Columbia (initjersttp LIBRARY MEMOIRS OP THE LIFE AND WHITINGS OP LORD KAMES. / ii »' I !/i MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF THE HONOURAPLE HENRY HOME OF KAMES, ONE OF THE SENATORS OF THE COLLEOE OF JUS'^ICE, AND ONE OF TH£ KORDS COMMISSIONERS OF JUSTICIARY IN SCOTI^AND : CONTAINING SKETCHES OF THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND GENERAL IMPROVEMENT IN SCOTLAND DURING THE GREATER PART OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, BT THE H»NOnRABI.K ALEX. FRASER TYTLER OF WOGDHOUSELEE, ONE OF THE SENATORS OF THE COLLEGE OF JUSTICE, AND ONE OF THB LORDS COMMISSIONERS OF JUSTICIARY IN SCOTLAND. C^est pecker contre le Public que de taire la vertu des Hommes iUw/tres y Cest envier Vkonneur que vncritent les uns, et ravir aux autres le bonheur de les imiter. Paneg. du Sully ^ par Dk Chbvry. SECOND EDITION, IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. IIL EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR T. CADELL AND W. DAVIES, IN THE STRAND, LONDON. 1814. 1HT( Wt 1.1 53533 Neill & Co. Printers, Edinburgh. CONTENTS OF VOLUME III. APPENDIX TO VOLUME I. NO. I. Pagfe Biographical Notices of some Scot^MEK, eminent in Classical LiteraUire, who Jlourished in the period from the end of the Shctetnth to the beginning of the Eighteenth Centura/, - - « 1 NO II. / Letter from Mr Henry Home to the Reverend Dr So* muel Clarke, - - - - 15 The Reverend Dr Samuel Clarke to Mr Henry Hmne, ^^ Letter from Mr Andrew Baxter^ Author of " An In- " quiry into the Nature df the Human Soul, of " Matho or Cosmotheoria puerilism" Sfc, to John Wilkes, Esq, - ... 27 NO. III. Dn Pindl Causes* - - - -32 NO. IV. Letter to Lord Karnes, from the Reverend Dr John Macfarlan, Minister of Canongate, Edinburgh, and f 11 CONTENTS. Page Author of Inquiries concerning the Slate of the Poor, Sfc. . - - - 6(T NO. V. Letter from Dr Thomas Reid, Professor of Moral Philsophy in the Univer^tj/ of Glasgow, to Lord Karnes, on the Influence of the Doctrine of Necessity on Morals. Dated Glasgow College, December 3. 1772. - . . - - 6f NO. VI. Letter from David Hume, Esq. to the Author of the De- lineation of the Nature and Obligation of Morality. 70 NO. VII. A Character of Dr Thomas Blackwell, written by Dr * Alexander Gerard, - - - 73 NO. VIII. A List of the Members of the Rankenian Club, fur- nished by George Wallace, Esq, Advocate, one of the last surviving Members, • - - 75 NO. IX. Letters from Thomas Reid, D. D. Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, to Lord Kames»'-^On the Laws of Motion. - - 8^ . CONTENTS. Ill A- ' Page From Dr Reid to Lord Karnes. — On the use of Con- Jeclures and Hi/potheses in Philosophical Investiga- tion ; and on tljc meaning of Cause when applied to Natural Philosophy. — The distinct Provinces of Physical and Metaphysical Reasoning pointed out. 90 From Dr Reid to Lord Karnes. — On the Laws of Mo- tion. — Pressure of Fluids, 4'^* - - - 103 From Dr Reid to Lord Karnes. — On the accelerated Motion of Falling Bodies. - • - 1 07 NO. X. On the Principles of Criminal Jurisprudence, as un- folded in Lord Kames'^s Essay on the History of the Criminal Law : with an examination (f the Theory of Montesquieu and Beccaria, relative to Crimes and Punishments. - t - - - HO APPENDIX TO VOLUME U. NO. I. L'E.TT^B.& from the Reverend Dr Josiah Tucker^ (Dean of Gloucester), to Lord Kames, oil subjects chiefly relating to political Economy. • - 15? IV CONTENTS. Fagc I. On the Comparative Advantages of a Rich and a Poor Countri/ for Manufactures, - - ib. II. From the same — On Charitable Collections, t^c. 163 III. From the same — On the same Subjects, - 166 IV. From the same — On Elements of Criticism, S^c. 170 V. From the same — On his own Writings, and Lite- rary and other occupations, - - - 172 VI. From the same. — On some of Mr Locke's Poli- tical Notions. — Errors in the Conduct of Bri- tain to the American Colonies. - - 177 VII. From the same-'^Ahsurd inferences of Political Writers, drc^wnfrom the Saxon Government. 182 NO. II. Letter from Robert Adam, Esq. to Lord Kames, - 1 84 NO. III. Letters from Lord Kames'^s Correspondence, on Certain subjects of PhysiologT^ and Natural Histoiy. - 191 I. Letter to Lord Kames from the Reverend Dr John Walker, Minister of Moffat, afterwards Regius Professor of Natural Histoiy in the University of Edinburgh — On the Analogy between Man and the inferior Animals; and that between Animals and Vegetables, « zL CONTENTS. V Page il. Lord Karnes to Sir James Nasmith of New Posso, Baronet — On the Analog!/ between Anu mats and Vegetables, - - - - 210 JII. Sir James Nasmith to Lord Kames-^On iJ^e same Subject, ----- 214 JV. From Dr Thomas Reid to Lord Kames-^On some Doctrines of Dr Priestly ; and of the French Philosophers. - - - - 220 V. From the same^^On the Conversion of Clay into Vegetable Mould, - - - . 222 yi. From the same — On the Generation of Plants (Lnd Animals. - - - - . 225 VII. From Dr Walker to Lord Karnes — On Hot- Blooded and Cold-Blooded Animals. - 230 yill. From the same to Lord Kames--On the Genera- tion of Animals and Plants-'— Wonderful pro ' visions of Nature for the Dissemination and Preservation of Plants, - - - 234 JX. From Lord Kames to Dr Walker- — On the same Subject. 249 X. Dr Walker to Lord Kames^^On the Aliment of Plants, and the Soils they most affect. - 252 VI CONTENTS. NO. IV. Pagf On certain Critical Remarks bi/ Dr Warhurton and M. De Voltaire, on some parts of Lord Kames*s Writings, - - - ^ _ - . 260 NO. V. ^ Chciracter of Lord Karnes hy Dr Reid, in an Extract from the Dedication of his Essai/s on the Intellectual Powers of Man 276 Extract of a Letter from Dr Reid to Mrs Drummond, after the death of Lord Kames. - - - 277 NO. VI. Three Letters from Mrs Montagu to Lord Kames, - 279 I. Anticipates a visit to Blair -Drummond, - ih, II. From the same-^On the Death of Lord LytteU ton. 281 III. From the same — On a Domestic Event ; — and on Religious Education, - • - S85 NO. VII. / The Prayer in the Conclusion of Lord Karnes's Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion, 28^ / CONTENTS. vil NO. viii. Page Letter from the Honourable Francis Garden of Gar^ denstone to Lord Karnes, on the merits of the old English Drama — With some Additional Ohserva- tions on the same Subject. - ^ - . 293 NO. IX. Four Letters from Lord Karnes to Mr Creech, - 327 NO. X. letter, Lord Karnes to William Morchead, Esq. - 3^4 II APPENDIX- NO. L Biographical Notices of some Scotsmen, eminent in Classical Literature, who flourish- ed in the period J rom the e7id of the Sixteenth to the heginjiifig of the Eighteenth Century, 1. XAoBERT Johnston was author of Historia Rerum Bintannicarum, S^c, ah anno 1572 ad an- num 1628, Amstel. 1655, a work of great merit, whether we consider the judicious structure of the narrative, the sagacity of the reflections, the acute discernment of characters, or the classical tincture of the style. In those passages of his History where there is room for a display of elo- quence, he is often singularly happy in touching those characteristic circumstances which present the picture strongly' to the mind of the reader, VOL. III. A 2 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 1. without a yaii^, parade of words, or artificial re- finement of sentiment. We may cite as an ex- ample his description of the death of Mary Queen of Scots, Lib. iv. sub anno 1586 ; and the circum- stances attending the death of Essex, with the author's reflections on that event, Lib. ix. sub anno 1601. A translation of this work, with notes, in the manner of commentary, would be a most acceptable present to the public ; but it would require a writer of superior ability, and deeply read in the history of the times, to do justice to such an undertaking. Johnston was one of the executors of George Heriot, jeweller to King James VI. the founder of the magnifi- cent Hospital for the education of orphans at Edinburgh, which bears his name : and the his- torian informs us that the endowment, splendid as it is, would have been greatly more so, si Reges (meaning James and Charles) et Buckin- gamius obligatam jidtm libtr assent, 2. Robert Baillie, author of a very learned work. Opus Historicum tt Chronologicum in quo Historia sacra et projana compendiose deducitur ea: ipsis Jbntibus, a creatione mundi ad Constant. Magn. AmsteL 1688; but better known as the author of Letters and Journals from 1637 to 1662, published at Edinburgh in 1775, which give a very curious account of the negotiations between the Scots Covenanted Presbyterians and their No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST.*^ (Bt brethren of England in the latter part of the reign of Charles I *. Baillie had been educated at Glasgow, in the time when Episcopacy was established in Scotland, and had received holy orders from Law, Archbishop of Glasgow; but in 164.0, he devoted himself entirely to the party of the Covenanted Lords, wlio sent him to Lon- don to draw up heads of accusation against Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, on the score of the innovations which that prelate had introduced into the ritual and mode of worship in Scotland. He was a man of considerable penetration, whose active and intriguing spirit litted him for per- forming a distinguished part in times of anarchy and national commotion. His talents had re- commended him to the Duke of Lauderdale, by whose interest he was made principal of the Uni- versity of Glasgow in J 661. It has been already mentioned, (in the second page of these Me- moirs), that a daughter of Robert Baillie, mar- ried to Mr Walkinshaw of Barrowfield, was the grandmother of Lord Kames. 3. Alexander Cunkinghame, author of the History of Great Britain from the Revolution in A 2 * His account of the Trial of Strafford, exhibits a most painful proof, to what degree the spirit of Party is capable X>f j subduing the best feelings of Human Nature. 4 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 1. 1688 to the Accession of George I. in 1714, (trans- lated from the Latin original by Dr Thomson, and pubhshed at London in 17B7, in two volumes 4to). This work, which comprehends the annals of a very interesting period, is written with judg- ment and candour ; and being the composition of a person actively engaged in several of the public transactions which he records, contains many curious anecdotes and facts not to be found in other historians. Cunninghame, by birth a Scotsman, was educated in Holland, where he lived in intimacy with the Scottish and English refugees at the Court of the Prince of Orange ; and particularly with the Earls of Argyle and Sunderland, and Mr Carstares, afterwards confi- dential secretary for Scottish affairs to King Wil- liam, The Earl of Argyle appointed him tutor to his son Lord Lorn, a young man of uncom- mon talents, known, at a subsequent period, in the first rank of British statesmen, by the title of John, Duke of Argyle. Cunninghame, while abroad, carried on a regular confidential corres- pondence with the Ministry, and was afterwards- honoured with the office of resident from the British Court to the Republic of Venice. A co- incidence of name has led to the confounding of the historian with Alexander Cunninghame, the celebrated editor and emendator of Horace, and the antagonist of Bently ; but the evidence pro- duced by Dr Thomson, in a very elaborate pre- No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 5 face to Cunninghame's History, leads to a strong presumption that they were different persons: and a late writer, under the signature of Crito, in the Scots Magazine for October 1804, seems to have put this fact beyond question ; the editor of Horace having died at ihe Hague in 1730, and the historian at London in 1737. The style of the original work, as appears from the specimens given by the translator, is in general correct, and sufficiently perspicuous ; but has no pretension either to elegance or classical purity. It is chief- ly remarkable for expressing with ease, ideas pe- culiar to modern life and manners. It was a dif- ficult matter, as his translator justly remarks, ** to express the humours of the people of Eng- '* land on the occasion of a general election, the ** extravagance of the Londoners at the time of '* Dr Sacheverell's trial; and the temporary im- ■■ portance of butchers with marrow-bones and " cleavers, chairmen, porters, chimney-sweeps, ^' link-boys, and blackguards." But that a task even of this kind could be atchieved, in consis- tence with the purity of the Latin idiom, had been before evinced by Buchanan and Robert Johnston ; not to mention the writers of other nations, Strada, Grotius, and Thuanus. 4. Patrick Hume, author of a most elaborate and learned Commentary on the Paradise Lost of Milton, published, London 1695> in foho, ^* to A3 ^ APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. NO. 1.] ** wliich, (says Mr T. Warton), " some of his '^ successors in tlie same province, apprehending '* no danger of detection from a work rarely in- " spected, and too pedantic and cumbersome to attract many readers, have been often amply indebted, without even the most distant hint of acknowledgment," (Warton's edition of Mil- ton's Lesser Poems, S^x\ Pref ) That great depre- dations have been frequently made on the labours of Patrick Hume is certain ; but the wonder is, that the plunderers should ever have hoped for concealment ; for the edition to which the com- ]nentary is usually subjoined, is one ^of the most splendid and beautiful that have ever been pu? blished of the Paradise Lost ; and the notes dis- play such a depth of erudition and elaborate re- search, as could scarcely fail to procure them the attention of all the learned readers of Milton. But it is a disgrace to his age, that their author should nave met with so much neglect that not a trace is now to be discovered of his history or character. 5. Mr John Sage, a Bishop of the Old Epis- copal Church of Scotland, a man of great learn- ing, worth and piety, and of uncommon acute- ness as a controversial writer in defence of the church to which he belonged. He was profound- ly skilled in all the ancient languages, which gave him an eminent advantage over his adyer- No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 7 saries, the most distinguished of whom was Mr Gilbert Rule, Principal of the College of Edin- burgh, who, with much zeal, and no mean abili- ty, was overmatched by the superior learning and historical knowlege of his antagonist. Sage was born in 16.52, the son of Captain Sage, a gentle- man of Fifeshire, and an officer of merit in Lord Duffus's regiment, who fought on the side of the Royalists, when Monk stormed Dundee in 1651. The chief writings of Bishop Sage are, The Fun- damental Charter of Presbytery, London 1693; The Principles of the Cyprianic Age, London 1695; A Vindication of that Work, London 1701 ; The Life of Gawin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld, pre- fixed to Ruddiman's edition of The Translation of VirgiTs JEneis, Edinburgh 1710; An Introduc- tion to Drummond^s History of the Five Jameses j Edinburgli 1711. The Life of Sage was well written by Mr John Gillan, a Bishop of the same church, published at London in 1714; and seve- ral interesting notices of him are given in Mr Chalmers's instructive and curious Life of Ruddi- man. I shall mention a few other writers who do honour to Scotland, and who may be ranked in the class of elegant, though not profound scholars, during the same unfavourable period, from the beginning of the reign of Charles L till the Re- volution. V A 4 S APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. ]. 1. William Drummond of Hawthornden, whose various talents, improved by a most libe- ral education, and polished by a long residence in foreign countries, fitted him to be the orna- ment of a court, and to shine conspicuously as a ptfblic character; from an amiable diffidence and tnodesty, and a mind insensible to the allure- ments of ambition, chose to devote his life to %tudious retirement, and the cultivation of polite literature; for which he had the best accomplish- ment, in the knowledge he possessed of most of the ancient and modern languages. He inheri- ted a native poetic genius, but vitiated by the false taste which prevailed in his age, — a fond- ness for the conceits of the Italian poets, Pe- trarch and Marino, and those of the same school among the French, Ronsard, Bellai, and Du Bar- fas, Yet many of his sonnets contain simple and natural thoughts clothed in great beauty gf ex- pression. His poem entitled Forth Feasting, which attracted the envy as well as the praise qf Bek Johnson, is superior, in harmony of num- bers, to any of the compositions of the cotempa- rary poets of England ; and is, in its subject^ one %f the most elegant panegyrics that ever were addressed by a poet to a prince. In prose wri- ^ ting, the merits of Drummond are as unequal as ^ they are in poetry. When an imitator, he is harsh, turgid, affected and unnatural; as in his History of the Five Jameses, which, though judicious in the arrangement of the matter, and abounding in No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. g excellent political and moral sentiments, is bar- barous and uncouth in its style, from an affec- tation of imitating partly the manner of Livy, and partly that of Tacitus. Thus, there is a per- petual departure from ordinary construction, and frequently a violation of the English idiom. In others of his prose compositions, where he follow- ed his own taste, as in the Irene and Cypress^ Grove, and particularly in the former, there is a remarkable purity and ease of expression, and of- ten a very high tone of eloquence. The Irene, written in 1638, is a persuasive to civil union, and the accommodation of those fatal differences between the King and the People, then verging to a crisis : It is a model of a popular address ; and, allowing for its pushing too far the doctrine of passive obedience, bears equal evidence of the political sagacity, copious historical information, and great moral worth and benevolence of its au- thor. — Drummond died in 1649, in the sixty- fourth year of his age, a ^t\v months after the murder of his sovereign Charles I. %, The Reverend Mr Ninian Paterson, au- thor of an amusing miscellany, entitled. Epigram- mat um Libri Octo, cum aliquot Fsalmorum para^ phrasi poeticdj Edinburgi 1678. He was minister of Liberton in the reigns of Charles II. and James II. He designs himself Glasguensis, and was probably a relation of John Paterson, Bishop 10 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 1. of Galloway, afterwards Archbishop of Glasgow, to whom he addresses several of his poems. His Epigi^ammata are curious, as commemorating all the remarkable men of his own time. They are often extremely happy in the turn of thought, and written in easy numbers and good Latinity; The following specimen appears to me to possess much tenderness and beauty, both of sentiment and expression : Adjilium infantem dum ejularet. Parve, quid, heu, lacrymis teneros corrumpis ocellos ? An cum luce ti])i sors quoque damna dedit ? Nulla tuum laedit mendax infamia nomen. Nee nocet insani lis rabiosa fori : Praesentis non cura coquit, terrorve futurij Lascivusve vorat moUia corda furor. Te neque suspensis ludit spes aiixia votis. Nee tibi pauperies horrida tela quatit. Damna gemis forsan nimium mea, praecoce cura. Plus nimis (O infans !) hac mihi parte loquax ; Moestave praeludunt propriis praesagia fatis, Et tecum tenero crescit ab ungue dolor ! At, precor, hos fletus maturos differ in annos, Turn plus forte satis cur lacrymeris erit: Quin potius senii solamen vivito nostri. Si datur, et matri gaudia longa feras. iPaterson appears to have suffered much calumny 'from the puritanical party of his times, whom No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 11 his poetical satire probably galled and exaspe- rated. In a miserable production, entitled, An A7iswer to Scots Presbyterian Eloquence Display- ed, (the original piece and the answer, equally infamous and disgraceful libels,) he is stigma- tized as a hypocrite in religion, and a profligate in his manners : but, from his writings, lie ap- pears to have been a man of piety and virtue. Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaiigh, one of the most distinguished characters of his time, was the son of Simon Mackenzie of Lochsline, and nephew of George, first Earl of Seaforth. He was born at Dundee in 1636, and educated at the Universities of Aberdeen and St Andrew's. At the age of sixteen, he went abroad, and stu- died the ci\'il law in the University of Bourges. He put on the gown of a barrister in the twen- tieth year of his age ; and although his mind seems to have had a strong bent to the prosecu- tion of general literature, the ardour with wdiich he applied himself to the profession of the law, together with a copious and animated elocution, raised him in a few years to the greatest emi- nence at the Scottish bar. Yet, judging from his writings, his talents appear to have been ra- ther splendid than solid. He certainly possessed uncommon assiduity and activity of mind, as the number and variety of his compositions testify : aijd perhaps the superficial manner in which h^ 12 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 1. has treated many of those subjects foreign to his profession, is the less to be wondered at, in a man whose time was so occupied in professional duties. The obscurity and confusion that are discernible in some of his juridical discussions, may have arisen in a great measure from the rude, unmethodized, and almost chaotic state of the law of Scotland, both civil and criminal, in his days. We do not judge candidly of the me- rit of those older authors, who wrote before the law was systematized, and who were themselves the first to bring it into method, when we com- pare their efforts in clearing a path through a trackless forest, to the advances of their succes- sors on a beaten road, and through an improved and polished country. We ought never to for- get the dif^culties which the former had to en- counter, nor the advantages which the latter have derived from their labours ; availing them- selves of all their discoveries, and profiting even by their errors. On one account alone, although every other merit were forgotten, Sir George Mackenzie is entitled to respect as a lawyer. He was the first who exploded from the practice of the criminal courts of Scotland, that most ab- surd and iniquitous doctrine, That no defence was to be admitted in exculpation from a cri- minal indictment which was contrary to the li- bel : as, if John were accused of having murder- ed JatneSf by giving him a mortal wound with a No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 18 sword, it was not allowable for John to prove in his defence, that the wound was not given in any- vital part, and that James died of a fever caught afterwards by contagion. It appears strange to us, that a doctrine or rule so repugnant to com- mon sense, should require a serious confutation ; but the annals of our criminal court, and the writings of foreign jurists, shew, that it was of long and inveterate prevalence, not only in this country, but in the most polished nations of Eu- rope. — Sir George Mackenzie, in the exercise of his duty of King's Advocate in the reign of Charles II. incurred of necessity the resentment of the party of the Covenanters ; and perhaps it is not without reason that his conduct on some of the Treason trials of that period has been cen- sured even by writers of constitutional princi- ples *, But it is not so much the public cha- racter of Sir George Mackenzie that warrants any notice of him in this place : It is in the capa- * A more attentive and minute investigation into tho&e trials, (particularly the trial of Mitchel for an attempt to as- sassinate the Archbishop of St Andrew's,) has induced the au- thor, upon full conviction, to alter the opinion expressed in the first edition of this work, and to allow, that the conduct of Sir George Mackenzie on some of those trials was much ' more deserving of blame than of encomium. But on this I may possibly find a more proper occasion to make some re - marks* 14 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 1. city of an clc<;'aiit scliolar, that I liave ranked him amono- the omaiuents of his ao'e and country. His Latin compositions are correct and classical in no common degree. His style is evidently formed on the writings of Cicero and the Young- er Pliny 5 and though a little tinctured with the more florid eloquence of Quinctilian, is entirely free from the false embellishments and the bar- barisms of the writers of the lower ages^ His^ Idea Eloquentics forensisy is a masterly tractate, which enumerates and eloquently describes all the important requisites of a pleader, and gives the most judicious precepts for the cultivation of the various excellencies, and the avoiding of the ordinary defects of forensic elocution. His Characteres quorundam apud Scotos Advocatorum, evince a happy talent for painting, not only the great and prominent differences of manner in the pleaders of his age, but of discriminating, with singular nicety, and in the most appropriate terms, the more minute and delicate shades of distinc- tion, which a critical judgment alone could per- ceive, and which could be delineated only by a master's hand. Sir George Mackenzie retired at the Revolution from all public employment ; and died^ a short time after, at London, I691, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 15 APPENDIX.— NO. 11. ART. I. — hi:TTER from Mr Henry Home to the Reverend Dr Samuel Clarke. Edinburghy August 1723. Reverend Sir, The same inclination for the benefit and in- struction of mankind, that engaged you first to publish to the world your excellent Sermons up^ on the Being and Attributes of the Deity ^ will, I am hopeful, prevail upon you frankly to give your assistance to a young philosopher, though a stranger, whose misfortune it is to have yet some remaining difficulties, after the strictest perusal of your book : Nor do I want precedents in this boldness ; and the obliging as well as satisfac- tory returns you have given to your former cor- respondents, makes me not despair of success. Not to waste your time with apologies, I shall begin with the demonstrations of your second proposition, neither of which, (pardon my weak- ness,) can I prevail upon myself to think accu- rate; and both for the same reasons; for you connect two ideas which in this proof are neces- 16 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. g. sarily distinct, viz. self-existence and necessity ; for, upon the present supposition, though it is granted that not a Hnk of the chain is self-evi- dent, yet it certainly follows, that each is neces- sary ; from this plain reason, that the whole is reckoned so. It is unreasonable, therefore, to take for granted, that none of the series is neces- sary, when the direct contrary is the most im- mediate consequence that possibly can be drawn from the supposition, which stands at length thus : There has been infinite succession of be- ings produced one from another, in an endless progression, none of which are self-existent, be- cause each owes the cause of its being to the pre- ceding ; but the whole, and consequently every one, is necessary, upon this a<:count, that there is something in the nature of every individual that works necessarily in the production of that immediately following. Dear Sir, I am heartily convinced, even with- out a demonstration, of the wildness of this po- sition y but 1 would gladly not rest here, not doubting but there are data sufficient to deter- mine your proposition to the conviction of the most obstinate atheist. If this be done already, and your demonstrations conclusive, I am confi- dent you will not grudge the trouble of giving me satisfaction. I must look upon it as a most valuable favour, and mark myself down very No. 2.1 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 'J 7 much your debtor upon that account. — But to proceed : In Prop. 7. in your demonstrations of the Uni- ty, you seem not accurately enough to distinguish the hypothetical necessity, from the absolute neces- sity a pj'iori ; and though 1 grant your proof conclusive with respect to the first, yet by no means with respect to the other. There is no- thing plainer, than that but one Deity can be hypothetically necessary, that is to say, one be- ing sufficiently answers for that necessity, by which I am obliged to allow some one being at least to be eternal, and tliis precisely is your ar- gument. But though I see no necessity for more than one Deity, does it from thence follow, that there possibly can be no more : here lies my difficulty, which I am vexed your arguments iiave not as yet brought me over. Page 107. edit. 4. you endeavour to reconcile Liberty and Prescience : I confess I never could get over this point, and I have long ago drawn up some arguments on this head, before I had it in my thoughts of giving you the trouble of this epistle, and they are as folio vv^s"* : — ' - * In the MS., which is a copy in Lord Karnes's handwri- ting, or a rough draught of his letter to Dr Clarke, the ar- guments on this point are omitted: They were probably the.. ,same that are urged on the same topic, in his Es^i^s p^, Afo- rality and Natural Religion. VOL. III. £ %% APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2. In page 123. the proof that God is true, seems not clear enough. You say the only possible reason of falsifying is either rashness or forget- fulness, inconstancy, &c. Now, this looks a little like begging the question ; for unless it be antecedently wrong to tell a lie, it will not be granted you, that rashness, forgetfulness, &c. are the only possible reasons of falsifying, because your antagonist would say, there being no ante- cedent preference of truth to falsehood in the na- ture of things, in every case you are left at li- berty to choose which of them is fittest for your present purpose. In page 127. you say, God cannot but do al- ways what is best and wisest on the whole : if you design only that best and wisest should stand in opposition to error, evil and unfitness, I willingly close with you ; but if you mean by best and wisest, strictly, that of all possible in- finite varieties of actions, God cannot but choose that which, taking in all considerations, is the best and most for the advantage of the whole ^ herein I must profess myself your antagonist. It is undeniably certain, that there is a series of ' possible events going on to infinity, each of which is more fitted than the preceding for the good of mankind. To refuse this, is to set li-* mits to God's power of doing good. The case being so, to say that in any one instance God has done the best upon the whole, is to maintains No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. IQ this absurdity, that infinity is exhausted, at the same time that it is inexhaustible. But enough of this ; I am convinced that the first meaning- is only yours ; and, upon reflection^ 1 perceive your demonstration goes no further. In the evidences of natural and revealed reli- gion, you lay it down as the first rule, that we keep up constantly in our minds, the highest pos- sible honour, esteem and veneration for the Deity. It is true, that most writers upon the laws of nature do the same ; but it is certainly too loose a way of writing. I believe it will be granted, that our actions are the only proper objects of law. Now, having veneration, honour, esteem for the Deity, is not acting. Veneration, honour, esteem, are passions, and, therefore, not subject to laws. 2dly, You order us to consider .him as the only Supreme Author, Preserver and Gover-. nor of all things. Now, it is absurd that any law sliould subject our thoughts, or oblige us to look upon a thing to be so or so. It may indeed oblige us to act, by applying our faculties to the consideration of the attributes of the. Deity ; and this truly is our duty, because thereby we learn God's will, v/hich is the rule of all our actions : for as the end is necessar}^ so is the means; and it must be confessed also, that if we thus apply our minds to consider God's attributes, it can hardly miss to influence our passions ; but this is far ^om making it our duty to have these passions. B 2 20 APPENDIX TO VOLUME TIRST. [NO. 2. In the rule you laid down to regulate our ac- tions with respect to our neighbours, (page G?. of the second Treatise,) you name two branches, one of Equity, another of Love ; but the second, viz. That we deal so with every man, as, in the like circumstances, we could reasonably expect he should deal with us, is either no rule at all, or a very undetermined one ; for if you mean by it only this, that any relation I bear to you, chan- ging places, you must bear to me ; in this sense, it is no rule of action, but an abstract truth : and if you design any thing more, it must lie in the words, " we could reasonably expect." This in- deed makes it a rule, but much too general for practice ; for the question still remains, What can we reasonably expect ? Indeed, we have the an- swer ready which we can draw from the latter branch of this rule ; for, as you say afterwards, explaining this second branch in page 72., we may expect all the good that is in our neigh- bours power; and after all, I cannot possibly find the reason why you should not distinguish these two branches, and call the one Equit}', and the other Love ; for the second seems purposely cal- culated to determine the too general conception of the first. What you mean by Love I do not so well comprehend ; for, as you lay down in page 72., if every rational creature ought in its sphere and station, to do all the good it can do to all its fellow-creatures, the fellow-creature No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 21 must have the reciprocal right of exacting ; con- sequently, it will be unjust to withhold any part of this good, or to disappoint the just and rea- sonable expectations of the fellow-creature. Be- sides, I wish you had explained this last rule, That every one is obliged to do all the good he can, so as to have left no dubiety ; for I cannot certainly determine, whether your sense be, that he ought to do all he can, providing that he do himself no harm ; or if the rule be absolute, that he is under a positive obligation in every action to do what is best in the whole, without consi- dering himself in any other view but as a single particle of this v/hole. I am the more importu- nate upon this head, because it is of great conse- quence, no less than the foundation of all mora- lit}', that part at least which regards our neigh- bours ; and it is strange that this matter has not, as far as I could learn, as yet been taken out of the state of dubiety, and fixed to some certain point by an accurate demonstration. There are three different schemes which I have frequently revolved in my thoughts, but have not yet been able to determine positively which to fix on. The first goes upon the supposition, that there are certain rights granted to every man indiffe- rently by the laws of nature ; such as the right to food, right to trutb, right of punishment, &c. ; and these rights contain in their idea, that the law *3 22 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2, protects every man in the exercise of them : so the rule will run thus, That every man is obliged to act thus with relation to his neighbour, as not directly to do him damage, or, which is the same thing, disturb him in the exercise of his rights ; but, on the other hand, that he is not bound to advance his good. The second goes also upon the foundation of rights, only it carries the point a little further, viz. That every man is positively bound to advance the good of others, in all cases where it does not contradict his own good. The third commands, That every man must directly choose that which, taking in all circumstances, will do most good, without considering himself but as one of the infinite number whose good he is equally bound to advance. This last, it is plain, destroys all other rights and obligations, to raise itself upon their ruins. The first, were I obliged to hx, would be my scheme ; and I have the securest side of the question, the presumption being for me, from the nature of rights. It is indeed evident, that I am bound to do my neigh- bour no harm ; but if you carry the point higher, and oblige me also to do him good, yours must be the probation ; for I will never submit myself to a greater burden than I see myself in duty bound : besides that, if you establish any of the other schemes, of consequence you make all the common epithets, generosity, benevolence, sel- fishness, kindness, &:c. mere empty sounds, with- No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST*. S8 out any fixed ideas ; for how can you reckon that man generous or benevolent, who, in doing all the good he is capable of, does nothing more than what he is directly bound, &c. to do. Sure nobody is reckoned generous for paying his just debts ; and the man also who neglects this duty is not properly named selfish, but wicked. But still, after all, there is no direct demonstration ; and if you adhere to your rule laid down in page 72., you will be so kind as to acquaint me what strictly is the meaning; but whatever sense you put upon it, I expect you )vill join it with some other demonstration than that already gi- ven : for I cannot help thinking, that it is not far from a contradiction to assert, that God does always what is absolutely best on the whole ; though, upon the other hand, I shall readily grant, if you prove aliundh, that this duty is in- cumbent upon mankind, God's not doing always what is absolutely best, will be no solid objec- tion ; for it is no good consequence to say, that since it is impossible God should do what is ab- solutely best, therefore, man, (though there be no impossibility,) is not obliged to contribute all his endeavours. I cq,nnot deny, even granting the reasonableness of the first scheme, but there may be some exceptions, which, too, may be drawn from the nature of the thing : for an ex- ample, I have set down the following, which oc- B 4 24 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2. curred to me, as I was considering a short essay that a friend of mine had drawn up upon the suhject of CoJijimctions ; and though I cannot lielp tliinking, that I have carried the point too far, yet I am not able for the Hfe of me to find out where the weak side lies. ART. II. — The Reverend Z)r Samuel Claiike to Mr Henry Home. Sir, You will pardon my sending* you such a brief answer, as is according to my custom, and to the time allowed me for such matters. Though the ideas of necessity and self exist- ence are indeed distinct, yet every necessity not founded in self-existence, is in reality either mere- ly figurative, or merely hypothetical. An endless succession of beings, produced one from another, without any self-existent cause, is nothing but a xrerbal removing of the diflBculty a little out of sight : It is in reality the same supposition, as the 'endless (the beginningless) duration of one being, neither self-ejtistent itself, nor having its exis- tence founded in any self existent cause ; which A% absurd and contradictory. No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 25 If we see no necessity for more than one Dei- ty, (that is, if owe necessary being sufficiently an- swers for that necessity, by which I am obhged to allow some one bemg at least to be necessary,) it doth from thence follow, that there can possi- bly be no more : Because whatever being can possibly be conceived not to be necessai^y, cannot possibly be necessary ; the idea of necessity effec- tually excluding all possibility of being so much as conceived to be not necessary. He that con- ceives the equality of the three angles of a tri- angle to two right ones, not to be necessary, does not in truth conceive any such thing, but only carelessly affirms a contradiction, of which no man can ever possibly have any conception at all : It is only talking nonsense in an unknown language. Just as omnipotence is the power of doing all things possible to be done, so omniscience is the power of knowing all things possible to be known. Whether, therefore, future free actions be the object of science, or only of injinitely per- feet and unerring judgment, which is a distinct at- tribute, is the only pertinent question, but of no importance at all to be resolved. Undoubtedly, were there no antecedent preference of truth to falsehood in the nature of things, in every case every one would be left at liberty to choose which of them is fittest for his present purpose : And for the same reason, the whole nature and eiis- tenoie of things would be a mere impertinency. 26 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2. It is certainly true, (speaking morally, not physi- cally,) that God cannot but do always what is best and wisest 07i the wJwle. But then, by the Avord xvho/e, you must always remember, not to itiean so s?jmll a part as mankind in the present time, or mankind in all times, but the sum total of the works of God (taken together as one system,) through infinite space and infinite time ; with re- gard to which, infinity is by no means inex- haustible. I agree, that " actions only are the proper ob- " jects of law :" And, therefore, I mean only what you rightly express, that *' we are obliged to act, by applying our faculties to the consi- deration of the attributes of the Deity ;" the consequence of which, in a sincere mind, cannot but be veneration, honour, and esteem. As to the obligation upon men to do all the good they cany I take it to be, not a point or a line, but a matter of great latitude. To do any wrong, is punishable in proportion to the wrong done or in- tended. To do barely what is just, is barely not being punishable. To be totally negligent and in- active, and to do fio good, is (I think) a species of Vice, punishable. To do good actually, is a, power and a duty, unlimited, and divisible in infinitum; commendable in proportion to the innumerable different possible degrees of it, and proposed to us as such, by the nature of things, and by the Author of our being, I take a right to be, 'not NO. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 27 only (what you define it) a moral power to act^ but also a moral Jitness and capacity to receive, which belongs as much to infants as to men, I am, Sir, your very humble servant, S. Clarke. London, August 29- 1723. ART. III. — Letter from Mr Andrew Baxter, Author of^' An Inquiry into the Nature of the " Human Soul, of IVIatho or Cosmotheoria *^ puerilis," 8^c. to Jopin Wili^es, Esq. My Dearest Mr Wilkes, Your letter of December the 12th alarmed me, by hearing you had got such a dangerous fall off your horse. Moderate exercise is good; but dan- gerous exercise, such as riding a fiery horse, is not commendable ; and if you would oblige Mrs Wilkes, if you would oblige all your friends, and all good men, who conceive great hopes from you, you will be more cautious for the future. We had a terrible instance in the newspapers late- ly, of a man, spoken wonderfully well of, who got his death by such a fall. As to altering any thing in the address to you before the appendix, I durst not do it without 28 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2. your participation ; unless you had suggested something you would have had changed : and by this time I suppose it is published. If not, I beg you cause change any thing you think pro- per. 1 wrote to Mr Millar, after presenting some copies to gentlemen in London, to send down five copies of it to Lord Blantyre at Edinburgh, to be given to particular friends there, and I wish you would speak to him of it. As to the state of my disease, unless I would make suppositions contrary to all probability, I have no reasonable hopes of recovery ; the swelling which began at my legs, being now got up to my belly and head. I am a trouble to all about me, especially to my poor wife, who has the life of a slave, night and day, in helping me to take care of a diseased car- case. Yet I may linger on a while, as I can still walk a little through my room, and divert myself now and then with reading, nay, and writing down my remarks on what I read. But I can with sincerity assure you, (my most dear Mr Wilkes,) death has nothing terrible to me, or ra- ther I look upon it with pleasure- I have long and often considered, and written down, the ad- vantages of a separate state. I shall soon know more than all the men I leave behind me ; won- ders in material nature, and the world of spirits, which never entered into the thoughts of philo- sophers. The end of knowledge there, is not to get a name, or form a new sect, but to adore No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 29 THE POV/ER AXD ^VISDOM OF THE DeITY. ThlS kills pride, but heightens happiness and pleasure. All our rational desires, because rational, must be satisfied by a Being himself infinitely rational. I have been long aware that nothing can go be- yond the grave, but the habits of virtue and in- nocence. There is no distinction in that world, but what proceeds from virtue, or vice. Titles and riches are laid off, when the shroud goes on. But O ! mv dearest friend, I cannot conceal from you a topic of inexpressible pleasure. Punish- ment itself is pleasant. God does not punish out of anger and revenge, to destroy; as we wrath- ful men conclude ; but to correct and make better. That is the true end of punishment. Boundless punishment would show uncontrollable power, but chastisement in proportion to our faults, shows the divine perfection of equity; and with a design to correct, not to throw us oif^ shews mercy. The end of God s punishing us, there- fore, is our final happiness. Are not these, my dearest friend, comfortable topics at the approach of death ? Besides, what is it to be free from the pains and infirmities of the body ? Though I am satisfied just now, that the weakness of my dis- tressed limbs is as much the immediate effect of the same pow er and goodness, as their growth and strength was sixty years ago. Durst I add a word without being thought vain, I would say, This is o\ving to my having reasoned honestly on 30 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2. the nature of that dead suhstance, Matter. It is as utterly inert, when the tree flourishes, as when tlie leaf withers. And it is the same divine power, differently applied, that directs the last parting throb, and the first drawing breath. O ! the blindness of those, who think matter can do any thing of itself, or perform an effect, without impulse or direction by immaterial power! As to party-philosophers, who are for one side only, and contract a personal dislike to those who are not as stiff as themselves^ they are to be pitied. I see them making their court to the heads of the party, and thus angling for a little reputation, at second-hand. It is astonishing, my dear Sir, that all men are forced to own, that all matter neces- sarily resists a change of its present state, either of rest or motion; and yet when they come to the genuine consequence of this, to wit, that the Deity performs immediately all that is done in the material universe, they retract the former self- evident truth, and ascribeto this resisting sub- stance, both a self-motive and self-determining power. I know not one book of natural philo- sophy, not one, free from this inconsistency. And though I be the only person (for any thing 1 know) who has endeavoured to establish the par- ticular Providence of the Deity, and show his in- cessant influence and action on all the parts of matter, through the wide universe, from the in^ activity of this dead substance : Yet I hope, when No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST* 31 the present party-zeal subsides a little, men will come more easily in, to own such a plain truth : And, from the same obvious principle, a great many absurd notions in natural philosophy, con- cerning powers in matter, will be rejected. I own, if it had been the will of Heaven, I would gladly have lived, till I had put in order the Second Part of the Inquiry sheumig the Im- mortality of the Human Soul^, But Infinite Wis- dom cannot be mistaken in calling me sooner. Our blindness makes us form wishes. I have left seven or eight diiFerent MS. books, where all the materials I have been collectings for near thirty years, are put down, without any order, in the book that came next to my hand, in the place or cir- cumstances I was in at the time. I took all these papers to Holland with me,, thinking to put them in order there ; but you know that was imprac- ticable. And since I came home I have been prevented, either with looking after country af- fairs, or want of health. There are among these a great many miscellaneous subjects in philoso- phy, of a very serious nature, few of them ever considered before, as I know of. But (as I hinted above) a short time of separate existence will * The author's materials for this second part were, many years after his death, arranged and published by Dr J. Dun^ can, in 1779> "t one volume 8vo. 52 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 2. make, every good man look with pity on tlie deepest researches we make here, and which we are apt to be vain of. — Thus I liave writ you every thing 1 had to say. It will be kind if you send me a last letter. I wish you and Mrs Wilkes all possible prosperity. And though I cannot do you any service here, yet I hope our friendship shall never end. Andrew Baxter. fFhittingktm?, January 2g. 1750*. APPENDIX.— NO. ni. On Final Causes, 'At>*i A VEiiV .striking feature in all the philosophi- cal writings of Lord Karnes, is,, his frequent re- ference to Final Causes. He omits no opportu- nity that occurs of pointing them out to the at- tention of his reader; and indulges himself with — * This excellent man died a few weeks after the date of' this letter. - - NO. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 33 evident delight in considering all the phenomena both of the natural and moral world, as evidences of consummate wisdom, combined with benevo- lent design, and therefore furnishing irresistible conviction, not only of the power, but of the wisdom and beneficence of the Supreme Being. So universally indeed is this argument diffused through the author's writings, that we are indu- ced to conclude, he regarded it as a primary ob- ject of his philosophy : A noble object, and worthy of those superior endowments of intel- lect, with which it has pleased our Creator to di- stinguish the highest order of his creatures. In this important point of view, not less than in its subserviency to the acquisition of knowledge, and the improvement of science, the consideration of Final Causes has been recommended by the ablest philosophers. But as it is capable of being push- ed to a hurtful extreme, we willingly admit, that it is to be cautiously pursued ; and it must be ac- knowledged, that, in those of a warm and san- guine temperament, and in whom the generous affections strongly predominate, a want of due caution in such researches has led to error instead of truth. This abuse sufficiently accounts for the strong censure which has been bestowed on this mode of inquiry by speculative men of a colder frame of mind, though of great philosophical acuteness. But every argument ab abusu ought VOL III. c 34 APPENDIX TO VOLUMl! FIRST. [NO. 3. to be well weighed, before it receives our impli* cit assent. I propose to examine briefly the grounds of this unfavourable prejudice, to canvass the argu- ments that have been adduced against those re- searches, and to evince their utility when proper- ly and cautiously conducted. The inquiry into Final Causes *, or the attempt to discover those ends which the Creator propo- sed to himself, in the formation of the universe, and of the various species of animate and inani- mate beings with which it i» filled, has been condemned by certain philosophers, on distinct and separate grounds of objection. These may be reduced to three principal heads. 1. The possibility of tracing design from its effects, has been altogether denied. 2. It is alleged, that it is presumptuous and im- pious in man to pretend, that he is able to disco- ver the ends of the Omniscient Being in the for- mation of his creatures : And, 3. It is asserted, that such researches are a hin- derance to improvement in philosophy, and in the knowledge of nature. * These observations on the subject of Final Causes, were first published in an Account of the Life and Writings of Dr William Derham, written by the author of the present work, and prefixed to an enlarged edition of the Physico-Theologyy printed, London, 1798. They are now given in a more cop-i rect, and somewhat more ample form. No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST./. 