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AUTHOR: 
 
 POTTS, ALEXANDER W 
 
 TITLE: 
 
 HINTS TOWARD LATIN 
 
 PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 PLACE: 
 
 LONDON 
 
 DA TE : 
 
 1878 
 
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 Potts, Alexander William, 1834-1889. 
 
 Hints towards Latin prose conposition, by Alex, 
 17. Potts... Hew edition. London, I'-acnillan, 
 1878. 
 
 xvi ,126 p4 17 en. 
 
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 LIBRARY 
 
 
HINTS 
 
 TOWARDS 
 
 1 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION, 
 
HINTS 
 
 TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEX. W. POTTS, M.A. LL.D. 
 
 HEAD MASTER OF THE FETTES COLLEGE, EDINBURGH 
 SOMETIME FELLOW OF S. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE 
 
 iK jueXfrflj irXetovs ijf (pivcreus dya$ol 
 
 NEW EDITION 
 
 Hon&on 
 
 MACMILLAN AND CO 
 
 1878 
 
 [All Rights reserved."] 
 
/ 1 
 
 . . I 
 
 I'.'l- 
 
 ^ L. 
 
 
 PREFACE TO SIXTH EDITION, 
 
 PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY, M.A. 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
 
 i 
 
 In this Edition some additions, mainly to the chapter 
 on metaphors, and typographical errors have been 
 corrected. My best thanks are due to C. C. Cotterill, 
 M.A. and Rev. C. Darnell, M.A., for their kindness 
 in looking over the sheets, and for valuable sugges- 
 tions. 
 
 Fettes College, 
 Dec, 1877. 
 
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION'. 
 
 Vll 
 
 ( 
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The first edition of this Treatise was naturally in- 
 complete. It consisted of papers drawn up for the 
 use of one of the Upper Forms at Rugby, and the 
 small amount of treatment which the Latin Period, 
 in its relation to our own language, has hitherto re- 
 ceived, made the Hints necessarily of a tentative 
 character. The favourable reception which the book 
 has met with from literary critics and the adoption 
 of it in several Public Schools have made the author 
 spare no pains to render the second edition more 
 satisfactory and valuable. 
 
 The principle on which the Treatise is based is 
 the dictum, *To do one thing you must know how 
 to do many things.' The right employment of cases, 
 the government of words and the rules of syntax, 
 can of course be learned from books of exercises, 
 but such works, though indispensable at a certain 
 stage, are of little value for conveying an impression 
 of Latin literature and style. Genuine literature is 
 
 never in any nation an isolated production. Its 
 basis is in national habits of feeling and thought, 
 and its counterpart and explanation must be sought 
 in the habits, arts and institutions of the people. 
 For this reason somewhat fuller information on this 
 part of the subject has been given in the short in- 
 troductory Essays in this edition. 
 
 Some brief remarks will be found in the following 
 pages on the superiority of form in the literary works 
 of antiquity^ and also on the influence of literary 
 style upon general cultured Such culture is of especial 
 value in a democratic age. Among the many ad- 
 vantages of a broad political basis and of democratic 
 institutions, culture is not generally to be reckoned. 
 There is a natural tendency to be popular in all 
 things; and popularity and vulgarity have a tendency 
 
 to unite. 
 
 It is a common complaint that pupils after work- 
 ing at Latin composition for years show but little 
 command over Latin style, and continue in after life 
 to write English in flagrant violation of the rules for 
 vigorous, direct and lucid w:riting adopted by the 
 Romans. There is much truth in this complaint, 
 which the two following reasons will go far to ex- 
 plain. 
 
 ^P.3- 
 
 2 P. 23. 
 
vm 
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 First, the education of boys until their 14th or 
 iSth year is often entrusted to teachers who have no 
 real command either over the Latin language or 
 their own. Such teachers depend almost exclusively 
 upon exercise books, which instead of stimulating the 
 learners faculties, deaden them. The stimulating 
 teachers are those who have a mastery of the subject 
 they teach, far beyond the immediate requirements 
 of their pupils, and are themselves filled with a love 
 of knowledge. Tout est da7ts tout, says an admir- 
 able proverb. Information on almost any subject 
 is valuable in teaching any other. He who thinks 
 that he knows enough about what he teaches, ceases 
 from that moment to be in any sense a teacher 
 at all. 
 
 Secondly, we have in England no means for in- 
 struction in the art of teaching. Everyone finds it out, 
 as best he can, for himself. If he is naturally fertile 
 in the invention of methods, if he is a born teacher, 
 well : if not, he makes experiments for years. Hence 
 the greatest service which can be rendered to English 
 education is the revelation of methods. Great services 
 have been done by Mr Wilson's well-known paper on 
 Botanical teaching in Public Schools, and by the Bible 
 Lessons of the Head Master of the City of London 
 School. The application of the Socratic method to 
 the teaching of divinity will be welcome even to 
 those who may not agree with all Mr Abbott's con- 
 
 FREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 IX 
 
 elusions. It is to be hoped that this is the death- 
 blow to the ready but profitless method of setting 
 boys to learn Analyses of the Old and New Testa- 
 ment, containing the dry dregs of information left 
 after the spiritual and the poetical has been squeezed 
 out of the Sacred History. 
 
 It still remains for some stimulating teacher of 
 History and Geography to impart his method to 
 the world, and confer a boon on English Education. 
 
 One critic^ in a most kindly criticism of the first 
 edition, pointed out that there were some places in 
 which the same thing had been said more than 
 once. This repetition was not unintentional ; but as 
 it unquestionably disfigured the book, it has been 
 removed. 
 
 Most of the authors who have been found to be 
 suggestive and valuable have been referred to in the 
 notes. In addition to those quoted, Bernhardy s 
 Grundriss der Romischen Litter atur has been of 
 much service. Unfortunately only the first part is 
 
 in print. 
 
 The principal alterations are in the Introductory 
 Essays and in the Chapter on the Period. A num- 
 ber of fresh Examples have been added, principally 
 from Livy. The number of Examples from Cicero 
 in the first edition led some readers to imagine that 
 
 1 In the Globe, 
 
X PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 
 
 the rules were mainly applicable to the Ciceronian 
 style: this however was not the case, nor has any 
 attempt been made to encourage that show of know- 
 ledge which is produced by introducing special man- 
 nerism and phrases. 
 
