If i 1,: ?■■ ■'■< 1) -I' 'i B|. ■'vw v' J^l^ ^^^m '^'^' ^-& ^'»ii w -/^^id^mifS^^ytmMmt.m<^i^ ^ ,?^.c^ -^ -^ /z^ D. APPLETON ^ CO., PUBLISHERS. A DIGEST OF THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, MANNERS AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE ANCIENT AND MODERN NATIONS. BY THOMAS DEW. Late President of the College of William and Mary. 1 A^ol. 8vo. 662 pages. Price $2 00. On examination, it will be found that more tlian ordinary labor has been expended upon this work, and that the author has proceeded upon higher principles, and has had higher aims in view than historical com- pilers ordinarily propose to themselves. Instead of being a mere cata- logue of events, chronologically arranged, it is a careful, laborious, and instructive digest of the laws, customs, manners, institutions, and civi- lization of the ancient and modern nations. The department of modern history in pax'ticular has been prepared with unusual care and industry. , From JouN J. Owen, Professor in New York Fre&^cademy. " I have examined with much pleasure Prof. Dew's ' Digest of the Laws, Manners, Customs, &c., of Ancient and Modern Nations.' It furnishes a desideratum in the study of liistory which I have long desired to see. The manner In which history is generally studied in our institutions of learning, is, in my judgment, very defective. The great central points or epochs of history are not made to stand out with sufficient prominence. Events of minor importance are made to embarrass the memory by the confused method of their presentation to the mind ; history is studied by pages and not by subjects. In the wilderness of events tlirough whicli the student is groping his way, he soon becomes lost and perplexed. The past is as obscure as the future. His les.son soon becomes an irksome task. The memory is wearied witli the monotonous task of striving to retain the multitudinous events of each daily lesson. "This evil appears to be remedied in a great degree by Prof. Devv's admirable ar- rangement. Around the great points of history he has grouped those of subordinate importance. Each section is introduced by a caption, in which the subject is briefly stated, and so as to be easily remembered. Thus the student having mastered the lead- ing events, will find little or no difficulty in treasuring up the minor points in their order and connection. I trust the book will be adopted in our higher institutions of learning. I greatly prefer it to any history for the use of schools which I have seen." HISTORY OF GERMANY. BY FKEDEEICH KOHLEAUSCH. 1 Vol. 500 pages. 8vo. Price $1 50. This history extends from the earliest period to the present time, and has been translated from the latest German edition by James D. Hass. " We recommend it strongly to those of our readers who desire a lucid, comprehen Bive, and impartial history of the rise, jrogress, and condition of the Germanic Empire — Evening Gazette. D. APPLE TON ^ CO., PUBLISHERS. HISTORICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. BY EICHAKD MAGNALL. EEVISED BY MES. LAUEENCE. 12ino. 396 pages. Price §1 00. The American outlioress of this excellent book has made it pecu- liarly well adapted to the schools of this country by adding to it a chapter on the history and constitntion of the United States, and by large additions on tlie elements of mytholog}', astronomy, architecture, heraldry, «fcc., &c. This edition is embellished by numerous cuts, a large portion of the work is devoted to judicious questions and answers on ancient and modern history, which must be very serviceable to teachers and i)Upils. " This is an admirable work to aid botli teacbers and parents in instructing chiidren and youth, and tliere is no work of the liind that we have seen that is so well calculat- ed to ' awaken a spirit of laudable curiosity In young minds,' and to satisfy that curiosity when awakened." — Commercial Advertiser. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. BY GEO. W. GEEENE. 1 Vol. 12mo. 450 pages. Price $1 00. This work will be found to contain a clear and satisfactory exposi- tion of the revolutions of the middle ages, with such general views of literature, society, and manners, as are required to explain the passages from ancient to modern history. Instead of a single list of sovereigns, the author has given fall genealogical tables, which are much clearer and infinitely more satis- factory. GENERAL HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION IN EUROPE. BY M. GUIZOT. 1 Vol. 316 pages. 12mo. Price $1 00. This work embraces a period from the fall of the Roman empire to the French revolution, and has been edited from the second Englist edition, by Prof. C. S. Henry, who has added a few notes. The whole work is made attractive by the clear and lively style of the author. D. APPLE TON f CO., PUBLISHEnS. MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 12nio. 396 pages. Price $1 00. This work was originally prepared by Wilhelm Piitz, an eminent j-enuan scholar, and translated and edited in England by Kev. T. K. \rnold, and is now revised and introduced to the American public in a well-written preface, by Mr. George W. Greene, teacher of modern languages in Brown University. As a text-book on Ancient Plistory for Colleges and advanced Aca- demies, this volume is believed to be one of the best compends pub- lished. HAND-BOOK OF MEDIEVAL GEOGRAPHY & HISTORY. BY WILIIELM PUTZ. TRANSLATED BY REV. R. B. PAUL, M. A. 1 Vol. 211 pages. 12mo. Price 75 Cents. The characteristics of this volume are: precision, condensation, and luminous arrangement. It is precisely what it pretends to be — a manual, a sure and conscientious guide for the student through the crooks and tangles of Medieval History. All the great principles of this extensive period are carefully laid down, and the most important facts skilfully grouped around them. MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. BY WILHELM PUTZ. TRANSLATED BY REV. R. B. PAUL, M. A. 12mo. 836 pages. Price $1 00. This volume completes the series of the author's works on geography and history. Every important fact of the period, comprehensive as it is both in geography and history, is presented in a concise yet clear and connected manner, so as to be of value, not only as a text-book for students, but to the general reader for reference. Although the facts are greatly condensed, as of necessity they must be, yet they are pre- sented with so much distinctness as to produce a fixed impression on the mind. It is also reliable as the work of an indefatigable German scholar, for correct information relating to the progress and changes of states and nations — literature, the sciences and the arts — and all that combines in modern civilization. 7 D. APPLETON Si' CO., PUBLISHERS. HAND-BOOK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. BY G. K. LATHAM, M. D., F. E. S. 12mo. 400 pages. Price $1 25. This work is designed for the use of students in the University and High Schools. 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It traces the literary progress of the nation from its dawn in Anglo-Saxon times, down to the present day. Commencing at tliis early period, it is so constructed as to introduce the reader gradually and easily to studies of this kind. Comparatively little speculation is presented, and tliose literary monu- ments of the earlier dates, which were thought most worthy of atten lion, are described with considerable fulness and in an attractive manner. In tlie subsequent pages, more frequent and sustained efforts are made to arouse reflection, both by occasional remarks on the rela- tions between intellectual culture and the other elements of society, and by hints as to the theoretical laws on which criticism should be founded. The characteristics of the most celebrated modern works are analyzed at considerable length. The manner of the author is remarkably plain and interesting, almost compelling the reader to linger over his pages with unwearied attention. 17 MANUAL OF ANCIEIT HISTORY; CONTAINING niE POLITICAL HISTORY, GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION, AND SOCIAI. STATE OF THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY ; CAREFULUr REVISED FROM THE ANCIENT WRITERS BY W. C. TAYLOR. LL.D., M.II.A.S., OF TRINITr COLLEGE, DCTBLUf. REVISED, BY C. S. HENRY, D. D. , PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHV AND HISTORV IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW-YORK. WITU QUESTIONS ADAPTED FOR SCUOOLS AND COLIiEQES. EIGHTH EDITION, CAREFULLY REVISED AND CORRECTED. NEW-YOEK: D, APPLETON & COMPANY, 846 & 348 BROADWAY. M.DCCC.LIV. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by D. At-PLETON & CO., 5S! tiie Clerk's Offic of the District Cour'. for the Southern District of Nevv-Yoria PREFACE. In bringing out an American edition of this work, the publisliers were desirous rot only to furnish a valuable work for general readers, but also to make it in point of size and price as well adapted to the wants of public instruction as they believed it to be in intrinsic merit In complying with their request to revise the work with this view, the present editor has made a few slight curtailments — principally in the first part of the volume of Ancient History — which could be made with- out suppressing or in any way distorting or impairing any material fact or statement. In the English edition, all that is to be found relating to the history of the United States amounts to two or three pages, interspersed in the history of England. In the place of these meager notices, the present editor has appended to the volume of Modern History a distinct and special chapter, giving to the history of the United States its proportion- ate place in general history, and to which it is certainly entitled in i work designed for public instruction in this country. He trusts that this sketch will be found to contain a fair and clear view of the leading events of our history. In the preface to the third American edition of Guizot's History of European Civilization, the present editor took occasion to offer som.; remarks upon the study of history as a part of the course of siiulics pursued in our higher institutions : in which he attempted to answer the extremely difficult question, " How best to employ the very limited time allotted to history in the usual course of public instruction ?" On the one hand, it is obvious that a thorough knowledge of history ( whic h it is the work of years to gain) can never be acquired in the tune allowed . yl -9 O I I t*i iv PREFACE. anfl on the other hand, it is far more difficult to make a successful be giuuiiig, to lay a good for.ndation in history, than in the other studies included in the usual public course. This it is which makes the most useful employment of the little time allowed so perplexing a problem. The conclusion to which the editor arrived was, that in the impos- sibility of communicating a thorough knowledge of history in this time, thus much should be attempted : 1 . The study of some judicious work of general history ; 2. The study of some good specimen of the phi- losophy of history, as it is called, or the method of generalizing and reflecting upon the facts of history ; and 3. The thorough investigation of some small portion of special history. The editor recommended the work of Guizot, referred to above, as a good specimen of philosophical reflection upon history ; and he knows no work on general history better adapted to the purpose of public instruction than the present. C. S. H New York, DeceinJter 11, 1S44. INTRODUCTION, The use of history is not to load the memory with facts, but to s jL'-ra the miud with principles — to collect from tho experience of past agea rules for our conduct as individuals and as members of society. Every historical work, therefore, professes to give only a selection ol' events ; and the writer's choice is determined by the nature of his history : the general historian directs attention to the occurrences that have changed the general aspect of society, the revolutions of states and empires, the causes that led to them, and the consequences by which they were fol- lowed. The special historian confines his attention to one class of facts, specified in the title of his work : thus the ecclesiastical historian writes only of the affairs of the church ; the military historian confmes his narrative to wars and battles ; and the commercial historian devotes his attention exclusively to trade. But even general histories may, in some degree, be regarded as special ; their object may be called " political," that is, they profess to describe the destinies of nations, both in their external relations with foreign states, and ia their internal affairs. Under the first head are comprised wars, treaties of peace or alliance, and commercial inter- course ; under the second, governments, institutions, and maantrs. Such a history must, to a certain extent, be a history of civilization ; foi it will describe the progress of social improvement, and the prog- ress of the human mind. These essential parts of civilization must uoi be ccnfo:md8d; for Me shidl hare more than on^e occas on to remark, tl;at the Kocial system, or, in other words, the relations between the did'erent parts of society, may display great wisdom and justice while men, in their indi\idual capacity, continue the slaves of igrocaiioo an"! superotition. A distinction is usually made between the narrative and the pluloso VI INTRODUCTION. phy of history ■ in the former are included the actions of king.s and rulers, the accounts of wars and treaties, the rise and fall of empires ; in the latter are comprehended descriptions of the political and religious institutions, the organization of society, the amount of knowledge, the state of industry and the arts, the morals, the habits, and the prevailing prejudices in any age or nation ; and the facts thus ascertained by phi- losophy, are shown to be the causes of the events detailed in the nar- rative. It is possible to go back a step further, and to trace the origin of these institutions and manners in the succession of opir^ons, and gradual development of the human intellect. But unassisted reason can go no further : the law fixed by Providence for the succession of opinions and development of mind, can oidy be known to its omniscient Author, but that such a law exists, is proved to us by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the frequent instances of unconscious agents working out the great designs of God. It is proposed in the following pages to imite the philosophy with the narrative of history, to combine events with their causes, and direct occasionally the attention of the student to the progress of civilization, both in its effect on society and on individuals. Sacred history — the account of the direct operations of the Divine agency on his chosen servants and chosen people — is necessarily excluded from a political history ; but the general course of Providence displayed in the moral government of his creatures is an essential element of our plan : it is, in fact, the principle of unity that binds together its several parts. "^he necessary companions of history are chronology and geography j they determine the time when, and the place where, each event oc- curred. The difficulties of chronology arise both from the imperfection of record.?, and from varieties in the mode of computation : the former can EOt be remedied ; but, to prevent the mistakes which may arise from this cause, uncertain dates have been marked with an asterisk : the second source of confusion is removed by using throughout solai years for a rrea&'uro of time, and the birth of Christ as an era from which to reckon. Instead of constructing a general system of ancient geography, it has seemed better to prefix a geographical outline of the history of each separate country, and to combine with it some account of the na- ture of the soil, and its most remarkable animal and vegetable produc- tions. There is no doubt that the position, climate, and fertility of a country, have a powerful influence over the character, condition, and destiny of its inhabitants, and ought not to be omitted in tlic considera- tion of tlieir history. INTRODUCTION. VH The arrangement of this work is both chronological and geographi- cal ; the history of each country is given separately, but the states are arranged in the order of iheir attaining a commanding influence in the rt'orld. To this there are two exceptions — Egypt, which is placed first, on account of its being the earliest organized government of which w^e have any authentic record ; and India, which is placed last, because it exercised no marked inlluence over the most remarkable nations of ancient times. The history of Greece in this A^olumc has a le&s orderly appearance than in most similar works, because it contains not merely the histories of Athens and Sparta, to which most writers confine their attention, but also those of the minor states, the islands and the colonies. A chapter has been added on the colonial policy of the Greeks — a subject of great importance in itself, and peculiarly interesting to a commer- cial country. To the Roman history there is prefixed a brief account of the ancient inhabitants of Italy before the era usually assigned for the foundation of Rome. In the earlier period of the republic, notice is taken of the reasonable doubts that have been raised respecting the authenticity of the common narrative ; but care has been taken to avoid an excess of skepticism, which is at least as bad as an excess of credulity. In the chapter on India, attention has been directed to the ancient routes of trade between that country and eastern Europe : many of these subsist to the present day ; projects have been formed for reopen- ing others ; some account of them consequently appears necessary, for illustrating both ancient commerce and modern policy. In a general summary, restricted within narrow limits, it is scarcely possible to avoid dryness of details ; notes have therefore been added, consisting for the most part of illustrations and anecdotes, that may serve both to relieve the mind, and to place important traits of charac- ter, national and individual, in a clearer light. It has been deemed advisable to take some notice of the mythology, as well as the real history, of nations ; for though mythic traditions may in many or in most instances have had no foundation, yet they should not be wholly neglected by the historian, for they had a share in forming, and they help to illustrate, the character of the nation by which they were once believed. At the same time, care has been taken to separate these traditions from the authenticated narrative, and to discriminate between those that have, and those that have not, soma probable foundation in fact. VIU INTROUdOTION. Political reflections and moral inferences from the narrative have, in general, been avoided : the instructive lessons of history are, for the most part, found on the surface, and may best be collected by the stu- dents themselves. It is not quite fair to prejudge questions for the mind ; the chief business of those who write for the young should be to make them think, not to think for them. The author has to acknowledge his great obligations to the works of Professor Heeren, whose volumes on the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of Ancient Nations, should form part of every historical library; he has also borrowed very copiously from the valuable essays that have appeared in the Memoirs of the French Academy of Inscriptions ; his particular obligations in the several chapters need not be specified, most of them being mentioned in the notes. The design of this introduction is merely to explain the plan of the work ; some (gw suggestions, however, may be added on tho mode of using it. Students should compare the geograpiiical chapters with maps, and fix in their minds the most characteristic natural features of the country whose history they are about to connnonce. One division should be thoroughly mastered before another is begun ; and when the whole is gone through, it will be found a most useful exercise te synchronize the events in the history of one country with the events ir the history of another ; for instance, to trace the condition of the R« m&c republic at the time of the battle of Arbela. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ANCIENT HISTORY Chapter I. — Egypt. page; Sect. I. Geographical Outline ...,..uol II. Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians ,2 HI. History of Egypt from the earliest Period to the Accession of Psani- metichus 6 rV. History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammeiichus to its subjugation by Cambyses 9 V. Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce 11 Chapter H. — The Ethiopians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 13 II. History of the Ethiopians ]4 m. Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Meroe 15 Chapter III. — Bahjkmia atui jissyria. SscT. I. Geographical Outline and Natural History 17 II. Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians 1« III. History of the Assyrians and Babylonians 19 IV. Description of Nineveh and Bauylon 23 V. Commerce and Manufactures of the Babylonians 25 Chapter IV. — Western Asia. . Sect. I. Asia Minor. — Geographical Outline 27 II. Ancient History of Asia Minor 28 III. Syria. — Geographical Outline 29 rV. Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and Phunicians.. 30 V. History of the Syrians and Phcenicians 31 VI. Phoenician Cobnits ard Foreign Possessions , .32 VU. Phojnician Manufactures and C >mir.erce 33 Chapter V.— ^Palestine. 9£CT. I. Geographical Outline 36 II. History of Palestine 36 III. The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua 39 IV. Histor}' of Israel under the Judges. «.. 40 X TABLE Of COXTF.NTS. PASS SEcr. V. History of the United Kingdom of Israel 42 VI, The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The Kingdom of Israel 41 VII. The Kingdom of Judah aJ Chapter \l.— The Empire of the Medes and Persians. Sect. I. Geographical Outline .58 II. Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians 59 III. Social and Political Condition of Ancient Persia 60 IV. History of the Medes and Persians under the Kuianian Dynasty 62 V. History of the Persians under theliystaspid Dynasty 64 Chapter VII. — Phanician Colonies in Northern Africa. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Noithern Africa 68 II. Social and Political Condition of Carihage 69 III. History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the Com- mencement of the Syracusan Wars "0 IV. History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars 73 V. From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of ^ Carthage ■ 76 VI. Navigation, Trade, and Commerce of Carthage 79 Chapter VIII. — The Foundation of the Grecian States. Sect. I. Geographical Outline of Hellas 81 II. Geographical Outline of the Peloponnesus 83 III. The Grecian Islands in the iEgean and Mediterranean Seas 8& IV. The Ionian Islands 85 V. The Social and Political C ondition of Greece 86 VI. Traditional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to the Com- mencement of the Trojan War 89 VII. From the Trojan War to the Colonization of Asia Minor 92 Chapter IX. — History of the Grecian States and Colonies before the Persian War. Sect. I. Topography of Sparta 95 II. Legislation of Lycurgus, and the Messenian Wars 95 III. Topography of Athens 97 IV. History of Athens to the Beginning of the Persian War 99 V. Historical Notices of the Minor States of Greece previous to the Persian War '02 VI. History of the principal Grecian Islands 103 VII. History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor 104 VIII. History of the G'-eek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, Coast of Thrace, Macedon, &.c 106 CHAPT"ii Y. — History of Greece from the Persian Wars to the Accession of Alexander the Great. Sect. I. The First Persian War 108 II. The Second Persian War HO III. The First Peloponnesian War 1 13 IV. The Second Peloponnesian War 118 V. Tyrannical Rule of Sparta.— Third Peloponnesian War 121 VI. The Second Sacred War.— Destruction of Grecian Freedom 128 Chapter XI. — The Macedonian Kingdom and Empire. Bkct. I. Geographical Outline of Macedon 131 II. Hittory of the Macedonian Monarchy 132 III. Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire 138 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xl Chaiter XII. — Historxj of the States that arose from the Dismembermeni of tlie Macedonian Empire. TAGS. Sect. T. History of Macedon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the Roman Conquest 143 II. History of the Kinsidom of Syria under the Seleucidse 153 III. History of Esrypt under the Ptolemies 158 IV. History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia 162 V. History of Bactria and Parthia 166 VI. History of Idumea, and its Capital Petra .168 V^II. History of the Jews from their Return out of tlie Babylonish Cap- tivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 171 Chapter XIII. — History of Ancient Italy. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 183 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy 187 III. The Greek Colonies in Italy 19f Chapter XIV. — History of Sicily. Sect. I. Geographical Outline 193 II. Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Sicily 196 in. The History of Syracuse 197 Chapter XV. — History of the Roman Republic. Sect. I. Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans 20(. II. From the Foundation of Rome to the Abolition of Royalty .201 III. From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the City by the Gauls ' 206 rV. From the Rebuilding of the City to the First Punic War 215 V. From the Commencement of the Punic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi 218 VI. From the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi to the Downfall of the Republic 223 VII. The Establishment of the Roman Empire 237 O/'hapter XVI. — Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Empire. Sect. I. European Countries. — Spain 243 II. Transalpine Gaul 243 III. Britain 244 IV. Northern Provinces of the Empire 245 V. Asiatic and African Provinces 247 VI. The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire 248 VII. Topography of the City of Rome 251 Chapter XVII. — History of the Roman Empire. S'i^T. I. The Reigns of the Family of the Caesars. . 25(5 II. From the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian Family 265 III. From the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last of the Antonines 271 IV. Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the Age of the Anto- nines 278 V. From the Extinction of the Antonines to the Establishment of Military Despotism 280 VI. From the Murder of Alexander Severus to the Captivity of Valerian and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants ^85 XU TABLE OF CONTENTS Sect. VII. From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resisjnation of Diocl'.sian. . .289 VIII. From the Resis;nation of Dioclesian to the Death of Conslantine the Great. 295 IX. From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire under Theodosius the Great 30) X. Overthrow of the Western Empire 313 Chapter XVIII.— 7ni?a. Early History ...,.3 * THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER I. EGYPT. Section 1. — Geographical Outline. Egypt is the country in which we first find a government ahd polit- ical institutions established. Civilization everywhere seems lO have commenced in the formation of agricultural associations, on the banks of rivers ; and the Nile invites men to tillage more forcibly than any other. Egypt itself has been called, from the earliest antiquity, " the Gift of the Nile," and its annual inundations have had a vast influence over the lives and customs, the religion and science, indeed, the entire social existence of the people. It appears that civilization advanced northward along the valley of the river : and we shall therefore com- mence our examination of the land, at the southern frontier of Egypt. The Nile enters Egypt near the city of Syene, below the cataracts, and flows through a narrow valley, about nine miles in breadth, to Chem'mis, wh^re the valley begins to widen. At Cercasorus, sixty miles from its mouth, the stream divides, and encloses a triangular piece of country, called the Delta, The narrow valley from Syene to Chem'mis was called Upper Egypt ; the wider valley, Middle Egjnpt ; and the Delta, Lower Egypt. Rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt, almost never in the upper regions : the fertility of the country, therefore, depends on the annual overflowings of the river. These inundations are caused by the heavy rains, that fall in Upper Ethiopia, from May to September. The rivers of that country pour their waters into the Nile, which begins to rise about the middle of June. Early in August, the river overflows its banks, giving the valley of the Nile the appearance of an inland sea. Toward the beginning of October, the waters begin to subside, and, by the end of the month, are confined to the proper channel of the river. The fertility of Egypt extends as far as this inundation reaches, oi can be continued by artificial means. 1 ANCIENT HISTORY. TAe eastern side of the valley of the Nile is a mountainous rango of country, extending to the Red sea, suited, in some districts, for pas- turage, but unfit for agriculture ; abounding, however, in those rich quarnes of marble and building stone, that formed the inexhaustible magazines for the arcliitectural wonders of Egypt. On the western side of the Nile, the valley is bounded by a stony rido-e covered with sand, which slopes on its remote side, into the Great Desert This ridge protects the valley from the sands of the desert, which would otherwise desolate the whole country. Upper Egypt contains far the most numerous and interesting monu- ments. Near the cataracts, are the islands of Philae and Slephantuie containing the proudest edifices of antiquity ; lower down, the c. ty ot Apollo ; then Thebes, filling the whole valley on both sides of the Nile with enormous temples, more like mountains than human edifices colossal statues, sphinxes, and obelisks, with the Catacombs, in the mountains on the western bank of the river ; and lastly, Dendera, with the celebrated Zodiac sculptured on its mighty temple. Middle Egypt is a wider valley. It contains the lake Moeris, ar immense res*ervoir, partly natural^ partly artificial, and affording suet facilities for regulating the irrigation of the country, that this was the most fertile district of Egypt. The labyrinth, so renowned in antiquity was near Arsinoe. Below Arsin'oewas Memphis, the capital of Middle Egypt. This was the city of the Pharaohs who received the family of Israel. There are now but slight remains of its temples and palaces : the neighboring mountains are, however, filled with catacombs similar to those of Upper Egypt. But the most remarkable monuments of this district are the Pyramids. Lower Egypt, or the Delta, possesses, from the extension of the river, a greater quantity of fertile land than the other districts. It was covered with flourishing cities, as Sa'is, Naucratis, and Alexandria, which last, situated on the western frontier of the Lybian desert, still retains the name, and proves by its extensive trade the wisdom of its great founder, ■■>■,■ The more civilized portion of lae Egyptians dwelt in the rich plains of the valley, and attained a perfection in the arts of social life, that but for the irresistible evidence of the monuments, v/ould scarcely be credited. It was the great object of the sacerdotal and royal policy, to keep this population stationary, to direct their attention to agricul- ture, commerce, and manufactures, and to prevent them from adopting the nomad life of the pastoral and plundering tribes on their north- eastern frontiers : and hence we find it recorded, that " every shepherd was an abomination to the Egyptians." Section II.— Political and Social Condition of the Egyptians. It appears that the Egyptians were a brown race of people, and that the higher castes of priests and warriors were fairer than the othei classes. It has been conjectured that the Egyptians derived their system of civilization from the Hindus : but it is difHcuh to conceive how this could be. Local circumstances produced marked differences in \he habits and fiGYPT. 3 Rianners of the people In the mountainous eastern districts and in the fens of the Delta, where agriculture was impossible, the inhabitants led a pastoral life. On the Nile and along the coast, were tribes of fishermen. In the rich plains, dwelt the more civilized part of the nation. The institution of castes existed among them. The priests and warriors were the most honored ; next, the agriculturists, mer- chants, mariners, and artisans ; the lowest caste was that of shep- herds. The migrations of the priestly caste from their native regions in the south, were not simultaneous ; they formed settlements at different times, in tJie most fertile portions of the valley. The central point of the colony was always a temple, round which cities were gradually formed. These settlements afterward led to the division of the country into nomes, a name given by the Egyptians to a city, its environs and dependant villages. There was a religious (as originally a political) distinction between these nomes : each city had its own presiding deity, and the animals regarded as sacred in one nome were not resppcted in another. The history of these petty states is unknown ; but they were finally absorbed in the dominion of Thebes and Mem- phis. The nations bordering on the Egyptians were, for the most part, barbarous and wandering tribes, whose avarice was roused by the increasing opulence of the valley of the Nile. The Hyk'sos, or shepherd-kings, as they were called, came from Arabia, and, after many predatory incursions, made themselves masters of Lower and Middle Egypt. Egypt became tmited under one sovereign, after the expulsion of the flyk'sos : and the divisions of the people into castes, and of the country into nomes, were permanently fixed. The priestly caste was subdi- vided into families, each devoted and restricted to a separate temple and a particular God. Over each of these sacerdotal subdivisions a high-priest presided, whose office was hereditary ; and the high-priests of metropolitan temples enjoyed authority almost equal to that of kings. And their influence was greatly strengthened by their monopoly of every branch of scieiidfic knowledge. They were not only priests, but also judges, soothsayers, physicians, architects, and sculptors. The warrior-caste ranked next to that of the priests : the royai family belonged to it. Certain nomes were assigned to the support of this caste, most of which were in Lower Egypt, where the country was most exposed to attack. The Egyptians were the earliest nation that organized a regulai army, and thus laid the foundation of the whole system of ancient warfare. A brief account of their military affairs will therefore illus- trate, not only their history, but that of the great Asiatic monarchies, and of the Greeks, during the heroic ages. The most important division of an Egyptian army was the body of war-char o"*s, used instead of cavalry. These chariots were mounted on two wheels, and made, especially the wheels, with great care. They were hung low ; open behind, so that the warrior could easily step in and out ; and without seat. They were drawTi by two horses and generally contained two warriors, one of whom managed the steeds 4 ANCIENT HISTORY while the other fought. Nations were distinguished from each othe! by the shape of their chariots. Great attention was paid to the breeding and training of horses, io Egypt. The harness and housings of the horses were richly deco- rated ; and fixed to the chariots, on the outside, was a quivei and bow- case, decorated also with extraordinary taste and skill. The bow waa the national weapon, employed both by infantry and cavalry. No nation of antiquity paid so much attention to archery as the Egyptians their arrows were drawn to the ear ; and their bows were more pow erful, and their arrows better aimed, than those of other nations. The children of the warrior-caste were trained from earliest infancy to the practice of archery. The arms of the Egyptian heavy-armed infantry were a spear, a dagger, a short sword, a helmet, and a shield. Pole-axes and battle- axes were occasionally used. Coats-of-mail were used only by the principal officers, and some remarkable warriors, like Goliath, the champion of the Philistines. The light troops were armed with swords, battleaxes, maces, and clubs. The system of discipline and drill was very complete. Every bat- talion had its standard, with some symbol or sacred object represented on it, usually the cognizance of the nome or tribe. The soldiers were levied by conscription, drilled to the sound of the trujiipet, and taught to march in measured time. Cavalry, in the earlier period, were not employed as a military body, but used as skirmishers, videttes, and expresses, rather than as war- riors. The Egyptians generally treated their captives with greal cruelty, putting them to death, or reducing them to slavery. The religion and government of Egypt were intimately blended : there were prescribed forms and ceremonies for every important action which even kings dared not neglect. This gave the priests paramount control over public atfairs and domestic life. The religion of the priests seems to have been more refined than the gross idolatry of the lower classes : one general idea, however, pervades the entire system — the importance of agriculture to a state. Hence, the great influence of astronomy in beir theology, as determining the times and seasons for agricultural operations ; hence, also, the deification of the produc- tive powers of nature. Never were a people more dependant on priestly astrologers than the Egyptians : the stars were consulted fear every undertaking, private or public, and the priests alone had the right to consult them and deliver their oracles. The belief in a future state influenced every portion of Egyptian life : but the nature of the creed is difficult to be explained. In fact, there were two inconsistent creeds, the belief in transmigration of souls, confined to the priestly .caste ; and the belief that the soul will continue as long as the body endures — whence the practice of so carefully embalming, and of hewing sep- ulchres in the solid rock. The latter was the popular opinion ; hence, the importance of the rites of burial, and the dread of the trial aftoT death, when a ribunal, under priestly direction, determmed whethei the body should be placed in the tomb, or left to natural decay. The relative position of the lower castes varied at different times but all trades and professions were hereditary. It was probably sup EGYPT posed that this exckisive dedication of families to separate employments would insure perfection in the arts ; and, certainly, the progress of the Egj^pti^ns, especially in architecture, surpasses that of any other nation. Gymnastic exercises and music were the favorite amusem.ents of the ancient Egyptians. At their meals, they used chairs and tables not unlike our own. Women were treated more respectfully than in other countries of the East. Great respect was paid to age and rank. The principal trees of Egypt were the sycamore, the fig, the pome- granate, the peach, the locust-tree, and the vine. Great care Avas taken of the vines. Wine was used in great quantities, by the nobles and wealthy merchants. Of esculent vegetables growing ~w"ld, the most remarkable were the lotus, a kind of lily, and the papyrus j the leaves of the latter, dried and prepared, were used for wiiting upon. The cultivated vegetables were corn and pulse, cotton, melons, cucumbers, onions, &c. The domestic animals of the Egyptians were the same as those of most civilized countries. The cat was held in particular honor. The animals of the mountain and desert were the wild ox, the goat and sheep, and the antelope. They seem to have obtained camels from some foreign country. Among the amphibious animals of the Nile, the crocodile and the hippopotamus deserve to be noticed, the skin of the latter being regarded as the best covering for shields. Wild and tame fowl abounded ; the eggs of geese and other poultry were hatched in oven= heated to the requisite temperature, a process still used by the modern Copts. SfiCTiON III. — History of Egypt from the earliest period to the Accession of Psammclichus. FROM B. C. 1900 TO B. C. 650. Egypt v/as originally composed of several small states, of which the first were founded in Upper Egypt. Though Thebes was the most ancient of the powerful states, Memphis is that of which we have the earliest accounts. It was the metropolis of a powerful kingdom when it was visited by the patriarch Abraham, and already the centre of a flourishing corn-trade. The court of the reigning Pharaoh was reg- ularly organized : the jealousy o ' foreigners, especially the heads of pastoral tribes, was not yet apparent, for Abraham was received with great hospitality. In the interval between the departure of Abraham from Egypt and the sale of Joseph to Potiphar, the Hyk'sos and other wandering tribes had began to make incursions into the valley of the Nile, and to ravage its fruitful fields. The policy which induced the Pharaoh who then occupied the throne to grant the land of Goshen to the colony of the Israelites, was equally creditable to his sagacity and generosity ; it was a pasturage and frontier province, forming the eastern barrier of Egypt toward Syria and Palestine, the countries from which invasion was most dreaded. By assigning this district to Jacob and his family, it was covered in a short time by a numerous, brave, and industrioui people, giving additional security and resources to the country. 9 ANCIENT HISTORY. After the death of Joseph, but at what distance of time thert> is nc evidence to determine, a change of dynasty took place in Egypt. This was probably the event described by profane writers as the conquest of Egypt by the Hyk'sos, and consequently the Pharaoh who so cruelly tyrannized over the Israelites was not a native Egyptian, but an intru- sive foreigner. The motive assigned for oppressing the Israelites was, " this people are more and mightier than we" — wliich could hardly be trie of the whole Egyptian nation, but might very probably be of a race of conquerors. One of the tasks which this cruel despot imposed on the Israelites, was the building of " treasure cities." Among the cruel- ties inflicted on them, their being employed in the manufacture of brick is particularly mentioned : under the burning sun of Egj'pt, the process of wetting, tempering, and working the clay previous to its being moulded, was so painful and unwholesome that it ■'vas usually the work of slaves and captives. But when the Pharaoh found that the Israelites still continued to " multiply and wax very mighty," he had recourse to the barbarous expedient of extermination, and ordered that all the male children should be destroyed. Moses was saved from the general slaughter and educated at the Egyptian court ; after which, though the fact is not expressly stated, the cruel edict appears to have fallen into disuse. Moses never forgot his parentage and nation ; prob- ably the courtiers of Pharaoh failed not to remind him that he belonged to a degraded caste. Having been compelled to quit Egypt for having slain one of the op- pressors, Moses sought shelter in the land of Midian, where Jehovah appeared to him, and commanded him to achieve the deliverance of His chosen people, investing him with the miraculous powers neces- sary for so difiicult an object. The reigning Pharaoh refused to part with so valuable a race of slaves, and his obstinacy was punished with ten dreadful plagues. The smiting of the first-born was the consum- mation of these fearful judgments : Pharaoh and his subjects hasied to send the Israelites away, and they quitted the land of Egypt. Av arice induced the Pharaoh to pursue them with a mighty army ; but God opened a passage for the Israelites through the Red sea, while the Egyptian host, attempting to pursue them, were overwhelmed with the returning waters. This calamity (b. c. 1491) greatly weakened the power of th Hyk'sos, already menaced by the increasing strength of the Theban monarchy. Previous to this, we have scarcely any probable account of the names and ages of the Egyptian kings, except that Menes ap- pears to have been the founder of the monarchy, and Osirtesen I. the Pharaoh who received Joseph. But henceforth we are able to deter- mine with probability some general epochs by comparing the evidence of the monuments with that of the historians. To this period belong the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties of Manetho, the founders of the most important monuments of Upper Egypt. In the reign of Am'e- noph I., the Thebans extended their conquests to the south, and seized on part of Nubia. Crude brick arches were constructed at this period (b. c. 1540) and glass was soon after brought into use. Under the fourth king of this dynasty, Thutmosis, or Thothmes III., the children of Israel departed frjm Egypt, and the Theban monarch fucceeded in EGYPT. expelling the Hyk'sos— greatly weakened by the destruction of theii best warriors in the Red sea— from the greater part of the country, and shutting them up in their fortresses. Their great stronghold was taken by his son and successor, Thoth'mes IV. ; and the shepherd- kings surrendered on condition of being allowed to withdraw into Syria. The intimate connexion between these two events — the Exodus of the Israelites, and the expulsion of the Hyk'sos— have led to their being confounded together. The next remarkable monarch was Am'enoph III., who reigned conjointly with his brother; but, soon becoming weary of divided empire, he expelled his partner. The dethroned brother was probably the Dan-'aus* of the Greeks, who, leaving Egypt with his partisans, settled in Ar'gos, of which he became king (b. c. 1430). The pretended vocal statue of Mem'non was erected in honoi of Am'enoph ; and in his reign the building of the great temples seems to have been commenced. He annexed the greater part of Nubia to his dominions. Among his successors the name of Rame''ses is the most distinguished. It was borne by four sovereigns; two in the eighteenth, and two in the nineteenth dynasty. The first was expelled by his brother, and is by some identified with Dan'aus : the second, called Mi-Am'mon, " he who loves Am'mon," was the founder of the palace of Medinet Abu at Thebes ; and from the sculptures on its walls, he appears to have been a warrior and conqueror. Am'enoph IV. was the last of the eighteenth dynasty. In his un- fortunate reign the Hyk^sos renewed their invasions ; and the king, confiding his son, a child of five years old, to the care of a friend, fled into Ethiopia, where he remained thirteen years an exile. Daring this period the Hyk'sos were guilty of the most wanton excesses ; for " they not only set fire to the cities and villages, but committed every kind of sacrilege, and destroyed the images of the gods, and roasted and fed upon those sacred animals that were worshipped ; and having com- pelled the priests and prophets to kill and sacrifice them, they cast them naked out of the country."! Amen'ophis at length, aided by an Ethiopian army, and supported by his gallant son, expelled the shep- herd-kings, and restored the prosperity of his country. Rame'ses the Great, called also Sethos or Sesos'tris,:| is the most jelebrated of the Egyptian monarchs. The conquests attributed to him are so mighty, that he has been by some regarded as merely a sym- bolical being ; but from the evidence of the monuments, he appears to be undoubtedly an historical personage. It is indeed doubtful whether the Ram'eses who founded Medinet Abu, or the son of Am'enoph, be the great conqueror who carried his arms into Bac'tria in the east, and Thrace in the west, and before whose throne captives from the frozen Cau'casus mingled with the sable tribes from the extreme south of Ethiopia : but the existence of this conqueror, his daring hunts of the lion in the desert while a youth, his aid in the expulsion of the Hyk'sos, his extensive conquests, and the vast treasures he collected from the vanquished nations, are satisfactorily proved by the sculptured history of his exploits on the walls of the buildings he erected or enlarged. * Others assign Dan'aus to a later period. fManetho, as quoted by Joscphus. { Wilkinson identiiies Rame'ses II. with Sesos'tris. 8 ANCIENT HISTORY Havinff subdued the mountainous districts east of Egypt, and part of tlie Arabian peninsula, he fitted out a fleet of war -galleys to scour the Indian seas. The naval engagements sculptured on iiit) walls of Me- dinet Abu and Karnac fully support the account of these expeditions given by the historians, and show that they were extended to the western coast of Hindost'an. Ethiopia was subdued, and compelled to pay a tribute of ebony, gold, and elephants' teeth. The battle, the vic- tory, the oflering of the booty and tribute, are represented on the mon- imients at Kalabshe, in Lower Nubia. His campaigns in Asia and Europe were equally remarkable. Northward he subdued Syria, An- atolia, and part of Thrace ; eastward he is said to have advanced as far as Bac'tria and India. There can, however, be no doubt of his ex- ploits in the neighborhood of Assy'ria and the Euphrates ; for they are represented on the sculptures of the building called the tomb of Osy- man'dyas, but wliich should rather be called the temple-palace of King Ram'eses. It is singular that no record of such a conqueror should be found in the Scriptures ; for he must have subdued the land of Canaan and Syria, countries which were always coveted by the rulers of Egypt. Mr. Milman very plausibly argues that the conquests of Sesos'tris took place while the Israelites were wandering in the desert, and that this providential arrangement was intended to facilitate the conquest of the promised land. There can, however, be no doubt that some king of Egypt performed many of the exploits attributed to Sesos'tris, though it is very difficult to ascertain the exact period in which he flourished. Tire successors of Sesos^tris seem to have sunk into the usual in- dolence of oriental monarchs. Their history, for nearly three hundred years, presents little more than a catalogue of names, imtil we come to Sesouchis, the Shfshak of the Holy Scriptures, who was the first mon- arch of the twenty-second dynasty. In the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, the foolish and wicked son of Solomon (b. :;. 970), Shishak made war against Palestine, and pillaged Jerusalem. His army con- sisted of twelve hundred chariots, sixty thousand horsemen, and an in- numerable body of infantry, consisting not only of Egyptians, but also of Libyans, Ethiopians, and Troglody'tes. His empire consequently extended beyond the bounds of Egypt, and included a large portion of southern and western Africa. In the next century the Egyptian monarchy declined rapidly, and the country was subjugated by Sab'aco, a foreign conqueror from Ethiopia. The history of the Ethiopian dynasty will be found in the next chapter. Under Tirhakah, the last of the Ethiopian dynasty, a priest named Sethos, contrary to all precedent, usurped the government of Lower Egypt. He not only neglected the caste of warriors, but deprived them of their privileges and lands ; at which they were so incensed, that they refused to bear arms in his defence. Sennach'erib, king of Assyria, prepared to invade Egypt with a very powerful army, and advanced to Pelusium (b. c. 713). Sethos, deserted by the military caste, armed the laborers and artificers, and with this undisciplined host inarched to meet the invader. A pestilence in the Assyrian camp saved Egypt from ruin, and Sennach'erib returned to meet fi-esh mis- fortunes at Jerusalem. When Sethos died, twelve princes, or heads of nomes, shared the kingdom among them ; but soon quarrelling about EGYPT ihe limits of their respective principalities, they engaged hi mutual war, and drove one of their number, Psammet'ichus, prince of Sais, mto exile. Psammet'ichUi levied an army of Greek and Carian mercen- aries, most of whom appear to have been pirates ; and having overcome all his rivals, once more united all Egypt into a single monarchy, of which Mem'phis ranked as the capital, though Sais was usually the seat of government. The intercourse with the nations in the eastP"n Mediterranean was greatly extended during the reign of Psamm - ichus: many Greeks settled in the Egyptian seaports; and a new caste of interpreters and brokers was formed to facilitate commerce But the patronage of foreigners, and the preference that ^sammet'ichus showed for the mercenaries to whom he owed his crowi., so disgusted the caste of warriors, that the whole body emigrated from their country, and setttled in Ethiopia (b. c. 650). Section lY.— History of Egyjd from the Reign of Psaminetichus to its Subjugation by Cambyses. FJIOM B.C. G50 TO B.C. 525. The accession of Psammet'ichus was followed by a complete revo- lution in the ancient policy of Egypt ; foreign auxiliaries performed the duties of the warrior caste ; plans of permanent conquests in Syria succeeded to the predatory expeditions of the ancient Pharaohs ; and the political influence of the priesthood rapidly declined, as new opinions were imported from abroad, and new institutions rendered necessary by increasing commerce. For several reigns, the great object of Egyptian policy was to obtain possession of the commercial cities of Syria and Phcem'cia. Psammet'ichus led the way by laying siege to Azotus, a frontier town of Syria— persevering m successive attacks for twenty-nine years, until he accomplished his object. Nechus, called in Scripture Pharaoh-Necho, succeeded his father Psammet'ichus (b.c. 616), and became a powerful prince, both by land and sea. He built fleets in the Mediterranean and the Red seas, and attempted to unite them by cutting a canal across the isthmus of Suez ; an enterprise subsequently completed by Darius Hystaspes.* The increasing strength of the Medes and Babylonians, who had over- thrown the ancient empire of Assj-ria, justly alarmed Ndcho. He led an army against the king of Assyria, directing his march toward the Euphrates, but was checked by the interference of Josiah, king of Judah, who tried to prevent him from besieging Car'chemish or Circe- sium, but was defeated and slain.f Necho, having reached the Euphrates, captured the important city of Car'chemish, or Circesmm, which he garrisoned. On his return to Egypt he became master of Jerusalem, led its monarch, Jehoahaz, away captive, and placed Jehoiakim upon the throne. The Chaldean dynasty in Bab'ylon rose into power on the nuns of • The navigation of the northern part of the Red sea is so very dangeroiu that this canal was never of much use. Vessels usually stopped at M/os Hot BOS, now Cosseir, whence there was a good caravan-road to the Nile. t 2 Chron. rxxv. 21. 10 ANCIENT HISTORY. roe Assyrian empire. NebucliaJiiez'zar, its mightiest monarcli, resolved on the conquest of western Asia ; and one of his earliest efforts was the expulsion of the Egyptians from Car'chemish. Necho tried to check the progress of this formidable opponent ; but he was defeated with great slaughter, and stripped of all his possessions in Syria and Judea, to tiie very walls of Pelusium. Jeremiah's prophetic descrip- tion of this important battle has all the minute accuracy of history.* During his wars in Syria, Necho did not neglect the improvement of navigation. A Phoenician fleet, equipped at his expense, sailed down the Red sea, passed the straits of Bab-el-Man'deb, and, coasting the African continent, discovered the passage round the Cape of Good Hope, two thousand years before the rediscovery of it by Diaz and Vasco de Gama. The expedition returned to Egypt through the Atlantic ocean, the straits of Gibraltar, and the Mediterranean, after an absence of three years. During the reign of Psam'mis, the son of Necho, a remarkable cir- cumstance occurred (b.c. 600), tending to prove the ancient connexion between the institutions of Greece and Egypt, which has been denied by the modern historians of the German school. An embassy was sent from the city of E'lis to obtain directions for the management of the Olympic games ; and the regulations suggested by the Egyptian priests were implicitly obeyed. A'pries, the Pharaoh-Hoph'ra of Scripture, immediately after his accession (b.c. 594), attacked the Phoenician states, and conquered Sidon. He entered into a close alliance with Zedekiah, king of Judah, promising to aid him in his revolt against Nebuchadnez'zar. A'pries, in fulfilment of his engagement, led an army into Judea, and Nebuchad- nez^'zar, on receiving intelligence of his approach, broke up the siege of Jerusalem, and hastened to meet liim : but the Egyptians were afraid to encounter the Babylonian forces, and retired, without striking a blow, to their own country, leaving their allies to bear the brunt of Nebuchadnez^zar's vengeance. For this act of perfidy, God, by the mouth of his prophet Ezekiel,t denounced severe vengeance on the Egyptians and their sovereign. Not less distinct is the prophecy of Jeremiah : " Behold, I will give Pharaoh-Hoph''ra, king of Egypt, into the hands of his enemies, and into the hand of them that seek h'.s life ; as I gave Zedekiah, king of Judah, into the hand of Nebuchadnez^zar, his enemy, and that sought his life."| The accomplishment followed close upon the latter prediction. A Grecian colony, established at Gyrene, being strengthened by fresh bodies of their countrymen, under their third king, Bat'tus the Happy, attacked the neighboring Libyans, and seized their land. An'dican, one of the dispossessed princes, applied for aid to Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, who sent a large army to liis relief. The Egyptians were routed with great slaughter by the Cyreneans ; and the fugitives, to excuse their defeat, averred that they had been designedly betrayed by their mon- arch. This calumny was the pretext for a universal revolt. After a long civil war, of which Nebuchadnez^zar took advantage to devastate Lower Egypt, A^pries was detlironed by Ama'sis, and strangled in prison (b.c. 569). • Jeremiah xlvi. 1-10. f Ezekiel xxix. 8-15. } Jeremiat xhv. 30. EGYPT. 11 The usurper waa- a man of mean birth, but his great abilities enabled nim to overcome the Egyptian prejudice of caste, especially as he had the wisdom to conciliate the affection of the priesthood. Following the policy of his predecessors, he tried to establish his supremacy in western Asia, on the decline of the Babylonian power, and entered into close alliance with Crce'sus against Cy'rus. He was defeated, and compellled to become tributary to the conqueror. On the death of Cyrus, he attempted to assert his independence, and thus provoked the rage of Camby'ses, that monarch's successor. At the very moment when the Persian invaders were approaching, Ama'sis quarrelled with Phanes, the commander of the Greek mercenaries, and his ally. Poly' crates, the king of Samos, both of whom tendered their aid to Camby'ses. But before the evil hour of the Persian invasion arrived, Ama'sis died (b.c. 525), bequeathing to his son Psammeni'tus a king- domtorn by internal dissensions, and menaced by a formidable enemy. Scarcely had Psammeni'tus ascended the throne, when Camby'ses appeared on the frontiers of Egypt, and laid siege to Peliisiura. Tliis important garrison was taken, after a very weak resistance ; and the Persians advanced into the open country. Psammeni'tus led an army, chiefly composed of mercenaries, against them ; but was so completely overthrown, that he was no longer able to save his capital. Camby'ses provoked by the murder of one of his ambassadors, put to death the chief of the Egyptian nobles, and reduced their wives and children tc slavery. He was at first inclined to spare the life of the unfortunate king ; but subsequently learning that he had incautiously expressed a deeire for revenge, the cruel conqueror condemned him to drink poison, Camby'ses was the deadly enemy of the religion and the priestly caste of the Egyptians : he slew their sacred animals, destroyed their idols, scourged their priests as slaves, and pillaged their temples. The Egyptians, instigated by the heads of the sacerdotal caste, frequently rebelled against the Persians, but were never able to estab- lish their independence ; these insurrections were punished with the most relentless severity, and thus the awful prophecy of Ezeiiel was fulfilled to the letter.* , Section V. — Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce. The monuments show us that the progress of the Egj-ptians in the mechanical arts was much greater than had been usually supposed, and that an accurate examination of their machinery might suggest useful hints for the present day. Weaving was an important branch of industry, the cotton and flax being indigenous. It is uncertain whether silk was used. The stuffs were woven in large manufactories, under the superintendence of the priests, who had a monopoly of all the cloths used for sacred purposes, especially for the mummies. These stuffs were generally died in the wool, and many of them embroidered with thread of gold and silver wire ; Fome of them are striped, others stained or flowered, and the • Ezek. XXX. 13-19. . 12 ANCIENT HISTORY colors of all exhibit those dazzling hues of the East, which we are unable to rival in Europe. The manufactures in metal rank next in importance. Iron appears to have been but little known : nearly all the implements not made of gold or silver, were, it would seem, either copper or brass. The workmansliip of the Egyptians, both in metal and wood, was superior to that of any other ancient nation. The forms of their couches, harps, &c., the elegance of the spindles and work-baskets of the ladies, inspire a high idea of the refinement of their domestic life. Egypt produced excellent clay for pottery, and earthen ware was used, not only for domestic purposes, but for preserving the mummies of the sacred animals. Their vases, in the indescribable variety ^nd beauty of their shapes, rival the choicest specimens of Grecian or Etruscan art. Ship-building did not become common in Egypt, until its rulers became masters of the Phoenician forests ; but they manufactured vessels of burden for navigating the Nile. The Theb'aid was the central point of trade between southern Asia and the western regions, and between Ethiopia and northern Africa. Besides the advantages of its position, the most ancient and productive gold mines in the world were in its neighborhood. From Ethiopia and the Negro countries were brought gold, ivory, ebony, skins, and slaves ; from Arabia, incense, and from India, spices ; and these were sold to the Greek and P))nenician merchants. The native commodities exported were principal iv corn and cloths: the corn-trade must have been particularly valuabJo for Egypt Avas regarded as the granary of the Eijacent countries THE ETHTOPLANa 13 CHAPTER II. THE ETHIOPIANS. Section I — Geographical Outline. Natural History. Thk eastern districts above the Nile, now called Nubia and Sennaar have been possessed from a remote age by two diflerent races the Ethiopian and the Arabian, which are even now but partially blended. The country is 'ull of historical monuments, chiefly erected on the banks of the Nile. There were, in these countries above Egypt, all the grada- tions from the complete savage to the hunting and fishing tribes, and from them to the wandering herdsman and sh':;pherd ; but there was also a civilized Ethiopian people, dwelling in cities, possessing a gov- ernment and laws, acquainted with the use of lueroglyphics, the fame of whose progress in knowledge and the social arts had, in the earliest ages, spread over a considerable portion of the earth. The Nile, before its confluence with the Astab'oras (Mugrum), runs through a very irregular valley formed by two chains of hills, which sometimes retire back, and sometimes advance to the very margin of the river. The soil of this valley was once as fertile as the richest part of Egypt, and where protected, it still continues so ; but the hills on both sides are bordered by sandy deserts, against which they aflford but a scanty protection. The Nubian valley below the junction of the Nile and the Astab'oras appears to have been sometimes subject tothe Ethiopians of Mer-'oe and sometimes to the Egyptians. The naviga- tion of the Nile is here impeded by the Avindings of the river, and by the intervention of cataracts and rapids ; so that intercourse is more generally maintained by caravans than by boats. At the southern ex- tremity of the valley, the river spreads itself, and encloses a number of f2rtile islands. Along the whole course of the Nubian valley is a suc- cession of stnpendous monuments, rivalling those of Thebes in beauty, and exceeding them in sublimity. The productions of the Ethiopian and Nubian valleys do not difler materially from those of Egypt. The island of Mer'oe as it was called from being nearly surrounded with rivers, possessed an abundance of camels, which, as we have seen, were little used in Egj-pt ; but_ the ivorj' ebony, and spices, which the Ethiopians sent down the river, were probably procured by traflic with the interior of Africa. Mer'oe had better harbors for Indian commerce than Egypt : not only were her ports on the Red sea superior, but the caravan-routes to them were shorter, and the dangerous part of the navigation of that sea was wholly avoided. The wild tracts in the neighborhood of Mer'oe are tenanted by an- imals whose chase aflrorlt)d employment to the ancient, as it does now 4 ANCIENT HISTORf. to the modem hunting tribes ; especially that singvilar creatiire the giraffe, or camelopard, so recently known in Europe. The elephant is found in Abyssinia, not far from the southern confines of the state of Mer^oe Section II. — History of the Ethiopians. The early history of Meroe is involved in impenetrable obscurity' Its monuments bear evident marks of being the models for the wondrous edifices of Egypt ; but, shut out from all intercourse with civilized na- tions by the intervention of the Egyptians, it is oaly when they were invaded, or became invaders, that we can trace the history of the Ethi- opians. It has been already mentioned that several of the Egyptian monarchs carried their arms into Ethiopia, and became for a time mas- ters of the country. In the eleventh century before the Christian era, the Assyrian heroine Semir'amis is reported to have attempted its con- quest ; but there is some doubt of the truth of this, as indeed of many other exploits attributed to this wonderful queen. But we have certain information of the Ethiopians being a powerful nation (b. c. 971) when they assisted Shishak in his war against Judaea " with very many chariots and horsemen." Sixteen years after this, we have an account of Judaea being again invaded by an army of a million Etliiopians, vm- accompanied by any Egyptian force.* From the Scripture narrative, it appears that the Ethiopians had made considerable progress in the art of war, and were masters of the navigation of the Red sea, and at least a part of the Arabian peninsula. The kingdom must have been also in a very flourishing condition, when it was able to bear the cost of so vast and distant an expedition. The Ethiopian power gradually increased until its monarchs were enabled to conquer Egypt, where three of them reigned in succession Sab'bakon, Sev^echus, and Tar'akus, the Tirhakah of Scripture."! Sev'echus, called So in Scripture, was so powerful a monarch, that Hoshea, king of Israel, revolted against the Assyrians, relying on his assistance ; \ but was not supported by his ally. This, indeed, was the immediate cause of the captivity of the Ten Tribes ; for " in the ninth year of Hoshea, the king of Assyria took Samaria, and carried Israel away into Assyria," as a punishment for unsuccessful rebellion. Tir- hakah was a more warlike prince : he led an army against Sennach'- erib, kin^ of Assyria,^ then besieging Jerusalem ; and the Egyptian traditions, preserved in the age of Herod'otus, give an accurate account of the providential interposition by which the pride of the Assyrians was humbled. In the reign of Psammet'ichus, the entire warrior-caste of the Egyp- tians migrated to Ethiopia, and were located at the extreme southern frontier of the kingdom. These colonists instructed the Ethiopians in the recent improvements made in the art of war, and prepared them for resisting the formidable invasion of Camby'ses. •2 Chron. xiv. 8-13, t Mr. Hawkins, in his recent work on Meroe, identifies Tirhakah with the pnest Sethos, on what we deem very insufficient grounds. X 2 Kings, xvii. 4. § 2 Kings, xix. 9, THE ETHIOPIANS. Id Scarcely had the Persian dynasty been established in Egypt, when Camby'ses set out to invade Ethiopia, without preparing any store of provisions, apparently ignorant of the deserts through which it waa necessary for him to pass. Before he had gone over a fifth part of the route from Thebes, the want of provisions was felt ; yet he madly de- termined to proceed. The soldiers fed on grass, as long as any could be found ; but at length, when they reached the deserts, so dreadful was the famine, that they were obliged to cast lots, that one out of every ten might be eaten by his comrades. It is said that the king of Ethiopia was always elected from the priestly caste ; and there was a strange custom for the electors, when weary of their sovereign, to send him a courier with orders to die. Ergam'enes was the first monarch w^ho ventured to resist this absurd custom : he lived in the reign of the second Ptol'emy, and was instruct- ed in Grecian philosophy. So far from yieldmg, he marched against the fortress of the priests, massacred most of them, and instituted a new religion. Queens frequently ruled in Ethiopia : one named Candace made war on Augus'tus Cae'sar about twenty years before the birth of Christ, and though defeated by the superior discipline of the Romans, obtained peace on very favorable conditions. During the reign of another of the same name, we find that the Jewish religion was prevalent in Mer'oe, probably in consequence of the change made by Ergam'enes ; for the queen's confidential adviser went to worship at Jerusalem, and on his return (a. d. 53) was converted by St. Philip,* and became the means of introducing Christianity into Ethiopia. These are the principal historical facts that can now be ascertained respecting the ancient and once powerful state of Mer'oe,which has now sunk into the general mass of African barbarism. Section III. — Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Mer'oe. The pyramids of Mer'oe, though inferior in size to those of Middle Egypt, are said to surpass them in architectural beauty, and the sep- ulchres evince the greatest purity of taste. But the most important and striking proof of the progress of the Ethiopians in the art of build- ing, is their knowledge and employment of the arch. Mr. Hoskins has stated that these pyramids are of superior antiquity to those of Egypt. The Ethiopian vases depicted on the monuments, though not richly ornamented, display a taste and elegance of form that has never been surpassed. In sculpture and coloring, the edifices of Mer'oe, though not so profusely adorned, rival the choicest specimens of Egyptian art. We have already noticed the favorable position of Mer'oe for com- mercial intercourse with India and the interior of Africa : it was the entrepot of trade between the north and south, between the east and west, while its fertile soil enabled the Ethiopians to purchase foreig"n luxuries with native productions. It does not appear that fabrics were woven in Mer'oe so extensively as in Egypt; l^t the manufactures of metal must hava been at least as flourishing. But Mer'oe owed its greatness less to the produce of its soil or its factories, than to its po- •Acts vii. 33. 16 ANCIENT HISTORY. sitioi. on the intersection of the leading caravan-routes of ancient com merce. The great changes in these lines of trade, the devastations of successive conquerors and revolutions, the fanaticism of the Sar'acens, and the destruction of the fertile soil by the encroachments of ihe moving sands from the desert, are causes sufficient for the ruin of such a powerful empire. Its decline, however, was probably accelerated oy the pressure of the nomad hordes, who took advantage of its weakness to olunder its defenceless citizens. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 1? CHAPTER III. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. Section I. — Geographical Outline. — Natural History. Babylonia, or Chaldae'a. was situated between two great riverw, the Eaphrales on the west, and the Tigris on the east. The bed of" the Tigris is much lower than that of the Euphrates, its channel much deeper, and the banks so precipitous, that it very rarely overflows them. Babylonia was properly the country on the lower Euphrates : north of it were the extensive plains of Mesopotamia, and beyond these, the mountainous districts of Armenia, supposed by many writers to have been the first habitation of the posterity of Noah, after the Flood. Beyond the Tigris was the region properly called Assyr^ia, a table- land, boimded on the north and east by chains of mountains, which have afforded shelter to plundering nomad tribes from the remotest antiquity. The soil, though not so rich as that of Babylonia, was generally fruitful. But almost ever since the fall of the x\ssyrian empire, the country has been devastated by wars between powerful monarchies and nations ; and it is now little better than a wilderness, save that some patches of land are cultivated in the neighborhood of the few inconsiderable towns within its precincts. Babylonia, in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, rivalled the fertil ity of the valley of the Nile : the soil was so peculiarly suited foT corn, that the husbandman's returns were sometimes three hundred foM. 'ud rarely less than two hundred fold. The rich oily grains of the pai/icum and se^amum were produced in luxuriant abundance ; the fig-tree, the olive, and the vine, were wholly wanting ; but there were large groves of palm-trc- s on the banks of the river. From the palms they obtained not only fruit, but wine, sugar, and molasses, as the Arabs do at the present time. Dwarf c}'press-trees were scattered over the plains ; but these were a poor substitute for other species of wood. To this deficiency of timber must be attributed the neglect of the river navigation, and the abandonment of the commerce of the Indian seas, by the Babylonians. Stone and marble were even more rare in this country than wood but the clay was well adapted for the manufacture of bricks. These, whether dried in the sun, or burnt in kilns, became so hard and durable, that now, after the lapse of so many centuries, the remains of ancient walls preserve the bricks uninjured by their long exposure to the atmosphere, and retaining the impression of the inscriptions in the arrow-headed character as perfectly as if they had only just been 2 iS ANCIENT HISTORY. raaiuifactured. Naphtha and bitumen, or earthy oil and pitch, wer* produced in great abundance above Bab ylon, near the modern town of Hit : these served as substitutes for mortar or cement ; and so lasting w^ere they, that the layers of rushes and palm-leaves laid betwecjn the courses of bricks as a binding material, are found at this day in the ruins of Bab'yion, as perfect as if a year had not elapsed since they were put together. Section II. — Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians. Des. otism, in its most severe form, was established in the Assyrian monarchy, and in those by which it was succeeded. The king's will was the law ; no code existed to restrict his judgments ; and even ancient customs were set aside at his pleasure. He was the head of the church as well as the state, and claimed divine worship. His palace was crov/ded with as many wives and concubines as he chose to collect, and these were placed under the guardianship of eunuchs, an unfortunate race, first brought into use in Assyr'ia. It is impossible to determine vi^hether the priests, usually called Chaldeans, were a caste or an order ; but it is most probaljle that, like the Egyptians, the Jews, and the Persians, the Babylonians had an hereditary priesthood. Their religion was the kind of idolatry usually called Sabian ; that is, they worshipped the sun, the moon, and the starry host. In a later age, they added to this the worship of deified mortals, whom they supposed to be in some way connected with the celestial luminaries, just as Eastern monarchs of the present day call themselves " brothers of the sun and moon." Their supreme deity was named Baal, or Bell, which signifies Lord : the mixture of the astronomical with the historical character of the idol has rendered the Assyrian mythology complicated and obscure ; and the double character of their deities generally, has brought confusion not only into mythol- ogy, but history ; for many of the fabulous legends respecting Ninus and Semir'amis are manifestly imperfect astronomical theories. Cru- elty and obscenity were the most marked attributes of the Babylonian and Assyrian idolatry ; human victims were sacrificed, and prostitution was enjoined as a religious duty. It had also much of the absurdity that belongs to the Brahminism of the present day ; monstrous combinations of forms were attributed to the gods ; their idols had many heads, and jumbled the limbs of men and the members of animals together ; these had probably at first a symbolic meaning, which the priests pre- served by tradition, but which was carefully concealed from the vulgar herd. The condition of women was more degraded in Bab'ylon than in any other Eastern country. No man had a right to dispose of his daugh- ters in marriage ; when girls attained mature age, they were exposed for sale in the public markets, and delivered to the highest bidder. The money thus obtained for beauty was applied to portioning ugliness. Debauchery and gross sensuality were tho natiu^al results of such a system, and these evils were aggravated by the habitual intoxication of every class of society. This dissolute people were as superstitious as BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 19 they v/ere depraved, and were the slaves of the Chaldean priests and jupslers. The Babylonians had made considerable progress in the mechanical arts, and in mathematical science : their astronomical knowledge was very extensive, but it was so disfigured by astrological absurdities as to be nearly useless. The arts of weaving and working in metal were practised in Babylon ; the naphtha and petroleum furnished excellent fuel for furnaces ; and the accounts given of their skill in metal- founding show that they had made many ingenious contrivances, which sunplied their natural Avants of stone and wood. The Babylonian language belongs to that class called Semit^ic, of which the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, are branches. They possessed an alphabetic character, and wrote on bricks and earthen cylinders. It is not certain that they possessed books, their country producing no materials from which paper could be manufactured. Skction III. — History of the Assyrians and Babylonians. FROM B. c. 2204 TO B. c. 538. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than traditions of the heroes and heroines, who, at some early period, founded a kingdom in the coun- tries bordering on the Euphrates — traditions without any chronological lata, and in the ordinary style of Eastern exaggeration. The Assyrian history contained in the Holy Scriptures is that of a distinct nation of conquerors that founded an empire. This history is however confined to incidental notices of the wars between the Ass)rrians and the Isra- elites and Jews. Herod'otus briefly touches on the Assyrian empire ; but his narrative, so far as it goes, confirms the narrative given in the Old Testament. We shall endeavor to deduce from all these sources the most authentic account of the Assyrian monarchy. The miraculous interruption of the building of Babel led to the aban- donment of that spot by the followers of Nim'rod, who appears to have been the first nomad chief that founded a permanent monarchy. He was the Ninus of profane history — a warrior, a conqueror, the builder of cities, and the founder of an empire. Tradition has based a long roman-je on these few facts, which it is not necessary to detail. The Assyrian empire appears to have been founded b. c. 1237, and Nin'eveh was its metropolis. Ninus chose for his principal ^queen Semir'amis, the wife of one of his officers, to whose prudent counsels he is said to have been indebted for many of his victories. On the death of Ninus, Semir'amis assumed the administration of the empire as regent. She is said to have founded the city of Bab'y- lon ; but this is clearly erroneous. The additions, however, that she made to the city, and the stupendous edifices with which she adorned it, in some degree justified the tradition. Her wars were waged in the most remote countries ; she is said to have conquered Egypt, and invaded Ethiopia, on one side, and to have attacked India, on the other. Semir'amis was succeeded by her son Nin'yas, who gave himself up to indolence and debauchery, keeping himself secluded in his palace and intrusting the entiro care oi the adm/idstration to his ministers 20 ANCIENT HISTORY His successors /or several generations followed his base examplb a-ti the Assyrian monarchy gradually decayed. - ^ Leaving the traditions respecting Ninus and Semir^amis, in v, hicL a few liistorical facts are quite obscured under a cloud of fable« and astronomical allegories, we come to the portion of AssjTian nistory tounded on the authentic records of the Old Testament. The Assyr- ians began to extend their empire westward beyond the Euphrates in the reign of Pul (b. c. 771). He approached the confines of the king- dom of Israel, then ruled by the usurper Men'ahem, and inspired so much terror, that his forbearance was purchased by a thousand talents of silver.* Tiglath-pul-as'sur succeeded to the throne (b. c. 747), and prepared to pursue the plans of conquest that Pul had sketched. He conquered the kingdom of Israel, and transplanted a great number of the inhabi- tants to the remote parts of his empire. f Invited by A-liaz, king of Judah, he made war against the ancient kingdom of S^Tia, stormed its celebrated metropolis, Damas'cus, and removed the vanquished people beyond the Euphrates. Shalman-as'sur was the next monarch (b. c. 728). He invaded the kingdom of Israel, took Samaria after a siege of three years, and led the greater part of the ten tribes into captivity, suppj^'ing their place with colonies from other states. After the conquest of Israel, Shal- man-as'sur invaded Phoenicia, and subdued all the principal cities ex- cept Tyre. San-her'ib, or Sennach'erib, was the next monarch. He led an army against Hezekfah, king of Judah (b. c. 714), and also attacked Egypt. His impious blasphemies against the God of tire Jews were punished by the miraculous destruction of his army ; and he returned home mor- tified and disgraced. A conspiracy was formed against him, and he was slain by his own sons. Assar-had'don-pul, the Esarhad'don of Scripture, and Sardanapalus of profane history, was the third son of San-her'ib, and was chosen his successor, in preference to the parricides, Adram-mel'ek and Shar- ez'er. The accoimts given of this prince are so very inconsistent, that many have supposed that there were two of the name ; but it is more probable that he was in the early part of his reign an active conqueror, and that he subsequently sunk into sensuality and sloth. He conquered the kingdom of Judah, and made some impression on Eg-}^t ; but, re- turning to Nin'eveh, he became the slave of intemperance, and thus disgusted the hardy warriors whom he had so often led to victory. The satraps of Media and Babylonia revolting, besieged Sardanapalus in his capital ; and he, finding himself deserted by his subjects, and unable to protract his defence, made a huge pile, on which he placed his wives and his treasures ; then setting it on fire, he threw himself into the midst of the flames (b. c. 6G7). Thus ended the Assyrian monarchy ; and the supremacy of central and western Asia was tratfs- ferred to the Babylonians. The Kasdim, or Chaldeans, a northern nomad tribe from the mount- ain-chains of Tau'rus and the Cau'casus, appear to have b«en em- 2 Kings \T. 19. t 2 Kings xv. 29, BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 21 ployed as mercenaries by the Assyrian monarclis, and to have been sta- tioned in Babylonia. As is not unusual in the East, these soldiers re- volted against their masters, and prepared to carve out an empire for them- selves. That they were a conquering horde which settled in the country, is proved by the express testimony of Isaiah. " Behold the land of the Chaldeans [Kasdim] ; this people was not, until the Assyrian founded it for them that dwell in the wilderness : they set up the towers thereof, they raised up the palaces thereof" * The chronology of the Baby- lonian Chaldeans commences with the reign of Nabonas'sar, February 26th (b. c. 74*7), a remarkable era in history, because the introduction of the Egyptian solar year, during the reign of that prince, first sup- plied the Chaldeans with an accurate mode of measuring time. There is nothing worthy of note in the history of Nabonas'sar, and his twelve immediate successors. During their reigns, indeed. Babylonia appears again to have become dependant upon Assyr'ia, and not to have re- covered its freedom until the general insurrection against Sardana- palus. Nabopolas'sar, or Ncbo-pul-as'sar, became king of Bab'ylon soon after the overthrow of the Assyrian empire (b. c. 627). Pharaoh- Necho took advantage of the distracted state of central Asia to extend his dominions to the Euphrates. He gained possession of Car'chemish (Circesium), and induced the governors of Cojle-Syria and Phoenicia to revolt against Nabopolas'sar. In the reduction of these provinces, the Babylonian monarch was greatly assisted by his son, Nebuchadnez'zar or Nebo-kal-as'sar, who subsequently raised the empire to the summit of its greatness. Nebuchadnez'zar obtained a brilliant victory over Pharaoh-Necho, at Car'chemish (b. c. 604) ; and was about to follow up his success by invading Egypt, when he was recalled to Bab'ylor. in consequence of his father's death. Nitoc'ns was probably the queen of Nebuchadnez'zar. She seems to have acted as regent while the king was employed in foreign wars, and her name is associated with the splendid buildings erected in Babylon in this reign. Before invading Egypt, Nebuchadnez''zar had conquered the kingdom of Judah, and brought several of its princes to Bab'ylon as captives or hostages. Among these was the prophet Daniel. f Soon afterward the Scytliians, probably some Tartar horde, invaded the Assyrian provinces, and tlie Jews embraced this opportunity of asserting their independence Nebuchadnez'zar was then b(^«icging in conjunction with Cyax'ares the Mede ; but having taken and destroyed this ancient rival of Bab'ylon, he marched against Jerusalem with a resistless force. The holy city was taken and plundered, its monarch slain, his son sent prisoner to Bab'ylon, and a new king appointed as deputy to the conqueror. The Jews again revolted, relying on the promised aid of the Egyptians, bii were once more subdued, and treated with barbarous cruelty. Their city was laid desolate, their lands wasted, and the bulk of the nation led into captivity. The conqueror then proceeded into Phoenicia, which he completely subdued ; whence he advanced to Egypt, and plundered the bwer valley of the Nile. It was after his return from this expedi- tion, that Nebuchadnez'zar erected the golden image in the plains of •Isaiah xxiii. 13. tl^-^niel ii. ], &c. 22 ANCIENT HISTORY. Dura.* Toward the close of his r( igii, the impiety of Nebiickadi.ez'zai was punished by a fit of lunacy ; during which " he was driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body was Avet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were groAvn like eagles' feathers, and his naila like birds' claws. "f Evil-Merodach succeeded, and after a short reign was murdered by his sister's husband, Neriglis'sar. But the young prince Belshaz'zar, was saved from the conspirators. He continued several years in ob- scurity, but did not profit by the stern lessons of adversity. At this time the power of the Medes had reached a formidable height, and the Babylonians summoned the kings of western Asia to aid in preventing its further extension. The Medes were commanded by Cyax'ares and his nephew Cy'rns. After a fierce engagement, the Babylonians were totally defeated, and their sovereign slain. Labosoar^'chad succeeded his father Neriglis^sar (b. c. 555) ; but on account of his tyranny was d(!throned, after a reign of only a few months, and the legitimate line restored in the person of Nebo-an-dal, called also Nabonadius and Labynetus, who took the surname of Bel- shaz'zar, that is, the " mighty prince of Bel." As he was a youth, the regency was intrusted to Queen Nitoc'ris. She completed the works which Nebuchadnez'zar had commenced, and is said to have connected the eastern and western banks of the Euphrates both by a bridge and a timn^l. To complete the last work, it was necessary to turn the river for a time into a new channel ; and for this purpose a lake and canal -A-ere constructed to the north of Bab'ylon. When Belshaz'zar assumed the reins of government, he deserted the prudent line of policy by which Nitoc'ris had delayed the fate of the tottering empire ; not only abandoning himself to licentious pleasures, but provoking the hostility of the warlike Medes. Cyax'ares, the " Darawe'sh" (Dari'us), that is, king of the Medes, accompanied by his nephew Cy'rus, invaded Bab- ylonia, and soon laid siege to the metropolis. Confiding in the strength of the walls, Belshaz'zar laughed his enemies to scorn ; and wliile the enemy was still before the walls, gave a great feast in honor of his ex- pected success. Cy'rus, on the same evening, sent a detachment to open the canal leading to the lake that had been dug by Nitoc'ris, or- dering his soldiers, as soon as the water should be drawn from the bed of the river, to enter the city through the deserted channel. Meantime 'he revelry of the feast was disturbed by the supernatural handwriting ni -.rpreted by Daniel,^ announcing the impeniling de- struction o* .hf empire. Guided by the lights that gleamed from the chambers Te, commonly called " the daughter of Sidon ;" Ar'adus, also an insular city ; Trip'- olis, so called because it was colonized by the three preceding cities conjointly : Byb'lus and Bery'tus, the modern Beiroot, which is stiU a good harbor. Tyre was originally a Sidouian colony, but rose rapidly abuve the parent state, and became a flourishing commercial city. After its cap- ture by Alexander the Great, Tyre gradually declined, less in conse- quence of the conqueror's vengeance than of the founding of Alexan- dria in Egypt, which soon became the seat of the commerce that had previously centred in Tyre. Section IV.— Social and Political Condition of the Syrians and Phxnicians. Syria contained but one large river, the Oron'tes, a turbid and rapid stream, whose navigation is impeded by rapids, and whose waters can not be used for domestic purposes. But there are several minor rivers in the neighborhood of Damascus, which, as well as their tributary streams, are remarkable for their limpid waters and abundance of fish The soil is generally better suited to pasturage than agriculture. Two large valleys of mineral salt added greatly to the natural wealth of the country ; and the mountains of Leb'anon supplied abundance of excel- lent timber both for house and ship-building. Syria was consequently partly suited to a nomad, and partly to a commercial people ; and this mixture of the two opposite characters, with scarcely any trace of the intermediate agricultural class, led to many revolutions in the Syrian government ; the cities were more or less republican, while the rural districts were subject to petty despots. The Syrian religion appears to have been elementary ; that is, the objects of worship were the personifications of some powers of nature : their most celebrated deity, Astar'te, or the Syrian goddess, represented both the moon and the prolific power of the earth, and was worshipped with the same licentious ceremonies as the Babylonian Mylit^ta. The Ph(ENICians, like the Syrians, belonged to the great Aramean, or Semitic family of nations. Their narrow and short line of coast, indented with excellent bays and harbors, was covered with lofty and wooded mountains, that jut out into the sea, and form bold promonto- ries. Several islands stud the coast, on which cities and commercial establishments were founded, as well as on the mainland. Each ©1 these cities was an independent state ; but they were generally united by a federative league, under the presidency of Sidon, and afterward SYRIA. 31 of Tyre. The religion oi the Phoenicians appears to haie been more" sanguinary than that of most other nations. Tham^muz, or Adonis, was Avorshipped with very licentious rites, which were supposed to have a mystic signification. Section V. — History of the Syrians and Phcenicians. Syria was divided into a number of petty states, most of which were subdued by the Jewish king, David (b. c. 1044). Toward the close of Solomon's reign, Rezon, ''vho had been originally a slave, threw off the yoke, and founded the SjTian kingdom of Damascus. Ben-hadad, the most powerful of his successors, waged a long and sanguinary war against the kingdom of Israel, during the reigns of Ahab and Jchoram. He was finally murdered by Hazael, one of his servants (b. c. 884) who usurped the vacant throne. Hazael was a warlike prince ; he gained several brilliant victories over the forces of Israel and Judah, compelling the monarchs of both to resign several important provinces, and pay him tribute. He also made himself mas- ter of E'lath on the Red sea, and greatly increased the commercial prosperity of his dominions. But these advantages were lost under the reign of his inglorious son, Ben-hadad II. The Syrians recovered some of their power under Rezin ; toward the close of his reign, he entered into alliance with Pekah, king of Israel, against A''haz, king of Judah. The Syrians and Israelites gained so many advantages, that A''haz sought the protection of Tig- lath-pileser, king of Assyria, who marched against Damascus, cap- tured the city, dragged the inhabitants away captive, and put an end to the kingdom (b. c. 740). It has been already mentioned that most of the Phcenician cities were independent states. Tyre is, however, the only one whose his- tory can be satisfactorily traced. Its first sovereign was Ab'ical (about B. c. 1050), who was contemporary with David. His son and succes- sor, Hiram, was united by the strictest bonds of friendship to the great Jewish king, and also to his son Solomon. During the reign of Hiram, Tyre acquired the supremacy of Phcjenicia, and became the most flour- ishing emporium of commerce in the ancient world. The most remarkable successors of Hiram were Ethbaal I., the father of the wicked Jez'ebel, wife of Ahab, in whose reign some im- portant colonies were planted ir Africa ; and Pygmalion, whose murder of SicliEe'us led to the foundation of Carthage (about b. c. 900). Dido, the wife of Sichae'us, aided by numerous Tyrians, escaped by sea with her husband's treasures, and sought a new country on the northern shores of Africa. Here she erected the city of Carthage, wliich soon rivalled Tyre itself in commercial prosperity. The Tyrians exercised their supremacy over the surrounding cities with so much cruelty, that the Phoenicians applied for protection to the Assyrians, and afterward to the Babylonians. The Assyrians, unable to cope with the Tyrians by sea, retired, leaving the city uninjured. But Nebuchadnez'zar so exhausted Tyre by a constant blockade, that it was almost wholly abandoned by its inhabitants, who erected the city 32 ANCIENT HISTORY. of New Tyre upon a neighboring island. Soon after this event, a change Avas made in the form of government ; annual magistrates, called Shophetim, or, according to the Greek orthography, Sufletes, being chosen instead of kings. After Cyrus had conquered Babylon, the Phoenician cities submitted of their own accord (b. c. 538) ; but though they became dependancies of the Persian empire, they were permitted to retain their native governments. Tyre again became sub- ject to kings, and supplied the strength of the Persian naval powei. It was taken by Alexander the Great (b. c. 332), and from that time il .sunk into hopeless decay. Section VI. — Phcenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions. The system of colonization in commercial states has been always the greatest aid to the progress of civilization : colonies are founded by trading nations for the purpose of securing a lucrative commerce, by establishing a market for the manufactured produce of the parent state, and a carrying-trade for its merchants and seamen. Such colo- nies, unlike the military establishments of despotic states, require to be placed under the guidance of persons advanced in political knowledge^ who know how to vary the institutions derived from the government at home, so as to suit the altered circumstances of their position and for- eign relations : hence civil liberty has always advanced more rapidly in commercial colonies than in the states from which they were derived, and the science of legislation has attained greater perfection than in more ancient establishments. In commercial states, the distinction between the citizen and the soldier is very strongly marked ; and most commercial states, in ancient and modern times employed foreign mercenaries. The prophet Eze- kiel, whose account of Tyre is the most perfect record of its ancient condition, enumerates the countries that supplied the Tyrian armies and navies Avith warriors.* The Phoenician colonies proceeded from east to west along the coasts of the Mediterranean, occupying the principal islands. Cy'prus, called in Scripture Kittim, or Chittim, was not only a colony but a province of the Tyrians, and vestiges of their establishments on the island still exist. I'rom Cyprus they extended their settlements to Crete and some of the islands in the Archipelago. Thence they pro- ceeded to Africa, Sicily, and Sardinia, spreading their cities unequally along the coasts, and very rarely attempting the conquest of the inte- rior. Their establishments in Sicily and Sardinia, indeed, appear to have been only naval stations for the vessels employed in the trade with western Europe, especially with Spain, which was the Mexico or Peru of the ancient world. The Spanish peninsula, called in Scrip- ture Tar'shish, from the city Tartes'sus, was the country with which the Tyrians had the most lucrative trade ; and the colonies they estab- lished there soon became independent states. It would seem that the T}Tians were by no means anxious to retain supremacy over their col- onies, wisely preferring a close alliance, cemented by common descent, * Ezekiel xxvii. 8-11. SYRIA. 33 anj^iaire, and religion, to a hollow dcpendance. Colonies were also planted beyond the straits of Gibraltar, or, as they were called by the ancients, the Pillars of Hercules. Trade was extended to the British islands and the coasts of the North sea, which must have led to the pstabUshment of colonies and naval stations along the western and northern coasts of Spain. The colonies in northern Africa, Leptis, Carthage, Utica, &c., attained greater splendor than any of the other Phoanician cities, and rivalled Tyre itself in wealth and magnificence. It is exceedingly probable that they had also settlements in western Africa, and that they had even reached the island of Madeira. But to prevent any interfer- ence with their lucrative commerce, they designedly cast a veil of mystery over their intercourse with the western regions, of which the Greek poets took advantage to embellish their narratives of fictitious voyages and travels with the most fanciful inventions. It is known that the Phognicians preceded the Greeks in forming comiiiercial establishments along the coast of Asia Minor and the shores of the Black sea ; but we have no account of the mode in which they were deprived of these possessions by the Greeks. It is probable that the Phoenicians resigned this branch of commerce to attend more closely to their lucrative trade with the western resfions. In the eastern seas they had establishments on the Persian and Ara- bian gulfs ; but their settlements on the latter were probably not made until David had conquered their commercial rivals, the Edomites, OT Idumeans. From that time they paid great attention to their southern trade, and seem to have become close allies of the Egyptians. Section VII. — Phcenician Manufactures and Commerce. The textile fabrics of the Sidonians, and the purple cloths of the Tyrians, were celebrated from the earliest antiquity. The Tyrian purple was not a single color, but was a generic name for all the shades of purple and scarlet. The dye was obtained from a shell-fish found in great abundance on the shores of the Mediterra- nean. Vegetable dyes of great beauty and variety were also used \ the dyeing was always performed in the raw materials ; and the Phoe- nicians alone understood the art of producing shot colors by using threads of different tints. Glass was very anciently manufactured both at Sidon and Sarepta : tradition, indeed, ascribes the invention of glasa to the Phoenicians ; but the Egyptians seem to have a claim at least as good to the discovery. Carvings in wood and ivory, manufactures of jewelry and toys, complete all that has been recorded of the products of Tyrian industry ; and it seems probable that their commerce con- sisted more in the interchange of foreign commodities than in the ex- port of their own wrought goods. The land-trade of the Phoenicians may be divided into three great branches : the Arabian, which included the Egyptian and that with the Indian seas ; the Babylonian, to which is referred the commerce with central Asia and north India ; and the Armenian, including the overland trade wif.h Scythia and the Caucasian countries. From Yem'en, called Arabia the Happy, the southern division of tlie 3 34 ANCIENT HISTORY Arabian peninsula, cara\ans brought through the desert frankincense, myrrh, cassia, gold, and precious stones, the gold being probably obtained from the opposite shores of Africa. But before the Phceni- cians had a port on the Red sea, they obtained, through Arabia, the produce of southern India and Africa, more especially cinnamon, ivory, and ebony. This trade is fully described by Ezekiel,* by whom the traffic in the Persian gulf is also noticed. f The Arabian trade appears to have been principally carried on by caravans. The northern Arabs, especially the princes of Kedar and the Midianites, were in ancient times great travelling merchants : and the kingdom of Edom, or Idumsea, in the north of the Arabian peninsula, attained a very high degree of commercial prosperity. On the seacoast the Idumeans possessed the ports of E'lath and E'zion-geber (x\k'aba) ; in the interior, they had for their metropolis Petra, whose magnificent remains have been but recently discovered. So permanent and almost immutable is the aspect of civilization in Asia, that the conunercial caravans of the present day scarcely differ in any particular from those which were used in the flourishing days of Tyre. The merchants trav- elled in bands organized like an army, having their goods on the backs of camels, the only animals which can endure the fatigues and priva- tions of the desert. They were escorted by armed forces, sometimes supplied from home, but more frequently consisting of one marauding tribe, hired at a large price, to save the caravan from the exactions and attacks of the rest. The greater part of the Phoenician trade with Egypt was overland, at least so long as the seat of government was at Thebes in Upper Egypt : when Mem'phis rose into power, an entire quarter of the city was assigned to the Phoenician merchants, and the trade by sea to the mouths of the Nile grew into importance. The first branch of the eastern Phffinician trade was with Judaea and Syria Proper.| The dependance of the Phoenicians on Palestine for grain fully explains the cause of their close alliance with the Jewish king- dom in the reigns of David and Solomon. But the most important branch of eastern trade was that through Bab'ylon with the interior of Asia. A great part of the route lay through the Syrian desert ; and to facilitate the passage of the caravans, two of the most remarkable cities of the ancient world, Baal'bec and Palmy'ra, were founded. They were both built by Solomon : " he founded," says the Scripture, " Baalath (Baal'bec) and Tadmor (Pal- my'ra) in the desert."^ They were erected by that wise monarch to procure for his subjects a shtire in this lucrative traffic ; but this object was frustrated by the subsoqucait revolt of the ten tribes, and the wars between Israel and Judah. The northern land-trade of the Phoenicians is described by no an cient writer but the prophet Ezekiel : " Javan [Ionia, and the Greek colonies]. Tubal, and Meshech [ihe countries around the Black and north Caspian seas], they were thy merchants : they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy markets. They of the house of To- gai-^mah [Armenia and Cappadocia], traded in thy fairs with horses and horsemen and mules."|| Ezekiel xxvn. 19-23. t lb. xxvii. 15. J Ezekiel xxvii. 17, 18. § 1 Kings ix. 18. || Ezekiel xxvii. 13, J4. SYRIA. 35 Eut the Mediterranean sei was the great high road of Phoenician *»imirtierce : it probably commenced with piracy ; for in the infancy of Giecmn civilization, we find frequent mention of the kidnapping prac- tised oy coitsairs from Tyre and Sidon. But when Greece advanced in powoF, aiid Athens and Corinth had fleets of their own, the Greeks became tiie rivals and political enemies of the Phoenicians, purchasing from them only such articles as could not be procured from their own colonies in Asia Miiior. Spain was the richest country of the ancient world in the precious metals. The Phoeaician colonies enslaved the natives, and compehea them to work in the mines : these metallic pro- ductions are enumerated by Liekiei. '' Tar'shish [Tartes'sus, or south- western Spain], was thy mei chant by reason of the multitude of all kind of riches : with silver, iron, tin, and lead, they traded in th** fairs."* From Spain the Phoenicians entered the Atlantic ocean, and proceeded to the south of the British islands, where they procured the tin of Cornwall ; and probably to the coasts of Prussia for amber, which in the ancient world was deemed more precious than gold. In the eastern seas, the Phoenicians had establishments on the Arabian and Persian gulf, whence they traded with the coasts of India and Af- rica, and the island of Ceylon. During the reign of Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt, they discovered the passage roimd the Cape of Good Hope ; but this led to no important results, on account of the calamities that Tyre endured from the invasion of Nebuchadnez'zar. Though their voyages did not equal in daring those of modern times, yet, when we consider that they were ignorant of the mariner's compass, and of the art of taking accurate astronomical observations, it is wonderful to reflect on the commercial enterprise of a people whose ships were to be seen in the harbors of Britain and Ceylon. * Ezekiel xxvii. 12. 36 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER V. PALESTINE. Section I. — Geographical Outline Palestine, or the Holy Land, lies between PhcBnicia on the north, and Idumse'a on the south, separat(;d from both by chains of lofty mountains ; to the east its boundaries were the Asphaltic lake, the river Jordan, and the sea of Galilee ; on the west it extended to the Mediterranean. The mountains are the most remarkable features in the o-eography of Palestine. These mountains divided Palestine into a series of valleys and tablelands, leaving two great plains, called " the region about Jordan," and the plain of Esdraelon, or Jez'reel. These valleys and plains were of very unequal value ; some were so unpro- ductive as to be called deserts, others were the most fertile spots in western Asia. Jordan was the only great river of Palestine ; it falls into the As- phaltic lake, or Dead sea, which occupies the site of the ancient cities Sod'om and Gomor'rah. There is no outlet from the Asphaltic lake, and its waters are bitter and unwholesome. The sea of Galilee, through which the Jordan flows, is a beautiful fresh-water lake, abound- ing in fish. The principal cities were Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah, and Samaria, the capital of Israel. Idumse'a lay south of Palestine, beyond the chain of Mount Seir : it was in general a rocky and barren country ; but being the high road of Arabian traffic, its nat- ural capabilities were improved to the utmost, and it contained the great city of Petra, whose commercial wealth was deservedly celebra- ted. Idumffi'a, or Edom, was annexed to the kingdom of Israel in the reign of David. The valleys of Palestine were in general very fruitful ; and the va- ried elevations of the country, causing so many different climates, gave the country a greater variety of natural productions than is usually found in so confined a space. A series of calamities, unparalleled in any other portion of the globe, has now reduced Palestine almost to sterility; but vwen now there are spots to be found whose luxuri?.nce revives the memory of the verdure and beauty that once covered the entire country. Sfction II. — History of Palestine. iROM B. c. 1920 TO B. c. 975. God called Abram from the hnd of the ChaHees to Palestine, then aamed Canaan, to be the founder of a naticti th?« sk)uld be his peculiar PALESTINE. 37 people (b. c. 1920). Abraham, at his death (b. c. 1821), transmitted the inheritance of the divine promise to his son Isaac ; and he was de- ceived into making his second son Jacob, or Israel, the heir of this glorious privilege. The sons of Jacob sold their brother Joseph as a slave to some Arabian merchants, by whom he was carried into Egypt. There he became the chief minister of the Pharaoh of Egypt ; his brethren having come into that country to purchase corn, he made himself known to them, and invited his father, with his whole family, to dwell to the rich district of Goshen (b. c. 1705). In process of time, the Israelites became so numerous as to excite the envious alarm of the Egyptians : they were in consequence cruelly persecuted, until God raised up Moses as their deliverer. The miraculous plagues he inflicted on the land of Egypt induced the reigning Pharaoh to consent to the departure of the Israelites (b. c. 1491). Hepenting of his per- mission, he pursued them with a mighty host ; but he and all his fol- lowers perished in the Red sea. After the miraculous deliverance of the Hebrews from the Egyptian army, and their safe passage through the Red sea, it seemed as if their chief difficulties had been overcome ; that with Jehoiah ^^r their pro- tector, and Moses for their guide, they would soon reach the frontiers of Canaan, and find no difficulty in subduing its idolatrous inhabitants. Were there no other difficulties to be overcome than the ruggedness of the way, and the hostility of the various warlike races in and round Palestine, the wanderings of the Israelites would soon have terminated, but during their protracted bondage they had been deeply imbued with all the vices of slavery ; they had become stubborn, rebellious, and in- constant ; they vacillated between the extremes of cowardice and rashness, and they had acquired an almost invincible fondness for idol- atry and superstition, which proved a constant source of misfortunes to themselves and of the most harassing vexations to their leader. In the beginning of the third month after the departure from Goshen, the Israelites reached the plains around Sin'ai, where amid the most awful manifestations of the Divine presence, Moses ascended the mountain, and received from the Lord the sacred code of laws by which the Israelites were thenceforth to be ruled under God's immediate gov- ernment, and which was moreover designed, both by its moral and ceremonial institutions, to be " a schoolmaster to the Jews to bring them unto Christ." The constitution thus given to the Israelites may be described as a theocracy ; that is, a government in which God him- self was the sovereign, communicating his will by certain authorized ministers. The priests through whom the Divine commands were made known, could only be chosen from the descendants of Aaron ; and all the inferior ministers of religion belonged to the tribe of Levi. A'l the institutions appointed for the people were directed to one great ob- ject, the preservation of the purity of religious worship : the Israelitef were not chosen to be the most wealthy or most powerful of nations, but to be the guardians of the knowledge of the true God, until the ar- rival of that divine Savior who was to unite both Jews and Gentiles as one flock, under one shepherd. While Moses continued on the mount, the Israelites, impatient at his long absence, formed a golden calf, oi representation of a young bull, as an object for their idolatrous worship 38 ANCIENT HISTORY When Moses, who had been now forty days on the mount, learned from the Lord the crime of which the people had been guilty, he hastily descended tow ard the camp ; as he approached, the sight of the people, dancing round the object of their stupid veneration, filled him with such wrath that he broke the tables of stone on which the Ten Commaad- ments had been graven by " the finger of God." The tribe of Levi, which seems not to have participated in the national guilt, slew three thousand of the worst criminals ; the idol was broken to pieces, and the people compelled to drink the water with which its dust had been min- gled ; and atonement having been made for the sin, Moses again ascended the mountain, and, after an absence of forty days, returned with two new tables of commandments, in place of those that had been broken. Having broken up the encampment at Sin'ai, the Israelites directed their march to the frontiers of Canaan ; but notwithstanding all the signs and wonders that had been wrought in their favor, they broke out into acts of rebellion against Moses, and on every trifling occasion pro- voked, by their seditions, severe chastisements from the righteous anger of the Almighty ; until, at length upon the very borders of the promised land, for their rebellious murmurings at the report of the spies, the Lord ordained that none of the existing generation should enter the promised land, except Joshua and Caleb. Forty years of wandering in the Des- ert were to expiate the national crime, after which a new generation was to inherit the promise made to Abraham. In their wanderings, the miraculous pillar, which had guided them from Egypt, continued still to direct them, and the marma to nourish them ; their raiment and their shoes suffered no decay, and their feet were unhurt, by their long and frequent marches. Notwithstanding these signal proofs of the Divine protection, the children of Israel fre- quently rebelled against Moses, and provoked severe chastisements from their offended God. Thirty-eight years after their departure from Egypt, the march to Canaan was resumed ; but being defeated in their first attempt, and, though more successful on a second trial, finding the western frontiers of Palestine difficult, the Israelites resolved to make a circuit, and at- tack the country more to the eastward. On this march, Moses and Aaron, having evinced a want of confidence in the divine power, were included in the sentence of not being permitted to enter the promised land. t, Commanded by God to regard the descendants of Esau as their brethren, the Hebrew army avoided the land of Edom, turning their course northward, encountering various enemies, who tried to impede their passage. They gained signal victories over Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, the gigantic ruler of Basan, and spread the terror of their name through the surrounding nations. In a pitched battle, which the Israelites fought also against five kings of Mid'ian, the confederate monarchs fell ; a terrible slaughter was made of their subjects, the cities of the land were taken and sacked, and a considerable booty brought to Moses and Eleazar, the latter of whom had succeeded Aaron in the priesthood. Immediately a^ter the punishment of the Midianites, Moses, by the PALESTINE. 