The Practical Gas Engineer A Manual of Practical Gas and Gasoline Engine Knowledge For the Gas and Gasoline En- gine Owner, Engineer or any one wishing Plain and Practical Information on this style motor Covering Errors to be avoided in the Construction of, and How to Erect, Operate and care for Gas and Gasoline Engines and Motors of Every Type. Ninth Edition Revised and Enlarged BY E. W. LONGNECKER, M. D. Copyright Dec., 1910 - PREFACE Having many times in the past felt the need of some book that could be placed into the hands of the busy gas and gasoline engineer for the purpose of aiding him quickly to overcome the apparently mysterious troubles that often arise with these engines or motors, the author has for a number of years, during his extensive travels as an expert for one of the oldest and leading gas engine concerns in America, collected such data in reference to CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT and GAS ENGINE TROU- BLES as are of special interest to the PROS- PECTIVE PURCHASER, the ATTENDANT, or any one wishing to post himself thoroughly on the management, care, operation and selec- tion of a gas or gasoline engine or motor. The data thus gathered and compiled in this book covers practically all the questions that arise from the purchaser's, owner's and engineer's standpoint. 464559 4 PREFACE It is the author's intention that it shall be a ready reference most valuable to all persons in- terested in modern gas and gasoline engines, and especially to the busy engineer, in cases of emer- gency where his engine refuses to operate suc- cessfully and the cause of the trouble is difficult to locate. In handling the various subjects the author has endeavored to studiously avoid the theoret- ical, and adhere strictly, in as brief a manner as possible, to the practical questions concerning the purchase and handling of gas and gasoline engines. I have reason to believe that this book will save many a gas engine owner, not only much time and money that without it would be ex- pended on repairs, but that it will also save him much mental worry and make him and his en- gine closer friends. If it does either it will have attained its pur- pose. THE AUTHOR. CONTENTS Part I. Page 7 DESCRIPTIVE and HISTORICAL Part II. - - Page 13 CONSTRUCTION Part III. - Page 33 EQUIPMENT Part IV. - Page 76 GAS ENGINE TROUBLES Part V. - - Page 93 GENERAL INFORMATION Part VI. - - Page 112 DYNAMOS and MAGNETIC IGNITION Part VII. - - Page 127 AUTOMOBILE and MOTOR BOAT ENGINE TROUBLES Part VIII. - - Page 145 MISCELLANEOUS PART 1 DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL 1. THE GAS ENGINE may be defined as a Motor or Prime Mover which derives its power from the Combustion, within its cyl- inder, of a mixture of gas and air in the proper proportion to form an explosive. 2. The COMBUSTION or burning of this charge of gas and air is occasioned under a close or heavy compression, a result of the inward movement of the piston after the charge is admitted and all valves closed. The result of igniting this mixture under the heavy compression is what is commonly called an explosion, which is nothing more than a quick burning or rapid combustion of the mixture. 3. This explosion causes suddenly a high degree of heat within the cylinder, behind the piston, which heat results in a great EXPANSIVE FORCE, creating arf initial pressure against the piston of something near 300 pounds to the square inch. This drives the piston rapidly and forcibly on its outward movement, which, connected to the fly wheels by means of pitman and crank shaft, imparts to them their revolving mo- tion and consequent power. *: : THE '* ^RAhCAfc* GAS ENGINEER. 4. FUEL A number of combustible pro- ducts are well adapted to be used as fuel in a gas engine. 5. The most commonly employed are Nat- ural and Artificial Gas, Gasoline, Kerosene, Distillate, Alcohol, etc. 6. These products are known as Hydro- Carbons, and may be considered products of Coal, Vegetables, Water and Crude Min- eral Oil. 7. This type of motor is variously called Gas Engine, Gasoline Engine, Hydro-Carbon Engine, Internal Combustion Engine, Naph- tha Engine, Kerosene Engine and Explosive Engine. It is entirely proper to call an engine that employs gasoline for fuel a Gas engine. A Gasoline engine is practically a Gas en- gine. All Hydro-Carbon engines are known also as Gas engines. 8. Gasoline, kerosene, alcohol, etc., atomized or vaporized with the current of air simply forms a gas, and is transformed as such into power. It is liquid only on the outside but gas on the inside of the cylinder. So with all the other fluids named. Therefore all the liquid fuels employed in these engines must be by some method first transformed into gas before they are useful. 9. BIRTH OF THE GAS ENGINE As early as 1680 Huyghens suggested the use of gunpowder in an explosive engine. This sug- gestion engaged the attention of other minds. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 9 10. M. Beau de Rochas advocated a Four- Cycle idea in 1862. But the real practical demonstration which proved that the gas engine could be made a success was made by Lenoir in 1860, and Hugon, Siemens, Boulton, Crosley and Dr. Otto a few years later designed engines that proved the gas engine a success beyond a doubt. 11. FOUR CYCLE and OTTO CYCLE are used synonymously, meaning that an en- gine completes a Cycle in Four (4) acts, or that it requires four (4) movements of the piston to complete a Cycle, as follows : 1st On the outward movement of the piston a charge of gas and air is drawn into the cylinder. In other words, inhaled. 2nd On the inward movement, the valves being closed, the charee is compressed in the rear end of the cylinder. 3rd At the beginning of the working stroke Explosion and Expansion of the charge under the heaviest compression pressure causes the next outward move- ment. 4th The second inward movement, with the exhaust valve open, exhausts the burnt gases. 12. Therefore two revolutions of the fly wheels are necessary to complete one cycle, consisting of an Inhalation, Compression, Ex- pansion and Exhaust. 13. All Gas Engines are not built on the 10 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. Four-Cycle plan. There are many Two- Cycle engines now on the market. But the Four-Cycle engine up to the present has been a great favorite over the Two-Cycle with both the manufacturer and user, except in the service of propelling light motor boats, where the Two-Cycle has the lead. 14. This is so partly because there are fewer obstructions to be overcome in manufactur- ing a successful four-cycle, in consequence of which the manufacturers have given more attention to perfecting and simplying that cycle, and inasmuch as they are meeting the requirements of power users, and are favored with a ready market, they do not care to leave it for the two cycle problem. 15. A TWO-CYCLE engine, of course, must be differently constructed from a four-cycle. There must be two compression chambers, either in the shape of two cylinders or one cylinder with both ends closed, or the crank chamber may be tightly encased and used as a compression chamber. THE TWO COM- PRESSION CHAMBERS are necessary because in a two-cycle engine a charge of gas and air must be received by the engine some- where at the same time the previous charge is being compressed ready for explosion. 16. As before stated, two cylinders, placed side by side, with their pistons moving in opposite directions at the same time, and with their compression chambers connected THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 11 with an admission port and valve, will cover the requirements of a two-cycle. The more simple arrangement of making one cylinder and piston serve the same purpose is most desirable. 17. To make its operation clear, I will take for an illustration the single cylinder two- cycle engine, using the air-tight crank case or chamber for a receiving, mixing and com- pression chamber. 18. The casting is so made that when the en- gine is completed the pitman and crank are completely enclosed and work in this air- tight chamber. You can easily understand that if it were not for the piston this cham- ber and the cylinder would be one continu- ous, irregular, enclosed space. The piston, however, working in the cylinder, divides the space into two chambers, the cylinder proper and the crank chamber. 19. To the crank chamber there must be an admission port and valve to receive the charges. From the crank chamber to the cylinder there must be a side passage to carry the charge from the crank space into the cylinder. From the cylinder to the outside there must be an exhaust port or valve. 20. NOW NOTICE THE ACTION OF THIS ARRANGEMENT. When the pis- ton moves back into the cylinder it acts as a suction pump to the crank chamber, and 12 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. if the admission valve were closed it would create a partial vacuum in the crank space. But the admission valve is opened on this inward stroke of the piston and admits a properly mixed charge of gas and air. As the piston moves out toward the crank space it compresses this charge to the end of its stroke, where a valve or port is opened and the compression pressure, in the crank chamber, forces the charge through the side passage, into the cylinder behind the piston. Now, when the piston moves on its inward stroke it compresses the charge behind it, and at the same time draws another into the crank chamber. 21. The compressed charge in the cylinder is exploded just as the piston starts again on its outward stroke. The expansive force of the explosion drives the piston with a rapid movement to the end of its outward stroke when the exhaust port is opened, and the burnt gases are let out into the open air. Just after the exhaust port opens and the exploded charge is leaving the cyl- inder the compressed charge from the crank chamber comes rushing in from the other side. 22. Therefore the exploding cylinder is al- ways receiving a fresh charge at the same time it is exhausting the exploded one. In other words, emptying out the old on one side through the exhaust port and filling THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 13 up at the same instant on the other side from the crank chamber. 23. A Two-Cycle engine on each inward movement compresses a fresh charge in the cylinder behind the piston and receives an- other into the crank chamber. It also ex- plodes a charge and receives an impulse at every revolution. PART II. CONSTRUCTION 24. .Parts necessary to the proper construc- tion of a Gas Engine are Cylinder, Base or Bed Plate, Piston and Piston Rings, Con- necting Rod or Pitman, Crank Shaft, Fly Wheels and Belt Pulley, Receiving and Ex- haust Valves, Igniting Device and Gov- ernor, Oiler, Carbureter, Screws, Pins, Nuts, Bolts, Springs, Levers, etc. 25. A cylinder head and water jacket might be included, although the cylinder head in some engines is continuous with the walls of the cylinder, and consequently a part of it. The cooling, for which purpose the water jacket serves, may be done otherwise, as with spin- ous projections cast around and contiguous with the cylinder wall. 26. CYLINDER In writing on construe- 14 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. tion the Four-Cycle engine only will be con- sidered. 27. A Cylinder is made of gray iron cast- ings, with either one or both ends open. If both ends are open a cylinder head is fitted onto one end so as to close it. The cylinder is usually cast with water jacket, although the water jacket may be cast separate and fit onto the cylinder. Exhaust and receiv- ing valve ports are cast into the head or onto the sides of one end of the cylinder. 28. So far as the success or failure of a valve is concerned, location of its port has very little to do with it so long as it opens into the compression chamber. That location is usually selected where it is believed to be most convenient to operate the move- ments of the valve. 29. Both end and side port valves are used very successfully. A number of successful engines have their valve ports on the top and bottom of the cylinder, if of the horizon- tal pattern. 30. Many small engines have the base and cyl- inder cast in one piece. Other cylinders have lugs, brackets or rests cast on them, which are fitted to a similar casting on the base by means of stud bolts and nuts, and are there- fore bolted on. 31. On small, light weight engines where com- bined cylinder and base castings are used and easily handled there can be no reasonable ex- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 15 cuse offered against the plan. 32. It is argued by some builders that in case of a break to either cylinder or bed only one need be supplied to repair the break, but the increased amount of machine work and time spent in detaching the old piece and putting on the new about offsets their argument. In cost of repairs there is very little difference. 33. The metal in the walls of the cylinder should be of uniform thickness in its entire circumference and from one end to the other, so as to allow equal expansion and contrac- tion throughout. 34. The bore of the cylinder should be as nearly perfect as machinery, handled by a careful and skilled mechanic, can make it. The igniting end of the interior of the cyl- inder should be smooth and free from pro- jections or sharp corners. The valve ports should be of ample capacity to allow easy admission and free exhaust. Cylinder walls should be from ^ inch thickness in a 5- inch cylinder to 24 or 1 inch in a 12-inch cylinder. The metal in the walls should be free from sand holes, so as to prevent water leaking into the cylinder. 35. The base or bedplate, as its name implies, is the support of all the working parts of the engine, and should be so designed as to be sufficiently strong at all points where a special strain is liable to be exerted. The 16 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. base is the support for the cylinder and fly wheels, and should be so arranged as to carry these in the most simple, convenient, efficient and compact manner. 36. In small engines it is desirable to have the base of sufficient height to clear the fly wheels, so that when the engine is placed on the floor the fly wheel may turn clear by an inch or two. 37. In larger engines, where it is desirable to keep down the weight, for convenience in handling, a sub-base may be substituted. 38. The least carelessness in the construction of the crank or journal boxes determines a partial or complete failure of the engine. 39. The edges, or rather the inner edges of the boxes should be so dressed as to just ad- mit the crank without practically any end play, and in a position to bring the center of the crank pin exactly in line with the center of the cylinder. 40. The brass or babbitt bearing should be so put in as to insure the center of the CRANK PIN in its entire stroke to be in exact LINE with the center of the cylinder. In other words, the boxes must hold the crank shaft at perfect right angles to the cylinder centers. 41. The brass or babbitt bearings should al- ways be strictly of the best material obtain- able for the purpose. The least variation THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 17 from perfect alignment is faulty construc- tion. 42. THE PISTON should be from 1-1200 to 1-300 in. smaller in diameter than the cylinder, according to diameter of the cylin- der. It should be a close gray iron casting, free from sand holes. It should be of the drum-shaped variety, closed at one end and open at the other to receive the wrist or crosshead end of the pitman or connecting rod. 43. The crosshead lugs which carry the pin to which the pitman is connected should be located near the center of the piston length. If anything, a little nearer the open than the closed end. It is bad practice to carry the weight necessary to construct a proper crosshead with the weight of the pin and part of the pitman too near the rear end of the piston. 44. There is no rule governing the length and weight of a piston. Each manufac- turer constructs a piston of length and weight after his own ideas. The tendency in stationary engine construction is to make them extremely long, which necessarily makes them too heavy to be of the best service. 45. The longer and heavier a piston the more friction in the cylinder, and consequently the more power is required to move it, and the more work will be thrown on the crank 18 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. boxes and shaft in reversing it, which im- parts an end motion to the entire engine that is difficult to balance. 46. I favor a piston of medium length, not too long nor extremely short. An upright engine admits of a shorter piston than a horizontal, because a horizontal engine car- ries the weight of its piston on the cylinder walls; and the longer the piston the less damaging is the wear to the cylinder. The weight is distributed over more surface. 47. An upright engine carries its piston weight principally on the crank shaft, and therefore should be as light and short as the force, with which it has to deal, will allow. 48. The Rings on the Piston serve to prevent the escape of the expansive force past the piston, which is necessarily somewhat small- er, so as to allow its free and easy move- ment in the cylinder. 49. The packing rings are made larger than the cylinder. A piece from ^ to 1 inch in length is cut out, so that when the end of the rings are pressed together it reduces the diameter of the ring to that of the cylinder, but leaves an outward spring to the ring. 50. After cutting a piece out of a perfect ring and pressing the ends together, it will make an oval shaped instead of a perfect ring, and consequently it can not fit a perfect cylinder. After the ring is cut the ends THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 19 should be pressed together and again turned to a perfect ring, on the outside at least. It is to be regretted that all manufacturers do not follow this rule in making their rings. 51. An oval-shaped ring will wear the walls of the cylinder at two opposite points only, which will soon conform itself more or less to the shape of the ring. 52. Such rings also fail to serve their purpose by allowing the expansive force to pass the piston. It is as important to a purchaser to know how the packing rings are made as to know that the journal boxes are in exact line from every point with the cylinder. 53. He should always ask an agent or manu- facturer who is trying to sell him an engine this question: How are piston rings made? And if they do not make a plain answer, or if they seem to evade the question, it is just as well for the purchaser to give that en- gine no further consideration. Because if a manufacturer is careless with his cylinder rings and journal boxes he is liable to be careless with every part of his engine. 54. The cylinder rings and journal boxes are not the only safe guides to a purchaser. As we go along with these points on construc- tion you will see that the purchaser will find many things to open his eyes. It is in- tended to make this little book the pur- chaser's friend as well as the men who have charge of an engine. If the purchaser were 20 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. more exacting in his requirements the manu- facturer would build him a better engine, and a portion of the gas engine trouble would cease. 55. A purchaser's suspicion may be aroused that a ring is not properly made if there is a coughing noise and smoke coming out of the open end of the cylinder at each explosion of a charge. If by drawing out the piston he finds the rings are bearing and worn only at the cut and at a point opposite, he can rest assured that the rings were not turned after cutting. But the ring may be good and the cylinder may have a larger bore at one end than at the other, therefore look out for an imperfect cylinder as well as imperfect rings. 56. PITMAN OR CONNECTING ROD Very few gas engine builders use the slides or crosshead guides as used in the steam engines. The pitman is generally connect- ed one end to the crank shaft, the other direct to the piston. It is made of steel casting or steel forging. The latter is less liable to defects, and therefore more desir- able. 57. It should be centered, turned and made as light as possible, with ample strength to carry the power transmitted through it. The center lines of the crossheads and crank- pin boxes, which are usually made of brass, should be at exact right angles to the center line of the connecting rod. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 21 58. The plan of attaching the crankpin boxes to the connecting rod, by means of two steel bolts, is probably the most convenient and satisfactory method of attaching these boxes. 59. Owing to the slight motion required at the wrist many builders consider a sim- ple bushing amply sufficient, although some are using bearings such as the strap and key variety or one similar to the crankpin boxes. 60. CRANK SHAFT. The question of crank shaft construction is a very import- ant one. The center line of the crank pin should be exactly parallel with the center line of the crank shaft. The least variance from this necessarily makes a bad running engine. 61. I have found crank pins in boxes, that were constantly running hot, not only out of line with their shaft, but also of differ- ent diameter at the ends, one end of the pin being considerably larger in diameter than the other. One or the other of the defects here mentioned is usually the cause of a constantly HOT RUNNING crank box. 62. Improper lining of the crank with the cylinder, or the crank pin boxes fastened on the connecting rod out of line, are faults that should not be overlooked. 63. The arms of the crank shaft should be of exactly the same thickness, so as to bring 22 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. the crank pin in such a position that the center line of the cylinder will divide it into two exact halves in every part of the entire length of its stroke. 64. LENGTH AND DIAMETER OF CRANK PIN. The best rule to follow is to make the working area of the crank pin so that there is no more than 400 pounds av- erage pressure to the square inch. Whether you secure this area by a long slim pin or a short thick pin does not matter much, pro- vided extremes are avoided and journal boxes are of suitable length. Builders gen- erally agree that the diameter of the pin should be from 1 to Ij4 times that of the shaft. 65. The length of the journal boxes should be not less than 2^2 times the diameter of the shaft. 66. CRANK SHAFT DIAMETERS. No uniform rule is followed. But gas engine crank shaft diameters in America compare very favorably with a rule based upon cylin- der diameter and maximum pressure within the cylinder. The average diameters run a little "shy" of the rule. 67. WEIGHT AND DIAMETER OF FLY WHEELS. Very much depends on the speed of the engine as to weight that should be carried. At a medium speed, which may be based on about 225 revolutions for 25 h. p. to 375 for a 2 h. p. single cylinder engine, THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 23 one hundred pounds to the horse power will not be very far out of the way. The diam- eter may range from 28 in. on the small en- gine to 60 in. on the larger size. The weight above referred to, of course, is divided be- tween the two wheels. High speed automo- bile and motor boat engines, of course, carry a much lighter wheel. 68. BALANCING A SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINE. This is a subject that is not so easily disposed of as it might appear. The majority of manufacturers simply use a weight in the rim of the fly wheels directly opposite the arms and crank pin on the crank shaft, or, what is practically the same thing, they core out the rim at a point directly oppo- site from that where the weight should oth- erwise be. 70. Some builders think the crank shaft is the proper place to attach the balance weights. 71. Our experience with the different meth- ods of balancing leads us to favor the coun- ter weights on the crank shaft arms, either in the form of slotted discs with the weight in the proper place, or in the shape of half- moon weights. 