 The arrangement has been in some cases altered ; 
 as, for example, in the position assigned to the 
 Chapter on the Relative. 
 
 My thanks are again due to the Rev. C. E. 
 Moberly for the kind interest he has taken in the 
 preparation of this edition. 
 
 A. VV. P. 
 
 Fettes College, 
 SepL 1S70. 
 
 if 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 A CHANGE is passing over Classical Schools. There 
 is a general demand on the part of the public for 
 a wider curriculum of education and classical studies 
 are in consequence entering on the struggle for 
 
 existence. 
 
 This is not the place to question the wisdom 
 or discuss the probable results of a change which 
 may be accepted as inevitable. The wisest course 
 for those who believe in the advantages of classical 
 scholarship, is to bestir themselves to economise time 
 by introducing more system into teaching. 
 
 Those engaged in classical teaching seem to be 
 unanimously of the opinion that Composition in 
 Latin Prose is not only the most efficient method 
 of acquiring a mastery of the Latin Language, but 
 is in itself a valuable means of mental training, and 
 an admirable corrective of some of the worst features 
 in English writing. Still in England but little has 
 been done to supply learners with a correct theory. 
 
Xll 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST ED FT I ON. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 Verbal accuracy has received more attention than 
 form, and activity has been shown principally in the 
 compilation of books of exercises. 
 
 These are of great value up to a certain point. 
 Beyond that they appear to fail, partly because they 
 too often direct the attention of learners to the ac- 
 quisition of phrases, and partly because it is not 
 sufficient to bring an important principle once before 
 a pupiFs mind and then dismiss it. The funda- 
 mental principles require to be impressed by con- 
 stant iteration. 
 
 On the other hand, Germany has produced many 
 works, of which Grysar's Theorie des Laieinischcn 
 Stils, Nagelsbach's Lateinische Stilistik, and Hei- 
 nichen's Lehrbuch der Theorie des Lateinischen Stils, 
 are the best known. Of these the last is exceedingly 
 valuable and I gladly acknowledge my obligations 
 
 to it. 
 
 In the Hints Towards Latin Prose Composition, 
 an attempt is made to give students, after they have 
 mastered the ordinary syntactical rules, some idea 
 of the characteristics of Latin Prose, and the means 
 to be employed to reproduce them. Recourse to the 
 original sources and study of the masterpieces of 
 Latin Prose are the only true means of acquiring 
 a real power of composition in Latin. A style ac- 
 quired second-hand is always artificial and sickly. 
 It is hoped that this treatise may help to make the 
 study of Latin Authors more fruitful, by pointing 
 out some of the principal features of Latin expression. 
 
 The remarks on the character of the Romans as 
 exemplified in their literature and art, are necessarily 
 short. I cannot but regret that Professor Liibke's 
 History of A rt was unknown to me until the sheets 
 were already in the press, and it was not possible to 
 do more than make additions to what was already 
 
 written. 
 
 My best thanks are due to Dr Haig Brown, 
 Head Master of the Charter-house, for his kindness 
 in offering to assist me in revising the proofs and for 
 many valuable suggestions, and also to my colleague 
 the Rev. C. E. Moberly, in whom hearty sympathy 
 with every attempt to further the study of the lit- 
 ferae himianiores is united with singularly suggestive 
 and copious scholarship 
 
 Rugby, 
 June, 1S69. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CHAr. f*ct 
 
 I. The Essentials of Latin Prose .... i 
 
 II. The Characteristics of the Roman People. 5 
 
 III. The Characteristics of Roman Language 
 
 and Literature ^ 
 
 IV. Comparison of the Greek and the Latin 
 
 Languages i^ 
 
 V. On Translating from English into Latin . 20 
 
 VI. On Phrases and Style 25 
 
 PART II. 
 
 I. Some Essential Features of Latin Expres- 
 
 sion ^^ 
 
 II. Order of Words in a Sentence 44 
 
 III. On the Position of the Relative and Rela- 
 
 tive Clauses 63 
 
 ■|t 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 
 
 \ ui;j 
 
 \» > 
 
 1 W 
 
 PART III. 
 
 MGE 
 
 On Unity of Expression in Latin Prose .... 73 
 
 PART I, 
 
 I. 
 
 r 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 On the Period in Latin Prose gj 
 
 !• Definition of a Period id, 
 
 II. Frequent use of in Latin 83 
 
 III. Contrast of English and Latin usage ... 84 
 
 IV. Characteristics of Latin Period 87 
 
 V. Proportion and Balance of ...... . 95 
 
 VI. Rhythm and Cadence of . 96 
 
 VII. Limitations to employment of ...... 100 
 
 PART V. 
 Metaphorical Expression and Latin Metaphors . i 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 ERRATUM. 
 
 Page 7, line 35, for * Ab nos...' read 'At nos... 
 
 THE ESSENTIALS OF LATIN PROSK 
 
 For the writing of Latin Prose two things are obviously 
 
 requisite : 
 
 (i) Correctness, 
 
 (2) Beauty of expression : 
 
 that is, correctness in the materials employed and sym- 
 metry in the form which they are made to assume. For, 
 although all the words employed in a Latin paragraph 
 be sanctioned by usage in classical authors, the result 
 they produce may be something which is not Latin Prose 
 at all, because it is wrong in form : so, on the other hand, 
 the sentences may be cast in a Latin mould, and yet the 
 whole paragraph may be spoiled by solecisms and barba- 
 risms in the words or phrases employed. 
 
 The Romans considered correctness of style to consist 
 
 (i) In Latine loquendo, or in Latinitate. 
 (2) In Grammatice loquendo \ 
 
 ^ Ut Latine loquamur, non solum videndum est, ut et verba 
 efferamus ea quae nemo iure reprehendat et ea sic et casibus et 
 temporibus et genere et numero conservemus, ut ne quid perturbatum 
 ac discrepans aut praeposterum sit.... Cic. de Orat. III. i„ 
 
HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 \\ 
 
 ^ The first of these essentials was to be obtained by em- 
 ploying words which had received the approval of culti- 
 
 If 
 
 ' Vated and literary men, and by avoiding vulgarisms and 
 foreign words. 
 