39 divine direction, took a census of the people, and assigned to the tribes by lot their future inheritance in Canaan. He found that all the old murmuring generation, save .Joshua and Caleb, had disappeared, as God had foretold. Being warned that his own end was approaching, he solemnly constituted Joshua his successor, and assembling the people recapitulated all the miracles which God had wrought in their favoi since their departure from Egypt, and exhorted them to be firm in their allegiance to Jehovah, setting before them the blessings promised for obedience, and the curses denounced against idolatry. Having thus completed his task, he ascended Mount Nebo, by God's commar.d, whence he was gratified with a view of the promised land ; after which he breathed his last, in the one hundredth and twentieth year of hia age (b. c. 1451). The place of his burial ivas carefully concealed, probably to prevent the Israelites from making his tomb an object of idolatrous veneration. Section III. — The Conquest of Canaan by Joshua, Nothing less than the strongest assurance of divine aid could have supported Joshua's courage in so arduous an enterprise. He was now ninety-three years of age, and wanted neither experience nor sagacity to foresee the perils which he had to encounter. Though at the head of six hundred thousand fighting men, his army was encumbered by a multitude of old men, women, and children, beside servants and cattle ; before him was a large river, which he was to cross, equally exposed to the arms of those he went to attack, and those he left behind. The na- tions he had to subdue were warlike, remarkable for their personal strength and gigantic stature ; their towns were well fortified by nature and art ; their forces and interests qemented by mutual treaties ; they had long been aware of the meditated invasion, and had made formi' d-jJjle preparations for the defence of their country. • * The tribes of Reuben and Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh»pre- ferred settling in the land east of the Jordan, but they sent a contingent of forty thousand men to aid their brethren in the subjugation of Ca- naan. Passing over the river Jordan by a miraculous passage, the Israelites celebrated the feast of the .passover, which had been intermitted since their encampment on Sin'ai, from the want of corn to prepare unleav- ened bread ; now, also, that they were in a productive land;'*the mirac- ulous supply of manna ceased, being no longer necessary. So great was the alarm of the Cailaanites, that no attempt was made to interrupt the Israelites while -celebrating this solemn feast ; when it was conclu ded, they advanced against the fortified city of Jer'icho, which was straightly shut up because of the children of Israel, — " none went out, an.d none came in. By divine command, Joshua made no military preparations for the siege of this important place, but led the army round the city once a day for six days, preserving strict silence, broken only by the sound of the sacred trumpets which accompanied the Ark of the Covenant. On the seventh day, the people " compassed the city, after the same mann(!r, seven times ; and it came to pass at the eeventh time, when the priests blew with the trumpets, Joshua said un- 40 ANCIENT HISTORY lo the people, Shout, for the Lord hath given you the city. And the people shouted with a great shout, that the wall fell down flat, so that the ])eople went up into the city, every man straight before him, and they took the city." The king of A'i next became the victim of a stratagem devised by Joshua, and its citizens were utterly exterminated. Great fear spread over the land of Canaan in consequence of the destruction of Jer'ichc and A'i ; the Gibeonites, anxious to escape from impending ruin, sought a treaty of peace from Joshua, and obtained it by pretending to be na- tives of a distant country. Adonized'ec, king of Jerusalem, was greatly enraged when he heard that the Gibeonites had deserted the common cause ; he sent jnbas- sies to four of the neighboring princes to aid him in punishing their defection ; they readily assented, and " went up, they and all their hosts, and encamped before Gibeon, and made war against it." Joshua imme- diately marched to their deliverance. The five kings were completely routed ; at Joshua's command " the sun stood still and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies And there was no day like that before it or after it, that the Lord hearkened unto the voice of a man ; for the Lord fought for Israel." During the space of seven years, the Israelites were almost inces- santly engaged in completing the conquest of Canaan, but they met with no very formidable resistance after the memorable battle against the five kings before Gibeon. They did not however wholly extermi- aate the idolatrous tribes, as the Lord had commanded ; they became weary of the protracted warfare, and the warriors of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh, were naturally anxious to return to their families beyond Jordan. This impolitic act of disobedience was subsequently produc- tive of fatal consequences, for the surviving Canaanites eagerly sought and embraced every opportunity of taking revenge for the extermina- tion of their brethren. Even in peace they were scarcely less danger- ous to the prosperity of the chosen people than in war, for they fre- ^quently seduced the Israelites to join in the impure and impious rites of their licentious idolatry. Soon after tranquillity had been established in Palestine, and the dif- ferent tribes and families had taken possession of their allotted portions, Joshua died, at the advanced age of one hundred and ten, having ruled the country as wisely as he had conquered it bravely : " And Israel served the Lord all the days of Joshua, and all the days of the elders that overlived Joshua, and which had known all the works of the Lord that he had done for Israel." Section IV. — History of Israel under the Judges. Under the theocracy, as established by Moses, the civil government of Israel was to be administered by Shophetim, or Judges, nominated by the divine oracle, the mysterious Uiim and Tkummim, which were in the custody of the high-priest ; but after the death of Joshua the Israelites frequently apostatized to idolatry, the oracles of God were neglected, the appointment of chief magistrates omitted. The tribe of fudah at first actively engaged in completing the conquest which had PALESTINE. 41 been left imperfect, but otners entered into compact with the Canaan ites, and were so insnared by the beauty of their women as to contract affinities with them. Tliese intermarriages soon reconciled them to the worship of the false gods of the heathen, and provoked tlie Almighty to deliver them over to the hands of their enemies. God permitted the idolatrous Israelites to be subdued by the king of Mesopotamia, who held them in subjection for nearly eight years ; but on their repent- ance, Oth'niel was raised up to be their deliverer, and under his admin- istration " they had rest forty years." A second defection was pun- ished by a servitude to the Moabites for eighteen years, at the end of which time E'hud slew the king of Moab, delivered Israel, and restored peace. Sham'gar, the third judge, repelled the incursions of the Phil- istines, and slew six hundred of them with an ox-goad. But "the children of Israel again did evil in the sight of the Lord, vvhen E'hud was dead. And the I^ord sold them into the hand of Jabin, king of Canaan." For twenty years the Israelites groaned under the yuke of this despot, but they were at length delivered by the prophetess Deb''- orah, aided by Barak, a leader of established reputation. A new apostacy was punished by a more severe servitude ; " the Lord delivered them into the hand of Midian seven years. And the hand of Midian prevailed against Israel ; and because of the Midian- ites, the children of Israel made them the dens which are in the moun- tains, and caves, and strongholds." The liberator chosen to deliver the Israelites from this miserable bondage was Gid'eon, who, with only three hundred men, made a night attack on the camp of the Midianites. Thrown into confusion by the unexpected assault, and deceived as to the number of their enemies, the Midianites turned their arms against each other, and finally fled in disorder. They were vigorously pur- sued, great numbers were slain, an immense quantity of valuable spoils taken, and the freedom of Israel restored. Under Gid^eon's administration, " the land had rest for forty years ;" but after his death the people of Shechem, at the instigation of Abim'- elech, a natural son of Gid'eon, slew all the legitimate children of Gid'eon except the youngest, and proclaimed Abim'elech king. This dreadful crime produced a civil war, and the fratricide was liimself afterward killed by a woman. There was nothing remarkable in the administration of the judges Tola an(f Jair ; but after the death of the latter, the idolatry of the Israelites became so gross, that God delivered them into the hands of the Philistines and the Ammonites. In their distress, the children of Israel, probably by divine direction, applied to Jeph'thah, the natural son of Gil'ead, who, having been refused a share of his father's inher- itance, had become the chief of a predatory band beyond Jordan. .Jeph'thah was succeeded by Ib'zan, E'lon, and Ab'don, of whom nothing remarkable is recorded. They were followed by E'li, who united in his person the office of high-priest and judge. Under his administration, the apostacy of the Israelites was punished by their being delivered over to the Philistines, who harassed them for nearly forty years. These oppressors deprived the Israelites of all their weapons of war, and of the means of procuring others. During this period appeared Sara'son, the most extraordinary of the *2 ANCIENT HISTORY. Jewish heroes, whose birth and prowess were mirsculously foretold to both his parents. During his Hie he harassed the PhiUstines, slaugh- tering them with wonderful displays of strength ; and by his last act, in pulling upon himself and upon his enemies the temple of theii national god, in which a general assembly of the people were gathered, the dead which " he slew at his death were more than they which he slew in his life." The Israelites were too disorganized to take advantage of ihii extraordinary slaughter of the Philistine lords ; E'li, their judge, vva* ' nearly one hundred years old, and his two sons, Hoph'ni and Phin' ehas, who acted under him, took advantage of his weakness to commiv the most profligate abominations. Samuel, wliom God had called i^ his youth to become a prophet and the future judge of Israel, was commanded by the Lord to denounce divine vengeance agaiust E'li ; after Avhich he became generally known as an inspired person, divinely chosen to be E'li's successor. Samuel, though still a youth, Avas chosen judge of Israel after the death of E'li. He assembled the people, and impressed upon them the criminality and folly of their idolatry ; they were convinced by his reasoning, and put away their strange deities, promising to serve the Lord alone. They were rewarded by a signal victory over the Philis- tines ; after which the land had rest during the remainde/ of Samuel's administration. When Samuel had judged Israel twenty years, he appointed his two sons to assist him ; but these young men, like the sous of E'li, per- verted justice, and the elders of Israel unanimously demanded a king to rule over them like other nations. Samuel remoiisirated with them for thus abandoning their peculiar distinction of havmg the Lord for their king ; but when the demand was renewed more urgently, on a threatened invasion of the Ammonites, he was directed by the Lord to comply with the popular request. According to the divine instructions he selected Saul, the son of Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin, to be the first monarch of the Israelites (b. c. 1095). He was presented to the tribes dt Miz'peh, " and Samuel said to all the people. See ye him whom the Lord hath chosen, that there is none like him among all the people ? And all the people shouted and said, God save the king !" Section V. — History of the United Kingdom of Israel. Many of the Israelites were discontented with the choice that had been made of a monarch. But these symptoms of discontent were Boon checked by the signal proof which Saul gave of his military qualifications. Nahash, king of the Ammonites, invaded Israel, and laid siege to Jabesh-Gil'ead ; the inhabitants proposed to capitulate, but Nahash sternly replied, " On this condition will I make a covenant with you, that I may thrust out all your right eyes, and lay it as a reproach upon Israel." When this intelligence reached the general assembly of the Israelites, they burst into loud lamentations ; but Saul commanded an instant levy of the people. A numerous body of sol- diers obeyed the summons ; Saul marched against the Ammonites, and defeated them so effectually, that not two of them were left together PALESTINE!. 43 So delighted were the people with this victory, that they proposed to punish with death all who had resisted the elevation of their young monarch ; but Saul said, " There shall not be a man put to death this day ; for to-day the Lord hath wrought salvation in Israel." A solemn assembly of the tribes was then convoked at Gil'gal, in order that the people should renew their allegiance. Here Samuel resigned his ofRce. Saul was aided in his governm^ent by his son Jonathan, a young man of heroic valor and the most generous disposition. With a select bavid, he attacked and stormed the Philistine garrison at Geba, which neces- sarily led to war. The Israelites were badly prepared for hostilities, and when the tribes met at Gil'gal, they showed the greatest timidity and confusion. They were also disheartened by the absence of Sam- uel, whose duty it was to offer the solemn sacrifice, and began to dis- perse ; Saul, alarmed lest be should be entirely deserted, offered the solemn sacrifice himself; but the ceremony was not concluded when Samuel appeared, and announced to the too hasty monarch, that for this wilful violation of the law, the kingdom should not be hereditary in his fomlly. The Philistines, advancing with an immense army, blockaded Saul, who had only about six hundred men under his command in the mountains of Gib'eah, but he was unexpectedly liberated from his dif- ficulties by the daring valor of his son Jonathan, who, accompanied only by his armor-bearer, attacked a Philistine outpost, and spread such a panic through the whole army that they were easily routed by Saul. After this victory, Saul led his forces against the different nations that harassed ihe frontiers of his kingdom ; when these had been re- strained from their incursions, Samuel, by the direction of the Lord, commanded Saul to execute divine vengeance on the Amalekites, who nad been long the most bitter enemies of the chosen people. Saul smote the Amalekites with great slaughter ; but, in direct violation of the Divhie prohibitions, he spared the life of A'gag, their king, and brought away with him a vast booty of cattle. Samuel bitterly re- proached the king for his ingratitude to God, and announced to Saul that his disobedience should be punished by the loss of his kingdom, which the Lord would transfer to a more worthy person. Samuel departed from Saul, whom he never again visited : directed by God, he went to the family of Jes'se, in Bethlehem of Judah, where he anointed David, Jcs'se's youngest son, who thenceforth was gifted with supernatural endowments. In the meantime, Saul became subject to fits of phrensy and melancholy, which his servants supposed could be best dispelled by the influence of music : they therefore sent for David, whose skill on the harp was already celebrated, and his ex- quisite skill frequently enabled him to dispel the gloom that depressed the king's spirits. The Philistines, probably encouraged by secret in- formation of Saul's unhappy condition, renewed the war against Israel, and Saul led out an army to protect the frontiers. While the hostile forces were encamped in sight of each other, the gigantic Goliath of Gath came forth as champion of the Philistines, and challenged any Israelite warrior to contend against him ; all were daunted by the stat- ure, strength, and ferocity of the giant. At length David presented himself to the combat, armed only with his staff and a sling : the vaunt- mg Philistine treated the young hero with contempt, but a stone irona 44 ;\NC1ENT HISTORY. the sling, striking liim full in the forehead, penetrated to the brain, and laid him prostrate on the earth Disheartened by the loss of their champion, the Philistines fled in confusion, and were pursued with great slaughter beyond the frontiers of their own country. David's distinguished valor led to a warm and sincere friendship be- tween him and Jonathan, but it excited bitter jealousy in the mind of Saul. The marriage of David to Michal, Saul's daughter, did not allay the king's jealous hatred ; he openly declared his intention of putting his son-in-law to death, and took active measures for the purpose. Once David was saved by the stratagem of his wife, and again by the vigilant friendship of Jonathan ; but he saw tjjat he was no longer sure of his life, if he remained within the reach of Saul, and therefore sought safety in exile. After a brief residence among the Philistines, he re- turned to Palestine, and became the leader of a band of men of broken fortimes, compelled to endure all the vicissitudes of such a perilous life. He was closely pursued by his vindictive enemy, Saul, and twice had it in his power to destroy his persecutor. But he was too loyal " to lift his ]iand against the Lord's anointed ;" he therefore only in- formed Saul of the danger to which he had been exposed, and thus proved his own innocence. These events led to a temporary recon- ciliation ; but David, having reason to fear that Saul meditated treach- ery, withdrew to the court of A^chish, one of the kings of the Philis- tines. Tlie death of Samuel left Saul in a most wretched condition ; the prophets fled from him, the priests were slaughtered, " and when Saul inquired of the Lord, the Lord answered him not, neither by dreams, nor by Urim, nor by prophets." At this crisis, the Philistines invaded the country with a numerous army. Saul was encamped on Mount Gil'boa, with forces far inferior to the enemy. Eager to learn some- thing of his fate, he resolved to consult one of those unlawful diviners who had been in better times severely proscribed ; he was conducted by his servants to a woman residing near En'dor, " who had a familiar spirit," and he persuaded her to evoke Samuel from the tomb. The image of the prophet appeared, and predicted to the terrified monarch the fatal news of his approacliing defeat and death (b, c. 1055). On the second morning after this vision, Saul entered the last of his fields ; the Israelites had long neglected the use of the bow, and to their su- periority in this weapon the Philistines chiefly owed their victory : "the battle went sore against Saul, and the archeis hit him, and he was sore wounled of the archers." Afraid of falling alive into the hands of his enemies, he fell upon his own sword ; his gallant sons had pre- riously fallen, and the overthrow of the Hebrew army was complete. David had just returned to Zik'lag from pursuing the Amalekites, when he heard of the calamitous result of the battle on Mount Gilboa. Having consulted the Lord as to his future proceedings, he was di- rected to go to Heb'ron, where he was anointed king over the tribe of Judah, who regarded him as the champion of their race. In the mean- itime, Ab'ner, Saul's general, prevailed upon the northern tribes to elect Ish'bosheth, Saul's son, their monarch, and he removed him to Ma- hanaim, which was beyond Jordan, in order that he might have time to recruit his shattered army. One of David's earliest measures was to PALESTINE 45 Bend a message of thanks to the inhabitants of Jabcsh-Gil'ead for tneir honorable conduct to the deceased king and his sons : he next caused the young men of Judah to be instructed in the use of the bow, and they soon rivalled the Philistines in archery. War was soon declared between the kings of Israel and Judah : Joab, who commanded David's forces, inflicted a severe defeat on Ab'- ner, Ish'bosheth's general, and from that time David's power began rapidly to increase. Ab'ner, while exerting himself to strengthen Ish'- bosheth, incurred the displeasure of that prince ; he therefore resolved to seek a reconciliation with David, whom he visited in the character of a mediator, but on his return he was treacherously slain by Joab, who probably feared that Ab'ner would become a powerful rival. The death of Ab'ner disheartened the supporters of Ish'bosheth ; two of his captains murdered him in liis bed, and brought the new ; to David, but instead of being rewarded as they hoped, they suff"ered the punishment of treason. No other claimant appearing lor the throne, the heads of all the tribes of Israel came to Heb'ron, and recognised David as their sovereign. But the breach which had taken place between the north- ern -vnd southern tribes was never completely healed ; they continued to regard themselves as distinct in policy and interest, until they were finally divided into separate states by the folly of Rehoboam. The city of Jerusalem had long been held by the Jebusites, who, ac- cording to the traditions of the east, were a tribe of the wandering and plundering Hyk'sos. David resolved to besiege this important city with all the forces of his kingdom ; the place was carried by storm, and David was so pleased with the situation of the place that he made it the capital of his dominions. The Philistines were alarmed at the increasing power of David ; as- sembling all their forces, they crossed the frontier, took Bethlehem by storm, and compelled David for a while to seek shelter in the cave of Adul'lam ; but the Hebrew king soon gathered his forces, and he so utterly routed the Philistines in two successive engagements that they never more were able to compete with him or any of his successors. Hiram, king of Tyre, entered into a firm alliance with the victorious monarch, and supplied him with workmen and materials to erect a palace in his new city. David's next care was to remove the ark from Kir'jath-jearim to Jerusalem. The pious monarch was also anxious to build a temple for the national worship, but the prophet Nathan de- clared to him tha '!; was not fit for a warrior, whose hands were so often stained with blood, to erect a temple to the God of peace, but that this glorious duty would devolve upon his son and successor. David now directed his attention to the surrounding nations ; he overthrew the Philistines, the Moabites, and the Amalekites ; he com- pelled the Syrians and Edomites to become tributary, and he amassed a prodigious quantity of spoil, a large portion of which he dedicated as a sacred treasure to defray the future expenses of building the temple. The Ammonites and Syrians soon renewed the war, but they were again vanquished, and the dominions of David were extended to the Euphrates. But while this war was continued David provoked the anger of the Lord, by taking Bath'sheba, the wife of Uriah, one of his bravest captains, to liimself, and exposing her husband to ceruiu death. 46 ANCIENT HISTORY. The prophet Nathan was sent to reprove his guilt ; David humbly con- fessed his sin, and his remorse and repentance procured him pardon from his offended God. Domestic calamities interrupted the prosperity of David's reign ; Amnon, his eldest son, was slain by his brother Ab'- salom, in revenge for a gross insult offered to his sister, and the young prince was no sooner pardoned and taken into favor, than he began to plot the dethronement and probable death of his indulgent father. The standard of revolt was raised ; but a numerous army headed by Joab and his brothers marched against Ab'salom, and completely routed his forces in the forest of Ephraim. The unfortunate prince, attempting to escape, was entangled by his long hair in the branches of an oak ; in this situation he was slain by Joab, contrary to the express commands of David, who was fondly attached to his rebellious trn. The northerp tribes again revolted, under the command of Sheba, but they were soon subdued, and their leader punished with death. David next turned his arms against the Philistines, whom he over- threw in four successive battles ; but the joy inspired by these victories was soon changed into mourning, for David, having presumed " to num ber the people," was punished by a pestilence, which swept away seventy thousand of his subjects. Shortly afterward, David, being in- formed that his son Adonijah was tampering with some of the nobles, in order to obtain the throne, gave orders that Solomon, his son by Bath'sheba, should be proclaimed king. When this ceremony was performed, David tranquilly prepared to meet the approach of death. He died after a troubled but glorious reign of forty years. Sol'omon commenced his reign by putting to death Adonijah and Joab. In order to strengthen himself against foreign enemies, he mar- ried the daughter of the Egyptian Pharaoh, receiving as her dowry a portion of Canaan which had been subdued by that monarch. The Lord appeared to Sol'omon in a dream, and promised to grant him whatever he should ask ; the young king chose wisdom, and not only was his request granted, but riches, honor, and length of days, were ad- ded, on condition of his persevering in obedience to the divine com- mandments. The proofs which Sol'omon gave of his wisdom and dis- cernment were so celebrated throughout the east, that the most power- ful monarchs entered into alliance with him ; thus tranquillity Avas es- tablished, and leisure afforded for th'" erection of the temple. Seven years and a halj" were spent in the building of this magnificent edifice ; the costliness of its materials could only be surpassed by the beauty of the workmanship ; all the resources of wealth and ingenuity were ex- hausted on the wondrous structure. When completed it was dedicated to Jehovah in a solemn festival, and the Shekinah, or cloud of glory, which announced the visible presence of the Lord, overspread the en- tire edifice. Opposite Mount Moriah, on which the temple stood, Solomon erect- ed a magnificent palace, and furnished it with unrivalled splendor. He was the first who introduced the use of chariots and horses for warlike purposes in Israel ; these he procured from Egypt, through his alliance with the Pharaoh; and as cavalry was then scarcely known in western Asia, his power appeared so formidable that his authority was recog nised in all the countries between the Nile and the Euphrates. Sol'o PALESTINE. 47 mon was a distinguished patron of commerce ; he opened a hicrative trade with Egypt, not only in chariot-horses but in linen-yam and cot- ton manufactures ; to facilitate the commercial intercourse between western and central Asia, he erected the city of Tad'mor, which, in a later age, became so celebrated mider the name of Palmy'ra ; finally, he built a navy at Ez'ion-geber, a convenient harbor on the gulf of Ak'aba, in the northern part of the Red sea, whence his subjects, aided by the experienced mariners of Tyre, carried on a lucrative traffic with the rich countries of southern Asia and Africa. The learning of Solo- mon was not less conspicuous than his wealth. In his old age, SoFomon, seduced by his numerous " strange wives," forsook the Lord, by whom he had been protected, and not only per- mitted, but practised the rhes of an impious and licentious idolatry. Enemies were raised up against him on every side ; a revolt was or- ganized in E'dom. Damascus was seized by an independent adventu- rer, and Jeroboam, to whom the prophet Ahijah had predicted his future greatness, began openly to aspire at the government of the northern tribes ; but being unprepared for revolt he sought shelter in Egypt, where he was protected by King Shishak. It is generally behoved that Sol'omon, before his death, repented of his guilt. He died, after a reign of forty years (b. c. 975), and was buried in the city of David his father. Section Yl.— The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The History of the Kingdom of Israel. Rehoboam succeeded his father Sol'omon, and immediately after his accession went to Shechem, in order to receive the homage of the northern tribes. They h&d suffered severely, in the close of the late reign, from the pressure of taxation, and from the loss of trade conse- quent on the revolt of the Syrians ; they now deputed Jeroboam, and their elders, to demand a redress of grievances, promising implicit obe- dience if their burdens were removed. His father's aged and experi- enced ministers recommended compliance with the popular demands, but the king instigated by his rash associates, returned a haughty and threatening reply. Such an answer was the signal for rebellion. The northern tribes immediately chose Jeroboam for their king ; and thence- forward Israel and Judah became separate kingdoms. Rehoboam levied a large army to subdue the insurgents, but the Lord sent the prophf t Shemaiah to forbid his march, and he was forced thenceforth to rest contented with reigning over the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. Jeroboam, " the son of Nebat," immediately after his elevation, pre- pared to break off all connexion with the kingdom of Judah, and as the unity of the national worship, and the custom of going up three times a a year to Jerusalem, greatly impeded his plan, he resolved to establish idolatrous sanctuaries in his own kingdom, and accordingly, in imitation of the Egyptians, with whom he had so long resided, erected two golden calves, one at Beth'el, and the other at Dan. The choice of these places was not the result of caprice ; Beth'el had long been ven- erated as the place in which Jacob, the father of the Hebrew race, had his miraculous vision, and Dan had been the seat of idolatrous worship since the days of the Judges. The Levites refused to countenance 48 ANCIENT HISTORY this impious innovation, and sought shelter in the kingdom of Judah Jeroboam suppUed their place by selecting priests for his new deities from the lowest of the people. A desultory warfare was maintained between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel through the whole of Jero- boam's reign, which lasted twenty-two years ; but in the nineteenth year Jeroboam received so severe a defeat that he never again dis- played his former spirit of enterprise. Nadab succeeded his father Jeroboam in his kingdom, and his idola- trous courses. His brief reign of two years produced no event of im- portance ; he was assassinated' by Baasha, one of his generals. Baasha put all that remained of Jeroboam's family to death. Baasha adopted the wicked policy of Jeroboam, and though the prophets of the Lord forewarned him that similar vengeance would overtake his family, obstinately persevered in his guilt. But many pf the Israelites were secretly attached to the pure worship of their fathers, and secretly went up annually to ofler' their devotions at Jerusalem. Baasha built a fortress at Ramah to intercept the pilgrims, but this was destroyed by A'sa, king of Judah, who also bribed the Syrians to invade the territories of his rival. Baasha's reign of twenty- three years was feeble and inglorious, and the warlike spirit of the Is- raelites seemed extinct. E'lah, a weak and luxurious prince, succeeded Baasha ; at the end of two years he was assassinated, while feasting in the house of his steward, by Zim'ri, the captain of his chariots. When the Israelite army, which was besieging Gib'bethon, heard of the murder, they ele- vated Om'ri, their leader, to the vacant throne, and marched against the usurping assassin. Zim'ri, hopeless of escape, fled into the palace, and setting it on fire, perished in the flames. Om'ri had still to con- tend against another rival, named Tib'ni, whom he easily subdued. The most important act of his reign was building the city of Samaria, so named from Shemer, the proprietor of the hill on wliich it was erected. Samaria became the capital of the kingdom of Israel, and long after the fall of that kingdom continued to be a place of great im- portance. " Om'ri wrought evil in the sight of the Lord, and did worse than all that went before him ;" but even his iniquities were sur- passed by those of his son and successor. A'hab commenced his reign by marrying Jez'ebel, the daughter of the king of Si'don, and at her instigation introduced the worship of the Si- donian deities, which consisted in the offering of human sacrifices, and other ceremonies too abominable for description. Those who adhered o the religion of Jehovah were bitterly persecuted, the schools of the prophets were closed, and many of the teachers murdered. Elijah, undaunted by danger, denounced Divine vengeance against such iniquity, -ut he was forced to fly, and seek concealment in the fastnesses on the frontier. God punished the iniquity of the land by fearful drought and famine. A'hab, in his distress, sent for Elijah, who challenged the priests of Baal to appear in sight of all the people on Mount Carmel, and there del ermine which deity, Baal or Jehovah, was the most pow- erful protector of the nation. The challenge was accepted ; the supe- riority of the Lord was proved by the most signal miracles, and the multitude, enraged at those by whom they had been duped, pri to death PALESTINE. 49 ft!l the prophets of Baal, by comiiKviul of Eh'jah, at the brook Kishon The ciir.se was then removed from the hmd, plenteous rain descended, and the famine ceased. Jez'ebel Avas greatly enraged at the defeat of her national deity, and Elijah once more fled into the wilderness. Af- ter having witnessed some wondrous manifestations of Divine power, he was conmianded to announce to Haz'ael that he should be king of Syria, to Jehu that he should be king of Israel, and to Elisha that he should be his successor in the office of prophet. When A'hab had reigned eighteen years, Benhadad, king of Syria, at the head of thirty-two tributary princes, and a numerous army, laid siege to vSamaria. Encouraged by a prophet of the Lord, A'hab at- tacked this immense host with a mere handful of men, and gained a sig-nal victory. Benhadad attempted to retrieve his losses in the fol- lowing year, but was routed with terrible slaughter. A r^ew crime pro- voked God's wrath against A'hab and his family ; he was anxious to obtain a vineyard belonging to Naboth, a native of Jez'reel, in order to enlarge his garden. The wicked Jez'ebel contrived that the innocent man should be stoned to death, and iV'hab took possession of the vine- yard. In the moment of his triumph the prophet Elijah appeared, and denounced fearful vengeance for this crime, but A'hab, by timely re- pentance, obtained a gracious respite, so that the evils impending over his house did not happen until after his death, which took place in a balde against the Syrians, in which the allied forces of A'hab and of Je- hoshaphat, king of Judah were defeated. Ahaziah succeeded A'hab, and like him, was devoted to idolatry. A fall from a window, in the second year of his reign, so severely injured him, that fears were entertained for his life, and he sent his servants to consult the oracle of Baalzebub, in Ek'ron. On their road the messen- gers were met by Elijah, who predicted the approaching death of the king, as a punishment for having consulted false gods. Ahaziah sent two detachments, of fiffy men each, to arrest the prophet, but both com- panies were consumed by fire from heaven. A third captain of fifty interceded with the prophet; Elijah accompanied him to the king's presence, where he repeated his denunciation, which was soon accom plishec' by Ahaziah's death. Jehorani, another son of A'hab succeeded, but was less prone to idol- atry than his father and brother, for he prohibited the worship of the Sidonian Baal, though he did not remove the golden calves which Jero- boam had set up at Dan and Bethel. It was about this time that Elijah was taken up into heaven, without enduring the pangs of death, and his successor, Elisha, began to prove his mission by a series of stupendous miracles. Benhadad, the Syrian monarch of Damascus, defeated in several attacks on the kingdom of Israel, attributed his ill success to the prophet, and sent a body of his soldiers to make him prisoner ; hu the Syrian troops Avere smitten with blindness, and in this helpless con- dition easily taken captive. The Syrian monarch was not daunted; he assembled a large army, advanced against Samaria, blockaded the city, and reduced the inhabitants to the greatest extremities of famhie. Je- horam menaced vengeance against Elisha, but the prophet assured him, ihat by the next day Samaria would have abundance of provisions. On tt.at night, under the influence of supernatural terror, they fled- 50 ANCIENT HISTORY. The rich plunder of the vacant tents soon restored plenty tt the houses of the besieoed ; Benhadad, after his return, was murdt red by his ser- vant Haz'aol, who usurped the throne, and became a most formidable enemy of the kingdom of Israel. Jehorara entered into alliance with Ahaziah, king of Judah, in order to recover Ramoth-Gil'ead, but their joint forces were routed by the Syi-ians ; the king of Israel was severely wounded, and retired to Jez'reel to be healed. In the meantime, Eh- sha, by command of the Lord, sent a prophet to anoint Jehu king of Israel ; and the new sovereign who was a great favorite v/iih the army, advanced toward Jez'reel. Hearing of his approach, Jehoram went out to meet him, accompanied by Ahaziah, king r^f Judah. Their con- ference was brief; Jehu shot Jehoram through the heart, with an arrow, and ordered his body to be cast into the vineyard of Naboth, as the Lord had ibretold. Ahaziah was overtaken and slain ; but his servants conveyed his body to Jerusalem, and buried it in the sepulchre of his fathers. Jehu advanced to Jez'reel without opposition ; as he came near the palace, Jez'ebel looked out from tlie window, and reproached him with his treason; the servants, by Jehu's direction, threw her headlong down on the pavement, and her mangled body was trampled under the feet of the horses. In the evening orders were given for her inter- ment, but it was found that the greater part of the body had been devoured by dogs and beasts of prey, as the prophet Elijah had fore- told. A'hab's family was very numerous ; seventy of his sons were in Samaria, but they were all beheaded by the citizens, who dreaded the power of Jehu ; and forty-two of the family of the king of Judah shared the same fate. Jehu completely extirpated the worship of Baal, but he continued the idolatry which Jeroboam had established, and there- fore the duration of his dynasty was limited to his desqendants of the fourth generation. The Syrians, under Haz'ael, grievously afflicted the Israelites during the reigns of Jehu and his son Jehoahaz ; but these visitations failed to turn the princes or the people from their impious idolatries. In the reign of the latter Elisha died, but his miraculous powers did not cease with his life, for a dead body was restored to life by touching his bones in the tomb. The Israelites gained three victories over the Syrians, and thus recovered the ancient frontiers of their kingdom ; they also conquered Amaziah, king of Judah, plundered Jerusalem, and brought it3 rich spoils to Samaria. The kingdom of Israel continued to flourish during the long reign of Jeroboam II.; he enlarged his hereditary dominions by the conquest of several cities belonging to the kings of Syria and Judah, and made his kingdom respected among surrounding nations. His death was followed by a period of great confusion ; there was an interregnum of eleven years before Zachariah, his son, succeeded him ; and he, after a brief reign of six months, Avas murdered by Shal'lum, who was in his turn slain by Men'ahem. In the reign of this usurper the Israel- ites were attacked by a new enemy ; the Assyrians under Pul, supposed by some to be the Sardanapalus of profane writers, came against ho land and Men'ahem was forced to purchase his forbearance by the payment of a large tribute. The conqueror, however, in return, pro- PALESTINE. 51 tected Men'aliem against all other enemies, and the remainder of hia reign was passed in tranquillity. His son Pekahiah succeeded, but al the end of two years he was murdered by Pekah, one of his generals who usurped the throne. TJiough Pekah was a wicked and sanguinary pjince, yet on accoum of the sins of A'haz, God permitted him to prevail over the rival king- dom of Judah. In conjunction with Rcz'in, king of Damascus, he invaded southern Palestine, and brought away a vast number of cap- lives, who were, however, restored to their country upon the injunction of a prophet of the Lord, But notwithstanding this single act of obe- dience, the sins of the Israelites continued to increase, and the threat- ened punishments began to be inflicted. The Assyrian hosts ravaged all the country beyond Jordan ; the interior of the kingdom was con- vulsed by factions, and in the midst of these tumults Pekah was slain bv Hoshea, a general of some reputation. After nine years of civil war, Hoshea succeeded in establishing him- self upon the throne, but during the interval, the Assyrians under Tig- lath-pilescr, and his son Shalmaneser, overran the kingdom, and ren- dered it tributary. As soon as his title was established, Hoshea became anxious to regain independence, and for this purpose entered into alli- ance with So or Sab'aco, an Ethiopian prince who had subdued Egypt. Shalmaneser immediately invaded the country, and laid siege to Samaria. After a brave resistance of three years, the city was taken by storm, and treated with the most ferocious cruelty by the barbarous conquerors (b. c. 719). Shalmaneser carried the Israelites captives into some dis- tant region beyond the Euphrates, and divided their country among Assyrian colonies. In consequence of the signs by which the Lord's wrath against idolatry was manifested, the new settlers adopted a cor- rupted form of the true religion. From them, and a portion of the old inhabitants which remained in the land, the Samaritans descended, be- tween whom and the Jews there was always the most bitter national enmity. Section VII. — History of the Kingdom of Judah. Kehoboam's kingdom was not so much injured by the revolt of the ten tribes as might be supposed. When idolatry was established by Jeroboam, the priests, the Levites, and a multitude of persons who still adhered to the worship of the true God, emigrated to Judah, where they were received as brethren. Rehoboam introduced the worst abominations of Ammonite idolatry, and the great body of the people participated in his guilt. His guilt was punished by an invasion of the Egyptians : " in the fifth year of King Rehoboam, Shishak king of Egypt came up against Jerusalem, because they had transgressed against the Lord, with twelve hundred chariots and threescore thou- sand horsemen : and the people were without number that came with liim out of Egypt ; the Lub'ims, the Sukk'iim, and the Ethiopians. And he took the fenced cities which pertained to Judah, and came to Jerusalem." The account here given of Shishak's power, and of his ruling over the Libyans, the Ethiopians, and the Sukk'iim, or Trog'lo- dytae, is confirmed by the Egyptian monuments, for the sculptures ascribed to him on the walls of Carnak, exliibit him offering to ih« 53 ANCIENT HISTORY. deity u. great number of captives belonging to different nations Reho boam purchased the forbearance of Shishaic by the payment of a large ransom. " Shishak took away the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's house ; he took all : he carried away also the shields of gold which Solomon made. Instead of which, King Rehoboam made shields of brass, and committed them to the hands of the chief of the guard that kept the entrance of the king's house." Abijah, the son of Rehoboam, soon after his succession, had to de fend his kingdom against the usurper of Israel, whose army greatly outnumbered that of Judah. The Lord gave the victory to Judah This victory greatly depressed the Israelites, and exalted the glory of Judah ; but before the king could improve his advantages, he was pre- maturely cut off by disease. A'sa, who succeeded his father, was a wise and pious prince. " He took away the altars of the strange gods . . . and commanded Judat. to seek the Lord God of their fathers, and to do the law and the com- mandment." He expelled the Egyptians from their ret ""nt conquests, and secured his frontiers by a chain of fortresses judiciously placed and strongly garrisoned. His piety was rewarded by Divine protection in the hour of danger. A vast horde of invaders approached the southern boimdary of Judea : in the original, these enemies are called Ciishim, a v/ord usually rendered Ethiopians. A'sa prayed to the God of his fa- thers for aid against this enormous host; his prayers were heard " The Lord smote the Ethiopians before A'sa and before Judah, and the Ethiopians fled." A'sa afforded every encouragement to the emigrants from Israel, who fled from the idolatry and wickedness which prevailed in that country. Baasha, who then reigned in Israel, erected a fortress at Ramah to check the emigration, and made such formidable preparations for war, that A'sa, with culpable distrust of the Divine favor, paid a large sum to the king of Syria for support and assistance. When re- proved for his crime by the prophet Han'ani, he thrust his honest ad- viser into prison, and thenceforward became tyrannical and oppressive. BeinfT subsequently attacked by a disease in the feet, " he sought not to the Lord but to the physicians,'^ and died in the prime of manhood. Jehosh'aphat succeeded his father A'sa, and in the commencement of liis reio-n used the most vigorous exertions to root idolatry from the land. Under this wise administration the kingdom of Judah became so prosperous, that not only the Philistines, but the distant Arabians paid tribute. Unfortunately, he contracted affinity with the wicked A'hab, and gave his son in marriage to Athaliah, the daughter of that monarch, a princess whose character was scarcely less depraved than that of her mother Jez'ebel. In consequence of this unfortunate alliance, Je- hosh'apha' was present at the disastrous battle of Ramoth-Gil'ead, where A'hab was slain ; he was surrounded by the enemy, and would have been killed, had he not " called upon the Lord," who rescued him from his imminent peril. Shortly after his return from the Assyrian campaign, Jehosh'aphat was attacked by the united forces of the Moab- ites, the Amorites, and the Edomites of Mount Seir. Jehosh'aphat threw himself on the protection of Jehovah, and the Lord sent a spirit %i disunion among the invaders, which led them to destroy each other PALESTINE. 53 by mutual slaughter. The people of Judah came upon their enemies thus broken, and obtained a great quantity of valuable spoil. Anxious to restore the commerce which Sol'omon had established on the Red sea, Jehosh'aphat entered into close alliance with the wicked Ahaziah, the son of A'hab ; and a na\y was prepared at their joint ex- pense, in E'zion-geber. But the unhallowed alliance was displeasing to the Lord, and the ships were destroyed in a storm. At his death Je- hosh'aphat left the kingdom of Judah in a more prosperous condition than it had been since the days of Sol'omon. Jehoram commenced his reign by the slaughter of his brethren, after which he legally established the abominations of the Sidonian idolatry in Judah. His iniquity was punished by the revolt of the Edomiles, who maintained their independence, and by invasions of the Philistines and Arabians, who carried away his wives and most of his children into captivity. He was finally smitten by a loathsome and incurable disease, of which he died in great tortures. Ahaziah, the youngest of Jehoram's children, and the only one spared by the Arabians, succeeded to the throne. During his brief reign of one year, he followed the evil courses of his father and mother. He entered into an alliance with Jehoram, king of Israel, and joined with him in the unsuccessful attempt to recover Ramoth-Gil'ead from Hazael, king of Syria. Having gone to meet Jehoram, while he lay sick of his wounds at Jez'reel, just at the time of Jehu's insurrection, he was involved in the fate of his ally, and slain by command of Jehu. Athaliah, the queen-mother, having heard of Ahaziah's death, usurp- ed the royal authority, and to secure her power, murdered all the royal family, save the infant Jehoash, who was saved by his paternal aunt, wife to the chief priest Jehoiada, and for six years secretly educated in -he temple. At the end of that time, Jehoiada gathered together the priests, the Levites, and the chief princes of Judah, to whom he re- vealed the existence of the young heir to the throne. " And Jehoiada and his sons anointed him, and said, God save the king." The accla- mations of those who witnessed the ceremony alarmed the wicked queen ; she rushed into the assembly, rending her garments, and ex- claiming, " Treason ! treason !" but she was forsaken by all her parti- sans, and, at Jeh^lada's command, was put to death beyond the precincts of the temple. Under the regency of Jehoiada, the worship of the true God was re- stored, the administration of justice purified, and the prosperity of the land re-established. He died at the great age of on^ hundred and thir- ty years. After the death of the regent, Jehoash yielded to the evil counsels of the profligate young nobles of Judah, and restored the wor- ship of the Sidonian Baal, with all its licentious abominations. Several prophets were sent to denounce his transgressions, but he persecuted them for their fidelity, and even put to death Zechariah, the son of his benefactor, Jehoiada, " in the court of the house of the Lord." His crime was soon punished : " the army of the Syrians came with a small company of men, and the Lord delivered a very great host into their hands." They had scarcely departed, when he was seized with " grea iiseases," and in the midst of his agony was murdered by his own ser vants. His subjects were so displeased by the calamities of his reigii^ 54 ANCIENT HISTORY that they would not allow his remains to be buried in the tombs of th« kings, an insult which had been previously offered to the body of Je- horam. Amaziah's first care, after his elevation to the throne, f/as to punish the murderers of his father. He then marched against the Edomites with an auxiliary force which he had hired from the kingdom of Israel. On the recommendation of a prophet, he dismissed his al- lies, by which they were so grievously offended, that they committed the most savage excesses on their way home. In the meantime, Am- aziah routed the Edonutes with great slaughter, and subdued all the country round Mount Seir. With strange perversity, he adopted the idolatry of the nations he had just subdued. The prophets warned him of the fearful consequences of his apostacy ; but their remonstrances were vain, and he was delivered into the hands of his enemies. Je- hoash, king of Israel, was the chosen instrument of Amaziah's punish- ment ; he defeated the men of Judah in a decisive engagement, took the king prisoner, captured Jerusalem, destroyed a large extent of his fortifications, and returned laden with spoil to Samaria. A conspiracy was subsequently organized against Amaziah ; he fled from Jerusalem to Lachish, but was overtaken by some of the emissaries of the rebels, and put to death. — Uzziah, the son of the murdered king, though only sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne, displayed, in the commencement of his reign, the wisdom of mature age. He restored the worship of the true God, and reformed the abuses which had crept into every depart- ment of the administration. God prospered his undertaknigs ; he sub- dued the Philistines, the Arabians, and the most warlike of the nomad tribes that border on the desert. To secure his conquests he erected a chain of fortresses, and to render them profitable, he excavated a great number of tanks or cisterns, by which means large tracts of land, hith- erto unprofitable, were brought into cultivation. " But when he waa strong, his heart was lifted up to his destruction ;" he attempted to usurp the priestly office by " burning incense upon the altar of incense,'' and persevered in spite of every warning. But, at the very moment that he was about to consummate this act of impiety, he was struck by a leprous disease, which at once severed him from all society wilh his fellow-men. Compelled to reside in a separate house, and unable to transact public affairs, he transferred the reins of government to hia son. On his death, his disease was assigned as a reason for refusing his body admission to the royal sepulchre, and it was interred in the adjoining field. Jotham had been accustomed to affairs of state during the lifetime of his father, whose piety he emulated, without imitating his fauUs His fidelity to the worship of Jehovah was rewarded by the conques* cf the Ammonites, who paid him a large tribute ; and thus " Jotham be- came mighty because he established his ways before the Lord hi& God." No particulars are recorded of his death, which took pkce m the seventeenth year of his reign. The most wicked king which had yet occupied the throne of Judah, was A'haz, the successor of the pious Jotham. He not only deserted ilie worship of the true God, but adopted those abominable supersii* tions which many of the heathen viewed with horror ; " he burnt in PALESTINE. 55 cense in the valley of ihc sons of Hin'noni, and burnt his children in the fire, after the abominations of tlie heathen whom the Lord had cast out before the children of Israel." His dominions were invaded by the kings of Syria and Israel, who carried multitudes into captivity ; but the Israelites generously releaseJ their prisoners, as has been already related. The Edomiles and Philistines next attacked the kingdoir of Judah : A'haz, unable to meet them in the field, sought to purchase aid from Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria ; but that monarch received the tribute, and withheld any effectual assistance. In his distress, A'haz sunk deeper into idolatry ; " he sacrificed unto the gods of Damascus which smote him, and he said, because the gods of the kings of Syria help them, therefore will I sacrifice to them that they may help me But they were the ruin of him and of all Israel." A^haz went further ; he shut up the temple of the Lord, broke the sacred vessels in pieces, and erected idolatrous altars "in every corner of Jerusalem." The country was thus brought to the brink of ruin ; but its fall was arrested by the death of the impious monarch. His subjects showed their re- sentment for the evils of his administration by refusing his body admis- sion to the sepulchres of their kings. Hezekiah commenced his reign by a thorough reformation of the abuses which had so nearly brought destruction on Judah. The chief adviser of the pious king was the prophet Isaiah, who had proclaimed the future advent of the Messiah, and denounced the national sins in the Jwo preceding reigns. All the vestiges of idolatry were destroyed, the images were broken, the groves cut down, and the polluted altars over- thrown ; even the brazen serpent, which had been preserved since the days of Moses, was demolished, because it had become the object of idolatrous veneration. The kingdom of Judah soon acquired such strength, that Hezekiah ventured to shake off the Assyrian yoke, to which his father had submitted. Shalmaneser, who had just conquered Israel, would have immediately marched against Judah, had not the wealthy cities of Phcenicia offered a more tempting prize to his avarice and ambition. His son, Sennacherib, inherited liis revenge against Judah : he advanced to Lachish with a powerful army, but Hezekiah, with culpable timidity, attempted to purchase his forbearance by a larg- bribe. This rich tribute only served to stimulate the cupidity of Sennacherib ; he sent a large army directly against Jerusalem, but Hezekiah, encouraged by the gracious promises of Divine protection, communicated to him by the prophet Isafah, made the most judicious preparations for a vigorous defence. Rab'shakeh, the Assyrian gen- eral, summoned the city to surrender, in a haughty and insolent tone, speaking in the Hebrew language, that his threats might be understood by the people. Hezekiah, who was suffering under severe illness, sought protection from the Lord, and his wavering faith was confirmed by the shadow of the sun retrograding on the dial at the command of Isaiah, In a few days, the Assyrians were summoned away to defend their dominions against Tirhakah, the king of Meroe, or Ethiopia, who had conquered Egypt, and was endeavoring to extend his empire to the Euphrates. Sennacherib defeated the Ethiopians, and, flushed with victory, renewed the siege of Jerusalem, threatening death and destruc- tion to the entire kingdom. But his vaunts were suddenly checked; " the angel of the Lord went forth and smote in the camp of the Assyria ^6 ANCIENT HISTORY. ans a hundred fourscore and five tliousand ; and when they arose early in the mornnig, behold they were all dead corpses." Sennacherib fled to Nin'eveh with the miserable remnant of his forces, and was soon af- ter murdered by his own sons, " as he was worshipping in the house of Nis'roch, his god." The intelligence of this wondrous deliverance was spread over the east ; Ber'odach-Bal'adan, king of Babylon, sent ambassadors to con- gratulate Hezekiah, and also to inquire into the phenomenon of the retrogression of the solar shadow. Hezekiah, with foolish pride, dis- played all his treasures to the ambassadors. Isaiah was sent to re- prove his ostentation, and to inform him that these Babylonians wouM destroy the kingdom of Judah. The repentant monarch heard the re- buke with pious resignation, and submissively yielded himself to the dispensations of Providence. His death was sincerely lamented by his subjects ; " they buried liim in the chiefest of the sepulchres of the sons of David ; and all Judah and the inhabitants of Jerusalem did him hon- or at his death." Manas^seh v/as scarcely less remarkable for iniquity than his father for piety ; He even exceeded A'haz in impiety, for he revelled in the grossest abominations of eastern idolatry. His subjects too readily im- itated his example ; they joined him in persecuting the prophets of the Lord, who remonstrated against their transgressions ; there is a con- stant tradition among the Jews, that Isaiah was sawn in sunder during the reign of this merciless tyrant. But an avenger was at hand ; the Assyrians invaded Judah with overwhelming forces, stormed Jerusa- lem, and carried the impious Manas'seh in chains to Babylon (b. c. 676). The imfortimate monarch was treated with savage cruelty by his captors ; he was so loaded with iron bands, that he coidd not move his head. But " when he was in aflliciion, he besought the Lord his God, and humbled himself greatly before the God of his fathers ; and prayed unto him, and He was sntreated of him, and brought him again to Jerusalem into his kingdom." Manas'seh, thus restored, applied himself diligently to extirpate idolatry ; and the remainder of his reign was spent in peace and comparative tranquillity. Notwithstanding the fearful punishment inflicted on Manas'seh, and his example of sincere penitence, A'mon, his son and successor, re- vived all the infamous rites of idolatry. In a brief reign of two years, tlie kingdom was brought to the verge of destruction ; corruption spread through every department of the administration, and crimes at which nature revolts were not Only permitted, but encouraged. At length, some of the officers of the household slew the licentious monarch ; they were however put to death for their treason ; and Josiah, the son of A'mon, at the early age of eight years, was raised to the throne. From the moment of his accession, Josiah eagerly applied himself to restoring the worship of the true God, and reforming the abuses of the kingdom. Josiah travelled through his kingdom, and through some of the adjoining cities of Israel which lay almost desolate, removing from them eveiy vestige of idolatry ; and having thus purified his king- dozn, he celebrated the feast of the Passover with the utmost solemnity and splendor. The greater part of Josiah's reign was spent in tran- quillity ; but Avhen he had been rather more than thirty years upon the Jirone, the o 'ertlirow of the Assyrian empire by the Modes and Bab- PALESTINE. 57 ylonians, induced Pliaraoli-Neclio, the powerful king of Egypt, to at- tempt the extension of his dominions to tlie Euphrates. Josiah rashly attacked the Egyptian forces in the valley of Megid'do, and was mor tally wounded. His servants brought him to Jerusalem, where he died. " And all Judah and Jerusalem mourned for Josiah." The people of Jerusalem raised Jehoahaz.the youngest son of .Josiah, to the throne ; but he was set aside by the victorious Pharaoh-Necho, who gave the kingdom to the elder prince Eliakim, and changed his name to Jehoiakim. A complete revolution in the affairs of Asia was effected by the victorious career of Nebuchadnez'zar, king of Babylon. He overthrew the Egyptians at Car'chemish, " and took from the river of Egypt unto the river Euphrates, all that pertained to the king of Egypt." Jehoiakim submitted to the conqueror, and agreed to pay tribute for the kingdom of Judah, but afterward planning a revolt, Neb- uchadnez'zar returned to Jerusalem, plundered the city, sent the treasures and sacred vessels of the temple as trophies to Babylon, put Jehoiakim to death as a rebel, and left his unburied corpse a prey to the fowls of the air, and the beasts of the fields. He was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin, who after a brief but profligate reign of three months, was deposed by the imperious conqueror, and sent in chains to Babylon, with a multitude of other captives. Zedekiah, the uncle of the deposed monarch, was chosen his succes sor ; but he did not take Avarning by the fate of his predecessors, and abstain from intrigues with Egypt. Instigated by Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, and encouraged by false prophets, he renounced Ms allegiance to the king of Babylon. When the forces of Nebuchadnez'zar approached. Pharaoh-Hoph'ra made but a faint effort to assist his unfortunate ally ; on the first repulse, he retreated within the frontiers of his own king- dom, leaving Zedekiah to bear the brunt of the Assyrians' rage. Neb- ichadnez'zar, after a short siege, compelled Jerusalem to surrender unconditionally. Zedekiah and his family fled, but were overtaken by the pursuers in the plains of Jericho ; the degraded king was dragged in chains before the cruel conqueror ; his wives and children were slain in his presence, his eyes were put out, and he was sent in chains to terminate his miserable existence as a captive in Bab'ylon. Jeru- salem and its temple were razed to the ground ; the wretched inhab- itants were transported to Bab'ylon ; and for seventy years the holy city had no existence save in the memory of heart-broken exiles (b. c. 586). The day on which Jerusalem was taken, and that on which its destruction was completed, are observed even in our age, as days of fasting and humiliation, by the scattered remnant of the Jewish nation. The former event occurred on the ninth day of the fourth month ; the latter on the seventh day of the fifth month. Oriental conquerors subjected their captives to the most cruel treat- ment. They were bound in the most painful attitudes and driven like cattle to the slave-markets, where families were divided, by their mem- bers being sold to different masters. It is probable that the Babyloni- ans were not less severe task-masters than the Egyptians had been , for we find in the later prophets that the memory of what the Jews had suffered ever rankled in the mind of the nation ; and it is remarkable that after their deliverance they never again lapsed into idolatry 59 ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER VL THE EMPIRE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANM Section I. — Geograjjhical Outline. The boundaries of Iran, which Europeans call Persia, have under gone many changes : in its most prosperous periods, its lirnits wrre the Persian gidf and Indian ocean on the south, the rivers Indus and Ox'ua on the east, the Caspian sea and Caucasian mountains on the north, and the Euphrates on the west. The most striking features of rnls ex- tensive country are numerous chains of mountains, and extensive tracts of desert, interspersed with fertile valleys and rich pasture-lands. The southern coast along the Persian gulf is a sandy plain, desolated by pes- tilential winds from the desert of Kerman, and scarcely possessing any indentation or navigable river which could serve as a harbor. Thence to the Caspian sea and the Ox'us there is a succession of mount- ains and valleys of different elevation and extent. Few of the mount- ains are of extraordinary height, though some of the ranges are capped with perpetual snow. None of the valleys are wide, but some of them extend to the length of one hundred miles. Persia Proper, the modern province of Phars, contained the sacred metropolis of the empire, known to us only by its Greek name, Per- sep'olis. This celebrated city was destroyed by Alexander ; but its ruins testify that it must have rivalled the most splendid cities of anti- quity. The province of Susiana (Khuzistan) separated Persia Proper from Babylonia ; between the two provinces was a range of mountains, in- habited by warlike pastoral tribes, of which the most celebrated were the Ux'ii, who compelled the Persian kings to pay them trioute when they went from Susa to Persep'olis. Susiana was a fertile province, watered by several small streams, that supplied a vast number of canals and water-courses. Susa, the capital of this district, once the favorite residence of the Persian monarchs, is now a vast desert, where the ruins of a city can with difficulty be traced. Media was divided into two provinces ; Atropatene or Media Minor (Azerbijan), and Media Major (Irak Ajemi). Ecbatana (Ham'adan) was the capital of Media, and rivalled Susa and Persep'olis in magnificence, while it exceeded them in extent and the strength of its fortiticatioas. The eastern districts of Media, named A'ria, formed an extensive steppe, which merged in the desert of Carmania (Kerman). The capital waa named A'ria, and occupied the site of the modem Herat. MEDES AND PERSIANS. 59 North of Media lay Par'thia and Hyrcania (Taberistan and Mazen deran) ; mountainous regions, with some fertile valleys. Northeast of these were the sandy deserts now called Khirwan, tenanted by nomade tribes, who then and now practised alternately the arts of merchants, herdsmen, and robbers. East of A'ria was Bactriana, divided by the Ox'us from Sog'diana : its capital city was Bac'tra, which is usually identified with the modern city of Balkh. The metropolis of Sogdiana was Maracan'da, now called Samarcand, one of the most ancient com- mercial cities in the world. East of the province of Phars were Carmania (Kerman) and Gedrosia (Mekran) ; flat and sandy, but interspersed with some very fertile tracts. The hills in the interior of Persia are but thinly clad with vegetation, and none but those of Mazenderan and Georgia possess forests ; there are buu few rivers of sufficient magnitude to be navigable : the most re- markable are the Ulai or Eulse'us (Karun), the Ar'ras or Arax'es, and the Etyman'der (Her'mund). The valleys of the centre of Persia abound in the rarest and most valuable vegetable productions. The orchards produce all the fruits of the temperate zone, and the most beautiful flowers of our gardens grow wild in the fields. The horses and dogs are of uncommon size, strength, and beauty ; and no country possesses a more robust, active, and well- shaped race of men. In short, Persia possesses every natural advantage for becoming a powerful and prosperous empire ; but from the remotest ages it has been subjected to a blighting despotism, by which its re- Bources have been not merely neglected, but wasted and destroyed. Skction II. — The Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians. The sources of Persian history are either native or foreign ; the lat- ter including the accounts both of the Greek historians and the Jewish prophets. The first native authority is the Zend-a-vesta, a collection of the sacre'l books of the ancient Persians. In this work are contained the* early traditions of the nation, the religious system and moral code ascribed to Zerdusht, or Zoroas'ter, the great Persian legislator, and the liturgy still used by the " worshippers of fire." Connected with this is the Dabistan, written by a Mohammedan traveller about two cen- turies ago, in which the author treats very fully of the ancient religion of Persia, professedly deriving his information from original sources. To these must be added some minor Parsi works, collected by oriental ists in India. Next in importance to these ranks the Shah Nameh, or Book of Kings, an immense epic poem, written by Ferdousf, the greatest poet of Persia, about the middle of the tenth century. This historical poem was com- piled from vagie traditions, and from the few fragments of ancient Per- sian literature that survived the political destruction of national records by the Greeks and Parthians, and the fanaticism of the first Moham- medan conquerors ; and, consequently, facts are so disguised by a mul- titude of fictions, that it is always difficult, and frequently impossible, to arrive at the truth of 1 is representations. Mirldiond and his son Khon- 60 ANCIENT HISTORY. demfr both wrote histories of Persia, about the close of the fifteenth century ; they have, however, in general followed the narrative of Fer- dousi ; but in some places Mirldiond undoubtedly has used the same authorities as the compiler of the Dabistan. Herod' otus, Xen'ophon, and the fragments of Ctesias, are the princi- pal Greek authorities for the history of ancient Persia . of these the first is by far the most valuable, and his account of the Persian wars with Greece is entitled to our confidence. It must also be added, that many parts of his narrative are singularly confirmed by the legends pre- served in the works of Mirkhond and Ferdousi. In the Bible, the Book of Est'her is altogether a Persian history, and much important information is given incidentally in the Books of Dan'iel, Ez'ra, and Nehemiah. Finally, much light has been thrown on ancient Persian history by the writings of modern oriental scholars ; especially the philological researches of Bupp, Burnouf, and Schlegel, which have shown how closely allied the ruling people of Hindustan was with the ruling nation of Iran, by pointing out the close resemblance between the original lan- guages of both, the Sanscrit and the Zend. Section III. — Social and Political Condition oj Ancient Persia. Central Asia, from the most remote ages, has been exposed to the invasions of nomad hordes from the north and east, most of which, ac- cording to their native legends, descended from the mountainous tracts extending from the great Altaian chain to the borders of India. Recent investigations have rendered it probable that this was also the native country of the Brahmins and Hindus, at least of the higher castes ; but it is impossible to discover at what period migrations commenced to the south and west. The colonists who came into Media called themselves A'rii, manifestly the same word as the Sanscrit Ar'ya, which signifies pure men, in opposition to the Mlechas, or barbarians. They were a mixed priestly and warrior caste, who treated their subjects as beings of an inferior nature. Their early success was chiefly owing to their skill in horsemanship ; if not the first nation of the East that employed cavalry, they were the first to make that military body the main strength of their army. A cognate race, the Persians, having nearly the same institutions proceeded further to the southwest, and formed a nation of herdsmen and shepherds. A monarch named Jemshid, the Achae'- menes of the Greeks, first instructed his subjects in agriculture, and they gratefully made royalty the inheritance of his family. The Medes, having long held dominion as he ruling caste, were overthrown in an insurrection of the agricultural and shepherd tribes : this political revo- lution was effected by Cy'rus; and it was followed necessarily by a religious change, consequent on the altered position of the priestly caste. Under the Medes, or rather the Magi, as their priests were called, a species of the Sabian superstition seems to have prevailed : the sun, moon, and planets, received divine worship, while the more ancient be- lief in one supreme God though obscured, was not wholly lost. When the Persians triumphed, the priestly caste losx much of its influence MEDES AND PERSIANS. 6. and seems to have been regarded as naturally hostile to the new dynastv : hence we find the Persian monarchs bitter persecutors of the pricyti wherever they established their sway, destroying the Chaldeans in Babylon, and the sacerdotal caste in Egypt. The nature of the reli- gious changes made by Cy'rus can not now be determined ; but the revolution was completed by Zoroaster, whose system is the most per* feet devised by unassisted human reason. God, he taught, existed from all eternity, and was like infinity of time and space. There were, he averred, two principles in the universe — good and evil: the one was named Hormuzd, the other Ahriman. Each of these had the power of creation, but that power was exercised with opposite designs ; and it was from their co-action that an admixture of good and evil was found in every created thing. But the source of good alone, the great Hor- muzd, was eternal, and must therefore ultimately prevail.* With these speculative tenets was combined a system of castes, which are described by Ferdousi, who attributes their introduction to Jemshid. The conservation of the ordinances that regulated public morals was i.itrusted to the Magi, who were, as we have said, originally a caste or tribe of the Medes. Zoroas'ter reformed the institutions of this body, and appears to have opened the priestly dignity to persons of every caste, though few entered on the functions of public worship who were not of the Magian descent. Thus the sacerdotal rank in Persia par- took of the nature both of a caste and an order. It was high in power: the court was principally composed of sages and soothsayers. The priests also were judges in civil cases, because religion was the basis of their legislation ; but they were strictly bound by the ancient code. No circumstances were deemed sufficiently strong to warrant a depar- ture from ancient usages ; and hence " the laws of the Medes and Per- sians" were proverbial for their strictness of execution. The king was as much bound by the national code as his meanest subject ; but in every other respect his power was without control ; and the satraps, or provincial governors under him, were equally despotic in their respective provinces. The court scarcely differed in any material point from the oriental courts of the present day. It was a heav^- tax on the national resources to support the barbarous splendor with whioh the kings and satraps deemed it necessary to surround their dignity ; and the exactions wrung from the cultivators of the soil al- ways made the Persian peasantry the most miserable even in Asia. The army was another source of wretchedness to the country : a vast amount of standing forces was always maintained, and hordes of the wandering tribes on the borders of Persia kept in pay : beside this, in case of any emergency, every man capable of bearing arms was en- rolled in his own district, and forced to become a soldier on the first summons. This constitution enabled the Persians to make rapid con- quests, but it prevented their empire from becoming permanent : the Holdiers fought for pay or plunder, and were held together by no com- mon principle, save attachment to their leader ; hence the fall or flight of the commander-in-chief instantly decided the fate of a Persian army * Sir John Malcolm's Persia, vol. i., p. 194. The Jews have a tradition that Zoroaster was instructed in the true religion by one of the prophets. 62 ANCIENT HISTORY however great its numbers ; and when the army was dtifeated, th« kingdom vvas subdued. The great oriental monarchies were liable to ' vicissitudes scarcely known in European states. There was no patri- otic spirit in the people, no love of independence in the nation ; if the invader prevailed in the battle-field, he had no further enemies to dread ; the mass of the population cared little for a change of rule, which left unaltered the miseries of their situation. Skction IV. — History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaianian Dynasty. FROM B.C. 710 TO B.C. 522. Media and Persia v/ere provinces of the great Assyrian empire ,■ I. id their native legends preserve the memory of the cruelty with V hieh they were treated by the monarchs of Nineveh. When that e.npire was broken to pieces after the death of Sardanapalus, Media fell into a state of anarchy, from which it was delivered by Deioces (b. c. 71U), the Kai-K6bad of oriental writers : he built the city of Ecbatana, and greatly strengthened his new kingdom Ijy inducing his subjects 10 form permanent settlements ; but in the midst of his useful career, he was summoned to chock the rising power of the Babylonians and fell in battle. The Median power was restored by Phraor'tes, who succeeded his father ; but it attained its highest glory under Cy- ax'ares, ihe third monarch of this dynasty. In ihe early part of his reign, Cyax'ares had' to encounter many for- midable dihiculties. While he was engaged besieging Nineveh, the Scythian hordes from the north entered Media, and overran the greater part of central and western Asia. Their ravages were continued for twenty-eight years, and they had compelled the Medes to give them free admntance to their houses, when they were simultaneously de- stroyed by a conspiracy of their hosts, which Cyax'ares had organized. A party that had escaped the general massacre entered into the service of the Median monarch ; but finding reason to dread the fate of their countrymen, they transferred their allegiance to the king of Lydia, and thus caused a war between the two monarch-r, The most memorable event o*" this war, which lasted five years, \\ as the total eclipse of the sun, tiat took place in the midst of a battle, and so alarmed the con- tending parti. B, that both the Medes and Lydians fled in confusion from the field. A peace was soon after concluded between the two crowns, and Cyax'ares renewed his war against the Assyrians. Aided by the king of Babylon, he besieged and took Nineveh, and totally de- stroyeu that ancient city (b. c. 601). The allies next attacked the dis- tricts that the Egyptians possessed in Syria, defeated Pharaoh-Necho <'« at Car'chemish, and subdued the principal part of western Asia. It seems probable that the supremacy of the Medes over the Persian principalities was first established during the reign of Cyax'ares, who is generally identified with the Kai Kaoos of Mirkhond and Ferdousi. Asty'ages, called in the book of Daniel Ahasuerus,* that is, " the aiighty hero" (Achash Zwerosh), an epithet given .o several oriental • Daniel ix. 1. MEDES AND PERSIANS. ^ 63 monarchs. was the next king. To reconcile t^ie Persians to his au- thority, he gave his daughter in marriage to Camby'ses, of the family of the Achaemen'idne parent state. An armament was accordingly prepared, whose mag nitude shows the extensive power, and resources of Carthage. It con- sisted of two thousand ships of war, three thousand transports and ves- oiels of burden, and a land army amounting to three hundred thousand ;iien. The command of the whole was intrusted to Hamil'car, the head of the illustrious family of Mago. This immense army consisted chiefly of African mercenaries, and was composed of what are called light troops. They were, however, wholly undisciplined, and if de- feated in the first onset could rarely be persuaded to renew the attack. A landing was effected, without loss, at Panor'mus (the modern Pal- ermo) ; and when the troops were refreshed, HamiFcar advanced and laid close siege to Himera. The governor Theron, made a vigorous defence, though pressed not only by the overwhelming forces of the enemy, but by the still more grievous pressure of famine. Foreseeing, however, that the town, unless speedily relieved, must be forced to surrender, he sent an urgent request for assistance to Syracuse. Gelon, king of Syracuse, could only collect about five thousand horse and filleen thousand foot. With this very disproportionate force he marched against the Carthaginians, to take advantage of any opportu- nity that fortune might offer. On his road he fortunately captured a messenger from the Selinuntines to Ilamil'car, promising on a certain day to join him with the auxiliary force of cavalry that he had demand- ed. Though his forces were formidable, in point of numbers, HamiF- car was too prudent to ti'ust such undisciplined hordes, unless aided by regular soldiers, and had therefore offered large bribes*to win over some of the Grecian states in Sicily to his side. The Selinuntines alone listened to his terms, and promised to aid him against their old enemies the Syracusans. Gelon sent the letter forward to Hamil'car ; and hav- ing taking measures to intercept the treacherous Selinuntines, he de- spatched a chosen body of his own troops to the Carthaginian camp in their stead at the specified time. The Syracusans being admitted with- out any suspicion^ suddenly galloped to the general's tent, slew HamiF- car and his principal officers, and then, hurrying to the harbor, set fire to the fleet. The blaze of the burning vessels, the cries of Hamil'car's servants, and the shouts of the Syracusans, threw the whole Carthagin- ian army into confusion ; in the midst of which they were attacked by Gelon with the rest of his forces. Without leaders and without com- mand, the Carthaginians could make no effective resistance ; more than half of the invaders fell in the field ; the remainder, without arms and without provisions, sought shelter in the interior of the country, where most of thrm perished. It is remarkable that this great victory was won on the same day that the battle of Thermop'ylse was fought, and the Persian fleet defeated at Artemis^ium ; three of the noblest triumphs obtained in the struggle for Grecian freedom (b. c. 480). Tlie miserable remnant of the Carthaginian troops rallied under Gis'- gon, the son of HamiFcar ; but the new general found it impossible to remedy the disorganization occasioned by the late defeat, and was forced to surrender at discretion. For seventy years after this defeat, little is kno\vn of the history of Carthage, except that during that period the state greatly extended its Dower over the native tribes of Africa, and gained important acquis! CARTHAGE. 73 tions of lerritory from the Cyrenians. Sicily was, in the rr.eantime the scene of a war which threatened total annihilation to Syracuse, the Athenians having invaded the island, and laid siege to that city. Bui when the Athenians were totally defeated (b. c. 413), the Carthagin- ians had their attention once more directed to Sicilian politics by an embassy from the Segestans, seeking their protection against the Syra- cusans, whose wratli they had provoked by their alliance with the Athenians. Section IV. — History of Carthage during the Sicilian Wars. FROM B. c. 416 TO B. c. 264. The Carthaginians gladly seized the pretext afforded them by the Segestan embassy ; and a new expedition was sent against Sicily, ander the command of Han'nibal, the son of Gis'gon. This new in- vasion was crowned with success ; Selinun'tum and Him'era were Jaken by storm, and their inhabitants put to the sword. The Sicilians solicited a truce, which was granted on terms extremely favorable to the Carthaginians. So elated was the state at this success, that nothing less than the entire subjugation of Sicily was contemplated. In'ules, the son of Han'no, and Han'nibal, at the head of a powerful armament, proceeded to besiege Agrigcii'tum, the second city of the island. During the siege, which lasted eight months, the assailants suffered severely from pestilential disease, and the garrison from famine. After having en- dured with wonderful patience the severest extremities of famine, the Agrigentines forced their way through the enemies' lines by night, and retreated to Gela, abandoning the aged, the sick, and the wounded, to the mercy of the Carthaginians. Himil'co, who had succeeded to the chief command on the death of his father Han'nibal, ordered these helpless victims to be massacred. Gela soon shared the fate of Agri- gen'tum ; and Diony'sius I., the king of Syracuse, who had taken the command of the confederated Sicilians, deemed it prudent to open ne- gotiations for peace. A treaty was concluded (b. c. 405), which neither party intended to observe longer than the necessary preparations for a more decisive contest would require. Scarcely were the Cartha- ginians withdrawn, when Diony'sius sent deputies to all the Greek states in Sicilj , exhorting them by a simultaneous effort to expel all in- truders, and secure their future independence. His machinations Avere successful ; the Carthaginian merchants who, on the faith of the late treaty, had settled in the principal commercial town, were perfidiously massacred ; while Diony'sius, at the head of a powerful army, cap- tured several of the most important Carthaginian fortresses. All the forces that the wealth of Carthage could procure were speed- ily collected to punish this treachery ; and Himil'co advanced against Syracuse, and laid siege to it with the fairest prospects of success. But a plague of such uncommon virulence broke out in the Carthagin- ian camp, that the living were unable to bury the dead, and information of this state of things being conveyed to Sy'racuse, Diony'sius sallied forth with all his forces, and assaulted the Carthaginian camp. Scarce 74 ANCIENT HISTORY any attempt was n!acl8#at resistance: night alone put an e.id to tha slaugliter ; and when morning dawned, Himil'co found that nothing but a speedy surrender could save him and his followers from total ruin. He stinulated only for the lives of himself and the Carthaginians, aban- doning all his auxiliaries to the ""^engeance of the Syracusans. The Carthaginians sent another armament, commanded by Mago, a nobleman of high rank, to retrieve their losses in Sicily ; but their forces were routed with great slaughter, and the leader slain. The younger Mago, son of the late general, having received a strong rein- forcement from Africa, hazarded a second engagement, in which the Syracusans were totally defeated. Diony^sius was induced by thia overthrovtT to solicit a peace, which v/as concluded on terms honorable to both parties. The conclusion of the Sicilian war was follov/ed by a plague, which destroyed multitudes of the citizens of Carthage (b. c. 347) ; and scarcely had this visitation passed away, when insurrections broke out in the African provinces, and in the colonies of Sicily and Sardinia. But the Carthaginian senate showed itself equal to the crisis ; by a course of policy in which firmness was tempered by conciliation, these dangers were averted, and the state restored to its former vigor and prosperity. In the meantime, Sy'racuse was weakened by the death of Diony'- sius I., who, though stigmatized as a tyrant by the Greek historians, appears to have been a wise and prudent sovereign. " No one," said Scip'io Africtinus, " ever concerted his schemes with more wisdom, or executed them with more energy, than the elder Diony'sius." His son, Diony'sius H., was a profligate prince, whose excesses filled the state with tumult and distraction. The Carthaginians eagerly embra- ced the opportunity of accomplishing the favorite object of their policy, the conquest of Sicily ; and a great annament was prepared, of which M;igo was appointed the chief commander. Mago, at the very first attack, made himself master of the harbor of Sy'racuse. The Syracusans, destitute of money, of anns, and almost of hope, solicited the aid of the Corinthians ; and Timoleon, one of the greatest generals and purest patriots of antiquity, was sent to their assistance. A great portion of the Carthaginian army had been levied in the Greek colonies ; Timoleon, hoping to work on their patriotic feelings, addressed letters to the leaders of these mercenaries, expos- tulating with them on the disgrace of bearing arms against their coun- trymen : and though he did not prevail on any to desert, yet Mago, having heard of these intrigues, felt such distrust of his followers, that he at once abandoned Sy'racuse, and returned home. Great was the indignation of the Carthaginians at this unexpected termination of the campaign ; Mago committed suicide to escape their wrath. New forces were raised to retrieve their losses in Sicily ; two generals, Han'nibal and Hamil'car were appointed to the command, and were intrusted with an army of seventy thousand men, and a fleet consisting of two hvmdred war-galleys, and a thousand ships of burden. Timoleon hasted to meet the invaders, though his forces barely amounted to seven thousand men. He unexpectedly attacked the Car haginian army on its march near the river Crimisus ; and the confu CARTHAGE. 75 sion produced by tli<5 surprise terminated in a. total rout. The SyracU' sans captured town after town, until at length the senate of Carthage was forced to solicit peace, and accept the terras dictated by the con- queror. While Carthage was thus unfortunate abroad, her liberties at home narrowly escaped destruction. Han'no, one of the principal leaders of the state, resolved to make himself master of his country by poison- ing the leaders of the senate at a banquet. This diabolical plot was frustrated by a timely discovery, and the exasperated traitor resolved to hazard an open rebellion. Having armed his slaves, to the number of twenty thousand, he took the field, and invited the native African tribes to join his standard. This appeal was disregarded ; and before Han'no could levy fresh forces, he was surrounded by an army hastily raised, his followers routed, and himself made prisoner. He was put to death with the most cruel tortures ; and, according to the barbarous custom of Carthage, his children and nearest relatives shared the same fate. New dissensions in Sy'racuse afforded the Carthaginians a fresh pretext for meddling in the" affairs of Sicily. Agath'ocles, an intriguing demagogue of mean birth, had acquired great influence among his countrymen, and, finally, by the secret aid of the Carthaginians, be- came master of the state. But he soon showed little regard for the ties of gratitude, and declared his resolution to expel his benefactors from the island. The Carthaginian senate immediately sent Hamircar with a powerful army against this new enemy. Agath^ocles was com- pletely defeated, and forced to shut himself up within the walls of Sy'- racuse. The city was soon closely invested, and everything seemed to promise Hamil'car complete success at no distant day, when Aga- th'ocles suddenly baffled all his calculations, by adopting one of the most extraordinary measures recorded in history. Having assembled the Syracusans, he declared that he could liberate them from all dangers, if an army and a small sum of money were placed at his disposal ; adding, that his plan would be instantly defeated, if its nature was di- vulged. An army of liberated slaves was hastily levied, the sum of fifty talents intrus'^ted to his discretion, and a fleet prepared in secret ; when all was ready, Agath'ocles announced his design of transporimg his forces into Africa, and compelling the Carthaginians, by the dread of a nearer danger, to abandon Sicily. Having eluded the vigilance of the blockading squadron, Agath'ocles an ived safely in Africa before the Carthaginians had received the sligH- est notion of his intention (b. c. 309). To inspire his soldiers with a resolution to conquer or die, he cut ofi' all chance of retreat by burning his transports ; then fearlessly advancing, he stormed Tunis and sev- eral other cities, the plunder of which he divided among his soldiers, and instigated the African princes to throw off" the yoke of Carthage. Han'no and Bomil'car were sent to check the progress of this daring invader, Avith forces nearly four times as great as the Sicilian army ; but Agath%)cles did not decline the engagement. His valor was re- warded by a decisive victory. Following up his success, Agath'ocles stormed the enemies' camp, where were found heaps of fetters and chains, which the Carthaginians, confident of success, had prepared for the invading army. 76 ANCIENT HISTORY. Dreadful consternation was produced in Carthage by the news of this unexpected defeat. Hamil'car, who was vigorously pressing for- ward the siege of Sy'racuse, was surprised by the unexper*&d order to return home and defend his own country. He broke up tne siege, and sent home five thousand of his best troops. Having supplied their place by hiring fresh mercenaries, he again invaded the Syracusan ter- ritories ; but was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and slain. Ophel'las, king of Cyre'ne,had joined Agath'ocles with aU his for- ces ; but the Syracusan monarch, jealous of his influence, had him pri- vately poisoned. Having thus removed his rival, he thought he might safely revisit Sicily, and intrust the command of the African aimy to his son. But, during his absence, the fruits of all his fonner labors were lost : the army under a young and inexperienced general, threw aside the restraiiJs of discipline ; the Greek estates, indignant at the murder of Ophel'las, withheld their contingents ; and the African princes renewed their allegiance to Carthage. Agath'ocles hearing of these disorders, hasted to remedy them : but finding all his efforts vain, he fled back to Sicily, abandoning both his sons and his soldiers. The army, exasperated by his desertion, slew their/leaders, and surrendered themselves to the Carthaginians ; and Agath'ocles died soon after, either from grief or poison. After the death of this formidable enemy, the Carthaginians renewed their intrigues in Sicily, and soon acquired a predominant influence in the island. Finding themselves in danger of utter ruin, the Greek col- onies solicited the aid of Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus, who had married a daughter of Agath'ocles, and was then in Italy endeavoring to protect the colonies of Magna Grse'cia from the increasing power of the Ro- mans (b. C. 277). Pyr'rhus made a very successlul campaign in Sicily, every Carthaginian town, except Lilybae'um, submitted to his arms. But he was soon induced to return to Italy; and the fruits of his victories were lost almos*, as rapidly as they had been acquired, notwithstanding the heroic exertions of Hiero, king of Sy'racuse. Section V. — From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Carthage. FROM B. c. 264 TO B. c. 146. When Pyr'rhus was leaving Sicily, he exclaimed to his attendants, " What a fine field of battle we are leaving to the Carthaginians and Romans ?" His prediction was soon verified, though the circumstances that precipitated the contest were apparently of little importance. A body of mercenaries in the pay of Agath'ocles, after the death of that monarch, treacherously got possession of Messina, and put all the in- habitants to the sword. Hiero, king of Sy'racuse, marched against the Mamertines, as the independent companies that had seized Messina were called, and defeated them in the field. Half the Mamertines in- voked the aid of the Carthaginians, and placed them in immediate pos- session of the citadel, while the others sought the powerful protection of Rome. After much hesitation, the Romans consented to grant the required aid. The citadel of Messina was taken after a brief siege, and the (Carthaginians were routed with greU slaughter. Thus com- CARTHAGE. 77 menced the first Punic war, which lasted twenty -three years, the de- tails of which will be found in the chapters on Roman history. In this war Carthage lost Sicily, and its supremacy in the western Mediterranean, which involved the fate of all its other insular posses- sions. The treasury was exhausted, and money was wanting to pay the arrears due to the soldiers. The mercenaries mutinied, and advancing in a body, laid siege to Tunis. Thence they marched against U'tica, while the light African cavalry that had joined in the rebellion ravaged the country up to the very gates of Carthage. The revolters were sub- dued ; but not until they had reduced the fairest provinces of the repub- lic to a desert. The mercenaries in Sardinia had also thrown off their allegiance ; and the Romans, in violation of the recent peace, took possession of the island ; an injury which Carthage was unable to resent. Hamil'car Bar'ca,* grieved to see his country sinking, formed a pro- ject for raising it once more to an equality with its imperious rival, by completely subduing the Spanish peninsula. His son Hannibal, then a boy only nine years of age, earnestly besought leave to accompany his father on this expedition ; but before granting the request, Ham- il'car led the boy to the altar, and made him swear eternal hostility to Rome. During nine years Hamil'car held the command in Spain, and found means, either by force or negotiation, to subdue almost the entire country. He used the treasures he acquired to strengthen the influence of the Barcan family in the state, relying chiefly on the democracy for support against his great rival Han'no, who had the chief influence among the nobility. Has'drubal, the son-in-law of Hamil'car, succeeded to his power and his projects. He is suspected of having designed to establish an inde- pendent kingdom in Spain, after having failed to make himself absolute in Carthage. He built a new capital with regal splendor, wliich re- ceived the name of New Carthage ; the richest silver-mines v/ere opened in its neighborhood, and enormous bribes were sent to Carthage to dis- arm jealousy or stifle inquiry. Unlike other Carthaginian governors of provinces, he made every possible exertion to win the affections of the native Spaniards, and he married the daughter of one of their kings. The Romans were at length alarmed by his success, and compelled him to oign a treaty, by which he was bound to abstain from passing the Iberus (Ebro), or attacking the territory of the Saguntines. When Has'drubal fell by the dagger of an assassin, the Barcan family had sufiicient mfluence to have Han'nibal appointed his successor, though he had barely attained his legal majority (b. c. 221). The youthful general having gained several victories over the Spaniards, boldly laid siege to Sagun'tum, and thus caused the second war with the Romans, for the details of which we must refer to the chapters on Roman history. During the course of this war, the Carthaginian navy, the source of its greatness and the security of its strength, was neglected. The spirit of party also raged violently in Carthage itself. At the conclusion of the • Barca signifies " thunder" in the Phoenician language, and also in Hebrew, which is closely allied to Phoenician. The Hebrew root is P^^ tc thunder. 78 ANCIENT HISTORY. war, Carthage was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa, and her lleet was delivered into the hands of the Romans. Thenceforward Carthage was to be nothing more than a commercial city under the pro- tection of Rome. A powerful rival also was raised against the repub- lic in Africa itself by the alliance of the Numidian king Massinis'sa with the Romans ; and that monarch took possession of most of the western Carthaginian colonies. Han'nibal, notwithstanding his late reverses, continued at the head of the Carthaginian state, and reformed several abuses that had crept into the management of the finances and the administration of justice. But these judicious reforms provoked the enmity of the factious nobles who had hitherto been permitted to fatten on public plunder ; they joined with the old rivals of the Barcan family, and even degraded themselves so far as to act as spies for the Romans, who still dreaded the abilities of Han'nibal. In consequence of their machinations the old general was forced to fly from the country he had so long labored to serve ; and, after several vicissitudes, died of poison, to escape the mean and malignant persecution of the Romans, v/hose hatred followed him in his exile, and compelled the king of Bithynia to refuse him protection. The mound which marks his last resting-place is still a remarkable object. But the Carthaginians had soon reason to lament the loss of their champion : the Romans were not conciliated by the expulsion of Han'- nibal ; and Massinis'sa, relying upon their support, made frequent in- cursions into the teiritories of the republic. Both parties complained of each other as aggressors before the Roman senate (b. c. 162) ; bu* though they received an equal hearing, the decision was long previously settled in favor of Massinis'sa. While these negotiations were pend- ing, Carthage was harassed by political dissension ; the popular party — believing, and not without reason, that the low estate of the republic was chiefly owing to the animosity that the aristocratic faction had shown to the Barcan family, and especially to Han'nibal, on account of his financial and judicial reform — convened a tumultuous assembly, and sent forty of the pricipal senators into banishment, exacting an oath from the citizens that they would never permit their return. The exiles sought refuge with Massinis'sa, who sent his sons to intercede with the Carthagiiiian populace in their favor. The Numidian princes were not only refused admittance to the city, but ignominiously chased from their territory. Such an insult naturally provoked a fresh war, in whiciA the Carthaginians were defeated, and forced to submit to the most oner- ous conditions. The Roman senatj, continually solicited by the elder Cato, at length came to the resolution of totally destroying Carthage ; but it was diffi- cult to discover a pretext for war against a state which, conscious of its v/eakness, had resolved to obey every command. The Carthaginians gave up three hundred of their noblest youths as hostages, surrendered their ships-of-war and their magazines of arms ; but when, after all these concessions, they were ordered to abandon their city, they took courage from despair, and absolutely refused obedience. War was in- stantly proclaimed ; the Romans met with almost uninterrupted suc- cess ; and at the close of the four years .hat the war lae*ed, Carthage CARTHAGE. 79 was taken by storm, and its magnificent edifices levelled with the ground. Section VI. — Navigation, Trade, and. Commerce of Carthage. The colonial and connnercial policy of the Carthaginians was far less generous than that of their ancestors, the Pha3nicians ; the harbors of the capital were open to the ships and merchants of foreign nations, but admission was either wholly refused to all the remaining ports in the territory of the republic, or subjected to the most onerous restrictions. This selfish system, which has been imitated by too many modern commercial states, was forced upon the Carthaginians by peculiar cir- cumstances. Their trade with the barbarous tribes of Africa was car- ried on principally by barter ; the ignorant savages exchanged valuable commodities for showy trifles ; and the admission of competition would at once have shown them how much they lost in the exchange. Had the Carthaginians, under such circumstances, permitted free trade, they would, in fact, have destroyed their own market. The principal commerce of the Carthaginians in the western Medit- erranean was with the Greek colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy, from which they obtained wine and oil, in exchange for negro slaves, precious stones, and gold, procured from the interior of Africa, and also for cotton cloths manufactured at Carthage and in the island of Malta. Cor'sica supplied honey, wax, and slaves ; Sardinia yielded abundance of corn ; the Balearic islands produced the best breed of mules ; resin and volcanic products, such as sulphur and pumice-stone, were obtained from the Lipari islands ; and southern Spain was, as we have already said, the chief source whence the nations of antiquity procured the precious metals. Beyond the pillars of Hercules the Carthaginians succeeded the Phcenicians in the tin and amber trade with the south British islands and the nations at the entrance of the Baltic. After the destruction of Carthage, this trade fell into the hands of their earliest rivals, the Phocseans of Marseilles, who changed its route ; they made their pur- chases on the north shore of Gaul, and conveyed their goods overland to the mouth of the Rhone, in that age a journey of thirty days. On the west coast of Alrica the Carthaginian colonies studded the shores of Morocco and Fez ; but their great mart was the island of Cer'ne, now Suana, in the Atlantic ocean (29° 10' N. lat., 10° 40' W. long.). On this island was the great depot of merchandise ; and goods were transported from it in light barks to the opposite coast, where they were bartered with the native inhabitants. The Carthaginian exports were trinkets, saddlery, linen, or more probably, cotton webs, pottery, and arms ; for which they received imdressed hides and elephants' teeth. To this trade was added a very lucrative fishery : the tunny fish [thynnus scomber), which is still plentiful on the northwestern coast of Africa, was deemed a great luxury by the Carthaginians. There is every reason to believe that these enterprising merchants had some in- tercourse with the coast of Guinea, and that their navigators advanced beyond the mouths of the Senegal and Gambia ; but the caution with which everything respecting this trade was concealed, renders it iin* possible to determine its nature and extent with accuracy. 80 ANCIENT HISTORY. It is very difficult to discover any particulars respecting the caravan- trade which the Carthaginians carried on from their southern settle- ments with the interior of Africa. From the districts borderinsf on the desert the chief articles obtained were dates and salt ; but from beyond the desert, the imports were negro slaves and gold-dust. The nature of this lucrative commerce was the more easily concealed, as the cara vans were formed not at Carthage, but at remote towns in the interior, and all the chief staples were situated on the confines of the Great Desert. ORBCIAN STATES. 81 CHAPTER VTTI. THE FOUNDATION OF THE GRECIAN STATES. Section I. — Geographical Outline of Hellas. Greece was bounded on the north by the Cambunian mountains, which separated it from Macedonia ; on the east by the iEgean, on iho south by the Mediterranean, and on the west by the Ionian seas. Its extent from north to south was about two hundred and twenty geo- graphical miles, from east to west one hundred and sixty miles, and consequently its area was about 34,000 square miles ; making a small, indeed too small, a reduction for the irregularity of its outline. No European country was so advantageously situated ; on the eastern side, the iEgean sea, studded with islands, brought it into close contact with Asia Minor and the Phoenician frontiers ; the voyage to Egypt was neither long nor difficult, though it afforded not so many resting-places to the mariners ; and from the west there was a short and easy pas- sage to Italy. The entire line of this extensive coast was indented with bays and harbors, offering every facility for navigation ; while the two great gulfs that divided Hel'las, or northern Greece, from the Peloponnesus, or southern Greece, must have, in the very earliest ages, forced naval affairs on the attention of the inhabitants. Nature herself has formed three great divisions of this very remark- able country. The Saronic and Corinthian gulfs sever the Pelopon- nesus from Hel'las ; and this latter is divided into two nearly equal portions, northern and southern, by the chain of Mount ffi'ta, which traverses it obliquely, severing Thes'saly and Epirus froir central Hel'las. Thes'saly, the largest of all the Grecian provinces, may be generally described as an extensive table-land, enclosed on three sides by tht mountains, and by the ^gean sea, close to whose shores rise the lofty peaks of Os'sa and Olym'pus. Its principal, indeed almost its only river, is the Peneus, which rises in Mount Pin'dus, and flowing in an easterly direction, falls into the vEgean sea. Thes'saly was ruined by its nat- ural wealth ; the inhabitants rioted in sensual enjoyments ; anarchy and tyranny followed each other in regular succession ; and thus Thes' 8aly prepared for the yoke of a master, was the first to submit to tht Persian invaders, and afterward to the Macedonian Philip. Epirus was, next to Thes'saly, the largest of the Grecian provinces , but it was also the least cultivated. It was divided into two provinces ; Molos'sis, and Thesprotia. The interior of Epirus is traversed by Mi/d 6 «2 AISCIENT HISTORY ana uncultivated mountains. The wiklness of the country, and the rudeness of the inhabitants, have given occasion to the Greeks to rep- resent the ri\ ers Ach'eron and Cocytus, which flow into the gulf of Acherusia, as rivers belonging to the infernal regions. Its oxen and horses were unrivalled ; and it was also celebrated for a large breed of dogs, called Molossin, whose ferocity is still remarked by the traveller. Central Grkecc, or Hel'las, contained nine countries : 1, At'tica ; 2, Meg'aris ; 3, Boeotia ; 4, Phocis ; 5, eastern Locris ; 6, western Locris ; 7, Doris ; 8, iEtolia ; 9, Acarnania. At'lica is a headland extending in a southeasterly direction fc,bout sixty-three miles into the iEgean sea. It is about twenty-five miles broad at its base, Avhence it gradually tapers toward a point, until it ends in the rocky promontory of Sunium [Cape Colonr^a), m Jie sum- mit of which stood a celebrated temple of Minerva. It was not a fer- tile country, never being able to produce sufficient com for the support of its inhabitants ; but it had rich silver mines in Mount Larium, ex- cellent marble quarries in Mount Pentel'icus, and the ranges of hills, by which it is intersected in every direction, produced abundance of ar- omatic plants, from which swarms cf industrious bees formed the most celebrated honey. Mega'ris, the smallest of the Grecian territories, lay west of At^tica, close'' to the Corinthian isthmus. It capital was Mega'ra, a town of considerable strength. BcBotia was a large plain, almost wholly surrounded by mountains : it was divided by Cithae'rou from At'tica, a mountain celebrated by the poets for the mystic orgies of Bac'chus, the metamorphosis of Actae'on, the death of Pen'theus, and the exposure of CE'dipus. On the west were the chains of Parnas'sus and Hel'icon, sacred to the Muses, sep- arating it from Phocis ; and on the north it was divided from eastern Locris by a prolongation of the chain of Movmt Cnemis. On the east was Mount Ptous, extending to the Euripus, a narrow strait that divides the island of Euboe'a from the mainland. The climate was cloudy, and the soil marshy, as might be conjectured from the position of the coun- try ; but it was a fertile and well-watered district, and the most densely populated in Greece. Phocis, a district of moderate size and unequal shape, extended from the mountain chains of (E'ta and Cnemis, southward to the Corinthian gulf. It contained several important mountain-passes between north- em and southern Greece, the chief of which, near the capital city Elateia, was early occupied by Phihp in his second invasion of Hel'las. Mounts Hel'icon and Parnas'sus, and the fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene, are names familiar to every reader of poetry ; and these, with the temple and oracle of Del'phi, render the soil of Phocis sacred. Del'phi ( Castri) was situated on the south side of Mount Pamas'sus, overshadowed by its double peak ; and above the city was the mag- nificent temple of Apol'lo. Here, under the patronage of the god, were collected all the masterpieces of Grecian art in countless abundance, together with costly offerings from nations, cities, and kings. Here the Amphictyonic council promulgated the first maxims of the law of na- tions ; here the Pjthian g^ames, scarcely inferior to those of Olyrapia. GRECIAN STATES. 83 exercised the Grecian youth in athletic contests ; while the poets, as eeinbled round the Castalian fountain, chanted their rival odes in noble emulation. East Locris extends along the Euripus : it was inhabited by two tribes, the Opun'tii and Epicnemid'ii, deriving their names from O'pus and Mount Cncmis. The most remarkable place in the province is the pass of Therniop'ylffi, so memorable for the gallanv stand made there by Leon'idas against the Persian myriads. Wt'stern Locris, separated by Phocis from the eastern province, joined the bay of Cor'inth ; its inhabitants were called Ozolae. The mountainous district of Doris, though a small territory, was the parent of many powerful states. The province was enclosed be- tween the southern ridge of ffi'ta and the northern extremity of Mount Parnas'sus. ^lolia extended from Mount CE'ta to the Ionian sea. Having the Locrian territory on the east, and the river Acheloiis on the west. Acarnania, the most western comitry of Hel'las, lay wcfet of the river Acheloiis, from which it extended to the Ambracian gulf. It was very thickly covered with wood ; and the inhabitants remained barba- rians after other branches of the Hel'lenic race had become the in- structors of the world. Section II. — Geogra^Jiical Outline of the Peloponnesus. Southern Greece, anciently called the A'pian land, was named the Peloponnesus in honor of Pelops, who is said to have introduced the arts of peace into that peninsula from Asia Minor. It consists of a mountainous range in the centre, w^hence hills branch out in various directions, several of which extend to the sea. Its modern name, the Morea, is derived from its resemblance to a mulberry leaf, which that word signifies. It was divided into eight countries, 1, Arcadia, 2, Laconia ; 3, Messenia; 4, E'lis ; 5, Ar'golis ; 6, Achaia ; 7, Sicyonia; and 8, the Corinthian territory. Arcadia, so renowned in poetical traditions, occupied the central mountainous district of the Peloponnesus, nowhere bordering on the sea It resembles Sw''':zerland in appearance ; and this similarity may be ex'ended to the character of the inhabitants, both being remarkable for their love of freedom and their love of money. Arcadia is sup- posed by many writers to have been the cradle of the Pelasgic race ; but though this is doubtful, it certainly was retained by that people long after the Hel'lenes had occupied every other part of Greece. Laconia occupied the southeastern division of the Peloponnesus : it was rugged and mountainous, but was nevertheless so densely inhabited, that it is said to have contained nearly a hundred towns and villages. The chief city, Spar'ta, on the river Eurotas, remained for many ages without walls or gates, its defence being intrusted to the valor of its citizens ; but fortifications were erected when it fell under the sway of despotic rulers. Messenia lay to the west of Laconia, and was more level and fruit- ful than that province. Messe'ne [Mauromati), the capital, was a 8trongly-'"<)rtified towi ; and when the country was subjugated by Spar« 84 ANCIENT HISTORY. ta, its citizeiis escaping to Sicily gave the name of their old metropolij to the principal town of the colony they formed, which it still retains with very slight alteration. Ar'golis was a foreland on the south side of the Saronic gulf, op- posite At^tica, and not unlike it in shape, extending southward from Arcadia fifty-four miles into the vEgean sea, and terminating in the Scyllsean promontory. The chief chief city was Argos, on the river In'- achus, a stream that had disappeared even in ancient times. During the reio-n of Perseus the seat of government was transferred to Mycenae, the celebrated city of Agamem'non ; but «!Oon after the Trojan war it was besieged by the Argives, and levelled to the ground. E'lis, in the west of the Peloponnesus, was the holy land of Greece. It was safe from the din of arms ; and when bands of warriors traversed the sacred soil, they laid aside their weapons. It was subdivided into three districts : the northern, named E'lis Proper, from the chief city of the province. The central district, Pisatis, was named from the city of Pisa, in the neighborhood of which the Olympic games were cele- brated every four years. The maritime district occupying the northwestern portion of the Peloponnesus was originally called vEgi'lus, or vEgialeia, either from some hero, or from its situation on the coast. Its inhabitants were afterward blended with a colony of lonians from Africa, when it took the name of Ionia; but these being subsequently expelled by the Achaeans, it received and retained the denomination of Achaia, by which it is best known in history. It was a narrow strip of country, watered by a multitude of mountain-streams, which descended from the lofty Arcadian ridges ; but it was not eminent either for fertility or pop- ulation. The inhabitants were a peaceful, industrious people, aspiring to neither eminence in war nor literature, but attached to liberty, and governed by wise laws. The territory of Sicyonia, frequently regarded as a part of Achaia was remarkable only for the city of Sic'yon, the most ancient in Greece havinf been founded more than two thousand years before the Chris • tian era. The Peloponnesus was connected with Hel'las by the Corinthian isthmus, having the Saronic gulf on the eastern side, and the Corinth- ian on the western. Several attempts were made to join these seas by a canal ; but the nature of the ground to be cut through presented insu- perable difficulties; and hence "to cut the Corinthian isthmus" was a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. On this narrow pass the Isthmian games were celebrated in honor of Neptune, near the national temple of *hat deity, which stood in the midst of a grove of fir-trees. Here aLo a stand has frequently been made in defence of the liberties of Greece ; the narrowness of the isthmus easily admit- ting of fortification. At the south of the isthmus stood the wealthy city of Corinth, anciently called Ephy're, more than four miles in extent : it was erected at the foot of a lofty hill, called the Ac'ro-Corin'thus, on which the citadel was built. This was the strongest fortress in Greece, and perhaps no other spot in the world afljorded so brilliant a prospect. The Corinthian territory was one of the smallest ir. Greece ; but com* merce, net dominion, secured the strength of Corinth, and trade render GRECIAN STATES. 83 ed it rich and po^v^erful ; like Venice, whose prosperity was xi fver greater than when the republic possessed not a single square mile on the continent. Section III. — The Grecian Islands in the JEgean and Mediterranean Seas. The Thracian islands occupy the north of the ^gean sea : the prin cipal were, Thasos, Sam'othrace, and Im'brus. Opposite to Im'brus, on the Asiatic coast, at the entrance of Helles- pont, was the island of Ten'edos, remarkable for a temple dedicated tc Apollo, under the name of Smin'theus. Southwest of Ten'edos was Lem'nos (Sfalime/ie), dedicated to He- phajs'tus or Vulcan, because the poets asserted that Vulcan, when flung from heaven by Jupiter, had fallen in this island. South of these were Sciathus (Sciatica). Scop'elos {Scopelo), and Scyros (Shiro), where Achilles was concealed by Thetis. South of Ten'edos, and opposite the city of Eph'esus, on Jie Asiatic coast, was Lesbos [Metelin). Further to the south was Chios {Scio\ whose wines were deemed the best in the ancient world. It also con- tained quaries of beautiful marble. The largest island in the vEgean was Eubce'a [Egripo), separated from the Bosotian coast by a narrow strait called the Euripus, which is now choked up. In the Saronic gulf were the islands of Sal'amis and ^Egina. Southeast of Euboe'a were the Cyc'lades, a cluster of islands de- riving their name from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. Orty'gia, or Delos, is celebrated in mythology as the birth- place of Apol'lo and Dian'a. The other remarkable islands in this group were An'dros ; Ceos ; Paros, celebrated for its white marble ; Melos ; Nax'os, sacred to Bac'- chus ; and I'os, said to have been the burial-place of Homer. East of the Cyc'lades, and close along the Asiatic coast, was another cluster of islands called the Spor'ades, from their being irregularly scattered over the sea. The chief of these were, Samos, sacred to Juno, and thf birthplace of the philosopher Pythag'oras ; Pat'mos, where St. John wrote the Revelations ; Cos, the native country of the celebrated physician Hippocrates ; Car'pathus (Scarpanfo), which gave name to the Carpathian sea ; and Rhodes. Crete (Candia), the largest of the Grecian islands except Eubcea, lies at the entrance of the iEgean. In ancient times it was celebrated for its hundred cities. Northeast of Crete is Cy'prus, the favorite island of Venus, whose Paphian bower is not yet forgotten in song and whose loveliness has been celebrated by poets of every age and nation. Section IV. — The Ionian Islands. Corcy'ra, formerly called Drepant^ (Corfu), is celebrated by Ho. met under the name of Phseacia, for its amazing riches and fertility It was opposite that part of Epirus named Thesprotia, from which il WHS separated by a narrow strait called the Corcyrean. 