35 1. The first of these propositions has been main- tained by Mr David Hume and his followers ; who argue, that the inferences of design from its effects, are neither demonstrable by reasoning, nor deducible from experience. Dr Reid, who has most ably combated Mr Hume's argument on this subject, admits, that the inferences in que- stion are not the result of reasoning or of expe- rience ; but he maintains at the same time, that they may be made with a degree of certainty equal to what the human mind is capable of at- taining in any instance whatever. '* The opi- nions (says an able expositor of Dr Reid's phi- losophy) which we form of the talents of other men ; nay, our belief that other men are intel- ligent beings, are founded on this very infer- ence of design from its effects. Intelligence and design are not objects of our senses; and yet we judge of them every moment from ex- ternal conduct and behaviour, with as little he- sitation as we pronounce on the existence of what we immediately perceive *." In short, our conviction of the existence of a desioning; cause, when we perceive certain regular and con- stant effects, is so inborn and natural to the mind, that it may be classed among those intuitive c 2 (( a a a it a * Outlines of Moral Philosophy, by Professor DuQALa^ Stewart, edit. 2,, p. 188, iiS APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3. truths that need no argument to demonstrate them. We should justly accuse that man of in- sanity, who, on seeing a well-constructed clock, and observing how nicely all its parts were form^ ed and put together, so that nothing appeared superfluous, or out of its place, nor any thing wanting that was necessary towards the regula- rity of its motion ; on finding likewise, that this beautiful machine answered the useful purpose of pointing out most accurately the division of time by hours, minutes, and seconds, and marked the greater divisions by audible sounds, so as to be equally serviceable in the night as in the day ; — we should justly, I say, accuse that man of abso- lute insanity, who should deny, that those vari- ous complicated parts were formed and put to- gether for the very purposes which we see the machine so admirably fulfils. It is a law of our nature that we should entertain this belief. No V man can avoid it. The greatest sceptic himself ^' J is irresistibly impressed with this conviction, and ^v regulates all his actions by similar conclusions / drawn from effect to cause. ^V But, says the sceptical philosopher, we can in no case judge of the wisdom of any design, un- less we are first made acquainted with the end or object which the artist proposed to attain ; for, it is not till we have obtained that acquaintance, that we can form any judgment of the means employed to accomplish the end. Now, all that s?' \ No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 37 we perceive in the universe, is, that certain things are actually accomplished : but we are utterly ignorant what plan was proposed. In answer to this objection it may be urged, that in many instances we discern, with the ut- most certainty, the plan that was proposed. As, for example, we plainly perceive it to have been the intention of the Creator, that every animated being should be able to perpetuate its kind ; so that the universe may be constantly supplied with inhabitants, without the intervention of the crea- tive power exerted to form every individual ani- mal. This plan is obvious and certain ; because w^e perceive the power of propagation in every individual of every species of the animal kind, unless it is impaired by disease or accidental de- fect. In this instance, we are not left to doubt as to the Creator's plan ; and we may, therefore, confidently reason as to the fitness or unfitness of the means for accomplishing that end in all the diiferent species : And if we find those means, however various in the different tribes of ani- mals, yet all most completely answering the same end, and with equal certainty accomplishing one uniform purpose, we are compelled to pronounce, that this effect is a proof of design, and that the means are with consummate skill and wisdom adapted to the end. ^. The second objection that has been urged c3 38 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3. against all inquiries into Final Causes, is, That it is presumptuous and impious in man, to endea- vour to penetrate into the designs of the Deity, and to search out those ends wliich He proposed to himself in the formation of the universe. This reason is urged hy Des Cartes, who rejects the speculation into Final Causes altogether; and we iind several observations to the same purpose in the works of Maupertuis and Buffon. In answer to this objection, we have a single argument of Mr Boyle, which appears sufficient completely to overthrow it. It were both pre- sumption and folly for man to pretend to disco- ver all the ends which God may have proposed to himself in the formation of all his works. But, to perceive some of those ends in certain of his works, is, so far from being presumptuous, that it would be absolute blindness and stupidity not to discover them. As, for instance, he who con- siders the complicated structure of the eye, and observes how admirably it serves the purpose of conveying to the mind an idea of the figure, size, and colour of external objects, cannot possibly entertain a doubt, that it was intended for that purpose by the Being who framed it; and it "would be egregious folly indeed, to suspend or to refuse our belief of that design, from the notion of its being presumptuous to attempt finding out the counsels of the Deity. If a peasant, says Mr Boyle, were brought into the garden of a philo- No. 3,] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST, 39 sopher, and should there observe one of those cu- rious gnomonic instruments, which shew at once the place of the sun in the zodiac, his declina- tion from the equator, the day of the month, the length of the day, &c., it would confessedly be presumptuous in him, while both unacquainted with mathematics, and ignorant of the intentions of the artist, to pretend to ascertain all the uses of that elaborate piece of work : but, observing on it theordinary marks of a sun-dial, and seeing that the shadow actually pointed to the hour of the day, and always indicated it with exactness, it would be no presumption, even in this ignorant peasant,, to say, that this, for certain, was one of' the purposes for which the artificer intended it. But further, it could not justly be deemed pre- sumption, even in this ignorant peasant, but on the contrary, a just and fair exercise of the know- ledge and understanding which he possessed, were he with some confidence to entertain the belief, that since he savy at least one evident pur- pose for which such a piece of art had been de- signed, the rest of its complicated structure had likewise its uses, although he could not discover them ; and that the entire instrument was the work of an inteUigent artist, who had adapted all its parts to wise and useful purposes. '* If men '^ would but seriously reflect, (says Mr Wollas- *■ ton,) upon the many marks of Reason, H^isdom c 4f 40 APPENDIX TO VOLUME riRST. [NO. 3. and Goodness, every where to be observed in instances which they do or may understand, they could scarce doubt but the same things prevailed in those which they do not under- stand. If I should meet with a book, the au- thor of which I found had disposed his matter in beautiful order, and treated his subjects with reason and exactness ; but at last, as I read on, came to a few leaves written in a language which I did not know, in this case I should close the book with a full persuasion, that the same vein of good sense which shewed itself in the former and greater part of it, ran through the other also : especially having arguments a priori, which obliged me to believe that the author of it all was the same person *." In addition to this argument, it may be obser- ved, that although the adoption of singular and uncommon opinions may be an evidence of pre- sumption, there can be no presumption, properly speaking, in entertaining opinions, in which we are warranted and supported by the concurring sentiments of mankind. In such a case, it is he who dissents or doubts that incurs the charge of presumption, and not he who adopts the general belief. The uses of many of the works of Na- - * Wollaston s Religion of Nature Delineated, p. 128. (Dj Clarke's edition.) No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FITIST, 4J ture, and more particularly, of many parts of the animal frame, are so obvious, that they have been acknowledged by the generality of mankind in all ages of the world. Even the Epicureans, who taught that all things were the operation of chance, were forced to acknowledge, that chance had constructed the eye with most admirable fit- ness for the purpose of seeing, and the ear for hearing'^. If, therefore, we perceive these pur- poses as plainly as the Epicureans, and at the same time acknowledge, that the organs them- selves were originally framed by an intelligent artist, it seems a great absurdity to refuse to be- lieve, that this intelligent artist intended them to serve those uses and purposes for which we con- fess therri to be so wonderfully adapted. Let us suppose any person to den}/, that the eye and ear v/ere intended for seeing and hearing, and to as- sert, that they might be designed for othtr uses. * Quanta f nit vestri super his prudentia casus ? Qxtam bene disposuit res cunctas, cemulus alii Judicii ? Melior casu mens nulla fuisset— — casum prudentem ! same mentis! Etgmnt Dignandum cultu ! sapiens qui primus j bpinor, Te fecit For tuna Deam, cceloque locavit ; Causarum causa omnipotens et summdcreatriil - P«LiGNAC, Anti'J^cretjuSfhh.ix, v. 247. 42 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3. we should undoubtedly regard that man either with scorn or pity. But, in what respect is the absurdity less, if, while we cannot assign any o- ther purposes for which those organs can serve, but ^re forced to acknowledge, that they serve most admirably for seeing and hearing; we should yet hesitate to affirm, that, assuredly, they were intended to serve those uses ? Moreover, it seems just as unreasonable to deny, that the adaptation of things to certain ends and "uses, is 4 proof of Design and Wisdom in the Cre- ator, as it would be to deny, that the creation of those things is an evidence of his Power. The creation alone of such an infinite variety of be- ings and substances, gives certain demonstration of the wonderful power of God ; but that power would be idly displayed to our perceptions, if we did not. at the same time perceive, that it was ex- erted to ends which we acknowledge to be wise and beneficent. We might indeed fear a being of such infinite power, and fear him perhaps the more, that we could not perceive his exertions to be regulated by any law of wisdom, or motive of benevolence ; but we could not respect, adore, or love a being of tliis nature. It is the conviction of the perfect wisdom of the Supreme Being, ma- nifested in all the works of the creation, and in their fitness to answer certain ends which we ac- No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 43 knowledge to be benevolent, that entitles this be- ing to the love and adoration of his creatures *. 3. With regard to the third objection, namely, That the search after Final Causes is a hinderance to improvement in philosophy, and in the know- ledge of nature : this objection seems to have arisen from a misconception of the sentiments of Lord Bacon, in that part of his work De Aug- mentis Scientiarum, where he treats of Meta- physics : for Lord Bacon no otherwise condemns the search into Final Causes, than in so far as they prevent our investigation into the imme- diate physical causes of the phenomena of na- ture. As, for example, if one should ask what is the cause of clouds in the atmosphere? it * " Epicurus vero ex animis hominum extraxit radicitus re- jigionem, cum diis immortalibus et opem et gratiam sustulit. Cum enim optimam et prgestantissimam naturam dei dicit es- se, negat idem esse in deo gratiam ; tollit id quod maxime proprium est optimae et praestantissimaeque naturae. Quid enim est melius, aut quid pra?stantius bonitate et beneficien- tia ? Qua cum carere Deum vultis, neminem Deo nee deum, nee hominem carum, neminem ab eo araari, neminem diligi vultis. — Quod ni ita sit, quid veneramur, quid precamur Deos ? Deinde, si maxime talis est Deus, ut nulla gratia, nulla hominum caritate teneatur, valeat. Quid enim dicam, propitius sit ? Esse enim propitius potest nemini. quoniam ut dicitis bmnis in imbecillitate est et gratia et can tas."— Cicero, Dc Naiur* Deor, lib, i. c, 43, 44. 44 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3^. -would, no doubt, be a very lame and unphiloso- phical answer to say, That it was to give water to the earth. This indeed may be the final cause ; but no philosopher of the present day would rest satisfied with this conviction, while there remains a physical cause to be assigned for the phenomenon, as, the moisture raised by the heat of the sun from the sea and earth, which, when condensed, becomes visible. It was no doubt a just reproach to many of the ancient philosophers, that, neglecting the immediate phy^ sical causes of the phenomena of Nature, they rested satisfied with assigning the ultimate end or final cause of those phenomena. It was Lord Bacon's intention to explode that indolent and unsatisfying mode of reasoning ; and therefore, in allusion to such reasoners, he was warranted in saying, that the search of Final Causes, as ge- nerally employed, was Inquisitio sterilis, et tan- quam mrgo Deo consecraia, nihil par it, (D^ Aug, Scien. L iii. c, 5,) But, in the manner that physical science has been cultivated by the mo- derns, on the solid basis of induction from obser- vation and experiment, there is not the smallesf hazard, that the inquiry into Final Causes should retard our progress in the searqh^Qf .tl^e .physi- cal. The caveat of Lord Bacon inay have been useful in his time, and may have had a beneficial eflfecit oh the whole: for it is to those admirable methods of induction which he has pointed out, No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 4f5 that modern philosophy, so far as physics are concerned, is indebted for its most material im- provements, and science for its most sublime discoveries. But, taken in a general and unqua- lified sense, and thus employed by the materia- lists as an authority for excluding from physics the consideration of final causes altogether, the maxim is of a hurtful tendency, and has been used to support opinions which its illustrious au- thor would have reprobated with indignation. It is, therefore, with great truth, that a late emi- nent philosopher has characterized this remark of Bacon as an inconsiderate expression, more dis- tinguished by its wit than by its solidity*. It excites much regret, when we observe such philosophers as La Place, and others of the ma- terialists, men certainly of great abilities, pur- suing elaborate inquiries into nature, with a view only to the discovery of those secondary causes which account for her phenomena, without the Slightest regard to that Supreme Intelligence, who has employed those secondary causes mere- ly as his instruments in the execution of his in- finitely wise and benevolent designs f. But it is * Elements of Mechanical Philosophy, by Professor JoHir RoBisoN, vol. i. p. 679. t To this eminent astronomer (M. de la Place) has becR justly assigned the high praise of having completed that theory «f which Kepler and Newton laid the foundation; by super- adding to their discoveries of the laws which regulate the mo- i6 APP£NDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3. with Still greater concern we observe, that the example of those materialists has been followed lions of planets, and the universal influence of gravitation, the demonstration that the inequalities in our system, which seemed to threaten a derangement of the machine, are all pe- riodical, and are corrective of themselves in a certain number o( revolutions : a discovery which gives assurance that the machine is perfect, and can never suffer any disorder of its frame, or an extinction by natural decay. To such philoso- phers, whose penetrating intellect, proceeding thus far in the discovery of the secondary causes, which account for the phe- nomena of the universe, stops short in its research, and seems even with caution to avoid drawing the inference which so naturally follows, for the existence of a primary cause— to such philosophers the following question may be fairly put ; and it is the argumentum ad hominem : If the bare discovery of such sublime truths calls forth our admiration and astonish- ment at the powers of the human mind, which could trace out and demonstrate those laws which uphold and perpetuate this system, What must we judge to be the powers of that mind which contrived and framed the whole machine, and esta# blished those eternal laws which regulate and maintain it * ?^ • The same argument is enforced with all the beauty of poetry by Polignac : mirum artificem. Quis tam praeclara videndo, Non stupeat genus esse hominum qui talia casu Facta velint, et materiae sine more vaganti Accepta haet referant ; cum non sine mente» sine arte Tot portentorum reddi mera possit imago. Scilicet astronomos, et qui coelestia quondam Lustrauunt cculis, et quos nova protulit aetas CoJitemplatores, aeterno nomine dignos Censuimus, quod sint ausi signare figuram Astrorum, pt spatia, et moles variosque meatus : No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 47 by some authors of our own country, who have written with intentions very opposite to theirs, but who have inadvertently adopted their plan, and without fully discerning its purpose. Thus, an English writer of the best intentions, who has composed a Natural History chiefly from mate- rials furnished by the French authors, sets out, after their example, with a denunciation of the mischievous consequences resulting to philosophy from the speculation into final causes [ though, in the course of his work, the natural bias of his mind occasionally appears, in pointing out, in strains of the warmest eloquence, to our observa- tion, those very ends of wisdom and benevolence, of which he had before exploded the considera- tion as useless, and even pernicious to the prose- cution of science. Thus, in the 4th chapter of his History of the Earth and Animated Nature, he retails the favourite remark of Bacon, *' That " the investigation of Final Causes is a barren ** study ; and, like a virgin dedicated to the Et Causam Supreraam ipsis quae tradidit astris Materiem, formam, atque situm, nonnamque movendi. Legitime, ingrati, laudum fraudamus honore ! Est grave mentis opus charta describere coelum Ac terras, duplirique globo diversa notare ; . Cljmata, sidereumque rotis eflftngere motum : Et potuit sine mente fabri consistere Mundus ! pudor ! O miserae vecors insania gentis ! PoligncXt Anti-Lucr&t. lib. viiL vl 1I8TL 48 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3- *^ Deity, brings forth nothing:'' Yet in the last chapter of the same volume, he considers " the *' universe as the palace in which the Deity re- *' sides, and this earth as one of its apartments, " allotted to man for his habitation, and the " scene of his enjoyments ;" he sees " the im- mense and shapeless mass of matter formed in- to worlds by the power of the Deity, and dis- persed at intervals, to which even the imagi- " nation cannot travel." He discerns the earth, at His command, ** producing by its twofold *^ n^otion the change of seasons, and the grate- '* ful vicissitudes of day and night." He observes it " with a steady rotation successively pre- *^ senting every part of its bosom to the sun ; at " once imbibing nourishment and light from that " parent of vegetation and fertility." He re- marks " the waters on its surface supplied in *' healthful abundance, to support life and assist " vegetation : the mountains arising to diversify " the prospect, and give a current to the stream : the seas extending from one continent to ano- ther, replenished with animals that may be turned to human support, and also serving to enrich the earth with a sufficiency of vapour : " breezes flying along the surface of the fields, " to promote health and vegetation : the cool- *^ ness of the evening that invites man to his " rest, and the freshness of the morning that re- No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 49 *' news him for his labour''^." Thus, the elo- quent writer, in contempt of that law which he had laid down, of banishing Final Causes entire- ly from his speculations, unconsciously resorts to them whenev^er his subject points the way, and yields himself without reserve to that emotion of gratitude which is felt by every well-constituted mind to the bountiful Author of all its multi- plied enjoyments. It is curious to remark, that the Epicureans themselves, who utterly disclaimed a Divine Pro- vidence, as concerned either in the original for- mation, or in the government of the universe, were yet forced to acknowledge throughout the whole system, the most pregnant and incontro- vertible marks of benevolent design. But how did they extricate themselves from this apparent dilemma? Why, by bestowing even on insen* sate and brute matter that eulogium which they withheld from the Divinity. Thus, Phny, who acknowledged no God as the author of all the wonders to which he solicits our attention in his Natural History, indulges a vein of the most elo- quent panegyric on the benevolence of the Earth to man. " It is this Earth," says he, ** that, like '* a kind mother, receives us at our birth, and * Goldsmith's Natural Historic, v©l. i. chap. 4. VOL. III. D building, and the construction of all useful engines and machines. Lastly, it may be observed, that the greatest philosophers, far from excluding from their spe- culations the research into final causeS;, have re- commended that research as the greatest incen- tive to the prosecution of science, and as being eminently serviceable in guiding or conducting our inquiries. With regard to the former of these purposes, what motive can be more worthy of an intelligent being, than the desire of tracing Qut those characters of wise and benevolent de- sign, which, to a certain degree, are obvious, No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 53 even to the most superficial observer, but of whose universality, extent and wonderful con- nexion, through the whole of this visible system of nature, the philosopher alone can form an ade- quate comprehension ? — With respect to the lat- ter purpose, the guiding or conducting our in- quiries, and thus contributing both to improve- ments and actual discoveries in science, Mr Boyle has recorded a very striking testimony of the uti- lity of such speculations. *' I remember," says he, " that when I asked our famous Harvey what " were the things that induced him to think of '^ a circulation of the blood? he answered me, " that when he took notice that the valves in the veins in so many parts of the body were so placed, that they gave a free passage of the blood towards the heart, but opposed the pas- sage of the venal blood the contrary way, he was invited to imagine that so provident a '* cause as Nature had not placed so many valves ** without design ; and no design seemed more " probable than that since the blood could not " well, because of the interposing valves, be sent *^ by the veins to the limbs, it should be sent " through the arteries, and return through the '* veins, whose valves did not oppose its course " that way *." — Thus the consideration of the D 3 * " Harvey saw/' says Professor Robison, " that the '^ valves in the arteries and veins were constructed precisely ii 54 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 3. final cause actually led to the discovery of the physical truth. « it it « " like those of a double forcing pump , and that the muscles " of the heart were also fitted for an alternate systole and *' diastole, so corresponding to the structure of those valves, " that the whole was fit for performing such an office. With *' boldness, therefore, he asserted, that the beatings of the " heart were the strokes of this pump ; and laying the heart of a living animal open to the view, he had the pleasure of seeing the alternate expansion and contraction of its au- '' ricles and ventricles, exactly as he had expected. In pre- cisely the same way have all the discoveries in anatomy and physiology been made. A new object is seen. The " discoverer immediately examines the structure. Why ? " To see what it can perform ; and if he sees a number of co-adaptations to a particular purpose, he does not hesitate to say, ' This is its purpose.' He has often been mis- taken : but the mistakes have been gradually corrected. How ? By discovering what is the real structure, and what the thing is really fit for performing. The anatomist *' never imagines that what he has discovered is of no value." The learced Professor subjoins to this passage the following Note, which I trust the candid reader will believe I quote from a better motive than vanity. " I would earnestly re- commend to my young readers some excellent remarks on the argument of Final Causes, (without which Cicero thought there is no philosophy,) in the Preface by the Editor of Derham's Physico-Theologyj published at Lon- don in 1798. He there considers the proper province of this argument, its use, and incautious abuse, with the great- est perspicuity and judgment." Elements of Mechanical Philosophy, by Professor J, Re bison, vol. i. p. 681. iiJi>vri(ro cL'Ttitrrziv • in this faith 1 have lived, and hope to die. Your civilities to me so much overbalance your severities, that I should be ungrateful to take no- tice of some expressions, which, in the heat of composition, have dropt from your pen- I must only complain of you a little, for ascribing to me the sentiments which I had put into the mouth of the sceptic in the Dialogue. 1 have surely £ 4 i. e. Be sober-minded, and remember always to doubt* \ 72 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 6. endeavoured to refute the sceptic with all the force of which I am master ; and my refutation must be allowed sincere, because drawn from the capital principles of my system. But you impute to me both the sentiments of the sceptic, and the sentiments of his antagonist, which I can never admit of. In every dialogue, no more than one person can be supposed to represent the au- thor. Your severity on one head, that of Chastity, is so great, and I am so little conscious of having given any just occasion to it, that it has afforded me a hint to form a conjecture, perhaps ill- grounded, concerning your person. I hope to steal a little leisure from my other occupations, in order to defend my philosophy against your attacks. If I have occasion to give a new edition of the work which vou have ho- n cured with an answer, I shall make great ad- vantage of your remarks, and hope to obviate some of your criticisms. Your style is elegant, and full of agreeable imagery. In some few places, it does not fully come up to my ideas of purity and correctness. I suppose mine falls still further short of your ideas. In this respect, we may certainly be of use to each other. With regard to our philoso- phical systems, I suppose we are both so fixed, that there is no hope of any conversions betwixt us ; and for my part,' I doubt not but we shal| No. 7.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. ilS both do as well to remain as we are. — I am, Sir, with great regard, your most obliged humble servant, David Hume. JlSdbiburgh, 1 5th March 1753. APPENDIX—NO. VII. A Character of Dr Thomas Plackwell, written by Dr Alexander Gerard. CTaken from the Aberdeen Journal.] On Sunday the 6th of March 1757, died at Edinburgh, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, Dr Thomas Blackwell, Principal and Professor of Greek in the Marischal College of Aberdeen. He became very early conspicuous in life for his masterly knowledge in all the several branches of polite literature; and, by his Inquiry into the Life and Writings of Homer, acquired at once that distinguished character in the learned worlcf, which he ever after supported with so much cre- dit and reputation. As iii learning and know- ledge he was exquisite and equal to any, so in |;he address of a teacher he was perhaps superior 74 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 7- to all. No man ever possessed in a more emi- nent degree the talent of inspiring young minds with a love of learning; of begetting among them a generous emulation ; and of forming them to a taste and perception of what was elegant and beautiful in the admired productions of anti- quity. On pubHc occasions, when he appeared as head of the University, he acquitted himself with so much dignity, and delivered his orations with such just elocution, and in a manner so em- phatic and graceful, as gained him not only the applause, but the universal admiration of his au- dience. His latter days were calm and resigned. He beheld the approach of death with fortitude, composure and serenity ; like one who, having acted his part well, when he arrived at the brink of life, could look back with pleasure, and for- ward without apprehension. As on many other accounts, so particularly his loss is to be regret- ted, in that he was snatched away before he had put the finishing hand to a work which, from what of it has already appeared, will hand him down to posterity as a sincere lover of his coun- try, and a friend to mankind. No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 75 APPENDIX.— NO. VIII. ART. I. — A List of the Members of the Ran- K EN IAN Club, Jurnished by George Wal- lace, Usq; Advocate^ one of the last surviving Members, 1. The Reverend William Wishart, D. D. one of the Ministers of Edinburgh, and Principal of the University. 2. Archibald Murray of Murrayfield, Esq. Advo- cate. 3. The Reverend Robert Wallace, D. D. a Mi- nister of the New North Church of EdiiAurgh, author of an Estimate of the lumbers of Man- kind^ and Characteristics of the present Political State of Gr^eat Britain, 4. The Right Reverend Isaac Madox, Lord Bishop of Worcester. 5. The Reverend John Horsley, Rector of St Martin's in the Fields, Westminster. 6. Mr John Stevenson, Professor of Logic in the University of Edinburgh. 76 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO, 8. 7. The Reverend George Turnbull, Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Marischal College, Aberdeen, author of Pri7iciples of Moral Phib- sophi/^ and a Treatise on Ancient Painting, 8. Colin Maclaurin, A. M. Professor of Mathe- matics in the University of Edinburgh, author of a System of Fluxions, Account of Sir Isaac Newton s Philosophy, and various other works. 9. George Young, M. D. Physician in Edin- burgh. 10. John Smibert, a painter of reputation. 11. Mr Charles Mackay, Advocate, Professor of Civil History in the University of Edinburgh. 12. The Reverend WiUiam Hepburn, Minister of Inverkeilor, in Angus. 13. Nicol Graham of Gartmore, Esq. Advocate. 14. The Reverend George Wishart, D. D. Mini- ster of the Tron Church, Edinburgh, Principal Clerk to the Church of Scotland. }5. Sir Alexander Dick of Prestonfield, Baronet. }6, Sir John Pringle, Baronet, M.D. Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, Physician to their Majesties, and President of the Royal Society of London. J 7. Charles Maitland of Pitrichie, Esq. Advo- cate, Member of Parliament. 18. Alexander BosweU of Auchinleck, one of the Lords of Session. 19. Sir Andrew Mitchel of Thainston, Advocate, K. B. afterwards Plenipotentiary at the Court of Berlin. No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 77 After the Club had subsisted above forty years and its attending members were much di- minished by death and accidental separa- tion, it was resolved, that the sons of the original members should be invited to be- come associates. In consequence of this re- solution, the following gentlemen were ad- ded to its number : 20. Thomas Young, M. D. Professor of Mid- wifery in the University of Edinburgh. 21. George Wallace, Esq. Advocate, author of A System of the Principles of the Law of Scot- land ; Nature and Descent of Ancient Peerages ; Origin of Feudal Tenures, 8^c. 22. John Maclaurin of Dreghorn, one of the Lords of Session, author of a Collection of Cri- minal Trials ; Observations on some Points of LaWy 8^c. 23. Alexander IMurray of Henderland, one of the Lords of Session. In the winter of 1771, a few months after the death of Dr Wallace, the Rankenian Club resol- ved to discontinue their regular weekly meet- ings ; and a few occasional meetings were after- wards held, down to the year 1774, from which time it ceased altogether. 78 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 8. ART. II. — A List of the Members of the Poker Club in 1774, and downwards to 1784, taken from the MS, Memoirs of the Reverend Dr Alexander Carlyle. 1. Lord Elibank. 2. Dr Alexander Carlvle. '* 3. Professor Adam Ferguson. 4. Mr John Fordyce. 5. Mr John Home. 6. Mr George Dempster, Advocate. 7. Mr James Ferguson Pitfour, AdvOcatef. 8. Mr Andrew Crosbie, Advocate. 9. Mr William Johnstone Pulteny, Advocate. 10. Mr William Nairne Dunsinnan, Advocate^ 11. Mr David Hume. 12. Mr James Edgar. 13. Mr John Adam. 14. Dr WiUiam Robertson. 15. Mr Andrew Stuart. 16. Mr Adam Smith. 17. Sir John Dairy mple, Advocate. 18. Dr Hugh Blair. 19. Sir John Whiteford, Advocate. 20. Mr Baron Mure. 21. Mr David Ross, Ankerville, Advocate. 22. Dr Joseph Black. No. 8] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 79 23. Lord Elliock. 24. Mr Baron Grant. 25. Mr Hay Campbell, Advocate. . 26. Mr Dundas of Dundas. 27. Mr John Clerk, Eldin. 28. Lieutenant-Colonel John Fletcher. 29. Sir James Stewart, Coltness. 30. Mr Andrew Grant. 31. Mr Hume of Ninewells. 32. Colonel Campbell, Finab. 33. Mansfeldt Cardonnel, Commissioner of Customs. 34. Mr A. Ferguson, Craigdarroch, Advocate. 35. Mr Robert Chalmers. 35. Mr Robert Cullen, Advocate. 57, Mr George Brown, EUiston. 38. Sir Adam Ferguson. 39. Professor John Robison. 40. Mr William Gordon, Advocate. 41. Mr George Home, Writer to the Signet, 42. Henry Dundas, Lord Advocate. 43. Captain John Elliott. 44. Mr James Russell. 45. Mr Robert Keith, Ambassador. 46. Mr William Graham, Gartmore. 47. Mr Alexander Home, Clerk of Session. 48. The Earl of Glasgow. 49. Mr Baron Norton. 50. Mr George Ferguson, Hepinand, Advocate. 51. Sir John Halkett, Baronet. 80 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST, [NO. 8. 52. The Duke of Buccleuch. 53. The Earl of Glencairn. 6^. Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun. 55, Lord Mounts tuart. 56. Mr Baron Gordon. 57' Mr F. Dundas, Lord Dundas. 5S, Mr Kennedy of Dunure. 59. Lord Binning. 60. Mark Pringle, Esq. Advocate. 61. John Rutherford, Egerton, AdvocatCc 62. Earl of Haddington. 63. Mr William Muirhead. 64. Mr William Miller, Lord Glenlec. 65. Marquis of Graham. 66. Sir James Johnston. Established List of the younger Poker Club^ about the year 178^ or 1787« Professor Dugald Stewart. Lord Daer. Dr W. Greenfield. John Playfair, now Professor Playfair. William Robertson, Advocate, Lord Robertson. David Hume, Advocate. Bannatyne Macleod, Advocate, Lord Bannatyne. Patrick Brydone, Esq. Dr Henry Grieve. William Waite, Esq. No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. *Ml George Home, Esq. William Craig, Esq. Henry Mackenzie, Esq. Solicitor Robert Dundas. John Morthland, Advocate. D . R u ther ford, M. Df j y ' j <^ j « I / Alexander Tytler, Advocate. Old Members Attending, John Home, Esq. James Edgar. DrA.Carlyle. Dr H. Blair. Dr Joseph Black. General Fletcher Campbell. r I iii VOL. III. F APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9« APPENDIX,— NO. IX. Letters from Thomas Reid, D. D. Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow^ to Lord Kames. Letter I. — On the Laws of Motion, Glasgow College^ May 19. 1780. My Lord, In order to understand the preliminary part of Newton's Prlncipia, it is necessary to attend to his general design, both in his axioms and defi- nitions. 1^ First, As to his Axioms : He sets down the < three laws of motion as axioms. But he does not mean by this, that they are to be held as self-evident truths ; nor does he intend to prove them in what he says upon them. They are in- capable of demonstration, being matters of fact, which universally obtain in the material world, and which had before been observed by philoso- No. 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. -83 phers, and verified by thousands of experiments by Galileo, by Wren, Wallis, Huygens, and Ma- riotte, to whom he refers for the proof of them. Therefore, that he might not actum agere, he lays them down as established truths, saying some things upon them by way of illustration, and deducing some general corollaries from them. That this was his view, he expressly says in his schoUum following the axioms ; Hacteniis principia tradidi, a Mathematicis recepta, et mul^ tiplici eiperientid conjirmata^ <^t. The very same method he follows in his Optics, laying down as axioms what had before been discovered in that science. The axioms, or establi^ied principles in the Principia^ are three, \st^ Every body perseveres in its present state, whether of motion or rest, until it is made to change that state by some force impressed upon it. 26^, The change of mo- tion produced is always proportional to the force impressed, and in the direction of that force. 3flf, All action of bodies upon each other is mu- tual or reciprocalj and in contrar}^ directions ; that is, if the body A produces any motion, or change of motion in IB; by the reaction of B, an equal change of motion, but in a contrary di- rection, will be produced in A. This holds in all action of bodies on each other, whether by a F 2 84 . APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9. stroke, by pressure, by attraction, or by repul- sion. Perhaps, you will say these principles ought not to be taken for granted, but to be proved. True, my Lord, they ought to be proved by a very copious induction of experiments ; and if they are not proved, the whole system of the Principia falls to the ground, for it is all built upon them. But Sir Isaac thought they were al- ready proved, and refers you to the authors by whom. He never intended to prove them, but to build upon them, as mathematicians do upon the Elements of Euclid, Secondly, As to the Definitions : They are in- tended to give accuracy and precision to the terms he uses in reasoning from the laws of mo- tion. The definitions are accommodated to the laws of motion, and fitted so as to express with precision all reasoning grounded upon the laws of motion. And, for this reason, even the defi- nitions will appear obscure, if one has not a di- stinct conception of the laws of motion always before his eye. Taking for granted the laws of motion, there- fore, he gives the name of vis insita, or ms iner- tice, to that property of bodies, whereby, accord- ing to the first and second laws of motion, they persevere in their state, and resist any change, either from rest to motion, or from motion to No. 9] APPENDIX TO VOLUME TIKST, 85 rest, or from one degree or direction of motion to another. This vis insita is exercised in every case where- in one body is made to change its state by the action of another body ; and the exertion of it may, in different respects, be called both resist- ance and impetus. The reluctance which the body A has to change its state, which can be overcome only by a force proportioned to that reluctance, is resistance. The 'reaction of the body A upon B, which, ac- cording to the third law of motion, is equal to the action of B upon A^ and in a contrary direc- tion, is impetus. Thus, in every change made in the state of one body bv another, there is mutual resistance, and mutual impetus. The one never exists with- out the other. A body at rest not only resists, but gives an impetus to the body that strikes it. And a body in motion coming against a body at rest, not only gives an impetus to the body that was at rest, but resists that change of its own motion which is produced by the stroke. Each gives an impetus to the other, and exerts a re- sistance to the impetus it receives from the other. This is the notion which Newton affixes to the words Impetus and Resistance; and I think it corresponds perfectly with the third law of mo° F 3 S6 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. (NO. 9* tion, but may appear dark if that is not kept in view. But, because this notion of resistance and im- petus differs somewhat from the vulgar applica- tion of those words, in order to point out the difference, he contrasts it with the vulgar mean- ing in the Avords which your Lordship quotes. Valgus resistentiam quiescentibus et irnpetum mo- ventibus iribuit : sed motus et quies, ut vulgd con- cipiuntw% respect u solo distinguimtur, neque sem- per vere qinescunt quce ^ulgd tanquam quiescentia spectantur. He considers both resistance and impetus as belonging to every body, in every case in which it is made to change its state, whe- ther from rest to motion, or from motion to rest. It resi$ts the change of its own state, and by its reaction gives an impetus to the body that acts ^upon it. The vulgar, having no notion, or no distinct notion, of this reaction established by the third law of motion, suit their language to their conceptions* He suits his to the laws of mo- tion. A post, you say, resists, but has no impetus. This is true in the vulgar sense of the word. But, in order to shew you that his sense differs -somewhat from the vulgar, he would say, that the post has, impetus in his sense. And by this lie means only, that the post stops, or changes the motion of the body that strikes it; and in producing this change, exerts a force equal to i( it No. 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. ^ that with which it was struck, but in a contrary direction. This is a necessary consequence of the third law of motion. The vulgar both speak and judge of motion and rest in a body, by its situation with respect to some other body, which, perhaps from prejudice, they conceive to be at rest. This makes Newton say, " That motion and rest, as commonly conceived, are distin- guished by relation ; nor are those bodies aU ways really at rest which are commonly con- *' ceived to be at rest." Rest, when we speak of bodies, is opposed, not to self-motion only, but to all change of place. Absolute or real rest is opposed to real motion ; and relative rest, that is, rest with relation to such a body that is supposed at rest, is opposed to relative motion with respect to the same body. But a body may be relatively at rest, and at the same time really in motion- Thus, a house rests upon its foundation for ages ; but this rest is relative with respect to the earth. For it has gone round the earth's axis every day, and round the sun every year. The distinction your Lordship makes between moving and being moved, belongs not to physics, but to metaphysics. In physics, you may use the active or the passive verb as you like best. The reason is, that in physics we seek not the efficient causes of phenomena, but only the rules F 4 S8 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9. or laws by which they are regulated. We know, that a body once put in motion continues to move, or, if you please, to be moved, until some force* is applied to stop or retard it. But whe- ther this phenomenon is produced by some real activity in the body itself, or by the efficiency of some external cause ; or whether it requires no efficiency at all to continue in the state into which it is put, is perhaps difficult to determine ; and is a question that belongs not to physics, hut to metaphysics. Some divines and philosophers have maintain- ed, that the preserv^ation of a created being in existence, is a continued act of creation, and that annihilation is nothing but the suspending that exertion of the Creator by which the being was upheld in existence. Analogous to this, I think, is the opinion, that the continuance of motion in a body requires a continued exertion of that active force which put it into the state of motion. 1 am rather in- clined to the contrary of both these opinions, and disposed to think, that continuance of ex- istence, and continuance of motion, in a body, requires no active cause ; and that it is only a change of state, and not a continuance of the present state, that requires active power. But I suspect both questions are rather beyond the reach of the human faculties. However, thev be* I No. 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 89 long not to the province of physics, but to that of metaphysics. I wish I may be inteUigible, and that I do nat oppress your Lordship with the garruhty of old age. I find myself indeed growing old, and have no right to plead exemption from the infir- mities of that stage of life. For that reason, I have made choice of an assistant in my office. Yesterday, the College, at my desire, made choice of Mr Archibald Arthur, preacher, to be my as- sistant and successor *. I think I have done good service to the College by this, and procu- red some leisure to myself, though with a reduc- tion of my finances. May your Lordship live long and happy. Yours, Tho. Reid. * Mr Arthur, a man of learning, abilities and worth, filled the Chair of Moral Philosophy in the University of Glasgow for fifteen years, with a reputation which did not disappoint the hopes of his respectable predecessor. A volume of Dis- courses on Theological and Literary Subjects, which give a very favourable idea of his talents, the justness of his taste, and the rectitude of his moral and religious principles, has been published, since his death, by Professor Richardson of the same College, — a gentleman distinguished in the hterary world ; and who has done honour to the memory of his, friend, by an interesting sketch of his Life and Character, subjoined to these Discourses. 90 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9. Letter TI. — From Dr Reid to Lo7^d Kames. On the use of Conjectures and Hypotheses in Phi- losophical Investigation; and on the meaning of Cavse when applied to Natural Philosophy, — The distinct Provinces of Physical and Meta- physical Reasoning pointed out* My Lord, \6ih December 1780. 1. I AM now to answer the letter you honour- ed me with of 7th November. And first, I dis- claim what you seem to impute to me, to wit, " the valuing myself upon my ignorance of the *' cause of gravity," To confess ignorance when one is conscious of it, I take to be a sign, not of pride, but of humility, and of that candour which becomes a philosopher ; and so I meant it. 2. Your Lordship thinks, " That never to " trust to hypotheses and conjectures about the " works of God, and being persuaded that they " are more like to be false than true, is a dis- " couraging doctrine, and damps the spirit of " inquiry," &c. Now, my Lord, I have, ever since I was acquainted with Bacon and Newton, thought that this doctrine is the very key to Na-? No. 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 91 tural Philosophy, and the touchstone by which every thing that is legitimate and sohd in that science, is to be distinguished from what is spuri- ous and hollow ; and I can hardly think, that we can differ in so capital a point, if we understood each other's meaning. 3. I would discourage no man from conjectur- ing, only I wish him not to take his conjectures for knowledge, or to expect that others should do so. Conjecturing may be a useful step even in natural philosophy. Thus, attending to such a phenomenon, I conjecture that it may be ow- ing to such a cause. This may lead me to make the experiments or observations proper for disco- vering whether that is really the cause or not : And if I can discover, either that it is or is not, my knowledge is improved ; and my conjecture was a step to that improvement. But, while I rest in my conjecture, my judgment remains in suspense, and all I can say is, it may be so, and it may be otherwise. 4. A cause that is conjectured ought to be such, that if it really does exist, it will produce the ef- fect. If it have not this quality, it hardly de- serves the name of a conjecture. Supposing it to have this quality, the question remains, Whe- ther does it exist or not ? And this, being a question of fact, is to be tried by positive evi- dence. Thus, Des Cartes conjectured, that the planets are carried round the sun in a vortex of 92 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. p. subtile matter. The cause here assigned is suf- ficient to produce the effect. It may, therefore, be entitled to the name of a conjecture. But where is the evidence of the existence of such a vortex? If there be no evidence for it even though there were none against it, it is a con- jecture only, and ought to have no admittance into chaste natural philosophy. 5. All investigation of what we call the causes of natural phenomena, may be reduced to this syllogism. If such a cause exists, it will produce such a phenomenon : but that cause does exist : Therefore, &c. The first proposition is merely hypothetical. And a man in his closet, without consulting nature, may make a thousand such propositions, and connect them into a system ; but this is only a system of hypotheses, conjec- tures or theories ; and there cannot be one con- clusion in natural philosophy drawn from it, un- til he consults Nature, and discovers whether the causes he has conjectured do really exist. As far as he can shew that they do, he makes a real pro- gress in the knowledge of nature, and not a step further. I hope in all this your Lordship will agree with me. But it remains to be considered how the second proposition of the syllogism is to be proved, to wit, that such a cause does really exist. Will nothing satisfy here but demonstra^r tion ? No. 9«] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 93 6. I am so far from thinking so, my Lord, that I am persuaded we never can have demonstra- tion in this case. All that we know of the ma- terial world, must be grounded on the testimony of our senses. Our senses testify particular facts only : from these we collect, by induction, gene- ral facts, which we call Laws of Nature, or Na- tural Causes. Thus, ascending by a just and cautious induction, from what is less to what is more general, we discover, as far as we are able, natural causes, or laws of nature. This is the analytical part of natural philosophy. The syn- thetical part takes for granted, as principles, the causes discovered by induction, and from these explains or accounts for the phenomena which result from them. This analysis and synthesis make up the whole theory of natural philosophy. The practical part consists in applying the laws of nature to produce effects useful in life. 7. From this view of natural philosophy, which I have learned from Newton, your Lordship will perceive, that no man who understands it, will pretend to demonstrate any of its principles. Nay, the most certain and best established of them may, for any thing we know, admit of ex- ceptions. For instance, there is no principle in natural philosophy better established than the universal gravitation of matter. But, can this be demonstrated ? By no means. What is the evi- dence of it then? It is collected by induction, Si 94 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9. partly from our daily experience, and from the experience of all nations, in all ages, in all places of earth, sea, and air, which we can reach ; and partly from the observations and experiments of philosophers, which shew, that even air and smoke, and every body upon which experiments have been made, gravitate precisely in proportion to the quantity of matter ; that the sea and the earth gravitate towards the moon, and the moon towards them ; that the planets and comets gra- vitate towards the sun, and towards one another, and the sun towards them. This is the sum of evidence ; and it is as different from demonstra- tion, on the one hand, as from conjecture, on the other. It is the same kind of evidence which we have, that fire will burn, and water drown, that bread will nourish, and arsenic poison, which I think would not properly be called conjecture. 