72. These weights or discs are secured to the crank shaft arms by means of suitable bolts so that their weight hangs opposite the center line of the shaft from that of the crank arms and crank pin. 24 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 73. A pump or an air compressor in connec- tion with a gas engine is an excellent com- bination. Unfortunately not every one who has use for a gas engine has need of a pump or compressor. But you can "whack the nail squarely on the head" by making a double cylinder engine with one cylinder on each end of the engine base and a double throw crank shaft in the center, so that both pistons move away from and towards each other at the same time. 74. This is known as the DOUBLE OP- POSED engine and it is becoming quite a favorite with many operators, especially for mounted service such as is required in port- able traction, motor boat, motor truck and railway car power plants. In our opinion the single cylinder gas engine must neces- sarily lose consideration for mounted serv- ice because of this difficulty in secur- ing a really serviceable and reliable balance that will effectively overcome the vibrations due to the quick to-and-fro movements of a single heavy piston, connecting rod and crank shaft. The double opposed engine comes in here with its special advantages of practical- ly a perfect balance, light in weight, and with a longitudinal, instead of a vertical power thrust, which is considered by many opera- tors much more preferable, because of the racking vertical vibrations so noticeable in multiple cylinder vertical engines used in au- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 25 tomobiles when under a high rate of speed. While the single cylinder engine has almost an unlimited field of usefulness in localized and stationary service and the multiple cyl- inder vertical engine will rule rapid transit vehicles where the maximum power with minimum weight is the principal considera- tion, the double opposed horizontal engine may claim with equal propriety the inter- mediate field between localized and rapid transit service. 75. VALVES. The ordinary four-cycle en- gine usually has three valves, the exhaust valve, the receiving valve and the fuel valve. The exhaust and receiving valves are gen- erally placed at a point on the cylinder head so that their ports lead directly into the igniting or exploding chamber. These valves are usually of the mushroom type, and are operated by means of suitable levers in connection with the cams on a revolving side rod, or by a punch rod from a cog gear driven by the crank shaft. 76. As to the manner of operating these valves, I think the advantages are in. favor of the side rod on the engines of the single cylinder horizontal type and with the encased gear and cam rod mechanism on the vertical type of engines. 77. The principal reason for this distinction is that it is more desirable to have the valve stem work in a vertical or upright than in 26 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. a horizontal position. If a valve stem works in a vertical position the weight of the valve brings it squarely into its seat, and the wear on the seat, valve and stem are likely to be uniform at all points. But if the valve is so placed as to move in a hori- zontal position the weight of the valve pal- let has a tendency to wear the stem and seat on their under side only, and therefore liable to soon cause trouble. In the double opposed and multiple cylinder engines the valve pallets are much lighter in their con- struction and their weight, carried in special sleeves and cages, becomes a minor consid- eration. 78. The valve chambers or cages can be bolted to a horizontal cylinder in a vertical posi- tion and operated by suitable levers acted on by cams on the side rod. While on the ver- tical type of engine the valves are adjusted to the cylinder in a vertical manner directly over the cam shaft or gear, which operates them with a direct acting mechanism. 79. You will notice, I say, the valve chambers should be bolted or adjusted to the cylinder. They should not be cast on. My advice to any one purchasing is to shun an engine where valve chambers, containing the valve seats, can not be replaced by new ones. Valve seats are liable to wear out and crack by the continual wear and high heat to which they are subjected. The valve pallet and its seat THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 27 should also be in such a position as to be easy of access. They need to be examined and cleaned occasionally. The cage type of valve solves the difficulty. 80. The exhaust valve on large engines should be watered, otherwise its seat and pallet is soon liable to give way under the excessive heat. The cold charges entering at the re- ceiving valve serve as a cooler for it. 81. A valve mechanism may be so designed as to use alternately either gas or gasoline as fuel, but not both at the same time. A valve or set of valves may be arranged so as to shut off one and turn on the other, thus changing fuels without stopping the engine. This is resorted to in such instances where kerosene or alcohol is the running fuel and gasoline the starting fuel by reason of its more ready vaporizing quality. 82. The blending or conjunctive use of two distinct fuels is another proposition alto- gether. The two fuels are of a different chemical composition, and the blending of their elements with a volume of air so as to make a ready explosive would be extremely difficult, and therefore impractical to attempt their combination or use in conjunction or at the same time. 83. To go into the details of describing the various fuel valve mechanisms now used would require more space than could be al- lowed in this little work. Each builder 28 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. claims some superior point of merit in his method of feeding the fuel, but it should not be forgotten that other reliable builders may have other points as good. It may be sufficient to say that the gas valves, and their operating mechanism, are generally so arranged as to open the valves when the outward movement of the piston is drawing a current of air into the cylinder, and partly by the force of the gas pressure and partly by the suction produced by the pis- ton the gas is admitted to the current of .air and mixes with it as it enters the cylin- der. 84. Gasoline valves and carbureters and their methods of handling fuel are a little more complicated, but in most cases it is the cur- rent of air, also, by its suction power, that draws sufficient gasoline from a needle point or atomizer to charge the air current. In some instances the gasoline is forced into the air current by means of a small pump. Some kerosene engines take a charge of air only, and after compressing it, the kerosene is sprayed into the compression space and im- mediately fired. 85. A purchaser needs to familiarize himself with the function of the gas valve or car- bureter on his engine and its method of feed- ing the fuel. It requires only a little close attention and common sense to learn in half on hour all that is necessary to know THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 29 about the feeding and regulating the fuel to the engine. 86. The fuel may be properly fed and regu- lated, and yet the engine refuse to go. Therefore the fellow who uses common sense enough to learn the proper feeding of gaso- line or fuel will get into trouble if he con- cludes that he has learned it all. This is just the position in which I have found many a fellow. And this brings us to that mechan- cal part of the engine which probably is more often the source of trouble than all others combined, and that is the IGNITING MECHANISM. 87. The reader is, no doubt somewhat familiar with the two principal methods of ignition, namely, the HOT TUBE and the ELEC- TRIC SPARK method. The fellow with common sense about getting his fuel fed just right must also know whether he has a sufficient spark or tube hot enough to fire the charge of fuel. HOT TUBE ignition is nearly a thing of the past. 88. In the electric spark method, which is in greatest favor at this time, it is necessary to have a spark of sufficient intensity to ignite the charge, and it must be made at just the right time. 89. There are two kinds of spark used now, which are known as the Contact Spark and the Jump Spark. The latter is used more par- ticularly in high speed engines or automo- 30 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. bile work, the former in stationary engines, to which we especially refer in the first half of this work. 90. The contact spark is made by starting an electric current and then instantly breaking it. If a battery or other source of electricity is connected up properly with two wires, one end of each wire attached to the battery, one to the positive and the other to the nega- tive pole, the battery remains practically in- active so long as these wires do not come in contact with each other. But the moment the two loose ends of the wires are brought in contact with each other a current of elec- tricity is made or started over these wires. Contact of the terminals, then, is known as making the current. The parting of the ter- minals is breaking the current. 91. If a spark coil is connected into this cir- cuit, whenever the terminals are parted an electric spark or flash is made, which does the igniting of the charge. The terminals or contact making points, therefore, are not necessarily the ends of the wires, but any piece of metal to which the ends of the wires may be attached. 92. The current can be carried any reasonable distance over metal that is a good conductor or carrier of electricity. Of course, it is always necessary before a current is made that there is a contact of the terminals or THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 31 a connection between positive and negative poles. 93. The electric terminals or contact points are, therefore, necessarily in the igniting chamber of the engine, and at least one of them must be insulated from that part of the cylinder wall through which it passes. 94. In the construction of the sparking appa- ratus I think it is best to use platinum for the terminals or contact points on account of its quality to withstand a high degree of heat, although some manufacturers use common steel or gray iron points with a view to frequently and cheaply renewing them. 95. The insulation of one of these terminals should be complete, practically indestructible and proof against heat and moisture. 96. The best material for insulating purposes is lava, porcelain, mica and glass. If melted or fused properly around the terminal sleeve I regard glass much better than the others. A successful and effective insulation may be made with either of the others, although probably not as durable. 97. The mechanism that operates the movable point or terminal should be so designed that the contact will be of short duration, that the break or separation can be easily timed so as to make the spark earlier or later, that the terminals always remain separated between the act of sparking, and so as to 32 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. make a contact when the engine receives a charge. 98. The movable contact point should ap- proach the stationary gradually, press it firmly and separate instantly. This is known as the Touch spark or Make and Break method. A wiping spark is made by what is known as a wipe contact, which is used by some builders. 99. The spark is indirectly controlled by the governor on some engines. Usually the governor controls the exhaust or receiving valve movement, and this valve movement is made to incite the movement of the sparking mechanism only when a charge is taken into the cylinder. On other engines no attempt is made to govern the number of sparks at all, but a regular succession of sparks occurs whether the governor admits a charge or not. 100. GOVERNORS. There are a number of different types of governors in use among the gas engine builders. The most common are the fly wheel governor, the pendulum governor, and the centrifugal or ball gov- ernor. The latter is probably the most pop- ular and effective. However, the others operate quite satisfactorily. 101. No governor of the hit and miss pattern should act sluggishly, but should be sensi- tive enough to avoid two charges in succes- sion when the engine is running without a THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 33 load. One impulse should be sufficient to drive the engine over from one to five misses, owing to the speed of the engine. The lower the speed the fewer number of impulses allowed by the governor on an empty running engine. The higher the speed the more impulses. A governor that can not be made to throw off the succeeding charge after an impulse on an empty running engine should be re- jected. 102. To be more explicit, a hit and miss gov- ernor that allows an empty engine two, three, four or five impulses in succession, and then throws off as many or more, certainly can not be recommended unless it can be adjusted to do its work properly. 103. A good governor will handle an empty engine at, say, three hundred revolutions per minute, one on and two off. In other words, one impulse and two or three idle strokes. At two hundred revolutions, four or five idle strokes to each impulse. 104. Of course, you understand a governqr that operates on the proportional charge, or throt- tling plan, allows continuous and successive impulses, light or heavy, according to the load on the engine, by throttling the mix- ture of gas and air. 105. I consider the throttling governor a suc- cess. It is generally conceded by builders that the hit and miss governor is the most 34 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. economical in fuel consumption, but I do not regard it necessarily so. The American inventor, if he has not already done so, will build a carbureter that will admit the fuel in such exact proportions as to give the proper strength to the impulses to carry a uniform speed under a variable load, and at the same time use only the amount of fuel neces- sary, and therefore reduce the fuel consump- tion to the minimum. 106. There can be no question of the advantage the throttling governor has over the hit and miss governor in point of steady power. The principal objection to the hit and miss governor is the variable speed it imparts to the engine. PART III. EQUIPMENT. 107. SETTING THE ENGINE. Many pur- chasers fail with the gas engine because of their desire to install it with the least ex- pense possible. 108. This is a great mistake. After buying a gas engine one should go to the expense of installing it properly. 109. If the engine is stationary it should have ,a tight room, all to itself, free from dust and with plenty of light. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 35 110. Too frequently we find purchasers placing their gas engines in some dark corner of the building or in some old damp cellar that has been abandoned on account of its unfit con- dition to be used for any other purpose. They argue that if "I can use it for my en- gine I save space, and, therefore, economize." This is surely false economy. 111. I insist that if the purchaser decides to use such abandoned space in which to locate his engine he would at least save time and money by going to the expense of partition- ing the space off into a room large enough for the engine, and keep on until he has transformed his engine room into the snug- gest, neatest, cleanest and most convenient spot about his building, and then see that it is kept in that condition. Why not? The engine is surely the head of his machinery plant, from which he expects to derive a profit. When the engine stands idle all his machinery is idle. He can make his engine a source of profit or loss just as he will give it good or bad treatment. 112. THE FOUNDATION should be in 'keep- ing with everything that is good and sub- stantial. Bolting the engine fast to "any old floor" is bad practice. But, alas! Gas Engines are advertised to set anywhere, on any floor or in any cellar. There are fool- ish advertisers as well as foolish purchasers. A careful purchaser will not buy of a reck- 36 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. less or careless advertiser who makes unrea- sonable or extravagant claims for his engine. 113. I would have every gas engine purchaser figure on a stone or brick and cement foun- dation if it is at all possible. If nothing but a floor location can be had I should rec- ommend good heavy timbers bolted to the floor, of sufficient length to strengthen the floor for a considerable distance around the engine, then bolt the engine to these timbers. 114. The only object in a foundation is a solid setting for the engine. If you haven't got a solid foundation you might properly say you have no foundation. A good engine room and a good foundation is an excellent be- ginning. 115. The depth of the foundation below grade line depends somewhat on the condition of the soil. It should always go below the freezing line and as much below as is neces- sary to get a firm base. Ordinarily from three to four feet is sufficient for small en- gines from four to twelve horse power. Larger sized engines, from fifteen to forty horse power, from four to six feet is not too much. 116. DIMENSIONS OF A FOUNDATION. A good rule is to make the length of the foundation in the bottom twice the length of the engine base. The width in the bot- tom may be two and a fourth times the THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 37 width of the engine base. The foundation should be brought up on a batter or incline from the bottom to the floor line or level of the ground. 117. It should then be covered with a capstone or cement block from eight to twelve inches thick, according to the size of the engine. The foundation may be capped with good, heavy timber where a stone or cement are not desirable. You understand, of course, that it is always desirable to have the foundation cap or timbers from two to six inches wider than the engine base and from six to twelve inches longer, so that when the engine is placed on top the cap extends be- yond the engine base from one to three inches on each side, say one inch for a 4 horse power and three inches for a 40 horse power. 118. The height of the foundation or top of the cap above the ground level or floor line should be sufficient to clear the fly wheels or prevent them from hanging to the floor by from two to three inches. 119. A concrete foundation, if properly con- structed, is the best. While foundations are sometimes built of brick or stone laid in cement, the concrete foundation mixed about as follows, is now the custom: One part of cement, two parts sand, and five parts finely cracked stone or coarse gravel is first-class, foundations built with frozen mortar or con- 38 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. crete are no good. Avoid freezing weather while building your foundation. 120. ANCHOR BOLTS. The number and size are usually determined by the builder of the engine and indicated by the holes he drills into the engine base to receive them. They should be long enough to extend from the bottom of the foundation to from two and a half to four inches above the cap or timber. 121. They should be screwed into a good-sized iron anchor plate at the bottom and threaded on top to receive a nut. An anchor plate six to eight inches wide and ten to fifteen inches long, with a hole in the center tapped or threaded, into which the rod is screwed and riveted, makes an excellent anchorage. 122. It is regarded good practice when setting the anchor bolts before building the foun- dation to set the anchor plates on small base stone or solid wooden block as large or larger than the anchor plate. Also to slip a piece of iron pipe (with an inside diameter an inch larger than the rod) over each bolt. This pipe should extend from the anchor plate to the top of the foundation, but not to the top of the rod. 123. A TEMPLET should be made with the holes the exact diameter of the rod, and dis- tances between them exactly as the holes in the engine base. The nuts are then run on to the top of each bolt down far enough so THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 39 as to let about two inches of the bolt extend above the nut. The bolts are then set in position and stayed at the top by slipping the top of each into the corresponding hole in the templet, the nut serving as a rest for the templet. Line up the bolts with the line shaft or building, stay the templet in that position and proceed to build the foundation around the bolts. 124. After the foundation is complete and it is determined that each bolt is in exact position to enter the corresponding hole in the engine base, the pipe around the bolt may be filled with slush cement, which, when set, will stay the bolts firmly. 125. Three or four days after the foundation is completed, and the cement firmly set, the engine may be placed in position and bolted down for work. 126. LINING UP THE ENGINE with the shaft, and vice versa, is of utmost importance, and it should be done just right, if the drive belt is expected to run true and give good service. Therefore, if the line shaft is in position it is well to take the precaution to see that the drive pulley on the engine and the driven pulley on the line shaft are in line before bolting down the engine. 127. This is done by stretching a line from rim to rim on the outer edge of the line shaft pulley and extending the line to the outer rim and across it on the engine pulley. This 40 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. line should just touch the two opposite points on each pulley. 128. A better way to line the engine shaft with the line shaft as follows : Drop two lines from the same edge or side of the line shaft as far apart as the length of the engine shaft. Drop the weight on end of each of these lines into a pail of water on the floor to keep them from swinging. Then measure with tape line, or better, with pole, from each line to the center on each end of engine shaft. These distances should measure exactly alike. 129. PIPING OR CONNECTING UP AN ENGINE consists of piping up the fuel, piping away the exhaust and piping water to and from the engine, if water is used for cooling purposes, and it is more commonly used than any other element for cooling en- gines at the present time. 130. In making the WATER CONNEC- TIONS pipe of the size indicated by the ports in the water jacket should be used, un- less hydrant water is employed under pres- sure ; then smaller pipe may be used. 131. Valves should always be fitted into the pipe line so as to allow shutting the water off for drainage purposes. 132. When a cooling tank is used the valves should be as near the tank as they can be placed, so that the pipes leading to the en- gine can be drained. 133. A pipe with a valve and union should THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 41 lead from the lower part of the tank to the threaded inlet port, somewhere in the under part of the water jacket of the engine, and a pipe from the outlet port in the top of the cylinder or jacket to the top of the tank. 134. The water passes from the tank to the en- gine through the lower pipe, and as it be- comes heated it raises into the upper pipe and flows back into the top of the tank. 135. This is known as the Thermo-Syphon sys- tem and the circulation is caused by one of Nature's laws. Cold water is heavier than hot water, and as the cylinder heats the water it gets lighter and the cold and heavier water naturally crowds in below and forces the heated water through the upper pipe to the tank. Therefore the hottest water is al- ways at the top of the tank, and the cold and heavier at the bottom. 136. PIPE CONNECTIONS FOR THE USE OF HYDRANT WATER are as follows: The inlet pipe from the hydrant to the same point on the engine as in the tank system, with valve and union to guard against freez- ing by draining the cylinder and pipes at- tached. 