86 ANCIENT HISTORY. Leucddia (^Sanla Maura), was originally a peninsula, but lie isthmus that joined it to tlie mainland was cut through to facilitate navigation. The Ecliin'ades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands near the mouth of the river Acheloiis, of which the most celebrated was Du lichium, part of the kingdom of Ulys'ses. Near it was the little island of Ith'aca [Thealu), immortalized by Homer. Cephalonia, anciently called Scheria, was the largest of the western Grecian islands, and the least noted in history. South of this was Zacyn'thus [Zante), with a capital of the same name, celebrated for its fertile meads, its luxuriant woods, audits abun- dant fountains of bitumen. West of the Peloponnesus are the Stroph'ides [Strivoli), more an- ciently called Plotie, because they were supposed to have been floating islands ; and south of them is the island of Sphacteria [Sphagia), which guards the entrance of Py'los [Navarino). South of the Peloponnesus is the island of Cyth'erea (Cerigo), sa- cred to Venus, and celebrated in ancient times for its fertility and beauty. Section V. — Social and Political Condition of Greece. It is useless to investigate the social condition of the Greeks in what are called the heroic ages, because we have no credible account of that period. But when the certain history of Greece commences, we find the country divided between two races, the lonian and the Do- rian, distinguished from each other by striking characteristics, which were never wholly obliterated. We know, also, that two other races, the iEolian and Achaean, existed ; but they seem to have become in a great degree identified with one or other of the two former. The lonians were remarkable for their democratic spirit, and conse- quent hostility to hereditary privileges. They were vivacious, prone to excitement, easily induced to make important changes in their institu- tions, and proud of their country and themselves. Their love of refined enjoyments made them diligent cultivators of the fine arts, but without being destitut ^ of martial vigor. They were favorably disposed tow- ard commerce , but, like too many other free states, they encumbered it with short-sighted restrictions, and they were cruel masters to their colonial dependancies. The Dorian race, on the contrary, was remarkable for the seveie simplicity of its manners, and its strict adherence to ancient usages. It preferred an aristocratic form of government, and required age as a qualification for magistracy, because the old are usually opposed to innovation. They were ambitious of supremacy, and the chief object of their institutions was to maintain the warlike and almost savage spirit of the nation. Slavery in its worst form prevailed in every Dorian state ; and the slaves were almost deprived of hope — for the Dorian legislation was directed chiefly to fix every man in his hereditary con- dition. Commerce was discouraged on account of its tendency to change the ranks of society, and the fine arts all but prohibited, be- cause they were supposed to lead to effemmacy. The differences between these two races is the chief characteristic GRECIAN STATES. 87 of Grecian politics ; it runs, indeed, through the entire histor\ and was the principal cause of the deep-rooted hatred between Athent and Sparta. Next to this, the most marked feature in the political a»()ect of Greece is, that it contained as many free states as cities. At lica, Meg'aris, and Laconia, were civic rather than territorial states but there are few of the other divisions of the country that were u ated under a single government. The cities of A'chaia, Ariddia, and Boeotia, were independent of each other, though the Achaean ities were united by a federative league ; and Thebes generally exerci .ed a precarious dominion over the other cities of Bceotia. The suprt.nacy of the principal state was called by the Greeks Hegem'omj ; it int .uded the right of determining the foreign relations of the inferior state <, and binding them to all wars in which the capital engaged, and all t> eaties of peace which it concluded; but it did not allow of any intert^rence in the internal administration of each government. This parcelling out of a small country, added to the frequent revolutions, facilitated by the narrow limits of each state, necessarily led to a more rapid de- velopment of political science in Greece than in any other country. Divided as the Greeks were, there were many circumstances that united the whole Hellenic race by a common bond of nationality. Of these the chief was unity of religion, connected with which were the national festivals and games, at which all the Hellenes, and none others, were allowed to take a share. If, as is commonly supposed, the Greeks derived the elements of their religion from Asia or Egypt, they soon made it so peculiarly their own, that it retained no features of its original source. All Asiatic deities are more or less of an elementary character; that is, they symbolize some natural object, such as the sun, the earth, an important river ; or some power of nature, such as the creative, the preserving, and the destroying power. In many in- stances both were combined, and the visible object was associated with the latent power. On the other hand, the gods of Greece were xiuman personages, possessing the forms and the attributes of men, though in a highly exalted degree. The paganism of Asia was consequently a re- ligion of fear ; for it was impossible to conceive deities of monstrous forms sympathizing with man : hence, also, the priesthood formed a pe- culiar caste ;^ for the mystery which veiled the god was necessarily extended to the mode in which he should be worshipped. Instead of this gloomy system, the Greeks had a religion of love; they regarded their gods as a kind of personal friends, and hence their worship was cheerful and joyous. The priesthood was open to all ; the office was commonly filled for a limited time only, and was not deemed inconsistent with other occupations. There is no doubt that the Grecian religion received its peculiar form from the beautiful tic- tions of the poets, especially Homer and 'Hesiod ; for in all its features It is essentially poetical. We need scarcely dwell on the beneficial effects produced by this system on the fine arts, or its facilitating the progress of knowledge, by separating religion from philosophy. The oracles of Dodona and Del'phi, the temples l>f Olym'pia and Delos, were national ; they belonged to the whole Hellenic race. The respor ses of the o -acles were more reverenced by the Dorian than the Ionian race, for the latter early emancipated itself from the trammels 88 ANCIENT HISTORY. 01 supeistition. The worship in all was voluntary, and the large gifla tjinulously sent to fcheni were the spontaneous offers of patriotic affection. Del'phi was under the government of the Amphictyon'ic council ; but this body did not limit its attention to the government of ihe temple : by its influence over the oracle, it acquired no small share in the af- fairs of different states ; and it superintended the administration of the law of nations, even when the states represented in it were engaged in war. The great public games were the Olympian, the Pythian, the Ne- mean, and the Isthmian. Foreigners might be spectators at these games, but Hellenes alone could contend for the prize. This right be- longed to the colonies as well as to the states in the mother-country ; and, as it was deemed a privilege of the highest value, it preserved the unity even of the most distant branches of the Hellenic race. All the constitutions of the Grecian states were republican ; tT?t they varied so much in the different cities, that hardly any two were alike. In general, however, it may be stated, that in all the most severe pub- lic and nrivate labors were intrusted to slaves ; and in many, as Laconia, agriculture was managed by them exclusively. This degraded manufacturing industry, and led to an undue depression not only of ar- tisans and retailers, but even of master manufacturers. Foreign mer- chants were treated with unwise jealousy, and could never obtain the privileges of citizens. The right of coinage was reserved to the state ; but it was not until a very late period that the Greeks began to pay attention to finance. Little or no taxation was necessary while the citizens served as voluntary soldiers ; and the magistrates were re- warded with honor, not money. But when mercenary armies were employed, and ambassadors sent into distant lands, when the impor- tance of a navy induced cities to outbid each other in the pay of their sailors, heavy taxes became necessary, and these brought many of the cities into great pecuniary embarrassment. Another source of expense was the provision for public festivals and theatrical shows ; to which was added, in Athens and other places, the payment of the dicasts, or persons analogous to our jurymen ; though, in- stead of their number being limited to twelve, they frequently amounted tc several hundreds, and had no presiding judges. This was doubly injuri - ous ; the m ;ltitude of the dicasts not only entailed a heavy expense upon the state, but the sum paid being small, few save those of the lower classes attended, whose decisions were not unfrequently guided by prejudice and passion, instead of law and justice. The poetical nature of its religion, and the free constitution of its states, not only rendered Greece peculiarly favorable to the progress of literature, philosophy, and the fine arts, but gave these, in turn, a de- cided influence on the government. The tragic and lyric poets pro- duced their pieces in honor of the gods ; the comic poets at Athens discussed public affairs on the stage with a freedom, or rather licen- tiousness, which the wildest excesses of the modern press have never equalled ; and the influence of the orators at Athens rendered them the leaders of the state. The seeds of dissolution were thickly sown in the social system of ihe Greeks The rivalry between the Dorian and Ionian races ; the GRECIAN STATES. 89 turbulence and sedition natural to small republics ; and the gradual de- cline of religion, followed by a consequent corruption of morals — rendered the duration of the constitution as brief as it was glorious. Section Yl.— The (radllional History of Greece from the earliest Ages to tin Commencement of the Trojan War. FROM AN UNKNOWN PERIOD TO ABOUT 1200 B. C. Sx\CRED history, confirmed by uniform tradition, informs us ihat Thraco, Macedon, and Greece, were peopled at an earlier period than the other portions of the western world. The first inhabitants were tribes of hunters and shejjherds, whose 'earliest approaches to civiliza- tion were associations for mutual defence against robber-tribes, and the Phoenician corsairs that swept the coast of the iEgean to kidnap slaves. The Pelas'gi were the first tribe that acquired supremacy in Greece : they were probably of Asiatic origin ; and the fiibi place in which they appear to have made a permanent settlement was the Peloponnesus, where they erected Sic'yon (*b. c. 2000), and Argos (*b. c. 1800). In'achus was regarded by the Pelas'gi as their founder : he was prob- ably contemporary with Abraham ; but nothing certain is known of his history. To the Pelas'gi are attributed the remains of those most ancient monuments generally called Cyclopian. They are usually composed of enormous rude masses piled upon one another, with small stones fitted in between the intervals to complete the work. From the Pel- oponnesus the Pelas'gi extended themselves northward to Attica, Boeotia, and Thessaly, which they are said to have entered under three leaders, Acha^'us, Phthius, and Pelas'gus ; though by these names we ought probably to understand separate tribes rather than individuals. Here they learned to apply themselves to agriculture, and continued to flourish for nearly two centuries. (From *b. c. 1700 to *b. c. 1500.) The Hellenes, a more mild and humane race, first appeared on Mount Parnas'sus, in Phocis, under Deucalion, whom they venerated as their founder (*b. c. 1433). Being driven thence by a flood, they migrated into Thessaly, and expelled the Pelas'gi from that territory. From this time forward the Hellenes rapidly increased, and extended their dominion over the greater part of Greece, dispossessing the more ancient race, which only retained the mountainous parts of Arcadia and the land of Dodona. Numbers of the Pelas'gi emigrated to Italy, Crete, and some o^ the other islands. The 1 lellenic race was subdivided into four great branches, the iEolians, lonians, Dorians, and Acha^ans, which, in the historic age of Greece, were characterized by many strong and marked peculiarities of dialect, customs, and political government ; we may perhaps add, religious, or at least, heroic traditions, only tnat these appear to be con- nected rather with the localities in which they settled than with the stock from which they sprung. There were many smaller ramifications of the Hellenic race ; but all united themselves to one or other of liie four great tribes, whose names are derived from Deucalion's immediate posterity. It is the common attribute of ancient traditions to describe the achievements of a tribe or army as personal exploits of the lea'''«*r \ 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. and hence -we find the history of the tribes and .heir migrations ntcr. woven with the personal history of Deucalion's descendants. Hel'len, the son of Deucalion, gave his name to the whole Hellenic race : he had three sons, iEolus, Dorus, and Xiithus ; of whom the first settled in the district of Thessaly called Phthiotis, and became the founder of the ^Eolian tribe ; the second settled in Estieeotis, and there established the Dorian tribe ; the third, expelled by his brethren, migrated to Athens, where he manied Creusa, the daughter of king Erec'theus, by Avhom he had two sons, I'on and Achgeus. After the death of Erec'theus, Xiithus was forced to remove to iEgialeia (the province of the Peloponnesus al'terward called Achaia), where he died. His son I'on, the founder of the Ionian race, became general of the Athenian forces, and lord of iEgialeia, to which he gave the name of Ionia. Achffius, the founder of the Achaean race, obtained possession of the greater part of the Peloponnesus, especially Argolis and Laconia. The iEolian tribe spread itself over western Greece, Acarnania, aEtolia, Phocis, Locris, E'lis in the Peloponnesus, and the western islands. The Dorians, driven from Estiseotis by the Perrhsebians, spread themselves over Macedonia and Crete ; a part of them subse- quently returning, crossed Mount CE'ta, and settled in Doris on the Doric Tetrap'olis, where they remained until they migrated into the Peloponnesus under the guidance of the Heracleidae ; an important rev- olution, which will soon engage our attention. The lonians inhabited At'tica and ^Egialeia ; but they were expelled from the latter by the Acheeans at the time of the great Dorian migra- tion, and the name of the country changed to Achaia. The Achaeana retained Argolis and Laconia until they were expelled by the Dorians, when, as we have just said, they established themselves in iEgialeia, From the middle of the sixteenth to the middle of the fourteenth cen- tury before Christ, several colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phry'- gia, settled in different parts of Greece, bringing with them the im- provements in the arts and sciences that had been made in their re- spective countries, and thus greatly advancing the progress of civiliza- tion in Greece. The chief of these colonies were : — An Egyptian colony was led from Sais in the Del'ta to At^tica by Cecrops (*b. c. 1550) : he is said to have introduced the institution of marriage and the first elements of civilization. A second colony, from Lower Egypt, was led by Dan'aus,who fled from a brother's enmity, and settled in Ar'gos (*b. c. 1500). The fa- ble of his fifty daughters is Avell known ; but its historical foundation is altogether uncertain. A Phoenician colony, under Cad'mus, settled in Boeotia, and founded Thebes, nearly at the same time that Cecrops established himself al At'tica. He was the first who introduced the use of letters into Greece Pelops led a colony from Phry'gia, the northwestern kingdom of Asia Minor, into the Peloponnesus (*b. c. 1400) : he did not acquire so large a kingdom as the settlers mentioned before ; but his descend- ants, by intermarriages with the royal families of Ar'gos and Lacedae'- mon, acquired such paramount influence, that they became supreme »ver the peninsula, and gave it the name of their great ancestor. Several circumstances, however, impeded the progress of civilization. The coasts of Greece were temptingly exposed to the Phoenicians, GRECIAN STATES. 91 Canans, and islanders of the ^Egeaii, who at first made the art of nav. igation subservient to piracy rather than commerce ; and the Thracians, the Amazons, and other barbarous tribes from the north, made frequent incursions into the exposed Hellenic provinces. To resist these in- cursions the celebrated Amphictyonic league was founded by Amphic- tyon, a descendant of Deucalion : the federation was constantly re- ceivmg fresh accessions, until it included the greater part of the Gre- cian states ; deputies from which met alternately at Del'phi and Ther- mop'ylffi. Like Europe in the middle ages, Greece at this period was infested by bands of robbers, who deemed plunder an honorable profession, and some of whom exercised the most atrocious cruelties on the hapless passengers. The adventurers who acquired most fame by their ex- ertions in destroying the freebooters were Perseus, Her'cules, Bellei-^- ophon, Theseus, and the Dioskouroi Cas'tor, and Pol'lux, whose ro- mantic histories form a very large portion of Grecian mythology. The most celebrated events in this period of uncertain history are, the Argonautic expedition, the two Theban wars, the siege of Troy, the return of the HeracleklBe, and the migration of the Ionian and iEolian colonies to Asia Minor. It is not easy to discover the real nature and objects of the Argonautic expedition : it appears certain that in the thirteenth century before the Christian era, a Thessalian prince, named Jason, collected the young chivalry of Greece, and sailed on an expedition, partly commercial and partly piratical, in a ship named Argo, to the eastern shores of the Euxine sea. The Argonauts fought, conquered, and plundered ; they planted a colony in Corchis, and their chief brought a princess of that country home to Thessaly. But though impenetrable darkness veils the nature of this expedition, there can be no doubt of its results. From the era of the Argonauts, we may discover among the Greeks not only a more daring and more enlarged spirit of enterprise, but a more decisive and rapid progress toward civilization and humanity. The worship of Diony'sus or Bac'chus was established at Thebes by Cad'mus ; and the Phoenician mythology is full of the miseries and crimes that debased and ruined the family of Cad'mus. ffi'dipus, the most remarkable of his descendants, having been remcrsd from the throne for an involuntary series of crimes, his sons, Ete'ocles and Polynices, seized the kingdom, and agreed to reign in turn. Ete'ocles refused to perform the agreement ; and Polynices being joined by six of the most eminent generals in Greece, commenced the memorable war of " the Seven against Thebes" (*b. c. 1225). The result was fa- tal to the allies ; Ete'ocles and Polynices fell by mutual wounds ; and Creon, who succeeded to the Theban throne, routed the confederate forces, five of whose leaders were left dead on the field. After the lapse of about ten years, the sons of the allied princes, called the Epig'oni, marched against Thebes to avenge the death of their fathers After a sanguinary conflict, the Thebans were routed with great slaughter, their leader slain, and their city captured. In consequence of these wars the Thebans were long odious to the res'', of the Greeks, and they re- paid this hatred by infidelity to the Hellenic cause during the Persiaa war. 92 ANCIENT HISTORY. "When the family of Pelops became powerful in southern Greece, they appear to have attempted to retaliate the injuries that had driA'en their ancestors into exile. In one of their plundering expeditions to the Phrygian coast, a youn^ prince named Podar'kes was carried away cap- tive, and detained until a large ransom had been paid for his liberation. From this circumstance, he was afterward named Priam, or " the pur- chased." At a subsequent period, Priam having become king of Troy, sent his son Paris, or Alexan'der, as an ambassador to the Peloponnesian princes, probably to negotiate a peace. He seduced HeFen, the beau- tiful wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and conveyed her, with some valuable treasures, to Troy. The injured husband applied, to his countrymen for redress. A large army, raised by the confederate kings, was placed under the command of Agamemnon, the brother'of Menelaus. Troy was at this time the capital of a powerful kingdom, possessing "umerous allies and subjects. It mustered, according to Homer, an army of fifty thousand men ; its walls could defy the imperfect machines then used in sieges, and its citadel was impregnable. Against this powerful kingdom the Greek princes undertook their expedition, with an army of about one hundred thousand men, conveyed in eleven hun- dred and eighty-six ships. These vessels were of very rude construc- tion, having only halfdecks, and stones instead of anchors ; the soldiers acted as rowers, and when they reached their destination the ships were hauled upon land. The war was protracted ten years, during which several battles were fought under the walls of Troy ; and we find that the military weapons used v/ere in every respect similar to those employed by the ancient Egyptians. The city was finally taken by stratagem, and razed to the ground ; most of the inhabitants were slain or taken, and the rest were forced to become exiles in distant lands. The victors, however, suffer- ed nearly as much as the vanquished. During the protracted absence of the chiefs, usurpers had seized many of their thrones, aided by faith- less wives and the rising ambition of young men. These circumstances necessarily led to fierce wars and intestine commotions, whi:h greatly retarded the progress of Grecian civilization. Section VII. — Grecian History from the Trojan War to the Estahlishmeni of the Greek Colonies in Asia. FROM *B. c. 1183 TO B. c. 994. We have seen how the posterity of Pelops, by various means, ob tained possession of the entire Peloponnesus, to the exclusion of the more ancient dynasties. Their rivals were the Perseidae, who claimed, through their ancestor Per'seus, the honors of a divine descent, and who could boast of having in their family such heroes as Per'seus, Beller'ophon, and Her'cules. From the last-named hero a powerful branch of the Perseid family received the name of the Heracleidae • they were persecuted by the Pelop'id sovereigns, and driven into exile. After having been hospitably received by the Athenians, they retired to the mountainous district of Doris, and became masters of that wild and GRECIAN STATES. 93 barren province The Dorian mountains were ill-calcnlatetl to satisfy men whose ancestors had inherited the fertile phxins of the Peloponnesus. When the consequences of the Trojan war filled Greece with confusion, the Heracleidae were encouraged to make an effort to regain their ancient rights ; twice they attempted to break through the Corinthian isthmus, but were each time repulsed with considerable loss. Warned by these misfortunes, they abandoned the design of entering the Peloponnesus by land, and resolved to try their fortune in a naval ex- pedition. Their rendezvous was Naupac'tus {Lepanto), on the Corinthian gulf, where they were jonied by a body of ^tolians, and by several of the Dorian tribes. By secret intrigues, a party was gained in Lacedee'- mon. A favorable gale, in the meantime, wafted their armament to the eastern coast of the Peloponnesus. Laconia was betrayed to the invaders ; Ar'golis, Messenia, E'lis, and Corinth, submitted to their authority ; the mountainous districts of Arcadia, and the coast province, iEgialeia (afterward Achaia), were the only parts of the pen- insula that remained unsubdued. TIkj revolution was effected with lit tie bloodshed ; but not without groat oppression of the ancient inhab itants, many of whom emigrated, while those who remained were re- duced to slavf^ry. The associated victors divided the conquered provinces among them- selves by lot. Arislodennis, who obtained Laconia, happening to die, the kingdom was secured for his twin children, Eurys'thenes and Procles, and from that time forth Sparta was governed by two kino-s. The commander of the Pelop'id forces at the isthmus, instead of attempt- ing to recover his kindgom, invaded iEgialeia, expelled the lonians, and gave that province the name of Achaia, which it ever after retained (b. c. 1104). Many of the fugitives sought refuge in At'tica, where they were hospitably entertained by the Athenians, who were alarmed by the success and ambition of the Dorians. A still greater number passed over into Asia Minor, and founded the colonies of Ionia, iEolia, =i.-ad Caria. The jealousy of the Athenians was soon proved to be derived from reasonable fears. In the reign of Codrus the Dorians passed the bound- aries of At'tica, and seized the territory of Meg'ara, on the northern coast of the Saronic gulf. A cruel war ensued ; Codrus in vain at- tempted to drive the intruders from their stronghold : at length, hearing that a superstitious rumor prevailed among them, that they wotdd be successful as long as they refrained from injuring the Athenian king, he entered their camp in disguise, provoked a quarrel with a Dorian soldier, and suffered himself to be slain. On recognising the body, the superstitious Peloponnesians, despairing of success, abandoned their hostilities ; and the Athenians, out of respect for his memory, declared that none of the human race was worthy to succeed Codrus, and there- fore abolished royalty altogether (b. c. 1068). Two of thf» Pelop'idae, having unsuccessfully traversed the northern part of Greece in search of new settlements, finally crossed the Hellespont eighty-eight years after the taking of Troy, and established themselves along the coast of the ancient kingdom of Priam. Their colonies grad- ually extended from the peninsula of Cyzicus on the Propontis to the 94 ANCIENT HISTORY mouth of the river Her'mus, which delightful country, together with the island of Les'bos, received the name of iEolia. The younger sons of Codrus, dissatisfied with the abolition of royalty, collected a numerous band of Athenians and Ionian exiles, with which they crossed the sea, and established themselves along the coast from the river Her'mus to the promontory of Posideion, expelling the ancient inhabitants. The islands of Chios and Samos were subsequently seized, and all these countries were united by the common name of Ionia, or, as it was some times called, the Pan-Ionian confederacy. The renewal of hostilities between the Athenians and Dorians led to ♦he establishment of a third series of Greek colonies in Asia (b. c. 994). The Dorians having been driven from their stronghold in Meg'ara, were ashamed to return to the Peloponnesus ; part of them sailed to the islands of Crete and Rhodes, already peopled by Doric tribes ; the rest settled in the peninsula of Caria, to which, in honor of their mother-country, they gave the name of Doris. At a later period, the tide of emigration turned toward the west, and colonies were established in Sicily, and on the coasts of southern Italy. The Greeks seldom made settlements in the interior of the country ; for most of their colonies were designed to extend commerce rather than conquests. Most of these colonies were independent states, and their institutions were generally improvements on those of the parent-country Owing to their freedom and their superiority to their neighbors in the arts of civi,lized life, many of the colonies not only equalled but greatly surpassed their parent states in wealth and power. GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES. M CHAPTER IX. THE HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES AND COLONIES, BEFORE THE PERSIAN WAR. Section I. — Topography of Spuria. The city of Spar'ta, called also Lacedaj'mon, a name properly be- lo; ging to the suburbs, was built on a series of hills, whose outlines are varied and romantic, along the right bajik of the Eurotas, within sight 01 rlie chain of Mount Taygetum. We have already mentioned, that it was not originally surrounded by walls ; but the highest of its eminences seived as a citadel, and round this hill were ranged five towns, sep- anued by considerable intervals, occupied by the five Spartan tribes. The great square or forum, in which the principal streets of these towns teiininated, was embellished with temples and statues : it contained also the edifices in which the senate, the ephori, and other bodies of Spartan magistrates, were accustomed to assemble : there was besides a splen- did portico, erected by the Spartans from their share of the spoils taken at the battle of Platae'a, where the Persians were finally overthrown. Instead of being supported by pillars, the roof rested on gigantic statues, representing Persians habited in flowing robes. On the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Miner'va, which, as well as the grove that surrounded it, had the privileges of an asylum. It was built of brr.ss, as that at Delphi had formerly been. The greater part of these edifices had no pretensions to architectural beauty ; they were of rude workmanship, and destitute of ornament. Private houses were small and unadorned ; for the Spartans spent the gxeater part of their time in porticoes and public halls. On the south side of the city was the Hippodromos, or course for horse and foot races ; and at a little distance from that, the Platanis'tae, or place of ex- ercise for youth, shaded by beautiful palm-trees. Section II. — Legislation of Lyeurgus, and Messenian Wars. FROM *B. C. 880 TO B. C. 500. The Dorian conquerors of Laconia formed themselves into a perma- nent ruling caste, and reduced the greater part of the inhabitants of the country to a state of vassalage, or rather perfect slavery. During two centuries the Spartans were engaged in tedious wars with the Argives, 05 ANCIENT HISTORY. and their state was agitated by domestic broils, resulting from the un equal division of property, the ambition of rival nobles, and the dimin- ished power of the kings. At length, Lycur'gus having obtained th^ supreme authority, as a guardian of his nephew Charilaus, directed his attention to establishing a system of law, which might prevent the re- currence of such disorders. The legislation of Lycur'gus was not a written code ; and many things of later origin, have been erroneously at- tributed to this lawgiver. His great object, was to insure the continu- ance of the Spartans as a dommant military caste, by perpetuating a race of athletic and warlike men ; and hence his laws referred rather to domestic life and physical education than to the constitution of the state, or the form of its government. He continued the relation of caste between the Spartans and Laconi ans, and the double line of kings as leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. He is said to have instituted the gcrusia, or senate, of which no one could be a member who had not passed the age of sixty ; but it is uncertain whether he founded the college of the five eph'ori, or inspectors, chosen annually, with powers somewhat similar to those of the Roman tribunes ; he certainly did not invest them Avith the power they assumed in later ages. There were also popular assemblies ; but they could originate no law, nor make any alteration in the resolutions submitted to them by the kings and the senate, their power being con- fined to a simple approbation or rejection. The chief regulations in private life were, the equal distribution ol lands, the removal of every species of luxury, the arrangement of do mestic relations so as to insure a race of hardy citizens, and the com- plete establishment of slavery. Thus a military commonwealth was established in Greece, which for ever banished a chance of tranquillity ; since the Spartan citizens must have been impelled to war by the rest- lessness common to man, when all the occupations of household life and of agriculture were intrusted to the care of the Helots, as their slaves were usually called. The strength of the Spartan army lay in its heavy-armed infantry ; they usually fought in a phalanx or close col- umn, and were remarkable for the skill and rapidity of their evolutions. They marched to the charge with a measured regular step, and never broke their ranks either to plunder or pursue a flying enemy. After battle, every soldier was obliged to produce his shield, as a proof that he had behaved bravely and steadily. The first great war in which the Spartans engaged was with their neighbors the Messenians (b. c. 743). After a long series of sanguinary engagements, whose horrors were aggravated by cruel superstitions, the Messenians were totally subdued, and forced to give up half the revenue of their lands to the Spartans (b. c. 722). During this war, the Spartan army, consisting of the greater part of the citizens who had attained the military age, bound themselves by a voluntary oath not to return home until they had subdued their enemies. The war being pro- tracted beyond expectation, the senate, fearing that the Spartan race would become extinct, invited the young men, who had not taken the obligation, to return home, and permitted them to have promiscuous in- tercourse with the women. The offspring of these irregular connex- ions were called Parthen'iae ; they had no certain father, nor were they. ATHENS. V7 ttiDugh citizens of Spartu, entitled to iiny inheritance. Finding them- selves despised by the other Spartans, they entered into a conspiracy with the Helots, which was detected at the moment it was about to ex- plode. The senate, however, was afraid to punish so pov/crfid a body ; sufficient means of transport, arms, and munitions, were suppUed to the Parthen'iic, who, under the guidance of Phalan'tus, proceeded to couth, crn Italy, where they founded the city of Taren'tum. The oppiession of the Spartans drove the Messenians to revolt, and. they found a worthy leader in Aristom'enes, a youth descended from the f.nciert line of Messenian kings. So rapid and decisive were his suc- cesses, hat the Spartans sought the advice of the oracle, and received the mortifying response, that they should solicit a general from the Athenians. Ambassadors were sent to urge this request; and the Athenians sent back the poet Tyrta^'us, who had, indeed, borne arms, but was never distinguished as a warrior. His patriotic odes roused the spirit of the Spartan soldiers, and they renewed the war with more zeal and greater success than ever. Notwithstanding these advantages acquired by the Spartans, Aristom'enes protracted the defence of his country more than eleven years ; but at length Messene was taken by treachery, aud its heroic defenders forced to seek refuge in Arcadia. Here Aristom'enes planned an expedition against Sparta, v/hose citi- zens were engaged in plundering Messenia ; but he was betrayed by the Arcadian monarch, and his last plan for the redemption of his coun- try frustrated (b. c. 671). Sparta had , conquered, but the struggle had greatly weakened the strength of the state ; and in her subsequent wars with the Tegeans and Argives, she was far from maintaining her ancient superiority in arms. The important island of Cythera was, however, wrested from the Ar- pives, about b. c. 550. Section III. — Topography of Athens. Atm£iVS was situated in a plain, which on the southwest, extended for about four miles toward the sea and the harbors, but on the othei side was enclosed by mountains. Several rocky hills arose in the plain itself; the largest and highest of which was fortified by Cecrops as the citadel, or Acropolis, and was sometimes called Cecropia. Around this the city was built, most of the buildings, however, spreading toward the sea. The summit of the hill was nearly level for a space of about eight hundred feet in length and four hundred in breadth ; as if Nature hel-sclf had prepared a fit locality for those masterpieces of architec- ture which announced at a distance the splendor of Athens. The only road that led ^o the Acrop'oUs passed through the Propylaea, amagnificem gateway adorned with two wings, and two temples full of the finest pieces of sculpture and painting. It was erected under the administra- tion of Per'icles, by the architect Mnesic'les, and was decorated with admirable sculptures of Phid'ias. Through these splendid portals wa.*? an ascent by marble steps to the summit of the hill, on which were erected the temples of the guardian deities of Athens. On the left was the temple of Pallas Athene {Minerva), the protectress of cities, con- taining a column fabled to have fallen from heaven, and an olive-tref 7 98 ANCIENT HISTORY. believed to have sprung spontaneously from the earth at the mandat-eol the i^oddess. Beyond this was a temple of Neptune. On the righ side arose the Par'thenon, sacred to the virgin Minerva, the glory of Athene, the noblest triumph of Grecian architecture. From whatever quarter the traveller arrived, whether by land or sea, the first thing he saw was the Par'thenon rearing up its lofty head above the city and ihp citadel. At the foot of the Acrop'olis, on one side, was the Odeum, ?r music- hall, and the Theatre of Bacchus, where the tragic contests were cel- ebrated on the festival of that deity ; on the other side was the Pry- taneum, where the chief magistrates and most meritorious citizens were honorably entertained at a table furnished at the public expense. A small valley called Coele {the hollow) lay between the Acrop'olis and the hill on which the court of Areop'agus held its sessions ; and it also separated the Areop'agus from the Pnyx, a small rocky hill on which the ueneral assemblies of the people were held. It was remarkable only for the meanness and simplicity of its furniture, which formed a striking contrast to the grandeur of the neighboring buildings. Here the spot from which the eminent orators addressed the people may still be seen : for it is imperishable, being cut in the natural rock, and it has been recently cleared from rubbish, as well as the four steps by which it was ascended. Beyond the Pnyx lay the Ceramicus, or pottery-ground, containing the market-place. This was a large square, surrounded on all sides with statues and public buildings ; at the south was the senate-house, and the statues of the Epon'ymi, ten heroes from whom the tribes of Athens received their respective names. At the east were erected two splendid stoai, or porticoes ; that of the Her'mae, or statues of Mercury, on which were inscribed the names of the citizens, allies, and slaves, who had distinguished themselves in the Persian war ; and that called Poecile, ornamented with many splendid paintings, particularly one representing Miltiades at the battle of Marathon. Under this sloa the philosopher Zeno used to lecture his pupils, whence his followers are called Stoics. There were three principal gymnasia, or places of public exercise, near the city, where philosophers and rhetoricians delivered their lectures. The most celebrated of these was the Academy, deriving its name from having been the country-seat of the wealthy Academus, who spent the greater part of a large fortune in ornamenting this delightful spot. Here Plato delivered his eloquent lectures, and hence his followers are called Academics. The Lyceum, on the opposite side of the city, near the Ilys'sus, was chosen by Aristotle for his school after his return from Macedon, the Academy having been pre-occupied by Xen'ocrates He generally instructed his pupils while walking about the groves and avenues of this highly-cultivated place, and on this account his followers were called Peripatetics. Cynosar'ges was about a mile from the Lyceum, and was the residence of Antis'thenes, the founder of the Cynic sect. The whole country round Athens, particularly the long road to the Peirae'us, was ornamented with monuments of all kinds, especially with tombs of great poets, statesmen, and warriors. This road was enclosed ATHENS. 99 6y a double wall, called the northern and southern, erected under the administration of Themis'toclcs : it was nearly five miles in length on both sides, and enclosed the two harbors Peirae'us and PhaFereus. It was rather more than eighty feet high, built entirely of freestone, and so broad that two baggage-wagons could pass each other. The Pei- ra)'us and Phal'ereus, but especially the former, might be regarded aa little cities, with public squares, temples, market-places, &c. ; and the commercial crowd that enliven the quays gave the chief harbor a more animated appearance than Athens itself. The Munychian port lay eist of Athens, and, like the others, was formed naturally by the bays of the coast. It was a place of considerable natural strength, and was gar- risoned by the Lacedaemonians after they had subdued Athens. Section IV. — The History of Alliens to the Beginning of the Persian War. FROM *B. C. 1300 TO B. C. 500. The political history of Athens begins properly Avith the reign cf Theseus, who succeeded his father iEgeus about b. c. 1300. Certain institutions, such as the court of Areop'agus, and the division of the people into eupat'ridse [nobles), georgi [husbandmen), and demiur'gi [me- tchanics), are so manifestly derived from the Egyptian system of caste, that wo may without hesitation assign them to Cecrops. Theseus, however, deserves to be regarded as the founder of the state, since, in- stead of the four independent districts, or dembi, into which Attica was divided, he established one body politic, and made Athens the seat of government. Among his successors, the most remarkable were Mnes'- theus, who fell before Troy, and Codrus, whose generous devotion, as has been already related, led to the total abolition of royalty. After the abolition of royalty (b. c. 1068), thirteen archons of his family ruled in succession, differing from kings only in being accountable for their administration. The first was Medon, the last Alcmaeon ; after his death (b. c. 752), archons were chosen every ten years from the family of Codrua There were seven of these, the last of whom ceased to rule b. c. 682. Nine annual archons were then appointed by the pow- erful class of nobility, consisting not only of the descendants of such foreign princes as had taken refuge in Athens, but of those Athenian families which time and accident had raised to opulence ana distinc- tion. The powers of these magistrates were not equal ; their rank and offices wen so arranged, that the prerogatives of the former kings and the preceding archons were divided among the first three of the nine. Nothing was gained by the great body of the people during these rev- olutions. The equestrian order, so called from their fighting on horse- back, enjoyed all authority, religious, civil, and military. The Athenian populace were reduced to a condition of miserable servitude ; the lives and fortunes of individuals were left at the discretion of magistrates, •»ho were too much disposed to decide according to party prejudices or their own private interests. In this confusion, Draco was chosen to prepare a code of laws (b. c. 622). He was a man of unswerving integrity, but of unexampled severity. His laws bore the impress of his character ; the punishment of death was denounced against all crimes, small as well as great ; and this ii\- 100 ANCIENT HISTORY discriminate cruelty rendered the whole code inoperative. Human na ture revolted against such legal butchery ; and Draco, to avoid the puh lie indignation, fled to iEgi'na, where he died an exile. This ineffectual effort only augmented the divisions of the state ; the excesses of the aristocratic factions produced the most violent indigna- tion. The state was in fact reduced to perfect anarchy. To remedy these disorders, Solon, who had already won the confidence of his countrymen by planning and accomplishing an enterprise for the re- covery of Sal'amis, was unanimously raised to the dignity of firsi magistrate, legislator, and sovereign arbiter (b. c. 594). He was em- inently qualified for this important station. Descended from the ancient kings of Athens, he applied himself in early life to commercial pursuits, and having secured a competency by honorable industry, he travelled to distant lands in search of knowledge. Such was his suc- cess, that he was reckoned the chief of the sages commonly called the Seven Wise Men of Greece, who in his age laid the foundation o( Grecian philosophy. The chief object of Solon's legislation was to restrain the excessive power of the aristocracy, without, however, introducing a pure democ- racy. He abolished all the laws of Draco, except those against mur- der. The state of debtors calling loudly for relief, he made an equita- ble adjustment of the claims of creditors ; but at the same time concil- iated capitalists by raising the value of money. He abolished slavery and imprisonment for debt, which had led to great abuses and cruelties Without abolishing the ancient local divisions he arranged the citizen.s in four classes, according to their property, measured in agricultural produce. 1 . The first class were the pentacos'i-medim'ni, whose annual income exceeded five hundred bushels (medim'ni ; 2, the knights (hip- peis), whose revenue was equal to four hvmdred ; 3, the zeugitae, who had three hundred ; and 4, the thetes, whose yearly revenue fell short of that sum. Citizens of all classes had a right of voting at the popular assemblies and in the courts of judicature ; but magisterial offices were limited to the first three classes. The archonship was left unaltered ; but it was ordained that none of these magistrates should hold military command during his year of office. A council of four hundred was chosen from the first three classes, possessing senatorial authority : the members were selected by lot ; but they were obliged to undergo a very strict examination into their past lives and characters before they were permitted to enter upon office. The archons were bound to consult the council in every important public matter ; and no subject could be dis- cussed in the general assembly of the people which had not previously received the sanction of the four hundred. The popular assemblies consisted of all the four classes, and usually met on the rocky hill called the Pnyx, described in the proceeding sec- tion. They had the right of confirming or rejecting new laws, of elect- ing the magistrates, of dis.cussing all public affairs referred to them by the council, and of judging in all state trials. According to Solon's plan, the court of Areop'agus should have been the chief pillar of the AtlKjnian constitution. Before his time it was a mere engine of aristocratic oppression ; but Solon modified its constitu- tion, and enlarged its powers. It was composed of persons who had ATHENS. 101 held the office of archoii, and was made the supreme tribmial .n all capital cases. It was likewise in'rusted with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship upon the conduct of the archons at the ex- piration of their office ; and it had besides the privilege of amending or rescinding the measures that had passed the general assemblies of the people. Soon after this constitution was established, Solon was sent as a deputy to the Amphictyon'ic council at Del'phi, and had no small share in stimulating that body to undertake the first sacred war against the Crisseans who had invaded the sacred territories, and not only ravaged the country, but even plundered the shrine of Apol'lo. The war was protracted ten years ; but it terminated in the final destruction of the Crissean community, and the dedication of their territory to the deh" whose temple they had sacrilegiously plundered (b. c. 584). The ter- mination of the war was celebrated by the revival of the Pythian games, which had been discontinued durinsf the contest. Scarcely had the liberties of Athens been established, Avhen thev were again subverted by the usurpation of Peisis'tratus. Like Solon, the usurper was descended from the ancient kings of Athens. He was also possessor of an enormous fortune, which he distributed to the poor with lavish munificence. His generosity, his eloquence, and his cour- teous manners, won for him universal favor : but he had the art to per- suade the lower ranks of his countrymen, that his popularity had ren- dered him odious to the nobles, and that the protection of a body-guard was necessary to the safety of his life. Scarcely had this been granted, when he seized on the Acrop'olis, and made himself absolute master of Athens (b. c. 561). Solon refused the usurper's offers of favor and pro- tection : he vv'ent into voluntary exile, and died, or at least was buried, at Sal'amis. Meg'acles, the chief of the powerful family of the Alcmaeon'idse, retired, with all his attendants and political friends, be- yond the boundaries of At/tica ; but he entered into a secret intrigue witli Lycur'gus, the chief of another faction, and by their joint efforts Peisis'tratus was driven into exile about twelve months after he had obtained the sovereignty. Meg'acles soon quarrelled with Lycur'gus, and opened a negotiation with Peisis'tratus, offering to restore him, if he would become his son- in-law. The terms were accepted, and Peisis'tratus was again sum- moned to assume sovereign power, amid the general exultation of the people. A quarrel with Meg'acles drove him a second time into ban- ishment ; but he returned again at the head of an army, and having recovered the reins of power, held them without interruption to the day of his death. The power thus illegally acquired, was administered with equity and mildness. Peisis'tratus ceased not to exert himself to extend the glory of Athens, and secure the happiness of the Athenians On the death of Peisis'tratus (b. c. 528), his sons Hippar'chus and Hip'pias succeeded to his power, but not to his prudence and abilities After a joint reign of fourteen years, Hippar'chus was murdered by two young Athenians, Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whose resentment he had provoked by an atrocious insult (b. c. 514). The cruelty with which Hip pias punished all whom he suspected of having had a share in his brother's death, alienated the affections of the people, and encour 102 ANCIENT HISTORY Rged the AIcnifEonidEe to make an effort for his ex}xilsion. By large bribes to the Delphian priesthood, they obtained a response from the oracle commanding the Spartans to expel the Peisistrat'ldee ; and that st.perstitious people immediately sent an army for that purpose (b. c. 510). After a brief struggle Ilip'pias was forced to abandon Athens, and thenceforward lived in perpetual exile. Scarcely was the tyrant expelled, when the state was rent in sunder by the rivalry of contending factions. Clis'thenes, the son of Meg'acles, headed one ; the other, chiefly composed of the aristocracy, was led by Isag'oras. Isag'oras received armies to support his cause from the Spar- tans, the Corinthians, the Boeotians, the Chalcidians, and the ^Egine- tans. But the confederates could not agree ; and these dissensions broke up the alliance. After some time, the Spartans, having discover- ed the trick played upon them by the Delphian oracle, wished to re- store Hip'pias ; but, finding their alliesi universally opposed to the proj- ect, they abandoned him to his fate, and he fled to the court of Persia, where his exertions greatly contributed to the forcing Darius into a war against Greece. Section V. — Historical Notices of the minor Crrecian Stales previous to the Persian War. FROM *B. C. 1100 TO B. C. 500. After the capture of Thebes by the Epig'oni, the Boeotians were ex- pelled by Thracian hordes, and retired to Ar'ne in Thessaly, but about the time of the great Dorian migration they returned to the land of their forefathers, and became united with some iEolian tribes. Royalty was abolished upon the death of Xiithus (b. c. 1126), and the Boeotians formed a confederation of as many states as there were cities in the province : at the head of which was Thebes, but with very indefinite privileges. The constitutions of the states were unfixed ; and they continually fluctuated between a licentious democracy and a tyrannical oligarchy. This great evil, combined with the unsettled nature of the confederation, prevented the Boeotians from taking a lead- ing share in the affairs of Greece. Acarnania, iEtolia, and Locris, offer nothing remarkable ; and the most important event in the history of Phocis was the sacred war, which has been described in the last section. The states of Thessaly were for the most part governed by arbitrary individuals. In the Peloponnesus, Corinth was the most remarkable state next to Sparta. At the time of the Dorian conquest of southern Greece, its durone was seized by Aletes, whose descendants retained the power and title of royalty for five generations. On the death of Teles'sus, the last of the Aletian race, Bac'chis usurped the throne (b. c. 777), and hia descendants, called Bacchiadae, held the regal authority for five genera tions more. Teles'tes, the last of these kings, having been murdered, the kingly office was abolished, and a species of oligarchy established in its stead, under yearly magistrates, called prytanes, chosen exclu- sively from the house of Bac'chis. It would have been scarcely possi- ble for such a narrow oligarchy to maintain its ground, even if it had PRINCIPAL GRECIAN ISLANDS. 103 used its power with moderation and wisdom ; but the Baccliiads, proud of their race and great commercial wealth, iusuhed their subjects ; and Cyp'sclus, an opulent citizen of ^Eolian descent, aided by the com- monalty, usurped the governnient (b. c. 657), and held the supreme power for thirty years. On his death, he was succeeded by his son Perian'der, who is sometimes ranked among the Seven Wise Men of Greece, though he is described by many writers as a rapacious, oppres- sive, and cruel despot. His reign lasted forty years, and yet is supposed to have been shortened either by violence or grief for the loss of his son. He was succeeded by his nephew Psammet'ichus, whose reign lasted only three years, when he was expelled by his subjec's, assisted by a Spartan army (b. c. 584). This revolution was followed by the establishment of a commercial aristocracy, whose exact constitution is unknown, but which long kept Corinth in close alliance with Sparta. The Corinthian trade consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic and Italian merchandise, for which her position gave her many peculiar advantages. The period of Corinth's highest prosperity clos-ed with the government of the Cyp'selids ; and the loss of Corcy'ra one of her colonies which had been kept in subjection by Per'iander, but revolted after his death, proved a blow to her power which she never recovered. The naval engagement between the Corcyrians and Corinthians (b. c. 650) is the first sea-fight recorded in history. The history of Sic'yon and the other Achaean states presents a series of revolutions similar to those of Corinth. After various revolutions and usurpations, they all adopted republican institutions, about.the time that the Cyp'selids were expelled from Corinth. The constitution of Arcadia became republican when AristodemuS; its last king, was stoned by his subjects for having betrayed Aristom'- enes and the Messenians. The regal dignity was abolished in Argos so early as b. c. 984 ; but nothing is known of the circumstances that led to the change, or the peculiar nature of the republic by which it was succeeded. E'lis preserved its internal peace, owing to the wise laws of Ipn'- itus, a contemporary of Lycur'gus ; while the sanctity of its soil ensured its external security. After the abolition of royal power two supreme mapristrates were chosen, called Hellanodica?, to whose office was added the^charge of superintending the Olympic games. Their number wa* subsequently increased to ten, one being chosen from each of the Elia. tribes ; and their power was limited by a senate of ninety, whose mem bers were chosen for life. Section VI. — History of the principal Grecian Islands. The revolutions in the Grecian islands were very similar to those on the continent, republican constitutions having succeeded to mon- archy in most of them. After the Athenians had acquired the sover- eignty of the sea, the insular states lost their independence ; for though they were called confederates, they were treated as subjects ; no change, however, was made in the'.r internal constitutions. We shall only no- tice the islands that were iiost remarkable in history. Corcy'ra was occupied by a Corinthian colony under Chersic'ratea ^04 ANCIENT HISTORY. (b. c. 753), who (. xpelled or subdued the former inhabitants. As tha leader and most of his companions had been driA^en into exile by polit* ical commotions, they retained but little affection for the parent state ; while the rapid progress of the Corcyrean power excited the commer- cial jealousy of Corinth. These circumstances led to an open war. The Corcyrean constitution appears to have been originally aristocratic or oligarchical, like that of most Dorian states ; but after the Persian wars a democratic faction arose, powerfully supported by the Athenians, which produced the most violent internal commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corey 'ra. iEgma, first colonized b. c. 1358, rapidly grew, by commerce, and navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. It even established colonies of its own in Crete and Pontus. ^gfna was long the suc- cessful rival of Athens ; it was subdued by Themis'tocles (b. c. 485). The island of Eubce'a received many different colonies from the main- land of Greece ; but its cities Avere not united by any confederation, each possessing a separate constitution. It was subdued by the Athe- nians after the Persian wars ; but the islanders made several sanguin- ary struggles to regain their independence. The Cyc'lades were all, except Delos, rendered tributary to Athens, when that state acquired the supremacy of the sea. Crete was celebrated in the heroic ages for the laws of Minos (*b. c. 1300). After the death of Clean'thus (*b. c. 800), republican constitu- tions were adopted in the principal cities, which thenceforth became in- dependent states. The Cretans rarely engaged in foreign wars, but they v.'ere almost incessantly involved in mutual hostilities ; a circum- stance that tended greatly to degrade the national character. Cy'prus was only partially colonized by the Greeks, whose principal settlement v/as at Sal'amis, founded by Teucer, a little after the Trojan war (b. c. 1100). The island was successively subject to the Phoeni- cians, Egyptians, and Persians. The kings of Sal'amis frequently re- volted against their Persian masters, and always maintained a qualified independence. When Alexander the Great besieged Tyre (b. c. 332), he was voluntarily joined by the nine Cypriot kings, and thenceforth the island was annexed to the Macedonian monarchy. The history of Rhodes belongs properly to the portion of this work which treats of the successors of Alexander, to which we refer owl readers. Section VII. — History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. yROM b. c. 1200 TO B. c. 500. The colonies founded by the Greeks, between the period of the Dorian migration and the final subversion of Grecian liberty by the triumph of the Macedonians, were the most numerous and important established by any nation, and all acted a very conspicuous part in accelerating the progress of civilization. The colonies that first engage our attention are those that were es- tablished along the western coast of Asia Minor, from the Hellespont to the confines of Cilic'ia, in consequence of the revolutions produced oy the Dorian migration and conquest of the Peloponnesus. They were GREEK COLONIES IN ASIA MINOR. 103 established by the ^olians, lonians, and Carians ; their commerce soon exceeded that of the parent states ; and in them were produced the firsi of Grecian poets, Homer and Alcae'us ; and the first of Grecian philos- ophers, Thales and Pythag'oras. The iEoLiANs, after the conquest of the Peloponnesus, settled for a time in Thrace, whence they passed over, after the lapse of a genera- tion, to Asia (*B. c. 1124), and occupied the coasts of iMysia and Caria giving to the strip of land they colonized the name of iEolis. They acquired possession, also, of the islands of Les'bos, Ten'edos, and the cluster called the Hecatonnesi (hundred islands). Twelve cities were erected on the mainland by the iEolians, of which the chief were Cyme and Smyr'na. The latter city was destroyed by the Lydiaiis ^*b. c. 600), and was not restored until four hundred years later, when it be- came a flourishing Macedonian colony. The ^olian cities maintained their independence until the age of Cy'rus, when those on the mainland were subdued by the Persians. When Athens acquired supremacy by sea, the insular states were forced to submit to her authority, and were in general ruled with great severity. The Ionian migration took place some years after the iEolian, about B. c. 1044. It was the largest that ever left Greece ; and fortunately it is that, with whose details we are best acquainted. It originated in the abolition of royalty at Athens : the sons of Codrus reluctant to live as private individuals, declared their design of leading a colony into Asia : they were readily joined by the Ionian exiles from the northern Peloponnesus, who were straitened for room in At'tica, and by large bands of emigrants from the neighboring stales, actuated by political dis content, or the mere love of change. They were supplied liberally with ships and munitions of war. They pursued their voyage to Asia Minor, and landed on the coast south of iE'olis. After a long se- ries of sanguinary wars, the native barbarians resigned their lands to the intruders ; and the lonians acquired possession of the whole of the valuable district between Miletus and Mount Sip'ylus. The lonians then began to erect cities ; they established twelve, united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy ; viz., Eph'esus, Ery'three, Clazom'enae, Colophon, My'us, Miletus, Priene, Phocac'a, Leb'edos, Samos, Teos, and Chios, of which the last three were insular stations. Miletus was the chief of the Ionian colonies : but Eph'esus was the most renowned of the cities. All the Ionian cities were united by an Amphictyon'ic confederacy. Deputies from the different states met, at stated times, in a temple of Nep'tune, erected on the headland of Mycale, which they named Heli- concan, from Helfce, the chief of their ancient, cities in the northern Peloponnesus. Here they deliberated on all matters that affected the Pan-Ionian league ; but the council never interfered with the domestic government of the several cities. They also celebrated festivals and public games, which rivalled in magnificence those of Greece. In the midst of their prosperity, the Ionian cities became engaged in a long and arduous struggle with the Lydian kings, which continued almost without intermission until both were absorbed in the rising greatness of the Persian empire. Neither the extent nor progress of the Dorian colonies could c "n- 106 ANCIENT HISTOTLY. pare with thos-e we havo just (Jescribod. Limited to a narroA-c and nc very fruitful territory, their confederation always continued in a state of feebleness ; and, with the exception of Halicarnas'sus, whicli, at a com- paratively recent age, became the capital of an opulent monarchy, and the isle of Rhodes, whose daring navigators rivalled those of the most potent commercial states, there is scarcely a Dorian state that rose above mediocrity. The Dorians, after the conquest of the Peloponnesus, meditated new acquisitions ; but, being checked by the Athenians at Meg'ara, they pro ceeded in detached bands to the coast of- Carta, and to the islands of Cos and Rhodes. It is impossible to assign the exact age of these mi grations ; but they were certainly later than the Ionian and yEolian , they appear also to have been conducted without any definite plan, and to have taken place at very different times. The six cities forming the Doric confederation, called Hexapolis, were Halicarnas'sus and Cni'dus on the Carian peninsula, Cos in the island of the same name, and Ha- lys'sus, Camirus, and Lin'dus, in the island of Rhodes. The Dorians submitted without a struggle to the Persian power, and seem to have made no effort to regain their independence. Section VIII. — The Greek Colonies on the Euxine Sea, the Coasts of Thrace, Macedon, ^. Most of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Propon'tis, the Euxine sea, and the Palus ?vlae6tis, were founded by the citizens of Miletus between the eighth and sixth centuries before the Christian era. That city, whose commerce occupied four harbors, and whose naval power amounted to eighty or a hundred galleys of war, owed its great- ness to its possession of the northern trade ; and to secure this lucra- tive commerce, it planted several colonies, all of which became pros- perous marts of trade. Their commerce was not confined to the sea- coasts : their merchants penetrated into southern Russia, and advanced even beyond the Caspian to the countries which now form the king- doms of Khiva and Bokhara. The Phocseans shared the honor of founding these important colonies ; but they were too much devoted to the western trade to waste their energies on the northern ; a'ld it may be generally stated, that the settlements on the Euxine uepended chiefly on Miletus. On the Propon'tis adjoining the Hellespont, stood Lamp'saciis, originally foun^.ed by some Phoca^ans, who obtained a grant of the site of the city from one of the native princes whom they had assisted ■-n war. It was afterward occupied by the Milesians, under whom it became a place of great wealth and extensive commerce. Cyz'icus, erected on an island joined by bridges to the Asiatic coast, was a very ancient city ; it is said to have been colonized in the earli- est ages by the Tyrrhenian Pelas'gi, and afterward by the Argonauts. About B. c. 751, it was occupied by the Milesians, who at the same time took possession of the neighboring island of Proconnesus [Mar' mora). Cyz'icus, in a late age, under the dominion of the Romans, became one of the most beautiful and flourishing cities in Asia. Opposite to Cyz'icus on the Thracian coast, was Perin'thus, at a la« GREEK COLONIES ON THE EUXINE SEA. '07 tei age called Heracleia, founded by a Samian colony ; on the Euro- pean side of the Thracian Bosphorus was Byzan'tium [C'lnnlantinople); and over against it, on the Asiatic coast, Charcedon {Scutari), both colonized from Meg'ara. The first Greek city on the Black sea was Heracleia, on the Bithy- nian coast, which appears to have been successively colonized from Meg'ara and Miletus. Sinope, in Paphlagonia, was the most powerful of the Greek states on the Euxine se a. Amfsus,in Pon'tus, was, next to Sinope, the best harbor on the Euxine sea. After having been long subject to Miletus, it was seized by the Athenians in the age of Per'icles, and its name changed to Peirae'aeus. During the days of its prosperity, Amisus is said to have become the parent of a colony that soon surpassed itself in importance, Trap'ezus (Trebisonde). On the eastern coast of the Euxine were Phasis, Diosciirias, and Phanagoria. In the Macedonian ago, Phanagoria became the capital of the Greek cities on the Asiatic side of the Bos'phorus : its prosperity was owing to its being the chief mart for the slave-trade, which has always prevailed in the countries round the Caucasus, and also to its being the staple for the goods brought from central and southern Asia by the route of the Caspian sea and the Oxus. The Milesians formed several establishments in the Tauric Cher- sonese [Crimea), and wrested the greater part of that peninsula from its barbarous inhabitants. The city of Panticapae'um was the most important, and probably the most ancient, of these settlements. It be- came the capital of the little Greek kingdom of the Bos'phorus, and continued to maintain its independence until, in the Roman age, it was seized by Mithridates the Great, who laid there the foundations of his subsequent power. The coasts of Thrace and Macedon were covered with Greek colo- nies, principally derived from Corinth and Athens. On the coasts of Africa was the celebrated Greek city of Cyrene, long the commercial rival of Carthage, founded by a Dorian colony from the island of Thera (b. c. 651), in obedience to the directions of the Delphic oracle. The government was at first monarchical, the crown being hereditary in the family of Bat'tus, the founder. About b. c. 450, royalty was abolished, and a republic formed ; but the citizens of Cyrene never were able to form a permanent constitution ; and their state continued to be rent by factions until it was annexed to the Egyp- tian kingdom, in the age of the Ptolemies. The history of the Greek states in Sicily and southern Italy being closely connected with the Roman ?vars, will be found in the chapters on Italy. 108 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER X. HISTORY OF GREECE, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE PERSIAN WAR8 TO THE ACCESSION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT FROM B. C. 500 TO B. c. 336. SectiOxN I. — The First Persian War. FROiM B. C. 500 TO B. C. 490. When Darius Hystas'pes invaded Scythia, he intrusted the guard of the bridge of boats that he had constructed over the Danube to the Greeks of Asia and Thrace, who had been so recently brought under subjection to the Persians. Many of those were anxious to recover their freedom, and they deliberated seriously on the propriety of de- stroying the bridge, and leaving the Persians to perish without resource in an inhospitable desert. The proposal was strenuously advocated by Miltlades, the king or tyrant, as he was called, of the Thracian Cher- sonese ; but he was opposed by Histice'us, the tyrant of Miletus, whose sel{i:ih counsels finally prevailed. Miltiades retired to Athens, his na- tive city, where he subsequently rose to the highest honors ; Histiae'us accompanied the monarch he had saved to the court of Persia. But the gratitude of absolute princes is not permanent : Histiae'us soon found that the very magnitude of his services exposed him to danger ; and he concerted with his nephew, Aristag'oras, a revolt, which in- cluded all the Ionian colonies. In order that the insurrection should have any reasonable prospects of success, it was necessary that it should be supported by the Grecian states ; and to engage this assistance, Aristag'oras came to Lacedaj'mon. Beirg repulsed at Spar'ta, Aristag'oras proceeded to Athens, where he was' more generously received (b. c. 500). Twenty ships were prepared for him with all convenient speed; and these being rein- forced by live more from the little state of Eret'ria, in the island of Euboe'a, sailed over to the harbor of Miletus, and commenced the war. The allies were at first very successful. Sar'dis, the wealthy capital of Lydia, was taken and plundered ; but Aristag'oras had not the tal- ents of a general ; the fruits of success were lost as soon as won ; the several divisions of the army quarrelled and separated ; and the Asiatic Greeks were left to bear the brunt of the vengeance of their -aieioilesis masters. Miletus was taken, its walls razed, and its citizens mas sacred several minor cities suffered similar calamities. Aristag'oras GREECE lOl fled to Thrace, wlierc he was murdered bv the barbarians ; and His« tife'us, after a vain attempt to escape, H'as crucified at Sar'dis by com- mand of the Persian satrap. Darius next turned his resentment agiinst the Greeks, who had aided this revolt ; he sent ambassadors to demand homage from the Grecian states, especially requiring the Athenians to receive back Hip'pias, their exiled tyrant. All the states, insular and continental, except Athens and Spar'ta, proffered submission ; but those noble republics sent back a haughty defiance, and fearlessly prepared to encounter the whole strength of the Persian empire. Darius, having prepared a vast armament, intrusted its command to his son-in-law Mardonius, who soon subdued the island of Thasus, and the kingdom of Macedon (b. c. 493). But his fleet, while doubling Mount A'thos, was shaltered by a violent storm ; three hundred vessels were dashed against the rocks, and twenty thousand men are said to have perishti 'n the waves. Mardonius returned home to excuse his disgrace, by exaggerating the cold of the climate, and the dangers of the ^Egean sea. A second and more powerful armament was prepared (b. c. 490), over which Darius placed his two best generals, Datis, a Mede, and Artapher'nes, a Persian nobleman. The fleet passed safely through the Cyc'lades, and arrived at the island of Eubce'a. Thence the Persians crossed the Euripus, and, by the advice of the exiled Hip'- pias, encamped with an army said to exceed five hundred thousand men on the plains of Mar'athon, within ten miles of Athens. The Athenians could only muster an army often thousand citizens, and about double that number of slaves, who were armed in this extremity. The little city of Platoe'a sent an auxiliary force of a thousand men ; but the Spartans, yielding either to superstition or jealousy, refused to send their promised aid before the full of the moon. Miltiades dis- suaded his countrymen from standing a siege, because the immense host of the Persians could completely blockade the city, and reduce it by starvation. He led the army to Mar'athon ; but when the Persian hosts were in sight, five of the ten generals, commanding jointly with himself, were afraid to hazard a battle ; and it was not without difficulty that Callim'achus was prevailed upon to give his casting vote in favor of fighting. But when the bold resolution of engaging was adopted, all the generals exerted themselves to forward the wise plans of their leader (b. c. 490). Miltiades formed his lines at the foot of a hill that protected his rear and right flank ; his left was secured by an extensive marsh, and his front protected by trunks of trees, strevra for some distance, to break the force of the Persian cavalry. The Athenian citizens occupied the right wing, the Platajans the left, while the raw levies of slavea were stationed in the centre. Datis saw the advantages of this position ; but confident in his superior numbers, he gave the signal for battle. The Greek centre was broken at the moment that the two wings had routed the divisions opposed to them : this had been fore- eeen ; and Miltiades directed the victorious wings to attack the Per- sians rushing incautiously through the broken centre on both flanks. Surprise is fatal to an oriental army ; in a few minutes the Asiatics 110 ANCIENT HISTORY. were wholly routed, and fled in confusion to their ships. The Greeks pursued them vigorously, and destroyed seven of their vessels. But the Persian fleet was still powerful, and its commanders deemed it possible to suprise Athens before the army could return. Miltiades, however, baffled this attempt by rapidly marching from the field of battle to the city, and securing the posts before the hostile navy could get round the promontory of Sunium. Thus disappointed, the Persians took advan- taae of a favorable crale, and returned to Asia. Miltiades was subsequently accused of having taken a bribe, con- victed on rather doubtful evidence, and sentenced to pay a heavy fine which not being able to pay, he was thrown into prison, where ? e died of his wounds. Themis'tocles, the most able statesman, and Aristides, the most uncorrupt patriot of Greece, for a time shared the power that had been previously possessed by Miltiades. Their struggle for power ended in the banishment of Aristides ; but when his wise counsels were required in the hour of emergency, he was recalled on the n.otion of his successful rival. Themis'tocles directed all his efforts to improving the naval power of Athens, and he succeeded in securing for his country the complete supremacy of the Grecian seas. In the interval between the two Persian wars nothing remarkable occurred in any other of the Grecian states, save that in Spar'ta, one of ity 'dngs, Demaratus, was deposed and driven into exile by the in- trigues of the other, Cleoni'enes. Demaratus sought refuge in the court of Persia ; Cleom'enes perished by his own hand, a victim to remorse. Leoty'chides succeeded the former, Leon'idas the latter. Section II. — The Second Persian War. FROM B. c. 480 TO B. c. 449. Nine years after the battle of Mar'athon, Xer'xes, the son and suc- cessor of Darius, resolved to attempt the conquest of Greece, and for this purpose collected an army, which, after making every allowance for the exaggerations of historians, appears to have been the most numerous ever assembled. When he reached the pass of Thermop- ylae, through which lay the road from Thessaly to Greece, he found a body of eight thousand men, commanded by the Spartan Leon'idas, prepared ro dispute the passage. The haughty Persian instantly sent a herald, com.^anding these warriors to surrender their arms, and was maddened by the contumelious reply, " Come and take them." After many inefiectual eflx)rts to break the Grecian lines, all of which were repulsed with great slaughter, Xer'xes was on the point of retiring in despair, when the treachery of Ephial'tes, a Trachinian deserter, revealed to him a path leading to the top of the mountain, that secured the Grecian flank. Leon'idas advised his allies to retire, declaring that he and his Spartans were forbidden by law to abandon their posts. Retaining with him only a thousand men, he resolved to attack the Persian camp by night, hoping in the confusion and darkness to reach the royal tent, and, by the slaughter or capture of Xer'xes, to put an end to the war. The plan had nearly succeeded when morning dawned on the assailants, wearied with slaughter ; they then retreated GREECE 11 to the upper part of the pass, ■\vhcre they were soon surrounded by muhitudes ; but ttiey still lought with all the energies of despair, until they sunk, fatigued rather than vanquished. About the same time the Greeks obtained a victory over the Persian fleet off the headland of Artemis'iuni, in the island of Euboe'a ; but this triumph was rendered fruitless by the loss of the pass of Ther- rr\6pyldien Alcibiades returned to the coast of Asia, he found the cause of Sparta retrieved by the crafty Lysan'der, who was more than his equal in the diplomatic arts of duplicity and cunning. The Spartan had the art to gain the confidence of the Persian prince Cy'rus, to whom his father had just intrusted the government of lower Asia ; and by the simple expedient of raising the pay of the sailors on board the confederate fleets, he at once deprived the Athenians of their most experienced mariners. Alcibiades went with a small squadron to raise contributions in Caria : during his absence, Antiochus, his lieutenant, contrary to orders, engaged Lysan'der, and was defeated with the loss of fifteen ships. Intelligence of this event being conveyed to Athens, the suspicions of the treachery of Alcibiades, which had been only partially lulled, returned in full force, and he was a second time deposed and banished. He fled to a fortress he possessed in Thrace, while ten admirals were appointed to command in his stead. Lysan'der's year of oflice having expired, he was succeeded as admiral of the Peloponnesiap. fleet by Callicrat'idas, a man as inferior to him in ability as he was superior in rectitude and integrity. An engagement between the fleets, off" the islands of Arginusae, ended in the total defeat of the Spar.ans ; but a violent storm prevented the Athenian admirals from improving their victory, and from recovering the bodies of their slain, to procure them the rites of sepulture. For these imaginary crimes, they were accused before the people by one of their colleagues, denied the benefit of a fair trial, condemned by clamor, and put to death. The war for a time languished, but the reappointment of Lysan'der to the command of the Peloponnesian fleet was fatal to Athens, whose best officers had been wantonly sacrificed to gratify the fury of a licen tious populace. Profiting by the unskilfulness and presumption of the Athenian admiral, Lysan'der attacked them unawares at the mouth of GREECE. ■ 121 ehe iEgos-pot'amos (Goat's river), and totally annihilated their navy with the exception of eight galleys, which, by the prudent manage- ment of Conon, escaped to the island of Cy'priis (b. c. 406). Lysan'- der, having thus virtually put an end to the Peloponnesian war, merci- lessly butchered his unfortunate prisoners, to the amount of three thousand. Before sailing against Athens, Lysan'der reduced the principal mar- itime states, and thus prevented the import of grain into the devoted city. When he deemed that famine had sufficiently prepared the way for success, he appeared before the harbor with a fleet of one hun- dred and fifty sail, while A'gis, the king of Sparta, attacked the city by land. The Athenians made an obstinate defence ; but they were at length forced to surrender, on the humiliating conditions of abolishing the democracy, and intrusting the chief power to thirty persons named by the Spartans, surrendering all their ships but twelve, resigning all claim to their colonies and foreign possessions, and consenting to follow the Spartan standard in war. Harsh as were these conditions, they were mercy compared to the sanguinary measures proposed by the Thebans and Corinthians. The Athenians submitted in bitter sorrow. On the sixteenth of May (b. c. 404), the anniversary of the memorable victory of Sal'amis, the harbors and forts of Athens were occupied by her ene- mies, and the demolition of her walls commenced amid loud shouts and flourishes of martial music : while her citizens, broken-hearted, hid themselves from the light of day. But the Spartans did not believe their triumph secure while Alcibi- ades lived to reanimate the hopes of the Athenians, and perhaps pro- cure for them the aid of the Persians. He had detected the hostile plans of Cy'rus the younger against his brother Artaxer'xes, which the crafty Lysan'der secretly encouraged, and desired to be escorted to Susa, in order to reveal the plot to the king. Pharnabazus dreaded the consequence of such a discovery : he therefore readily listened to the suggestions of Lysan'der, and sent a body of assassins to murder the illustrious exile. Alcibiades was living in a Phrygian village uncon- scious of his danger. Such was the fame of his valor, that the mur- derers were afraid to attack him openly, and set fire to his house. The brave Athenian rushed through the flames, and clove down the foremost of the assassins, but the rest overwhelmed him with showers of darts, and he fell by a multitude of wounds. The Athenians paid an involun- tary and extraordinary homage to his talents, for they at once abandoned themselves to despair, and made no effort to retrieve the hapless condi- tion of their coimtry. Section "V. — Tyrannical Rule of Sparta. — Third Peloponnesian War. FROM B. C. 404 TO B. c. 36L The confederates had destroyed the supremacy of Athens, but soon found that they had thereby subjected themselves to the galling tyranny of the Spartans. Lysan'der proved to be the worst oppressor that had 122 ANCIENT HISTORY. ever been ra'sed to power ; and the Greek cities in Asia would have gladlv chosen the non-despotism of Pereia, in preference to his avarice and cruelty. But, to secure her power, Sparta had established an oli garchy of her creatures in every state, and supported those domestic tyrannies with arms and money. The power of the thirty tyrants at Athens was secured and maintained by a Spartan garrison in the Acrop'oUs : thus supported, these despots set no bounds to their cruelty and rapacity, putting to death all who possessed wealth or political influence, and enriching themselves by confiscations. The city seemed to possess only two classes of inhabitants, the ready instruments of cruelty and the patient victims of tyranny ; three tnou- sand miscreants were found to act as a bodyguard to the tyrants ; all the other citizens were disarmed, and those who were suspected or at- tached to the ancient constitution, were either murdered or driven into exile. The dockyards were demolished in order to cripple the commer- cial enterprise of the Athenians ; the beina, or pulpit on the Pnyx, was turned to the land side, that the view of the sea might not awaken glo- rious recollections, or revive patriotic emotions, and all instruction in oratory was strictly prohibited. Although the Thebans had been the most inveterate enemies of the Athenians, their hearts were affected by witnessing the evils brought upon their rivals by the cruelty of the tyrants, and they received with generous kindness those who fled from the persecution of the despots. A numerous band of exiles was soon assembled at Thebes, and at its head was placed Thrasybu'lus, Avhose daring valor was tempered by prudence and humanity. Under his guidance the exiles seized Phy'le, a strong fortress on the frontiers of At'tica and Boeotia, whence they opened a communication with the enemies of the tyrants in the city. Justly terrified, the thirty and their partisans flew to arms, but they suf- fered a shameful defeat ; and Thrasybu'lus, strengthened by the acces- sion of new partisans, seized the Peirae'us. The aristocratic faction, in great alarm, deposed the thirty and elected ten new magistrates in their stead, who emulated the wickedness of their predecessors, and, to se- cure their power sought assistance from Sparta. Lysan'der quickly advanced to their aid, and blockaded the Peirae'us ; but his pride and ambition had given deep oflence in Sparta ; and Pausanias, tlie most popular of the Lacedaemonian princes, hastily marched with a second army to frustrate the plans of Lysan'der. Under the protection of Pau- sanias the despots were stripped of power, the ancient constitution of Athens restored, and the Spartan garrison withdrawn from the citadel (b. c. 403). Some of the tyrants retired with their followers to Eleus'is ; but their unequal hostility was easily defeated by the vigor of the new republic. A few of the most obnoxious were put to death : the rest were pardoned by a general act of amnesty, which was ratified by the people on the motion of Thrasybu'lus. Scarcely nad the constitution been restored, when the Athenians show- ed how greatly their national character had been deteriorated, by corj- (iemning the virtuous Soc'rates to death on a frivolous charge of impiety (b. c. 400). His death was worthy of his useful and honorable life ; he subniit.ed to the injustice of his coimtrymen without murmuring or repi- uing, and spent his last momenis in impressing on the minds of his friends. GREECE. 123 ?vl.o remained faithful to him, those sublime lessons of philosophy which his eloquent disciple Plato has transmitted to posterity. Another disciple of Soc'rates was at the same time less honorably- engaged as a hireling soldier in Asia. Darius Nothus, at his ''*3ath, bequeathed the crown of Persia to his eldest son Artaxer'xes, sninamed Mnemon from the strength of his memory. Cy'rus, his younger broth- er; was stimulated by the queen dowager Parys'atis,to claim the king- dom, on the ground of his having been born the son of a king, while the birth of Artaxer'xes took place while Darius was as yet in a privat^e station. Cy'rus, while governor of lower Asia, had earned the grati- tude of Lysan'der and the Spartans, by supplying them with money to carry on the war against Athens, and in return he obtained their permis- sion to raise an auxiliary force in Greece to t 'd his intended rebellion. Thirteen thousand adventurers soon enrolled themselves under his stand- ard, consisting not only of the Spartans and their allies, but of some renegade Athenians, among whom was Xen'ophon, the celebrated his- torian. With these auxiliaries, and an army of one hundred thousand of his own provincials, Cy'rus invaded Upper Asia, and advanced with little difficulty into Babylonia (b. c. 400). Here he encountered his brother's immense army, and rashly charging the centre of the royal guards, was slain on the field. His army, according to the usual custom of Asiatics, dispersed immediately ; and the Greeks were left almost alone in the midst of a hostile country, to effect a difficult retreat of more than a thousand miles. Their leaders proposed terms of accommodation to the Persians. They were invited to a conference, under the pretence of arranging the preliminaries, and were mercilessly butchered. Undismayed, they chose new commanders ; and after en during incredible hardships, succeeded in fighting their way to their na- tive country. Thus gloriously ended "the r-ctreat of the ten thousand ;" but nothing can excuse the original guilt of the expedition. The remnant of the ten thousand entered into the service of the Spartans, who had sei'.t an army to protect the Greek rities of Asia from the threatened vengeance of Artaxer'xes. A desux^ory war en- sued, productive of no important resuh, until the command of the Greek forces was given to Agesilaus, who had been raised to the throne of La- conia by the influence and intrigues of Lysan'der. iVgesilaus depart- ed for Asia just as the Spartans had escaped from the peril of a plot formed for their destruction by the subject Lacedaemonians, at the in- stigation of the ambiiious Cin'adon (b. c. 396). Lysan'der, the author of his greatness, accompanied Agesilaus, hoping to re-establish the in- fluence which he had formerly possessed in the Asiatic cities. But Agesilaus treated him with the most mortifying neglect, and Lysan'der returned home, unpitied, to bewail his friend's ingratitude. The Spar- tan monarch, thus freed from a dangerous rival, then directed his entire attention to the war, and defeated the Persians in several battles. It is very probable that Agesilaus would have shaken the throne of Arta- xer'xes, had not the atrocious tyranny of his countrymen provoked the general enmity of all the Greek states, and kindled a new Peloponne- sian war. Under the most frivolous pretences, Lysan'der and the Spartan kirig Pausanias were sent to invade the Theban territories. The formsr laid 124 ANCIENT HISTORY siege to Haiiar'tus, the latter encamped in the neighborhood of Plar«e'aa The garrison of HaUar'tus, taking advantage of this division of the hos- tile forces, made a sudden sally, and defeated the Spartans with great slaughter, Lysan'der himself being slain (b. c. 394). Pausanias ob- tained leave to bury the dead, on condition of evacuating Boeotia ; and he returned disgraced to the Peloponnesus, vv^here he soon died of a broken heart The news of this event revived the courage of the enemies of Spar' ta ; a league for mutual protection was formed by the republics of Ar- gos, Thebes, Athens, and Corinth, to which most of the ccMnies in Thrace and Macedon acceded. Agesilaus was immediately recblled from Asia, and he obeyed the summons with great promptitude, leaving his fleet, and a portion of the Asiatic army, under the charge of his kinsman Pisan'der. Conon, one of the ten admirals, who had been ex- posed to the anger of the Athenian populace after the seafight at Arginu- SBe, found a generous protector in Evag'oras, king of Cy'prus, by whom he was introduced to the notice of Artaxer'xes. The Persian monarch, alarmed at the progress of Agesilaus, gladly supplied Conon with the means of fitting out a fleet which might cope with that of Spar'ta. Knowing the vanity and inexperience of Pisan'der, Conon sailed in quest of the Lacedaemonians to the Dorian shore ; and off the harbor of Cnidus gained a decisive victory, by which the Spartan navy was anniliilated, and its empire over the maritime states irretrievably de stroyed. With consummate skill Conon availed himself of this suc- cess to restore not only the independence of Athens, but her supremacy in the ^Egean sea. He conducted his victorious fleet to the principal islands and colonies, and, either by persuasion or menace, induced them to renew their allegiance to their ancient mistress. Agesilaus received the intelligence of this unexpected reverse just as he was about to engage a Theban army at Coroneia (b. c. 394). He animated his soldiers by falsely reporting that the Spartan fleet had been victorious ; but even this stratagem failed to gain him decisive success. He won the battle, indeed, but at such a heavy cost that his victory was nearly as calamitous as a defeat. The best and bravest of the Spartan veterans fell, and Agesilaus himself was dangerously wounded. The battles of Cnidus and Coroneia were the only important engagements in this war, which lasted nearly eight years ; both parties exhausted their strength in petty skirmishes in the neighborhood of Corinth ; and that wealt'-.y city was almost wholly destroyed by the rivalry of the Argive and Spartan factions. Conon having employed the Persian money to rebuild the walls of Athens, and the Persian fleet to restore its maritime supremacy, became suspected by Artaxer'xes of designing to raise a revolt of the Greeks in Asia ; and this suspicion was fostered by Spartan emissaries, who offer- ed to abandon, in the name of their government, the cause of Grecian liberty, provided that the Persian monarch would grant favorable terms of peace. Artaxer'xes listened to the treacherous proposals ; Conon was seized and murdered in prison ; articles of peace were arranged with the Spartan Antal'cidas, by which the liberty of the Greek citiea was sacrificed, and the independenco of all the minor republics pro- claimed. The Persian monarch and the Spartan republic took upon GREECE. I'-JS themselves to enforce the latter regulation \ihich was designed to pre- vent Athens from maintaining her superiority over the maritime states, and Thebes from becoming mistress of the Boeotian cities (b. c. 387). The disgraceful peace of AntaFcidas, by which the Spartans resigned the free cities of Asia to a barbarian, in order to gratify their unwortliy jealousies, sufficiently proves that the selfish policy inculcated by the laws of Lycur'gus was as ruinous as it was scandalous. The city of Olyn'thus, in the Macedonian peninsula, having incurred the resentment of the Spartans, an army was sent to reduce it ; but this was found no easy task ; and it was not until after a war of four years, in which the Spartans suffered many severe defeats, that the Olynthians were forced to accept a peace on very humiliating condi- tions. In the course of this war, Phoe'bidas, a Spartan genera] in vio- lation of the laws of nations, seized the Cadmeia, or citadel of Thebes, then enjoying a profound peace ; and his crime Avas justified and re- warded by Agesilaus (b. c. 383). The chief of the Theban ps*nots fled to Athens, where they were kindly received ; an oligarchy of trai- tors w as established under the protection of the Spartan garrison ; and Thebes was doomed to the misery that Athens had endured under the thirty tyrants. Peloj)'idas, one of the Theban exiles, stimulated by the recent ex- ample of Thrasybu'lus, concerted, with a friend who had remained in Thebes, a bold plan for the liberation of his country. The most licen- tious of the tyrants were invited to a feast ; and when they were hot with wine, the conspirators entered disguised as courtesans, and slew them in the midst of their debauchery (b. c. 378). The rest of the traitors met a similar fate ; and the patriots being reinforced by an Athenian army, vigorously besieged the citadel, and soon forced the Lacedaemonian garrison to capitulate. Cleom'brotus was sent with a numerous army from Lacedaemon, in the depth of winter, to chastise the Thebans. The Athenians were beginning to repent of their having aided the revolters ; but a perfidious attempt having been made by one of the Spartan generals to seize the Peirae'us, as Phce'bidas had the Cadmeia, the whole city of Athens was filled with just indignation, and the most vigorous preparations were made for \s ar. Agesilaus himself repeatedly invaded Boeotia, without performing anything worthy of his former fame. Pelop'idas, who was chosen general by his grateful countrymen, won two splendid victories at Tan'agra and Teg'yra, though in tbe latter fight he had to encounter a vast disparity of force. The Athenians swept the Spartan navy from the seas, and infested the coasts of the Peloponnesus. The maritime states, disappointed in their expectations of independence, renewed their confederacy under the supremacy of Athens, and the invention of a new system of tactics by Iphic'rates, was fatal to the ancient supe- riority of the Lacedaemonian phalanx. Nothing, in sliort, could have saved Spar'ta from destruction, had not the Thebans, intoxicated with success, provoked fiostiiity by their vaunting pride, and the cruelty with which they treated the cities of Boeotia. A convention of all the Grecian states was summoned to Spar'ta, at the request of the Persian monarch, who wished to obtain aid from the chief republics in subduing an insurrection of the Egyptians (b. a l26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 372). The representative of the Thebans was Epaminon'das, the best miUtary commander that Greece had yet produced, and the wisest statesman it had seen since the days of Per'icles. His eloquent de- nunciation of Spartan ambition produced a deep impression on the minds of the deputies, which all the ingenuity of Agesilaus could not remove ; the assembly was dissolved without coming to any conclusion , but the influence of Sparta was destroyed for ever. Early in the fol- lowing spring, Cleom'brotuSjwho, during the sickness of Agesilaus had been appointed to the chief command, invaded Bceotia with a powerful army. Epaminon'das met him on the memorable field of Leuc'tra, and by attacking the long lines of the Lacedajmonians with massy columns, won a decisive victory, in which Cleom'brotus himself was slain. The consequences of this battle were more important than the triumph itself; for all the states previously under the yoke of Spar'ta began openly to aspire at independence. The Athenians, though justly enraged with the Spartans, were by no means satisfied with the result of the battle of Leuc'tra. They withdrew their friendship from the Thebans, who soon, however, found a more powerful ally in Jason, the captain-general of Thessaly. This noble prince, who had planned the union of all the Grecian states into a single monarchy, of which he designed himself to be the head, joined the Thebans after the battle, and meditated a truce between them and the Spartans. He was planning further schemes of empire, when he was murdered by seven assassins in the presence of his army (b. c. 370). Two of the murderers were slain on the spot ; five escaped by the fleetness of their horses, and were received in the Grecian re- publics as heroic assertors of liberty. No peril more imminently threatened Spar'ta than the revolt of the Peloponnesian states which had hitherto tamely submitted to her au- thority ; but it was dangerous to attempt their subjugation by force, lest they might combine together for mutual protection. These sta*^es were equally reluctant to encounter the hazards of war, until they haa ..'e- cured the support of a Theban army ; and they sent pressing messages for rid to Bceotia. After some delay, Epaminon'das and Pelop'idas werb sent into the Peloponnesus at the head of a powerful army, and they advanced without interruption into Laconia, where the face of an enemy had not been seen for five centuries (b. c. 3G9). The whole country was laid desolate ; but what was more afflicting to the Spar- tans even than these ravages, Epaminon'das rebuilt the ancient city of Messene, placed a Theban garrison in its citadel, and called back the wreck of the Messenian nation to their native land, Avhere they watched every favorable occasion for wreaking their vengeance on their oppres- sors. Scarcely had this great enterprise been accomplished, when the Thebar. generals heard that the Athenians had not only entered into alli?,nce with the Spartans, but had sent a large army to their aid, un- der the command of Iphic'rates. They immediately evacuated Laco- nia, and returned home laden with plunder through the isthmus of Cor- inth, meeting no interruption from Iphic'rates, who led his forces by a different road. The Thebans, instead of receiving their illustri'^us generals with gratitude, brought them to trial for having continued their command beyond tlie time limited by law. Pelop'idas lost liis prea- GREECE. 127 ence of mind, and escaped with difficulty ; bat Epaminon'das, proudly recounting his heroic deeds, awed liis accusers into silence, and waa conducted home in triumph. The Peloponnesian war lingered during the six following years. The Spartans were engaged in punishing their revolted subjects in La- conia ; the Thebans were involved in a difficult struggle against Alex- ander, the tyrant of Pherae, who had succeeded to the influence of Ja- son in Thessaly, and Ptolemy, the usui-per of the throne of Macedon. Pelop'idas was intrusted with the command of the army sent to regu lale these difficulties. He forced Alexan'der to submit to the terms of peace imposed by the Theban senate, and he restored Perdic'cas, the letjitimate heir, to the throne of Macedon. To secure the 'Jlieban in- terest in the north, he brought home with him several of the Macedo- nian princes and nobles as hostages, among whom was Philip, the younger brother of Perdic'cas, and future conqueror of Gieece. On his return, Pelop'idas was treacherously seized by the tyrant of Pherae, and thrown into prison ; nor was he liberated until Epaminon'das, after the defeat of many inferior leaders, was sent into Thessaly, where he soon forced the tyrant Alexan'der to unconditional submission. Pelop'- idas, after his liberation, Avas sent as an ambassador to Persia, where his eloquence so charmed Artaxer'xes, that he broke off his alliance with Spar'ta and concluded a league with the Thebans. The greatei? aumber of the Grecian states refused to accede to this union, partly - from their ancient hostility to Persia, partly from jealousy of Thebes. Epaminon'das was therefore sent a third time into the Peloponnesus with a powerful army, to revive the spirit of the former confederacy against Spar'ta (b. c. 36G). He wasted much precious time in trying .• obtain a naval power, and he was long prevented from undertaking any enterprise of importance by the jealousy and dissensions of his al- Vics, especially the Arcadians. While he was thus employed, his col- league Pelop'idas fell in a battle against Alexan'der, the tyrant of Phe- rae (b. c. 364); and the Thebans, through sorrow for his death, made no public rejoicings for their victory. His loss was poorly compensa- ted by the destruction of the tyrant, who Vi^as soon after murdered by his own family. In the following year, Epaminon'das entered upon his last campaign, by rnarciiing against the Peloponnesian states which had separated from the Theban alliance. Knowing the unprotected condition of Spar'ta, he made a forced march, and appeared before the city while the army was at a considerable distance. His attack was fierce ; but it was repelled by the valor of Archida'mus, the son of Agesilaus, who, with a handful of men, compelled the Thebans to retreat. Foiled in this attempt, he resolved to surprise the wealthy city of Mantiuis'a ; and would have succeeded, had not a squadron of Athenian cavalry accidentally reached the place a little before the appearance of the Thebans, and by their determined valor baffled the utmost efforts of the assailants. These repeated disappointments induced Epaminon'das to hazard a pitched battle. It was fought in the neighborhood of Man- tinae'a, and was the most arduous and sanguinary contest in whicli the Greeks had yet engaged. Epaminon'das fell in the arms of victory ; and the Thebans, neglecting to pursue their advantages, renderfd this 128 ANCIENT HISTORY. sanguinary Struggle indecisive, and productive of no other consequence than a general languor and debility in all the Grecian states. The glory of Thebes perished with the two great men who had raised her to fame : a general peace Avas established by the mediation of Artaxer'- xes (b. c. 362), on the single condition, that each republic should re- tain its respective possessions. Spar'ta was anxious to recover Messenia ; but this being opposed by the Persian king, Agesihius, to punish Artaxer'xes, led an army into Egypt, where he supported one rebel after another, and acquired con- siderable wealth in this dishonorable war. On his return home, he died in an obscure port on the Cyreniac coast, at the advanced age of eighty-four years (b. c. 361). At the commencement of his reign, Spar'ta had attained the summit of her greatness ; at its close, she had sunk into hopeless weakness : and, notwithstanding all the praise be- stowed upon this monarch by the eloquent Xen'ophon, it is undeniable that most of Spar'ta's misfortunes were owing to the ambition, the obstinacy, and the perfidy of Agesilaus. Section Yl.—The Second Sacred War.— Destruction of Grecian Freedom. FROM B. c. 361 TO B. c. 336. ScARCELV had the third Peloponnesian war terminated, when the Athenians, by their tyranny and rapacity toward the maritime states, were deprived of all the advantages they had derived from the patriot- ism of Conon. Chares, a blustering, vulgar demagogue, raised to power by pandering to the passions of a licentious populace, exhorted his countrymen to supply their exhausted treasury by plundering the wealth of their allies and colonies. This counsel was too faithfully obeyed. The weaker states complained ; but the islands of Chios, Cos, and Rhodes, together with the city of Byzan'tium, prepared openly to revolt, and entered into a league for their mutual protection (b. c. 358). Chares was sent to chastise the insurgents : he laid siege to the city of Chios, but was driven from its walls with disgrace and loss; Chabrias, the best leader that the Athenians possessed, falling in the engagement. The insurgents, encouraged by this success, began to assume the offensive, and to ravage the islands that remained faithful to Athens. A new armament was prepared to check their progress, and it was intrusted to the joint command of Chares, Timotheus, and Iphic'rates ; but Chares, having been hindered by his colleagues from hazarding a battle off Byzan'tium under very favorable circumstances, procured their recall, and had them brought to trial upon a charge of treachery and cowardice. Venal orators conducted the prosecution; and a degraded people sentenced the two illustrious commanders to pay an exorbitant fine. They both retired into voluntary exile, and never again entered the service of their ungrateful coimtry. Chares, left uncontrolled, wholly neglected the commission with which he^ had been intrusted, and hired himself and his troops to the satrap Artabazus, then in rebellion against Artaxer'xes O'chus, king of Persia. This completed the ruin of the Athenians. O'chus threatened them Avith the whole weight of his resentment, unless they instantly recalled their GREECE. l2<5 Armament from the East , and Avitli this mandate the degraded repub licans were forced to comply (b. c. 356). The confederate states re gained complete freedom and independence, which they preserved foT twenty years, when they, with the rest of Greece, fell under the domin ion of the Macedonians. Spar'ta, Thebes, and Athens, having successively lost their suprem acy, the Amphictyonic council, which for more than a century had been a mere pageant, began to exercise an important influence in the affairs of Greece. They issued a decree subjecting the Phocians to a heavy fine for cultivating some lands that had been consecrated to Apol'lo, and imposing a similar penalty on the Spartans for their treach- erous occupation of the Cadmeia (b. c. 3 37). The Phocians, anima- ted by their leader Philomelus, and secretly encouraged by the Spar- tans, not only refused obedience, but had recourse to arms. In defiance of the prejudices of the age, Philomelus stormed the city of Del'phi, plundered the sacred treasury, and employed its wealth in raising an army of mercenary adventurers. The Thebans and Locrians were fore- most in avenging this insult to the national religion ; but the war was rather a series of petty skirmishes than regular battles. It was chiefly remarkable for the sanguinary spirit displayed on both sides ; the Thebans murdering their captives as sacrilegious wretches ; the Phoci- ans retaliating these cruelties on all the captives that fell into their hands. At length Philomelus, being forced to a general engagement under disadvantageous circumstances, was surrounded, and on the point of being made prisoner, when he threw himself headlong from a rock, to escape falling into the hands of his enemies (b. c. 353). Onomar'- chus, the lieutenant and brother of the Phocian general, safely conduct- ed the remnant of the army to the fastnesses of Del'phi. He proved an able and prudent leader. With the treasures of the Delphic temple he purchased the aid of Ly'cophron, the chief of the Thessalian prin- ces ; and, thus supported, he committed fearful ravages in the territo- ries of Bceotia and Locris. The Thebans, in great distress, applied for aid to Philip, king of Macedon, who had long sought a pretext for inter- fering in the affairs of Greece (b. c. 352) : he marched immediately to their relief, completely routed the Phocians in the plains of Thessaly, and suspended from a gibbet the body of Onomar'chus which was found among the slain. He dared not, however, pursue his advantages fur- ther ; for he knew that an attempt to pass the straits of Thermop'ylae would expose him to the hostility of all the Grecian states which he was not yet prepared to encounter. Phayl'lus, the brother of the two preceding leaders of the Phocians, renewed the war, and again became formidable. Philip, under the pre- tence of checking his progress, attempted to seize Thermop'ylae ; but had the mortification to find the straits pre-occupied by the Athenians. He returned home, apparently wearied of Grecian politics ; but he had purchased the services of venal orators, whose intrigues soon afibrded him a plausible pretext for renewed interference. The war lingered for two or three years ; the treasures of the Delphic temple began to fail, and the Phocians longed for peace. But the vengeance of the The- bans was insatiable : they besought Philip to crush the impious pro- faners of the temple ; and that prince, having lulled the suspicions of 9 130 ANCIENT HISTORY. the Athtnians, in spite of the urgen warnings of the patiiotic Demos'- thenes, passed the straits without opposition, and laid the unhappy Phocians prostrate at the feet of their inveterate enemies (b. c. 347). Their cities were dismantled, their country laid desolate, and their vote in the Amphictyonic council transferred to the king of Macedon. A new sacred war was excited by the artifices of iEs'chines, the Athenian deputy to the Amphictyonic council, a venal orator, who had lonff sold himself to Philip. He accused the Locrians of Amphis'sa of cultivating the Cirrhean plain, which had been consecrated with such solemn ceremonies in the first sacred war The Locrians, aiter the example of the Phocians, refused obedience to the sentence of the Amphic'tyons ; and the charge of conducting the war against them was intrusted to Philip (b. c. 339). He hastened to Del'phi, marched against Amphis'sa, took it by storm ; and soon after revealed his de- signs against the liberties of Greece, by seizing and fortifying Elateia, the capital of Phocis. The Athenians and Thebans instantly took up arms ; but they intrusted their forces to incompetent generals ; and when they encountered the Macedonians at Chseroneia, they were irretrievably defeated. The independence of the Grecian communities was thus destroyed; and in a general convention of the Amphictyonic Btates at Corinth (b. c. 337), Philip was chosen captain-generai of con- federate Greece, and appointed to lead their united forces af lunot tha Persian empire. MACEDON. 131 CHAPTER XI. THE HISTORY OF MACEDON. Section I. — Geographical Outline. The range of Mount Hae'mus separates Thrace and Macedon from lorthern Europe, and the Cambunian mountains on the south divide the latter country from Thessaly. The space intervening between these mountain-chains was, during a long succession of ages, distinguished by different appellations, according as the barbarous nations that tenanted these regions rose into temporary eminence. The most ancient name of Macedonia was ^Emath'ia; but the time and cause of the appellation being changed are unknown. It is difficult to describe the boundaries of a country whose limits Avere constantly varying ; but in its most flourishing state, Macedon was bounded on ihe north by the river Strymon, and the Scardian branch of Mount Hae'mus ; on the east by the iEgean sea ; on the south by the Cambunian mountains ; and on the west by the Adriatic. It was said to contain one hundred and fifty different nations ; and this number will not appear exaggerated, when it is remembered that each of its cities and towns was regarded as an independent state. The western division of the country, on the coast of the Adriatic, was for the most part possessed by the uncivilized TaiUant'ii. In their ter- ritory stood Epidam'nus, founded by a Corcyrean colony, whose name the Romans changed to Dyrac'chium (Durazzo), on account of its ill- omened signification ; and Apollonia, a city colonized by the Corin- thians. South of the Taulant'ii, but still on the Adriatic coast, was the territory of the Alymi6ta3, whose chief cities were Ely ma, and Bul'lis. East of these lay a litt'e inland district called the kingdom of Orestes, because the son of Agamem'non is said to have settled there after the murder of his mother. The southeastern part of the country, called ^math'ia or Macedonia Proper, contained iEgae'a, or Edes'sa, the cradle of the Macedonian monarchy, and Pel'la, the favorite capital of its most powerful kings. The districts of iEmath'ia that bordered the sea were called Pieria, and were consecrated to the Muses : they contained the important cities Pyd'na, Phy'lace,and Dium. Northeast was the region of Amphax'itis, bordering the Thermaic gulf: its chief cities were Ther'ma, subse- quently called Thessalonica (Salonichi), and Stagira, the birthplace of Aristotle. The Chalcidian peninsula, between the Thermaic and Strymonian gulfs, has its coast deeply indented by noble bays and inlets of the 132 ANCIENT HISTORY. yEgeau sea. It contained many important trading cities and colonies the chief of which Pallene, in the headland of the same name : Potidae'a, a Corinthian colony; Torone, on the Toronaic gulf; and Olyn'thus, famous for the many sieges it sustained. In the region of Edonia, near the river Strymon, was Amphip'olis, a favorite colony of the Athenians, Scotus'sa, and Crenides, whose name was changed to Philip'pi by the father of Alexander the Great. The most remarkable mountains of Macedon were the Scardian and other branches from the chain of Hae'mus ; Pangte'us, celebrated for its rich mines of gold and silver ; A'thos, which juts into the ^o-ean sea, forming a remarkable and dangerous promontory ; and Olym'pus, which partly belonged to Thessaly. Most of these, but especially the Scardian chain and Mount A'thos, were richly wooded, and the timber they produced was highly valued by shipbuilders. The principal rivers falling into the Adriatic were the Panyasus, the Ap'sus, the Laiis, and the Celyd'nus ; on the iEgean side were the Haliac'mon, the EMgon, the Ax'ius, and the Strymon, which was the northern boundary of Macedon, until Philip extended his dominions to the Nes'- sus. The soil of Macedonia was very fruitful ; on the seacoast especially it produced great abundance of corn, wine, and oil, and most of its mountains were rich in mineral treasures. Macedonia was celebrated for an excellent breed of horses, to which great attention was paid ; no fewer than thirty thousand brood mares being kept in the royal stud at Pella. Section IT. — History of the Macedonian Monarchy. FROM B. c. 813 TO B. c. 323. An Argive colony, conducted by Car'anus, is said to have invaded OEmath'ia by the command of an oracle, and to have been conducted by a flock of goats to the city of Edes'sa, which Avas easily stormed (*B. c. 813). The kingdom thus founded was gradually enlarged at the expense of the neighboring barbarous nations ; and was fast rising into importance, when, in the reign of king Amyn'tas, it became tributary to the Persians (b. c. 5l3), immediately after the return of Darius from his Scythian campaign. After the overthrow of the Persians at Platae'ae, Macedon recovered its independence ; which, however, was never recognised by the Persian kings. Per'diccas II. (b. c. 454), on coming to the throne, found his dominions exposed to the attacks of the Illyri- ans and Thracians, while his brother was encouraged to contest the crown by the Athenians. He was induced by these circumstances to take the Spartan side in the first Peloponnesian war, and much of the success of Bras'idas was owing to his active co-operation. Civilization and the arts of social life were introduced into Macedo nia by Archelaus, the son and successor of Per'diccas (b. c. 413). His plans for the reform of the government were greatly impeded by the jealous hostility of the nobles, who were a kind of petty princes barely conceding to their kings the right of precedence. He was a generous patron of learning and learned men ; he invited Soc'rates to MACEDON. 