8. It is proper here to explain what is meant by the cause of a phenomenon, when that word is used in natural philosophy. The word Cause is so ambiguous, that I fear many mistake its meaning, and take it to mean the efficient cause, which I think it never does in this science. 9. By the cause of a phenomenon, nothing is meant but the law of nature, of which that phe- nomenon is an instance, or a necessary conse- quence. The cause of a body's falling to the ground is its gravity. But gravity is not an effi- cient cause, but a general law, that obtains in. na- No. 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 95 ture, of which law the fall of this body is a par- ticular instance. The cause why a body pro- jected moves in a parabola, is, that this motion is the necessary consequence of the projectile force and gravity united. But these are not effi- cient causes, they are only laws of nature. In natural philosophy, therefore, we seek only the general laws, according to which nature works, and these we call the causes of what is done ac- cording to them. But such laws cannot be the efficient cause of any thing. They are only the rule according to which the efficient cause ope- rates. 10. A natural philosopher may search after the cause of a law of nature : But this means no more than searching for a more general law, which includes that particular law, and perhaps many others under it. This was all that New- ton aimed at by his ether. He thought it possi- blCj that if there was such an ether, the gravita- tion of bodies, the reflection and refraction of the rays of light, and many other laws of nature, might be the necessary consequences of the elas- ticity and repeUing force of the ether. But, sup- posing this ether to exist, its elasticity and repel- ling force must be considered as a law of nature; and the efficient cause of this elasticity would still have been latent. 11. Efficient causes, properly so called, are not within the sphere of natural philosophy. Its bu- 66 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9. sincss is, from particular facts in the material world, to collect, by just induction, the laws that are general, and from these the more general, as far as we can go. And when this is done, natu- ral philosophy has no more to do. It exhibits to our view the grand machine of the material world, analysed as it were, and taken to pieces, with the connexions and dependencies of its se- veral parts, and the laws of its several move- ments. It belongs to another branch of philo- sophy to consider, whether this machine is the work of chance or of design, and whether of good or of bad design. Whether there is not an intel- ligent First Mover who contrived the whole, and gives motion to the whole according to the laws which the natural philosopher has discovered ; orp perhaps, according to laws still more general, of which we can only discover some branches ; and whether he does these things by his own hand, so to speak, or employs subordinate effi- cient causes to execute his purposes. These are very noble and important inquiries, but they do not belong to natural philosophy • nor can we proceed in them in the w^ay of experiment and induction, the only instruments the natural phi- losopher uses in his researches. 12. Whether you call this branch of philoso- phy Natural Theology or Metaphysics, I care not ; but I think it ought not to be confounded with Natural Philosophy; and neither of them No. 9.] APPENiiX TO" VOLUME FIRST. 97 with Mathematics. Let the mathematician de- monstrate the relation of abstract quantity ; the natural philosopher investigate the laws gf the material system by induction ; and the metaphy- sician, the final causes, and the efficient causes of what we see, and what natural philosophy dis- covers in the world we live in. 13. As to Final Causes, they stare us in the face M'herever we cast our eyes. I can no more doubt whether the eye was made for the purpose of seeing, and the ear of hearing, than I can doubt of a mathematical axiom ; yet the evi- dence is neither mathematical demonstration, nor is it induction. In a word, final causes, good^ final causes, are seen plainly every where ; in the heavens and in the earth ; in the constitution of every animal, and in our own constitution of body and of mind ; and they are most worthy of observation, and have a charm in them that de- lights the soul. 14. As to Efficient causes, I am afraid our fa- culties carry us but a very little way, and almost only to general conclusions. I hold it to be self- evident, that every production, and every change in nature must have an efficient cause that has power to produce the effect; and that an effect which has the most manifest marks of intelli- gence, wisdom and goodness, must have an intel- ligent, wise and good efficient cause. From these VOL. Ill, G J 98 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. ' [NO. 9. and some such self-evident truths, we may dis- cover the principles of natural theology, and that the Deity is the first efficient cause of all nature. But how far he operates in nature immediately, or how far by the ministry of subordinate effi- cient causes, to which he has given power ade- quate to the task committed to them, I am afraid our reason is not able to discover, and we can do little else than conjecture. We are led by nature to believe ourselves to be the efficient causes of our own voluntary actions ; and from analogy, we judge the same of other intelligent beings. But with regard to the works of nature, I cannot 'recollect a single instance wherein I can say, with any degree of assurance, that such a thing is the efficient cause of such a phenomenon of nature. 15. Malebranche, and many of the Cartesians, ascribed all to the immediate operation of the Deity, except the determinations of the will of free agents. Leibnitz, and all his followers, maintain, that God finished his work at the cre- * ation, having endowed every creature, and every -individual particle of matter, with such internal powers as necessarily produce all its actions, 'mo- tions, and changes, to the end of time. Others have held, that various intelligent beings, ap- pointed by the Deity to their several departments, are the efficient causes of the various operations cf nature. Others, that there are beings endow- ed with power without intelligence, which are No. 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 99 the efficient causes in nature's operations, and they have given them the name of Plastic Powers, or Plastic Natures. A late author of your Lord- ship's acquaintance, has given it as ancient me- taphysics. That every body in the universe is compounded of two substances united, to wit, an immaterial mind or soul, which, in the inani- mate creation, has the power of motion without thought, and of inert matter as the other part. The celebrated Dr Priestley maintains, that mat- ter, properly organized, has not only the power of motion, but of thought and intelligence ; and that a man is only a piece of matter properly organized. 16. Of all these systems about the efficient . No. 9-3 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 107 Letter IV. — From Dr Re id to Lord Kames. On the accelerated Motion of Falling Bodies. Glasgozv College, Nov. 11. 1782. My Lord, My hope that your Lordship is in no worse state of health than when I left you, and that the rest of the good family are well, is confirmed by your continuing your favourite speculations. I promised to call upon you in the morning be- fore I came away. I sent in Samuel to see if you was awake : he reported that you was sleep- ing sound ; and I could not find it in my heart to disturb your repose. When we say, that, in falling bodies, the space gone through is as the square of the velocity, it must be carefully observed, that the velocity meant in this proposition, is the last velocity, which the body acquires only the last moment of its fall : But the space meant is the whole space gone through, from the beginning of its fall to the end. As this is the meaning of the proposition, your Lordship will easily perceive, that the velocity of the last moment must indeed correspond to the 108 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 9^. space gone tlirough in that moment, but cannot correspond to the space gone through in any pre- ceding moment, with a less velocity ; and, con- sequently, cannot correspond to the whole space gone through in the last and all preceding mo- ments taken together. You say very justly, that, whether the motion be equal or accelerated, the space gone through in any instant of time corre- sponds to the velocity in that instant. But it does not follow from this, that, in accelerated motion, the space gone through in many succeed- ing instants will correspond to the velocity of the last instant. If any writer in physics has pretended to de- monstrate mathematically this proposition, That a body falling by gravity i?i vacuo, goes through a space which is as the square of its last velocity ; he must be one who writes without distinct con- ceptions, of which kind we have not a few. The proposition is not mathematical, but phy- sical. It admits not of demonstration, as your Lordship justly observes, but of proof by ex- periment, or reasoning grounded on experiment. There is, however, a mathematical proposition, which possibly an inaccurate writer might confound with the last mentioned. It is this. That a body uniformly accelerated from a state of rest, will go through a space which is as the square of the last velocity. This is an abstract proposition, and has been mathematically demon- No, 9.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 109 strated; and it may be made a step in the proof of the physical proposition. But the proof must be completed by shewing, that, in fact, bodies descending by gravitation are uniformly accele- rated. This is sometimes shewn by a machine invented by S'Gravesend, to measure the veloci- ties of falling bodies : Sometimes it is proved by the experiments upon pendulums ; and some- times we deduce it by reasoning from the second law of motion, which we think is grounded on universal experience. So that the proof of the physical proposition always rests ultimately upon experience, and not solely upon mathematical demonstration. I am, my Lord, respectfully vours, Tho. Reid. 110 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. APPENDIX.— NO. X, On the Principles of Criminal Jurispru^ PENCE, as uvfolded in Lord Kames's Essay on the History of the Criminal Law : with an ^ Exanmation of the Theory of Montesquieu and Beccaria, relative to Crimes and Punish- ments* [[Intended as a Supplement to Lord Kames's Essay, and Illustration of its General Doctrines.] I. It is a matter of equal regret to the politi- cian and to the moralist, that the science of Cri- minal Jurisprudence, on which the good govern- ment and peace of society most materially de- pend, should, in this enlightened period, remark- able for its advancement in many of the branches of political economy, as well as of the philosophy pf morals, remain in a state of great imperfec- tion. If this imperfection be denied, it may be No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. Ill rnade apparent, very shortly, from two separate considerations : Fii^st, The great discrepancy of opinions entertained by the ablest writers with regard to some of the most important doctrines of the science : Secondly, The barbarity and ab- surdity of many of the penal laws of the most enlightened nations. 1. Capital punishments have been reprobated by the Marquis de Beccaria, M. de Voltaire, and many other modern writers, as tyrannical, inhu- man, and impolitic. On the other hand, the pu- nishment of death applied to certain crimes, has been defended by lawyers, politicians, and philo- sophers, on the score of justice, wisdom, and the most enlarged humanity. Some enlightened men have justified the extension of the punish- ment of certain crimes to the family and de- scendants of the criminal* ; while others strong- ly reprobate that extension, as a remnant of the most barbarous policy. A modern respectable writer, arraigns the practice of penal imprison- ment, as contrary alike to good morals, and to good policy. " Imprisonment," says Lord Auck- land, '^ inflicted by law as a punishment, is not " according to the principles of wise legislation. '- It sinks useful subjects into burdens on the * See Considerations on the Lam of ForfeiturCf by the Hon. Phil, Yobke. 112 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. " community, and has always a bad effect on " their morals : Nor can it communicate the be- ** nefit of example ; being in its nature secluded from the eye of the people." The same writer maintains, that the sole end of imprisonment ought to be, " to keep those who are accused of " injuries to society, amenable to the decisions ^' of justice''^." This is agreeable to the Roman law : Career non ad puniendos, sed ad custodiendos homines adhiberi debet. The law of England, however, and indeed that of most countries, re- pudiates this doctrine, and acknowledges im- prisonment among its punishments for a variety of smaller offences. By the law of Scotland, im- prisonment is not only the punishment of many of the lesser crimes ; but it is even, in one in- stance, a species of torture, and has been vindi- cated as such by able writers. " After a debtor is imprisoned," says Erskine, " he ought not to be indulged with the benefit of the free air, either on his parole, or even under a guard : " for every creditor has an interest that his debtor be kept under close confinement, that, by the squalor carceris, he may be brought to the payment of his just debt." 2. An equally convincing proof of the imper- fection of this science, arises from the many in- ti cr * Principles of Penal Latv, p. 44. No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 113 human as well as absurd penal laws, which dis- grace the jurisprudence of the most civilized na- tions. By the statute 39th Eliz. c. 17- which stands at this day unrepealed, a soldier or mariner who shall be found wandering through the country without a pass from a Justice of the Peace, or who exceeds the time limited by his pass, is to be punished with death. By the statute 9th Geo. I. c. 22. the writing of an anonymous letter, demanding money, vic- tuals, or any thing of value, is punishable with death, By statute 20th Geo. II. c. 46. it is declared felony, without benefit of clergy, for the friends of any person transported, to hold any intercourse with him, by letters, messages or otherwise. This may be justified from good policy in a time of rebellion ; but this statute is a permanent law ; and thus a capital punishment is decreed for what in many cases may be an act of piety, of duty, and of humanity. With what indignation do we read those sta- tutes which enact the punishment of death for setting fire to a hay-cock, breaking down the licad of a fish-pond, or cutting an apple-tree in an orchard! 9th Geo. I. c. 2 •; 9th Geo. III. c. 29. The wretch who is impelled by misfortune, or by disease, to put a period to his own existence, VOL. irr. H Il4 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. l6. is an object of the deepest commiseration. The misery of his mind was insupportable, which could overcome the strongest instinct of nature. Of the quahty and measure of his offence, that Ahnighty Being, who weighs the thoughts of the heart, is the only judge. His own act has put him beyond the reach of human punishment : every infliction of the law, therefore, which is consequent upon this crime, can be directed only against the innocent survivors. " What punish- '^ ment," says Blackstone, *' can human laws in- " flict on one who has withdrawn himself from " their reach ?" JVotie, is the answer of reason and of humanity. But let us hear the response of the lawyer : " They can only act upon what he ** has left behind him, his imputation and hisy^r- *' tune : On the former, by an ignominious burial ** in the highway, with a stake driven through " his body ; on the latter, by a forfeiture of all his goods and chattels to the King : hoping that his care for either his own reputation, or the welfare of his family, would be some mo- " tive to restrain him from so desj)erate and " wicked an act *." This answer is a miserable sophism, and the doctrine it inculcates is revolt- ing to humanity. It is allowed, that the offend- er himself is beyond the reach of human laws ; a 6i * BlackstonE; Cotn, b. 14. c. 14. § 3* No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. Il5 no punishment can extend to him. On what, then, can the punishment of the law operate ? On his reputation, and on his goods and chattels. But who suffers from this punishment? Is it the dead oifender ? No ; it is the surviving fa- mily : the miserable widow ; the orphan chil- dren. Theirs is that ignominy, which this wise law^ inflicts; and theirs is that accumulated mis- fortune, to lose not only the protecting hand wdiich fed and supported them, but the fruits of all his labour, the sole provision for their future subsistence. Will a judicious foreigner, who has heard of the wisdom of the laws of England, believe that such doctrines as the following make a part of them at the present day ? A man, shooting at a bird, happens to kill his neighbour. The guilt of this man will depend upon the nature of the bird, whether wild or tame, and the man's inten- tion in shooting at it. If the bird chance to be wild, such as heron j crow, kite, or any other fowl which is 7milius in bonis, the offence is ex- cusable homicide : If a tame fow^l, and shot at for amusement, the crime will be man-slaughter; because the offender was committing an unlaw^ful trespass on the property of another : And, last- ly, if the bird were private property, and the shooter intended to steal it, the crime will be imirder, by reason of that felonious intent*. Can H 2 ^ Kely, 117. 116 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. it be necessary to prove, that as it is the inten- tion alone that determines the nature of a crime, he who, intending to steal a pigeon, kills a man through pure accident, can never be guilty of murder ? — In the same spirit of sophistry, the law of England holds, that if a man, in endea- vouring to shoot another, is killed himself, by the bursting of his gun in his hand, it is wilful and deliberate self-murder*, and draws after it all the consequences of that crime. Breaking a house by night, by unbolting the door, picking the lock, or opening the casement, is, by the law of England, burglary, and a capi- tal crime. If the robber comes in at an open door or casement, the offence is of an inferior de- scription. In the trial of a prisoner at Cam- bridge, it was doubted, whether a robber, who came down the chimney, was guilty of burglary, seeing the chimney is open. But as it appeared in evidence, that some of the bricks were loosen- ed, and fell into the room, this, says Sir Matthew Hale, put it out of all question ; and direction w^as given to find it burglary. Mr Locke puts the following singular case with respect to justifiable homicide : ^' A man '* with a sword in his hand, demands my purse * BlackstonEj b. iv. c. 14. § ". a No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 117 " on the highway, when perhaps I have not twelve pence in my pocket : this man I may lawfully kill. To another I deliver £^ 100 on- ly whilst I alight, which he refuses to restore " me when I am got up again ; but draws his ^' sword to defend the possession of it by force, if '* I endeavour to retake it. The mischief which this man does me is a hundred, or possibly a thousand times more than the other perhaps intended me, (whom I killed before he really did me any,) yet I may lawfully kill the one, *' and cannot so much as hurt the other *." We may therefore very fairly state as convin- cing proofs of the imperfection of the science of Criminal Jurisprudence, yz?'.s/f, The discrepancy in the opinions of able men w^ith respect to its most important doctrines ; and, secondly, The barba- rism and absurdity of many of the penal laws of the most enlightened irations. II. But the imperfection of any science is most likelv to arise from one of two sources : either from its not being reduced to principles at all ; or from its being founded on such principles as are erroneous. Now, we find that all or most of those authors who have written on Criminal H 3 * Locke on Civ, Gov. b. ii. c. 18, 318 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10* Junsj3iudence, have laid down certain principles on which they have built the doctrines of the science : if, therefore, it still remains in a state of great imperfection, we are led very naturally to presume, that those principles are erroneous. It is a certain proof that a principle is faulty, if it leads, by fair reasoning, to conclusions which are repudiated by the common understanding and feelings of mankind. The leading principle of the penal law, ac- cording to Montesquieu, is, That all crimes are to be estimated solely according to the degree of injury which is done to society through their commission. This is likewise the fundamental principle of the Marquis de Beccaria in his Essay on Crimes and Punishments. The same principle is indirectly recognised by Dr Priestley, v/hen he says, " The object of the criminal law, is to *' lessen the number of crimes in future, and " thereby to give every man a sense of his per- sonal security ; and, if this could be done with- out the actual punishment of any criminal, so " much evil would be prevented as his punish- ** ment implies. Consequent lij punishment has ?w «c reference to the degree of moral turpitude in the " criminal '^\'' ti * Priestley's Lectures on General PoUcj/, p. 348, No. 10,] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 119 The above conclusion seems to follow naturally from the premises ; but it is a conclusion which we may boldly aftirm to be contrary to the deci- sion of the moral sense, and that natural feeling of justice w^hich is implanted in the human breast. The atrocity of a crime, or the moral guilt which it involves, ought to be in every case, if not the sole, at least the leading principle in determining or proportioning the measure of the punishment; and wherever that proportion is violated, of which the mind itself forms a most accurate estimate, we feel that injustice is com- mitted. Supposing, therefore, with Dr Priestley, that it were possible to lessen the number of crimes without having recourse to the punish- ment of any criminal, it may be affirmed, in di- rect opposition to this writer, that evil, instead of being prevented, would in reality be occasion- ed by this impunity, in as much as injustice is one of the "greatest of evils ; whereas the punish- ment of a criminal, being an act of justice, is a good, instead of an evil. To lessen the number of crimes in future, is undoubtedly an important object of the criminal law : but it is neither its sole, nor even its pri- mary object. The primary object of the criminal law, is the accomplishment of justice, by the pro- per punishment of crimes that have actually been committed. The prevention of future crimes, i^ H 4 120 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. a secondary end, wliich, in most cases, will be best attained by a due attention to the primary. The foundation of criminal law is retributive justice, that great principle which regulates the redressing of wrongs, and the avenging of inju- ries. Among the original laws of our moral consti- tution, two of the most remarkable, and which tend most eminently to support the bonds of so- ciety, are, Gratitude for benefits received, which prompts to a return of kind offices ; and Resent- ment of injuries, which incites to revenge, or to the punishment of the aggressor. As, on expe- riencing an important service frotn our neigh- bour, an emotion of gratitude arises in the mind, and we feel there is a debt created which we are uneasy till we discharge, by a reciprocal act or testimony of beneficence ; so, upon the receiving of an injury, a feeling of resentment is roused which is not appeased till an adequate revenge is taken of the offender *. A remarkable proof how congenial these feel- ings are to the nature of man, is, that the person who confers the benefit expects the return of gratitude as the repayment of a just debt, and feels disappointment and a sense of wrong, if * Lord Kames's Tract on the Hist of the Criminal Law, p. 1; 2. 4., &c. No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 121 that return is withheld ; while, in like manner, the person who commits an injury, is conscious of his own deserts, makes his account with the vengeance that is awaiting him, and suffers a punishment in his own remorse till it is inflict- ed *. Nor are these emotions confined to the persons themselves who confer, or who receive the hene- fits or the injuries. From that beautiful sympa- thetic frame of our nature, which leads us to par- ticipate in all the pleasures and pains, the happi- ness and misery of our fellow-creatures, we feel delight and satisfaction from every act of bene- volence or of virtue, and experience pain and in- dignation from every deed of malice or of vice, though these in no shape are attended with con- sequences that aftect ourselves. Hence we de- light to hear or to read of the reward of virtue, or the punishment of vice; and this even ia works of pure imagination. Hence we have a feeling of dissatisfaction, amounting even to in- dignation, when such acts of virtue or of vice are either entirely unrewarded and unpunislied, or fail to receive that just proportion of reward or punishment, which the unerring criterion of the moral sense has ascertained to be their due recompence. ■* Hence_, as Lord Kames observes^ come the expressions, solvere ef pendere pcenas. 122 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. The preceding observations, clearly bring to view the great fundamental principle of Criminal Jurisprudence. Every act of wrong or injustice, excites indignation, and calls for revenge from the person injured ; an indignation which is par- ticipated, and a vengeance which is approved of by the feelings of others ; a retribution which is expected by the criminal himself, and justified by his own conscience. III. This retribution or revenge, which, by the law of nature, belongs of right to the person him- self who is injured, it has become necessary, in every civilized society, to surrender to the pu- blic ; and that for many reasons both of justice and expediency*. 1 have already observed, that it is necessary for the accomplishment of justice, that the retribution should be precisely commen- surate to the injury. But there is a natural pro- pensity in every man to overrate those injuries he has sustained, and to exceed in the measure of his revenge. Now, revenge or punishment is no further just than as it is approved of by the con- science of every reasonable and impartial man. It is therefore necessary that punishment should be awarded only by those who are impartial, in * Lord Kames's History of the Criminal Law, p. 35. No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME TIRST. 123 order that iniustice mav not be committed *. Moreover, it must frequently happen, that the person who is injured is unable himself to take vengeance against the aggressor; for acts of vio- lence and injustice are most commonly commit- ted by the strono-er ao'ainst the weaker. It is therefore necessary, for the ends of justice, that punishment should be delegated to a hand which is always sufficiently strong to coerce the boldest and most powerful offender. But expedience, or public utility, likewise re- quires, that there should be a delegation of the right of punishment from the private party who is injured, to the State. A bold aggressor de- fends himself by violence; the w^ak call in the * " All the passions of human nature seem proper, and ^'^ are approved of, when the heart of every impartial specta- '*" tor entirely sympathizes with them. He therefore appears to deserve reward, who to some person or persons is the natural object of a gratitude which every human heart is '^ disposed to beat time to ; and he, on the other hand, ap- " pears to deserve punishment, who, in the same manner, is " to some person or persons the natural object of a resent- ment, which the breast of every reasonable man is ready to adopt and sympathize with. To us, surely, that action must appear to deserve reward, which every body who " knows of it would wish to reward; and that action must as surely appear to deserve punishment, which every body ^' who hears of it, is angry with, and, upon that account, re- ^' joices to see punished." — Smith's Theory of Moral Ser,ti' pents, vol. i. part ^. § 1. 3 ^<«f<£v rsro^- 134 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. But it is a false proposition, " that laws are " the sum of the smallest portions of the private *' liberty of each individual." There are many laws in every well regulated government, which affect not in the smallest degree the private li- berty of individuals. Such are all remuneratory laws ; such are those that regard the performance of all the various species of contracts ; such are those which regulate successions and heritages ; such are the laws that protect and administrate the property of infants, and of those who are in- capable themselves of guarding their own inte- rests. All these, which form the great mass of the municipal laws in every country, imply no abandonment of the private liberty of indivi- duals. If it is said that in the above definition by Bec- caria, penal laws alone are meant, 1 affirm, that neither is his proposition true with respect to these. By penal laws, is meant the expres- sion of that right which belongs to the State of punishing crimes, which Beccaria supposes to have been surrendered to the community by some deed of the individual : and he puts two ques- tions. Did any one ever give to others the right of taking away his life? And since individuals have transferred to the State only the smallest portion of their natural libert}^ how can this in- clude the greatest, which is life ? Now, all this reasoning is mere verbal sophistry. The right of No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 136 punishment is not formed out of any portions, great or small, of the liberty of individuals, vo- luntarily given up by them to the State. No man ever voluntarily gave away any part of his liberty, unless a servant or bondsman, for a price. But this surrender, according to Beccaria, has been universal. Every individual has con- sented to give up the smallest portion of his li- berty for the sake of the public good ; and the question is, What is this smallest portion which every man has agreed to surrender? If any sur- render of liberty has been made at all, we might agree with Beccaria, that it cannot be the right of taking away life, which is the greatest of all invasions of liberty. What then can it be ? Is it the right of whipping, or pillorying, or banish- ment ? But who ever gave his consent to be whipped, or pilloried, or banished ? By what general convention were these portions of his li- berty ever surrendered by an individual, any more than that other portion which Beccaria has excluded ? The notion, in short, is altogether absurd. No man ever gave any other consent to the State's right to inflict a punishment, than that tacit consent which all men give to the laws of their country, by living under them ; and this consent applies equally to the right of inflicting capital punishments, as of inflicting any other punishment which those laws authorise. I 4 136 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO, ]0. The right of the State to punisli crimes, does not arise from any sacrifice made by individuals, of a part of their hberty ; for even under the law of nature, no man has the liberty of committing crimes. He subjects himself to vengeance or to punishment by the very act; which sufficiently demonstrates, that he was not at libertv to com- mit it. But this right in the State arises from the transference which the individuals have in every community made to the State, of their right of private revenge. Their privileges, or the sum of their liberty, is not abridged by this transference. On the contrary, they are gainers instead of losers ; even in the power of revenge, which was the object of the transfer : for that right of revenge which they have by the law of nature, is better carried into effect, when, instead of the weak arm of the individual, the awful ven- geance of the sovereign power is exerted in his behalf. VIL The question, therefore, with regard to the right of the State to inflict capital punish- ments, will come to this short issue, " Are there *^ any crimes, which, in justice, deserve the pu- " nishment of death?" For if there are, the State,, which is the general avenger, must have the right of inflicting that punishment. Now, tliere must be no just criterion of right and wrong in the mind of that man, who does not instantly No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 137 acknowledge, that there are crimes of that degree of atrocity, for which no other punishment than death is an adequate retribution. The hardened and incorrigible offender, whom no law^s can bind, and no moral principle teach to respect the rights of his fellow-creatures, whose hfe has been a series of acts of violence, fraud and injustice, and whom every man has reason to regard as a beast of prey ; this w^'etch is the ob- ject of a feeling of resentment at once so deep and so universal, that it can be satisfied w^ith no measure of vengeance short of the absolute ex- tirpation of the offender. Our sympathy with those whom such an aggressor has injured, is the more complete, that w^e perceive our own rights to have been equally liable to invasion as theirs ; and w^e cordially approve of the vengeance taken of the common enemy. Corrigi ncqueunt^ (s^^ys Seneca), nihilque in illis bona spei capa.v est. Tol- lantur h ccetii mortalium factur^i pejora qua: contin- gunt, €t quo uno modo possunt, desinant esse mail *. But if our moral feelings give entire approba- tion to that punishment which cuts off from so-- ciety the habitual violator of the property of his neighbour, how perfectly do they approve and ratify the sentence of death, which the laws of every nation, truly civilized, have pronounced * Seneca De Ira, cap. 15. 138 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. against the murderer ? Let any man in such a case make the appeal to his own breast, and say what are his feelings, on hearing of the perpetra- tion of a dehberate act of murder. Does he be- gin coolly to speculate on the injury done to the community by depriving it of a useful member, and the necessity of a powerful remedy to pre- vent the like evnl in future? No, the unnatural scene immediately presents itself to his imagina* tion, in all its circumstances of horror. He is filled with the keenest indignation : His whole soul rises in arms against the murderer; and, sym- pathizing in all the misery of the unfortunate victim, struck with his irreparable wrongs, he feels that he could himself be the instrument of vengeance, and drag the monster to his deserved fate. " With regard at least to this most dread- ful of all crimes," says a great moralist, ** Na- ^ ture, antecedent to all reflections upon the uti- " lity of punishment, has stamped upon the hu- " man heart, in the strongest and most indelible characters, an immediate and instinctive ap- probation of the sacred and necessary law of *f retaliation *." Upon what pretence of a moral « ei * The excellent writer from whom I have quoted the above passage, has minutely unfolded, on the principles of his theory of Sympathy f the various concurring emotions, which, in the No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 139 principle shall we spare the life of this atrocious offender, who, to gain perhaps a few pounds, could deliberately embrue his hands in blood ? case of murder, irresistibly incite to the highest vengeance against the criminal. His observations, which are a very happy specimen of his method of copious and eloquent illus- tration, I shall here subjoin. '^ If the injured should perish " in the quarrel, we not only sympathize with the real re- " sentment of his friends and relations, but with the imagi- " nary resentn^ent which, in fancy, we lend to the dead, who " is no longer capable of feeling that, or any other human " sentiment. But, as we put ourselves in his situation ; as " we enter, as it were, into his body, and, in our imagina- " tions, in some measure animate anew the deformed and " mangled carcase of the slain ; when we bring home in this " manner his case to our own bosoms, we feel upon this, as upon many other occasions, an emotion which the person principally concerned is incapable of feeling, and which yet we feel by an illusive sympathy with him. The sympa- *' thetic tears which we shed for that immense and irrepara« ble loss which in our fancy he appears to have sustained, seem to be but a small part of the duty which we owe to him. The injury which he has suffered, demands, we think, a principal part of our attention. We feel that re- sentment which we imagine he ought to feel, if, in his cold and lifeless body, there remained any consciousness of what passes upon earth. His blood, we think, calls aloud for vengeance. The very ashes of the dead seem to be disturbed at the thought, that his injuries are to pass un» revenged. The horrors which are supposed to haunt the f^ bed of the murderer, the ghosts which superstition ima^ (C {{ ct tro]ig must that passion be, which can overcome the anjxnish of remorse, the shame at- vor.. irr. k 146 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. tendant on detected guilt, th€ consciousness of lasting infamy ? Yet these are all endured, and life still continues to have its attractions. " Per- *' mit me," said the wretched Dodd, in his peti- tion to the Sovereign, " to hide my guilt in " some obscure corner of the earth. May I " humbly hope that justice may be satisfied with " irrevocable exile, perpetual disgrace, and hope- *^ less penury * !" If it be urged, that the frequent example of those who fly to death as a relief from the mise- ries of life, proves that the former has often less of terror than the latter ; I answer, that this holds true only with respect to that very small proportion of mankind, whose minds are endow- ed with that most acute and morbid sensibility, which, while it doubles the pressure of real evils, is ingenious in creating to itself those that are * Nam quod ssepe homines morbos magis esse timendos, Infamemque ferunt vitam, quam Tartara lethi, — Hinc luet advertas animum, magis omnia laud is Aut etiam venti, si fert ita forte voluntas, Jactari causa, quam quod res ipsa probetur. Extorres iidem patria, longeque fugati Conspectu ex hominum, foedati crimine turpi Omnibus aerumnis afFecti denique vivunt ; Et quocunque tamen miseri venere, parentant. Lucret, lib. 5. No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 147 imaginary; who inherit that proud spirit, and high sense of their own desert, which is wound- ed by the smallest neglect, and rankles with the slightest disappointment ; who possess that jealous feeling of honour which cannot bear re- proach, and are stung even by the most unme- rited suspicion of unworthiness. These arfe they who seek relief in death from the miseries of existence. But this very constitution is in itself the most effectual guard against the commission of all such actions as subject to the punishment of the laws. When we reason as to the effect of punishment, or its operation, by way of example, on the minds of mankind, it is not minds of this constitution and character that are at all the ob- jects of our view. These must be removed en- tirely from our contemplation. The objects of the penal law are to be found among that aban- doned and most abject class of men, who are the disgrace of the species ; wlio either have no feel- ings at all of honour, justice, and humanity, or possess those sentiments in so weak a degree, as to have no effect in regulating their conduct, or subduing the force of the selfish passions. It is the wretch who seeks his own gratification at the ex- pence of the dearest interests of his neighbour : it is the cold and callous heart that never felt com- passion or benevolence : it is the hardened na- ture, insensible to shame, and regardless alike of K 2 148 APPENDIX TO VOLUxME FIRST. [NO. 10. the praise or reproach of the world : it is the de- graded and brutal appetite, which knows no en* joynients beyond those of sense, no pleasures but what are common to the inferior animals. To these miserable outcasts, death, which deprives them of all the present good, and promises no- thing but future evil, is the most horrible idea that can be presented by the imagination. Every other situation admits of hope. It is here alone that every avenue of comfort is shut up. With those, therefore, whose obduracy of nature sets at defiance the ordinary restraints against the commission of crimes, a capital punishment is the only engine that has sufHcient force to curb their ferocity, and restrain their depredations on society. The argument in favour of the political expe- diency of capital punishments, may be summed up in one sentence. The preservation of life is the first concern of man ; the fear of losing life is the greatest of all fears ; this fear is, of conse- quence, the greatest of all restraints on the com- mission of such actions as are punishable by the loss of life. X. But, if capital punishments are both war- ranted by our moral feelings, and justified by good policy, the same considerations will strong- ly dictate, that such punishments ought not to be frequent. In conclusion, therefore, it may be No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 149 useful to endeavour to ascertain, in what cases they ought to be resorted to. And here we must again recur to that great principle, which, I think, we may assert, is de- monstrated to be the foundation of the penal law, — the sentiment of Retributive Justice. It is this principle alone which can regulate the due proportion of the punishment to the crime ; and all penal laws are wise, equitable and politic, or the contrary, solely according to their conformity or departure from the standard of a just retribu- tion. As justice requires that every injury should be followed by an adequate portion of vengeance against the offender, so the resentment or indig- nation which the injury excites, ought in every case to be the measure of this vengeance. In civihzed society, the State and not the private party is the avenger; the adequate portion of vengeance, therefore, comes to be determined by the degree of resentment or indignation which arises in the breast of unprejudiced individuals, upon the commission of a crime. Let us here remark, to the honour of human nature, how few in number are those offences, which excite such a measure of indignation, as prompts an impar- tial individual to desire the death of the offend- er. Yet if there be any truth in the doctrine I have endeavoured to establish, this is the onlv K 3 150 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST, [NO. 10* warrant for a capital punishment. Examined by this standard, what judgment must we form of the criminal codes of the most civilized nations in Europe ? " It is a melancholy truth," (says the commentator on the laws of England *,) " that among the variety of actions which men *' are daily liable to commit, no less than a hun- *' dred and sixty have been declared by act of *' Parliament to be felonies, without benefit of " clergy, or, in other words, to be worthy of in- *^ stant death ;" and the catalogue has been since enlarged ! The apology for many of those sanguinary en- actments is, that although the offence, in point of moral turpitude, may not seem to merit so se- vere a punishment, its frequency had rendered it equally detrimental on the whole to society, with those less common, but more atrocious crimes. This apology proceeds on the false principle, That the sole object of the criminal law is to lessen the number of crimes in future, and " that " punishment," (as it is expressed by Dr Priest- ley,) *^ has no reference to the degree of moral " turpitude in the criminal." The error of this notion has already been sufficiently exposed; and it has been shewn, that even that purpose of * Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England, b. iv. c. 1. NO. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 151 punishment which is held to be its sole object, is counteracted entirely, if the punishment ex- ceed that just measure of vengeance which the impartial mind has ascertained to be equal to the offence. But let it, for argument's sake, be supposed, that the lessening the number of crimes were the chief, or even the sole object of the criminal law, it would neither follow, that the punishment of death, which our moral feehngs declare to be a just retribution for the most atrocious crimes alone, is necessary to check the frequency of the smaller offences ; nor that it is just to employ that remedy, although, according to the refined mode of argument employed for that purpose, it may be true, that " the accumulation of such pet- ** ty offences may produce to the State a sum of evil, equal, or perhaps superior, to what arises from the less frequent, though more enormous a ti " crimes." As to the first consideration, although the dread of a capital punishment may be necessary to re- strain that ferocity of nature which prompts to crimes of the deepest dye; it certainly will not be denied, that inferior punishments are sufficient to restrain every ordinary species of criminality. Of all offences, petty thefts are the most com- mon, from the frequency of temptation, and easy opportunity. But that degree of vice which li- K 4 152 APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. [NO. 10. iiiits itself to petty thefts, may be sufficiently curbed by a variety of inferior punishments, pro^ portioned to the n.easure of the offence. The frequency of such crimes is to be counteracted more effectually, by an increased vigilance of the law in their detection, than by an increased se- verity in their punishment: for as the penalty, in every instance where the crime is discovered, far exceeds the gain resulting from its commis- sion, the extreme probabihty of that penalty ta- king place, and the small chance of escaping it, Avill always amount to a sufficient restraint. With regard to the second consideration, the argument is too refined to produce conviction; and, in reality, when examined, it is a pure so- phism. It may be allowed, that petty offences, from their frequency, may produce on the whole a greater sum of evil to the State than the more enormous crimes, which are but rarely perpetra- ted : but this will not vindicate the justice of re- pressing the former by capital punishments. The sum of evil is not produced by the crime of one offender, but by those of many offenders. There- fore, as it is altogether contrary to justice to pu- nish one person for the crime of another, so the frequency of a crime ought not, in point of jus- tice, to render the punishnient more severe to any individual, than if he had been the sole offendeir* For even were we to consider the crimes of dif- ferent individuals in the aggregate, and as fornv No. 10.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME FIRST. 15S ing one mass of evil to the State, it is equally reasonable that we should consider the punish- ments of different individuals in the aggregate, and accumulate them to form a counterpoise ; and thus we should still find the balance even, between the mass of crime, and the mass of pu- nishment. We may, therefore, confidently conclude, that it is safe to adhere to the great principle of Re- tributive Justice, which teaches. That the mea- sure of the punishment of crimes ought in every case to depend on the moral turpitude of the cri- minal, of which Nature has furnished an infaU lible criterion, in that indignation which arises in the impartial mind upon the commission of a crime, and which always keeps its just propor- tion to the magTiitude of the ofience. By an ad- herence to this principle, in our reasonings upon Criminal Jurisprudence, we have a guide which will clear our path amidst all the mists of error and sophistry. APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. APPENDIX. NO. I. 'Letters from the Reverend Dr Josiah Tuc- ker, (Dean of Gloucester ) ^ to Lord Kames, on subjects chiefly relating to FoUtical Eco^ nomy, 1. On the Comparative Advantages of a Rich and a Poor Country for Maniifactures, London, July 6, 1758. My Lord, X HAVE many excuses to make, and apologies to offer, for not writing sooner. But though my particular situation in regard to my views of pre- ferment, (of which 'tis possible that Mr Robert- son may have given your Lordship some infor- mation), might plead in my favour, yet I rely more on your goodness, than on any other con- 158 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1. siclcratlon. However, I have at least succeeded in my wishes, having had the honour to kiss his Majesty's hand, four days ago, for the Deanery of Gloucester. When persons are desirous of atoning for their offences, they generally make presents. I will try to appease your Lordship in the same way : and if I am not mistaken, the inclosed will be no unacceptable present to one of your Lordship's character. The author is my honoured friend, and formerly my patron ; and as he does not make the piece public, I requested of him to give ^mie some copies for the use of my friends, and particularly for your Lordship. 1 beg my respectful compliments to Mr David Hume, with thanks for his ingenious animadver- sions. They are very plausible and well urged ; but fall short of conviction : And I must observe in general upon this argument, both to your Lordship and Mr Hume, That as you allow all the matter of fact, viz. That the rich industrious country doth sell all manner of complete manu- factures cheaper than the poor industrious coun^ try, it is of little consequence to the main of the argument, whether I can rightly account for this phenomenon or not. Be it, that I am mistaken, yet the matter of fact is the same : and while that holds good — and no one exception can be brought against it in all history — my general po- sition must be right, though my method of ac- No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 159 counting for it may be judged unsatisfactory. If such is the effect, a cause there must be ; though I may have assigned a wrong one. As to the phrase of a country increasing in commerce and manufactures ad injinitum ; I ex- cept against the term ; and would not choose that my poor Jinitc understanding should be in- volved in disquisitions about irifinites* It is suf- ficient for this purpose to say, That the progress would be indefinite : for I apprehend, no man can mark out the limits, or reasonably affirm, " Hi- " therto shall an industrious and moral nation ** increase in the quantity of their manufactures, *' the numbers of their people, and stock of ** wealth, and no farther.'' In regard to the monopoly which the rich country would thus acquire over a poor one, in the sale of its manufactures, the fact must be ac- knowledged ; but the consequences supposed to result from it, may be obviated to such a degree, as to prevent any dangers arising from it. True it is, that OEteris paribus, the rich industrious country would always undersell the poor one ; and by that means attract the trade of all poorer countries to itself; — but it is equally true, that if either of these poor countries hath any peculiar produce of its own, it may prohibit its exporta- tion till it be wrought up into a complete manu- facture. It is true likewise, that all of them have it in their power to load the manufactures of the 160 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [KO. L rich country upon entering their territories, with such high duties as shall turn the scale in favour of their own manufactures, or of the manufac- tures of some other nation, whose progress in trade they have less cause to fear, or envy. Thus it is, in my poor apprehension, that the rich may be prevented from swallowing up the poor; at the same time, and by the same methods, that the poor are stimulated and excited to emulate the rich. The last objection of Mr Hume's was, That as the poorer country, by having wages and raw materials cheaper, would certainly undersell the rich one in the coarse and more imperfect manu- factures, so likewise it would from thence gra- dually ascend to others, till at last it equalled, and perhaps exceeded the rich country in every thing. But, with deference to Mr Hume, I would beg him to reconsider this argument. The point he builds upon, is the cheapness of wages and of raw materials : But will the wages and raw ma- terials remain still at the same low price, after the country is become so much the richer than it was before ? Surely not : Surely they will ad- vance in price, in proportion to the advancement of every thing else. And therefore the grand advantage which he supposes the poor country to have over the rich, in point of cheapness of wages, and of raw materials, will grow less and less every day. In short, though both countries No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 161 may still go on in their respective improvements, the poor country, according to my apprehension, can never overtake the rich, unless it be through the fault and mismanagement of the latter. I was extremely hurt in observing with what arrogance and indecency Mr H. was treated by that superficial writer, the author of the Esti- mate. He is himself below Mr H's notice; and iust ven2:eance has been taken on him bv several writers; particularly one, who has wrote the Vin^ dication of Commerce ^ styling himself J. B. M, Z). This M. D. is no other than a clothier of Trow- bridge, one Temple^ who has immense erudition in his way, — understands the principles of com- merce extremely well, but pushes some of them too far. In my next, I shall send your Lord- ship your plan for a National Militia^ with a few remarks ; and am, with great esteem, your Lord- ship's most obedient and obliged humble ser- vant. JosiAH Tucker. vor. irr. /. 