137. The overflow pipe from the top of the cylinder should be led into a waste trough or pipe somewhere in such a manner as to expose to view the stream of water leaving the engine. 138. The pressure from a hydrant is often suf- 42 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. ficient to force too much cold water through the water chamber, keeping the cylinder too cool and resulting in a loss of power. The valve in the inlet pipe should be used to throttle the stream to the engine. 139. Where a very limited quantity of water only can be allowed, as in portable engines or automobiles, a circulating pump and fan are sometimes used. By means of radiating spines, either cast onto and around the cylin- der, or bronze radiating fins bolted circum- ferential to it, THE AIR COOLING SYS- TEM has been successfully applied in sta- tionary, portable, automobile and motor- cycle engines. By reason of especially designed arrange- ments whereby a rapid circulation of an air current is made to pass directly about the hottest portion of the cylinder or cylinders, air cooled engines are now performing suc- cessfully, even in stationary work of excep- tional severity, which was formerly regarded impossible. The motorcycle motor, by reason of its exposed position, rapid forward motion while in operation, and limited installation space, is not supplied with the blast from a rotating fan, which is such an important factor in the establishment of the success- ful stationary engine. It, however, is equipped with the radiating spines and is THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 43 of the simplest type of air-cooled gasoline motor. It is quite important that an operator of an air-cooled motor, whether of the automo- ' bile or stationary type, should thoroughly ac- quaint himself with the means provided for cooling and then make it his purpose to keep the cooling equipment in the highest state of mechanical adjustment and efficiency. For instance, if a belt-driven fan is de- signed to keep up a rapid circulation of an air current about the radiating spines, the engine can not be expected to succeed un- der constant and heavy duty with a loose fan belt, or with the belt thrown. Neither could the engine be expected to give its best service in a closed, hot room, even with the fan under full duty, if the fan could get its supply and deliver only the hot air in the room to the engine. The operator should size up environments and conditions and then arrange to give his engine the advantage of the best cooling priv- ileges that the circumstances will permit of. By a careful understanding of his air-jcooling system and by its proper application he will succeed with his engine with much less equip- ment than is required by the water-cooled system. 140. PIPE CONNECTIONS FOR FUEL IN A GAS ENGINE are: Regulator, gas bag, valve or stop cock and piping of the proper 44 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. size to meet the requirements of the en- gine. 141. Where natural gas is used for fuel it is always desirable to use a REGULATOR. However, we find purchasers who prefer to run their chances of having all kinds of trouble with their engine, which a gas regu- lator would obviate, rather than go to the expense of putting in a gas regulator. It is needed where gas pressure is liable to vary. 142. Either the gasometer or one of the many diaphragm and valve regulators may be used successfully, provided they allow a sufficient volume of gas at low pressure, say, for in- stance, not to exceed eight ounces to the square inch. 143. The stop-cock, gas bag and regulator are connected into the pipe from the engine out- ward in the order just named. First, a short nipple of pipe, say from four to six inches long, is screwed into the inlet port on the engine, onto it the stop-cock, then another piece of pipe to bring the gas bag at some convenient and suitable point, then the gas bag (and it is better to have it within two or three feet of the engine), then more pipe and finally the regulator. 144. The GAS BAG may be a good rubber bag made completely of rubber, or it may be made of an iron frame with rubber dia- phragm, such as some engine builders use. 145. When gasoline is the fuel there are two THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 45 common methods in use for bringing the gasoline to the engine, namely, the Pump and Gravity Systems. The GRAVITY SYS- TEM consists of piping the elevated supply tank to the engine and letting the gasoline into the engine through suitable valves. In this method gasoline is supplied to the engine by its own weight or gravity. 146. FITTINGS FOR GRAVITY METHOD. If the gravity method is used, there is an admission valve on the engine, reinforced usually by a needle valve. The supply pipe, including globe valve, is connected from the inlet port on these valves to the supply tank, which is elevated four or five feet above the engine and placed somewhere on a shelf on the walls of the building or some suitable place outside. The globe valve should be placed near the admission valve so as to doubly insure the complete shutting off of the gasoline from the engine when not in use. 147. The arrangement of THE PUMP SYS- TEM consists of a small pump fitted to the engine which is designed to be piped to the supply tank outside of the building, and to draw the gasoline from the tank and force it into the Mixer of the engine as it needs it. 148. The supply tank in this instance is located somewhere from three to six feet below the engine, and an overflow pipe is connected to it from the engine for the purpose of return- 46 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. ing to the tank any oversupply that may be forced up by the pump. 149. There is a pipe connection between the lower part of the supply tank and the suction port or valve on the pump, and an overflow pipe from the mixing or supply cup on the engine to the top of the tank. The tank is so placed as to allow drainage of all the gas- oline in the pipes, back to the tank when the engine is not in use. 150. From % to l / 2 inch pipe is used ordi- narily, according to the size of the engine. 151. Fire Insurance Companies require the pump system, with the tank placed a certain distance away from the building. But the gravity method is just as effective in supply- ing the engine with fuel and has the ad- vantage of less mechanism to get out of order. Of course, good threaded pipes and absolutely tight joints should be insisted on in these pipe connections for gasoline. 152. EXHAUST CONNECTIONS. When an engine is installed in a building, the real object of exhaust pipe connections is to get the burnt gases and the noise from the ex- haust outside of the building. And inasmuch as the noise is very undesirable in many lo- calities, it is the custom of nearly all engine builders to supply, with their engines, a large iron Drum, into which the pipe from the en- gine is connected and which serves as a muffler to the exhaust reports. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 47 153. MUFFLERS of different kinds are used on portable and automobile engines. They are usually arranged to screw onto the end of the exhaust pipe and consist of an iron casing, enclosing a series of small cavities, which are freely connected with the inlet and also with the many small openings which serve as an outlet. The object in such a muffler is to break the force of the exhaust pressure and let it into the open air through many small openings. 154. PIPING THE EXHAUST INTO A FLUE OR CHIMNEY OF A BUILDING. There may be very serious objections urged against this practice. Unless the flue has a large caliber, with a good draught, it should not be considered at all. 155. There is always more or less experiment- ing necessary where an inexperienced hand is learning to run a gas engine. And he may turn the engine over, admitting charges and forcing them out of the exhaust pipe into the flue a number of times before igniting one of them, and when the ignition does occur the flue is charged with gas, which lets go with such force as to wreck the flue and sometimes the building. 156. The sooner gas engine builders and pur- chasers get the idea out of their heads that "any old thing" is good enough, the better it will be for every one concerned. 157. Piping the exhaust into a well or cistern, 48 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. if properly done, is all right. I should sug- gest, however, in such instances, that before it is done it is known that the water never rises to a point to interfere with the exhaust. 158. In fact, to be on the safe side, the entire space in the cistern or well should be free from water at all times. A good tight ce- ment covering with a good sized vent should be arranged. 159. A box two by two by four feet, buried in the ground endwise and filled with clean pebbles or stones in sizes from that of a hen's e gg to that of a man's fist, makes an ex- cellent muffler for an engine up to 25 h. p. The exhaust pipe should, of course, be led into the lower part of this muffler and water excluded at all times. 160. A box two feet square inside, ten feet long, made of heavy (two inch) plank, without bottom, buried in the ground, and the ex- haust from the engine piped into one end, and a short pipe from the other end as a vent, makes a very effective muffler. No stone is used in this box just the hollow in the box with ground floor. The entire box should be buried to a depth of two feet. 161. The exhaust connections are simply a pipe of the proper size leading from the ex- haust valve port to the exhaust drum and from another port in the drum to the out- side of the building, or underground muffler, if one is used, and thence to the outside. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 49 162. It is well to place the exhaust drum as near to the engine as possible and get to the outside of the building by the shortest con- venient route. Long exhaust pipes have no tendency to improve the running qualities of the engine. 163. The end of the exhaust pipe should be left free and open, where an exhaust drum is used, except that it is good practice to screw a "T" onto the end of the pipe and a short nipple into each end of this "T," which serves the double purpose of pro- tecting the pipe from snow, rain and ice, and relieves the exhaust by two openings, instead of one. 164. For the purpose of explaining more fully, I wish to modify my previous statement against the use of long exhaust pipes. The advice is proper with practically all engines built in this country up to the present time. 165. SCAVENGING ENGINES. Plausible claims are made for the scavenging engines, some of which are coming into use. The object of scavenging is to free the clearance space or combusition chamber from 'burnt gases each time before another fresh charge is admitted. 166. It is recommended that an exhaust pipe of sufficient length and proportions will cause a succession of waves in the outward rush of the exhaust gases, which tend to create a partial vacuum in the clearance SO THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. space, and thereby practically free it from burnt gases. I will not go into detail of the scavenging engine, as practically all of small- er power are non-scavenging up to the pres- ent time, and there is no indication of the scavengers coming into immediate use, in America at least. 167. TUBE IGNITOR. The tube ignitor con- sists of a TUBE closed at one end and threaded and open at the other, a cast iron chimney, a gas or gasoline burner, pipe con- nections from the gas supply to the burner or to a small gasoline supply tank elevated five or six feet. 169. The tube is anywhere from 5 inches to 12 inches long and from ^ to % inch in diameter. It is made either of common gas pipe or nickel alloy, sometimes called com- position tubing. The threaded and open end of the tube is screwed into an opening which communicates with the interior of the cyl- inder or firing chamber. This makes a con- tinuous passage from the combustion cham- ber up in the hollow of the tube to its closed end. 170. It is intended to keep this tube at a red heat while the engine is running. This is done by means of the cast iron chimney, which is fitted on so as to entirely enclose this tube, and a burner fitted into the lower part of this chimney so as to direct a jet or Bunsen flame against the lower end of the tube. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 51 171. The top of the chimney may be capped with numerous small vent holes in the cap. The inside of the chimney is lined with as- bestos sheet, the object of which is to retain the heat and confine the flame immediately around the tube as much as possible. 172. The burner should be so constructed as to deliver a bright blue flame around the tube, which should become heated to a cherry red heat in from three to five minutes after it is lighted. The burner is usually fitted with a valve with which to control the flame, but the pipe connections from the burner to the gasoline supply tank or to the gas supply should contain a valve as a means of shutting off the full supply from the burner when the engine is not in use. 173. The object in elevating the gasoline supply tank is to give sufficient pressure at the burn- er or generator to throw the jet of gas with some force against the tube. 174. The point in the length of the tube at which the flame should be directed depends on the compression pressure in the cylinder. If there is a high compression pressure the firing point on the tube should be naturally higher up because the fresh charge forces its way higher up into the tube on a high than on a low compression. 175. You understand that the tube always re- mains filled with burnt gases when the ordi- nary tube igniting engine exhausts the burnt 52 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. charge. The fresh charge then has to crowd up against this burnt gas in the tube, which serves as a cushion, and drives it into the upper part of the tube until the fresh gas meets the red hot part of the tube, when igni- tion occurs. You will therefore see that if the compression in an engine is light it can not force the fresh charge as high into the tube, and consequently the tube should be heated lower down. 176. Some builders are now making adjustable chimneys, to which the burner is fastened, which can be moved up or down and fixed so as to direct the flame against any point on the tube to suit the compression. 177. What would I do if I had an engine with a fixed flame point? I should try tubes of different lengths until one was found that gave the best results. If pre-ignition occurs it may not be possible to correct the trouble by changing the length of the tube, and something must be devised to raise the flame point higher on the tube. 178. ELECTRIC IGNITOR. The electric ig- niting outfit for make and break ignition consists of a spark coil, a current breaker or switch, from fifteen to forty feet of insu- lated copper wire, about No. 14, a battery or small dynamo or magneto which gen- erates the current, and the sparking mech- anism on the engine, which has already been described. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 53 179. THE SPARK COIL is a bundle of soft Iron Wires, cut all the same length, any- where from five to ten inches long. The ends of this bundle of wires are inserted into a round hole, in a small block of wood, of just the exact size to receive all the wires and hold them firmly together in the shape of a round bundle. 180. This bundle between the blocks of wood is covered with a sheath of pasteboard, around which is wrapped closely and evenly from end to end, between the blocks, successive layers of one continuous piece of insulated wire. The two ends of this insulated wire are fastened to separate binding posts, which are mounted on one end of the blocks. These blocks are then screwed firmly to a small baseboard, so as to hold all parts of the coil firmly in position. 181. It serves the purpose of resistance to the current and the storage of magnetic force in the core of wire, without which an igniting spark can not be made. This refers only to the common make-and-break coil. 182. If the length of insulated wire is properly proportioned to the bundle of soft wire, the coil also serves to allow a shorter contact of the terminal points, which in turn prevents waste of current and wear of the points, which are both items of considerable expense if not carefully guarded. A short coil four to six inches long meets all the requirements. 54 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 183. A SWITCH may be simply a block of wood, porcelain or hard rubber mounted with two binding posts and a connecting lever, which is permanently connected to one bind- ing post and may be connected or discon- nected with the other binding post at will. 184. Its purpose is to switch the current on to the engine for work or to cut it out and in- sure against short circuit when the engine is not in use. 185. ELECTRIC CONNECTIONS TO THE SPARKING DEVICE ON THE ENGINE. One end of the wire which is to carry the current should be connected to the binding post on the insulated terminal or electrode; the other wire is attached to the other bind- ing post, which is usually placed at some con- venient point on the engine by the builders. 186. If there is but one binding post supplied on the engine, then the second wire may be attached firmly to any bright point on the engine which is convenient, or it may even be fastened around one of the gasoline or water pipes if they are not painted. 187. The insulation must always be stripped off of the end that is to be fastened and the con- nection made with the bare end of the wires. 188. The wire from the insulated terminal bind- ing post is then carried to the spark coil and connected to one of its binding posts. From the other binding post on the spark coil a piece of wire is carried to the first cell of the THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 55 battery and connected to its positive or car- bon binding post or to the same on dynamo or magneto. 189. This makes one connection between the en- gine and the battery or magneto, whichever is used for ignition purposes. 190. Another wire is carried from the negative point on dynamo, or zinc binding post on bat- tery, to one of the switch binding posts, and from the other switch binding post to the en- gine. The switch may be fastened at some convenient place on the wall. 191. The two wires from the battery or dynamo to the engine, one containing the coil and the other the switch, completes the circuit. 192. IN CONNECTING THE BATTERY all the cells between the first and last must be connected up in a series with short pieces of insulated wire, as follows: From the zinc binding post on the first cell to the copper- oxide binding post on the second ; from zinc on second to copper on third, and so on until all are connected. 193. If a FLUID CELL BATTERY is used it must be charged, which consists of first mak- ing a solution with the chemical used for that purpose and soft water. After each cell is nearly filled with this solution the metal bases, such as zinc and carbon, which are usually at- tached to the lid of the cell, are lowered into the solution in the cell. Then it is ready to be connected up in the series. All fluid bat- 56 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. teries are accompanied with instruction sheets. 194. With stationary engines it has been the custom to use fluid batteries, but many DRY CELL batteries have been introduced, which serve successfully and are formidable rivals of the fluid cell. 195. There are also the little SPARKING DY- NAMO and MAGNETO, which are success- fully used in many instances for stationary gas engine ignition. Also the HOT TUBE, previously described. 196. There are so many points to be considered in this connection that it would not be fair to our readers to attempt to recommend either device above the other. 197. The ignition of a gas engine is a source of repair expense, no matter what source of electrical energy is used. Each arrangement has its disadvantages as well as its advan- tages. Economy, safety, attention, conve- nience, cleanliness and reliability are the prin- cipal points to be considered. 198. The location and surroundings would probably determine my preference. For in- stance, in the natural gas field, where fuel is very cheap, I might decide on the hot tube ignition. Away off in the country, where gasoline is the fuel and somewhat expensive, I think a good dry cell battery would about meet the conditions. In the city, where elec- tricians are to be easily had when repairs are THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 57 necessary, the magneto or dynamo would, in my opinion, more nearly meet the require- ments. The fluid cell is a sort of mother over all the others because it was the original and has been most generally employed in this country for stationary gas engine ignition. 199. By the foregoing statement I do not mean to convey the idea that the fluid battery is more desirable than others, only that it holds sort of a pre-empted claim now by reason of having been more generally used in the past. 200. I wish to make this assertion, that I can operate a gas engine successfully on either method of ignition anywhere, with economy possibly in favor of the magneto if it is well constructed, but it may require more atten- tion than the battery. (See special chapter on Dynamo and Magneto Ignition.) 201. Either method, as before stated, has its ad- vantages and disadvantages, and my advice to my readers is that, whichever method you may be called upon to use, inform yourselves as quickly as possible on its disadvantages, and overcome them as nearly as possible. 202. I doubt not that the reader now thinks we have reached the point of starting the engine and is anxious u to see the wheels go round/' But you will be more highly delighted in see- ing them turn if you have first learned and attended to all the preliminaries. A good en-, gineer never omits one of them ; a bungler overlooks all of them. 58 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 203. These PRELIMINARIES are AR- RANGEMENT, CLEANLINESS, WA- TER, OILING. Under arrangement comes the old adage, "A place for everything and everything in its place." The condition of the engine room portrays the character of the person in charge. A BAD RUNNING EN- GINE, waste, wrenches, oil cans, litter in general scattered promiscuously over the floor of the engine room indicates a bungler not worthy the name of engineer. 204. An engine room with plenty of light, everything in apple-pie order, trim, clean and neat, means a nice running engine and a For-Sure Engineer. 205. Cleanliness contributes so much to the suc- cessful running of an engine that it can not be TOO FIRMLY IMPRESSED on the mind. The companion of cleanliness is PLENTY OF LIGHT. Darkness and dirt go hand in hand. 206. Therefore, with plenty of light in the en- , gine room it should be cleaned up and made as free as possible from dust and grit. After this the engine should be thoroughly cleaned all over, giving special attention to the Cog or Spiral Gears, governor, valve stems and valve cams. On account of dampness these working parts often become rusted in ship- ment, and will not work properly until cleaned. 207. The water supply should be noticed to see THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 59 if the tank is full to the overflow pipe, and in cold weather to see that none of the pipes are frozen up. 208. Then comes the oiling of the engine, which should be done in a thorough manner. Use ordinary machine oil on the various parts of the engine, EXCEPT IN THE CYLIN- DER. A special cylinder oil for gas engines only should be used. 209. Steam cylinder oil is not well adapted to a gas engine cylinder. A light, thin cylinder oil, of high fire test, is best adapted to use in the gas engine cylinder. It is usually much less expensive than heavy steam cylinder oil. Some gas engines are fitted at the wrist and journal boxes with grease cups, which should be filled with shafting or graphite grease and set so as to feed automatically. 