 The second, by attention to cases, tenses, gender and 
 number : by the employment of genuine constructions : by 
 due subordination of sentences: by elegance and harmony 
 in sentence and phrase. 
 
 Inartistic baldness and confusion of expression betoken 
 indolence, negligence and obscurity of thought and are not 
 likely to be characteristics of true Latin writing. The lite- 
 rary aim of the Romans was something very different. They 
 knew that words have the power not only to convey, but to 
 enrich thought ; to illuminate it, to give it a form visible to 
 the eye of the mind and a sound agreeable to the culti- 
 vated ear. The music in which the Romans took delight 
 and which they studied to produce, was that which arises 
 from the happy adjustment of spoken or written words, 
 from melodious cadence^ and from rhythmic hannony of 
 phrases and periods ^ Indistinctness, inexplicitness, poverty 
 of expression, obscurity in matter or words and want of 
 rhythm, were faults which excluded a writer or speakeif from 
 the list of literary men^ Whoever claimed an audience for 
 his thoughts had to clothe them in a becoming dress. 
 
 ^ Contiones saepe exclamare vidi, cum apte verba cecidissent. Cic 
 Orat. c. 4. 
 
 ^ Tanta delectatio est in ipsa facultate dicendi, ut nihil hominum aut 
 auribus aut mentibus iucundius percipi possit. Qui enim cantus mode- 
 ratae orationis pronuntiatione dulcior inveniri potest? Cic. de Orat. 
 II. 8. In soluta oratione, dum versum effugias, modum et numerum 
 quendam oportet servari. Id. de Cll. Orr. xxxil. 
 
 * Qui distincte, qui explicate, qui abundanter, qui illuminate et 
 rebus et verbis dicunt, et in ipsa oratione quasi quendam numenim ver- 
 sumque efficiunt, id est quod dico ornate. Cic. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 3 
 
 In literary composition, as in every other artistic pro- 
 duction, beauty of form consists in simplicity and clearness 
 of expression, in unity of conception and execution : and 
 in this the ancients obtained an unrivalled preeminence. 
 They never attempted bizarre effects and sensations by 
 which the imagination may be for a moment excited, but 
 which the calmer judgement rejects as inartistic and untrue. 
 Again, the comparative isolation of states, the difficulty of 
 transmitthig intelligence, the paucity of historic and scien- 
 tific information were unfavourable to fecundity of ideas and 
 stamped a character of unity on every stage of ancient 
 civilization. Moreover, the literary works of antiquity were 
 mainly the productions of leisure, composed for a limited cir- 
 cle of cultivated men. There was then no vast reading public, 
 longing for daily, almost hourly, information : none of that 
 profusion of ideas, of that incessant conflict of different 
 principles and systems, which imprints on modern civilization 
 a richness and variety which resembles that of the universe 
 in which we live. Unity and simplicity of form is denied 
 to a modern work by the very abundance of the materials 
 from which it must be composed ^ It requires also to be 
 borne in mind that the perfection of form which distin- 
 guishes the remains of classical oratory, is due not a little 
 to the absence of professional reporters. It may well be 
 questioned whether we possess any trustworthy relics of 
 ancient extemporaneous eloquence. The speeches whicli 
 have come down to us are either elaborately revised by the 
 authors themselves with a view to publication ^ or are artistic 
 compositions put into the mouths of distinguished charac- 
 ters by historians. These latter orations are frequently 
 
 ^ See Histoire de la Civilisation en Europe, par M. Guizct. Deux» 
 i^me le9on. 
 
 2 See Plin. Epp. v. n. 
 
 1 — 2 
 
4 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 purely imaginary; sometimes they represent sentiments ac- 
 tually expressed, but not the form in which they were 
 delivered. 
 
 From what has been said about the requisites of Latin 
 Prose, it would at first sight appear that a student desirous 
 of writing it had only two things to keep in view. He must 
 first acquire the vocabulary which literary Romans employed 
 and then analyse and master the rules they followed in the 
 construction of sentences and periods. And in truth these 
 are both indispensable requirements, but they do not con- 
 stitute the whole problem before him. 
 
 He who would write good Latin prose must understand 
 not only how the classical Latin authors expressed their 
 thoughts, but how they would have expressed ours. He 
 must understand not only their habits of expression, but 
 their habits of thought. 
 
 There is in fact a third essential. The expression must 
 be logical, in the sense of obeying not merely the laws of 
 thought generally, but of Latin thought in particular. In an 
 attempt to reproduce the style of a modern writer in any 
 language the same three requisites would present them- 
 selves. It would be necessary to know his phraseology 
 and mode of expression : it would be necessary to under- 
 stand his thoughts also. An imitation of phraseology and 
 of turn of sentence conveying thoughts foreign to a writer, 
 results in a parody of his style. Good constructions and 
 authorised phraseology are, it is true, as essential to a good 
 style as the knowledge of the character of a language is to 
 writing it; but they do not constitute the whole matter. 
 In writing Latin all the phrases in Nizolius strung together 
 do but form a patchwork, if they be not animated by the 
 spirit and marked by the character of the Latin Language. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 IL 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROMAN 
 
 PEOPLE. 
 
 Scribendi rede sapere est et principiiim etfons. 
 
 Every language is of course the expression of the spirit 
 and character of the nation that speaks it Our own lan- 
 guage, for example, is characterized by its popular force 
 and energy, combined with enough, though not more than 
 enough, of intellectual refinement. 
 
 The spirit and character of the Romans are compara- 
 tively simple and easy to understand, and are in accord- 
 ance with their history and their position in the world and 
 with the work which they were destined as a nation to 
 accomplish. This was not the pursuit and cultivation 
 of beauty or the production of works of fancy and ima- 
 gination, but the acquisition of empire, the development 
 of political life, the working out of the idea of law. This 
 was the Fort una Populi RomanL They recognised the 
 call of destiny and followed without hesitation or com- 
 promise. 
 
 * Others, I know it well, the breathing bronze shall chase, 
 
 * and from the deathlike marble upcall the living face ; 
 
 * shall plead with eloquence not thine, shall mete and map the skies. 
 
 * and with the voice of science tell when stars shall set or rise. 
 ' 'Tis thine, O Rome, to rule : this mission ne'er forego. 
 
