i?- -t- . . '' I PAM. Af.T.CA ' ' r \^ o .^ j \ (Ct : OUTLINE MIS SION ALT SEBIES. A __ - EEV. JAMES SIBBEE, E .B.G.S.. Of the London Missionary Society, JOHN SNOW AND CO., 2, Ivy Lane, Paternoster Eow, London. SIXPENCE. -Win-*- ■ .'. 'A A . NOTICE. T his Pamphlet forms one of a Series of Sixpenny Manuals now being published on the various Mission Fields of the World, for^use among all Denominations of Christians. The Manuals are prepared by Authors thoroughly con¬ versant with their respective subjects. They are entirely unsectarian, embracing the Missions of aU Denomina¬ tions ; are concise, but popular in style; and contain information brought down to the latest time. Illustrative Missionary Maps are occasionally given. The aim of the Series is the more general dissemination of Missionary knowledge. It is hox^ed that it will prove especially helpful in furnishing information for the Monthly Missionary Meeting, Missionary Addi-esses, &c. It will be easy to frame questions for the Sunday-school and Bible Class the answers to which shall be found in these Manuals; and in many other ways they may be used as Hand-books by Missionary Workers. The following are now ready :— CHINA (with Map). By Eev. J. T. Geacey, M.A., Member of the American Oriental Society ; Missionary Editor of the “ Northern Christian Advocate,” &c. INDIAN ZENANA MISSIONS. By Mrs. Ehma Eayuond Pitiian, Author of “ Heroines of the Mission Field,” &3. MADAGASCAR (with Map). By Eev. J. Sibeee, of the Loudon Missionary Society ; Author of “ Madagascar and its People,” ” The Great African Island,” &c. TO BE FOLLOWED BY OTHERS AT SHORT INTERVALS. JOHN SNOW & CO., 2, Ivy Lane, Paternostee Eow. lADAGASCAE. BY EEV. JAMES SIBEEE, Jun., F.E.G.S., OF THE LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, AUTHOR OF “MADAGASCAR AND ITS PEOPLE,” “ THE GREAT AFRICAN ISLAND," etc. CONTENTS -M- Statistics of Mission Work in Madagascar Missionary Map of Madagascar . I.—The Countey. page Discovery . 5 Colonization. 5 Size and Position. 6 Physical Geography. 6 Rivers and Ports. 8 Climate . 8 IVIinerals. 8 Flora . 9 Fauna. 9 n.—T he People. Origin and Relationships .... 11 Divisions . 12 Civilization . 18 Language . 14 Moral Qualities. 14 Religious Beliefs and Practices 15 Knowledge of one Supreme God 16 Population. 17 III.—The Planting op the Gospel. Three Periods in Mission Work 18 Early Plans and Attempts.... 18 Founding of the Protestant Mission . 19 Work of the First Missionaries 20 Favour of King RadiVma I.... 21 Accession of Rdnavidona I... 21 Success of Mission Work .... 22 Commencement of Repressive Measures . 23 Christian Teaching and Y7or- ship Forbidden. 24 Departui'e of the Missionaries 24 IV. — The Persecution of the Gospel. First Persecution. 25 Special Periods of Trial. 26 First Malagasy Martyr . 26 Great Persecution of 1849 .... 27 Visits of Rev. W. Ellis . 27 Persecution of 1857 . 29 Causes of the Persecution .... 30 Results of the Persecution.... 81 | Page 3 „ 4 PAGE Political State of the Country during this Period . 32 V.—The Progress and Extension of THE Gospel. Re-estahUshment of the Mis¬ sion . 33 Reign of Radfima II. 33 Accession of Queen Riisohdrina 34 Steady Advance of Christianity 34 Accession of Queen Rtoavi- lona II. 35 Public Recognition of Chris¬ tianity . 36 Burning of the Idols in Imdrin a 36 Great Extension of Christianity 86 Political and Social Progress 37 Advances in Civilization and Commerce. 39 Improvement in Morals. 40 Abolition of Cruel Customs and Laws . 40 Amelioration of War . 41 Education . 41 Literature . 42 Bible Circulation. 42 Increase of !Mission Stations and Districts. 43 Church Organization . 43 Church Buildings and Worship 44 Christian Life . 45 A Common Misconception.... 46 VI.—Labours of Religious Bodies OTHER THAN THE LONDON MIS¬ SIONARY Society. Friends’ Foreign Mission Asso¬ ciation . 47 Church Missionary Society .. 47 Norwegian Missionary Society 47 Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. 48 Roman Catholic Missions .... 48 STATISTICS OF MISSION WORK IN MADAGASCAR LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY, IKCLUDING ALSO THOSE OF THE FEIENDS’ FOREIGN MISSION ASSOCIATION.* •OOO'Ol^r inoq« 01 Soijnp sosodmd n® joj suot^ -nquinoo -ooi IRoqo ‘oigt eouTS ?rmq siadBqg jo loqnini^ ^ d •sasodmd JOJ SUOT'^ -nqu'^uo;^ £ 212 3,697 2,954 3,146 !■ EAnaviUo ibove totals £ 1 276 Schools. •SUOT!Jliq “TJ'JUOQ 1835, Idren £ 397 817 ith ot (, a. in the ( 1 ^ 1 73 •pTjai 0 ^ 9iqy 1820 and .2,000 chi] ire taught 12,000 25,536 1 after dea n Im^rin included 1 2,114 ' •8.ii?IoqDg Between about 1 we 811 15,837 36,534 43,904 § Month he Idols i fhich are 1 4,645 ISSIONARY SOCIETY. 6,000 1 to 7,000 •s[ooqos CO COOSiNOl Zl'ls rH f-liOifiCO CO to 00 ® .2 •pa^^XnojTQ S3[002 - 1,500,000 Persecution, g the burning lowing statist 1 •pa^TJinnjTQ 9jn:^(Juog JO SUOpJO^J puis saiqig CM ^;g ^ s .ss - ^ 1 “ •pt;9J oj aiqii s^[npv 9,492 16,948 26,217 1 , W. Ellis IT Yet ay be seei 1 1,663 •S^lI9J9Xn?V 9AI^'U]^ 500? 3,000? 5,000? 7,000 13,000 231,759 215,789 244,197 asit of Eev. u. ISSION m 1 18,737 o ^ o <5 CM HH o •s.iaqni9iAj ipanqo 200 500 740 5,250 20,951 58,955 71,585 t nt Missio NDS’ M 1 3,358 t ° fH 05 05 ^ a A ^ r-tOOiHO roSm ^ t-H (M CO O S S 2 •guoi^ -'BSa.xSuoQ 4 3 25? 92 621 902 1142 ssionar, tablishi fork do: 1 118 C^ - rH *suoT^u;s cn CM CO'^XcMOCO 1 -H c:*! (M ^ 0) ^ ^ Ph -- t- t-M a •gau'BuoissTpi qsqi^ua .2 •S9A|AV (Sai-iunoissiH a~ ° ^)ou :)nq ‘sauuuois ;g § -bijct siuuiaj Suipniouj o S O o i>. tr-o CO 00 lo CO cr; t> *3 ^ rH r-l CO CM ^ £ +- ^ »-tarHS t Pm 9 ^ a o A EH o A H j-»3K^tris4 tx» ^ o Pm ^ 0) ‘rJ ‘rJ X P »-» a s 9^ SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE GOSPEL. MADAGIASCAE. I.—THE COUNTRY. M adagascar, although the third largest island in the world, and situated not very far from the African continent, was not seenby Europeans until a comparatively modern period. But it had been already known to Arab merchants and sailors for probably at least a thousand years, as well as to traders from parts of India ; and settlements of these foreigners were formed in very ancient times, both on the north-west and south-east coasts of the island. The celebrated Venetian traveller of the thirteenth century, Marco Polo, was the first European writer who gives any account of the country, which he termed Mcujaster or Madeigascar. But he had no personal acquaintance with it, and much of his information is incorrect, being evidently confused with accounts of Zanzibar and portions of the east African coast. Discovery.— The first European who actually saw the great island was a Portuguese named Fernando Soares, a captain in command of eight ships detached from the fleet of Don Francisco d’Almeida, Viceroy of the Indies, and sent home by that admiral with spices from the east. This Avas on February 1, 1506 ; and within twelve months from that date the greater portion of the coast line, both east and west, Avas mapped by some of the most celebrated Portuguese navigators, including Da Cunha and Albu¬ querque. Colonization.— The Portuguese made little attempt to colonize the large island they had discovered, although they gave names to its principal capes and to several of the rivers. The Dutch paid some attention to Madagascar 6 MABAGASCAR. to'vrards the close of the sixteenth century, but their settlements were so much weakened by fever that they were soon abandoned. After them, the French made per¬ sistent efforts for nearly two centuries to maintain colonies, or rather military posts, chiefly on the eastern coast of Madagascar; but without much success, owing partly to the unhealthiness of the country, but more to the oppressive way in which they treated the native inhabitants. English colonies in Madagascar were planned in the middle of the seventeenth century, but never actually carried into effect, although several books were written at that time on the subject, urging their utility. Size and Position.—Madagascar is situated almost entirely in the tropics, between the parallels of 12° and 25° 30' S. lat. It has a length of nearly 1,000 miles from N.N.E. to S.S.W., and an average breadth of over 250 miles, the northern end forming an irregular triangle, with an area of about 230,000 square miles, nearly four times that of England and Wales. At the narrowest opening of the. Mozambique Channel it is divided by 260 miles of sea from Africa, while the islands of Eeunion and Mauritius, 450 and 550 miles distant, are the nearest lands to the east. Physical Geography.—The island consists, broadly speak¬ ing, of two principal divisions : viz., (1) an elevated moun¬ tainous region, raised from 3,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea; and (2) a comparatively level country surrounding the high land, not much exceeding 400 to 500 feet in altitude, and most extensive on the western and southern sides of the island. The first of these divisions consists chiefly of Primary and crystalline rocks, covered largely with bright red clay, through which the gneiss and basalt protrude and form the highest points of the island. This elevated interior region is broken up in all directions by lines of hills, and consists largely of rolling moor-like country, generally bare of wood, but with numerous fertile valleys where rice, the chief food of the people, is cultivated. It comprises in extent about a third of the island, and is evidently very ancient land, as no stratified rocks have yet been dis¬ covered within its limits. From this upper region of the country rise the highest mountains of Madagascar, those MADAGASCAR. 7 called Ankaratra, nearly 9,000 feet high, about 35 miles south-west of Antananarivo, the capital. These high lands are of course the coolest and most healthy-portions of the island ; and within their limits the greater portion of the mission work already accomplished among the Malagasy has been carried on. The lower region of Madagascar largely consists of level country at no great height above the sea, but broken up in the west by three or four lines of lofty mountains running north and south. These plains are fertile and well wooded, but they are hotter and less healthy than the high interior. They appear, as far as yet examined, to consist of Second¬ ary rocks, with fossils of the Neocomian age (between the Chalk and the Oolite), as well as some later deposits. These plains were evidently under water during portions of the Secondary geological period, leaving the high interior land as an island of about a third the area of what is now Madagascar; but there are also indications that during the Tertiary epoch the island was of greater extent than it is at present. A remarkable feature in the physical geography of Madagascar is .the existence of a belt of dense forest which surrounds the island, generally following the coast line. This girdle of woods is continuous, except on the north¬ west, where the two lines overlap about 100 miles, leaving an open space between them of 70 miles wide. On the east side this forest belt divides into two for about 300 miles. North of the point where the two lines unite is the broadest part of the forest, about 40 miles across; but in other parts it varies from ten to five-and-twenty miles in breadth. Another point worthy of notice in the physical geography is the evidence of extensive volcanic disturbance. From the south-east to the north-west and north of the island an almost continuous line of extinct volcanic craters has been traced, together with beds of lava, scoria, and ash. These form the chief portion of a belt of subterranean energy which has its northeim extremity in Great Comoro, to the north-west, where there is a still active volcano, which is connected by extinct vents in the intermediate Comoro Islands with the mainland of Madagascar. Very marked and wonderful effects are produced on the contoim 8 MADAGASCAR. of the country in many places by these plutonic forces, and the loftiest mountains are extinct volcanoes. Rivers and Ports.—The water-shed of Madagascar is much nearer the eastern than the western side of the island, so that few of the rivers of the east coast are of great size. They mostly make their way from the high interior country to the sea by a succession of rapids and cataracts, and sometimes by stupendous falls; and much of the scenery along these rivers, as they cut their channels through the dense woods, is very fine. The chief rivers flow west and north-west, the longest being the Betsiboka, which, with its confluent the Ikidpa, is the great drain of the central province of Imerina. Most of the eastern rivers have a bar of sand at their mouths, so that hardly any of them are available for European vessels. Except the deep inlet of Antongil Bay, there are few good harbours on the east side of Madagascar; hut there many fine land¬ locked bays along the north-west coast, ending with the magnificent harbour of Diego Suarez at the extreme north. Fringing coral-reefs surround a considerable portion of the island, and in several places the growth of coral is remark¬ ably rapid. The Climate of Madagascar is much more equable than that of continental countries in the same latitude. From its height above the sea and its insular position, a large portion of the country has only a modei’ate heat in summer ; while extreme cold is never felt, snow being unknown, and ice very rarely seen. Some portions of the western side of the island, sheltered from the trade wind, do however experience a high temperature during the hot months. The seasons are really two : the warm and rainy one from November to April, and the dry and cold season during the rest of the year. Very heavy thunder-storms are frequent throughout the rains, together with hail, which is often very destructive in its effects, and is sometimes ac¬ companied by waterspouts. The coast is occasionally exposed to cyclones, but these very rarely ascend to the high interior region. On the whole, the climate of the interior may be considered as tolerably healthy for Euro¬ peans. Minerals.