162 APPENPIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1. II. FROM THE SAME. On Charitable Collections^ (§*c. Gloucester, October 18. 1761, My Lord, I just have had the honour of receiving a let- ter of your Lordship's, without a date. Your opinion, that my marriage-portion scheme savours of Utopia, is not singular : many of my friends have thought the same. And yet, my Lord, I have succeeded almost up to my expectation in one respect, and much beyond it in another. I did not dare to hope, that the collection would exceed £, 100. Many obstacles besides those of novelty lay in the way ; such as a lately contest- ed election on the spot, heart-burnings, jealousies, &c. : And yet it rose to ^90 : 12 : 6; and seve- ral persons are desirous of an annual subscription for continuing the charity. But my chief de- pendance lies in a codicil of a gentleman near Bristol, who is very rich, childless, and very old. I cannot tell what the sum is : but by his man- ner of talking concerning the scheme, I should judge that it will be considerable. I cannot agree with your Lordship, that chari- table collections are best promoted in our grave No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. l63 and serious moments. Did mankind act upon the steady principle of true charity, it would be so: But, in fact, charitable collections are best promoted, at least in our part of the Isle, by mix- ing a little jocundity and dissipation of thought, with the serious desisfn of social benevolence* I have known a good dinner do great things at a country entertainment; and a merry song of Beard^s do still more. This is not the first time that 1 have applied public rejoicings to charitable purposes, with good success. The scheme for making a collection on the Thanksgiving-day in 17-59, for clothing the French prisoners, was mine; as was also the paper that appeared in the Chronicle, and other newspapers. And in regard to the marriage-portion scheme, the real and in- superable difiiculty was, — what 1 am persuaded your Lordship has not yet thought of, viz. That in promoting marriages among the poor, we should increase the poor's-rates. Could I have been able to have removed that scare-crow of a poor's-rate, 1 could easily establish an annual sub- scription of ^ 100 and upwards. Your Lordship very kindly upbraids me with delaying the publication of my work*. But, my L '2 * A work, which was to be entitled, '' The Elements of ^' Commerce, and Theory of Taxes ;" but which he never completed; probably for the reasons here assigned.' 16 li APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1. Lord, to what purpose sliould I publish it? War, conquests and colonies, are our present system ; and mine is just the opposite. Were I to publish at this juncture, the best treatment I could ex- pect is, to be taken for a knave or a madman : and as 1 know myself not to be the one, I would not willingly be thought the other. So let them pursue their wars, their conquests, and the ex- tension of their colonies, till they have had enough of them : and then, when they have tried the experiment, and found that all has end- ed in a gay delusion, and been attended with bitter consequences, they may be the more dis- posed to listen to the cool dictates of reason, and the maxims of common sense. I look upon the nation at present, to be frantic v/ith military glory ; and therefore, no more to be argued witli^ than a person in the raving fit of a high fever. And if my book should at all happen to be read, (which with me is a great question), every news- writer would be pelting me, and saying, that I was the dirty mercenary tool of some great man, who envied The Great Minister his Horv. In- deed, by his resignation, and accepting a pen- sion, that point is altered for the present: But still, as the people are as mad as ever for carry- ing on the war, and even extending our con- quests and our quarrels, any system built upon maxims opposite and repugnant, would only No. ].] AI>PENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. l6o raise their bile, without any prospect of making converts. Your Lordship, in your new work*, walks in a safer path : You have no popular measures to op- pose ; nor French smugglers to detect, bellowing forth, *^ O liberty ! O my country !" while they are supplying their country's enemies with every thing necessary to prolong the war. This I know to he the fact ^ in London, Bristol, Liverpool, and all over Xorth-Am erica. And if you in North- Britain do act upon more generous and honest principles, you are a rare example, which none Avill follow. I know nothing of your Lordship's subject but from the title. This indeed is prodigiously ex- tensive. But I suppose you will contract your views to some particular end or use. Each sen- sation was certainly designed to answer some one particular end ; the gratification of which, under the guidance of reason and reflection, is human happiness : and the non-gratification, if I may use that term, is present misery; and misappli- cation is misery in reversion. But I am to learn, and not to teach : I shall therefore be very at- tentive to the advertisements of new books; and I am, my Lord, with true regard and great esteem, your, &;c. J. Tucker. L 3 * 'Elements of Criticism. 166 APPENDIX TO VOLUMES SECOND. [NO. 1. III. FROM THE SAME. On the same Subjects, Bristol, December 10. 1763. My Lord, A LETTER from your Lordship, dated Novem- ber 26, has been travelHng in pursuit of me seve- ral days. It went first to London, according to 3^our Lordship's direction, and having sought me there in vain, it was sent down to Gloucester, and from Gloucester it was yesterday brought here. Your Lordship's goodness in calHng upon me to explain my motives for abandoning my off- spring, and exposing my deserted political chil- dren to the wide world, certainly entitles you to know the best reasons that I can give for such a conduct : and I wish that they were not so good as they really are. Li Xhtjii^st place, I have been too forward in my publications already : and those who think the most favourably of my performance, consider them as the flights of a well-meaning visionary ; who, like a second Jacob Henriques, is always obtruding his absurd impracticable schemes up- on the public. Others impute my writings to a worse motive ; and very few indeed can be No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 167 brought to believe that I have a sound and solid judgment, in the affairs about which I have written so much. I remember, that 1 have often complained to your Lordship, that my fate was like Cassandra's : none would believe me till it was too late. In the next place, I can see nothing in the pre- sent disposition of the times which gives any en- couragement to a man to hope, that his labours could do good at the present juncture. In for- mer times, the regal scale preponderated ; but now, popular fury bears every thing down before it : and nothing is read or regarded, but as it suits the fashionable frenzy. I would not have your Lordship think that I utter these things in a gloomy hour. No : I was never more cheerful in all my life ; and never enjoyed a better state both of mind and body, than since I gave up all thoughts of intermeddling any more with public matters. But I speak from conviction, and speak from experience. About twelve years ago, 1 determined to feel the pulse of the public once more, in regard to the publi- cation of my great work ; and resolved to act according to the fate which would attend that specimen of it. With this view, I selected a chapter which had reference to the disputes then on foot, and which are still the subjects of uni- versal conversation. I worked this chapter into l4 168 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO* 1. a pamphlet, introduced several striking charac- ters, and gave it all the colourings of popularity I could devise. It was styled, The Case of going to War for the sake of Trade considered in a new light ; and printed for Dodsley. But neither the singularity of the title, nor the name of the pu- blisher, could recommend it to the least regard. And though I mentioned, that it was a part of a greater work, and that the author neither sought the favour of the minister, nor of the mob, by the publication ; yet I might almost as well have printed it among the savage, commerceless na- tions of America, as in the capital of the most commercial kingdom in the world. I will give orders for one of these pamphlets to be sent down to Bristol ; and then I will do myself the honour of transmitting it to your Lordship. The last news I heard of it was, that it had not paid for advertising; though Dodsley made no scruple of naming the author. The inclosed printed paper is another proof, both of my willingness to serve my country and mankind, and of the discouraging circumstances attending my best endeavours. In the beginning of the summer 17^2, I went with a friend to Ireland, merely to see the country. And after having been entertained in various houses, with a profusion of hospitality ; the next subject with the Irish patriot, as your Lordship may very well know, is the complaint of the manifold hardships No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUM£ SECOND. 169 which the English impose upon the Irish nation. This topic of conversation being daily repeated, I thought I should do an acceptable piece of ser- vice to the Irish in general, and discover a grate- fid disposition towards my particular friends, if I pointed out such articles as would greatly be- nefit Ireland, and yet not excite the narrow, jealous, monopolizing spirit of the English. But how great was my surprise when I found, that my endeavours only exposed me to their sneers, instead of acquiring their thanks ; and that the}^ meant nothing else b}^ all their doleful complaints, but what Wilkes and his associates, vmi at is mutandis, mean now. I am glad I found your Lordship's MSS^ rela- tive to a militia. This letter will not allow mc to expatiate upon it ; neither can I add here any thing relating to the Elements of Criticism, but that I greatly admire them, and that, on their account, and for every other, I profess myself the learned and patriotic author's most obliged^ &c. JosiAH Tucker. 170 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1 IV. FROM THE SAME. On Elements of Criticism, 8^c. Bristol, December 25. 1753, My Lord, After repeated trials, I am fully convinced^ that I have not a capacity for making proper re- marks on your Lordship's book. How should a man who understands not a note in music, be able to write a criticism on the finest of Handel's com- positions ? Now, this is exactly my case. I know not one of the fine arts ; and I find more- over, that I have nothing within me which can be called a genius for them, or be made capable of cultivation. Fine strains of, music delight me; but I can give no reason why. And so does good poetry, and good painting. But I cannot describe my own feelings upon the occasion ; much less can I enter into the rules of the art, or explore its heights or depths. Your Lordship's book seems to me to be calcu- lated for those happy few in the scale of beings whose soiils are of a superior make. JVe, the bulk of mankind, are impelled by a kind of mechanism No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 171 to love certain beauties ; just as animals are prompted to seek their food, or seize their prey : But 1/ou have added the rules of art to the work- ings of nature, and have made that a science^ which in us is only a blind instinct. In this situation, what can I do better than turn informer against myself, and confess my own ig- norance ? In one word, I know nothing of the matter : And if this be guilt, I dare believe, that your Lordship will pardon it much more readily, than if I had added to it the provoking aggrava- tion of a dull, impertinent criticism. In my former letter, I mentioned a Tract which I had lately printed, with a view of feeling the pulse of the public in regard to such kinds of sub- jects. This is the pamphlet which I now take the liberty of inclosing to your Lordship. It is full of errors of the press, having never had the cor- recting hand of the author. But as these errors are easily distinguishable, I must impute the total disregard shewn to it, to other causes than to the faultiness of the impression. And as I find my prediction in the advertisement so fully verified by the event, I have now nothing more to do, but to keep my former resolution ; — which has alrea- dy greatly contributed both to the ease of my mind, and the health of my body. If I should ever publish this work, it shall be after the man-^ ner of your countryman, Bishop Burnet, viz. to / 172 '^ APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1. give orders for the publication of it after my de- cease. I am, my Lord, with unfeigned regard, 8tc. JosiAH Tucker. P. S. Your Lordship is extremely welcome to any MS. of mine in the hands of Mr Robson, or of any other, if you can find it.— In regard to mi- litias, my notion is this : When people had no mo- ney, they paid their soldiers with lands ; and those troops were called Militias : they now pay them in money ; and they are, therefore, better discip- lined, and called Standing Armies. Troops paid wath lands could not be well disciplined, if they were to cultivate those lands. V. FROM THE SAME. On his own Writings, and Literary aiid other Oc- cupations, My Lord, Bristol, February 15. 1764. As soon as I had the honour of your letter, I wrote to Mr Robson the bookseller in New-Bond Street ; and I find from him that the MS. is the same which your Lordship mentioned. By the last post he had orders to send it away for Edin- burgh ; and I hope it is now upon the road tra- velling to your Lordship. No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND, 173 I wish I could be of your opinion in regard to the short duration of the present frenzy. But I see it with very different eyes, and expect that each succeeding paroxysm will be more violent than the former. This has certainly been the case for thirty years past: and there is nothing in the present appearance of things, which seems to indicate, that the strength of the disease is abating, but rather the contrary. But quitting all metaphor, I take the case to be plainly this : Violent opposition hath been of late years, the sure and safe road to the great prefer- ments : and this amounts to the same thing, (up- on commercial principles,) as offering a premium, or giving a bounty for the continuance and increase of opposition. At least, the effect must be thus, till it is publicly known that those premiums or bounties are discontinued : — which" is not likely to ])e soon the case. I have often made the same reflections which your Lordship makes on the case of those who write with an attempt to instruct others, and to uiake them better. Their reward, if they are to Ir.ive any, is to be as Dr Young expresses it, ^' A late reversion, at their own decease." But with regard to my great v/ork, the fact i% that I am not ready for a publication, were I ever fo willino: : nor can I sav when I shall be. For 174 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1. the avocations belonging to my new office of Dean, are very many, and too important to be omitted. I came into an house, which wanted to be almost rebuilt, and into a chapter, where many disorders required to be rectified : and I have a cathedral and cloisters to examine and repair, which, in some re- spects, are the finest Gothic structures in the world ; and which are now perhaps the best kept. Add to this, that though I do not understand mu- sic, y^l^fungendo rice cotis, as Horace says, I have, for the number of voices, the best choir in the kingdom, out of London. After this I need not mention family- concerns, which are very perplex- ing : for though I have no children of my own, I have no less than eight of an only sister, all thrown upon me, whom I must breed up to get their li- ving in some shape or other. I am afraid I have tired your Lordship with this long apology. But there are two resolutions which I cannot depart from. The first is, That as cha- rity begins at home, I must give up as much tim^e as is necessary for the service of my own family : And the second. That I will not put it in the power of any one to say, that I neglected the pro- per business of my function and station, upon any pretences of serving the public : I have always kept clear, I thank God, of this imputation, even No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 175 my adversaries being judges : and I trust, I ever shall ^, tc subjects, or allies, or w^hatever else you please, in whose quarrel we have spent so many millions, and spilt such torrents of blood 1 In short, and to sum up all at once, I look upon it to have been a very imprudent act, to have settled any distant No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 181 colonies at all, whilst there remained an inch of land in Great Britain capable of further cultiva- tion : — Afterwards, to have been very foolish and absurd to have engaged in their disputes either with the French or Spaniards, and to have espou- sed their quarrels : — and, lastly, to have been the height of madness to have endeavoured to conquer them after they had broken out in open rebellion. They were always, from first to last, a heavy weight upon us ; a weight which we ourselves ought to have thrown off, if they had not done it for us. When I first broached this doctrine, al- most twenty years ago, I stood alone ; and had the honour to be treated by the late Ministry as 2. fool, and by the present, then in opposition, as a knave. But the time is come that both sides think very differently of my well-meant endea- vours. Having only two franks at present for your Lordship, and not having the little Treatise on JVool now at hand, I beg leave to send you a new (the third) edition of my Ciii Bono, with a long preface ; and shall transmit the other tracts vf^ith all convenient speed. Be pleased to accept of my repeated thanks for your Lordship's indulgence and promise of pardon, (for such I understand it) on my repentance : And believe me to be, with the sincerest esteem and regard, your Lordship's most obliged, ^c, Josiah Tucker. M S 182 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 1 . VII. FROM THE SAME. Absu7^d inferences of' Political JVritei^s, drawn from the Saxon Government, Gloucester, June 24. 1782. My GOOD Lord, I am happy to transmit to your Lordship the remaining part of my Cui Bono, Together with this, I likewise send a little postscript to a Sermon which was preached by a member of our church on the 29th of May. In one part of my answer to Mr Locke, I had asserted from the authorities of Lyttelton and Sir Walter Raleigh, that soccage anciently was rather a base than a noble tenure; and that though it after- wards came into good repute, yet that in the times of the Saxons, it was not considered as entitling the socman to the rank of being a member either of the greater or lesser Gemot. The matter is in itself of no consequence : nor granting that I am mistaken in this particular, is my argument against Mr Locke at all affected by it. But great triumphs have been raised on this head, for want of something more substantial and more to the purpose. If your Lordship has ever thought it worth your while to make this point a particular subject of inquiry, I should be glad to know No. 1.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND.- 18S whether I am right or wrong. Great and glori- ous things are now said of the nature and consti- tution of the Saxon Government ; as if it had been a model of the most perfect freedom. I know no other grounds for these assertions than the distance of the time and the unimportance of the subjects, which render a confutation unnecessary as well as difficult. A government expressly founded on conquest and slavery, (and where slaves were the objects, and end and aim of all their endeavours, and the staple-tirade of the times,) would not, as one would have thought, have been held up as a pattern for a civilized na- tion to copy after. But what will not modern politics arrive at ? I was going on in this way : but the influenza, — not the political, but the physical, has ordered me to stop. I conclude, therefore, with my most respectful thanks for your great condescension to your Lordship's most obliged, 8^c. JOSIAH TUCKEP, M 4 184 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 2. APPENDIX.— NO. IL LzTTEKfrom Robert Adam, Esg, to Lord Kamzs. Londoriy SUt March 1765* My Lord, I am ashamed to say I have had the honour of your letter of the 2d ult, so long, without its being in my power to answer it sooner. The practice of architectnre rushes so fast upon me, that I have but too few moments to dedicate to theory and speculation. Your Lordship's ideas with regard to the improprieties of the Doric and Corinthian orders, seem at first to be too well founded : but, upon considering the nature of these orders more fully, and reflecting how an architect of superior abilities would dispose of them, I am convinced the strength of your ob- jections would vanish, I may say, entirely as to the first, and in a great measure be removed as to the second of these orders. If you wish that the Doric order should appear simple and solid, you ought not to Jiute your columns, nor carve any of the mouldings of your capitals and bases ^ keep the entablature of the No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 185 plainest kind, no gitttce to your mutnles, no orna- ments in your metops : in which case you will find no one part too much or too little ornamented for the others ; and I have already experienced this in many buildings I have executed. If you flute your columns, you must then enrich your capitals and bases, carve your cornices, and put ornaments on the metops of the frieze. This degree of en- richment I would seldom use without doors ; but it is very proper in halls, insides of temples, 8cc. I have ventured to alter some parts of this order, particularly in its mouldings ; rejecting some of the common ones, and adopting or substituting others in their stead. These alterations, most people have allowed to be much for the better : But I have always been very cautious in this way, and it is a dangerous licence, and may do much harm in the hands of rash innovators, or mere re- tailers in the art, who have neither eyes nor judg- ment. The capital of the Corinthian order demands delicacy and richness in every other part belong- ing to that order ; and when that necessary pro- fusion of ornament cannot be afforded, the archi- tect ought to reject this order altogether. The Fable of Callimachus, the basket and acanthus leaves, I never had any faith in. The Egyptians had a kind of Corinthian order, and in many parts so similar to that which the Grecians used, that we cannot doubt, of the latter having only chang- 186 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. ^. ed and improved (as they imagined,) many parts of the Egyptian capital. If your Lordship will look into Norden's Antiquities of Egypt, you will see the capitals 1 refer to. I own that there ap- pears an absurdity in supporting any weight by a combined cluster of light foliage : but if you sup- pose a column to represent a tree, I shall suppose a palm-tree, which grows of a pretty equal thick- ness, and of which the branches grow near the top, and that part of the top of this tree is cut off, and the branches or leaves left : you will find that tree able to support a weight, and these branches by no means impairing its strength, nor in any danger of being broken off: they will bend down their heads with the beam or entabla- ture that lies upon them, and connects them to- gether, as those of the Corinthian capital do, but the main weight will still rest for its support up- on the upright stem *. This I take to be the * The late William Craik, Esq. of Arbigland, in Kircud- brightshire, (one of the first and most intelligent agricultural improvers in Scotland, and equally remarkable for a cultivated mind and elegant taste,) in a letter to Lord Kames on this subject, of the different orders of architecture, obviates his Lordship's objection to the apparent weakness of the Corinthi- an capital, in a still simpler, and therefore more satisfactory manner than Mr Adam. " We must not consider the capitals of the columns in the ^^ different orders, as detached pieces set upon the shafts, but ** for what they truly are, viz. a continuation of the shaft pas- No. 2.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 187 true origin of the Corinthian order. Some other leaf has been substituted as more beautiful than that of the palm, or any other tree which grows in that manner, and by degrees the acanthus has prevailed. Many trees grow 20 or 80 feet high in one stem ; then split into tw^o or three large boughs. If you cut the tree two or three feet above the separation of these boughs, it occasions that swell at the top which gives the appearance of the basket or base your Lordship mentions, which all architects have split upon ; resorting to this foolish fable, when it may be accounted for in the simple and natural manner I have men- tioned. As to the proportions of the column, we might also suppose these taken from the proportions of " sing as it were through the astragal up to the abacus ; and " therefore we must conclude that they retain at that part just as much strength as at any other part of the column : and as the ornaments are all superadded, these may increase, but they cannot possibly diminish that strength. That this is truly the case, is evident from the slightest inspection in the " Tuscan, Doric, and Ionic columns ; and if you strip the Co- rinthian and Composite capitals of their dress of leaves, &c. it will be equally manifest in these. But even when clad with their ornaments, these, if properly disposed, leave in- *' tervals and openings in various parts, through which the *^ solid body and form of the capital may be traced by an " attentive eye, and thus every suspicion of infirmity is re- " moved." te sc €< te 188 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 2. the human figure, and the leaves at the top to correspond to the hair. The introduction of Caryatides and Terms amongst the Greeks gives some plausibility at least to this conjecture ^ though I own I think it extends little farther than to the general proportions of columns, but not at all to the particular parts of the order. The Ionic order ought only to be used in gay and slight buildings ; as the meagreness of its capital never fills the eye sufficiently, on the out- side of a mass of solid architecture. I always thought this order destined for insides of houses and temples : but the universal practice to the contrary in all countries, shews how much I stand single in this opinion. The false and destructive prejudice in favour of lightness in buildings, I imagine is the cause of this custom. I would only ask any man, if the buildings of the Egyp- tians, Greeks or Romans had been light, accord- ing to modern ideas, whether we would have seen any remains of them in our day ? If a building were not so immensely great as to demand a variety of orders, I would omit entirely the two mongrel orders, the Composite and Tus- can ; and, God knows, our confined ideas of mag- nificence in building do but too little require that variety. The Composite capital is by no means so fine as the Corinthian ; and the Doric ordcF can, without great variation, supply every pur- pose of the Tuscan. No. 2.] APEENDIX TO VOLUME^ECOND. 189 These are my real sentiments with regard to the orders of our art. I shall be happy if any of these observations are worth your Lordship's at- tention. I flatter myself, that the arts in general are in a progressive state in England. If the King builds a palace in a magnificent and pure style of archi- tecture, it will give a great push at once to the taste of this country ; as it will not only furnish ideas for lesser buildings, but shew effects both of external and internal composition, which this country as yet is entirely ignorant of. If it is done meanly, or in bad taste, I should apprehend the worst of consequences. Painting and sculp- ture depend more upon good architecture than one would imagine. They are the necessary ac- companiments of the great style of architecture ; and a building that makes no provision for them, and does not even demand them as necessary ad- juncts, I would at once pronounce to be wretch- ed. My brother James writes with that love and enthusiasm of architecture, which no one could feel that has not formed very extensive ideas of it. It is easy to tame and bring under proper management these large views ; and the detail of our profession comes naturally to the man who understands its great principles, in the laws of beauty and grandeur : but the architect who be- gins with minutia, will never rise above the race igO APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 2. of those reptile artizans who have crawled about and infested this country for many years. I have been twice in the country since I receiv- ed your Lordship's letter, and if I may judge by my own employment, private buildings go on apace. I expect to be very little in London all this summer, having business in various quarters of England, which I am with difficulty able to get managed with honour to myself, and satisfac- tion to my employers. I hope you will forgive the length of this Epis- tle, and believe most respectfully, my Lord, your Lordship's most obedient and very faithful hum- ble servant, Robert Adam, No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 191 APPENDIX.— NO. III. Letters from Lord Kames's Correspondence^ on certain subjects of Physiology and Natural His- tory, I. Letter to Lord Kames fro77i the Reverend Dr John Walker, Minister of Moffat, afterwards Regius Professor of Natural History in the» University of Edinburgh, On the Analogy between Man and the inferior animals ; and that between animals and Vege- tables. Moffat, February 18. 1773. My Lord, Your Lordship's letter, which would at any time have been most acceptable, was peculiarly so in my present situation ; blocked up with snow, and not within eighteen miles of a person I can converse with. Nothing is pleasanter at such a time than new views upon an old subject. I have taken up my pen, and may begin, but I know not when, or where I shall end. When engaged up- on a subject, I know with what avidity I have 1<^2 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 2. sometimes attended to the most crude discussions of others ; and have seen even light issue from very muddy understandings, like lightning, from a dark cloud. This at present makes me hope for a hearing. The analogy between man and the inferior ani- raals, and between them and vegetables, is one of the most obvious of all human speculations ; — a field of inquiry which has always been full of labourers, and never more cultivated than at pre* sent, or to such good purpose. Yet, to raise Monkeys to Men ; to degrade Men to Monkeys ; to attempt to annihilate or even to extenuate the line of partition between them, is a reigning taste in philosophy, which gives me great disgust Linnaeus has long ranked us in the same order of animals with the Bat ; and though in this ar» tide I perhaps justify his method, as much as any individual of my species, yet I could never look at it without umbrage. He still placed Man however in a genus by himself at the head of the system. He stickled a little indeed for combin- ing us with the Ouran-outang ; but finding that the creature had a membrana niciitans, he allowed him to remain wath his companions. This was well enough. But his behaviour in his last book is truly provoking. He has there given us a bro- ther-german. — a Homo La7\ forsooth I some lit- tle scoundrel of a monkey, picked up in the woods of Macassar, whose very name I have iq No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 193 such detestation, that I am persuaded I am not a drop's blood to him. Let your Lordship pursue the analogy between Plants and Mankind, as far as you will, it is not likely I shall be as much offended, as with my friend Linnaeus. I have been from the cradle fond of vegetative life ; and though I like my species, and the rank I hold in the creation, I de- clare I would sooner claim kindred to an oak or an apple-tree than to an ape. Your Lordship well knows what copious disqui- sitions have been made upon the scale of being. It is called a chain, and it has been traced in most of its parts from nature to mind. Could we take hold of the one end of this chain as we can do of the other, we might know by one shake whether or no it is entire, as we suppose. Many links re- main still undiscovered, but we have reason to think that there are none wanting. The analogy between plants and animals, as members of this scale, has been chiefly pursued in the track of organization. Your Lordship, by what I can perceive, intends a different route, and I think indeed a pleasanter path, that of sensibi- lity. Though by different ways, they lead to the same object, and I believe are always parallel. Organization and sensibility constantly rise and fall together. They go hand in hand in nature, and should do so in philosophy. VOL. III. IS 194 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. With regard to the similarity between plants and animals, in the article of self-motion, my views are as follow ; nor do they differ materially from the strictures in vour Lordshio's letter. But before we go to the plants. From w^hence do the self-motions of animals proceed ? It appears, that all animal motions arise either from irritation or volition. The first is a mecha- nical cause, but the other is of a different nature. The motions from volition are obvious. By the motions from irritation, I mean not only the ac- cidental involuntary motions of nerves and muscles, but the involuntary vital motions : those of the intestines, of the lungs, of the heart, of the ar- teries ; and in fine, all motions which are not ef- fected by an act of the will. After full recollection, I think all the motions of plants flow from irritation. I know^ of none from volition. They are endowed with self-mo- tion unquestionably, but it always proceeds from this single source : Whereas, animals are likewise endowed with a self-motion that is voluntary. The motions of instinct in animals are motions likewise of volition. But as there are no mo- tions of volition in vegetables, I w^ould argue, that they are void of instinct. At least, the ap- parently instinctive motion of vegetables, must, in this article, be essentially different from the instinct of animals, however much they may re- semble it ^ and it would be proper indeed, that two No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 195 things so different should be known by different names ; such as Voluntary and Involuntary In- stinct. The first, peculiar to animals ; the latter, the only instinct of vegetables. Instinct, both in the animal and vegetable world, is divisible into many subordinate degrees, and each should have its place upon the scale of being : but, from this dis- tinction, does there not result a capital division of instinct in general, subsisting as a common prin- ciple in the tw^o kingdoms of nature ? Instinct irt animals is confined to two objects : The safety of the individual, and the preservation of the species. The same two objects are pursued by plants, and by means indeed similar, but not quite the' same. Most of the attempts made by plants to gain these two ends, can be accounted for, I think, mechanically : but the attempts of animals cannot. A tree receding from the per- pendicular, till it finds an open passage upward, I consider as a motion quite mechanical. But the flight of a woodcock, at his season, from Cape Breton to Scotland, can be accounted for by no mechanism. These things may serve, I imagine, to establish an essential difference betw^een the in- stinct of plants and animals, if in both it must have the same name. The motions of plants, like those of animals, answer determinate purposes : They are the means to an end. N 2 l96 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECONB. [NO. 5. But that end the plant pursues, by an impulse surely V^oid of intelligence. It may indeed re- semble the instinct of animals, but it is far infe- rior. At the utmost, I suspect it to be little above mechanical, if it is above it at all ; and I am sure, that in most cases it can be so accounted for. We can trace the causes of the motions of plants and animals mechanically a certain length, and then indeed we are brought to a stop. When I ascribe these motions, therefore, to irritation, I mean it only as their proximate cause. Beyond this there no doubt lies a cause of another nature. But of this I know nothing. Here I own my phi- losophy fails me. The most striking property in common to ani- mals and vegetables, is their mode of generation ; a modern discovery, by which we are assured, that plants are propagated by male and female, as well as animals ; and that every organized body pro- ceeds from a fecundated egg or seed. But further than this the subject of generation has been in vain pursued ; and the punctinn sallens vitce, the ultimate origin of life and of vital motion, both in plants and animals, is all darkness still. 'Sensation in animals is the effect of irritation- The same effect we cannot deny to vegetables, But the sensation of a plant is so inferior in de- gree, and of such a different nature, that it would seem, like the vegetable instinct, to require a dif- ferent denomination. Pleasure and pain, for ex- No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 1^7 ample, arise in animals upon sensation ; but where or how shall we discover these in vegetables ? Sensibility, though diffused over the whole ani- mal, has its head-quarters in the brain. From this focus the rays of sensibility diverge to every fibre and every pore. But we. can find no such senso- rium in plants. The sentient principle, if it may be called so, is totiwi in toto, et totum in qualibet parte. It appears to me, that the sensibility of the nerves in the human body, if it does not entirely depend, is at least generally in proportion to the rarity or density of the medium in which they are lodged. The firmer the fibre, the less sensibility ; and "cice xersci. Hence the greater sensibility of mankind in a Avarm than in a cold climate ; greater in an effe- minate than a rude age ; greater in the female than the male sex ; greater in a tender lady than in a robust dairy-maid; and greater in the se- dentary student than in the active ploughman. The medium in the one being to that in the other, as pulp to bend-leather. The same thing we find in the different parts of the same bodv. Let the hands or feet be hardened, and their sensibility is diminished, The sensibi- lity of the neves in the firmer muscles, is nothing to what it is in the finer membranes. The sensi- bility is next to nothing in the firm and callous N 3 ISIS APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3, iTiedium of the ligaments ; and yet, let the firmest of these ligaments be rarified by inflammation, and it becomes sensible. The sensibility of the nerves is plainly nothing in the bones ; and yet there, I make no doubt, they likewise exist, though totally insensible, from the great compactness of the me- cjium in which they are lodged. All that I find in vegetables analogous to this, is, that in young plants, and in the young and tender parts, there is most sensibility ; and that, by becoming firmer in substance, they become more insensible : Which is saying little more, than that a sheet of cambric paper is more sus- ceptible of every breath than a sheet of lead: For though it is common to speak and write about the nerves of plants, it is an impropriety. They have no organs so similar to animal nerves as to authorise the name. They have indeed bundled fibres; but these correspond to the muscular fibres, not to the nerves of animals. There is one article of the analogy between animals and vegetables that has scarce ever been touched upon, — the article of habit; a source of much curious speculation, and of more useful discoveries than any other part of the subject. In the view I have of it, it promises much for the advancement of agriculture, of gardening, of the management of cattle and other animals, and even of the management of man ; as much may be lej^rnt from it in preventing and curing diseases. KO. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 19^ We have here no occasion to force an analogy ; for in this article plants and animals are quite the same. It is the consequence of their being orga- nized bodies ; and hence every useful discovery in the one, can be applied and rendered useful in the other. It is indeed one great disadvantage of the subject, that it hinges every where upon mi- nutiae ; I may say minutiunculae, v/hich require a microscopic observer : Upon small observations and slight circumstances, seemingly trivial apart, but collectively of importance. To instance, in the point of naturalization to climate and country. Rice is a native plant of the torrid zone, but has been long cultivated without tiie tropic ; in South Corolina, the Canaries, and northern parts of Africa, About 100 years ago it was first sown in Italy, and has ever since been creeping gradually northwards in Europe. They have now fruitful fields of rice upon the Weser, in the north of Ger- many. Bnt they must use German seed : That of Carolina, and even of Italy, wdli not ripen : being destitute of that power to withstand cold which the other has gradually acquired by habit, or a tract of years. The yew tree is a native of Sweden, and braves all the rigour of the climate ; but yews brought from France to ornament the Swedish gardens, were found unable to withstand it. N 4 Coo APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3* The passion-tree, a native of the Brazils, is there an ever- green. I remember it at Edinburgh, when a boy, a regular perdifol. But I have been wit- ness to its becoming gradually so inured to the climate, that in a good exposure it now retains its foliage the whole winter. The same effect of habit we find in animals. The Canary bird brought to London directly from these islands, cannot be kept alive without a great deal of artificial heat. But after many suc- cessive generations in Germany and in this coun- try, it is found to stand the open air almost equal- ly with our own linnets. And the same thing is beginning to appear in the golden and China pheasant. The horse and sheep, both natives of the hot- test parts of the earth, were they brought from thence to v/inter on the mountains of Ross-shire, would undoubtedly perish ; and yet both animals, by travelling gradually northwards in the course of ages, live on these mountains in health and vi- gour. The power of habit, however, in naturalization, appears not so conspicuous in our own species as among the inferior animals, and in plants. And the reason appears to be this. Every plant and every animal is evidently designed by Nature to occupy some particular climate or track of the globe ; but it is equally evident, that man is des- tined to possess the whole. And yet, though man- N6. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 201 kind live both under the equator, and within the polar circle, we may safely suppose, that the na- tives of Sumatra, transplanted at once to Green- land, would certainly not be able to subsist. I shall mention another instance of the force of habit in plants and animals ; that is, the alteration it produces in their external characters by climate and culture. The most remarkable instances of this kind in vegetable life are to be found in the kitchen-gar- den. There, we find cabbage, cauliflower, savoy, kale, brocoli, and turnip-rooted cabbage. But would any person who had not made plants his peculiar study, ever im_agine that these were the same spe- cies ? It is impossible I think he should ; their a- spect is so different : and yet nothing is more cer- tain, than that they are only varieties produced by the cultivation of the bra^'sica oleracea, a plant w- hich grows wild on the sea-shores of Europe, and which, in its external appearance, is as different from any of those above mentioned, as any two of them are from one another. These alterations, produced in the phasis of the plant by various cul- tivation in different countries, are now so rivetted by habit, that they appear upon sowing the seeds of each variety. The alterations are retained by habit, and descend upon the offspring, even when the causes which occasioned them are gone. These varieties, however, like the varieties of every other 202 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. plant, are liable without care to degenerate into one another. But by the art of gardening they are preserved distinct, each having its peculiar va- lue, as a garden production. In animal life, the most remarkable instances of this kind are to be found among domestic ani- mals. The dog is evidently designed by Nature to be man's companion, and has accordingly attended him to every country and climate. In consequence of this, he has suffered more alteration in his exter- nal habit than any other animal. Many distinct species of animals are more similar to one another in their appearance than the English bull- dog is to the Italian greyhound. Yet these and all the o- ther sorts of dogs are but the varieties of one spe- cies. By mixing, they are capable of degenera- ting into one another ; yet will always produce perfect animals of their species. But by mixing with any other species of animal, they can afford but an imperfect production, a mule. The same alteration in external characters is at first produced by climate and manner of life, and afterwards entailed by habit upon our ovv^n spe- cies. Hence arise varieties in the human race similar to those we find in other animals and in plants. Many considerable writers have spoken of different species of mankind. I have bestowed much at- tention all my life upon the specific characters of NO. 3] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOKD. 203 the various tribes of animals, yet have never seen nor have ever read but of one species of man. The varieties of the human species are indeed numerous and remarkable : but they are neither so remark- able nor so numerous as those of the dog, and are only such as may be both produced and destroyed by habit. I find but few tracts of any consequence among the ancients relative to the rise and pro- gress of those varieties which have taken place in our species. One however I cannot but mention, as it is one of the most valuable upon the subject. It is related bj Hippocrates in his book, De Aere, Aquis, et Locis, and I think shews as fine observa- tion and as great sagacity in the knowledge of ani- mal nature as any passage in his writings. The Macrocephali, a nation of Cappadocia, near the city of Cerasus, were so called by the Greeks on account of the extraordinary length of their heads ; and that father of physic gives us the fol- lowing satisfactory history of this singular appear- ance. In that nation, says he, the persons who have the greatest length of head are accounted the most honourable. Hence it became a practice to ban- dage the heads of their new-born infants in such a manner as to hinder their growing round, and to force them out in length. This practice, says he, first gave rise to that forn^ of head for which they SOi» APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. are so remarkable ; but in process of time it be- came so natural to the race, that there was no fur- ther occasion for continuing the practice. I know not of any two varieties in the human race u/ore widely different than the tau-haired European and the Angola Negro. But I am cer- tain that, upon the principle of Hippocrates, I can account for all the peculiarities in the aspect of the African. That the difference in his hair proceeds from the climate ; his splay- feet from the soil ; and his colour, his flat face and features, and promi- nent belly, from his manner of life. In the scale of Nature, there are chasms which late discoveries »have indeed rendered less discern- ible, but still they are not completely filled up. These lie between unorganized and organized mat- ter ; between vegetable and animal life, and be- tween the most perfect brute-animal and man. Organization was not so well understood for- merly as at present. I was taught from a Profes- sor's Chair when I was fourteen, that there was an organization in the fossil kingdom ; but I have long found that there is not. It is now universal- ly admitted, that there is no seminal principle in fossils, no containing vessels nor contained fluids, no organization, no species, but possible combina- tions, innumerable as the sand of the sea. All this we are warranted to conclude from undoubted facts, but further than this we are not permitted No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 205 to go. Some curious observations remain still, I think, to be made with fine miscroscopes upon ani- mal and vegetable organization in their lowest stages, and upon those fossils which approach near- est to organized bodies. Forty years ago we v/ere little acquainted with the links which unite vegetable and animal life. But by the discoveries of Peyssonel, Trembly, and their followers, we now see where and how they run into one another, or at least that they are di- vided bv such a nice barrier, that it is no sooner ■J ' touched than passed. Formerly a plant and an animal appeared as beings essentially different, and w^idely distant from one another ; but the tribe of Zoophyta have now extenuated the distinction. Philosophers to^this day are fighting strenuously, whether these bodies should be considered as ani- mals or vegetables. The truth, I think, is, that they are neither, but an amazing mixture of ani- mal and vegetable nature ; which lays the most natural, and the firmest foundation I know of for an analogy between the two kingdoms. I am now afraid I rather tire than entertain your Lordship ; but I own these speculations are so pleasant to myself, that if I did not reflect, I might be led on to a letter which would reach to Edinburgh : I mean not by the post, but by ac- tual extension : I would otherwise have added here some further observations on that hiatus in the scale of being which subsists between the most 206 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND, [NO. 3, perfect animal and man ; and likewise on that il- limitable and unfathomable gulf which is interpo- sed between the most perfect creature and the Creator. I shall now subjoin, as your Lordship desires, a list of the apparently instinctive motions of plants, confining myself to such as are most remarkable, most obvious, and most unquestionable. 