 * Thine art, thy science this — to dictate to thy foe, 
 
 * to spare who yield submission, and bring the haughty low ^.' 
 
 ^ Verg. Aen. vi. 848 — 854. 
 
O HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Never was a nation so admirably fitted for the perform- 
 ance of its appointed task. It seems as though every 
 instinct and faculty which might have diverted them from 
 it, was carefully excluded from their mental organism, 
 while practical sagacity, directness of purpose, manliness 
 (the Roman * virtue' par excellence) and every other qua- 
 lity calculated to lead them to the goal, found in them 
 its fullest and most vigorous development. 
 
 Breadth of design, directness of purpose, vigour in 
 devices for the attainment of practical ends, scrupulous 
 thoroughness and purity of execution — these were the great 
 characteristics of the Roman nation and remain stamped 
 indelibly on every work they produced in engineering, lite- 
 rature and art. In each of these directions, though defi- 
 cient in fancy and originality, they shewed a thorough spirit 
 of realism, earnestness and energy. 
 
 Art, for example, in passing through their hands from 
 the Greeks, lost much of its refinement, of its beauty and 
 elegance, but it grew in solidity and magnificence in its 
 application to the practical purposes of imperial life and 
 the perpetuation of imperial glory. 
 
 In the same way architecture as applied to religion, 
 remained among the Romans an exotic : but their basi- 
 licae, their viaducts, aqueducts and amphitheatres, attest the 
 triumphs they won in the art of building over the obstacles 
 of nature and almost over time itself^ 
 
 In the plastic arts the historical treatment and the " 
 realistic delineations of facts was their favourite and almost 
 exclusive study. The poetic side of art was imported from 
 Greece to satisfy the demands of opulence and luxury. 
 The Romans gazed on it with a transient admiration 
 
 ^ See History of Art by Dr Wlihelm Lubke, Vol. i. (Smith, Elder 
 and Co.) 
 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 7 
 
 during the intervals of business \ but their enthusiasm 
 did not impel them to create it for themselves. Indeed, 
 over the busts of the most debased emperors is shed a 
 something of the ideal sufficient to suggest the thought that 
 nearly all are the productions of Grecian skill, and the ab- 
 sence of Roman names from the list of the eminent sculp- 
 tors of antiquity, places the matter beyond doubt. 
 
 For painting^ the Romans displayed greater aptitude : 
 indeed they cultivated it with indubitable skill, but appa- 
 rently only as a decorative art to subserve the interests of 
 luxury. What their painting contains of the creative and 
 heroic owes its origin to Greek mythology and Greek 
 epics, and sprang from the imagination of Parrhasius or 
 Timanthes. 
 
 The science of mathematics, supplying an incomparable 
 method of training a part of the mental faculties, and 
 involving neither the political speculation nor the scepticism 
 of Greek Philosophy, we should have thought likely to have 
 found favour with the Romans. This however was not the 
 case, and we know from the testimony of Cicero that the 
 practical branches of Arithmetic and Mensuration were the 
 only two really studied at Rome^ 
 
 ^ Otiosorum et in magno loci silehtio talis admiratio est. Plin. 
 
 xxxvi. 4. 
 
 2 That the. Romans early evinced a taste for painting is shown by 
 the cognomen Pictor. *Apud Romanos quoque honos mature huic 
 arti contigit. Siquidem cognomina ex ea Pictorum traxerunt Fabii 
 clarissimae gentis : princepsque eius cognominis ipse aedem Salutis 
 pinxit anno urbis conditae CCCCL : quae pictura duravit ad nostram 
 memoriam.* Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxv. 4. Yet even a taste for painting 
 was apparently regarded as an excentricity not to be encouraged. An 
 censemus si Fabio nobilissimo homini laudi datum esset quod pingeret, 
 non multos etiam apud nos futuros Polygnotos (?) et Parrhasios fuisse ? 
 Cic. Tus. Disp. i. 11. 
 
 3 Ab nos metiendi ratiocinandique utilitate huius artis terminavimus 
 modum. Tus. Disp. i. 11. sub finem. 
 
 _2j|^gjr 
 
HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 III. 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMAN LAN- 
 GUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 From what has been said it will be readily understood 
 that the Latin language bears upon it the stamp of the 
 excellencies and defects of the Roman character; that it 
 is nervous, forcible and dignified, but wanting in the flexi- 
 bility, the subtilty and subjectivity which mark the 
 Greek language and that of the civilized nations of our 
 own day; for analysis of the operations of the human mind 
 and the advance of mental philosophy have filled modern 
 languages, as they did the Greek, with subtle abstractions 
 wholly unknown to the Romans. Such abstractions had no 
 attraction for minds which instinctively rejected all that was 
 not ' positive \' Indeed the Romans were not speculative 
 or contemplative by nature, but practical. To their view 
 the outer world presented to the thinker too many problems 
 to allow of the eye being turned except partially to the 
 problems which lay within the soul. 
 
 Moreover the accurate analysis of individual emotions, 
 
 ^ This may be illustrated by the comparison of Greek and Latin 
 proper names, the former referring in a large measure to mental, the 
 latter to bodily peculiarities. The Greek termination -Aiei/iys has no 
 equivalent in Latin. Capito, Cicero, Flaccus, Fronto, Naso, Tubero, 
 Varus, Vopiscus, &c. are names more in accordance with Roman 
 taste. 
 
 LATW PROSE COMPOSITION, 9 
 
 which forms so large an ingredient in the prose and poetical 
 literature of our own day, was not only uncongenial to the 
 Roman temperament, but was impossible in their society. 
 Their political institutions were directly opposed to any- 
 thing of the kind. The object and result of them was to 
 merge individuality. Society was regarded as composed 
 not of individuals, but of families. ' The contrast may be 
 forcibly expressed by saying that the unit of an ancient 
 society was the Family, of a modern society the Indivi- 
 dual ^' For example, the person, property and social po- 
 sition of a Roman citizen were absolutely at the discretion 
 of his father. The Patria Potestas included the right of 
 disposing of a son's earnings, forcing him to marry, disposing 
 of him by adoption or sale, and even of putting him to death. 
 In practice no doubt natural affection exercised great power 
 in mitigating the barbarity of these early enactments, but 
 the theory contained nothing offensive to the Roman con- 
 ception of justice and right. 
 