—As regards natural productions, Madagascar is certainly rich in some of the metals. Iron is abundant, MADAGASCAR. 9 being found sometimes almost in a pure state. Copper and silver have been discovered, and probably gold exists in parts of the granitic high lands, but these metals are not worked. Iron pyrites, oxide of manganese, antimony, plumbago, rock-salt, and nitre, are among the productions of the country, and in the north-west, beds of a late coal or lignite have been discovered. A fine, hard, greyish-white stone suitable for building is plentiful in the central provinces. Flora.—Madagascar presents a wide field for research in its vegetable productions. In its great girdle of forests, about 2,300 miles long and many miles across, as well as in the wooded portions of its maritime plains, and the less abundant vegetation of its elevated interior districts, is an immense variety of trees and plants of the tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate zones. Numbers of the trees are of the hard-wooded kinds, supplying valuable timber allied to teak, ebony, mahogany, and rosewood; and with these are interspersed numerous species of palm, bamboo, pandanus, and tree-fern, many of them peculiar to the country. Ferns are found in great variety, and many orchids; and although flowers growing on the ground do not exist in great numbers, there are many flowering trees of great magnificence. Many valuable gums are j)rocured, india-rubber and gum-copal being important articles of export. The most characteristic tree of Madagascar is the “ Traveller’s tree,” with tall woody trunk, and a magni¬ ficent crown of leaves arranged in one plane in a fan-like shape. From this tree a quantity of good water can always be obtained by piercing the base of the leaf-stalks. Another remarkable plant is the lace- or lattice-leaf, a water plant having an edible root, but distinguished by its leaf resembling a skeleton leaf, being without any filling up of the veining during all the stages of its growth. Con¬ siderable quantities of some tropical products are now exported fi.*om Madagascar, but ten times the present amount could be produced ; and rice, coffee, sugar, cotton, hemp, tobacco, indigo, and spices could be grown in practi¬ cally unlimited quantities, and numbers of valuable woods, dyes, drugs, and gums be obtained from the forests. The Fauna of Madagascar is not less interesting than its flora, indeed in some respects it is a very remarkable 10 MAD AG AS GAB. one. This is not because of the number or variety or beauty of the living creatures found there, for the island is remarkably deficient in some of the most prominent groups of animals which are usually seen in the tropics. There are, for instance, no lions, leopards, tigers, hyjenas, or bears ; no elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, or hippopotamus (although the last is found in a sub-fossil state); no giraffe, antelope, deer, horse, or zebra; and no monkey, ape, or baboon. But the quadrupeds, birds, and other creatures are peculiar from their highly specialised forms, and the connection of some of them with those of countries at a great distance from Madagascar. The fauna of the country has many relations with that of South-east Asia as well as that of Africa, and it has affinities with West Indian, South American, and even Pacific forms. The most character¬ istic animals of Madagascar are the Lemurs, of which there are thirty-four species, ranging in size from that of a large monkey to a squirrel. The most curious of the lemurs is the Aye-aye, which is strangely modified from the ordinary type, and whose food consists of wood-boring larvae, to obtain which its whole organisation is adapted in an extraordinary way. It is the sole representative of its family, and is peculiar to Madagascar. There are also animals allied to the Civets [Viverridce), which are small, but of remarkable ferocity, and found only in the island ; and also peculiar genera of small insect-eating creatures (Crateffdo?) allied to the Hedgehogs. There are immense herds of fine humped cattle, but it is believed that these have been brought at a somewhat remote period from the neighbouring continent, as well as the fat-tailed sheep and goats. Among the birds, although these are numerous, there are none of the largest size or most brilliant colouring, but they are remarkable for the number of peculiar genera and species found amongst them. There was, however, a bird living in Madagascar until a comparatively recent period, which, if not the largest of all birds, cer¬ tainly laid the largest of all known eggs. This was the JEpyornis maximiis, a huge bird allied to the ostriches, but more nearly related to the Dinornis of New Zealand. The eggs are more than a foot long (12jin. by Q^in.) and have the capacity of six or seven ostrich eggs. This bird has MADAGASCAR. 11 also a literary interest, from the probability that its im¬ mense eggs gave rise to the mediasval stories of a gigantic bird termed the roc, or rukh, and referred to in the A rabian Niifhts, and in the accounts of early travellers. Gigantic tortoises, now only existing in a sub-fossil state, formerly lived in Madagascar, and are still found in the little unin¬ habited island of Aldebra, north of the main land. Croco¬ diles abound in all the rivers and lakes, but besides these there are few noxious creatures, most of the serpents being harmless. The insects are numerous, many of the butter¬ flies, moths, beetles, spiders, and locusts being of brilliant colours and remarkable forms. Madagascar is still imper¬ fectly explored, so that there is yet a wide field for research in all that relates to the scientific aspects of the country.'" II.—THE PEOPLE. Origin and Relationships.—Although Madagascar is comparatively near the African continent, and is about 3,000 miles distant from South-eastern Asia, the majority of the inhabitants are not of African origin, but have come at some remote period from the Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago'. Difficult of belief as this statement may at first sight appear, it is confirmed in so many ways that it is impossible to avoid this conclusion ; the physical appearance of the people, their mental traits, their cus¬ toms and traditions, and, above all, their language, all combine to make it certain that they are a branch of that brown race of people which has spread from South-eastern Asia over the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. In addition to this Malayo-Polynesian primary stock in Madagascar, there is also an admixture of African blood, esj^ecially in the peoples of the western side of the island ; and besides these, there is an Arab element both on the north-west and south-east coasts. Eight hundred or a thousand years ago the Arabs exercised considerable in¬ fluence upon the civilization of Madagascar, and have left ineffaceable traces of this in the numerous and important * For fuller information on all points treated of in this and following chapters, the reader may he referred to the author’s larger work The Great African Island (Triibner, 1880), chaps, i.—iv. 12 MADAGASCAH. words they added to the language. There are also, In addition to these chief elements in the population, traces of an aboriginal people or peoples, of a lower stature and lighter colour than either the African or Malayan races, one of them apparently a tree-dwelling tribe; but about all these our information is at present very scanty and uncertain. Divisions. —Until the early part of the last century the Malagasy people were divided into a number of indepen¬ dent tribes, each under its own chief, and often separated by a considerable tract of uninhabited country from its neighbours. But about 180 years ago a small but warlike tribe in the south-west of the island, called Sakalava, subdued all the other people of the western provinces up to the extreme north, and also some of the interior tribes, and founded two powerful kingdoms which retained their supremacy until the close of the century. But since that period the Sakalkva have lost their influence, and another tribe, the Hovas, occupying the province of Imerina in the centre of the island, has become the dominant race in Madagascar. Two energetic chieftains, Impoina and his ‘ son Kadama, aided by an alliance with the English, and by European arms and disciplined troops, established their supremacy over most of the interior provinces, all the eastern tribes, and partially over the western coast; so that the chiefs of Imerina became virtually kings of Madagascar. The Hova authority is still slight over large portions of the western side of the island, and the south¬ western peoples are practically independent; but it will be a benefit to the country when these turbulent tribes are brought under the central authority, and one strong government is established over the whole of Madagascar. The Hovas are probably the latest immigrants into the country, and are most likely of the purest Malay stock. They are the lightest in colour, and are the most advanced, civilized, and intelligent race in Madagascar, and among them the largest amount of missionary labour has been expended; and with them, accordingly, Christianity and education has made the greatest progress. The various tribes of Madagascar may be roughly grouped into three great divisions: eastern, central, and western. Of these, the B^tsimisaraka, Bezanozano, MADAGASCAR. 13 Taimoro, Tanala, Taifasy, and Taisaka, are the chief on the eastern side; then, still from north to south, the Tankarana, Sihanaka, Mainty, Hovas, Betsileo, and Bara, in the centre ; while all along the west coast are numerous tribes, all loosely called Sakalava, although this is pro¬ perly the name of one tribe only, as each has its own name and distinct nationality. Civilization.—Although considerable differences exist between the various Malagasy tribes, of none can it pro¬ perly be said that they are a savage or even a barbarous people. They have always possessed a certain degree of civilization; they live in towns and villages which are often fortified with immense labour and ingenuity; they are skilful in metal work and other handicrafts; and most of the eastern and central tribes have considerable ability in the spinning and weaving of silk, and of cotton, hemp, rofia palm, and other vegetable fibres, and in the manu¬ facture of straw-plaited articles in great variety, and often of much strength, beauty, and delicacy. Their non-em¬ ployment of skins for clothing, and the use made, not only of vegetable fibres, but of bark cloth, is one of many links of connection between them and the Polynesian races. The houses of the chiefs and wealthy people among the Hovas and some other tribes are constructed of timber of large dimensions. But they lavish much more money and pains upon their tombs, which, among the Hovas, consist of a vault of immense slabs of undressed rock. The Betsileo also expend great labour upon their tombs, which are sunk at a great depth below the surface of the ground. The principal employment of the people in the central and eastern provinces is the cultivation of rice, the staple food of the majority of the population. Large herds of cattle are also reared on the rich pasture lands of the western plains, as well as in Antsihanaka, and on the eastern coast. The Sakalava races are more migratory in their habits than the other tribes, frequently breaking up their villages (always when a death occurs) and mov¬ ing to fresh pastures; and subsisting more upon roots and vegetables than upon rice. Although the Malagasy had no written character, and were consequently not a cultured people, they are by no means deficient in mental power 14 MADAGASCAR. or ability. The children of every tribe are bright and intelligent, and learn quickly; education is making rapid advances in the central provinces; hundreds of natives are now employed in teaching, and many in assisting to write books; and some have taken degrees in medicine in English universities. The Language spoken in Madagascar, although coiiq^rising many dialectic differences, is substantially one all over the island, and there are no traces of any speech of a distinctly different stock from that spoken by the mass of the people. It has close affinities, both as regards vocabulary and structure, with several of the languages of the Malay Archipelago, as well as with those of Polynesia. Malagasy is a soft and beautiful language, full of vowels and liquids, and free from all harsh guttural sounds. While the Malagasy people have no ancient literature or inscriptions of any kind, they have a considerable amount of what has been termed “ unwritten literature ” existing in their language and daily speech. This consists of numerous proverbs, oratorical flourishes—emblems, allegories, and figures, songs, and a large body of folk-tales, most of them only recently taken down in writing. These products of the mind of the Malagasy give abundant evidence of their intellectual acuteness, habits of observation, and imagi¬ native power. Almost all the people are ready and fluent speakers, and many of them have considerable oratorical abilities. With regard to the Moral Qualities of the Malagasy, it must be confessed that less can be said of a favourable character on this head than can be truthfully stated as to their social and intellectual position. They are certainly (apart from the influence of the Gospel) very immoral and untruthful, disregardful of human life and suffering, and cruel in war. Drunkenness is very prevalent in most j^arts of the island, except in Imeriua (where it is restrained by law), and of few of the tribes can it be said that they are industrious. But they are very courageous, and capable of much strenuous exertion for a short period; they are affectionate and firm in their friendships, kind to their children and to their aged and sick relatives, very re¬ spectful to old age, law-obeying and loyal, very courteous and polite, and most hospitable to all strangers. MABAGASCAB. 