1. The leaves of trees and herbs have an upper and under surface ; the one constantly turned to the heavens, the other to the earth. If a branch of a tree is bended, and so fixed, that this order of its leaves is inverted, and the under side exposed to the heavens, by a wreathing motion of their footstalks, they will all in a little time recover their former and natural direction. This, I am satisfied from repeated observations and experi- ments, is owing to an attraction between the upper surface of leaves and light, though it is ascribed by others to different causes. If a plant in a flower-pot is placed in a window, in a few days the upper sur- face of all its leaves will be directed to the w^in- dow. Let it be so turned about, that the under side of the leaves point to the window, in a few days they will all resume their former position. Q. Many plants upon the sun's recess alter the position of their leaves, which maintain a different form during the night from what they observe du- ring the day. This is termed the Somnus Plan' No. 3.] APFENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND, 20/ tarum. Every body since Pliny's time has obser- ved it in a field of clover. 3. Every seed when it germinates, shoots forth a plumula and a radicle : The first, the embryo of the stem, v/hich always ascends ; the other, of the root, which always descends. It is amazing liow hard these little tender bodies will struggle against the most powerful obstacles w^hich may offer to obstruct or alter these two directions. 4. The seeds of all plants, when sown in the earth, Vvull rise when within a certain depth, but will not rise if placed beyond it. I know for ex- ample, that barley will rise, though sown to the depth of ten inches, but will not rise if placed twelve inches deep. 5. The claspers of briony have both a progres- sive and retrograde motion. They shoot forwards in a spiral, to lay hold of whatever comes in their way for their support ; but if they meet with nothing after completing a spiral of about three circles, they alter their plan, and shoot away in another direction; that if they miss one way, they may hit the other. 6. Among the ruins of the old monastery of New Abbey, in Gallov/ay, there is a plane-tree, about twenty feet high, which grows on the top of a w^all built with stone and lime. Being straitened fur nourishment in this situation, many years ago it shot forth roots into the open air. These did neither die nor draw back, but descended by the side of the wall, which is ten fee-thigh. It was \ 208 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3^ several years before they reached the ground, du- ring which time they conveyed no nutriment to the tree, but were supported by it. At length they dipped into the earth, and have since enabled the tree to grow with vigour. Between the top of the wall and the surface of the earth, they have never thrown out either branches or leaves, but have coalesced into a sort of trunk ten feet high, and pretty thick ; which is very singular, in being now terminated by roots, both at top and bottom. 7. The leaves of many plants, especially of the mallow tribe, move daily with the sun, following him with the upper surface of their leaves, from cast, by south, to west. 8. The petals of many flowers expand in the sun, but contract at night, or on the approach of darkness or rain. This is evidently to protect the tender parts of the fructification from injury. 9. But when once the seeds are fecundated, though the petals still subsist, they no longer con- tract. This is one of the finest instances I know of these instinctive motions, and one of the strongest evidences of the sexes of plants. 10. Every honeysuckle twig shoots straight for- ward^ till it becomes too long to support its weight. It then immediately curls into a spiral : for the spiral figure gives it further strength. If alone, •r if it meet with a dead branch, it screws always No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 209 from the right to the left ; but if it meets with another twig, they coalesce for mutual support, and the one screws to the right, and the other to the left. 11. Dodart first observed that trees pushed their branches in a direction parallel to the surface of the earth. If a tree stands on a steep, it pushes both towards the hill, and towards the declivity ; but on both sides it still preserves its branches pa- rallel to the surface. As there is an attraction be- tween the upper surface of leaves and light, I am also persuaded, though not equally certain of it from experiment, that there is an attraction of the same nature between the under surface of leaves and the surface of the earth. This I consider as the cause of the phenomenon. I had long observed, that the most fruitful or- chards, and the most fertile trees, are those plant- ed on a declivity, and the steeper it is, though not quite a precipice, the more fertile they prove. But I was never satisfied as to the cause of it, till I cal- led to mind the observation of Dodart ; which oc- curred to me when I was in the town of Jedburgh. There is more fruit about that place, and more fruit-bearing wood upon the trees, than I have seen in any other part of Scotland : But its or- chards and fruit-gardens are mostly situated in very steep places. VOL. III. o 210 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. It is well known that the spreading of trees always renders them fruitful. On a plain, how- ever, they incline to shoot upwards ; and therefore art is called in by skilful gardeners, and applied in various ways to check their perpendicular, and to promote their lateral growth. But this point, which can only be gained upon a plain by art, is obtained upon a declivity by Nature. There a tree loses its tendency to shoot upwards, and in order to preserve its branches parallel with the surface, is constrained to put them in a lateral di- rection. Hence an important rule in the choice of or- chards and fruit gardens. 1 ever am, with the most sincere respect, my Lord, &c. John Walker. II. Lord Kames to Sir James Nasmith of Nezv Fosso, Baronet* On the Analogy between Animals and Vegetables, Blair-Drummond, September Q7» 1773. Dear Sir, The rich, by Christian duty, are bound to sup- ply the wants of the poor. My wants are urgent ; your treasures are great ; and I trust I shall find No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. ^ll your chanty proportionally liberal. It is the qua- lity, too, of that wealth of yours I chiefly covet, that it may be freely imparted without impove- rishing the giver. But to come to the point with- out further preface. I have been thinking a good deal of late, now that I have some leisure for amusement, on a comparison between animals and vegetables, with respect to the curious principle of instinct. You, of all mankind, are the best fitted to give me clear ideas upon the subject ; and, therefore, without scruple, I will throw out my crude notions, to prompt you to an opening of your stores for my benefit. Many are the actions of brute animals, and even of the human race, that are directed by blind in- stinct, without the intervention of reason or re- flection ; and I think actions somewhat similar may be discovered in vegetables. The grov/th of plants, their production and decay, come not un- der my consideration ; but certain motions vary- ing from the ordinary course of Is'ature, like vo- luntary actions in animals. Ail roots, when, in their direct progress, they meet with a ditch, and are laid open to the air, immediately dip and hide themselves in the earth, as if they knew what they were about. A tree oppressed by another hanging over it, recedes from the perpendicular, till it finds an open passage upward. A tree grow- ing under a dark cover, with a single hole to let. oS? 212 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. in the light and air, always pushes to get out at that hole. A water-lily grows from the bottom of the water to the tap, and stops there, whether the water be shallow or deep, spreading its leaves on the surface. The sensitive plant closes its leaves on the slightest touch. Here is self-motion, simi- lar to that of a snail, which withdraws itself with- in its shell on an appearance of danger. Is not the nettle a sensitive plant of a different kind ? It stings when gently touched ; but is inoffensive when squeezed hard in the hand. I mention these things merely to show what I am pointing at ; for these facts must be quite familiar to you, with many more that I am ignorant of. The efficient cause of such phenomena, as well as of many of the operations and works of Nature, is far beyond the reach of human intellect : but the final causes, in many instances, do not seem to me beyond our reach ; and I wish to point them clearly out, in such and similar instances as I have mentioned. But what I chiefly desire to make out, is a com- parison between animals and vegetables, with re- spect to the before-mentioned particulars, and others of the same nature. The moment a duck is hatched, it waddles into the water ; and this not by imitation or experience ; for it happens to duck-chicks hatched by a hen, who is alarmed for the safety of her supposed progeny. By what means, then, does this happen ? By means of an No. 3. J APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 218 internal impulse, termed Instinct. What reason is there, then, for not applying the same term to to that impulse which actuates vegetables in si- milar actions, such as those already mentioned ? When a sensitive plant withdraws itself from the hand, and hastily closes its leaves, as if feeling the injury done ir, is it not by an internal principle that it does so, a principle having all the qualities of instinct ? — If so, here is a point of view, in which animals and vegetables are brought very near together. Such speculations carefully pur- sued, may tend much to enrich philosophy. But, my good friend, besides wishing for know- ledge on a subject on which you are very capable to furnish it, I have a plot in this letter. Our neighbour, Callendar of Craigforth, has more than once given us the flattering hope of seeing you here. My spouse is an eminent florist, and not a despicable botanist. Now, she vows to treat you as Mahomet did the Mountain. If you will not come to her, she is resolved to go to you : and what a shame would that be to a man of spirit ? You must give us a meeting on more gallant and knightly terms. I ever am, yours, &c. Henry Home. o 3 214 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND, [NO. 3. III. Sir James Nasmith to Lord Kames. On the same Subject. New Posso, Nove7?iber 8. 1773. My Lord, I had made a little excursion for some weeks ; and upon my return here, found your Lordship's letter upon my table. I wish it were in my power to give you any light on the curious comparison you suggest between animals and vegetables, with respect to the principle of instinct. I can- not well say how far they may agree in this par- ticular, as I confess I have no clear idea of this same thing called Instinct, But if, as your Lord- ship says, the duckling runs to the water the mo- ment it is hatched, from an internal impulse called Instinct, I will venture to say, that we see vege- tables endowed with the same internal impulse, or something very similar to it. The red whortle- berry was planted here by way of edging to a bor- der, under a fruit-wall : in two or three years, it overran all the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk, and seemed to fly from the rich border, where never a single runner appeared. This low ever-green plant grows naturally on the tops of our highest hills, amongst stones and gravel ; and if the Court of Aldermen had its sagacity, turtle and venison No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. Q15 would not be so fatal to them. Is not this in- stance, with many others that might be given of the election which plants make, in receding from what is hurtful, and flying to what is agreeable to their natures, very analogous to the conduct of the duckling ? Bur, my Lord, there are now growing in Mr Lockhart's paddock at Lee, a parcel of wil- low-trees that have been repeatedly cut over, at about eight or ten tfeet from the ground : their trunks are about fifteen inches diameter ; general- ly open on one side, and so much decayed, that hardly any thing remains but the bark, and a little of what is called the blea : yet these trees are fur- ' nished with fine shoots at top, placed round so much of their edges as remain ; and these shoots finding themselves starved for want of nourish- ment from the mother plant, have put out roots in great number from where they are connected with the tree : these roots have run down, some on the outside, and some on the hollow inside, till they have reached and penetrated the ground ; and, what is very remarkable, have made no attempt to put out lateral shoots or fibres, as knowing them to be of no use, till they arrived at the place of their destination. They are generally about the size of a walking cane ; and in their way down, have clung so close to the old stem, as to have im- pressed a groove in which they lie a little sunk ; and into which, if you draw them from the tree, they spring back with great elasticity. This, I o 4 216 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. dare say, your Lordship will consider as a very strong effort in Nature : and yet you may see the like in a tree that is not so vivacious as the wil- low. It is at the New Abbey in Galloway; where a plane-tree that has grown on the top of a wall about eight feet high, finding a lack of provi- sion there, has put out roots, sent them down the face of the wall, and struck into the ground, from whence it now draws its principal nourishment. But neither animals nor vegetables can be sup- ported " by bread alone;' so benign and neces- sary a thing is light to both their natures. Were you to confine an animal in a dark place for some considerable time, and afterwards admit a ray of light, I imagine it would run towards it. Be that as it may, I am sure a vegetable w^ould do so ; and am satisfied this is not owing, as is com- monly alleged, to their drying sooner, and conse- quently bending to the side the light comes from. Plants never incline towards the flues placed in the back part of a stove. And pray, my Lord, may not this longing after light, account for the stems of all seedUng plants taking the shortest way to get at it, while their roots strike into the ground. The blind puppy tries every thing that touches his lips, and w^hen he finds the teat, ne- ver fails to fix to it. Animals and vegetables have their organs, and while left to Nature, will ever make the proper use of them. No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND, 217 It is beautiful to observ^e how the scandent plants stretch out to lay hold of any thing that can support them. Thrust a stick into the ground, within a moderate distance of any of these, and, every thing else equal, it will push towards the stick, and on this it will raise itself to its appoint- ed height. That the sensitive plant is possessed of self- motion, and at least of as much feeling as the snail, I have no doubt: But, my Lord, that all. plants are sensitive, the different appearances they put on at different times, evidently shew. They are the best hygrometers in the world. They open and close their flowers and leaves at different hours of the day, some before, and some after sun-set; some to receive, some to avoid rain : some follow the sun, some turn away from it. Put the leaves •of any plant out of their natural situation, by nailing a branch to a wall, or by any other means, thev will all soon redress themselves ; and this not by a sudden jerk, as a bent twig : you must wait some days before all is put to rights again. We see what pains fowls take to adjust and dress their feathers, as other animals do their furs ; surely finding something disagreeable when they are out of order. Thus, we perceive what vegetables can do to serve themselves : but their powers go further ; even to the propagation and preservation of the species ; and in this the water plants are very re- 218 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. markai3lc. The forma Jkcundons could not have its effect under water ; therefore, these put up their flower- slems, he the water deep or shallow, till they emerge and get into the open air: then, and not till then, tliey flower. Do we not see something akin to this in some animals, who leave their own elements on tlie same occasion ? The crocodile, S^\:. deposit their eggs on the shore : the salmon leave the sea, run up every fresh river as far as we have water to carry them ; and we see their errand. Your Lordship asks, Is not the net- tle a sensitive plant of a different kind : it stings, you say, when gently touched, hut is inoffensive when squeezed hard. Are you certain that this is a fact : or may it not be a deception ? The palms of the hand are callous, and not so easily wounded as other parts. I think I have been stung, even with a glove on my hand; though I grasped the nettle hard, in order to pull it out : but this fact another season will clear up. It would be curious indeed, if the nettle should be found to instil its poison into the wound it makes, by a power it may be deprived of by squeezing it hard. I have now troubled you, my Lord, too long, and I am afraid to little purpose. Whether you may discover the traces of mechanism, or ascribe these phenomena to some unknown principles, I am sure it would give me very great pleasure to No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 219 learn from you what I am to think of the mat- ter. I shall most certainly take the first opportuni- ty I can find, either at Edinburgh or in the coun- try, to wait upon your Lordship, and to pay my respects to the botanic Lady who threatens me with a visit. She shall certainly find me more com- plaisant than Mahomet did the mountain; though I believe the best way to ensure the visit she pro- mises, would be to keep out of her sight till she sees me here. — With respectful compliments to her, I am, with entire esteem and regard, your Lordship's, Sec. J. Nasmith. Here is a bit of more paper, and therefore I will add, that they have got of late into some of the gardens, a new species of the sensitiv^e plant, that is so very feeUng, that if a fly pitches upon a leaf, it closes so suddenly, and with so much force, as to catch and crush the insect to death. 220 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. IV. From Dr Thomas Reid to Lord Kames. ; On some Doctrines of Dr Priestley ; and of the French Philosophers, 1775. Dr Priestley, in his last book, thinks, that the power of perception, as well as all the other powers that are termed mental, is the result of such an organical structure as that of the brain. Consequently, says he, the whole man becomes extinct at death, and we have no hope of surviving the grave, but what is derived from the light of Revelation. I would be glad to know your Lordship's opinion, whether, when my brain has lost its original structure, and when, some hundred years after, the same materials are again fabricated so curiously as to become an intelli- gent being, whether, I say, that being will be me ; or, if two or three such beings should be formed out of my brain, whether they will all be me^ and consequently all be one and the same in- telligent being. This seems to me a great mystery, but Priest- ly denies all m}^steries. He thinks, and rejoices in thinking so, that plants have some degree of No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 221 sensation. As to the lower animals, they differ from us in degree only, and not in kind. Only they have no promise of a resurrection. If this be true, why should not the King's Advocate be ordered to prosecute criminal Brutes, and you Criminal Judges to try them. You are obliged to Dr Priestley for teaching you one-half of your duty, of which 3'Ou knew nothing before. But I forgot that the fault lies in the Legislature, which has not given you laws for this purpose. I hope^ howeverj when any of them shall be brought to a trial, that he will be allowed ^jury of his peers, I am not much surprised, that your Lordship has found little entertainment in a late French writer on Human Nature*. From what I learn, they are all become rank Epicureans. One would think, that French politesse might consort very well with disinterested benevolence ; but, if we believe themselves, it is all grimace. It is flatte- ry, in order to be flattered ; like that of the horse, who, when his neck itches, scratches his neigh- bour, that he may be scratched by him again. I detest all systems that depreciate human nature. If it be a delusion, that there is sometliing in the constitution of man that is venerable, and worth}'" of its Author, let me live and die in that delu- sion, rather than have my eyes opened to see my * Helvetius, De T Esprit 222 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3* species in a humiliating and disgusting light. Every good man feels his indignation rise against those who disparage his kindred or his country ; why should it not rise against those who disparage his h'lnd'^ Were it not that we sometimes see ex- tremes meet, I should think it very strange to see atheists and high-shod divines, contending as it were who should most blacken and degrade hu- man nature. Yet I think the atheist acts the more consistent part of the two : for surely such views of human nature tend more to promote atheism, than to promote religion and virtue. - V. FROM THE SAME. Ow the Conversion of Clay into Vegetable Mould. October 1. 1775. The theory of agriculture is a wide and deep ocean, w^herein we soon go beyond our depth. I believe a lump of dry clay has much the same degree of hardness, whether the weather be hot or cold. It seems to be more affected by moisture or drought: and to be harder in dry weather, and more easily broken when a little moistened. But there is a degree of wetness in No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 223 clay which makes it not break at all when struck or pressed : it is compressed and changes its ligure, but does not break. Clay ground, I think, ought to be ploughed in the middle state, between wetness and dryness, for this reason: When too dry, the plough can- not enter, or cannot make handsome work. Those clods are torn up, which require great labour and expence to break them. And unless they are broken, the roots of vegetables cannot enter into them. When too wet, the furrow, in being rai- sed and laid over by the plough, is very much compressed, but not broken. The compression makes it much harder when it dries, than it would have been without that compression. But when the ground is neither too wet, nor too dry, the furrow, in being raised and laid over by the plough, breaks or cracks with innumerable cre- vices, which admit air and moisture, and the roots of vegetables. Clay, when exposed in small parts to the air, and to alternate moisture and drought, mellows into mould. Thus a clod of clav, which is so hard in seed-time, that you may stand upon it without breaking it, will be found in autumn of the colour of mould, and so softened, that when you press it with the foot it crumbles to pieces. On some clays this change is produced in a short- er time, in the same circumstances ; others are more refractory, and require more time. 224 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. If wet clay is put into the fire uncompressed, I am informed that it burns to ashes, which make no bad manure. But if the clay be wrought and compressed when wet, and then dried, and then put into the fire, it burns into brick, and with a greater de- gree of heat, into a kind of glass. These, my Lord, are facts ; but to deduce them from principles of attraction and repulsion, is be- yond the reach of my philosophy : and 1 suspect there are many things in agriculture, and many things in chemistry, that cannot be reduced to such principles ; though Sir Isaac Newton seems to have thought otherwise. Human knowledge is like the steps of a ladder. The first step consists of particular truths, disco- vered by observation or experimeent : The se- cond collects these into more general truths : The third into still more general. But there are many such steps before we come to the top ; that is, to the most general truths. Ambitious of knowledge, and unconscious of our own weak- ness, we would fain jump at once, from the low- est step to the highest. But the consequence of this is, that we tumble down, and find that our labour must be begun anew. Is not this a good picture of a philosopher, my Lord? I think so truly ; and I should be vain of it, if I were not afraid that I have stolen it from Lord Bacon. I am, &c. Tho. Reid. No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 225 VI. FROM THE SAME. On the Generation of Plants and Animals, (No date, but supposed 177 5 ) My Lord, I have some comjDunction for having been so tardy in answering the letter which your Lord- ship did me the honour to write me of the 6th November, especially as it suggests two very cu- rious subjects of correspondence. But, indeed, my vacant time has been so much filled up with trifles of College business, and with the frequent calls of a more numerous class of students than I ever had before, that there was no room for any thing that could admit of delay. You have expressed with great elegance and strength the conjecture I hinted with regard to the generation of plants. I am indeed apt to conjecture, that both plants and animals are at first organized atoms, having all the parts of the animal or plant, but so slen- der, and folded up in such a manner, as to be re- duced to a particle far beyond the reach of our senses, and perhaps as small as the constituent VOL. III. p 5^26 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3, parts of water *. The earth, the water, and the air, may, for any tiling I know, be full of such organized atoms. They may be no more liable to hurt or injury, than the constituent elemen- tary parts of water or air. They may serve the purposes of common matter, until they are brought into that situation which Nature has provided for their unfolding themselves. When brought into their proper matrix or womb, perhaps after some previous preparations, they are commonly surrounded with some fluid matter, in which they unfold and stretch themselves out to a length and breadth perhaps some thousand times great- er than they had when folded up in the atom. They would now be visible to the naked eye, were it not that their limbs and vessels are so slender that they cannot be distinguished from the fluid in which they float. All is equally transparent, and therefore neither figure nor co- lour can be discerned, although the object has a considerable bulk. The foetus now has a fluid circulating in its vessels ; all the animal func- tions go on; it is nourished and grows, and some parts, first the heart, then the head, then the spine, by getting some colour, become visible. * This opinion is similar to that of M. Bonnet. See his Considerations siir les Corps Organizes^ and his Contempla- tion de la Nature^ No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 227 It is to be observed, tbat from the time that tlie heart first appears in the pellucid liquor, un- til the time of birth, the animal grows gradually and insensibly, as it does after birth. But before it is visible, it must have increased in size many thousand times in a few days. This does not look like growth by nourishment, but like a sud- den unfolding of parts, which before were wrap- ped up in a small atom. 1 go along with your Lordship cordially, till you come to the first formation of an organized body. But there I hesitate. *' May there," (say you), " not be particles of a certain kind endowed " with a power to form in conjunction an orga- '* nized body?" Would your Lordship allow that certain letters might be endowed with the power of forming themselves into an Iliad or ^neid, or even into a sensible discourse in prose? I confess our faculties carry us but a very little way in de- termining what is possible and what is impossible, and therefore we ous^ht to be modest. But I cannot help thinking, that such a work as the iliad, and much more an animal or vegetable body, must have been made by express design and counsel employed for that end. And an au- thor whom I very much respect, has taught me, ** That we form this conclusion, not by any pro- ** cess of reasoning, but by mere perception and r 2 228 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. S. " feeling*." And I tliink that conclusions form- ed in this manner, arc of all others most to be trusted. It seems to me as easy to contrive a machine that should compose a variety of epic poems and tragedies, as to contrive laws of mo- tion, by which unthinking particles of matter should coalesce into a variety of organized bodies. " But," says your Lordship, " certainly the ** Almighty has made none of his works so im- ** perfect as to stand in need of perpetual mira- ** cles." Can we, my Lord, shew, by any good reason, that the Almighty finished his work at a stroke, and has continued ever since an unactive spectator? Can we prove that this method is the best ; or that it is possible that the universe should be well governed in this way ? I fear we cannot. And, if his continued operation be necessary or proper, it is no miracle, while it is uniform, and according to fixed laws. Though we should suppose the gravitation of matter to be the im- mediate operation of the Deity, it would be no miracle, while it is constant and uniform; but if in that case it should cease for a moment, only by his withholding his hand, this would be a mi- racle. * Lord Karnes himsoif. -^Essai/s on Morality, &c. Chapter On the Idea of Power, No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 229 That an animal or vco;etable bodv is a work of art, and requires a skilful workman, I think we may conclude, without going beyond our sphere. But when we would determine how it is formed, w^e have no data ; and our most rational conjec- tures are only reveries, and probably wide of the mark. We travel back to the first origin of things on the wings of fancy. We would disco- ver Nature in puris naturalibiis, and trace her first operations and gradual progress. But alas ! we soon find ourselves unequal to the task : and per- haps this is an entertainment reserved for us in a future state. As to what you say about Earth or Soil ; there seems indeed to be a repulsion of the parts, when it is enriched by the air, or by manure. And in consequence of this, it swells, and occupies more space. But, I conceive, it gets an additional quantity of matter, from the moisture and air which it imbibes, and thereby increases both in bulk and weight. I have been told, that a dung- hil made up of earth, dung, and lime, trenched over two or three times, at proper interv^als, and then led out, will be found to make more cart- loads than it received : and I believe this to be true. If the earth taken out of a pit does not fill it again, I am apt to think there must have been vacuities in the earth at first, perhaps made p 3 230 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3- by the roots of plants that have decayed, by moles, insects, or other caiises. — I am, my Lord, &c. Tho. Reid. VII. From Dr Walker to Lord Kames. On Hot' Blooded and Cold-Blooded Animals, My Lord, Moffat, November 8. 1175. I thought till very lately that I should have had an opportunity of waiting upon your Lord- ship at Blair-Drummond, before the meeting of the session ; but being disappointed in this, I must content myself with pa}'ing my respects to your Lordship in the present form. I was much pleased with the Verulamian spirit of your Lordship's letter. It contains a number of facts which should point at something. In the mass, they are a Chaos or an Erebus. But even from such a mass, the power of just induc- tion is capable of commanding some light or or- der. The fact concerning the hot blood and hot breath of the Greenlanders and Esquimaux, I liever met with, and would have no dependance No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 231 on, unless it were ascertained by the thermome- ter, in the hands of a person of skill. We know that in the natives of the torrid zone, the heat of the blood, in perfect health, is the same vvith that of Europeans, which is 96° of Fahrenheit. But I can recollect nothing that can be called a provision given them by nature against heat, excepting a most profuse perspiration. Yet it is a certain fact, that the African negroes can labour in degrees of heat beyond the power of any white people, whether Europeans or Creo- lians. The precise heat of the blood has been mea- sured by the thermometer but in few animals. It is generally assumed, that in all animals which have a double heart, or two ventricles and two auricles, the blood is of the same, or nearly of the same heat with the human. I think this is likely, and I know nothing to the contrary, yet would not say, without actual trial, that there are no exceptions. The double-hearted animals seem to inhabit all the regions of the earth indifferently. The ele- phant, the lion, and the monkey, occupy the hot- test parts of the globe ; and the beaver, the bear, the seal, and the whale, go as far north as man has travelled. The animals which have a single heart, or only one auricle and one ventricle, are well known p 4 232 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. S, to have colder blood than the former, and of course, to our touch, feel cold. These favour the theory your Lordship aims at, more than the for- mer. Such of them as live in the air, are chiefly the inhabitants of the hotter parts of the earth, as the various species of tortoise and lizard. Such of them as live in the water, that is, all the fishes, can neither strengthen nor weaken your theory, as the disparity of heat between the po- lar and equatorial parts of the ocean^ is small, compared to that of the air. The serpent kind make a great part of the cold- blooded animals ; and they too, in general, occupy the hotter climates. But we have a few species which inhabit the arctic regions, and these suggest this singular observation. That if their cold blood fits them for bearing the greatest heat, which it really seems to do> it also supports them under the greatest cold. No double-hearted animal seems capable of enduring the high degrees of cold, with as little detriment as a snake. It seems to be the only animal capable of being frozen, and not to death : For though frozen like water, and rigid as a road of ice, heat is capable of thaw- ing again the vital principle, or at least of restor- ing it, after it was, to all appearance, gone. As for Dr Reid's idea of organized atoms dif- fused at large through the universe, and detached No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 233 from all animal and vegetable bodies =^, it is not countenanced by any thing within the sphere of my knowledge. He adduces no facts, nor do I recollect any, to support it. I should wish to know his illustration of it, as our worthy friend is not one who is ready to assume things upon slen- der grounds. Upon that subject, I have long de- spaired of our ever getting beyond this plain truth, ** That all plants and animals are propa- gated by seeds, or analogous organizations ; which organizations and seeds, are formed out of unorganized matter by the power of the vital principle of the animals and plants, in the way of secretion." By analogous organizations, I here mean the bud of a tree, the section of a polypus, and sucli like organized parts, which are capable, like seeds, of growing up into a complete plant or animal. The power, indeed, by which this is perform- ed ; the secretory power of plants and animals, is a v/onder of wonders ! A Lyncean anatomist, with his greatest magnifiers, cannot penetrate the darkness in which this is involved. The transmutation of matter, by animal and vegetable secretion, is obvious to every eye, and must strike with w^onder every contemplative mind. The it * See Dx Reid's Letter to Lord Karnes, immediately pre- ,€eding. 234! APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. manner of this transmutation, however, seems to be that high legerdemain, which nature never will reveal. But if, by this power, bread and water can be changed into flesh and blood, bones and sinews, and into the Argus-eye on the pea- cock's tail ; if by this power, water alone can be converted into the hardest wood, into aromatic flowers, and the richest fruits ; I then cease to wonder, that the same water should, by this power, be converted into a seed, capable of un- folding itself into a future plant. I require no aid, therefore, from previous, ex- traneous, or vagrant organized atoms. I see no assistance they can afford. The philosophy of particles I dislike, and especially of such as are of doubtful existence. Yours, my very good Lord, most sincerely, John Walker. VIII, From the same to Lord Kames. On the Generation of Animals and Plants. — Wonderjul provisions of Nature for the Dissemi- nation and Preservation of Plants, Moffat, February 2Q. 1776. My Lord, I received on Saturday the honour of yours, and have sent inclosed the paper on the Propagation No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 2S5 of Plants, by the conveyance your Lordship di- rected. I should have been glad to have brought my thoughts upon the subject to Edinburgh, be- fore the rise of the session, but I am so situated, that I can only send them. Nothing prevented their being sent sooner, but the apprehension of their being of little consequence. The doctrine of equkocal generation was uni- versally admitted, till about 130 years ago ; but not so much indeed by the ancients, as by the half- enlightened moderns, before that period. Much longer it could nc^ well continue, as it is a doctrine that can subsist only where human knowledge and human understanding are but in a glimmering state. In this state, philosophers saw mites generated from rotten cheese, and my- riads of flies and creeping things arise from a dunghil, or a putrid marsh. Ignorant of the na- tural history and generation of these animals, what could they do, since philosophers must give a ratio quare for every thing, but conclude them to be mere spontaneous productions, and the ef- fects, not of generation, but of corruption ? To add to their foolery, the degrading doctrine never was extended to a lion, or a horse, but con- fined to the poor insects ; merely because they were creatures of whose nature they were igno- rant. They knew not, that the same power and 235 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. wisdom were necessary to form a maggot, that are required to produce an elephant *. The same conclusion, however, they always formed concerning many vegetables, whose seeds escaped their eyes, such as the ferns, mushrooms, and mosses. Because they saw no seeds in such vegetables, they asserted they had none : And v/hile the oak and the laurel were dignified with generative faculties, these plants were vilified as the progeny of putridity. Equivocal generation thus became the asylum of their ignorance. I am clear, therefore, for extending unequivo- cal generation to all vegetables, and in maintain- ing this fundamental truth in nature, * Omne vi- ** vuf7i ex ovo,''^ By the oium in vegetables, I mean a seed, or any part of a plant that contains a bud, or is capable of forming it. They are the same thing : for every bud, as well as every seed, contains the embryo of a future plant. I know of no way, therefore, in which Nature propagates plants, but by seeds, suckers, and layers. The * Piiny has expressed this sentiment strongly, though with his usual quaintness : ^' In magnis siquidem corporibus, aut '^ certe majoribui.;, facilis officina sequaci materia fuit. In his ^' tarn parvis, atque tarn nullis, quae ratio, quanta vis, quapi '^ inextricabilis perfectio ! Sed turrigeros elephantorwrn mi- ^'^ ramur humeros, taurorumque colla, et truces in sublime ^'^ jactus, tigrium rapinas, leonum jubas, quum rerum natura "■ nusquani magis quam in minimis tota sit." — Plin. Hisi. Nat. xi. 2. (Editor. J No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 257 last method is imitated by art, in cuttings, graft- ing and inoculation, I have heard of some late experiments of propagating trees by panting their leaves, but I do not believe the fact, and could demonstrate, I think, a priori, that it is impos- sible. As plants are destitute of loco-motion, it may be urged, that other ways of propagation might be expected, in order more easily and fully to re- plenish the earth. The keen attention of the most discerning men for forty years past, has fail- ed in discovering any other method of propaga- tion them by seeds, suckers and layers. If there was any other general way of propagation ob- served in nature, I am at a loss how it could have escaped their observation. But, to go a step further, I do not hesitate to affirm, that the means of propagating plants already known in the economy of nature, are fully sufficient to answer all the purposes for which plants are designed. By means of suckers and layers, plants indeed can only cover that spot of earth which is conti- guous. But it is agreeable to observe, that those plants which are most unfertile in the production of seeds, are the most prolific in the production of suckers, and vice Tcrsd, And hence arises a secret but fundamental principle in husbandry and gar- dening. The growth of unfertile suckers must be powerfully restrained, if you would obtain a large quantity of seeds or fruits. 238 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOiND. [NO. 3. Numerous and wonderful are the expedients practised by nature for the dissemination of plants, — Some seed-vessels burst with an explosive force, in order to throw the seeds to a distance. This is the case with our whin, (furze ;) and was it other- wise, the seeds would fall, to be suffocated in the heart of an impenetrable bush. — Some seed-vessels do not burst till they are wet with rain ; but those seeds are found to be more easily destroyed by drought than any others, and to require imme- diate moisture when they are sown. The ash and the plane have heavy seeds, but they are supplied with wings. A gale of wind can carry them from their lofty situation to a considerable distance, and they remain on the tree till that gale arrives. — The seeds of more humble plants, that they may rise and remgve, spread more sail to the wind. The thistle spreads his beard, and away he travels to fix his residence in remote parts. A plant of this kind, the Erigeron Canadense^ Linn, was received from Canada, about 100 years ago, into the Paris garden. It is now spread as a wild plant over France and Holland, over Germany and Italy ; it is said over Sicily ; and to such a degree over the south of England, that it is now enumerated in the English list of indigenous plants. — Some seeds, such as the clot-bur, are of an adhesive nature ; they lay hold of animals that come near them, and they are carried off, and spread far and wide. No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. £39 Many other agents are employed by nature to preserve the earth completely stocked with plants. The sea and the rivers waft more seeds than they do sails from one part of the world to another. I have found seeds dropt accidentally into the sea among the West India Islands, cast ashore on the Hebrides.— — The Island of Ascension is but the dross of a volcano, and that of a recent date. Its immense distance from land, must render its ac- quisition of vegetable seeds very difficult and pre- carious. I know but two ways in which it could be supplied with plants by Nature. The one by the waters of the ocean, the other by birds. By one or other of these ways, it has now got posses- sion of three species of plants, and only three : A singularity no where else known on the face of the globe. The animal creation is supported by the vege- table : but in return, the vegetables owe much of their progress and propagation to animals. Nay, while an animal is supported by the apparent de- struction of a vegetable, he is, in fact, only the in- strument of its further propagation. The swine, the moles, the mice, the squirrels, and a thousand other animals, are constantly at work, though with other views, upon this employment. But among all the animals, the birds and graminivo- rous quadrupeds are the prime agents in the dis- semination of plants. Many birds live upon fruits and berries. Tlie pulp is their aliment : But they discharge ilie 240 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND'. [NO. 8. ieeds unimpaired, and by that means spread them every where abroad. These seeds are heavy, and not provided, like others, with any apparatus for flight. But all this is abundantly supplied by the birds which devour them. Hence the bac- ciferous trees and shrubs appear sometimes whim- sical in the choice of their situation. I have seen plantations of holly, yew, whitebeam, rowan, or mountain-ash, spindle-tree, hawthorn, and ju- niper, formed by the birds of the air, upon in- accessible precipices and impending cliffs, which far excelled, and even disgraced, in point of beauty, the plantations of men. The mistletoe of o|d was deemed also, by the V, ise men, a product of equivocal generation ; be- cause it grew upon trees, and had no flower which they could perceive. They saw, indeed, its large, round, heavy berries. These they thought mioht fall to the o-round, but never' -^ could mount up into trees ; and it was therefore concluded, that they were not the seeds of the plant. It was long since discovered, however, that no berries are more grateful to the birds of the thrush kind ; and it is by them they are evacuated, and planted upon high and remote trees. It is remarkable, that the vegetating power of seeds, instead of being impaired by their passing through birds, seems rather increased. The seeds of the magnolias brought from America, have ge- nerally refused to vegetate under the manage- No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 241 ment of the most skilful gardeners. But I have been told a curious fact, brought from America by Lord Adam Gordon, That when these seeds are eaten and voided by turkies, they never fail to grow. As your Lordship is intimate with Lord Adam, you may be more certainly inform- ed of this remarkable observation. It is well known, that the dung of domestic animals, while it fertilizes a garden, likewise fills it witli a great quantity and variety of weeds. All the seeds thev eat, which are various and numberless, are discharged entire, and not less fit for vegetation. This to me is a miracle in na- ture ; that seeds should withstand the power of animal digestion, which no other vegetable sub- stance can, and which they are also unable to do once they are broken. This is such a provision for the preservation and dissemination of seeds, a^ I cannot look upon without wonder. Thus much for the propagation of plants ; any other method except by seeds, suckers, and lay- ers, appears to me both unknown and unneces- sary. And so farewel to equivocal generation. I can scarce write of it without being a little ruf- fled. So ill it corresponds with the more august and comfortable ideas of creation, which have made one of the principal articles of happiness in my life. I am afraid of going into detail up- yOL. III. Q 242 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. on the second article of your paper. My mind on the subject is shortly this. The ultimate particles of the solids of all ani- mals and vegetables, as far as glasses can go, ap- pear organized : — That they were once unorga- nized, is unquestionable ; for I allow of no orga- nization, but what is perceptible to the eye, or by Its effects : — That they are organized by the plant or animal, and lose their organization upon its dissolution : — That they have no power to or- ganize themselves : — That they are purely pas- sive, and formed into an organic body, by the assimilating power of the plant which assumes them: — All these points correspond with your Lordship's opinion in your letter. They may be misunderstood and controverted ; they may be obscured by ingenuit}, and opposed by one hy- pothesis piled upon another ; but if I know any thing of Nature, they are positions which will stand the test. As to the infinite series of embryo's in the seed of a plant, I have the same opinion of it as your Lordship. It is invisible and incomprehensible, two unlucky properties in a material subject ; nor can it have any effects assigned to it which we cannot deduce from a more palpable and rational cause. I always looked upon it as a silly conceit, which arose from viewing the plantula in semine, I am so far from thinking that future plants sub- sist in a seed, that I am persuaded that the plant No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 243 immediately produced from a seed does not sub- sist in it, in its perfect form, and in all its parts. The plume and radicle do indeed subsist in it, and these have a power to produce all the parts of the plant complete. We can by culture, by cutting, clipping, and different ways, give such various forms to a plant, that to imagine these, or any one of these subsisted in miniature in the parent seed, is perfectly visionary. Your Lordship next puts a puzzling question — By what cause does a seed begin to vegetate in the earth ? Here the primum mobile is to me per- fectly mysterious. I cannot form even in idea any explanation of it that is satisfactory. The original cause I doubt is placed beyond our view, but the secondary or immediate cause lies within our reach, and may be ascertained. Animals have a circulation; but plants, so far as I have yet found, only a progressive motion of their juices. Harvey placed the life of animals in the circulation of the blood : and the opinion has ever since generally been received in medi- cine. Our great medical friend*, however, now demonstrates that it is an opinion void of foun- dation. The nerves in animals are a system of vessels upon which life does more immediately de- q2 * I presume Dr Cullrn. S44 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. pend, than either the blood-vessels or their con- tents. But as there is no such system in plants, I hold with respect to them the doctrine of Har- vey ; and am of opinion that life in them con- sists immediately and essentially in the motion of the sap. What is then the immediate cause of vegetation, that is, of the motion of the sap ? I answer, heat. — Heat, figuratively speaking, is the heart of vegetables. It is the cause that moves and propels their sap into a progressive motion, as the heat does the blood of animals, into a mo- tion that is circulatory. Thus far we can go, and ^I believe no farther. In both cases, the remote cause of motion is secret, and far removed from all human inspection. The ascent of the plume and the descent of the radicle, is indeed a surprising phenomenon; yet I think it may be accounted for upon a me- chanical principle. To ascend and descend is not the ultimate view of these two parts in their growth; but the endeavour of the one is to get into the air, and of the other into the earth. And to attain these two ends, as seeds are generally deposited in or near the surface of the ground, the plume must ascend, and the radicle descend. But place seeds in the roof of a cave, or in an inverted flower-pot. What is the consequence? I know it well from repeated observation. The radicle ascends, and the plume descends : That is, the first pursues its road into the earth, and No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 245 the other into the air, in whatever direction the air and the earth are placed. There is therefore a sympathy, an attraction, or if these displease, a something, I know not what, between the plume of a plant and air. But by whatever name it may be called, it is the immediate cause of plants shooting* into that element, and quite different from a mere tendency to shoot upwards. The point at the juncture of the two cotyle- dons, or seminal leaves, is the place from whence the plume and radicle spring; and this I look up- on as the punctutn saliens vitcc^ both in seeds and plants. Here the radicle ends and the plume be- gins. I have examined, but have been able to discover nothing particular in this place upon dissection : and yet it is the chief seat of the vegetating power in a seed. The cotyledons may be cut off; the plume or radicle may without de- triment be impaired : But this point cut off or destroyed, the plant is gone. I know something of Bonnet as a philosopher, and did not think he could have indulged such a chimera about a lobster. Yet I agree perfectly with your Lordship, concerning the bulk of the Frencli and German writers. I know well how liable they are to run to the excess of riot. I fmd equal ingenuity and more sobriety in a Swiss, a Swede, or an Italian. In Germany, the human understanding is not yet perfectly enlightened Q3 246 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. S, with respect to Nature. There is scarce a Prince, a Grandee, or a Professor, who is not in some de- gree a miner and a chemist. Yet few of them have yet got free of Kircher's subterranean peo- ple, of the spirit of the mine, or the virgula di- mnatojia ; and many of them still labour under the power of the alchemist, as the Emperor's pre- sent physician does under the power of witch- craft. Many Germans excel in particular parts of natural history ; but in such a country it is no wonder that men should fail, upon subjects where just and enlarged ideas of the powers of Nature are required. The errors of the French proceed not so much from the country as the people. Those very qua- lities which make them shine in other parts of literature, make them bad theorists. From Des Cartes down to Buffon, France has certainly pro- duced the worst system-mongers that ever put pen to paper, and more of them, too, than any other country. I had written thus far when I just now re- ceived your Lordship's letter, dated yesterday. The alpine plants are the most difficult to pre- serve in a garden, as they suffer there more cold in winter, and more heat and drought in sum- mer, than in their natural situation. Snow is their defence against the cold, where they grow naturally; and wherever they are cultivated, this No. 3.] . APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 24/ must be imitated by art. I have learned from this, in searching for alpine plants, about the summits of our highest mountains, where to find them in greatest plenty and variety. It is always in those places to which the snow is apt to be blown, where it Hes thickest and remains longest. Let the cold of the atmosphere be w^hat it will, the thermometer under snow never falls below 39.