133 ais court ; and munificently protected Eurip'ides when he was forced tu depart from Athens, Archelaus was murdered by Crat'erus, one of nis favorites (b. c. 400) ; and his death was followed by a series of civil wars and sanguinary revolutions, which possess no interest or importance. They were terminated by the accession of Philip (b. c. 360), who, on the death of his brother Perdic'cas III., escaped from Thebes, whither he had betn sent as a hostage, and was chosen king in preference to his nephew, whose infancy disqualified him from jeigning in a crisis of difficulty and danger. Philip found his new kingdom assailed by four formidable armies, 'and distracted by the claims of two rival competitors for the throne, one of whom had the powerful support of the Athenians. Educated •n the arts of war and state-policy by the great Epaminon'das, Philip displayed valor and wisdom adequate to the crisis : he purchased, by large bribes, the forbearance rather than the friendship of the Illyrians, Paeonians, and Thracians ; he then marched with his whole force against Argae'us and his Athenian auxiliaries, whom he defeated in a general engagement. Argaj'us was slain, and his supporters remained prisoners of war. Philip, anxious to court the favor of the Athenians, dismissed his captives without ransom, and resigned his pretensions to Amphip'olis. Having restored tranquillity to his kingdom, he began to prepare for its security by improving the tactics and military discipline of his sub- jects. Epaminon'das, at Leuc'tra and Mantineia, had shown the supe- riority of a heavy column over the long lines in which the Greeks usu- ally arranged their forces ; and, improving on this lesson, he instituted the celebrated Macedonian phalanx. He soon found the advantage of this improvement: having been forced to war by the Psoniana, he subdued their country, and made it a Macedonian province ; and then, without resting, he marched against the Illyrians, whom he overthrew so decisively, that they begged for peace on any conditions he pleased to impose. While Athens was involved in the fatal war against the colonies Philip, though professing the warmest friendship for the republic, '^ap- twsd Amphip'olis, Pyd'na, and Potidae'a ; and stripped Cotys, kin^, of Thr ice, the most faithful ally the Athenians possessed, of a great por- tion uf his dominions. Thence he turned his arms against the tyrants of Thes'saly and Epirus ; and received from the Thessalians, in grati- tude for his services, the cession of all the revenues arising from their fairs and markets, as well as all the conveniences of their harbors and shipping. When the campaign was concluded (b. c. 357), he married Olym'pias, daughter of the king of Epirus, a princess equally remark- able for her crimes and her misfortunes. While Greece was distracted by the second sacred war, Philip was steadily pursuing his policy of extending his northern frontiers, and securing the maritime cities of Thrace. He was vigorously opposed by Kersoblep'tes and an Athenian army , in spite, however, of these enemies, he captured the important city of Methone ; but he deemed .he conquest dearly purchased by the loss of an eye during the siege. riis attention was next directed to the sacred war, which he was invi- 134 ANCIENT HISTORY. ted to undertake by the Thebans. Having subdued the Phocians, ho made an attempt to seize Thermop'ylse (b. c. 352), but was baffled by the energetic promptitude of the Athenians. They were roused to thia display of valor by the eloquent harangues of the orator Demos'lhenes, whose whole life was spent in opposing Philip's designs against Gre« cian liberty. He was soon after doomed to meet a second disappoint- ment ; his troops being driven from the island of Euboe'a by the virtu- ous Phocion, the last and most incorruptible of the long list of generals and statesmen that adorned the Athenian republic. These disappointments only stimulated his activity. Having pur- chased, by large bribes, the services of several traitors in OlyiVthus, he marched against that opulent city (b. c. 349), while the venal orators at Athens, whorx-i he had taken into his pay, dissuaded the careless and sensual Athenians from hastening to the relief of their allies. The noble exhortations, solemn warnings, and bitter reproaches of Demos'- thenes, failed to inspire his countrymen with energy : they wasted the time of action in discussions, embassies, and fruitless expeditions ; and when they began to prepare for some more serious interference, they were astounded by the intelligence that Olyn'thus was no more. It had been betrayed to Philip, who levelled its walls and buildings to the ground, and dragged the inhabitants into slavery. This triumph was followed by the conquest of the whole Chalcidian peninsula, with its valuable commercial marts and seaports. His artifices and bribes disarmed the vengeance of the Athenians, and Mled them into a fatal eecurity, v/hile Philip finally put an end to the sacred war, by the utter destruction of the Phocians. They even permitted him to extend his conquests in Thebes, and to acquire a commanding influence in the Peloponnesus, by leading an armament thither, which completed the humiliation of th© Spartans. For several years Philip was engaged in the conquest of the com- mercial cities in the Thracian Chersonese and on the shores of the Propon'tis, while the Athenians made some vigorous but desultory efforts to check his progress. At length the third sacred war against the Locrians of Amphis'sa gave liim an opportunity of again appearing as the champion of the national religion of Greece. He entered Pho- cis, and thence marched to Amphis'sa, which he totally destroyed (b. c. 338). Before the southern Greeks could recover from their astonishment, he threw off the mask which had hitherto concealed his plans, and announced to the states his design of becoming their master, by seizing and fortifying Elateia. The Thebans and Athenians united in defence of Grecian liberty, but unfortunately they intrusted their forces to feeble and treacherous commanders. They encountered the Macedonians, headed by Philip and his valiant son Alexander, in the plains of Cheroneia, and were irretrievably ruined. They were forced 'O accept of peace dictated by the conqueror, who treated the Thebans with dreadful severity, but showed great forbearance and kindness to the Athenians. In the following year a general convention of the Grecian states was held at Corinth, where it was resolved that all should unite in a war against the Persians, and that Philip should be appointed captain-general of the confederate forces. While prepara- tions were making for this great enterprise, Philip was staboed to the MACEDON. 135 heart by Pausanias, a Macedonian nobleman (b. c. 336), whose motives for committing such an atrocious crime can not be satisfactorily ascer- tained. Alexan'der, deservedly surnamed the Great, succeeded his father, but on his accession had to contend against a host of enemies. The Thracians, the Illyrians, and the other barbarous tribes of the north, took up arms, hoping that they might easily triumph over his youth and inexperience. But they were miserably disappointed. Alexander, in an incredibly short space of time, forced their fastnesses, and inflicted on them so severe a chastisement, that they never again dared to attempt a revolt. But, in the meantime, a report had been spread in Greece, that Alexander had fallen in Illyr'ia. The different states began to make vigorous preparations for shaking off the yoke of Mace- don ; and the Thebans took the lead in the revolt, by murdering the governors that Philip had appointed, and besieging the garrison in the Cadmeia (b. c 335). Fourteen days had scarcely elapsed, when Alex- ander, eager for vengeance, appeared before the walls of Thebes, After a brief struggle, the city was taken by storm, and levelled with the ground. The conqueror spared the lives of those who were descended from Pin'dar, of the priestly families, and of all who had shown attachment to the Macedonian interest ; but the rest of the inhabitants were doomed to death or slavery. It must, however, be remarked, that the Boeotians in Alexander's army were more active than the Macedonians in this scene of barbarity, and that the Thebans, by their previous treatment of the Boeotian cities, had provoked retali- ation. Alexander subsequently regretted the fate of Thebes, and con- fessed that its destruction was both cruel and impolitic. This dreadful calamity spread terror throughout Greece ; the states hastened to renew their submission ; and Alexander, whose wliole soul was bent on the conquest of Asia, accepted their excuses, and renewed the confederacy, of which his father had been chosen chief. He then intrusted the government of Greece and Macedon to Antip'ater, and prepared to invade the great empire of Persia with an army not exceeding five thousand horse, and thirty thousand foot (b. c. 334). He led his forces to Sestus in Thrace, whence they were transported across the Hellespont without opposition, the Persians having totally neglected the defence of their western frontier. The Persian satraps rejected the prudent advice of Mem'non, who recommended them to lay waste the country, and force the Macedo- nians to return home by the pressure of famine ; but they collected an immense army, with which they took post on the Granicus, a river that flows from Mount Ida into the Propon'tis. Alexander did not hes- itate a moment in engaging the enemy, notwithstanding the vast supe- riority of the hostile forces. He forded the river at the head of liis cavalry, and, after being exposed to great personal danger, obtained a decisive victory, with the loss of only eighty-five horsemen and thirty of the light infantry. This glorious achievement was followed by the subjugation of all the provinces west of the river Halys, which had formed the ancient kingdom of Lydia ; and before the first campaign closed, Alexander was the undisputed master of Asia Minor. The second campaign opened with the reduction of Phrygia, aflor 136 ANCIENT HISTOKV. which ike IMac edonian hero entered Cilicia, and, marching through ttie pass called the Syrian Gates, reached the bay of Is'sus, where ho expected to meet Darius and the Persian army. But that monarch, persuaded by his flatterers that Alexander was afraid to meet him and trembled at his approach, had entered the defiles in quest of the Greeks, and was thus entangled in the narrow valleys of the Syrian straits, where it was impossible to derive advantage from his vasi superiority of numbers. Alexander instantly prepared to profit by this imprudence. He attacked the barbarian columns with his resistless phalanx, and broke them to pieces. The valor of the Greek mercena- ries in the pay of Persia for a time rendered the victory doubtful ; but the Macedonians, victorious in every other part of the field, attacked this body in flank, and put it to a total rout. Darius fled in the very beginning of the engagement, leaving his wife, his mother, his daugh ■ ters, and his infant son, to the mercy of the conqueror. The Persians entangled and crowded in the defiles of the mountains, suffered so severely in their flight, that they made no effort to defend their camp, which, with all its vast treasures, became the prey of the Macedonians. The conduct of Alexander after this unparalleled victory proved that he deserved success. He treated the captive Persian princesses with the greatest respect and kindness, and dismissed without ransom the Greeks whom he had made prisoners while fighting against their country. Before invading Upper Asia, Alexander prudently resolved to subdue the maritime provinces. He encountered no resistance until he demanded to be admitted into the city of Tyre, when the inhabitants boldly set him at defiance. It would be inconsistent with our narrow limits to describe the siege of this important place (b. c. 332). Suffice it to say, that, after a tedious siege and desperate resistance. Tyre was taken by storm and its inhabitants either butchered or enslaved. This success was followed by the submission of all Palestine, except Gaza, which made as obstinate a defence as Tyre, and was as severely pun- ished. From Gaza the Macedonians entered Egypt, which submitted to them almost without a blow. Having received, during the winter, considerable reinforcements from Greece, P/lacedon, and Thrace, Alexander opened his fourth cam- paign by crossing the Euphrates at Thap'sacus ; thence he advanced to the Tigris, and, having forded that river, entered the plains of As- syria. He found Darius with an immense army, composed not merely of Persians, but of the wild tribes from the deserts east of the Caspi- an, encamped near the village of Gaugamela ; but as this place is little known, the battle that decided the fate of an empire is more usually named from Arbela, the nearest town of importance to the plains on which it was fought (b. c. 331). Having halted for a few days to refresh his men, Alexander advanced early in the morning against the vast host of Darius. Darius led his forces forward with so little skill that the horse became interming'.ed with the foot, and the attempt to disentangle them broke the line. Alexander, forming his troops into a wedge, occupied this gap, and pushing right forv/ard, threw the Asiat- ics into irretrievable confusion. The Persian cavalry on the left wing continued to maintain the fight after the centre was broken, but when MACEDON. 137 Alexander, w'uh. a select squadron, assailed their flank, they broke tlieii lints and fled at full gallop from the field. It was no longer a battle, but a slaughter ; forty thousand of the l)arbarians were slain, while the loss of the Greeks did not exceed five hundred men. The triumph was, however, sullied by the Avanton destruction of Pcrscp'olis, which Alexander is said to have burned at the instigation of an Athenian courtesan, when heated with w ine during the rejoicing after the victory. The first intention of Darius after his defeat was to establish him- self in Media ; but hearing that Alexander was approaching Ecbatana he fled to Hyrcania with a small escort. Here he was deposed by the satrap Bessus, and thrown into chains. On receiving this intelligence, Alexander advanced against Bessus with the utmost speed ; but he came too late to save the unhappy Darius, who was savagely stabbed by the rebels, and left to expire at the roadside. His fate was soon avenged by his former enemy. Alexander continued the pursuit so vigorously, that Bessus was soon taken, and put to death with the most horrible tortures. Spitamenes, and several other satraps, still main- tained a desperate struggle for independence, assisted by the barbarous tribes of the desert. Four years Avere spent in subduing these chiefs and their allies ; in the course of which time Alexander conquered Bac'tria, Sogdiana, and the countries now included in southern Tar- tary, Khorassan, Kabul (b. c. 327). But, still desirous of further tri- umphs, he resolved to invade India. While Alexander was thus engaged, the Lacedaemonians, instigated by their warlike monarch A'gis, declared war against Macedon, but were speedily subdued by Antip'ater. They sent ambassadors into Asia to supplicate the clemency of the Macedonian monarch, and were generously pardoned by Alexander (b. c. 330). Another proof of the young hero's respect for the ancient Grecian states, was his permitting the Athenians to banish iEs'chines, the ancient friend of Macedon, after he had been conquered by Demos'thenes in the most remarkable oratorical contest recorded in the annals of eloquence. iEs'chines accused Ctes'iphon for having proposed that a golden crown should be given to Demos'thenes as a testimony to the rectitude of his political career. iEs'chines assailed the Avhole course of policy recommended by Demos'thenes, declaring that it had caused the ruin of Grecian in- dependence. Demos'thenes defended his political career so trium- phantly, that iEs'chines was sent into banishment for having instituted a malicious prosecution. Alexander, having made all necessary preparations for the invasion of India (b. c. 327), advanced toward that country by the route of Kan- dahar, which is that generally used by caravans to and from Persia at the present day. One division of his army, having pushed forward to the banks of the In'dus, prepared everything requisite for fording the river, while the king was engaged in subduing such cities and fortresses as might be of service in forming magazines, should he advance, or se- curing a retreat, if he found it necessary to return. No opposition was made to the passage of the In'dus. Alexander received on ita eastern bank the submission of Tax'iles, a powerful Indian prince, who supplied him with seven thousand Indian horse as auxiliaries. Continuing his march through the comitry now called the Punj-ab, or land of the 138 ANCIENT HISTORY. five livers, he reached the banks of the Hydas'pes (Jh/him), and found the opposite side occupied by an Indian prince, called Porus by the historians, though that name, like Bren'nus among the Gauls, and Da- rius among the Persians, more properly designated an office than an individual. The Indian army was more numerous than the Macedonian, and it had, besides, the support of three hundred war-chariots and two hun- dred elephants. Alexander could not pass the river in the presence of such a host without danger ; but by a series of stratagems he lulled the enemy into false security, and reached the right bank with little inter- pjption. A battle ensued, in which the Indians were totally defeated, md Porus himself made prisoner. The conqueror continued his march eastward, crossing the Aces'ines (Chuncih) and the Hyaraotes (Ravi) ; but when he reached the Hy'phasis (Sutleje), his troops unanimously refused to continue their march ; and Alexander was reluctantly forced *.o make the Punj-ab the limit of his conquests. He determined, how ever, to return into central Asia by a different route from that by which he had advanced, and caused vessels to be built on the Hydas'pes to trans port his troops down that stream to its junction with the In'dus, and thence to the ocean. His navigation employed several months, being frequently retarded by the hostilities of the natives, especially the war- like tribe of the Mal'li. After having wistfully surveyed the waters of the Indian ocean, Alexander determined to proceed toward Persepolis through the barren solitudes of Gedrosia (d. c. 325), while his fleet, under Near'chus, was employed in the survey of the Persian gulf, from the mouth of the Indus to that of the Euphrates. He endured many hardships, but at length arrived, with less loss than might reasonably have been anticipated, in the fertile provinces of Persia. His active mind was next directed to securing the vast empire he had acquired, and joining Europe to Asia by the bonds of his commercial intercourse. No better proof of the wisdom of his plans can be given than the fact that most of the cities he founded as trading marts are still the places of most commercial importance in their respective countries. But while he was thus honorably and usefully employed, his career was cut short by a fever, the consequence of excessive drinking — a vice in which all the Macedonians were prone to indulge after the fatigues of war (b. c. 324, May 28th). His sudden death prevented laim from making any arrangements respecting the succession or a regency ; but in his last agony he gave his ring to Perdic'cas, a Macedonian noble- man who had obtained the cliief place in his favor after t^-* death of Hephaes'tion. Section III. — Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire. FROM B. C. 324 TO B. C. 301. Perdic'cas was the only one of Alexander's followers who refused a portion of his treasures when the young hero shared them among his friends, just before his invasion of Asia. Possessing no small share of the enthusiasm of his late illustrious master, tempered by policy and prudence, Perdic'cas seemed the best fitted of aU the gener£.Is to c( a MACEDON. 139 solidate the mighty em;)ire which Alexander had acquired. But the Macedonian nobles possessed a more than ordinary share of the pride and turbulence that distinguish a feudal aristocracy ; they had formed several conspiracies against the life of the late monarch, by whose ex- ploits and generosity they had so largely profited ; and consequently they were not disposed to submit to one who had so recently been their equal. Scarcely had the regency been formed, when the Macedonian infantry, at the instigation of Meleager, chose for their sovereign Ar- rhidaj'us, the imbecile brother of Alexander. The civil war conse- quent on this measure was averted at the very instant it was about to burst forth by the resignation of Arrhidoc'us ; and as his incapacity soon became notorious, all parties concurred in the propriety of a new arrangement. It was accordingly agreed that Perdic'cas should be re gent, but that Arrhidae'us should retain the shadow of royalty ; pi) jvision was made for the child with which Roxana, Alexander's widow, was pregnant ; and the principal provinces were divided among the Mace donian generals, with the powers previously exercised by the Persian satraps. During these dissensions the body of Alexander lay unburied and neglected, and it was not until two years after his death that his re- mains were consisned to the tomb. But his followers still showed their respect for his memory, by retaining the feeble Arrhidae'us on the throne, and preventing the marriage of Perdic'cas with Cleopatra, the daughter of Philip ; a union which manifestly was projected to open a way to the throne. But while this project of marriage occupied the attention of the re- gent, a league had secretly been formed for his destruction, and the storm burst forth from a quarter whence it was least expected. Alex- ander, in his march against Darius, had been contented with receiving the nominal submission of the northern provinces of Asia Minor, in- habited by the barbarous tribes of the Cappadocians and Paphlagonians. Impatient of subjection, these savage nations asserted their indepey-- dence after the death of Alexander, and chose Ariarathes for their leader. Perdic'cas sent against them Eumenes, who had hitherto ful- filled the peaceful duties of a secretary ; and sent orders to Antig'onus. and L'^onatus, the governors of western Asia, to join the expedition witn all their forces. These commands were disobeyed, and Perdic'- cas wac forced to march with the royal army against the insurgents. He easily defeated these undisciplined troops, but sullied his victory by unnecessary cruelty. On his return he summoned the satraps of western Asia to appear before his tribunal, and answer for their disobe dience. Antig'onus, seeing his danger, entered into a league with Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt, Antip'ater the governor of Macedon, and several other noblemen, to crush the regency. Perdic'cas, on the other hand, leaving Eumenes to guard Lower Asia, marched with the choicest divisions of the royal army against Ptolemy, whose craft and ability he dreaded even more than his power. Antip'ater and Crat'erus were early in the field ; they crossed the Hellespont with the army that had been left for the defence of Mace- don, and on their landing were joined by Neoptol'emus the governor of Phrygia. Their new confederate informed the Macedonian leaders 140 ANCIENT HISTORY. that the army of Eumenes was weak, disorderly-j and incapable of making the slightest resistance. Seduced by this false information, they divided their forces ; Antip'ater hastening through Phrygia in pur- suit of Perdic'cas, while Crat'erus and Neoptol'emus marched against Eumenes. They encountered him in the Trojan plain, and were com- pletely defeated. Neoptol'emus was slain in the first onset, and Crat'- erus lay mortally wounded, undistinguished among the heaps of dead. Eumenes, having learned the state of Crat'erus, hastened to relieve him ; he found him in the agonies of death, and bitterly lamented the misfortunes that had changed old friends into bitter enemies. Immedi- ately after this great victory, Eumenes sent intelligence of his success to Perdic'cas ; but two days before the messenger reached the royal camp the regent was no more. His army, wearied by the long siege of Peldsium, became dissatisfied ; their mutinous dispositions were se- cretly encouraged by the emissaries of Ptolemy. Py'thon, who had been formerly employed by the regent in the ruthless massacre of some Greek mercenaries for disobedience of orders, organized a conspiracy, and '^erdic'cas was murdered in his tent (b. c. 321). Had the news of the victory obtained by Eumenes reached the camp earlier, the re- gent's life might have been saved ; but now the news served only to aggravate the malice of the insurgent satraps. In the meantime a brief struggle for independence had taken place in Greece, which is commonly called the Lamian war, from the town in whose neighborhood the principal contests occurred. Instigated by the orators Hyper'ides and Demos'thenes, the Athenians boldly pro- claimed themselves the restorers of Grecian freedom, and called on the other states to second them in the great struggle for liberty. The iEtolians, and the hardy mountaineers of Doris and Phocis, eagerly re- sponded to the summons ; but of the other states, Thebes no longer existed, Spar'ta was too proud to act under her ancient rival, and the Achasans and Arcadians too prudent to risk their present tranquillity for the doubtful chances of war (b. c. 323). Alarmed by the intelli gence of this confederacy, Antip'ater marched to secure the straits ot Thermop'ylae ; but he was met by the Athenians under Leos'thenes, and his forces put to the rout. The remnant of the Macedonian army sought refuge in Lamia, a strong fortress on the Malian gulf, which the victorious army closely besieged. Unfortunately for the Athenians, Leos'thenes was slain in a sally, and the command of the confederates intrusted to Aaitip'hilus, a general of great valor, but deficient in skill and discretion. Intoxicated by a second victory over the Macedonians, he kept careless guard, of which Antip'ater took advantage to break through the hostile hues, and form a junction with a fresh army from Macedon. Thus reinforced, he attacked the confederates, and com- pletely annihilated their army. The Athenians had no resource bu; submission : they were compelled to abolish the democracy, to receive garrisons into their fortresses, and to give up their patriotic orators to the conqueror's vengeance. The cruel Antip'ater put Hyper'ides to death, after having subjected him to insult and torture. Demos'thene-s escaped a similar fate by committing suicide. Undismayed by these calamities, the iEtolians resolved to continue the war '; and Antip'ater, MACEDON. 141 eagei to march into Asia against Per'diccas, was forced to grant them peace on favorable conditions. As soon as Ptolemy had been informed of the murder of Per'dic- cas, he came to the royal army with a large supply of wine and pro- visions. His kindness and courteous manners so won upon these tur- bulent soldiers, that they unanimously offered him the regency ; but he had the prudence to decline so dangerous an office. On his refusal, the feeble Arrhidae'us and the traitor Py'thon were appointed to the re- gency, just as the news arrived of the recent victory of Eumenes. This intelligence filled the royal army with indignation. Crat'erus had been always a favorite with the soldiers ; Eumenes was despised on account of his former unwarlike occupation. They hastily passed a vote proclaiming Eumenes and his adherents public enemies, and de- nouncing all who afforded them support or protection. The advance of an army to give effect to these decrees was delayed by a new revolu- tion. Eurid'ice, the wife of Arrhidae'us, a woman of great ambition and considerable talent for intrigue, wrested the regency from her feeble husband and Py'thon, but was stripped of power on the arrival of An- tip'ater, who reproached the Macedonians for submitting to the govern- ment of a woman ; and being ably supported by Antig'onus and Seleii- cus, obtained for himself the office of regent. No sooner had Antip'ater been invested with supreme power, than he sent Arrhidffi'us and Eurid'ice prisoners to Pel'la, and intrusted the conduct of the war against Eumenes to the crafty and ambitious Antig'- onus. Cassan'der, the son of Antip'ater, joined the expedition with a thousand horse, and, being himself a selfish and cunning statesmen, he soon penetrated the secret plans of Antig'onus, and vainly warned the regent of his dangerous designs. A quarrel soon took place between the worthy colleagues ; and Cassan'der returned to Europe, where he was about to commence a career as bold and bloody as that of Antio-'- onus in Asia. Eumenes was unable to cope with the forces sent against him ; having been defeated in the open field, he took shelter in Nora, a Cappadocian city, and maintained a vigorous defence, rejecting the many tempting offers by which Antig'onus endeavored to win him to the support of his designs (b. c. 318). The death of Antip'ater pro- duced a new revolution in the empire ; and Eumenes in the meantime escaped from Nora, accompanied by his principal friends, on fleet horses thai had been trained for this especial service. Antip'ater, at his death, bequeathed the regency to Polysper'chon, excluding, his son Cassan'der from power on accomit of his criminal in- trigues with the wicked and ambitious Eurid'ice. Though a brave general, Polysper'chon had not the qualifications of a statesman : he provoked the powerful resentment of Antig'onus by entering into a close alliance with Eumenes ; and he permitted Cassan'der to strengthen himself in southern Greece, where he seized the strong fortress of Mu- nyc'hia. His next measures were of still more questionable policy, he recalled Olym'pias, the mother of Alexander, whom Antip'ater had banished on account of her turbulent disposition ; and he proclaimed his intention of restoring democracy in the Grecian states. The lattei edict was received with the utmost enthusiasm at Athens ; an urgent embassy was sent to the regent, requesting him to send an army to H3 ANCIENT HISTORY. protect the city from Cassan'der and his partisans. Polysper'chon sent xiis son Alexander with a considerable force into A^ticq ; and no sooner were news of his approach received, than the restoration of democracy was voted by a tumultuous assembly, and a decree passed for proceed- ing against all aristocrats, as capital enemies of the state (b. c. 317) Several illustrious individuals, and among others the virtuous Phocion fell victims to tins burst of popular violence, which the regent made no ofTort to check or control. Cassan'der, however, remained master of the ports of Athens, and was thus enabled to fit out a considerable fleet, which he sent to the Thracian Bos'phorus, under the command of his friend Nicanor, to sec- ond the enterprises of Antig'onus. Nicanor was at first defeated by the royal navy ; but being reinforced, he renewed the engagement, and captured all the enemies' ships except the admiral's galley. The news of this victory rendered the power of Antig'onus paramount in lower Asia, and gave Cassan'der possession of Athens. The Athe- nians, however, suff'ered no injury from the change, the government of their city having been intrusted to Demetrius Phalereus, who ruled them with justice and moderation during ten years. Polysper'chon, unable to drive Cassan'der from Attica, entered the Peloponnesus to punish the Arcadians, and engaged in a fruitless siege of Megalop'olis. In the meantime Olym'pias, to whom he had con- fided the government of Macedon, seized Arrhidae'us and Eurid'ice, whom she caused to be murdered in prison. Cassan'der hasted, at the head of his all forces, to avenge the death of his mistress : Olym'pias, unable to meet him in the field, fled to Pyd'na ; but the city was forced to surrender after a brief defence, and Olym'pias was immediately put to death. Among the captives were Roxana the v/idow, Alexander JE'giis, the posthumous son, and Thessalonica, the youngest daughter of Alexander the Great. Cassan'der sought and obtained the hand of the latter princess, and thus consoled himself for the loss of his be- loved Eurid'ice. By this marriage he acquired such influence, that Polysper'chon did not venture to return home, but continued in the Peloponnesus, where he retained for some time a shadow of authority over the (ew Macedonians who still clung to the family of Alexander. In Asia, Eumenes maintained the royal cause against Antig'onus, though deserted by all the satraps, and harassed by the mutinous dis- position of his troops, especially the Argyras'pides, a body of gxiarda that Alexander had raised to attend his own person, and presented with the silver shields from which they derived their name. After a long struggle, both armies joined in a decisive engagement ; the Argyras'- pides broke the hostile infantry, but learning that their baggage had in the meantime been captured by the light troops of the enemy, they mutinied in the very moment of victory, and delivered their leader, bound with his own sash, into the hands of his merciless enemy (b. c. 315). The faithful Eumenes was put to death by the traitorous Antig'- onus ; but he punished the Argyras'pides for their treachery ; justly dreading their turbulence, he sent them in small detachments against the barbarians ; and thus sacrificed in detail the veterans that had over- thrown the Persian empire. Antig'onus, immediately after his victory, began openly to aim at the MACEDON. 143 sovereignty of the entire Macedonian empire. The weight of his pcwet was {irst directed against the satraps whose rebellious conduct had en- abled hun to triumph over Eumenes. Peuces'tes of Persia was ban- ished, Py'thon of Media put to death, and Seleuc'us of Bab'ylon could only escape a similar fate by a precipitate flight into Egypt. The Ma- cedonian governors in the west, instigated by Seleuc'us, formed a league for mutual defence, and sent an embassy to Antig'onus, who an- swered ;heir proposals with menace and insult. But at the same time he prepared to wage a more effectual war than one of words : while his armies overran Syria and Asia Minor, he roused the southern Greeks, the iEtolians, and Epirotes, to attack Cassan'der in Macedon. He bribed the mountaineers and northern barbarians to attack Lysim'- achus in Thrace, while his son Demetrius, afterward named Poliorce- tes, or the conqueror of cities, marched against the Egyptian Ptolemy. The first important operations of the war took place in southern Syria. Ptolemy overthrew Demetrius near Gaza, and in consequence of his victory, became master of Palestine and Phcenicia. But the Egyptians were defeated in their turn at the commencement of the next campaign ; their recent acquisitions were lost as rapidly as they had been gained ; and Demetrius would have invaded their country with great prospect of success, had he not been involved in an unwise contest with the Arabs. We have already mentioned that the excavated city of Petra was the great depot of the caravan-trade between the southern countries of Asia and northern Africa. Athenae'us, a general in the army of Antig'- onus, was sent to seize its rich stores : he surprised the inhabitants by a rapid march and unexpected attack, and was returning laden with plunder to join the main army ; but the Nabathae'an Arabs, enraged by their loss, hastily collected their forces, and urging their dromedaries through the desert, overtook Athena^'us near Gaza, where they not only recovered the spoil, but almost annihilated his army. Demetrius eagerly hasted to avenge this loss, but he was baffled by the fastnesses of Arabia Petraj'a • and when he returned into Syria, he received intel- ligence that directed all his attention to the state of upper Asia. After Ptolemy's victory at Gaza, Seleuc'us, with a small but gallant band of attendants, boldly threw himself into his ancient satrapy of Bab'ylon, and was received with so much enthusiasm, that he obtained possession of all his former power without striking a blow. The Per- sian and Median satraps appointed by Antig'onus hastened to destroy the dangerous enemy that had thus suddenly arisen ; but they were totally routed after a brief but ineffectual struggle (b. c. 312). This battle, from which a new dynasty may be dated, forms an important epoch i.. Grecian history, called the era of the Seleucidae. Alarmed by these occurrences, Antig'onus hastened to conclude a peace with his other opponents ; and a treaty was ratified which was pregnant with the elements of future war. Cassan'der agreed to re- store the freedom of the Grecian cities, without the slightest intention of performing his promise. Ptolemy consented that Antig'onus should retain his present possessions, while he was preparing a fleet to seize the Asiatic islands, previous to invading Syria ; Lysim'achus was re- solved to annex the northern provinces of Asia Minor to his satrapy 144 ANCIENT HISTORY. of Thrace ; and all agreed to acknowledge the son of Alexander for their sovereign, though a resolution had been already formed for his destruction. Alarmed by the murmurs of the Macedonians, Cassan'- der caused Roxana, Alexander iE'gus, and Her'cules (the last survivor of the great conqueror), to be assassinated ; and soon after consigned the princess Cleopatra to the same fate, dreading that she might bo ;tow her hand on some of the rival satraps. It was not long before Antig'onus discovered that he had been de- i;eived in the recent treaty by Cassan'der and Ptolemy. He sent his son Demetrius into Greece, under the pretence of restoring the liberty of the states ; and Athens, still enamored of the memory of its freedom, opened its gates to the young prince (b. c. 308). Thence he sailed to Cy'prus, and gained a decisive victory over the Egyptian fleet that came to protect the island. He was baffled, however, in an attempt to invade Egypt ; and when he went thence to besiege Rhodes, he was recalled to Greece by the prayers of the x\thenians, who were exposed to immi- nent danger from the power of Cassan'der. • The success of Demetrius induced his father to nominate him cap- tain-general of Greece — an injudicious measure, which led to the for- mation of a new confederacy against Antig'onus. Cassan'der renewed his attacks on southern Greece ; Ptolemy entered Syria ; Lysim'achus, with an army of veterans, invaded Thrace ; while Seleiicus marched westward with the numerous forces of upper Asia, including four him- dred and eighty elephants. The junction of Lysim'achus and Seleu- cus in Phrygia necessarily brought on a decisive engagement, which Antig'onus, reinforced by his gallant son Demetrius, showed no anxiety to avoid (b. c. 301). The battle that decided the fate of an empire was fought at Ip'sus in Phrygia : it ended in the defeat and death of Antig'- onus, and the destruction of the power that he had raised. The conse- quences of this victory were, a new partition of the provinces, and the erection of the satrapies into independent kingdoms. Seleiicus became monarch of upper Asia ; Ptolemy added Syria and Palestine to Egypt ; Lysim'achus obtained the northern provinces of Asia Minor as an appendage to his kingdom of Thrace ; and the services of Cassan'- der were rewarded, not only with the sovereignty of Macedon and Greece, but also of the rich province of Cilicia. Thus, in the course of a single generation, the mighty empire of Alexander had risen to unparalleled greatness, and fallen into hopeless ruin ; while not a single descendant of the illustrious founder was spared to transmit his name tc posterity. The most enduring memorial of his policy was the city of Alexandria, founded during his Egyptian campaign, which became one of the greatest commercial marts of antiquity, and is still at the head of the trade between Europe and the Levant. MAf!KDON AND C-JllEECK. U3 CHAPTER XI 1. HISTORY OF f HE STATES THAT AROSE FROxM THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. Section I.— The History of Mace J on and Greece from the Batth of fysm to the Roman Conauest. FROM B. C. 301 TO B. C. 146. After the fatal battle of Ip'sus, Demetrius fled to Greece, hoping u- obtain a refuge from the Athenians, whom he had essentially served in the days of his prosperity ; but the harbors and gates ' of the city were closed against him. Having obtained, however, the restoration of the Biiips and money he had deposited there, he established himself in the Peloponnesus, and commenced a desultory naval war against Lysim'- achus. Seleucus, who now transferred to Lysim'achus the jealousy of which the fallen fortunes of Demetrius could no longer be an object, sought an alliance with his ancient enemy, and married Stratonice, the daughter of Demetrius, and this union was equally advantageous to both parties. Cassan'der did not long survive the establishment of his power : on his death (b. c. 296), he left Macedonia to his three sons, of whom Philip speedily followed his father to the grave. The survivors quar- relled about the division of their inheritance. Antipater murdered his mother Thessalonica, on account of the favor she showed to his brother Alexander. The vengeance of his brother being, however, supported* by the general feeling of the Macedonians, he fled to the court of his father-in-law Lysim'achus, where he died prematurely. Dreading the resentment of the Thracian monarch, Alexander sought the aid of Pyr'- rhus, king of Epirus, and Demetrius Poliorcetes, who both entered Ma- cedon, in the hope of gaining some advantage. The ambition of Demetrius soon provoked the jealousy of the son of Cassan'der, he grew jealous of his ally, and attempted to remove so formidable a coia- petitor by stratagem ; but he was counterplotted and slain. The va- cant throne was seized by Demeti.us, who possessed, in addition to Macedon, Thessaly, a great portion of southern Greece, with the prov- inces of At'tica and Meg'aris, to which after a fierce resistance, he ad- ded Boeotia. He might have enjoyed this extensive realm in tranquillity, but his restless ambition led him to form plans for the recovery of his father's power in Asia. Seleucus and Ptolemy, in great alarm at the sudden appearance of ^ 10 146 ANCIENT HISTORY. ri^al, formidable by the revived inlluence of his father's claim, and still more by his personal qualities, roused Lysim'achus, king of Thracfe and Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus, to attack him at the same time. The Macedonians, terrified by such a confederacy, mutinied ; and Demelriua fled, disguised as a common soldier, into the Peloponnesus, which was governed by his son Antig'onus (b. c. 287). Pyr'rhus obtained posses^ sion of the vacant kingdom ; but after a brief reign of seven months, he was forced to yield to the superior power or popularity of Lysim'- achus, and retire to his native Epirus. Demetrius had, in the meantime, sailed' to Asia, with the hope of seizing the provinces belonging to Lysim'achus (b. c. 286) ; but he was driven into Cilicia, and forced to surrender to his father-in-law Seleucus, by whom he was detained iu prison until the day of his death (b. c. 284). His son Antig'onus, how- ever, maintained himself in the Peloponnesus, waiting with patience a favoral)le opportunity of restoring the fortunes o£ his family. Lysim'achus was unfortunate in his domestic relations : at the insti- gation of his queen, the wicked Arsinoe, he put to death his gallant son Agathoc'les, upon which Cassan'dra, the widow of the young prince, with her brother Ptolemy Ceraunus, fled to the court of Seleucus, and stimulated that prince to war. Lysim'achus was defeated and slain (b. c. 282) ; but in the following year Seleucus was murdered by Ptole- my Ceradnus who availed himself of the treasures of his victim, and the yet remaining troops of Lysim'achus, to usurp the throne of Mace- don. In the same year that Seleucus fell (b. c. 281) ; Pyr'rhus invaded Italy as an ally of the Tarentines ; the Acha3an league was revived in southern Greece ; and several Asiatic provinces, especially Cappad(>- cia, Armenia, and Pon'tus, in the north, and Par'thia and Bac'tria in the east, became independent kingdoms. The revolts in Asia against the successors of Alexander, appear to have arisen at least as much from religious as political motives. It was part of the great conqueror's plan to impress a uniform character on all the lauds he subdued, and in every one of them to constitute society afresh on the Grecian model. This was called an effort to Hdlcriize the east. But the Asiatics clung obstinately to their institutions, whether good or bad, as they have done in all subsequent ages, and Alexander's successors in central and western Asia, by assailing the religion of the people, provoked fierce insurrections, which led to the entire loss of Persia and the perilous insurrection of the Jews under the gallant Mac- cabees. Ptolemy Ceraunus did not long retain the crown of Macedon, which he had procured by treachery and assassination. An innumerable mul- titude of Gau's, who had, about two centuries before, settled in Pan- nonia, driven by want, or perhaps instigated by their restless disposition, poured into Thrace and Macedon, desolating the entire country with the reckless fury of ferocious savages. Ceraunus led an army against them, but was defeated and slain (b. c. 279). In the following year, his successor Sosthenes met the same fate ; and the Gauls, under the guidance of their Brenn, or chief, advanced into southern Greece. The Athenians, aided by the iEtolians, made a brave defence at the straits of Thermop'ylae ; but the latter being called home to defend then own country, invaded by a Gallic division, the Athenians were unaWo MACEDON AND GREECE. 14"} any longer to defend the pass, and the main body of the Gauls, entering Phocis, marched to plunder Del'phi. Here, however, the success of the invaders ended : tlie detachment sent against jEtolia was cut to pieces by a nation scarcely less ferocious than the Gauls themselves ; and the main body, after suffering severely from cold and storms in the defiles of Mount Parnas'sus, was almost annihilated by the enthusiast] c de- fenders of the national temple. The miserable remnant of the invaders fell back upon a fresh body of their countrymen, with whom they passed over into Asia ; and after inflicting many calamities on the states of Anatolia, obtained possession of the province which received from them the name of Galatia. Antig'onus Gonatas, the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, deriving his name from Goni in Thessaly, where he had been educated, obtained the vacant throne of Macedon, after a contest of three years with various competitors, and transmitted it to his posterity ; but he did not, like his predecessors, possess the sovereignty of southern Greece, whose inde- pendence had been secured by the Achaean league. This association had been originally revived by the towns of Pat'ra;, Dy'me, Trite, and Phane ; but it did not become formidable imtil it was joined by Sic^yon (b. c. 2.'31), after the noble Aratushad freed that city from tyrants. The return of Pyr'rhus from Italy was followed by a new revolution in Macedon ; the mercenaries revolted to the Epirote monarch, and An- tig'onus was driven from the throne. He retired into southern Greece, whither he was soon followed by his rival, who had been solicited to place Cleon'ymus on the throne of Lacedae'mon. Pyr'rhus professed that his chief object in entering the Peloponnesus was to deliver the cities from the yoke of Antig'onus ; but his actions were inconsistent with his declarations, for he ravaged the lands of Laconia, and made an attempt to surprise Spar'ta. Being defeated in this enterprise, he turn- ed his arms against Ar'gos, and was admitted into the city by some of his secret partisans. But the Argives opened another gate to Antig'o- nus, who entered with a chosen body of troops. A fierce struggle en- sued, which was terminated by the death of Pyr'rhus. An Argive wo- rr 5,n, whose son he was about to slay, struck him with a tile from the roof of the house ; he fell from his horse, and was trampled to death fn the press (b. c. 271). After a short contest with Alexander, the son of Pyr'rhus, Antig'onus regamed the throne of Macedon, and retained it to his death. The Achaean league was joined by Corinth, Trcezene, and Epidau- rus, when Aratus, by a bold attempt, had driven the Macedonian garri- sor from the Corinthian citadel. It was finally joined by Athens (a. c. 229), and continually grew in strength, though opposed by the Macedo- nians and ^Etolians. So rapidly did the pov/er of the confederacy in- crease, that the king of Egypt sought its alliance, and some of the states north of the Peloponnesus solicited to be admitted as members. On the death of Antig'onus Gonatas (b. c. 243), his son Demetrius n. became king of Macedon. The ten years of his reign were spent in war with the JStolians, who had formed a confederacy similar to that of the Achaeans. After his death (b. c. 233), Antig'onus Doson, cousin to the late monarch, succeeded to the throne, nominally as guardian of the infant prince Philip II., just as a revolution if *hie Peloponnesus 148 ANCIENT HISTORY. was about to effect A great and important change in the political aspect of Greece. The ancient laws of Lycur'gus were only nominally observed in Spar'ta : the plunder of foreign countries had introduced wealth End luxury ; a law sanctioning the alienation of landed estates had effaced the ancient equality of property ; and the gradual decrease of the ruling caste of Spartan families had rendered the oligarchy as weak as it was odious. A bold plan of reform, including a fresh division of landed property, an abolition of debts, and the weakening of the power of the Eph'ori", was brought forward by King A'gis III. (b. c. 244) ; it was at first very successful, but the unsteadiness of Agis, and the opposition of the other king, Leon'idas, brought about a counter-revolution (b. c. 241). A'gis was strangled by the order of the Eph'ori, and Iris mother and grandmother shared the same fate. Leon'idas compelled the widow of A'gis to marry his youthful son Cleom'enes, not foreseeing that she was likely to inspire the prince with the principles of her former husband. Soon after his accession to the throne, Cleom'enes, relying on the reputation he had acquired by defeating the efforts of Aratus to force Sparta into the Achaean league, renewed the reforms of A'gis (b. c. 227) ; and, as he was unscrupulous in the use of the means requisite to efi'ect his object, be speedily over- threw the Eph'ori, and opened the right of citizenship to all the l^a- cedcemonians. He then turned his arms against the Achaeans (b. c. 224), compelled Ar'gos and Corinth to secede from the league, defeated the confederates at Dy'me, and reduced Aratus to such difficulties that he was forced to solicit assistance from the king of Macedon. Antig'- onus II. readily embraced so favorable an opportunity for restoring the influence of his family in southern Greece. He entered the Pelopon- nesus, and, after some minor operations, he obtained a complete vic- tory over Cleom'enes at Sellasia, on the borders of Laconia, which placed Spar'ta at his mercy (b. c. 222). Cleom'enes fled to Egypt; the Macedonians, advancing from the field of battle, took possession of Lacedaemon without a blow, but they used their victory moderately, and its ancient constitution was restored. Antig'onus did not long survive his victory ; he died generally lamented by the Greeks (b. c. 221) and was succeeded by Philip II., son of Demetrius. The iEtolians were greatly dissatisfied with the peace that followed the battle of Sellasia. No sooner had they received intelligence of the death of Antig'onus, than, despising the youth and inexperience of his successor Philip, they commenced a series of piratical attacks on the Messenians and Macedonians, which speedily rekindled the flames of war. Aratus was sent to expel the iEtolians from Messenia, and en- tered into a convention with their leaders for the purpose ; after which he imprudently dismissed the greater part of his army. The ^toliana took advantage of his weakness to attack him unexpectedly, and then, having ravaged the greater part of the Peloponnesus, they returned home laden with plundei Philip, being invited to place himself at the head of the Achaean league, went to Corinth, where a general assembly of the states waa held. A declaration of wai against the iEtolians was voted by all the southern Greeks, except the Spartans and Eleans, who were both ad« MACEDON AiSD GREECE. 1-45 verse to tlie league ; and active preparations for hostilities were made on both sides. While thcs^ affairs engaged attention throughout Greece, little regard was paid to the commercial war between the By- zantines and Rhodians, in consequence of the heavy tolls exacted by the former from all vessels entering the Euxine sea (b. c. 222). It terminated in favor of the latter, and the Byzantines were forced to abolish the onerous duties. Cleom'enes, in his exile, was a careful observer of the transactions in Greece, and' perceiving that the Lacedaemonians, according to his original policy, were preparing to join the iEtolians against the Achae- ans, he believed that an opportunity was afforded for recovering his hereditary throne. The young king of Egypt, dreading his talents and his temper, was unwilling to see him restored to power, and therefore not only refused him assistance, but even detained him from attempting the enterprise with his own hired servants. But Cleom'enes was scarcely less formidable in Alexan'dria, than he would have been if restored to his former power in Spar'ta, for he had won the favor of the Grecian mercenaries in the Egyptian service, who showed a strong at- tachment to his person. The ministers of the young Ptolemy caused him to be arrested, but he baffled the vigilance of his guards, and fol- lowed by his friends rushed through the streets of Alexan'dria, exhorting the multitude to strike for freedom. No one responded to his call ; the royal forces prepared to surround him, and Cleom'enes, dreading to encounter the tortures of the cruel Egyptians, committed suicide Thus perished a king, who, in spite of many grievous faults, was the lasf hope of his country, and the only person capable of restoring the su- premacy of Spar'ta and the Peloponnesus. The war between Philip and the yEtolians was conducted with great obstinacy and cruelty on both sides ; Philip's progress was aided by his fleet, which soon rose into importance ; but it was also greatly checked by the intrigues of Apel'les and other wretches who envied Aratus, and weakened the influence of his prudent counsels. The in- creasing power of the Romans and Carthaginians, who were already contending for the empire of the world in the second Punic war, at length inclined all the Greeks to peace, for they felt that it would be soon n.;cessary to defend the independence of Greece either against Rome or Carthage, whichever should prove victorious. A treaty was accordingly concluded between the general assembly of the iEtolian states at Naupac'tus and the representatives of the Achtean confederacy (r. c. 217) : Philip attended in person, and greatly contributed to the success of the negotiations. The Macedonian monarch possessed the ambition, but not the milita- ry talents of Pyr'rhus. I^ike the great Epirote, he hoped to become the conqueror of Italy, and entered into a strict alliance with Han'nibal, who had already invaded the peninsula. About the same time, to get rid of the remonstrances of Aratus, who frequently warned the king of the dangers that would result from his indulgence in ambitious projects, he caused the old general to be poisoned : a crime which filled all Greece with horror and indignation. The Romans resolved to find Philip so much employment in Greece vhat he should not have leisure to attack Italy. They prevailed on the 150 ANCIENT HISTORY. .Elolians to violate the recent treaty, promising .hem, as a rewara, tne possession of Acarnania and the Ionian islands. To this confederacy the republics of Sparta and Elis, and the kings of Per'ganius and E'iis, acceded (b. c. 211). Philip, on the other hand, was supported by the Acarnanians, the Boeotians, and the Achaeans. The Romans and their ally At'talus, king of Per'gamus, became masters of the sea ; but the former were too much engaged by the presence of Han'nibal in Italy to continue tlieir aid to the iEtolians ; and At'talus wns recalled home to defend his own kingdom from an invasion of the Bithynians. Nearly at the same time, Philopce'men, the worthy successor of Aratus, as head of the Achaean league, defeated and slew wiih his own hand Machan'idas, the usurper of Laceda^mon. The iEtolians, thus deprived of all their allies, made overtures of peace, which were readily accepted (b. c. 208). The Romans made some efforts to interrupt the treaty ; But the /Etolians had suffered too severely to continue the war any longer. Scarcely had peace been restored, when Philip entered into an alliance with Priisias, king of Bith'ynia, against At'talus, king of Per'gamus ; and with the Syrian monarch against the infant ruler of Egypt. As if these enemies were not sufficient, he declared war against the Rhodians ; but was soon punished by the overthrow and ruin of the Macedonian fleet at Chios (b. c. 202). The Athenians were next added to the number of his enemies ; and this once-powerful people, no longer able to protect their fallen fortunes, supplicated the Romans for aid. A fleet and army were sent to secure this illustrious city, and it reached Athens just in time to save it from a sudden attack of the Macedonians. Having delivered Athens, the Romans advanced into northern Greece, where they compelled the Boeotians to join in the league against Philip. The legions in Epirus at the same time marched into Macedon itself, and, though they gained no immediate advantages, they facilitated the passage of troops for a future and more decisive invasion. In the second campaign, when the conduct of the war was confided to the consul Flamin'ius, Philip's fortunes declined so rapidly, that his allies, especially the Achaeans, lost all courage, and accepted terms of peace. Though deserted, the Macedonian monarch did not resign all hope ; he assembled an army in Thessaly nearly equal to that of his enemies, but inferior in discipline and equipment, with which he took post on a range of low hills, called from their singular shape Cynos- ceph'alaj, or " the dogs' heads." In the early part of the decisive bat- tle, the Macedonians at first had the advantage, their right wing having borne down the opposing divisions ; but the consul, observing that the left of the Macedonians had not been formed into order of battle, charged them with his cavalry and elephants, and scattered them in a few moments ; he then assailed the victorious Macedonian wing in flank and rear. The phalanx, admirable for attack, was an inconvenient body to manoeuvre ; the phalangites attempted to face about, broke their lines, and were in a moment a disorderly mass, unable to fight or fly. The route was complete : eight thousand Macedonians fell ; five thou- sand remained prisoners ; while the loss of the Romans did not exceed seven hundred men. Without an army and without resources, Philip was forced to beg a peace (b. c. 197) ; he purchased it by the sacrilice MACEDON AND GREECE. 151 of his navy and the resignation of his supremacy over tlie Grecian states. Tlie Romans, thus successful, went through the farce of prochiiming the liberties of Greece at the Isthmian games, amid the wildest exulta- tion of the spectators. This extraordinary scene can not be viewed without gratification, even by those who have learned how large a pro- portion of history is occupied by fair professions unfulfilled, and hopea unwortjiily disappointed. The spectators were assembled from all the Grecian states and colonies, they were full of anxiety and busy in conjecture as to the conduct likely to be followed by the new arbiters of Greece, when the trumpet sounded, and proclamation was made to this effect : " The Roman senate and T. Quinc'tius the proconsul, having overcome King Philip and the Macedonians, leave free, ungar- risoned, unburdened with tribute, the Corinthians, Phocians, Thessa* lians, and others," specifying all the Greeks who had been subject to Philip. The voice of the crier was drowned in acclamations, so that many failed to hear the purport of the proclamation ; and others thought that what they heard must be spoken in a dream, so far did it exceed their expectation. The crier was called back, and the same words being repeated were followed by loud and reiterated shouts of ap- plause ; after which the various shows and trials of skill proceeded unregarded, the minds of the spectators being too full to heed them. When all these were finished, a general rush was made toward the Roman commander ; and it is said that, had he not been a man in the full prime and vigor of youth, his life might have been endangered by the multitude of those who thronged to see him, to address him as a savior, to take him by the hand, or to throw garlands upon him. "It was glorious that a state should exist in the world, which had will to contend for Grecian freedom, and power and fortune to achieve it." Such a praise may have been partly due to the present conduct of the Romans, but Flamin'ius showed his insincerity by secretly laboring to weaken the Achaean league ; which, however, was strengthened, after the murder of the tyrant Nabis (b. c. 192), by the accession of Sparta. Antiochus, king of Syria, instigated by Han'nibal, who had sought refuge in his court when exiled from his native country, declared war against the Romans (b. c. 193) ; but instead of attacking their power in Africa or Italy, he passed over into Greece, and was gladly welcomed by the turbulent TEtolians. The Acha^ans, of course, joined the Ro- mans as soon as their ancient enemies had declared for Antiochus ; and Philip, notwithstanding his recent defeat, lent his interest to the same cause. The campaigns of Antiochus were mere repetitions of error and presumption ; at length he returned to Asia (b. c. 191), leav- ing his allies exposed to the vengeance of their enemies. The JEto- lians were the most severely treated ; the only terms of peace which the Romans would consent to grant reduced them to poverty, and deprived them of independence (b. c. 189) ; but Antiochus having been defeated utterly by the Scipios in Asia, they had no alternative; and were forced to bend their stubborn necks to the heavy yoke imposed upon them. About the same time Sparta was caj)tured by the Achajans, under the command of Philopoe'men, and the constitution of Lycur'gua finally abolished. 152 ANCIEKT HISTORY. The Romans affected great indignation at the sufferings of the Spar tans, and compelled the Achaeans to modify the terms they had imposed on the conquered. But this was a trifling calamity compared with tha^ which the league sustained by the loss of Philop(je'men, the last great general that maintained the glory of the Hellenic race (b. c. 183). The petty war between the Messenians and Achaeans would scarcely deserve notice but for its having proved fatal to t.he last of the long line of Grecian heroes and patriots. Philopce'men was surprised by the enemy, when passing with a small party of cavalry through a difficult defile. It was thought that he might have escaped by the aid of some light-armed Thracians and Cretans in his band ; but he would not quit the horsemen, whom he had recently selected from the noblest of the Achaeans ; and while he was bringing up the rear, and bravely cover- ing the retreat, his horse fell with him. He was seventy years old, and weakened by recent sickness ; and he lay stunned and motionless under his horse, till he was found by the Messenians, who raised him from the ground with as much respect as if he had been their own commander, and carried him to the city, sending before them the news that the war was finished, for Philopffi'men was taken. The first im- pression of those who heard, was that the messenger was mad ; but when others coming after confirmed the statement, men, women, and children, freemen and slaves, all crowded to see. So great was the throng, that the gates could scarcely be opened ; and as the greater part could not see the prisoner, there was a general cry that he should be brought into the theatre close by. The magistrates showed him there for a moment, and then hastily removed him, for they feared the effects which might be produced by pity and reverence for so great a man, and gratitude for his merits. A long and anxious debate took place, which was protracted throughout the entire night. Finally, murderous counsels prevailed, and a cup of poison was sent to Philo- poe'men in his dungeon. He submitted to his fate with great forti- tude, and liis only solicitude was respecting the safety of his compan- ions. A little before he expired he had the gratification of learning ihat they had succeeded in making their escape. His fate was soon ivenged ; Messene was forced to surrender to the Achaean general Lycos'tas, and all who had a share in the murder of Philopoe'men were put to death. Philip had in the meantime borne very impatiently the overbearing conduct of the Romans ; but the exertions of his son Demetrius, whom he had givtn as a hostage after his defeat at Cynos-ceph'alae, with the leading men at Rome, prevented a rupture. On this account Demetrius was enthusiastically received by the Macedonians on his return home — a circumstance of which his elder brother Per'seus took advantage, to accuse the young prince of treason. Philip delivered this promising young man to the executioner ; but soon after his death, discovering his innocence, he made an attempt to change the succes- sion, and have Antig'onus acknowledged as his heir ; but, before this could be effected, the wretched monarch died of a broken heart (b. c. 179). Per'seus ascended the throne with the certainty that he was secretly hated by the Romans and his own subjects. One of his earliest acts was to put Antig'onus to death, and thus prevent the perils SYRIA. 153 of competition at home when hostilities abroad were ineviiible Pre- tences for war were easily found: a Roman army crossed the sea, and passed through Epirus and Athamc4nia into Thessaly. Per'seus neg- lected many opportunities of attacking his enemies at a disadvantage ; and when he asked for peace, after/having triumphed in slight skir- mishes, he found that the Romans were more haughty after defeat than after victory. The alliance of Gen'tius, king of Illyria, might probably have turned the scale of war in favor of the Macedonian monarch ; but he defrauded his ally of the subsidy he had promised to enable him to levy an army ; and the Romans, landing in Illyr'ia, subdued the whole kingdom within thirty days. Soon afterward the consul Lucius ^Emil- ius Paulus appeared in Macedon ; and his name gave confidence to the friends of Rome, while it filled the partisans of Per'seus with confu- sion (b. c. 168). After some indecisive skirmishes, the Macedonian monarch was forced to hazard a decisive engagement at Pyd'na, in which he was irretrievably ruined. Twenty thousand Macedonians were slain ; Per'seus himself was taken prisoner, and was led in chains to Rome to adorn the triumph of his haughty concfueror. An eclipse of the moon had taken place on the eve of the battle. Such appearances were then superstitiously believed to be ominous of ill to states and kingdoms. C. vSulpic'ius Gal'luS; a Roman officer, had science enough to know their nature and foretell their occurrence : and he, lest the soldiers should be disheartened by the eclipse, called them together, declared that it would happen, and explained its cause. This changed the fear, which might otherwise have arisen, into wonder at the knowledge of Gal'lus : while in the Macedonian camp the ap pearance was apprehended by many to portend the extinction of the kingdom. By the victory at Pyd'na the fate of Macedon and Greece was sealed : the Romans permitted both, indeed, for a time to enjoy quali- fied independence ; but they exercised over them a galling supremacy, which rendered their freedom an empty name. Above a thousand of the most eminent Achsans were summoned at one time to Rome, and detained there seventeen years in prison, witho,ut being admitted to an audience. Some of these, on their return, stimulated their countrymen to insult the Roman ambassadors at Corinth, who had come to arrano-e some disputes be:ween the Achsans and the Spartans (b. c. 148). This of course led to a war: the Achoeans were everywhere defeated, and at length Corinth was taken by Mum'mius, the Roman consul (b. c. 146), who razed that splendid city to the ground. Thencefor- ward, Greece, under the name of Achaia, became a Roman province, and Macedon had been reduced to the same condition some years pre- viously. The shadow of freedom, however, was left to some of the cities, but especially to Athens, which became the university of the Roman empire. Section II. — History of Ike Kingdom of Syria under the ScUucidce. FROM B. C. 312 TO B, C. 64 The victory of Seleikus over the satraps of Persia and Media, already mentioned (p. 143), gave that monarch possession of the prin- 154 ANCIENT HISTORY. cipal part of uppbf Asia. In less than four years hf became n/astei of the countries between the Oxus, the Indus, and the Euphrates (b. c. 306) ; and, reviving the projects of Alexander, he invaded India. More fortunate than his illustrious master, he penetrated as far as the Ganges, where he entered into a treaty with Sandracot'tus, the king of the rich country between the Sutlege and the Ganges. The great number of elephants which Seleucus obtained by this alliance enabled him to turn the scale at the battle of Ip'sus : but a more important advantage was, the commercial intercourse established between his subjects and those of Sandracot'tus. After the death of Antig'onus at Ip'sus, Seleucus, having obtained the greater part of the late satrap's provinces, made Syria the seat of his government — an unfortunate choice, since it exposed his kingdom to the jealousy of Egypt, in- volved it in the troubled politics of the western world, and led the rulers to neglect the rich countries on the Tigris and the Euphrates. During the eighteen years of peace that followed the death (_.f Antig'- onus, Seleucus founded or emliellished several important cities, espe- cially Antfoch in Syria, which he made the capital of his dominions, and two Seleucias ; one on the Tigris, the other on the Oron'tes. Anxiety to add Macedon to his dominions induced Seleucus to invade Europe ; but in the midst of his career he was murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus (b. c.281). He was succeeded by his son Anliochus, sur- named Soter [tlte savior), who had for some time governed the provin- ces of upper Asia. Antiochus pursued his father's plans of conquest in Asia Minor : but he ceded his claims over Macedon to Antig'onus Gonnatus, and gave his step-daughter in marriage to that monarch. The northern states in Asia Minor that had asserted their independence rapidly attained matu- rity ; Antiochus was defeated by Nicomedes, king of Bith'ynia, who had obtained the support of the Gallic hordes after their defeat in Greece (b. c. 275), and he was similarly unsuccessful in a war with the king of Per'gamus (b. c. 263), whose complete defeat of the Syri- ans gave security to all the new states. Nor was Soter more fortunate in a war he undertook against Egypt : Magas, the brother of the Egyptian Ptolemy, having married into the Syrian royal family, hoped that by this alliance he would be enabled to establish a new kingdom in Gyrene. Antiochus united with the usurper, and both marched against Ptolemy. The Syrians were defeated in every engagement ; their coasts were laid waste by the Egyptian fleet ; and Magas was speedily hurled from his throne. On his return, Antiochus marched against the Gauls, who had advanced toward Eph'esus (b. c. 262), and in the neighborhood of that city he was defeated and slain. Antiochus II. avenged his father's death on the Gauls, and received, from the excessive adulation of his subjects, the surname Theos [god). in his reign, the provinces of upper Asia began to slip from the grasp of the Seleucidae, owing to the progress of the Parthian tribes, the exactions of the provincial governors, and the unwise efforts of the monarch lo force the Grecian customs and religion on his subjects. In order to encounter his eastern enemies with effect, Theos deemed it necessary to tranquillize the west, and he accordingly made peace with the king of Egypt. In pursuance of the conditions of this treaty^ SYRIA. 155 Antiochus married Beren'co, the daughter of Ptolemy, divorcing his for- mer wife Laodice, and excluding her children fiom the succession. On the death of Ptolemy, the divorced queen was restored to her sta- tion ; but she could not forget the insult she had received, nor conquer her dread of being sacrificed to some future arrangement. Influenced by these motives, she poisoned her husband (b. c. 247), and procured tlie nmrder of Berenice and her infant son. Seleucus, surnamed Callinicus [illustrious conqueror), succeeded to the throne by his mother's crime, and was immediately engaged in war with Ptolemy Ever'getes,who was eager to avenge his sister's murder. Crossing the Syrian deserts with a numerous army, Ptolemy overran rather than conquered Palestine, Babylonia, Persia, and the wealthy provinces of upper Asia. He returned, bringing with him enormous spoils, among which were the Egyptian idols which Camby'ses had takea from Mem'phis and Thebes. On his way back he encountered Seleucus, whom he defeated with great slaughter, and forced to take refuge in Antioch. He then returned to Egypt, having gained immense treasure, but no additional territory, in his expedition. Eiimenes, king of Per'gamus, took advantage of the Egyptian war to enlarge his dominions at the expense of the Syrian monarch; and Hierax, the brother of Seleucus, aided by a body of Gauls, attempted to usurp the throne. The rebellion was at first successful ; but the ravages of the Gauls provoked such general indignation, that Seleucus found all his subjects rising in one body to support him ; and, thus strengthened, he assailed the army of the rebels and invaders in Babylonia. The battle was fierce ; but it ended in the total defeat of the Gauls, who were almost aimihilated in the pursuit. Hierax fled to the Egyptian court, but .was thrown into prison by Ptolemy, where he languished thirteen years, and only escaped to perish by the hands of robbers in the Syrian desert. Callinicus then turned his arms against the Parthians (b. c. 237), but was defeated by their king Arsaces ; and the Parthians date the origin of their monarchy from this battle. In a second campaign, Seleucus fell into the hands of his enemies (b. c. 236), and was detain ed a prisoner by the Parthians to the day of his death (b. c. 227). Seleucus HI., surnamed Ceraunus [the thunderboli), succeeded his father ; but, after a brief reign, was removed by poison (b. c. 224). The hopes of his murderers, however, were frustrated by the vigor of his cousin Acha;'us, who secured the inheritance for Antiochus, the younger brother of the deceased monarch, who had been satrap of Bab'yion. In the early part of his reign, Antiochus HI., surnamed the Great, was brought into great danger by the intrigues of his prime minister Hermeias, a native of Caria. Deceived by the artifices of this crafty vizier, Antiochus quarrelled with Achae'us, to whom he was mainly in- debted for his crown, and set Molon and Alexander, the brothers of Hermeias, over the important provinces of Media and Persia. The new satraps raised the standard of revolt, and defeated the royal generals Bent against them. At length Antiochus took the field in person, con- trary to the wishes and remonstrances of his minister. When the armies were about to engage, the rebel forces, by an almost intuitive movement, tluew down their arms, and submitted thenKelves to their 156 ANCIENT HISTORY. youthful sovereign. Molon and Alexander escaped a public execution by suicide, and Hermeias expiated his complicated treasons on the scaffold (b. c. 220). Whilst Antiochus was thus engaged in the re- mote east, Achae'us, whom he had forced into reoellion, had strengthen- ed himself in Asia Minor ; and the Egyptian monarch Ptolemy Phi lop'ater was becoming formidable on the southern frontiers of Syria Antiochus obtained possession of Ccele-Syria by the treachery of Theodotus, its governor ; but he was soon after defeated by Ptolemyj at the battle of Raphia near Gaza (b. c. 217), and forced to purchase peace by the sacrifice of the newly-acquired province. This defea was in some degree compensated, the following year, by the capture of Achae'us, whose ravages to support his troops having provoked the re sentment of the kings of lesser Asia, he was besieged in the citade of Sar'dis by the joint forces of Antiochus and At'talus, king of Per' gamus, treacherously betrayed, and ungratefully put to death. Freed from the dangers of this war, Antiochus turned his attention to the affairs of upper Asia, and gained several victories over the Par- thians and Bactrians (b. c. 214). He was, however, forced to recog- nise the independence of both nations. To secure his dominions, he gave his daughter in marriage to Demetrius, the son of the Bactrian monarch, and joined that prince in an important expedition against northern India (b. c. 206). In return, he made some efforts to revive the commercial system of Alexander the Great, and paid particular atten- tion to the trade of the Persian gulf. On the death of Ptolemy Philop'- ater (b. c. 204), and the accession of his infant son, Antiochus entered into an alliance with Philip, king of Macedon, to wrest Egypt from the family of the Ptolemies. He conquered C(£le-Syria ai^d Palestine ; but v/as prevented from pursuing his success by the interference of At'talus, the Rhodians, and the Romans. Checked in this direction, he revived the claims of his family on the northern states of Europe and Asia. While his generals besieged Smyr'na and Lamp'sacus, he con- quered the Thracian Chersonese, and prepared to invade Greece (b. c. 196). The Romans again interfered; but the Syrian monarch, insti- gated by Hannibal, who had sought refuge at his court, treated their remonstrances with disdain. War immediately followed. Antiochus lost the fairest opportunities of success by neglecting the advice of Hannibal : driven from Europe into Asia, he was forced to act solely on the defensive, until his total defeat at Magnesia, near Mount Sip'y- lus, laid him prostrate at the feet of his enemies. The Romans depriv- ed him of all his dominions in Asia Minor, the greater part of which were annexed to the kingdom of Per'gamus. The unfortunate monarch did not long survive his defeat : he was murdered by his servants (b. c. 187) ; but the cause and manner of the crime are uncertain. Seleucus IV., surnamed Philop'ater (a lover of his father), succeeded to a throne fast falling into decay. His reign lasted eleven years, but was not distinguished by any remarkable event. Anxious to have the aid of his brother Antiochus, who had been given as an hostage to the Romans, Seleucus sent his son Demetrius to Rome in exchange. Be- fore Antiochus could reach home, Heliodorus poisoned Seleucus, and usurped the crown (b. c. 176). This is represenied by many Jewi.sh SYRIA. 1 57 writers as a pvovidendal punishment of the king, who had employed that very minister to plunder the sacred treasury of Jerusalem. Antiochus IV. soon expelled the usurper, and assumed the surname of Epiphanes [illustrious) which his subsequent conduct induced his contemporaries to change into that of Epimanes (madman). He sought to combine the freedom of Roman manners with the ostentatious luxury of the Asiatics, and thereby provoked universal hatred. His reign cor.jmenced with a war against Egypt, in consequence of the claim made by the Ptolemies to Ccele-Syria and Palestine. Antiochus was very successful : in two campaigns he penetrated to the walls of Alexandria, and gained possession of the person of Ptolemy Philom'eter, the right ful heir of the Egyptian throne, who had been driven from Alexandria by his brother Phys^con. With this prince the Syrian monarch con- cluded a most advantageous peace ; but scarcely had he returned home, when Philom'eter entered into an accommodation with his brother, and Doth combined to resist the power of Syria. Justly enraged at this treachery, Antiochus returned to Egypt ; but his further progress was stopped by the interference of the Romans, at whose imperious command he found himself compelled to resign all his conquests (b. c. 169). The ambition of Antiochus was next directed against his own sub- jects : he resolved to establish uniformity of worship throughout his dominions, and to Hellenize all his subjects. His intolerance and rapa- city engendered a determined spirit of resistance (b. c. 168). The Jews, headed by the gallant Mac'cabees, commenced a fierce struggle, which, after much suffering, ended in the restoration of their former in- dependence ; and the Persians, equally attached to their ancient faith, raised the standard of revolt. Antiochus hasted to suppress the insur- rection in upper Asia; but being severely defeated (b. c. 165), he died of vexation on his road to Babylon. Eiipator, the young son of the deceased monarch, was placed on the throne by the Syrians ; but Demetrius, the son of Seleucus Philop'aov^T, having escaped from Rome, no sooner appeared in Asia than he was joined by such numerous partisans, that he easily dethroned his rival (b. c. 162). With the usual barbarity of Asiatic sovereigns, he put the young prince to death, and found means to purchase the pardon of his crimes from the Roman senate. After an inglorious reign, he was slain in battle by Alexander Balas (b. c. 150), an impostor who personated the unfortunate Eupator, and was supported in his fraud by the Mac'- cabees md- the Romans. Balas was in his turn defeated by Demetrius Nicator, the son of the late monarch (b. c. 145), and forced to seek refuge in Arabia, where he was murdered by his treacherous host. Nicator, having lost the affections of his subjects, was driven from Antioch by Try'phon, who placed the crown on the head of young An- tiochus, the son of Balas ; but in a short time murdered that prince, and proclaimed himself king. Demetrius was withheld from marching against the usurper by the hope of acquiring a better kingdom in up- per Asia, whither he was invited by the descendants of the Greek ana Macedonian colonists, to defend them from the power of the Parthians (b. c. 140). He was at first successful, but was finally captured by his enemies, who detained him a prisoner for ten years. In the mean- time his brother Antiochus Sidetes, having overthrown Try'phon, seized 158 ANCIENT HISTORY. the crown of Syria. He appears to have been a good and wise sover* eign ; but unfortunately he was induced, by the provincials of uppel Asia, to wage war against the Parihians, and was treacherously mur- dered by his own allies (b. c. 130). Demetrius, about the same time, escaped from prison, and was restored to the throne. But after a brief reign he was defeated and slain by Zebinus (b. c. 126), a pretended son of the impostor Balas. Seleucus, the son of Demetrius, was waging a successful war against Zebmas, when he was treacherously murdered by his own mother Cleopatra, who wished to secure the crown for her favorite child Antiochus Gry'phus. She also prevailed on her relative, the king of Egypt, to declare war against the usurper ; and Zebinas was soon defeated and slain. Gry'phus no sooner found himself secure on the throne than he put his mother to death for the murder of Seleucus (b. c. 122) ; and it must be added, that this measure was necess.iry to secure his own life. After some years, Cyzicenus, the half-brother of Gry'phus, attempted to usurp the throne ; and during the civil war that ensued, many cities and provinces separated from the Syrian kingdom. Gry'phus was assassinated (b. c. 97). His five sons and the son of Cyzicenus engaged in a dreary series of civil wars ; until the Syrians, weary of enduring the calamities and bloodshed of their protracted dis- sensions, expelled the entire family, and gave the crown to Tigranes, king of Armenia (b. c. 83). Tigranes, after a long and not inglorious reign, was involved in a war with the Romans, which ended in his complete overthrow ; and he was forced to resign Syria to the conquer- ors (b. c. 64.) Thus the kingdom of the Seleucidae was made a Roman province, and the family soon after became extinct in the person of Se leucus Cybrosac'tes (b. c. 57). He was raised to the throne of Egypt by his wife, the princess Berenice, and afterward murdered by her orders. SecT'On in. — History of Egypt under the Ptolemies. FROM B. C. 301 TO B. C. 30. Ptol'emy, the son of Lagus, was the wisest state sman among the suc- cessors Q- Alexander. No sooner had the battle of Ip'sus put him in possession of the kingdom of Egypt, than he begin to provide for the happiness of his new subjects by a regeneration of their entire social system. Unlike the Seleucidae, he made no attempt to Hellenize the Eg)-piians ; on the contrary, he revived, as much ss altered circum- stances would permit, their ancient religious and political constitution ; the priestly caste was restored to a portion of its ancient privileges ; the division of the country into nomes was renewed ; Memphis, though not the usual residence of the nionarchs, was constituted the capital of the kingdom, and its temple of Phtha declared the national sanctuary, where alone the kings could receive the crown. But not less wise was the generous patronage accorded to literature and science : the Museum was founded in Alexandria as a kind of university for students, and a place of assembly for the learned ; the first great national library was established in another part of the city ; and the philosophers and EGYPT. ^^* men of letters were invited to seek shelter from the storms which shook every other part of the world in the tranquil land of Egypt. Im- pressed by the example of his illustrious master, Ptol^emy paid great attention to trade and navigation. Colonists from every quarter of the globe were invited to settle at Alexandria, and the Jews flocked thither in great nvnnbers, to escape the persecution of their Syrian masters. So many of that singular people became subjects of the Ptol'emies, that the' Septuagint version of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek was made for their use, and a Jewish temple erected in Egypt similar to that of Jerusalem. The double harbors of Alexandria, on the sea, and on the Maraeot'ic lake, were constructed at the same time, and the celebrated Pharus, or lighthouse, erected at the entrance of the haven. The city of Alexandria, which had been begun before the death of Alexander, owed most of its splendor to Ptol'emy. But among all the public buildings he planned or erected, there is none better deserves our attention than the Museum, or College of Philosophy. Its chief room was a great hall, which was used as a lecture-room and common dining-room ; it had a covered walk or portico all round the outside, and there was a raised seat or bench on which the philosophers some- times sat in the open air. The professors and teachers of the college were supported by a public income. Ptol'emy's love of art, his anxiety to reward merit, and his agreeable manners, brought to his court so many persons distinguished in science, literature, and the fine arts, that the Museum of Alexandria became the centre of civilization for the xknown world. The arts and letters thus introduced, did not bear their richest fruit in the reign of the founder : they flourished most in the age of his son ; but this does not detract from the merit of the firsi Ptol'emy, who gave the institutions he planted such permanence, tha. they struck deep root in the soil and continued to flourish under all his successors, unchoked by the vices and follies which unfortunately grew up around them. In return for the literature which Greece then gave to Egypt, she gained the knowledge of papy'rus. Before that time books had been written on Unen, wax, or the bark of trees : and public records on stone, brass, or lead : but the knowledge of papy'rus was felt by all men of letters like the invention of printing in modern Europe ; books were then known by many for the first time, and very little else was afterward used in Greece and Rome ; for when parchment was invent- ed about t.-o centuries later, it was found too costly to be generally used so long as papy^rus could be obtained. The papy'rus reed is only found in Egypt and a small district in Sicily. Successful attempts have been made to manufacture it in modem times, but the procesi,s is too tedious and uncertain to be remunerative, and the papy'rus is only prepared as a matter of curiosity. The external security of Egypt wap strengthened by the conquest of the Syrian frontiers, the ancient kingdom of Cyrene, a considerable j[r»rt of Ethiopia, and the island of ( .yprus. Hence, during the ad- minifctration of Ptol'emy I., Egypt was free from the fear of foreign in- vasion, and ils inhabitants, for the first time during several centuries, wero free to develop the great internal resources of the country. Few 160 ANCIENT PIISTORY. sovereigns were more deservedly lamented than the son of Lagiis (b. c. 284) ; his death spread universal sorrow among his subjects, who at once lamented him as a father, and worshipped him as a god. The reign of Ptol'emy II., surnamed Philadel'phus (a lover of his brethren), was disturbed only by the rebellion of Magas, which was supported by Antiochus II., as has been mentioned in the preceding section. Under the peaceful administration of Philadel'phus, Egyptian commerce made the most rapid strides ; ports for the Indian and Ara- bian trade were constructed on the Red sea, at Arsinoe (Suez), My'os Hor'mus (Cosseir), and Berenice. From the two latter stations cara- van roads were made to the Upper Nile, and the lower river was united to the Red sea by a canal, which was further continued to the lesser harbor of Alexandria, on the Marseotic lake. The Ethiopian trade was revived with great spirit ; and remote countries of central and southern Africa were opened to the enterprise of the Alexandrian merchants. Unfortunately, the luxury of the court increased in the same proportion as the wealth of the country. Philadel'phus fell into all the effeminate dissipation of the Asiatic sovereigns, and adopted their pernicious habits of intermarriages between near relations. He set the example by repudiating his first wife, and marrying his own sister Arsinoe, who exercised the greatest influence over her husband. She brought hirfi no children, but she adopted the offspring of her predecessor. It was during the reign of Ptol'emy PhiladeFphus that Pyr'rhus was driven out of Italy by the Romans (b. c. 274) ; and this event mducea the Egyptian king to send an ambassador to the senate, to wish them joy of their success, and to make a treaty of peace with the republic. The Romans received the envoy with great joy, and in return sent four ambassadors to Egypt to seal the treaty. Ptol'emy showed the Roman deputies every kindness, and explained to them those processes of Greek art with which they were acquainted. Subsequently two of the ambassadors, Quin'tus Ogul'nius and Fabius Pic'tor, having been elected consuls, introduced a silver coinage at Rome, the advantages of whicn they had been taught in Egypt. Philadel'phus was succeeded by his son Ptol'emy III., surnamed Ever''getes (^/ifi benefactor) (b. c. 24G). Unlike his father, he Avas a warlike, enterprising prince, and his conquests extended into the re- mote regions of the east and south. His war with Seleucus II., in which the Egyptian army penetrated as far as Bactria, has been de- scribed in the preceding section ; but the result of the Asiatic cam- paigns was plunder, not any permanent acquisition of territory ; very different was the result of the southern wars, by which a great part of Abyssinian and the Arabian peninsula was added to the Egyptian do- minions, and new roads for trade opened through these remote coun- tries. With the death of Ever'getes (b. c. 221), ended the glory of th« Ptol'emies. His son Ptol'emy, surnamed Philop'ater (a lover of hit father), was a weak, debauched prince, who was, during his whole liin under the tutelage of unworthy favorites. At the instigation of his iirsi minister, Sosib'ius, he put to death his brother Magas, and Clenw'unes, the exiled king of Spar'ta. Antiochus the Great, who theii ruled in Syria, took advantage of Philop'ater's incapacity to wage war against EGYPT. 161 Efr, but created king of Judea (b. c. 40). He had to conquer his kingdom; for the Jews were reluct- ant to submit to an Idumean, and were not conciliated by his marriage with Mariani'no, a princess of the Asmonean i-ace. Herod's rule was tyrannical and oppressive ; he put to death the high-priest Hyr'canus, his own wife Mariam'ne, and several of his sons, and massacred all whom he suspected of being discontented with his dominion. While he thus lived in constant dread of being hurled from hi? throne by his discontented subjects, '' there came wise men from the east to Jerusalem, saying, Where is he that is born king of the Jews ? for we have seen his star in the east, and are come to worship him." Herod was greatly troubled by this announcement ; he assem- bled the chief-priests and scribes, and inquired of them where Christ should be born. Having heard that Bethlehem was the place foretold by the prophets, he sent the wise men thither, "and said. Go and search diligently for the young child ; and when ye have found him, bring me word again, that I may come and worship him also." Our Lord Jesus Christ, whose birth was- thus wondrously announced, was miraculously saved from the wrath of the cruel king, for the wise men, " being warned of God in a dream that they should not return to Herod, they departed into their own country another way. And when they were departed, behold, the angel of the Lord appeareth to Joseph in a dream, saying. Arise and take the young child and his mother, and flee mto Egypt, and be thou there until I bring thee word : for Herod will seek the young child to destroy him. When he arose, he took the young child and his mother by night, and departed into Egypt : and was there until the death of Herod." When Herod found that the wise men did not return, he was exceeding " wroth, and sent forth, and slew all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under, according to the time which he had diligently inquired of the wise men." Herod did not long survive this atrocious cruelty ; he died in the seventieth year of his age, to the great joy of all his subjects, and was succeeded by his son Archelaus. Several insurrections were raised by the Jews against their new ruler, which were not suppressed with- out great bloodshed. At length all parties appealed to Csesar, who divided the dominions of Herod among his children, giving Archelaus Judea, with the title of Eth'narch. But Archelaus prov'ed so unworthy a governor, that the Roman emperor, wearied by the complaints urged against him, deprived him of power, and banished him into Gaul. Judea was now formally made a Roman province, and subjected to- taxation. It was about this time that our blessed Lord, being twelve years of age, was brought by his parents to celebrate the passover, according to the Jewish custom, which obliged all males who had attained that age to repair to the temple on the three great festivals. The Jews were very reluctant to submit to taxation, and frequently took up arms against the publicans, or tax-gatherers : but when Pilate was appointed to the government (a. d. 20) they were still more alarmed for their religion, because Pilate, on entering the city, brought 12 178 ANCIENT HISTORY. with him the Roman standards, Avhich, from their bearing images, th« Jews regarded as idols. With great difficulty Pilate was induced to remove the offensive ensigns, but he soon provoked a fresh insurrection by attempting to plunder the sacred treasury. He ordered his soldiers to fall on the riotous mob that resisted the attempt, and many innocent lives were sacrificed in the confusion. The state of society in Judea became very corrupt during Pilate's administration ; there was no class that escaped the demoralizing effects of profligacy in the government, and discontent in the people. John the Baptist, a prophet, the forerunner of the Mes- siah, appeared in the wilderness of Judea, preaching the necessity of repentance, and announcing that the kingdom of heaven was at hand. The austerity of his life, and the novelty of his doctrines, induced great numbers to become his disciples, who were " baptized of him in Jordan, confessing their sins" (a. d. 30). Many believed that he v/as the Messiah; the .Evangelist declares, "the people were in expecta- tion, and all men mused in their hearts of John, whether he were the Christ, or not ; John answered, saying unto them all, I indeed baptize you with water ; but one mightier than I cometh, the latchet of whose shoes 1 am not worthy to unloose : he shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with lire : whose fan is in his hand, and he will thoroughly purge his floor, and will gather the wheat into his garner;. but the chaff he will burn with fire unquenchable." But the preaching of John was only designed to prepare the way for a greater teacher. Our Lord Jesu-s Christ having attained the thirtieth year of his age presented himself to be baptized, and as he went up out of the water a remarka- ble miracle attested his divinity, for " the heavens Avere opened unto him, and John saw the spirit of God descending like a dove, and light- ing upon him : and lo, a voice from heaven saying. This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." Immediately after his baptism oui Lord entered on his mission, and " preaching the gospel of the king- dom, and healing all manner of sickness and all manner of disease among the people." But in spite of his many stupendous miracles, the great body of the Jews refused to believe in his mission, and plotted against his life. Herod An'tipas, and his brother Philip, still held the provinces which had been granted them after the death of their father, Herod the Great. The former was married to the daughter of an Arabian, the latter to his own niece Herodias. Herod An'tipas sent away his own wife and married his sister-in-law, though she had cliildren by his brother Philip, which was contrary to the Mosaic law. The whole nation exclaimed against this incestuous union ; John the Baptist, espe- cially, had the courage to reprove both the king and his paramour in the severest terms. Herodias, stung by his reproaches, induced her husband to throw his faithful monitor into prison, and subsequently, by means of her daughter, obtained an order for his execution. John was beheaded in prison, but his disciples gave his body an honorable burial, and the whole nation lamented his death. When our L,ord Jesus Christ had fulfilled the object of his mission, by preaching the glad tidings of salvation, God permitted him to be delivered into the hands of his enemies and put to a cruel death, in HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 17« order that his sufferings should make atonement for the sins of man- kind. The Jews falsely accused him before Pilate of a design to sub- vert the government ; Pilate, though convinced of his innocence, pro- nounced sentence of condemnation, and Jesus was crucified between two malefactors (a. d. 33) ; but God did not " suffer his Holy One to see corruption ;" on the morning of the third day Christ was raised from the dead, and after continuing forty days with his disciples ascend- ed into heaven. Previous to his departure he promised his disciples that they should receive another Comforter, and this was fulfilled by the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. The nuirder of our blessed Lord did not prevent the spread of his doctrines ; on the day of Pentecost three thousand persons were con- verted by the preaching of Peter, and every succeeding day fresh addi- tions were made to the church. In the wicked and distracted condi- tion of Jewish society, the conduct of the Christian community afforded a remarkable example of purity, harmony, and self-denial. " The mul- titude of them that believed were of one heart and of one soul : nei- ther said any of them that aught of the things which he possessed was his own ; but they had all things common." In consequence of the great increase of the church, seven deacons Avere appointed to take charge of " the daily ministration," of whom the most remarkable was Stephen, who, " full of faith and power, did great ^'onders and mira- cles among the people." The rulers of the synagogue, unable to con- fute Stephen, accused him to the sanhedrim, or council, of having blasphemed Moses and God. False witnesses were suborned to sup- port the accusation, and Stephen was subjected to the mockery of a trial. He easily refuted the charges brought against him, but when he repeated his belief that Jesus was the Messiah, his enemies were filled with fury ; " they cried out with a loud voice, and stopped their ears, and ran upon him with one accord, and cast him out of the city, and stoned him ; and the witnesses laid down their clothes at a young man's feet, whose name was Saul. And they stoned Stephen, calling upon God, and saying, Lord Jesus, receive my spirit. And he kneeled down, and cried with a loud voice. Lord, lay not this sin to theii charge. And when he had said this, he fell asleep." Saul, who was subsequently called Paul, had consented to the death of Stephen, and Avas so eager a persecutor, that he obtained a commis- sion to search after the Christians who sought shelter in Damas'cus. On his way to that city, he was miraculously struck to the earth, and God was graciously pleased to convince him of the truth of the gos- pel. Thenceforward he became a zealous apostle of the faith, speak- ing boldly in the name of the Lord Jesus. The continuance of the persecution at Jerusalem was, by divine providence, turned into a means of propagating the gospel ; for the disciples, being dispersed, carried their doctrines into every city where the Jews had synagogues. In the meantime, Pilate was stripped of his government, and sent to answer charges of tyranny and misgovernment before the emperor ; tiis defence was so unsatisfactory, that he was banished to Gaul, where, unable to endure the stings of a guilty conscience, he killed himself with his own sword. Herod Agrip'pa, the grandson of Herod the Great, had been kept in prison during the reign of the emperoi 280 ANCIICNT HISTORY Tiberius, ht^l on iIk; .-iccossicni of Calij('iil;i In; w.in iiol only restored to liberty, iml ol)t;iiii(!(l tlie iiioviuees that liad l)elon>>;(!(l to liis uncle Philip, with the tithi of kiti^ (a. d. 41). Throuj^h liin mihicncv,, ('alig'- ula was iiuluced to r(!call liiis edict for dcHccratiiiff tlie tt;iiij)lo ol' Jcru- HalcMi hy erecting his own statue in it, and to pardon the Jews for resistint( the imperial eonunands. In tlic rciffn of the (nnperor Chui- diuH, Af4ri|)'|)a ohtaincid the govcnuncnt ()veriiors fdled llie land with vvri'tchediiess ; bands of rob- bers not only inlesLed llie roails, but even v<^iitured Id attack tlie towns; certain ])reten(led /(iidot.s, called Siniiii, or assassins, commilt(Ml the most iiorrid nmrders, in tlu! name ol' redij^ion and liberty; while false prophei.s ;ind misssialis raised repeated insurrections, which were pun- ished witii driiadlul severity. All these evils wtsre aj>-grava,ted under the administration of l''elix, wIkjscs avarice; was unbounded, ami who n»!v Ueime;. Fes'tus was succe;e!ele;e*l by Albinus, anel afte;rwarel by Fleirus, the last and worrit govcrne)r the Jews over had (a. d. (34). Florus resolved to drive the Jews into oj)(;n re;l)e;llion, to prevent any inepiiry into his manifold oppressions. 'I'he unhappy nation seemed blinelly to second HTRTOIJY OF TIIK JEWS. 181 his oflTorts by taking up arms to drive the Syrians out of Caesarea, and by raisinj^r scMlilioiis in abnost every city wboro they wore settbul. At lciie zealots made the miseries and groans of their starving breth- ren th-^ subject of their cruel mirth, and carried their barbarity even to the sheathing their swords on these poor wretches, under pretence of trying their sb-irpness. At lei»iith t^" walls of the city were battered down, and the Romans 182 ANCIENT HISTORY. besieged the temple, where the desperate faciions still maintained an energetic resistance. Titus was very anxious to save the sacred ed- ifice, but one of his soldiers threw a lighted brand mto one of the win- dows, and the whole building was soon in flames. A fearful massacre followed ; the Romans refused all quarter, and many thousands perished by the fire, the sword, or by throwing themselves headlong from the battlements. This scene of butchery was continued for several days, until Jerusalem was left utterly desolate. The number of prisoners reserved for a fate worse than death amounted to ninety-seven thousand, eleven thousand of whom were starved to death by the neglect or cu- pidity of their keepers. According to Josephus, there perished at Je- rusalem during the siege, by famine, pestilence, and the sword, more than a million of Jews and proselytes ; but this statement appears to be exaggerated. When the soldiers had ended their destructive work of burning and slaughter, Titus ordered that the entire city should b^ razed to the ground, with the exception of a portion of the western wall, and three towers, which he left as memorials of his conquest. So punctu-ally were his orders executed, that, except these few buildings, nothing was left save shapeless ruins, which would indicate that the place had ever been inhabited. The victory of Titus was celebrated at Rome by a splendid triumph ; a triumphal arch, which still exists, was raised to commemorate the event ; and a medal struck, in which the captured land of Judea was significantly represented as a disconsolate female sitting beneath a palm-tree, while a soldier, standing by, laughed at her misery and mocked at her calamity. ANCIENT ITALY. i-83 CHAPTER Xlll. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ITALY.' Section I. — Geographical Outline Italy, in its earliest signification, was the name given to the zeioll onoue of land between the Syllet'ic and the Nepetic gulfs that ia, the southern portion of Brut'tium ; but it was gradually extended to include more northern provinces, until, in the reign of the Emperor Augustus, it was applied to the great peninsula inchided between the Alps, the Adriatic, the Tyrrhenian and the Mediterranean seas. It was also called Hesperia, from its western situation ; Satur'nia, from the fable of Saturn's flight thither ; Aus'onia and CEnotria, from some of the most ancient tribes of inhabitants. The most convenient division of the peninsula is into three portions : Cisalpine Gaul in the north, Italy Proper in the centre, and Magna Grrecia in the south. Subalpine Italy received the name of Gaul from the Gallic hordes that settled in the northern and western districts ; it was called for dis- tinction Cisalpine, or Citerior, because it lay on the side of the Alps next to Rome, and Togata, because in a late age, its inhabitants began to use the toga, or national dress of the Romans. From the Alps, this province at first extended to the city of An'cona, in the province of Picenum ; but, in the later ages of the Roman republic, the river Ru- bicon {Rugone), between Ravenna and Arim'inum, was considered the limit of its frontiers. The principal Subalpine tribes were the Vedian'tii, inhabiting the small tract lying on the east bank of the Varus {Var), and extending from the territory of Nicse {Nice), to the Maritime Alps, or that branch of the mountain-chain which joins the Western Mediterranean : the Va- geen'ni, north of the Maritime Alps near the source of the river Padus {Po) ; and the Taurini, at the other side of the Padus, on which stood their capital, Taurasia, subsequently called Augus'ta Taurinorum {Turiii). North of the Taur'ini, and among the mountains, was the kingdom of Cottius, who gave his name to the Cottian Alps. Thence to the Greek Alps, which extended to Mons Jovis [Great St. Bernard), there were several warlike Gallic tribes, but none of any particular note in history. Ligiiria lay south of the river Padus, extending to the Mediterranean sea, between the rivers Macra and Varus. Its chief cities on the sea- coast were Nicae'a {Nice or Nizza), erected by the Massilians to pro- tect their frontier against the Ligurian mountaineers: Portus Her'culia 184 ANCIENT HISTORY. Monos'ci {Mo7iaj;o), Al'6ium Intemeliiim (VintimigUa), Al'bium Ingan' num (Alhenoia), Sab'ata (Savnna), Gen'ua or Jan'ua (Genoa), Por'tua Delphmi [Porto Fino), and Por'Uis Lunae [Golfu delle Spezif). Of these Gen'ua was the most important, being the great emporium of Li- )^irian commerce. The principal towns in the interior were Pollentia •iPoUenza), As'ta [Asti), and Indus'tria (Tortona). This last city was '.ailed Bodcncomagum by the earlier Ligurians, because it stood on the f*o, which they named Boden'cus, a word in their language signifying ' bottomless." Next to Liguria lay the district named Gallia Cispa- iana, or Gaul south of the Po ; it was chiefly inhabiiod by the Boii, the Lingones, and the Senones. The principal towns of the Boii were Placentia, Par'ma, Mutina (Modena), and Bononia (Bulogna). The Lin- gones possessed Raven'na, Faven'tia (Farnza), Solona [CUta di Sole), and Cae'sena ; and to the Senones belonged Arimin'um [Rimini), Pisaii- rum [Pcsaro), Sena Gal'lica [Sinignglia), and An'cona. Gal'lia Transpadana, or north of the Padus, had the great Alpine chain on the north and west, between which and the Po it extended to the river Formio (// Risano), which separated it from Istria. It was inhal^ted by the Orobii, the Li'subres, the Lae'vi, the Cenoman'ni, the Eugariei, and the Ven'eti. The principal cities in the territory of the Orobii were Con'rum [Conro), Ber'gamum [Bergamo), and Forum Li- cin'ii [Berlasina) ; the In'subres possessed Mediolanum [Milan), Laus Pompeii [Loili), and Forum hituatorum [Cre/na) : to the Cenoman'ni belonged Brix'ia [Brescia), Cremona, Man'tua, and Ver'ona : the Eu- ganei, owned Sabium, Vobern'a, Ed'rum, and Van'nia, cities long since demolished : and the Ven'eti were masters of Patavium [Padua), Vi- cen'tia [Vicenza), Ates'te [Este), Forum AUieni [Ferrara], Tar'visum [Trcviso), Aquileia [Aquilea), Forum Jiilii [Friuli), and Tergeste [Tri- este). In later ages, a horde, called the Garni, wrested from the Ven'- eti the cities and country between the rivers For'mio and Talaven'tura (Piave). Central or Proper Italy extended along the Adriatic coast from the city of An'cona to the river Fren'to [Forlore), and on the Mcdiierraneau side was limited by the rivers Macra and Sil'arus [Sele). It compre- hended Etriiria, Um'bria, Sabin'ium, Latium, Picenum, with the coun- tries of the Vestini, Marrucini, Pelig'ni, Mar'si, Frent'ani, Samnites, Hirpini, Campani, and Picentini. Etruria was inhabited by two distinct races, that seem tu have very slowly amalgan/ ited, the Tyrrheni and the Hetrus'ci. It was bounded on the east by tne river Tiber, on the west by the Macra, on the north by the chain of the Apennines, and on the south by that portion of the Mediterranean commonly called the Tuscan sea. It was divided into a dodecarchy, or government of twelve tribes and cities. These ruling cities in the most flourishing period of Etrurian history were, Volsin'ii [Bolsena), Clusium [Ckiusi), Periisia [Perugia], Cortona, Aret'ium [Arezzo), Falerii [Civita Castellana), Volater'rae [Volterra), Vetulonium [Grosseto), Rusel'lae [Cerveteri), and the cities of Veil, Tarquinii, and Cae're, which at present lie in ruins. There were many other places of importance in Etruria: on the seacoast were Lima [UErice), Pisee [Pisa), Por'tus Her'culis Libur'ni (Livorno or Leghorn), Papulonia now \n ruins, Tal'amon (Telamone), Centumcel'lae [Civita Vecchia), and ANCIEN r ITALY. i85 Al'sium (Pah). There were besides, in the interior, Nep'ete [Nepe), Sutrium [SiUn^, Fanum VoUiim'na? ( F"?7e?/>o), Hortanuiu (Or/?), Ker- banura (Orniptu), Senae JuUte {Saona), Floren'tia (Fioraiza, Fircme, or Florence), Pistoria (Pistoia), and Luca (Lucca). IJmbria was hounded on the south by the river Nar {Nrra), on the north by the Adriatic sea, on the east by the iEsis [Finmictno), and on the west partly by the Tiber, and partly by the Bedesis (// Roneo), which falls into the Adriatic near Ravenna. But the maritime part of Umbria having been early conquered by the Senonian Gauls, the cities it con- tains have been already mentioned in the account of Gallia Cispadana. The Umbrian cities on the Adriatic side of the Apennines were Sarshia, Urbinum (Urbino), Metauren'se (Castd Durantt:), Sentiiium (Sfutiino), and Cam'ers [Cainfrino). On the other side of these mountains were Iguvium (UiTubio), Mevania [Bagagna), Spolet'ium {Spoleti), Tifer'num (Cilia di Castel/a), Nuceria [Noccra), Assis'ium (Assisi), Hispellum (Ispvllo), Fulgin'ium (Foligno), Intcram'nium (Terni), Nariiia (Narni), and Ocric'ulum (Ociicoli). The territory of the Sabines lay between the Nar, which divided it from Umbria, and the A'nio (Tevcwne), by v/hich it was separated from Latium. It contained the city of Cures, whose inhabitants, migra- ting to Rome, are said to have given its citizens the name of Quirites ; Reate (Rudi), Nur'sia (Norcia), E'retum [Monte Rolondo), and Amiter'- num [Lamenlariu). ' Latium was at first restricted within very narrow limits, being boimd- ed by the Tiber, the A'nio (Teverone), and the Circaean promontory {Monte CercilU) ; but after the subjugation of the vE'qui, Hernici, Vol'sci, and Ausones, it was extended to the Liris (Garigliano) ; and hence arises the distinction between Old and New Latium. The chief cities of Old Latium were Rome, Tibur (TivoU), Prsenes'te (Pahslnna), Tus'- culum (Frascati), Aric'ia, Lanuvium (Cilta Lavina), Al'ba Lon'ga (Albano), Lauren'tum (Paterno), and Os'tia. There were, besides, four Latin towns, of which the ruins can now scarcely be traced, Gabii, Antem'nse, Collatia, and Ar'dea. The chief cities of the yEqui were Car'sula (Arsuli), Valeria (Vico Varo), Sublaqueum (Suhiaco), and Al'gidum, now in ruins. To the Hernici belonged Anag'nia {Anag7ii), Alatrium [Ahitn), Ver'ulse (Veroli), and Ferentinum [Ferentino). In the ^ountry of the Volsci were An'tium, Cir'ca3, and Sues'sa Pometia, all three long since ruined ; Anx'ur (Terr«cwa), Vel'itrse (Veletri), Pri- ver'num [Piperno), Aquinum {Aquino), Casinum {Monte Cas.sino), Arpinum {Aipino), Fregel'lae (Ponte Corvo), and Interam'na (Ulsola). The Ausones possessed Careto (Gaeta), Fun'di (Fondi), and For'mias {Mola). Picenum extended from the Adriatic to the Apennines, between the ^'sis (Esino) and the Aternus {Pescara). The chief cities of the Picen'tes were Aticona, As'culvim (Ascoli), Intcram'nium (Teramo), and A/tria (Atri). Several other nations besides the Picen'tes wore included within the boundaries of Picenum. Of these, the Vestini possessed Au'gulus"(C/t;«7a di S undo Angela) and Avel'la ; the Mar- rucini owned but one city, Teate {Chiete) ; the Peligni possessed Cor- fin'ium, now in ruins, and SuFmo (Sulmona) ; the Mar'si, in the inlerioi of the country, close to the Apennines, had only one important town 186 ANCIENT HISTORY. Marrubiiim (Morrea). On the southern seacoasi were the Frentanl whose chief cities were Ortuna, Anax'onum [Lanzano), and Histonium [Guasto frAmonc) : the Samnites possessed the country between the territory of the Frentani and the Apennines ; their chief cities were Bovianum (Boiano), ^Eser'nia (hernia'), Sepinum (S/'phui), AliifsB [Alifi), and Tel'esia (Telesi). Finally, the Hirpini held the south western side of the Apennines, and possessed Beneven'tum [BeneveiUo) Equotuticum [Ariano), and Comp'sa [Conza). Campania, the most pleasant and fruitful division of Italy, extended between the territories of the Samnites and Herpini and the Mediter- ranean from the river Liris to the promontry of Minerva. On its coast were Liter'num {Torre di Patria), Baiae {Baia), Misenum {Muyite Miseno), Parthen'ope or Neap'olis (Naples), and Sorren'tiuni (Sarrmto), together with the cities of Herculaneum and Pom'peii, overwhelmed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In the interior of the country were Capua, Sues'sa Aurun'ca [Sessa), Venafrum {Venafro), Casilinum (Nova Capua), Teanum Sidicinum {Tiano), Calatia (Cajazzo), Cales {Calvi), Atel'la {Aversa), Acer'rsE {Acerra), Nola and Nuceria (Nocera) Between the promontory of Minerva and the river Sil'arus (Sc/e) was a small district inhabited by a Picentine colony, whose chief city was Saler'num {Salerno). Magna Graecia, so called from the number of Greek colonies that settled in it, comprised Apulia, Lucania, and the territory of the Brut'tii. Apulia {La PugUa) extended from the river Fren'to (Foriore) to the Japygian promontory (Capo di Leiica), at the southeastern extremity of Italy. It was divided into three portions : Daunia, lying between the Freu'to and the Aufidus (Ofanlo) ; Peucetia, stretching from the Auiidus to the isthnuis between Brundusium and Taren'tum ; and Japy'gia, or Calabria, comprising the sontheastern peninsula of Italy, or the heel of the boot to which Italy ha,s been fancifully compared. In the first two divisions were Teanum Ap'ulum (Civitate Tragonara), Sipuntum {Siponto) Liiceria (Lucera), Ar'pi {Foggia) As'culum Ap'u- lum (Asicli), Venusia (Venosa), Acheron'tia {Acirenza), Camisium (Canosa), Can'ngs (C(/?nm), Salapia (»SaZ/)e), Barium (Ban), and Egnatia [Terra WAnazzo). The chief cities of Calabria were Brundusium (Brindisi), Hydruntum (Olranto), Callip'ohs {Gallipoli), Ner'itum {Nardo), and Aletium (Lezze). Lucania lay between the Silanis and the Laiis {Laino). It was divided from Peucetia by the Bran'danus {Brandano), and from Calabria by the upper part of the Tarentine gulf. On the Mediterranean, or Tyrrhenian sea, stood Pees'tum or Posidonia {Peslo), Velia {Pisciotta), and Buxen'tum {Policastro). On the Tarentine gulf were Metapon'tum {Tere di Mare) and Heraclea, called also Syb'aris and Thurii (Policore). The inland cities were Poten'tia (Potenza), and Grumen'tum {Clari' monlr). Greek colonies occupied the southwestern peninsula of Italy. Theii chief cities on the western coast were Ceril'li (Cirella), Clamp'etia {Amantta), Tom'sa (Torre Loppa), Lametia {Sanf. Euphemia), Scyllae'- um (Sciglia), and Rhegium {Reggio). On the eastern coast stood Locri Epizephy'rii {Jeraces), Caulonia (Castel Veteri), Scyhceum {SquiUaci), Croto (Crontone), Petil'ia (Belicastro), and Ruscianum {Rossana). ANCIENT ITALY. 