15 In their Religious Beliefs and Practices the people of Madagascar may be said to occupy an intermediate position among heathen nations. On the one hand, they have never had an organised idolatrous system and worship, such as is found among almost all Eastern peoples, and in such power and fulness in India ; and, on the other hand, they have never sunk to the low condition of many bar¬ barous tribes, where the idea of a beneficent Creator or unseen Power seems almost, if not quite, to have died out of the mind of these degraded races. In passing through the country there are very few outward signs of idolatry to be seen, for there are no temples, or idols set up for worship, nor is there a priesthood, properly so called, or a caste system, or pilgrimages, penances, and shrines. Malagasy idolatry is rather a charm-worship or fetishism ; a belief in the virtues of various worthless objects, such as pieces of certain trees and plants, stones, red cloth, gourds, a crocodile’s tooth, a wild-boar’s tusk, the tip of a bullock’s horn, etc., to protect from particular evils and to procure special benefits. Among these are protection from disease, poison, wounds, delirium, sudden illness, hail, lightning, an enemy’s bullet, crocodiles, canoe upsetting, etc., and the obtaining of wealth, children, cattle and slaves when at war, and the gratification of sensual desires. IMany of these charms or ody are worn upon the person, fastened to the arms and chest; but others are stones or rocks of considerable size on prominent positions, or on the banks or beds of streams ; and others are carved posts placed at the entrance of the villages. Within a comparatively modern period some of these charms obtained in Imerina special fame from their re¬ puted powers, and became to a great extent national gods, being looked upon as the jprotectors of the kingdom and the sovereign. Their respective guardians, tribes or families who had been for a long time keepers of each idol, had special privileges and honours resembling some of those proper to royal rank. These chief idols were four in number, and named respectively Kelimalaza (“ Little [but] famous”), Eamahavaly (“One able to answer,” or, “to revenge ”), Fantkka (meanmg obscure), and Manj^katsiroa (“ Not two reigning ”), the last-named being the special protector of the person and family of the sovereign, There 16 MABAGASCATt. were also numerous others of more local fame, as well as charms belonging to villages, tribes, families, and individuals. Priesthood was formerly among the Hovas, and is still among the heathen tribes, a matter not of caste privilege, but rather belonging to the head of each household, who offers prayers and burns a fragrant gum before, or rather under, the family ody or charm. Among the Hovas this priestly office appears latterly to have become more and more attached to the chieftainship of the tribe,* so that in the early part of the present century the Hova kings offered a kind of sacrifice at the tombs of their predecessors. Ancestor-worship is a marked feature in the religion of the Malagasy. Their deceased relatives are believed to liave become divine in a certain sense; their protection is invoked, and to them prayers and sacrifices are offered. In addition to the worship of ancestors and idols there is also a strong belief in divination and witchcraft, in the evil or good influence of various times and seasons, in the power of the evil eye, and in a number of curious ordeals for the detection of certain crimes, the chief of them, and formerly very destructive to life, being the tangena poison ordeal. The practice of this last was, happily, made illegal by an article in the Anglo-Malagasy treaty (1865). Knowledge of One Supreme God.—But underlying this charm-worship and the various superstitious practices just mentioned, there is also a universal belief in a Supreme Being, for the people of Madagascar have never lost some notion of a beneficent and almighty Creator. This God is known by the name of Andriamiinitra, i.e., “ Fra¬ grant Prince,” or perhaps, “ The Fragrant One,” possibly derived from the use of incense in worship ; but a name involving a much higher idea, and one which is more widely employed all over the island, is Andriananahary or Zanaliary, “ The Creating Prince,” or “ The Creator.” This Supreme Being is invoked in all public proceedings, together with the spirits of the ancestors of kings and chiefs and families. But in addition to these names for God, there is also a considerable amount of knowledge as to His character and attributes, which is retained in the * This seems to have been the case also amongst the Sakalava, and probably with other tribes as well. MADAGASGAH. 17 more formal speech of the people by means of a number of proverbs and adages, handed down by tradition probably from a very remote period. These proverbial sayings in¬ volve the ideas of God as being Protector of the helpless, Avenger of evil, Kewarder of the good, the long-suffering One who must be waited for in faith, the God answering prayer, the Omniscient, and the Judge of mankind. So that in preaching to some portions of the Malagasy people we do not proclaim to them an utterly “unknown God,” but One with whose character they are, to a slight extent, already acquainted; while these ancient sayings can be appealed to as confirmatory of the truth of Eevelatiou. It must however be said that one of the words for God (Andriamanitra) was degraded by being applied to other objects than the One Supreme. The living sovereigns, as well as the deceased ones, were termed Andriamanitra ; and so were the idols, and even articles of human origin about whose production there was anything at all myste¬ rious or obscure. No doubt this was a loose way of em¬ ploying the word, somewhat analogous to our use of the adjective “ divine,” but it was not the less lowering to the idea of God. It -should be noted that the other word, Andrianaiiahary, is not employed in this lower sense. It must be also added that this knowledge of God appears to have had little effect upon the character and lives of the Malagasy. It did not prevent them from being grossly immoral, as already mentioned ; and their moral condition seems to have deteriorated as time went on, for the idolatry of Imerina, at least, was a matter of comparatively modern origin and development; and the purer faith and morality of earlier ages, to which their proverbs bear witness, would appear to have been gradually overlaid by charm-worship, and darkened by the various supei’stitious practices which grew up in later times. Population.—Such were the people amongst whom the first missionaries began their work some sixty years ago ; and such, in great measure, the heathen inhabitants of Madagascar still are. They are not numerous compared with the size of the country; some four to four and a half millions of people probably comprise the whole population of the island. Of these, only one tribe, the Hovas, numbering perhaps about one million, were touched by early missionary 2 18 MADAGASCAR. effort; and of this number only some of those living in the capital city of Antananarivo and its immediate neighbour¬ hood came under the direct influence of Christian teaching. The population of the capital is probably about 100,000, but this city is by far the largest town in the island. The next largest place is Mojanga (14,000), a seaport on the north-west coast; then comes Tamatave (east coast), and Fianarantsba, the capital of Betsileo, each with about 5,000 or 6,000. There are few other places with more than 4,000 or 5,000 inhabitants, while the great majority of the villages throughout the country are small, although in some districts in Imerina, Betsileo, and the south-east coast, they are very numerous, a large population being found in a small extent of country. III.—THE PLANTING OF THE GOSPEL. (1818—1836.) Three Periods in Mission Work.—The history of Chris¬ tianity in Madagascar may be conveniently divided into three periods : Its Planting, from 1818 to 1836 ; its Perse¬ cution, from 1836 to 1861; and its Progress and recent wonderful extension, from 1862 to the present time, 1880. It will be seen therefore, that these periods occupy respec¬ tively, eighteen, twenty-five, and eighteen years ; and if these figures are borne in mind, together with the three words (each beginning with the same letter) which may fitly describe the main characteristic of each period, a tolerably correct bird’s-eye view will be obtained of the work of Christian missions in the island up to the present time. Early Plans and Attempts.—In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries various attempts were made by Koman Catholic missionaries to instruct some of the Malagasy tribes in their form of Christianity, but without any bene¬ ficial or permanent result. And in one at least of the books written in England in 1643, urging the benefits to English trade of a “Plantation” in Madagascar, the si^iritual needs of the people were dwelt upon with much earnestness, in the following words: “ This virgin island of Madagascar doth here, by me, friendly and lovingly MADAGASCAR. 19 invite our Nation to take some compassion of her nakede- nesse, her poverty, and her simplicity, both corporall and spirituall, and doth earnestly and affectionately even beg of us to redeeme her out of her miserable thraldome under the tyranny of Satan, to be united with us into the fellow¬ ship of the sons of God, by our union with Christ Jesus.” But it was not until the close of the last century that the attention of Protestant Christians was practically drawn to the great island as a field for missionary effort. At one of the earliest meetings of the London Missionary Society, held in 1796, the Directors had their thoughts directed to Madagascar, as presenting a favourable opening for the introduction of the gospel; and when Dr. Vanderkemp left England for South Africa in 1798, he was directed to use every effort to commence a mission in the island. At the close of 1811 he was arranging to proceed with two others to Madagascar at an early date, but this intention he was prevented from carrying out by his death vAthin a few’ days after he had written to announce his plans; and so for some time the matter remained in abeyance. Subsequently, in 1814, the Directors of the Society directed the Kev. J. Le Brun to proceed to Mauritius in order to prepare the way to Madagascar. But Mr. Le Brun, feeling the great need there was for evangelistic effort among the coloured popu¬ lation of Mauritius, decided to stay there, so that again the establishment of the Madagascar mission was delayed. Founding of the Protestant Mission.