 Hence the individual genius was nothing; the nation- 
 ality, the all pervading polity was everything. To this goal 
 every effort which aimed at recognition and popularity must 
 direct itself. The school for the warrior and the statesman 
 was not the Academia or the Stoa, but the battle-field and 
 the Forum: the wish of his heart was not ^felicity of life' 
 or ' tranquillity of soul,' but practical activity and power at 
 home and abroad. The only education worthy of the name 
 was that which fitted a citizen to serve his country. If 
 military and political life permitted of leisure, it was spent 
 in agriculture or in the management of domestic affairs; 
 and Cicero was doubtless justified in asserting the superiority 
 of the public and domestic economy of his countrymen over 
 that of the more cultivated Greeks. 
 
 1 Maine, Ancient Law, Ch. V. 
 
10 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Dramatic literature again never obtained at Rome a hold 
 over the popular mind. Lessing accounts for this by the 
 idea that it was extinguished by the gladiatorial shows : but 
 the fact is the drama never possessed a vitality to be de- 
 stroyed. The Romans had no sympathy with the unreal. 
 They preferred to have their feelings moved by the spec- 
 tacle of actual and not of fictitious suffering, and the stage 
 appealed in vain to an unimaginative people. It was not 
 introduced until 362 a.c, and then not on account of its 
 artistic merits, but to avert a plague. Even with this prac- 
 tical object in view it was regarded as a suspicious novelty, 
 {res nova bellicoso popiilo)^ and met with little favour. Like 
 other unpractical arts, it was to them a needless accessory, 
 unworthy to occupy the time of free men*. The Atellanae 
 fabulae alone formed an exception. In these a citizen 
 might take part without forfeiting his right to vote among 
 his tribesmen, or to shed his blood in the service of his 
 country^ At a later age all the influence of Scipio and the 
 Scipionic circle could not induce the Romans to listen to 
 the elegant productions and the refined Latinity of Terence. 
 To the amusements the populace thirsted for, the stage was 
 ' as water unto wine.* They yawned through an act or so, 
 and then stole away to more congenial entertainments, of 
 the brutality of which the bear-baiting of our ancestors 
 would have conveyed but a faint conception. The so-called 
 tragedies of Seneca were mere declamatory dialogues on 
 stoicism not designed for the stage, nor written for an audi- 
 ence accustomed to enjoy the horrors of the battle-field 
 amidst the luxury of the capital. 
 
 Again, literature was not of spontaneous growth among 
 the Romans. It came from without and was adopted from 
 necessity. Without a literature Roman influence could not 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 U 
 
 I 
 
 liave become universal : had this been possible, probably 
 no Roman literature would have arisen^: certainly it would 
 not have been so zealously fostered and encouraged. The 
 Romans were however impelled and constrained to the 
 cultivation of a national literature by the encroachments of 
 Hellenistic writings, and this from a twofold feeling. They 
 were fired with admiration for the literature of Greece : but 
 they had ali>o an instinctive feeling that the individuaHty of 
 Grecian philosophy was a dangerous solvent for their poll' 
 tical and imperial institutions. It glowed with the creative 
 genius and freedom of thought which proclaimed in every 
 word the glorious source from which it sprang, — national 
 and individual liberty. 
 
 But besides the fear of innovation and the tenacity 
 with which the Romans clung to their ancient habits and 
 ideas, and which made them averse to mere philosophical 
 theorizing, there existed a well-founded distrust of the 
 Graecidi who imported philosophy to Rome. They brought 
 with them neither the purifying influences of enthusiasm 
 nor the earnestness which characterizes searchers after truth. 
 There was more to be dreaded from the effeminacy and 
 luxury of their lives than to be gained by sophistical ex- 
 positions of systems in which they but half believed. 
 
 Grecian philosophy, however, filtered through a Roman 
 mind was a different and far less dangerous thing, and the 
 Romans gave it a ready welcome in that guise. Hence 
 Roman philosophy was necessarily and avowedly imitative. 
 It was created not to satisfy a want but to gratify a taste. 
 At a time when materialism threatened to deaden the con- 
 
 1 I.iv. v. I. 
 
 • Id. VII. 2. 
 
 1 An exception ought to be made perhaps in favour of Didactic 
 Poetry and Satire, which sprang naturally from the practical sagacity 
 and keen observation of the Romans, without any impulse from Helle- 
 nistic influence. 
 
12 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 templatlve faculties the more elevated spirits sought in it 
 a haven from the corruption and luxury around them, in 
 the hope of finding there the means to rekindle the 
 smouldering virtues of their country. Yet it was rooted in 
 utilitarianism \ and was cultivated as a means to the practi- 
 cal ends of eloquence* and jurisprudence. The fruit of 
 such a tree could not be either original or national. 
 
 Yet the founders of Roman literature and philosophy, in 
 the task of imitation, had before them no easy task. The 
 language had been little employed in this direction, and 
 consequently the vocabulary was inadequate and the lan- 
 guage itself somewhat unpliant and stiff. The problem 
 might have been simplified by the introduction of Helle- 
 nisms and Hellenistic words. Indeed there is abundant 
 proof that the early writers had yielded to this temptation and 
 that a corruption had already begun in the language when 
 the classical writers, with Caesar and Cicero' at their head, 
 manfully opposed themselves to it with a resolute determi- 
 nation to found a literature thoroughly Roman and inde- 
 pendent in style and phraseology and worthy of their posi- 
 tion as masters of the world. The attempt was crowned with 
 success, for it was not instigated merely by a blind conser- 
 vative instinct, but by a sense of national dignity and supe- 
 riority. It fell in moreover with the natural tendencies of 
 the jurisconsults and lawyers, whose influence upon Roman 
 literature is not sufficiently estimated*. 
 
 1 Cic. Tusc. I. 2. 2 jj j^ Qj.j^j. J ^ 2^ 
 
 ^ See Cicero's Apology for venturing to introduce a philosophical 
 terminology, De Fin. III. i. 3; and cp. Quinct. I. 5. 71, Usitatis tutius 
 utimur, nova non sine quodam periculo fingimus. 
 