1^7 The chief cities of the interior were Consen'tij, (Cnsenza) and Hip* poninm, called by the Romans Vibo Valen'tia [Monte Leone.) The chief Italian mountains are the Alps, which extend round the north of the peninsula in an irregular chain about eight hundred miles in length ; and the Apennines, which go through Italy from the Mari- time Alps to the straits of Sicily. The Massic, Gaurian, and Garganian mountains are detached ridges, celebrated for theiy fertility ; and Vesu- vius, near Naples, has been long remarkable for its volcano. From the Alps flow the Padus [Po), the Druria (Dora), the Sessites (Ses.sia), the Ticinus (Tessino), the Ad'dua [Adda), the Ol'lius {0<{/i(>), the Min'crus (Mincio), the Tan'arus [Tanaro), the Trebia, and the Rhenus Bononien'sis [Reno di Bulogiw) : all these are tributaries of the Padus. The Ath'esis (Adige) has also its source in the Alps, but it falls into the Adriatic. The Ar'nus {Arno) and the Tiber flow from the Apennines into the Mediterranean : the tributaries of the latter river are the Clanis (Chiana), the Nar [Ncra), and the A'nio {Teverone). Be- sides these, there are the Liris [Garigliano), separating Laiium from Campania; the Vultur'nus {Voltorno), in Campania; the Sil'arus (Silaro), severing the territories of the Pincentini and Lucani ; the Syb'aris (Cockile), and the Crathis (C rati), in Lucania ; the Aufldus (Ofanto), in Apulia ; and the Ater'nus [Pescara) and Metaurus (Metauro), in Picenum. Italy has ever been celebrated for its fertility and beauty ; its inhab- itants were once the triumphant conquerors and lords of the known world ; but ages of misgovernment have blighted this lovely peninsula, and it is now among the most degrad*^ 1 and miserable countries in Eu- rope. Skction II. — Historical Notices of the early Inhabitants of Italy CHRONOLOGY UNCERTAIN. The earliest inhabitants of Italy appear to have been branches of the great Pelasgic nation. Of these, the (Enotrians occupied the soutu of the peninsula, the Sicilians possessed the plain of the Tibe-, anJ the r^Trhenians were settled in Etruria. In process of time, the CLno- irians were subjugated by Hellenic colonies, the Sicilians subdued by some mountain-tribes who took the name of Latins, and the Tyrrheni- ans conquered by the Hetrusci, a people that probably descended from ihe Rhaetian Alps. Between (Enot'ria and Tyrrhenia was the territory of the Opicans or Oscans, called also Ausonians. Their language was intelligible to the Latins ; for the Latin tongue is compounded of Greek and Oscan. To this race the M'qui and Vol'sci appear to have belonged. The Latins, according to tradition, were driven down the A'nio by the Sabines, and they in their turn expelled a great portion of the Si- culians from their habitations, who proceeded southward, and parsed over the strait of Messina into the island which took from them the name of Sicily. In the old legends these Latin conquerors are called Sacrani ; they were also named Priscans and Cascans. From the lat- ter name, and the similarity of language, they must have been a branch 188 ANQIENT HISTORY. of the Oscan nation. The agreement between the Greek and Latin lansfuasres in words that relate to agriculture and .he arts of social life, while they diffei wholly in the names of objects belonging to war or the chase, is a strong proof that the agricultural laborers or serfs were of Pelasgian origin, and the warriors a superior caste of Oscan de- scent. Little is known of the religion of the ancient Latins, or the deities they worshipped. Janus, or Dianus, was the god of the sun, Saturn the vivifying power of nature, and his wife Ops the productive energy of the earth ; but the distinctive character of these deities was lost when, in a late age, the native legends of Latium were blended and confounded with the mythology of Greece. The Sabines and their cognate tribes are included under the common name of Sabellians ; they were the most widely extended and the greatest people in Italy when the Romans advanced beyond the fron- tiers of Latium. Their original home was in the neighborhood of Ami- ter'nium, among the highest of the Apennines that are now included in Abruzzo Ultra. From these they descended at a very remote age, dri- ving the Cascans before them in one direction, and the Umbrians in another. Their colonies were sent out according to a singular religious institution called the " Ver Sacrum," or sacred spring. Every twenty years the children and cattle born within the twelvemonth were conse- crated and set apart for founding a colony ; and, as soon as they reached mature age, were sent forth for the purpose. One of these occupied Picenum, then inhabited by the Pelasgians ; another passed into the land of the Opicans, or Oscans, and became the founders of the great Samnite race. To the Sabellan race belonged also the Frentanians on the coast of the Adriatic, the tribes that conquered Campania, the pow- erful nation of the Lucanians, and the four confederate tribes of Mar- sians, Manucinians, Pelignians, and Vestinians. The Hernicans wei^e a sub-colony of the Marsians. The Lucanians, pushing their conquests into ffinotria, were soon in volved in war with the Greek colonies, most of which they subdued. They were joined by the Samnites from Campania (b. c. 437), who gained possession of Vultur'num. They soon advanced to the Laiis (b. c. 423), and confirmed their power by the total defeat of the Thu- rians (b. c. 387). At length they were brought into hostile contact with the Romans, and soon stripped of all their power. The Sabellian tribes, more esj>ecially those in the north, were dis- tinguished for their love of divination, the rigid severity of their mor- als, and their cheerful contentedness. In ether respects their charac- ters differed. The Sabines and most of the northern tribes lived in open villages ; the Samnites fortified the hills on which they dwelt ; and the Lucanians became attached to residence in cities. The want of union between the Sabellian tribes prevented that race from becom- ing predominant in Italy. The Samnites owed their downfall to the want of a central metropolis, and the unity it confers. It was only in time of war that they elected a commander-in-chief, called emberator ; a term which the Latins borrowed, and changed into imperator, using it instead of their old words dictator and praztor. The Etrurians or Etruscans, who conquered the Tyrrhenian Pelasgi, were called in their own tongue " Rasena :" they established a kind of ANCIENT ITALY. -89 feudal supremacy over the subjugated nation, aT:c3 deprived the Tyr rhenians of all political privileges. All public arfairs were decided in the general council of the Lucumones, a sacer-'otnl c?ste whose privi- leges descended by inheritance. From the w&,nt of a fre*; and respec- table commonwealth, the Etruscans, though possessed of preat wealth and power, having been at one time masters of the commerce and nav- igation of the western Mediterranean, proved unequal to cope with the Romans, whose infantry was composed of free citizens. The regal office was not hereditary, but elective, and the power of the kings was very limited. Before the conquest the Tyrrhenians were remarkable for their piracies, and the Etruscans followed the same course. Their corsairs were the terror of the western Mediterranean, until their navy was almost annihilated, in a sea-fight off Cumae, by Hiero, king of Syra- cuse. About two centuries afterward, they partially recovered their power, and extended their piracies even into the ^Egean sea ; but they were finally subdued by the Rhodians. The Etruscans had made great advances in the arts and sciences. The ruins of their public works rival those of ancient Egypt in magni- tude, and surpass them in utility, especially the dikes for fencing the deUa of the Po, and the tunnels for draining the lakes that formed in the craters of extinct volcanoes. Their pottery and metal works, if not of Greek origin, were certainly improved by Grecian artisans, and may therefore be" attributed to the Pelasgic Tyrrhenians. No Italian nation was so religious, or rather superstitious, as the Etrurians : from them the Romans borrowed most of their ritual and ceremonies, the rules of augury and divination, and the solemnities in the declaration of peace or war. At a very early age Greek literature supplanted the na- tive literature of Etruria, and the ancient lore of the Tuscans fell into what seems to have been unmerited oblivion. The Umbrians were a nation consisting of several distinct races, the most remarkable being the Camer'tes and the Sarsinates. Their lan- guage appears to have been a mixture of Etrurian and Oscan. It is the misfortune of the Umbrians that their greatness had disappeared before the age of certain history ; their glory seems to have passed away when the rich countries bordering on the seacoast were occupied by the Gauls. The southeast of Italy, or Japy'gia, was occupied by the Messapians, the Peucetians, and the Daunians. The Messapians are said to ha-^e been an old Pelasgian colony from Crete ; they were a very powerful people until the city of Tarentum had acquired sufficient strength to contend for the supremacy of southern Italy, when, after a tedious struggle, they were compelled to enter into an alliance of inferiority with the Tarentines. The Peucetians appear to have been a Libumian colony from Illyrla ; the Daunians, a Pelasgic colony from ^Etolia. The latter were sub- dued by the Apulians, an Oscan horde, and their name was lost in that of their conquerors. The language of the inhabitants of that part of Italy called Japy'gia was Greek. The Ligurians and Venetians appear to have been branches of the great Libumian nation, which at one time possessed both sides of the northern Adriatic. The former were a brave, warlike people ; for more 190 ANCIENT HISTORY. than forty years they resisted the Roman arms, and it is perhaps on this account that they are stigmatized as liars and deceivers by classical wri ters. On the other hand, the Venetians submitted without a struggle; but it is probable that the evils they had suffered from the invasion made them anxious to obtain the protection of some powerful state Section III. — The Greek Colonies in Italy. FROM B. c. 1030 TO r,. c. 277. The earliest Greek settlement in Italy, of which we have any cer- tain historical information, came from Chalcis in the island of Euboea, and settled at Cumee (b. c. 1030). This city soon attained a high de- gree of prosperity, established a powerful navy, and founded flourishing colonies, of which Neap'olis and Zan'cle (afterward called Messana) were the cliief. Its form of government was aristocratic ; but this con- stitution was subverted (b. c. 544) by the tyrant Aristodemus. Free- dom was restored after his assassination ; but the Cumans, weakened by internal dissensions, suffered severely in a war with the Eretrians and Daunians (b. c. 500), and were finally subdued by the Cxmpanians. Cumae was annexed to the Roman dominions (b. c. 345) ; but in con- sequence of its harbor at Puteoli, it retained a considerable share of its importance even after the loss of its independence. Tarentum was founded by the Parthenii from Spar'ta, under Phalan'- tus (b. c. 707), as has been already mentioned. The colonists had to maintain long wars against the Italian tribes in their neighborhood, especially the Messapians and Lucanians ; but they prevailed over these uncivilized barbarians, and made their city one of the most flour- ishing maritime states in western Europe. Luxury, however, finally brought effeminacy and weakness. To escape from fhe grasping am- bition of the Romans, the Tarentines invited Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus, into Italy ; but after the departure of that monarch, the city became de- pendant on Rome (b. c. 274). Croton was founded by the Achasans (b. c. 710). Even in the first century of its existence the city attained such power as to be able to raise an army of one hundred and twenty thousand men. The consti tution was in a great degree democratic, and continued so until the philosopher Pythag'oras came to reside in Croton (b. c. 540). He established a secret association among his disciples, the chief object of which was to secure a monopoly of political power to the members of the Pythagorean society. In a iew years three hundred men, all Pythagoreans, held the sovereignty of Croton ; and the influence of the new sect was established not only in the Greek cities of Italy and Sicily, but over a great part of ancient Greece and the islands of the .^gean. The Crotonians soon after engaged in war with the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. Success proved ruinous ; the inferior ranks of men in Crotona, intoxicated with prosperity, and instigated by the artful and ambitious Cy'lon, whose turbulent manners had excluded him from the order of Pythag'oras, into which he had repeatedly attempted to enter, became clamorous for an equal partition of the conquered ter- ritory of Syb'aris, which being denied, as inconsistent with the nature of the oligarchy established by the Pythagoreans, they secretly con- ANCIENT ITALY. 191 gpired against tlieir magistrates, attacked them by surprise in the senate- house, put many to death, and drove the rest from their country. Py- thag'oras himself died soon afterward at Metapon'tum, in Lucania, hav- ing lived just long enough to witness the ruin of the structure he had labored so anxiously to raise. Croton never perfectly recovered from the fatal effects of this civil war ; it was repeatedly captured by the kings of Syracuse ; and after the departure of Pyr'rhus from Italy, it became dependant on Rome. Syl)'aris was founded by an Achaean colony (b. c. 720). The ex- treme fertility of the soil, and the generous admission of all strangers to the right of citizenship, caused the populati(5n to increase so rapidly, that, in a war against the Crotonians, the Sybarites are said to have brought three hundred thousand men into the field. Its vast wealth, de- rived chiefly from an extensive trade in wine and oil with northern Africa and Gaul, rendered it the most extensive, populous, and luxurious city in Europe from about b. c. 600 to b. c 550 ; so that the debauchery and effeminacy of the Sybarites became proverbial. Disputes arose be- tween the aristocratic and democratic factions, which led to a civil war. At length, Telys, the leader of the multitude, obtained possession of the supreme power, and expelled five hundred of the principal nobles, who fled for refuge to Croto'na. The Sybarites sent to demand these refu- gees, and, meeting with a refusal, put to death the Crotonian ambas- sadors. Such an outrage naturally led to a war between the two cities (b. c. 510). With far inferior forces the Crotonians defeated the Sybarites in the field, took their city by storm, and razed it to the ground. The Sybarites, driven from their habitations, besought the Lacedai- monians and the Athenians to restore them, requesting them, at the same time, to send a colony to share in the new city they had resolved to build. The ambassadors were rejected at Spar'ta ; but the Athenians, who delighted in such applications, cheerfully granted their aid (b. c. 446). A squadron of ten ships, having a considerable number of troops on board, was sent to Italy, under the command of Lam'po and Xenoc'- rates ; and, at the same time, proclamation was made throughout Greece, that all persons willing to emigrate to the new colony should receive the protection of the Athenian fleet. Great numbers availed themselves of the proposition, and the Sybarites, aided by the new settlers, soon re- covered their former possessions, and founded Thiirium, near the site of their ancient city. Peace did not long inhabit these new dwellings ; the inhabitants, coming from so many various quarters, could not for- get their old animosities, and began to dispute which section among them could claim to rank as founders of ttie city. An appeal was made to the Delphic oracle (b. c. 433) : the priests of that temple declared the city to be a colony of Apol'lo. But this did not put an end to dis- cord ; the Sybarites, believing that they had the best right to thtir own country, began to exclude the foreign colonists, who were by far the majority, from all honors and employments ; this provoked a civil war, which ended in a second expulsion of the Sybarite families. The Thu' rians then invited fresh colonists from Greece, and formed themselvea into a commor vealth, choosing Charon'das, of Cat'ana, for their legis- lator. They .'-■ >n sunk under the enerv^ating effects of luxur)', and, being unable to defend themselves against the Lucanians, placed them- 192 ANCIENT HISTORY. selves under tlie protection of the Romans. Tins affoided the Taren« tines an excuse for attacking the city, of which they made themselves masters, and thus brought upon themselves the vengeance of Rome. At the close of the Tarentine war, Thurium became a Roman depend- ancy. It suffered very severely in the second Punic war, and, having been almost depopulated, was occupied by a Roman colony (b. c. 190). The city of Locri Epizephy'rii was inhabited by the people of the same name. The original colonists were sent out by the Locri O'zolse (b. c. 683) ; but these were joined by a great variety of settlers, chiefly from vvestern Greece. Zaleucus, one of their own citizens, became the le'rislator of the Locrians, and his wise institutions remained unchanged for nearly two centuries. The constitution appears to have been a ju- dicious mixture of aristocracy and democracy. The Locrians contin- ued to be honorably distinguished by their peaceful condition, quiet conduct, and good manners, until Diony'sius IL, tyrant of Syracuse, having been expelled by his subjects, sought refuge in Locri, which was the native country of his mother (b. c. 357). His insolence, his licentiousness, and the excesses of his followers, brought the state to the verge of ruin ; and, when he returned to Syracuse (b. c, 347), the Lo- crians revenged their wrongs on his unfortunate family. When Pyr'rhus invaded Italy, he placed a garrison in Locri (b. c. 277) ; but the Lo- crians rose in revolt, and put the intruders to the sword. The king of Epirus, in revenge, stormed and plundered the city. After his return home, it submitted to the Romans, and was one of the places that suf- fered most severely in the second Punic war. Rhegium was colonized jointly by the Chalcidians and Messenians (b. c. 668) ; but the chief power was possessed by the Messenian aris- tocracy. This oligarchy was subverted by Anaxilaus (b. c. 494), and an absolute despotism established. After some time the Rhegians re- covered their freedom, and attempted to secure tranquillity by adopting from the Thurians the constitution of Charon'das. Thenceforward Rhegium enjoyed tranquillity and happiness, until it was captured and destroyed by Dionys'ius I., of Syracuse (b. c, 392). It was partially restored by Dionys'ius II. ; but, during the wars of Pyr'rhus in Italy, it was still so weak as to require the protection of a Roman garrison. A legion, raised in Campania, was sent to Rhegium, under the command of Decius Jubel'lus. These soldiers having been used to a life of hard- ship, began soon to envy the luxurious ease and wealth of the citizens they had come to protect, and they formed a perfidious plan for- theii destruction (b. c. 281). They forged letters from the Rhegians to Pyr'- rhus, offering to put that monarch in possession of the city, and, under this pretence, they put the principal part of the citizens to death, and drove the rest into exile. The Roman senate was not slow in punishing this atrocious outrage ; they sent an army against the guilty Campani- ans, who had been reinforced by several bands of profligate plunderers, and, after a severe struggle, obtained possession of the city. The sur- vivors of the wicked legionaries were beaten with rods, and beheaded in bands of fifty at a time ; and a few Rhegians who survived were re- instated in possession of their estates, liberties, and laws. But the city was too weak to maintain its independence, and it became thenceforth subject to Rome. SICILY. 193 CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY OF SICILY. Section I. — Geograjyhical Outline, The fertile island of Sicily was known by various names to the an cicnts. It was called Triquet'ra, or Trinac'ria,from its triangular shape , Sicania and Sicilia from the Sic'ani and Sic'uli, Italian hordes who peopled a great part of the country. Its three extreme promontories were named Pelorum {Faro), Pachy'num [Paxsaro), and Lilybse'um [Bocco) ; the first of these faces Italy, the second Greece, and the third Africa. From the narrowness of the strait opposite Pelorum, it haa been supposed that Sicily was broken off from Italy by some convulsion of nature ; and the Greek city Rhegium, which stood "on the Italian side of the strait, derives its name from this common opinion.* The strait is remarkable for the rapidity of its current, and for the rock Scyl'la, and whirlpool Charyb'dis, the passage between which was accounted very dangerous. These places are frequently described by the Latin poets. Ovid thus alludes to the opinion of Italy having been joined to Sicily near the city of Zan'cle, or Messana : — " So Zan'cle to the Italian earth was tied, And men once walked, where ships at anchor ride ; Till Neptune overlooked the narrow way, And in disdain poured in the conquering sea." The most remarkable cities on the eastern coast of Sicily were Zan'- cle, or Messana {Messina), deriving its first name from the old Sicihan word Zan'clos signifying a reapmg-hook, to which its curved shore bears some fanciful resemblance ; and its second from the Messenian exiles, who conquered the city : Tauromin'ium {Taormina), on the river Tauromin'ius ( Cantara), near which was the coast called Cop'ria, or " the dunghill," from the number of wrecks cast upon it by the whirl- pool of Charyb'dis : Cat' ana, a Chalcidian colony on the river Amenes {Judiccllo) : Morgan'tium, a city of the Italian Sic'uli, near the mouth of the Sigmfc'thus {La Jarelta) : Leontini, a flourishing Chalcidian col- ony : Hyb'la, celebrated for its honey, founded by the Sicanians, and subsequently colonized by the Megarians : and Syracuse, the ancienJ capital of the island. Syracuse contained within its walls, which were eighteen miles it, circumference, four very considerable cities united into one, like Lon • From (myvvnt, to break, 13 i94 ANCIENT HISTORY. don, Westminister, Southwark, and Lambeth. Acradina, tlie largest ol the four, contained the principal public buildings, such as the Prytane- um, the palace of justice, and the templ-^ of Jupiter Olympius. Ty'che,* which stood between Acradina and the hill Epip'old?, contained the Gymnasium for the exercise of youth, and several temples, especially one dedicated to Fortune, from which this division of the city derived its name. The third quarter, called Orty'gia, was an island, connected with the other parts by a bridge ; it contained two beautiful temples, one sacred to Diana, and the other to Minerva, the tutelary deities of Syra- cuse. Neap'olis, or the new city, was the latest erected : it contained the teu'.ples of Ceres and Proserpine, and the statue of Apol'lo Tem- en'ites, celebrated by Cicero as the most valuable monument of Syra- cuse. Near Syracuse was a steep hill named Epip'olae, defended in the later ages by a fort called Lab'dalon. On this hill was the famous prison called Latom'iae, on account of its being partly excavated from the liv ing rock.* It was a cave on.e hundred and twenty-five paces long and twenty ^eet broad, constructed by order of Dionys'ius the tyrant, who imprisoned there those whom he suspected of being opposed to his usur- pation. A winding tube, constructed on the model of the human ear, ascended from the cavern to a private apartment, where the tyrant used to sit and listen to the conversation of his unhappy captives. The celebrated fountain of Arethusa, now dried up, arose in the is- land of Orty'gia. The poets fabled that the Al'pheus, a river of E'lis. in the Pelopoimesus, rolled its waters either through or under the waters of the sea, without mixing with them, as far as the fountain of Arethvi »a; which gave occasion to the following lines of Virgil: — ■ Thy sacred succor, Arethusa, bring, To crown my labor ; 'tis the last I sing ; So may thy silver streams beneath the tide, Unmixed with briny seas, securely glide ! On the African side of Sicily stood Camarina, between the rivera O'anus (Frascolari) and Hip'paris [Camarana) : it was anciently a very wealthy city ; but its inhabitants having drained a marsh by which Jie city was protected, the enemies found easy access, and destroy- ed it ; hence Ne moveas Camarinam, " Remove not Camarina," hag passed into a proverb. Following the line of coast westward, we mee. Gela {Terra Nova), now in ruins, and Ag'ragas or Agrigen'tum {Gir- genti), between the rivers Ag'ragas {San Biaggio) and Hyp'sa {Drago). It was anciently the rival of Syracuse : and we may judge of its former strength and splendor from the following description given of it by the historian Polybius : " It exceeds most of the Sicilian cities in streno-th, beauty, and situation, and magnificent edifices. Though erected at the distance of eighteen hundred furlongs from the sea, it can conveniently import all Idnds of provision and munitions of war. From its natural strength, increased judiciously by fortifications, it is one of the most impregnable places in the island. Its walls are built upon a rock, ren- dered inaccessible by art. The river, from which the city takes ita aame, protects it on the south, and it is covered by the Hyp'sa on the * From TV xn, fortune. f From Xaa;, a stone, and T-t/ijw, to cut. SICILY. 195 iv^est ; on the east it it is defended by a Ibrtress, built on the blink of a precipice, which serves instead of a ditch." The citadel, called Om'- phale, which stood at the mouth of the Ag'ragas, was more ancient than the city itself. The other cities on the African side were Mino'a Heraclea (Castel Binncfl), derivinsr its first name from a Cretan, and its second from a Lacedaemonian colony, on the banks of the Haly'cus (Plalani) ; and Selinus [Terra delle Pulci), on the river Selinus [Madiuni), founded by a colony from Meg'ara. On the coast opposite Italy were the cities Lilyba^'um [Marsala), cel- ebrated in ancient times for its excellent harbor ; Drep'anum {Trapani), deriving its name from a fancied resemblance of its coast to a scythe ;* E'ryx [Tripano del Monte), on a mountain of the same name ; Seges'ta, or Eges'ta, now in ruins, supposed to have been founded by a Trojan colony, who named the streams that watered their territory the Scainan'- iler and the Sim'ois, in memory ol the rivers of their native land ; the former of these is now II jiume di San Barlolumeo, the latter a rivulet without a name ; Panor'mus [Palermo), the present capital of Sicily, originally founded by the Phoenicians, between the Orothus [AmiragUo) and the Leutherus [Baiaria). In the neighborhood of Panor'mus was a mountain fortress called E'reta (Monle Pclegrino) : Himae'ra, Alaj'sa, and Agathyr'na, are now in ruins. In the interior of the country were Ad'ranum [Adcrno), near the foot of Mount Mina.] En'na [Castro Janni), sacred to Ceres; and En'- gyum (Mandania), near the springs of the Alae'sus [Gasonia). The most remarkable natural object in Sicily is the celebrated vol- cano of th3 lofty Mount iEtna, covered with eternal snows, though ever burning. .c has been described by Sil'ius Ital'icus : — " Its lofty summits, wondrous to be told. Display bright fliimes amid the ice and cold; Above, its rocks, with flames incessant glow. Though bound in icy fetters far below; The peak is claimed by winter as its throne, "While glowing ashes o'er its snows are shown." The fire which continually bums in the bowels of the mountain made the poets place here the forges of Vulcan and his Cyclopean attendants, and the prison of the giants who rebelled against Jupiter. This fiction is beautifully related by Virgil, in his description of the mountain : — " The port capacious, and secure from wind, Is to the foot of thund'ring ^tna joined. By lurns a pitchy cloud she rolls on high; By turns hot embers from her entrails fly, And flakes of mountain-flames that lick the sky. OA from her bowels massy rocks are thrown. And shivered by their force come piecemeal down. Oft liquid lakes of burning sulphur flow. Fed from the fiery springs that burn below. Enceladus, they say, transfixed by Jove, "With blasted limbs came trembling from above | • From iptvravov, a tcythe. 196 ANCIENT HISTORY. And when he fell, the avenging father drew This flaming hill, and on his body threw ; As often as he turns his weary sides, He shakes the solid isle, and smoke the heavens hides.'* The ^olian or Vulcanian islands lie off the north coast of Sicily, in the Tuscan sea. The most remarkable are Lip'ara (Lipari) and Stronyg'lce {Stru?nboH). North of Cape Lilybse'um were the islands called ^E'gates, or iE'gades : they are three in number ; Phorban'tia {Levanzo), Mgusa. {Favignano), and Hi'ra [Maretino). Section II. — Historical Notices of the ancient Inhabitants of Sicily. CHRONOLOGY UNCERTAIN. The Cyclopians and Laestrigons are said to have been the first in- habitants of Sicily. It is impossible to trace their origin ; we only know that their settlements were in the vicinity of Mount jEtna. Their inhumanity toward strangers, and the flames of jEtna, were the source of many popular fables and poetic fictions. It was said that the Cy'clops were giants ; that they had but one eye, placed in the centre of their forehead ; that they fed on human flesh ; and that they were employed by Vulcan to forge the thunderbolts of Jove. Next in antiquity were the Sicanians, probably an Italian horde driven southward by the pressure of the Pelas'gi, though many ancient writers assert that they came from Spain. They finally settled in the western part of the island, and were said to have joined the Trojan exiles in building E'ryx and Egesta. After the Sic'ani had been for some ages exclusive masters of the island, the Sic'uli, an ancient people of Ausonia, crossed the strait ; and having defeated the Sicanians in a sanguinary engagement, con- fined them in a narrow territory, and changed the name of the island from Sicania to Sicily. Some centuries after this revolution, Greek colonies began to settle on the Sicilian coast ; the principal states that founded settlements in the island were Chal'cis in Eubce'a, Meg'ara, Corinth, the Dorians from Rhodes and Crete, and the Messenians, driven from their native country by the Spartans. To these may be added two Italian colonies, the Morgetes and the Mamer'tines. The Sic'uli were first united under one head by a king named iE'olus, whose age is uncertain. Their most renowned sovereign was Deucetius, who engaged in a long war with the Syracusans ; but hav- ing been frequently defeated, he was forced to surrender himself to their mercy. With unusual clemency, the Syracusans granted him liberty and life, and assigned a pension for his support, on condition of his living in the territories of their parent city, Corinth. Having re- moved this formidable rival, the Syracusans reduced the whole country of the Sic'uli, stormed th(ur chief city, Triquefra, and levelled it to the ground. When the Athenians invaded Sicily under the command of Nic'ias, they were joined by the Sic'uli, who gave them very effective assistance. They likewise aided the Carthaginians in their first at- tempts to gain possession of the island. Having been subsequently in- duced to join the Syracusans, they were disgracefully betrayed to the SYRACUSE. 197 Carthaginians by the tyrant Dionys'ius, and were forced to bear a cruel yoke, until their independence was restored by Timoleon, Section III. — The History of Syracuse. FROM B. c. 735 TO B. c. 212. Syracuse was founded by a Corinthian colony (b. :;. 735), under ie guidance of Archy'tas, a nobleman of rank, compelled to quit his native country by some political dispute. Its form of government for two centuries and a half was republican ; and though, during this pe- riod, the state does not appear to have risen to any considerable height of power, yet the Syracusans founded |te colonies of A'crae, Cas'menae, and Camarina. An aristocratic faction having cruelly opuressed the citizens, the populace at length combined to throw off thi. yoke, and drove the tyrannical nobles into exile (b. c. 485). They fled to Gela, then ruled by Gelon, an able and ambitious usurper, who had recently become sovereign of his country. Gelon levied an army, and, accom- panied by the exiles, marched to Syracuse, of which he easily made himself master. Under the administration of its new master the city rose rapidly in wealth and importance, while Gelon himself acquired so much fame by repeated victories over the Carthaginians, that the Athenians and Spar- tans, then menaced by the Persian invasion, earnestly sought his as- sistance. Gelon demanded to be appointed captain-general of the con- federate Greeks ; a stipulation to which the Athenians and Spartans returned a stern refusal ; and before any further steps could be taken, he learned that Xer'xes had engaged the Carthaginians to attack the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy, while he invaded the parent state. After spending three years in making preparations, the Carthaginians sent against Sicily an immense armament, under the command of llamil'- car, said to consist of three hundred thousand men, two thousand ships >f war, and three thousand vessels of burden. Having effected a landing, Hamil'car laid siege to Himera, then ruled by Theron, the father-in-law of Gelon. The king of Syracuse, though unable to muster more than fifty thousand men at this sudden emergency, marched with all ex- pedition to raise the siege. On his road he had the good fortune to hitercept a messenger from the Selinuntines to the Carthaginian gene- ral, promising to send him a stipulated body of cavalry on an appointed day. Gelon led an equal number of his horse to the Carthaginian camp at the specified time, and having gained unsuspected admission, so dis- concerted the enemy by a sudden attack, that the whole host was thrown into confusion, and the Syracusans won an easy victory. Hamil'car was slain, and his mighty army all but annihilated. Carthage humbly sought peace, which was generously granted by the conqueror. During the brief renminder of his reign, Gelon strenuously exerted himself for the benefit of his subjects ; and though no one can justify the means by which he acquired supremacy, there are few who will not pardon his original error on account of the use he made of his power. His subjects, after his death, honored him as a demigod. Hiero I. succeeded his brother Gelon (b. c. 477) ; his administration was more brilliant than useful ; he protected the arts and sciences ; bul 198 ANCIENT HISTORY. ne also encouraged a taste for luxury and magnificence, contrary to the policy of his more enlightened predecessor. He subdued the cities of Cat' ana and Nax'us, expelled the ancient inhabitants, and supplied theii place with fresh colonies from Syracuse and the Peloponnesus. A more honorable and useful achievement Avas his decisive victory over the Etrurian pirates off Cumse ; these had long been the terror of the western Mediterranean ; but after their overthrow by Hiero, they ceased to infest the seas for several centuries. After this exploit he engaged in war with the tyrant of Agrigen'tum, who was forced to abdicate the government, and his subjects placed themselves under the protection of Hiero. Thrasybu'lus, likewise a brother of Gelon, became sovereign of SyX' acuse on the death of Hiero (b. c. 459) ; but his tyranny and cruelty soon provoked a revolution ; he was dethroned and the republican con- stitution restored. But the Syracusans gained little by the change. A system of secret voting, called pctali.sm* was introduced, precisely similar to the Athenian ostracism, and most of the leading statesmen were banished by a giddy populace. It was at this period that the Athenians made their unfortunate attempt to conquer Sicily, whose re- sults have been already described in the chapter on Grecian history. After the complete destruction of the Athenian armaments (b. c. 413), the Egestans, who had invited the invaders, sought and obtained the aid of Carthage : this led to a series of sanguinary wars, which have been noticed in the chapter on the history of Carthage. Taking advantage of the political disturbances in Syracuse, Dionys'ius I. usurped the government (b. c.405), and though deservedly branded as a tyrant, it must be confessed that his vigorous administration was crowned with success abroad and prosperity at home. The greater part of his reign was passed in wars against Carthage and the cities of Magna Graecia, and also against the ancient race of the Sic'uli, whose choice of party generally decided the success of these wars. Dionys'ius I. was cut off by poison (b. c. 368), and was succeeded by his youthful son, Dionys'ius II., under the guardianship of the vir- tuous Dio. But neither Dio nor his friend the philosopher Plato, could improve the corrupted character of the young prince. He drove Dio into banishment (b. c. 360), and then gave a loose reign to his pas- sions, indulging in the most extravagant luxury and debauchery. Dio returned (b. c. 357), and after a long struggle, restored the republican form of government. He was, however, assassinated (b. c. 353). Syr- acuse became the prey of sanguinary factions, of which Dionys'ius, after ten years of exile, took advantage to recover his throne. His tyranny, and the treachery of I'cetas the Leontine, who, when invited to aid the Syracusans, betrayed their interests to the Carthaginians, compelled the citizens to seek succor from Corinth. Timoleon, ihe most splendid example of a true republican that ancient history affords, was sent to their assistance, but with very inadequate forces (b. c. 345). His abilities were, however, of more value than an army ; he dethroned Dionys'ius, expelled I'cetas, and, by a brilliant victory, humbled the pride of the Carthaginians. Timoleon's death (b. c. 337) was followed by a long period of stormy weakness, which ended in the usurpation • From TTtraAoc, a leaf. SYRACUSE. 19S of Agathoc'les (b. c. 317). The wars of that usurper in Sicily and A-frica will be found in the chapter on Carthaginian history. After the death of Agathoc'les (b. c. 289), the Syracusans, harassed by intestine commotions, and closely pressed by the Mamer'tincs and Carthaginians, suffered the most dreadful calamities, and were at length forced to supplicate the aid of Pyr'rhus, king of Epirus. That mon- arch, after having conquered almost the entire island, so disgusted his supporters by his arrogance, that he was compelled to retire (b. c. 275). The Syracusans at length, wearied of anarchy, conferred the throne or Hiero II., descended from the ancient royal family of Gelon. Under this prince the city enjoyed peace and prosperity during the wars be- tween Rome and Carthage, in which Ije had the wisdom to take the Roman side. He died of old age (b. c. 215), after a long and glorious reign. After his death, the Carthaginian party acquired supremacy in Syracuse, and made a profligate use of their power. The new rulers soon provoked the resentment of the Romans, who sent an army into Sicily, and after a long siege, protracted by the ingenious mechanical inventions of the celebrated mathematician Archimedes, took it by storm (b. c. 212), and laid it level with the ground. Most of the other Greek cities in Sicily were involved in the for- tunes of Syracuse. Agrigen'tum, having been used as a military and naval station by the Carthaginians in the first Punic war, was seized by the Romans so early as b. c. 262. Sicily finally became a Roman province, and was one of the most valuable attached to the empire. It was also one of the best governed ; a blessing which must be attributed not merely to its vicinity to the seat of power, but also to the fact of its corn-harvests being regarded as the resource to which the Romans should look as the agricultural productions of Italy became more an 3 more in» iequate to the support of the population. > 200 ANCIENT HISTORY CHAPTER XV. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. Section I. — Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans. The legends of Rome, preserved by her best historians, relate vhai iEneas, after the destruction of Troy, led a colony of his countrymen into Italy, and founded the city of Lavin'ium. It would be easy to show that this tale is destitute of truth or importance, but it is worth while to trace its origin. That the Romans were partly of Pelasgic origin appears evident from the name of their city, which in Greek signifies " a fortress."* In almost every country where the Pelas'gi settled we find a city named ^Enus, which, therefore, was probably a generic rather than an individual name. If any of the Pelas'gi who settled on the hills at the south side of the Tiber came from an iEnus, they most probably retained their ancient name ^neadae ; and the sig- nification of that patronymic being forgotten in proress of time, it was confounded with another similar name, preserved by an independent tradition, the ^Eneada, or followers of iEneas, who survived the de- struction of their country. The legends proceed to state that three years after the landing of the Trojans in Italy, they were supernaturally guided to the spot where Lavin'ium was erected. Their rising power gave offence to the Ru- tulians and Etruscans ; Tur'nus and Mezen'tius led an army to expel the intruders. A battle was fought on the banks of the river Numicius ; Tur'nus was slain by ^Eneas, who, in his turn, fell a victim to Mezen'- tius ; or, as was more generally believed, disappeared in the stream, and became a god, under the name of Jupiter In'diges. Mezen'tius was ulti- mately slain by Iiilus, or Ascanius, the son of ^neas, whose descend- ants became lords of Latium. After the lapse of thirty years, Lavin'ium was deserted for the more secure city of Al'ba, erected on the Alban Mount {Monte Cava) ; and here the thirty confederate cities of Latium offered common sacrifices to the gods of the Pelasgic nation. The traditions then go on to state that, at an uncertain date after the erection of the city, Procas, king of Al'ba, leaving two sons at his death, bequeathed his kingdom to Numitor, the elder, and his treasures, in- cluding the ancient wealth that had been saved from the sack of Troy, to Amiilius. His riches enabled the younger prince to bribe a band of supporters, dethrone his brother, procure the murder of Numitor's youthful son, and have his daughter Il'ia, or Rhea Syl'via, appointed a •P(0|i;;, strength. ROMAN REPUBLIC. 201 vestal virgin. While going to draw water from a spring, for the Ber- vice of the temple, she was violated by the god Mars, and became the parent of twin boys. Amulius caused Syl'via to be put to death, and the children thrown into the A'nio. The helpless infants were borne down the stream to the Tiber ; and as that river subsided from a recent overflow, they were deposited at the foot of the Palatine hill, beneath a fig-iree, called the fie us rumtndUs. They were suckled by a she-wolf, and fed by a woodpecker, until they were discovered b}* Ac'ca Lau- ren'tia, wife of Faustulus, the royal shepherd. Among her twelve sons and the neighboring shepherds, the twins became distinguished Tor courage, and were chosen heads of rival factions. The followers k)f Rom'ulus were named Quin^l'ii ; those of Remus, Fabii. When they grew up, Remus, being in^l^-ed in a dispute willi the herdsmen of the deposed Numitor, and being taken prisoner, was carried to Al^ba as a robber. The youthful prince, when brought into the presence of his grandfather, so charmed him by the intrepidity of his replies, that Numitor hesitated to pronounce sentence of death. In the meantime, Rom'ulus, having learned from the ancient shepherd the secret of his birth, assembled his comrades to rescue Remus ; and, being joined by some of his grandfather's old adherents, deposed Amulius, and restored Numitor tu his throne. Love foi the spot where their lives had been thus miraculously pre- served, induced the young men to solicit their grandfather for permission to erect a city on the banks of ihe Tiber. Scarcely had leave been granted, when a violent contest arose between the brothers ; Rom'ulus insisted that the city should be called Rome, and should be built on Mount Palatine ; Remus demanded that it should be named Remiiria, and erected on Ivlount Aventine. It was resolved that the question should be decided by the most favorable augury. Remus had tlie first omen, six vultures.; but Rom'ulus the more perfect, twelve vultures. A second dispute arose ; but the party of Rom'ulus prevailed, and the foundation of the new city was laid on Mount Palatine, with all the ceremonies of Tuscan superstition. Scarcely had the walls began to appear above the surface, when Remus leaped over them in an insul.- ing manner, and was slain either by Rom'ulus or one of his followers. According to Var'ro, whose authority has been followed by most chronologists, Rome was founded on the 21st of April, being the day sacred to Pales, the goddess of shepherds, in the third year of the sixth Olympiad, four hundred and thirty-one years after the destruction of Troy, and seven hundred and fifty-three before the commencement of the Christian era. It was built in a square form, and contained origin- ally about a thousand miserable huts. Such was the humble begin- ning of a city destined to be the capital of the world. Sect:on II. — From the Foundation of the City to the Abolition of Royalty FROM B. C. 753 TO B. c. 509. In order to procure irdiabitants for his new city, Rom'ulus opened an asylum for all whom guilt or misfortune compelled to quit their native country. When he had thus procured a competent number of 202 &.NCIENT HISTORY. Citizens, he convened an assembly of the people to chooso a coosiitTi tion and rulers. As he had anticipated, he was elected king ; but at the same time his power was limited by municipal institutions tending to secure a considerable degree of freedom. He divided the colony into three tribes, and these into thirty curiae : next he constituted classes or orders of the state, separating the wealthier or more nobly born, whom he styled patricians, from the inferior rank of plebeians. The dignity of the patricians was hereditary ; and eligibility to the principal offices of state was long confined to their order. To prevent envy or sedition arising from such a distinction, he engaged both classes to each other by the obligation of clientship. Every plebeian was allowed to choose " a patron" fi-Qin the body of the patricians, to whom he became a client; and th4panctity of this mutual tie was preserved by the most awful denunciations, civil and religious, against its violation. A senate of one hundred was chosen to aid the king by their counsels. Rom'ulus nominated the first, who had the privilege of governing the city in his absence : each of the three tribes and thirty curiae chose three, which completed the number. The senators, either from their age, or from the similitude of their care, were named Patres {^faUicrs). The next ol^ject that required the attention of Rom'ulus was the for- mation of treaties of intermarriage with the neighboring states ; but these, despising the mean origin of the Romans, rejected his proposals with scorn. But though they thus refused alliance, they flocked to witness the ConsuaUa, .splendid games which Rom'ulus proclaimed in honor of Consus, or Neptune. While the strangers gazed unsuspect- ingly on the spot, their maidens were seized by an armed band of young Romans, who compelled them to become their wives by force. Several of the injured cities had recourse to arms, but were successfully defeat- ed. At last Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, led a more powerful army against them ; and Rom'ulus, unable to withstand him in the field, retreated into the city, leaving a garrison to protect an important outpost on the Capitoline hill. Tarpeia, the daughter of the governor, dazzled by the splendid bracelets of the Sabines, agreed to betray the fortress " for what the besiegers wore on their arms." The Sabines, either mistaking her meaning, or anxious to punish her treachery, threw their shields on her as they entered, and crushed her to death. The Romans found themselves obliged, by the loss of this important outpost, to hazard a general engagement ; but while victory was still doubtful, the Sabine women, rushing between the armies, induced them, by ear- nest supplications, to make terms of peace. It was agreed that the Sabines should erect a new city on the Quirinal and Capitoline hills ; that there should be a " comitium," or place of common assembly for both nations, in the space between the Palatine and Capitoline hills, and that Rom'ulus and Tatius should reign conjointly. The murder of Tatius, not long after, at Lavin'ium, left Rom'ulus sole monarch of both nations. The romantic circumstances just narrated bear every mark of having been derived from some national ballad or legendary lay, and conse- quently are not to be received as historic truth. Even less confidence IS due to the narrative of the Tuscau wars, with which the Latin his- ROMAN REPUBLIC. 203 torians nny\i filled the blank of thirty-seven years in the life of Rom'u- lus. But a second heroic lay recited, that, after a long reign, he dis- appeared from eanh, and became a god, under the name ot Quirinue Opposed to this was an ancient tradition, that he was torn to pieces by an aristocratic faction in the senate-house (b. c. 717). On tlie death of Rom'ulus, the senate appeared anxious to retain the supreme power, and each senator in rotation was to enjoy regal authority for one day, under the title of interrcx. This form of government con- tinued a year, when the people compelled the senate to elect a king. Their choice fell upon Numa, a Sabine, from the little town of Cures, to whom Tatius had given his daughter in marriage. The history of Numa is as legendary as that of Rom'ulus : it was generally believed that he had been a disciple of Pythftg'oras, and this opinion maintained its ground in spite of many chronological difficulties. The traditions de- clare that when Numa was informed of his election, he refused to enter on his office, until assured that the gods, by their auguries had con- tirmed the choice of the senate. His first care was to regulate the laws of property ; he divided among tlie citizens the lands that Rom'u- lus had conquered, and founded the worship of Ter'minus, the god of boundaries, thus protecting the limits of estates by a religious sanction. His most important labor, however, was the regulation of the nationil worship : pretending to be secretly guided by the goddess Egeria, he framed the entire ritual law of the Romans, including regulations for the priesthood and for the prayers and worship of the people. His tran- quil reign is said to have lasted forty years ; the temple of Janus, which he had erected, and ordained to be open in time of war, and shut in peace, remained closed during the entire period, and his pious example diifused the blessings of tranquillity throughout the whole Italian pe- ninsula. He died of old age (b. c. 679) ; and the legend adds, that the nymph Egeria, through grief lor his loss, melted into a fountain. After an interregnum, as in the former case, Tul'lus Hostil'ius, the son of a Roman captain who had been eminently distinguished by his valor in the wars of Rom'ulus, was chosen king. The history of his reign, though still retaining much of legendary fiction, especially in the account of the Alban war, contains some circumstances that may be regarded as facts. In the very beginning of his reign, mutual acts of violence led to a war between the Romans and Albans. The armies of both cities were drawn up against each other at the Fos'sa CluiJ'ia, where it was agreed to avert a battle by a combat between three brothers on each side, the Horatii and Curiatii, whose mothers were sisters, and had each brought three children into the world at a birth. The three Curiatii and two of the Horatii fell upon the field. The survivnig Horatius sullied his victory by slaying his sister, who was bewailing the death of her cousin, to whom she had been betrothed ; and was about to be executed by Tul'lus, but he appealed to the peo- ple, and the Romans unanimously insisted on the pardon of their chain- pion. In consequence of the previous agreement, Al'ba became subject to Rome. Tul'lus next engaged ii- war with the Fiden'ates, and summoned his new vassals to his aid. Me /tins Fufietius, the Alban dictator, broka bis faith with the Romans, but had not courage to complete his defec 204 ANCIENT HISTORY. don. His meditated treachery was punished with death. Soon after- ward the Romans surprised Al'ba, and levelled it to the ground, sparing only the temples of the gods ; no injury, however, was done to the cit- izens ; they were removed to Rome, and habitations assigned them on the CcElian hill. The destruction of Al'ba, and the settlement of ita citizens on the Coelian hill, may be regarded as historical facts ; the other circumstances arc clearly disguised by poetic fiction. After the conquest of Al'ba, Tul'lus waged successful wtrs against the Latins and Sabines ; but he was cut off in the midst of his victori- ous career (b. c. 640), by some superstitious experiments recommended to him as a remedy for sickness, which the legends declare brought down upon him the vengeful thunderbolts of the gods. An'cus Mar'tius, said to have been the grandson of Numa, was the next king. Like his ancestor, he turned his attention to the regulation of religious ceremonies, especially those used in declaring war or pro- claiming peace ; he also caused the principal parts of the Roman ritual to be transcribed on tables, that all might know how to conduct them- .lelves in public or private worship. His peaceful labors were inter- rupted by a war with the Latins, whom he subdued, and carried several thousands of them to Rome, where they were assigned settlements on Mount Aventine. His conquests were extended into Etruria and along both banks of the Tiber to the sea. He founded the town and port of Os'tia at the mouth of the river ; but it is probable that this first naval establishment of the Romans was intended rather for piracy than trade. Nor did he pay less attention to the city than to its dominions ; a new line of fortifications, the first bridge over the Tiber, and the first public prison, now the oldest remaining monument in Rome, are generally ascribed to An'cus. Of still greater importance was his legal constitu- tion of the plebeian order in the state, and the assignment of lands to this body from the conquered territories. His death (b. c. 618) is said by some authors to have been accelerated by violence. We now approach one of the most important, but also one of the most obscure, periods in the early history of Rome ; the reigns of Tarquin'- ius Pris'cus and his son-in-law Ser'vius Tul'lius. Lucius Tarquin'ius Pris'cT 5 is said to have been the son of Damaratus, one of the Bac'- chiads, who fled from Corinth to avoid the vengeance of Cyp'selus, Niebuhr has pointed out the many chronological difficulties involved in this statement, but these do not furnish sufficient reason for rejecting the legend altogether : by the simple change of " son" into " descendant," by no means an improbable substitution, the truth of the story is brought •within the verge of possibility. His original name is said to have been Lucumo ; this we know to have been an Etrurian title of .iignity ; and if we understand by it that he held a magisterial office in his native coimtry, it will explain the respect with which he was received at Rome, and the trust reposed in him by An'cus. He is said to have re moved from Tarquin'ii, his native city, partly beccuse his foreign de- scent exposed him to envy, and partly at the instigation of his wife Tan'aquil, who was celebrated for her skill in augury. With this his- tory there seems to be intermingled the traditions respecting Coe'les Vi- ben'na, a leader of independent companies, who hired his soldiers as ROMAN REPUBLIC. 205 mercenaries in the Tuscan wars, and finally came and settled at Rome with his tbllowers in an uncertain age. Tarquia'ius Pris'cus was appointed guardian of the young sons of An'cus ; hut by his influence with the people, he had lue claims of these princes set aside, and was himself chosen king. He introduced many Etrurian customs and ceremonies into Rome, especially those connected with the dignities of kings and magistrates. The accounts of his wars with the Etruscans, Latins, and Sabines, are very contra- dictory ; but it seems not improbable tliat, toward the close of his reign, these three nations acknowledged his supremacy. His victory over the Sabines was owing to his superiority in cavalry. It had been ori- ginally his intention to add three new centuries to the equestrian order; but this plan was opposed by the celebrated augur, At'tus Ns'vius, whose authority, in an age of superstition, rivalled that of the kings. A mode was found for reconciling the opponents ; new centuries were established, but no addition was made to the names assigned by Rom'- ulus ; so that henceforward there were the first and sectnd Ram'nes, Titxes, and Luceres. But Tar'quin's name is rendered still more mem- orable by the stupendous public works he commenced for the security and improvement of the city, especially the great sewers, the embank- ments of the Tiber ; the foundation of the city walls, the porticoes in the forum, and the racecourse of the circus. To console the people under their toils, he instituted the great or Roman games, which were celebrated annually in September. At these games chariot-races were for the first time displayed at Rome ; they were so highly approved by the Roman people, that they became the most popular exhibition on all festive occasions. Tarquin'ius is said to have reigned thirty-eight years, Avhen he was assassinated by the agents of the sons of An'cus Mar'tius (b. c. 578), who dreaded that he would bequeath the kingdom to his son-in-law, Ser'vius Tul'lius, the darling of the Roman people. Ser'vius Tul'lius for some days concealed the fact of Tar'quin's death ; but when he had secured the votes of the people, he made it public, and having convened an assembly to elect a sovereign, was unanimously chosen king. In the old legends, the birth of Ser'vius Tut'lius is described as equally marvellous and humble. His mother was said to have been a captive named Ocresia ; his father, a deity. While yet an infant, sleeping in the cradle, lambent flames playing round his forehead, predicted his future greatness ; and Tan'aquil, en- couraged by the omen, had him brought up in the palace as a prince., and gave him her daughter in marriage. Opposed to this is the testi- mony of the emperor Claudius Caesar, derived from lost Tuscan authori- ties. In a speech, recommending some Lugdunensian Gauls for ad- mission into the senate, he says, " Ser'vius Tul'lius, according to the Latin authorities, was the son of the capti\e Ocresia ; but if we pay any regard to the Tuscans, he was the most faithful follower of Cca'les Viben'na, and a sharer in his varied adventures. When harassed by the vicissitudes of fortune, he quitted Etruria with the remains of the army that Coe'les had commanded. He occupied the Coelian mount, which he thus named in honor of his old commander. In Tuscany he was called Mastar'na, but he exchanged this for the Roman name Ser'- 806 ANCIENT HISTORY. vius TuI'lius. Having been chosen king, he exercised his authority te the highest advantage of the state." Though Ser'vius waged several successful wars, his military fame was far inferior to his poUtical glory ; for his institutions not only laid the foundation, but completed uhe frame- work of the future republic. He formed a federal union between the Latin cities, placing Rome at the head of the league, and cemented the union by instituting common sacrifices for the united states on Mount Aventine. Of still greater importance was his institution of the census, or record of the property possessed by the citizens, and his distribution of the right of suffrage {comilia centuridta) to centuries arranged accordmg to the prop- erty of the six classes into which the census divided the people. All his laws were designed to secure free and equal government, and an impartial administration of justice. His wise and beneficent laws were received by the patricians with suUenness and anger ; they were indignant at the restraints imposed upon their tyranny and exactions ; accordingly they entered into a conspiracy with Liicius Tarquin'ius, the son of the late monarch, who had married the daughter of Ser'vius. The plot exploded in the senate-house : the aged king was murdered, and his body flung into the streets (b. c. 535). Tul'lia, his wicked daughter in her haste to congratulate Tar'quin on his success, drove her chariot over her father's corpse, and proceeded onward, though her vest was stained with his blood. Tar'quin, surnamed the Proud, was raised to the throne by the pa- tricians, without the assent of the people being asked. In the history given of his reign, it is scarcely possible to separate what is merely legendary from what is worthy of credit ; but it seems pretty certain that he gratified his supporters by diminishing the privileges of the ple- beian order, and that he soon after made the patricians themselves feel the weight of his tyranny. He confirmed the supremacy of Rome Dver the Latins, united the Hernicans to the confederation by treaty, and gained several advantages over the Vol'sci. While the tyrant was besieging Ardea, his son Sex'tus violated the honor of Lucretia, a noble Roman lady. She summoned her relatives, and, having informed them of the outrage, committed suicide. Lucius Junius Brutus, who up to this time is said to have concealed patriotic resolutions under the mask of pretended insanity, though he held an important magistracy, convoked an assembly of the people, and exhibited the bleeding body of Lucretia to the multitude (b. c. 509). A decree was immediately passed for expelling the Tar'quins and abolishing royalty. The army sent in its adhesion, and Tar'quin, finding himself universally sbmned, fled into Etruria. Section HL — From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the City by the Gauls. FROM B. c. 509 TO B. c. 386. The abolition of royalty was a purely patrician revolution, from which the great body of the people gained no immediate advantage. Two annual magistrates, at first called prajtors, but afterward consuls, chosen from the patrician ranks, inherited the entire royal power, but did aot, lik3 the kings, possess any priestly dignity. The first magistrates ROMAN REPUBLIC. 207 elected under the new system were Brutus, and Collatinus, the hus- band of Lucretia. Scarcely had they entered on their office, when ambassadors arrived from Etruria to plead the cause of Tar'quin. Though these deputies met with no public success, they were enabled to organize a conspiracy among the younger patricians, who had shared in the tyrant's debaucheries ; and amoKg the accomplices of the plot, were the sons of Brutus and the nephews of Tar'quin. The plans of the conspirators were accidentally overheard by a slave, concealed in the apartment where they assembled, and information of the treason given to the consuls. Public duty triumphed over parental affection : Brutus not only pronounced sentence of death upon his sons, but wit- nessed their execution without shedding a tear. The property of the Tarquin'ii was confiscated ; the whole family condemned to perpetual banishment ; and the consul, Collatinus, w ose relationship to the late family excited suspicion, was included in the sentence. Pub'lius Vale- rius was elected to the vacant magistracy. Soon after, in an engage- ment between the Etruscans and Romans, An'cus the eldest son of Tar'quin, and Brutus, fell by mutual wounds ; but the victory was decided in favor of the young republic. Valerius delayed some time before proceeding to the election of a new colleague. This circumstance, and a splendid house he was erecting on one of the Roman hills, inspired a suspicion that he was aiming at royalty. To prove his innocence, he demolished the build- ing, proposed laws for restraining the consular power, and resigned the ensigns of his dignity to Spurius Lucretius. For his patriotic conduct, Valerius was honored with the surname Pop'licola [a friend of the peo- ple). In the following year Valerius and Horatius were chosen con- suls, the latter of whom had the honor of dedicating the national tem- ple of Jupiter Capitolinus. In this sanctuary were preserved the Sibylline oracles, and the records of the pontiffs and augurs. To the first year after the banishment of the Tar'quins belong the celebrated lex de provocatione (law of appeal), and the first treaty between Rome and Carthage. The patricians had always the right of appeal from the sentence of the supreme magistrate to the general council of their own body : a similar right of trial by their peers was secured to the plebeians by the law of Valerius Pop'licola, to which the senate seems to have yielded a very ungracious assent.* The treaty with Carthage shows how extensive the possessions of Rome had been under the monarchy: Ardea, An'tium, Aricia, Circeii, and Terracina, are enumerated as subject cities, and Rome stipulates for them as well as herself. From these historical facts, we now turn to a legendary narrative, in which truth is so blended with fiction, that it is impossible to determine more than one or two circumstances on which any reliance can be placed. After their former defeat, the Tarquin'ii had recourse to the aid of Lar Porsen^na, king of Cliisium, the most powerful of the Tus- can princes, who at once led an overwhelming force to the Janic'ulum a fortified hill on the north bank of the Tiber, joined to the city by a • The Valerian law was imperfect in its sanction; there wrs no other penaltj to enforce il than the declaration that he who violated it acted wrongly. 208 ANCIENT HISTORY. wooden bridge. The Romans were defeated, and fled over the bridge , the enemy would have gained admission into the city along with the fugitives, had not Horatius Cockles, with two companions, defended the entrance of the bridge until it was broken down behind him, when he leaped into the Tiber, and swam safely to his friends. As a mark of gratitude, every citizen, during the famine caused by the subsequent sie^e, brought him a portion of provision ; a statue was erected to him at the expense of the republic, and as much land was bestowed upon him as he could plough round in a day. Porsen'na continuing to blockade the city, a youth, named Caius Mucins, undertook, with the approbation of the senate, the task of assassinating the invading king. He entered the camp in disguise, but slew only a secretary instead of Porsen'na. When brought before that monarch, to show his contempt for tortures, he thrust his right hand into a fire that burned upon the altar, and held it there until it was consumed. The king, admiring such heroism, gave him his life and liberty : Mucins, in gratitude, informed him that three hundred Roman youths had similarly swon-i his destruction ; and Porsen'na, alarmed for his life, immediately offered terms of peace to the Romans. In memory of his daring exploit. Mu- cins was thenceforth named ScasVola [hft-handcd), and was rewarded as munificently as Coc'les. Hostages were given by the Romans for the due performance of the treaty ; and the legend relates that one of them, a noble lady named Clce'lia, won the admiration of Porsen'na by escaping from her guards, and swimming on horseback over the Tiber, amid a shower of darts hurled at her by her baffled pursuers. The aid which the Romans subsequently afforded Porsen'na when he was defeated before Aricia, induced him to render back the territory which had been yielded to him as part of the price of the peace. Thus far the legend : but there is certain evidence that, in this war, the Romans surrendered their city and became tributary to the Tus- cans, and it is probable that they embraced the opportunity afforded them by the defeat of Porsen'na in Latium, to regain their indepen- dence. A war with the Sabines, who wished to take advantage of the weak- ened condition of the republic, followed. It was chiefly remarkable for the migration of At'tus Clausus, a noble Sabine, with all the mem- bers and clients of his house, to Rome. There he changed his name to Ap'pius Claudius, and founded one of the most distinguished fami- lies of the republic. Though they lost their able leader, Pop''licola, the Romans were victorious in three successive campaigns ; and the Sabines were forced to purchase peace with corn, money, and a part of their lands. Tar'quin's son-in-law, Mamil'lus, induced the Latins to arm them- selves in behalf of the exiled king, taking advantage of the violent dis- putes that raged between the patricians and plebeians respecting the law of debt. Ever since the expulsion of the king, the Roman nobles, after the abolition of royalty, had, by a series of iniquitous measures, usurped the most fertile portion of the conquered lands, which they leased out to the plebeians. Having thus the monopoly of the only nroperty existing at the period, they became the sole capitalists of the republic, and lent out money at an exorbitant rate of usury. By the ROMAN IIEPUBLIU. 209 Roman faw, those who were unable to discharge their debts became slav'es 10 their creditors {nrxi), and were subj'^ct to whatever punish- ment barbarous masters pleased to inflict. Goaded to madness by theii wrongs, the plebeians refused to enlist in defence of their country until iheir grievances were redressed. The reasonable demands of the peo- ple were strenuously supported in the senate by Mar'cus Valerius, the brother of Pop'licola ; but they were obstinately opposed by Ap'pius Claudius, whose haughty and selfish counsels had a predominant effect on a short-sighted aristocracy. After long delay it was resolved to elect a single supreme magistrate, with the title of dictator, and invest him with absolute authority (b. c. 497). The people assented to the law ; and Titus Lar'tius, one of the consuls, was apj,x)inted to the new office. After having ravaged the territories of the enemy, he dismissed all his prisoners vv^ithout ransom ; and this generosity so gratified the Latins, that they agreed upon a suspension of arms. When the truce was expired, war again commenced, and the senate again appointed a dictator. Aulus Posthumius, the second dictator, encountered the Latins at the lake of RegiFlus, and inflicted on them a decisive defeat. Tar'quin, thus frustrated in his last hope, retired to Cuma;, in Campania, where he soon after died in exile. While Tarquin'ius excited alarm, and the wars with Latium and Etrii- ria continued, the senate ruled with some show of justice and modera- tion. But when danger was passed, the patriciaii-? began to treat the plebeians as slaves. To the palace of every noble was attached a pris- on for debtors ; and, in seasons of distress, after the sittings of the courts, herds of sentenced slaves were led away in chains to the private jails of the patricians. At length the plebeian armies, after having been frequently deceived by false promises, deserted their officers in he very midst of war, and marched in a body to a hill called Mons Sa- cer, on the river A'nio, within three miles of Rome, where they were joined by vast multitudes of their discontented brethren (b. c. 493). The patricians and their clients took up arms ; their numbers were not contemptible ; but, unaccustomed to militaiy service, they dared not en- counter a peasantry inured to warfare. The pressure of foreign enemies rendered an accommodation necessary ; ten senators were sent to nego- tiate a peace with the plebeians, and a treaty was concluded, by which all the contracts of insolvent debtors were cancelled, those who had been reduced to slavery were set at liberty, the Valerian laws were restoreeJ to tlieir former eflicacy, and five annual magistrates were chosen to watch- over the rights of the people, whose persons were declared to be invi- olable. In the same year a league was made with the Latins, not, as be- fore, on the basis of Roman superiority, but on terms of perfect equality. A similar federation was subsequently made with the Hernicans ; and both these treaties prove indisputably, that the disturbances produced by aristocratic tyranny, subsequent to the abolition of royalty, had seriously diminished the Roman power. These losses began to be retrieved by successful wars against the ^quians and Volscians. The common histories of this period are fuU of extraordinary difllculties and contradictions; the accounts extracted from them must, therefore, be received with the suspicion that necessa- rily attaches to all traditionary legends. We are informed, that the sue* 14 210 AN JIENT HISTORY, cess of ihe Volscian war was mainly owing to a young nobleman, Caius Mar'ciuSjWho acquired the surname of Coriolanus, from his conduct at the capture of Corioli. Soon after, Rome suffered grievously by a fam- ine ; but a Sicilian prince, hearing of the dearth, sent a large supply of corn to relieve the distresses of the citizens. Coriolanus proposed in the senate that this corn should not be distributed to the poor until the plebeians had resigned all the privileges they had acquired by their re- cent secession. For this detestable attempt he was impeached by the tribunes (b. c. 490), and brought to trial before that form of assembly icomitia tiihuta), in which the plebeians had the superiority, lie was condemned to exile, and in his rage joined the Vol'sci. Guided by his superior talents, the Volscians defeated the Romans in every engage- ment, and at length laid siege to the city. Rome must have fallen, had not Veturia the mother, and Volumniathe wife of Coriolanus, prevailed upon the enraged exile to grant his countrymen terms of peace. On his return to the Volscian territories he was put to death in a tumult raised by Attius Tul'lius, a celebrated chief of the Vol'sci, who envied the fame of Coriolanus, and persuaded his countrymen that the illustri- ous exile had betrayed them. An opposing tradition is recorded by several historians, namely, that Coriolanus lived to a very advanced age, and often used to exclaim, " How miserable is the state of an old man in banishment !" It is impossible to ascertain which deserves the great- er credit ; but it is sufficiently manifest that the history of Coriolanus is not to be received without a considerable share of skepticism. The Vol'sci, after the death of Coriolanus, lost rapidly all the advan- tages they had acquired, and were besides involved in a war with the iE'qui, their former allies. But the Romans could not avail themselves of these favorable circumstances, being harassed by disputes respecting the agrarian law proposed by Spiirius Cas'sius. The general purport of the law was, that lands conquered from the enemy should be divided into small estates, and assigned to the plebeians, instead of being leased out in large portions to the patricians. This appears to have been mere- ly a revival of the ancient constitution of Servius, and was obviously based in equity ; for no persons bad a better claim to the public lands than those by whose valor and labors they had been acquired. The senate and patricians obstinately opposed a project that threatened to destroy the source of their profits ; and Spiirius Cas'sius, in his anxiety to accomplish his great objects, is said to have aimed at royalty. He was brought to trial on this charge before the collective body of the pa- tricians, which has been oy later writers confounded with the general assembly of the people (b. c. 484). He was convicted, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock. Another account of the death of Cas'sius has been given by some historians not unworthy of credit. They inform us that he was put to death by his own father as a traitor to his order. There are few circumstances in Roman history more remarkable than that during seven consecutive years (from b. c. 483 to b. c. 479),one of the seats in the consulship was held by some member oi the Ftbian family. This arose from the powerful sup^wrt wliich that family gave to the older patrician houses in their offort to monopolize the chief digni- ties. Civil dissensions were thus aggravated ; the populace demanded an agrarian law ; the minoj.- patrician houses clamored for a share in the ROMAN REPUBLIC. 21 i honors of the state ; and the senate could only evade the difficulty by keeping the nation constantly involved in war. At length the soldiers refused to conquer ; and Cse'so Fubius had the mortification to see a certain victory wrested from his hands by the determination of his fol- lowers not to pursue their advantages. This unexpected disgrace had such an effect on the Fubii, that they resolved to conciliate the favor of the commonalty, and declared themselves the patrons of popular meas- ures. They thus lost the favor of the senate ; and though the affection of the soldiers enabled them to acquire military glory, they were unable to cairy any of the measures that they advocated. Weary of disap- pointment, they resolved to establish a cofony of the members of theijr family, their clients, and dependants, on the frontiers, to guard the Ro- man territories from the Vireir'tes. The number of persons capable of bearing arms mustered by this single house amounted to three hundred and six. They took post on the Crem'era, where they were all cut off' by the Etrurians (b. c. 476). It is said that only one young man of the Fabii escaped Irom this ruin of his family, and became the progenitor of a new race ; but this is manifestly an exaggeration. The Etruscans, following up their success, advanced within sight of Rome, formed a camp on the Janic'ulum, ravaged both sides of the river, and crowded the city with fugitives. The consuls, Virgin'ius and Ser- vil'ius, at length attacked the enemy in different quarters, and, after a desperate battle, forced them to retreat. From this time fortune began to favor the Romans, probably on account of the Etrurians being engaged in war with HIero, Idng of Syracuse ; and peace was at length conclu- ded for forty years (b. c. 470). Niebuhr conjectures, with apparent plausibility, that it was at this time the Romans recovered the territory of which they had been deprived by Porsen'na. In the year after the conclusion of the peace, Cneius Gemicius, trib- une of the people, impeached the consuls, Fiirius and Man'lius, before the general assembly of the commonalty, for refusing to give effect to the agi-arian law. The consuls made a feeble defence ; and the patri- cians, failing to bribe or intimidate the bold tribune, had him assassin- ated. Taknig advantage of the consternation produced by this daring crime, the consuls ordered a general levy, intending to divert the peo- ple from their purpose of engaging them in foreign war. This plan would have succeeded, had not the refusal of one man, Vol'ero Pub'lius, to serve in the ranks, after having previously held the commission of centurion, led to a fierce commotion, which frustrated the consular plans. Vol'ero, being chosen tribune by his countrymen, instead of seeking personal revenge, by impeaching the consuls, struck a fatal blow at the supremacy of the patrician faction, by transferring the election of the tribunes from the centuries to the tribes, and establishing the right of the general assembly of the commonalty to deliberate on all matters affecting the common weal, which should be brought before them by the tribunes ; a law which was in effect the same as the establishment of the liberty of the press in our own days. While these laws were undei discussion, the consul, Ap'pius Claudius, was pre-eminently distinguish- ed by his opposition to the popular claims ; and when they were extort- fneiit of three hundred and thirty ships was prepared for this great en- terprise, and intrusted to the command of the consuls Reg'ulus and Man'lius (b. c. 255). A third sea-fight was a necessary preliminary to Ciis invasion ; the Carthaginians were once more defeated, sixty-four of their galleys were taken, and thirty destroyed. The victorious fleet pursued its voyage ; Reg'ulus effected a landing without loss, and took the city of Clypea by storm. Soon after, he defeated the Carthaginian army in a general engagement, and seized the city of Tunis. In great terror the Carthaginians sought for peace ; but the terms demanded by Reg'ulus were so harsh, that they resolved, at all hazards, to continue the war, and were confirmed in their determination by the arr:val of a body of mercenary troops from Greece, under the command of Xanthip'- pus, a Spartan general of high reputation. To this foreigner the Car- thaginians intrusted the command of their army : he eagerly sought an opportunity of brmging the enemy to an engagement ; the Romans did not decline hi.«' challenge ; but they found that one man was sufficient to change the fortune of the war. Xanthip'pus won a complete vic- tory : the greater part of the Romans were taken prisoners or cut to pieces, two thousand alone escaping to the city of Clypea ; Reg'ulus himself was among the captives. The Spartan general, after this brilliant exploit, returned home. A Roman fleet was sent to bring off" the garrison of Clypea, and gained on the voyage a great victory over the Carthaginians ; but on the re- turn of the ships, three hundred and twenty of them, with all on board, were destroyed by a tempest. A second naval armament suff'ered a similar fate ; and the Romans, disheartened by these repeated misfor- tunes, abandoned for a time the sea to their enemies. But they were in some degree consoled by a second triumph obtained near Panor'mus, in Sicily, over As'drubal (b. c. 249), which gave them a decided supe- riority in the island. The Carthaginians, daunted by this misfortune, took Reg'ulus from his dungeon to go as their ambassador to Rome, trusting that, weary of a long captivity, he would urge the senate to grant favorable terms of peace. Reg'ulus, however, persuaded his countrymen to continue the war, assuring them that the resources of Carthage were exhausted. It is generally stated, that the patriotic general, after his return to Africa, was tortured to death by the disappointed Carthaginians. On the other hand, there is reason lo believe that he died a natural death, and that the tale of his savage murder was invented to excuse the cruelty w 'h which his family treated their Carthaginian captives. The renewed war began unfavorably for the Romans, their entire fleet having been wrecked on the south coast of Sicily (b. c. 248), and Hamil'car Bar'ca, the new commander of the Carthaginians, proving a worthy successor of Xanthip'pus. But they were not dispirited by these losses ; a new fleet, of better construction than any they had yet possessed, was built, and placed under the command of the consul Lutatius Cat'ulus ; at the same time strong reinforcements were sent to the army in Sicily. The hostile navies met near the vEgates ; the consul had lightened his ves- sels by landing all unnecessar)' burdens on one of these islands ; but Han' no, the Carthaginian admiral, in his hurry to engage, left liis ves- ROMAN REPUBLIC. 221 sels er cumbered with baggage. The battle was brief but decisive; fifty of Han'no's vessels were sunk, and seventy taken ; and the Car- thaginians were for ever deprived of the empire of the sea (b. c. 241). But the consequences of this defeat threatened still more fatal results to Carthage : Hamil'car Bar'ca, with the last army on which the re- public could depend, was closely blockaded hi a corner of Sicily, and the Roman cruisers cut him off from all communication with AlVica : were he forced to surrender, Carthage would be left at the mercy of the barbarous tribes in its neighborhood. Under these circumstances the Carthaginians sought peace, but could obtain no better terms than those which 'Reg'ulus demanded when in sight of their gates (b. c.210). These conditions were, that the Carthaginians should evacuate all the islands of the Mediterranean, restore the Roman prisoners without ransom, and pay three thousand talents of silver (about 600,000''.) to defray the expenses of the war. After the termination of the first Punic war, Rome enjoyed a brief period of domestic and external tranquillity ; and the temple of Janus was shut for the second time since the foundation of the city. Tedious ■wars were waged against the Ligurians and the Gallic tribes which had settled in northern Italy, when the people became weary of peace ; but a more important contest was provoked by the piracies of the Illyrians, whose queen, Teiita, procured the murder of the ambassadors sent to remonstrate against the outrages of her subjects. A navy was soon estabUshed in the Adriatic, and an army sent into lUyricum, whoso rapid successes compelled Teiita to purchase peace by resigning the greater part of her territories (b. c. 227). This speedy conquest diffused the fame of the Romans throughout eastern Europe ; for most of the Greek states had suffered severely from the piracies of the Illyrians. The war was subsevjuently renewed (b. c. 218), and the Illyrians again overthrown with greater disgrace and loss. The Carthaginians were anxious to compensate their losses in Sicily by the subjugation of Spain ; and their extensive conquests in that pen- insula gave great umbrage to their suspicious rivals. A pretext for in terference was soon found. Han'nibal, the son of Hamil'car Bar'ca, who had been brought, while yet a child, to the altar by his father, and sworn 1 ever to relax in his enmity to Rome, laid siege to Sagun^tum, a Greek colony south of the Iberus, and treated with contempt the re- monstrances of the Roman ambassadors (e. c. 218). His conduct hav- ing been approved by the Carthaginian senate, both parties made instant preparations for renewing hostilities, and soon commenced the secoM Punic war. Before tlie Roman armies were ready to take the field, Han'nibal had completed the conquest of Spain, and crossed the Pyrenees on. his road to Italy. The consul, Scip'io, hastened to prevent him from passing the Rhone ; but being frustrated by the superior diligence of the Car- thaginian general, he sent the greater part of his forces into Spain, and sailed with the remainder for Italy, in order to intercept his enemies as they descended from the Alps. Even ihese formidable mountains caused but little delay to the enterprising Han'nibal. He led his army across them in fifteen days (b. c. 217); and, advancing through the country of the Tauri'ni, took their capital city (TvnVi) by storm. 222 ANCIENT HISTORY. Scip'io hasted to meet the invaders on the banks of the river Ticinus ; bat he was defeated w^ith great loss, and further weakened by the de- sertion of his Gallic mercenaries, who eagerly flocked to the standard of Han'nibal, regarding him as another Bren'nus. In the meantime, Scip'io had been reinforced by Sempronius, the other uonsul ; but he found that these succors were more than counter- balanced by the impetuosity of his colleague. Sempronius, eager to engage, imprudently forded the river Trebia, though its waters were swollen by rain and melted snow. The Romans, suddenly attacked as they came out of the river, were not able to cope with their enemies, who were fresh and vigorous ; nevertheless they made a brave resist- ance, and the central division, unbroken, made its way from the field to the city of Placeii'tia. The victory, however, was of the greatest ser- vice to Han'nibal, as it secured him the alliance of the Gauls in north- ern Italy. Flanun'ius, the consul of the next year, displayed eve.i more impet- uosity and imprudence than Sempronius. Marching incautiously in search of Han'nibal, lie fell into an ambuscade near the Thrasyraenian lake, and was slain, with the greater part of his army (b. c. 216). The Romans were so alarmed by the intelligence of this great calamity, that they created Fabius Max'imus dictator, though, in the absence of the surviving consul, they were obliged to dispense with the legal for- malities. Fabius adopted a new system of tactics ; he declined fight- ing ; but moving his camp along the summit of the hills, he closely watched the motions of the invaders, harassed their march, and inter- cepted their convoys. From his steadfast adherence to this policy Fabius received the name of Cunctator (^Ike delayer). During this pe- riod, the Roman armies in Spain, imder the command of the Scip'ios, gained many important advantages, and thus prevented the Carthagini - ans from sending succors to Han'nibal. At the close of the year, Fabius resigned his authority to the consuls Paul'lus iEmirius and Teren'tius Var'ro (b. c. 215). The latter hur- ried I'is more prudent colleague into a general action at the village of Can'na?, near the river Aufidus, where the Romans suff'ered a more se- vere defeat than any they had received since their fatal overthrow by the Gauls on the APlia. This victory gave Han'nibal a secure position in southern Italy : it is even supposed, that he would have got posses- sion of Rome itself, had he marched thither immediately after the battle. But the Romans, notwithstanding their great losses, did not despair . Scip'io, a young man destined at no distant period to raise liis country to the summit of greatness, encouraged the nobles of his own age to stand firm at this crisis ; and Fabius Cunctator being appointed to the command of the army, resumed the cautious system, the advantages of which had been already so fully proved. Han'nibal, in the meantime, led his forces to Cap'ua, where his veterans were enervated by the lux- ury and debauchery of that licentious city. At the same time he con- cluded an alliance with Philip, king u^ Macedon ; but the Romans, by their intrigues in Greece, found sufficient employment for that monarch at home, to prevent his interference in the afl'airs of Italy. They ever, sent an army against him, under the command of the praetor Latvimus. nOMAN REPUBLIC. 223 and thus, though exposed to such danger in Italy, they maintained a vig- orous contest in Greece, Spain, and Sicily. It was in Sicily that success first began to dawn upon the Roman cause (b. c. 212) : the ancient city of Syracuse was taken by the prae- tor Marcel'lus; and the celebrated mathematician, Archime'des, by whose engines the defence had been protracted, was slain in the storm. Two years afterward, Agrigen'tum, the last stronghold of the Carthaginians, was betrayed to Lsevinus ; and the Romans remained masters of the entire island, which henceforth became a regular province. In the meantime the war lingered in Italy ; the Roman generals were rarely able to cope with Han'nibal, though Marcel'lus is said to have gained a general battle over the Carthaginians. On the otlier hand, Han'nibal, receiving no reinforcements from Carthage, feared to peril his limited resources in any decisive enterprise. At length he sum- moned his brother As'drubal, who had long maintained the Carthaginian cause against the Scipios in Spain, to join him in Italy ; and As'drubal, without encounterhig any great difficulty, soon crossed the Pyrenees and Alps. The consuls, Liv'ius and Nero, having discovered the di- rection of the Carthaginian's march, hastened to intercept him. As'- drubal, misled by his guides, was forced to hazard an engagement at a disadvantage on the banks of the Metaiirus, and was cut to pieces with his whole army (b. c. 206). The first information Han'nibal received of this great misfortune, was the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. Soon after, the Romans alarmed the Carthaginians by the prospect of a war in Africa, having en- tered into a treaty of alliance with Massinis'sa, the legitimate king of Numidia, and also with the usurper Sy'phax. At length Scip'io, the conqueror of Spain, was chosen consul, and, contrary to the strenuous exertions of Fabius, he prevailed upon the sen- ate to permit him to transfer the war into Africa ; and this was the more readily conceded, as the conclusion of peace with Philip (b. c. 203) had placed a fresh army at their disposal. Scip'io, on landing in Africa (b. c. 202), found that Sy'phax had been won over to the Carthaginian side by his wife Sophonis'ba, the daughter of As'drubal. The Roman general, knowing, hoM^ever the inconstancy of the Numidian, com- menced negotiations, which were protracted with equal duplicity. While Sy'phax was thus amused, Scip'io suddenly surprised and burned his camp ; then attacking the Numidians in the midst of the confusion, he put forty thousand of them to the sword. After this achievement, Scij/io laid siege to U'tica : the Carthaginians raised a large army to relieve a place of so much importance ; but they were routed with great slaughter, and pursued to their very walls. This victory exposed Car- thage itself to the perils of a siege ; Tunis, ahi. >st within sight of the city, opened its ga'es to ihe Rg nu-,s ; at 1 the Carthaginian senate driv- en almost to despair, recalled Han'nibal from Italy to the defence of hia own country. Ha;''n'bal,on his return home, would have made peace on reasonable terms, had not the Carthaginian populace, elated by the presence of the hero of a hundred fights, obstinately resisted any concession. With a heavy heart the brave old general made preparations for a decisive en- gagement in the field of Ziima. Han'nibal's abilities were not less con- 224 ANCIENT HISTORY. spicuous in ibis fatal fight than in the battles he had won in Italy : but the greater part of his forces were raw troops, unfit to cope with Scip- io's disciplined legions. After a dreadful struggle, the Romans prevail- ed, and they followed up their advantages with so much eagerness, that twenty thousand of the Carthaginians fell in the battle or the pursuit. Han'nibal, after having performed everything that a general or brave soldier could do to restore the fortune of the day, fled with a small body of horse to Adrumetum, whence he was soon summoned to Carthage to assist the tottering republic with his counsels (b. c. 201). There he informed the senate that " Carthage had no resource but in peace ;" and these words, from the mouth of the warlike Han'nibal, were decisive. Ambassadors were sent to seek conditions from the conqueror ; and the humbled Carthaginians accepted the terms of peace dictated by Scipio. who henceforward was honored with the title of Africanus. The chief articles of the treaty were, that Carthage should deliver up to tlie Romans all their deserters, fugitive slaves, and prisoners-of-war ; sur- render all her ships-of-the-line, except ten triremes, and all her ele- phants ; restore Numidia to Massinis'sa : enter into no war without the permission of the Roman people ; pay as a ransom ten thousand talents of silver (about two millions sterling) : and give one hundred hostages for the performance of the treaty. To these harsh terms the Cartha- ginians sul)scribed : Scip'io returned home, and was honored with the most magnificent triumph that had yet been exhibited in Rome. Rome was now become a great military republic, supreme in western Europe, and commanding a preponderating influence in the east, where the kingdoms formed from the fragments of Alexander's empire had sunk into weakness from the exhaustion of mutual wars. The Athenians, exposed to the attacks of Philip, king of Macedon, sought the protection of the Romans, which was readily granted, as the senate had long been anxious to find a pretext for meddling in the afl^airs of Greece (b. c. 200). War was declared against Philip, notwithstanding the opposition of the tribunes of the people ; and it was resolved to follow up Scipio's policy, by making the enemy's country the theatre of hostilities. An army was sent into Ma:;edonia, and its conduct was soon intrusted to Quin'- tius Flamin'ius, whose diplomatic skill was even more conspicuous than his military talents. After some minor engagements, in none of which did Philip evince much ability as a general or statesman, a decisive bat- tle was fought at Cynosceph'alse (b. c. 197), in which the Macedoni- ans were irretrievably overthrown, and forced to submit to such terms of peace as the conquerors pleased to dictate. This success was followed by the solemn mockery of proclaiming liberty to Greece at the Isthmian games, which filled the foolish spectators with so much delight, that they virtually became slaves to the Romans through gratitude for freedom. Antiochus, king of Syria, hoping to establish the empire of the Se- leucida? in the east, soon caused a renewal of the wars in Greece. Han'nibal was accused to the Romans by his treacherous countrymen of having secretly intrigued with this monarch ; and having reason to fear that he would be surrendered to his enemies, he fled to Antiochus in Asia. The great general, however, found that the vain-glorious Syr- ian was unable to comprehend his prudent plans for conducting the war, and had the mortification to find himself suspected of being secretly in ttuMAN REFUBLIC. 229 Iwaji ue with tho Romans. In the meantime the iEtolians, displeased by the policy which the Romans were pursuing, invited Aatioclius, into Eiiiopo ; and lliat mnuarrh, passing over into Greece, made himsell master of the ishuid of Euboc'a (b. c. 191). War was instantly de clared; the consul, Acil'ius Glabrio, appeared in Greece with a power- ful army ; he gained a signal victory over the Syrians at the straits of Thermop'yla2, and reduced the ^Etolians to such great extremities, that they were forced to beg a peace ; but the senate demanded such harsh conditions, that they resolved to endure the hazards of war a little longer (xi. c. 190). In the following year, the senate intrusted the conduct of the war to Lucius Scip'io, under whom his brother Africanus served as a lieuten- ant. Having soon tranquillized Greece, the two brothers passed into Asia : after many minor successes, they forced Aniiochus to a general battle near the city of Magnesia, in which that monaich was complete- ly overthrown (b. c. 189). He was forced to purchase peace by re- signing all his possessions in Europe, and those in Asia north of Mount Taurus ; paying a fine of fifteen thousand Euboean talents (about three millions sterling) ; and promising to give up Han'nibal. That illustri- ous exile fled for refuge to Prusias, king of Bith'ynia ; but finding that he was still pursued by the vindictive hatred of the Romans, he put an end to his life by taking poison, which, in anticipation of such an ex- tremity, he always carried with him concealed in a ring. On their return home, the Scip'ios were accused of having taken bribes from Antiochus and embezzling the public money (b. c. 186) Africanus refused to plead, preferring to go into voluntary exile at Li- ter'num, where he died. Lucius was condemned ; and on his refusal to pay the fine imposed, all his property was confiscated. About the same time Rome exhibited the first example of religious persecution : a seel called the Bacchanalians, having been accused of the most monstrous crimes, several laws were enacted for its extirpation ; but it is scarcely possible to discover how far the charges against this unfortunate society were supported by evidence. The mastery assumed by the Romans in Greece gave great and just ofience to the principal states ; but their yoke was felt by none so griev- ously as Per'ses, king of Macedon, who opened for himself a way to the throne by procuring the jur'icial murder of his brother Demetrius. Mu- tual complaints and recriminations soon led to open war (b. c. 170) Per'ses having collected his forces, entered Thessaly, captured several important towns, defeated a Roman army on the river Peneus, and wag joined by the greater part of the Epirote nation. His successes con- tinued until the Romans intrusted the conduct of the war to iEmil'ius Paul'lus, son of the general that had fallen in the battle of Can'nai, though he was past the age at which they usually sent out commanders. While the new general advanced against Macedon, the praetor Anciua invaded Illyr'icum, whose monarch had entered into alliance with Per* ses, and subdued the entire kingdom in the short space of thirty days. Per'ses being hard pressed, resolved to hazard a battle near the walls of Pyd'na (b. c. 168). After both armies had remairjed for some dava in sight of each other, an accident brought on an engagement contrary to the wishes of the leaders ; it ended in a complete victory of the Rt> 15 226 ANCIENT HISTORY. mans. Pe /ses fled to Samothrace, but was soon forced to surrender, and was reserved to grace the triumph of the conqueror. Maced-nn, Epirus, and Illyr^icum, were reduced to the condition of provinces, and it became evident that the independence of the remaining Grecian states would not long be respected. The triumph of yEmil'ius Paul'- lus was the most splendid which had been yet exhibited in Rome, and it became the precedent for the subsequent processions of victorious generals. The destruction of the Macedonian monarchy was soon followed by that of the miserable remains of the once proud republic of Carthage. To this war the Romans were stimulated by the rigid Cato, surnauKid the Cunsor, who was animated by his envy of Scip'io Nasica, on ac- count of his great inlluence in the senate, and by a haughty spirit of revenge for some slights which he imagined he had received from the Carthaginians when sent as ambassador to their state. The pretext for the war was some quarrels between the Carthaginians and the Numid- ians, in which, however, the former only acted upon the defensive. At first, the Carthaginians attempted to disarm their enemies by sub- mission ; they banished all who had incurred the displeasure of the Romans, and surrendered their arms and military stores to the consuls ; but when informed that they must abandon their city and consent to its demolition, they took courage from despair, and set their insulting foes at defiance (u. c. 148). They made the most vigorous exertions to supply the place of the weapons they had surrendered : men of every rank and station toiled night and day in the forges ; the women cut off their long hair, hitherto the great source of their pride, to furnish strings for the bows of the archers, and engines of the slingers ; and the ban- ished As'drubal was recalled to the defence of his country. From this unexpected display of courage and patriotism, the Romans found Carthage not quite so easy a conquest as they had anticipated : during the first two years of the war they suffered repeated disappoint- ments ; but at length they intrusted the command of their armies to Scip'io ^milianus, the adopted son of the great Africanus (b. c. 147). On his arrival in Africa Scip'io's first care was to restore the discipline of the soldiers, who had been allowed by their former commanders to indulge in dangerous licentiousness. His strictness and moderation won him the friendship of the African nations, and enabled him in his second campaign (b. :. 146) to press vigorously the siege of Carthage After a severe struggVe, the Romans forced an entrance into the city on the side of Cothon, or the port, and made themselves masters of the great wall. Thence Scip'io, with a large body of soldiers, cut his way to the principal square of the city, where he bivouacked all the follow- ing night. On the next morning the fight was renewed, and the whole city, except the citadel and the temple of iEsculapius, taken : sir days were spent in preparation for the siege of these strongholds ; but, on the seventh, the garrison in the citadel surrendered at discretion ; and the deserters in the temple of iEsculapius, setting fire to that building, perished in the flames. Scanty as are our limits, two incidents connected with the destruc- tion of this ancient commercial metropolis, so long the rival of Ronie for supi jraacy in the western world, must not be omitted. When Scip'io ROMAN REPUBLIC. 227 beheld Carthage in flames, his soul was softened by reilections on the instability of fortune, and he could not avoid anticipating a time when Rome herself should experience the same calamities as those which had befallen her unfortunate competitor. He vented his feehngs, by quoting from Homer, the well-known lines in wliich Hector predicts the fall of Troy :— « Yet come it will, the day decreed by fates ; (How my heart trembles, wliilc my tongue relates !) The day when tliou, imperial Troy, must bend, And see thy warriors fall, thy glories end." The second incident is still more ragic : As'drubal, the first mover of the war, had fled with the deserters, accompanied by his wife and children, to the temple of iEsculapius, but went over tc 'he Romans a little before the destruction of that edifice. While the fire was kindling, the wife of As'drubal, having decked herself in the best manner she could, appeared with her two children on the top of the temple, whence, calling out to Scip'io, she begged him to punish her husband according to his deserts, that traitor to his God, his country, and his lamily. Then directing her speech to As'drubal — " Thou wicked, perfidious wretch," she exc?aimed, " thou most cowardly of men ! This fire will quickly consume me and my children : but thou, once ruler of mighty Carthage, what a triumph shalt thou adorn ! And what punishment wilt thou not sufter from him at whose feet thou art sitting !" This said, she cut the throats of her children, threw their bodies into the burning building, and sprung after them into the very centre of the flames. During the third Punic war, the disturbances excited in Macedonia by an impostor, Andris'cus, who pretended to be the son of Philip, kindled a new war, which proved fatal to the independence of Greece. The Achffians stimulated by some factious leaders, took up arms but were subdued the very same year that Carthage was destroyed. Mum'mius, ■ the consul who conducted this war, sacked and burned Corinth ; and after having plundered the city of its statues, paintings, and most valua- ble effects, levelled its walls and houses to the ground. Thebes and Chalcis soon after shared the same sad fate. If we may believe Vel- leius Pater'culus, Mum'mius was so little acquainted with the value of the beautiful works of art which fell into liis possession, that he cov- enanted with the masters of the ships, whom he hired to convey from Corinth to Italy a great number of exquisite pieces of painting and statuary, that " if they lost any of them, they should furnish others in their stead." Spain next began to attract the attention of the Romans. No nation that the republic had subdued defended its liberties with greater obsti- nacy. The war for the subjugation of the Spaniards commenced six years after the expulsion of the Carthaginians from the western penin- sula, and was exceedingly obstinate (». 9. 200). This struggle was protracted partly from the natural state of the country, which was thicldy populated and studded with natural fortresses, partly from the courige of the inhabitants, and partly from the peculiar policy of the Romans, who were accustomed to employ their allies to subdue other nations. The chief enemies against whom the invaders had to contend were the £28 ANCIENT HISTORY Celtiberians and Lusitanians ; and so often were the Romars defeated, that nothing was more dreaded by the soldiers at home than an expedi- tion ao-ainst such formidable foes. At length the Lusitanians found a leader worthy of their bravery (b. c. 146) in Viriatus, who, from a shepherd, became a hunter and a robber ; and in consequence of his distinguished v^alor was chosen general-in-chief by his countrymen. This bold leader long maintained his ground against the Roman armies, and was equally formidable whether victorious or vanquished. Indeed, he was never more to be dreaded than immediately after defeat, because he knew how to make the most of the advantages arising from his knowledge of the country, and of the dispositions of his countrymen. Unable to compete with Viriatus, the consul Cae'pio treacherously pro- cured his assassination (b. c. 140) ; and the Lusitanians, deprived of their leader, were easily subdued. The Numantine war in hither Spain had been allowed to languish while the Lusitanians remained in power ; it was now renewed with fresh vigor on both sides, and the pro-consul Pompey laid siege to Numan'tia. He was soon compelled to raise the siege, and even to enter into a treaty with the Numantines ; but dreading the resentment of the senate, he disavowed the negotiation, and, by his great interest, escaped the punishment of his perfidy. A similar disgrace befell Pom- pey's successor, Mancinus ; and the Romans, alarmed by the greal victories of the Numantines, raised Scip'io iEmilianus a second time to the consulship, and assigned him Spain as his province. Scip'io spent his entire consular year in restoring the discipline of soldiers dispirited by defeat, and neglected by their former generals ; he then with the inferior title of pro-consul, directed all his attention to concluding the war. Having obtained reinforcements from Africa, he laid close siege to Numan'tia, blockading every avenue to the town. After a protracted defence of more than six months, the Numantines destroyed their wives and children, set fire to their city, threw themselves on their swords or into the flames, and left the victors nothing to triumph over but empty walls (b. c. 133). Spain henceforth became a Roman province, gov- erned by two annual praetor^ A rich province in Asia was obtained nearly at the same time on much more easy terms. At'talus, king of Per'gamus, dying, bequeathed his dominions to the Roman republic : and the senate took possession of the valuable inheritance, without heeding the remonstrances of the legitimate heir. But this acquisition of the wealthiest and finest dis- tricts in Asia Minor eventually cost the Romans very dear, both by the corruption of morals consequent on the great influx of Asiatic wealth, and the dreadful wars in which this legacy involved them with Mithri- dates, king of Pon'tus. Section VL — From the Beginning of the Civi\ Dissensions under the Grf the crown ; hut, seduced by the charms of the princess Cleopatra, he showed an undue preference for her interests, ani thus 238 ANCIENT HISTORY. induced the partisans of the young king Ptolemy to take up arms. As CjEsar had only brought a handful of men with him to Alexandria, he was exposed to great danger by this sudden burst of insurrection. A fierce battle was fought in the city. Cffisar succeeded in firing the Egyptian fleet ; but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated puljiic library, and the greater part of that magnificent collection of the most valuable works of ancient times perished in the flames. After the struggle had been protracted for some time, Caesar at length received reinforcements from Syria, and soon triumphed over all his enemies. From Egypt he marched against Pharnaces, the unnatural son of the great Mithridates, and subdued him so easily, that he described the campaign in three words, '• Veni, Vidi, Vici"— (/ came, I saw, I con- quered). Having thus settled the affairs of the East, he departed for Rome, having been created dictator in his absence ; and found on his returr. the aflairs of the city in the greatest confusion, caused by the quarrels between Antony and DolabeFla. Cajsar with difiiculty reconciled their difTerences, and began to make preparations for his war in Africa against Cato and the sons of Pom'pey. On his arrival in Africa, he did not find victory quite so easy as he had anticipated ; but at length he forced his enemies to a decisive engagement at Thap'sus, and gave them a complete overthrow. Thence he advanced to U'tica, which was garrisoned by the celebrated Cato, whose hostility to Caesar was inflexible. It v/as not, however, supported by his followers ; and Cato, seeing his friends resolved on yielding, committed suicide. The sons of Pom'pey made their escape into Spain, where they soon col- lected a formidable party. Having concluded the African war in about five months, Caesar returned to Rome (b. c. 45) to celebrate his triumph. The senate placed no bounds to their adulation, passing, in their excessive flattery, the limits even of ordinary decency. They decreed that in his triumph his chariot should be drawn by four white horses, like those of Jupiter and the Sun : they created him dictator for ten years, and inspector of morals for three years : they commanded his statue to be placed in the capitol, opposite to that of Jupiter, with the globe of the earth beneath his feet, and with the following inscription, " To Cajsar, the demigod." During his residence at Rome, the dictator distinguished himself by several acts of clemency, more truly honorable to his character than all the titles conferred upon him by a servile senate. Having provided for the safety of the city during his absence, he hasted into Spain to terminate the civil war by crushing the relics of his opponents, who still made head under the sons of Pom'pey. Early in the spring (b. c. 44), the two armies met in the plains of Mun'da : the battle was arduous and well contested ; Caesar had never been exposed to such danger ; even his veterans began to give ground. By leading, how- ever, his favorite tenth legion to the charge, he restored the fortune of the field, and his exertions were crowned with a decisive victory^ which put an end to the war. The elder of Pom'pey's sons was taken and slain ; Sex'tus the younger escaped to the mountains of Celtiberia. Having thus completely extinguished thf iast embers "»f tbe civil war, Caesar contemplated several vast designs for extending and im- ROME 239 proving the empire he had acquired. He resolved to revenge the defeat and death of Cras'sus on the Partliians ; he undertook to rebuild and repair several towns in Italy, to drain the Pomptine marshes, to dig 9 new bed for the Tiber, to form a capacious harbor at Os'tia, and to cut a canal through the isthmus of Corintli. But these gigantic projects did not compensate, in the minds of his countrymen, for the criminal design ho was understood to have formed of making himself king of Rome. Mark Antony, it is supposed at Caesar's secret instigation, of- fered the dictator a regal crown at the feast of the Lupercalia, which Caesar, perceiving the displeasure of the people, deemed it prudent to refuse : Antony, however, had it entered in the public acts, " That by the command of the people, as consul, he had offered the name of king to Caesar, perpetual dictator ; and that Caesar would not accept of it." A large body of the senators, regarding Caesar as a usurper, con- spired for his destruction, among whom Brutus and Cas'sius were the most conspicuous. They resolved to put their plot into execution in the senate-house (March 15, b. c. 44) ; but they very narrowly escaped detection, from a variety of untoward accidents. As soon as Caesar had taken liis place, he was surrounded by the conspirators, one of whom, pretending to urge some request, held him down by his robe : this was the signal agreed upon ; the other conspirators rushed upon him with their daggers, and he fell, pierced by twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pom'pey's statue. The murderers had no sooner finished their work, than Brutus, lifting up his dagger, congratulated the senate, and Cicero in particular, on the recovery of liberty ; but the senators, seized with astonishment, rushed from the capitol and hid themselves in their own houses. Tranquillity prevailed until the day of Caisar's funeral, when Mark Antony, by a studied harangue, so inflamed the passions of the populace, that they stormed the senate-house, tore up its benches to make a funeral pile for the body, and raised such a con- flagration that several houses were entirely consumed. This was a clear warning to the conspirators, who immediately quitted Rome, and prepared to defend themselves by force of arms. Mark Antony long deceived the conspirators by an appearance of moderation, and an affected anxiety to procure an act of amnesty ; but when joined by Octavius Caesar, the nephew and heir of the murdered dictator, he threw oflf the mask, and proposed extraordinary honors to the memory of Caesar, with a religious supplication to him as a divin- ity. Brutus and Cas'sius at length discovering that Antony meditated nothing but war, and that their aflairs were daily growing more desper- ate, left Italy, and sought refuge in the East. Octavius Csesar, becom- ing jealous of Antony, joined the party of the senate ; and Antony, retiring into Cisalpine Gaul, levied an army of veterans, and came to an engagement with the armies of the republic, in which both the consuls were slain. Antony, defeated in the field, fled to Lep'idus in Spain : and Octavius Caesar, whom the death of the consids had placed at the head of the army, entered secretly into a correspondence with the ene- mies of the senate. Their mutual interests led to the formation of a league between Octavius, Lep'idus, and Antony, called tlie second tri- umvirate (November 27, b. c 43), and their confederacy was cemented 240 ANCIENT HISTORY. by the blood of the noblest citizens of Rome, shed in a proscription more ruthless and sanguinary than those of Marius and Syl'la. Tho most illustrious of the victims was the celebrated Cicero, whose severe invectives against Antony had procured him the relentless hatred of the triumvir. Octavius is said to have hesitated long before consenting to the sacrifice of the greatest orator that Rome ever produced, and the most patriotic of her recent statesmen ; but at length he permitted the fatal consent to be extorted, and Cicero fell a victim to a band of assas- sins, headed by a tribune whom he had formerly defended and preserved in a capital cause. The triumvirs having taken vengeance on their enemies in Italy, be- gan to prepare for carrying on war against Brutus and Cas'sius. Mace- donia became the theatre of the new civil war : the republicans at first seemed destined to conquer ; they appeared to possess superior talents and greater forces by land and sea. But in the double battle at Phi- lip'pi, fortune rather than talent gave the victory to the triumvirs ; and Cas'sius destroyed himself after the first contest, and Brutus after the second (b. c. 42). Antony made a cruel use of his victory, putting to death his political opponents without mercy. Octavius emulated the crimes of his colleague, and treated the most illustrious of his prison- ers with barbarity and abusive language. After his victory Antony visited Greece, where he was received with the most refined flattery. Thence he passed into Asia, where all the sovereigns of the East came to offer him homage ; but he was most gratified by a visit from the celebrated Cleopatra, who rendered the voluptuous triumvir a captive to her charms. Resigning all his plans of war against the Parthians, he followed this celebrated beauty into Egypt, and in her company neglected all care of public affairs. Octavius Caesar, on the other hand, proceeded to Italy, and took the most efficacious means for securing the permanence of his power. Lucius the brother, and Ful'via the wife of Antony, excited a new war against Octavius ; but they were soon defeated, and the capture of their principal stronghold, Perusia (b. c. 41), rendered Caesar's nephew master of Italy, and almost the recognised heir of his uncle's power. Antony was still immersed in pleasure at Alexandria, when he re- ceived the account of his brother's defeat, and the ruin of his party in Italy ; at the same time he heard that Octavius had made himself mas- ter of both Gauls, and had got all the legions into his hands that were quartered in those districts. He was roused by these tidings from his lethargy, and immediately proceeded toward Italy ; but blaming Ful'via for all his disasters, he treated her with so much contempt, that she died of a broken heart. This circumstance paved the way to a recon- ciliation ; Antony married Octavia, the half-sister of his rival, and a new division was made of the Roman empire. Sex'tus Pom'pey, who during the troubles had become powerful by sea, was included in the new arrangements, and obtained the possession of the Peloponnesus and several important islands. But the mutual jealousies of the triumvirs rendered peace of short duration. Octavius drove Pom'pey from Sicily, and compelled him to seek refuge in the East, where he was put to death by one of Antony's lieutenai'ts ; and about the same time he deprived Lep'idus of all his ROME. 241 powtir, and took possession of his dominions. Antony, while his rival was thus acquiring strength, degraded himself by an unsuccessful wai against the Parthians ; after which he rpUirned to Alexandria, and lost all regard to his character or his interest in the company of Cleopatra. Octavia went to the East, hoping to withdraw her husband from the fascinating siren ; but the infatuated triumvir refused to see her, and sent her orders to return home. He completed this insult by sending her a bill of divorce, and professing a previous marriage with Cleopa- tra. Preparations for war were instantly made on both sides ; but Antony's debauchery, and slavery to the caprices of an abandoned woman, disgusted his best friends, and many of them deserting him brought such an account of his extravagance to Rome, that the indignan*, citizens passed a decree for deposing him from the consulship. The great rivals were soon in readiness for actior. Antony had the most numerous forces ; but Octavius had the advantage of a more disci- plined army, and, at least in appearance, a better cause. Their fleets and armies were soon assembled at the opposite sides of the gulf of Ambracia, where they remained for several months without coming to a decisive engagement. At length, Antony, instigated by Cleopatra, formed the fatal resolution of deciding the contest by a naval battle. The fleets met off" the promontory of Ac'tium (September 2, b. c. 31), while the hostile armies, drawn up on the shore, were simple spectators of the battle. For a long time success was doubtful ; until Cleopatra, wearied with expectation, and overcome with fear, unexpectedly tacked about, and fled toward the Peloponnesus with the Egyptian squadron of sixty sail ; and, what is more surprising, Antony himself, now regardless of his honor, fled after her, abandoning his men who so generously ex- posed their lives for his interest. The battle, notwithstanding, con- tinued till five in the evening, when Antony's forces were partly con- strained to submit by the great conduct of Agrip'pa, and partly persuaded by the liberal promises of Octavius. The army of Antony could not believe in the flight of their general, and held out for seven days in ex- pectation of his returning to join them ; but hearing no tidings of him, and being deserted by their allies, they hasted to make terms with the conqueror. Antony and Cleopatra continued their flight to Egypt, where the queea displayed more courage and enterprising spirit than her lover. She caused some of her galleys to be carried over the isthmus (of Suez) into the Red sea, proposing to save herself, with her treasures, in an un- known, world ; but the Arabians having burned her vessels, she was forced to abandon a design so full of difficulties, and she therefore com- menced fortifying the avenues of her kingdom, and making preparations for war. She also solicited foreign assistance, addressing herself to all the princes in the alliance of Antony. While Cleopatra was thus em- ployed, Antony exhibited the most lamentable weakness : at first ha affected to imitate Timon the misanthrope, and shut himself up without either friends or domestics ; but his natural temper did not allow him to remain long in this state, and quitting his cell, he gave himself up to feasting and every kind of extravagance. In the meantime, the forces of Octavius advanced on each side of Egypt. Cornelius Gal'lus took possession of Paretoniuin, wliich was tli»- 16 242 ANCIENT HISTORY key of Egypt on the west side ; and Antony, who speeded with his flee' and army to wrest it out of his hands, was forced to retire with great loss, especially of his ships. Pelusium, the eastern security of the kinedom, was surrendered to Octavius at the first summons : it was re- ported that Seleucus the governor betrayed the place by Cleopatra's orders ; but she, to clear herself from such an imputation, delivered up his wife and children into Antony's hands. Caesar advanced to besiege Alexandria : Antony made an effort to impede his march, but he was abandoned by his soldiers ; and finding he could not die with glory in the field, he returned to Alexandria, overcome with rage and fury, run- ning and crying out, " that Cleopatra had betrayed him, when he had ruined all his fortunes for her sake alone." The queen, hearing his violent trapsports, retired in terror to a monument she had erected, secured the doors, and caused a report to be spread of her death. Upon this news, Antony attempted to commit suicide, and inflicted on himself a mortal wound : hearing, however, in the midst of his agonies, that Cleopatra still lived he caused himself to be transported to her monument, and expired in her presence. Cleopatra seems to have formed some hope of obtaining the same influence over Octavius Caesar that she had exercised over Antony ; but finding the conqueror insensible to her charms, and having received secret inibrmation that he reserved her to adorn his triumph, she bribed a countryman to convey an asp to her in a basket of figs, and applied the venomous creature to her arm, and thus died. Egypt was then reduced into the form of a Roman province, and its immense riches transported to Rome, which enabled Octavius to pay all he owed to his soldiers. On his return to Rome, the senate saluted him by the hon- orable name of Augus'tus, and by a unanimous vote conceded to him the entire authority of the state. The era of the Roman empire is usually dated from Jan. 1st, b. c. 28. The title of Augus'tus was at first only personal, and did not con- vey any idea of sovereignty : several of the imperial family took it who never were emperors, such as German'icus. The female line, who had not the least shadow of sovereignty with the Romans, had it as Antonia Major ; and thus Liv'ia first took the name of Augusta when she was adopted, by her kisband's will, into the Julian family. After the time of Dieclesian it was changed into Sem'per Augus'tus ; and this title was, in modera times, assumed by the emperors of Germany and Austria. It may appear surprising that the Romans made no vigorous effort to recover their republican constitution ; but, in truth, Roman liberty was destroyed when the Grac'chi were murdered : all the subsequent civil dissensions were contests for power between different sections of the oligarchy ; and the people, weary o*'the oppression of the aristocracy, gladly sought shelter from the tyranny of the nobles in the despotic sway of a single master. IK) MAN EMPIRE ^43 CHAPTER XVI. GEOGRAPHICAL AND POLITICAL CONDITION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. Section I. — Eurojyeayi Countries. — Spain. In general the boundaries of the Roman empire may be described aa the great western ocean, the rivers Rhine and Danube in Europe, the chain of Mount Caucasus, the river Euphrates and the Syrian deserts in Asia, and the sandy deserts of Africa. It thus included the fairest portions of the known world surrounding the Mediterranean sea. Its most western province was the Spanish peninsula, whose bound- aries, being fixed by nature, continue unvaried. This great country, usually called Iberia by the Greeks, either from a colony of Iberians, or from the river Iberus (Ebro), was known to the Romans by the names Hispania or Hesperia. It was usually divided into three great portions, Lusitania, BjEtica or Hispania UUerior, and Tarraconensis or Hispania Giterior. The chief islands were the major and minor Baleares {Majorca and Minorca), whose inhabitants were celebrated for their skill as slingers and archers. Section IL — Transalpine Gaul. Ancient Gaul was boundea on the north and south by the sea, on the west by the Pyrenees, and on the east by the rivers Rhine and Var. It WT.S divided into three great sections, Bel'gia, Aquitania, and Gal'lia Propria ; in which the language, manners, and customs, differed con- siderably. The religion of the ancient Gauls, like that of the ancient Britons, was druidical ; they worshipped a supreme deity called Hesus, or ^Esar, to whom they believed the oak to be sacred, especially if the parasitical plant called mistletoe were found growing upon it. Their rites were very sanguinary : human victims were sacrificed in their groves and circles of stone ; and it is said that their nobles occasionally volunteered to ofler themselves upon the national altars. Temples were not erected in Gaul, until after its conquest by the Romans ; but long before that period the worship of a crowd of inferior deities had been introduced. The several Gallic tribes were usually independent of each other ; but on great occasions a general council of the nation was summoned. 