-—But in 1818 two young Welsh missionaries, the Eevs. Thos. Bevan and David Jones, left England for Madagascar, and landed at Tamatave on the eastern coast, in the August of that year. After staying about seven weeks, and being much encou¬ raged by the willingness of the people to send their children to school, and the quickness wAth which their scholars learned, they returned to Mauritius to fetch their wives and infant children, and came back to Madagascar towards the close of the year. It was, however, dangerously late in the season for new comers to arrive, as the hot and rainy months were then commencing; and their labours were soon cut short by disease and death. All were at¬ tacked by malarial fever; five out of the six composing that little mission party soon died, the sole survivor, Mr. Jones, only narrowly escaped with life, and was so much weak- 20 MADAGASCAn. euecl that lie was obliged to retire for a few months, and seek change of scene at IVtauritius. But in 1820 Mr. Jones returned to Madagascar, accom¬ panied by Mr. James Hastie, the newly-appointed British Agent at the court of King Eadiima, and proceeded with him to the more healthy elevated interior, to the capital city, Antananarivo. With the distinctly expressed favour of the king, Mr. Jones commenced his work in the capital, and in the following year he was joined by the Kev. D. Griffiths, and subsequently by the Kevs. D. Johns, John Jeffreys, J. J. Breeman, and Theo. Atkinson, together with several excellent Christian artisans, who were sent to in¬ struct the people in some of the arts of civilised life —carpentry, building, blacksmith’s work, tanning, and weaving, as well as in priuting. Work of the First Missionaries.—With little difficulty in their way from any outward opposition, these “ fathers and founders ” of the mission in Madagascar proceeded steadily with their labours for several years. And a truly great work it was which was accomplished in a compara¬ tively short period by these few men, for of the six ordained missionaries above mentioned, two, Mr. Jeffreys and Mr. Atkinson, were only allowed to stay a short time, so that the hulk of the work fell upon the other four. They re¬ duced the language for the first time to a systematic written form, and settled its orthography ; * and compiled dictionaries which are still the standard works for reference. They founded a school system, by which many thousands of the young people of the capital and its neighbourhood received an excellent education. They prepared a con¬ siderable literature, scholastic aiid religious, to satisfy the newly-awakened taste for reading in their scholars. They translated and printed at their press not only several editions of the Gospels, the New Testament, and portions of the Old Testament, hut were able before their final de¬ parture in 18i3() to complete an edition of the whole Bible in the native language. The missionary artisans, who heartily co-operated Avith their brethren in doing good to the people in teaching and occasional preaching, also did * This work was clone almost entirely by Mr. Jones and Mr. Griffiths, who also were the chief translators of the Scriptures. Mr. Johns and Mr. Freeman prepared the Dictionary. MADAGASCAR. 21 miicli for the material advancement of the country, and the names of Messrs. Cameron, Chick, Canham, and Baker will he long remembered with gratitude by the Malagasy. Favour of King Radama.—Besides these various labours—literary, scholastic, biblical, and civilizing—it need hardly he said that continual efforts were made by public preaching, bible-class instruction, personal inter¬ course, and other means to bring the truths of the gospel to hear upon the hearts and lives of the people. But for some years the missionaries had to sow the seed in faith, and wait patiently before much visible effect was produced ; aud before success crowned their efforts changes took place in the government of Madagascar which eventually had the most serious inffuence upon the mission as well as upon the people generally. These followed upon the death of King Fiadama, who was a kind of Peter the Great, or Alfred the Great, of his time, and who had earnestly desired that his people should bo raised from their low position as a nation, and become educated and civilized. He had made a treaty of friendship with England, by whose provisions the export of slaves from Madagascar was abolished, and his subjects were to receive instruction in various useful knowledge. Although Radaina did not become a Christian himself, he placed no obstacle in the way of his people professing Christianity, and gave all the weight of his personal authority and favour to the efforts of the missionaries in his capital. He evidently had no faith in idolatry and some of the other superstitions of his country, and made no scruple in showing his contempt for the trickery by which the idol-keepers endeavoured to retain their influence over the people. But in 1828, at the early age of 36, Radama died, partly owing to the ex¬ cesses to which he became addicted in spite of his better judgment and resolves. At his death the chief power was seized by one of his wives, the Princess Rauavalona, who gained the throne by the influence of two or three leading officers of the army, and who tlien put to death in a very cruel manner the rightful heir, together with several other of Radiuna’s relatives. Accession of Ranavalona I.—The new sovereign was a very superstitious and despotic woman, and strongly attached to the old idolatrous customs; and she viewed 22 MADAGASCAR. with much suspicion the influence which Christianity was slowly gaining in the country. The first two or three years of her reign was full of political disturbance and unrest from the attempts made by the French to enforce claims to certain territory on the eastern coast of Mada¬ gascar ; and partly also from the unfriendly feeling shown to all European powers, the Queen announcing that she did not hold herself bound by Kadama’s treaty with the English, although she would not revive the slave trade. The^ wars begun by her predecessors in various distant provinces were carried on with ruthless cruelty, and there was for some time imminent danger of a war with the French, who had landed troops on the eastern coast. It was believed that the hope of gaining British help against the French was one reason, amongst others, why the English missionaries were still allowed to pursue their labours. Certain it is that the Christian work in Mada¬ gascar began to assume its most hopeful character when the political state of the country was most disturbed and threatening. Great attention and interest was shown in divine worship and Bible teaching, so that the hearts of the missionaries were cheered by seeing that their in¬ structions and the reading of the books circulated had been the means of decided spiritual benefit to many of the people. Success of Mission Work.-—In the year 1831 hopes were entertained that religious liberty would still be allowed, for leave was given for the people to be baptized and join Christian societies; and in May and June of that year, the first converts to Christianity in Madagascar received baptism. Other congregations were then formed at the capital in addition to the one which had previously been gathered together, and so wide-spread an interest was aroused, that people of the highest rank, some even from the royal family, and others closely connected with the Government, were found coming forward and professing their faith in Christ. But this very success was one of the chief circumstances which helped to increase the suspicions and fears of the Queen with regard to Christian¬ ity. The permission accorded to receive baptism and to observe the Lord’s Supper had not been given many weeks before it was recalled in the case of the soldiers and those 3IADAGASCAB. 23 in Government schools, and the prohibition was soon ex¬ tended to all the people. But notwithstanding these threatening circumstances, the gospel made steady ad¬ vance, and many incidents of great interest continually occurred, both in the capital city and in other parts of the country, showing the hold which the new doctrines were obtaining, and how idolatry was losing its power over the more intelligent of the people. Still it was evident that further measures of repression were to follow, for the heathen party, alarmed by the growing influence of Christianity, put forth every effort to oppose it. Commencement of Eepressive Measures.—At length, in the month of January, 1835, definite charges were publicly made against the Christians of despising the idols, holding prayer-meetings, and ceasing to swear; their observance of the Sabbath, and the chastity of their women. Although the person specially accused was declared innocent by the tanrjena ordeal, the Queen was extremely displeased with all the Christians; and while for yet a few weeks greater seriousness was evinced, and . a more wide-spread interest shown in the truths of the gospel, every day brought the crisis nearer, and several circumstances occurred to intensify the Queen’s dislike to Christianity. In her Majesty’s mind loyalty and idolatry were so closely connected together, that she feared that if her people ceased to worship the national idols, they would also cease to honour her as they had been ac¬ customed to do. And it must be remembered that in the religious practices of the Malagasy the worship of the ancestors of the sovereign was a prominent feature. This was of course abandoned by the Christians, and so the Queen professed to consider them disloyal in ceasing to pray to her predecessors, and in beginning to Avorship Jehovah and Jesus, whom she affected to believe were the names of certain English kings of a bygone age. There appears to Ido little doubt that all the European missionaries would have been sent away from Madagascar some four or five years earlier than Avas actually the case, had it not been for the presence of the artisan members of the mission, and the evident advantage to the country in the instruction in various useful manufactures which they were imparting to the people. Among other things, the 24 MADAGASCAR. production of soap from native materials was commenced, and machinery was made for the Government powder-mills, together with a reservoir and canals for supplying water¬ power. But as soon as the Queen’s subjects had made themselves familiar with the requisite processes, it was not thought necessary to temporize any longer, and several missionaries were successively required to leave the country. Christian Teaching and Worship forbidden.—Early in the year 1885 the Queen made up her mind to put down Christianity hy force, and on the 26th of February she sent a message to the missionaries informing them that while they might continue to follow their own religious customs, these must no longer be practised by her subjects. She allowed them still to impart secular instruction and knowledge of the arts and sciences, but nothing that should have the effect of changing the ancient religious observances of Madagascar. Earnest remonstrance was made, but without any effect; and on March Ist a great national assembly was called together, at which it was said that 150,000 persons were present. With great pomp and display of military force, a royal message was delivered in which the Queen denounced the disrespect with which the divination, the idols, and other objects of popular veneration were treated by many. And she went on to forbid, under the severest punishment, the various practices of Christian worship ; telling the people emphati¬ cally, “I detest these things ; I tell you plainly they shall not be done in my country.” It was evident that soon all the cruelties of the native laws would be put in force to terrify the people out of their belief in the gospel, for all who had taken any part in Christian observances were ordered, under severe penalties, to come forward and accuse themselves, and a considerable number of Christians were reduced in rank and fined. Departure of the Missionaries.—Strenuous efforts were made by the missionaries to obtain some relaxation of the new law and to gain permission still to preach and teach, but without any result; and so, seeing that for the present at least their work was at an end, most of them prepared to quit the country, leaving Mr. Johns and Mr. Baker to remain for a few months longer. These two brethren, MADAGASCAR. 25 ■wlaose term of residence was not yet expired, being for¬ bidden to instruct the people,—their own servants even being taken from them and punished for having joined in family worship,—went on with such school teaching as was still permitted; but they gave themselves chiefly to print¬ ing and preparing books, amongst others, the Malagasy- English Dictionary. The Pilgrim's Progress was translated at this time, and the various portions of the Malagasy Scrip¬ tures, the translation of which had lately been completed, were bound in one volume; and a small edition of the whole Bible was prepared, which was gladly purchased, although at considei’able risk to themselves, by the native Christians. The missionaries were thankful that although deprived of European teachers their converts would still have the best of all teachers, the whole Word of God in their own tongue, to guide and support them. And then, their labours completed, having done all for their people that man could do, they could only commend them to the Lord on whom they had believed, and with sorrowful hearts leave the country which seemed now given up to the power of the Evil one. At this point therefore, July, 1836, the first of the three periods in the history of Chris¬ tianity in Madagascar—its Planting—may be said to be completed, and the second—its Persecution—fairly entered upon. IV.