°, the freezing point. None of the plants I have yet tried suffer any injury from this degree of cold under snow. In our last storm, when the ther- m.ometer was generally down from 20° to 12° at midnight, I had a parcel of plants kept under deep snow for six weeks. Some of them were plants that cannot stand the open air in winter; vet when the snow went off, they were fresher and in much better condition than if they bad been standing; all the while in a srreenhouse. Several different diseases in sheep pass by the name of Rot. Whenever sheep are suffered to grow lean to a certain degree, they always be- come diseased in some shape or other. The dis- ease properly called the Rot, proceeds sometimes, I think, from their feeding through necessity on acrid plants. Yet I have no further evidence for this, than observing the disease most preva- lent, where I see the pinguicula, drosera, and ra- nimculus in greatest abundance, and pastured by the sheep. It is the happy property of the Q 4 248 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. grasses, which form our pastures, that even after they have perfected their seeds, they revegetate directly from the root. They shoot away afresh in their fohage, to give a new and immediate supply of provision, and this lasts till the winter is somewhat advanced. One valuable grass we have on our mountains which feeds the sheep with its foliage in summer, and with its large white succulent roots in winter. I beg leave to offer my most respectful com- pliments to Mrs Drummond. I was not unmind- ful of her heath, but it got only last week from under its snow cover, and it was rather too soon in the season to transport it. I have sent, how- ever, two plants of it, which I would place in the open ground in a rich sandy soil, and cover them in frost or in dry weather with a bell glass. I have inclosed the note sent by Miss Black- burne concerning the new sensitive plant disco- vered in the East Indies. I am, with the great- est respect, your Lordship's most obliged and most obedient servant, John Walked. No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 249 IX. From Lord KaxAies to Dr Walker. 0)1 the same Subject, My dear Sir, Blair- Drummond, April 12. 1776. I acknowledge myself your sincere convert about the propagation of plants ; and zealouS; like other new converts, I condemn myself for endeavouring to rear up conjectural causes, that in all appearance have no foundation, when the known causes are sufficient. This subject is to make an article in my present work ; and if you do not put a negative upon me, honourable men- tion shall be made of the Pteverend Dr Walker, and even passages of his letters quoted. Per- haps you despise such incense, as your fame ex- tends already over a very wide territory ; but I have some little vanit}^ and am not without the hope, that as my work will certainly be the bet- ter for vour name, so it will do that name no dis- credit, that it finds an honourable place in it. So frequently have 1 been indebted to you for knowledge, that in all my difficulties I lean to you for more. Supposing water, with what it contains, to be the food of plants, I cannot ex- plain why certain plants, such as the whin. 250 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. (furze), Scotch fir, juniper, heath, thrive best in bad soil. If it l.^c thou^ifht that a soil retentive of moisture may hurt them, by affording too much, I borrow an answer from Dr Hales, that superfluous moisture cannot hurt them, because it is discharo-ed at the leaves. V/here plants flourish and bear fruit but once a-vear, it is natural to think, that in a cold cli- mate, this should be in summer. Yet the laurus- tinus flourishes all winter, and is without flowers in the heat of summer onlv. At the same time, it cannot stand much frost in our climate. The whin is in some measure similar, at least in flowering all winter, except during frost. I would gladly have some notion of the nature of such plants. I have begun a late acquaintance ^vith plants, and am fond of arriving at a more intimate one. You remember Van Helmonts experiment of a willow growing to a considerable size in a vessel of earth regularly watered, without exhausting any of the earth. Yet in the Transactiojis of the Royal Society J anno 1699, Dr Woodward proves, by several experiments, that a considerable quan- tity of the earth was exhausted. This is an arti- cle of importance concerning the food of plants. In my Theory, I have quoted Van Helmont, and it would vex me should I build upon a wrong foundation. No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. ^51 The Circuit begins at Dumfries on Friday the 17th of May. I expect you there, with an an- swer to my queries, there to remain miens volens, as my assessor during the w^hole time. But per- haps you may be called up to the General Assem- bly : If so, resolve to be at Blair-Drummond, when it breaks up, at which time I shall have re- turned from my circuit. You need never other- wise venture to look Mrs Drummond in the face. — A delightful prospect of flowering shrubs and of fruit. — A young laurustinus, which, by your directions, I covered with snow, is at present in full blow, when all the rest of its tribe seem to be dying, having been miserably scorched by the severe frost. I long to converse with you about your ap- pearing in print. For that end, you proposed to be in Edinburgh about February, and you have never told me what prevented you. You must resolve to publish in parts, otherwise you may happen never to publish at all. Consider that every part you publish takes a load off your shoulders. There is besides an advantage in this method : It gives opportunity from time to time to improve or connect the parts published. Ma- homet knew that cunning trick, when he pu- bhshed his Coran piece-meal. Yours, while I know myself to be, HenpvV Home. S62 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. X. Dr Walker to Lord Kames. On the Aliment of Plants^ and the Soils tJiey moat affect. My Lord, Moffat, July 13. 1776. I received on Friday the honour of your letter by Miss G., and was at any rate to have written this week. I have better reason than your Lord- ship to complain of not n^iaking good the visit to Blair-Drummond, because I am sure 1 was more disappointed. Dr Cullen was to come out with me on Monday, but was prevented by the illness of the Chief- Baron and Commissioner — — As to the aliment of vegetables, Van Helmont's experiment has always been considered, and I believe justly, the experimentum cruc'is upon the subject. Woodward's trials, so far as they mili- tate against it, I suspect to be fallacious. When he speaks of earth as the aliment of plants, I sup- pose he means generally, if not always, the earth in rain or spring water ; and if he does, he differs not from Van Helmont, If I remember right, some of his trials indeed were made by mixing earth with the water in which the plants were nourished. If a httle of this earth was lost, I would ascribe it rather to its diffusion in the wa- No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 253 ter, and to the evaporation, than to its being ab- sorbed by the plant. Earth, indeed, strictly speak- ing, is not thus easy to evaporate ; but the earth he used was soil, and this, especially if it is rich, always contains a large proportion of animal and vegetable substance, capable of evaporation. Be- ' sides we know, that without any soil, a plant can be raised to be considerable both in bulk and wei2:ht. Bv water alone, M. du Hamel raised aa oak, which grew and increased for seven years, without any thing else. But there is another medium, by which your Lordship's difficulty may be solved, and Van Hel- mont and Woodward reconciled. I am clear, that rain-water contains all the alimentary matter ne- cessary for the support of plants, and that this matter is a subtile earth, or, to be less exception- able, a subtile earthy substance. This I assume, as demonstrated by experiment. I next suppose, that this earth is not fossile, but animal and ve- getable substance highly attenuated. This I think capable of being proved by induction. My con- clusion foUov/s : If plants are nourished by the animal and vegetable matter in rain-water, I see no reason why they may not absorb the same mat- ter, when it is lodged in a rich soil, and dissolved in water. I am persuaded they do ; and though in a small quantity, it may be sufficient to occa- sion a perceptible diminution of weight in th^ soil employed for the support of a plant. 254 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. By embracing this opinion, 1 must grant in- deed the following inference ; and I grant it rea- dily, as I believe it to be the case, ** That all ani- *•■ mal and vegetable manures, though they act *' chiefly by altering the texture of the soil, yet " in some degree they also serve as alimentary " matter to plants, but that all fossile manures act " only by altering the texture of the soil." The attachment of plants to particular soils, is owing to different causes, but chiefly to the na- ture of their roots. The Scotch fir, and indeed all the pines, delight in blowing sand, more than any other trees, though the soil of all others the least tenacious of moisture. But besides mois- ture, these trees demand another property in their soil. They have exceeding long horizontal roots ; they thrive best where they can most ea- sily extend them ; and therefore choose the most pervious soil. They have fewer absorbing fibres at their roots than any trees I know ; and must, therefore, have a larger spread of roots, than those trees whose absorbing fibres are more nu- merous upon the roots. Heath, likewise, is remarkable for the extra- ordinary length of its roots, and the scarcity of its fibres ; but it stands in need of more moisture than the fir. It requires, therefore, a soil that is both pervious and wet, and it well knows where No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 255 these two qualities are combined in the highest perfection ; as AIoss Flanders * can testify. Juniper requires not a moist soil, but a moist air, and is therefore a mountain plant. It can live on the poorest and driest soil, as it does on the mountains; but there it is sufficiently sup- plied by moisture from the air. If it is planted in a low station, or in a dry climate, it then re- quires a wet soil, as a succedaneum for the moist atmosphere, in which it naturally lives. The same is the case with the yew. Where it grows naturally in Britain, in a low station, it is always in a damp soil. Sometimes it grows on the verv driest soil, as in the clefts of rocks : but then at so great a height as to Hve in a very hu- mid air. In a v/armer climate, as in Italy, it re- (|uires a station still higher than with us : Aqui- lovem et j'rigora taxi. These are a few instances to show why many plants affect to grow in a soil commonly reckon- ed infertile. Our idea of a perfect soil, we ap- ply to that which affords the most luxuriant crops of eight or a dozen species of cultivated plants. But alas! what a small portion of the globe is occupied by such a soil ! We are not, therefore, to imagine, that this is the most per- * Otherwise called the Moss of Kincardine ; See p. Sp. of Vol. II. 256 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. feet soil for all plants, nor reprobate all others as sterile and imperfect. A soil which a mere far- mer would pronounce the most imperfect, is for many plants perfect in the highest degree. And without this, how could the earth be every where clothed with beauty? What diversity of soil, cli- mate, and situation, must be required to suit the taste, and raise to perfection, above 20,000 spe- cies of vegetables, each of w4iich almost has a difll'erent propensity in one or other of these three articles ! Plants translated from one climate to another, strictly observe their orio'inal season of flower- ing, unless prevented by some powerful cause. The climate of the shores of Spain and Portugal, in December and January, suits the flowering of thelaurustinus ; but the cold of Scotland, in these months, is not sufficient to deter him from his season. I mean the milder parts of Scotland; for in the higher and more rigorous parts of the country, I see the cold is really sufficient to put him past his season, and to prevent his spreading any flower till April. Was I to see a laurustinus flowering with us in winter, and had never heard of the shrub, I should, without scruple, pronounce it no native of this country. And for the same reason, I would deny the arbutus to be a native of Ireland, or the whin of Scotland. The fancy these shrubs have to flower with us in January, is plainly an outlandish fashion. No sensible No. 3.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. ^57 Scotch plant would ever think of such a thing. Plants brought from the southern hemisphere, and which flower there, wlien the sun is in Capri- corn, never mind tlie sun one bit when he is in Cancer, but adhere to their old December rule. If your Lordship is to build a new fruit-wall, I hope you can have it of brick. Let it have nei- ther excavations nor projections. Instead of pillars, plant evergreen hedges, holly and yew, at large distances, for breaking the course of the wind alono^ the wall. Bv all means let the trees have elbow-room ; and for this purpose, they will require from five to fifteen feet greater distance than most gardeners will direct. Their distance, however, must be proportioned to the height of the wall. But at any rate, one good tree is bet- ter than half a dozen bad ones. There is one apricot at Prestonfield, capable to afford a sufii- cient quantity of that fruit ; and this season, I believe, more than sufficient for any family. It is 120 years old; but this valuable tree would have been dead 70 vears ao:o, if it had not had more wall to spread upon, than is allowed fur any apricot at present. "" All gardeners, and writers on gardening, ad- vise the fronting of a fruit- wall to the south-east, rather than to the south or west. I own I am of a different opinion. I would rather choose the south; and if circumstances answer, I would VOL. III. R 258 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 3. prefer two points to the west, or even the south- west exposure, to all others. The only reasons I have heard given for a south-east exposure are these : That the trees re- ceive the sun earlier in the day, and that they are sooner freed of the dew. But both, accord- ing to my mind, are erroneous. In the months of May, June and July, fruits depend greatly upon the dew for their progress to maturity; more, I believe, than upon rains. The most dewy are always the best fruit seasons. A scarcity of dew in May and June, brings the fruit off the tree in myriads, and what remains is of a stunted growth, which no heat afterwards can bring to perfection. Therefore, instead of abridging, I would rather prolong the duration of dews upon my trees, so far as is consistent with their receiving the greatest heat of the day. And to secure this great point. What are the six hottest hours of the day, from May to Sep- tember ? They are from eleven o'clock in the forenoon to five in the afternoon ; and it is not a south-east, nor a south, but a south-west, that en- joys the sun during these six hours in its greatest strength. By a south-west exposure, then, we obtain for fruits what above all things they want, the most moisture, and the greatest heat. By no other exposure can these two articles be had combined to such a degree. No. tS.] APPENDIX TO VOLUr.lE SECOND. 259 Observe two borders in a garden, one upon an east, the other upon a west-wall. If they are of the same soil, the west border, all the summer over, is the driest, because it receives most heat. A west wall at Moffat, can produce a magnum plum, large and well ripened ; but an east wall can with difficulty ripen a heart-cherry. It is throwing away a wall to bestow it upon vines, figs, and nectarines. These three fruits should with us be confined to the hot-house: For a good plum is certainly better than a bad nec- tarine. Whatever way a wall is fronted, it is a great matter to have a dry and a deep soil, and a full shelter at a proper distance, either from trees or from rising ground. But I am afraid of tiring your Lordship. I wish the thing has not happened two or three pages ago. Whatever is in any letter I write, is entirely at your Lordship's service, for whatso- ever purpose you please ; nor will I grudge to write, while 1 have reason to think they can af- ford any entertainment to your Lordship. — I ever am, with the highest regard, your Lord- ship's most obliged and devoted servant, John W^a;.ker. R 2 9,60 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4- APPENDIX.~NO. IV. On certain Critical Remarks by Dr Warburton' and M. de Voltaire, on some parts of Lord Kames's JVritings, It was a well-knoWn failing of Dr Warbur- ton, a man certainly of very uncommon learning and genius, that presuming too much on the suffi- ciency of his own powers, he seemed to consider himself as having finally decided and set at rest every topic or matter of controversy which he ever treated in any of his numerous writings. Conceiving that Lord Kames, in his Elements of Criticism^ when examining the question, Whe- ther ridicule is a test of truth ? had attacked his opinions on that subject ; as if no other man had ever written on it but himself; he takes every opportunity that he can find to treat his supposed antagonist with sarcasm and abuse. His own no- tions regarding ridiculei^ are no other than what had been maintained by various other writers as^ No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 261 well as himself* ; nor is there a single expression of the author of Elements of Criticism, from which it can be presumed, that he had ever read one word of what Dr Warburton had written on that subject. Indeed, the loose and desultory manner in which the latter treats the topic in question, in that extraordinary piece of writing, entitled a Dedication to the Freethinkers^ (among whom we shall see he classed Lord Karnes), prefixed to his great work of The Divine Legation, &c. was not suited to attract the attention of a metaphysical examiner. It is therefore not a little curious to remark the indignant air with which the author repels this supposed attack on his peculiar opi- nions, and the high strain of contempt with which he treats his imagined opponent. * The author of a late book, called Elements of * Criiicism, speaking of mens various opinions * concerning the 2ise of ridicule, proceeds against ' what is here said, in the following manner :— " This dispute has produced a celebrated que- ** stion, Wliether ridicule be, or be not a test of " truth? which, (says he,) stated in accurate *' TEKMS, is, whether the sense of ridicule be the " proper test for distinguishing ridiculous objects " from those that are not so? To answer the r3 L I ' ■ . • ■ ■ 1 C * Addison, Bishop Berkeley, Brown, &c» 262 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. ^' question with precision, J must premise, that ^^ ridicule is not a subject of reasoning, but of ^* SENSE or TASTE.' Vol. ii. p. 55, — The critic * having thus changed the question, which he ' calls^ stating it in accurate terms ; and obscur- * ed the answer, which he calls, giving it with \ precision, he concludes, ' that ridicule is not *' only the best, but the only test of truth.' — His * second change of the question is a new substi- * tution, viz. Whether ridicule be a talent to be * used or employed at all ? Of which he supposes * me to hold the negative. What else is the ' meaning of these words, ' to condemn a ta- " tENT FOR RIDICULE, bccausc it may be convert- " ed to wrong purposes, is not a little ridiculous. ^* Could one forbear to smile if a talent for rea- *^ soning was condemned, because it also may be '^ perverted ?' p. 57. — He has no reason to smile, * sure, at his own misrepresentation. I never * condemned a talent for ridicule, because it may ' be abused.' (Dedication to Div. Leg. of Moses,) Might not Lord Kames here have put a question ? " Did I ever charge you with having made this ** misrepresentation, or ever take notice of you at " all, in the dispute ? Are you the only writer ** who has maintained that ridicule is not a test " of truth?" Of a similar spirit, and equally characteristic of the writer, are the following observations, in the notes on Book ii. of the Divine Legation of Moses, ii ti it No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. £63 (Warburton's Works, vol. i. 4to. p. 244. and 394. In the text, it is said, " A principal reason for " Eneas' descent into hell, was, that Augustus, who was shadowed in the person of ^neas, had been initiated into the Eleusinian Mys- teries.'* N^ote on this passage : Hence the read- er will be able to judge of the delicacy of taste and accuracy of discernment in a late writer, who, in a book called Elements of C^^iticism, corrects Virgil's want of judgment in this part of the JEfieis, after having given instances of defects full as notorious in the Geologies : '* An Episode in a narrative poem, (says this man of taste,) being in effect an accessory, demands not that strict union with the principal subject which is requi- site betwixt a whole and its constituent parts. Tiie relation, however, of principal and accessory being pretty intimate, an Episode loosely con- nected with the principal subject will never be graceful. I give for example, the descent of ^neas into hell, which employs the sixth book of the ^neid. The reader is not prepared for this important event. No cause is assigned that can make it appear necessary, or even na- tural to suspend for so long a time the princi- pal action." &c. &c- ** The critic" (saysDr Warburton,) "having told us, that a strict iinmi is 92ot required between the principal and accessory ^ finds fault with the acces- R 4 a ii it ii ii ti a ti a it ii ii ii ii ii 26i APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. " sory, that no cause is given to make it appear that ** it is necessary to the principal. However, I ought " not to be too severe on this great critic, since the ** observation was certainly made to recommend ** my interpretation of this descent info hell; which *' shews, if not the necessity, yet the infinite grace *' and beauty of this noble accessory, and the close " and natural connection it has with iX,^ principal. ^"^ The amount of this extraordinary piece of rea- soning is, the severe conclusion, that the author of Elements of Criticism has neither taste nor dis- cernment ; since he has censured the want of ne- cessary coniiection between the episode of the de- scent of jEneas into hell, and the principal story of the ^neid ; which episode Dr Warburton has shewn, if not necessary ^ to be yet infinitely grace- ful diuA beautiful ; htc^\\?>t Augustus, who is sha- dowed in the person of JEneas, had been initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries! — a conclusion of which the connection with its premises, (to say the least of it,) is not extremely obvious. Again, in a note T)f Dr Warburton's on Pope's second Dialogue of the Epilogue to the Satires^ {IFarhurtoiis Pope's Works, vol. iv. p. 328.) P gacred weapon left for truth's defence, &c. To all Ijut heaven-directed hands deny'd, &c. * Mr Henry Home, a Lord of Session, and late * writer of a book, entitled Elements of Criticism, No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 9.65 replies to this character of ridicule, as follows : — * Ridicule is but a gross pleasure. A people, it is true, must have emerged out of barbarity, before they can have a taste for ridicule. But it is too rough an entertainment for those who are highly polished and refined. Ridicule is banished France, and is losing ground daily in England.' — This observation is of so singu- lar a complexion, that one can hardly tell whe- ther it is to be taken in jest or earnest. By highly polished and refined, he tells us he means delicacy of taste ; but as among the pohte, deli- cacy, is commonly understood to mean sickliness, and as, according to this writer's decision, ridi- cule is the best test of truth, and truth and liberty go together, when he talks of ridicule being banished France, his condemnation of this noble touchstone of truth must be altogether ironical. But as, on the other hand, this co- pious writer has composed three large volumes to substitute taste to common sense, I should suppose him to be in earnest.' So likewise in a note of the same writer on the Essay on Man, vol. iii. p. 8. Superior beings when of late they saw, &c. * And here let me take notice of a new species of " the sublime, of which our poet may be justly S66 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. said to be the nialser ; so new, that we have yet no name for it, though of a nature distinct from every other beauty of poetry. The two great perfections in works of genius are wit and sub- limity : Many writers have been witty; some have been sublime ; but none that I know of besides our poet, had the art to incorporate them ; of which he hath given them many ex- amples, both in this Essay and in his other poems ; one of the noblest being the passage in question. This seems to be the last effort of the imagination to poetical perfection ; and in this compounded excellence, the wit receives a dignity from the sublime, and the sublime a splendor from the wit, which in their state of separate existence, they neither of them had. Yet a late critic, w^ho writes with the deci- sion of a Lord of Session on Parnassus, thinks otherwise. — ' It may be gathered (says he) from what is said above, that wit and ridicule make not an agreeable mixture with grandeur. Dissimilar emotions have a fine effect in a slow succession; but in a rapid succession, which approaches to co- existence, they will not be relished.' — What pity it is that the poet should here confute the critic, by doing what the cri- tic with his rules, teaches us cannot be done. Boileau, who was both a poet and a critic, had a clear view of this excellence in idea ; while No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 26? ' the mere critic had no idea of what had been *• clearly set before his eyes : " On pent etre a lafois et pompeux et plaisant, '' Etje hais un sublime ennuyeux et pesant." Every one must be sensible that the question here disputed can be determined only by an ap- peal to feeling : and notwithstanding the concur- ring opinion of Warburton and Boiieau, it is pro- bable there may still be many good judges who will agree with Lord Karnes in condemning this new kind of sublime, which the poet is here said to have had the merit of inventing, (though the passage from Boiieau proves the contrary,) and which his commentator extols as the last effort to- w-ards poetical perfection. The impression made by wit is of a light and playful kind ; circum prce- forclia ludit ; that made by sublimity is grave and powerfully affecting. These impressions, so dif- ferent in their nature, cannot aid each other by union, but must mutually destroy each other's in- fluence. It has been justly observed, that Lym- pha pudica Deum vidit et erubuit, (which was not invented by Pope,) would be an ingenious piece of wit, if it did not excite too solemn an emotion; and it v/ould be sublime, were it not for its wit. As it is, the thought is neither a good example of wit nor of sublimity : and the same observation, if I do not much mistake, will apply to the pas- 268 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. sage which gave rise to this criticism ; in which, the thought of the ** Angels shewing a Newton ** as men show an ape,'''' is neither truly dignified, nor truly witty ; but an unnatural and fantastic compound, quite unworthy of the general good taste of the poet. In this, as in several other in- stances, the commentator has truly done his author no service by his misplaced encomium : the latter might say to him here with some justice, Pol, rn^ occidistis, amice. Again, in the first note on the Dunciad, " The mighty mother/' &c. * The author of Elements of Criticism, sits * Jiwn rime to time on our poets, whom he tries ' by critical rules which he has invented, and * laid down for the purpose of his general visita- * tion of English poets and poetry. — * The author ** (Pope,) says he, is guilty of much greater de- " viation from the rw/e. Dulness may be ima- " gined a deity or idol, to be worshipped by bad " writers : but then some sort of disguise is requi- *^ site, some bastard virtue must be bestowed, to give this idol a plausible appearance. Yet in the Dunciad, Dulness, without the least dis- guise, is made the object of worship. The mind rejects such a fiction as unnatural.' — But is there no bastard virtue, (says Warburton) in i6 it St it No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 269 the mighty mother of so numerous an offspring, which she takes care to bring to the ears of kings? Her votaries would, for this single vir- tue, prefer her influence to Apollo and the nine muses. Is there no bastard virtue in the piece of w^hich the poet makes her the author? — The goddess bade Bintannia sleep.'' — Is she not celebrated for her beauty, another Bastard vir- tue ? — ^ Fate this fair idiot gave^^ 8tc. — But of all her bastard virtues, her Freethiyikingy the virtue which she anxiously propagates amongst her followers in the 4th Book, might, one would think, have been sufficient to have covered the poet from this censure.' [Here the Critic be- trays in plain words the radical ground of his en- mity. He had heard Lord Kames vulgarly re- ported as one of the sceptical writers ; and with- out farther examination or acquaintance with his works, he chimes in with the vulgar report.] — * But, (continues he,) had Mr Pope drawn his * goddess without the least disguise, it had not ' signified a rush. Disguised or ujidisguised, the * poem had been neither better nor worse ; and * he has secured it from being rejected as iinnatu- * ral by ten thousand beauties of nature.' — ^Now, what is all this to say ? The critic first admits the propriety of the rule, which Lord Kames is said to have " invented for his own purpose," by endeavouring to prove, in opposition to him, the consonance of the imagined personage, the God- 270 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. dess of Dulness, to that very rule, as being en- dowed with many bastard virtues ; and after- w^ards, being resolved to justify his favourite author, at all hazards, he concludes with his own dictum, that it is of no consequence whether the picture had been consonant to this standard or not; for however faulty in one particular, the poet had redeemed this fault by a thousand beau- ties. Does this prove, against Lord Kames, that the Jauit itself is a beauty, or even that it is of no consequence ? With respect to M. de Voltaire, Lord Kames was guilty of a complicated offence of a very hei- nous nature. He had censured the Henriade as cold and unnatural, from its treating its incidents too little in detail, Ekm, of Grit, vol. ii. p. 333. He had blamed the action as being too recent, and consequently too familiar, Ibid. p. 382. He had found great fault with, the introduction of the ima- ginary personages of Sleep, Discord, Fanaticism, &.C. ; and he had pronounced on the whole, that the Henriade must be a short-lived poem. Ibid. p. 389. This, no doubt, was a very heavy act of aggression in the critic. But he had dared, more- over, to extol Shakespearey for his exquisite know- ledge of human nature, and skill in touching the passions ; while in some instances, he censured, in those respects, the great masters of the French drama, Racine and Corneille. The offence was > No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 52171 altogether of a nature quite unpardonable : We shall give a specimen of Voltaire's revenge. He had criticised with great freedom these writers of his own country, in a thousand instances, himself; and he had once been the most ardent of Shake- speare's panegyrists. * Un Grand Juge d'Ecosse, qui a fait imprimer ' des Elhnens de Ci^itique Anglaise, en trois vo- * lumes, dans lesquels on trouve des reflexions ' judicieuses et fines, a pourtant eu le malheur de * comparer la premiere scene du monstre nomme * Hamlet a la premiere scene du chef-d'oeuvre de ' notre Iphigenie. II affirme que ces vers ^"^ Areas ^ ' AveZ'VOus dans les airs entendu quelque bruit ? ' Les vents nous auraient-ils exatices cette ?iuit ? ' Mais tout dorty et Varmee, et les vents, et Neptime; — nc valent pas cette reponse vraie et convenable du sentinelle dans Hamlet : Je liai pas entendu une sou7is trotter. — Oui Monsieur, un soldat peut repondre ainsi dans un corps- de-garde ; mais non pas sur le theatre, devant les premieres personnes d'une nation, qui s'expriment noble- ment, et devant qui il faut s'exprimer de meme. — Que ce soldat ait vu ou n'ait pas vu passer dc souris, cet evenement est tres-inutile a la tra- gedie di" Hamlet ; ce n'est qu'un discours de Gilles, un proverbe has, qui ne peut faire aucun 272 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. * efFet. II y a toujours une raison pour laquelle * toute beaute est beaute, et toute sottise et sot- * tise.' — Lett re de M. de Voltaire a rAcademie * Frangaise, * Ce Monsieur Home, Grand Juge d'Ecosse, en- * seigne la maniere de faire parler les heros d'une ' tragedie avec esprit : et voici un exafinple re- ' marquable qu'il rapporte de la tragedie de Hen- * ri IV, du divin Shakespeare. Le divin Shake- * speare introduit milord Falstaff, chef de Justice^ * qui vient de prendre prisonnier le chevalier * Jean Colemle, et qui le presente au roi : — " Sire, ** le voila ; je vous le livre ; je supplie votre " grace de faire enregistrer ce fait d'arines parmi ** les autres de cette journ^e, ou p^rdieu je le fe- ** rai mettre dans une balade avec mon portrait a " la tete ; on verra Colevile me baisant les pieds. " Voila ce que je ferai, si vous ne rendez pas ma " gloire aussi brillante qu'une piece de deux sous '* doree," &c. — C'est cet absurde et abominable * galimatias, tres-frequent dans le divin Shake- ^ speare, que M. Jean Home propose pour le mo- * dele du bon gout et de I'esprit dans la tragedie, * Mais en recompense, M. Home trouve Vlphige- ' nie et la Phhdi^e de Racine extremement ridi- * cules.' — L' Homme au xl Ecus, Note (f») * Permettez moi de vous soumettre quelques * singularites curieuses de VEssai sur Critique, en No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 273 trois volumes, de M. Home, Lord Makaims, (c'est le titre d'un des Juges de Paix en Ecosse.) On ne peut avoir une plus profonde connoissance de la nature et des arts que ce philosophe, et il fait tons ses efforts pour que le monde soit aussi savant que lui. II nous prouve d'abord que nous avons cinq sens, et que nous sentons moins I'impression douce faite sur nos yeux et sur nos oreilles par les couleurs et par les sons, que nous ne sentons un grand coup sur la jambe ou sur la tete. II nous instruit de la difference que tout homme eprouve entre une simple emotion et une passion de I'ame ; il nous apprend que les fem- mes passent quelquefois de la pitie a I'amour. De-la, passant a la m^sure du terns et de I'espace, M. Home conclut mathematiquement que le terns est long pour une fille qu'on va ma- rier, et court pour un homme qu'on va pendre : puis il donne des definitions de la beaute et du sublime. 11 connait si bien la nature de I'une et de I'autre, qu'il reprouve totalement ces beaux vers d^Athdli€y ' La douceur de sa voix, son enfance, sa grace, &c* * II trouve que le monologue de Do7?i Dihgue^ * dans le Cid, ' O rage ! desespoir ! vieillesse ennemie ! &c. VOL. III. S 274j appendix to volume second. [NO. 4. * est un morceau deplace et hors d'ceuvre, dans * lequel Dom Dibgue ne dit rien de ce qu'il doit * dire. Mais en recompense, le critique nous * avertit que les monologues de Shakespeare sent * les seuls modeles a suivre, et qu'il ne connoit * rien de se parfait. II en donne un bel exemple, ' tir6 de la tragedie di Hamlet : * Oh si ma chair iropjerme, id pouvait sefondre. ' Se degeler, couler, se resoudre en rosee, &c. * Quelques lectcurs seront surpris, peut-etre des * jugemens de M. Home Lord Makaims ; et quel- ^ ques Fran^ais pourront dire que Gilles dans une * foire de province s'exprimerait avec plus de * decence ct de noblesse que le Prince Hamlet,--^ * C'est avec le meme gout et la meme justesse * qu'il trouve ce vers de Racine ridiculement am- * poulle : Mais tout dort, et Varmee, et les vents, et Neptune, * M. Home porte ainsi sur tous les arts des juge- * mens qui pourraient nous paraitre extraordi:- * naires. C'est un effet admirable des progres de * I'esprit humain, qu'aujourdhui il nous vienne * d'Ecosse des regies de gout dans tous les arts, * depuis le poeme epique jusqu'au jardinage. * L' Esprit humain s'^tend tous les jours, et nous * ne devons pas desesperer de recevoir bientot des No. 4.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 275 poetiques et d6s rh6toriques des iles Orcades. II est vrai qu'on aimerait mieux encore voir de grands artistes dans ces pays-la, que de grands raisonneurs sur les arts. II est ais6 de dire son avis sur le Tasse et I'Arioste, sur Michel- Ange et Raphael ; il n'est pas si ais6 de les imiter: et il faut avouer, qu'aujourdhui nous avons plus besoin d'exemples, que de pr^ceptes, aussi bien en France qu'en Ecosse. Au reste, si M. Home est si severe envers tous nos meilleurs auteurs, et si indulgent envers Shakespeare, il faut avouer qu'il ne traite pas mieux Virgile et Horace. M. Home donne tou jours son opinion pour une loi, et il 6tend son despostisme sur tous les ob- jets. C'est un juge a qui toutes les causes res- sortissent. Ses arrets sur I'architecture et sur les jardins ne nous permettent pas de douter qu'il ne soit de tous les magistrats d'Ecosse le mieux log6, et qu'il n'ait le plus beau pare. 11 trouve les bos- quets de Versailles ridicules ; mais s'il fait jamais un voyage en France, on lui fera les honneurs de Versailles, on fera jouer les eaux pour lui, on le promenera dans les bosquets, et peut-etre alors ne sera-t-il pas si degout^. Apres cela, s'il se mocque des bosquets de Versailles, et des tragedies de Racine, nous le soufFrirons volon- tiers : nous savons que chacun a son gout,' &c. 'Lettre a un Journallste, To these critical remarks of M. de Voltaire, there is nothing to reply. We can do no more s2 276 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 4. than agree cordially in the last sentiment he ex- presses, que chacun a son gout. APPENDIX.— NO, V. Character of Lord Kames by Dr Reid, in an E^'- tract from the Dedication of his Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man, " It would be ingratitude to a man whose me- mory I most highly respect, not to mention my obligations to the late Lord Kames, for the con- cern he was pleased to take in this work. Hav- ing seen a small part of it, he urged me to carry it on ; took account of my progress from time to time ; revised it more than once as far as it was carried before his death ; and gave me his obser- vations on it, both with respect to the matter and expression. On some points we differed in opi- nion, and debated them keenly, both in conversa- tion and by many letters, without any abatement of his affection, or of the zeal for the works being No. 5.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 27? carried on and published. For he had too much liberality of mind not to allow to others the same liberty in judging which he claimed to himself. It is difficult to say, whether that worthy man was more eminent in active life or in speculation. Very rare surely have been the instances where the talents for both were united in so eminent a degree. ** His genius and industry, in many different branches of literature, will, by his works, be known to posterity. His private virtues and pub- lic spirit, his assiduity through a long and labori- ous life in many honourable public offices with which he was entrusted, and his zeal to encourage and promote every thing that tended to the im- provement of his country, in laws, literature, com- merce, manufactures, and agriculture, are best known to his friends and cotemporaries." / Extract of a Letter from Z)r Reid to Mrs Drum- mo nd, after the death of Lord Kames. ** I accept, dear Madam, the present you sent me *, as a testimony of your regard, and as a pre- s 3 A gold snuff-box. 278 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [N0..5. \ cious relic of a man whose talents I admired, and whose virtues I honoured ; a man who honoured me with a share of his conversation, and of his correspondence, which is my pride, and which gave me the best opportunity of knowing his real worth. ** I have lost in him one of the greatest comforts of my life ; but his remembrance will always be dear to me, and demand my best wishes and pray- ers for those whom he has left behind him. ** When time has abated your just grief for the loss of such a husband, the recollection of his eminent talents, and of his public and domestic virtues, will pour balm into the wound. Fi'iends are not lost who leave such a character behind them, and such an example to those who come after them." No. 6.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND, 27^ APPENDIX.— NO. VL Three Letters from Mrs Montagu to Lord Kames. I. Anticipates a visit to Blair-Drummond. Sa7idkford, August 28. 1772. My Lord, As next summer and Blair-Drummond are at a great distance, it is happy for me that I have a rapid imagination, which whirls through space and time faster than the fiery-footed steads of Phoe- bus, whose progress may be marked by shadows and counted by clocks. I am come; I am arrived; I am actually at Blair-Drummond;; I am sitting by your Lordship on the seat you marked with my name. The river is fretting over the pebbles, or foaming am.ong the rocks ; just as we human crea- tures are fretfully and peevishly murmuring at the little impediments, or raging and storming at the great obstacles that thwart us in the progress of life. I see Ben-Lomond lift his scornful brow, frowning with proud disdain on the vainly emu- s4 280 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 6. lating hills, and humble unaspiring vales beneath him ; just emblem of human greatness, human power ! Thou sendest forth the eagle and the vultur, and many a beast and bird of prey upon thy humble subjects : And shall the barren top of the hill of storms, which hurls the shivered rock, or rolls the cataract upon the fertile valley, boast of its pernicious eminence, and scorn what lies in the better mean ? Let us then turn to the village Lord Kames has built. I hear the hammer of the artificers, the wheel of the spin- sters, the voice of mirth, the play of children, the social greetings of friendly neighbours. — Proud castle! did sounds so cheerful echo through your walls when the Regent kept his state there? No. Envy and jealousy ran in whispers through the rooms of state; drunken riot roared in the hall ; party and faction clamoured at the gate. What then is suggested from the prospect around us, but that the present state of Scotland is far * "happier than the former? that it is well the Highlander is come down from his forts and fastnesses, the mountains and rocks, to beat his broad-sword into plough-shares, and to cultivate instead of plunder the valleys. But best of all, that the barbarian Chieftain has left the castle where tyranny and oppression were protected, to give place to a milder Lord, who wields the sceptre of justice, instead of the iron-road of power. No. 6.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 281 Now that we are returned from our walk, I wish my imagination could farther represent to me the chapter of your book, which I know your Lordship would read to me on such an oc- casion. I have not, alas, the elements of which this book will be made ; learning and wit, the foundation on which the structure will be raised. I can only build castles in the air. I cannot therefore at all substitute my empty visions in lieu of it. Finish your vvork ; publish and put the world in possession of it. Till then I am un- easy and impatient. 1 inclose this to our friend Dr Gregory, &c. Eliz. Montagu. II. FROM THE SAME. On the Death of Lord Lyttelton. Sandkford, October 27. 1773. My Lord, With the History of Man, I dare say your Lordship has (con amore) written the History of Woman. I beg, that in specifying their charac- ters, you would take notice, that time and sepa- ration do not operate on the female heart as on the male. We need not go back so far as the 282 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 6. time of Ulysses and Penelope to prove this. We may pass over the instances of his dalliance with the sole suitor that addressed to him, the lovely Calypso ; and the constant Penelope's continued disdain of the whole herd of her pertinacious wooers. The more near and recent an example is the better ; so, my Lord, we will take our own. You feel, you say, when you take up your pen to write to me, the same formality as on our first acquaintance ; I, on the contrary, find my confi- dence in you has had time to take root, A long winter, dreary seasons, cannot blast or wither it ; under its shadow I am protected from any appre* hensions from your genius and learning. You appear to me in no character but that of my friend, — .the sacred character of my old friend. The years of absence, the months of vacation in our correspondence, come into the account; for I remembered you, when I did not hear from you ; I thought of you when I did not see you ; esteem, nursed by faithful remembrance, grew up sans intermission : I am most sincerely rejoiced that your Lordship has completed your great work : May you long enjoy your fame ; and may you see mankind derive advantage as well as pleasure from your work 1 The more Man under- stands himself, the less averse he will be to those Divine and human laws that restrain his licenti- ous appetites. It is from ignorance of his nature he misapprehends his interest ; not comprehends No. 6,] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 283 ing how he is made, he disputes the will of his I\Iaker. I am impatient for the pubHcation of your book, and hope your printer will make all possible haste to indulge us with it. I rejoice that it has pleased God to give you life and health to finish this great work ; and I flatter myself, that though you may not again embark in so great an undertaking, so able a pen will not be consigned to indolent repose. As to my poor goose quill, it is not much to be regretted, that probably it will scribble no more. I have nei- ther the force of good healtli, nor the presump- tion of good spirits left to animate me : without the energy of great talents, these are necessary to the task of undertaking something for the pubhc. I have been for many months teased with a slow fever; and the loss of my excellent Friend has cast a cloud over my mind. I remember Sir William Temple says, in one of his Essays, that when he recollects how^ many excellent men and amiable women of his acquaintance have died be- fore him, he is ashamed to be alive. With much more reason than Sir William Temple, whose merit I dare say was equal at least to that of any of the friends he survived, I feel this very strong- ly. I have Hved in the most intimate connexion with some persons of the highest characters in this age ; they are gone, and I remain : all that adorned me is taken away, and only a cypress wreath remains. I used to borrow some lustre 1284 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 6. from them, but now I seem respectable (even in my own eyes) only as the mourner of departed merit. I agree with your Lordship, that I ought not to lament the death of Lord Lyttelton on his account : His virtue could not have been more perfect in this mortal state, nor his charac- ter greater, than it was with all those whose praise could be an object to a wise and worthy man. He now reaps the full reward of those virtues, which here, though they gave him a tran- quil cheerfulness amidst many vexations, and the sufferings of sickness, yet could not bring a per- fect calm to the wounds his paternal affection suffered. When I consider how unhappy his for- mer, how blessed his present condition, I am ashamed to lament him : The world has lost the best example, modest merit the most zealous pro- tector, mankind its gentlest friend : my loss is unspeakable; but, as the friendship of so excel- lent a man is the best gift of God, and I am sen- sible I was never deserving of so great a blessing, I ought rather to offer thanks it was bestowed, than repine it was taken away ; and only to beg, that by the remembrance of his precepts and ex- ample, I may derive the same helps to doing my duty in all relations of life, and social engage- ments, as I did from his advice. But virtue ne- ver speaks with such persuasion as when she bor- rows the accents of a friend. Moreover, my time in this world will probably be very short; and if No. 6.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 285 it were long, I could not forget to admire so ad- mirable a pattern of goodness. 1 ever am, my Lord, &c. &c. Eliz. Montagu. III. FROM THE SAME. On a Domestic Event ; — and on Religious Edu- cation. [^Written within a few weeks of the death of Lord Kames.] Portman Square y Nov. 12. 