244 ANCIENT HISTORY especially when pieparations were made for any of the great migrations which proved so calamitous to Greece and Italy. Their superior valoi rendered these tribes very formidable to all the southern nations ; it was commonly said, that the Romans fought with others for conquest, but with the Gauls for actual existence. But from the time of the subju- gation of their country by Julius Caesar, their valor seemed to have disappeared together with their liberty ; they never revolted, except when the extortions of their rulers became insupportable ; and their efforts were neither vigorous nor well-directed. In no province did Roman civilization produce greater effects than in Gaul ; many public works of stupendous size and immense utility w^ere constructed ; roads were constructed and paved with stone ; durable bridges were built, and aqueducts formed to supply the cities with water. Remains of these -mighty works are still to be found, and they can not be viewed without wonder and admiration. Section III. — Britain. Though Britain was not reduced to the form of a Roman province until long after the time of Julius Ctesar, yet, as that general brought it nominally under subjection, it will be better to descri-be its ancient state here than to interrupt the history of the empire in a subsequent chapter The name of Britain was originally given to the cluster of islands ir the Atlantic now called British, the largest of which bore the name of Albion. The southern part of Albion, or England, was originally colo- nized from Gaul ; the tribes that inhabited the east and north are said to have been of German descent ; and there is a constant tradition, that the Scots in the northwest came originally from Ireland. That part of Britain now included in the kingdom of England and principality of Wales, was anciently divided among seventeen tribes, to whom probably some of inferior note were subject. The principality of Wales, formerly comprehending the whole country beyond the Severn, was inhabited, in the Roman times, by the Silures, the Dem'etsB, and the Ordovices. The last-named tribe possessed North Wales, and long bade defiance to the Roman power in their mountain fastnesses. The island of Mona (Anglesey), celebrated as the ancient seat of the Druids, belonged to the Ordovices. The inhabitants of the country beyond the Firths of Solway and the Forth were named Me'tae and Caledonii, but, in a later age, the Picts and Scots. Juverna, or Hiber'nia [Ireland), was known only by name to the Romans. Three walls, strengthened by castles, were successively raised to check the incursions of the Picts and Scots by the emperors Adrian, Antoninus, and Severus. The last was the most important, according to Camden, who seems to have traced it with great care. It began at Blatobul'giura (Bulness), on the Irish sea, kept along the side of Solway Firth, by Burgh-upon-sands, to Lugoval'lum (Carlisle), where it passed the Ituna (Eden). Thence it was carried on over the little rivers Cam- beck, Living, and Poltrose, into the Northumbrian hiUs, along which it passed to the German ocean. This wall was about eight feet thick and was protected by a ditsh twelve yards broad. ROMAN EMPIRE. 345 When Britain was first visited by the Romans, the inhabitants had made considerable advances in civilization. Their country was well peopled and stocked with cattle ; their houses were as good as those of the Gauls, and they used iron and copper plates for money. They made Utile use of clothes, instead of which they painted and tattooed their skins. In war they made use of chariots, with sharp blades fixed to the axle-trees, which they drove at full speed against the hostile ranks. Their chief trafiic was with- the Gauls and the Phoenicians, who came to the Cassiter'ides (Sciili/ islands), for tin. Little is known respecting their religion, except that they were held in mental thraldom by a caste of priesis named Druids, and that they were guilty of offering human sacrifices to their gods. Each tribe had its own king ; but in cases of emergency, a common chief was elected, who possessed, however, little more than a nominal authority. The most singular monument of the Druids remaining is Stonehenge in Wiltshire, a circular edifice of enormous stones, which probably was the national temple. Britain was finally abandoned by the Romans in the early part of the fifth century. Skction IV. — The Northern Provinces of the Empire. Italy, Greece, Sicily,, Macedon, &c., having been already described in former chapters, we shall conclude the account of the Roman empire in Europe by a notice of the countries south of the Danube, which were formed into provinces during the reign of Augus'tus Caesar. Vindelic'ia was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the east by the tE'uus {Inn), on the v.'est by Helvetia {Switzerland), and on the south by Rhae'tia : it derived its name from the river Vindo (the Wert). Its chief tribes were the Vindelic'ii and Brigan'tii. Two others are mentioned by Horace in his ode celebrating the conquest of this country by Ti'?crius and Drusus, addressed to Augus'tus : — " Of late the Vindelicians knew Thy skill in arms, and felt thy sword, When Drusvis the Genanni slew, And Brenni swift, a lawless horde. The towers which covered all around The rugged Alps' enormous height, By him were levelled with the ground. And more than once confessed his might." Their principal towns were Augus'ta Vindelicorum {Augsburgh) and Brigan'tia {Bregenz), neither of which were remarkable in ancient his- tory. The principal rivers were the Vedo and the Ly'cus {Lech). Rhae'tia nearly coincided with the country now called the territory of the Grisons; it had Vindelic'ia on the north, the JE'mis {Inn) on the east, the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verbanus {Logo Maggiore) to Lacus Brigantinus {Lake of Constance) on the south, and Helvetia on the west. The principal tribe were the Rhae'ti, whom some have identi- fied with the Rasena or ancient Etrurians. They were a brave, but cruel people ; and when they invaded Italy in the reign of Augus'tus Caesar, their ravages exceeded those that had been in earlier times per- petrated by the Gauls. The chief towns were Curia (Chur), which became the capital of the 246 ANCIENT HISTORY. ' province in the reign of the emperor Adrian, Veldidena {WildeM)y and" Tridentum (Trent). Nor'icum, formerly a kingdom, but afterward a Roman province, ex- tended between the Danube and the Alpes Norise in the neighborhood of Trent from the jE'nus (/n«) to Mons Cetius (Kohlenberg), and conse- quently included a great portion of modern Austria, the archbishopric of Saltzburgh, and all Styria and Carinthia. Its southern boundaries were the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save). Its chief cities were, in Nor'icum Ripense, or the part bordering on the Danube, Jovavum or Jovavia (Saltzburgh), Boidiirum (Innstadt), so named from the Boii, the most important of the Noric tribes ; Lentia (Lenz) and Lauriacum (Lorch). In the interior, or Noricum Mediterraneum, we find Pons JE'ni (Innspruck), Vis'celli (Weltz), Graviacii (Gurch), Agun'tum (Innichen), T euic' nia. (Villach), and Sol'va, once the capital of the country, but long since buried in its ruins. Pannonia was divided into Superior and Inferior. The former had the Danube on the east and north, the Ar'rabo (Raab) on the west, and the chain of Mons Cetius (Kahlenberg) on the south. It consequently comprehended Carniola, Croatia, Windesch, Mark, and part of Austria. Pannonia Inferior had the Ar'rabo on the north, the Danube on the east, and the Savus (Save) on the south. The chief cities were Seges'taor Sescia (Sti-ecA:) on the Save; Amona (Unterlaubach), a Roman colony; Naupor'tum (Oberlaubacli), upon the river Naupor'tus (Laubach) ; Vin- doniana or Vindebona (Vienna), obscure in ancient times, but now the capital of the Austrian empire, Scaraban'tia (Scarbing) ; M.\xx's2t,(Esseg) ; Sir'mium (Sirmich), the ancient metropolis of Pannonia on the Save ; and Taurunum [Belgrade), an important frontier fortress both in ancient and modern times. Moe'sia was the name given to the country between the conflux of the Save and Danube and the Euxine sea. It was divided into two unequal portions, Superior and Inferior. Moe'sia Superior was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the south by the Scordian mountains, on the v^est by Pannonia, and on the east by the river Cebrus (Ischia). Its chief cities were Singidunum (Se7nUn) and Nais'sus (Nissa). This province comprehended the countries now called Bosnia and Servia. Moe'sia Inferior, nearly coinciding with the modern Bulgaria, was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by the Cebrus, on the south by Mount Hsemus (the Balkan), and on the east by the Euxine sea. Its chief cities were Odes'sus (Varna) and Tomi (Temeswar). The part of lower Moe'sia bordering on the Euxine was frequently named Pon'tus ; and hence, Tomi, the place of the poet Ovid's exile, is called a city of Pon^tus, though it did not belong to the kingdom of that name. Tomi is said to have derived its name from Medea's having cut her brother Absyr'tus to pieces in that place,* in order that her ftither's pursuit of her might be delayed, while he gathered the scattered limbs of his child. To tliis Ovid alludes in a well-known distich :— " Tomi its name from horrid murder bore, For there a ijrother's limbs a sister tore." • From rc/ji-a), to cut. ROMAN EMPIRE. 247 North of the Danube was the province of Dacia, annexed to the Ro man empire in the reign of Trajan. Some geographers describe i< loosely as including all the country between the Borys'thenes {Diiieper) and the Dan'ube ; but its proper boundaries were Mon'tes Carp'atii {the Krapack chain) on the north, the Tibis'cus {Theiss) on the west, the Hier'asus {Pnith) on the east, and the Danube on the south. I' consequently included Upper Hungary, Transylvania, Moldavia, and VVallachia. The inhabitants were called Getae by the Greeks, and Daci by the Romans : they possessed no city of importance. Thrace was long permitted to retain its own sovereigns, on the con- dition of acknowledging the supremacy of the Romans ; but in the reign of the Emperor Claudian it was reduced to the form of a province. It was nearly enclosed by the chain of Mount Hee'ums and the sea. The principal cities of Thrace were the Greek colonies, which have already been noticed in a preceding chapter. Il'lyricum is a name sometimes given to all the countries south of the Danube, but it is properly applied only to the strip of land on the north- east coast of the Adriatic, from the Rhstian Alps to the river Drinus (Drino), and easterly to the Savus {Save). Its inhabitants were re- markable for their skill in naval architecture ; and infamous for their in- veterate attachment to piracy. Their chief cities were Salona, Epidau- rus {Ragxisa), and Scodra {Scutari). Section V. — Asiatic and African Provinces. The Roman provinces in Anatolia were : 1, Asia, as the Romans with proud anticipations named the first cession of country made to them east of the iEgean: 2, Bithynia, together with Paphlagonia and part of Pon'tus : and 3, CiUcia, with Pisid'ia. These provinces were in gen- eral the most tranquil portion of the empire ; and the most peaceful, if not the most happy period, in the history of Asia Minor, was that during which it remained subject to Rome. No greater proof can be given of the wealth to which individuals attained, than that the sepulchres of private persons, like that of Icesius, discovered by Mr. Ainsworth, rival- led those of the ancient Pontic kings. The various divisions of Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, and Commagene, for the purpose of government, can not easily be enumerated. At first, several states were permitted to retain a qualified independence ; but before the close of the first centu- ry of the Christian era, they were all absorbed in the empire. Arme- nia and Mesopotamia became provinces in the reign of Trajan, and part of Arabia paid nominal allegiance to that emperor ; but these acquisitions were abandoned in the reign of his successor. The African provinces were : 1, Egypt, which became a province after the battle of Actiam: 2, Cyrenaica, which soon followed the fate of Egypt ; Crete was annexed to this government : 3, Numid'ia and Africa Proper, which were finally subdued by Julius Caesar : and, 4, Mauretania, whose king was dethroned a. d. 41, and the country di- vided into two provinces, separated by the river Muluch'a (Mahata), called Caesarien'sis and Tingitania. The chief towns in Mauretania Cae- sarien'sis, were Igil'o-'Us (Zezeli), Sal'dae {Delluz), lom'mum {Algiers), Rususcucu;u {Koleah^, Csesarea {Teunez), and Siga {Sigale). The most 248 ANCIENT HISTORY. remarkable tribe was the Massaesy'li, on the river Muluch'a, near the seacoast. Mauretania Tingita'na derived its name from its chief city Tin'gis {Tangicrs), on the Fretum Gaditanum (Straits of Gibraltar). It con- tained also the towns and ports of Busadir (Melilla), and Ab'yla [Ceuta), in the Mediterranean. There were besides, on the Atlantic ocean, Zilis, or Julia Constantina (Arzillo) ; Ban'asa Valen'tia (Mehedimd), and Sala (Sallce) : but these were scarcely known to the Romans until a very late period of the empire. The Gaetulians, first made known to the Ro- mans during the Jugurthine war, never were subdued by their armies ; but in later ages paid homage to the proconsul or prsefect of Africa. Though the Romans had thus succeeded in Asia to the great commer- cial marts of the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians, and had acquired in Africa the ancient stations of the Carthaginians, they made little or no effort to encourage traffic. They do not seem to have opened a sin- gle new route for trade ; and under their government many of the an- cient highways of commerce, particularly in Asia, fell into disuse. One principal cause of this was, the distance of Rome from the chief trading stations in the eastern seas, by which the attention of the ruling powers was withdrawn from the great abuses that prevailed in the pro- vincial administration and colonial government. This appears evident from the vast improvement in the commerce between Europe and Asia, which took place immediately after the seat of government was trans- ferred from Rome to Byzantium (Constatitmople) ; and, however some politicians may be disposed to blame the division of the empire, a slight glance at the nations that pressed on the frontiers of the Roman do- minions will show that the interests and dangers of the eastern and western empires were so very different, that the course of poUcy which suited the one would be injurious to the other. Skction VI. — The Principal Nations on the Frontiers of the Empire. German y was a name loosely given by the Romans to all the coun- tries north of the Rhine and Danube. Sarmatia, in as uncertain a sense, was applied to the countries now called Poland and Lithuania ; while the greater part of the vast dominions of Russia in Europe and Asia were included under the general name of Scythia, and were almost wholly unknown in ancient times. In the northwest of Europe the countries about the Sinus Codanus {Baltic sea), though probably visited in very ancient times by the enterprising Phoenicians, remained unvis- ited, or at least unexplored, by the Romans, who were never remarka- ble for their zeal in maritime discovery. Indeed, they seem to have regarded Scandinavia, or Scan'dia (Sweden), Nerigon (Norway), and Erin'gia, or Furnin'gia (Finland), as isles of the German ocean. When Britain was circumnavigated, the Or'cades {Orkney islands) were discovered: but, previous to that time, some indistinct account had been received of a distant island, named Thule, which some beheve to have been one of the Zetland cluster, and other.? Iceland. The Germans took their name from their own language, Ghar-mans^ signifying warlike men, or warriors ; for, like motst savage tribes, they principally prided themselves on their military virtues. They were ROMAN EMPIRE. 349 called in the earliest aj^es Cim'bri and Tei/ttnes by the Romans; but it is not easy to determine whether these may not have been very dif- ferent races, accidentally united in a common migration. The Cim'bri gave their name to the Chersonesus Ciin'brica (^Jutland) ; from that of the Teu'tones the modern names Teutschen and Dutch have manifestly been derived. A confederation of several tribes, formed in the third century, took the name of Alleman'ni, or All-mans, that is, complete men, from which the French of the present day call Germany Alle- masne. It would be impossible, within our limits, to enumerate all the tribes of ancient Germany, but a few of the principal may be noticed. On the east bank of the AFbis {Elbe), between that river and the Vistula, were the Cim'bri and Saxones, of whom the former were the most re- markable in ancient times, and the latter during the middle ages. West of the Al'bis were the upper and lower Chauci, divided from each other by the Visurgis {Weser) ; and the Fris'ii, separated from the Chauci by the river Amasia {Erus), whose territory still preserves the name of Friesland. The Marcoman'ni anciently possessed all the country between the sources of the Rlienus [Rhine) and the Is'ter, or Danubius [Danube) : they afterward fixed themselves in Bohemia and Moravia, and also in part of Gaul, driving the Boii before them. On this side of the Rhine, between that river and the Mosa (Maese), were the U'bii, who were invited by Agrip'pa to this country during the reign of Augus'tus. To commemorate this migration they named their capital Colonia Agrippi'na [Cologne), in honor of their patron. Higher up the Rhine, and beyond the Mosella [Moselle) were the Treviri, whose chief city was Augusta Trevirorum [Triers), and some minor tribes, possessing the city of Argentoratum, or Argentina? [Strasburgh). The Hercynian forests and mountains, by which the Romans seem to have understood all the unexplored part of eastern Germany, appear to have been the original abode of the Quadi, the Suevi, and the Herman- diiri, who became very formidable to the Romans in the age of Antoni- nes. The original seat of the Longobar'di, celebrated in Italy under the name of Lombards, was the upper part of the Elbe : they are said to have derived their national appellation from their " long harts," or spears ; but others think that they were so called from the length of their beards or from having been formed by a coalition of the Lingones and Bar'di. Near the mouth of the Vistula were the Gep'idae ; and it is supposed that the first seat of the warlike Burgundians was on the same river ; but they, as well as the Semnones, had pushed forward to the Elbe in the first century of the Christian era. The iEs'tui, cele- brated for their trade in amber, resided on the coasts of the Baltic sea. Beside the Hercynian forest already mentioned, Germany contained Sylva Melibo'ca(be, three in Spain, and two in Dalmatia. Eight more were kept in Asia and Africa : so that the standing army of the empire exceeded one hundred and seventy thousand men. Twelve cohorts ROMAN EMPIRE. 2a/ aimoAritirin; to about ten thousand men, were quartered in Rome and i.a ncmitv ; nine of" these, called the pra^-iorian bands, were intended lo protect the emperor's person, the others were destined for the guard of the city. These household troops became afterward the author of many ciumges and revohitions, until they were all dismissed by Constantino ihe Great (a. d. 312). Two powerful fleets were established in tho Italian seas ; one at Ravenna, to guard the Adriatic, the other at Mise- iium, to protect the western Mediterranean. It is calculated that tbu revenues of the empire at this time exceeded forty millions sterling ; but this sum was not more than sufficient to defray the expenses of th« ANCIENT HISTORY. Augiis'tus closed the temple of Janus, and issued a decree for a general census, or enrolment, of all his subjects. It was at this period that lesus Christ was born ; and thus, literally, was his advent the signal of " on earth peace, and good will toward men." The great prosperity of the reign of Augus'tus was first interrupted by the rebellion of the Germans, which the extortions of Quintil'ius Var'us provoked. Armin'ius, a young prince of the Cafti, united his countrymen m a secret confederacy ; and then, pretending friendship to Var'us, conducted him into the depths of a forest, where his troops could neither fight nor retreat. In this situation Armin'ius attacked the Romans, from whose camp he stole by night, and so harassed them that most of the oflicers slew themselves in despair (a. d. 10). The legion- aries, thus left without leaders, were cut to pieces ; and thus the Romans received the greatest overthrow that they had suffered since the defeat of Cras'sus. When the news of this calamity was brought to Rome, everybody expected that the Germans M^ould immediately cross •he Rhine, and advance against the city. Augus'tus, though over- whelmed with sorrow, made every exertion to allay the general con- sternation : he sent his son-in-law and heir, Tiberius, to guard the Rhine ; but he prohibited him from following the wild tribes to their fastnesses. For several months the emperor abandoned himself to transports of grief, during which he frequently exclaimed, " Var'us, re- store me my legions !" and he observed the fatal day as a mournful so- lemnity until his death. This event probably tended to hasten his dissolution ; he was seized with a dangerous attack of illness at Naples, and as he was returning home to the capital, the disease compelled him to stop at Nola, in Campania, where he expired (a. d. 14). It was cur- rently reported that the empress Liv'ia accelerated his death by admin- istering poisoned figs, in order to secure the succession for Tiberius. Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his adoption, Augus'tus Tiberius Cse'sar, commenced his reign by procuring the murder of young Agrip'pa, grandson of the late emperor, whom he dreaded as a formidable rival. As soon as his accession was known at Rome, the consuls, senators, and knights, ran headlong into slavery pretending to hail Tiberius with extravagant joy, while they professed equally extravagant sorrow for the loss of Augus'tus. Tiberius met them with duplicity equal to their own : he affected to decline the sov- ereign power.; but, after long debates, allowed himself to be won over by the general supplications of the senators. Having bound himself by oath never to depart from the regulations of his predecessor, he ex- erted himself to win the affections, or rather disarm the suspicions, of the virtuous German'icus, whom Augus'tus had compelled him to declare his heir. But the jealousies of the emperor were greatly aggravated by a mutiny of the troops in Germany, who offered to raise German'icus to the throne ; and though he firmly refused, and severely rebuked their disloyalty, yet Tiberius thenceforth was resolved upon his destruc- tion. The glory wliich the young prince acquired in several successful campaigns against the Germans, at length induced the emperor to recall him to Rome, under the pretence of rewarding him with a triumph. But Tiberius soon became anxious to remove from Rome a person whose mildness and virtue were so powerfully contrasted with his own tyranny ROMAN EMPIRE. 259 ftnd debauchery : he appointed him governor of the eastern provinces ; but at the same time he sent Piso, with his infamous wife Plancina, into Syria, secretly instructing them to thwart German'icus in all his under- takings. The wicked pair obeyed these atrocious commands ; and the brave prince, after undergoing many mortifications, at last sunk under them. Attacked by a severe disease, aggravated by suspicions of Piso'a treachery, whom he believed to have compassed his death by magic or by poison, he sent for his wife Agrippina ; and having besought her to humble her haughty spirit for the sake of their children, expired, to the general grief of the empire (a. d. 19). His ashes were brought to Rome by Agrippina ; and though she arrived in the very middle of the Saturnalia, the mirth usual at that festival was laid aside, and the whole city went into mourning. In the early part of his reign Tiberius had affected to imitate the clemency of Augus'tus ; but he soon began to indulge his natural cruelty and many of the most eminent nobles were put to death under pre- tence of high treason. The emperor's depravity was exceeded by tha. of his minister, the infamous Sejanus, whose name has passed into a proverb. This ambitious favorite secretly aspired at the empire, and applied himself to win the favor of the praetorian guards : he is also ac- cused of having procured the death of Drusus, the emperor's son, and of having tried to destroy Agrippina and her children. But his most successful project was the removal of Tiberius from Rome, persuading him that he would have more freedom to indulge his depraved passions in Campania than in the capital. The emperor chose for his retreat the little island of Cap'reas, where he wallowed in the most disgusting and unnatural vices : while Sejanus, with an entire army of spies and informers, put to death the most eminent Romans after making them undergo the useless mockery of a trial. Tiberius, however, soon began to suspect his minister, and secret warnings were given him of the dangerous projects that Sejanus had formed. It was apparently neces- sary, however, to proceed with caution, and the emperor felt his way by withdrawing some of the honors he had conferred. Finding that the people gave no signs of discontent, Tiberius sent the commander of the preetorian guards privately to Rome with a letter to the senate, instruct- ing him to inform Sejanus that it contained an earnest recommendation to have him invested with the tribunitian power. The minister, deceived by this hope, hastily convened the senate, and on presenting himself to that body, was surrounded by a horde of flatterers, congratulating him on his new dignity. But when the fatal epistle was read, in which he was accused of treason, and orders given for his arrest, he was imme- diately abandoned, and those who had been most servile in their flat- teries became loudest in their invectives and execrations. A hurried decree was passed condemning him to death, and was put in execution the very same day ; a general slaughter of his friends and relations fol- lowed ; his innocent children, though of very tender years, were put to death with circumstances of great barbarity ; and the numerous statues that had been erected to his honor were broken to pieces by the fickle multitude. This memorable example of the instability of human gran- deur is powerfully described by Juvenal, in his satire on the Vanity of Human Wishes. The passage is thus translated by Dryden : — 260 ANCIENT HISTORY •^ Some asked for envied power, which public hata Pursues and hurries headlong to their fate ; Down go the titles, and the statue crowned Is by base hands in the next river drowned. The guiltless horses and the chariot-wheel The same effects of vulgar fury feel : The smith prepares his hammer for the stroke, While the lunged bellows hissing fire provoke ; Sejanus, almost first of Roman names. The great Sejanus crackles in the flames ! Formed in the forge the pliant brass is laid ' On anvils : and of head and limbs are made Pans, cans, and gridirons, a whole kitchen trade. Adorn your doors with laurel ; and a bull, Milk-white and large, lead to the Capitol; Sejanus, with a rope, is dragged along, The sport and laughter of the giddy throng ! « Good Lord,' they cry, ' what Ethiop lips he bears ! See what a hang-dog face the scoundrel wears ! By Jove, I never could endure his sight ; — But, say, how came his monstrous crimes to light ? What is the charge, and who the evidence ? The savior of the nation and the prince ?' — ' Nothing of this ; but our old Cresar sent A tedious letter to his parliament.' — ' Nay, sirs, if Ca?sar wi'ote, I ask no more ; He's guilty, and the question's out of door.' How goes the mob ! for that's a mighty thing — When the king's trump, the mob are for the king • They follow fortune, and the common cry Is still against the rogue condemned to die. But the same very mob, that rascal crowd. Had cried Sejanus, with a shout as loud^ Had his designs by fortun-s's favor blest. Succeeded, and the prince's age opprest." The cruelty of Tiberius was increased tenfold after the removal of his favorite ; the least circumstance rendered him suspicious ; and when once a noble was suspected, his fate was sealed. In all his extravagan- cies he was supported by the servile senate ; and this body, once so independent, never ventured even to remonstrate against his sanguinary decrees. At length, continued debauchery undermined the emperor's constitution : but with the usual weakness of licentious sovereigns, he endeavored to disguise the state of his health, not merely from his court, but his physicians. At length, finding death approach very rapidly, he bequeathed the empire to Caius Calig'ula, the only surviving son of his nephew and victim German'icus. It is said that he chose this prince, though well aware of his natural depravity, that his own reign might be regretted, when contrasted with the still more sanguinary rule of his successor. Soon after having signed his will, Tiberius was seized with a fainting fit, and the courtiers, believing him dead, hastened to offer their homage to Calig'ula ; but the emperor rallied, and there was reason to fear his vengeance. Mac'ro, the commander of the guards, averted the danger by smothering the weak old man with a weight of coverings, under pretence of keeping him warm (a. d. 37). In this reign, though the forms of the constitution were retained, its pirit and substance wero completely altered ; the government became ROMAN EMPIRE 261 a complete despotism ; and the only use of the senate was to register thti edicts of the sovereign. While Tiberius was emperor, Jesus Christ was crucified in Judea, under the propra^torship of Pontius Pilate (a. d. 33). It is said, but on very doulitful authority, that Tiberius, having received an account of his miracles, wished to have him en- rolled among the gods, but that his designs were frustrated by the op- position of the senate. Caius, surnamed Calig'ula from the military boots (caligce) which he was accustomed to wear, was received on his accession with tl^e utmost enthusiasm by both the senate and the people, on account of the great merits of his father German'icus. He began his reign by libera- ting all the state prisoners, and dismissing the whole horde of spies and informers whom Tiberius had encouraged. By these and other similar acts of generosity, he became so popular, Jiat when he was attacked by sickness, the whole empire was filled with sorrow, and innumerable sacrifices were offered in every temple for his recovery. This sickness probably disordered his brain, for in his altered conduct after his resto- ration to health there appears fully as much insanity as wickedness. Young Tiberius, whom he had adopted, was liis first victim ; he then ordered all the prisoners in Rome to be thrown to wild beasts without a trial. But Calig'ula was not satisfied with simple murder ; it was his fiendish pleasure to witness the sufferings of his victims, and protract their tortures, in order that they might, as he said, feel themselves dying. Finding no one dare to oppose his sanguinary caprices, he began to regard himself as something more than a mere mortal, and to claim divine honors ; and finally, he erected a temple to himself, and instituted a college of priests to superintend his own worship. A less guilty but more absurd proceeding was the reverence he claimed for his favorite horse Incitatus, whom he frequently invited to dine at the im- perial table, where the animal fed on gilt oats, and drank the most costly wines from jewelled goblets. It is even said that nothing but his death prevented him from raising this favorite steed to the consul- ship. While the whole city was scandalized by his outrageous licen- tiousness, men were suddenly astounded to hear that the emperor had resolved to lead an army against the Germans in person, and the most extensive preparations were made for his expedition. As might have been expected, the campaign was a mere idle parade ; and Calig'ula, notwithstanding, claimed the most extravagant honors ; and finding the senate slower in adulation than he expected, seriously contempla ted the massacre of the entire body. At length the Romans became weary of a monster equally wicked and ridiculous ; a conspiracy was formed for his destruction ; and he was slain in one of the passages of the Cir'cus by Chajrea, the captain of the praetorian guards (a. d. 40). His body lay a long time exposed, but was finally interred like that of a slave : his wife and infant child were murdered by the conspirators, who dreaded future vengeance. Claudius, the brother of German'icus and uncle of the late emperor, a prince of weak intellect, was raised to the throne by the conspirators, whose choice was sanctioned by the senate. The unfortunate idiot, thus placed at the head of the empire, was during his entire reign the pup- pet of worthless and wicked favorites, among whom the most infamous 262 ANCIENT HISTORY. were tlie empress Messalina and Agrippina, the eunuch Posu es, and the freedmen Pal'las and Narcis'sus. His reign commenced with the punishmeiit of those who had conspired against Calig'ula : they were slain, not for the crime they had committed, but because they were sus- pected of a design to restore the ancient constitution. Notwithstanding his weakness, Claudius undertook an expedition into Britain, where the native tribes were wasting their strength in mutual wars, and he commenced a series of campaigns which eventually led to the complete subjugation of the southern part of the island. The senate granted him a magnificent triumphal procession on his return ; and Messalina, whose infidelities were now notorious, accompanied the emperor in a stately chariot during the solemnity. The cruelty of the empress was as great as her infamy : at her instigation Claudius put to death some of the most eminent nobles, and the confiscation of their fortunes supplied her with money to lavish on her paramours. At length she proceeded to such an extravagant length, that she openly married Sil'ius, one of her adulterers ; and Narcis'sus, whom she had displeased, gave the em- peror private information of her guilt, and she was slain in the gardens which had been the chief theatre of her crimes. Soon after the death of Messalina, Claudius married his niece Agrip- pina, the widow of Domitius Ahenobar'bus, by whom she had one son, originally called after his father, but better known in history by the name of Nero. The new empress did not, like her predecessor, render the state subservient to her amours, but she grasped at power to indulge her insatiable avarice, boundless ambition, and unparalleled cruelty. She ruled the emperor and the empire, appeared with him in the senate, sat on the same throne during all public ceremonies, gave audience to foreign princes and ambassadors, and even took a share in the admin- istration of justice. She at length prevailed upon Claudius to adopt her child Domitius (Nero), and constitute him heir of the sovereignty, in preference to his own son Britan'nicus. But Claudius showing some signs of an intention to change the succession again, Agrippina pro- cured him to be poisoned by his favorite eunuch and the state physician (a. d. 54). Having previously gained over Bur'rhus, the captain of the praetorian guards, to her interest, the empress concealed her husband's death until she had secured the army in favor of her son, rightly judging that the senate would confirm the choice of the soldiers. Nero Claudius Cae'sar had been nurtured in the midst of crimes, and educated for the stage rather than the state ; he was still a youth of seventeen, and he looked on the empire as only an extensive field for the indulgence of his passions. He soon became weary of his mother's imperious rule ; and Agrippina, finding herself neglected, threatened to restore the crown to Britan'nicus. This was the signal for the destruc- tion of that young prince : poison was administered to him by one of the emperor's emissaries, and a few hours after his death, his body was borne to the pile ; for so little care had the emperor of concealing his share in the murder, tha the preparations for the prince's funeral were made before the poison was administered. An infamous woman, Pop- pae'a Sablna, who had abandoned her husband to live in adultery with the emperor, stimulated Nero to still greater crimes. Persuaded that during the lifetime of Agrippina she could not hope to remove Octavia ROMAN EMPIRE. 263 Nero's wife, and become herself a partner in the empire, she urged her paramour, by every means in her power, to the murder of his mother Nero himself was anxious to remove one whom he so greatly feared ; but he dreaded the resentment of the Romans, who, in spite of ho? crimes, reverenced the last representative of the family of Gcrinan'icua After various attempts to destroy her secretly had failed, a body of armed men were sent to her house, and she was murdered in her bed. A labored apology for this matricide was soon after published, which, it is painful to learn, was composed by the philosopher Sen'eca. The death of Bur'rhus, whether by poison or disease is uncertain, led to a great deterioration of Nero's character . for the influence of that able statesman had restrained the emperor from many extravagances in which he was anxious to indulge. Tigellinus, a wretch infamous for all the crimes that are engendered by cruelty and Inst, became the new minister ; and Nero no longer kept within the bounds of ordinary decency. Sen'eca was banished from the court ; the empress Octavia was divorced, and afterward murdered ; finally, Poppaj'a was publicly married to the emperor. A tour through Italy gave Nero an opportunity of appearing as a singer on the stage at Naples, and he was excessively gratified by the applause with which the Neapolitans and some Alex- andrians fed his vanity. Soon after his return to Rome, a dreadful con- flagration, which lasted nine days, destroyed the greater part of the city ; and it was generally believed that the fire had been kindled by the emperor's orders. Upon the ruins of the demolished city Nero erected his celebrated golden palace, which seems to have been more remarkable for its vast extent, and the richness of the materials used in its construction, than for the taste or beauty of the architectural design. To silence the report of his having caused the late calamity, Nero transferred the guilt of the fire to the new sect of the Christians, whose numbers were rapidly increasing in every part of the empire. A cruel persecution commenced ; first, all who openly acknowledged their con- nexion with the sect were arrested and tortured : then from their ex- torted confessions, thousands of others were seized and condemned, not for the burning of the city, but on the still more ludicrous charge of hatred and enmity to mankind. Their death and torture were ag- gravated with cruel derision and sport ; for they were either covered with the skins of wild beasts, and torn to pieces by devouring dogs, or fastened to crosses, or wrapped up in combustible garments, that when the daylight failed, they might serve, like torches, to illuminate the dark- ness of the night. For this tragical spectacle Nero lent his own gar- dens, and exhibited at the same time the public diversions of the circus ; sometimes driving a chariot in person, and sometimes standing among the people as a spectator, in the habit of a charioteer. The extravagant expenses o.* the golden palace, the restoration of the city, the emperor's luxuries, and the entertainments given to the people, exhausted the exchequer, and led to a system of plunder and extortion which nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. Wot only Italy, but all the provinces, the several confederate nations, and all the cities that had the title of free, were pillaged and laid waste. The temples of the gods and the houses of individuals were equally stripped of their treasures ; but still enough could not be obtained to support the 264 ANCIENT HISTORY. emperor's boxmoiess prodigality. At length a conspiracy was formed for his destruction by Cneius Piso, in which the greater part of the Ro- man nobility engaged. It was accidentally discovered ; and Nero eagerly seized such a pretence for giving loose to his sanguinary dispo- sitions. Among the victims were the philosopher Sen'eca, the poet Lucan, Piso, and most of the leading nobles. In the midst of the massacres, Nero appeared on the stage as a candidate for the prize of music which of course he obtained. About the same time he killed the empress Poppse'a by kicking her while pregnant. It may appear strange that such repeated atrocities should not have driven the Roman people to revolt ; but the lower classes felt nothing of the imperial despotism, and did not sympathize with the calamities of the nobles, because the ancient oppressions of the, aristocracy were still remembered. They were, besides, gratified by a monthly distribu- tion of corn, by occasional supplies of wine and meat (congiaria et eviscerationcs), and by the magnificent shows of the circus (munera). In fact, the periods of tyranny were the golden days of the poor ; and Nero was far more popular with the rabble than any statesman or general of the republic had ever been. Not satisfied with his Italian fame, Nero resolved to display his mu- sical skill at the Olympic games, and for this purpose passed over into Greece. The applauses he received in his tour from the spectators so gratified him, that he declared " the Greeks alone perfectly understand music." lie transmitted a particular account of his victories to the sen- ate, and ordered thanksgivings and sacrifices to be off'ered for them in every temple throughout the empire. That no monuments of other vic- tors might remain, he commanded all their statues to be pulled down, dragged through the streets, and either dashed to pieces, or thrown into the common sewers. While he was thus engaged, the dreadful rebel- lion, which destroyed the Jewish nation, commenced in Palestine : Ces'- tius Gal'Ius, the governor of Syria, having been defeated in an attempt to besiege Jerusalem, the conduct of the war was intrusted to the cele- brated Vespasian. Though Nero had been greatly delighted by the ex- cessive adulations of the Achaeans, he did not abstain from plundering their country ; and A'chaia suffered more from his peaceful visit than from the open war of Mum'mius or SyFla. Soon after the emperor's return to Rome, formidable insurrections burst forth in the western provinces, occasioned by the excessive taxa- tion to which they were subjected. Julius Vin'dex, descended from the ancient kings of Aquitain, was the firvt to raise the standard of revolt in Celtic Gaul, of which he was governor. Gal'ba soon after was pro- claimed emperor in Spain by his soldiers, and was supported by O'tho, the governor of Lusitania. Nero was not much disturbed by the re- bellion of Vin'dex ; but the hostility of Gal'ba filled him with conster- nation. He was, however, consoled for a time by the intelligence of the defeat of the Gauls, who were so completely overthrown by Vir- ginius, the imperial lieutenant, that Vin'dex slew himself in despair Gal'ba would now have been ruined, had not Nymphid'ius, whom Nere had appointed the colleague of Tigellfnus, seduced the praetorian guards to renounce their allegiance. The emperor was immediately abandoned by all his ministers and servants ; he fled from Rome, and sought refuge ROMAN EMPIRE. 265 in the house of Phaon, one of his freedmen. Here he so m learned that he had been dechircd an enemy to the state, and sentenced to be executed according to ancient custom {more majorum). Inquiring the nature of this punishment he was informed that he was to be placed in a pillory, and beaten to death with rods (a. d. 68). At the prospect of such a cruel fate he was filled with horror, and declared that he would commit suicide ; but his courage failed when he was about to use the dagger. At length, hearing the galloping of the horse sent to ar- rest him, he requested the aid of his freedman Epaphroditus, and re- ceived a mortal wound. He was not quite dead when the centurion, sent by the senate, arrived, and endeavored to stop the blood. Nero, looking at him sternly, said, " It is too late. I« this your fidelity ?" and soon after expired. His body was interred privately, but honorably ; and many of the lower ranks, whose favor he aad w(;n by his extrava- gant lilieralities, lamented his loss, honored his memory, and brought flowers to decorate his tomb. During this reign the provinces were harassed by frequent revolts : in addition to those we have already noticed, it may be necessary to mention the revolt of the Iceni in Britain, under the command of their heroic queen Boadicea. She took up arms to revenge the gross insuUs and injuries she had received ; falling unexpectedly on the Roman col- onies and garrisons, she destroyed a great number both of them and their allies ; and could she have secured the co-operation of all the na- tive tribes, might have liberated her country. This dangerous insur- rection was quelled by Suetonius Paulinus, who added the island of Anglesey to the Roman dominions ; thus taking from the Druids, the secret instigators of resistance to all foreign power, the great centre both of their religion and their influence. The family of the Cajsars, properly speaking, ended with Calig'ula ; but as both Nero and Claudius were maternally descended from Augus'- tus, they are usually reckoned among the members of the Julian, or first imperial house. Its extinction, notwithstanding the vices of its later members, was a serious calamity to the empire ; it led to a series of sanguinary wars, arising from disputed successions, during which the supreme authority o^ the state was wrested equally from the emperors and senate by a liceniious soldiery. Section II. — Ftom the Extinction of the Julian to that of the first Flavian Family. FROM A. D. 68 TO A. D. 96. Ser'vius Sul'pitius Gal'ba, universally acknowledged seventh em- peror after the death of Nero, was descended from an illustrious family that had been eminently distinguished for warlike achievements during the laf.er ages of the republic. He was now in the seventy-third year of his age, and, on account of his infirmities, travelled very slowly toward Rome. Nymphid'ius took advantage of this delay, to make a struggle for empire by bribing the praetorian guards ; but his conduct du ring the reign of Nero had rendered him so deservedly unpopular, thai he was murdered by the very soldiers who had taken his money, This rash conspiracy induced Gal'ba to sully the commencement of hia ^66 ANCIENT HISTORY. reign by unseasonable severities, which gave the more offence to his subjects, as they had not been anticipated. It was soon discovered that the new emperor, however virtuous himself, was the tool of unworthy favorites, who, under the sanction of his name, plundered the people, and deprived the soldiers of their usual donative. A revolt of the le- gions in Upper Germany induced Gal'ba to nominate a successor ; he chose Cnefus Piso, descended from the old triumvirs Cras'sus and Pom'- pey, who was greatly esteemed for his talents, virtues, and engaging manners. But this appointment gave great offence to O'tho, who had been foremost to espouse the cause of Gal'ba : taking advantage of the discontent of the praetorian guards, he went to their camp, and easily induced these turbulent warriors to proclaim him emperor. Gal'ba pre- pared to make a vigorous struggle for his crown, but his soldiers refused to obev the orders of their commander ; and when he was borne in a litter to enforce obedience, those who carried him, terrified by the tu- mult, threw down the chair, and the aged emperor, thus lying helpless, was slain by one of the veterans (a. d. 69). His body was treated with the greatest indignity by the factious troops ; Piso, his appointed successor, was murdered; and the praetorian guards threatened destruc- tion to all who did not acquiesce in their decision. . O'tho, thus raised to the empire, was, during his brief reign, a pas- sive instrument in the hands of the licentious soldiers. Scarcely had he been fixed upon the throne, when he found that he would have to struggle for empire with a formidable rival, Vitel'lius, the commander of the legions in lower Germany. Valens and Caecina joined the usurper with numerous forces, and intelligence soon arrived of their advance toward Italy through Gaul. Their arrival in Italy filled Rome with consternation, which the licentious indolence in which O'tho in- dulged by no means tempted to abate. But on the near approach of danger, the emperor laid aside his pleasures and debaucheries, making the most vigorous measures for resistance. Most of the provinces de- clared in his favor, and could he have protracted the war, he would probably have preserved his crown. But the praetorian guards, wearied of the unusual hardships of a campaign, and eager to return to the pleasures of the capital, demanded to be led instantly against the en- emy. O'tho withdrew to a place of safety, but ordered his generals to give battle without delay. The decisive engagement was fought at Bedriacum, near the banks of the Po : early in the day, the praetorian guards, attacked in flank by a Batavian column, fled in disorder, and threw the rest of the army into confusion. This unexpected disaster gave Vitel'lius an easy victory ; and following up his success, he took possession of the imperial camp. O'tho, having learned the news of the battle, convened the rest of his soldiers, thanked them for their fi- delity, and intimated his resolution not to permit his life to be the cause of further bloodshed. That night he committed suicide, having only reigned three months. He .vas honorably interred by his soldiers, who showed sincere sorrow for his loss. Vitel'lius was a slave to gluttony and debauchery : he received very coldly the congratula'ions of the senate on his victory and accession, and he was reluctant to expose himself to the dangers of the turbu- lences that the soldiers both of his and O^tho's aimy, excited in Italy HOMAN EMPIRE. 267 At length he made his public entrance into Rome, and ende: vored to win the favor of the populace by large donatives and expensire enter- •ainments in the circus. Intrusting all the power of the state to unworthy .avorites, he devoted himself wholly to the pleasures of the table, on which he squandered nearly seven millions of money in less than four months. Nothing, however, gave greater scandal to the higher ranks of the senators, than his solemnizing, with great pomp, the obsequies of Nero, and compelUng the Augustal priests, an order consecrated by Tiberius for superintending the religious rites of the Julian family, to attend at that ceremony. While he was thus insulting his subjects, and wasting the wealth of the empire, fortune, or rather Providence, was raising him up a competitor in a distant province. Vespasian was car- rying on the war against the Jews with great success, when he heard of the death of Nero, and the election of Gal'ba : he sent his son Ti- tus to present his allegiance to the new emperor : but ere he could reach Italy, Gal'ba was no more, and O'tho and Vitel'lius were con- tending for the empire. Tatus returned to his father, whom he found ready to swear allegiance to Vitel'lius, though the army wished him to declare himself emperor. Vespasian's reluctance, whether real or af- fected, was overcome by the exhortations of Mucianus, governor of Syria, and the tributary monarchs of the east, whose friendship he had won by his justice and moderation. No sooner did he commence his march toward Europe, than the legions quartered in Illyr'icum and Pannonia declared in his favor ; nor was there any province on which Vitel'lius could rely for support except Africa. Primus and Varus, at the head of the lUyrian arnties, crossed the Alps, and made themselves masters of Verona, and at the same time the fleet at Ravenna declared in favor of Vespasian. Csecina, who had the principal share in raising Vitel'lius to the throne, followed the same course, but his soldiers dis- approved his conduct, and put him in irons. Primus, advancing south- ward, encountered the forces of Vitel'lius near Cremona, and totally routed them, after a battle which lasted the entire day and a great part of the following night. The city of Cremona, after a desperate resist- ance, was taken by storm, and the greater part of the inhabitants put to the sword Valens, who went to raise an army in the western provin- ces to su|>por*. the emperor, was taken prisoner, upon which Gaul, Spain, and Britain, declared in favor of Vespasian. Vitel'lius at first refused to believe the evil tidings that reached him om every quarter ; but at length on the near approach of danger, he hasted to secure the passes of the Apennines. Primus, however, by a hazardous march through the snow, forced his way over the mountains, and sent the head of Valens to be displayed to the imperial army, as a proof of his success in other quarters. Immediately Vitel'lius waa abandoned by his troops : he fled hastily to Rome, and receiving no en- couragement from senate or people, abdicated his authority. Some of the praetorian guards, however, dreading the strict discipline of Vespa- sian, compelled the wretched monarch to resume the purple. The city was distracted by a horrid civil tumult, in which many of the principal nobles perished, and the Capitol v» as burned to the ground. Primus, hearing of these disorders, advanced with all speed to Rome, forced an entrance int^o the city, and took the camp of the praetorian guerds by 268 ANCIENT HISTORY. Storm. Vitel'lius hid himself in the palace, but was discovered in his retreat by the licentious populace, ready to rise under any pretext through hopea of plunder, dragged ignominiously through the streets to the place of common execution, and put to death with a thousand wounds (a. d. 69). His brother, Lucius Vitel'lius, who was advancing to his aid with an army from the south of Italy, surrendered at discre- tion, and was put to death. The factions that had been formed during this disgraceful reign of eight months, took advantage of the confusion to wreak mutual vengeance. Primus, and Vespasian's second son, Do- mit'ian, abandoned themselves to debauchery and plunder : Rome ap- peared on the very brink of ruin from the madness of its own citizens. At length tranquillity was restored by the arrival of Vespasian, whose accession diffused universal joy. His first care was to restore t-he dis- cipline of the army, which he found in a shocking state of demoraliza- tion : he next revived the authority of the senate, supplying its dimin- ished ranks with eminent men from the provinces and colonies ; finally, he reformed the courts of law, which had long ceased to be courts of justice. The virtues of Vespasian, supported by a firm temper, led to a great improvement in the social condition of Rome. His only fault was an extravagant love of money, which, however, was probably ex- aggerated by those who compared his parsimonious expenditure with the lavish extravagance of former emperors. The early part of his reign was signalized by the final termination of the Jewish war, and the destruction of Jerusalem and its holy tem- ple. It would be impossible to give even a faint outline of this mem- orable war here ; suffice it to say, that the Jews, deceived by false prophets, who promised them a temporal deliverer, persevered in their rebellion long after every reasonable chance of success had disappeared ; that they were divided into hostile factions, who fought against each othe' in the streets of Jerusalem, while the walls of the city quivered under the battering engines of the common enemy ; and that they re- fused proflered mercy when the Roman ensigns were waving above their battlements. Dreadful was the punishment of this fated nation : their city and temple were reduced to heaps of shapeless ruins ; their best and bravest fell by the swords of the Romans or each other; most of the wretched survivors were sold into slavery, and the Jews, since ihat period, dispersed over the face of the earth, have become a mock- ery, a by-word, and a reproach among nations. Tftus and his father triumphed together on account of this success, and the rich ornaments of the temple were displayed in the procession. A triumphal arch was also erected for Titus, on which his noble deeds were sculptured : it continues nearly perfect to the present day, a lasting monument of his victories over the Jewish nation. The Batavian war, which threatened great dangers to the Roman dominions in Gaul and Germany, was con- cluded about the same time by the prudence and valor of Ceiealis ; and Comagene, which had been permitted to retain its own sovereigns, was reduced to a province. Britain had yet been very imperfectly subdued, and the completion of its conquest was intrusted to Cneius Julius Agric^ola, a native of Gaul, justly celebrated for his great merits as a general and a states- man. His first enterprise was to recover the island of y)nglesey from EOMAN EMPIRE. 269 the Ordovices. His success was owing to his promptitude as much as to his valor • hu appeared in the midst of the hostile country before the enemy knew of his having passed the frontiers ; and the I3ritons, dis- concerted by a sudden attack, agreed to purchase safety by submission. The advantages thus won by miliUry prowess, he resolved to confirm and secure by enlightened policy. He induced the Britons to lay aside their own barbarous customs, and adopt the Roman manners ; but un- fortunately, in giving them a knowledge of the arts of civilization, he also inspired them with a taste for luxury. He next proceeded to attack the Caledonians ; a fleet was ordered to examine the coast ; and by this expedition Britain was first discovered to be an island. The Caledo- nians drew together under the command of Gal'gacus, and hazarded a pitched battle with the army of Agric'ola, in which they were utterly routed, and pursued with great slaughter ; but the fastnesses of the Scottish highlands were too formidable to be overcome ; and th^ north- ern part of Britain was never subdued by the Romans. Several conspiracies were formed against Vespasian, whose rigid rule was found a severe check on the licentiousness of the nobles ; but they were all detected and punished. At length, his close attention to the affairs of state brought on a mortal disease. He retired to his country-seat for change of air ; but the sickness was aggravated by the alteration, and he died in the seventieth year of his age (a. d. 78). He was the second of the Roman emperors that died a natural death, though some suspicion is attached to the fate of Augus'tus, and he was the first who was succeeded by his son. His obsequies were performed with ex- traordinary pomp by Titus ; but the solemnity was disturbed by a ludi- crous circumstance, too characteristic of the age to be omitted. The Romans were so preposterously fond of mimics and farces, that they were even exhibited at funerals, where actors personated the deceased, imitated his actions, mimicked his voice, and satirized his peculiarities. At Vespasian's obsequies, a pantomime named Favor personated that emperor, and took an opportunity of attacking his parsimony. Imita- ting the voice of the deceased emperor, he loudly demanded the price of the ceremony ; a large sum was named in reply. " Give me the money," he continued, holding out his hand, " and throw my body into the Tiber." Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus, whose first action after his accession was a sacrifice of his dearest affections to the popular will. He dismissed the beautiful Berenice, daughter to Agrip'pa, the last king of Judea, because that his connexion with a foreigner was displeasing to the senate and people. Nor was this the only instance of his complaisance ; he allowed the spectators to choose their own entertainments in the circus and he never refused audience to a peti- tioner. His clemency was equally remarkable ; he abolished the law of treason ; and severely punished spies and informers. In the first year of his reign, Campania was alarmed and devastated by the most dreadful eruption of Vesuvius on record ; it laid waste the country for many miles round, overwhelming several cities with their inhabitants, among which Herculaneum and Pompeii were the most remarkable. This was followed by a dreadful conflagration at Rome, which lasted three days, and destroyed a vas" number of edifices, bolh 270 ANCIENT HISTORY. public and private. The exertions of Titus to remedy both these calamities procured him, from his grateful subjects, the honorable title of " benefactor of the human race." A plague afforded him fresh op- portunities of displaying his native goodness of heart ; but these exer- tions proved too much for his constitution ; he was seized with a fever, which terminated fatally in a few days (a. d. 81). His death diffused universal sorrow throughout the empire ; every family lamented as if it had been deprived of its natural protector ; and his name has become a proverbial designation for wise and virtuous princes. Flavins Domit'ian succeeded his brother without any opposition, though his character for debauchery and cruelty was sufficiently noto- rious. He was naturally timorous, and fear, of course, aggravated his sanguinary disposition ; yet he professed a passionate attachment to military sports, and possessed so much skill in archery, that he could shoot arrows through the expanded fingers of a domesnc placed at a considerable distance without ever inflicting a wound. In the begin- ning of his reign, he studied to gain the favor of the people by a line of conduct worthy of an upright sovereign — disguising his vices, and affecting the opposite virtues. He presented large sums to his minis- ters and officers of state, that they might be raised above the temptation of receiving bribes ; he refused the inheritances bequeathed to him, distributing the legacies among the nearest relations of the deceased ; and he pretended to have such a horror of shedding blood, that he is- sued an edict forbidding the sacrifice of oxen or any other living ani- mals. He confirmed all the grants made by the preceding emperors, increased the pay of the soldiers, and finished, at an immense charge, all the public buildings which had been begun by Titus. In the second year of his reign he attacked the Cat'ti, the most war- like of the German tribes ; and, as the invasion was unexpected, made several of the peasants prisoners. Hearing, however, that the enemies were preparing an army, he retreated with great speed ; yet the servile senate voted him a triumph for this pretended success. But flattery could not hide from the emperor his vast inferiority to Agric'ola, whose conquests in Britain were the theme of universal praise : he recalled this victorious general, who deemed it prudent to decline a triumph, and retire into the seclusion of private life. From this time forward the emperor indulged in the most sanguinary excesses, putting to death, without the form of trial, the most eminent senators and knights. The herd of informers, discouraged and punished during the preceding reign, once more came into favor ; and such was their activity, that the most innocent conversation was frequently made the ground of a capi- tal charge. The infamous vices of the palace were so far from being hidden, that they were ostentatiously displayed to the public ; and when Domit'ian had thus degraded himself in the eyes of his subjects to the condition of a beast, he required to be worshipped as a god, and all the streets leading to the Capitol were daily crowded with victims to be oflered in sacrifices before his altars and statues. The Daci and Getse, under their gallant king Deceb'alus, invaded ihe Roman frontiers, and defeated the generals sent to oppose them in two great battles. Domit'ian, encoiiraged by the news of a subsequent victory, resolved to take the field in person : but instead of marching ROMAN EMPIRE. 271 against the Daci, he attacked the Qu;i(li and Marcomanni, and was shauiefully beaten. Discouraged by this overthrow, he concluded a dishonorable peace with the Dacians, engaging to pay Deceb'alus a yearly tribute : but he wrote to the senate, boasting of extraordinar)' victories ; and that degraded body, though well aware of the truth, im- mediately decreed him the honors of a triumph. Wearied by the tyranny of Domit'ian, Lucius Antonius, the governor of upper Germany, raised the standard of revolt in his province, but was easily defeated and slain. This abortive insurrection stimulated the cruelty of the emperor : vast numbers were tortured and executed, under pretence of having been accomplices of Antonius. An edict was published, banishing all philosophers from Rome, and prohibiting mstruction in the liberal sciences ; for Domit'ian felt that all learning was a satire on his own ignorance, and all virtue a reproof of his infa- my. But though thus tyrannical, Domit'ian had little fear of rebellion ; he had secured the support of the troops by increasing their pay, and his splendid entertainments rendered him a favorite with the degraded populace. The adherents to the national religion Avere also gratified by a second general persecution of the Christians, who were odious to the emperor because they refused to worship his statues (a. d. 95). Among the most illustrious martyrs in the cause of truth on this occa- sion was Flavins Clem'ens, cousin-german of the emperor, whose example proves that the new religion was now beginning to spread among the higher ranks of society. It was the custom of Domit'ian to inscribe on a roll the names of the persons he designed to slaughter. One day a young child with whom he used to divert himself took this paper from under the pillow on which the emperor was sleeping, and unaware of its important con- tents, gave it to the empress Domit'ia. She saw Avith surprise and consternation her own name on the fatal list, as well as those of the imperial chamberlain and the captain of the praetorian guards, to whom she immediately communicated their danger. They at once conspired for his destruction, and he was murdered in his bed (a. d. 96).. The Roman populace heard his fate with indifference ; but the soldiers, whose pay he had increased, and with whom he had often shared his plunder, lamented him more than they had Vespasian Titus ; it is even said that they would have avenged his fate by a general massacre, had they not been restrained by their officers. During this reign flourished a philosopher, Apollonius Tyaneus, whose austere life and extensive knowledge procured him so much fame, that he pretended to have the power of working miracles, and aspired to become the founder of a new religion. Like Pythag'oras, he travelled into the remote east, and incorporated in his system many of the tenets that are now held by the Buddhists. During his life, this impostor enjoyed the highest reputation ; but, in spite of all the eflbrta of his disciples, his system, after his death, sank rapidly, i ato merited oblivion. 272 ANCIENT HISTORY. Section Ul.—Froin the Extinction of the first Flavian Family to the last oj the Antonines. FROM A. D. 96 TO A. D. 193. Domit'ian was the last of the emperors commonly called the twelve Caesars : he was succeeded by Mar'cus Cocceius Ner'va, who was chosen to the sovereignty by a unanimous vote of the senate. He was a native of Narn'ia in Umbria, but his family came originally from Crete ; and we may therefore regard him as the first foreigner placed at the head of the empire. Though past the age of seventy, he applied him- self to the reformation of abuses with all the zeal of youth, punishing informers, redressing grievances, and establishing a milder and more equitable system of taxation. His greatest fauU was excessive lenity, which encouraged the profligate courtiers to persevere in their accus- tomed peculations. The turbulent preetorian guards raised an insurrec- tion, under pretence of avenging the death of Domit'ian, and not only compelled the emperor to abandon such victims to their fury as they demanded, but actually forced him to return them public thanks for their proper and patriotic conduct. This outrageous indignity, however, pro- duced a highly beneficial result. Ner'va, finding himself despised on account of hib old age and infirmities, resolved to adopt Mar'cus Ul'pius Trajan, the greatest and most deserving person of his age, as his col- league and successor, though he had many relations of his own, who might, without incurring the imputation of presumption, aspire to that dignity. The news of this appointment was received with great joy by the senate and people, and the soldiers immediately returned to their duty. Soon after, Ner'va, while chiding severely an infamous informer, so heated himself, that he was seized with a fever, which proved mor- tal, in the sixteenth month of his reign (a. d. 98). He was ranked among the gods by his subjects ; and Trajan, out of gratitude, caused several temples to be erected to his memory, both at Rome and in the provinces. Trajan was by birth a Spaniard, descended from a family that had some claim to royal honors. He was equally great as a ruler, a general, and a man ; free from every vice, except an occasional indulgence in wine. After completely abolishing the trials for high treason {judicia majeslatis), he restored as much of the old constitution as was con sistent with a monarchy ; binding himself by oath to observe the laws, reviving the comitia for the election of civic officers, restoring freedom of speech to the senate, and their former authority to the magistrates. Deceb'alus having sent to claim the tribute granted to him by Domit'ian, Trajan peremptorily refused to be bound by such a disgraceful treaty, and hastily levying an army, marched against the Dacians, who had already crossed the Danube. A dreadful battle was fought, in which the Romans gained a complete victory ; but so great was the carnage on both sides, that linen could not be found to dress the wounds of the soldiers, and Trajan tore up his imperial robes to supply that want. Pursuing his advantages, the emperor soon reduced Deceb'alus to such distress, that he was forced to purchase peace by giving up all his engines of war, and acknowledging himself a vassal of the Romans. After sometime however, the Dacian monarch, unused to servitude ROMAN EMPIRE. 273 again had recourse to arms, and was proclaimed a public enemy by the senate. Trajan once more took the field in person. To facilitate the advance of his army, he constructed a stupendous stone bridge over the Danube, fortified with stong castles at both ends ; and having thus secared his conununications, he marched into the very heart of the country, and made himself master of the capital (a. d. 106). Deceb'alus, despairing of success, committed suicide ; and after his death, the coun- try was easily formed into a province, and several Roman colonies and garrisons for the first time planted north of the Danube. In the same year Arabia Petraja was subdued, and annexed to the empire by the governor of Syria. These successes rendered Trajan ambitious of further ,;onques)t, and he resolved to contend with the Parthians lor the sovereignty of can cral Asia. He commenced by subduing Armenia, which he made h. new province, and thence he advanced into Mesopotamia. A bridge not less remarkable than that over the Danube was constructed across the Tigris ; and the Romans passing this river to a country where their eagles had never before been seen, conquered the greater part of ancient Assyria. Seleucia and Ctes'iphon [El Modain), the capital of the Parthian kingdom, were besieged and taken ; after which, the emperor, descending the Tigris, displayed the Roman standards for the first time in the Persian gulf. Thence he sailed to the southern part of the Arabian peninsula [Arabia Felix), a great part of which he annexed to the empire. He is said to have meditated the invasion of India ; but was probably deterred by considering the great difficulties with which he would have to contend in the deserts of eastern Persia. No permanent advantages resulted from these conquests. No sooner had the emperor returned, than most of the nations which he had con- quered revolted, and massacred the Roman garrisons. The Jews, prompted by false prophets, raised a dangerous insurrection in the prov- inces through which they had been dispersed : after having committed the most shocking excesses, they were subdued, and their treason pun- ished with remorseless severity. Trajan was making vigorous prep- aratiorxS to regain his conquests, when he was attacked by dropsy and palsy, which induced him to return to Italy. He, however, only pro- ceeded so far as Selinus in Cilicia, when the disease assumed a mortal character ; and in this little town the best of the Roman monarchs died, in the twentieth year of his reign (a. d. 117). His ashes were carried to Rome, and deposited under the stately column he had erected to commemorate his Dacian victories, though it stood within the city, where no one had ever been buried before. One stain on Trajan's character must not be omitted ; he sanctioned the persecution cf the Christians, and even when convinced that they were innocent of the atrocious charges brought against them by the pagans, he only forbade inquisitions to be made, but continued the punishment of all who were accused. Adrian, the cousin-german and pupil of Trajan, succeeded to the empire, it is said, by adoption ; but there is some reason to doubt the truth of the assertion. A much stronger claim was the unanimous declaration of the Asiatic armies in his favor, whose potent choice was ratified by tha senate. Anxious to preserve peace, he at once abandoned all the con- 18 5^74 ANCIENT HISTORY quests made by his predecessors, both in Asia and Europe, destroying the bridges over the Tigris and Danube. On his return to Rome the senate offered him a triumph, whic^li he had the good sense to refuse , at the same tune, to show his moderation and love of tranquillity, he diminished the military establishments, and lowered the taxes through- out the empire. But the virtues of Adrian were not unaJloyed ; he was a cruel persecutor of the Jews and Christians ; he allowed himself to be influenced by unworthy favorites, and too often lent an ear to the tales of slanderers and informers. Deeming that all parts of the empire had a claim to the protection of the sovereign, he resolved to make a tour through the provinces, and began his course by visiting Gaul. Germany, and Britain. He found the Britons far advanced in civiliza- tion ; but no longer able to contend with the barbarous Caledonians. In order to check the incursions of these savages, he erected the first Roman wall from the Eden to the Tyne, as has been mentioned in a preceding chapter. He twice visited Asia, and ordered that a Roman colony should be established at Jerusalem, whose name he changed to iElia Capitolina (a. d. 131). The introduction of idolatry into the holy "ity pi\. yoked a fierce insurrection of the Jews, headed by an impostor calling him- self Bar-Cochab [the son of a star), who pretended to be the expected Messiah. After a sanguinaiy war, which lasted three years, the infat- uated insurgents were subdued, but their revolt was punished by the most horrible cruelties, and their name and nation were all but exter- minated. While Adrian continued in the East, Salfvius Julianus, the most eminent lawyer in the empire, was employed in compiling the edictum verpeiuum, a code containing all the laws which had been published by the prjEtors in their annual edicts. This celebrated statute gave per- manence and uniformity, to the system of Roman jurisprudence, and in some degree raised law to the dignity of a science. Athens, which had long been neglected, naturally engaged the attention of a sovereign so enthusiastically attached to literature and the arts as Adrian. He com- pleted many of its buildings, which had remained incomplete since the fall of the republic, and added so many new edifices, that a whole quar- ter of the city was called after his name. In commemoration of the great benefits he had conferred on the empire a medal was struck in his honor, bearing the inscription Restitutori orbis terrdrum — " to the Restorer of the World." On his return to Rome he fell into a lingering disease, and adopted Com'modus Verus as his successor ; but he soon repented his choice of a weak, debauched young man, whose constitution was greatly im- paired by his guilty excesses. When he was sufficiently recovered, he retired to his magnificent villa at Tusculum (T^t;oZ^), where he sank into the same filthy debauchery as Tiberius at Capreae. These excesses brought on a relapse ; sickness rendered him cruel and jealous, and some of the most eminent men of Rome were sacrificed to his diseased suspicions. On the death of Verus, Adrian adopted Titus Antoninus, on condition of his adopting Mar'cus Aurelius and Verus, the son of his former choice. Scarcely had this arrangement been completed when the emperor's ailments were aggravated to such a degree, that no medi- ROMAN EMPIRE. 272 sines could give him relief ; and, through impatience of pain, he made several attempts to commit suicide. Hoping for some relief from ba- thing, he removed to Baia?, where he soon died (a. d. 139). Adrian, by his cruelties toward the close of his reign, provoked public hatred to such a degree, that the senate was disposed to annul all his acts ; but the entreaties of Antoninus, and the fear of the soldiers, with whom Adrian had been a great favorite, induced them not only to aban- don their intention, but to enrol him in the number of gods, and order tempkis to be erected to his honor. Antoninus, immediately after his accession, gave his daivghter Faus- tina in marriage to Mar'cus Aurelius, procured for him the tribunitian and proconsular power from the senate, and associated him in all the labors of government ; but he showed no regard for the profligate young Verus, whose misconduct he tolerated solely from respect for the memory of Adrian. The mild and merciful reign of this emperor deservedly surnamed Pius, was undoubtedly the most tranquil and hap py to be found in the Roman annals. He suspended the persecution oi" the Christians througliout the empire, and ordered that their accusers should be punished as calumniators. Peace prevailed through the wide dominions of Rome ; the virtues of the sovereign conciliated the afl^ec- tion of foreigners, and distant nations chose him to arbitrate their differ- ences. For the first time the government of the provinces engaged the earnest attention of the sovereign : the lieutenants of the emperor, per- ceiving that their conduct was closely watched, ceased to oppress those intrusted to their charge ; and instead of seeing their revenues wasted to support a profligate court, or gratify a degraded populace, the provin- cials beheld public schools erected for the instruction of youth, harbors cleaned out and repaired, new marts of trade opened, and every exer- tion made to realize the magnificent project formed by Alexander the Great, of constituting an empire whose parts should be held together by the bonds of commerce and mutual interest. After a useful reign of twenty-two years, the prosperity of which is best proved by its afford- ing no materials for history, he died of a fever at one of his villas, be- queathing nothing beyond his own private fortune to his family (a. d. 163). The Romans venerated so highly the memory of this excellent monarch, that during the greater part of the ensuing century, every emperor deemed it essential to his popularity to assume the surname of Antoninus. Mar'cus Aurelius, surnamed the Philosopher, on account of his at- tachment to the doctrines and austerities of the Stoics, succeeded to the empire ; but his power was shared by Lucius Verus, to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. He took, however, an early opportunity of sending his unworthy colleague from Rome, intrusting him with the command of the army sent against the Parthians, who had overrun Syria. Verus took up his residence at Antioch, where he abandoned himself to every species of infamy and debauchery, while the conduct of the war was intrusted to his lieutenants. Fortunately, these officers were worthy of the high trust confided to them : they upheld the repu- tation of the Roman arms in four brilliant campaigns, and conquered some of the principal cities of Parthia. While Verus was disgracing himself in Asia, Rome enjoyed happi« 276 ANCIENT HISTORY ness and tranquillity under the merciful but firm administration of Ai> relius. But this prosperity was interrupted by the return of Verus, who came to claim a triumph for the victories obtained by his officers. The eastern army unfortunately brought the plague with it into Europe : in- fection was communicated to every province through which they passed: the violence of the pestilence did not abate for several years, and among its victims were some of the most illustrious men in Rome and the principal cities of Italy. Scarcely had the affairs of the east been arranged, when a dangerous war was commenced by the Marcoman'ni on the German frontiers : both emperors took the field ; but at the very opening of the campaign, Verus fell a victim to his intemperance (a. d. 171). Aurelius honored his remains with a magnificent funeral, and even persuaded the senate to enrol this miserable debauchee in the number of the gods. The em- peror now devoted his entire attention to the conduct of the German war ; but in the first engagement the Romans were routed with great slaughter ; and it was only by the sale of the imperial plate, furni.. re, and crown jewels, that a sum could be raised sufficient to repair their great losses. Aurelius having by this sacrifice assembled a fresh army, soon restored the fortime of the empire. He took up his residence at Sir'mium (Sirmich), and from this central position directed the move- ments of his officers, whom he had directed to harass and wear out the barbarians, by marches, counter-marches, and skirmishes, rather than peril their armies in pitched battles. Once only he abandoned this prudent policy, advancing beyond the Danube into the territory of the Quadi. This temerity had nearly proved his ruin : the barbarians, craftily pretending flight, drew the Romans into a barren defile, where the army was on the point of perishing by thirst. In this distress the Romans were relieved by a great thunder-storm ; the lightning fired the tents of their enemies, and the rain relieved their pressing wants. The barbarians, believing this event miraculous, at once submitted ; and Au- relius was, for the seventh time, proclaimed imperator by the senate. Many ancient fathers ascribe this seasonable shower to the prayers of a Christian legion in the imperial army ; but the evidence by which the miracle is supported has been more than once shown to be a fraudulent falsification. In consequence of this success, the German nations besought terms of peace, which Aurelius readily granted, as he was anxious to suppress a dangerous rebellion in the east, where his lieutenant, Avid'ius Cas'- sius, had proclaimed himself emperor. But Cas'sius, though a formi- dable rival, had not the prudence necessary for success in a civil war ; he disgusted his soldiers by the excessive severity of his discipline, and was murdered by one of his own centurions. Aurelius showed great regret for the destruction of his rival, lamenting that he had been deprived of an opportunity of showing mercy. He forbade the prose- cution of those who had joined in the revolt, and took the young family of Cas'sius under his own protection. Having restored tranquillity, the smperor returned to Rome, which he entered in triumph with his son Com'modus, whom he had recently declared his successor, and invested with the tribunitian power. Tiie persecution of the C aristians had been renewed in this reiga ROMAN EMPIRE. 277 probaJtly at the instigation of the vStoic philosophers, to whom the su- perior purity of the Christian doctrines gave great offence ; and among the m"st illustrious a ictims of imperial bigotry was the celebrated Jus'- tin M.ir'tyr, whose apologies for Christianity, addressed to the emperors Antoninus and Aurelius, are among the best, as well as the earliest works, written to refute the calumnies with which in every age the true faith has been assailed. Toward the close of his reign the emperor became more tolerant; some say in consequence of the miiaculous shower ; others, with more probability, ascribe the change to his hav- ing learned the falsehood of the charges brought against the Christians. Aurelius had not been long in Rome when war was unexpectedly re- newed along the Rhine and Danube. The great migration of nations, which was ere long to change the entire face of the civilized world, had now commenced, and the German tribes along the frontiers, pressed forward by hordes in their rear, were necessarily forced to encroach on the limits of the empire. So formidable was the invasion, whose caiise was as yet unknown, that the emperor found it necessary to take the field in person. He gained several important victories, and was preparing to reduce Germany into a province, when he was seized with a violent fever at Vindobona {Vienna), to which he fell a victim in a few days (a. d. 180). The glory of the empire may be said to have expired with Aurelius : he was the last emperor who made the good of his subjects the chief object of his government ; and he was one of the few princes who attained a high rank in literature. His Meditations, which have come down to our time, contain a summary of the best rules for a virtuous life that have ever been devised by unassisted reason or simple philosophy. Com'modus was the first emperor that was born in his father's reign, and the second that received the empire as a paternal inheritance. He had been spoiled in youth by his mother Faustina, a woman of very violent passions and sanguinary temper, who corrupted her son's mind both by precept and example. His debaucheries exceeded those of all his predee.^ssors in extravagance and iniquity : even his own sisters became the victims of his lust, and one of them, having reproached him, was murdered by his hand. All his sports were cruel : he loved to roam through the streets wounding and slaying the unsuspicious pas- sengers ; he frequently contended with the gladiators on the pubhc stage, and delighted to display feats of strength, for his muscular pow- ers were unrivalled. But he showed no disposition for foreign war ; on the contrary, he concluded a peace with the Quadi and Marco- man'ni, abandoning the territories that had been conquered by his fa- ther. An attempt made to asassinate this monster, in the third year of his reign, stimulated his natural cruelty to the most savage excess : his assailant, aiming a blow at him with a dagger, exclaimed, " The senate sends thee this !" and though the murder was prevented by the prompt interference of the guards, the words sank deep into the emperor's breast, and thenceforward he showed inveterate suspicion and hatred to the whole body of senators. Scarcely had he escaped this danger, when he was exposed to one more formidable, arising from the war of the deserters. A common soldier, named Mater'nus, guilty of the un- usual crime of abandoning his colors, assembled a band of robbers in 378 ANCIENT HISTORY. Gaul, and being joined by profligates from every part of llie empire^ pillao-ed and laid waste that province. Being reduced to great straita by the exertions of Pescen'nius Niger, Mater'nus divided his men into several small bands, and marched privately with them by different ways into Italy, designing to murder Com'modus at a public festival, and in the confusion seize the empire. The conspirators reached Rome in safety, but just as the plot was on the point of exploding, they were be- trayed by their accomplices, arrested, and put to death. An alarming insurrection of the Roman populace, directed not so much ao-ainst the emperor as his minister Clean'der was produced by the exhortations of an unknown woman The praetorian horse charged the multitude, but were defeated with loss, as cavalry generally are when acting against a mob in narrow streets. Com'modus, alarmed by the tumult, sacrificed his minister, and the fury of the Romans was appeased. Having formed the wild project of entering on the consular dignity armed as a gladiator, and marching in procession from the gladiatorial school instead of the palace, he was so enraged by the remonstrances of his concubine Mar'cia, that he resolved to put her to death. Having accidentally discovered her danger, she determined to murder Com'- modus, and being aided by some officers of the household, strangled him in his bed (a. d. 192). No sooner was his death known, than the senate, without waiting for the return of day, assembled hastily, annulled his acts, ordered all his statues to be thrown down, and demanded that his body should be dragged through the streets and cast into the Tiber. The latter indignity was prevented by a private and hurried funeral. Section IV. — Foreign Commerce of the Romans in the age of the Antonines. If the reign of Augustus be justly celebrated for the perfection of Ro- man literature, those of the Antonines, including even that of the wick- ed Com'modus, deserve to be honored for the great improvements made in trade and commerce especially by the opening of new communica- tions with India. Tad'mor, or Palmyra, the wondrous city of the des- ert, distant only eighty-five miles from the Euphrates, and about one hun- dred and seventeen from the nearest coast of the Mediterranean, was the centre of the trade between Europe and southern Persia, including the countries bordering on the Indus, and the districts now attached to the Bombay presidency. In consequence of the great exports that this trade naturally caused from the harbors of the Levant, great numbers of Syrian merchants settled in Rome, some of whom attained the high- est honors of the state. It would appear that some merchants used a more northern route by the Caspian and Oxus ; for we find the Roman geographers tolerably well acquainted with the countries that now form the kingdoms of Khiva and Bokhara. The great caravan route across Asia, however commenced at Byzantium [Constantinople], which waa long the seat of flourishing commerce before it became the metropolis of an empire. Having passed the Bos'phorus, the merchant adventu- rers proceeded through Anatolia, and crossed the Euphrates near Hie- rap'olis (^Bambucli) ; thence they proceeded to Ecbatana (Hamadan), the ancient capital of the Medes, and Hecatompy'los {Damaghan), the me- ROMAN EMPIRE. 279 tropolis of the Parthians. Thence they proceeded circiiitously to Hyr- cania (Jorjan) and A'ria {Herat). Finally they came to Bactra (Bulkh), long the principal mart of central Asia. From Bactra there were two caravan routes, one to north India, over the western part of the Hima- laya, called the Indian Caucasus (Hindu Kush), the other toward the frontiers of Ser'ica {China), over the lofty mountain-chain of Imaus {Belur Tag), through a winding ravine which was marked by a celebra- ted station called the Stone Tower, whose ruins are said still to exist, under the name of Chihel Sulun, or the Forty Columns- Little was known of the countries between the Iraaus and Ser'ica, which were prob- ably traversed by Bactrian rather than European merchants ; but the road was described as wonderfully difficult and tedious. As the progress of the caravans was liable to frequent interrupticiis from the Parthians, and the conveyance of manufactured silks through the deserts very toilsome, the emperor Antoninus attempted to open a communication with the Chinese by sea. Of this singular transaction no record has yet been found in any of the Greek or Latin authors ; but M. de Guignes discovered it stated in a very old Chinese historical work, that an embassy had come by sea from Antun, the king of the people of the western ocean, to Yan-ti, or rather Han-huan-ti, who ruled over China in the hundred and sixty-sixth year of the Christian era. The name and date sufficiently identify Antun with Antoninus, and the projected intercourse was well worthy the attention of that en- Jightened emperor ; but nothing is known respecting the results of this embassy. We have already mentioned the great increase of intercourse between Egypt and India, when the former country was governed by the Ptole- mies. The navigation was long confined to circuitous voyages round ihe peninsula of Arabia and ihe coasts of the Persian gulf; but about a century after the establishment of the Roman dominion, Har'palus, the commander of a ship long engaged in the Indian trade, observing ihe regular changes of the periodical winds, ventured to steer from the Angus'tiaj Durse {straits of Bab-el-Mandeb or " the Gate of Tears ") right across the Erythraean sea {Indian ocean), and was wafted by the western monsoon to Musiris (Marjan), on the Malabar coast. This great improvement was deservedly regarded as of the highest import- ance ; and the western monsoon received the name of Har'palus, in memory of the courageous navigator, who had turned it to such a good account. The route of the Egyptian trade under the Romans has been de- scribed with considerable accuracy by Pliny. Cargoes destined for India were carried up the Nile in beats to Cop'tos {Ghouft), thence they were transferred by caravans to My'os Hor'mus {Cosscir), or Berenice (Hubbesh). The latter, though the longer, was the more frequented road, because the Ptolemies had raised excellent stations and watering- places at convenient distances along the road. From Berenice the fleet sailed in June or July for O'celis {Gella), at the mouth of the Arabian gulf, and Cane {Far lash), a promontory and emporium on the south- east coast of Arabia Felix. Thence they steered right across the >cean for the Malabar coast, and usually made Musiris in forty days. rhey began their voyage homeward early in December, and generally 280 ANCIENT HISTORV encountered more difficulty on their return on account of the unsteadi ness of the winds. The chief imports from India were spices, precious stones, and mus lins. There is a singular confusion in the Latin authors between the liner cotton goods and manufactured silks, which has led to their mix ing up the Chinese and Indian trade together. The principal exports were light woollens, chequered linens, glass, wine, and bullion. Com'modus, with a providence which could scarcely have been ex- pected from him, made some efforts to open the old Carthaginian trade with the interior of Africa ; but the result of his labors is unknown. He also paid some attention to the corn-trade, so essential to the pros- perity of his central dominions, when Italy had long ceased to produce sufficient grain for the support of its inhabitants ; and he established a company to supply corn from northern Africa whenever the crops failed in Egypt. The trade of the Black sea, so flourishing in the age cf the Greek republics, appears to have been greatly diminished after the Romans became masters of the countries at both sides of the ^Egean ; and it seems probable that little or no commerce passed through the straits of Hercules (straits of Gibraltar) into the Atlantic ocean. In conse- quence of this change, the amber-trade was transferred from the coasts of the northern sea to the banks of the Danube, and the barbarous tribes who brought it from the shores of the Baltic are said to have been astonished at the prices they received for what seemed to them so use- less a commodity. Furs were purchased from the Scythian tribes ; but tliis branch of trade appears never to have been of any great amount. The British tin-trade was rather neglected by the Romans ; indeed, it appears to have been monopolized by the Gauls, and consequently was confined to the British channel. From this slight sketch it will be seen that the Romans were not naturally a mercantile people. We must now return to the history of the civil wars and revolutions which frustrated the plans of the Antonines for making commercial pursuits the source of unity and happiness to the empire. Section Y.—From the Extinction of the Flavian Family to the Establish ment of Military Despotism, after the murder of Alexander Severus. FROM A. D. 192 TO A. D. 235. After the conspirators had murdered Com'modus, they proceeded to the house of Pub'lius Hel'vius Per'tinax, and declared that they had come to offer him the empire, as being the person who best deserved sovereignty. Per'tinax at first believed that this was some plot for his destruction ; but on further inquiry, having learned that Com'modus was really dead, he proceeded to the praetorian camp, and v/as saluted em- peror rather reluctantly by the guards. He met a much warmer recep- tion from the senators, who expected that his firmness and virtue would be displayed in checking the turbulence of the soldiers, now the real masters of the empire. Nor did his conduct disappoint their expecta- tions : he diminished the lavish expenditure of the palace, restored the property that his predecessor had unjustly confiscated to the rightful ROMAN EMPIRE. 281 owners, and punished those who, by false informations, had stimulated Com'modus to cruelty. These reforms endeared him to the senate and people, but provoked the anger of the turbulent praetorians : three days after his accession, they attempted to make Laciv'ius emperor, but that senator fled from their violence and sought shelter with Per'tinax him- self. Their next choice was the consul Fal'co, who showed equal re- luctance to accept the precarious station. The emperor, to prevent the recurrence of similar outrages, prepared to restore the ancient military discipline ; but this exasperated the mutineers still more, and a party of them, breaking suddenly into the palace, slew Per'tinax, after a brief reign of less than three months. The Romans lamented, but did not venture to revenge his death ; most of the citizens shut themselves up in their houses, leaving the soldiers to choose a master for the empire at their discretion. When the prastorians heard that Per'tinax was dead, they issued a proclamation, declaring that the empire was for sale, and would be given to the highest bidder. Did''ius Julianus, the wealthiest man in Rome, offered to become a purchaser ; his money, and his promise that he would restore all things to the condition in which they were under Com'modus, so pleased the dissolute soldiers, that they proclaimed hnn emperor, and compelled the senate to recognise their choice. But the Roman populace showed their indignation at this scandalous traffic by showering curses and reproaches on Did'ius whenever he appeared in public, and even assailing him with stones and other missiles. The weak emperor bore these attacks with great equanimity, relying for se- curity on the praetorians, whose favor he secured by fresh largesses. Put though Did'ius, by the favor of the household troops, was able to secure himself in Rome, he could not secure the respect or allegiance of the provinces ; and the distant armies, deeming that they had as good a right to confer empire as the praetorian cohorts, offered sovereignty to their commanders. Three competitors together appeared to contest the throne with the ambitious merchant ; Clodius Albi'nus in Britain, Pescen'nius Niger in Syria, and Septim'ius Severus in Illyria. Did'ius prepared to meet the storm with more fortitude than could have been expected; he convoked the senate, and had Severus, the nearest of hia rivals, declared a public enemy : he also sent deputies to exhort the Illyrian soldiers to return to their allegiance. But the unfortunate em- peror was betrayed by his own officers ; the deputies tendered' their homage to Severus, and exhorted him to expedite his march toward Rome. The rapid advance of the Illyrians, the capture of Ravenna and the Roman fleet, and the desertion of the troops sent to guard the passes of the Apennines, so alarmed the praetorians, ^hat they resolved to abandon Did'ius, and make terms with Severus. They communica- ted their resolutions to the consul, who forthwith convoked the senate. A decree was passed for the deposition and death of Did'ius, and ere it was enrolled, the band of executioners was on its march to the palace Did'ius was foimd trembling and in tears, ready to resign empire, pro vided his life might be spared. At sight of the armed band, he ex claimed " What crime have 1 committed ? whose life have I taken away ?" But his remonstrances were cut short, by one of the soldiers.. who struck off his head. The body was exposed to insult and mockery 282 / ANCIENT HISTORY. in the public streers, and thus ended the two months' reign of ' the inn perial merchant." Severus, as he approached Rome, issued orders for the executioa of all who had shared in the murder of Per'tinax, and for di.sbanding the praetorian cohorts ; but he chose new guards, four times as numerous, in the place of those he had dismissed, which filled Rome with soldiers, and proved the fruitful source of many future disorders. Having con- ciliated Al'binus by procuring for him the titles of Ctesar and emperor from the senate, he marched to contend against Pescen'nius Niger in the east, previously inducing the senate to declare him a public enemy. His progress appears to have been uninterrupted until he reached Cyz'icus, where he routed the lieutenant of his rival, and by this vic- tory gained possession of lower Asia. Niger did not despair, but col- lecting a numerous army, occupied the mountain-passes between Cilicia and Syria, posting his main body along the Is'sus, where Alexander and Darius had long before contended for the sovereignty of Asia. After several engagements, Niger was completely defeated: he at- tempted to seek safety among the Parthians, but was overtaken near Antioch, and put to death (a. d. 194). Severus made a cruel use of his victory, slaughtering without mercy all who had favored the cause of his competitor. Byzantium remained faithful to the defeated general even after his death: it sustained a siege of three years' duratioji ; but was finally taken by storm, its inhabitants sold as slaves, and its walls levelled to the ground. Thus successful, Severus resolved to destroy Al'binus, whose sus- picions he had calmed while he was engaged in war with Niger. He first attempted to remove him by assassination ; but Al'binus discovered the plot, and made vigorous preparations for open Avar. This second contest for empire was decided in Gaul ; Al'binus, having been com- pletely routed near Lugdunum (Lyons), committed suicide ; and Severus could only vent his brutal spite on a senseless carcass. The friends of Al'binus met the same fate as the partisans of Niger. Severus re- turned to Rome, where he insulted the senate by pronouncing a labored eulogy on Com'modus ; and imitated that wicked monarch's example, by sentencing to a cruel death the most eminent of the nobility. A war with Parthia recalled the emperor to Asia. He was accom panied by his sons Caracal'la and Geta, who were, like their father, learncjd in camps from infancy. Severus obtained distinguished suc- cess ; he captured Seleiicia, Ctes'iphon, and Bab'ylon ; but he was com- pelled to raise the siege of Hat'ra (Hadhr), which had previously baffled the exertions of Trajan. These exploits might have procured the empire all the advantages to be derived from the rule of a gallant soldier, had not Severus chosen for his prime minister Plautianus, the captain of the prfetorian guards : a man of insatiable avarice, whom he intrusted with almost absolute power. The ruin of the premier, how- ever, was occasioned by the very means he took to confirm his secu- rity : he procured the marriage of his daughter with Caracal'la ; but the young prince, disgusted by her imperious temper, became the bitter enemy of her and Plautianus. He soon inspired his father with a sus- picion that the minister secretly aimed at empire ; a charge to which the conduct of Plautianus gave some color of probability ; and when ROMAN EMPIRE. 283 Severus called his servant to account, the prince rushed upon him, and slew him in the imperial presence. A revolt in Britain once more called the emperor into the field. lie proceeded to that island, easily quelled the disturbances, and marching northward, gained several victories over the Caledonians. He extended the frontiers beyond Adrian's wall, and erected a new line of fortifica- tions between the friths of Clyde and Forth ; but .he additional ter- ritory was abandoned in the reign of his successor. The fatigues of these campaigns, and the grief caused by the misconduct of his son Caracal'la, brought the emperor's gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. He died at Eboracum (York), in the eighteenth year of his reign (a. d. 211). Severus deserves to be ranked among great rather than good princes ; he was cruel on system, attributmg the misfortunes of Pompey and the murder of Caesar to their excessive clemency : indeed, he wrote a vindication of his excessive severity, which, imfortunaiely, has not come down to our times. Caracal'la and Geta succeeded their father ; but lie former was the bitter enemy of his more virtuous brother, and soon after his return to Rome, he slew him in his mother's arms. To prevent the consequen- ces of this atrocious murder, he gained the support of the praetorian cohorts by large donatives, and then, with strange inconsistency, pre- vailed upon the senate to rank his brother in the number of the gods. His sole dependance being on the army, he used the most iniquitous means to procure money for purchasing their venal support. The richest men in Rome were massacred under false accusations of trea- son, their properties confiscated, and their families insulted. He im- poverished his subjects in all the provinces of the empire by excessive taxes ; yet he gave away such immense sums to his guards, and paid such heavy annuities to the barbarous tribes on the frontiers, that he was forced to debase the coinage. To lower the pride of the Romans, he granted the name and privileges of free citizens to all the subjects of the empire, and soon after commenced a tour through the provinces, to escape from his unpopularity at home. He undertook an expedition against the Cat'ti and AUeman'ni, but was defeated with great loss, and forced to buy a peace. From Germany he passed into Asia, where he gained some advantages over the Armenians ; and then visiting Egypt, he almost depopulated Alexandria, massacring the greater part of its citizens, on account of some lampoons that had been published against him. He was at length assassinated near Edes'sa by Macrinus, the prefect of the praetorian guard, an officer who since the time of Se- verus, ranked next to the emperor (a. d. 217). The soldiers were greatly enraged at the murder of Caracal'la ; but Macrinus, by concealing his share in it, procured his election to the empire. Immediately after his accession, hi proclaimed his son Dia- dumenus his successor, giving him the names of Caesar and x\ntoninus : when the troops were assembled to witness this ceremony, they de< manded, with one accord, the deification of Caracal'la ; and this dis- grace to humanity was actually ranked among the gods. While he was thus engaged, the Parthians passed the Roman frontiers, defeated the imperial armies, and compelled Macrinus to purchase a disgraceful peace by a vast sacrifice of wealth and territory His extreme severity 284 ANCIENT HISTORY. at length provoked the resentment of the licentious soldiery ._ they weia persuaded by Mce'sa, maternal aunt of the late emperor, that her grand son Heliogabalus, a youth of fourteen, was the son of their favorite Caracal'la ; and a conspiracy was formed to place this young Syrian priest upon the throne. Macrinus, deserted by most of the legions, marched against his competitor with the praetorian cohorts ; but he fled from his men the moment that a battle commenced ; and the guards, enraged by his cowardice, pursued and slew him (a. d. 218). His son was at the same time taken prisoner, and executed as a common male- factor. Heliogabalus being thus victorious, sent intelligence of his success from Antioch to the senate, and was immediately acknowledged emperor. Though a mere boy, he was the most infamous monster that ever dis- graced a throne. He exceeded Nero in cruelty, Calig'ula in piodigality, and Com'modus in lewdness and debauchery. Soon after his arrival in Rome, he brought his grandmother to the senate, and ordered that he should for the future rank among the members ; he also instituted a a senate of women, under the presidency of his mother, the subjects of whose debates, consultations, and decrees, were the dresses of the Roman ladies, and the ceremony and etiquette to be observed in visits and entertainments. The Roman ladies scarcely wanted such an in- centive, they were at this time remarkable for the great attention they paid to decorating their persons, and especially ornamenting the head ; false hair was very commonly worn, and imported from Gaul, Germany, and the northern parts of Europe. The lascivious and superstitious idolatry of Syria was established in Rome, and the old forms of the national worship neglected — a change which gave great offence even to the demoralized guards. Mce'sa, foreseeing that the Romans would not long endure the yoke of so con- temptible a profligate, persuaded him to nominate his cousin, the vir- tuous Alexander Severus, heir to the empire ; but scarcely had the ap- pointment been made, when Heliogabalus attempted to assassinate the worthy prince. This crime provoked a mutiny of the praetorian cohorts. Heliogabalus, and his mother Soe'mis, were murdered by the enraged soldiers, and their bodies thrown into the Tiber (a. d. 222). The senate imni sdiately passed a decree excluding women from their body for ever. Alexander Severus commenced his reign by revoking all the edicts that had been issued by former emperors against the Christians. It is probable that his mother was a convert to the faith ; for he was well acquainted with its principles, and constantly repeated the golden rule, " Do unto others as you would they should do unto you," which he caused to be inscribed on his palace and several other edifices. Sup- jorted by the favor of the guards, he introduced many beneficial re- forms, restoring the authority of the senate, and purifying the adminis- tion of justice. In the fourth year of his reign (a. d. 226), an important revolution m the east produced a total change in the political condition of central Asia. Ardeshir Babegan, called Artaxerxes by the western writers, restored the ancient dynasty and religion of Persia, or, as it was called by the natives Iran. His standard was the apron of a blacksmith ROMAN EMPIRE. 