and ditches and he can have water whenever he wishes it. California now ships farm produce to all the world. California offers everything to make farm life within its boun- dary happy and prosperous; sunny skies, water for irrigation, and a world market. It has so many sorts of climate that everyone can find a place to suit and in which he can grow what he likes best. It has thousands of square miles of the richest soil in which will grow plants from all parts of the world except the tropics. All the markets of the world can now be reached from Califor- nia. Six lines of railroad connect it with the Eastern States. The water route through the Panama Canal now leads to the East and to Europe. About the shores of the Pacific Ocean upon which Cali- fornia faces are half the countries of the world. California fruits are known all over our country and in Europe. There is little danger of raising more than we can sell. The climate of half of our country is cold and the people in those parts are glad to get our semi-tropical fruits. Besides this we can supply them with other fruits and vegetables earlier in the spring than they can raise them. Does our California garden yet produce all that it might? Although we raise immense quantities of fruits and vegetables both for home use and for export to other states and countries, yet only a small part of the fertile lands of California are carefully cultivated. r i i n j We can travel for many miles m some of the larger valleys and see only a few well cultivated farms, where there might be thou- sands with comfortable and attractive homes. When the rich lands 62 New Progressive Geographies are all improved and the waters which now run useless to the sea are caught in reservoirs and turned on these lands, California will support many times its present population. How a great aqueduct brought water to Southern CaHfornia. Stories of the ancient Roman Empire tell of great aqueducts built to supply the cities with water, but the greatest aqueduct of all time has been built in Southern California. Water is the single thing of importance which Nature has given sparingly to this region.- As Los Angeles and the country about increased in population, it was seen that more water would soon be needed than could be sup- plied by the streams of the San Gabriel Mountains. To obtain more water the engineers turned to Owens River, far to the northward, beyond both the San Gabriel Mountains and the Mohave Desert. This river rises in the snowbanks and lakes of the highest part of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and is finally lost in Owens Lake. It is 260 miles from Los Angeles to the point in the river where it was decided to take out the water. The desert had to be crossed and tunnels several miles in length made through the San Gabriel Mountains. To prevent the loss of water the aqueduct was made of cement in the form of a huge tube. With the completion of this aqueduct, the greatest in the world, Southern California will support many more people than it other- wise could. Is there water enough to turn all our deserts into fruitful gardens ? We often think of a desert as being formed of sand and rocks, but this is only partly true. The most of the surface of our Cali- fornia deserts is formed of good soil which only needs water to pro- duce abundantly. The Colorado Desert, where once travelers some- times died of thirst, has been changed by the water brought from the Colorado River, into a luxuriant garden. In some of the desert valleys water is found by diggmg wells. Branding cattle on a desert range. California 63 The lofty mountains along the western border of the Great Basin send down streams which supply a fringe of settlements, but the larger part of this desert region must remain a barren waste for lack of water. The advantages of country life in California. Country life in California has many attractions. The weather is pleasant most of the time and so mild that one can sleep out of doors throughout the whole year. Each of these three regions, the sea -shore, the park - like valleys, and the mountains, has its own charms. California is spending a large amount of money building state highways leading through the principal valleys with a branch to each county seat. Rural delivery of mail and the telephone, together with good schools, draw people to the country. The scenery and climate attract thousands of visitors yearly. The renown of our mild and healthful climate has gone every- where. The climate and the wonderful mountain scenery attract people from all over the world. There is no scenery finer than that of the great volcanoes or the gorges of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The Yosemite Valley is the best known of these attractions. California is well situated for trade and commerce with all the world. We see from the map that California occupies about one-half of the whole Pacific Coast of our country. The Great Bay of San Francisco lies a little south of the middle of this coast line. The Pinnacles, Monterey County, one of the smaller National Parks. 64 New Progressive Geographies San Francisco Bay receives the drainage and is the natural com- mercial center of about half of the state. San Pedro and San Diego Harbors form other important shipping points. The overland rail- roads connect with ocean steamers, opening trade and travel routes across the continent to all parts of the world. Topic IV. — California Has Such Wonderful Scenery that People Come from All Parts of Our Country to See It. Introduction. ■ Nature is everywhere at work on the surface of the earth. The muddy rills on the hillside or by the road during a heavy rain teach us this fact. The rills carry away so much earth and cut such deep gullies that sometimes the roads become impassable. It is easy to understand that if Nature has time enough she can in this manner tear down the loftiest mountains. In some deserts the winds blow so fiercely over the surface that particles of dust and sand are picked up and carried to some distant region. In the north the ice which gathers on the slopes