 * *In the front of the disciples of the new Greek school (the Stoic) 
 we might be sure, even if we did not know it historically, that the 
 Roman lawyers figured. We have abundant proof that, there being 
 substantially but two professions in the Roman republic, the military 
 
 LA TIN. PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 13 
 
 Lucretius endeavoured to enrich the vocabulary available 
 for the higher purposes of poetry by coining compound 
 words such as aedituentes^ frugiferentes^ navigerus^ primi- 
 genuSy silvifragus, suatndicus, tripcctorus, but neither his 
 authority nor their sonorous dignity sufficed to recommend 
 to his successors formations unsuited to the genius of the 
 Latin tongue. By Virgil, whose admiration for the Greek 
 language never led him to forget the true character of his 
 own, they were rejected. He saw that the language of 
 poetry was to be enriched not by artificial formation of 
 sonorous compounds, but by the introduction of more subtle 
 construction of the existing words, and by greater delicacy 
 of phrased 
 
 To the purity of phraseology which Caesar^ established, 
 Cicero added the cultivated period and an exquisite mo- 
 dulation and harmony of phrase. It is true that there 
 was in all this some artificiality and pedantry; but it 
 satisfied the lovers of culture and supplied the Roman 
 youth with Roman text-books, and thus secured the na- 
 tionality of the empire from the encroaching influence of 
 Hellenistic cultured Cicero soon became the recognised 
 model of Latinity. In his own age he was the centre of the 
 intellectual movement, and was subsequently acknowledged 
 
 men were generally identified with the party of movement, but the 
 lawyers were universally at the head of the party of resistance.' Maine, 
 Ancient Law, Ch. III. 
 
 ^ See Roman Poets, Virgil, by Prof. Sellar, p. 275. 
 
 ^ To Caesar new-fangled words seemed the rock ahead which 
 threatened to wreck Latinity. Hoc habe in memoria atque in pectore, 
 ut tanquam scopulum, sic fugias inauditum atque insolens verbum. 
 Caesar ap. Macr. Sat. I. 5, cp. Cic, de Orat. i. 3. 
 
 ^ See Mommsen, Hist. Rom. Bk. v. ch. xir. and the admirable 
 chapter on Early Roman Poetry in Prof, Sellar's Roman Poets of the 
 Republic, 
 
H 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 as the father of Roman eloquence and literatuie, and as the 
 most glorious of conquerors. Others could clahn the laurel 
 for having extended the empire of Rome over the globe, 
 but he had victoriously opened to the activity and triumphs 
 of his countrymen an intellectual worlds This eulogy is 
 indeed but the echo of his own exhortation to the Hterary 
 men of his time to snatch the sceptre of intellectual supe- 
 riority from the failing hand of Greece and carry it to 
 Rome^ He himself as an author was somewhat destitute 
 of originality, and as a statesman, of purpose; but great 
 natural rhetorical gifts conscientiously and devotedly culti- 
 vated commanded for him a success in style which has left 
 permanent traces of its supremacy not only in all future 
 writings in Latin, but even in those of our own language 
 and country. 
 
 But it is not merely as models for style that the works 
 of Cicero should be read. He reflects the feelings and 
 sentiments of the governing body at Rome in which he 
 aspired to play a foremost part Herein lies the key to 
 his merits and defects. No one was better aware than he 
 that an orator, to exercise an influence over the politics 
 of his day, must understand and adapt himself to the senti- 
 ments and prejudices of the nation. An aspirant to power 
 
 1 Omnium triumphorum laurea maior quanto plus est ingenii 
 l^omani terminos in tantum promovisse quam imperii. Plinius. See 
 also Plin. Epp. i. 5. 
 
 3 Quamobrem hortor omnes qui id facere possunt, ut huius quoque 
 generis (in primis philosophiae) laudem iam languenti Graeciae eri- 
 piant et perferant in hanc urbem. Advice which calls to mind the less 
 chastened exhortation in the enthusiasm of the Renaissance, * L4 done 
 Fran^ais, marchez courageusement vers cette superbe cite romaine— 
 Pillez-moi sans conscience les sacres tresors de ce temple delphique 
 ainsique vous avez fait autrefois.' Joachin de Dellay, quoted by Brachet,' 
 Grammaire Historique. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 15 
 
 cannot afibrd to sacrifice a reputation for statesmanship to 
 hardihood in speculation. Hence to the student of Roman 
 history a knowledge of the writings of Cicero is invaluable, 
 however inadequate his philosophical treatises may appear. 
 
 Nor is Cicero unworthy of consideration as a man. After 
 the fullest allowances have been made both for the personal 
 vanity which presents itself almost without disguise in every- 
 thing he wrote, and for the weaknesses which it has been 
 the delight of modern criticism to reveal, there still remains 
 an honesty of purpose and a sense of political morality, 
 which entitle him to more respectful consideration, than in 
 our days he usually receives. 'You feel the force of the 
 soul through the beauty of the style. You see the man 
 in the writer, the nation in the man, and the universe at 
 the feet of the nation ^' In forming an estimate of him it 
 is just to bear in mind the tone of the age in which he 
 lived, the characters among whom he acted, and the loss 
 which republicanism undoubtedly sustained by his death. 
 With Cicero eloquence, the great safeguard of liberty, was 
 swept away. Henceforward at Rome such oratory as is 
 compatible with despotism will be employed for other 
 purposes. 
 
 ^ Mde. de Stael, De la Litterature Latine. 
 
i6 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 IV. 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE GREEK AND THE 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGES. 
 
 When compared with the Greek language the Latin, 
 as a means for readily conveying thoughts, was in many 
 points vastly inferior. This inferiority was recognised by 
 the Romans themselves, who atoned for their plagiar- 
 isms by the candour and gratitude with which they ac- 
 knowledged their obligations. The Greek language by its 
 wondrous flexibility and the facility with which it lends 
 itself to the formation of compound words, was eminently 
 adapted for suggestiveness. Its particles convey a hundred 
 shades of meaning. The Romans had no such advantage 
 in their language. Thoughts to be conveyed in Latin can- 
 not come by inuendo and suggestion: they must be thought 
 out and assume the definiteness and precision of facts. 
 The Romans had to yield in versatility and grace; but 
 they were resolved to be and were unmatched in self- 
 restraint, earnestness and rhetorical power. As they them 
 selves expressed it, their language had a noble presence 
 and moved with an imperial and conscious dignity^ or, 
 to change the metaphor, it swept on irresistibly, like a 
 stately vessel, under the impulse of a breeze such as the 
 
 * Romanus sermo magis se circumspicit et aestimat et praebet 
 aestimandum. Sen. Ep. XL. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 17 
 
 shores of Greece had never known*. If Grecian art and 
 culture achieved its most signal triumph in conquering 
 the mistress of the world, it was itself in turn spell-bound 
 and enslaved by the grandeur and magnificence which sur- 
 rounded the city and institutions of Rome. 
 