1782. My Lord, I cannot wait till I have conferred with the grave Bench of Bishops on the doctrine of your letter*, to return my warmest thanks for the kind and friendly sentiments it expresses for me, and the good domestic news which it communi- cates. Mr Drummond Home's excellent choice is an event of the highest importance to your happi- ness, as well as his own. I have long been soli- * See Lord Kames's letter, to which this is an answer, at p. 320. of Vol. II. ^S6 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECONI). [NO. 6. citous, that a name to which you have given ce- lebrity, a noble estate you have improved, and a charming place you have embelhshcd, should be transmitted to your posterity. This wish was made of the common stuff, the hardware of this w^orld : ambition, and the love of fame, &c. you may see, furnished, and fashioned it. By the ac- count your Lordship and others have given me of your new connexion, many softer and sweeter blessings will flow from that alliance. She will embellish your society, and enliven your hours of retirement. When you are all well and in good spirits, she will add to your gaiety and pleasure : in the hours of sickness, she will alleviate pain by tender attentions. My amiable Miss G has made me know how much pleasure and com- fort may be derived from a near connexion with a person, who adds to the various agi^imens of youth, the discretion, and sober, and solid merit of a mature character. The seasons of life have been often compared to the seasons of the year, and each have their comforts. I think the calm autumn of life, as well as of the year, has many advantages. Both have a peculiar serenity, a gentle tranquillity. We are less busy and agita- ted, because the hopes of the spring, and the vi- vid delights of the summer, are over; but these tranquil seasons have their appropriate enjoy- ments ; and a well-regulated mind sees twtry thing beautiful that is in the order of nature. No. 6k] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 28/ I hope your Lordship received my acknowledg- ments and thanks for vour excellent sentiments on religious education. To errors, defects, and faults, in the first training up, we may often ascribe the irreligion of many persons; for, phi- losophically speaking, man is a religious animal. Sensible of his weakness, he is ever desirous of obtaining the assistance of a superior Being. The most ignorant are sensible, that great power and intelligence must have combined to form all thev see in the creation : they wish for the protection and favour of this Great Beins:, Man must be much perverted before he can wish to disbelieve a God and Providence. His interest must be misrepresented to him, or he would never reject the means offered by Divine Revelation to make the Omnipotent his friend. The unsophisticated man is never an atheist. But when either erro- neous impressions have been made upon the youthful mind, as where the Deity has been held forth as a wrathful being, clothed in terrors ; or where he has observed, that those with whom he has lived, have not acted with any reference to a Superior Power, he is easily made the disciple of those who call themselves Freethinkers. Our Bishops are now in their dioceses. When they return to town, I will not fail to communi- cate what you sent me. I cannot imagine it is calculated to give the slightest offence. Beyond 288 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 6- the regions of human knowledge, human authori- ty cannot form establishments of doctrine. I shall always be glad to find excuses to write to you. I passed the summer in Berkshire, but removed to London the first week in November. No augur ever paid more regard to the flight of birds than I do. I take a hint from the swallows to leave the country. To what region they re- pair, I do not know enough of their constitutions and taste to say ; but I will pronounce, that for a human creature, of flimsy materials of mind and body, a capital city is the best situation. The weather has less power there ; the blank and si- lence of the vegetable and animal world is less perceived, and there are great resources in society to prevent our feeling our own insignificance and weakness. My new house affords me many com- forts \ but it has lost at present its best ornament. My amiable Miss G is now making a visit to her family at Edinburgh ; but I flatter myself she will return to me some time in the next month. In the mean while, I reflect with satisfaction on the happiness she is enjoying in her friends, and they in her. My best and most affectionate re- gards attend all at Blair-Drummond. And I am, wuth the greatest esteem, 8tc. Eliz. Montagu. No. 7-] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 289 APPENDIX— NO. VIL The Prayer in the Conclusion of Lord Kames's Essays on the Principles of Morality and Na- tural Religion. For do not all these wonders, O Eternal Mind, Sovereign Architect of all, form a hymn to thy praise ! If in the dead inanimate works of Nature thou art seen, if in the verdure of the fields and the a7.ure of the skies, the ignorant rus- tic admire thy creative power ; how blind must that man be, who, contemplating his living struc- ture, his moral frame, discerns not thy forming hand ? What various and complicated machinery is here I and regulated with what exquisite art ! While Man pursues happiness as his chief aim, thou bendest self-love into the social direction. Thou infusest the generous principle which makes him feel for sorrows not his own : nor feels he on- ly, but, strange indeed ! takes delight in rushing into foreign misery ; and with pleasure goes to VOL. III. T 290 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 7. drop the painful tear over real or imaginary woe. Thy divine hand thus formed the connecting tie, and by sympathy linked man to man ; that no- thing might be solitary in thy world, but all tend toward mutual association. For that great end, Man is not left to a loose or arbitrary range of will. Thy wise decree hath erected within him a throne for Virtue. There thou hast not decked her with beauty only to his admiring eye, but hast thrown around her the awful effulgence of autho- rity divine. Her persuasions have the force of a precept ; and her precepts are a law indispensable. Man feels himself bound by this law, strict and immutable. And yet the privilege of supereroga- ting is left I a field opened for free and generous action ; in which, performing a glorious course, he may attain the high reward by Thee allotted, of inward honour and self-estimation. Nothing is made superfluously severe, nothing left dangerous- ly loose, in thy moral institution ; but every ac- tive principle made to know its proper sphere. In just proportion, man's affections spread from him- self to objects around him. Where the rays of affection, too widely scattered, begin to lose their warmth : collecting them again by the means of a public, a country, or the universe, Thou rekind- lest the dying flame. Converging eagerly to this point, behold how intense they glow ! and man, though indiffererit to each remote particular, burns with zeal for the whole. All things are by Thee No. 7.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 99'^ pre-ordained, great Mover of all ! Throughout the wide expanse, every living creature runs a destined course. While all under a law irresisti- ble fulfil thy decrees, Man alone seems to himself exempt ; free to turn and bend his course at will. Yet is he not exempt : but ministers to thy decree omnipotent, as much as the rolling sun, or ebbing flood. What strange contradictions are in thy great scheme reconciled ! What glaring opposites made to agree I Necessity and liberty meet in the same agent, yet interfere not. Man, though free from constraint, is under bonds. He is a neces- sary agent, and yet acts with perfect liberty. Within the heart of man Thou hast placed thy lamp, to direct his otherwise uncertain steps. By this light, he is not only assured of the existence, and entertained with all the glories of the mate- rial world, but is enabled to penetrate into the re- cesses of nature. He perceives objects joined to- gether by the mysterious link of cause and effect. The connecting principle, though he can never explain, he is made to perceive ; and is thus in- structed to refer even things unknown, to their proper origin. Endowed with a prophetic spirit, he fortells things to come. Where reason is un- availing, sense comes in aid ; and bestows a power of divination, which discovers the future by the past. Thus Thou gradually liftest him up to the knowledge of Thyself The plain and simple t2 292 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [N0» 7- sense, which in the most obvious effect reads and perceives a cause, bring him straight to Thee the First Great Cause, the Ancient of Days, the Eternal Source of all. Thou presentest thyself to us, and we cannot avoid Thee. We must doubt of our own existence, if we can doubt of thine. We see Thee by thine own light. We see Thee not existing only, but in wisdom and benevolence supreme, as in existence first. As spots in the sun's bright orb, so in the universal plan, scattered evils are lost in the blaze of superabundant good- ness. Even by the research of human reason, weak as it is, those seeming evils diminish and fly away apace. Objects, supposed superfluous or noxious, have assumed a beneficial aspect. How much more, to thine all-penetrating eye, must all appear excellent and fair ! It must be so. — We cannot doubt. Neither imperfection nor malice dwell with Thee. Thou appointest as salutary, what we lament as painful. Even the follies and vices of men minister to thy wise designs : and as at the beginning of days Thou sawest, so Thou seest and pronouncest still, that every thing Thou hast made is good* No. 8.3 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 293 APPENDIX.— NO. VIII. h^TTERfrom the Honourable Francis Garden of Gardemtone to Lord Kames, on the merits of the old English Drama. With some Additional Observations on the same Subject, The following Letter to Lord Kames from his brother Judge Lord Gardenstone *, which con- T 8 * The Honourable Francis Garden of Gardenstone, a Judge of the Courts of Session and Justiciary. He was an acute and able lawyer ; of great natural eloquence ; and, with much wit and humour, had a considerable acquaintance with classical an^ elegant literature. He was appointed King's Solicitor in I76I, and raised to the Bench in 1764. On the death of his elder brother, Alexander Garden of Troup, M. P. he succeeded, in 1785, to a very ample fortune. His tenants and dependants found him an indulgent and liberal master ; and the village of Lawrcnceldrk, in Kincardineshire, raised by !29-i APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. tains much ingenious and just criticism on drama- tic writing, though not referred to in the prece- ding Memoirs, will not be deemed foreign to the purpose of the work. It illustrates the character of both correspondents, and affords a pleasing pic- ture of the elegant amusements with which a cul- tivated mind can solace itself in old age. — Lord Gardenstone was at this period in his 70th year *, Lord Kames in his 85th. To Lord Kames. Fountain- Bridge y March L 1781. My dear Lord, A man who has no whims, is, in my opinion, a stupid man. I am sure mine are, (now at least), altogether innocent, and in some particulars, use- ful. With this letter, I take the liberty of send- ing you one specimen of those which I consider to be of the innocent kind. him from a few mean cottages to a large, populous and thri- ving baronial borough, distinguished by its industry in vari- ous branches of manufacture, is an honourable monument of his public spirit and active benevolence. Let these his merits be remembered, while his failings are humanely consigned to oblivion. No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 2^5 I lately, and accidentally, became acquainted with the works of an old dramatic poet, Massin- g€t\ He was a cotemporary of Shakespeare, John- son, and Fletcher ; and though in our days we have lost sight of him, he has, in my opinion, no small share of the merit which we still allow to those old poets of the stage. There is in his works, I thhik, a rich store of materials, a preci- ous mine of dramatic entertainment, though in- cumbered with a mass of superfluous rubbish. He studied nature, and wrote with spirit and proprie- ty, with a strange mixture of extravagance, and often absurdity i blemishes from which none of our old poets, Shakespeare himself included, are exempted. True critics will bestow the commen- dation of classical writing only on simple compo- sition, joined to propriety of thought, and clear nervous expression. Such were, though in vari- ous degrees of excellence, the prevailing charac- teristics of our ancient dramatic poetry. Shake- speare stands at the head of the scale ; and I be- lieve will ever maintain that pre-eminence ; Nee ortum tale, nee 07iturum. Dry den bestows a fine encomium on Shakespeare, and in part, on his co- temporary dramatic poets. I have the passage ia my memory, though I cannot recollect where it is to be found. After some things said in his own vindication, he adds: t4 ^95 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. In spite of all his pride, a secret shame Invades his breast at Shakespeare's sacred name ; And when he hears his godlike Roman rage. He in a just despair would quit the stage ; And, to an age less polish*d, more unskill'd Would with disdain the foremost honours yield. As with the greater dead he dares no strive. He would not match his verse with those who live.« Let him retire, between two ages cast. The first of this, the hindmost of the last. There is uncommon merit, if I mistake not, in these lines, though they are not commonly in the mouths of our spouters in poetry. — Ben Johnson understood the art of poetry. He was not only- judicious and learned, but he had a great deal of humour, and knew how to form conversations, " such as men do use," as he expresses it. Beau- mont and Fletcher were joint labourers ; and though much inferior to Shakespeare in power and strength of genius, and to Johnson in judg- ment and accuracy ; yet in their comedies they have produced many natural characters, and plea- sant scenes. My autlior, Massinger, tliough now forgotten, was ranked among the great poets of that age. He was in high esteem. I take it to be certain, that Shakespeare himself on some occasions lent him assistance ; and I think I can discern in some pas> No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 297 sages of his comedies, the marks of Shakespeare's peculiar genius. With this view, I beg your Lordship will make your observations on Lukes soliloquy (in the piece I send to you) after he has surveyed with transport the treasures in his bro- ther's warehouse *. This speech appeared to me * The play here alluded to is the City Madam. The au- thors of the Biograpkia Dramatica, (Mr Baker and Mr Reed), give the following character of the piece : " This is an ex- cellent comedy ; nor can there perhaps be shewn a more perfect knowledge of the human mind, than is apparent in the behaviour of the City Lady and her two daughters, to " the husband's brother, who is unfortunately fallen into dis- tress, and is become a dependant on the family. The plot, the business, the conduct, and the language of the piece are all admirable. Mr Love, in the year 1771, made some alterations in it, with which it was acted at Rich- " mond." Luke's soliloquy in the original play is as fol- (t te to make it a regular, uniform comedy, without any mixture, on my part, of stu- died modern wit. You may believe that, on more accounts than one, I cannot intend it for publication, but only for private amusement to myself, and some select friends, who may relish this sort of writing, as I do ; or if they should differ from me, I shall not incur the public cen- sure, but be corrected by a private and friendly admonition. I submit it to your Lordship's judg- * The general justness of these observations must be ac- knowledged ; but the particular criticism on these characters in the Conscious Lovers may admit of some dispute.- The characters of Tom and Phillis, are perfectly consonant to na- ture, and are drawn with a very happy pencil : besides, they sustain useful parts in the drama. As to Cimberton, though a character exaggerated beyond nature, he is drawn with great consistency of appropriate features, and has much of that ludicrous absurdity or strong vis comica, characteristic of the older drama, which the writer justly prefers to the modem. The writer's own observation, that a modern au- dience would fall asleep at the exhibition of this play, were it not for those characters, is indeed the best criterion of theii merit, and utility in the drama. 302 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. ment and taste, in which I have the greatest con- fidence ; and I beg that yova will correct and cen- sure it with all possible freedom. I cannot be hurt, having neither fame nor profit at stake. Yet I must observe, in justification of my attempt, that some of our best modern plays have been formed in this manner from plays in foreign lan- guage, or from our own old plays. I will specify a few instances. I have already mentioned Steele's Conscious Lovers. The witty Buckingham form ► ed one of the most entertaining comedies now acted on our stage, from the The Chances of Beau- mont and Fletcher ; and that, without the aid of affected wit. One of Colley Gibber's best come- dies is The Non- Juror, formed upon Moliere's Tartuffe ; and exceptionable only in as far as he departs from the simplicity and good sense of his original, to gratify the vitious taste of his times for studied and affected wit in comedy. The same observation is applicable to Fielding's Miser, closely imitated from Moliere's Avare. I con- clude this point with a great and ancient autho- rity, which I know will please you better than all the rest. Horace says, Difficile est proprie communia dicere, tuque Rectius Iliacum carmen deducts in actum Qudm si prqferres ignota indictaque priiis. NO.*0;5 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 303 Lord Roscommon has singular merit in his Translation of Horaces Art of Poetry, which preserves more of the simplicity, elegance, and sense of the original, than almost any other ver- sion of the classical writings I know, in the Eng- lish language. 1 beg leave to give you his translation of this passage : New subjects are not easily explained^, And you had better use a well-known theme. Than trust to an invention of your own : For what originally others writ May be so well disguis'd, and so improv'd. That with some justice it may pass for yours. Before I conclude this private address to your Lordship, I cannot forbear to quote a fine passage from my favourite poet, Virgil. Of one of his celebrated characters he says, Nee tarda senectus Debilitat vires animi, mutatve vigorem. If, in addressing you, I did not with singular pleasure consider this as an apt quotation, I would not have written to you this letter, nor have given you the trouble of examining the piece, which, in so far as I have preserved che original, is, I do think, a neglected work of genius ; and I will not, with affected modesty, conceal my opinion, that my own part of it has some little share of 304 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. judgment and taste. But I must repeat my re- quest, that you will criticise it with a freedom un- restrained by any tenderness or good -nature to the author. For though I must own, that your un- biassed commendation would highly please me, yet your free censure will not mortify me ; be- cause I have the agreeable vanity to believe, (and in this I do not wish, if mistaken, to be undeceiv- ed,) that in more material particulars I possess some share of your good opinion. 1 am, my . dear Lord, with most sincere esteem, your faith- ful, humble servant, Fra. Garden. The preceding remarks are the result of that genuine good taste, which arises more from an in- nate sensibility to what is just and natural, beautiful or sublime, in the productions of the imagination, that from an acquaintance with critical rules, or the habit of measuring such productions by the^ laws of regular composition. Where the former quality prevails, the latter will ever maintain a subordinate rank : But as the one is a very rare gift of Nature, while the other may be acquired with moderate study by any person endowed with a competent share of understanding, it is no No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 305 wonder that such productions of the drama as are framed according to those artificial rules, which serve as an useful canon of judgment where the natural perception is wanting, should meet with more partizans, than those higher efforts of un- tutored genius, which are capable of a just estima- tion only by a kindred spirit to that which pro- duced them. This consideration enables us easily to account for the circumstance so often noticed as extraordi- nary, — the neglect shewn to some of the noblest productions of genius, at their first appearance ; and the small portion of fame which such authors as Shakespeare and Milton enjoyed in their own lifetime, compared to that high and universal celebrity to which they have since attained. The great mass of the public, incapable of apprecia- ting, by any native perception of the sublime and beautiful, those high efforts of genius, required to be instructed and disciplined by the few critics of genuine taste, whose literary celebrity entitled them to guide the popular opinion. A fame thus acquired is of slow growth, and often retarded, not less by the dogmatism of false taste, than by the envious malignity of rivals in the same path of literature ; but these obstacles once overcome, it is permanent and universal. If such, however, are the difficulties to be sur- mounted, and such the ordeal to be undergone by VOL. III. u 4 306 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. a genius of the first rank before he attains to his just estimation, and reaps the full harvest of his fame, it is a natural consequence, that many a most deserving candidate for the prize of repu- tation, yields to the severity of the trial; and because not quite entitled to the highest honours, is unjustly deprived of that inferior share of praise which was truly due to his merits. Such has assuredly been the lot of many of our old English dramatic poets. The same excellencies of thought and expression which we idolize in the dramas of Shakespeare^ are to be found, if not so frequent, yet in no scanty measure, in the plays of Beaumont and Fletcher, Massitiger and Shirley : but they want the stamp of that great name, which has not only given additional lus- tre to beauties, but too frequently canonized deformities. There is something generous in the attempt of the writer of the preceding letter to do justice to neglected merit. The City Madam of Alas- singer, is one of the best of that author's come- dies; and with a very few alterations and cor- rections, might be happily revived on the modern stao^e. Massinoer excelled in the construction of his plots ; and, what is rarely to be found in the older dramatic writers, there is scarcelv a single scene in any of his pieces that has not a direct tendency to produce the catastrophe. He is likewise a very skilful dehneator of cnaracter. No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 307 Every personage in his plays has his appropriate manners, and is in himself a well-finished por- trait, possessing those features of individuality, which we never fail to perceive in real life, but which it requires the greatest skill to transfer to the creations of fancy. It is in this rare quality that the older English dramatists eminently ex- cel the moderns. If the latter shall be allowed to surpass the former in the structure of their fables, which are more consonant to truth, and more artful and ingenious, without the aid of improbable fictions ; it must on the other hand be admitted, that in the skilful painting of the characters, they are as signally inferior to their predecessors. In the modern plays, the persons, singly considered, have seldom any appropriate or distinct features : A modern dramatic writer gives to his persons only the general characteris- tics of the class to which they belong. They are heroes or poltroons, sages or fools, honest men or knaves ; and their actions and discourse are sufficiently consonant to those general cha- racteristics. You hear them expressing either noble or base designs, wise or foolish sentiments, honest purposes, or schemes of villany : they justly excite your approbation or your contempt, your esteem or your aversion. But make this hero or this sage, this poltroon or this villain the object of a close examination: compare him with u 2 308 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. Others of his class, and you find he has no indi- vidual features : he is incapable of a particular de- scription. He is not therefore a natural charac- ter : he resembles one of those masks or vizors worn by the Greek and Roman actors, each of which was painted to exhibit the characteristics of a particular passion : and the same mask was put on, as often as the same passion was to be represented. But there is no criticism, (as Mr Hume well observes, ) which can be useful, without descend- ing to particulars; and I willingly indulge my- self on a favourite subject, in giving a few ex- amples in justification of these remarks. The passion of avarice has its general charac- teristics; and it requires no extraordinary talent to exhibit them in the drama, by the medium of such sentiments and actions as suit the general character of a miser. But it will be confessed, that the poet who could pen the following scene between a miser and his son, possessed the pow- er of giving distinct and appropriate features to his persons, and of copying nature with a mas- ter's hand. Philargyrus. My son to tutor me !— Know your obe= dience And question not my will. Parthenius. Sir, Were I one Whom want compell'd to wish a full possession T\'0. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 509 Of what is yours ; or had I ever numbered Your years, or thought you hv'd too long, with reason You then might nourish ill opinions of me : Or did the suit that I prefer to you Concern myself, and aim'd not at your good. You might deny, and I sit down with patience. And after, never press you. Philarg. I' the name of Pluto, What would'st thou have me do ? Pa? then. Right to yourself; Or suffer me to do it. Can you imagine This nasty hat, this tattei'd cloak, rent shoe. This sordid linen, can become the master Of your fair fortunes, whose superfluous means (Though I were buithensome) could clothe you in The costliest Persian silks, studded with jewels. The spoils of provinces ; and every day Fresh change of Tyrian purple ? Philarg. Out upon thee ! My moneys in my coffers melt to hear thee. Purple ! hence Prodigal ! shall I make my mercer Or tailor my heir, or see my jeweller purchase ? No, I hate pride. Parthen, Yet decency would do well : Though for 3'^our outside you will not be alter'd. Let me prevail so far yet, as to win yon U 3 310 APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. [NO. 8. Not to deny your belly nourishment ; Neither to think youv e feasted when t'is cramm'd With mouldy barley bread, onions and leeks^ And the drink of bondmen, water. Philarg, Would'st thou have me Be an Apicius or a Lucullus, And riot out my 'state in curious sauces ? Wise Nature with a little is contented ; And following her my guide, I cannot err. Parthen. But you destroy Her, in your want of care (I blush to see and speak it,) to maintain her In perfect health and vigour, when you suffer (Frighted with the charge of physic) rheums, catarrhS;, The scurf, ache in your bones, to grow upon you. And hasten on your fate with too much sparing ; When a cheap purge, a vomit, and good diet May lengthen it. Give me but leave to send The Emperor's doctor to you. Philarg. I'll be borne first Half-rotten to the fire that must consume me.. E'er his pills, cordials, his electuaries. His syrups, juleps, bezoar stone, or his Imagin'd unicorn's horn comes in my belly : My mouth shall be a draught first. 'Tis resolv'd. No ! I'll not lessen my dear golden heap. Which every hour increasing, does renew My youth, my vigour ; but if lessen'd, then ^ No. 8.] APPENDIX TO VOLUME SECOND. 31 i Then my poor heartstrings crack. Let me enjoy it. And brood o'ert while I live ; — it being my life. My soul, my all. But when I turn to dust. And part from what is more esteem'd by me Than all the gods Rome's thousand altars smoke to. Inherit thou my adoration of it. And, like me, serve my idol. [^Ejcii Philargi/rus. Partken. What a strange torture Is avarice to itself! What man looks on Such a penurious spectacle, but must Know what the fable meant of Tantalus, Or the ass whose back is crack'd with curious viands. Yet feeds on thistles. Some course I must take. To make my father know what cruelty He uses on himself. Massinger's Roman Actor, Act. II. Sc. 1.* • As Massinger was a good scholar, it is not improbable, that, in com- posing the foregoing scene, he might have had in his eye a fine passage from one of the low comedies of Menandtr. Ev Av7KaXb>. E< ffLiv yx^ oia-doc tuvIx Trci^xfCivSflx s-a E;5 'usuvrce, Thv x^ov6v, Tl etV . B Bacon, Lord — His opinion of the certainty requisite to law^, I. 213. Of courts of equity, 323, et seq. His rash cen- sure of the research into Final Causes examined, App. I. NO. 3. III. 32. His opinion of the distinct provinces of History and Poetry, II. 136. Baillie, Principal — of Glasgow College, I. 2. Account of his writings and character, I. App. NO. 1. III. 2. Baillie, Miss Joanna — Her high merit as a dramatic Writer, II. App. NO. 8. III. Balance of Trade — Erroneous notions regarding, II. l60. Balfour, Mr James, of Pilrig — His philosophical writings characterized, I. 195. David Hume's letter to ditto, I. App. NO. 6. III. 70. Balfour's Coffee-hmse — Club of wits who frequented it, I. $5. INDEX. 34: J) Bangour^^See Hamilton, Barrington, Daines — Observations on the English statutes, I. 292. Barrister^ profession of — Requires the greatest variety of knowledgej I. 22. Narrow and illiberal views of that pro- fession, ib. It requires an enlarged acquaintance with the human mind, ib. Bartolus — His writings on the civil law formerly in great esteem, I. 20. Baxter, Andrew — His correspondence with Mr Home, LSI. Some particulars of his life and character, 32. Note. A remarkable letter of his to John Wilkes, Esq. I. App. No. 2. in. 27. His inquiry into the nature of the soul, I. 32. Commended by Dr Warburton, SS. Scope of that treatise, S4. His philosophical notions censured by Mac- laurin, 25. Beaitie, Dr — His Essays on Poetry and Music, I. 450. Sir William Forbes's Life of, quoted, II. 212. Beaumont and Fletcher — Their great merit as dramatic wri- ters, II. App. NO. 8. III. 318. Beauty of every kind — The love of it congenial to man's ra- tional nature, I. 405. Practice is essential to the discem- m ent of it, 406. Beaux — Formerly accomplished scholars, I. 83. Beccaria, Marquis of — His ideas respecting crimes and pu- nishments, how far erroneous, I. App. NO. 10. III. 111. Belles-Leitres and Criticism — Their utility to a barrister, I. Benejicium cedendarum actionum — Essay on, by Lord Karnes, 1.70. Afterwards inserted in his Principles of Equity, 80, Note. r 4 34f4f INDEX. Benevolence, universal — Whether natural to man, and a branch of his duty, II. 34<4i. et seq, Berkeley, Bishop — Corresponds with the Rankenian Club, I. 241. Sevan, a Quaker — His ivory sculpture of William Penn, I. Binning, Lord — Author of some of the best of the Scottish songs, I. 84. Biography of a man of letters — What it properly embraces, II. 348. BlacklocTc, Dr T. — Lord Karnes unconsciously offends him, and apologises for it, II. App. NO. 9- HL 332. Blackstone, Sir William — His honourable character of the Scots gentry, I. 11. His censure of Lord Kames's work on Equity, examined, 347. 350. et seq. BlachweU, Principal — Account of, and character, I. 229.; App. No. 7- III. 73. He is an imitator of Lord Shaftes- bury's manner, I. 230. et seq, Blair, Dr Hugh — Supposed to have written the prayer at the end of Lord Kames's Essays on Morality, I. 19I. Assists Lord Karnes in the defence of that work, 193. His lec- tures on Rhetoric and Belles- Lettres, 275. Appointed Regius Professor, ib. His Sermons, 276, A writer in the Edinburgh Review, 236. His ingenuous and candid criticism on Lord Kames's Sketches, II. 201. His Epi- taphs on Lord Kames and Mrs Drummond, II. App. III. 336, 337. Board of Agriculture — Lord Kames's plan of, II. 243. Boileau — Quoted by David Hume, I. 135. By Dr Warbur- ton, II. App. NO. 4. III. 260. / r INDEX. 345 Bosnetl of Auchinleck, the elder — A good lawyer^ anecdote concerning, I. I9. Boswell, James — A favourite of Lord Karnes, II. 314. His MS. regarding Lord Karnes, quoted, I. 14. I9. 6I. 65. 82. BouJiQurs — A French writer on criticism, I. 238. Boyle, Mr — His answer to an objection against the argument from Final Causes, I. App. NO. 3. III. 32. Braxfield, Lord (Robert Macqueen) — An eminent Judge, I. 2n. British Constitution— A hereditary monarchy, I. I69. British Antiquities — Lord Karnes's Essays on, I. l62. David Hume's opinion of, 178. Brown — Remarks on the poetry and music of the Italian opera, I. 450. Buccleuch, Henry, Duke of — A pupil of Dr Adam Smith, I. 272. 5?/c/ianaw— Unrivalled as a Latin poet among the moderns, L6. Burke, Edmund — His Inquiry into the Sublime and Beau- tiful, I. 400. Burman, Peter — His remarks on the paucity of Scottish Latin poets, I. 6. Burnett — See Monhoddo. Butler, Bishop of Bristol and Durham — Mr Home's corre- spondence with, I. 122. Account of his writings, 124. Commends David Hume's Political Essays, 146. 34>6 INDEX. c Calla7idcr — A poet of that name, I. 98. Campbell, Dr George — Author of the Philosophy of Rhetorit, I. 446. His doctrine concerning humour erroneous, 433. . He is one of the ablest of Lord Karnes's disciples in philo- sophical criticism, 446. His testimony to Lord Karnes's merits as a writer on criticism, ib. His work modelled on the plan of Aristotle, 447. Canal between the Forth and Clyde, H. 90. Caledonian Canal, 93. Capital Punishments — Whether proper or otherwise, I. App. No. 10. HL 110. Reprobated by Beccaria and Voltaire, ib. Ought not to be frequent, ib. Carlyle, Dr Alexander — His MS. memoirs of his own life^ quoted, L 32. 51. 224. Carnegie, of Finhaven — His trial for murder, I. 49. Carter, Mrs Elizabeth — Her character of Bishop Butler, I. 124. Cai'tes, Des — Rejects the search of Final Causes altogether, L App. NO. 10. HI. 38, Cato — Addison's, quoted, L 428. Cause — Its meaning when applied to Natural Philosophy, I. App. NO. 9. HL 90. Cause and Effect — David Hume's notions concerning, exa- mined by Lord Kames, I. 187. Letters of Dr Reid to Lord Kames on that subject, I. App. NO. 9* IH. 82. Causes, Final — Lord Karnes's frequent reference to, L I90. I. App. NO. 3. HL 32. See Final Causes, INDEX. 347 Certainty — Essential to law, I. 212. Certainty — Discriminated from its immutability, I. 213. Chalmers's Life of Ruddiman, quoted, I. 242. — — — Referred to, I. App. III. 7. — — — . Caledonia, quoted, and praised, I. l66. His Poli- tical Estimate, quoted, II. 93. Chapelle and Bachaiimont — Their mixed prose and verse composition, I. 84. Charitable collections — Dean Tucker's notions concerning, II. App. NO. 1. III. 162. See Poor. Chancery in England — The Officina Justitice, I. 333. Rise of its equitable powers, ib. Charron, Pierre — A French moral writer, I. 238. Cicero — His eulogium by Livy, I. 87. Critical remarks on his Orations by David Hume, 138.; quoted, 23. 244. ; I. App. No. 3. III. 43. Note; II. 205. Note; 258. Note. His opinion of the philosophy of Final Causes, I. App. NO. 3. III. 43. Cinna — A tragedy of Corneille, quoted, I. 422. City Madam — A play of Massinger's, specimen of II. App. NO. 8. III. 297. Clarke, Dr Samuel — Some of his notions disputed by Mr Home, I. 37- His answer to Mr Home's letter, I. App. No. 2. III. 24. His conversation with Whiston, I. 39. Classical learning — At a low ebb in Scotland in the begin- ning of the last century, I. 6. Causes of its decline, 8. Clay— lis conversion into vegetable mould, II. App. NO. 9.. Let. V, III, 222. S4^8 INDEX. Clerk. — Sir John — A member of the Philosophical Society c/f Edinburgh, I. 258. Of the Board of Trustees, 283. Cochhurn of Ormiston. — A great agricultural improver, it. 238. Colonies — Right of Britain to tax, II. 9^- ^t seq. Commentators on the Pandects — Formerly more studied than at present, I. 20. Comitas Jurisdictionum in the laws of England a:nd Scotland — a desirable object, I. 296. Commerce — Lord Karnes's Sketch on the Origin and Pro- gress of, IL 153. Commons — In the Parliament of Scotland had no separate deliberative assembly from the Lords, I. I67. Comparisons — Lord Kames's obserr'^ations on, I. 423. Congreve — His distinction between Wit and Humour, I, 435, — His Morning Bride 445. Conjectural or Theoretical History, I. 280.; II. 150. Consolidating Union with the American Colonies — proposed by Dr Franklin, II. 103. Approved of by Lord Karnes, 99. Contemplation — A poem by Hamilton of Bangour, I. 97. Contiguity — Whether essential between causes and effects, I. 262. Corneille — Criticism on, I. 420, et seq. Cosmotheoria Puerilis of Andrew Baxter, I. 32, 35. Cotes, Mr — Explodes Sir Isaac Newton's notion of an elastic aether, I. 262. Country and Town Lj/e— Transitions from, agreeable, II. 56. Coventry, Lord Keeper — A great Judge in Chancery, I. 341. INDEX. S49 Covington, Lord (Alexander Lockhart) — An eminent Judge, 1.211. Craig, Mr James — First Professor of Civil Law at Edin« burgh, L 15. Craig, Sir Thomas — A learned v.'riter on the law, L 52. Craigie, Mr Robert — Gives private lectures on the law, I. i7» President of the Court of Session, L 5^. Crantz — His history of Greenland quoted, IL 181. Crawford, William — Author ef some of the best of the Scots songs, L 97. Creech, Mr — A correspondent of Lord Kames, II. 3 19* Four Letters from Lord Kames to him, II. App. NO. 9« III. S29. Criviinal Larv — History of by Lord Kames, I. 301. Disqui- sition on its principles, I. App. NO. 10. IIL 110. Criticism, Lord Karnes's Elements of, I. 376. — He is the in- ventor of Philosophical Criticism, 377. Origin and pro- gress of Criticism, 378. Mr Harris's notions regarding, examined, 379' Philosophical Criticism, whether to be found in Aristotle's works, ib. ei scq. General remark on the writings of the ancient critics and writers on criticism, 383, et seq. Scope and object of Lord Karnes's Work, 401. Advantages of such disquisitions, 403. et seq. Mode of discussion adopted by Lord Kames, I. 411. Ex- amples of it, 412. et seq. Asperity of Criticism, reflec- tions on, II. 198. Utility of Lord Karnes's work on criti- cism, independent of the rectitude of its theoretical opi- nions, I. 431. Disadvantages attending Philosophical Criticism, 434. It tends to substitute reasoning to feel- ing, 435. And encourages a fastidious delicacy of taste. 350 INDEX. 437. It abates genuine feeling, 438. Not instructive un« less illustrated by examples^ 448. Critical Club — Letters of the, I. 229. Cnjacius — His law writings, I. 20. Cullen, Robert (Lord Cullen) — A favourite of Lord Karnes, IL 313. Cujminghavie, Alexander, — His History of Great Britain, I. 273. App. NO. 1. in. 3. D Daln/mple, Sir David (Lord Hailes) — His remarks on ]Pit- cairn's Poems, I. 7- See Hailes, Dalrymple, President- Anecdote of Mr Home's first inter- view with, I. 13. His character, 42. Patronizes Mr Home, 61. Dalrymple, Hew. See Drummore. Dalrymple, Sir John — His Memoirs of the History of Eng- land, I. 250. Deathbed — Scottish law of, its origin, I. 308. Deceit — A primary engine in some systems of education, II. 29L Decisions, Remarkable — Published by Mr Home, I. 6I. Select — of the Court of Session, II. 277* Dictionary of, I. 157. Nature of that work, ibid. Supplement to the work, I6I. Note. Deity, the existence of should not be rested on the argtimenta a priori, I. 38. — Is, according to Lord Karnes, an intuitive proposition, II. 179' This notion erroneous, 180. It is the INDEX. 551 result of a si^iple process of reasoning, ibid. See Beli^ gion Delitice Poetariim Scotorum, I. 6. Demetrius Phalereus — His treatise on Elocution, I. 390. Des Cartes — His objections to the argument from Final Causes, I. App. NO. 3. IH. 38. Deskfoord, Lord, (Earl of Findlater,) I. 99. Extract of a letter from, 208. Dickj Sir Alexander — A useful member of the Select So- ciety, I. 245. Dictionary of Decisions. See Decisions. Dio7iysius of Halicarnassus — His Treatise on Composition, I. 393. Dirhtons Doubts and Decisions, I. 20. Doigf Dr David — His Letters on the Savage State, addres- sed to Lord Kames, H. 185. Abstract of his opinions on that subject, 186, et seq. Lord Kames's acquaintance with the author, I89. Anecdotes of the life of Dr Doig, I91. His epitaph upon himself, 193. Dotage — not a general characteristic of old age, IL 300. and Note. Douglas Cause, H. 76. Douglas, Tragedy of — By Mr John Home, L 246. Dreaming — State of the mind in, L 265. Dreghorn, Lord (John Maclaurin) — His epitaph on his fa- ther, L 222. Dramatic writers, old English — In what respects superior to the moderns, H. App. NO. 8. HL 300. Drummond of Hawthomden— An elegant scholar and poet, Ir App. NO. 1. HL 8. 352 IKDEX. Drummond, Mrs Agatha, wife of Lord Karnes — Her charac- ter, I. 148, 286. II. 37, 43. Her Epitaph by Dr Blair, II. App. III. 337. Drumraond-Home, George, Esq. I. 150. Prosecutes his fa- ther's improvements on a greater scale, II. 41. His marriage, 317. A grateful event to Lord Karnes, ib. and 324. Drummore, Lord (Hew Dalrymple) — His character, I. 51. Duchal's Sermons — Lord Karnes's opinion of, II. App. NO. 9. in. 331. Dundas of Arniston, elder — His character, I. 49. Younger^ the President of the ^Session, ib. See Arniston^ Lord- Melville Lord. Dime's Decisions, I. 20. E Eccho—^A periodical paper, pubhshed at Edinburgh, I. 229. Edinburgh Miscellany — A collection of poems. Its authors, L 98. Edinburgh Review — By Smith, Blair and Robertson, I. 232. Character of, ib. Its account of Johnson's English Dic- tionary criticised, ib. Education, Loose Hints on, II. 279, 297. Former writers on the subject, 280. Locke's treatise on, commended, ib. Rousseau's paradoxical opinions on, 286. Observa- tions on several of the modern systems of education, 291- et seq. Hurtful consequence of the variety of theories in, 295. Lord Karnes's views on the subject, 297. et seq. Lord Chesterfield's pernicious system of education, II. 298. Mrs Montagu's sentiments on religious education^ App. II. NO. 6. III. 285. INDEX. 353 Eglinioun, Earl of — A great agricultural improver, II. 238. Elchies, Lord — An eminent lav^yer. His character, I. IQj 55. Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind. See Stew* art. Elements of Criticism, I. 376. Object of that work, 401. Advantages of such disquisitions, I. 403, 431. Disadvan- tages of, 435. Method of discussion pursued in it, 411. Examples taken from it, 412. et seq. Dr Warburtori^s strictures on, II. App. NO. 4. III. 260. et seq. M. de Voltaire's strictures on, ib. See Criticism. Elihanky Lord— A distinguished member of the Select So- ciety, I. 245. Elliot, — Sir Gilbert, a distinguished member of tlie Select Society, I. 245. A literary pupil of Lord Kames, II. 221. Elucidations on the Law of Scotland — A work of Lord Kames, II. 272. Nature and object of that work, 273. Eminent Meii — Few born to hereditary affluence, I. 3. Enfans trouves — Foundling hospital of Patis. An intolerable nuisance, II. l68. Ejitails, Strict — Lord Hardwicke's desire for abolishing, I. 296. Origin of, 308. Lord Karnes's ideas relative to, ib. et seq. The pernicious consequences of, 312. Epicurus — His atheistical philosophy, I. App. NO. 3. III. 43. Note. Epigoniad — By Dr Wilkie, I. 246. David Hume's Criti- cism on that poem, ib. Epigram, beautiful — Of Ninian Paterson, AdJiUum ijifantem^ I. App. No. 1. in. 10. Equity, Principles of — Published by Lord Kames, I. 31 9. Origin of courts of equity both in England and Scotland, VOL. III. Z 554 INDEX. S21. Lord Bacon's ideas concerning, S23, et seq. Lord Hardwicke's letter on Principles of Equity, 329. Whether a court of law and of equity ought to be separate, 326, et seq. Sir William Blackstone's ideas concerning, 347, 350. Dr Franklin's opinion of Lord Karnes's work on, II. 111. Erudition, general — Its importance to the profession of the law, I. 22. et seq. Essays on British Antiquities — by Lord Karnes, I. l62. Account of that work, 164. Essays on several subjects of Law — by Lord Kames, I. 67 ; Ether — Of Sir Isaac Newton, I. 260. What Newton aimed at by this conjecture, I. App. NO. 9- HI. ^0. Euripides — quoted by Aristotle, I. 386. Eve — Her coquetry described by Milton and Sarrazin, I. 88/ 89. Eyre, Mr Justice — His judgment in a case of Audita Querela, I. 340. Falling bodies — Accelerated motion of, Dr Reid's letters- upon, I. App. No. 9« III. 107. Falstaff — Admirable consistency of that dramatic character, II. App. NO. 8. III. 299. Fame, love of — A ruling passion of Lord Kames, II. 339- Fanatical spirit of the reign of Charles I. — Hostile to classi- cal learning, I. 9. Fashion, men of — In the last age, I, 83, 86. Fergusson, Dr Adam, L 245, 255. His History of Civil Society, 280. Character of that work by Lord Karnes^ II. 65, 70. Praised by Mrs Montagu, 67, 68. INDEX. 355 Fergusson of Kilkerran — An eminent Judge^ I 52." Fergusson of Pitfour — An eminent Judge, I. 210. Fcrriar, Dr — Quotation from his Essay on the writings of Massinger, II. App. NO. 8. III. 324.. Feudal system — Its origin uncertain, I. l64. Filial Causes, search of — Much cherished by Lord Kames, I. 190.; II. 307- Considerations on the utiUty of such researches, I. App. NO. 3. III. 32. Dr John Robison's opinion of, I. App. NO. 3» III. 54. Note. Dr Reid's opi- nion of, ib. S5y 58. and I. App. NO. 9' HI- 97. Bacon's censure of, examined, ib. 43. Finances, — Lord Karnes's Dissertation on, II. 155. Finlater, Earl of, (Lord Deskfoord) — A correspondent of Mr Home, I. 9^. Extract of a letter from, 208. Flax, husbandry, — Pamphlet on, by Lord Karnes, II. 80. Fletcher of Salton — A great Scottish Patriot. His picture of the state of Scotland in the beginning of last century, II. 226. His projected reforms, 227. His arguments for the introduction of slavery, ib. Florid eloquence in parliamentary speaking — condemned, I ' 109. Fluids— On the pressure of, I. App. NO. 9. III. 103. Fontenclle — Admired by David Hume, I. 238. Forbes, Duncan of Culloden, — President of the Court of Ses- sion, His character, I. 45. A Hutchinsonian in theo- logy, 47. His eminent merits and services ill requited, 49. Forbes, Sir William— His excellent Life of Dr Beattie, quo- ted, II. 212. z 2 336 iNDfix. Forfeited ^j/fl/ej— Commissioners for managing in Scot- land, I. 282. '■■ Restored by the Crown to the heirs of the Forfeiting persons, I. 284. Effects of those forfeitures in some respects beneficial to the country, II. 240. Forrester J Colonel James — An accomplished man of fashion, I. 84. His piece entitled the Polite Philosopher, charac- terised, ib. His letter to Mr Home, 86. Fountainhall, Lord — His Decisions, I. 20, 43. His charac- ter, ib. Franklin, Dr Benjamin — His opinion of Lord Kames's Art of Thinking, I. S6S. Visits Lord Kames in Scotland, ib. Letter from him on politics, and on a picture of William Penn, 364. Letter on a work of his, entitled. The Art of Virtue, 372. From the same before leaving Britain in 1762, II. IS. From the same in 1765, containing some particulars of his life and writings, II. 22. His curious ob- servations on the Scottish music, 9.^ et seq. His Letter to Lord Kames on American affairs, lOL Recommends a consolidating union between Britain and America, 103. Exposes the mistaken notions entertained with regard to America, 105. French dramatic writers — Describe passion instead of expres- sing it, I. 422. Fruit-trees — Directions for the best modes of planting, II. App. NO. 3. Ill, 209. Fruit-wall — Directions for building, II, App. NO. 3. III. 257. et seq^r INPEXr 351 Gallantry — Whether peculiar to modern manners, or known among the ancients, II. 207* Garden, Francis, (Lord Gardenstone) — His character, II. App. NO. 8. III. 29s. His letter on the old EngHsh dra- matic writers, ib. Garden — A winter one, II. 43. Mrs Montagu's thoughts on, 52. General verdict of a Jury, I. 50. Gejierat'ion, equivocal, — Formerly admitted universally, II. App. NO. 3. III. 235. Generation of plants and animals — Dr Reid's notions on, II. App. NO. 3. III. 225. Dr Walker's letter concerning, 234. Genius and Taste — Lprd Monboddo's discriniination of, I. 405. Gentle Shepherd of Allan Ramsay — A beautiful pastoial, I. 243. Gentleman Farmer — Lord Kames's work on Agiiculture^ II. 225. Character of that work, ib. et seq. Gerardy Dr Alexander — His Essay on Taste, I. 400. His character of Principal Blackwell, I. App. NO. 7- HI- 73. Gibbon — Lord Hailes's Inquiry into the Secondary Causes, assigned by him for the growth of Christianity, I. 251. Gleig, The Reverend Dr George — Editor of the Encyclo.* poedia Britannica, II. 192. z $ 558 INDEX. GlendoicJc, President. See Craigie. Glovers Leonidas — Praised by Mrs Montagu, II. 63. Goldsmith's Natural History — quoted, and his notions re-^ garding final causes censured, I. App. NO. 3. III. 49., Gordon, Jane, Dutchess of — A favourite pupil of Lord KameS;, II. 84. His letter to her Grace on the encourage- ment of industry, 85. Gothic Architecture — Censured by Lord Karnes, I. 445. Government — Lord Karnes's Dissertation on, II. 154. Pro- fessor Millar's notions on, how far reprehensible, I. 279* Graham-Moir, of Leckie, Dr — An intimate friend of Lord Karnes, II. I89. Grant, Patrick (Lord Elchies) — An eminent advocate and lawyer, I. 18. His character, 55. Grant, William (Lord Prestongrange) — His eminent talents and virtues, I. 56. Gravitation — Whether an active or passive quality in mat- ter, I. App. NO. 9. Ill- 99- Greeks — A singularity of their manners with respect to wo- 'men, II. 207- Greek language — Too much neglected, II. 7' Greenlander — His notions of the origin of religious impres- sions, II. 181. Gregory, David — His Elementa Catopiricce et Dioptrical, quoted, L App. NO. 3. III. 55. Groiius, Hugo — His definition of Equity, I. 348. His beau- tiful verses on his birth-day, quoted, II. 343. INDEX. 359 H Habit — Analogy between animals and vegetables with re- spect tOj II. App. NO. 3. III. 198. Haddington, Earl of — A great agricultural improver, II. 239' Hailes, Lord (Sir David Dalrymple) — His remarks on Pit- cairne's PoemS;, I. 7- His examination of the Leges MaU colmi, 166. His character of Robert Hepburn, 228. His Annals of Scotland characterized, 248. His character, 250. His Idyllion on the death of his first wife, 252. His intended illustration of the Scottish statute-law, 291. Hale, Sir Matthew — His notions regarding the origin of the equitable jurisdiction of the Chancery, I. 331. Hamilton of Bangour — An elegant poet and accomplished man, I. 90, 98. Character of his poetry, ib. His verses addressed to Mr Horne, 9I. His letters to Mr Home, 9^. Anecdote of, 96. Hamilton, Miss Elizabeth — Her Elementary Principles of Education, II. 283. Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor — Corresponds with Lord Kames on various subjects of law, I. 294. Letter from him enter- ing warmly into Lord Kames's views for the improvement of the law, ib. His letter to the same, on entails, 314. From the same to the same, on Principles of Equity, 329. Hannony — Ideal, of the Scots tunes, II. 31. Harris, Mr, of Salisbury' — His opinions regarding philoso- phical criticism^ examined, I. 379, ^80. His Philological Z 4 360 INDEX, Inquiries, quoted;, ib. Letter from him to Lord Karnes, IL 7. Harvey, Dr — His discovery of the circulation of the blood, how made, L App. NO. 3. IIL 5S. Hdlenophohy — A prevalent disease, in Mr Harris's opinion, II. B. Helvetius — His system disapproved of by Lord Karnes, \l. App. NO. 3. III. 221. Henault —His Abrege Chronologique de VHistoire de France, L 25L Note. Henry VHL — Shakespeare's, quoted, L 425, 429- Hepburn^ Robert — His Scottish Tatler, L 228. Character of him and his writings, ib. HiJ'editary and indefeasible right — Doctrine of, exploded by Lord Kames, L I69. jFTenVfl^/e jurisdictions — In Scotland suppressed, II. 239. sum paid by Government in exchange for them, ib. Note. Herring-Jlshery — Great natural encouragements to in the Western Isles, II. I6. et seq. Highlands of Scotland — Their state in the beginning of the last century, II. 230. Highland Society of Scotland, II. 244. Its Report on Os- sian's Poems, 141. Historical Law-Tracts — Published by Lord Kames, I. 298. et seq. David Hume's whimsical opinion of that work, I. 318. History, conjectural or theoretical — Valued above its merits, I. 280. ; II. 150. Examples of it in Sketches of the His« tory of Man, 152. INDEX. ' 361 History and Law — The lights which they mutually throw on each other, I. 291- History of Man. See Sketches' Hobbes and Spinoza — Their abuse of metaphysical reasoning, 1. 