385 named Gavah, who, at an unknown age, had headed an insurrection against the oppressors of his country, similar to that of Wat Tyler in England. Multitudes flocked to the popular flag, and the Parthian, or Arsacid dynasty, was speedily subverted. One great efiect of this rev- olution was to give a sudden and complete check to the progress of Chris'ianily eastward ; it was thrown back upon the west ; but it long retained the marks of its contact, with the mystic and gloomy doctrnics that have from unknown ages prevailed in central Asia. The iNIagiar. religion was restored to its pristine splendor : the sacred fire, that had been concealed in the mountains, once more burned on ihe ancien* altars ; and the Sassanides, as Ardeshir's dynasty was named from Sassan, the most celebrated of his ancestors, refused to tolerate any faith but that of Zerdusht, or Zoroaster. The great aim of the Sassanid dynasty was to restore the nationality of Persia ; many of the edifices of the Hystaspid times were repaired, and all new buildings erected by the successors of Ardeshir were, as much as possible, constructed on ancient models. Hence many of their buildings are attributed to the earlier races of kings ; and it is not often easy to determine from external evidence to which age of Persian his- tory their splendid halls and palaces should be assigned. The remains of the magnificent palace of the Persian kings in Ctesiphon, which bears the name of Cyrus, may be unquestionably regarded as a Sassanid monument ; and as such the building afibrds proof of the great power and wealth of the house of Sassan. Ardeshir, placed upon the throne of Cyrus, claimed that monarch's empire as his inheritance, and prepared to drive the Romans from Asia. Alexander hastened to Antioch, and marched against the Persians, over whom he gained a great victory ; but a pestilence breaking out in his army prevented him from improving his advantages. He returned to Rome, and entered the city in triumph, his chariot being drawn, not, as was usual, by four white horses, but by four of the elephants he had captured. Soon after his return, intelligence arrived that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and were devastating Gaul ; upon which the emperor, to the gFjjat grief of the senate and people, led his victorious armies to protect that province. He found the legions quartered in Gaul demoralized by a long course of indulgence, and immediately ex- erted himself to restore the ancient discipline. The licentious soldiers could not endure the change, and their discontents were fomented by Maximin, a Thracian peasant, who had risen from the ranks to high command by his uncommon strength and valor. The prince's guards were bribed to quit their posts ; and a band of assassins entering the imperial tent slew him without resistance (a. d. 235). Thus fell this excellent prince in the very bloom of youth, just as his plans for resto- ring the ancient glory of the empire were beginning to be matured. Section VI. — From the Murder of Alexander to the Capiivily of Valerian and the Usurpation of the Thirty Tyrants. FROM A. D. 235 TO A. D. 259. The murder of Alexander occasioned a great tumult, and confusioa ia the camp, during which the Pannonians proclaimed Maximin em 286 ANCIENT HISTORY. peror ; and the rest of the army seeing no other candidate come for ward, acquiesced in their choice. Great personal strength was the first cause of the new emperor's elevation : it is said he could draw a wagon which two oxen could not move, tear trees up by the roots, and crush pebbles to dust in his hands. But he was a brutal, ignorant bar- barian, uniting the cunning to the ferocity of a savage. He commenced his reign by massacring all who had been intimate with the late emperor, or who had shown sorrow for his death ; and he sent orders to the- senate to register his sanguinary decrees^ without asking that body to confirm his election. The war against the Germans was continjed with great success ; one hundred and fifty of their villages were burned to the ground ; their country, to an extent of four hundred square mile? laid desolate ; and an incredible number of prisoners sent to be sold as slaves in Italy. Maxiniin marched next against the D^-rians and Sarmatians, over whom he gained several victories ; and >. is believed that he would have extended the frontiers of the empire to the norihern ocean, had not his avarice and cruelty provoked a civil war. The revolt commenced in Africa, where two young men of high rank being condemned by the emperor's receiver-general to pay a fine that would have reduced them to beggary, conspired to save their fortunes by de- stroying hnn ; they were joined by several of the legionaries, and so rapid was their success, that they ventured to proclaim Gordian, pro- consul of Africa, then in the eightieth year of his age, sovereign of the empire. When news of this event reached Rome, the senators with one accord revolted from Maximin, and ordered all his friends in the city to be murdered. Intelligence of these events being conveyed to Maximin, he made peace with the northern barbarians, and led his army toward Italy, promising his soldiers that they should be enriched by the forfeited estates of his enemies. On his march he learned that Gordian and his son had been defeated and slain by Capelianus in Africa, but that the senate, undaunted by this calamity, had conferred the empire on Pupienus and Balbinus. This choice did not satisfy the people ; a vast multitude assembled while the new emperors were offer- ing the usual sacrifice, and demanded with loud clamor a prince of the Gordian family. After vainly attempting to disperse the mob, Balbinus and Pupienus sent for young Gordian, then only twelve years old, and proclaimed him Cajsar. In the meantime, Maximin entered Italy, and laid siege to Aquileia. Ttie garrison made a very brave defence ; and the besiegers, hated by the entire empire, suffered more than the besieged, their stragglers being cut off, and their convoys intercepted. Exasperated by their suficrings, the imperialists resolved to remove the cause ; a large body marched in the noonday to the tent of Maximin, and slew him, his son, and all his principal favorites (a. d. 238). Though several legions of Pannonians and Thracians were in the camp, they did not attempt to revenge the death of an emperor who had always shown more favor to the barbarian than the Roman legions. Scarcely had domestic tranquillity been restored, when the empire was involved ir foreign wars. The Car'pi and Goths, passing the Danube, ravaged the province of Mcs'sia ; while the Persians renewed iheir hostilities on the eastern frontiers. It was agreed among the princes, that Pupienus should undertake the defence of Syria, Balbinus ROMAN EMPIRE. 287 march against the Golns, and Gordian remain at the head of tne admin- istration in Rome. 13 ut while the necessary armaments weie in prepa- ration, a dangerous mutiny broke out among the praetorians : Pupienus and Balbinus, divided by mutual jealousies, could not unite for its sup- pression : they Avere both murdered, and young Gordian remained sole emperor. Misith'eus, captain of the praetorian guards, and father-in-law of the emperor, acted as minister and guardian of young Gordian. He was . admirably qualified for such an important office, uniting the valor of a soldier to the wisdom of a statesman. The rapid successes of Shah piir, or, as he was called by the Romans, Sapor, the second prince of the Sassanid dynasty, directed the attention of the emperor to the Per- sian war, and he went in person to protect the province of Syria. On his march toward the Hellespont, Gordian was defeated in a tumultu- ous engagement by the Alans ; but the barbarians did not know how to improve their success, and, after a short delay, he arrived safely ia Asia. The Persians were defeated in .every engagement ; and Sapor, forced to abandon Mesopotamia, was pursued to the very gates of Ctes'iphon. But these victories were more than counterbalanced by the death of Misith''eus,who showed his patriotism, even in his last moments, by bequeathing all his estates to the Roman people. Gordian, having appointed Philip, the Arabian, his prime minister, continued the war against Sapor, and gave the Persians a decisive overthrow on the banks of the Chab'oras {Khabur), a tributary to the Euphrates, in Mes- opotamia. But while the young conqueror was pursuing the advantages of his victory, a mutiny was excited in his army by the traitor Philip, whom he was compelled to make a partner of his empire. Not content with this elevation, Philip procured the assassination of his youthful benefactor (a. d. 244) ; but the soldiers soon repented of their crime and raised a splendid mausoleum to the memory of the youthful hero. Philip, being elevated to the empire by the army, wrote to the sen- ate, ascribing the death of Gordian to a natural disease : he then con- cluded a hasty peace with the Persians, and, returning to Syria, made all speed to Rome. Though the senate and people, wannly attached to the Gordian family, at first regarded him with aversion, he soon won their aflections by his mild administration and obliging behavior. He is said to have been secretly a Christian, but many of his actions show that he had little regard for any religion ; however, he was a decided enemy to persecution. His reign was rendered remarkable by the celebration of secular games for the thousandth anniversary of the foundation of the city : it was also disturbed by several insurrections, especially in Pannonia, the suppression of which he intrusted to Traja- nus Decius. Scarcely had this general reached Illyr'icum, when his soldiers compelled him, by the threat of instant death, to assume the imperial purple. Philip, leaving his son to protect Rome, marched against Decius, but was defeated and slain near Verona (a. d. 249) His son was massacred by the praetorian guards. Decius commenced his reign by one of the most sanguinary perse- cutions that ever oppressed the church. The Christians throughout the empire were driven from their habitations, dragged to execution like common malefactors, and subjected to the most exquisite tortures 288 ANCIENT HISTORY. cruelty itself could invent. The laws of nature and humanity were violated, friend betrayed friend, brother informed against brother, chil- dren against their parents, and parents against their children ; every one thinking it meritorious to discover a Christian and procure his death. Decius vented his rage chiefly against the bishops. Among his victims were Fabian, bishop of Rome ; Bab'ylaz, bishop of Anti- och ; and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem. Great numbers of Chris- tians betook themselves to mountains, rocks, and deserts, choosing rather to live among wild beasts than with men w'lio had divested them- selves of reason and humanity. Among these was the celebrated Paul, Avho withdrew into the deserts of Egypt, where he is said to have lived a solitary life for the greater part of a century. He is usu- ally regarded as the father and founder of the order of anchorets, oi hermits, whose superstitious austerities appear to have been derived from the extraordinary penances practised by the fanatics of central and southern Asia. This persecution was interrupted by an invasion of the Goths, who, for the hrst time, crossed the Danube in considerable numbers, and devastated Moe'sia. Decius marched against them, and gained some important advantages ; but in his last battle, charging into the midst of the enemy to avenge the death of his son, he was overpowered and slain (a. D. 251). A great nnmber of the Romans, thus deprived of their leader, fell victims to the barbarians ; the survivors, grateful for the protection afforded them by the legions of Gallus, who commanded in the neighborhood, proclaimed that general emperor. Gallus concluded a dishonorable peace with the Goths, and renewed the persecutions of the Christians. His dastardly conduct provoked general resentment ; the provincial armies revolted, but the most dan gerous insurrection was that headed by iEmilianus, who was proclaimed emperor in Moe'sia. He led his forces into Italy, and the hostile armies met at Interamna {Terni) ; but just as an engagement was about to commence, Gallus was murdered by his own soldiers (a. d. 253), and iEmilianus proclaimed emperor. In three months iEmilianus him- self met a similar fate, the army having chosen Valerian, the governor of Gaul, to the sovereignty. Valerian, though now sixty years of age, possessed powers that might have revived the sinking fortunes of the empire, which was now invaded on all sides. The Goths, who had formed a powerful monar- chy on the lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black sea, extended their territories to the Borys^thenes (^Dnieper) and Tanais {Don) : they ravaged Moe'sia, Thrace, and Macedon ; while their fleets, which soon became formidable after the capture of the Tauric Cherso- nese (Crim Tartary), devastated the coasts both of the European and Asiatic provinces. The great confederation of the Franks became for- midable on the lower Rhine, and not less dangerous was that of the AUemanni on the upper part of that river. The Carpians and Sarma- tians laid Moe'sia waste. The Sarmatians were particularly formidable for their cavalry : both horses and men were covered with a curious kind of scale armor formed of the sliced hoofs of animals, which hung sufficiently loose not to impede the motions of the warrior, and was yet strong enough to ROMAN EMPIRE. 289 mm aside arrows and javelins. The light cavalry of the Persians a the same time devastated the greater part of western xA.sia, extending their ravages even to the shores of the Mediterranean. Gallienus, the emperor's son, whom Valerian had chosen for his col- league, and Aurelian, destined to succeed him in the empire, gained several victories over the Germanic tribes, while Valerian marched in person against the Scythians and Persians, who had invaded Asia. He gained a victory over the former in Anatolia, but, imprudently passing the Euphrates, he w^as surrounded by Sapor's army near Edes'sa, in a situation where neither courage nor military skill could be of any avail, and was forced to surrender at discretion (a. d. 259). During nine years Valerian languished in hopeless captivuy, the object of scorn and insult to his brutal conqueror, while no effort was made for his libera finn by his unnatural son. Section VII. — From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Diodesian. FROM A. D. 260 TO A. D. 305. Gallie'nus succeeded to the throne, receiving the news of his fa- ther's misfortunes with secret pleasure and open indifference. He seemed to be versed in everything but the art of goicnnuent ; " he was master of several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator and ele- gant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince."* At the moment of his accession, the barbarians, encouraged by the captivity of Valerian, invaded the empire on all sides. Italy itself was invaded by the Germans, who advanced to Raven'na but they were forced to retire by the emperor. Gallienus, after this exer- tion, sunk into complete inactivity : his indolence roused a host of com- petitors for the empire in the different provinces, commonly called " the thirty tyrants," though the number of pretenders did not exceed nine- teen. It would be impossible to describe the various struggles for power between these rivals, which distracted every part of the empire Far the most remarkable of them was Odenatus, who assumed the pur» pie at Palmy'ra, gained several great victories over the Persians, and besieged Sapor in Ctes'iphon. Though he failed to take the city, ha checked for a long time the progress of the Sassan'ides. Gallienus, hearing of these great achievements, resolved to convert a rival into a friend, and proclaimed Odenatus his partner in the empire. But this great man was murdered by some of his own family : he was succeeded by his wife, the celebrated Zenobia, who took the title of Queen of the East. Gallienus did not long survive him : he was murdered while be- sieging Aureolus, one of his rivals, in Mediolanum [Milan) ; but before his death t.e transmitted his rights to Claudius, a general of great rep- utation (a. D. 268). Most of the other tyrants had previously fallen in battle or by assassination. Mar'cus Aurelius Claudius, having conquered his only rival, Aureo- lus, marched against the Germans and Goths, whom he routed with great slaughter. He then prepared to march against Zenobia, who had • Gibbon. 19 290 ANCIENT HISTORY conquered Egypt ; but a pestilence broke out in his army, and 'be em- peror himself was one of its victims (a. d. 270). Extraordinary hon- ors were paid to his memory by the senate. His brother was elected emperor by acclamation ; but in seventeen days he so displeased the army by attempting to revive the ancient discipline, that he was deposed and murdered. Aurelian, a native of Sir'mium, in Pannonia, was chosen emperor by the army ; and the senate, well acquainted Avith his merits, joyfully confirmed the election. He made peace with the Goths, and led his army against the Germans, who had once more invaded Italy. Aure- lian was at first defeated; but he soon retrieved his loss, and c it the whole of the barbarian army to pieces. His next victory was obtained over the Vandals, a new horde that had passed the Danube ; and hav- ing thus secured the tranquillity of Europe, he marched to rescue die eastern provinces from Zenobia. The queen of Palmy'ra was one of the most illustrious women re- corded in history : she claimed descent from the Egyptian Ptolemies, but was probably of Jewish origin, since she is said to have professed tlie Jewish religion. She was well acquainted with the principal lan- guages of the eastern and western worlds, skilled in the leading sci- ences of her day, and so well versed in affairs of state, that the suc- cesses of her husband, Odenatus, are generally attributed to his having acted by her advice. For nearly six years she ruled Syria and Meso- potamia, discharging all the duties of an excellent sovereign and intrepid commander. Ambition, however, precipitated her ruin : not satisfied ■with the conquest of Egypt, she aspired at the sovereignty of Asia, and Aurelian resolved to put an end to usurpations so disgraceful to the Roman fame. On his march through Thrace, the emperor fought a great battle with the Goths. Not satisfied with a single victory, he pursued them across the Danube, routed their forces a second time, and slew one of their kings. Passing over into Asia, he encountered the forces of Zenobia near Antioch ; the battle was sanguinary and well contested, but in the end the Romans prevailed. A second victory enabled Aurelian to be- siege Palmy'ra, which the dauntless queen defended with great spirit and resolution. At length, finding that there was no hope of succor, she attempted secretly to fly into Persia, but was betrayed by her ser- vants, and taken prisoner. Palmy'ra surrendered ; but the citizens soon revolting, this great commercial capital was stormed, its inhabitants put to the sword, and its trade and prosperity irretrievably ruined. Scarcely had this revolt been subdued, when Aurelian was called upon to quell a formidable insurrection in Egypt. The celerity of his march disconcerted the rebels ; they were speedily cont|aered ; and the emperor, having thus suppressed all the troubles of the east, resolved to lecover Gaul, Spain, and Britain, which had now fur thirteen years ieen the prey of different tyrants. A single campaign restored tliese provinces to the empire j and Aurelian, returning to Rume, was honored with the most magnificent triumph that the city had ever beheld. Far more honorable to him, however, was his generous tieatment of his cap- Hvfs — a suitable estate was granted at Tibur [Tivai) to Zenobia and eei children . The princess, reconciling herself to iier lot, became a ROMAN EMPIRE. 291 ispectable Roman matron ; and her family was not extinct in the fifth ;entury. Tranquillity was first disturbed by a violent insurrection excited at Rome by the debasing of the coinage. The imperial troops, sent to drive the mob from the CcElian hill, were routed with the loss of seven thousand men, and it was with the utmost difficulty that the insurgents were reduced. Aurelian punished the principal authors of the tumult with great severity, not to say cruelty, and, finding that he had thus be- come unpopular, left the city. He directed his course to Gaul, where he appeased some growing disturbances ; thence he marched to Vinde- licia, and restored it to the empire : but he abandoned the province of Dacia to the barbarians, withdrawing all the Roman garrisons that had been stationed beyond the Danube. Aurelian's virtues were sullied by the sternness and severity that naturally belongs to a peasant and a soldier. His officers dreaded hf.s inflexibility, which had been already shown in his sentencing his < wn nephew to death. While he was thus preparing to lead his army against the Persians, he discovered an act of peculation committed by Mnestheus, one of his secretaries, and threatened a severe punishment. The guilty functionary, having no other hope of escape, conspired with several others exposed to legal vengeance : they assailed the emperpr, escorted only by a few friends, on his road to Byzantium, and slew him with innumerable wounds (a. d. 275). But the assassins did not escape the punishment due to their crimes ; the soldiers, attached fondly to a,n emperor who had so often led them to victory, tore the authors of his death to pieces. They showed, at the same time, greater respect for the law than had ever been displayed by their predecessors, cheerfully referring the choice of an emperor to the senate. After a tranquil interregnum of more than six months, the senate elect- ed Mar'cus Claudius Tacit'us, a member of their own body, in spite of his great age, for he was already passed his seventy-fifth year. Having enacted some useful laws, the emperor marched against the A'lans, who had overrun Asia Minor. He defeated the barbarians ; but the fatigues of the campaign proved too much for his constitution, and he died in Cappadocia, after a short reign of about seven months. Florian the brother of Tacit'us, was elected emperor by the senate, bu- Mar'cus Aurelius Probus was the choice of the Syrian army ; and a civil war soon began between these rivals. But Florian's own soldiers took offence at some part of his conduct, rose in sudden mutiny, and put him to death. Probus, now undisputed master of the empire, led his troops from Asia to Gaul, which was again devastated by the German tribes ; he not only defeated the barbarians, but pursued them into their own coimtry, where he gained greater advantages than any of his pre- decessors. Thence he passed into Thrace, where he humbled the Goths ; and returning to Asia, he completely subdued the insurgent Isaurians, whose lands he divided among his veterans. Alarmed at these victories, Bahram H., king of Persia, called Var'ames by the western writers, sent ambassadors to solicit peace, and submitted to the terms dictated by the emperor. Three competitors in different provin- ces were next subdued ; but when wars were at an end, the emperoi employed his armies in useful public works, which so offended the licen 292 ANCIENT HISTORY. tious soldiery, that they suddenly attacked and slew him (ad. 282) They subsequently repented of the crime, and united to raise a statelj monument to his memory. Carus, the captain of the praetorian guards, was elected emperor by the army ; and the senate, not without reluctance, assented to the ar- rangement. The new emperor gave the title of Caesar to his sons Ca- riEus and Numerianus, the former of whom was one of the most depraved young men of his time; the latter a model of every virtue. The new emperor signalized his accession by a brilliant victory ovei the Sarmatians : he would have pursued these barbarians into their na- tive wilds, had he not been summoned to Asia by a new invasion of the Persians. Leaving the care of the western provinces to Carinus, the emperor, accompanied by Numerianus, hastened into Mesopotamia, where he defeated Bahram, and, pursuing the Persians into their own country, besieged Ctes'iphon. The city would probably have been taken, had not the emperor fallen a victim to disease, or, as others say, to a thunderbolt (a. d. 283). Numerianus was chosen his successor; but, after a few months' reig-n, he was assassinated by A'per his father- in-law and captain of his guards. The crime, however, was discovered, and the murderer put to death by the army. Dioclesian, said to have been originally a slave, was unanimously saluted emperor, by the army. He was proclaimed at Chal'cedon on the 17th of September, a. d. 284 ; an epoch that deserves to be remem- bered, as it marks the beginning of a new era, called " the era of Dio- clesian," or " the era of martyrs," which long prevailed in thfe church, and is still used by the Copts, the Abyssinians, and other African na- tions. When Carinus heard of his brother's death, he assembled a nu- merous army, marched from Gaul into Illyr'icum, where he conquered a usurper named Julianus, and thence advancing into Moe'sia, inflicted a severe defeat on the army of Dioclesian, in the plains of Mar'gus (Morava Hissar). But in the very moment of victory a tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the opportunity of revenge, and by a single blow put an end to the civil war. Dioclesian made a generous use of his victory : in an age when death, exile, and confiscation, were the usual fate of the conquered pany, the new emperor did not even deprive his rival's ministers of office. The troubles of the empire appearing too great to be managed by a single mind, Dioclesian voluntarily gave himself a colleague, selecting for this high situation his friend Maximian, a brave and skilful soldier, but un- fortunately also an ignorant and ferocious barbarian. Scarcely had the appointment been made, when Maximian was called upon to exert his military talents in Gaul, both in suppressing insurrections and checking the barbarians. He effected his purposes with great skill ; while his colleague gained several victories over the Sarmatians in the east. A brief interval of tranquillity was followed by new and more alarm- ing disturbances in every part of the empire. The two sovereigns, in great alarm, resolved on a further division of authority ; each chose an associate and successor, with the title of Ca;sar, who was to be invested with a considerable share of imperial power : to this new dignity Dio- clesian nominated Max'imin Galerius ; and Maximian, Constan'tius Chlorus. A division of the empire followed : Dioclesian took the prov- ROMAN EMPIRE. 293 inces beyond the jEgean sea ; Thrace and Illyr'icum were assigned to Galerius ; Maximian received Italy and Africa ; Gaul, Spain, and Brit- ain, were intrusted to Constan'tius. Although this arrangement app^^ars to have been rendered necessary by the circumstances of the empire, it undoubtedly hastened its decline : four courts, with all their expensive adjuncts, were now to be maintain- ed, instead of one : taxes were multiplied ; the inhabitants of several provinces reduced to beggary, and agriculturists, unable to meet the imposts levied on land and produce, left the fields in many districts un- cultivated. Italy, which had hitherto borne a very light share of the public burdens, was no longer permitted to claim exemption as the seat of domestic empire, and was soon reduced to a deplorable condition. Britain, which had been usurped by Carausius, early claimed the at- tention of Constan'tius : it was, however, necessary to prepare a fleet for the invasion, as the usurper was powerful by sea ; and while the naval armament was preparing, Constan'tius gamed several victories over the German hordes. Just as he was about to set sail, he learned that Carusius had been deposed and murdered by a new usurper, named AUec'tus, far inferior to his victim in talent and popularity. The Csesar instantly hastened to cross the channel ; AUec'tus was defeated and slain in Kent, the remainder of the province quickly reduced to obedience, and the ravages of the barbarians on the northern frontiers prevented. Galerius was as successful on the Danube as Constan'tius in Britain and on the Rhine ; Maximian reduced the barbarous tribes that had in- vaded Africa, while Dioclesian quelled a dangerous revolt in Egypt. He was soon summoned to protect the empire from a dangerous inva- sion of the Persians ; Galerius had been sent from the Danube to the Euphrates to check their progress, but he was defeated by the Sassa- nid monarch Narsi, on the very field which had been so fatal to Cras'- sus and his legions. Dioclesian showed great indignation at the mis- conduct of Galerius, to which he attributed the recent calamity ; but at length he permitted himself to be mollified, and intrusted the Caesar with a new army for a second campaign. In the following vsar the Romans again invaded Persia ; but, profit- ing by recent and buier experience, the leader left the plains of Meso- potamia on the right, and led his forces through the Armenian mount- ains, which were more favorable for the operations of his infantry, in which the principal strength of his army consisted. Masking his course from the enemy, Galerius unexpectedly rushed down from the the hills on the Persian lines : the surprise, the impetuosity of the at- tack, and the desire for revenge which animated the Romans, rendered their onset irresistible. Narsi was severely wounded, but escaped by the swiftness of his horse, leaving his entire family, his magnificent tents, and his sumptuous camp-equipage, as a prize to the conquerors A bag of embossed leather filled with pearls, fell into the hands of a private soldier : unacquainted with the value of his prize, he flung the pearls away, keeping the bag as something that might be useful. Ga- lerius treated his royal captives with the greatest kindness and gener osity ; his conduct produced such an effect on Narsi's heart, that he so licited peace. The great province of Mesopotamia {(^Juzirah) was yielded to the Romans, together with five districts beyond the Tigris. 294 ANCIENT HISTORY. including the greater jjart of Carduchia {Kurdistan), a country more fruitful in soldiers than grain, but which, from its strength and position, commands the greater part of western Asia. These districts were taken from Tiridates, king of Armenia, the ally of the Romans ; but he waa indemnified, at the expense of Persia, by the fine province of Atropa- tene {Azerbijim). When the Armenian took possession of this country, he made its chief city, Tauris (^Tabriz), the metropolis of his kingdom, and greatly improved that ancient capital. But these triumphs were sullied by a general persecution of the Christians (the tenth and last), which Dioclesian is said to have com- menced at the instigation of Galerius (a. d. 303). It lasted ten entire years, and exceeded all the preceding in its indiscriminate massacres and severities. Such multitudes of Christians suffered death, in all the provinces of the empire, that the emperors believed that they had ac- complished their purpose, and completely extirpated Christianity. They told the world in a pompous inscription, that they had extinguish- ed the Christian name and superstition, and everywhere restored the worship of the gods to its former purity and lustre. But the church triumphed over all their artifices and power ; and, in spite of the ut- most efforts of tyranny, many years had not elapsed after the publica- tion of this boast, when it reigned triumphant in the very metropolis of idolatry and superstition. Dioclesian prepared to return to Rome, but was delayed for some time by a strange revolt in Syria. Eugenius, an oflicer of little or no reputation, had been intrusted with the command of five hundred men in Seleucia, who, being employed all day in cleansing the harbor, and compelled to work all night baking their own bread, resolved to de- liver themselves from such insupportable drudgery ; and forthwith pro- claimed their governor emperor. Eugenius at first refused the dignity ; but being threatened with instant death, he allowed himself to be in- vested with the purple, and by a rapid march, got possession of Anti- och. When the citizens, however, recovered from their surprise, they fell upon the insurgents, and cut them to pieces. Dioclesian, instead of rewarding the people of Antioch for their fidelity, ordered their chief magistrates to be put to death without inquiry or trial ; a crime which rende ed him so odious to the Syrians, that for more than ninety years they could noi hear his name pronounced without a shudder. Rome, on the return of the two emperors, witnessed for the last time, the splendid ceremonial of a triumph ; it was less costly than those of Aurelian and Probus, but it commemorated greater and more useful vic- tories. In his triumph, and in the spectacles that followed it, however, Dioclesian having displayed more parsimony than was pleasing to the people, he was assailed by jests and lampoons, which annoyed him so much, that he quitted the city for Raven'na. On his journey a severe storm arose, and the cold which he caught produced a long and linger- ing disease that affected his reason. After he had begun to recover, he was induced, or perhaps compelled, to resign the empire, by Galerius (a. d. 305). He persuaded Maximian to abdicate also. The two Ccesars became emperors, and chose two other nobles to fill the station diey had occupied. Dioclesian survived his abdication nearly nine years ; ho resided ROMAN EMPIRE. 295 during this lime at his country-seat near Salona [Spalatro), where the ruins of his palace may still be seen. He never regretted the powet he had resigned ; and when Maximian and others wrote, inviting him to make a struggle for empire, he replied : " I wish you would come to Salona, and see the cabbages I have planted : after having once visited my garden, you would never again mention to me the name of empire." The close of his life was embittered by domestic misfortune, by the in- gratitude of Constantino and Licin'ius, and by the calamities which he foresaw that the dissensions of these rivals would bring upon the em- pire. There are various accounts given of the manner of his death, and it is impossible to discover whether he fell by his own hand or by natural disease. Section VIII. — From the Abdication of Dioclesian to the Death of Constan- tine the Great. FROM A. D. 303 TO A. D. 337. The Caesars, Severus and Max'imin, owed their elevation to Gale- rius ; but they were not quite so subservient to his wishes as he ex- pected, both showing themselves favorable to the toleration of the Christians. Arrangements were made for the division of the empire ; Constan'tius and Severus received the western provinces ; Galerius and Max'imin ruled all the territories east of the Adriatic. Constantine, the celebrated son of Constan'tius, was sick in the provinces assigned to Galerius when the empire was thus divided ; some efTorts were made to assassinate a prince whose talents and popularity had already ren- dered him formidable. He escaped the danger by a rapid flight, and came to his father, who was just about to embark at Gessoriacura {Boulogne) for Britain. The presence of Constan''tius was required in that island by a formidable invasion of the Picts, a nation now for the first time mentioned in history ; but while on his march against these barbarians, he was seized with a mortal disease, and died at Ebor'acum {York), where his body was honorably interred by his son Constantine (a. d. 306). Constantine was instantly proclaimed Augustus by the soldiers ; but Galerius would only give him the title of Caesar, declaring that Severus was his partner in the empir •, Maxen'tius, the son of Maximian, in- dignant at his exclusion from power, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor by the dissatisfied soldiery, and induced his father to abandon his solitude, and remount the throne. Severus led an army against them ; but he was abandoned by the greater part of his troops, taken prisoner, and put to death (a. d. 307). Maximian, knowing that Ga- lerius would revenge the murder of Severus, strengthened himself by entering into close alliance with Constantine, to whom he gave his daughter Fausta in marriage. Nor did he dread Galerius without a cause : that emperor hastened from the east with a large army, and attempted to besiege Rome ; but failing in this enterprise, he permitted his soldiers to devastate Italy. Maximian had gone to Gaul, hoping to receive aid from Constantine ; but finding that prudent prince by no means disposed to encounter the hazards of a dangerous war, and hear- ing that Galerius had retreated precipitately, hr; returned to Ronrte, 296 ANCIENT HISTORY. where he leigned conjointly with his son. In the meantime, Galgriua conferred the title of emperor on his friend Licinius ; and thus the, em- pire was shared between six sovereigns.* Maximian having quarrelled with his son, returned to Gaul, where he began to plot against the life of Constantine ; but his treachery was discovered, and he was deservedly executed (a. d. 310). In the fol- lowing year a loathsome disease, produced by debauchery, removed Galerius from the stage ; his dominions were divided between Maximin and Licinius. It was scarcely possible that pe:.ce could long continue between the four princes who now shared the empire. Constantine had won the affections of his subjects by his wise and beneficent adr ministration in Gaul, while the cruelty and rapacity of Maxen'tius filled Italy and Africa with confusion. But the tyrant was not conscious of the weakness that resulted from his crimes. Under pretence of re- venging the death of his father, he ordered all the statues erected in honor of Constantine throughout Italy to be thrown down, and thus pro- voked a war with the most able prince of the age. Constantine having passed the Alps, defeated the lieutenants of Maxen'tius at Augusta Tau- rinorum ( Turin) and Vero'na, while the tyrant himself remained sunk in sloth and luxury at Rome. At length he was roused from his lethargy by the rapid approach of the victorious army ; a dreadful battle was fought at a place called Sax'a Rubra, within nine miles of Rome, near the little river Cremera, so memorable for the destruction of the Fabii. The result was fatal to Maxen'tius ; the pra;torian guards, on whom he chiefly relied, were broken and cut to pieces by the repeated charges of the Gallic horse. The tyrant himself was drowned in the Tiber, while attempting to make his escape through the crowd over the Milvian bridge (a. d. 312). It was during this campaign that Constantine is said to have seen a miraculous vision of a luminous cross in the heavens, a little before sunset ; and to have been warned in a dream to take this sacred symbol as his standard. The principal evidence for the truth of this miracle is the emperor's own account of the event, related many years afterward to Eusebius ; one circumstance, however, greatly weakens his testimony ; the vision was so far from producing the con- version of Constantine, that he did not receive baptism until a short time before his death. No sooner had the death of Maxen'tius made Constantine master of Rome, than he removed the great source of all the calamities that had befallen the city under the empire, by disbanding the praetorian guards and destroying their fortified camp. He restored the authority of the senate and magistrates, recalled all those who had been banished by Maxen'tius, and dismissed the entire tribe of spies and informers. He revoked all the edicts that had been issued against the Christians and paid great re^oect to the bishops and clerg}', either on account of the miraculous vision already mentioned, or, as is more probable, through gratitude for the efficient aid he had received from the Christians in the recent contest, and anxiety to secure their assistance in any future struggle. Maximin was a devoted adherent of paganism ; he viewed the in- OOTations of Constantine with great hostility ; and when Licinius mar • Maximiaiij Galeriu5, Licinius, Maximiiij Constantine, and Maxentius. ROMAN EMPIRE. 291 fied the sister of that prince, he resolved to destroy both. Taking ad- vantage of the war in which Constantino was involved with the Franks, ne marched against Licin'ius, hoping to destroy him before any as- sistance could arrive from the west. His first efforts were crowned with success ; but being totally defeated near Adrianople, he fled with- out attendants to Nicomedia, where he soon died of rage and disap- pointment (a. d. 313). Licin'ius made a cruel use of his victory, slaughtering without mercy all whom he ieemed likely to become com- petitors for empire : among the most illustrious of his victims were the wife and daughter of Dioclesian. Constantine, during this war was engaged in securing the tranquil- lity of western Europe ; he gcw^e an unquestionable proof of his attach- ment to Christianity by convening a general council of the bishops at Arebite {Aries), to suppress the heresy of the Donatists ; but before the asseiribly met, he was forced to take the field against Licin'ius, who had thrown down his statues in iEnona {Laybach), a city of upper Pan- nonia. With his usual celerity, Constanthie hastened into Panncnia before Licin'ius could expect his arrival ; but he found that prince al- ready in the field. A fierce battle was fought at the little town of Cib'alis or Ceb'alaj {Sevilei), not far from Sir'mium, in which Licin'ius was defeated, and forced to fly into Thrace. Thither he was followed by Constantine, vanquished a second time, and forced to consent to an accommodation, by which Illyr'icum, Macedon, Greece, and lower Moe'sia, were yielded to Constantine (a. d. 314). The conqueror im- mediately took the most prudent measures to secure his new acquisi- tions ; while Licin^ius continued to provoke his subjects by repeated cruelties and exactions. Foreign invasions led to a renewal of the civil war. Constantine having conquered the Sarmatians and Goths, pursued the latter into ter- ritories of Licin'ius, and that prince immediately declared that the recent articles of peace had been violated (a. d. 322). Great prepara- tions were made on both sides for the renewal of hostilities, but Con- stantine was the first to take the field, and entering Thrace he found his rival encamped on the Hebrus {Marilza), not far from Adrianople. The battle was in some measure a struggle between Christianity and paganism : Constantine displayed the banner of the cross, Licin'ius the ancient idolatrous standards of the empire : the struggle was fierce — it ended in the total overthrow of Licin'ius, who had the further mortification of learning that his fleet had been destroyed in the straits of Callip'olis (GaUipoU) by Crispus, the eldest son of Constantine An attempt was made to terminate the struggle by negotiation, but it was frustrated by the insincerity of Licin'ius : he hazarded a second engagement, and was irretrievably ruined. From the field of battle the defeated tyrant fled to Nicodemia, but he was soon taken prisoner, and put to death (a. d. 324). Constantine being thus sole master of the empire, restored the churches, of which the Christians had been de- prived in the eastern provinces, to their respective pastors, and issued several edicts for the suppression of idolatry. New controversies in the church led to the convocation of the cele- brated council of Nice, in which the doctrine of the Trinity was fixed and defined, the heresy of Arius condemned, and the spiritual suprem- ^98 ANCIENT HISTORY. acy of the emperor Tirtuall}'- acknowledged (a. d. 325). When the laoor.s of this celebrated assembly terminated, Constaiitine returned to the western provmces, and paid a visit to Rome. His reception in the city was anything but flattering ; the populace /oaded him with insults and execrations for abandoning the religion of his forefathers ; and his rage at such injurious treatment is said to have greatly influenced his determination of transferring the seat of government from Rome to By- zantium. At the same time he was harassed by domestic troubles, which led him to commit a horrid crime. Instigated by the empress Fausta, he put his eldest son, the virtuous Crispus, to death Avithout a trial ; and when he too late discovered his error, he caused Fausta and her accomplices to be slain. These horrors aggTavated his unpop- ularity among the Romans ; but he no longer regarded their displeas- ure, having Anally resolved to give a new capital to the empire (a. d. 330). Anger and caprice were not the only causes that induced Constan- tine to make such an important change ; indeed, the removal of the seat of government was justified by considerations of the soundest policy. The eastern provinces were exposed to the attacks of a pow- erful dynasty, the Persian Sassan'ides, who openly aspired to the an- cient empire of Cy'rus ; the frontier of the Danube was not sufiicient to restrain the Goths and Sarmatians ; the emperors would therefore have endangered the most faithful and wealthy portions of their domin- ions, had they continued to reside in western Europe. A metropolis on the confines of Europe and Asia was at once recommended, by the political advantages of its central situation, and the opportunities it af- forded for reviving the lucrative commerce of the Euxine and the east- ern Mediterranean. A slight glance at the natural advantages of By- zantium, will show that it was worthy of being made the metropolis of an empire by the wise sovereign whose name it bears. The area of Constantinople is an irregular triangle, whose apex, an obtuse point advancing to the east and toward the Asiatic coast, meets and repels the waters of the Thracian Bosphorus. On the north is a winding harbor, known both in ancient and modern times by the name of Chryso-Keras, or the Golden Horn : it is about seven miles in length, with good anchorage through the greater part of its extent : the entrance is not more than five hundred yards wide, and may be easily defended against a hostile armament. On the southeastern side the walls of the city are washed by the Propon'tis {sea of Marmora), and the west forms the base of the triangle which is connected with the continent. Thus situated, the Euxine sea on the one side, and the ^Egean on the other, could supply it with the richest productions of Europe and Asia ; while its shape rendered it easily defensible againsi the savage and plundering tribes of Thrace. Enormous sums were expended by Constantine in embellishing his new capital ; unfortunately, there was equal prodigality in the other branches of the administration, and the emperor's rule became grinding and severe. But he did not abandon his warlike character ; he se- verely chastised the Goths and Sarmatians, who invaded Thrace, and compelled them to give hostages for their future good conduct. In the decline of his life, he appears to have adopted much of the pomp and ROilAN EMPIRE. 299 luxury characteristic of Asiatic despots ; but when increasing disoaso warned him of approaching dissolution, he received the sacrament of baptism, and expired ten months afterward, in the thirtieth year of his reign (a. d. 335). He left three sons to inherit his cmpiie. The removal of the seat of government consummated the revolution in the Roman constitution which had been commenced in the reign of Dioclesian ; it became a simple despotism, with more of a political than military character. An entire change was made in the form of administration ; the magistrates being divided into three classes, the iHuslrLssimi, the speclab'iles, and the clarissimi (illustrious, respeclal)le, and honorable). The magistrates of the first class were, the consuls and patricians, the prsstorian and metropolitan praefects, the masters-general of cavalry and infantry, and the seven great officers of the household. The titles of consul and patrician were merely honorary. They were conferred by the emperor at his pleasure, and in both cases the distinctions were personal, not hereditary. The power of the praetorian praefects ranked next to that of the emperors. The Roman dominions were divided into four great prfcfectures, and these again were subdivided into dio- ceses and provinces. The prefectures were named, those of the East, lUyr'icura, Italy, and Gaul. To the prjctorian pr;cfects was assigned the civil government of these several divisions ; but Constantino had taken care that such ])ower should not be rendered too dangerous by being united with military command. To their charge were intrusted the coinage, the highways, the ports, the granaries, the manufactures, and everything that could interest the public prosperity of their respect- ive districts. They were empowered to explain, enforce, and in some cases modify, the imperial edicts. They could remove or punish the provincial governors ; an appeal lay to their tribunal from all inferior jurisdictions ; and the sentence of the prajfect was final. Rome and Constantinople had prajfects of their own. The superior dignity of their tribunals caused those of the praetors to be deserted, and the most ancient title of Roman magistracy soon fell into desue- tude. The peace of both capitals was preserved by a vigilant police ; and so numerous were the statues with which they were adorned, that a magistrate was specially appointed to preserve theiu from injury. The great officers of the state and court were, 1. The prcepositus sancli ciibiculi (lord chamberlain), whose duty it was " to attend the emperor Iv his hours of state or amusement, ai d to perform about lais person all those menial offices which can onl_,' derive their splendor from the influence of royalty." Under him were all the comites palatii (lords of the palace), and cuhiculani (chamberlains), many of whom, at a later age, were eunuchs of great influence. 2. The magister officio- rurn (minister for the home department) : to him was intrusted the man- agement of all correspondence between the princ j and his subjects, memorials, petitions, letters, and their answers. Ho was also inspector- general of the civil and military schools, and appeals lay to his tribunal from every part of the empire, in cases where the privileges of the imperial officers were concerned. 3. The comes sacrarum largitiunum (lord high treasurer), was the chief minister of finance : his duties were not confined to the charge of the exchequer and superintendence 300 ANCIENT HISTORY. of tax-gatherers : he had also the charge over manufactures and com merce, which Constantine, with more wisdom than most of his prede- cessors, brought under the especial care of the state. 4. The quastor (principal secretary of state) was the representative of the emperor's legislative power, and the original source of civil jurisprudence ; some of his functions appear to have been similar to those of the British lord chancellor. 5. The comes rei principis (keeper of the privy purse) had the charge of the imperial private estates, which were scattered through the provinces, from Mauritania to Britain. 6 and 7. The cotn- ites domesticorum (commanders of the household guards) presided ovei the seven scholcB (troops or squadrons) of cavalry and infantry that guarded the emperor's person. The commander? of the army were the magistri equUtim (generals of cavalry), magistri pedilum (generals of infantry), and the magistri utri- usque militia; (commander-in-chief) ; those who commanded under them were called duces and comites (dukes and counts) ; ihey were distin- guished by wearing a golden belt, and received, in addition to their pay, a liberal allowance, sufficient to maintain one himdred and ninety ser- vants, and one hundred and fifty-eight horses. Constantine changed the entire constitution of the legions, diminishing their number to less than one fourth : to secure a regular supply of young soldiers, he made it one of his conditions, in assigning lands to the veterans, that their sons should be trained to the profession of arms. But the necessity for such a stipulation is not the only proof we have of the decay of military spirit. Such was the dislike the degenerate Romans entertained for a soldier's life, that many young men in Italy mutilated the lingers of their right hand to avoid being pressed into the service. In conse- quence of this reluctance, the custom of employing the barbarians as soldiers became every day more frequent and more fatal. They were not only enlisted in the ranks, but many of them were raised to the highest dignities of the state. These changes in the constitution of the civil and military aiminis tration of the empire rendered the government more costly, and requireo an entirely new system of taxation for their support. It is one of the iew advantages of an arbitrary government, that it is not tempted to de- lude its subjects by the onerous and expensive machinery of indirect taxation through the excise and customs, where an apparent choice is left to the purchaser, and his payment of the tax, by buying the taxed article, seems to be voluntary. A despot may venture on direct taxa- tion of property or person ; and, though this is apparently more harsh, it is in reality more favorable to the subject. The first of the new taxes was the indiction, an annual land-tax, levied proportionately to the fertility of the estates possessed by landed proprietors ; and a general census, or survey of property, was made throughout the empire every fifteen years, to regulate this assessment. Hence the name of indiction is given indifferently to the tax and to the cycle of registration. Trade and commerce were subjected to an impost called the aurum lustrale, which was collected every fourth year. " The honorable merchant of Alexandria, who imported the gems and spices of India for the western world ; the usurer who derived from the interest of money a silent and Ignominious profit ; the ingenious manufacturer, the diligent mechanic, ROMAN EMPIRE. 30- and even the inos'. obscure retailer of a sequestered village, were obliged to admit the officer'* of the revenue into the partnership of their gain ; and the sovereign of the Roman empire, who tolerated the profession, consented to share the infamous gain of prostitutes."* The last impo sition that need be noticed was originally a free gift, called awnmi coro- narium, being a compensation for the crown of gold presented by the allies of the Romans to generals who had been the authors of their de- liverance, or who had conferred upon them any remarkable favor. This spontaneous offering was at length exacted as a debt, whenevei the emperor announced any remarkable event which might give him a real or apparent claim to the benevolence of his subjects, such as his ac- cession, the birth of a son, or a victory over the barbarians. To these must be added, the municipal expenses, which fell almost wholly on the civic officers. Instead of having a system of local taxation, the rich- est citizens were obliged to take in turn the duty of providing for the administrative wants of the towns in which they resided ; but our in- formation respecting the practical operation of this plan is too limited for us to pronounce any opinion upon its efficiency. It must not be supposed that evil alone resulted from these changes ; on the contrary, under the circumstances of the empire, Constantine's innovations were for the most part useful reforms. The great curse of the Romans during several centuries had been military despotism ; bu* the license of the turbulent soldiery was checked and restrained bj '= the pride, pomp, and circumstance," with which the civil administraf don was surrounded. The despotism of a court was put in place of the despotism of a camp, and it needs not to be told, how vast was th< improvement that must have resulted from such an alteration. Under Constantine, Christianity became the established religion of the empire. He found the constitution of the church already organized — its form of government firmly established. Even in the reign of Dio- clesian the bishops held an honorable rank in their respective provinces, and were treated with proper respect, as men of high and sacred sta- tion, not only by the people, but the magistrates themselves. Constan- tine saw clearly the advantages that would result to the extent and sta- bility of his power by cementing the union between the church and the state ; he therefore appropriated a great portion of the revenue of cities to the endowment of churches and the support of the clergy. Thus religion came to the aid of police in checking turbulence, and, but for the crimes and follies of the rulers, the Roman empire might have enjoyed a long course of prosperity under the constitution of Constan- tine. Section IX..-~~From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire under Theodosius the Great. FROM A. D. 337 TO A. D. 394. Constantine bequeathed portions of his dominions to his nephews Dalmatius and Hannibilianus ; but no notice was taken of their claims by the army or the Roman senate, the late emperor's three sons being • Gibbon. 302 ANCIENT HISTORY. proclaimed unanimously heirs of his dominions. There princes had been educated with the greatest care ; the most pious of the Christian teachers, the most celebrated professors of Grecian philosophy and Ro- man jurisprudence, were engaged to superintend their instruction ; but the youths, Constantine, Constan'tius, and Constans, resembled their mother Fausta more than their illustrious father, and were as similar in depravity of disposition as they were in name. Some portion of their faults, must, however, be attributed to paternal weakness. Ere they had emerged from boyhood they were successively invested with the title of Caesar and invited to share in the administration. Such inju- dicious indulgence necessarily surrounded them with a crowd of flatter- ers, ready to take advantage of the warm passions and confiding dispo- sitions of youth : they were summoned too early from their studies, and were permitted to exchange the pursuit of knowledge for the enjoyment of luxury, and the expectation of a throne. Constan'tius was the nearest of the brothers to the capital when their father died ; he hastened to take possession of the palace, and, to re- move the apprehensions of his kinsmen, who justly suspected his jealous temper, he took a solemn oath to protect them from all danger. In a very few days a forged scroll was placed in his hands by the bishop of Nicomedia, purporting to be the genuine testament of the late emperor, in which Constantine was made to declare that he had been poisoned by his brothers, and to exhort his children to vengeance. The soldiers, secretly prepared to second this incredible charge, loudly demanded the punishment of the accused ; all legal forms were violated ; a pro- miscuous massacre was made of the Flavian family. The two brothers of the great Constantine, seven of his nephews, the patrician Optatus, who had married his sister, and his chief favorite, the pr^efect Ablavius, were butchered, without being permitted to speak a word in their own defenc-j. Gallus and Julian, the youngest sons of Julius Constantius, were with difficulty concealed until the rage of the assassins had sub- sided. A new division of the empire was made by the princes. Constan tine, the eldest, took possession of the capital ; Constan'tius received Thrace and the A'^iatic provinces ; the western dominions were as- signed to Constans. Ere long, the enemies of Ror<=!, that had been daunted by the fame of Constantine, began to harass his successors ; but far the most dangerous of the wars in which they had to engage was that waged by Shah-pur II., king of Persia, against Constan'tius. Shah-pur's previous history deserves to be noticed. His father Hor- muz (Hormisdas) died, leaving no son (a. d. 310) : the kingdom was on the point of being thrown into confusion, when it was announced by the principal mobeds, or priests, that one of the ladies in th-e harem was pregnant, and that from certain indications, they knew that the child would be a male. A strange ceremony of coronation was performed or the unborn infant. From the hour of his birth the whole nation watched over his progress with the most aftectionate interest, and the early proofs he exhibited of spirit and ability spread universal joy through Persia. He had not emerged from boyhood, when the fierce Arab tribes from the neigboring peninsula took advantage of his minor ity to desolate his kingdom : the royal youth marched against then) ROMAN EMPIRE. 303 touted their forces, slew many, and took a greater numoer prisoners. To terrify their countrymen from renewing such an invasion, he caused the shoulders of his captives to be pierced, and then dislocated by a «-rr'Tig j/ctssed through them ; and from this circumstance he received the formidable title of Zulaktaf, or " Lord of the shoulders.'' Shah-pur, or Sapor as he is called by western writers, inherited the pretensions of the Sassanides to the empire of C\tus ; but he was par- ticularly •anxious to recover the five provinces that had been ceded to the Romans beyond the Tigris, and to assert the ancient supremacy of his family over Mesopotamia. Constan'tius hastened to the banks of the Euphrates on the first news of the approach of so formidable an inva- der ; but the war long continued to be a series of petty skirmishes and predatory incursions. Nine sangTiinary but indecisive engagements were fought ; but at length the Romans, by their own imprudence, re- ceived a decisive overthrow in the plains of Sin'gara (^Sinjar), not far from the ruins of Bab'ylon (a. d. 348). Sapor, encouraged by this victory, laid siege to Nis'ibis (Nisibin) ; but, after he had lost more than twenty thousand men before the walls, he was forced to relinquish the enterprise, and hasten to the defence of his eastern provinces, which were invaded by the fierce tribes from beyond the Oxus. This war in- duced him to propose terms of truce to Constan'tius, which that prince readily accepted (a. d. 350), as the troubled state of the empire ren- dered his presence necessary in Europe. Three years had scarcely elapsed from the partition of the empire, when the ambition of Constan'tine kindled the flames of civil war (a. d. 340). Not content with wresting the African provinces from Constans, he invaded that prince's dominions through the Julian Alps, and devastated \he country round Aquileia. But, advancing with great imprudence, he fell into an ambuscade near the little river Al'sa {Ajisa), and was slain with the greater part of his followers. Constans took possession of his brother's provinces, and showed no inclination to re- serve any share for the absent Constan'tius. During ten years Constans remained master of two thirds of the em- pire, which he plundered by his rapacity, and disgraced by his vices. He usually resided in Gaul, whose forests afforded him opportunities for hunting, the only mardy sport to which he was addicted. While pursuing game iv a neighboring forest, Magnen'tius, who commanded the imperial forces stationed at Augustodunum {Autun), caused himself to be proclaimed emperor, and closed the gates of the city. Tidings of the revolt were, however, conveyed to Constans : he fled toward Spain, but was overtaken at Ellib'eris {Elne), or, as it was then called, Hel'ena, in memory of the mother of Constantino, and put to death. The usurpation of Magnen'tius in Gaul Avas followed by that of Vo- tranio in Illyria ; but the latter general assumed the purple very reluc- tantly, being compelled by the clamors of his soldiers, and urged by the princess Constantina, who placed the crown on his head v/ith her own hand. This ambitious woman had been the wife of Hannibilianus, her cousin, whose sad fate has been already mentioned. She was eager to possess power, and so unscrupulous about the means, that she persuaded Vetranio to form an alliance with Magnen'tius, whose hands yet reeked with the blood of her brother Constans. 304 ANCIENT HISTORY Coustan'tius, having concluded a truce with Sapor, intrusted the caie of the east to his lieutenants, but afterwdrd to his cousin GaJlus, whom he thus raised iVoni a prison to a throne. He then hastened to Europe, deceived Vetranio by offering to make him his colleague, and obtained admission into Constantinople. In a public assembly of the army and people, the artful prince, in a studied address, asserted his claims to the empire ; a unanimous burst of applause was followed by shouts for the deposition of the usurpers ; Vetranio quietly submitted, and, taking the diadem I'roiu his head, tended his homage to Constan'tius. The prince not only spared his rival's life, but assigned him a considerable pension. Vetranio retired to Prdsa [Brusa], where he spent the rest of his Hfe in retirement, without ever expressing a desire to resume the sceptre. Magnen'tius foresaw that he would be the next assailed, and he led his army into lower Paunonia, Avhich became the theatre of a fierce and sanguinary war. The armies finally met for a decisive battle on the plains of IMur'sa (Essek) ; tlie heavy cavalry of Constan'tius, sheathed in full panoply of plates of steel, decided the fate of the day, the very weight of their onset breaking the lines of the western legions, while the light archers of Asia harassed the naked German auxiliaries, on w'hom Majnen'tius chiefly relied, and reduced them to such despair, that battalions threw themselves into the rapid stream of the Drave. Still, so obstinate was the battle, that fifty-four thousand fell in the field, and the victors suf- fered more severely than the vanquished. It has been justly observed, hat the destructive plains of Mur'sa absorbed the strength of the empire ; for never again could the Roman rulers collect such noble bands of veterans as perished there by mutual slaughter. Magnen'tius fled to Italy, whither he was followed by Constan'tius in the following spring. The peninsula soon submitted to its legitimate sovereign ; but the usurper escaped into Gaid. Finding, however, that he could not long protract resistance, he baflled the vengeance of Con- stan'tius by suicide ; his associates were reduced either to follow his example, or suffer the penalties of treason. Constan'tius had given Constantina in marriage to his cousin Gallus, invested him with the title of Caesar, and intrusted him with the admin- istration of Asia. The Csesar, naturally of a sullen and morose temper, had been soured by the sufferings of his early youth, and his evil passions were stimulated by the ambitious intrigues of the princess to whom he was unfortunately united. His excesses at length compelled Constan'tius to send commissioners to investigate the state of the east : these officers proceeded to Ant'och, where they seem to have conducted themselves with unnecessary and offensive haughtiness ; but their faults afford no sufficient excuse for the crime of Gallus, who in-ged the populace of Antioch to put the commissioners to death with torture and insult, and then ordered their bodies to be thrown into the Oron'tes (Aaszi/). Constan'tius, instead of openly resenting the outrage, invited Gallus to visit him : the Caesar delayed until further procrastination was impossible ; he proceeded on the road to Milan through Asia and Thrace, in safety ; but when he passed the frontiers of Pannonia, he was placed under arrest, hurried to a distant castle in Istria, and secretly put to <'.e?.ib (a. d. 354). Julian, the only surviving descendant of Con ROMAN EMPIKE 305 BUn'tius Chlorua, except the reigning emperor, would have shared his brother's fate, but for the generous interference of the empress Eusebia. She procured him permisrsion to prosecute his studies in Athens, where, dazzled by the l;dse philosophy of the schools, he forsook Christianity for paganism, and earned for himself the unenviable title of Apostate. After he had been more than a year in retirement, he was summoned to court, united to ilel'ena, the sister of the emperor, and appointed to govern the countries north of the Alps, with the title of Caesar. Constan'tius himself had gained several victories over the Germanic tribes ; but he delayed in the west after the departure of Julian, to sup- port the cause of the Arians against the orthodox prelates. Before re- turning to the east, he resolved to visit the ancient capital of the em- pire ; and Rome, after an interval of thirty-two years, was gladdened with the presence of its 'sovereign. Constai/tius was so pleased witlj his reception, that he presented to the city the splendid Theban obelisk, with which his father had intended to adorn Constantinople. lie was compelled to hurry his departure by intelligence of the Sarmatians hav- ing invaded Pannonia. Constan'tius soon appeared ou the Danube : he gained several important victories over the barbarians ; but scarcely had he secured the tranquillity of his northern frontiers, when he was threatened with more dangerous hostilities on the side of Persia. Having subdued the fierce tribes of Turkestan, Sfqior renewed his attacks upon the Roman empire, and, guided by a deserter, entered Mesopotamia. Irritated by the insolence of the inhabitants, he laid siege to Am'ida (Diarbekr) ; and though he captured that strong city, he 'ost the favorable season of invading Syria, and was forced to content himself with reducing Sin'gara {Sanjar) and Bezabde (Jezirah). Con- stan'tius made an effort to recover Bezabde, but was compelled to raise the siege. He returned to Antioch, where his mortification was increased by intelligence of the brilliant achievements of Julian in Gaul. The young prince had vanquished the AUcmans, the Franks, and several other formidable tribes ; he had pursued his victorious career beyond the Rhine, and by his rapid conquests filled Germany with confusion ; while the prudence of his civil administration raised Gaul to unexampled prosperity. Constan'tius resolved to weaken the strength of the Caesar, and summoned Ids best legions from Gaul to defend the east ; the soldiers refused to obey, and proclaimed Julian emperor. Preparations for civil war were made on both sides ; but its calamities weie averted by the death of Constan'tius (a d. 361). During *liis entire reign, the Christian church was scandalized and distracted by fierce disputes arising out of the Arian heresy : Constan'tius was the avowed partisan of the Arians, and encouraged them in their per- secution of the orthodox, especially sanctioning the efforts made or the destruction of the celebrated Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria. When Julian reached Heraclea(£re^/i), though he was still sixty miles distant from the capital, the whole population of Constantinople came out to welcome his arrival, and he made his triumphal entry amid general acclamations. One of his earliest measures was to constitute a court at Chal'ccjdon (Scutari) for the trial of such ministers of Con- stan'tius as might be accused of peculation. Many of them indeed well deserved punishment ; but the ostentatious mode in which they wera 20 306 ANCIENT HISTORY. brought to trial was an ungenerous attack on the memory of the lat© emperor, and the inquisitions were conducted with such indiscriminate severity, that many innocent persons suffered with the guiUy. He then commenced a complete reform of the court, banishing the eunuchs and other ministers of luxury ; but with the idle parade of pomp, Julian discarded many of the decencies of life, ostentatiously exhibiting a dis- regard for personal cleanliness, as if filth was a necessary element of philosophy. But the great object of his ambition was to restore ancient paganism ; he revoked the edicts that had been issued against idolatry, under the plausible pretext of granting freedom o/ opinion to all his sub- jects ; he encouraged the philosophers to veil the most revolting fictions of mythology under allegorical explanations ; he showed a marked dis- like to the Christians who visited the court , and finally he closed the schools which were kept by the clergy. But the most remarkable of his enterprises for the overthrow of Christianity was his celebrated attempt to rebuild the temple of Jeru- salem, which appears to have been miraculously defeated. Seeing that the condition of the Jews was a standing miracle in proof of Chris- tianity, he resolved to weaken or destroy its effect, by restoring to that people their ancient city and national worship, erecting for them at the same time a temple on Mount Moriah, whose splendor should surpass that of the church of the holy sepulchre. This measure was frustrated, after great expense had been incurred in making preparations for its execution, as most historians declare, in consequence of balls of lire that burst from the earth, and scared the workmen employed to dig the foun- dation. Whether these phenomena were supernatural, or whether they ever had existence, is really of little importance in the great weight that the occurrence gives to the evidence in favor of the divine origin of Christianity : the most powerful monarch of the earth attempted to erect a building in one of his cities ; he was aided by a wealthy and sealous people ; pride, passion, and interest, equally urged him to per- severe ; yet was he forced to abandon the enterprise. Assuredly we must say, " the finger of God is here !" While Julian, by withholding his countenance from sincere believers on the one hand, and placing every possible impediment in the way of instruction on the other, was using all his efforts to check the progress of Christianity, he was summoned to take the field against the Persians, who had renewed their incursions. Julian invaded their dominions, and gained several great triumphs, though he was unable to bring the enemy to a decisive engagement. His march led him through the deserts of Hat'ra, which skirt the Tigris ; but the city of Hai'ra, erected like Palmy'ra in a fertile oasis, appears to have been deserted at his approach. From the magnificence of its ruins, and the fact that the city continued to be inhabited until the twelfth century of our era, it is probable that this, with several other cities, was dismantled by the Persians to deprive the Romans of the resources which these " settle- ments in the desert," might have supplied. At length, deceived by treacherous guides, he burned his boats, and advanced into a desert country, where his army was soon reduced to great distress from want of provisions. Under these circumstances he resolved to return ; buJ his retrograde march was greatly impeded by the light cavalry of tba ROMAN EMPIRE. 307 /^ersians, who hovered round the flanks and rear, discharging showers of darts and arrows, but retreating, like the Parthians their predecessors whenever any effort was made to bring them to a regular engagement. At length Julian himself was mortally wounded, in a skirmish wlfich proved favorable to the Romans. He died the same night (a. d. 363) about twenty months after his becoming sole master of the empire. Jovian, the first of the domestics, was saluted Augustus by the army; and his first care was to conclude a dishonorable peace with the Per- sians, resigning to Sapor not only the five provinces beyond the Tigris, but the whole of Mesopotamia, including the fortified cities of Nis'ibis and Sin'irara, which had so often baffled the most vigorous efforts of the Sassan'ides. His next enterprise was more glorious : he restored the Christian religion to its ancient supremacy ; but he calmed the fears of his pagan subjects by a wise edict of toleration, in which he pro- hibited no rites, however idolatrous, save those of magic. On his jour- ney toward Constantinople, he slept in a damp room, which his attend- ants had heated with charcoal ; he was suffocated by the mephitic va- por, and found dead in his bed (a. d. 364). For ten days after the death of Jovian, the empire remained without a sovereign. At length the Count Valentinian was chosen by the coun- cil of ministers and generals, and the army unanimously acquiesced in their decision. Soon after his election the new emperor divided his dominions with his brother Valens, to whom he assigned the eastern provinces, reserving to himself Illyr'icum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Africa. The emperor of the west made Milan the seat of his gov- ernment ; Valens established his court at Constantinople. This divis- ion of the Roman dominions into eastern and western empires was so manifestly required by the necessity of the times, that it provoked nei- ther observation nor remonstrance. Henceforth their histories re- quire separate consideration ; and we shall, in the first place, direct out attention to the reign of Valentinian. The emperor had scarcely reached Italy, when he was summoned to cross the Alps by an invasion of the Germans, who devastated all north- ern and western Gaul, defeating two Roman armies that had been sent to check their inroads. Valentinian made the most vigorous efforts to retrieve the fame of the empire, and succeeded ; but his exertions brought on a disease that nearly deprived him of life. The angry dis- putes respecting the succession which had taken place during his ill- ness, filled him with just alarm : and immediately after his recovery, he ojok care to have his son Gratian recognised as his heir, and pro- claimed Caesar in the presence of the army. The piracies of the Sax- ons in the northern seas first began to attract attention in the reign of Valentinian ; and so severely did they harass the northern coasts of Gaul, that it was necessary to appoint a maritime court for their pro- tection. At the same time the province of Britain was invaded by the Picts and Scots : so rapid was the progress of the barbarians, aided probably by some of the discontented natives, that Britain would have been lost to the empire, but for the heroic exertions of Theodosius, M whom Valentinian intrusted the pacification, or rather the recovery of the island. This able commander not only restrained the barbarians, but in some measure restored the ancient prosperity of the province : 308 ANCIENT HISTORY. he was rewarded by tlie emperor with the office of master-general of the cavalry, and af pointed to protect the frontier of the upper Danube from the inroads of the AUemans, until he was chosen to a more im- portant station, and intrusted with the suppression of the formidable re- volt of Africa. Count Romanus, the military governor of Africa, had provoked gen- eral resentment by his avarice and exactions ; complaints were made of him to Valentinian, and a commissioner appointed to investigate his delinquency ; but the count bribed the imperial ministers and commis- sioners, purchased security from a venal court, and severely punished those who had been guilty of the treason of complaint. Provoked by such accumulated wTongs, the Africans revolted, choosing for their leader Fin'nus, the son of the wealthy Nabal, who had been summoned to appear before the governor's tribunal on a charge of murdering his brother. Numidia and Mauritania were already in possession of the insurgents, when the entire face of the war was changed by the arrival of Theodosius : from the moment of his landing, the revolters seem to have lost all courage ; after a weak struggle, Fin'nus abandoned his army, to seek refuge with the prince of a native tribe in the interior ; but he was betrayed to the Romans, and could only escape a public ex- ecution by committing suicide. Scarcely had this war terminated, when Valentinian died suddenly, while waging war against the Quadi (a. d. 375). He had conquered these savage warriors, and deputies had been sent to deprecate his resentment ; but while reproaching the ambassadors with national perfidy, he worked himself into such a pas- sion, that he burst a blood-vessel, and instantly expired. Valentinian was naturally cruel and severe, but he was disposed to be inflexibly just ; and the many unmerited executions that he sanctioned must be attributed to the artifices of corrupt ministers. He was warmly attached to the orthodox faith, and readily gave shelter to the bishops and clergy who sought refuge in liis court from the persecutions of his brother Valens. The emperor of the east, soon after his accession, went into Syria, which was threatened by a Persian invasion; but before he could complete his preparations for war, he was alarmed by the revolt of Pro- copius, a kinsman of the emperor Julian, but possessing no other merit, whose pretensions were acknowledged by a considerable body of the army, and the citizens of Constantinople. Valens was defeated in his first efforts to overthrow the usurper ; but Procopius soon disgusted his supporters by excessive haughtiness and tyranny ; he was deserted by those who had been foremost in placing him upon the throne, and was taken prisoner almost without a contest. His fate involved that of many others, for Valens was a stranger to mercy. The emperor was soon more honorably engaged in a war with the Goths, whom he completely subdued, and compelled to submit to humiliating conditions of peace. The dangerous schism in the church caused by the heresy of A'riua was greatly aggravated by the intemperate zeal, and in some instances by the unhallowed ambition of rival prelates : Valens declared himself a patron of the Arians, and caused no fewer than eighty orthodox ecclesiastics to be murdered, for maintaining the election of a bishop of iheir creed to the see o' Constantinople. Armenia was at the same ROMAN EMPIRE. 309 time invaded by the Persians ; but Sapor having received a severe de- feat, and the Armenian prince Paras, on whose aid he relied, having been treacherously murdered by the Romans, the truce vs^as once more renewed. In the western empire Valentinian had been succeeded by his sons Gratian and Valentinian II. ; the latter, a child only five years old, was added as a colleague to Gratian by the general council of the army. Gratian II. commenced his reign by punishing those ministers and sen- ators who had been guilty of extortion ; but yielding to the suggestions of envious courtiers, he sanctioned the execution of the gallant Theodo- sius, who had just completed his conquest of the Moors : the emperor, after some time, discovered by what gross misrepresentations he had been led to commit so great a crime, and bitterly repented of his guilt. He made several laws favorable to the interest of the church, ordaining tbat all controversies respecting religion should be decided by the bishop and synod of the provinces in which they occurred ; that the clergy should be free from personal charges ; and that all places where hetero- dox doctrines were taught should be confiscated. The western empire was enjoying profound peace, and the sastern provinces were beginning to taste the unusual sweets of repose, when a people more ferocious than any barbarians hitherto known appeared for the first time on the northeastern frontiers. The Huns, crossing the Tanais (Don) and Palus Ma^otis {Sea of Azov), drove before them the nations that dwelt north of the Danube ; and these fugitives, hurled one upon another, were forced to invade the Roman provinces, and com- mence the dismemberment of the empire. The earliest accounts of the Huns are to be found in the Chinese historians, who call these savages, " Hulng Nii," and describe them as masters of the country between the river Irtish, the Altaian mountains, the Chinese wall, and Mantchew Tartary. Their personal appearance v/as almost a caricature of hu- manity ; so that the Romans compared them to a block of \yood which had been only partially trimmed : this is said to have been in som^ de- gree caused by the strange custom of flattening the nose of male in- fants the moment they were born, in order that the vizor which they wore ir. battle should fit closer to the face, and also to their plucking out the beard by the roots as soon as it began to grow. They lived on raw flesh, or at best only sodden by being placed under their saddles and pressed against the backs of their steeds during a sharp gallop : devoted to war and the chase, they left the cultivation of their fields to womer and slaves ; they built no cities ; they erected no houses ; any place encircled by walls they looked upon as a sepulchre, and never believed themselves in safety beneath a roof. About the commence- ment of the second century of the Christian era, the southern Huns, aided by the Chinese and the eastern Tartars, expelled their northern brethren from their ancient habitations, and compelled them to seek refuge in the territories of the Bashkirs. Here they were brought into contact with a fiercer but less warlike race, the A'lans, whom they gradually drove before them, being pressed forward themselves by fresh hordes from the east, until they took possession of the plains between the Rha ( Volga) and the Tanais. Joined by the Allans and other barbarous tribes that they had cou 310 ANCIENT HISTORY quered, the innumerable cavalry of the Huns passed the lower Tanuis. and swept the rich fields of the Ostrogoths. The Gothic armies were defeated, and at length the greater part of that nation abandoned the country that they had laboriously brought to a high state of cultivation and Vetired beyond the Borys'thenes [Dnieper) and the Danas'tus (Dniester). The Huns made a horrible carnage of those who remained, sparing neither women nor children ; and all who did not save them- selves by a precipitate flight, perished by the edge of the sword. The conquerors soon passed the Danas'tus, and inflicted the same calami- ties on the Visigoths to which they had already subjected their eastern brethren. Athan'aric, the Gothic monarch, after having suffered a se- vere defeat, saw no better mode of defence than to fortify himself be- tween the Hieras'sus [Pruth) and the Danube, by a wall extending from one river to the other, leaving the rest of his country exposed to the ravages of the dreadful Huns. The whole Gothic nation was reduced to despair ; their warriors, who had so often maintained a fierce struggle against the legions, now appeared as suppliants on the banks of the Danube, petitioning for per- mission to cultivate the Avaste lands of Thrace. Their request was granted, on condition of their resigning their arms ; but the officers sent to see this stipulation enforced were bribed to neglect their duty : most of the Goths retained tlieir weapons, which they regarded as the means of obtaining more valuable possessions than those they had lost. About the same time, Arianism was established among the Goths, by the exertions of their bishop, the celebrated Ul'philas, who invented the Gothic alphabet : this subsequently aggravated their hostility to the Romans ; for the enmity of rival sects had, toward the close of the fourth century, become greater than that between Christians and pa- gans. The officers whom Valens chose to superintend the settlement of the Goths were the most profligate extortioners even of his corrupt court ; instead of supplying provisions to the fugitives until their new lands would yield a harvest, as had been promised, they closed the mag- azines, and charged exorbitant prices for the worst and most revolting kinds of food. At length Lupicinus attempted to murder Frit'igern and the other chiefs of the Goths, at a banquet in Marcianop'olis {Pravadi) to which they had been treacherously invited. The plot exploded pre- maturely ; the Gothic leaders escaped ; and their followers took revenge for the atrocious breach of hospitality by massacring the greater part of the Roman legions. In the meantime, the Ostrogoths, pressed for- ward by the Huns, had crossed the Danube and reinforced Frit'igern just as the war was about to commence : thus supported, the irritated sovereign devastated Thrace, Macedon, and Thessaly, approached the walls of Constantinople, and destroyed its suburbs. Valens wrote to Gratian for aid ; and the young emperor, though harassed by wars with the Germanic tribes and the A'lans, marched to his assistance. He was delayed, however, by illness at Sir'mium ; and before he could re- sume his march, Valens was no more. The eastern emperor, baffled by the artifices and enraged by the boldness of Frit'igem, hazarded a decisive battle near Adrianople, in which he was defeated and slain (a. d. 378). The Romans had not suff'ered so severe a loss since they were overthrown by Han'nibal at Cannae : two thirds of the legions, ROMAN EMPIRE. 311 including thirty-five tribunes and commanders of cohorts, fell in the fata) field. Gratian was incapable of remedying this disaster without the aid of a colleague, for he could not advance against the Goths without leaving the western provinces a prey to the Germans. He chose as his asso- ciate Theodosius, afterward named the Great, son of the elder The- odosius, whom he had unjustly put to death. The accession of Theodosius was hailed with delight by all the east- em provinces ; he defeated the Goths in the field ; but what was of still greater importance, he won their afTections by his justice and modera- tion ; so that they voluntarily promised not only to abstain from hostili- ties, but to protect the frontiers of the Danube. Being himself sin- cerely attached to the orthodox faith, he summoned a general council at Constantinople to check the progress of heresy, and issued several edicts to restrain the teachers of erroneous opinions. While he was thus engaged, Max'imus, the governor of Britain, revolted against Gra- tian, and was joined by the whole of the western legions. The em- peror, seeing himself abandoned by his troops, fled toward Italy, but was overtaken at Lugdiinum [Lyons), and put to death (a. d. 383). St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan, courageously went into Gaul, claimed the body ol the deceased emperor from the usurper, obtained it after some delay, and honorably interred the remains of Gratian in the sep- ulchre that had been raised for the Valentinian family in the Milanese cathedral. Max'imus, to support his usurpation, had brought with him the flower of the British youth ; but the Roman province, thus deprived of its de- fenders, was exposed to the ravages of the Picts and Scots, who broke through the Roman wall, and pushed their incursions far into the south. Theodosius, harassed by the attacks of the barbarians in the east, at first entered into a treaty with Max'imus : but the usurper, encouraged by impunity, soon meditated depriving Valentinian II. of Italy, though that prince had shown little inclination to revenge the murder of Gra- tian, his brother and benefactor. Valentinian, unable to defend his ter- ritories, fled to Theodosius, who instantly marched against Max'imus. The usurper was defeated in two decisive battles ; he sought shelter in Aquileia • but he was arrested by his own soldiers, brought in chains to Theodosius-, and executed (a. d. 388). It is said that his death was hastened by the imperial ministers, who feared that he might extort a pardon from their master's compassion. The generous conqueror not only restored Valentinian to his ancient dominions, but resigned to him the provinces that had belonged to Gra- tian. Having visited Rome, and sanctioned some severe measures for extirpating idolatry in that city, he returned to the east, where he made similar eflforts to crush pagan superstitions and Christian heresies. The young Valentinian did not long retain his throne ; he was murdered by Arbogas'tes, a Frank, whom he had unwisely admitted to too great a share of sovereign power (a. d. 392). The Frank did not dare to as- sume the purple himself, but he conferred the empire on one of the royal secretaries, named Eugenius, whom he trusted that he could make the mere instrument of his ambition. Theodosius refused to enter into any negotiation with the usurper 312 ANCIENT HISTORY. but made preparations for war. Having levied a powerful army, h« forced the passes of the Alps (a d. 394), and encountering the forces of Eugenius on the banks of the Frig'idum ( Wibach), put them to the rout. The usurper was murdered by his own soldiers, and Arbogas'- tes committed suicide. Theodosius, in consequence of this victory, be- came master of the whole Roman empire, which was thus once more reunited under a single head. Section X. — The Overthrow of the Western Empire. FROM A. D. 394 TO A. D. 476. Theodosius was well aware that the partition of the empire origin ally made by Valentinian was rendered necessary by the condition of the Roman dominions in Europe and Asia ; he therefore invited his younger son Honoring to receive the sceptre of the western empire, ap pointing Arcadius, the elder, his successor on the throne of Constanti- nople. He did not long survive this arrangement ; the ease and luxury in which he indulged after his victory proved fatal to a constitution already enfeebled by the fatigues of a severe campaign : he died uni- versally lamented by his subjects, who knew too well that they " ne'er should loolc upon his like again." Arcadius and Honorius ascended the thrones bequeathed to them by their father, but both abandoned the cares of empire to their ministers Rufinus and Stil'icho. There are few greater stains on the charactei of Theodosius than his elevation of such an unworthy favorite as Ru finus, a wretch whom all parties describe as stained with every crime He was the scourge of the east, and was universally hated : aware of his unpopularity, he resolved to secure his power by uniting Arcadiu? in marriage with his daughter ; but some courtiers, jealous of his in- fluence, took advantage of his absence to persuade the young emperoi to share his throne with Eudox'ia, universally regarded as the most beautiful woman of her age. Though disappointed in this darling ob- ject of his ambition, the wealth and power of Rufmus enabled him to triumph over Arcadius and his courtiers ; but he dreaded more justly his great rival in the western empire. S'il'icho, the minister and master-general of the v-'est, was worthy of the eminent station to which he had been raised b-_, Theodosius. Or his death-bed the emperor recommended to him the charge of both em- pires ; but some pretext was necessary for assembling a force suffi- cient to depose Rufinus, without giving such alarm as would put tha* wary statesman on his guard. The Gothic war furnished the desired excuse ; Stil'icho led his forces round the Adriatic ; but he had scarce- ly reached Thessalonica, when he received orders to return, with a threat that his nearer approach to Constantinople would be considered a declaration of war. Leaving the army in the charge of the Gai'nas, Stil'icho returned to Italy ; and Rufinus, believing all danger past, Avent to review the western troops. As he passed along the ranks, he was suddenly surrounded by a chosen band, and, on a signal from Gainas pinned to the earth by a lance, and mangled with a thousand wounds If Stil'icho had contrived this murder, he derived no advantage from it ROMAN EMPIRE. 313 Gainas, the eunuch Eutropius, and the empress Eudox'ia, combinfjd to exchide him from Constantinople ; their puppet Arcadius procured a decree from his obsequious senate, declaring him a public enemy, and confiscating all his property in the east. Instead of hazarding a civil war, Stil'icho exerted himself to sup- press the revolt which Gil'do, the brother of Fir'mus, had excited in Africa. He intrusted the command of the forces raised for this pur- pose to Mas'cezel, the brother and deadly enemy of Gil'do. Accident left the Romans an almost bloodless victory. Before giving the signal to engage, Mas'cezel rode to the front of the lines with fair offers of peace and pardon ; he encountered one of the standard-bearers of the Africans, and, on his refusal to yield, struck him on the arm with his sword. The weight of the blow threw the standard and its bearer pros- trate. This was regarded by the rest as a signal of submission, which all the African legions hastened to imitate ; they flung down their en- signs, and, with one accord, renewed their allegiance to .heir rightful sovereign. Gil'do attempted to fly, but he was arrested by the citizens of Tab'raca (Tabarca), and thrown into a dungeon, where he commit- ted suicide, to avoid the punishment of treason. Mas'cezel was subse- quently murdered by Stil'icho, who feared the hereditary enmity of the house of Nabal. The Goths were now become more formidable than they had ever been. Instead of being guided by several independent chiefs, they were united into a compact body under the renowned Al'aric ; and the withholding of the subsidy paid them by Theodosius, afforded a plau- sible pretext for war (a. d. 396). Disdaining to ravage the exhausted lands of Thrace, AKaric led his soldiers into Greece, passed the straits of Thermop'ylge without opposition, devastated Bceotia, At'tica, and the Peloponnesus, while Athens, Corinth, Ar'gos, and Spar'ta, yielded to the barbarous invaders without opposition. Stil'icho hastened to repel the Goths from Greece. His masterly movements drove Al'aric into a corner of Elis, whence his extrication appeared impossible ; but the Goth, perceiving that the watchfulness of his enemies was relaxed, gained the gulf of Corinth by a rapid march, passed over the narrow strait between the headlands of Rhium and Antir'rhium {Dardanelles of Lepanto), and was maister of Epirus before Stil'icho could renew his pursuit. The Romans were preparing to pass into northern Greece when they received information that Al'aric had not only made hit* peacg with the Byzantine court, but had been appointed master-general of Illyr'icum by the feeble Arcadius. Stil'icho returned to Italy, and was soon compelled to defend that peninsula against Al'aric, who forced a passage over the Julian Alps, and advanced toward Milan. Honorius fled from his capital, but was so hotly chased, that he was forced to seek refuge in As'ta {Asli), which the Goths immediately blockaded. Stil'icho hastened to the relief of his sovereign, and gained a complete victory over Al'aric at PoUentia [Polenza) ; but the Gothic sovereign, having rallied his shat- tered forces, crossed the Appenines, and made a sudden rush toward Rome (a. d. 403). The capital was saved by the diUgence of Stil'- icho ; but Al'aric's departure from Italy was purchased by a large pension. 314 ANCIENT HISTORY. Honorius went to Rome, where he enjoyed the empty honor of being received in triumph ; but after a short time he removed to Raven'na, which from this time began to be regarded as the most secure seat of Italian government. Scarcely had Al'aric departed, when Italy waa invaded by new hordes of Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and Goths, under the command of Radagaisus. Once more the peninsula was saved by Stil'icho : he allowed the barbarians to lay siege to Florence, which was well garrisoned and provisioned ; then securing all the pas- ses, he blockaded them in their turn, and reduced them to such distress, that they surrendered at discretion (a. d. 406). Radagaisus was put to death ; his followers were sold as slaves ; but about two thirds of the hordes fell back upon Gaul, and laid waste that province from the Rhine to the Pyrenees. The provincials, receiving no aid from the court of Raven'na, proclaimed Constantine, the governor of Britain, emperor, who gained some advantages over the Germans, and wrested Spain from Honorius. Stil'icho entered into a treaty with Al'aric against the usurper ; but before it could take effect, the able minister was treach- erously murdered by his unworthy master (a. d. 408), and the wretched Olym'pus was appointed premier in his stead. The first measure of the new minister was as impolitic as it was monstrous. He ordered a promiscuous massacre of the families of the barbarians throughout Ita- ly, instead of retaining them as hostages for the fidelity of his merce- nary cohorts. The barbarous edict was too well obeyed ; and thirty thousand of the bravest soldiers in the Roman pay invited Al'aric to head them in avenging the slaughter of their wives and children. Al'aric was not slow in obeying the summons : he hastened into Italy, and, disregarding meaner prizes, marched directly against Rome (a. d. 408). "The eternal city" was closely besieged: plague, pesti- lence, and famine, raged Mathin its walls. The emperor at Raven'na made no effort to relieve his hapless subjects ; and the senate at length purchased temporary safety by paying an enormous ransom. Al'aric led his forces into Tuscany, and was joined on his march by forty thousand Goths and Germans, Avhom his victorious career had enabled to burst the bonds of slavery. Honorius refused to ratify the treaty that had been concluded by the Romans ; and in the following year, Al'aric appeared once more before the city. He took possession of Os- tia, where the magazines were established for the corn that supplied the capital ; and having thus deprived the citizens of all means of sus- tenance, summoned them to surrender. They complied with great re- luctance : Al'aric raised At'talus to the empire, but soon deposed him, and renewed his negotiations with the court of Raven'na. Once more Honorius refused to treat, and once more AFaric marched to punish the Romans for the crime of their sovereign (a. d. 410). He marched against Rome ; the Gothic slaves in the city opened to him one of the gates, and the city became the prey of the barbarians. The horrors of the pillage that ensued were in some degree alleviated by the piety of the Goths, who spared the churches and religious houses. AParic himself was unwilling that a city which had been so long the mistress of the world should be so totally ruined ; and on the sixth day after its capture evacuated the place, and took the road for southern Italy. He WIS preparing to invade Sicily, when he was seized with a mortal diti ROMAN EMPIRE. 313 ease, which brought him prematurely to his grave. His remains were interred in the bed of a small rivulet near Consen'tia (Cuse7iza), and the captives who prepared his grave were murdered, in order that the Romans might never learn the place of his sepulture. Adol'phus succeeded his brother Al'aric, and concluded a peace with ihe empire, on condition of receiving the princess Placid'ia as his bride. He led his forces into Gaul, reunited that province to the do- minions of Honorius, and then passed into Spain, which had been inva- ded by hordes of Suevi, Vandals, and A'lans. He was murdered ; but his successor Wal'lia established the supremacy of the Visigoths in Spain and the east of Gaul. About the same time, the Franks, the Burgundians, and other barbarous tribes, established themselves in Gaut ; while Britain and Armorica, neglected by the emperor, became independent. The Britons had so degenerated under the empire, that they were unable to resist the barbarous Picts and Scots ; they there- fore applied for aid to the Angles and Saxons, warlike tribes (a. d. 448). The Saxons readily obeyed the summons ; but, after repelling the Picts and Scots, they took possession of southern Britain, which they named Angle-land, since contracted into England. In the meantime, the reign of Arcadius in the east was dishonored by the profligate administration of the eunuch Eutropius and the em- press Eudox'ia, to whose cruelty the most illustrious persons, and among others St. Chrysostom, were victims. After his death (a. d. 408), the young Theodosius succeeded to the purple ; but the adminis- tration was usurped by his sister Pulcheria, who ruled the east with singular energy and ability for more than forty years. During a great portion of this period, there was little sympathy between the courts of Rome and Constantinople ; but the family intercourse was rencAved when Placid'ia, the widow of Adol'phus, was banished by her brother, after the death of her second husband Constantius. She sought refuge in the court of Theodosius, bringing with her Valentinian and Honoria, her infant children. She had scarcely time to enjoy the hospitality with which she was received, when news arrived of the death of Ho- norius (a. d. 423), and the usurpation of the empire by John, his prin- cipal secretary. Theodosius levied an army to support the claims of his relative ; John was deposed and slain ; Valentinian HI. was pro- claimed emperor o the west, under the guardianship of his mother Placid'ia ; and thus two women wielded the destinies of the civilized world. Placid'ia, seduced by the interested crunsels of her minister ^E'tius, recalled Count Boniface, the most faithful friend of the imperial family, from Africa ; but that governor, deceived by the same crafty adviser, refused obedience, and invited Gen'seric, king of the Vandals, to his aid. That nation occupied the Spanish province, called from them Vandalusia, a name which it still retains, with but slight alteration. They were still restless, eager to seek further conquests and fresh plunder, so that nothing could have been more grateful to Gen'seric than such an invitation. Boniface had soon reason to lament the eflfeois of his precipitate resentment. When it was too late, he attempted to check the progress of the Vandals, and returned to his allegiance. Auxiliaries were sent to his aid from the eastern empire ; but the ua 3x6 ANCIENT HISTORY. . « fortunate count ^ras irretrievably defeated. He returned to Italy, where he engaged in a civil war with jE'tius, and was slain by his rival. Placid'ia having discovered the double treachery of JE'tius, proclaimed him a traitor, and that general found it necessary to seek shelter in Pan- nonia with the Huns. At'tila, justly called " the scourge of God," was no.v the ruler of the formidable Hunnish hordes: he extorted vast sums, as the price of his forbearance, from the Byzantine empire. On the death of Theodosius H. he threatened war against Marcian his successor, the nominal husband of Pulcheria ; but the victories of iE'tius over the Franks and Vandals, when restored to Placid'ia's fa- vor, induced the fierce barbarian to turn his arms against the western empire (a. d. 451). He had an additional pretext, through the malice of the princess Honoria, who secretly offered him her hand, to revenge her exclusion from power ; and the barbarian monarch, though he al- ready had several wives, proclaimed himself her champion. When the Huns appeared in Gaul, JE'tius entered into an alliance with ihe Visi- goths, aided by whom he gained a great victory over At'tila, and drove him beyond the frontiers. But in the ensuing spring (a. d. 452) the Huns poured like a torrent into Italy, and laid waste the peninsula. The death of At'tila, who fell a victim to intemperance, and the civil wars between his followers, delayed the utter ruin of the empire ; but the murder of ^^tius by the ungrateful Valentinian, and the unchecked ravages of the barbarians, rendered all the provinces miserable and wretched. Valentinian himself was murdered by the patrician Max'- imus, whose wife he had debauched (a. d. 455), and the injured hus- band assumed the imperial purple. Max'imus had scarcely been three months upon the throne when the fleet of the Vandals appeared in the Tiber. His subjects, attributing this new calamity to his supineness, stoned him to death ; but ere a successor could be chosen, Gen'seric marched his soldiers into the de- fenceless city, and pillaged everything that had been spared by the piety or mercy of Al'aric. Many thousands of the unfortunate citizens were transported as slaves into Africa ; but their condition was in some degree alleviated by the generosity of Deogratias, bishop of Carthage, who sold the gold and silver plate of his churches to purchase the re demption of his brethren. By the influence of Theod'oric, king of the Visigoths, Avitus, a Gaul of noble family, was installed emperor ; but he was soon deposed by Count Ricimer, the principal commander of the barbarian auxiliaries intrusted with the defence of Italy. He did not long survive his fall ; he died on his way to the Alps, as he was about to seek refuge among the Visigoths. Majorian received the degraded sceptre from Ricimer, and made some vigorous efforts to remedy the disorders of the state. His virtues were not appreciated by his subjects. He was dethroned by a licentious soldiery (a. d. 461), and died in a few days after. Ricimer chose one of his own creatures, Severus, to be nominal t-m- peror, retaining all the power of the state in his own hands ; but the superior strength of the Vandals compelled him to have recourse to the court of Constantinople for aid, and to off'er the nomir ation of a sov- ereign for the west to Loo, the successor of Marcian. Leo appointed the patrician Anthemius to this high but dangerous station, and sent a ROMAN EMPIRE. 317 laige armament against the Vandals in Africa. The imperial forces were completely defeated, and when the shattered relics of the arma- ment returned to Constantinople, Ricinicr deposed Athemius, put him to death, and elevated Olyb'rius to the throne (a. d. 472). Both Rici- mer and Olyb'rius died within a few months : ai-d Leo, after some de- lay, appointed Julius Nepos his colleague. Glycerins, an obscure soldier, trusting to the aid of the Burgundians, attempted to dispute the empire with Nepos ; but finding his strength inadequate to the contest, he resigned the sceptre for the crosier, and became bishop of Salona. Nepos himself was soon driven from the throne by Ores'tes, the successor of Ricimer in the command of the barbarian mercenaries. He fled into Dalmatia, where he was assassi- nated by his old rival Glycerins. Ores'tes gave the throne to his son Rom'ulus MomiFlus, whom he dignified with the title of Augus'tus, or, as he is more frequently called, Augus'tulus. Odoacer, the leader of the German tribes in the Roman pay, persuaded his countrymen to take arms against the usurper. Ores'tes was made prisoner, and put to death. Augus'tulus was sent into captivity, but was allowed a pension for his support ; and the con- queror, abolishing the name and office of emperor, took the title of king of Italy (a. d. 476). The Ostrogoths finally conquered Italy (a. d. 492), deposed Odoacer, and founded a new empire. During this calamitous period Christianity was sullied by the admix- ture of various superstitions, borrowed from ancient paganism. The Gnostics attempted to combine the truths of the gospel with the wild dreams of oriental philosophy, and they prepared medals with mystic devices, which were worn as charms or amulets, in the belief that they would protect men from danger and disease. 318 ANCIENT HIS TO K, If CHAPTER XVIIl. INDIA. \^ HEN India became known to the Greeks by the ccr-quests of Alex- ander, its inhabitants were found in very nearly the sar-je state of civil- ization as the Hindoos of the present day ; we raav therefore fairly conclude that this civilized state must have iDcen several hundred years in existence, else it could not have been so complete in its parts and so permanent in its influence. As Alexander's invasion took place about the fourth century before the Christian era, we may regard it as pretty certain that the civilization of India reaches back to at least one thou- sand years before Christ, but how much further it is impossible to de- termine with certainty. From the institution of caste, it seems probable that the Hindoos are of a mixed origin, for the diflference between the castes is so very great that we are almost obliged to admit a corre- sponding difference of original extraction. " I could at all times, and in every part of India," says Major Bevan, " distinguish a Brahmin by his complexion and peculiar features." All the Hindoo traditions unite in representing the neighborhood of the Ganges as the cradle of their race ; their most ancient records intimate that the first kingdoms in this sacred spot were founded by persons who came from the north, and the existing series of temples and monuments, both above and below groimd, is a species of chronicle of the progressive extension of an im- migrating and highly-civilized race from north to south. This is the very reverse of what we find to have occurred in Egypt, where the social and religious advance was from south to north. The Brahmins in India, like the priests in Egypt, exercised an in- direct sovereignty over the other classes of society ; the kings, in both countries, were selected from the warrior caste, but the priestly caste restrained the power of the sovereign by religious enactments and in- stitutions which brought both public and private affairs under their cog- nifance. How this influence was obtained is merely matter of conjec- tuie, but it certainly existed before the appearance of the two great In- dian epics, the Ramayana and the Maha-bharata, both of which contain several instances of the awful veneration in which the Brahmins were held by the kings themselves. In the interesting drama, " The Toy Cart," translated by Professor Wilson, we find a notice of a strange revolution effected in the government of Ujayin (Oogein) by Brahmini- cal intrigue. The drama itself was written before the Christian era, but the incideats on which it is founded are of much earlier date ; it de scribes how the Brahmins, offended by their sovereign Palaka's public disregard of them, brought about a change in the government, employ- ing a hermit and a cow-boy as their instruments. Aryaka, the cow INDIA. 319 herd, is chosen king, and his accession is thus announced to a Bral> min wiiom Palaka had condemned to death : — " And Brahmin, I inform you, that the king, The unjust Pdlaka, has fallen a victim, Here in the place of sacrifice, to one Who has avenged his wrongs and thine ; to Arj'aKa, Who ready homage pays to birth and virtue." The conchision of the drama still more forcibly shows the influence of the Brahmins, for reverence to their caste is invoked as one of the chief blessings of heaven : — " FuU-uddered be the kine, the soil be fertile ; May copious showers descend, and balmy gales Breathe health and happiness on all mankind; From pain be every living creature free. And reverence on the pious Brahmin wait ; And may all monarchs, prosperous and just. Humble their foes and guard the world in peace." It appears that there were two great dynasties in India proper ; that is, north of the Krishna river, and excluding the Dec'can ; the Solai race was established at Ayad'da, the modern Oude ; the Lunar race fixed itself more to the west, in the country round Delhi. The war be- tween the Pan'doos and Kooroos, both descended from the Lunar race, was to the Indians what the Trojan war was to the Greeks, by its in- fluence upon their poetry, literature, and arts. It forms the subject of the great Hindoo epic, the " Maha-bharata" (great war), which contains one hundred thousand slokas, or distichs. How far the events of this war are to be regarded as historical, would be an inquiry more curious than useful ; but it seems probable that, like the Trojan war, it was not less fatal to the victors than the vanquished, for a new dynasty arose at Magad'ha, which gradually acquired the supremacy of India. Th^ kingdom of Magad'ha is identified with the province of Behar and its capital was Paliboth'ra, which stood in or near the modern city of Patau. After the retreat of Alexander from India, the throne of Paliboth'ra was occupied by a celebrated conqueror, known to the Greeks by the name of Sandracop'tus or Sandracot'tus, who has been completely identified with the Chan'dra-Gup'ta of the Hindoo poets The Greek and Hindoo writers concur in the name, in the private his tory, in the political elevation, and in the nation and capital of an In dian king, nearly if not exactly contemporary with Alexander ; such an approximation could not possibly be the work of accident, and we may therefore regard this monarch's reign as historical. Combining and comparing the different accounts given of Chan'dra- Gup'ta it appears that about the time of Alexander the kingdom of Magad'ha was ruled by a monarch named Mahapad'ma Nan'da. He was a powerful and ambitious prince, but cruel and avaricious, by which defects, as well as by his inferiority of birth, he probably provoked the hostility of the Brahmins. By one wife he had eight sons, who, with their father, were called the nine Nan'das ; and by a wife of low ex- traction he had according to tradition, a son called Chan'dra-Gup'ta. I 's, however, by no means certain that Chan'dra-Gup'ta was the son of 320 ANCIENT HISTORY. Nan'da, but from uniform testimony he appears to have been closely le- lated to the royal family by his father's side, though his mother was ol a very inferior caste. But whatever may have been the origin of this prince, it is very likely that he was made the instrument of the rebellious spirit of the Brahmins, who, having effected the destruction of Nan'da and his sons, raised Chan'dra-Gup'ta, while yet a youth, to the throne. In the drama Mudra Nahshasa, which represents the various artifices employed by the Brahmin Chanak'ya to establish the throne of Chan'dra-Gup'ta, Chanak'ya declares that it was he Avho overthrew tlie Nan'das : — " 'T is known to an the world I vowed the death of Nanda, and I slew him .... The fires of my wrath alone expire Like the fierce conflagration of a forest. From lack from fuel — not for weariness. The flames of my just anger have consumed The branding ornaments of Nanda's stem. Abandoned by the frightened priests and people, They have enveloped in a shower of ashes The blighted tree of his ambitious councils, And they have overcast with sorro^Y-clouds The smiling heavens of those moon-like looks That shed the light of love upon my foes." It is thus evident that the elevation of Chan'dra-Gup'ta to the throne was owing to the Brahmins ; they were, however, aided by a prince from the north of India, Pawats'wara, to Avhom they promised an ac- cession of territory as the reward of his alliance. The execution of this treaty was evaded by the assassination of the mountain-prince ; his son, Malayaketu, led a mingled host against Magad'ha to avenge his father's death : among his troops we find the Gavanas, the Lakas, or Lacse, and the Kambojas, or people of Arachosia, the northeastern province of Persia. The failure of Seleucus Nicator, in his attempt to extend his power in India, and his relinquishinent of territory, may be connected with the discomfiture and retreat of Malayaketu, as nar- rated in the drama, although it is improbable that the Syrian monarch and the king of Magad'ha ever came into direct collision. The retreat of Malayaketu was occasioned by jealousies and quarrels among the confederates ; he returned, baffled and humbled, to his own country Chan'dra-Gup'ta's power was now so firmly established that Seleucus Nicator relinquished to him all the country beyond the Indus, receiving fifty elephants in exchange ; he also formed a matrimonial alliance with the Hindoo prince, and sent Megasthenes as an ambassador to his court. Chan'dra-Gup'ta reigned twenty-four years, and left the kingdom to his son. There is a complete blank in Indian history from the death of Chan'- dra-Gup'ta to the accession of Vicramadit'ya, Avho is called the sover- eign of all India. He ruled with such extraordinary success that his reign forms an important era in history, commencing a. d. 258, according to one account, and ten years later, according to another. Toward the close of his reign he was conquered by Shapour, the second Persian monarch of the Sassanian d}Tiasty, and the empire of India became INDIA. 