—THE PERSECUTION OF THE GOSPEL, (1836—1861.) The narrative of the Madagascar persecution is now a well-known story, “ a thrice-told tale,” and has become a part of the modern history of the Church and of Chris¬ tianity. To give completeness and colour to the story, a number of incidents would have to be related, such as may be found detailed in Messrs. Freeman and Johns’s Narra¬ tive of the Persecution and Mr. Ellis’s Martyr Church. All that can be attempted here is a brief summai-y of the more prominent facts of that long quarter-of-a-century of per¬ sistent attempts to uproot Christianity from Madagascar. First Persecution.—It was in the early part of 1836 that the first active measures of persecution were commenced by 26 MADAGASCAR. the accusation of Eafaravavy, a woman of good position, and afterwards well known to many in England. She was condemned to death, but twice escaped ; and after a number of remarkable providential deliverances she succeeded in reaching the coast, and eventually, with five other native Christians, came to England. Here their testi¬ mony to the power of the gospel did much to deepen the sympathy already felt for the persecuted Malagasy people. Although Christian worship was forbidden under severe j)enalties, meetings were nevertheless secretly held in many places, at which the believing people encouraged each other to hold fast their faith in God, and still observed the ordin¬ ances of their religion. In secluded villages, in recesses of the forest, in caves and clefts of the rocks, and even in rice- holes, worship was held, usually late on the Saturday night, the little assemblies breaking up before sunrise on the fol- loAving morning. Special Periods of Trial.—Although the anti-Christian laws were never relaxed, active persecution was not of course carried on with equal severity during the whole five and twenty years; and now and again it seemed as if a more merciful policy would prevail. Four or five periods stand out prominently from the rest of the quarter-century as special seasons of terror and persistent attempts to crush the “praying ones,” as the Christians were called, viz., the years 1837-38, 1840, 1842, 1849, and 1857. The First Malagasy Martyr was a young woman named Easalama, who, on August 14, 1837, after enduring severe torture, calmly knelt down and received the spear of the executioner at Ambohipotsy, the southern extremity of the long and lofty rocky ridge on which the capital is built. Several others afterwards suffered death in a similar way at the same spot, and many of their com¬ panions were imprisoned. Others were punished by heavy fines; others by the loss of “honours” or military and civil rank; many were sold into slavery, and some were banished to the nnhealthy fever districts. In the year 1840, nine Christians were speared at Ambohipotsy, and numbers were scattered over the country hiding for their lives. Similar punishment was inflicted again in 1842, at which time also many perished from the tangena poison ordeal. Closely following this time MABAGASGAE. 27 of terror, that is, in the year 1843, some respite was allowed, for meetings for worship were almost openly held near Antananarivo ; and such fervour and courage were shown by many of the preachers that numbers of heathen became Christians. Probably this was to a certain extent due to the influence of the Prince Kakoton-dEadama, who was baptized, as well as another member of the royal family; as was also the son of the Pi’ime Minister,Eainiharo, himself a most determined persecutor. The exalted posi¬ tion of these new adherents enabled them in some measure to jmotect their humbler companions. Great Persecution of 1849.—But the relief thus afforded was not of long duration. In 1849, the increasing bold¬ ness and number of the Christians, and the spread of their opinions among the persons of high rank just mentioned, led to a great outbreak of cruelty, so that that year was remembered as “the Great Persecution.” On the 28th of March, nineteen Christians, who had been condemned to death, witnessed a good confession before many witnesses with heroic fortitude and even with joy. Of this number fifteen were taken to the summit of the cliffs named Ampamarinana, only a short distance from the palace, on the west side of the city hill. There they were (with one exception) successively thrown over, after persistent refusal to deny Christ, and their mangled bodies were taken to be burned at Fiiravohitra, at the summit of the northern end of the city. At this spot a more painful death was reserved for the remaining four, who were of high rank. Being Andrians, or nobles, it was by Malagasy usage con¬ sidered unlawful to shed their blood, and so, by a refinement of cruelty, they were sentenced to be burned alive. This terrible fate they met with unflinching courage, singing some of their favourite hymns and praying for their persecutors, so that a deep impression was produced upon the crowds of heathen spectators. Visits of Rev. W.' Ellis.—This time of trial was again followed by a period of comparative freedom from active persecution. The influence of the young prince seemed to increase; and it was again and again reported that the Queen was intending to abdicate in his favour, and that the laws against Christianity would be relaxed. So circumstantial and probable did these accounts appear, that 28 MADAGASCAB. the Directors of the London Missionary Society at length determined, in 1853, to send out one of their number to Madagascar to make personal inquiry into the truth of the statements. Accordingly, in that year the Kev. W. Ellis left England for Tamatave as the representative of the Society. Up to that time Mr. Ellis had never seen Madagascar, for his mission life of eight years (1817— 1824), had been spent in Polynesia. He subsequently filled the office of Foreign Secretary to the Society (1832 —1841), ditring which time he edited the Ilistori/ of Madagascar, which was compiled from information supplied by the first missionaries. He was therefore to a certain extent already familiar with the country, and deeply in¬ terested in the welfare of its people. Taking as his colleague from Cape Town Mr. Cameron, of the former mission, Mr. Ellis proceeded to Tamatkve, but was unable to get permission to go up to the capital city, and soon found that there was little prospect of any immediate improvement in the position of the praying people. But although prevented from accomplishing the chief object of his visit, he was able in a qitiet way to give encouragement to the native Christians, and to distribute assistance to those who had suffered loss of property; he also supplied them with numerous copies of the Scriptures. Mr. Ellis retired for a time to Mauritius, and after a few months’ interval made a second attempt to gain permission to pro¬ ceed to Antananarivo, but again without success. He however visited part of the east coast of Madagascar, north of Tamatave, and gained valuable information of various kinds ; and then, in 1855, returned to England. But before Mr. Ellis reached home letters had been sent from the Malagasy Government giving him permission to come to the capital for a month’s visit. This invitation he gladly accepted, and again left England for Madagascar in 1856, arriving at Antananarivo in August. He was received with much courtesy by the Queen and the autho¬ rities, but found himself kept under strict surveillance, and soon discovered that the laws against Christianity were in no way relaxed, although just then they were not enforced with special severity. After seeing much to interest him, and being able to communicate with many of the lead¬ ing Christians during the month which had been allowed madagascah. 29 for his stay, Mr. Ellis left the cajiital in September, arriving in England in the following January. Although these “three visits to Madagascar" did not accomplish all that had been hoped, they were not without valuable results. They were a source of much encouragement to the persecuted people, assuring them of the continued remembrance and sympathy of Christian England; and they kept alive an intense interest in Madagascar among the churches at home, and led to increased prayer on its behalf. Persecution of 1857.—Mr. Ellis had not long left Mada¬ gascar before the last, and in some respects the most severe, outbreak of persecution occurred. This was largely provoked at its outset by a plot which had been formed to depose the Queen and put her son upon the throne. This was contrived by some French residents in the country, who had ingratiated themselves with the young prince, and hoped to derive considerable personal advantage should he come to the supreme power, as well as to largely increase French influence in the country. And with these leading motives there was doubtless also mingled some kindly feeling towards the people in general, who were ground down by oppression, and to the Christians in par¬ ticular, whose position was the most burdensome of all. But the plot was not destined to succeed; and upon its discovery swift punishment fell upon its originators. The foreigners concerned were sent down to the coast by such slow marches that it was evidently hoped they would die by fever. But the Malagasy who were in any way ac¬ quainted with the attempt were soon put to death, and among them were some few Christians, who had certainly known of the scheme, and had no doubt hoped for some alleviation of their position should it succeed. These however were only a few of the many Christians who tlicn sutfered. All were held to be more or less involved in a guilty knowledge of the designs against their sovereign, and one more determined attempt was made to crush for ever the hated religion, whose adherents were constantly increasing in numbers and influence. The 3rd of July, 1857, on Avhich a great kahanj was held, was another day of terror ; all suspected persons were imprisoned, twenty-one were put to death by stoning 30 MADAGASCAli. and were afterwards belieaded; others were hurled over the Ampamarinana cliffs; many died by the tangena ordeal; and it was thought that this was the most fatal of all the persecutions yet inflicted. Besides the extreme punish¬ ment suffered by these, numbers were put into chains and reduced to slavery; and the experiences of the Chris¬ tian people for several years might be fitly described by the words, “Cruel mockings and scourgings, bonds and impri¬ sonment,” stoning, sawing asunder, wandering about, “ destitute, afflicted, tormented, in deserts and mountains, and in dens and caves of the earth,” for all this was literally fulfilled in Madagascar. After the persecution of 1857, there was little of stirring interest in the history of Mala¬ gasy Christianity until the death of the Queen, which did not occur until four years more had elapsed. The sovereign and her advisers probably felt by that time the utter uselessness of all their attempts to put down the Christian religion, and no very active measures of re¬ pression were again resorted to. Causes of the Persecution.—It may be well to note here, in a few words, some of the principal causes which led to the persecution of Christianity in Madagascar. (1) Fore¬ most among these was the enmity of the unrenewed heart to the moral purity inculcated by the gospel, and to the restraints which it put upon the evil practices which were formerly unrebuked. (2) Then there was probably some degree of sincere belief in the idols and the various heathen customs. All these, it was seen, could not exist together with Christianity, which claimed absolute sit- premacy; and therefore it was deemed necessary that the latter should be destroyed. Although, as mentioned in a previous page, there was no heathen priesthood, pro¬ perly so called, there was, nevertheless, a considerable number of people, such as the idol-keepers, the diviners, the declarers of fortunate days, and others, who formed an influential class of the community, and it was of course to their interest to prevent the further spread of the new doctrines. (3) Motives of a political nature also came in (as already mentioned), for instead of the old absolute obedience of her subjects in every matter which the Queen wished to enforce, it was seen that the new religion stead¬ fastly maintained that there was One above the sovereign MADAGASCAH. 31 who claimed to be supreme, and demanded even her obe¬ dience to His commands. (4) Closely connected with the foregoing, it was also perceived that the spirit of Chris¬ tianity was opposed to the slavery of mind and body which a despotic Government claimed from its subjects, and that the freedom of thought and speech which it encouraged eventually led to freedom of action, and would put an end to irresponsible power. (5) Hopes were entertained that instruction in various manufactures, especially those of arms and gunpowder, might be obtained from certain Frenchmen then in the country, who would do all this without also imparting religious instruction. And there was, besides, some fear that the English might endeavour to obtain territory in Madagascar, as it was known they had done in India, South Africa, and other parts of the world. (6) Grave offence was given to the heathen by the greater moral purity of the Christians, and especially by the chastity of their women, which prevented the grati¬ fication of the evil desires of people in high position. (7) To all these may be added, the love of money. As a considerable share of the property of those condemned fell to the informer, this was a powerful motive in causing numbers of the people to assist in opposing Christianity. Results of the Persecution.