39- A saying of Hobbes, quoted, I. App. NO. 5. III. 65. Hjome, Henry (Lord Karnes) — Born, I. 1. His family an- ;cient and honourable, ib. Home of Renton, his great- grandfather, Lord Justice-Clerk in the reign of Charles II., 2. His mother, ib. Some, anecdotes of her family, ib. His slender circumstances in the beginning of life, 3. His family-tutor Mr Wingate, anecdote relating to, 4. He studies the Latin and Greek languages at a late period, 5. Nature of his observations on classic authors, ib. Attends the chambers of a Writer to the Signet, 10. Anecdote of his interview with the President Dalrymple, 12. Deter- mines to follow the profession of a barrister, 14. Resumes his classical studies, and cultivates mathematics and philo- sophy, 15. He was chiefly Jiis own instructor in every branch of knowledge, l6. His attention turned to meta^ physics, and his strong partiality for those researches, 26. He is an antagonist of the sceptical philosophy, 31. 39. His correspondence with Andrew Baxter, 31. 35. His sentiments of the communication of motion, 36. His know- ledge of physics imperfect, 37- His correspondence with Dr Samuel Clarke, ib. His notions in theology not scep- tical, 40. Called to the Bar in 1723-4, 42. His progress at first slow, 60. Praised by Lord Minto, 6i. Publishes liis first work on Law, ib. Patronized by the President Dalrymple, ib. His maimei- of pleading, 62. His rise to eminence at the Bar, 67. He publishes his Essays on se- S62 INDEX. veral Subjects of Law, ib. Account of that work, ib. et seq. Mr Home's social disposition, and early friends, 81. 85. His correspondence with Colonel Forrester, 86. With Hamilton of Bangour, 90. His verses in the Edinburgh ^iscdllany, 99* His correspondence with Mr Oswald of Dunikeir, 100. 117. His acquaintance with Mr David Hume, 117. Letters from that author on his Treatise on Human Nature, 118. His correspondence with Bishop Butler, 122. Letter from David Hume on his fears as an author, 128. Letter from the same on the Orations of Cicero, 138. Mr Home married in 1741, 148. His mode of life in town, 151. Fond of domestic social parties, 153. His occupations in the country, 154. Agricultural em- ployments, anecdote regarding, 155. He publishes his Dictionary of Decisions of the Court of Session, 157* His early political opinions, l6l. He publishes his Essays on British Antiquities, l62. Renews his correspondence with David Hume, 171. 180. Dissuades the printing of his Philosophical Essays, 180. Mr Home's metaphysical wri- tings, 181. His Essays on Morality and Natural Reli- gion, ib. Object and scope of that work, 183. His exa- mination of David Hume's doctrine of the foundation of morality, 185. 188. His multiplication of instinctive principles, I89. His frequent reference to Final Causes, 190. His philosophical doctrines keenly attacked, I92, et seq. Complaint against him to the General Assembly, 198. And to the Presbytery of Edinburgh, 200. It is rejected, 201. He retracts some opinions as erroneous, S03. He is appointed one of the Lords of Session, 207. INDEX. 363 His character in that capacity, 208. State of the Bench at that time, 210. His conduct to the Bar, 215. His patronage of modest merit, 21 6. Sometimes formed opi- nions too hastily, ib. Somewhat of a humourist in cha- racter, 217. His patronage of literature, 218. Adam Smith's eulogium of him in that respect, ib. Merit of his writings more in the matter than the style, 240. ; II. 212. A member of the Select Society, I. 245. Of the Philoso- phical Society, 259- His Papers on the Laws of Motion, 260, &c. His friendship with Adam Smith, 267- Con- troverts his theory of Sympathy, 268. Patronizes Dr Blair, 274. Mr John Millar, 277. Is made a member of the Board of Trustees for Encouragement of Manufac- tures, and a Commissioner for the Annexed Estates, 282. His faithful discharge of the duties of those offices, 286. Publishes his Abridgment of the Statute-Law, 288. His views for the improvement of the law, 292. et seq. His correspondence with Lord Hardwicke, 294. Publishes his Historical Law-Tracts, 299.' His notions regarding en- tails, 308. et seq. Publishes his Principles of Equity, 319. His various literary occupations, 357. Publishes his Art of Thinking, 359. His correspondence with Dr Frank- lin, 363. He publishes his Elements of Criticism, 376<. 401. He is the inventor of Philosophical Criticism, ib. Whether he was possessed of much native sensibility to the objects of taste, 443. Lord Kames appointed a Lord of Justiciary, II. 2. His character in that department, ib. Unjustly censured for severity, ib. Corresponds with Dean Tucker, 5. And with Mr Harris of SaHsbury, 6* Kenews his correspondence with Dr Franklin, 12. Sug- S64i INDEX. gests a survey to be made of the Western Isles, with a view to their improvement, 15. Large addition to his for- tune by his wife's succession to Blair-Drummond, 37. Begins great improvements on that estate, 38. His extra- ordinary operations on the Moss of Kincardine, ib. Plans of gardening, 42. His correspondence with Mrs Montagu, 44. Letter from him to Mrs Montagu, on some proposed rural improvements, and on ornamental decorations, ib. Letter to the same on Dr Fergusson's Essay on Civil So- ciety, 64. His pamphlet on the Linen Manufacture in Scotland, 81. He prompts the great landholders to en- courage manufactures, 82. His letter to the Dutchess of Gordon on that subject, 85. He publishes Remarkable Decisions of the Court of Session, 94. His censure of Locke's ideas on the origin of the right of taxation, ^6. His sentiments on the rupture between Britain and Ameri- ca, ib. 99' Correspondence with Dr Franklin on that sub- ject, 99* His letter to Sir James Nasmith on the analogy between animals and vegetables, 11. App. NO. 3. HL 210. Letter to Dr Walker on the generation of plants, in. 249. Lord Kames collects materials for a History of Man, II. 119- His investigation concerning the poems of Ossian, 120. Writes to Mrs Montagu on that subject, 121. Publishes his History of Man, 146, et seq. His system of moralit}', 172. Controversial antagonists of his philosophy, 185. His acquaintance with Dr Doig, I89. His disposition free from pride or envy, 193. His candour of judgment in the works of literature, I96. Reflections on his style and man.* ner of writing, 212, et seq. His agricultural pursuits^ 225. Publishes his Gentleman Farmer, 244, ^t se^* INDEX. 365 indefatigable activity of his mind, ^65. Mrs Montagus letter to him on that subject, 26?. Pubhshes his Eluci- dations on the law of Scotland, 272. His Select Deci- sions of the Court of Session, 277. Loose Hints on Edu- cation, 279. His sentiments regarding Rehgion, natural and revealed, 302. et seq. Latter period of his hfe re- markably free from the infirmities of age, 311. Continues liis social enjoyments and active occupations, 313. De. cline of his health, 314. His correspondence continued with Dr Reid, ib. Eulogium of liis character by Profes-^ sor D. Stewart, 315. Marriage of his son, Mr Drum- mond-Home, 317- His last letter to Mrs Montagu, 320. Progress of his last illness, S^5. Interesting conversation with his daughter-in-law, 326. His death, 327. Descrip- tion of his person and countenance, 329. Some particu- lars of his character, manners and opinions, 330. His in- genious simplicity, ib. His humorous playfulness, 332. High esteem of the female sex, S3S. His conversation, 334. Dislike to political topics, 3S5. His sanguine cast of mind, SSQ. His high sense of duty, 337. His love of fame, 339. His philosophy a rational Stoicism, 340. et seq. Character of Lord Kames by Dr Reid, H. App. NO 5. HL 276. His epitaph, XL SS6. Home'Drummond Mrs — Her character, L 148, et seq. Her epitaph, II. 337* Home J John — Author of Douglas, I. 240. Homer — Did not confine himself to truth in describing facts and manners, II. 136. — ■ Black well's Life of, character of, I. 231. Honour and Dignity — Lord Kames's Essay on, I. I68. Hope of RankeiJor— A great agricultural improver, II. 238. 366 INDEX. Horace — His want of connexion censured bv Mr Home. I. 92. Vindicated by Hamilton of Bangour, 93. Defended against Lord Karnes's censure by C. D. Jani of Leipzig, 93, 94. Horses — Not much in use among the Jews, H. 114. Less profitable than oxen in agriculture, H. 113. Hospitals — Whether beneficial or otherwise, H. I67. Human Nature — Hume's Treatise of, quoted, I. 137. Its style, L 236. Hume, David — His opinion of the value of metaphysical re- searches, L 27. His acquaintance with Mr Henry Home, 117. Letter from him to the same, on his own philoso- phical discoveries, 118. His reasonings concerning Mi' racks, 120. Introduced by Mr Home to Bishop Butler, 122. His fears as to the reception of his writings, 129. His treatise of Human Nature unsuccessful, 132. His reflections on that score, 133. Resumes his sanguine hopes, 134. His talents for elegant literature, 136. His striking reflections on the tendency of his own philosophi- cal opinions, 137^ Rates his Philosophical Essays higher than his Political, 146. Letter on his schemes of life, 172. His happy turn of mind, 174. His opinion of Mr Home's Essays on British Antiquities, I78. Prosecutes his literary schemes, 179* His notion of utility as the foundation of morals, examined by Mr Home, 185, 193. His notions regarding Cause and Effect, 187. Liberty and Necessity, 205. Character of his style, 236. Par- tial to the manner of the French writers, 238. His cri- ticism of the Epigoniad, 246. A member of the Poker Club, 257. His whimsical character of Lord Karnes's INDEX. 367 Law-Tracts, 318. His ideas on the subject of taste, 405, 448. His sceptical opinions the subject of a motion in the General Assembly of the Church, 1 99* Hume David (the younger) — His commentaries on the Cri- minal Law, II. 4. . Patrick — A learned commentator on Milton, I, App. No. 1. III. 5. Humour — Lord Karnes's notions regarding it, erroneous, I. 433. It is not its necessary quality to excite contempt, ib. Is consistent with esteem, and even respect, ib. Con- greve's definition of it, near the truth, 434. How distin- guished from wit, 434. Hutcheson, Dr Francis — Account of, I. 223, et seq. His Essay on Beauty and Virtue, 397- Theory of the Reflex Senses, ib. His system of morals nearly the same in its foundation with Lord Shaftesbury's, 398. Hutchinsonian Theology — The President Forbes's writings on that subject, I. 47. Hyperhaton — A figure in rhetoric, described by Longinus, I; 392. Hypotheses — On their use in philosophical investigation, L App. NO. 9. HI. 90. Hypothetical or Conjectural History — Remarks upon, I. 280. ; IL 150. Jacohitisk principles prevalent among the gentry, L l6l. James I. King of Scotland — His enlightened policy, I. 12. Jani, CD. of Leipzig-— His edition of Horace praised, L 36S lNf)£X. 93. c? seq' Defends his author against Lord Kam«s's cen- sure, 94. JardiiWi Miss — Married to Mr Dmmmond-Home, II. 317- Eulogy of her, by Lord Kames, 318. Identity — Mr Home's notions on that subject, approved by David Hume, I. 173. Idolatry — Opinions of the ancients regarding the Gods, IL 203. Idols of the mind — What termed such by Lord Bacon', II. 171. imprisonment — Whether justifiable as a punishment, L App. NO. 10. III. 111. Impube — Its connexion with motion inexplicable, I. 26O. Incredulity, Reflections on, — By President Forbes, I. 46. Instinct, in animals — Whether there is any thing correspond- ing to it in vegetables, II. App. NO. 3. III. 195. Instinctive Principles — Multiplied, as is thought, unneces- sarily by Lord Kames, II. 175. Johnson, Dr Samuel — His Dictionary of the English Lan- guage, review of, by Adam Smith, I. 234. Johnston, Arthur — His eminence in Latin poetry, I. 6. His translation of the Psalms, ib. Johnston, Robert — His Historia Rerum Britannicarum, L App. III. 1. Iter Camerarii, I. 289. Junius, Letters of — Disapproved of by Lord Kames, II. 337- Jus Tertii, Essay on, I. 68. Justice, moral feeling of — Its origin, according to David Hume, I. 186. ' the great end of law, I. 214. INDEX, 369 Justice-Clerk J Lord — President of the Court of Justiciary, I. 54. Karnes, Lord — See Home, Henry. Keill — His introduction to Physics, L S6. Kilkerran, Lord (Sir James Fergusson) — His character, I. 52. King Lear — Shakespeare, quoted, I. 420. Kincardine, Moss of — Lord Karnes's extraordinary improve* ment of, 11. 38. et seq. Knight, Mr Payne — His analytical inquiry into the Prin- ciples of Taste, L 45 L K?iox, John, the Reformer, I. 8. Lacedwmon — Patriotism in vigour in that state, II. 155. Lauder, Sir John (Lord Fountainhall) — His character, I. 43. JLaw, Civil and Municipal — First taught in the Scottish Uni-« versities in 17 10, 1. 15. Methods of acquiring a knowledge in, before that time, 17. Education of the Scottish Bar- risters, 18. Law more profoundly studied in former times than at present, 20. General erudition, necessary to the profession of, 22. VOL. III. A a 370 INDEX. Law — Ought to be* certain, but not immutable, I. 218. Law of Scotland in many respects imperfect, ib. Law compared to the Nile, 299* Law of England and of Scot- land may borrow useful improvements from each other, 301. of Scotland — Most ancient works in, I. 289. Criminal — Its history by Lord Kames, I. SOI. — See Crime. Punishment* The best which leaves least to the discretion of the Judge, I. 325. "^^'^ Law and History — Throw light mutually on each other, I, 291. ' ^ Learning, Classical— -Its decline in Scotland in the 17th cen- tury accounted for, I. 8. — See Erudition. Leechman, Dr — His Life of Hutcheson, I. ^^. Some ac- count of^ 225. Leges Burgorum, I. 289. Leges Forestarumj ib. ^ — Malcolmij I. l65. Examined, and proved spurious by Lord Hailes, ib. Lesititn — Its origin in the law of Scotland, I. 308. Lcihnitz — Supposed God to have finished his work at the creation, I. App. NO. 9. III. 98. Leslie, Mr James — gave lectures on the Law, I. 18. Liberty and Necessity — Mr Home's doctrine regarding, keen- ly attacked, I. 193. And defended, 198. Lord Kames* correspondence with Dr Reid on that subject, I. App. NO. 5. III. 62. Liberty of indifference, I. 202. Lord Kames qualifies some of his opinions on that subject, ib. The subject above the reach of the human understandings, 205. INDEX. 371 Liheriy of the Press — carried to a hurtful extreme, II. 338. hindsay, Patrick — His Treatise on the Interest of Scotland considered, quoted^ II. 235. Limn Manufacture in Scotland — Lord Karnes's pamphlet on> II. 80. Progress of that manufacture in Scotland, 81, 82. Ltnnceus — His classification of animals in some particulars censured, II. 143. Literary disputes — Reflections on the spirit in which they are conducted, II. I9S. 195. Literary Societies in Edinburgh, I. 241. Livy — His eulogium of Cicero, I. 67. Locke, Mr — His censure of the English law with respect to homicide, I. App. NO. 10. III. II6. His notions of the origin of the right of taxation, II. 96. Examined by Lord Karnes, 97^ 98. And by Dean Tucker, II. App. NO. 1. III. 177. His Treatise on Education commended, II. 280, 281. Lochharty of Covington — A powerful pleader, I. Q5, An emi- nent Judge, II. 211. Longinus — His Treatise on the Sublime, I. 391. Of all the ancient writers he makes the nearest approach to Philoso-« phical criticism, ib. and 394>. : yet only in a few passages, I. ib. Had more taste than Aristotle, 444. Loose Hints on Education — A work of Lord Kames's, II. 279. Object and scope of the work, 297' Loughborougkj Lord — A distinguished member of the Select Society, I. 245. A writer in the Edinburgh Review, L 236. lx)ung€r and Mirror — Periodical papers published at Edin*. burgh, I. 229. A a 2 372 INDEX. LuciaJi — His ridicule of the heathen gods justified, II. 205. Lucrciia — A prude, I. 87. Lucretius, quoted, I. 249. Lugubres Cantus — A poem by Mitchell, I. 98. Lyitletoii, Lord, II. 74, 75. His History commended, 78^ His style praised by Dr Beattie, 213. Letter from Mrs Montagu to Lord Karnes on Lord Lyttelton's death, IL App. NO. 5. III. 281. M Macfarlan, author of Inquiries regarding the Poor — His can- did letter to Lord Kames, I. 192. App. NO. 4. III. 60. M(icke7izie, Sir George — An eminent lawyer and man of let- ters, account of, I. App. NO. 1 III. 11. His observa- tions on the Scottish statutes, I. 291. His Treatise on the Criminal Law, II. 4. Mackenzie, Henry — Author of the Mirror and Lounger, quoted, I. 24. Specimens of Philosophical Criticism to be found in those works, 461. Mackiuritif Colin — His censure of the notions of AndrevY Baxter, I. S5. Account and character of, I. 219« et seq, , Epitaph on him by his son Lord Dreghorn, 222. Macphersoji, — See Ossian. Macqucen (Lord Braxfield) — An eminent Judge, I. 211. Macstaff, Donald, of the North— The Tatler by, I. 228. Madeira, Island of— Dr Franklins account of, II. 23. Malebranche — Supports the constant agency of the Deity \l^ Nature, I. App. NO. 9. III. ^S. INDEX. 373 Mallet, David— An author in the Edinburgh Mi&cellanj^ I. 98. 226. 3f«w— Whether difFerent races of, IL 148, 14^9.— See Sketches of the History of, and Walker, Dr John, and II. App. NO. 3. Ill 202, 203. Man — His progress from barbarism to refinement, II. 153. Mansfield, Earl of— Extract of a letter of his to Lord Kames, I. 297. See Murray, William. Manufactures — Whether most successfully carried on by a rich or a poor country, II. App. NO. 1.- III. 157. Marivaux — His Marianne, I. 114. Marmontel — Parallel drawn by him between some of the po- litical doctrines of Necker and Turgot, II. l63. Marston — An excellent old dramatic writer, II. App. NO. 8. III. 324. Quotation from his What you Will, 325. et seq. Mary, Queen of Scots — Inquiry into the Evidence against, I. 252. Massinger — An old dramatic writer. Lord Gardenstone's letter to Lord Kames on his merits, II. App. NO. 8. III. 295. Mathematical studies — useful to a lawver, I. 22. Maxwell's Practical Husbandman — quotation from, II. 238. Melvil, Andrew, I. 8. Melville, Lord Viscount (Mr Dundas) — Promotes the resti- tution of the forfeited Estates, I. 284. Lord Kames dedi- cates to him his Elucidations on the Law of Scotland, IL 276. Memoirs of the Court of Augustus— by Bladavell, I. 220, A a 3 374f INDEX. Menander-'^A fine passage from, II. App. NO. 8. III. 311. Metaphysical Researches — Estimate of their utility, I. 26. et seq, Mr Home fond of them, 181. David Hume*s opi- nion on that subject, 27. Voltaire's opinion of, 30. How fer they are useful, 31. How abused, 38. Studies of Scottish writers peculiarly directed to, S^Q. Distinct pro- vinces of metaphysical and physical reasoning, pointed out by Dr Rdd, I. App. NO. 9. III. 99. Millar, John, Professor of Law, I. 267« — Account of, 277. Patronized by Lord Kames, 278. His writings character- ized, 279- Miller, (Sir Thomas of Glenlee) — An eminent Judge, I. 211. Milton — makes Eve a coquette, I. 88. His Tractate on Edu-*' cation, II. 281, MintOj Lord — Pays a high compliment to Mr Horrie as a barrister, I. 61. Miracles — David Hume's reasonings concerning, I. 120. His fears that his opinions on that subject will give offence, ib. Mirror and Lounger, I. 229. ^^6. Lord Hailes, a writer inf" the Mirror, I. 252. Miser — Character of, admirably painted by Massinger, 11. App. NO. 8. m. 308. Mitchell, — A poet of that name, I. 98' Monboddo, Lord, (James BurnetO-^His character, I. 248. His Ancient Metaphysics, quoted, 405. His notions of the origin of language, arts and sciences, akin to those of the Epicureans, 248. His manners and conversation, 249' Fine passage from his Ancient Metaphysics, 404. INDEX. 87 /r Montague — qmoted, I. 359- Admired by David Hume, I. 238. Mo?itagUj Mrs — A correspondent of Lord Kames, II. 44. Letter from Lord Karnes to her, ib. Letter from her to Lord Karnes on the subject of a winter-garden, and on the propriety and fitness of ornamental decorations, 50. Our taste yet barbarous in matters of Ornament, 54. Letter on the alternate enjoyment of society and retirement, 56. Her opinion of Glover's Leonidas, 63. Commends Mr Adam's taste in elegant decorations, 64. Praises Dr Fergusson's JEssay on Civil Society, 67, 69. Letter from Lord Kames to her on the Essay on the Principles of Morality, 70. From her to Lord Kames, about Lord Lyttelton's His- tory, 72. From Lord Kames to her on the Douglas Cause, 75. From her to Lord Kames, about Lord Lyttel- ton's History, 77. Lord Kames's letter to her on the sub- ject of Ossian, 121. Her letter giving her opinion on Os- sian's Poems, 126. Her letter on mental activity, 267. Lord Kames's lettef to her on the subject of Deity, crea- tion of matter, &c. S20. Her letter to Lord Kames antici- pating a visit to Blair-Drummond, 11. App. NO. 6. IIL 279. From the same, on the death of Lord Lyttelton, II. App. III. 281. From the same to Lord Kames, on a domestic event, and on religious education, II. App. NO. 6. III. 285. Montesquieu — His erroneous ideas respecting Criminal Law, L 305. App. NO. 10. IIL Moral Philosophy/ — Treated after two different methods, the easy and the abstruse, L 27. Professorship of, courted by David Hume, I71. A a 4 376 I^rDEx. 3f oral Sense— An instinctive principle, II. 173^. Moral Seniimeiits — Theory of, by Adam Smith, I. 26^. ei seq. Controverted by Lord Karnes, ib. Morality — Principles of, II. 172. Progress of, 176. Morality and Natural Religion — Essays on, by Lord Karnes, I. 181. Object of that work, 182. Chiefly levelled at the doctrines of David Hume, 185. Objections to the doc- trines of the Essays on Morality, &c. 1 88. The work cen- sured as of a sceptical tendency, 192. Attacked by An- derson and other writers, I96. Becomes the subject of a motion to the General Assembly, 197. The motion re- jected, and why, 200. Mr Home retracts some of his opi- nions in a new edition, 201. et seq. More, Sir Thomas — His picture of the condition and man- ners of a great part of the lower gentry in England, in the reign of Henry VIII., II. 232. Morion, Earl of — President of the Philosophical Society of Edinburgh, I. ^58. Moss of Kincardine — See Kincardine. Motion — Essay on the Laws of, by Lord Karnes, I. 2^0. Letter from Dr Reid on that subject, I. App. NO. Q. III. 82. Accelerated motion of falling bodies, Dr Reid's re- marks on, I. App. No. 9. III. 107. Laws of Motion not capable of demonstration, I. App. NO. 9- HI- 82. Mourning Bride — Panegyrised by Lord Kames, I. 445. Much ado about Nothing, — quoted, I. 427. Murder — ought to be capitally punished, I. App. NO. 10. IIL- 136, 137. See Punishment. Ik^ INDEX* 377 Murray, William (Earl of Mansfield) — his parliamentary elo- quence characterized by Mr Oswald, I. 102, 106. Com- pared with that of Mr Pitt, 103. et seq. See Mamjield, Earl of. Music, Scottish — Dr Franklin's ingenious observations on, II. 29. et seq. Mr Tytler's remarks on, quoted, II. 35. N Nasmith, Sir James, II. 145. His letter to Lord Kames on the analogy between animals and vegetables, II. App. NO. 3, III. 214. Natural Religion and Morality — Mr Home's Essays on, I. 181. et seq. Necessity, doctrine of — Its influence on morals, I. App. NO. 5. III. 62. See Liberty. Necher — Parallel between some of his political doctrines and those of Turgot, II. 163. New Way to Pay Old Debts — A play of Massinger's, extract from, li. App. NO. 8. III. SIS. ei seq. Newhall, Lord, (Sir Walter Pringle) — Character, I. 44. Ho- nours paid to his memory by the Bench and Bar, ib. Newton, Sir Isaac — Maclaurin's account of his philosophical discoveries, I. 219- Attempts not to account for the effi- cient cause of motion, 26 1. His doctrine of an elastic Ether not much valued by himself, 262. What he aimed at by that conjecture, I. App. NO. 9' IH. 95. Kis con- stant attention to Final Causes, I. App. NO. 3. III. 56. 37^ INDEX. O Obedience — Exploded by Rousseau in his system of educa- tion, II. 288. Occasional Writer — A political pamphlet^ written by Lord Prestongrange, I. 58. Oeconomi/y Political — New doctrines of, II. 157. See Fifian- ces. Government. Poor. Taxes, &c. Old age — A favourite occupation of the mind in recalling the scenes and actions of youth, I. 265. Soothed by the studies of elegant literature, 25. Dotage not a general characteristic of old age, Cicero's opinion on that subjecty II. 300. Note. Enlivened, and its asperities softened by associating with the young, II. SSS. Old plays — Critical illustration of their beauties, II. App. KO. 8. III. 293. Origen — An observation of his, I. 126. Ornament — Works of, should imitate nature, II. 48. Should have some propriety in their devices, 53, 54. But a little caprice may be indulged, 55. Mr Adam's taste in orna- mental decorations praised by Mrs Montagu, 64. Ossian, Poems of — Their authenticity investigated by Lord Kames, II. 120. His letter to Mrs Montagu on that sub- ject, 121. Mrs Montagu's judicious sentiments on that subject, 126. Pteasons why those poems were coldly re- ceived in England, ib. Ossian neither faithful in his de- scription of facts or manners, 137 He has availed him- self fully of poetical licence in embellishing, 138. Liber- !*• INDEX. 379 ties taken by Macpherson, 139. Prejudices both of the advocates and opponents of this controversy, 138, 141. Result of the inquiry into the authenticity of those poems, 141. Oswald of Dunikeir — Character of, t. 100, 117- Letters from him to Mr Home, 101, 117. Writes to him on the daily business in Parliament, ib. Characterizes the par- liamentary eloquence of Pitt and Murray (Lord Mans- field), 102. et seq. His own first speech in the House of Commons, 107. His censure of florid speaking, IO9. At- tention to pubhc business recommended by him as a sure road to parliamentary distinction, 110. His opinion of triennial and septennial Parliaments, 115. Os7vald, James — A celebrated musician. His performance of Scottish music extolled by Dr Franldin, II. 35i Olliello — Shakespeare's quoted, I. 413. Qten — Preferable to horses for agricultural purposes, II. 1 1.9, Parable^-An instructive one, by Dr Franklin, II. 308. Paradise Lost — Learned Commentary on, by Patrick Hume, I. App. No. 1. III. 5. Quoted by Colonel Forrester, 88. Parental duties — False estimate of, in some modem systems of education, II. 293. Parliament — Its constitution. The growth of the feudal sub- ordination, I. 166. Parliament of Scotland — Never divided into separate cham- 580 ' INDEX. bers of Lords and Commons, I. 1 67- The King hacl *' great ascendant in it, ib. Parliaments — Triennial and septennial. Arguments nearly- balanced in favour of each, I. 115. Lord Karnes's Essay on the Constitution df Parliament, L 166. Parliamentary speaking — Mr Oswald's just notions regard?ing it, L 109. Pasquier, Etienne, L l64. His observations on the mutual relation of Law and History, L 291 • Passions, two contending — Their influence felt by intervals, I. 415. Every passion has its appropriate tone, with which all the sentiments it excites must be in unison, 417- Examples given in Elements of Criticism, ib. Violerit passions, their natural expression, 420. The French dra- ma very defective in expressing the passions, 422. et seq. Passion — Better expressed by the old English dramatists than by the moderns, H. App. NO. 8. HL 318. Paterson, Ninian — A good Latin poet, L App. NO. 1. IIL 9. A beautiful epigram of his on his infant son, 10. Patriotism — Whether a test of the best form of government, II. 155. Patriotism of the Lacedasmonians, ib. Payne Knight on Taste, I. 451. Penal Law — Lord Aukland's Principles of, quoted, I. App. NO. 10. III. 111. Penn, William, — A picture supposed of him in Lord Karnes's possession, I. 367. No certain portraits of, existing, 3Q^. His bust cut in ivory by Be van, a Quaker, SQ^. Perth, Duke of — A great agricultural improver, II. 238. INDEX. 381 Petroniiis, Arbiter — His manner imitated by Forrester, in , his Polite Philosopher^ L 84. Philological Inquiries of Mr Harris, quoted, I. 381. Philosophers — Their passion for simplifying the objects of re-* search, I. 184. Philosopher, Polite — by Colonel Forrester, I. 84. Philosophical Criticism, — See Criticism. Philosophical Society of Edinburgh instituted, I. 256, 258. Lord Karnes one of its most active members, H. Il6. of America, H. 117. Philosophy, Moral — Two different methods of treating, I. 27. Sceptical — Combated by Lord Kames, I. 40. 182, 187. Philosophy of Rhetoric — Dr Campbell's work on, I. 44&, Plan and nature of that work, 447. Physics, Science of — Useful to the profession of the law, I. 22. Lord Kames never made much proficiency in that science, L S6, 259, 264. Physical and Metaptiysical reasoning — Their distinct provin* ces, L App. NO. 9- HI. QQ, 99- Physiology — Letters on some subjects of, addressed to Lord Kames, H. App. NO. S. HL 19I. Pitcairne, Dr — His Latin poems characterised, L 7. Dis" sertatio de Scriptis Pitcarnianus, 228. Pitfour, Lord (James Fergusson) — An eminent Judge, I. 211. Pitt, William (Earl of Chatham) — Character of his Parlij^^ mentary Eloquence by Mr Oswald, L 102, et seq. Place, M. de. la — A materialist, L App. NO. 3. llh 45. Place Bill-^lts utility, I. 11 6. S82 INDEX. Plants and Afiimals-^Analogy between, II. App. NO. 3. III. 193. et seq. Motions of Plants that are apparently in- stinctive, App. No. 3. III. 206. et seq. - . — On the generation of Plants, II. App. NO. 3. III. .225. Wonderful provisions of Nature for the dissemination of, App. NO. 3. III. 234. et seq. «— — Alpine plants, II. App. NO. 3. III. 246. - — Aliment and soils which plants most affect, H. App. NO. 3. III. 252. Planting of Trees — Advices regarding, II. 253. et seq. Plautus and Aristophanes — Their ridicule of idolatry, II. 204j, 205. Playfulness of mind — A striking characteristic of Lor4 Kames, I. 218. ; II. 331. Probable cailse'of that peculi arity of disposition, 332. Pliny, the naturalist — His panegyric on the earth, I. App; No. 3. III. 49, 50. His Natural History, quoted, II. App. NO. 3. III. 236. Plutarch — His comparison of benevolence with justice, II. 342. Poetics of Aristotle, I. 393. No philosophical criticism to be found in them, ib. Poker Club — Account of, I. 253. PoUgnac Cardinal — His Anti-Lucretius, quotation from, I. App. NO. 3. III. 46, 47. Polite Philosopher — by Colonel Forrester, I. 84. Political Economy — New doctrines of, II. 157. LorcJ Karnes's opinions in some of these doctrines consonant to Mr Smith's, ib. et seq. Certain of these doctrines require limitation, l62. Parallel b«tween the opinions of Turcot and Necker, l63. INDEX. 383 poliiical Essoins of David Hume — Commended by Dr But- ler, I. 146 Politics — As a topic of conversation, much disliked by Lord Karnes's II. 335, Poor — Lord Karnes's notions respecting provisions for the support of, II. l63. Pooi^'Laws of England — Both unjust and oppressive, II. 165. Amount of the poor-rates of England in Dr Davenant's time and at present, ib. The bad effects of those systems, both with respect to industry and morals, l66. The good policy of hospitals very doubtful, 167. Practice — Essential to the discernment of beauty, I. 406. frayer in the Conclusion of Lord Kames's Essa\s on Mo- rahty and Natural Religion, IL App. NO. 7. HI- 289- Supposed to be written by Dr Blair, but upon no sufficient evidence, I. 191. It contains a summary of Lord Kames's philosophical opinions, II. 340. Prayer of Arnobius — The expression of true devotion, II. 184. Preshyiery of Edinburgh — Complaint to, against the publish- er and printer of Lord Kames's Essays on Morality and Natural Rehgion, I. 200. Prescription —'Essay on the doctrine of, I. 72. Lord Kames's notion of its origin, erroneous, ib. et seq. Prestongrange, Lord (William Grant) — An eminent Judge. His character, I. 5Q. et seq. Priestly, Dr Joseph — His erroneous ideas respecting crimes and punishments, I. 305. App. NO. 10. III. 118. Principles of Equity — See Equity, Pringlc, Sir John— His letters to Lord Kames, II. 259, 261. "r4 . 384f iKdex. Pringle of Newhall — His character, I. 44. Pringle of Alemoor — An eminent Judge, I. 210. Professorship of Scots Law — When first instituted, I. 17. Properly — History of, by Lord Karnes, I. 306. et seq. Punishments — Whether they should have a relation to the moral turpitude of the crime, 1. 305, App. NO. 10. IIL 118. Capital Punishments, how far justifiable or expedient, 131, 132. et seq. Beccaria's erroneous notions regarding, exa- mined, ib. Capital punishments ought not to be frequent, J. App. No. 10. HL 148. See Crimes. Q Quinctilian — His Oratorial Institutions, a great and useful work, L 394. His elocution florid, App. NO. 1. HL 14. Quoniam Attachiamenta, 1. 289» R P.amsay, Allan, junior — Projector of the Select Society of Edinburgh, L 243. Pamsay, John, Esq. of Ochtertyre — His ample and curious stores of information, L 60. The author much indebted to, ib. and 82. and Preface. Pankenian Club in Edinburgh, L 241. List of its members^ App. NO. 8. HI. 75. Reason — Principles and Progress of, H. 169. Rebellion in 1715, I, l62.. INDEX. 38S Heheliion in 1745, in some respects beneficial to Scotland, II. ^39, ". its suppression chiefly owing to the President For- beSj I. 48. ' Court of Session suspended on account of, I. l63. Regiam Majestatem — An ancient collection of laws, I. 289. JReid, Dr Thomas — His letter to Lord Karnes on the in- fluence of the doctrine of necessity on morals, I. App. No. 5. III. 62. His opinion of Dr Smith's Theory of Sym- pathy, I. 270. His correspondence with Lord Karnes on Cause and Effect, I. 264. App. NO. 9. III. 90. His letter to Lord Kames on the Laws of Motion, NO. 9. III. 82, 103. His letter to the same on the use of hypothesis in philosophi- cal investigation, I. App. NO. 9* HI. QO. His notion of the meaning of Cause applied to natural philosophy, ib. ct seq. His thoughts respecting Final CauseSj I. App. NO. 9* IH. 97' See Cause. His notions respecting gravitation, ib. Another letter from him to Lord Kames on the Laws of Motion, I. App. No. 9. HI. 103. On the pressure of fluids, I. App. No. 9' HI' ^04. On the accelerated motion of falling bodies, I. App. NO. 9- HI. 107- Dr Reid's letter to Lord Kames on some doctrines of Dr Priestly, and of the French philosophers, II. App. NO. 3. HI. 220. Disapproves of all systems which depreciate human nature, ib. 221. His letter on the conversion of clay into vegetable mould, ib. 222. On the generation of plants and animals, 225. His notion regarding organized atoms, ib. That notion con-= demned by Dr Walker, 232. His encomium on the cha- racter of Lord KameS; H. App. NO. 5. III. 276. yoL. III. B b 386 INDEX. JReligion-^Firat principles of, intuitive, according to Lord Karnes's notion, II. 180. A principal object of attention in Education, 302. Excluded altogether from some sys- tems of education, ib. Lord Karnes's sentiments re-^ garding Religion, I. 40. both natural and revealed, II. 304. et seq. The ideas regarding Religion in Sketches ot the History of Man, commended by Dr Blair, 202. Lord Karnes's mind strongly imbued with religious sentiments, 302. Mrs Montagus sentiments on religious education, II. App. NO 6, III. 285. Hemarkable Decisions of the Court of Session — Published by Lord Karnes, I. 6l. A second Collection of Remarkable Decisions by the same, II. 94- Rent-charge — Fradulently used in England as a security for lent money, I. 298. Iletirement — Its benefits and disadvantages, II. 58. Hetributive Justice or Revenge — The origin and principle of the criminal law, I. 302* I. App. NO. 10. III. 121, 122. 153. Revenge. — See Retributive Justice. Reveur — A periodical paper published at Edinburgh, I. 229» Review, the Edinburgh — by Smith, Blair and Robertson, I, 232. Character of that work, 233. 235. Its account of Johnson's English Dictionary, 234, et seq. Rhetoric — Lectures on, by Adam Smith, I. 266. By Dr Robert Watson, 274. By Dr Hugh Blair, 275. Treatise on the Art of, by Aristotle, I. S%5, Whether it treats of Philosophical Criticism, ib. et seq* Rhodia, Lex, dejactu — Lord Karnes's erroneous doctrine re- garding, I. 355. INDEX. 387 Richardson, Professor— His Essays on Shakespeaie's drama-* tic characters, I. 451. His account of the Life of Mr Arthur, I. App. NO. 9- HI. 89. Richard II. — Shakespeare's quoted, I. 426. Ridicule^— Lord Karnes's opinion of its being a test of truth . attacked by Dr Warburton, H. App. NO. 4. IlL ^6o. et seq. According to Lord Karnes's opinion, a gross plea- sure, n. App. No. 4. in. 265. Robertson, Dr William, the Historian — Character of his style compared with that of Mr Hume^ L 237^ et seq* A wri- ter in the Edinburgh Review, 233. Dr Beattie's opinion of his stvle and Mr Hume's, IL 215. Rohison, Dr John — His Elements of Mechanical Philosophy, I. 261. Quotation from, L App. NO. 3. HL 53, Note. App. NO. 3. HL 45. Roman Actor — a play of Massinger's, Extract from, H. App. No. 8. in. 311. Roscommon, Lord — His translation of Horace's Art of Poe- try, quoted, IL App. NO. 8. III. 303. Rousseau — His Emile, II. 280. Absurd paradoxes contain- ed in that work, 286. et seq. His work gives rise to a variety of new Treatises on Education, 291- Royal Society of London — Conveys its thanks to Lord Karnes for his work on Agriculture, II. 26l. Royal Society of Edinburgh — Founded on the Philosophical Society, I. 259. Ruddiman, the learned Thomas, — Publishes Pitcairne's Latin Poems, I. 7. 9b2 388 INDEX. Buddiman^-^His Life by Mr Chalmers referred to, I. App. No. 1. HI. 7. Sage, Bishop — A learned Scotsman of the 17th century, L App. No. 1. III. 6. Account of his writings, ib. Salus popidi sxiprema lex — A just maxim, but to be cautiously applied, I. 171. Sarrazin — An epigrammatic Sonnet of, I. 88. Savage State — Universality of, according to Lord Kames's notions, II. 185. Dr Doig's Letters upon, account of that work, ib. et seq. Savages — How they acquire the first notions of Religion, 11, 181. Sceptics — Apply themselves chiefly to combat the arguments a priori for the existence of a Deity, I. 38. Sceptical Philosophic — Lord Kames an antagonist of it, I. 31. 39. False notions regarding his opinions in that re« spect, 40. Science — Genei'al acquaintance with, important to the pro- fession of a barrister, I. 22. et seq. Scotland — Its improvements in agriculture and manufactures promoted by the Board of Trustees for Fisheries, Arts and Manufactures, and of annexed estates, I. 283. Its compa- rative revenue at the Union, and in 1 800, II. QS. Note. . Picture of the State of Scotland by Fletcher of Salton, II. 226. Agricultural state of, described by Pro* vost Lindsay, 235. INDEX. 389 ticois — Their fanatical Character in the reigns of Charles I. and II. I. 8j 9. Deficient at that time in classical learning, 8, 10. Some Scotsmen, however, illustrious in that de- partment in those times, I. 9. Biographical notices of such, I. App. No. 1. III. 1. Scottish Gentry — Celebrated by Blackstone for their know- ledge in the laws, I. 11. Their indolence censured, 156. II. 258. — — Men of Fashion, very accomplished in former times, I. 83. Scottish Literature — Not considerable till the middle of the last century, I. 219- Notices of a ievf eminent writers before that period, 226. A brighter ^ra begins that time, 232. Notices of some celebrated writers who then flourished, 235. et seq. Secoiid Causes — cannot be excluded from Philosophy, I. 35. Secondary Causes — Assigned by Gibbon for the growth of Christianity, examined by Lord Hailes, I. 251. Selden — his opinion about Courts of Equity, I. 353. Select Society of Edinburgh — Account of, I. 243. Principal members of it, 245. Its influence in promoting the lite- rary spirit in Scotland, ib. Select Decisions of the Court of Session — by Lord Kames, II. 277. Seneca de Ira, quoted, I. App. NO. 10. III. 137. Sentiments, Theory of Moral — See Smith, Dr Adam. Shaftesbury, His manners quoted by Blackweli, I. 232. His system of Morals, I. 3^8. In great part adopted by Dr Hutcheson, I. ib. B b 3 390 INDEX. Shakespeare — Contrasted with Cornell le with respect to the delineation of the passions, I. 420. Censured for the im- proper use of comparisons and similes, I. 426. 428, 429, 430. Criticised injudiciously by Voltaire, II. App. No. 4. III. 272, et seq. Lord Kames ridiculed by Vol- taire, for the preference he gives to Shakespeare over Ra- cine, ib. Reasons why Shakespeare and Milton were held in less estimation with their cotemporaries than at present, App. No. 8. III. 305. quoted, I. 414. 420. 425, &c. Shallow Ploughing — Lord Karnes's Essay on, I. 259. Shirley — An excellent dramatic writer, II. App. NO. 8. III. 320. Similes — When improperly introduced, I. 424. et seq. See Comparisons. Simplicity and Rejinement — David Hume's Essay on, refer- red to, I. 238. Quoted, 448. Simpson, Professor — An admirer of the Greek mathemati- cians, II. 8. Si?iclairj Sir John — Projects the British Board of Agricul- ture, II. 244. Sister Peg— A political Satire, I. 255. Sketches of the History of Man — A work of Lord Kames/ II. 119, 146. et seq. Plan and nature of that work, 148. Dr Blair's candid criticism upon, 201. Dr l!)oig's Letters on its doctrines respecting the Savage State, I9I. ^ seq. Stains — Letters of, I. App. NO. 10. III. 128. Slavery — Fletcher of Salton proposes to introduce it into- Scotland, II, 227. His reasons for its introduction, ib. et seq. iND£x. sgi Smeatouj Mr, Engineer— His pUns for tlie Forth and Clyde Canal, II. Ql, Smellie, Mr William — His account of Lord Karnes in the Encyclopedia Britannica, II. 1^8. &mith, Dr Adam — His Eulogium of Lord KameSj I. 218. — Patronized by, 266. Delivers a course of Lectures on Rhetoric at Edinburgh, ib. Called to the University of Glasgow, 267. His Life by Professor D. Stewart, ib. His Theory of Moral Sentiments impugned by Lord Karnes, 268. Quotations from that work, I. App. NO. 10. III. 12s. His letter to Lord Karnes on that subject, I. 270. Characteristic anecdote of him, 272. Projects an Edin- burgh Review along with Drs Robertson and Blair, 233. Character of that work, ib. His Review of Johnson's English Dictionary, 234. His elaborate work on the M'^ealth of Nations, 268. ; II. 157. Consonance of his ob- servations on the balance of trade, with Lord Karnes's opinions^ 159, I60. Smollet, Dr Tobias — An eminent Scottish writer, I. 226. His Life by Dr Anderson, 2^7- His humorous charac- ters of Bowling, Morgan, &c. 434. Socidy for Improvement of AgricuUure, II. 238. Societies, Royal, Select, Philosophical, American — See these separate words. Soldiers — The expediency of training them to habits of la- bour and industry in time of peace, I, 266. Soletnn League aiid Covenant, L 8. Songs, Scottish — 7 he authors of several, I. 84, 85. Melody of, remarks on by Dr Franklin, II. 29. By Mr Tytler, 35. B b 4j 392 INDEX. Sopho, a burlesque appellation of Lord Kames, I. 197. Spectator and Tatler, SfC — Their effect in introducing a tastfif for Belles Lettres in Scotland, I. 227. Spinning — That employment recommended by Lord Kame^ for the young peasantry, IL 89. Spinning School in the Western Isles — opposed at first by the people, IL I9. Dr Walker's account of, ib. Spinoza and Hohbes — Their abuse of metaphysical reasoning, I. 39. Note. Spottiswoodcj Mr John — gave Lectures on the law, I. 18. Staivj Earl of — A great agricultural improver, II. 238. • Viscount — His Institutions of the Law of Scotland, I. 20. — President (Hew Dalrymple of North-Berwick) — Patro- nizes Lord Karnes, I. 13. His character, 42. Statute-Law of Scotland — Lord Karnes's Abridgment of, L 288. Statutes — Observations on by Sir G. Mackenzie, I. 291' Steele, Sir Richard — His comedy of the Conscious Lovers, criticised by Lord Gardenstone, II. App. NO. 8. III. 301. Stewart, Dugald, Professor of Moral Philosophy — Quotation from his Life of Dr Reid, I. SO. ; II. 176. His Life of Robertson referred to, I. 244. His Life of Adam Smith, -L 267; referred to, 265. 267- His Elements of the Phi- losophy of the Human Mind, referred to, 265. His out- lines of Moral Philosophy quoted, I. App. NO. 3. III. S5, His eulogium of Lord Kames's Law-Tracts, I. 31 9* His contrasted characters of Lord Karnes and of Dr Reid^ ILS15. INDtX. 393 Steuart, Henry, Esq;— His Translation of Sallust referred to, I. 239. Stoical Philosophy — Lord Karnes's philosophical opinions have a great affinity to, II. 340. et seq. In what respect he dissented from the maxims of that philosophy, 343, ct seq. Stone, Jerom — A publisher of Ossianic poetry before Mac- pherson, II. 133. Strathmore, Earl of — Killed by Carnegie of Finhaven, I. 49. StyU — An object of Lord Karnes's attention, II. 212. Re- marks on his own style, 213. et seq. ' English — Difficult to be acquired by a Scotsman, ib. Sublime — Longinua's Treatise on, I. 391' The only ancient work which touches on Philosophical Criticism, ib. and 394. Sublimity and Beauty — The emotions of, depend on the traiii of thought which cei-tain objects excite in the mind, I. 449. Sympathy — Theory of, by Dr Adam Smith impugned by- Lord Karnes, I. 268. Sympathy with the dead, I. App< NO. 10. III. 139. Tailzies, Scottish. — See Entails. Taste — A compound faculty, I. 441. Taste in the fine arts, very unequally distributed among men, 404. Practice es- sential to the formation of a good taste, 406. The plea- sures of taste form an agreeable succedaneum, in old age, to those of feeling, 408. Lord Monboddo's distinction be- tween taste 2md genius, 404. DiiFerent provinces of taste S94f INDEX. and genius, according to D'Alembert, 442. Nature ot Lord Karnes's taste, 443. Mr Alison's Essay on the Na- ture and Principles of Taste, 448. Mr Robert Adam's taste in ornamental works, II. 63. 66. Taller, Spectator, and Guardiaji — Their effect in improving the taste for the Belles Lettres in Scotland, I. 22?. Tat- ler published at Edinburgh, by Donald Macstaff of the North, 228. Taxation — Power of, inherent in Government, II. 96 ^ Locke's erroneous notions regarding, 97- Dr Tucker's notions regarding, II. App. NO. 1. III. 180. Taxes — Lord Karnes's opinions regarding^ II. 155. They are never of a nature indifferent to the public good, ib. Tempest, — Shakespeare's, quoted, I. 413. Tlwdogy — Principles of, II. 178. Progress of, 182. Lord Karnes's opinions in, I. 40. ; II. 202. — See Religion. Theoretical or Conjectural History — Valued beyond its merits, I. 280. Specimens of, 281. And reflections upon, IL 150, 151. Tkeo?'ists — In the history of mind, very numerous, I. 30. Thinhing, Art of- — A work of Lord Kames, I. 35^. Criti- cism on that work, 360. et seq. Thomson, James — Author of the Seasons, I. 98- 226. One of the writers in the Edinburgh Miscellany, 98. His poem of a country life contains the first slcetch of the Seasons, Thomson, Dr William — Continues Watson's History of Philip II., I. 273. His translation of Cunninghame's History of Britain, I. App. NO. 1. III. 4. INDEX. 395 Thiicydides — A sentiment of liis, quoted by Mr Oswald, I. 106. TiHwald, Lord (Charles Areskine) — His cbaracter, I. 53. Toleration in Religion — A moral duty of the highest rank, and of universal obligation, II. 184. Earnestly inculcated by Lord Karnes, 305. Dr Franklin's parable in recom- mendation of, 308. Town and Country — Transitions from the one to the otherj delightful, II. 5Q, App. NO. 7- HI. 288. Townshend, Charles — A member of the Select Society, I, 245. Triennial and Septennial Parliaments — Arguments for each nearly balanced, I. 115. Troilus and Cressida — Shakespeare's, quoted, I. 425. Trees — See Pla?iti?ig^ Trees thrive best on a declivity, IL 256. Trustees for Encouragement {of Fisheries and [Manufactures in Scotland, Board of, I. 282. Their wise plans for the improvement of the country, 28fi. ,• II. 81. 87. Tncker, Dr (Dean of Bristol) — His correspondence with Lord Kames, II. 5. Several letters from him, II. App. NO. 1. III. 157. Combats some of David Hume's opinions rela- tive to commerce, ib. 158. And some of his facts relative to the Anglo-Saxons, ib. I76. Dr Warburton's sarcas- tic censure of him, ib. 175. Note. His strictures on Mr Locke's notions on Government, ab. 177' His thoughts on the conduct of Britain to America, ib. 178. Twrgo/— Parallel botween his opinions and those of Necker, regarding the freedom of commerce, IL l63. 396 INDEX. Ttveedside — Pastoral ballad of, its author a Mr Cra^^^ford, fv 97. Tytler, William — A member of the Select Society, I. 246. His Inquiry into the Evidence against Mary Queen of Scots, 252. Observations on Scottish music, II. 35. U V s^-». Varieties, in the human race, II. 148. 210. These the effecC of habit, IL App. NO. 3. III. 202. Vincent, Dr (Dean of Westminster) II. 192. Vinco vincentem — Essay by Lord Kames on that doctrine of the law, I. 71. ' tlncle Toby — Character of by Sterne, associates humour with a degree of dignity, I. 433. Union, Treaty of — Reserves a power of improving the laws of Scotland, I. 293. Extension of that power recommended by Lord Hardwicke, 295. University of Edinburgh — Had no Professor of Law till 1710, L 15. 17. Voltaire — His estimate of abstruse speculations irt philoso- phy, I. 30. His Commentary on Beccaria on Crimes, 305. Reprobates capital punishment, I. App. NO. 10. in. 111. His sarcastic strictures on Lord Kames's Ele-r ments of Criticism, II. 200.; App. NO. 4 IIL 271. Lord Kames's censure of the Henriade, II. App. NO. 4. III. 270. Usucapio of the Romans — Its coincidence with the doctrine of Prescription in the Scottish law, I. 80. INDEX. 397 2//e7?V^— David Hume's theory of, as the foundation of mofl rahty, I. 185. 271. IJtopia Qy Sir H. More, quoted, II. 232. W Wales — The inhabitants of, all gentlemen, II. App. NO. 1, III. 177. Wallace, George — A member of the Rankenian Club, I. 241. App. NO. 8. III. 77. Walker, Dr John, Professor of Natural History, I. 285. His character, II. 143. Appointed to make a survey of the Western Islands of Scotland, II. I6. His letter from Stor- noway, on the state of those Islands with respect to Fish* eries and Manufactures, ib. His letters to Lord Kames on the subjects of Physiology and Natural History, II. App. No. 3. III. 230. His notions on the analogy between Man and other animals, ib. 233. And between Plants and Animals, ib. ib. On hot-blooded and cold-blooded ani- mals, ib. 230, His letter to Lord Kames on the generation of Animals and Plants, ib. 234. On the aliment of Plants, and the soils they most affect, ib. 252. His account of the operations on the Moss of Kincardine, II. 41. His cen- sure of Linnaeus's arrangement of Animals, ib. 143. App. No. 3. III. lt)2. Warhiirton, Bishop of Gloucester — His opinion of Lord Pre- sident Forbes and his writings, I. 46. Note. His sarcastic strictures on Lord Kames's writings, II. 200. App. NO. 4. III. 260. Observations on these strictures, ib. His cha« 398 INDEX. racter of Baxter's Inquiry into the Nature of the Soul, I^ 33. Watson, Dr Robert — His Lectures on Rhetoric, I. 272. ■ His Life of Philip H. continued by Dr William Thomson, L 273. Watts, Dr Isaac — His writings on Education, commended, II. 281. His book on the Improvement of the Mind, ib. Webster, Dr Alexander — Author of the Scheme for support of the Widows of Scots Clergymen and Professors, I. 219. Wedderhurn (Lord Chancellor Loughborough) — A pupil of Adam Smith, I. 266. A member of the Select Society of Edinburgh, 245. West, Benjamin — His picture of William Penn's treaty with the Indians, I. S69« Western Islands — Dr Walker employed to make a Survey and Report of the state of II. l6. Letter from him re- garding the improvement of, ib. Whately — His observations on modern gardening, I. 450. Whiston — His conversation with Dr Clarke on metaphysical reasoning, I. 39. Wight, Andrew, of Qrmiston— His Agricultural Surveys of Scotland, II. 241. Wilkes, John,— A favourite of Mr Baxter, I. 32. Remark- able letter to him from Andrew Baxter, I. App. NO. 2. IIL 27. WilJcie, Dr— Author of the Epigoniad, I. 246. David Hume's criticism on that poem, 247. Wingate — The private tutor of Lord Kames, anecdote rela- ting to, I. 4. INDEX. 599 Winter-garden — A favourite object of Lord Kames, II. 43. 52. Wit — How distinguished from humour, I. ^oS. Wollasions Religion of Nature Dehneated, quojtedj I. App; NO. 3. III. 89. Women — Gallantry to, if peculiar to modern manners, or known among the ancients, II. 207. Lord Chesterfields profligate recommendation of it to his son, 298, 299. Lord Karnes's sketch on the female sex criticised, 206. Lord. Karnes's very high opinion of woman, SS2. Writer to the Signet, The profession of — A liberal one, I. 10. Lord Kames originally destined to that profession, ib. Young (Professor John) — His Criticism on Gray's Elegy, L 240. Zoesitis, — His writings on the law, I. 20* TO THE BINDER. Place the Print of Lord Kames, fronting th^ Title-page of Volume I. The specimens of Lord Kames's Handwriting to be placed at the end of Volume H. COLUMBrA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES 0315021440 ^:^iiix3 n -A w \/3 f\ ' ■'- u.