210. When oil and grease cups are filled and all bearing parts that are liable to wear are oiled, the VALVE STEMS should be tried by lift- ing .the valve pallet from its seat a number of times after squirting some kerosene oil on the stem from a squirt can. These stems should be frequently examined and kefosene oil used occasionally to keep them clean. Never use ordinary lubricating oil on them. The heat simply burns it and leaves a gummy deposit on the stem which interferes with the free movement of the valve. 211. STARTING IS NEXT IN ORDER. Practically all the small-sized engines from 60 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. two to ten-horse power are started, as it is called, by hand. Some engine builders fit their engines over ten horse-power with a starter, which, in some instances, is more al- luring to the purchaser than practical. 212. The first act in starting a gas engine by hand after switching in the battery current is to get a charge of gas and air, properly mixed, into the cylinder. This is accom- plished by opening the gas or gasoline valve slightly so as to admit a small portion of the fuel as the receiving valves are opened when the fly wheels are turned over at a rapid rate. 213. When gasoline is the fuel some manufac- turers supply a starting cup, which fits on the mouth of the air or receiving pipe, and in- stead of opening the needle valve a small por- tion of gasoline (about a tablespoonful) is put into the cup and placed on the mouth of the receiving pipe, and when the wheels are turned over the air rushes through the gaso- line in the cup, and the engine receives its first two or three impulses from the fuel in the cup, which gives a sufficient momentum to keep it going until the cup can be taken off and the gasoline from the needle or throttle valve is admitted, from which the engine gathers full speed. 214. You have no doubt heard persons say that they have to turn their engine for half an hour or more before they can get it going. If such persons knew that they are simply pro- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 61 claiming their astounding lack of judgment they would not be telling it. 215. But, you say, if the engine fails to ignite its first, its second and its third charges, is it not policy to keep turning the wheel until it does ignite? If neither of the first three or four charges are ignited the cause of non-ig- nition will not be removed by turning the wheel and will probably be getting worse the longer you turn, and the fellow who does not know what else to do but turn ought to be compelled to turn vigorously until his tongue hangs out of his mouth to the length of a full- grown lead pencil. If such exertion doesn't start his thinker, his case is probably hope- less. 216. If an engine doesn't ignite its first charges there is a cause for it, and no amount of turn- ing will locate it, but a little common-sense thinking will not only locate but remove the cause, and the engine will do its own turning after the first two or four revolutions. 217. You would like to know why I say four. If common sense will do it, after allowing one revolution to admit the charge and gain the momentum, why not always start or ignite the second revolution ? There is no such thing as absolute perfection even in common sense, but four, and occasionally six revolutions for ignition may come within the bounds of practical perfection. However, I know of many gas engine operators who sel- 62 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. dom turn the wheel more than the second time. 218. The engineer who knows his lesson well will know that there are many improper ad- justments and irregularities that will cause failure of ignition on the first turn, and will avoid them, and as they are of sufficient im- portance to require special attention we had better finish starting the engine in a normal condition and take up this subject later. 219. TURNING OVER COMPRESSION POINT. Nearly all engines are provided either with a relief valve or a shifting cam or lever, which makes a relief out of the exhaust valve. By means of these valves only the lat- ter part of the compression stroke serves the purpose, inasmuch as the former part is re- lieved by an open valve. This allows suffi- cient compression to start with and makes re- sistance at this point barely perceptible in turning. 220. Others prefer to inhale a charge by a one- half turn of the wheel on the outward move- ment of the piston, then by disengaging the receiving valve lever from its cam a rapid backward movement of the wheel, and the piston compresses the charges, and fires it from the tube ignitor or the electric spark, by snapping the sparker quickly by hand while on compression. 221. The ignition of this charge drives the pis- ton rapidly forward and gives the wheels THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 63 sufficient momentum to carry several revolu- tions and catch the next charge. 222. Where a relief lever cam or valve is used the impulses are necessarily light while the valve is relieving the compression, and the lever should be shifted and the valve closed as soon as the wheels have gathered sufficient momentum to carry over the full compres- sion. 223. Instead of having the engine inhale its own charge by turning the wheel, some builders fit their engines with a small HAND AIR PUMP for the purpose of pumping the first charge into the cylinder. The air thus pumped passes through a receptacle contain- ing gasoline, which serves as a carbureter and charges the air sufficiently with gasoline to make it explosive. After the cylinder re- ceives its charge from the pump, the valve in the pump connection is closed, and the wheels backed up on compression, the charge is fired as before described, or by means of a match ignitor. 224. THE MATCH IGNITOR consists of a little tube containing a plunger and 'closed solidly at one end, except two sides notches near the end,and fitted at the other end with a packing gland through which the stem of the plunger extends to the outside. The end of this stem is fitted with a button. 225. The tube being threaded, is screwed into a port into the cylinder walls and the notched 64 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. end of it extends into the combustion cham- ber. 226. The head of the match is placed under the plunger and the button tapped with the hand, dashing the plunger down onto the match head, and the resulting flash ignites the first charge in the cylinder through the side notches in the tube. 227. A somewhat different device is fitted to some engines, but the principle is the same exactly. 228. You, of course, understand that this is used only for igniting the initial charge, and con- sequently is only a starter. 229. The compressed air starter consists of a tank with a capacity two or three times that of the engine cylinder, and an air pump, which is driven by a belt from the line shaft, fills the tank with air to a pressure of from sixty to one hundred pounds, which is indi- cated by a pressure gauge on the tank. The tank is filled when the engine is running and held ready for the next start. 230. The pipe leading from the tank to the com- pression chamber in the cylinder is fitted with a handle valve that can be manipulated quick- ly- 231. When ready to start, the engine is set with the piston back in the cylinder, the crank shaft about two inches above the inner center and the valves closed. Of course, the cylin- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 65 der valves must remain closed on the first outward movement of the piston. 232. When the engine is set all ready to receive the charge from the tank and the battery cur- rent switched on ready for ignition, the valve between the engine and tank is quickly opened, throwing the pressure from the tank into the cylinder, which drives the piston for- ward. By closing the valve at the end of the piston stroke the act may be repeated at the second revolution following, giving impulse sufficient to catch a charge of gas and air with the ignition on the third or fourth revo- lution. 233. This compressed air starter is seldom used on engines under 20 h. p. 234. The same arrangement with a smaller tank and much less pressure can be used success- fully by fitting a little cup, for the purpose of holding gasoline, into the pipe between the tank and engine, and as the air rushes from the tank into the cylinder it is charged with gasoline and may be exploded by the Electric Spark or igniting mechanism. 235. The Compressed Air method seerAs the most practical for starting larger sized en- gines. While it makes the first cost of an en- gine higher, it is well worth its price to the purchaser, 236. It is supposed, of course, that an engine will run all right after it is once started, but it doesn't always do it. You should run an 66 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. engine for at least a half hour without a load when starting it the first time. This will give you an opportunity to get familiar with it, running empty. 237. If it is receiving its fuel in the proper pro- portions and the ignitor is working all right it will go right up to its normal speed with- in a few seconds after starting, and if it has a hit and miss governor it will cut out or miss three or four charges to every one it takes. 238. If it runs along this way at a "merry clip," taking only one charge in three or four and firing every charge it takes, you can rest as- sured that it is ready for work. 239. But if there is a popping or back firing into the receiving pipe it may need MORE FUEL or the receiving valve may not close properly, or the ignitor may not be set in proper time, or is otherwise out of adjust- ment. 240. TOO MUCH FUEL is indicated when there is smoke issuing from the exhaust pipe and when the charges that are taken are not all ignited. 241. You can shut down a gas engine by feed- ing too much fuel just as readily as by not giving it enough. A little judgment here will tell any one when he is feeding the fuel prop- erly. 242. It is a mistake to turn on MORE FUEL WHEN MORE POWER is wanted. When THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 67 an engine is pulling nearly its full load it is cutting out only about one charge in five or six. By listening closely to the sounds made by the engine and at the same time noticing it closely you will be able to judge whether it is running properly or whether it lacks the energy it should develop. 243. The COMPRESSION has very much to do with the power developed. For instance, if the valves are not seating properly or the piston rings are poorly fitted, so as to allow the escape of part of the charge compressed and also a part of the impulsive force, the en- gine will develop but very little more power than to keep itself in motion. 244. About thirty per cent, of the entire cylinder volume should constitute COMPRESSION CHAMBER. If a high compression pres- sure is desired twenty-five or even twenty per cent, is allowable. 245. You understand that it is necessary, in fig- uring up cylinder volume, to consider all the valve and port space, which is practically a part of the cylinder. The principal objection to a high compression is the danger of pre- mature firing of charges under a full load, which is due to auto-ignition, a result of high compression pressure. 246. HIGH COMPRESSION is sometimes, but by no means always, the cause of premature firing. In fact, I might say that it is one of 68 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. the rare causes, because very high compres- sion engines are rare. 247. PREMATURE IGNITION may be caused by one thing in one engine and an en- tirely different thing in another. Probably the most common cause is some projecting point of iron in the combustion chamber that becomes red hot, which serves to ignite the charge, similar to a heated tube. 248. An improperly proportioned mixture, re- sulting in a slow combustion, may be so slow as to be still burning when the next charge is admitted, and then the next charge will be ignited just as it is entering the cylinder and fire back through the receiving pipe. 249. Little chunks of burnt carbon, accumulat- ing from the burnt cylinder oil, in the com- bustion chamber, may constantly remain heated to the ignition point and ignite the charges prematurely. 250. Points of carbon deposited on any projec- tion in the combustion chamber will do the same thing. It is, therefore, necessary to occasionally clean out the gas engine cylinder. 251. A CONSTRICTED EXHAUST passage may retain a higher degree of heat in the cylinder and thereby assist in maintaining an igniting heat on some projecting point in the combustion chamber. But there is a power significance to valves and their passage that should determine their size and areas. 252. Constricted valve passages are a decided THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 69 hindrance to the development of power. The valve proportions should always be carefully figured from piston speed and cylinder area. 253. The receiving valve area should be such as to ?ive the ingoing gases a speed of from 95 to 110 feet per second. The exhaust gases should leave the cylinder at from 75 to 85 feet per second at atmospheric pressure. 254. The exhaust should be larger than the in- let valve, because at the moment of the open- ing of the exhaust valve there is a pressure of from: twenty-five to thirty-five pounds in the cylinder to relieve, and consequently the rush of exhaust gases at the moment of re- lease is away above 110 feet per second, and if it had to pass through a constricted valve passage it would maintain the initial high speed throughout the exhaust stroke of the piston, resulting in a piston pressure on the entire exhaust stroke. 255. The point, then, is to figure the exhaust passage of such proportions as to relieve the exhaust gases at an average speed through- out the exhaust stroke of not over 100 feet per second. I regret to say that it is not an uncommon practice among manufacturers in this country to make the valves and their pas- sages too small. 256. In a number of engines I had the privelege to examine, manufactured by different con- cerns, I found either a constricted cylinder port or valve area, or both. 70 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 257. It is the height of folly to have a good big cylinder port, and choke the passage with a "measley" little valve, or vice versa. The passage should be of uniform area and of ample capacity from the cylinder port to the end of the pipe. 258. The manufacturer who will not figure these valve areas carefully, of sufficient capacity, is cheating his engine out of a reputation and his customer out of power. 259. TIMING THE VALVES. The move- ment of the valves should be timed to give the proper results. This is an important point for all gas engine operators to remember. The valve cams on a four-cycle engine are usually driven by the two to one gear fitted onto the crank shaft, and if for any reason the gears are taken apart and put together, even if only one cog out of place, it will throw the valves and sparking arrangement out of time. 260. The manufacturers usually mark a TOOTH or COG on one eear and its corre- sponding groove on the other with the same mark. These marked points should always meet, and the engine is then properly timed. You can, of course, easily understand how a cam and cam roller may become worn by con- stant use so as to throw the valve out of time, A worn condition means lost motion, which results in opening the valve too late and clos- ing it too early. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 71 261. You can test an engine to know if it is properly timed by turning the wheels over slowly and noticing at what point the valves open and close and where the igniting points separate. 262. THE RECEIVING VALVE should open at the beginning of the outward stroke and close at the end of the same stroke. The next inward stroke is the compression stroke, when all valves should be closed. 263. THE SPARKER POINTS should sepa- rate and make a spark just before the end of the compression stroke is reached. This is done to allow for the instant of time between the making of the spark and the resulting combustion. The force of combustion does not come instantaneous with the making of the spark. Therefore the compression stroke will have ended before the force of combus- tion really begins, and the piston just start- ing on its outward stroke receives the full expansive force of combustion. 264. If the spark were made just at the end of the compression stroke actual ignition or ex- pansion would not occur until the piston had traveled probably a fourth of its outward stroke. This delayed combustion could not be as effective as if occurring at the very be- ginning of the working stroke. 265. THE EXHAUST VALVE should open when about three-fourths of the working stroke is completed, so as to relieve the cylin- 72 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. der practically to atmospheric pressure at the end of the stroke. The exhaust valve should then remain open for the entire ex- haust stroke, and should close just as the re- ceiving valve is again opening. 266. Again I think it proper to refer to the ques- tion of lubricating the valve stems of the gas engine. The work an exhaust valve is de- signed to do makes lubricating impracticable. The heat passing through the exhaust valve will quickly destroy the lubricating qualities of any oil, and therefore it makes it useless. 267. It is, therefore, the custom of gas engine builders to make no provision for valve lu- brication. They can be operated successfully without oil. Before starting a new engine squirt some kerosene oil on the stem and see that it moves freely. A good grade of pow- dered graphite used on the valves and valve stems occasionally would tend to improve their working qualities. 268. All frictional parts should be regularly lu- bricated. But the crank pin and cylinder need to be specially looked after. The oil cups supplying these parts should be noticed often during a day's run to make sure that the oil is supplied and properly distributed. 269. Insufficient lubrication of the cylinder is often indicated by a peculiar blowing, bark- ing noise in the cylinder at each impulse. It is due usually to a dry piston allowing the force of combustion to pass the rings. It can THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 73 often be overcome by adjusting the lubricator for a freer oil supply without stopping the engine. 270. After running a cylinder dry at the first opportunity the piston should be taken out, and the rings, their seats and the entire pis- ton thoroughly cleaned. At the same time the cylinder and combustion chamber should be examined with a lighted candle and cleaned from chunks of burnt lubricating oil and deposits of carbon in the form of soot. This is also a good time to clean the valve and valve ports, as well as the igniting ap- paratus. 271. Before the piston is returned to the cylin- der it should be lubricated with oil. A good engineer will seldom have this to do, because he will see to it that his cylinder is lubricated. 272. The crank bearing should run cool. If it does not it indicates that lubrication is at fault or that it is not properly adjusted. 273. A good engineer will not rest easy until he has located and removed the cause of a hot- running crank box. , . 274. FUEL CONSUMPTION of an engine is always a legitimate question and one of grave importance to the purchaser, as well as to the manufacturer. 275. Ordinarily about one and two-tenths pints (1 2-10) of gasoline or about fifteen feet of natural gas, per horse power per hour under full load, will cover the fuel consumption. 74 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. That is, when the gases named are of stand- ard quality and the water comes from the wa- ter jacket at a temperature of about 160 de- grees Fahrenheit. 276. The temperature of the water in the cham- ber around the cylinder has very much to do with fuel consumption. 277. If water from a hydrant is forced around the cylinder so as to keep it cold, the heat from the explosions or combustion is cooled down so quickly by radiation that the expan- sive force is materially reduced, and conse- quently less power from the same charge. 278. The object of the water is not to keep the cylinder Cold, but simply Cool enough so as to prevent the lubricating oil from burning. The hotter the cylinder with effective lubrica- tion the more power the engine will develop. 279. It should also be remembered that an en- gine is the most economical in fuel consump- tion when working practically under a full load. 280. It is wrong to suppose that an engine tak- ing fifteen feet of gas per horse power under a full load should take only seven and a half (7*/2) feet under half load. When running empty an engine may use from thirty to thir- ty-five per cent of its total fuel consumption under full load. 281. Speed has considerable influence over fuel consumption, especially in driving the engine empty. Take, for instance, an engine of four THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 75 horse power, run it empty at a speed of, say, 250 revolutions per minute, and notice its fuel requirements at that speed, then increase the speed to 500 revolutions per minute, and you practically double the fuel consumption run- ning the engine alone. 282. It is not always practical for a manufac- turer to guarantee fuel consumption. I should say it is seldom, if ever, practical to do so without exacting from the purchaser con- ditions and requirements that would make him feel that the engine itself is not prac- tical. In general the average fuel consump- tion may easily be kept down to the quantity above mentioned, although many conditions may arise to change the amount required. 283. It is not always the fault of the manufac- turer if the fuel consumption overruns the estimate. It is more often the fault of the engineer, in my opinion. I should advise for economical fuel con- sumption : First To keep jacket water at 160 degrees Fahrenheit. Second To run engine at a medium speed. Third To use a good standard fuel. Fourth To see that every charge the en- gine takes is exploded, for which a proper mixture and a good spark or hot tube are necessary. Fifth The admission valve should close properly between charges, so as not to allow 76 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. a continuous flow of fuel into the engine. Sixth Never throttle the fuel so closely that the engine cannot get a full charge every time it needs it. Seventh Be sure that there is no leak in the supply or overflow pipes where fuel can escape. Eighth When gasoline is used be sure that there is no leak in the supply tank. Ninth Exhaust and Receiving Valves must seat properly and not leak. Cylinder rings must hold the explosive force. With these precautions one will use only so much as will be required by the engine to handle its load. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 77 PART IV. GAS ENGINE TROUBLES 284. Following are five gas-engine troubles that are most frequently met with: De- fective Ignition, Pounding in the Cylinder, Loss of Power, Back Firing and Obstinate Starting, although the last is very often intimately associated with the first. 285. DEFECTIVE IGNITION. The symp- toms and causes for defective ignition are: Difficult starting, thumping in the cylinder and an occasional terrific report at the end of the exhaust pipe, Misfiring, Premature Firing. It must not be taken for granted, however, that difficult starting is always due to defective ignition. But when an engine refuses to start after turning the wheels sev- eral times, defective ignition may be sus- pected, and the igniting apparatus should be looked after. 