—But notwithstanding all these powerful forces arrayed against the religion of Jesus, despite all the cruelties which an absolute sovereign and her heathen subjects could inflict for more than twenty- five years, “ the Word of God grew and multiplied.” It is believed that above two hundred Christian people laid down their lives during that quarter-of-a-centimy, and many hundreds more suffered in loss of rank, property, and liberty ; and yet, at the close of the period, the number of believers in Christ was not only not diminished, but had multiplied about twenty-fold, so that of that time it might be said, “ so mightily grew the Word of God and prevailed.” Persecution bad, moreover, a remarkable effect in rooting and establishing Christianity in Mada¬ gascar. Perhaps nothing else would ever have given it s\ich a depth and power as it thus obtained, and nothing else could have so thoroughly convinced the people generally of its supernatmul origin, as the way in which it overcame every attempt of their sovereign to destroy it. 32 BIADAOASCAR. Persecution also diffused Christianity widely, for the Christians, obliged to take refuge in distant parts of the island, carried to many remote places the knowledge of the gospel. Amongst other noticeable features in the religion of the Malagasy of that time was the forgiving spirit always shown towards their jpersecutors; there was an earnest wish that their Queen and all who opposed the religion of Christ should themselves partake of its blessings. And there was, on the other hand, a frequent acknowledgment on the part of the judges and authorities that the conduct of the Christians was irreproachable, that they would have been the best subjects, the best servants, but for their religion. Political State of the Country during this Period.—The reign of Eanavalona I. was hardly less burdensome to the people at large than it was to the Christian portion of the community. Desolating wars were carried on with cold¬ blooded cruelty; the Government service was most op¬ pressive to all ranks ; the greatest indifference was shown to human life and suffering by the authorities ; and even in the early part of the Queen’s reign a frightful number of executions took place, many of the most painful forms of death being inflicted—burning alive, scalding to death, etc. Europeans were excluded as much as possible from the country, so that more than once, for many months, almost all intercourse with the outer world was suspended, and but for the leaven of education and Christianity which had been introduced into the country, the island would have reverted to a barbarous condition. But towards the middle of 1861, the dark cloud which had so long lowered over the country rolled away ; the long reign of tliirty- three years came to an end (Aug. 15th), and amidst uni¬ versal rejoicings the Prince Eakoto succeeded to the throne under the title of Eadama II. Here, then, closes the second period in the history of Malagasy Christianity, that of its Persecution, and it enters upon the third (and present) stage of its history, in which, as we shall see, it was to make wonderful Progress. Note on Malagasy Words .—The consonants are mostly pronounced as in English : g is always hard, s never like z. The vowels a, e, and i (also = final y) are as in French or Italian ; o is like Fr. ou, or as o in “move.” The unaccented vowels are shorter than the others. MABAGASCAFi. 33 Y.—THE PEOGEESS AND EXTENSION OF THE GOSPEL. (1862—1880.) From the re-estahlishment of the London Missionary Society’s mission in Antananarivo in 1862, until the present time, the history of Christianity in Madagascar has been, on the whole, one of continual progress and advance, especially Avithin the last ten or ele\'en years. Re-establishment of the Mission.—The news of the death of Queen Eanavalona had not reached England many days before the tried friend of the Malagasy, the Eev. W. Ellis, was again on his Avay to the country as the re¬ presentative of the London Missionary Society, charged Avith the duty of re-organizing the mission. Mr. Ellis could not proceed at once to Madagascar, on account of the rainy season ; but staying at Mauritius for a feAV months he Avas able to communicate frequently Avith the native Christians, assuring them of the warm interest felt in their Avelfare by their English brethren, and of the speedy re-establishment of the mission in their midst. On Jane 16, 1862, Mr. Ellis arrived at Antananarivo, where he received a most hearty welcome from all classes of the people, and found three large congregations meeting on the Lord’s day in the north-west suburb of the city. Within afeAv days’ time he Avas joined by three ordained missionaries, a medical mis¬ sionary, a printer, and a schoolmaster, Avho Avere soon actively engaged in acquiring the language and arranging to proceed Avith their special departments of labour. To these pioneers Avere added in the folloAving three or four years nine or ten more, several of whom came specially to carry on church building. Reign of Radama II.—For some little time after the accession of Eadiima II. it appeared as if the bright anticipations raised by his coming to the throne Avould be realized. There was a release of all political prisoners, includiug of course the Christians who had been in chains, and an immediate lightening of the heavy burdens under Avhich the people were oppressed. But it soon became too evident that there were evil influences at work which Avould neutralize all the good which had been the imme¬ diate result of the new reign. And notwithstanding much 3 34 MADAGASCAR. that was amiable and attractive in the King’s character, he was not only not a Christian, but was addicted to the grossest vices; and rejecting the counsel of older and wiser men, he allowed the government of the country to be carried on by a number of young men who were his companions in his amusements and follies. It was a time of the greatest license : continual feasting went on at the palace; the Customs duties were given up, so that rum was poured into the country, to the great increase of drunkenness; and every one seemed able to do. as he pleased. At last things came to a crisis: the obstinate persistence of the King in promulgatmg a new law which would have virtually given up the country to anarchy and civil war obliged the Prime Minister and the Commander- in-Chief to take decisive measures. The army was marched into the capital, and after futile attempts to induce the King to listen to reason, his evil counsellors were speared, and eventually he was also put to death in his palace on May 12, 1863 ; and so sadly ended the reign begun with such bright prospects not two years before. Accession of Queen Rasoherina.—These events, however, had little adverse effect upon the position of Christianity. Eadama was succeeded by his wife and cousin, Rabodo, who took the name of Rksoherina, and was put upon the throne with something like constitutional safeguards. Although the new sovereign was a heathen she was no persecutor; she was kind and humane in disposition, and faithfully adliered to the agreements she made with foreign powers that religious freedom should be continued to her people. During her reign of five years (1863-1868) Christianity made steady and solid progress and wonder¬ fully increased its influence in the country. It was, on the whole, a healthy time for quiet development and advance, for the gospel had “ a fair field and no favour,” and the progress it made was not in any way owing to governmental influence on its behalf. Steady Advance of Christianity.—During those five years the numerous village congregations around the capital city were arranged in districts, each having its mother-church and centre of influence in one of the eight strong churches of Antananarivo ; the preaching of the gospel was earnestly carried on, and a system of regular MADAGASCAR. 35 Bible-class instruction arranged; from the press issued a constantly increasing amount of literature ; schools were established in connection with all the larger churches, and teachers for these were put in training at the Normal School. A commencement was also made in training preachers and pastors for the native churches. The medi¬ cal department of the mission became a valuable auxiliary to its work : a Hospital and Dispensary alleviating many of the diseases of the people, while a number of young men received education in medicine and surgery. Sub¬ stantial buildings of sun-chied brick were erected for many of the congregations, and the construction of four stone churches was commenced. These were designed to be memorials of those who died for Christ’s sake in the per¬ secution, and were built on the spots where the chief martyrdoms took place, each position being a most admir¬ able one for a public building. The reign of Queen Eiisoherina was also marked by much improvement in. the political and social condition of the country, the conclusion of treaties of friendship and commerce with England and France, the revival of trade, many advances in civilization, the lightening of the heavy burdens of Government service, and general contentment and peace throughout the island. Accession of Queen Ranavalona 11.—But in the early part of 1868 the Queen, who had been in failing health for some months, passed away, and her cousin Eamoma suc¬ ceeded her, taking as her royal name that of her aunt. Queen Eiinavalona. For a brief interval this was regarded as ominous of some change for the worse, but it was soon perceived that it was intended to denote changes in the other direction, and that considerable advances were to be made in the recognition of Christianity. During the reign of Queen Easoherina the principles of the gospel were quietly permeating and influencing all ranks of native society in the capital and its neighbourhood, so that the Government felt that they could no longer ignore the power growing up in their midst. They knew that the young and intelligent portion of the community were coming over to the side of Christianity, and that they would be left behind and lose prestige if they allowed the movement to go on without taking part in it. They therefore wisely resolved to place themselves at its head. 36 MADAGASCAR. Public Recognition of Christianity.—This resolve was soon put into action. At the coronation of the new sove¬ reign on Sept. 3, 1868, no idols were allowed to be brought out; but on the canopy over the Queen’s throne the many thousands of spectators saw with astonishment words taken from the Christian Scriptures, “ Glory to God,” “Peace on earth,” “Good will to men,” “God is with us ; ” a large copy of the Bible lay at the Queen’s right hand, and in the royal speech was more than one quota¬ tion from the Word of God, exhorting the people to up¬ right conduct and obedience to the laws. A new departure in policy was thus inaugurated. About the same time also the Queen and her husband, the Prime Minister, com¬ menced divine worship in one of the royal houses, and sent for some of the native pastors to give them regular instruction in the truths of Christianity. After a few months they received baptism in the presence of a number of the chief people of the country. This event naturally caused many of the higher classes to come forward and join the ranks of the Christians, and led to large accessions to the congregations in the clixjital and the more important villages in its neighbourhood. But a few months later in the year another event took j)lace which gave a still more powerful impetus to the already advancing movement in favour of Christianity, and removed at one stroke all external obstacles to it in the central provinces of the island. This was the burning of the idols in the month of September, 1869. Burning of the Idols in Imerina.—The immediate cause of this was the folly of the idol-keepers, who requested leave to perform certain superstitious ceremonies. The Government resolved to strike a decisive blow, and immedi¬ ately sent out to the chief villages and caused the idols to be burnt. Within a few days the charms belonging to tribes, families, and individuals throughout Imerina were gathered together in the j)rincix)al villages and committed to the flames ; and thus, in a very short space of time, the idolatry of the Hovas came utterly to an end, and to a great extent that of the Betsileo as well. Great Extension of Christianity.—These occurrences had a wonderful effect upon the people of the central parts of the island, and caused a very large immediate increase in MADAGASCAR. 