321 «ubject«to that of Persia. The Hindoo accounts of Vicramadit'ya are intermingled with the most extravagant fables, and all that we can learn from them with certainty is, that this prince was a sedulous upholder of the influence of the Brahmins. From this period to the Mohammedan invasion, India appears to have been divided into a number of petty independent states, in which the rajahs were completely under the influence of the Brahmins. As the royal power declined, the rules of caste, on which the influence of the hereditary priesthood depended, were rendered more rigid and severe. The caste of the Brahmins arrogated to itself the exclusive privilege of studying and expounding the Vedas, and as these are the source of all Hindoo learning, whether religious or scientific, the priesthood thus obtained a monopoly of knowledge. Brahmins alone could exercise the medical art, for sickness being considered as the punishment of transgression, it is remedied only by penances and religious ceremonies • they alone had the right to interpret the laws, to ofier sacrifices, and to give counsel to the sovereign. The Kshatriya or warrior caste, is generally regarded as extinct ; it was naturally viewed with great jealousy by the Brahmins, and the in- stitutions imposed upon it by them, were little calculated to foster a war- like spirit. Hence Hindoostan has so frequently and so easily become the prey of foreign conquerors, for the priestly caste made it the chie-f object of their policy to humiliate and weaken the caste of warriors. The Vaisy'a caste iacludes the higher industrial classes, and was perhaps one of the most numerous. The Sddras formed the lowest class, and were slaves to the rest. In p«ocess of time, the number of mixed castes was greatly multiplied, and the determination of their re- lations to each other became a matter of considerable difficulty. At a very early but uncertain period, the religious institutions of the Brahmins were opposed by a reformer named Bud'dha, who rejected the Vedas, bloody sacrifices, and the distinction of castes. His follow- ers, called Buddhists, must have been both numerous and powerful at a very remote age, for a greater number of the oltlest rock-temples are dedicated to him. From the Christian writers oi ihe seeoiid century it is evident that in their day the religion of Bud'dha was very prevalent in India, and in the drama of the Toy-Cart, Bud'dha observances Lie described with great accuracy, and the members of th<^. sect represented in a flourishing condition, for they are not only tolerated but publicly recognised. One of the characters in the pl-jy is a Bud'diia ascetic, and he describes his creed ia the following hyiim ; — " Be virtue, friends, your only store, And restless appetite restrain, Beat meditatioa's drum, and sore Your watch against each sense maintain j The thief that still in ambush lies. To make devotion's wsallh his piizc. " Cast the five senses all away That trium:>h o'er the virtnocs -wiil, The pride of self-importance slay. And isjnoraace remorseless kiil; So shall you ssiie ihe body gnard, And Heaven snail be your last rewardo 21 322 ANCIENT HISTORY. " Why shave the head and mow the chin, • While bustling follies choke th-e breast ? Apply the knife to parts within, And heed not how deformed the rest ; The heart of pxide and passion weed, And then the man is pure indeed." At some uncertain period, but probably not much later tiiAn the twelfth century of the Christian era, nor earlier than the fourth, the Buddhists were expelled from India by the Brahmins ; they sought shelter in Cey- lon, in the mountains of the north, in the countries beyond the Ganges, in Tartary, and in China, where their religion had been previously preached by active missionaries. By the persecution of the Buddhists in their native country, a great portion of the literature of India has been lost, and in particular, according to Professor Wilson, all the an cient literature of the people that speak the Tamul language. But in the countries surrounding India, Buddhism still prevails ; it is indeed the most widely extended of any religion, being professed by not less than two hundred millions of people. Its success is mainly owing to the excellent organization of its hierarchy, and the solemnity of its cer- emonies. Celibacy is enjoined on its priesthood, and thus a monastic corporation is formed, which in Tibet possesses the sovereign power, and in the other countries enjoys considerable political influence. The Buddhists were not the only reformers that opposed the Brah- mins ; they were followed by the Jains, who cut down more extensively the vast forest of fraud and superstition. The rise of Jainism was con- temporary with the decline of Buddhism in Hindoostan. Both affect to be new doctrines produced by a fresh incarnation of Vislinoo, the con- servating princij)le of the Hindoo Triad. The ancient trade of the Egyptians and Phoenicians with India has been already noticed in the earlier part of this work ; but Indian com- merce did not excite much attention in the western world until the first Ptolemy ascended the throne of Egypt, and prepared to realize the vast projects of his master, Alexander the Great. His successor, Ptolemv PhiJadelphus, attempted to connect the Red sea with the Mediterranean, by cutting a canal from Arsinoe (Suez) to the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. This was noc found so useful as the king anticipated ; he there- fore built a cily lov/er down the Red sea, nearly under the Tropic, called Bereiiico, wUch became the staple of the trade with India. Goods vrere transported from Berenice to Cop'tos on the Nile, and thence floated down the river to Alexandria. The Egyptian vessels sailed from Boreuice either to the mouths of the Indus or to the Mala bar coast ; they Mere too small to venture directly out to sea, and there- fore crept timidly along the shores. The Persians had an insuperable aversion to maritime affairs, else they might have opened the same trade by a shorter and safer course of navigation through the Persian gulf. They procured Indian commodities overland from the banks of the In- dus, and the northern provinces were supplied by the caravans which travelled from the Indus to the Oxus, and sent their goods down that river into the Caspian sea. After Egypt had been some time subject to the Romans, the discovery ©f the regular shifting of the periodical winds or monsoons brought In INDIA. sas dia nearer to the rest of the world. Hippalus, the commander of a ship engaged in the Indian trade, about eighty years after Egypt was an- nexed to the Roman empire, stretched boldly from the mouth of the Arabian g\ilf across the ocean, and was wafted by the western monsoon to Musius on the Malabar coast, somewhere between Goa and Tel- licherry. From this time the Indian trade rapidly increased, and the merchants of Alexandria supplied Europe with spices, and aromatics, precious stones, pearls, silk, and cotton cloths. Taprobane or the island of Ceylon, was not known by name to Eu- ropeans before the age of Alexander the Great. The Egyptians seem not to have visited it or the Coromandel coast, until after the discovery of the periodicity of the monsoons, but so early as the reign of the empe- ror Claudius an ambassador was sent from the island to Rome. It sub- sequently became a great mart of trade for the commodities produced in the countries beyond the Ganges, and probably even for the productions of China. Little change was made in the commercial routes of communication with India from the time of the Romans, until the discovery of the pas- sage round the Cape of Good Hope by Vasco de Gama. The ancients were contented with traffic, and after the time of Alexander made no efforts to establish colonies in Hindoostan ; hence their accoimts of the country and its inhabitants are very loose and indefinite. But even from these vague accounts we find that the social institutions of the Hindoos have scarcely been altered by the many changes of realm and chances of time which have since occurred ; and hence we may con- clude, that its system of civilization, so original and so stereotype in its character, belongs to an age of very remote antiqiiity, and that there is no improbability in its having been connected with that of ancient Egypt. QUESTIONS ON ANCIENT HISTORY, TO ACCOMPAVT A MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY, BY W. C. TAYLOR. COMPILED BY REV. L.L. SMITH NEW-YOKK : I) . A P P L E T O N A: C O M P A N Y 3 4 G & .3 4 8 BROADWAY. M.DCCC.LIV. QUESTIONS ON ANCIENT HISTORY. CHAPTER I. EGYPT. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1 The first country in which a government was established ? S How did civilization everywhere com- mence ? 3 What has Egypt been always called? 4. How did civilization advance along the Nile? 5. Wliere does the Nile enter Egypt ? 6. Dimensions of the valley of the Nile ? 7. How was Egypt divided ? 8. On what does its fertility depend ? 9 By what are these inundations caused? 10. The appearance of the Nile early in August ? 11. When do the waters subside ? 12. The eastern side of the valley, describe. 1.3. The western side. 14. Benefit of this ridge 15. Mention some of the interesting monu- ments of Upper Egypt. 16. What is said of lake Moeris ? 17. Where was the labyrinth? 18. The capital of Middle Egj^t ? 19. What is said of it? 20. The most remarkable monuments of Middle Egypt ? 21. What is said of Lower Egypt ? 22. Where did the civilized portion of the Egyptians dwell ? 23. The great object of sacerdotal and royal policy ? 24. Why was every shepherd regarded as an abomination to the Egyptians ? Sec. 2. — Political and Social Condition of ike Egyptians, 1. Colour of the Egyptians ? 2 What conjecture has been hazarded re- specting them ? 3. The habits and manners of the people in the /iJbrent districts? 4. The diiTerent castes among them, and their relative rank? 5. Tlie central point of every colony ? 6. What were names? 7. What is said of them ? 8. Who were the Hyksos ? 9. When did Egypt become united undtti one sovereign ? 10. What is said of the priestly caste ? 11. What is said of the high-priests ? 12. How was their influence strengthened? 13. Location of the warrior caste ? 14. The most important division of an Eg)-{»- tian army ? 15. Describe their chariots ? 16. How were nations distinguished froia each other? 17. The national weapon of the Egyp- tians ? 18. Their heavy arms ? 19. How were their light troops armed ? 20. How were their soldiers levied aud drilled ? 21. How were their captives treated? 22. What is said of their religion and govern ment ? 23. The authority of their priests ? 24. The general idea that peiTaded thoii entire religious system ? 25. The result of this ? 26. What is said of astrology ? 27. The Egyptian creeds with reference tc the future ? 28. Origin of the practice of embalming? 29. What important trial was much dreaded by every Egyptian ? 30. What is said of trades and professions ? 31. The probable cause of this? 32. Their favourite amusements? 33. Their posture at table ? 34. The respect i)uid to women, rank, ani age? 35. The principal trees of Egj'pt ? 36. Their use of wine ? 37. Their most remarkable vegetables? 38. Their domestic animais ? QUESTIONS ON 39 The use made of the skhi of the hippo- potamus? 40. How were the eggs of poultry hatched ? Sec. 3. — History of Esi/ptfro/n the earliest Period to the Accession of Psammetichus. 1. The most ancient of the states of Egypt ? 2. Tiie most powerful ? 3. What iy said of Memphis ? 4. When did the Hyksos invade Egypt ? 5. The policy of Pharaoh in locating the colony of the Israelites in the laud of Go.-fhcn ? 6 Who was the Pharaoh that tyrannized over them ? 7 What task did he impose upon them ? 8. What is said of the labour imposed on them of making bricks ? 9 How did Pharaoh attempt to check their increase ? 10 Why did Moses quit Egypt ? H . How was Pharaoh punished by the God of Israel ? 19 How was his army destroyed ? 13 The year of this calamity? 14. Who was the Pharaoh that received Joseph ? 15 When was glass first used ? 16 The results to the Hyksos of the destruc- tion of the Egyptian army in the Red Sea? 17. Wiio was Danaus of the Greeks ? 18. In honour of whom was the vocal statue of Memnon erected ? 19. Who were the Raraeses? 20 With what calamities was Egypt afflicted during the reign of Amenoph IV. ? S'i . Lxcesses of tlie Hyltsos ? 22. The most celebrated of the Egyptian monarchs ? 23. His exploits ? 24. Extent of his conquests, and how proved ? 25. By what name is he best known ? 26. Extent of Shishak's empire ? 27. Who subsequently subjugated Egypt ? 28. Conduct of Sefhos ? 29. How did he oppose Sennacherib? 30. Who once more united all Egypt under a single monarchy? 31. His treatment of the warrior caste, and their conduct ? Sec. 4. — History of Egypt from the Reign of Psammetichas to its Suhjiigation by Cambyses. 1. What change was made in the ancient policy of Egypt at the accession of Psammetichus? 2 The great object of his policy ^ 3. His son and successor ? 4. What enterprise did he undertake, and who completed it ? 5 What circumstance alarmed him ? 6. Who attempted to check him, and with what success? 7. Who expelled his garrison from Circe- si um ? 8. Conquest of Nebuchadnezzar? 9. Jeremiah's prophetic description of this battle ? 10. What important discovery did his fleet make ? 11. How long absent was it? 12. What remarkable incident occurred dur- ing the reign of his son ? 13. What act of perfidy did Apries commit T 14. The circumstances under which he was dethroned ? 15. Policy of Amasis, his successor'? 16. His subsequent misfortiuies ? 17. Fate of Psammenitus, his son? 18. Conduct of Cambyses ? 19. Prophecy of Ezekiel ? Sec. 5. — Egyptian Manufactures and Commerce. 1. What do we learn from the monuments of the Egj'ptians? 2. What branches of manufacture were at- tended to by them ? 3 The perfection they attained? 4. Their implements of metal? 5. Their pottery ? 6. What is said of the Thebaid ? 7. What productions were brought from Ethiopia ? 8. From Arabia, and India ? 9. Their exports ? CHAPTER II. THE ETHIOPIANS. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. — Natural History. 1. What two races possessed the districts above the Nile? 2. What h said of the civilized people of Ethiopia? 3. What is said of the monuments of the Nubian valley? 4. Of the island of Mcroe ? 5. Of its advantages for trade with India ? 6. What singular animal is found in ita neighbourhood ? 7. What large animal is also found there ? Sec. 2. — History of the Ethiopians. 1. What is said of the early history ol MeroS ? 2. Of its monuments ? 3. What Assyrian heroine attempted the conquest of Ethiopia ? 4. What evidence have wo of the Ethio- pians' being a powerful nation ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 5. The Immediate cause of the captivity of the tea tribes ? 6. Who was Sevechus ? 7. Wiiat colonists emigrated to Etliiopia in the roivu of Fsainmotichus? 8. Of what advantage wore they to the Ethiopians? 9. Of what folly was Cambyses guilty, in his invasion of Ethiopia ? 10. Sufferings of his soldiers? 11. How was the king of Ethiopia elected? 12. Strange custom of the electors? 13. Who resisted it, and with what success? 14. Which of the queens of Ethiopia made war against Augustus CtBsar ? 15. What religion was prevalent at Moroe? 6ec. 3. — Arts, Commerce, and Manufactures of Meroe. 1. What is said of the pyramids of Meroe ? 2. The most striking proof of the progress of the Ethiopians in the art of building? 3. Commerce and manufactures of Meroe ? 4. To what did it owe its greatness ? 5. The causes of its ruin ? 6. What accelerated it ? CHAPTER III. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. 3ec. 1. — Geographical Outline. — Natural History. 1. How was Babylonia situated? 2. What is said of the Tigris ? 3. The first habitation of the descendants of Noah ? 4. Situation of Assyria ? 5. Fertility of Babylonia ? 6 li» vegetable productions ? 7. Why was commerce neglected by the Bibylonians? 9. What is said of their bricks? 1. ThtVj substitute for mortar ? >1l Nature of it? Skc. 2 -Political and Social Condition of the Assyrians and Babylonians. 1. Government of Assyria ? 2. Power and state of the king? 3. Their priesthood, and religion ? 4. Name of their supreme deity ? 5. What has rendered the Assyrian mytho- logy obscure ? 6. The mo^t niarked attributes of their idolatry ? 7. Form of their idols ? 8 The condition of woman in Babylonia ? 9. How were they married ? 10. The natural results of this system? 11. How aggravated ? 12. Their progress in the mechanical arts, and in mathematical science ? 13. Character of their language ? 14. Materials on which they wrote ^ Sec. 3. — History of the Assyrians and Bal)ylonians. Greek account of Assyrian history ? What is said of Nimrod ? When was the Assyrian empire founded.l Its capital ? Nimrod's principal queen ? Why is it sometimes said that she founded Babylon ? Her conquests ? Character and conduct of her successors " Give some account of Pal. Of Tiglath-pul-assur Of Shalman-assur. Of Sanherib or Sennacherib. Of Sardanapalus. His dreadful end. Who wore the Kasdira or Chaldeans ? Testimony of Isaiah respecting them? Why is the reign of Nabonassar a re- markable era in history ? What Egyptian monarch invaded Assy- ria, and with what success ? Who was Nitociii-i ? Of what opportunity did the Jews avaii themselves to assert their indepen- dence ? How did they suffer for their revolt ? Why did they a second time revolt ? How were they then punished ? Of what folly was Nebuchadnezzar guilty on his j-eturn ? What befell him at th'o close of his reign ? By what people was the Babylonian empire overthrown ? Meaning of the name Bolshozzar ? Works of the queen-mother Nitocris ? Conduct of Belshazzar ? How did Cyrus enter Babylon ? Fate of Belshazzar ? Date of the fall of Babylon ? 1. 2. 3. .4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32, Sec. 4. — Description of Nineveh and Babylon. 1. Nineveh, why so named ? 2. Its situation ? 3. Its form and dimensions ? 4. Why so large ? 5. Its wall and towers ? 6. What is it now ? 7. Form and dimensions of Babylon ? 8. What iy said of its siai-d. ied bricks ' 9. Dimensions of its walls ? 10. Describe the city. 11. In what two ways were the banks o|. the Euphrates connected ? 12. Size of the bridge? 13. Describe the temple of Belus. 14. Describe the hanging gardens QUESTIONS ON 15. PuriK*;e of Alexander with reference to Babylon ? What is it now ? Prophecy of Isaiah ? Sec. 5. — Coinmrrcn and Manufactures of the Bahylonians. The manufactures of Babylon ? What art was carried to great perfection ? Commerce of the Babylonians ? Their imports? How was their trade carried on in the Indian seas ? How and why was this trade destroyed by the Persians? whence did they obtain pearls ? The cotton plantations on these islands ? What ship-timber did they furnish ? 16 17 1. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. q. CHAPTER IV. WESTERN ASIA : INCLUDING ASIA MINOR, SYRIA AND PALESTINE. *^EC. 1. — Asia Minor. — Geographical Out- line. What is said of the term Asia Minor ? Where was Troy situated? By what people was the western coasts of Asia Minor colonized ? What is said of Sardis? Why was Galatia so called ? For what was Caria chiefly remarkable? 7. By whom was Tarsus founded? Sec. 2. — Ancient History of Asia Minor. 1. The three kingdoms of Asia Minor most worthy of notice ? 2. What is said of the history of Troy? 3. When and by whom founded ? 4. The changes it underwent ? 5. Cause of its siege and destruction ? 6. What shows that the Phrygians were originally a very powerful people ? 7. Their chief deity ? 8. Her priests, and for what celebrated? 9. Name of most of the Phrygian kings ? 10. Story of the Gordian knot? 11. Who were the Lydians ? 12. The three dynasties that ruledoverthem? 13. Who were the Cimmerians? 14. Effect of an eclipse of the sun ? 15. By whom had it been predicted? 16. What is said of Croesus? 17. Visit of Solon to him, and their interview? 18. How did he escape death ? Sec. 3. — Syria. — Geographical Outline. 1 To what countiy was the name of Syria given ? 2. Its proper dimensions ? 3 Its three divisions ? 4. Its principal cities ? 5. Situation of Palmyra? 6. By whom founded ? 7. The principal cause of the ruin of Tyre? Sec. 4. — Social and Political Condition oj the Syrians and Pkwnicians. 1. The only large river in Syria? 2. Its soil, and natural advantages '' 3. What circumstance led to many of tha revolutions of Syria ? 4. Its religion ? 5. Topography of Phoenicia ? 6. Its religion ? Sec. 5. — History of the Syrians and Phceni cians. 1. What Jewish king conquered Syria? 2. Who threw off the yoke and founded the kingdom of Damascus ? 3. Fate of Benhadad ? 4. Character and actions of Hazael? 5. What led to the destruction of Damascus? 6. The first sovereign of Tyro, and with whom contemporary ? 7. His son and successor ? 8. Condition of Tyre in his reign ? 9. The most remarkable of his successors ? 10. By whom was Carthage founded? 11. How was Tyre almost ruined by Nebu- chadnezzar? 12. What change was afterwards made in the government of Tyro ? 13. Of what advantage was it to Persia? 14. By whom and when was it finally cap- tured ? Sec. 6. — Phoenician Colonies and Foreign Possessions. 1. What system has always helped on civili- zation ? 2. The design of founding colonies ? 3. Why does civil liberty advance more rapidly in colonies than in the parenx state ? 4. Characteristic of commercial states ? 5. Ezekiel's description of Tyre ? 6. Progress of the Phcenician colonies ? 7. What country was the Peru of the an- cient world ? 8. What is Spain called in the Scriptures? 9. What is said of the Tyrian colonies there ? 10. Conduct of the Tyrians toward their colonies ? 11. The pillars of ?Iorcules, what ? 12. How far north did the Tyrians extend their trade? 13. What African cities rivalled Tyro in wealth and magnificence ? 14. Why did they keep the knowledge ol their discoveries to tliemselves ? 15. Who first formed commercial settlement* along Asia Minor and the Black sea? ANCIENT HISTORY. 16, 17, 18, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. What establishments did they have in tho eastern seas? When were these settlements made? Willi what people did they closely ally themselves ? Skc. 7. — Phwnician Manufactures and Commerce. I. Tho Tyrian purple, what ; and how ob- tained ? What art was known to the Phoenicians aloiio ? By whom was glass invented ? The products of Tyrian industry? In wliat did their commerce consist? Into what three great branches may their land-trade be divided? What was imported from Arabia » How was this trade carried ou? The ports of the Idumeans ? Their capital ? Ancient caravans, describe ? The cause of the close alliance of the Phoenicians and Israelites ? Who built Baalbec and Palmyra ? His design, and how frustrated ? The great high road of Phoenician com- merce ? Their rivals and political enemies ? The richest country in the ancient world in precious metals ? Whence did the Phoenicians procure their tin ? Whence their amber ; and its value? What circumstances prove the boldness of their commercial enterprises? CHAPTER V. PALESTINE. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. I Situation of Palestine ? 9 Its most remarkable features ? 3. Its two great plains? 4. Its only great river ? 5. The site of Sodom and Gomorrah? 6. The principal cities of Palestine ? 7. What country did David annex to it? 8. What gave importance to Idumapa? 9. Present condition of Palestine ? Sec. 2. — History of Palestine. 1. Father of the Hebrews ? 2. History of Joseph ? 3. Fate of Pharaoh's host ? 4. Why did God lead his people through tho desert ? 5. When did they reach Sinai ? I). Their government? 7. The one great object of their institutions? 8. For what purpose were they chosen by God to be his pecidiar people ? 9. Conduct of Moses when he beheld their golden calf? 10. Why were they compelled to wander in the wilderness forty years? 11. The miracles of their journey ? 12. Why did they leave Edom unmolested? 13. What victories did they gain ? 14. Result of the census ? 15. Latt acts of Moses? 16. Age of Moses at his death ? 17. Who concealed his body, and why? Sec. 3. — The Conquest of Canaan hy Joshua. 1. Moses' successor ; his age and character ? 2. Some of the difficulties in his way ? 3. Conduct of the tribes of Reuben and Gad? 4. How was the Jordan crossed, and Jericho taken ? 5. By what stratagem weis the city of Ai taken ? — See the S. S. 6. Stratagem of the Gibeonites ? 7. What miracle was performed at Joshua's command ? 8. How long did the war continue against the Canaanites? 9. The folly of the Israelites in abandoning it, and the consequences? 10. Joshua's age at his death? 11. How long did the Israelites continue to serve God ? Sec. 4. — History of Israel under the Judges. 1. How was Israel governed under the theocracy ? 2. How were these judges chosen ? 3. Why did God suffer the heathen to op- press his people ? 4. How long did the king of Mesopotamia oppress them ? 5. How long the Moabites ? 6. How long Jabin, king of Syria? 7. How long the Midianites ? 8. How were they delivered? 9. What produced a civil war? 10. How was Abimelech killed? 11. Who was Jephthah ? 12. How long did the Philisthies oppress them? 13. What strong man harassed the Philis- tines ? 14. His end? 15. Conduct of Eli's two sons? 16. Who was Samuel ? 17. Why did the Israelites demand a king? 18. What made this demand treasonable ? 19. Whom did God set over them as theii king? Sec. 5.— History of the United Kingdom of Israel. 1. What made Saul popular 'vith the peo* pie? QUESTIONS ON 2. When and where did Samuel resign his office of judge? 3. Character and deeds of Jonathan, Saul's son? 4. Sinful haste of Saul, aod his punish- ment ? 5. Saul's disobedience of a divine command? 6 Whom did Samuel anoint as Saul's successor ? 7. Story of David and Goliath ? 8. Why was Saul jealous of David, and how did he show his feelings ? 9. Conduct of David thereupon ? 10. Condition of Saul after the death of Samuel ? 11. Story of the witch of Endor ? 12. Death of Said ? 13. Policy of David, after Saul's death? 14. Com-se of Abner ? 15. His end, and that of Ishbosheth ? 16. Who were the Jebusites? 17. What important city did David capture? 18. War with the Philistines, and its results ? 19. What alliance did David enter into ? 20. His conquests and treasures ? 21. His sin iu the matter of Uriah \ 22. Its punishment? 23. History of Absalom's and of Sheba's con- spiracy ? 24. Conduct of Adonijah ? 25. How long did David reign ? 26. His successor, and his character ? 27. How long was he iu building the temple ? 28. What other magnificent building did he erect ? 29. What greatly increased his power ? 30. Extent of his dominions? 31. By what works did he manifest his wis- dom ? 32 His defection in his old age ? 33. How long did he reign ? Sec. 6 -The Revolt of the Ten Tribes.— The History of the Kingdom of Israel. 1. Folly of Rehoboam, and its consequences ? 2. Impiety of Jeroboam ? 3. Conduct of the Levites in Israel ? 4. Conduct of Bdasha ? 5. Story of Omri's accession ? 6. Who built Samaria ; and why was it so named ? 7. Omri's successor ; and his character ? 8. Who instigated him to commit idolatry ? 9. Story of Elijah and the priests of Baal ? 10. Who invaded Israel at this time, and with what success ? 11. Story of Naboth and his vineyard ? 12. Story of Elijah's calling down fire from heaven ? 13. EndofEnjah? i4. Success of Benhadad's attempt to cap- ture Elisha ? 15. Fate of Benhadad and his army ? 20. 21. 22. 23. 24 h« 16. Story of Jehu's accession ? 17. End of Jezebel ? 18. Who plundered Jerusalem? 19. What new enemy invaded Israel f Who invaded Judali ; and how did treat his captives ? To what people did the Israelites soon after become tributary ? What led to the ruin of Israel ? When, and by whom, was Samaria taken ; and the Israelites carried away captive ? To whom was their country given ? 25. Origin of the Samaritans ? Sec, 1. 9. 10. 14. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 7. — History of the Kingdom of Judah. Rehoboam's conduct, and how was it punished ? How is the account of Shishak's power confirmed ? How did he treat Jerusalem ? Victory of Abijah ? Asa's character, and deeds ? How did ho exhibit his distrust in the divine favour ? Character of Jehoshaphat? Of what folly was he guilty ? How did he suffer lor it ? His victories ? What wicked alliance did he form ; and the fruits of it ? How was his son Jehoram punished for his sins? Athaliah's conduct ? Jehoash's escape, and where educated ? Fate of Athaliah ? Conduct of Jehoash ; and how punished? Conduct of Amaziah ; and how was it punished ? Character and deeds of Uzziah ? Of what impiety was he guilty, and how punished ? Character and power of Jotham '^ Wicked deeds of Ahaz, and the calami ties of his reign ? Character of Hezekiah ? What ancient relic did ho destroy, and whj'? Of what folly was he guilty ? How was his wavering faith confirmed ? What miracle was wrought to save bis capital ? Embassy of the king of Babylon ? His folly on the occasion? Character and conduct of Manasseh, hia successor ? How did he treat Isaiah? How did Jerusalem suffer in consequenCB of his crimes ? How was he treated? His latter end ? Character and conduct of his son ? Character and conduct of Josiah? ANCIENT HISTORY. 36. By what rash act did ho lose his life ? 37. Who elTectcd a revohition in the affairs of Asia 1 38 How did he treat the king of Judah, and his family? 39 When, wliy, and by whom was Joriisa- lein destroyed ? 40. How is this event still commemorated by the Jews ? 41. How were the captives treated ? 42. What good effect did their long captivity have on them ? CHAPTER VI. THE EMPIRE OF THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1 The boundaries of Persia, in its most prosperous state? 2. Its most striking features ? 3. Tlie sacred metropolis of Persia proper ? 4. By v.'hom destroyed? 5. How did the Uxii treat the Persian kings ? 6. What is said of Susa? 7. Wliat, of Ecbatiina? 8. What, of Aria ? 9. What, of Samarcand ? 10. What, of the valleys of the centre of Persia ? 11. The condition of Persia, from the re- motest ages? Sec. 2. — The Sources and Extent of our Knowledge respecting the Ancient Persians 1. What is the Zend-a-vesta ? 2. What, the Dabistan ? 3. What, the Shah Nameh ; and its author ? 4. "'ho principal Greek authorities for the history of Persia ? 5. What is said of the narrative of Hero- dotus ? G. What Persian historv da we find in the Bible ? 7. The lesult of modern philological re- searches ? Sec. 3 — Social and Political Condition of Ancient Persia. 1 To whoso incursions has central Asia always been exposed? 2. Who were the Arii ; and the meaning of the word ? 3. To what was their early success owing ? 4. Who w;is Jemshid ? 5. Who overthrew the Modes? 6. Religion of the Magi ? 7. How were they treated by Cyrus ? 8. Who was Zoroaster, and what was his system ? 9. ITie author of the system of Castes ? 10. What is said of the sacerdotal rank ra Persia "^ 11. For what were " the laws of the Medea and Persians " proverbial ? 12. What is said of the power of the king, and his satraps ? 13. Condition of the peasantry ; and to what owing ? 14. What other source of v^retchedness ex- isted ? 15. How was the fate of a Persian army generally decided ? 16. Why was the defeat of the army the conquest of the kingdom ? Sec. 4. — History of the Medes and Persians under the Kaianian Dynasty. 1. Of what country were Media and Persia once provinces ? 2. Who rescued Media from a state of anarchy ? 3. His deeds, and how interrupted ? 4. Under whom did the Median power obtain its highest glory? 5. How long did the ravages of the Scythian host continue? 6. How were the Scythians destroyed ? 7. What occasioned the war between Media and Lydia ? 8. The most memorable event of this war? 9. By whom was Nineveh destroyed? 10. The next exploit of Cyaxares ? 11. Who was Astyages? 12. The parents of Cyrus? 13. His early history ? 14. Story of Daniel ? 15. How is he described in some Jewish traditions ? 1 6. First act of Cyrus toward the Jews ? 1 7. Wliere was he buried ? 18. The inscription on his tomb ? 19. His successor, and his conquests? 20. By vvliat folly of his was his army de- stroyed ? 21. What prevented him from carrying his arms into Western Africa ? 22. His death ? Sec. 5. — History of the Persians under the Hystaspid Dynasty. 1. By whom was Smerdis raised to the throne ? 2. His successor and his title ? 3. What great philosopher lived in his time t 4. How did Darius secure his title? 5. What city revolted, and how was it taken ? 6. What country did ho next invade, anf with wliat success ? 7. Expedition under Mardonius? 8. Second expedition, and how destroyed? 9. Purpose of Xerxes, his successor ? 10 Repulse at the straits of Thermopyte ? 10 QUESTIONS ON 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2.3. 24. 25. 26. Victories of the (ireeks ? Oriental name and account of Xerxes ? His name in the Bible, and its significa- tion ? His fate? Terms of the humiliating treaty of Artaxerxes with the Greeks ? Who was Darius Nothus ? By whom was Artaxerxes Mnemon opposed, and with wiiat success ? Condition of the empire during his reign ? What Spartan king came near antici- pating Alexander in conquering Persia ? What domestic calamities broke the heart of the Persian king? Conduct of Ochus on his accession ? His exploits in war ? Who was Darius Codomannus ? How did he treat Bagoas ? By whom was Persia conquered ? What two battles did he gain ? CHAPTER VII. PH(BNICIAN COLONIES IN NORTHERN AFRICA, EBPECIALLY CARTHAGE. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline of Northern Africa. 1. When was Africa first circumnavigated ? 2. Into what three regions was the northern coast divided ? 3. Its six political divisions ? 4. Situation of Carthage ? 5. How was it protected ? 6. Extent of its dominions ? 7. Its foreign possessions ? Sec. 2. — Social and Political Condition of Carthage. 1. The government of Carthage? 2. In what cases were questions of policy submitted to the people ? 3. In what respect was its government more constitutional than any of the ancien republics? 4. Give examples. 5. The religion of the Carthaginians ? 6. Their currency? 7. Their public revenues, whence derived? 8. Their naval skill ? 9. Their galleys, how built and manned ? 10. Their land armies, how composed ? Sec. 3. — History of Carthage from the Foundation of the City to the commence- ment of the Syracusan Wars. 1. The founder of Carthage ? 2, Its early condition ? 3 How regarded by the cities Utica and Leptis ? 4. What IS said of the family of Mago ? 5. With whom was their first naval engage- ment fought ? 6. The story of the Phocaeans ? 7. With what republic did it form a treaty t 8. With what Asiatic power ? 9. The forces which they raised ? 10. Character of this immense army? 11. With what forces did Gelon, king of Syracuse, attack them? 12. Stratagem of Gelon ? 13. Loss of the Carthaginians ? 14. What two celebrated victories were gained by the Greeks on this same day? 15. What is said of the Carthaginians after this defeat ? 16. What led them again to Sicily ? Sec. 4. — History of Carthage during tha Sicilian Wars. 1. The success of their second invasion of Sicily ? 2. What city did they besiege ? 3. Their cruelty to the Agrigentines ? 4. Treachery of Dionysius ? 5. Third invasion of Sicily, cause ard suc- cess of it ? 6. Fourth invasion and its results ? 7. What troubles ensued? 8. Character of Dionysius? 9. Fifth invasion of Sicily, how defeated • 10. Consequences to Mago the general? 11. Sixth invasion, with what forces? 12. How, and by whom defeated ? 13. What danger did Carthage narrowly escape at home ? 14. Conduct of Hanno, and his fate ? 15. Seventh invasion of Sicily, how occa- sioned ? 16. Bold design of Agathocles ? 17. His success ? 18. What did he find in the enemies' camp? 19. The effect of this victory? 20. Treachery of Agathocles? 21. How was it rewarded ? 22. His death ? 23. Whose aid was now solicited against the Carthaginians ? 24. His success? Sec 5. — From the Commencement of the Roman Wars to the Destruction of Car- thage. 1. Pyrrhus' remark when leaving Sicily ? 2. What led to the first Punic war? 3. How long did it last, and its results ? 4. What project did Hamilcar Barca form to restore his country's power? 5. What oath did he force his son Hannibal to take ? 6. His success in Spain ? 7. or what has Hasdrubal been suspected 1 8. What city did he build? 9. His prudent policy toward the natives 7 ANCIENT HISTORY. 11 10. To what did the Romaua compel him ? 11. Tho cause of the second Piiuic war ' 12. Its results ? 13. What powerful rival was raised up in Africa itself 1 14. His country's ingratitude to Hannibal ? 15. His death ? 16. What aggressions were made against the Carthaginian territory ? 17. What internal dissensions arose? 18. How was a war with Massinissa pro- voked ? 19. Pretext for the third Punic war ? 20. Fate of Carthage ? Sec 6. — Namgation, Trade, and Commerce of Carthage. 1. What is said of the colonial and com- mercial policy of the Carthaginians ? 2. What peculiar circumstances forced this system on them ? 3. Their articles of export and import ? 4. Into whose hands did the British trade fall, after the destruction of Carthage ? 5. The great mart of Carthage on the west coast of Africa 1 6. What lucrative fisherj' did they engage in? 7. How far south did their navigators ven- ture ? 8. Their imports from tho neighbouring countries V 9. From the interior of Africa ? 10 How was this lucrative commerce con- cealed ? CHAPTER VIII. THE FOUNDATIOM OF THE GRECIAN STATES. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline of Hellas. 1. Boundaries of Greece ? 4t 2. Its extent anc area ? 3. Advantages of its situation ? 4. Its three great divisions ? 5 Describe Thessaly. 6. Ho^"" was it ruined ? 7. Describe Ep':us. 8. For what was it celebrated ? 9. The nine countries of central Greece ? 10. Dimensions and producticns of Attica? 11. For what was Cithferou celebrated? 12. What is said of Bocotia ? 13. In what district were Helicon and Par- nassus ? 14. Where was the temple of Delphi ? 15. What is said of Delphi? 16. Where wus the pass of Tlicrmopylae ? 17. What is said of the Acarnanians? Sec. 2. — Geographical Outline of the Pelo- ponnesus. i. After whom was tho Peloponnosnw named, and why called the Morea 7 2. Its eight countries ? 3. What is said of Arcadia and its inhabit- ants ? 4. Of Laconia ? 5. Of Messenia, and its inhabitants ? (). Of Argolis ? 7. Of Elis? 8. What celebrated games were celebrated near Pisa, every live years ? 9. Where was Achaia, and its inhabitants? 10. The most ancient city in Greece ? 11. How was the Peloponnesus connected with Hellas ? 12. What proverbial o.xprcssion obtained in Greece ? 13. What games were celebrated on this isthmus ? 14. Situation of Corinth ? 15. To what did it owe its power ? Sec. 3. — The Grecian Islands in the Mgean and Mcditcrraneaa Seas. 1. For what was Tonedos remarkable ? 2. Why was Lemnos dedicated to Vulcan ? 3. Where was Lesbos situated ? 4. For what was Chios celebrated ? 5. For what Delos ? 6. For what Pares ? 7. What great poet was buried in los? 8. What philosopher was born in Samos ? 9. What book in the New Testament was written in Patraos ? 10. What distinguished physician was born in Cos ? 11. For what was Crete celebrated? 12. The favourite island of Venus ? Sec. 4.— The loi Isles. For what is Corcyra celebrated ? For what Ithaca? For what Zathynthus ? For what Cy thorea ? Sec. 5. — Social and Political Condition of Greece. 1. Between what two races was Greece divided ? 2. For what were tho loniaus remarkable ? 3. Their characteristics? 4. For what were tho Dorians remarkable? 5. Their characteristics ? 6. The chief characteristic of Grecian policy ? 7. The most marked feature in Ihe political aspect of Greece ? 8. What did the supremacy of the principa' state include? 9. Why was political science so rapidly do veloped in Greece ? 10. The common bond of union of the IIeI« lenic race ? 11. Characteristic of Asiatic and oi Grecian deities ? 12 yUESTIONS ON I 18. 19. 20. 12. Effects of the two systems ? 13. What oracles and temples were national 1 14. Which was the more superstitious, the Dorian or the Ionian race ? Seat and prerogatives of the Aniphic- tyonic council .' 16. The great public games ? 17. What is said of these games ? What remark is made of the constitu- tions of the Grecian states ? How was labour esteemed ? Their attention to finance ? 21. What, after a while, made heavy taxa- tion necessary ? 22. What other source of expense existed? 23. What is said of the dicasts or jurymen ? 24. The influence of poets and orators '? 25. What circumstances rendered the dura- tion of the constitution brief, thoi'gh glorious ? Sec. 6. — The traditional History of Greece, from the Earliest Ages to the Commence- ment of the Trojan War. 1. The first inhabitants of Greece ? 2. Their earliest approaches to civilization ? 3. The first tribe that acquired supremacy in Greece? 4. Their first city, and when built ? 5. Their founder, and with what patriarch contemporary ? 6. Pelasgic remains, describe. 7. How long did the Pela«gi flourish in Greece ? 8. The founder of the Hellenes ? 9. Their progress? 10. Their four great branches ? 11. Whence these names? 12. The common attribute of ancient tradi- tions ? 13 History of Deucalion's immediate de- scendants ? 14 Under whom did an Egyptian colony settle in Attica ? 15 Who founded Thebes ? 16. What did he introduce into Greece? 17. What circumstances impeded the pro- gress of civilization ? 18 What league was founded, in order to resist these incursions? 19 With what was Greece infested at this time ? 20 Mention some of their most celebrated opponents. 21. The most celebrated events of this period ? 22. Describe the Argonautic expedition ; its objects and results? 83 The story of CEdipus and his sons ? 24 The consequence of these wars? 25. Story of Podarkes or Priam ? 26. Story of Helen ? 27 The expedition against Troy ? 28. How long did the siege last ? 29. The effect of this expedition on Greece and civilization ? 30. What is said of the military weapona used in the siege of Troy ? Sec. 7. — Grecian History, from the Trojan War to the Establishment of the Greek Colonies in Asia. 1. Whose descendants peopled the Pelo- ponnesus ? 2. Their rivals, who ? 3. The HeraclidsB, who? 4. By whom banished ? 5. What efforts did they make to regain their country ? 6. Their final success, how secured ? 7. How did it happen that Sparta always had two kings ? 8 What became of the Pelopida) ? 9 How was the war of the Dorians with the Athenians terminated ? 10. Why was royalty abolished in Athens ' 11. By whom was yEolia settled ? 12. Conduct of the younger sons of Codrus ? 13 What third series of Greek colonies waa established in Asia ? 14. By whom was Sicily settled? 15. Why did the Greeks seldom settle in the interior of a country ? 16. What remark is made of the Greek colo- nies ? CHAPTER IX. THE HISTORY THE GRECIAN STATES AND COLO- NIES, BEFORE THE PERSIAN WAR. Sec. 1. — Topography of Sparta. 1. By what other name was Sparta known ? 2. How was it built ? 3. How was it protected ? 4. What buildings were contained in the great square ? 5. Describe the portico. 6. Where was the temple of Minerva ? 7. How did the public edifices of Sparta compare with those of Athens ? 8. What, and where, was the Hippodro- mes ? 9. What the PlatanisttE ? Sec. 2. — Legislation of Lyciirgus, and the Messenian Wars. 1. How did the Dorian conquerors treat the original inhabitants ? 2. How long were the ^artans fighting with the Argives? 3. The lawgiver of Sparta ? 4. His great object ? 5. What institution did ho originate ? 6 What is said of the cphori ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 13 7 The power jf tlio popular assemblies " 8. The chief regulations of private life ? 9 Why did these rosrukitions banish all hopes of tranquillity from Greece ? In what did tlio strength of a Spartan army lie ? ■ 1. What is said of their method of fighting? 12. The first great war in which the Spar- tans were engaged ? 13. Tiie results of it >. 14. What oath did the army take? 15. Who were the Parthcnite ? 16. How were they treated? 17 What city in Italy did they found ? 18. Who was Aristomones ? 19 The response of the oracle to the Spar- tans ? 20. Whom did the Athenians send them? 21. How did he inspire his troops ? 22. How was Messene taken ? 23. What enterprise did Aristomenes then undertake ? 24. How was it defeated ? 25. The effect of the war on Sparta ? 26. What important island did the Spartans wrest from the Argives ? Sec. 3. — Topography of Athens. 1. Situation of Athens ? 2. What was the Acropolis ? 3. Its dimensions ? 4. What was the Propylaea ? 5. By whom erected ? 6. What temples were erected on the sum- mit of the hill ? 7. The relative situation of these temples ? 8. What is said of the Parthenon ? 9. What is said of Coele ? 10. Describe the spot from which the orators addressed the people ? 11. Wha; was the Pnyx ? 12. The Geramicus ? 13 What were the HerniiE ? 14 Origin of the term Stoics ? 15. The three gymnasia at Athens ? 16 Origin of the term 'Academy ? ' .17. Of the term ' Peripatetics ? ' 18. The founder of the Academics? 19. Of the Peripatetics? 20. Of the Cynics? 21. What is said of the long road to the Pei- reeus ? 22. Dimensions of the wall that enclosed it? 23. AVhat is said of the Peiraeus ? 24. What of the Munychian port ? Sec. 4. — The History of Athens to the Be- ginning of the Persian War. 1. When does the political history of Athens properly begin ? 2. Which of their institutions came from the Egyptians ? 3 Why should Theseus be regarded as the founder of the state ? 4 The most remarkable of his successors i 5. In what respects did the archons differ from kings ? 6. The first and the last archon ? 7. Which order enjoyed all the authority in the state ? 8. The condition of the Athenian populace ? 9. The character of Draco's laws ? 10. His end ? 11. Who was afterwards appointed to leg'is- late for the people ? 12. Character of Solon ? 13. The chief object of his legislation ? 14. His laws with relation to debtors ? 15. How did he conciliate capitalists ? 16. Into what classes did he arrange tha citizens ? 17. The place of meeting of the popular as- semblies ? 18. Constitution and privileges of the court of Areopagus ? 19. Give an account of the first sacred war against the Crisseans ? 20. How was its termination celebrated ? 21. WHio was Peisistratus? 22. His conduct ? 23. Through whose exertions was he bau- ished ? 24. His subsequent course ? 25. How did he govern ? 26. By whom was he succeeded ? 27. Their conduct and fate ? 28. Conduct of the Spartans ? 29. Conduct of Hippias at the court of Per- sia ? Sec. 5. — Historical Notice of the Minor Grecian States previous to the Persian War. 1. When was royalty in Thebes abolished ? 2 What prevented the Boeotians from tak- ing a leading share in the affairs o Greece ? 3. The most remarkable state in the Pelo ponnesus, next to Sparta ? 4. How many kings reigned over Corinti ' 5. What was then substituted in the place of royalty? 6. Who was Cypselus ? and who Periau- der ? 7. What government succeeded to the c'l- pulsion of Psammetichus "> 8. In what consisted the Corinthian trade ( 9 With whose government did the pros perity of Corinth cease ? 10. From what blow to her power did she ^ never recover ? 11. The history of Sicyon? 12. Of Arcadia ? 13. Of Argos ? 14. Of Elis 7 QUESTIONS Om Sk(J. G. — Histwy of the princijml Grecian Islands. i. What is said of tlie insular states of Greece? 2. The. hi:;tory of Corcyra ? 3. Of ^Eo-iiia? 4. Of Euboea? 5. Of the Cyclados ? 6. Of Crete? 7 Of Cyprus ? Sec. 7. — History of the Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. 1. What is said of the Greek colonies? 2. V/ho settled the western coast of Asia Minor ? What illustrious poets and philosophers were born tliere ? What is said of the iEolian colonies in Thi'ace ? What of the Ionian emigration ? Relate the oriffin and circumstances of it? 7 The chief of their twelve cities ? 8. How were they united ? 9. In what empire were they finally merged ? 10. What is said of the Dorian colonies? 11. What were the Hexapolis ? Sec. 8. — The Greek Colonies oil the Euxine Sea, the Coasts of Thrace, Macedon, tj-c. 1. When were the colonies on the shores of the Propontis founded? 2. What is said of Miletus ? 3. What of Lampsacus ? 4. What of Cyzicus ? 5. Who settled Byzantium and Chalcedon ; and the modern names of these cities ? 6. The first Greek city on the Black sea ? 7. The most powerful of the Greek states on the Euxine sea ? What is said of the slave-trade ? 3. 5. 6. 8. 9. Where is Cyrene, and what is said of it? CHAPTER X. BISTOllV OF GREECE, FROJI THE COMMEXCE- MENT OF THE PERSIAN WARS TO THE ACCES- SION OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Sec 1. — The First Persian War. 1. What bridge did Darius Hytaspes con- struct in his invasion of Syria ? 2. To whom did he entrust it ? 3. What opposing counsels were given on the subject of it ? 4. What became of Histiajus ? 5. The object of Aristagoras' mission to Lacedtemon, and how was he re- ceived ? 6. How was he received at Athens ? 7. What wealthy cltv did he capture ■ $. How was it avenged ? 9. The end of Aristagoras and of Histiaeus 10. What demand did Darius make oi tha Athenians ? 11. Their answer ? 12. How did Darius show his resentment? 13. What calamity did Mardonius experi* ence ? 14. How did ho attempt to excuse his dis- grace ? 15. Darius' next attempt ? 16. The course of his armament? 17. What traitor was directing the move- ments of the Persian army ? 18. Relative size of the two armies? 19. Who was the Athenian leader? 20. Why did the Spartans refuse their as- sistance ? 21. Bold resolution of the Athenians ? 22. Disposition of the Greek army ? 23. Describe the battle. 24. What attempt did the Persian fleet then make ? 25. How was it baffled ? 2G. How was Miltiades treated ? 27. What two illustrious men shared the power that Miltiades had possessed ? 28. How was Aristides treated I 29. The great object of Themistocles? 30. What transactions were taking place a! Sparta at this time ? Sec. 2. — The Second Persian War. 1. Who undertook a second expedition against Greece ? 2. How long after the first? 3. Where was the Persian army first op- posed, and by whom? 4. The reply of Leonidas to the dem9jid o: Xerxes ? 5. Who betrayed him, and how 6. Conduct of Leonidas ? 7. What victory did the Greeks obtaui ai the same time ? 8. What rendered it fruitless . 9. The subsequent course of their fleet ? 10. Course of Xerxes after the battle of Thermopylte ? 11. Course of the Athenians at his approach ? 12. Stratagem of Themistocles to bring on a naval engagement ? 13. What put an end to the rivalry between Themistocles and Aristides? 14. The sea-fight at Salaniis ? 15. The determination of Xerxes ? 16. How was he forced to cross the Helles- pont, and why ? 17. What offers did Mardonius make the Athenians? 18. Where was the second great battle fought ? 19. The loss of the Persians? i20. What naval battle was fouglit the same day? ANCIENT HISTORY. 16 21 How had the Porsians arranged their ships ? 22. What were the most splendid resuUs of these victories ? 23. What is said of the Athenian repubUc after this ? 24. Plans of Themistocles ? 25. What city did Pansanias take ? 26. What distinguished persons were among tlio captives? 27. Tiie eiJect of so much wealth on Pansa- nias ? 2B. How did the Spartans treat him ? 29. The effect of the tyranny of Pansanias ? 30. The treasure of the allies? 31. What did he do in order to guard against conii)laints? 32. Fate of Themistocles ? 33. Proof of Aristides' integrity ? 34. Who succeeded him as leader 'A the Athenian republic ? 3,5. What two great victories did he gain on one day ? 3G. How long did the war continue ? 37. The terms of the treaty ? Skc. '.). — The First Peloponnesian War. I. What were the Spartans preparing to do at this time, and why 7 2 What calamity prevented them from acting ? 3. The effects of the earthquake ? 4. 'Who took advantage of it to recover their freedom ? 5. Tiie result of the war? G. Who received the exiles ? 7. What Greek state had declined to take part in the war against Persia ? 8. How did they suffer in consequence ? 9 Wno sutFered for similar reasons ? ' ■'' What two powers arrayed themselves on difFerent sides in this contest ? 11. Who now admhiistered the affairs of Athens ? 12. What course did Pericles adopt to secure his influence ? »3. How did he beautify Athens ? 14. How did he defray the expense of these splendid works ? 15. How did ho make Sparta tremble ? IG. What led to a truce? 17. The favourite policy of Pericles? 18. What gave him the fame of a military leader ? 19. How did he overthrow the aristocratic party ? 20. The extent of the kingdom of Athens ? 21. Her power? 22. What led to ino first Peloponnesian war? 23. Give an account of Corcyra. 24. Explain the origin of the war betvtecn the Corcyreans and the Corinthians? 25. How did the Corcyreans provoke general indignation ? 26. To whom did both states apply to decide their quarrel ? 27. Which side did the Athenians espouse ? 28. What capture did the Corinthians make on their return home ? 29. What complaints and demands of assist- ance were made at Sparta about this time ? 30. What demands did the Spartans make of the Athenians ? 31. How were they received? 32. What caused war to be instantly pro- claimed ? 33. The relative power of Athens and Sparta ? 34. How did the war begin ? 35. What dreadful calamity now assailed Athens ? 36. What distinguished statesman fell a vic- tim to it ? 37. His death, describe. 38. How was Potidaea treated ? 39. How Platasaj ? 04. How was Lesbos saved from destruct!on ' 41. How had the Corinthians treated their Corcyrean prisoners ? 42. The consequences of their lenity ? 43. Which party in Corcyra prevailed? 44. The bold design of Demosthenes ? 45. Its accomplishment ? 46. The boast of Cleon? 47. How was he served ? 48. Cause of his success ? 49. By what were these triumphs counter- balanced ? 50. What distinguished Spartan leader vy^aa sent to aid the revolters ? 51. Who were slain in the battle between the contending armies ? 52. What led to the conclusion of a peace 1 53. How did the Spartans act ? Sec. 4. — The Second Peloponnesian War. 1. How did the Corinthians resent the abandonment of their interests by the Spartans ? 2. Whose influence led to the second Pelo- ponnesian war ; 3. Cliaracter of Alcibiades ? 4. What led to a sudden truce between the Spartans and Argives ? 5. Conduct of Alcibiades on the occasion? 6. Of what cruelty were the Athenians guilty ? 7. What great enterprise did the Athenians now undertake ? 8. Who remonstrated against it ? 9. The amount of the forces, land and sea? 10. Whither did the fleet first sail ? 11. How wore the Catanians induced to takt part in the enterprise ? 12. Why was Alcibiades summoned home 1 16 QUESTIONS ON 13. His course? 14. Conduct of Nicias? 15. How were the generals and army treated by the Syracusans ? 16. The effect of this calamity on Athens? 17. What other misfortune befell them ? 18. What traitor did tiiem the greatest in- jury ? 19. Their most pressing danger ? 20. How was their ruin saspended ? Si. What change was made in their govern- ment ? 22. What led to the deposition of the four hundred ? 23. What brilliant exploits did Alcibiades perform before he returned to Athens ? 24. How was he received? 25 What appointment did he receive ? 26. Relate how he became a second time disgraced. 27. Who succeeded Lysander, and his cha- racter ? 28. Why were the Athenian admirals con- demned and executed ? 29. What circumstance proved fatal to Athens ? 30. What battle virtually terminated the war? 31. Lysander's cruelty ? 32. On what humiliating condition were the Athenians forced to surrender? S3. The event of the 16th of May ? 34. What did the Spartans still fear? J5. Why had they cause to fear? 36. How did Pharnabazus act toward Alci- biades ? 37. Describe the manner of his death ? 38. What involuntary homage did the Athenians pay to his talent ? Sec. ^ — Tyrannical Rule of Sparta. — Third Peloponncsiat. War. 1. How did Lysander treat the confede- rates ? 2. How did the Spartans rule in Athens ? 3. What did they do to cripple the com- merce of the Athenians ? 4. Wliat to break their spirit ? 5 How did the Thebans treat the exile Athenians ? 6. The leader of these exiles ? 7. His movements and success ? 8. How was the ancient constitution of Athens restored? 9. How did the Athenians show their de- generacy? Character of Socrates ? His twc mo?*^ famous disciples ? Give an account of tne expedition of Cyrus and the retreat of the ten thousand ? What became of them after their return? 10. 11 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. i57. Who was Agesilaus, and to whom did hn owe his elevation? His treatment of Lysander ? His success against Persia ? What led to the third Peloponnesiai. war ? The conduct of the Spartans to Thebes? The fate of Lysander and Pausanias? Why was Agesilaus recalled ? How was the Spartan navy annihilated T Conon's use of this success ? What two battles were fought during this war ? The fate of Corinth? How was Conon treated by Artaxerxes? The base conduct of Sparta ? Its treatment of Olynthus ? Its treachery to Thebes ? Who received the Theban patriots 1 How, and by whom was Thebes rescued? What conduct of a Spartan general filled Athens with indignation? The course of the war? What saved Sparta from destruction ? Who now summoned all the Grecian states to Sparta, and for what pur- pose? Who was Epaminondas ? How did he destroy Spartan influence at this conference ? Describe the battle of Leuctra. The consequences of this battle ? What powerfid ally now jouied the The- bans ? What grand scheme had he formed I His death ? How were his murderers received ui the Grecian republics ? What imminent danger now threatened Sparta? The progress of the Theban army ? How long had it been since an enemy had appeared in Laconia ? How were the Spartans still more deeply mortified ? Conduct of the Athenians ? How were the Theban generals received on their return home ? The different conduct of Pelopidas and Epaminondas ? The course of events during the six fol- lowing years ? What distinguished hostage did Pelopidas bring with him from Macedon ? How was Pelopidas treated by Alexander of Phera; ? The eftect of his eloquence with th« Persian monarch? Why did the Grecian states refuse ta accede to this union? Death of Pelopidas? Bold attempt of Epaminondas 7 What prevented its success \ ANCIENT niSTORT. 17 t>8. \Vliat prevented him from capturing Mantinoea ? 59 Wliat great victory did he now gain? 60 Tiie etiect of it ? 61. The effect on Thebes of the deaths of Epaminondas and Pelopidas? 62. Terms of tiie treaty of peace ? 63 Influence on Sparta of Agesilaus? Sec. 6. — The Second Sacred War. — De- struction of Grecian Freedom. 1. How did the Athenians lose their domi- nion over the maritime states? 2. Who excited them to such conduct? 3. What states revolted ? 4. What defeat did the Athenians sustain ? 5. Base conduct of Chares ? 6. How did ho complete the ruin of the Athenians ? 7. What is said of the Amphictyonic coun- cil? 8. How did it punish the Phocians and Spartans, and why ? 9. How did the Phocians act? 10. How was the war conducted on both sides ? 11. The Me of Philomelus? 12. His successor, and his conduct ? 13. To whom did the Thebans apply for aid? 14. His conduct? 15. Why was he unwilling to pass the straits of Thermopylas ? 16. Who renewed the war? 17. How was Philip mortified ? 18. Why did the Phocians now desire peace? 19. Why was it refused? 20. How did Philip act ? 21. By what orator was he opposed? 22. Who excited a new sacred war? 23. In what manner ? 24. Conduct of Philip ? 25. Who opposed him ? 26. Where were they defeated? 27. To what office was Philip now chosen ? CHAPTER XI . THE HISTORY OF MACEDON. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1. What separates Thrace from Macedon ? 2. The ancient name of Macedon? The boundaries of Macedon in its most flourishing state ? How many nations did it contain ? Where was Epidamuus? 6. Tiie capital of Macedon ? 7. The most important cities of the Chalci- diau peninsula? 8 The most remarkable mountains of Macedon ? 9. Its principal rivers? 10. Its soil and productions? 11. For what was it celebrated? Sec. 2. — History of the Macedonian Mo' narchy. 1. How was Macedon settled? 2. How was Edessa taken ? 3. When did the kingdom become tributary to the Persians ? 4. When did it recover its independence ? 5. Why did Perdiccas II. unite with the Spartans against the Athenians? 6. Policy of Archelaus, his successor? 7. Wliat philosopher and what poet did he patronize ? 8. His successor ? 9. The condition of his kingdom at his ac- cession ? 10. His first movements ? 11. What military improvement did he make^ 12. What victories did he soon gain? 13. His conduct toward Athens? 14. How was he rewarded by the Thessa- lians ? 15. Whom did he marry? 16. His policy? 17. By whom was he opposed? 18. What personal injury did he sustain at the siege of Methone ? 19. What two disappointments did he sooa afterwards experience ? 20. Who spent his life in opposing him ? 21. What city did he take and destroy? 22. How did he disarm the Athenians ? 23. Of what further folly were they guilty 1 24. How did Philip treat Amphissa? 25. How did ho announce his design against the liberties of Greece ? 26. What signal victory did he gain over the Greeks ? 27. His conduct toward the Thebans and Athenians ? 28. To what office was he now elected? 29. What put an end to all his schemes? 30. His successor ? 31. What enemies did he have to contend against ? 32. His successes? 33. What report was now spread throughout Greece ? 34. Its effect ? 35. How were the Thebans treated by Alex- ander ? 36. What family did he spare ? 37 Who were most active in this destruc- tion, and why? 33. 'Whiit rrgret did A'exander afterwarda express ? 39. The effect of this calamity throughout Greece ? 40. To whom did Alexander entrust the government of Greece and MacedoQ ? 18 QUESTIONS OX 41. What empire did he now prepare to in- vade ? 42. The amount of his forces ? 43. Whence did he embark ? 44. The prudent advice of Memnon ? 45. His first battle ? 46. His conquests at the end of the first cam- paign ? 47. Folly of Darius ? 48. His second battle ? 49. What captives and what spoil did Alex- ander take ? 50. The noble conduct of Alexander after this battle ? 51 What city set him at defiance ? 52. Its punishment '? 53. What second city resisted, and shared the same fate ? 54. How did ho open his fourth cam- paign ? 55. The third battle of Darius? 56. Describe this battle ? 57. Respective losses of the two armies ? 58. How was tliis triumph sullied ? 59. Fate of Darius 1 60. Fate of his murderer ? 61. What other country did Alexander now invade ? 62. Conduct of the Lacedoemonians at this time ? 63. What proofs of Alexander's respect for the ancient states of Greece are men- tioned ? 64. Why was ^Escliines banished ? 65. By what route did Alexander advance toward India? 66. What reinforcement did he receive ? 67. What enemy did he meet with on the banks of the Hydaspes ? 68. How did he effect a passage ? 69 How far eastward did he proceed ? 70. Why did he go uo further ? 71. By what route did he return? 72. Course of Noarclius ? 73. What proof of Alexander's consummate wisdom is given ? 74. What cut short his plan ? 75. The place and date of his death ? 76 To whom did he give his ring? Sec. 3. — Dissolution of the Macedonian Empire. 1. What remark is made of Perdiccas ? 2. Conduct of the Macedonian nobles? 3. What had well nigh led to a civil war, and how was it averted ? 4. What arrangement was made ? 5. How were Alexander's remains treated? 6. What projected marriage was pro- vented? 7. What storm now burst upon Perdic- cas 7 8. What battle was fought, and with what results ? 9. The fate of Perdiccas? 10. AVhat brief struggle now took place ii. Greece ? 11. Its progress and results ? 12. Conduct of Ptolemy? 13. How was Eumenes treated by the army ? 14. Who was made regent ? 15. Whom did Antipater send against Eu- menes ? 1 6. Who discovered the secret plans of Anti- gonus ? 17. What produced a new revolution in tho empire ? 18. Antipater's successor? 19. Instances of his unstatesman-like con- duct? 20. IIow was this last edict received al Athens ? 21. Who fell victims there to mob violence f 22. Conduct of Cassauder ? 23. Who governed Athens at this time? 24. Movements of Polysperchon ? 25. Conduct of Olympias ? 26. How was she punished? 27. Whom did Cassander marry ? 28. How did this marriage benefit him ? 29. What was Polysperchon doing at this time? 30. How was Eumenes treated by his troopa, and his death ? 31. How were these troops punished? 32. Grand design of Antigonus? 33. How did he prepare to carry it into effect? 34. What victory did Ptolemy gain, and its consequences? 35. What defeat did he afterwards sus- tain ? 30. How did Demetrius become involved in a conquest with the Arabs ? 37. Bold conduct of Seleucus ? 38. What new dynasty now arose ? 39. Insincerity of Cassander. 40. What was Ptoiemy preparing to do ? 41. What did Lysimachus resolve upon? 42. Whom did all acknowledge as their sovereign ? 43. What murders did Cassander commit? 44. Movements of Demetrius ? 45. To what office did his father appoint him ? 46. What new confederacy was formed against Antigonus ? 47. What great battle was fought at Ipsus that decided the fate of an empire ,• the parties engaged, and the result ? 48. The consequences of this battle ? 49. How long had the mighty empire of Alexander lasted? 50. The most endimng memorial f»f ha Dolicy ? ANCIENT HISTOKT. 19 CHAPTER XII. HISTORY Of THE STATES THAT AllOSE FROM THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 8ec. 1. — The History of Mac'edon and Greece from the Battle of Ipsus to the Roman Conquest. 1. Whither did Domotruis flee after the fatul battle of Ipsus? How v.'as he received? Where did he establish himself? Whom did ho how obtain for a son-in-law? 2. 3. 4. 5. To whom did Cassander leave his king- dom at his decease ? 6 Of what dreadful crime was his son An- tipatcr guilty ? 7. The consequences of it ? 8. Whose aid did Alexander, the surviving son, seek ? 9. The consequences of inviting Demetrius into Macedon? 10. What mighty plans did Demetrius now form ? 11. Who was excited to invade his do- minions ? 12. The movements and fate of Demetrius ? 13. Crime of Lysimachus ? 14. The consequences of it to himself? 15. By whom was Seleucus murdered ? IC. What events took place the same year in which Seleucus fell? 17. The cause of these revolts in Asia? 18 How did Alexander the Great attempt to Helienize the East ? 19. The result of this attempt? 20. By whom was Ptolemy Ceraunus, king of Macedon, slain ? 21. The progress of the Gauls ? 22 Where did they finally settle ? 23. Who now obtained the vacant throne of Macedon ? 24. The confederate cities of the Achaean league? 25. What led to a now revolution hi Mace- don ? 26. What led to the death of Pyi-rhus ? 27. Who regained the throne of Macedon ? 28. What cities now joined the Achtean league ? 29. What revolution took place in Sparta ? 30. What brought about a counter revolu- tion ? 31. Conduct of Cleomenes? 32. By whom was he defeated? 33. What rekindled the flames of war ? 34. Of what imprudence was Aratus guilty ; and its consequences ? 35. Against whom was war now declared by the AchiEan league? 86. What commercial war was going ou St I the same time ? | 31. The project of tlie exile Cleomenes? 38. How was he treated by the young king of Egypt? 39. Relate the circumstances of his death ? 40. What is said of him ? 41. What now inclined all the (ireeks to peace ? 42. Whore was a treaty couchidcd ? 43. What is said of the MacedoiiiaH monarch? 44. With whom did ho form an alliance? 45. What great crime did ho connnit ? 46. How did the Romans And employment for Philip at home '! 47. The parties in the war that ensued ? 48. The successor of Aratus ? 49. Against whom did Philip now declaro war? 50. Whose aid did the Athenians solicit t 51. Whither did the Romans next proceed? 52. Where did they ficr.t with Piiilip ? 53. Describe the battle. 54. On what terms did Philip obtain peace ? 55. What proclamation did the Romans make at the Isthmian games? 56. Describe the scene. 57. How did Flaminius show his insincerity ? 58. Who now declared war against the Romans ? 59. By whom was he instigated ? 60. What is said of his campaigns? Gl. The result of the war? 62. How wore the .lEtolians treated by the Romans ? G3. By whom was Sparta captured ? 64. What loss did the league sustain? 65. Relate the circumstances of his death. 66. How was his fate avenged ? 67. Philip's cruelty to his son Demetrius ? 68. His death, how occasioned ? 69. The first act of Perseus, his successor? 70. Where was he defeated by the Romans 1 71. How was he treated? 72. The effect of the eclipse of the moon on the two armies ? 73. How did the Romans treat the Achreans? 74. What led to the destruction of Corinth ? 75. What is said of Athens ? Sec. 2. — History of the Kingdom of Syria under the Seleucida. 1. What advantage did Seleucus gain by his victory over the satraps of Media and Persia? 2. What further additions did ho make t« his territories in four years? 3. How far did he penetrate India ? 4. What advantages did he gain by his treaty with Sandracottus ? 5. The seat of his government ? 6. Why was this an unfortunate choice ? 7. What cities did ho found ? 8. Why did he invade Europe ? j His end? 20 QUESTIONS ON 10. His successor? 11. Mention the several wars in which he was engaged, and tlieir results. 12. Why was his son and successor called Theos? 13. Why did he begin to lose the provinces of Upper .4-sia ? 14. The conditions of his treaty with Pto- lemy ? l.^. How did he suffer for fulfilling them ? 16. Who succeeded him? 17. What war did his mother's crime bring on him ? 18. Progress of Ptolemy ? 19. What did he gain by this expedition ? 20. What enemies now rose against Seleucus? 21. The result of these wars ? 22. The fate of Seleucus? 23 To whom was Antiochus the Great in- debted for his crown ? 24. How was he deceived by his prime minister ? 26. How did the rebel forces act when An- tiochus marched against them ? 26. The fate of the prime minister and his brothers ? 27. In what wars was Antiochus now en- gaged ? 28. In what important expedition did he en- gage, in conjunction with the Bactrian mounrch ? 29. Who prevented him from conquering Egypt ? 30. On what occasion did the Romans a second time mterfere ? 31. By whom was he instigated to treat them with disdain ? 32. What battle laid him prostrate at their feet? 33. Of what countries did they deprive him? 34. His end ; and his successor ? 35. The fate of Seleucus IV. ? 36. What did the Jews say of this event ? 37. His successor, and his surnames? 38. How did he provoke universal hatred ? 39. The cause of his war with Egypt ? 40. Its progress and results ? 41. What treachery was practised toward him ? 42. Who prevented him from taking his re- venge ? 43. What resolution did he now attempt to carry out? 44. The results of his wild project? 45. Who succeeded him ? 46. Under what circumstances did he lose his life? 47. Tlie fate of the usurper Balas ? 48. What withheld Demetrius from march- ing against the usurper, Tryphou? 49 What was his success ? 50 The vicissitudes of fortune he expe- rienced ? 51. The fate of Seleucus, his son ? 52. How was he avenged? 53. How did the Syrians treat the eutiri family, and why? 54. To whom did they offer their crown? 55. The fate of Tigranes? 56. The last of the Soleucidaj, and his fate ? Sec. 3. — History of Egypt under the Ptolemies. 1. Who was the wisest statesman among the successors of Alexander ? 2. How did he conduct himself in Egypt ? 3. His patronage of literature ? 4. What people flocked to Alexandria ; and why? 5. What is the Septuagint, and why so called? 6. What works did he erect? 7. Describe the college of philosophy ? 8. Its reputation and permanence ? 9. The material for writing previous to pa- pyrus ? 10. What is papyrus? 11. Its influence on literature? 12. Why was not parchment substituted for it? 13. How was Egypt strengthened? 14. Popularity of the son of Ptolemy Lagus ? 15. His successor, and his administration ? 1 6. What channels of trade were opened ? 17. What pernicious habits did Philadelphua adopt ? 18. What mission did he send to Rome? 19. Of what benefit was this mission to Rome ? 20. Character and deeds of Ptolemy Ever* getes ? 21. Character of Ptolemy Philopater? 22. What illustrious persons did he put to death ? 23. His folly at Jerusalem ? 24. Of what crimes was ho guilty? 25. What circumstance saved Egypt from being involved in the Syrian war? 26. Character of Ptolemy Epiphanes ? 27. Character and deeds of Ptolemy Philc meter? 28. His successor, and whom did he marry ? 29. His character, and deeds ? 30. The history of his sons? 31. What illustrious daughter of Ptolemy Auletes became queen of Egypt? 32. Her fate, and that of her kingdom? 33. What is said of Alexandria ? Sec. 4. — History of the Minor Kingdoms in Western Asia. 1. The principal kingdoms fonned from th« the fragments of the Macedonian mo- narchy in Western Asia? 2. The history of Pergamus, and its kings ? 3. What invention do we owe to them .' ANCIENT HISTORY. 21 4. V^^lat became of their library ? 5. The liistory of Bithynia? G. The most illastrioiis inouarch of Pontus? 7. His character? 8. With whom did he provoke a contest? 9. Of wliat act of cniolty was ho guilty ? 10. Of what Grecian city did he make him- self master ? 11. Whut Roman consul frequently defeated him 1 12. Why did Sylla make peace with him? 13. How was ho treated by Murajna? 14. His conduct daring tlio civil wars of the Romans 1 15. What yonug Roman student defeated his lieutenants ? 16. Who was sent against him, and what success? } 7. What re-animated the country of Mithri- dates? 18. What forced Lucullus to return home? 19. Who was now sent against him ? 20. Ilis reverses, and return to his comitry ? 21. Ilis misfortunes and death? 22. What is said of Gappadocia, and of its inhabitants ? 23. What is said of the two Armenias ? 24. What first gave celebrity to Rhodes? 25. Describe the siege. 26. What was erected in commemoration of this siege? 27. The conduct of the Rhodians in the war between Antiochus and the Romans? 28. How were they afterwards treated by the Romans ? 29. What king attacked them? 30. Their conduct in the civil war between Pompey and Cajsar ? 31. How were they treated by Cassius? 32. How, by Claudius Csesar, and for what cause ? 33. How, by Vespasian ? Sec. 5. — History of Bactria and Parthia. ' . In what respect did the Bactrian king- dom diffT from those described in the preceding sections? 2. Its founder? 3 The extent of the kingdom in the height of its prosperity ? d. By whom were the Greeks driven from the kingdom, and what became of them? 5. Are they still existing ? 6. The general limits of the Parthian king- dom? 7. What is said of their monarchs? 8. What circumstance proves that they were foreigners ? 9. Their exclusive policy, and its conse- quences ? 10. What cities were beuefited '■' he chao*"*' " 11. Who commenced the war of iad«peu« dence ? 12. The original government formed by the heads of the Parlhian tribes? 13. What was a remarkable peculiarity of Parthian tactics ? 14. How did tiie war between the Pai.hiana and Syrians terminate ? 15. The first danger to which the Parthians were exposed? 16. Against what formidable power did they next cuatend ? 17. The result of llie expedition ol Crassus? 18. Which side did they favour in the civil wars of Rome ? 19. How did they obtain peace from Augus- tus Ccesar ? 20. Their treatment of the Chrislians? 21. What native Persian at length drove them from the country ? 22. The effect of this revolution on Chris- tianity in the East ? 23. TJie line between ancient and modem history, in Asiatic annals? Sec. 6. — History of Idumea, and its Capital, Petra. 1. From whom were the Edomites de- scended ? 2. The advantages of their situation ? 3. Its capital city, and its situation ? 4. Describe it. 5. The prediction of Jeremiah ? 6. Their ports and commerce ? 7. By whom were they subdued ? 8. The Scripture account of Hadad ? 9. With whom were the Edomites fre- quently at war? 10. Who were the Idumeans, and the Na- batheans ? 11. The expedition of Athenaius against them, and its results ? 12. How was Demetrius deterred from aveng- ing the fate of his general ? 13. How came the name of Idumean to be- come extinct ? 14. How was Petra ruined? 15. Recite the prophecy of Isaiah? Sec. 7. — History of the Jews, from their Return out of the Babylonish Captivity to the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 1. How many Jews returned to their native land, after the decree of Cyrus ? 2. Their governor ? 3. The Jewish tradition relative to this re- turn ? 4. Aj)plication of the Samaritans ? 5. How did they al'terwards treat the Jews t & What was the conduct of the Jews ij Xerxes' army ? Who was the Ahasuerus of Scripture ^ 22 QUESTIONS ON 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 2.3. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 33. 33. 34. 3.S. 36. 37. 38 Conduct of Hamaii, and his end f Who was Ezra '! What great work did he perform? How do the Jews regard him ? His successor ? How did tlie Jews act toward Alexan- der ? How did Jndca saff.n- after his death ? How did Jerusalem suffer under Ptolemy Soter ? The high-priest at this time, and his cha- racter ? What work was completed under his directions ? What sect arose about this time ? Their doctrines ? What version of the Scriptures was made 53. History of liis successor, Alexander Jan at this time in Egypt ? Who attempted to Hctlenize the Jews ? Conduct of Simon, and of Onias ? How did Onias lose the priesthood? State of the nation under Jason's ad- ministration ? Conduct of Jason? Of his brother Menelaus ? Cause of Onias' death ? Canye of the riot in Jerusalem ? How were the deputies to Antiochus treated ? How did the Syrians show their sense of this atrocity ? Conduct of Jason daring the Syrian inva- sion of Egypt ? Antiochus" dreadful cruelty towards the Jews ? His awful profanity? His edict, and its execution ? His cruelty towards the fugitive Jews ? The effect of their noble constancy Brave conduct of Mattathias ? How did the wars of the Maccabees commence ? 39. Whom did Mattathias appoint his suc- cessor ? The origin of the name, " Maccabees." Exploits of Judas Maccabeus? How long had the temple been in the hands of the heathen ? Conduct of the Jewish army as it came 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. m sight of Jerusalem ? The circumstances of the death of Judas? His funeral ? His successor ? What privilege die", he obtain from tho Syrian king? The inscription on one of his coins, which has been preserved ? His death, and successor ? Acts of his administration ? His treatment of the Pharisees ? His successor, and the cause of his death ? 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 6f. 86. 87. 88 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. nffius '. History of his two sons? Conduct of Antipater ? To whom was the decision of the crown left? Conduct of Aristobulus ' Conduct of the Jews, after he left Jeru- saiem ? How did Pompey treat Jerusalem ? Who was now supreme in Jerusalem ? Conduct of Antipater ? How was he rewarded by Ctesar ? The condition of Judea during the civil wars of the Romans after the death of Pompey ? Whom did Antony make king of Judea ? Why were the Jev/s opposed to him ? Instances of his cruelty ? Age of Herod at his death ? Plis successor, his history ? Feelings of the Jews on the occasion of Pilate's entering Jerusalem ? How did Pilate provoke a fresh insurrec- tion ? The state of society in Judea during his administration ? What forerunner of Christ now appearea in Judea, and how was he received ? How old was our Lord when he began to preach ? W^hat occurred at his baptism ? Wicked conduct of Herod Antipas ? His conduct toward John the Baptist? For what pretended crime was Jesus crucified ? How long after his resurrection did he continue with his disciples ? How many persons were converted by St. Peter's preaching, on the day of Pentecost ? ^ The disinterested conduct of the Chris- tian community ? Who was the first Christian martyr? History of Paul's conversion ? End of Pontius Pilate ? History of Herod Agrippa ? Whichof the Apostles did he put to death? His end ? Condition of Judea after his death ? Who were the Sicarii 1 Conduct of Felix ? His treatment of St. Paul ? Festus' treatment of St. Paul ? Conduct of Florus, the last governor of Judea ? Conduct of the Jews ? Why did the Cliristians retire to Pella, at this time ? Who was sent against tlio Jews ? The three parties in Jerusalem, and theifl dissensions ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 2ft 97. To what clangor was Titus exposed ? 98. The sullcriugrf of tlio Jews during the KJege of Jerusalem? 9!). The fate of Jerusalem ? lUO. The number of captives, and of the slain ? 101. How was the victory of Titus celebrated in Koine ? 102. Describe the medal struck, commemo- rative of the event ? CHAPTER XIII. HISTORY OF ANCIENT ITALY. &EC. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1. The boundaries of Italy ? 2. Its divisions ? 3. Cisalpine Gaul, why so called ? 4. Why also called Gallia Togata ! 5. Tiie principal subalpine tribes ? 6. The Cottian Alps, why so called ? 7. The chief cities of Liguria 1 8. The Ligurian name of the river Po, and why so called ? 9. The principal towns of the Boii? 10. The limits of Gallia Transpadana? 11. Of Central Italy ? 12. What countries did it comprise ? 13. The boundaries of Etruria ? 14 How was it divided ? 15. The limits of Latinm? 16. In what part of Italy did the Greek colo- nies locate themselves ? 17. For what has Italy ever been celebrated? 18. What has Italy been, and what is it now ? Sec. 2. — Historical Notices of the early In- habitants of Italy. 1. P>om whom were the earliest inhabitants of Italy descended? 2. Of what two languages is the Latin a compound ? 3. The origin of the name Sicily ? 4. The original name of the Latins ? 5. ^Vhat proof is given that the serfs were of Falasgic origin, and the warriors of Oscau descent? G. The gods of the ancient Latins ? 7. What is said of the Sabines ? 8. Explain the " Ver Sacrum ? " 9. Tli(! history of the Lucanians? 10. For what "were the Sabellian tribes dis- tinguished ? 11. W^hat prevented them from becoming predominant in Italy ? 12 To what did the Samnites owe their downfall ? 13. The origin of the term " Imperator ? " 14. 'What gave the Romans great advantage over the Etruscans ? 15. For what were they remarkable ? 16. Who annihilated tlieir navy ? 17. Wiio finally subdued them ? 18. What is said of their ancient works ? 19. What of their superstition .' 20. What is said of the Umbrians ? 21. What of the Mcssapians ? 22. ^What of the Ligurians? 23. Their reputation among the Romans ? Sec. 3. — The Greek Colonies in Italy. 1. The earliest Greek settlement in Italy ? 2. What is said of the city of CuniDB ? 3. Its history, and what gave it iniportanco ! 4. By whom was Tarentum founded? 5. Its history 1 6. By whom was Croton founded ? 7. What proof of its power is given 1 8. The design of the Pythagorean society T 9. Ilowr was Croton mined ? 10. The cause of the power of Sybaris ? 11. For what did it become proverbial ? 12. What led to a war between it and Cro- ton, and the result of it ? 13. To whom did the Sybarites then apply for aid ? 14. What city did they then found ? 15. What led to a civil war, and the result of it? 16 The subsequent history of Thurium ? 17. What is said of Zalcucus ? 18. Who brought the Locrians to the verge ot ruin ? 19. Its subsequent history ? 20. By whom was Rhegium colonized 1 21. By whom destroyed ? 22. By whom restored? 23. By what treachery was it again destroy- ed ? 24. How were the traitors punished ? CHAPTER XIV. HISTORY OF SICILY. Sec. 1. — Geographical Outline. 1. Ancient uaines of Sicily? 2. Origin of the name of the city '• Rhe- gium ? " 3. For what are the straits of Messina re- markable ? 4. The extent of the city of Syracuse ? 5. Describe the prison Latomia3 ? 6. What is said of the fountain of Are- thusa ? 7. The origin of the proverb " Remove not Camarina? " 8. Polybius' account of Agrigentum ? 9. The most remarkable natural object is Sicily ? 10. The fiction of the poets respecting it? u QUESTIONS ON Sec, 1. 2. 3! 4. 5. 6. 2. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. , 2. — Historical Notices of the ancient Inhabitants of Sicily. The first inhabitants of Sicily? The character they bore ? The next iu antiquity? Who came next ? Who was .Eolus ? The fate of Deucetius, the most renown- ed king of the Siculi ? How were the Siculi treated by the Sy- racusans ? How were they treated by the tyrant Dionysius ? By whom was their hidependence re- stored ? Sec. 3. — The History of Syracuse. When and by whom was Syracuse founded ? Its original form of government ? Under what circumstances was it chang- ed? The consequences of Gelon's wise ad- ministration ? Who applied to him for aid ? What demand did he make ? With what forces did the Carthaginians invade Sicily ? By what stratagem did Gelon entirely overthrow them ? How was he regarded by his subjects after his death ? His successor, and what is said of his administration ? What signal and important naval victory did he gain ? V.'hat led to a revolution in the govern- ment ? What was petalism, and what were its consequences ? Who invaded Sicily at this time ? What circumstance led to a series of sanguinary wars? What is said of Dionysius I. ? His death, and his successor ? The character and conduct of Dionysius II.? W^hat compelled the Syracusaus to ap- ply for aid to their parent city, Co- rinth ? Who was sent to them ? The consequences of his death ? What led the Syracusans afterwards to invoke the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epi- rus ? His conduct iu Sicily ? To whom was the Syracusau throne finally otTered ? What is said of his administration ? What led to the destruction of Syracuse? Who was Archimedes ? How diJ the Romans govern Syracuse ? To what was this owing ? CHAPTER XV raSTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. Sec. 1. — Traditions respecting the Origin of the Romans. 1. The origin of the Romans according to the ancient legends ? 2. What proves that they were partly of Pelasgic origin? 3. The probable foundation of these ancient legends ? 4. Repeat the substance of them. 5. The story of Numitor and Amulius 7 6. The story of Romulus and Remus ? 7. Cause of the quarrel between them, and its results ? 8. Date of the building of Rome. 9. Its original size, &:.c. ? Sec. 2. — From the Foundation of the City to the Abolition of Royalty. 1. How did Romulus procure inhabitants for his new city ? 2. Form of its government ? 3. What is said of the tie of patron and client ? 4. How did Romulus obtain wives for his subjects ? 5. Story of Tarpeia. 6. What led to a peace between Romulus and Tatius, and the terms? 7. What is said of these and other legends? 8. The stor>' of Romulus' death ? 9. His successor and his character? 10. His principal acts ? n. Successor of Numa, and his character? 12. How was the war between the Romans and Albans tenninated? 13. Conduct of the surviving Horatius? 14. The fate of Alba and the cause of it? 15. The successor of Tullus ? 16. His principal acts? 17. The successor of Ancus Martius ? 18. WHio was Tarquinius Priscus ? 19. How did he secure the throne? 20. How was his difficulty with Attua NiEvius compromised ? 21. What public works rendered his name illustrious ? 22. How did he console the people under their toils ? 23. The cause and manner of his death ? 24. Wlio was Ser\'ius Tullius, his successor 7 25. What is said of him as a statesman? 26. Mention some of his acts? 27. How was he regarded by the patricians s 28. The circumstances of his death, and the conduct of his son-in-law and daughter? 29. Character and acts of Tarquiu tha Proud? 30. Cause of his banishment? 31. Conduct of Brutus ? ANCIENT HISTORY. 26 9. 10. 11. 12. ]3. 14. 15. 18. 19. Bkc. 3. — From the Establishment of the Roman Republic to the Burning of the City by the Gauls. 1. Nature oCthe government that succeeded the monarchy ? 2. \\'hat consjiiracy was soon afterwards detected, and hy what means 'I 3. The conduct of the consul Brutus ? 4. Who were banished, and wliy ? 5. Popular conduct of Valerius '.' 6. With whom did the Romans now make a treaty ? 7. The possessions of Rome at this time ? 8. The legend of Horatius Codes? The legend of Mucins Scaavola 1 The legend of Cloelia ? What is said of these legends 1 The cause of the Sabine war that fol- lowed, and its results ? Oppressive conduct of the patricians, and its eficcts 1 Who was appointed dictator, and his acts? The second dictator? 16. What occasioned still greater discontent ? 17. (/onduct of the plebeians ? How were the ditHculties settled ? What facts arc manifest from the treaties made about this time with the Latins and Hernicans? 20. Legend of Coriolauus ? 21. What was tlie agrarian law proposed by Spurius Cassius ? 22. The fate of Spurius ? 23. What remarkable circumstance is men- tioned ? 24. What led to a change of policy on the part of the Fabii ? 25. The fate of the family ? 26. Progress of the Etruscans ? 27. Conjecture of Niebuhr? 28. Conduct of Genuciiis, th« tribune ? 29. Conduct of the patricianst 30. What frustrated their plans ? 31 How did Volero Publius destroy the supremacy of the patrician faction ? 32. ' onduct of Appius Claudius? 33 • )f v.'hat act of cruel vengeance was he guilty ? 34. How did he escape the penalty of his tyranny ? 35. Boldness of Appius Herdonius? 36 Bad faith of the senate ? 37 On what occasion was Cincinnatus made dictator ? 38. How did ho use his office ? 39. What conjecture has been hazarded respecting his dictatorship ? 40. What privilege was obtained for the people through the exertions of Siccius Dentatus ? 41. The history of the twelve tables ? 42. Who were the decemvirs ? 4G. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 43. What led to their overthrow ? 44. How was the tribunician power in- creased ? 45. Cause and manner of the death of Spuriiw Mffilius ? Cause of the Veientine war ? By whom and in what manner was Veil taken ? What return was made to Camillus for his great services ? Cause of the Gallic war? The result of the first battle ? What did the Romans do after this ? How were the Gauls prevented from taking the citadel ? 53. WHiat ransom was paid for the city? 54. How do the ordinary legend and Poly bins agree? Sec. 4. — From the Rebuilding of the City to the first Punic War. 1. The state of Rome after the departure of the Gauls ? 2. The wishes of the citizens, and how were they prevented from carrying them into effect ? 3. The fate of Manlius ? 4. The strength of the patricians at this time, and the probable consequences? 5. The renovators of the Roman constitu- tion ? 6. What three bills were brought forward by Licinius ? 7. How did the patricians endeavour to frustrate his designs? 8. How did they modify his demands ? 9. In what important contest did the Ro- mans now engage ? 1 0. The cause of the war ? 11. What led to a war with the Latins? 12. The decree of Manlius, and the reason for it ? 13. The first offender, and how was he treated ? 14. The result of this war ? 15. What confederacy was now formed against the Romans ? 16. The disaster of the Roman army 1 17. The advice of Pontius' father? 18. How were the Romans treated? 19. The result of the war? 20. Who finally subdued the Saninites? 21. The conduct of the two Dccii ? 22. Why was war proclahued against Ta- rentum ? 23. What Grecian king was summoned to Tarentum to defend it? 24. His motives for coming to Italy ? 25. To what circumstance did Pyrrhus ow« his first victory ? 26 The results of the first campaign ? 27 Pyrrhus' remark after his second victory I 28 Whither did he then go ? 26 QUESTIONS ON 29. "VMiat brought him back to Italy ? 30. The result of his third battle ? 31. The termiuatiou of the war? Sec. 5. — From the Coinmencement of the Funic Wars to the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions under the Gracchi. The cause of the first Punic war ? Policy of Hioro, Itiug oi"" Syracuse? Eftbrts of the Cartliagiuians ? What strong city did the Romans cap- ture in Sicily? 5 How did they learn the art of ship building ? 6. How did Duilius obtain a naval victory over the Carthaginians? 7. What grand enterprise did the Romans now undertake ? 8. How did they prepare for it ? i). What turned the fortune of war? 10. What successive losses did the Romans sustain? 11. Conduct of Regulus ? 12. What is said of his death? 1.3. What great naval victory did Catulus gain ? 14. ^Vliat led to a peace, and the terms of it ? 15. In wliat important war did the Romans soon afterwards engage? 16. What reputation did they gain by their success ? 17. What led to a second Punic war ? 18. What oath did Hannibal take when a boy? 19. His first victory over the Romans? 20. His second victory, and its results ? 21. ilis third great victory ? 22. Policy of Fabius? Hanuibars fourth and greatest victory ? The eflect of his sojourn in Capua ? When did success first dawn on the Ro- mans ? What two cities in Sicily did they cap- ture ? The fate of Asdrubal ? Policy of Scipio? 29. How did he outwit Syphax ? 30. His successive victories ? What prevented a peace, on Hannibal's return ? Where was the last battle fought? 33. The result of it ? 34. The terms of peace ? 3.5. How was Scipio honoured? 36. The next war in which the Romans were engaged ? 37 Success of the consul Flamiiiius? 38 Who caused a renewal of the wars in Greece ? 39. By whom was ho instigated? 40. W'hcre did the Romans gain a victory over the Syrians? 23, 24 25 26 27 28, 31 32 signal Where was he entirely overthrown T On what terms did he obtain peace ? The fate of Hannibal? How were the Scipios treated on theil return homo? What is said of the Bacchanalians ? What new war now broke out, and its result ? What is said of the triumph of iEmilius Paulus? Cato's motives in wishing to destroy Carthage ? The pretext Ii.r the war ? How did the Carthaginians attempt to avert their fate ? How ditf they afterwards obtain arms ? Describe the siege ? Scipio's feelings on viewing Carthage in flames ^ Story of AsdrubaPs wife ? The origin of the war which proved fatal to the independence of Greece ? The fate of Coriuth ? What other cities soon afterwards shared the same fate ? What story is told of Mummius? What protracted the war in Spain ? What is said of the valour of the Celtibe- rians and Lusitanians ? What is said of their leader, Viriatus ? Conduct of Pompey in Spain ? Policy of Scipio jEmilianus ? His success? What province in Asia did the Romans now obtain, and in what manner ? The fruits of this acquisition ? 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. Seg. 6. — From the Beginning of the Civil Dissensions vnder the Gracchi to the Downfall of the Republic and Death of Pompey. 1. What gradual change did the govern ment undergo, during the Punic, Ma cedonian, and Spanish wars? 2. In what way did the aristocracy acquire so much wealth? 3. How did Tiberius Gracchus attempt to check the progress of corruption ? 4. What was his first step ? 5. How did the nobles attempt to thwart his purposes ? 6. Tiberius Gracchus' next step ? 7. By what proposal was this followed ? 8. What led to his death ? Who was his murderer ? His subsequent career ? In what two wars did the Romans now eno-age, and by what means were they terminated ? Who now determined to follow the ex ample of Tiberius Gracchus ? 13. By whom was he urged on ? 14. How did he ccmmence his career? 9. 10. 11. 12 ANCIENT HISTORY 27 15. What chango did he make in the govern- ineut ? IG. How did the senate endeavoiir to tliwart him ? 17. What accident precipitated the stnipjgle? 18. The death of Cains Gracchus, and the condnct of Opiniins ? 19. What followed the death of the Gracchi? 20. How did the senate show their venaUty in the .Tugurthine war? 21. How did Jugnrtiia act in Rome, and the consequence ? 22. His success, and its effect in Rome ? 23. Who was sent against him ? 24. By whom was he supplanted? 25. The success of Marius ? 26. The suhscquent fate of Jugurtha ? 27. What hordes were now devastating Transalpine Gaul ? 28. By whom were they subdued ? 29. What war had been waged in Sicily ? 30. How were the insurgents punished? 31. What still more danjrerous war now broke out ? 32. How many men perished in this war, and how was tranquillity restored ? 33. What new enemy now arose in Asia ? 34. Who was appointed to command in this war ? 35. Between what parties did the first civil war now break out ? 36. Conduct of Marius in Rome 1 37. Sylla's sr.ccess in Asia? 38. What led to a peace ? 39. Conduct of Sylla in Rome ? 40. What office did he usurp ? 41. Cause of his death ? 42. The conduct and end of the consul L^e- pidus ? 43. What \t U' now broke out in Spain ? 44. Who was sent against Sertorius ? 45. What led to its termination ? 46. Who was Spartacus, and his deeds? 47. By whom was he crushed ? 48. Conduct of Crassus and Pompey ? 49. What was the Manilian law ? 50. What was Fompey's success in Asia ? 51. Who was Catiline, and what was the object of his conspiracy ? 52. By whom, and in what manner, was his conspiracy detected ? 63. The fate of the conspirators ? 54. Who protested against their execution ? 55. What honourable title was conferred on Cicero ? 56. The first triumvirate ? 57. By v.'hom were they supported, and from what motives? 58. How did he succeed ? 59. What first disturbed the union of the triumvirs ? 60. By what v/as it broken ? 61. Caesar's military exploits ? 62. Pompey's conduct toward him ? 63. How did the contest between the&e two commanders commence ? 64. What bribes had Ccesar paid over to Caius Curio ? 65. How did ho embarrass the senate ? 66. The decree of the senate ? 67. Cffisar's conduct on receiving this intelli- gence ? 68. Conduct of Pompey's party ? 69. How long did it take CaBsar to subdue Italy? 70. His subsequent victories? 71. What oflice was conferred on him on his return to Rome ? 72. When, and where was fought the great battle that decided the fate of the world ? 73. The fate of Pompey ? 74. The fate of his remains ? Sec. 7. — The Establishment of the Roman Empire. 1. The effect of the news of Pompey'a death ? Who renewed the war? How did Cffisar show his disapprobation of Egyptian treachery ? What fresh danger did he incur in Egypt ? What lamentable catastrophe occurred in Alexandria? CjEsar's letter to Rome ? The state of affairs in Rome, and by what occasioned ? The fate of Cato ? How long was Csesar occupied aboul the African war? Adulation of the senate ? To what dangers was Cajsar exposed in Spain ? What vast designs did ho now con tern- plate ? How did he offend his countrymen ? Cffisar's death ? The conduct of Brutus, and of the "-en- ate, at his address? Effect of Antony's speech ? Conduct of Antony toward the con- spirators ? The second triumvirate ? The fate of Cicero ? The theatre of the new civil war, and its results ? Conduct of Antony and Octavius ? By whom was Antony completely en- slaved? Policy of Octavius ? Conduct of Antony toward his wife Ful- via? How was a reconciliation cffeeted be* twcen Octavius and Antony >. Further course of Octavius and Antony 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 28 Q0E3TIONS ON 27. •28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Wliat led to a war ? Where was the decisive battle fought ? and describe it. Conduct of Antony 1 Intentions of Cleopatra, and how frus- trated ? Kow did Cleopatra show her energj', and Antony liis weakness ? Progress of Octaviiis ? What led to Antony's death ? What to Cleopatra's ' What use did Octavius make of th!9 treasures of E'as he treated by Sapor, and by his own son ? Sec, 1. 2. 3. 4. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 7. — From the Captivity of Valerian to the Resignation of Dioclesian. What is said of Gallieuus ? How many competitors for the throne appeared ? Who was Odenatus ? Who was Zenobia, and what is said of her? Who succeeded Gallienus? What is said of Aurelian? How did he secure the tranquillity of Europe ? How did Zenobia precipitate her ruin ? The fate of Pahnyra? What otlier provinces did Aurelian re cover to the empire ? How did he treat Zenobia ? By what circumstance was an insurrec- tion caused at Rome ? The loss of the imperial troops in attempt- ing to quell the riot ? What led Aurelian to quit Rome ? How were his virtues sullied ? What led to his death ? How did the soldiers avenge his death? Who was elected emperor by the Syrian army? His victories ? The cause of his death ? His successor, and his deeds ? Who was Dioclesian ? Why does the date of his accession de- serve to be remembered ? By whom is the " era of Dioclesian " still observed ? Whom did Dioclesian choose as his col- league ? What is said of Maximian ? What further division of authority was made ? How was the empire divided ? The elTect of this division? Success of Constantius in Britain ? Disaster of Galerius ? His subsequent success ? What prize did he take ? Folly of a soldier ? Generosity of Galerius ? Sec. to 1. 2. 4. 5. 6. 36. What great province was gained tv) &* Romans by this battle ? 37. How were these triumphs sullied? 38. What is said of the numbers of martyrs' 39. Of the triumphs of Christianity ? 40. What strange revolt happened in Syrial 41. Dioclesian's base conduct to the people of Antioch, and its effect on them ? 42. What is said of his triumph at Rome ? 43. Why did ho quit the city ? 44. His resignation, how occasioned? 45. How Ic tg did he survive it ? 46. His letter to Maximian ? 47. What embittered his last days? . 8. — Fro7n the Abdication of Dioclesian the Death of Constantine the Great. How was the empire again divided ? To what dangers was Constantine ex- posed ? Under what circumstances was he pro- claimed emperor ? Conduct of Maxentius ? How did Constantine show his prudence? Between what six sovereigns was the empire now shared ? 7. Treachery of Maximian, and how waa it punished? 8. What occasioned the death of Galerius? 9. How did Maxentius provoke a war, and with whom? 10. Where and how was ho destroyed? 11. What vision did Constantine see? 12. The testimony for and against this ac- count? 13. What great reforms did Constantine effect in Rome? 14. Conduct of Maximin, and his death? 15. Cruelty of Licinius ? 16. What civil war now ensued? 17. The result of it? 18. What renewed the war ? 19. What is said of t"-' battle of the He- brus? 20. The result of the war ? 21. Wliat celebrated council was now con- voked ? 22. What doctrines were establislied by it ? 23. How was Constantine received at Rome? 24. What effect did this have on him ? 25 What horrid crime did ho commit? 26. How did he avenge himself on the em- press ? 27. What led him to make Byzantium ihe capital of the empire ? 28. Describe the position of this city ? 29. Its advantages ? 30. What is said of Constantino's adminis- tration ? 31. The effect of the removal of the seat ol government ? 32 Into what three classes were the magis- trates divided ? ANCIENT HISTORY. as 33. Who were the magistrates of the first class ? 34. How were the Roman divisions divided ? 35. The power and duties of the proetoriau prefects? 36. Tiie great officers of the state and court ? 37. Their several duties ? 38. The salaries of the duces and comites ? 39. What proofs of the decay of military spirit among the Romans are men- tioned ? 40. The eflect of the changes in the consti- tution of the civil and military admin- istration of the government ? •il What advantage of arbitrary government is mentioned ? 42. The meaning of the term indiction 1 43. What was the aurum litstrale ? 44. What the aurum coronale ? 45. "What is said of Constantino's innova- tions ? 46. The established religion under Constan- tine ? 47. How did he support the church ? Sec. 9. — From the Death of Constantine to the Reunion of the Empire under Theo- dosius the Great. 1. Constantino's successors ? 2. What is said of them, and of their edu- cation ? 3. Of what horrid conduct was Constantius guilty ? 4. What new division of the empire was made ? 5. The early history of Shah-pur, the Per- sian monarch ? 6. How many indecisive but sanguinary engagements did he fight with the Ro- mans ? 7 Where did he overthrow themi 8 What led to a peace ? 9. What led to a civil war, and its result ? 10. Administration of Constans ? ] 1. The circumstances of his death ? 12. How was Vetranio forced to assume the purple 1 13. The conduct of Constantina? 14. Movements of Constantius ? 15 The fate of Vetranio ? 16. Describe the battle of Mursa ? 17. What has been said of this battle ? 18. The fate of Magnentius ? 19. The causes and manner of the death of Callus ? 20. What saved Julian, his brother ? 21. What city did Constantius now visit, and what was his reception ? 22. What dangerous enemy again attacked the empire? 3c The conduct of . Julian in Gaul? 24. How was a civil war between him and Constantius averted ? 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. What heresy distracted the church io this reign ? Which party did Constantius favour f What celebrated bishop opposed it ? How was Juhau received in Constant!* nople ? His first measure ? What is said "^f his reforms of the court ? The great object of his ambition ? How did he attempt to accomplish it ? What attempt did he make to disprove the inspiration of the scriptures ? How was he forced to abandon it ? In what war did he engage ? The circumstances of his death ? What dishonourable peace did Joviaii conclude ? His treatment of Christians and Pagans The manner of his death ? Who was chosen to succeed him ? What division of the empire did he make ? The capital of the western empire ? What war did Valentinian engage in ? What circumstance filled him with alarm ? His first care after his recovery from sickness ? Whose piracies began now to attract at- tention ? Who preserved Britain to the empire 7 How was he rewarded ? Conduct of Count Romanus ? How did he escape punishment ? To what did his conduct lead ? By whom was the rebellion suppressed T Cause of Valentinian's death ? His character and administration ? What was Valens doing in the east ? What war did he engage in, and with what success ? His conduct to the opposers of Arianism 1 By whom was Valentinian succeeded? Of what great crime was Gratian guilty? What laws did he make favourable to the interests of the church ? Who were the Huns ? What is said of their personal appearance? Their food, and how was it dressed? Their manners and peculiarities ? To what did they force the Goths ? How did they treat their prisoners ? How did the Gothic monarch fortify him- self? What did the Gothic nation do in theii extremity ? The deeds of Ulphilas their bishop ? Base conduct of the officers of Valens T Treachery of Lupicinus ? How did the Goths take revenge ? What is said of the battle fought betweea the Goths and Adrianople ? the Romans oecK 84 QUESTIONS ON 74. Whom did Gratian now thoose as his associate ? 75. Coiidiicft of Theodosius and its effects? 76. The fate of Gratiaa ? 77. Boldness of tSt. Ambrose, bishop of Milan ? 78. By whom was the usurper defeated ? 79. ^^'hat hastened his death ? 80. The fate of Valentiniau II. ? bl. Under whom was the Roman empire once more united? Sec. 10. — The Overthrow of the Western Empire. 1. To whom did Theodosius assign the eastern, and to whom the western 2. 3. 4. 5. empire i his and Who was Rufinus, and his character ? How did he aim to secure his power ? Whom did Arcadius marry ? Of what pretext die Stilicho avail him- self to put down Rufinus ? What ted him to return to Italy 1 The fate of Rufinus ? How was Stilicho treated by the court of Constantinople ? How was the African revolt suppressed ? The fate of Gildo and Mascezel ? Who now invaded the empire? Of what consummate folly was Arcadius guilty ? Whither did Alaric then go ? How was he induced to quit Italy ? What city did Honorius make capital ? Who next invaded Italy? Who was proclaimed omporor, why? 18. Of what crime and folly was Honorius guilty? What impolitic and monstrous edict did Olympus, his minister, issue ? The consequences of it ? How was Alaric induced to quit Rome? 22. How did Honorius again show his folly? 23. When was Rome captured ? 24. How many days was it pillaged ? 25. Death and burial of Alaric? What tribes now established themselves in Spain and Gaul? What became of the Britons ? Origin of the term " England ? " How was the reign of Arcadius, in the east, dishonoured? 30. What illustrious bishop of Constantinople fell a victim to the cruelty of the empress ? By whom was Arcadius succeeded ? Who usurped the administration ? How did she govern ? What other woman became ruler of western empire ? How did she treat Count Boniface ? 6. 7. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 19 20 21. 26. 27. 28. 29. 3L 32. 33. 34 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. the 35 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. By what means was Genseiic induce* to invade Africa ? The fate of Count Boniface ? How was the double treachery ol ^'Etiiis punished? Who was Attila ? How was he induced to refrain from at tacking the Byzantine empire ? What led him to turn his arms agains' the Western empire ? Baseness of Honoria ? By whom was Attila at first defeated? What delayed the ruin of the ernpu-e ? The fate of ^Etius ? The fate of Valentinian, and who sue ceeded him ? How, and why was Maximus put to death ? By whom was Rome again pillaged ? How were the inhabitants treated ? Who redeemed many of them, and by what means ? What succession of emperors now sat on the throne of the Western empire ? Who was Count Ricimer ? Who was the last Roman emperor ? When was Italy conquered by the Ostro* goths ? What is said of the Gnostics CHAPTER XVIIl INDIA. What is said of the inhabitants of India, when Alexander first invaded it ? What inference is drawn from this fact 1 How far back does the civilization of India probably reach ? What is said of the castes of India ? Remark of Major Bevan ? The cradle of the Hindoo race? Testimony of the ancient records ? What is said of the Brahmins ? The story of the drama of the " Toy Cart." The two great dynasties m India proper ? What is said of the war between the Pandoos and Kooroos ? The result of it ? Who occupied the throne of India aftez Alexander's retreat ? What is said of Mahapadma-Nanda ? How di-i he provoke the hostility of the Brahmins 1 Who was Ch.andra-Gupta ? To whom did he owe his elevation to the throne ? By whom was he attacked ? What treaty did he make with Seleucu* Nicator? Who is the next sovereign of India of ANCIENT HISTORY. 85 whom we know any thing, and what is said of him? 21. By whom was he conquered ? 22. What do the Hindoo accounts say of him ? 23. What is said of India from this pe- riod ? 24. How did tlio priesthood obtain a mono- poly of knowledge? 25. What were some of the prerogatives of the Brahmins? 26. What is said of the warrior caste ? 27. The consequence of this ? 28. The Vaisya caste, what ? 29. The Sudras, what ? 30 Who was Buddha? SI Repeat the Buddhiet hymz 32. When were the Buddhists expelled from India ? 33. The effect of this persecution ? 34. Where did they find refuge ? 35. How many persons profess Buddhism ? 36. To what is its success owing ? 37. Wlio were the Jains ? 38. What is said of the India trade ? 39. How did the Persians procure theil goods from India ? 40. What discovery brought India nearer to the rest of the world ? 41. The effect of this discovery ? 42. What is said of Ceylon ? 43. What circumstance shows that the civi Ihation of India belongs io aa asfe «f T«ry remote antiquity ? h, A'ppleion ty Co.'s Valuable Ful>Ucali(yns. DR. ARNOLD'S WORKS. 7 THE HISTORY OF ROME, from the Earliest Period. Reprinted entire from the last English edUioR Oue vul., 8vo. $3 00. HISTORY OF THE LATER ROMAN COMMON- WEALTH. Two vola. of the English edition reprinted entire in 1 vol., 8vo. $2 50. " The History of Rome will remain, to the latest i.^e of )ie world, the most atlract:Te, tits mojt useful, aud the most elevatiiig subject of human coHlem|ihitiori. It must ever form Ibj basis of a libera! and enli^hteced education, and present tin- iiost important subject to the con- templation of the statesman. It is remarkable, that until the .'tppearance of Dx Arnold's vol- nmes, no history, (except Niebuhr's, whose style is often obsc'iro) of this wonderful people ex- isted, Commensurate either to their dignity, their importance, or their intimate connection with modern institutions. In the preparation and composition of tne history, Dr. Arnold ea- pended many long years, and bent to it the whole force of his grcal energies. It is a work to which the whole culture of the man, from boyhood, contributed — most carefully and deepi} meditated, pursued with all the ardor of a labor of love, and reliufiuished only with life. O! the Conscientious accuracy, industry, and power of mind, which the work evinces — its clesirness, dignity, and vigor of composition — it would be needless to speak. It is eminently calculated to delight and instruct both the student and the miscellaneous reader."— Huston Courier. III. LECTURES ON MODERN HISTORY. De.'ivered in Lent Terrn, 1842, with the Inatigiiral Lecture delivered in 1841. Edited, with a Preface and Notes, by Henry Reed, M. A., Prof, of English Literature in the University of Pa. 12ino. ^1 2.5. " The Lectures are eight in numker, and fmuish tlie best pi ssible introduction to a philosophi- cal study of modern history. Prof. Reed has added*ioatly to the worth and interest of the vol- ume, by appending to each lecture such extracts from Dr Arnold's other writings as would more fully illustrate its prominent points. Tlie notes and appendi.x which he has thus furnished are exceedingly valuable."— CnuWer and Enquirer. RUGBY SCHOOL SERMONS. Sermons preached in the Chapel of Rugby School, with an Address befora Confirmation. One volume, IGmo. 50 cts. 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" So graphic, BO life-like, 90 dramatic a historian as Michelot, we know not when »lse to looli for. The countries, the races of men, the times, pass vividly before yon ts you peruse his animated pages, where we find notliing of diffuseness or irrelevnn By. It is a masterly work, and the publishers are doing the reading public a eervic by producing it in bo unexceptionable and cheap an edition." — TYibune. HISTORY OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. One handsome 12mo. volume. Paper cover 75 cts. Cloth ^1. ' M. Michelet, in his History of the Roman Republic, first introduces the rcadei to the Ancient Geography of Italy ; then by giving an excellent picture of the preseni ■tftte of Rome and the surrounding country, full of grand ruins, he excites in the reader the desire to investigate the ancient history of this wonderful land. He nest imparts the results of tka latest investigations, entire, deeply studied and clearl/ arranged, and saves the u i-^ducaled reader the trouble of investigating the sources, while he gives to the more educated mind an impetus to study the literature from which he gives very accurate quotations in his notes. He describes the peculiaritief and the life of tha Roman people in a masterly manner, and he fascinates every reader, by the brilliant clearness and vivid freshness of his style, while ho showt himself a good historian, by the justness and impartiality with which he relates atvi philosophizes." THE LIFE OP MARTIN LUTHER, GATHERED FROM HIS OWN WRITINGS By M. Michelet: translated by G. H. Smith, F. G. S. One handsome volume, 12mo. Cloth 75 cts.. Paper cover 50 cts. ■fhis work is not an historical romance, founded on the life of Martin Luther »..*. is it a history of the establishment of Lutheraniom. It is simply a biography, VsMposed of a series of translations. 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T« Isnow the life of the people, thejr labor and their sulforingi", I bad but to intsrrogat* MT Qietndrjr. — Extract fron jiulhor's Preface,. GUIZOT'S HISTOEICAL WORKS. D. Appleton cf Co., publish, complete in four volumes. THE HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION, FROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE TO TUP FRENCH REVOLUTION. BY F. GUIZOT, Prime Minister of France, etc. Translated by William Hazlilt. Price, neally l>on«norv\hle place in a weU-seJect^ library ' — A' HnveHCof LORD MAHON'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 7). Appleton df Company have just pulhshed^ HISTORY OF ENGLAND, FROM THE PEACE OF UTRECHT TO THE PEACE OF PARIft BY LORD MAHON EDITED BT HENRY REED, LL.D., Prof of English Literature in the University of Penr.syltan%M Two handsome 8vo. volumes. Price $5. Mr. J\Iacaulay's Opinion. " Lord Mahon has undoubtedly some of the most valuable qualities of a bittoriw^ Reat diligence in examinins authorities, great judgment in weighing testimony, and frcsi UBpartiality in estimating characters." 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" It is praise enough to say of a -nriter, tliat, in a high department of literature, 1b which nianv einiiientNvriters have distinguished themselves, he li.is had no equal ; and this may, with strict justice, be said of Addison. . . . lie is entitled to be considered not only as the greatest of the English es?.^yists, but as the forerunner of the great_ Eng- lish novelists. His best essays aiiproach near to absolute perfection ; nor is their es- cellence more wonderful th.au their variety. His invention never seems to flag; nor is ho ever under the necessity of repeating himself, or of wearing cut a subject." — Ma- (Mulay. " lie was not only the ornament of his age and country, but he reflects dignity on the nature of man. lie has divested vice of its meretricious ornaments, and painted religion and virtue in the modest and graceful attire which charm .and elevate the neart." — Dr. Anderson. " In Addison tlie reader will find a rich and chaste vein of humor and satire ; !es.-.ons of mor.allty and religion, divested of all austerity and gloom ; criticism at once pleasing and profoiind; and pictures of national character and manners that must ever charm, from then- vivacity and truth."— 2>/'. Ilurd. " Of Addison's numerous and well-known writings, it may be afflrmed, that they rest on the solid basis of real excellence, in moral terulency as well as literary merit. Vice and folly are satirized, \irtu6 and decorum are rendered attractive ; and while polished diction and Attic wit abound, the purest ethics are inculcated."— J/a?intZ«?'. " His glory is that of one of our greatest writers in prose. Here, with his delicate sense of proi>riety, his lively fancy, and, above all, his most original and exquisite humor, he was in his proper walk. He is the founder of a new school of popular writ- ing, in which, like most other founders of schools, he is still unsurpassed by any who have attempted to imitate him. His Spectator g.ave us the first exainjiles of a style possessing all the best qualities of a vehicle of gener.al amusement and instruction ; easy and famiUar without cr, and, from its flexibility, adapted to all the variety of the gay and tb* serious." — Penny Cyclopedia. "To correct the vices, ridicule the follies, and dissipate the ignorance, which too generally prevailed at tlio commencement of the eigliteenth century, wore the great and noljie objects the Spectator ever holds in view ; and by enlivening morality with wit, and temperini: wit with morality, not only were those objects attained in an emi- nent decree, but the authors conferred a hasting benefit on their country, by establishing and rendering popular a species of wniting which has m.aterially tended to cidtivate the uuderstanopular turn to religious studies, and placed Wilton upon a pedestal from which he can never be pulled down.'"— Aiken. " It stands at the head of all works of the same kind that have since been produced, and as a miscellany of polite literature, is not surpassed by any book whatever."- Chinnhers. "I consider the ^/w'cicrtor invaluable, as containing on the subject of religion all that the world would then bear. 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