286. REMEDIES FOR DEFECTIVE IGNI- TION. If a tube ignitor is used and the charge is fired too early, throwing the wheels backward, the flame should be raised so as to heat the tube at a higher point. If the charge isn't fired at all, then the flame may be directed at a lower point on the tube. But in either event it is always best to have the 78 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. tube quite hot (bright red hot) when start- ing. It can be cooled to a cherry red after the engine is running, and yet fire its charges successfully. The port or passage between cylinder and tube must always be free and unobstructed. It sometimes clogs with burnt carbon. Sometimes the builder makes this port too small. Clean if obstructed. Enlarge it if necessary. 287. When the battery or magneto is used for make and break ignition purposes the timing of the spark is always important. The ter- minals should separate just before the crank passes the inner center. The switch may be disconnected. Some of the wires may be loose on their binding posts. The terminals or the movable terminal shaft may be gummed up or corroded and needs cleaning. The battery may be nearly exhausted and needs renewing. The current may be short- circuited somewhere before reaching the engine. 288. SHORT CIRCUIT. If the zinc plates or any one of them should be allowed to touch the carbon within the cell it will cause an internal short circuit. If one wire from the battery to the engine should have its insula- tion broken at a point where it touches some pipe or iron that in any way communicates with the other wire, there is an external short circuit. Broken insulation may short circuit the spark coil. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 79 289. The Battery current is tested by discon- necting the end of one of the terminal wires and touching with it the binding post to which the other wire is attached. If it does not make a bright spark each time the wire is snapped or slipped off the binding post you can be sure that some of the causes above named are to be found and as soon as the cause is removed the spark will show up all right. 290. If there is a good spark on the ends of the wires and a weak one or none at all at the point of contact of the terminals it indi- cates that the trouble is in the sparking mech- anism on the engine. This mechanism is either corroded, gummy or short circuited. It should be thoroughly cleaned and closely examined for a short circuit. Carbon de- posit coating over the insulation or inside of exploding chamber may cause a short circuit. 291. The SPARKER INSULATION can eas- ily be tested by disconnecting the wire NOT attached to the insulated terminal and snap- ping it off some of the bright parts of the engine, when the terminals are apart (the other wire being of course attached to the binding post on the insulated terminal), and if a spark is made it indicates that the insula- tion is broken and consequently a short cir- cuit. If no spark is made the insulation is all right. 292. There should be nothing loose or no lost 80 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. motion about the terminals or the mechanism operating them. 293. Either a good fluid or dry cell battery will furnish a good spark from two to six months, according to the amount of work done with the engine. If the engine is used continuous- ly for ten hours each day the battery may need renewing any time after two or three months. 294. I have on several different occasions found engines that absolutely refused to start when the battery and all connections seemed to be in good condition, but went off and ran per- fectly from the first turn of the wheel after a new spark coil was placed in the circuit. The short circuit in the old coil was so deep down among the coils of wire that it could not be detected. 295. The character or appearance of the spark, and especially if of a scattering nature, should lead you to suspect a short circuited coil. An EFFECTIVE or GOOD igniting spark is a SINGLE BLUE-WHITE SPARK at the point of contact. But beware of a dozen little sparks flying out in all directions from the terminals. They will not ignite. 296. A battery may not be entirely exhausted when it fails to give an igniting spark. The fluid in the cell may have evaporated so that the carbon element is not sufficiently sub- merged. I have repeatedly revived fluid bat- teries that were apparently exhausted by THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 81 simply filling into each cell pure rain water to within one-half inch of the lid of the cell. 297. An old battery that has not been used for a long time, and in which the elements seem good may be treated this way, and after- wards short circuited for about three or five minutes. 298. In fact, in renewing a battery or setting up a new one, it is always good poliqy to short circuit it for from three to five minutes by bringing the ends of the terminal wires in contact with each other. This creates a healthy chemical action within the cells, which is necessary to generate the electric current. 299. The current from a dynamo ignitor is test- ed, while the dynamo is running at its rated speed, by taking a piece of wire about two feet long with the insulation stripped off both ends, and placing one end onto one of the binding posts of the machine and snapping the other end off the other binding post. This will produce a faint spark if a current is gen- erating, and by placing a spark coil in, the circuit that is, by taking two short wires as above described and connecting one end of each to a binding post on the coil and using the other ends to make and break the current on the dvnamo binding posts you get the full benefit of the current and can judge of the igniting qualities by the size and color of the spark. 82 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 300. The fields of a dynamo should not become overheated, but should remain cool. The bearings should be oiled properly, and the brushes and commutator should have regular attention. It should be kept absolutely clean. For further information see chapter on Gen- erator Ignition. 301. Before leaving the subject of ignition I wish to emphasize the fact THAT A GAS ENGINE IS NOT RUNNING PROPER- LY if every charge admitted by the governor is NOT FIRED or ignited. No one should allow his engine to run taking two, three or four charges in succession and only firing one of them, without immediately locating and re- moving the cause. 302. I recall a case of misfiring and an occa- sional terrific report at the end of the exhaust pipe which was caused by the taper pin, which held the rocker arm to the movable stem, wearing loose and allowing lost motion at this point, which should have been rigid. A new and larger sized pin made out of a wire nail driven firmly into position com- pletely overcame the trouble. 303. The lost motion made such an indefinite and uneven contact that only an occasional charge was ignited, which in turn ignited those previously forced through the cylinder, without ignition, into the exhaust drum and pipe, and the result was a terrific report at the end of the exhaust pipe, similar to the THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 83 firing of a cannon. Every engineer should familiarize himself quickly with the natural sounds of his engine, and his ear will always be on the alert and detect any unnatural sound the instant it occurs. 304. I have been able to correctly say, "That engine is not firing all its charges," by lis- tening to the exhaust reports half a mile across the country. The character of the sound of the exhaust reports, as well as their number between intermissions, will also tell you at a distance whether the engine has a light or heavy load and whether it is over- loaded. 305. The sense of hearing suspects and decides whether there is trouble when the engine is running. The sense of sight locates and cor- rects it. The sense of smell will tell you whether fumes of burnt gas are passing the piston rings or leaky valves, and escaping into the engine-room instead of outside through the exhaust pipe. The sense of touch tells you whether the journal boxes and other bearings are running cool. The sense of taste is about the only one of the five senses that we do not need to detect some trouble about an engine. In fact, I have seen engines running so badly that I imagined I could taste it. The ear, however, may be considered the chief guide while the engine is in motion. 306. POUND IN CYLINDER. The principal 84 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. cause of pounding in the cylinder is pre-igni- tion of the charge. Pre-ignition, as has al- ready been stated, is usually caused by some projecting point or carbon deposit in the ig- niting chamber, heated to the igniting point. A high compression of the charge may also contribute to pre-ignition. 307. Of course a knock or pound at the wrist or crosshead, due to lost motion at these points, must not be confounded with a pound in the cylinder. A loose fly-wheel may also puzzle one at times, inasmuch as the jar or thump caused by it may sound like a thump in the cylinder. 308. I would test pre-ignition by throwing off the igniting current or shutting off the tube ignitor. If the engine continues to fire its own charges and runs along pounding away it is good evidence that the pound is due to pre-ignition. If, however, it ceases to fire the charges the instant the igniting current is cut off, pre-ignition caused by projecting points or carbon deposit may be excluded. But the hot point on the tube and the time of the spark must not be overlooked. If, how- ever, the pounding keeps up until the engine stops, a tight piston is probably the cause of the trouble. 309. I have frequently shut off the current and gas from a pounding engine and noticed it stop dead sooner than you should expect it to. And when endeavoring to turn the fly-wheel THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 85 over by hand the piston stuck tight in the cylinder. A few minutes' rest, allowing it to cool, will loosen up the piston. 310. If a piston is made to fit the cylinder too snugly it will usually result in pounding in the cylinder when the engine is put under a a heavy load. The cylinder thump or pound is a deep, heavy pound, while a loose fly- wheel or loose crank bearing is indicated by a thump more of the clicking variety. Then there is a BARKING NOISE, due to the escape of the EXPLOSIVE FORCE PAST THE CYLINDER RINGS. This is easily distinguished from either of the others. 311. The object is to locate the cause of thump or pound wherever it is and remove it. Any one who is able to find the cause of the trou- ble will no doubt find a remedy that will soon correct the difficulty. 312. If pre-ignition is the cause the pounding will cease as soon as the combustion chamber is cleared of the carbon deposit, the project- ing point causing the firing is removed, the time of the spark set later or the flame cm the tube elevated. 313. If the cylinder rings allow the explosion to pass, making a barking noise, they should be either replaced by new ones well fitted into their grooves and also to the cylinder, or the old ones should be dressed with a fine file, on their surface, so as to bear at all 86 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. points of their circumference on the cylinder wall. 314. If the knock is in the crosshead it may be relieved by tightening up the bearing. Care must be exercised lest you get it too tight, which will make it knock more than ever. 315. If the knock is in the crank pin box it is best to take it up a little at a time. A loose fly-wheel must never be allowed to run until it is thoroughly keyed to the shaft and per- fectly tightened. 316. I might add that pre-ignition is liable to cause undue expansion of the piston and cause it to stick in the cylinder. In such in- stances it is not proper to dress the piston until pre-ignition is corrected. A piston that sticks when pre-ignition occurs may run all right when pre-ignition ceases. The cause of this undue expansion of the piston from pre- ignition is the extreme heat the piston en- counters while firing the charge before the end of the compression stroke. 317. Don't conclude that a THUMP, POUND OR THUD about an engine is always due to some trouble in the cylinder. Look for such causes as. the following: First Pre-ignition (premature firing). Second Badly worn or broken piston rings. Third The explosive force escaping by the piston. Fourth Improper setting of a valve. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 87 Fifth A badly worn piston. Sixth Piston striking some projecting point or foreign body in the combustion chamber. Seventh A loose crosshead bearing. Eighth A loose crank pin bearing. Ninth A loose nut or journal box cap. Tenth A. fly-wheel or pulley loose on the shaft. Eleventh A broken spoke, hub or rim in fly-wheel or pulley. Twelfth Lost motion in any bearing, gear or governor. 319. The sound produced by pre-ignition may be described as a DEEP, HEAVY POUND. 320. A loose fly-wheel causes a thump or some- times a sort of metallic grating sound. 321. A loose crosshead or crank bearing makes a thud or knock. 322. A click will usually direct attention to a loose nut or cracked rim, spoke or hub, on pulley or fly-wheel. 323. LOSS OF POWER. The loss of power is due principally to leaky valves, misfiring and choked inlet or exhaust passage. A bent exhaust lever or lost motion by reason of a worn condition of the cam and cam wheel or roller, which will prevent a full and free opening of the valve, will cause a constricted passage. 324. Under leaky valves may be considered leaky piston rings, or any point about the 88 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. cylinder where part of the explosive force escapes while it is driving the piston on its working stroke. 325. The valves, if leaking, should be taken out and thoroughly cleaned and ground into their seats with powdered emery and lubri- cating oil. 326. If the cylinder rings are so worn as to become leaky or allow escape of the explosive force, they must be replaced by new ones, and it is sometimes necessary to put the pis- ton into a lathe and true up the grooves to fit the new rings. If any point of leak is dis- covered it should be properly packed or plugged at once. 327. MISFIRING means failing to fire each charge the engine takes, and the remedy has already been given. It consists of examining the battery and all its connections to the terminals, and determining whether the bat- tery is exhausted or not, whether there are broken connections, whether the terminals or other points need cleaning or attention oth- erwise. If tube ignition is used, whether the tube is hot enough, whether it is heated too high up, whether by deposit or other means the passage from the cylinder to the inside of the tube is closed up. Also de- termine whether fuel is fed to the engine in proper quantities. May not be getting enough at a charge or even too much. 328. CHOKED INLET PASSAGE. Nearly THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 89 all gas engines are fitted with some kind of a mixing device in the shape of a perforated plate, wire screen, etc. These mixing devices may become occluded with dust, soot, waste, cloth or paper drawn into the inlet pipe. The strangest of all they sometimes become oc- cluded with ice. The rapid vaporization of the gasoline while passing through the mixer may freeze any watery elements in the air and gasoline, and deposit it in the shape of ice in the mixer until it becomes completely occluded. 329. The engine may start off and pull its load easily, and as the ice is gradually deposited in the mixer the engine shows less and less power, until it finally stops. A wait of five or ten minutes 'will melt the ice sufficiently to allow another short run. Such actions or symptoms should lead one to suspect a frozen up mixer and to look for the cause. 330. In a number of such instances that came under my notice I have simply removed the mixer screen entirely and ran the engine without it, which overcame the trouble en- tirely. 331. Whatever the cause of a choked inlet, see that the cause is removed. 332. BACK-FIRING. --The explosive force coming out of the mouth of the receiving pipe is called back-firing. Its principal cause is a delayed combustion of the previous charge. When the air entering the cylinder 90 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. does not receive a sufficient charge of gas or gasoline it makes a slow burning mixture. This mixture may be so slow in combustion that it continues to burn not only on the work- ing stroke but also on the exhaust stroke of the piston, and there still remains enough flame in the cylinder to fire the fresh in- coming charge, which, of course, escapes back through the receiving pipe, the receiv- ing valve being open. 333. Any projecting point of iron in the ignit- ing chamber or chunks of carbon deposited in the cylinder may become heated to a red heat and serve to ignite the incoming charges. 334. Feeding the fuel a little more freely will remedy the back-firing if caused by a weak mixture. If it does not control it chunks of carbon or projecting points of iron or carbon should be looked for and removed if found. 335. OBSTINATE STARTING. Defective ignition is one of the principal causes, and you have already been told the remedy. But SLOW VAPORIZATION of gasoline in cold weather, OVERCHARGING THE IN- GOING AIR with gas or gasoline when turn- ing an engine over by hand, and WATER IN THE CYLINDER when trying to start, are causes as frequently met with as de- fective ignition. 336. You can facilitate vaporization of gasoline in cold weather for starting purposes by pre- viously heating some point of the air inlet THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 91 pipe, which serves to warm the air as it en- ters, which in turn vaporizes the gasoline better than cold air. 337. A bottle of gasoline heated by holding it in hot water may be used for starting. The heated gasoline vaporizes easier. 338. To avoid overcharging the ingoing air when turning the wheels over slowly in start- ing, a starting cup may be used on mouth of receiving pipe instead of turning on gasoline by the needle valve. This gives the initial impulses. After a few impulses are received, by opening the needle valve very slightly and gradually increasing the opening, the proper starting point is found. The valve set at that point will usually start the engine when the wheels are rolled over. 339. If WATER is found in the cylinder it must be removed and the leak stopped before a start is made. Sometimes a leak is so slight that it will not affect the running of the en- gine after it is started, but will leak enough while the engine is idle to prevent starting. 340. Therefore it is always well to drain the water jacket entirely before stopping the en- gine, and to start the engine before turning the water on again. Forming a habit of thus draining the water off before stopping the engine will serve an excellent purpose both in a leaky cylinder and in cold weather. 341. GROUND JOINTS that become leaky should be reground with flour of emery and 92 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. oil, and wiped perfectly clean after sufficient- ly ground. 342. LEAKY VALVE STEMS are remedied by reaming out the bearing and putting in a bushing or a larger stem. The stem, of course, must be in line with the bearing cen- ters of the valve seat. 344. If IGNITION GRADUALLY FAILS make the tube hotter. Renew battery or have magneto or generator put in order by an elec- trician. 345. WEAK EXPLOSIONS, when engine is starting, hardly strong enough to drive en- gine up to speed, indicates leaky valves. 346. IF SPEED GETS LOWER AND EN- GINE FINALLY STOPS, suspect: First Irregular ignition; charges not all fired. Second Overheated cylinder or piston. Third Hot journal or wrist box. Fourth Overload on engine. Fifth Fuel supply exhausted. Sixth Exhaust or receiving valve leaking. REMEDIES : First Repair broken wire connections, clean electrodes or igniting mechanism, re- pair insulation, renew battery, attend to mag- neto or sparking dynamo. Heat igniting tube to a higher degree. Second Increase supply of cold water and lubricating oil. Third Stop engine, examine hot box; THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 93 if cut any, dress all rough places, and wipe out all filings or cuttings, readjust boxes to bearings carefully, lubricate well, start en- gine, and keep a close watch on it for sev- eral days. If it shows any tendency to heat, examine again and readjust. Fourth Reduce load on engine. Fifth Replenish fuel supply. Sixth Grind the valve that leaks, to a good seat, with emery flour and oil. Leaky valves arid piston rings can be tested by turning the engine wheels over till the pis- ton goes on its compression stroke. If the valves and piston hold, the compression of air causes the piston to rebound. If they leak, you can turn the wheel on over the compression stroke. 347. SMOKE at the end of the exhaust pipe means an over supply of fuel or a surplus of lubricating oil in the cylinder. 349. SMOKE at open end of cylinder indi- cates that there is either a sand hole in the piston, leaky rings, or that the lubricating oil in the cylinder is decomposed by the heat. 350. Piston taken out and filled full of water will test it for a sand hole or other leak. 351. When piston is out examine rings if broken or worn out, or show by wearing at only one or two places in their circumfer- ence that they do not fit the cylinder, re- place them with new ones snugly fitted into 94 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. the piston grooves, as well as turned to fit the cylinder. If lubricating oil is burning increase supply of cold water. PART V. GENERAL INFORMATION 352. BOUND BOXES. When either the crosshead or crank boxes become worn so that they shoulder tightly after all the lin- ers are taken out, without correcting the lost motion or knock, their shoulders must be dressed either in a shaper by a machinist or filed true so that they can be set snugly to the pin they inclose and yet do not shoul- der by from one-eighth to a thirty-second of an inch. 353. LINERS. The space between the box shoulders is usually filled in with two to four thin sheets of cardboard or wood fiber, called LINERS. 354. LINERS REMOVED. As the boxes wear one liner at a time is removed and the nuts on the boxes set up a little closer. 355. SETTING A BOX. Never set a box so close as to bind the pin or shaft it encloses. But set it close enough to prevent it knock- ing. Set the nuts, holding the box, up equally. Bring them up gradually to- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 95 gether. Never set one up tight before bringing the other up. Don't be in a hurry. Don't set the boxes haphazard. Try the box after setting by turning the wheels over to see if it works tight and stiff. If so, it is too tight. Use judgment, other- wise you will have a ruined box. 356. PINS WORN OUT OF TRUE should be calipered and dressed round again with a file, or, better, put into a lathe and trued up with a tool and file. This refers prin- cipally to the CROSSHEAD or PISTON PIN, and the CRANK PIN. 357. CUT BOXES. Scrape the box or file it smooth with a fine file. Do the same with the pin by dressing off all the ridges and grooves. 358. HOT BOXES. Watch all the bearing on your engine closely, especially while new. If any of them run hot stop your engine and examine carefully for the cause. If too tight loosen it up a little; if it bears heavy on one side dress the point carefully where it shows the most wear; if a burr or high point on the shaft or pin dress it down smooth, but don't let the box run hot very long at a time. 359. RE-BABBITTING A BOX. If you have never seen a box rebabbitted you had better not undertake it until you have called in some one who has had experience to assist you. But if your judgment is good and 96 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. you have sufficient confidence in your abil- ity to do a thing properly you can do it alone. The principal things to be observed: Get the box perfectly level, clean out all the old babbitt, have box perfectly dry, adjust shaft in perfect line with the cylinder and the other box or bearing and stay it thor- oughly so it will not be jarred out of place while babbitting. Cut cardboard to fit around the shaft and the ends of the box, and then paste the cardboard to the ends of the box by means of putty or clay, and then close up all the creases with it where the babbitt might run out. When all is ready to receive the metal, which should be hot enough to quickly char a small stick thrust into it, put a piece of rosin onto the metal and pour as steadily as possible into the box. Babbitt only half of the box at a time. 360. PACKING. The cylinder head and valve chambers are in many engines packed onto the cylinder. Probably the best "all- round" packing to use, and the most easily procured, is asbestos sheeting or board. Some builders use a packing called RUB- BER ASBESTOS. Asbestos will stand the heat better than any other packing known. 