37 the number of those who attended Christian worship. Every chapel was crowded to excess, and in all the villages of any size the people began to construct rough buildings of mud and grass or rushes in which to meet together. Many of these congregations had no one to instruct them, sometimes no one who could even read a chapter of Scripture; but still they met, fearing for some time that they would be considered disloyal if they did not “pray.” With a people like the Malagasy, accustomed for so long to follow implicitly what their rulers wished to be done, it was not strange that such notions should be entertained. Still, whatever the motives were which led the great majority of these new adherents to put themselves under instruction (and they were often low and unworthy enough), there they irere, ready to be taught; and the missionaries who w^ere then in the country felt almost overwhelmed with the responsibility thus thrown upon them in having so many thousands of heathen people looking to them for help and guidance. But vigorous efforts were made to cope with the difficulties of the new state of things. As a temporary measure a large number of the best men that could be found in the stronger churches were sent out as evangelists. The friends of the London Missionary Society gave liberally to increase the mission staff to treble its former strength, so that in three or four years’ time it was largely reinforced. A college was commenced for the training of pastors and evangelists. Bible-class instruction was actively and systematically carried on, as well as the preaching of the gospel, not only by the missionaries, but also by a large body of native preachers, who constantly visited the country congrega¬ tions. The training schools, the press, and the medical mission also took their own special share of the increased work thus called for. How great this work was may be in some measure realized from the fact that while in the early part of 1869, before the burning of the idols, the adhe¬ rents to Christianity numbered about 37,000, at the close of 1870 they had increased to about a quarter of a million, while the congregations had increased in the same period between four and fivefold (from 148 to 621). Political and Social Progress.—The reign of the present sovereign, which has now lasted more than twelve years, 38 MABAGASCAB. lias not been marked by any striking political events in relation to tlie outside world, although many changes for the better have been going on in the country. Friendship has been maintained with European powers, although more than once there have been slight misunderstandings with the French, owing almost entirely to the intrigues of the Jesuit missionaries. About two years ago they man¬ aged so to influence certain local governors in the south that by bringing false accusations against some of the Pro¬ testant native teachers they had them put into chains, and so stopped for a time much of the work in the Betsileo province. But the intervention of some of the Protestant senators being obtained, the Jesuit scheming was rebuked by the French Government; so that matters are slowly resuming their former position. About four years ago the friendly influence of the English Government was employed with the Malagasy authorities to induce them to have the provisions of the treaty forbidding the importation of African slaves more strictly enforced ; and this resulted in the emancipation, not only of the slaves brought into Madagascar since the date of the treaty (1865), but of all Mozambiques, as they are called ; so that a large division of the slave population was on June 20, 1877, formally and publicly, both at the capital and many other places, declared to be free. This event cannot but have consider¬ able effect in drawing the attention of the people to the injustice of slavery, and will perhaps eventually lead to its entire abolition. Sudden changes in this direction would however be disastrous to the country until the conditions of society can be adapted to a new order of things. Other changes in the social condition of Madagascar have been quietly carried out during the last few years. One of these (July 4, 1878) is designed to improve the ad¬ ministration of justice, by the appointment of a large number of local magistrates throughout Imerina. These are called Sakaizam-bohitra, lit. “Friends of Villages,” and they are also registrars of births, deaths, marriages, agree¬ ments, etc., being provided with the necessary books and forms for the piu’pose. Another measure (July 13, 1876) is intended to break down portions of the old feudal system, by which the people of high rank claimed the unpaid service of a large number of their inferiors. And following this MADAGASCAB. 39 there is also a further centralization of authority, and the formation of a kind of Cabinet or Ministry. A third step in advance is the change in the military service. This was formerly for life, and without any pay, but was altered in May, 1879, to compulsory service for five years, binding upon all; and will thus have the effect of materially lighten¬ ing the most oppressive of the old customs of the country. One of the greatest benefits that Madagascar could have just now would be the residence of an upright and wise English Consul at the capital. The native Government knows that England has no designs upon the country, and has never coveted a foot of its territory ; they remem¬ ber with gratitude the valuable services which Mr. Hastie rendered in the reign of Kadama I., and we believe they would welcome the appointment of an English Consul at Antananarivo. Such a man would also give them inform¬ ation upon international law, and prevent them from being sometimes unnecessarily apprehensive of the designs of France and its power to interfere with them. In the year 1869 the Queen commenced the erection of a Chapel Eoyal in the courtyard of the palace at Antanana¬ rivo, so as to give the most unmistakable proof to her subjects of her attachment to the Christian religion. The building is a very handsome one, of stone, with an elegant tower and spire; and all that native skill of hand can do has been used to beautify the building, which was designed by Mr. W. Poo], of the London Missionary Society. Its opening was delayed for a considerable time, but early in this year (1880) it was dedicated by an extended series of services, which were times of great rejoicing. The church meeting within its walls is a Congregational one, and its services are conducted in accordance with the usages of that section of the Church, the pastor being one of the most tried and faithful of the native Christians. Advances in Civilization and Commerce.—Looking back over the eleven years which have now elapsed since the burning of the idols, and the general profession of Christi¬ anity by the people of the central provinces, great changes in other directions, besides those already noted, are very evident. A few words only on each point must suffice to mark their leading features. And first, then, with regard to civilization and social 40 MADAGASCAR. advance, and trade and commerce. The gospel has come in Madagascar, as everywhere else, raising and piu’ifying the people, increasing the comforts of human life, and im¬ proving their dwellings, their dress, and their habits. Since the re-opening of the country there has been a steady in¬ crease in the foreign trade, a stimulus has been given to the cultivation and collection of the valuable products of the island, and there is a constantly increasing demand for the calicoes, prints, cloths, and hardware of European manufacture. The repeal of the old law, closely connected with idolatry, forbidding the erection in Antananarivo of any stone or brick structure, has given a great impetus to building, so that the city has been almost rebuilt, hundi’eds of substantial and handsome houses of sun-dried brick replacing those of timber or rush. And this im¬ provement has extended far away from Antananarivo. The erection of the Four Memorial Churches (1864—1874) trained up a body of artizans—stonemasons, builders, car¬ penters, tilers, and glaziers—skilful in the building arts. Improvement in Morals.—But a more important matter than the foregoing is the improvement in public morals by the shaming out of much of the gross and open licentious¬ ness of former times, the putting down of the practice of polygamy, and the restrictions now placed upon arbitrary divorce. The latter, which was often done on the slightest grounds after an absurdly easy fashion, was a means of much cruelty and wrong. It must now be done according to legal forms and on proper grounds. Polygamy, after being for some time condemned by the growing enlighten¬ ment of public opinion, has at last been made illegal in the central provinces. While there is still very much of evil in social habits, a great change has already been brought about by the purifying influence of the gospel. Abolition of Cruel Customs and Laws belonging to the heathen state of society has been largely effected by the kindly and merciful spirit of Christianity. The Malagasy were formerly very cruel and disregardful of human life; the laws prescribed death for numerous offences, and this was inflicted in many barbarous ways. Even as late as 1868 soldiers were burned alive for trifling military offences, and people were stoned to death for petty thefts in the markets. Noiv, it may be said that these cruelties have passed away; MABAGASCAE. 41 capital punislmient has for several years been inflicted only for heinous crimes, and this only in the most merciful form. In the Amelioration of War some of the most striking results of Christian teaching have been manifest. In the wars carried on to reduce other tribes to the Hova authority the most horrible cruelties were inflicted upon the inhabi¬ tants of the conquered territories; the men were speared or shot down remorselessly, and the women and children taken as slaves. But in the only war which has occurred during the present reign—an expedition in 1874 to put down a disturbance in the Sakalava country—the Queen gave strict orders to prevent the needless shedding of blood ; that property should be respected, and no slaves be made—that, in short, the soldiers were to remember that they were Christians and not heathen. One division of the army had to attack the chief stronghold of the enemy, and a few lives were thus lost; but the other succeeded in gaining their end entirely by peaceful means. The New Testament was appealed to as the standard of conduct by which the Hovas wished to act; property and life were respected ; the gospel was regularly preached in the camp, so that the heathen people of that district heard for the first time what “the praying ” really was; and they were astonished at the change which the profession of Christianity had brought about in their Hova conquerors. Thus peace was restored, and the army departed with the good-will of the people, who acknowledged that the gospel which the Hovas pro¬ fessed was not a weakening of their strength, preventing them from fighting, but “ a showing of mercy ! ” Of course it is notmeantthat thatarmy was all composed of Christians, but there was such a strong Christian element in it that this largely influenced its conduct as a whole. Education has made great advances during the last ten or twelve years, and the Queen and Government have done their utmost to urge the people to send their children to the schools. These are now to be found in almost every village throughout the Imerina province, and to a consider¬ able extent also among the Betsileo, so that the latest statistics show no fewer than 882 schools in the country connected with the London Missionary Society, and 48,000 children in attendance ; of these, 25,000 are able to read, and there are also the same number of adults who can read. 42 AIADAGASCAB. The number of schools in 1868 was only 28, and of scholars 1,700. To provide qualified teachers for all these thousands of children the Normal and Training Schools have a number of the most intelligent lads constantly under in¬ struction, forty youths being always placed there by the Government; and efficient aid is also rendered by the excellent high schools of the Friends’ Mission. The London Missionary Society’s College, which was commenced in 1869 as a Theological Seminary, was in 1876 developed into a general College. Its object is twofold: first to pre¬ pare systematically young men for Christian work as pastors and evangelists ; and further, to provide a liberal education for youths of superior intelligence who are likely to fill important positions in the government of the country. Literature.