 Yet the very simplicity of Latin constructions and the 
 restriction to a prescribed phraseology^ were not altogether 
 without advantage: a certain dignity and importance was 
 thus imparted to the style. 
 
 The language of the Romans breathes also the freshness 
 and vitality of their character : for the noblest monuments 
 of their literature belong either to the close of the Republic 
 when the old virtues and love of liberty warmed the hearts 
 and inspired the minds of men, or else to the early days 
 of the Empire when freedom was languishing it is true, but 
 had not yet expired under the patronage of the imperial 
 regime^. Yet the almost universal tendency of the Augus- 
 tan writers to imitate and not to originate gives unmistake- 
 able evidence of the enervating influences already at work*. 
 In the next generation imitation was no longer a ten- 
 dency; it was the law of literary eff'ort. How could it be 
 otherwise ? Eloquence, the sole power in those days able 
 
 ^ Ingenia Graecorum etiam minora suos portus Iiabent : nos ple- 
 rumque maioribus velis moveamur; validior spiritus nostros sinus 
 
 tendat. Quintil. x. 12. 
 
 2 Tanquam consummata sint omnia, nihil generare audemus ipsi, 
 cum multa quotidie ab antiquis ficta moriantur. Quintil. viil. 6. 32. 
 See also below on the concrete character of Latin expression, Part 
 
 II. I. i. 
 
 8 T. Livius Cn. Pompeium tantis laudibus tulit, ut Pompeianum 
 eam Augustus appellaret ; neque id amicitiae eorum offecit, Tac. Ann. 
 
 IV. 34. 
 
 * La liberty fait cr^er, le despotisme feit imiter. Beul^, Auguste et 
 
 ses amis. 
 
i8 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 to make the tyrant tremble by summoning the unjust to the 
 bar of public opinion, had fled in terror from the Rostra 
 and was acquiring the silvery accents of adulation. Verily 
 flendus erat Cicero Latiaeque silentia linguae. The impar- 
 tial historian sat down to write with a halter round his 
 neck* and rose to find his occupation proscribed^ and his 
 labours condemned to the flames. Philosophy, speaking 
 no longer to the free, busied herself with inquiring whether 
 the sage was justified in withdrawing by a voluntary death 
 from the corruption which the living were powerless to 
 escape. Rhetoric was teaching young and old to declaim 
 about virtues which antiquarian research testified had once 
 been characteristic of the Roman people. Polite conver- 
 sation turned solely upon safe and unpolitical topics, such 
 as horse-racing and gladiatorial shows. 
 
 The freshness and vitality of expression above alluded 
 to, is observable throughout the writings of the Romans, and 
 particularly in the way in which they looked upon and 
 described nature. Their representations of it have an al- 
 most dramatic force. They were not satisfied with an 
 adequate conception of a natural object or phenomenon ; 
 it must assume a sensible, almost visible -form". Hence the 
 
 ^ Periculosae plenum opus aleae, said Horace to Asinius PoUio of 
 historical composition. It was an evil day when emperors h^gixwfovere 
 litteras, praesertim poemata et historias, and invited the historians to 
 read their productions in the palace. What sort of poetry can be * fos- 
 tered' by imperial patronage and what effect it produces on the world 
 may be seen from Pliny's account. Epp. Lib. I. xil. 
 
 2 Temporibus Augusti dicendis non defuere decora ingenia donee 
 gliscente adulatione deterrerentur. Tac. Ann. I. 
 
 ^ This must be borne in mind by a translator. The contemplative 
 unpicturesque descriptions or accounts of nature often found in English 
 writers require to assume in Latin a much more vivid and dramatic 
 shape. • The -features of the landscape must be described as doing some- 
 thing and not merely as being something. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 19 
 
 frequency, the picturesqueness, the vitality of their meta- 
 phorical expressions ^ 
 
 The main defects of the Latin language are that it 
 lacks abandon, playfulness, spontaneity and subtilty. 
 
 Its excellence consists in being dignified, practical, 
 forcible, nervous, grave, delighting in logical sequence, in 
 sonorous cadence and rhythm, and in modulation of phrase. 
 
 In short the Greek spirit * follows with flexible activity 
 the whole play of the universal order, is apprehensive of 
 missing any part of it, of sacrificing one part to another, to 
 step away from resting in this or that intimation of it how- 
 ever capital ^' The Roman spirit was less expansive and 
 rivets itself upon a few cardinal points in national and indi- 
 vidual life. These were to begin with virtus et anna. It 
 was long, as Horace tells us, before even dramatists and 
 poets could be brought to see that literature demanded and 
 was worthy of the energies of a life ^ Their first attempts 
 at dramatic versification savoured of the rude energy of the 
 balista and catapult *. Indeed it was not easy to sink the 
 Roman in the man, and Roman literature remained for the 
 most part 'grand, and earnest' with an instinctive readiness 
 to obey the command of Cicero * omnium sententiarum 
 gravitate, omni verborum pondere utendum est*.' 
 
 1 Nagelsbach in his lengthy treatment of the Latin metaphor shows 
 that the vitality and force of Latin metaphors is due 
 
 i. to their being conveyed generally by verbs ; 
 ii. by verbs expressive of motion ; 
 
 iii. that the images of 'gushing' and 'flowing' are most frequent ; 
 iv. that next to these in frequency are metaphors from 'flowers,' 
 from *fire,' from the ' stage/ and from 'navigation.' 
 See Part v. on Metaphors. 
 
 2 Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy, p. 147. 
 ^ Hon Art. Poet. 289 — 291. 
 
 4 Art. Poet. 260. 
 * De Orat. Ii. 17, 72. 
 
 2—2 
 
 I 
 
20 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 V. 
 