361. LIME DEPOSIT IN WATER CHAM- BER. Don't let water chamber become filled with lime deposit. Better clean it out once a month by taking off Cylinder Head THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 97 and scraping the jacket free from lime. 362. If you are called on to clean a jacket that is well filled with lime and difficult to re- move by scraping, the Hot Oil process of removing the lime is, we think, the least injurious. 363. It. is done as follows: Drain all the water from the jacket, plug the lower port into the jacket, and through a short nipple or pipe in the upper port fill the water space with oil. Then run tthe engine till the oil gets boiling hot. Then let it stand over night to cool. Heat it again to the boiling point next morning by running the engine. Then stop .the engine, drain off the oil and let the engine cool off. Then start your engine with water turned on, and run for several hours, and when cooled shut off water and thoroughly drain off /all sedi- ment. 364. A BURST WATER JACKET, THE RESULT OF FREEZING. No matter how much is said or written in the way i of caution about draining the cylinder jacket and water pipes, carelessness will prevail in some instances and a freeze-up, bursting the cylinder jacket, will occur. 365. It is fortunate, however, that the cylinder itself is seldom injured by these freeze-ups. Usually only the outer casing bursts, and hence does not interfere with the success- ful running of the engine. 98 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 366. When the exhaust valve chamber is wa- tered the same trouble will occur with it if it is not properly drained. 367. When a freeze-up occurs it results usu- ally only in cracking the water casing and the remedy is to patch it and go ahead. 368. The patching is done as follows : Drain off all water, plug lower pipe connections, fill jacket with a salamoniac solution (one pound to a gallon of water), let stand thirty minutes, drain and run engine five minutes to warm jacket. Stop engine, put solution back into jacket and repeat the process three or four times. If the crack is not too large you will thus form, a RUST JOINT that will never leak. 369. If this does not stop the leak, take an iron plate, long enough to cover the crack, shape it to the cylinder, drill quarter-inch holes along each edge about two inches apart, drill and thread holes into the cylinder wall to match, lay a piece of candle wick, well saturated with white lead, on the crack and bolt the plate tightly over it with one-quarter inch round-head screws. When using this method it is best to chip a little crease along the crack to receive part of the wick. 370. HOW TO GRIND A VALVE. As has already been stated, nearly all modern gas engines use valves of the poppet variety. When it is suspected that a valve needs THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 99 grinding, strip the stem of its lock-nuts and spring, and remove the cap or plug over the valve pallet, lift it out and exam- ine the seat. 371. If it does not show a good bright bearing all around it needs grinding, which is done as follows: Apply lubricating oil to the seat of the pallet, then sprinkle on some flour of emery and drop the pallet into its seat. The top of the valve is usually creased to receive a screwdriver bit. 372. With a brace and bit the pallet may be turned round and round for a time and then back and forth in a semi-circle. Work it this way, alternating the movements, for some time. Occasionally lift the valve pal- let slightly from its seat, let it drop back and repeat the grinding movements. 373. When the valve turns without any appar- ent grinding friction take it out, wipe it clean, examine the seat, apply more oil and emery, and put it through another course of grinding. 374. This process may have to be repeated a number of times, but don't get in too much of a hurry to get through. 375. Two hours spent industriously on a valve may prove to be well spent and time saved. 376. When a good bearing seat is secured wipe the valve pallet and stem, as well as the valve seat and sleeve, in which the stem works, entirely free from emery, oil and 100 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. grit. Return the pallet to its seat, close up the valve and adjust the spring and lock- nuts to the stem ready for service. 377. In handling a gas engine the first thing to learn is "not to be afraid of it." There is nothing about it that will injure or hurt you unless you allow yourself to become careless. 378. Such incidents as getting arms, legs and clothes caught in the gear shaft, governor or FLY-WHEEL KEY, while the engine is running are results of pure carelessness. 379. It is the engineer's duty to caution others who may be looking at his engine of these dangers. 380. EXPLORING THE INTERIOR OF THE CYLINDER. It is sometimes nec- essary to explore the interior of the gas engine cylinder with a lighted candle, for the purpose of locating some sharp projec- tion, burnt carbon, crack or sand hole, etc. When doing this always remember that a CHARGE OF FUEL may remain in the cylinder, and whether the candle is insert- ed through one of the valve ports or the open end of the cylinder, be sure to keep YOUR FACE away from the opening. 381. The lighted candle will ignite the charge, and the flash through the open port may result in a seriously burnt face. The can- dle is usually put into the cvlinder on the end of a long sharp pointed wire or stick. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 101 HORSE POWER EXPLAINED. 382. Every engine uses a certain per cent of its total power to drive itself. 383. A. H. P. ACTUAL HORSE POWER means the power an engine has to spare for driving other machinery after driving it- self. 384. I. H. P. INDICATED HORSE POW- ER is A. H. P. plus the power an engine requires to drive itself. 385. TOTAL POWER of an engine is the same as is its I. H. P. BRAKE HORSE POWER, B. H. P, same as A. H. P. 386. If an engine develops on Brake Test seven Brake Horse Power, or Actual Horse Power, and it takes three H. P. to drive itself, it is therefore properly called a TEN INDICATED and SEVEN ACTUAL or Brake Horse Power. About 75 per cent of the Indicated power should be available for useful or actual H. P. 387. INDICATED HORSE POWER is de- termined by an instrument called an INDI- CATOR attached to the compression cham- ber of the cylinder which is capable of in- dicating the pressure behind the piston by tracings on a card. The power is figured from the area of this tracing, as follows : Multiply the area of the piston in square inches, by the mean effective pressure in pounds per square inch, as shown by the card 102 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. tracing, by the number of explosions per minute, by the length, in feet, of the working stroke of the piston, and divide the product by 33,000; the quotient will be the indicated horse power. 388. BRAKE TEST. A piece of belt with liriwood cleats fastened to it with wood screws, as per the following illustration, will Method of Making Break Test serve to make an excellent arrangement for testing brake or actual horse power. 389. On each end of this brake a paint bucket with bail or handle hung onto hooks fast- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER, 103 ened onto the ends will serve to hold small stones or chunks of iron with which to weight the brake and cause sufficient fric- tion. 390. This weight is applied until the engine is pulling all it will pull without materially reducing the speed, and the weights on each side balance or hang clear of the floor. 391. The engine is then left running under its load for from ten to thirty minutes, dur- which time the speed is counted a num- ber of times, to determine whether the en- gine holds the same speed. 392. When you have determined the same speed for some time the test may be concluded by stopping the engine. 393. The weights on each end are then weighed and the difference in pounds is the number of pounds pulled by the engine. 394. By multiplying the CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE WHEEL, IN FEET, by the num- ber of pcunds pulled, by the number of revo- lutions per minute, and dividing this product by 33,000, the result will show the Actual or Brake Horse Power of the engine. 395. EXAMPLE. Diameter fly wheel shown in above cut thirty inches, or two and a half feet. 2>4x3.1416 equals Cir. 7.85 ft. Cir. Rev. Lbs. 7.85 ft. x 300 x 52 ~ 7 , = o/fl n. p. 33,000 396. A power capable of raising 33,000 pounds 104 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. one foot high, in one minute, equals one horse power. TO START A GAS ENGINE. 397. Don't get excited. Go slow. Be sure you are right, then proceed as follows : First Clean the engine and all wearing parts thoroughly. Second Oil every point where there is any friction, EXCEPT VALVE STEMS and SPARKER SHAFT. Third If there is a relief or starting lever on the engine set it so as to relieve the compression. A Pet Cock is sometimes used for this purpose instead of a lever. It should be open. Fourth Switch in Battery current. If tube ignitor is used the flame against the tube should be started first thing. While the tube is heating, oil up, etc. Fifth When hot enough open the throt- tle valve slightly so as to admit a light charge of fuel when the engine is turned over. REMEMBER you are more liable to give the engine too much fuel in starting than not enough. Sixth Turn the fly wheels of the engine rapidly forward until it gets an impulse. Three or four revolutions should be enough. Seventh After the engine has had three or four impulses and gained some speed, THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 105 throw out relief lever or close relief Pet- Cock. Eighth Start oil from lubricating cup on cylinder. Twenty drops per minute while engine is new. Less will do later on. Ninth Let water into jacket chamber from water supply. TO STOP A GAS ENGINE. 398. First Shut off water supply. Second DRAIN CYLINDER AL- WAYS; TAKE NO CHANCES OF A FREEZE-UP, if you want to avoid trouble. Third Close cylinder oiler. Fourth Shut off gas or gasoline. Fifth Switch out the battery current. Sixth Wipe engine clean and see that it is in good shape for its next run. 399. While cleaning the engine after each day's run notice all the points of adjust- ment that are liable to need attention and see that all nuts, bolts and cap screws are tight or properly set. v '*. 400. Notice also the condition of the crank pin journal and other bearings. If any of them are hot, locate the cause of the heat- ing, and, if possible, remove it before start- ing the engine for work. 106 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 401. Before leaving the engine for the night see to it that the gas or gasoline is shut off and properly confined in the tank or pipes, THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 107 that the battery current is switched out and that everything is in apple-pie order for the next run. 402. The illustration on the previous page is intended, in a general way, to show the man- ner of connecting up the water, exhaust pipe and battery to the engine. 403. You will notice the bottom of the cool- ing tank is about on a level with the inlet to the engine. I think this is a very import- ant point to remember. It is better to have as few obstructions as possible in the water connections, where a natural circu- lation is expected. Therefore the cooling tank should be so placed that the water through the lower pipe to the engine will flow at least on a level and not upward. There are no objections to placing the tank above the engine. 404. It is also well to observe that the lower pipe is connected a few inches above the bottom into the side of the tank, thus ar- ranging a space below the pipe outlet to collect any sediment the water may con- tain, which would otherwise be carried into the cooling chamber of the cylinder, and tend to obstruct it. 405. The bottom of the cooling tank should be provided with a drain cock or plug, through which the tank may occasionally be drained of all sediment and thoroughly cleaned. 108 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 406. The cooling tank, exhaust drum and bat- tery can of course be placed and connected to suit the location of the engine. They do not need to occupy the positions in relation to the engine as shown in the cut. We prefer that exhaust should lead straight up from the en- gine rather than downward, as shown in cut. 407. Place them where they are most conven- ient, connecting up the water and exhaust with as few "L's" and turns as possible. 408. The pump and gravity feed systems for supplying gasoline to the engine have been fully described, as also the method of pip- ing up the gas. See index. 409. GASOLINE, BENZINE, NAPHTHA, KEROSENE and the kindred hydro-carbons are the products of crude mineral oil. 410. They are separated from the CRUDE OIL by a process of distillation. The pro- cess is very similar to that of generating steam from water. 411. By the application of heat, water raised to a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit changes from a liquid to a gaseous state, called steam. This conversion is only tempo- rary. If steam is confined and cooled to a certain point it will quickly return to its liquid state, water, by the process known as condensation. 412. CRUDE MINERAL OIL subjected to heat will give of! in the form of vapor such products as Gasoline, Benzine, Naphtha, THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 109 etc. The degree of heat at which these products are separated are comparatively low. Various degrees of heat will sepa- rate the distinct products. As a means of illustration, we will say that crude oil raised to a temperature of 110 degrees gives off vapor which, when cooled, will liquefy into what is known as naphtha, benzine at 125 degrees, and gasoline at 140 degrees. These degrees of temperature are not authentic simply used to illustrate. 413. After these lighter products are separated there yet remains the thick, oily liquid from which the various lubricating oils are pre- pared. 414. Paraffine oil is one of the principal products of crude oil, and the oily sediment which frequently accumulates in the bot- tom of the tank or can in which gasoline is confined is PARAFFINE OIL, which dis- tils over in small quantity with the vapor of gasoline. 415. This oil might be finally separated from the gasoline by reconverting it into 'vapor several times and carrying it as such into a clean retort each time. 416. It should be remembered that gasoline that is practically free from paraffine can easily be adulterated by putting it into un- clean containers. For instance, we take chemically pure gasoline and put it into a wooden barrel or tank, that previously con- 110 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. tained oil which had not been cleaned, it is easy to understand how the penetrating quali- ties of gasoline acting on the oil-soaked staves will extract the oil particles and de- posit them on the bottom of the vessel be- cause of their lower specific gravity. In the same way other sediments than oil may get mixed with gasoline. 417. The comparatively low degree of heat necessary to produce gasoline from oil makes it a fluid that is very volatile and easily va- porized in our warm summer temperature, and, therefore, difficult to confine. 418. The best kind of a tank to use in confining gasoline is made of well soldered, galvanized iron, fitted with a safety valve, which will allow escape of any gas that may accumulate to a certain pressure within the tank during warm weather. 419. A tank containing gasoline should never be so placed as to be exposed to the direct rays of the sun. This is done with many gas- oline engine supply tanks, and the result is an enormous waste of gasoline by direct vapori- zation, which loss is generally attributed to over-consumption by the engine, very much to the detriment of its reputation. 420. The object of burying a gasoline tank in the ground is to provide a cool place for it, which reduces vaporization to a minimum. The way this is ordinarily done is BAD PRACTICE. The proper way to do it is THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. Ill to provide an underground chamber some- thing similar to a cistern. This chamber should be large enough so that when the tank is placed in the center there is room enough all around it to admit of thorough inspection. It should be walled up with brick and cemented, so as to exclude water, and covered in such a manner as to admit of easy access. 421. If the tank is to be placed on top of the ground outside of the building in which the engine is located it should be protected from the heat of the sun by putting a small build- ing over it. 422. Storing gasoline in a wooden barrel is not economy by any means. The wood is porous enough to allow considerable loss by vaporization. 423. When gasoline is exposed to air that is above the freezing point it gives off a vapor or gas which mixes or blends with the atmos- phere, and if exposed long enough the quan- tity so exposed will all disappear or pass off into the air in the form of vapor, leaving only the paraffine residue or other sediment. 424. Several manufacturers of gasoline advise me that common stove gasoline is especially purified, and does not originally contain any residue. 425. It would therefore appear that stove gaso- line, which is ordinarily supposed to test about 74 degrees, is the quality best adapted 112 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. for use in the gasoline engine, although the writer has knowledge of engine running successfully on gasoline testing anywhere from 60 degrees to 88 degrees. 426. DISTILLATE, which might be called a low grade of gasoline, and which we are advised tests about 55 degrees, is successfully used to operate the majority of gas engines in California. 427. Much of the RESIDUE or oily substance which accumulates in the bottom of a gas- oline tank is, in my opinion, due to the use of unclean barrels or tanks in which it is confined for storage or shipping purposes. 428. Another method of getting rid of this oily substance is to regard it as so much "dirt" and occasionally pour off all the gasoline and clean the container thoroughly from all sedi- ment. 429. Gasoline engines often refuse to operate successfully on account of this sediment blockading some part of the supply passage between the tank and the engine. 430. Unfortunately the consumer of gasoline occupies the same position in the purchase of gasoline as the consumer of milk does in its purchase. They both buy "dirt." The only difference is that the latter, after buy- ing it is expected to digest it as well. 431. In case of fire due to gasoline, use fine earth, flour or sand on top of the burning liquid. Never use water; it will only serve THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 113 to float the gasoline and consequently spread the flame. 432. GASOLINE TANK EXPLOSIONS are often due to a pressure within a tightly closed container, caused by high temperature, which vaporizes or gasifies the liquid within. 433. The changing of the liquid to the gaseous state causes expansion, and if there is no vent or safety valve connection the pressure within rises to a point sufficient to cause an explosion. PART VI. DYNAMOS AND MAGNETO IGNITION. IN GAS AND GASOLINE ENGINES. 434. The necessity of a sure method of igni- tion in the operation of Hydro-carbon mo- tors cannot be overestimated. I may safely say that more trouble arises from defective ignition in the use of Hydro-carbon engines than from all other causes combined. The importance, therefore, of some ar- rangement, device or mechanism, capable of constantly generating a good strong current of electricity, with the least possible varia- tion in its constant strength, is readily ap- parent. A good current properly applied is to the gas engineer what quinine was to the physician in malarial times. 114 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 435. Experts on the operation of gas and gas- oline motors are very particular about the igniting apparatus on their machines. When called to a motor giving trouble they will at once inquire or examine into the ignition apparatus, and especially the electric cur- rent strength. If this current strength drops below a certain standard, say 2 l / 2 amperes and 10 volts, the expert suspicions that the current strength is getting low, and he searches for the cause. A high amperage and low voltage may ig- nite successfully. Such a current may be had from a battery on short circuit. A five-cell Edison Primary Battery, Type "R," may show on short circuit 15 amperes and only three to four volts. 436. The importance with which reliable igni- tion is considered may be demonstrated by the fact that a well-equipped automobile or touring car, which is required to make long and continuous runs, usually carries a bat- tery of from two to four magneto or dynamo generators, which are backed up by a couple of good fluid or storage batteries, so that in case of disability of one of the generators the current from another may be switched in immediately. 437. Of the different methods of ignition used on Hydro-carbon motors, viz.: Flame, Hot Tube, Catalytic and Electric, the latter has easily taken the lead, and is the one with THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 115 which this chapter especially deals. Flame ignition has become practically obsolete. Tube ignition is described elsewhere in this work. Also electric ignition in connection with battery current. 438. Catalytic ignition may be defined as igni- tion or combustion resulting from high compression pressure within the combustion chamber. This method is winning some advocates, and some ingenious devices arc applied to accomplish the result. The com- bustion chamber may be heated by torch for the purpose of igniting the first charges in starting. After the motor is in operation the constant firing of fresh charges within the combustion chamber keeps it hot enough to explode them regularly under the heavy compression pressure. 439. The popularity which the electric current enjoys as an ignitor is the stimulus which is bringing out many new and valuable devices for generating the electric current in proper strength to ignite the charges, under the greatest variation of proportional gas and air mixtures allowable in Hydro- carbon motors. Those devices which appeal to the good judgment of gas engine operators at present are known as dynamic generators, dynamo or magnetic ignitors. 