moves slowly downward, carrying away the loose earth and even grinding off the solid rocks. But it has taken more than water, wind and ice to make the grand scenery of California, although, as we shall learn later, these have all helped. Nature is also at work within the earth, and, although in some parts of the earth she does not seem to have done much in a long time, yet in our California region she has never taken a rest. She has built many of our lofty mountains by lifting up the solid earth. Whenever it breaks or slips a little we feel an earth- quake, and we say that our mountains are growing. Only a few of the earthquakes that have occurred since the Pacific Coast has been settled have done much injury, but little by little, through long ages, these earthquakes have made the highest mountains in our state. In addition to earthquake mountains, California has many vol- canic mountains which add much to its attractive scenery. North- eastern California is one vast lava field and the eruptions of Lassen Peak tell us that Nature is still at work. These are not the only ways in which our mountains have been made. Many great peaks stand out all alone because the rocks of which they are formed are hard and do not crumble easily like the rocks about them. These we sometimes call erosion mountains. In what way does the great earthquake of 1906 help us to understand the story of our mountains? The earthquake of 1906 was the most destructive one since Cali- fornia has been settled. One morning the earth suddenly broke and slipped along a fissure hundreds of miles in length, throwing down buildings and killing many people. This fissure or crack in the earth began on the north beneath the ocean and where it appeared on the land near Point Arena it California 65 upper Yosemite Fall. This gauzy waterfall is more than 1000 feet high. showed by the fences and roads that crossed it that the earth had sUpped sixteen feet. We can follow the line of the earth- quake by the broken ground, the hollows, and ridges for 400 miles, to San Juan in San Benito Coun- ty. From here a line of fissures made by older earthquakes leads us on through the Coast Ranges, along the southern side of the Mohave Desert, over the San Gabriel Range to the \'alley of San Ber- nardino, and finally into the Colorado Desert, where we lose it. The total length of the great earthquake crack or fissure is more than 700 miles. It is the most remarkable thing of its kind in the whole world. There are in places upon this fis- sure blufifs 200 to 300 feet high made by the rising of the land upon one side during some ancient earthquake. These blufifs are miniature mountain slopes and tell us very clearly how some of our great mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada, were made. What earthquakes have had to do with the making of oiir California scenery. \\'e must remember, in spite of the fact that earthquakes are reallv to be feared, for they sometimes do serious damage, that 66 New Progressive Geographies many of the things which make California such a rich and dcHght- ful land are due to them. If there had been no earthquakes there would be few high mountains ; there would be little picturesque scenery, the rainfall would be so small toward the south that there would be no water for irrigation and the country would forever remain poor and thinly settled. Even the golden riches of California, which first drew the pio- neers, owe their presence in the rocks to fissures made by earth- quakes which happened long ago. The Sierra Nevada is our greatest range of earthquake moun- tains. It contains some of the finest scenery in all our country. It is covered with valuable forests and affords an abundance of water for irrigation. These mountains have been lifted along a fissure or crack until they now show a w^onderful eastern wall more than two miles high. They are still growing, for in 1870 there occurred a severe earthquake in Owens Valley, where the earth slipped in places as much as fifty feet. The San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains are also due to earthquakes. Their grand scenery adds greatly to the attrac- tions of Southern California, and the water which they supply makes possible thousands of pleasant homes. Great volcanoes add much to the scenery of California. Mt. Shasta is a volcano and the grandest mountain in California, rising 14,380 feet above the ocean and standing all alone. It is white with snow most of the year and on the north side are large glaciers. What the great earthquake of 1906 did to the road near Pt. Reyes. The road was broken and the parts shoved past each other twelve feet. California 67 To understand how this mountain began and finally became so great, we will visit the Mt. Lassen region where Nature is starting anew her fires far beneath the surface. Here there are boiling springs, mud volcanoes, and a steaming lake, and not far away a cinder cone, lava flow, and ash almost as fresh as though formed yesterday. Far beneath the surface it is very hot. In those regions where the myths say that Vulcan is at work, it often becomes so hot that the rocks are melted and some of this liquid material is squeezed out through cracks in the earth, forming lava. Sometimes water flows down through the cracks to where it is hot and so much steam is suddenly formed that a violent explosion takes place. These explosions throw out clouds of steam, ashes, red hot lava, and be- tween the explosions there may be quiet flows of molten lava which spread over the surrounding country like a sheet. The ashes, cin- ders and coarse fragments gather i-ound the crater and in time build up a cinder cone. This is the way Mt. Shasta started, but it did not always remain a cinder cone. Eruptions followed one an- other through thousands of years until the mighty mountain was at last built up. How water and ice have helped make our scenery attractive. Water is doing work all around us, as we can see every time it rains, for we can find its channels upon almost every hillside. Be- fore water could begin this work it was first necessary, however,