—To meet the increasing desire for knowledge awakened by education and the growth of a reading class, the Press of the London Missionary Society (and since 1873 that of the Friends’ Mission also) has sent forth a constantly augmented stream of literature. Among these are school-books of all grades, and school appliances gene¬ rally ; catechisms of Bible facts, personages, and doctrines; sermons, sermon outlines, and tracts ; Bible lessons ; com¬ mentaries on several of the books of Scripture; lives of our Lord, the Twelve,the Apostle Paul, and the Patriarchs ; introductions to the New and Old Testaments ; manuals of exegesis, hermeneutics, Biblical criticism, and church history; a Bible handbook, and the first portions of a Bible dictionary; a series of handbooks of Logic, Physical Geography, Astronomy, etc.; dictionaries of the language, and collections of the Proverbs, Kabary, and Folk-tales and Folk-lore. Several periodicals are also issued and have a large circulation ; these are, Teny Soa (“ Good Words”), since 1866, 16 pp. monthly; Mpcmalo-tscuna (“ The Coun¬ sellor”), since 1877, 70 pp. quarterly; a Malagasy form of the “ British Workman,” and of the “ Children’s Friend,” 16 pp. monthly. (These two latter are published by the Friends.) An immense number of reading books and lessons have been distributed all over the country. Bible circulation has been a marked feature of the last few years, and several large editions of the New Testament, some with references, have been bought, as well as great numbers of a shilling Bible. Since December, 1873, a MADAGASCAR. 43 committee has been at work revising the Malagasy Scrip¬ tures. Increase of Mission Stations and Districts.—Up to the year 1870 Antananarivo was the sole station of the London Missionary Society (as well as that of the Friends’ Mission Association, who began work there in 1867); but in addi¬ tion to the eight churches in the city, there were in 1868, before the accession of the present Queen, 86 congregations in the country, the majority of them within a few miles of Antananarivo, but some at considerable distances from it, and a few on the eastern coast. But after the burn¬ ing of the idols and the great increase of congregations it was felt necessary to widen the sphere of the Society’s work. The bid capital city of Ambbhimanga, eleven miles north of Antananarivo, was first occupied as a new station (July, 1870); and within a month or so Fianarantsoa, the chief town of the Betsileo province, was also occupied. Since that time seven central stations have been formed in Imerina and Vonizbngo, N.W. of it, and three other centres in Betsileo ; and in 1875 more distinctly aggressive work among the heathen tribes was undertaken by forming a station among the Sihtoaka (150 miles to the N.N.E.), and in 1877 by commencing work among the Sakalkva at the important seaport of Mqjanga (N.W. coast). In Novem¬ ber, 1880, another station was occupied by the Loudon Missionary Society at Tamatave,the chief port of the east¬ ern coast. In this neighbourhood a considerable number of congregations have existed for many years (see map). Church Organization.—The majority of the Christian congregations in the central province are grouped together into districts, each having its mother-church either at the capital or in one of the mission stations, and presided over by an English missionary. The stronger mother-church exercises considerable influence over these village or “off¬ spring churches,” helping them in their church building, school work, and the preaching of the gospel, and often preventing by its advice many mistakes into which they would otherwise fall. The churches of these districts, which vary in number from 16 to 109,, meet together at regular intervals of three or four months, and make rules for the guidance of all the churches in connection with them. Besides these lesser unions, the whole of the Ime- 44 iVADAGASCAli. I’ina churches are united together in a Congregational Union or General Assembly, meeting twice a year at Antananarivo. The largest churches are densely crowded with representatives of the congregations, and papers are read on important subjects, followed by the freest discus¬ sion. These meetings have had a most salutary effect in producing an enlightened public opinion on a number of points connected with social customs, marriage, education, worship, church discipline, etc., and in promoting a healthy freedom of thought and speech. The ecclesiastical system of the Malagasy Church is therefore neither exclusively Independent, or Presbyterian, or Episcopal, but a happy combination of all these, together with some parts of the Wesleyan system in the large use made of lay agency or local preachers. It has been the result of no fixed plan at the outset, but is a natural growth, and seems well suited to the people in their present stage of religious life. Church Buildings and Worship.—During the last ten years considerable advances have been made in the pro¬ vision of suitable buildings for Divine worship. Besides the four Memorial Churches, each of the large congrega¬ tions in the capital and its neighbouring towns has a suitable, and in seme cases handsome, church of sun-dried brick ; and throughout the province the majority of the rough buildings of mud and rush which were often erected at first have been replaced by neat and substantial struc¬ tures, which are in many cases models of what a village church should be. Then* lofty tiled or thatched roofs now form the principal object in the villages, and are conspicuous features in the landscape all over Imerina ; and their in¬ teriors are often patterns of neatness. The worship has also become more orderly, intelligent, and devout. Instead of the pointless talk which formerly served for a sermon, there are now numbers of intelligent and earnest preachers who are able to instruct and exhort the congregations. Many of these men are fluent and effective speakers, and are able to bring all the resources of the beautiful native language, to illustrate and enforce Divine truth. And the psalmody has greatly improved. Large numbers of rhyth¬ mical hymns have been composed, many of them trans¬ lated from those of the American revivalists, and set to the same tunes; these have been learped with the greatest MADAGASCAR. 45 delight, and have now spread all over the country. The Tonic Sol-fa system, which has been mastered by hundreds of the young people, has greatly aided in this movement. Christian Life.—It may perhaps be asked. What is the kind of Christian life which is found among the Malagasy people at the present time, and how far have they advanced in the excellences of Christian character ? It is not quite so easy to speak confidently on this point as it is with regard to those many signs of progress in other directions already described. We do not see, so much as we long to see, the deeper and fuller signs of spiritual life among our people. But it is not difficult to account to some extent for this, because the Government favour shown to Christi¬ anity naturally leads many people who have no real love for it to outwardly accept it and join the ranks of its ad¬ herents. We have much reason to thank God for the personal influence of the Queen ; more than once has she in simple and earnest language publicly expressed her love for the gospel, and her desire that its blessings should be shared by her people. But the present time, it is easy to understand, is not altogether a favourable one for the growth of some of the excellences of Christian character. Still we have reason to believe that beneath the mere out¬ ward acceptance of the gospel by so many, there is an increasing number of God-fearing and Bible-reading men and women, who are striving to live godly lives. A purer and more Christian family life is growing up ; there is an immense increase in knowledge and enlightenment; there is a growing liberality ; and there are numbers who are ready to work and to speak for Christ. During the last four or five years the missionary sympathies of the churches in Imerina have been called out; in the face of much discouragement mission efforts have been persevered in, and several earnest Christian natives have been sent to evangelize some of the heathen tribes, and these good men have in most instances done excellent work with encour¬ aging success. We must also remember how short a time it still is since the great majority of the now professedly Christian people of Imerina came out of gross heathenism. How brief a time ten or eleven years is to renew society and cleanse it from the vileness of heathen customs and practices ! When this consideration is properly weighed, 46 MADAGASCAR. instead of being surprised that we do not see a deeper spirituality, we may rather feel astonished at the wonderful progress already made in various directions, and exclaim, “ What hath God wrought! ” A common misconception about Madagascar may be here corrected. The island as a whole is not yet Chris¬ tianized, as many English people suppose. Some who heard of the burning of the idols in 1869, and of the ac¬ ceptance of Christianity by the Queen and Government, imagined that the whole country had come under the power of the gospel. But they forgot that Madagascar is not like one of the South Sea islands, but a great country nearly four times as large as England and Wales, with numerous tribes widely scattered over its surface; and further, that until 1870 the sole mission station was at the capital city; and so three-fourths of the population of the island are stiU uninfluenced by the gospel. But in addition to its influence in Imerina, it is now getting hold of the Betsileo,and gaining an entrance among the Betsimisaraka, the Sihimaka, and the Sakalava. And there is abundant reason for hope and encouragement from the fact that the Hovas, in the centre of the island, the most enlightened, intelligent, and civilized tribe, as well as the rulers of the country, are now largely brought under the influence of the gospel. We have the heart of the country; having Avon the Hovas and Imerina for Christ, we have made a great stride towards winning the whole island for Him, VI.—LABOUKS OF EELIGIOUS BODIES OTHEE THAN THE LONDON MISSIONAEY SOCIETY. It will have been noticed by those who have read the preceding pages that little has yet been said of the labours of any society in Madagascar besides those of the London Missionary Society. The reason of this is simply that the great bulk of the work hitherto done in Christianizing and enlightening the Malagasy people has been accom¬ plished by the missionaries of that Society. They planted the gospel in Madagascar by unwearied exertions for many years; some of them visited the country during the time of the persecution, and helped by theii’personal intercourse, 3rADAGASGAE. 47 as well as by frequent letters, to encourage the Malagasy Christians; and they re-established the mission in the heart of the island when the time of darkness passed away ; and so it naturally happens that nine-tenths of the Christian population of the country are found in connec¬ tion with their churches. The other missionary societies at work in Madagascar are the following :— Friends’ Foreign Mission Association.—The mission of the Society of Friends was commenced in 1867, and for some years past they have had an average of seven or eight missionaries, male and female, labomnng chiefly at the capital, and also at a station to the south-west. They have paid great attention to education, and have two ex¬ cellent training schools in Antananarivo, as well as a press, which has done good service in supplying literature for the Malagasy. They have charge of one of the large city churches, and an extensive district stretching away many miles in a south-west direction, including about 120 con¬ gregations. There is this noticeable feature in the Friends’ mission which distinguishes it from that of all other missions in the island, viz., that they have not set up any separate organization, but heartily co-operate with the London Missionary Society’s missionaries, the churches under their charge being really one with those under the care of the older society. Thus a true Evangelical Alliance exists, minor differences being almost forgotten in impart¬ ing the great truths of the gospel, while a united front is presented to the forces opposed to Christianity. The Church Missionary Society commenced a mission on the east coast of Madagascar in 1864, and three earnest and laborious missionaries did a good work for several years, taking long pioneering journeys, and enduring many perils and hardships. But in 1874, in consequence of their disapproval of the action of the Propagation Society in sending out a bishop, their mission was with¬ drawn from the island. The Norwegian Missionary Society.—In the year 1866 the evangelical Lutheran churches of Norway and Sweden sent out two missionaries to Madagascar to work in the heathen districts. These brethren were eventually in¬ creased in number to about twenty, their labours being chiefly carried on in the country between Imerina and 48 MADAGASCAB. Betsileo, as well as in the Betsileo province. They have a number of stations in these portions of the island, and one or two in the south-west, among the Sahalava. They have also a representative church, a training institution, and a hosj^ital in Antananarivo. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel began a mission on the east coast in 1864, there having been