440. The dynamo is a small generator, con- structed on principles similar to the dyna- 116 THE: PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. mo used for electric lighting purposes, a miniature machine with current capacity only sufficient to produce a good strong igniting spark at all times. Storage and other batteries are used in connection with some of these dynamos for starting pur- poses. They require a certain speed before they will generate an igniting current. This speed must not vary to any great extent If much below the normal the current will be too weak for igniting purposes. If speed runs above the normal there is danger of burning out the field windings. Therefore, if the dynamo were set at a speed to gen- erate an igniting current, when the engine is turned over by hand, it would quickly burn out its field coils under full speed of the engine, unless some governing device were used; consequently, the engine is start- ed from a battery current, and when the dynamo has gained a generating speed, which is attained at the full speed of the engine, its current is switched onto the en- gine, and the battery current is cut out. 441. The use of the battery for starting pur- poses is one of the objections urged by competitive manufacturers against a dyna- mo requiring it, and if only superficially considered, it might be regarded as a real objection. The only adverse claim that can be urged against it is the expense of main- taining a battery and dynamo both at the THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 117 same time; but when it is remembered that the engine or motor is "the power behind the throne" of whatever machine or ma- chinery it is expected to operate, and that it depends for its good behavior, to a large extent, on a good, strong, continuous, week- in and week-out electric current, and that we depend almost wholly on the engine to ac- complish our purpose, I regard it a matter of economy rather than one of expense to back up the dynamo with a good elec- trical battery, and vice versa, so that in case of disability of the one we may have the other to rely on during the time which we would otherwise be shut down for re- pairs. 442. There are, however, generators fitted with ingenious governing or speed control- ling devices, which allow a generating speed of the dynamo when the engine is turned over by hand, and as the speed of the en- gine increases to its normal the governor on the dynamo controls it by keeping it within the bounds of its speed limit. * Such an outfit is designed to discard all other current generators. The dynamo is relied upon to START and OPERATE the engine successfully and entirely of its own accord. These speed controllers on igniting dyna- mos are in the most instances doing the work expected of them in a thorough, efficient and 118 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. satisfactory manner, and can be considered perfectly reliable. 443. In addition to the dynamo generator for igniting purposes there is another gener- ator called the magneto, which is extensively used and which has many warm advocates. The magneto depends on permanent magnets for exciting fields. It has no field windings and, consequently, the danger which is urged against the dynamo of burning out its field windings under high speeds, is obviated in the magneto. It is, therefore, susceptible to much greater variation of speed without in- jury than the dynamo. But while this is true, it must not be inferred that the mag- neto is without disadvantages. The exciting magnets may lose their magnetism, which, of course, means that they would fail to gen- erate a current. 444. It is the opinion of the author that a machine, whether dynamo or magneto, will give the best service, and last longer at a uniform rate of speed than under a vari- able speed. 445. It is, of course, the desire of all manufac- turers to develop and produce a machine that will as readily as possible adapt itself to the various conditions which it may en- counter, and since variation in speed is an adverse condition constantly met with they have given the matter of speed special at- tention by reason of which some of them THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 119 may be led to make extravagant claims for their product. 446. Conservativeness in the consideration of the excellent points claimed by each manu- facturer is the safest guide to the purchaser. To make a good selection one should care- fully consider the advantageous points claimed by different manufacturers, as well as the disadvantages urged against each other. When you have made your choice, back up your judgment with the belief that you have as good a machine as the market af- fords, give it such attention as a good ma- chine deserves; study its parts and their action until you are intimately acquainted with its makeup, and your success with it is assured. 447. Other generators on the market might aptly be termed Magneto-Dynamos, or a combination of dynamo and magneto. 448. This construction is similar to a mag- neto, with the exception that their perma- nen magnets are reinforced by field wind- nent magnets are reinforced by field wind- 449. As indicated in the description of the dynamo and magneto, the former depends on its field from which its current is generated; the latter depends on permanent magnets for the generating of its current. The rapidly revolving armature between the wound fields of the former excites them, and a current is 120 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER, generated. The armature revolving rapidly between permanent magnets in the latter generates a current. 450. A current of electricity passed through a wire coil around a piece of soft steel mag- netizes the steel. Consequently, the field windings, around the already magnetized magnets, or permanent magnets, tend to in- tensify their magnetism and keep their gen- erating qualities up to a high standard. It must, therefore, follow that such an arrange- ment would obviate the loss of magnetism in the permanent magnet, an objection urged against the ordinary magneto. 451. However, it might be well to state in this connection that if this machine is run back- ward it will demagnetize its magnets. Therefore, the reader may at once conclude that there is an objection to this Magneto- Dynamo. If further consideration is given the matter it will be seen that there is no need of running this machine backward. In fact, by changing two wire connections be- tween the field coil and the armature pole the backward movement above referred to becomes forward. Therefore, the machine is easily reversible, and will run in either direction and generate a good strong cur- rent. 452. All that is required of the operator is to know the wire connections between armature and fields, which are usually plainly illus- THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 121 trated and described in an instruction sheet sent with the machine. 453. Another advantage claimed for these ma- chines is that the magnet or field windings serve in the capacity of a spark coil, which obviates the necessity of a spark coil, and especially so if the generating speed can be made low enough to ignite the charge when turning the engine wheels over by hand, as in starting, and yet not injure the windings when the engine is at its full speed, which we are informed is easily within the capacity of the generator. 454. Since referring to the spark coil we de- sire to say that it has been in use as a nec- essary fixture ever since electric ignition was introduced, no matter what the source of electric current, whether storage, dry or fluid battery, Magneto or Dynamo. For the ordi- nary contact or touch spark a SHORT, THICK spark coil connected somewhere into the circuit will produce the best results. 455. For JUMP SPARK ignition an especially designed spark coil is necessary, called the Jump Spark Coil. ' 456. The difference in operation of the ordi- nary spark coil and the Jump Spark coil is that the former requires a make-and-break arrangement which produces contact and separation of the terminal points within the igniting chamber. The latter produces a spark or succession 122 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. of sparks, which leap through an air space between two terminal points, without con- tact of these points, which are stationary, and located within the exploding or igniting chamber. 457. The same strength of electric current will produce successful ignition with either coil, provided the coils and ignition arrangement are adapted to the current. In further ex- planation of this fact I might add that by a series of tests we produce successful ignition and operation of a gas engine by first using the ordinary spark coil with make-and-break contact within igniting chamber for several hours, then changing the igniting mechanism to the Jump Spark method we got equally good results, using the same battery and engine with both methods. Similar tests with magneto cur- rent produced a successful ignition with either method, demonstrating that a proper- ly constructed battery or generator produc- ing a current of sufficient magnitude will successfully ignite the charges with either the contact or jump spark method. How- ever, jump spark ignition requires a current of greater amperage than is necessary with the touch spark and which is liable to de- stroy the contact points. Hence, builders of magnetos and spark machines wind their machines a little different for a jump than a contact spark. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 123 458. In the panorama of electric ignition, in- ventions, improvements and advancements, the changes are so rapid that one has hardly time to stop long enough to describe the newest arrival until another, for which greater claims are made, appears on the scene. HIGH TENSION GENERA- TORS are now in use which are designed to produce a jump spark of powerful igni- tion qualities without the introduction of a spark coil in the circuit. It is claimed for these devices that the current is taken from the dynamo terminals at an extreme- ly high pressure, directly to the spark plug, where it is delivered with such force as to enable it to bridge an air gap of an inch, with a powerful, hot, flaming spark. The high-tension magneto is very effective and popular in automobile ignition service at this time. 459. Leaving the reference to what appear to the author to be the most reliable igniting generators now on the market we will at- tempt to devote a few pages to the care and successful handling of these little machines. I desire to say as a word of caution, that it is not well to condemn a generator or mag- neto because the engine to which it is con- nected goes dead under its current or even its lack of current. The little generator may be all right, even if it produces no current at all. If the engine goes out of 124 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. operation apparently of its own accord be sure that you determine whether the trouble is with the generator or not. If a battery is used in connection with this generator, and the engine starts off and runs success- fully from the battery, but goes down when the generator current is switched in, then it is reasonably certain that the generator or the wire connections between it and the engine are at fault, not necessarily so, how- ever. Some generators require a little time after starting to pick up or saturate their fields, before which a current is not gener- ated. And if the engine is started on the battery, and switched onto the dynamo be- fore it has had time to pick up, the engine will stop; therefore it is always well to run on the battery for a few minutes before switching in the current from the generator. 460. Under these conditions should it fail, LOOK FOR LITTLE THINGS, before giving up in despair. I'll relate an actual occurrence. It may help you. Mr. M had worked all day, up to 4 P. M., trying to get his engine started from his generator. (He had no battery.) At 4 P. M. we an- swered his call for help, and found him ir- ritable, damning the dynamo and denounc- ing it as a fraud. Inside of two minutes we found one of the brushes two at opposite points of the commutator, you know by reason of dirt accumulation, got stuck in THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 125 the brush holder, and could not touch the commutator. Took it out, cleaned it, and also the other one, rubbed the commutator a little, turned the engine over, and off it went. Don't let this happen to you. 461. Later on the same fellow literally soaked the dynamo in oil in his effort to give it sufficient lubrication. The result, of course, was another shutdown, fit of anger, and general condemnation of the spark genera- tor. Cleaning and wiping off the surplus oil, again started it off in good shape. This fel- low was constantly overlooking the little things, and believed, as some one told him, that his armature was burned out, or that the magnets had lost their magnetism. 462. Nearly all of these little machines are fitted with wick oilers, and they need to be sup- plied with oil every three or four days and only a little at a time. 463. The ends of the brushes which are in con- tact with the armature sometimes need to be touched up with a fine file to clean them from dirt accumulations. The comjmitator can be cleaned with fine emery cloth waste or chamois skin, while in motion. 464. If the brushes wear off and get too short, so that the springs which hold them to the commutator can no longer hold them firmly, new ones should be put into the brush hold- ers. We found in one instance that the little 126 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. pulley was loose on the armature shaft, which caused trouble for some time/ 465. If you ever have occasion to remove the armature from a magneto, be sure that you protect the magnets by putting a small iron bar across the open ends of the magnets. This makes the connection between the open ends of the magnets and preserves their magnetism, which they would otherwise lose. 466. It is also well to guard against running these little generators backward. Magnet- ism in some of them may be lost thereby, and they may be otherwise injured. If one of thttm has its field windings burned out, or has lost its magnetism, it is best to send it to the manufacturers for repairs. 467. Sometimes the insulation around the brush holders get damp and causes trouble. Removing it and drying it, by either wiping it dry or baking it in a dry heat for a short time, will overcome the trouble and cause the generator to work successfully again. 468. Above *all, we would advise any one in- stalling one of these little generators to pro- vide it with an absolutely clean place, and one which can easily be kept clean. It should be so located that no oil from the en- gine or ether machinery can be spattered on it. It should be excluded from dust and dampness by incasing it in a roomy box if the room in which it is placed is at all ex- posed to dust, dirt or dampness. THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 127 469. If the friction wheel is used on the gen- erator for driving purposes, it (the gen- erator) should be set so that the little fric- tion wheels sets squarely against the face of the fly-wheel of the engine and so that it is in direct line with the fly-wheel. Otherwise, the face of the little friction pulley would soon wear out of true and cause trouble. It should also be set up snug enough against the fly-wheel to insure a generative speed of the generator when the engine is running at its normal speed. 470. The easiest way to operate a generator successfully is to keep its parts and surround- ings perfectly clean and dry. If you will do this, you will seldom have occasion to correct what might otherwise appear to be the fault of the generator. Dampness and Dirt are the direct enemies of the successful running of the generator. Lubricating oil -becomes dirt when used to freely. 471. If copper wire brushes are used, they should be soaked in oil occasionally to pre- vent their cutting off the commutator. Carbon brushes will not cut the com- mutator, but may become glazed, which will prevent a reliable contact. The ends should be filed off to a new surface. 128 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. PART VII. AUTOMOBILE AND MOTOR BOAT EN- GINE TROUBLES. 472. It would not be possible in this or any number of chapters to point out every trouble that may be encountered with a Boat or Automobile gasoline motor. But we hope to here enumerate some of those most com- monly met with and to give such hints as may be of real value to the person in charge. 473. VAPORIZERS. Owing to the variable speeds required in motors on automobiles and boats the float feed carbureters are con- sidered necessary. They are a fruitful source of trouble, especially in starting. They are not always ready when the oper- ator is. Sometimes they need flushing. That is pressing down the float to let more gasoline run in so as to flood the spray noz- zle. One must be sure that gasoline comes down when he depresses the float. If not the float needle inlet or pipe from the tank may be clogged or there may be no FUEL in the tank. 474. One of the first things an operator should know is the details of the carbureter on his engine and just how it is designed to perform its function. Familiarity with it will enable him to quickly locate the cause THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 129 of any trouble with it. Something may go wrong with the float or its needle point. It may not shut off the gasoline properly. This will flood the vaporizer and the mix- ture will be too rich and will not ignite. 475. Carbureters with spring valves and air throttles may go wrong in the mechanism sustaining those parts and they will not ad- just themselves to the conditions met until the cause is removed. 476. The vaporizer to all appearances may be working all right and yet the engine refuse to go. Look for a leak in the inlet passage BETWEEN the CARBURETER and EN- GINE. Maybe a packing blown out or hole somewhere letting in air. 477. WATER in the gasoline? Yes! It has often caused no end of trouble and a few drops go a long ways in ruffling the feelings of even a good patient operator. Every sup- ply pipe leading to the carbureter should be fitted with a trap where the water or sedi- ment may collect before reaching the vapor- izer. This trap should be cleaned often. 478. There may be plenty of gasoline *in the tank and yet none appear at the vaporizer. An automobile may be standing on an in- cline so that the vaporizer is higher than the .gasoline in the tank. If this condition is found and corrected and still there is no gasoline at the vaporizer, blow into the tank and endeavor thereby to dislodge any plug 130 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. or occlusion in the pipe. If this is not effec- tive the pipe between the tank and the vap- orizer should be taken down and every joint and union should be carefully looked into or at least LOOKED THROUGH to see if there is a clear opening from one end to the other. 479. Gasoline will not vaporize equally well in every carbureter in cold weather, and in some cases the engine is hard to start on ac- count of cold weather. Then warming the engine cylinders, better the interior, by means of a plumber's blow torch through some of the plug ports to the combustion chamber, will invariably remove the cause of this trouble. 480. If the writer had occasion to use a boat or automobile in cold weather a gasoline pres- sure blow torch would certainly be one of the articles of my equipment, along with a box of matches. A flame from it can be di- rected to any part of the engine or inlet pipes or carbureter. It becomes useful for a variety of warming purposes on a cold day miles away from a good warm fire. 481. If no torch is at hand, filling the engine jacket with hot water will answer the pur- pose, or a red hot iron poked into the mouth of the air inlet while cranking the engine. 482. Trouble sometimes arises because of want of proper suction force through the vapor- izer. The inlet passage may be choked or THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. 131 the airlift valve, where one is used, may stick or its spring may be too stiff. If there is anything wrong with the exhaust valve, allowing a leak at that point, the air will be drawn into the cylinder through the exhaust instead of through the vaporizer. When trouble is experienced in starting, the suc- tion through the vaporizer should always be tested. 483. While it is absolutely necessary for one to thoroughly familiarize himself with the vap- orizer it is infinitely more important that he should understand 'every detail of the IG- NITING APPARATUS, because here is where the large percentage of troubles emanate from in motor boat or automobile engines. There really is no end to the variety of ap- parently trivial causes that may knock out successful ignition, and when ignition fails it is "all off" until the trouble is corrected. 484. Engines for motor purposes are equipped either with the hammer-brake spark mech- anism or with the jump spark ignition method. 485. In either case electric battery magneto or dynamo may be used to generate the current necessary to make the igniting spark, con- sequently the source or generator of the current is a most important item for con- sideration. 486. We believe a motor boat or automobile should always carry what unight be known 132 THE PRACTICAL GAS ENGINEER. as plenty of reserve generators. By this we mean that it is wise for any motorist to go prepared to avoid trouble or rather meet and overcome it. If batteries are used an extra set should always be carried to meet emer- gencies. If any of the variety of generators on the market is supplying the current, a dry battery might help out at the most critical time. 487. A generator connected to a storage bat- tery would seem proof against emergency troubles. But, there are instances where the boat is left to the mercy of the waves and the automobile becomes inactive in some lonely spot on the country road for want of a reserve generator. A dynamo 58 Binding Post 185, 186 54 Battery, Life of 293 80 British Thermal Unit 543 147 Battery, How to revive 293, 296 80 Barking noise in cylinder 310, 313 85 Back-firing, its causes 332, 334 89, 70 Bound Boxes 352 94 Babbitting a box 359 95 150 INDEX Paragraph Page Burst Cylinder Jacket 364 97 Brake Horse Power 385, 386 101 Brake Test for Power 388 to 396 102, 103 Combustion 2 7 Compression 2 7 Charge, Gas and Air 2 7 Construction of two-cycle Engine 15 to 20 10, 11 Cylinder Construction 27 to 34 14, 15 Cylinder Walls, how thick 34 15 Crank Pin center 40 16 Crosshead Construction 43 17 Cylinder rings, purpose of 48, 54 18, 19 Coughing noise in cylinder 55, 310, 313 20, 85 Connecting Rod 56 to 59 20, 21 Crank Shaft 60, 66 21, 22 Crosshead box 57 20 Contact Spark 89, 90 29, 30 Cellar for engine room 110 35 Cap stone or timber 117 37 Circulating pump 139 42 Cooling fan 139 42 Connecting gasoline tank to engine 145 to 151 45, 46 Chimney for tube ignitor 170, 171 50, 51 Current breaker 178 52 Cleanliness 205 58 Compression relief lever. 219 62 Compressed air starter .229 to 236 64, 65 Compression and its relation to power 243 67 Compression space, size of ... .244 67 Compression pressure 245, 246 67 INDEX 151 Paragraph Page Constricted valve passage kills power 251 to 259 68-70 Cooling the cylinder 275 to 279 73, 74 Cause of defective ignition 285, 303 77, 82 Character of igniting spark 295 80 Cylinder, pounding in 306 to 326 83, 88 Causes of pre-ignition 308 to 313 84, 85 Crosshead knock 314 86 Choked inlet passage 328 to 332 88, 89 Cold weather affects starting 335 to 337 90 Causes for slower speed and stopping 346 92 Cut boxes or bearings 357 95 Cylinder, interior of 380, 381 100 Distillate 5, 426 8, 112 Diameter of crank shaft 66 22 Diameter of fly wheels 67 22 Double cylinder or balanced engine 73, 74 24 Damp cellar unfit for engine room 110 35 Dimensions of foundation 116 36 Depth of foundation 115 36 Dry battery 194 56 Dynamo or spark ignition 195 56 Defective ignition 285 77 Dynamo current tested 299 81 Dynamo fields should run cool. .300 82 Difficult starting 335, 340 90, 91 Danger in handling a gas engine. 377 to 380 100 Danger from gasoline .419 to 434 110-113 Explosion 2, 3 7 152 INDEX Paragraph Page Expansion force 3 7 Explosive force 7 8 Electric spark ignition 88, 89 29 Electric points, terminals or Electrodes 90 to 94 30, 31 Engine room 203 to 207 58 Engine room 109 to 112 34, 35 Exhaust Connections 152 46 Exhaust Mufflers ' 153 47 Exhaust into a flue or chimney. 154, 155 47 Exhaust into well or cistern. . .157 47 Exhaust into box 159,160 48 Electric ignitor 178 to 201 52-57 Electric connections 185 to 192 54, 55 Engineer for sure 204 to 219 58-62 Engine hard to start; why? 214 60 Engine should run empty at first 236, 239 65, 66 Engine shuts down when too much fuel 236 to 243 65, 66 Economy under fuel load 279 74 Electric current tested 289 79 Exhaust sounds a guide to im- proper running . . ...... 304, 305 83 Engine slows up and stops 346 92, 93 Exploring interior of cylinder. 380, 381 100 Fuels used in gas engine 4, 5 8 Four-cycle principle 11 9 Fly wheel, weight and diameter . 67 22 Foundation for gas engine 112 35 Foundation "any old floor" 112 35 Foundation, object in 114 36 Foundation, depth of 115 36 INDEX 153 Paragraph Page Foundation, dimension of 116 36 Foundation, heighth of 118 37 Foundation, concrete 119 37 Foundation, capped with stone or timber 117 37 Feeding gasoline by gravity 145, 146 44, 45 Feeding gasoline by pump method 147, 148 45 Foot pound 542 147 Fire insurance companies re- quire pump method 151 46 Fluid Battery 193 55 Fuel consumption 274 to 284 73-76 Fuel consumption under full load 280 74 Fuel consumption in relation to speed 281 74 Fuel consumption guarantee 282, 283 75 Fuel consumption, rules to follow 283 75 Fields of dynamo should run cool 300 82 Firing every charge taken 301 82 Feed more fuel 334 90 Feed less fuel 347, 349 93 Freeze up water jacket 364 97 Fire resulting from gasoline. . .431 # 112 Gasoline 5, 409 to 433 8, 108-113 Gas, natural , .5 8 Gas, artificial 5 8 Gas engine 1,7 7, 8 Gasoline engine 7 8 Gasoline, atomized or vapor- ized 8, 335 to 338 8, 90, 91 154 INDEX Paragraph Page Governor, types of 100 32 Governor, hit and miss 102 to 107 33, 34 Governor, throttling 104 to 107 33, 34 Gas pipe connections 140 to 144 43, 44 Gas regulator 141, 142 44 Gasometer . 142 44 Gas bag 143, 144 44 Gravity system of feeding gaso- line. . . . 145, 146 45 Gasoline tank, where located ... 145 to 149 45 Gasoline, too much . 240, 242 66 Gasoline, weight of 541 146 Gasoline, how much engine should use 275 73 Gas engine troubles 284 77 Gasoline slow vaporizing 335 to 338 90, 91 Ground joints leaking 341 91 Grinding valves 370 to 377 98-100 Gasoline, how produced .... .409 to 413 108, 109 Gasoline sediment in bottom of tank 414 to 417 109, 110 Gasoline purified 414, 428 109, 112 Gasoline tank, best to use 418 110 Gasoline tank, protect from sun's rays 419 110 Gasoline tank, burial in ground.420 110 Gasoline tank explosions 432, 433 113 Hydro-carbon . . .6 8 Hydro -carbon engine, same as gas engine 7 8 Height of base 36 16 Hot wrist box 61 21 Hit and miss governor 101 to 107 32-34 INDEX 155 Paragraph Page Height of foundation 118 37 How to line an engine with line shaft 126 to 129 39, 40 How to put up exhaust connections 161 to 164 48, 49 Hot tube ignitor 167 to 178 50-52 Hard starting engine 214 60 High compression 246 67 High compression causes pre- ignition 245, 247 67, 68 How much gasoline engine should use 275 73 How to test electric current 289, 290 79 How to test sparker insulation. . .291 79 How to revive battery current. . .296 to 299 80, 81 Hot boxes 61, 358 21, 95 Heat efficiency. . . 539 146 How to patch leaky cylinder jacket 368, 369 9& How to grind a valve 370 to 376 98, 99 How to start a gas engine 397 104 How to stop a gas engine 398 105 Horse power explained 382 to 388, 542 101, 147 Horse power, actual 383 101 Horse power, indicated 384 101 Horse power, brake 385 101 Initial pressure 3 * ' 7 Igniting mechanism 86, 87 29 Ignition, electric spark method. . .87, 89 29 Insulation of stationary ter- minal or points .. .93 to 96 31 Insulating material .96 31 Installing a gas engine 107 to 112 34, 35 Igniting tube contains burnt gases. 175 51 156 INDEX Paragraph Page Ignition too early 286, 287 77, 78 Ignition with hot tube 286 77 Ignition with electric spark 287 78 Insulation tested 291 79 Ignite every charge admitted 301, 303 82 Inlet passage choked 328 to 332 88, 89 Ignition gradually fails 344 92 Indicated horse power 384 to 387 101 Indicator 387 101 Illustration of engine connections . 102 Journal box construction 38 to 41 16 Jump spark 89 29 Kerosene engine 7 8 Kiss spark 98 32 Knock at crosshead or wrist 314, 315 86 Lining up engine shaft 126 to 129 39,40 Loss of power by radiation 138 41 Length of ignition tube 169 50 Lack of power in explosions 222 63 Lubricating valve stems 266, 267 72 Length of piston 44 to 47 17, 18 Lubricating cylinder 269 72 Lubricating wrist boxes 272 73 Lubricating frictional parts 268 72 Life of a battery. t 293 80 Loss of power 323, 326 87, 88 Leaky valves 323, 325 87, 88 Leaky cylinder rings 326 88 Leaky joints 341 91 Leaky valve stems 342 92 Liners <. 353, 354 94 Lime in water jacket chamber 361 96 Leak in cylinder jacket 364 97 INDEX Paragraph Motor 1, 7 Mixture of gas and air 1, 7 Making and breaking the elec- tric current 90, 91 Mechanical efficiency 540 Movable and stationary ter- minals or contact points 97, 98 Magneto for igniting purposes 195 More power, more fuel 242 Misfiring 301, 303, 327 Naptha, engine 7 Natural water circulation 135 Naptha , 409 Oil, kind to use for cylinder. . . 208, 209 Oiling valve stems 210, 266, 267 Oiling the gas engine 208 Oiling frictional parts 268 Oiling cylinder 269 Oiling wrist boxes < 272 Obstinate starting 335 to 340 Overcharging with fuel 335 to 337 Prime mover 1 Pressure in the Cylinder 3 Parts necessary to a gas engine ... 24, 25 Piston, how constructed 42 to 47 Piston rings, same as cylinder or packing rings 48 to 54 * Pitman 56 to 59 Piping up an engine 129 Piping water to engine from cooling tank 132 to 135 Piping water to engine from hydrant 136 to 139 Piping gasoline to engine 145 to 148 158 INDEX Paragraph Page Preliminaries to starting a new gas engine .203 58 Pre-ignition 247 68 Pre- ignition, causes of 247 to 251 68 Pre-ignition, cause of f ounding . . 306 83 Pre-ignition, how to test 308, 309 84 Pounding in Cylinder 306 to 326 83 88 Piston, cauie of pound 310, 316 85, 86 Pistons speed 545 147 Pins, crosshead and wrist 356 95 Packing 360 96 Power, actual horse 383 101 Power, indicated horse 384 101 Power, brake horse 385, 386 101 Power 382, 387 101 Place equipments where most convenient 406, 407 108 Paraffine oil 414 109 Ring for cylinder, how should be made 48 to 54 18, 19 Room in which to set an engine. , 109 to 112 34, 35 Regulator, gas 141, 142 44 Receiving valve time of 262 71 Reviving battery current 296 to 299 80, 81 Sediment at bottom of gaso- line tank 414, 416, 4 109, 112 Storing gasoline 422 111 Stopping the gas engine 398 105 Setting the valves 259 70 Spark controlled by governor 99 32 Setting the gas engine 107 34 Scavenging engine 165 49 Scavenging, how done with exhaust 166 49 INDEX Paragraph Switch or current breaker 178 to 184 Spark coil 179 Spark coil, its purpose 181, 182 Spark or igniting dynamo 195 Spark or igniting magneto 195 Steam cylinder oil not good for gas engine 209 Starting gas engine 211, 397 Starting cup 213 Starting by hand 212 Starting relief lever or valve 219 Starting by one- half turn of the wheel 220, 221 Starting with air pump 223 Starting with match igniter 224 to 228 Starting with compressed air 229 to 233 Starting with light air pressure . . 234 Starting, causes of difficult 335 to 340 Sparker points, how to time 263, 264 Sparker insulation 291 Short circuit explained 288 Sounds conf ou nded with pounding Spark coil, short circuit in 294, 295 Speed gets lower, engine stops. . . .346 Smoke at end of exhaust pipe 347 Smoke from the cylinder 349, 351 Setting a box 355 Travel of fly-wheel rim 538 Two-cycle engine and how it operates 15, 20 to 23 Two compression chambers in a two-cycle engine 15 Thickness of cylinder wall 33, 34 160 INDEX Paragraph Page Timing the spark 97 31 Throttling governor 104, 106 33, 34 Templet 123 38 Tube ignitor described 167 to 178 50-52 Turning the wheels over compres- sion point 219 62 Turn! Turn! Turn! and no start. 214 to 218 60-62 Timing the valves 259 70 Test engine to see if valves and ignitor are in time 261 71 Timing the igniting points 97, 263 31, 71 Timing the receiving valve 262, 71 Timing the exhaust valve 265 71 Troubles encountered with gas engine 284 77 Testing the electric current 289 79 Testing dynamo current 299 81 Thumping in cylinder* causes of 317 86 Testing leaky valves 346 92 Testing power of engine 388, 396 102, 103 Unnatural sounds detected 319,322 87 Valve ports, location of 28, 29 14 Valves and their location 75, 76 25 Valves, type of. 75 25 Valves, manner of operating 75 to 78 25, 26 Valves, chambers should be bolted on cylinder 78, 79 26 Valve, exhaust should be watered 80 27 Valve, gas and gasoline com- bination 81, 82 27 Valve, gas 83 27 Valve, gasoline 84, 85 28 Valve in water connection 131 40 INDEX Paragraph Valve stem should not be oiled . . 210 Valve areas 251 to 259 Valves, how to time them 259 Vaporizing gasoline in cold weather 335 to 338 Valves, how to grind 370 Why four-cycle engines are preferred 13, 14 Weight of piston 44 to 47 Wrist pin, size of 64 Wiping spark 98 Water connections 130, 407 Water connections, valves in 131, 132 Water connections with cool- ing tank 132 to 135 Water, weight of 541 Water connections with hydrantl36, 137 Water supply 207 Water for cooling purposes 275 to 278 Water temperature 275, 278 Water too cool 277 Weight of gasoline 541 Water in cylinder 339, 340 What method of ignition is best. . 196 Why are engines hard to start 214 Weak explosions 345 162 INDEX Index to Part VI. Paragraph Page Armature brushes 463, 464, 471 125, 127 Battery current ignition 437 114 Battery for starting purposes 440, 441 115, 116 Clean commutator brushes 463, 471 125, 127 Catalytic ignition 437, 438 114, 115 Combination magneto and dy- namo 447 to 450 119, 120 Current strength for jump and touch spark 457 122 Care of ignitors 459 123 Dynamo and magneto ignition. .434 113 Dynamo explained 440 115 Damp insulation 467 126 Electric current strength 435 114 Flame ignition 437 114 Field windings as spark coil 453 121 Generators with speed governors442 117 Hot tube ignition. 437 114 High tension generator 458 123 How to set generator 469 127 Ignitors, dynamo and magneto . . .439 115 Jump spark 455 to 458 121, 122 Keep clean 468 126 Look for little things 460 124 Lost magnetism 465, 466 126 Magneto explained 443 1 18 Methods of ignition .437 114 Magneto dynamo 447, 448 119 Over-oiling a common trouble. . . .461, 462, 470 125, 127 INDEX 163 Paragraph Page Reliable ignition equipment 436 114 Sure ignition important 434 113 Speed of dynamo should be uniform 440 1 15 Selection of ignitor 446 119 Spark coil 454 to 457 121 Time to pick up current 459 123 Troubles with dynamo or magneto 459, 460 123, 124 Uniform speed of igniters .444 118 Variable speed 445 118 Wire connections on magneto dynamo 451,452 120 Wire brushes soaked in oil 471 127 Index to Part VII A heap of troubles 526 to 536 143-145 Ammeter 488 132 Amperes for jump spark 488, 492 132, 134 Battery strength 488, 492 132, 134 Buzz of the vibrator 509, 510 138 Crank case compression 522, 523 142 Cylinder rings lose compression. 516, 518 140, 141 Compression of the mixture 514 140 Carburetors 473 to 477 128, 129 Clogged float needle 473 128 Cold weather affects starting 479 130 Choked inlet passage 482 130 Coil short circuited 496 135 Contact of terminals 499 136 Circuit, primary. . 501, 504 136, 137 164 INDEX Paragraph Page Circuit, secondary 501 136 Circuit breaker 513 139 Coil, jump spark, action, and how made 501 to 512 136-139 Dislodge obstruction in pipe, how 478 129 Dynamo or magneto 487 132 Dry battery reserve 486 131 Dry battery strength 491 133 Electrodes or terminals not in contact 497,498 135 Explosions in crank case 523 142 Float feed 473 128 Fuel tank, empty 473 128 Gasoline blow torch for cold weather starting . . .479, 480 130 Generator and storage battery 487 132 Hammer break spark 48 1, 490' 493 131-134 Hot box 520 141 Igniting current, source of and strength 488 132 Insulation broken 498 135 Ignition ammunition, plenty of it 490 133 Jump spark 484, 491, 494 131-134 Leak in inlet passage 476 129 Loose wire connections , ... .519 141 Lubrication 520 141 Mixture too rich 474 128 Muffler explosions 519 141 Overheated piston 520 141 Packing blown out 476, 518 129, 141 Plan to locate trouble 525 142 Power leak 515 140 INDEX 165 Paragraph Page Premature explosions 521 141 Power troubles in two cycle 522, 524 142 Short circuit 510 138 Starting in cold weather 479, 480 130 Suction valve may stick 482 130 Source of igniting current 485 131 Spark testing 495 134 Spark coil 496 135 Tank empty 473,526 128,143 Trap for water in gasoline pipe. .477 129 Testing current and battery strength 488, 491 132, 133 Testing spark 495 134 Two-cycle troubles 522, 524 142 Valve springs broken . . .526 143 Valves dirty, corroded and improperly timed 516,517 140 Vibrator in coil 503,512 137,139 Vaporizer, flushing the 473 128 Volt meter 488 132 Voltage of current 488,491 132,133 Water in gasoline 477, 526 129, 143 Why battery becomes ex- hausted quickly 499 136 Wire broken within insulation. .500 136 Weak mixture 519, 524 141, 142 Weak battery 519 ' 141 The famous "QuiCK ACTION" Line of MAGNETOS and SPARK COILS Jump Spark Coils, Auto Dash Spark Coils Motor Cyclr. Spark Coils, Make and Break Spark Coils, Gas Lighting Spark Coils, Battery Switches, Battery Connectors, Jump Spark Plugs, High and Low Tension Cable, Carburetors, Mufflers, Timers, Am- meters, Storage Batteries and Dry Cells Our Specialties a re the "QUICK ACTION" lnitin Dynamos and Magnetos and Spark Coils Write for Catalog and Wiring Diagrams : THE : Knoblock-Heideman Mfg. Co. SOUTH BEND, INDIANA Coast Agencies: 579 Howard St., SAN FRANCISCO. CAL. 229 Sherlock Bldg., PORTLAND, OREGON Wizard Magnetos For Station- ary and Marine, Gas or Gasoline Engines The superior and exclusive features in these magnetos are possible through our non-magnetic frame and tubular con- struction, giving greater efficiency than any other magneto on the market. Fully guaranteed. Made for all kinds and sizes of engines, make and break or jump spark belt or friction governor. Write for cat- alogue L. > Hercules Electric Co, Indianapolis, Indiana, U. S. A. The Lambert Engines SEMI-AUTOMATIC and MODEL "K" GAS or GASOLINE PORTABLE and STATIONARY Lambert Engines have always been remarkable for their simplicity, running qualities and ease of handling. While they are one of the oldest and most reliable line of Hydro- Carbon engines on the market, they are always leading in improvement and advancement. The Semi-Automatic Lambert is a new product in a 3 horse power size that is simplicity itself and Hopper cooled. It does all but start itself, runs like a watch and keeps for- ever at it. The price suits the buyer and if you buy without investigating this engine and getting our prices you are the loser. The Model *'K" Engines in larger sizes have all the good features of high-grade machines. The Cage valves, thorough cooling device, simple spark mechanism with neat and accurate construction throughout renders them singular- ly free from trouble and gives to them an unexcelled econ- omy and power out put. Come and see us, get our prices and catalogs, give us your order and get an honest engine. The Lambert Gas and Gasoline Engine Co. Anderson, Indiana, U. S. A. Build Your Own Tractor Here's the Engine! ! DICE--12 H. P. Two cylinder opposed, per- fectly balanced, complete ig nition system, throttling gover" nor, automatic oiler, "Scheb ler" carburetor, water pump Etc. "DICE" model "B" two speeds forward, one reverse speed. No gears to shift, no gears in action on high speed. Steel sprocket with cut teeth, for chain drive to mid- dle sprocket on The Differential Gear and Jack Shaft. "DICE" model"!" Roller bearings, adjustable hangers, steel sprockets with cut teeth. Oil retaining and dust proof differential case. For any width frame, any distance between sproekets. Also Kngiiies for Farm Work and for Por- table Purposes Tell Us What You Want Catalogue Free L, Anderson Motor Go, 1545 Jackson St., Anderson, Indiana IHC Gasoline Engines The I H C line of gasoline engines com- prises engines adapted to all power purposes for use in small water works and electric lighting plants, in shops, in mills, and pumping stations, on farms, irrigated ranches, and country estates. IHC Stationary vertical and horizontal en- gines are constructed to secure the measure of safety prescribed by the rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. Made in sizes from 1 to 50-horse power. IHC Famous engines are especially adapt- ed for mounting with hoists, concrete mixers, and other machines. Sizes 1 to 25-horse power. In addition to vertical and horizontal sta- tionary engines, the line includes portable en- gines, air-cooled engines, and gasoline tractors. International Harvester Company ot America (Incorporated) CHICAGO USA Reliable Engines BOTH AIR and WATER COOLED, GAS or GASOLINE We build one size only in AIR COOLED TYPE. This is the smallest size and it has prov- en entirely successful and especially satisfactory because it not only runs well under a full load but AIR COOLED saves time, water and much "fussing" around in cold weather as well as warm. Our WATER COOLED Engines in the larg- er sizes have every advantage of the very best construction and improvement known' to gas engine science of today. We have quality and prices worth considering and it will pay you to look into our product and get our prices before buying. RELIABLE MACHINE CO. Anderson, Indiana, U. S. A. Gold Medal Winner THE BIG FOUR "3O" Won the Gold Medal in the World's Motor Competition, Winnipeg, in 1910 and 1911. This is the world's highest honor for a farm tractor. Write for The Big Four "3O" Book free. Gas Traction Co. First and Largest Builders in World of Four-Cylinder Farm Tractors. 2702 University Ave., S. E., Minneapolis, Minn. Canadian Office and Factory Winnipeg, Man. Tt TPADE MARK 0*0 TRACTION ENGINE: I, a GUARANTEE of SATISFACTION or NO PAY AUTOMATIC CONTROL The cw(l&f is equipped with an automatic governor that provides posi- tive control every explo- sion is propor- tioned to meet any and all variations in load. Automatic Governor In the 1910 Winnipeg Motor Contest, proved that the control was absolutely auto- matic by running smoother and with less var- iation in R. P. M. than any other engine in the entire Contest. On the brake, ovPte* ran 4% cheaper than any other internal combustion engine in the entire Contest; 59 % cheaper than the average of all gasoline engines. In the plowing contest, ovByf* plowed 9% cheaper than its nearest competitor, and 37 % cheaper than the average of all gasoline engines. The ov&f* burns kerosene at all loads. It was the only engine in the Contest that burned k e r o - sene under all conditions. Write for catalogue. M. RUMELY CO, La Porte, - - Indiana Books on Gas Engines Gas Engine Troubles and Remedies By Albert Stritmatter A practical book for the operator of an engine. Second edition, 120 pages, cloth, illustrated. Price $1.00 Suction Gas By Oswald H. Haenssgen Relates to the design, construction and operation of suc- tion gas producers and producer gas engines. 90 pages, cloth, illustrated, price $1.00 Gasoline Engine Ignition By E. J. Williams* Written especially for the user or prospective purchaser of an engine to give him an understanding of the various systems of electric ignition in use. 94 pages, 37 illustrations and diagrams, cloth, price $1.00 The Gas Engine Calculator Tells at a glance the horsepower of any engine having a bore or stroke of 16 inches or less, and running at a speed of 2,000 r. p. m. or less. No calculations required. 5% inches square, heavy cardboard. Price $0.50 The Automobile Pocketbook By E. W. Roberts Giving full details of automobile construction and opera- tion. 325 pages, limp leather, price $1.50 The Girl and the Motor By Hilda Ward A delightfully instructive experience of a girl with a motor boat and an automobile. 120 pages, gift style . . $1.00 Circulars on Application We are headquarters for technical books of all kinds and for subscriptions to all magazines and newspapers. THE GAS ENGINE PUBLISHING CO. 230 E. Seventh Ave., Cincinnati, O. Established 1898 THE GAS ENGINE MAGAZINE STATIONARY AUTOMOBILE MARINE AERONAUTIC FARM POWER Every engine user should read this magazine FULL information on care, operation, construction, etc., of gas and gaso- line engines, farm gasoline engines, gas tractors, motor boats, gasoline automo- biles and gas producers. Ignition, carbur- eters, compression and like subjects treated from time to time. Plants and new engines described and illustrated. An "Answer to Inquiries" column enables readers to secure expert advice on questions they may ask on any of these subjects * Subscription Price $1.00 per year Specimen copy free The Gas Engine Publishing Co. 230 E. Seventh Ave., Cincinnati, O. A publication to-day that will attract and hold the attention of its readers must necessarily specialize in some particular direction. Gas Pow- er is a semi-technical magazine devoted to the gas engine subject exclusively. Its articles represent not only the ideas of experts but of men who are actual purchasers and users of this type of power, and are written in plain simple language that makes the article readily understood by persons without mechanical training. Gas Power for years has been the leading gas engine paper published and is considered an authority on all combustion subjects. It's ques- tions and answers department has been of uncal- culable value to its readers and has saved them a vast amount of money in aiding them to solve the many little problems in gas engine operation that are so puzzling to the novice. The editorial staff of GAS POWER consists of men selected for their training and fitness for the particular field in the industry they cover and have made a careful study of their respective subjects and are always ready and willing to give information to any reader of the magazine. You need GAS POWER. We will send it one year for $1.00, or five years for $3.00 Gas Power Publishing Co, ST. JOSEPH, MICHIGAN Latest Mechanical Books For Self Help and Home Study Send for Our Catalogue of Books on all Mechanical Subjects Gas Engine Troubles cioth $1.00 By J. B. Rathbone, B, 8., C. E Gas, Gasoline and Oil Engines S2.5O By Gardner D. Hiscox, M. E. 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Pocket size, 250 pages, fully illustrated. A "show how" book for owners and operators of Motor Cycles. Covers the entire subject Gasoline Tractor POWER AND THE PLOW Price $1.50 By L. W. Ellis and Edward A. Rumely 318 pages, well illustrated. The new book on Gasoline Tractors; their management and uses. Plowing with the Gas Traction Engine is covered in detail. A live subject, well and thoroughly handled. Mailed Post Paid on Receipt of Price LONGNECKER PUBLISHING CO., Anderson, Indiana Answers on Automobiles Price S1.5O Just off the Press By Audel & Co. A question and answer book that thoroughly covers the principles of construction, operation, care and management of Motor Cars. These answers put you "next" to the meaning of every rattle, jar or noise, and helps you to know your car from the start. It has 380 especially helpful diagrams and drawings. For the purchaser, driver and repair man. AUTOMOBILE TROUBLES! ' AND HOW TO REMEDY THEK Automobile Trou- bles and how to Remedy Them Price: Cloth Sl.OO Leather 81. 5O By Chas. P. Root, Former Editor Motor Age This book is pocket size 5x7 inches. 225 pages, liberally illustrated. It not only tells you how to locate troubles and make repairs, but shows you how. It is the right "stuff" on the road and in the Garage. The Automobile Mechanicians Catechism Price* Leather $1.25 > By Calvin F. Swingle, M, E. This book of questions and answers is so arranged that the subject under consideration may be quickly located, and the whole matter and cause of trouble with remedy is plainly revealed. The book for all autoists. Mailed 1'osl Paid on Receipt of Price LONGNECKER PUBLISHING CO. Anderson, Indiana FMNGMMIINB (ONSTRUaiQHfeOPERK JA(KMAM-RUSSELl-CHRNUTE '-'/-L-v' *%'/ Monoplanes and Biplanes Price S2.5O Their Design, Construction and Operation By G.C. Hoenig, B. Sc., A.M. 340 pages, 278 illustrations, 6x8 K inches. 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