 ON TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH INTO 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Success in Latin Prose Composition is by no means 
 easily obtained : nor is this to be wondered at. If the Ro- 
 mans themselves required much study and practice to' con- 
 vey in their language the thought and philosophy of the last 
 century of the Republic, it is not strange if in giving ex- 
 pression in Latin to the abstract thoughts, the subtle emo- 
 tions, the extended philosophy and science of modern times 
 success does not 'come' to us *by nature,' and cannot be 
 insured except by attention and study. The advance of 
 knowledge has been continuously progressive; Classical La- 
 tinity reached its limits long ago. 
 
 To any one ambitious of writing good Latin I^rose, I 
 would venture to give the following hints. 
 
 i. In reading Latin cultivate a habit of observation 
 with a view to writing Latin : in construing do not rest satis- 
 fied with any equivalent for a Latin word, but endeavour to 
 find one really adequate. 
 
 Whenever in a Latin author you meet with a fine or 
 expressive paragraph, analyse it and try to discover how the 
 effect is produced. Mark in each sentence the order of 
 words, the rhythm and the cadence. Observe the 'tmc- 
 tura;' how the clauses are linked and jointed together. 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 21 
 
 A few pages, or even sentences, voluntarily and intelli- 
 gently studied in this manner and with this object, will 
 teach you more than a volume translated into English un- 
 observantly, or a dozen pieces of English rendered into 
 Latin before you comprehend what are the features you 
 should endeavour to reproduce in your translation. 
 
 By following these directions, you will acquire a con- 
 ception of the points of difference and resemblance in Eng- 
 lish and Latin. This will be of immense service to you 
 in the reverse process of translating Latin_intQ__English. 
 Most translations in our tongue are dull and wearisome, 
 because they do not assume a new form in passing through 
 the translator's mind. The mere substitution of English for 
 Latin words does not produce a translation, unless the sen- 
 tences and constructions are English also. 
 
 ii. Observe that the Latin writers not only paid great 
 attention to the logical succession of clauses and sentences, 
 but made this logical connexion at once obvious to the 
 reader either by placing a particle as the first or second 
 word in the sentence, or by an arrangement of words which 
 rendered such assistance to thought unnecessary. This 
 however will be fully discussed hereafter. 
 
 Never attempt therefore to translate an English passage 
 into Latin until you have read and re-read it sufficiently to 
 realize the mutual bearing and logical connexion of the 
 details or statements in it, for as has been said before, this 
 logical dependence and sequence must be clearly expressed. 
 A series of sentences, in themselves grammatically correct, 
 do not form a Latin period until the logical connexion of 
 them is distinctly visible. 
 
 In translating the several sentences beware of falling 
 into the error of translating words. Think each sentence 
 out Get the thought it contains clearly before you. Strip 
 it of its abstract form, if it have one; put it into its most 
 
22 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 simple and distinct shape, and you will probably find that 
 you have Latin vocabulary enough to translate it without 
 referring to a dictionary at all. 
 
 iii. Avoid the use of English-Latin dictionaries as 
 much as possible. A large number of the English words 
 derived from Latin come to us through the Latin of the 
 Middle Ages, which frequently deviates widely from the 
 classical signification. Moreover continual recourse to an 
 English-Latin dictionary removes your vocabulary from 
 your control, so that it does not answer promptly and in- 
 stinctively to your call. It is in fact an indolent substitute 
 for an effort of memory which would readily recall a word 
 suited to your purpose. 
 
 Again, dictionaries are apt to divert the mind from the 
 endeavour to secure a Latin cast of sentence by directing 
 the attention unduly to phrases. These will come as your 
 reading extends, and when obtained in this way, will have a 
 natural air and a real value, about which something will be 
 said below. 
 
 iv. When you have fixed upon the words to be em- 
 ployed in a sentence, arrange and rearrange them in your 
 mind, and do not commit them to paper until you have 
 secured distinctness of meaning, rhetorical emphasis, and 
 a satisfactory sound. 
 
 v.^ There are in English many words capable of several 
 meanings and of doing duty in a variety of phrases, such 
 words;are 'as' '7vithouf 'for' 'that' 'instead of 'amoJtg' 
 ' yn' 'after' 'can' 'would' 'could' 'should' and others. It is 
 in most cases useless to consult a dictionary until you have 
 got your Protean word in a firm logical grip. When you have 
 ascertained what part of speech it is, and what meaning and 
 logical relation it has in the particular sentence you have to 
 translate, you will find that you can dispense with a diction- 
 ary altogether. One of these words only is treated of in 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMFOSITION. 
 
 23 
 
 this book'. It is of course possible to collect and classify 
 such words, but the wisdom of doing so is doubtful. It 
 leads a pupil to imagine that the difference between Latin 
 and English consists in numerous or rather in countless 
 idiomatic peculiarities, which after all are the anise and 
 cumin of the matter. The idiom of the Latin language is to 
 be logical, clear, distinct, to be intolerant of haze in thought 
 or expression, to be rhythmical and sonorous in sound. It 
 is quite possible to be armed at all points with idiomatic 
 minutiae and yet to miss the fundamental characteristics of 
 true Latinity in what you write. A style based on a clear 
 conception of the great features of Latinity if deficient in 
 idiomatic peculiarities, is still a genuine thing, as a statue 
 well conceived may be a work of art, though its details and 
 finish may be very defective ; but writing tricked out with 
 idioms and exceptional graces, if the frame-work be not solid, 
 is an unreal thing. It is like a barber's waxwork, which has 
 real teeth and real hair, and yet is but a sickly mockery of 
 life. *We start for soul is wanting there.' It pretends to be 
 what it is not, and the more its hues and limbs try to imitate 
 a living beauty, the more offensive they are. 
 
 vi. Remember that the word-painting and epithet-em- 
 bellishment of modern historians and other writers is a 
 novel art of questionable value. It either carries away the 
 reader and prevents his forming an independent judgment 
 of what he reads, or else it forces him into a critical attitude 
 towards an author, who tries to supply him not only with 
 facts but with interpretations of them. The reader either 
 forms no judgment of his own, or does so under difficulties. 
 Many modem writers remind you of the guides at Schaffhau- 
 sen. They will not allow you to see the Falls in their 
 simple grandeur, but constrain you to look at them through 
 red, blue or yellow glass. ' Be this however as it may, in 
 rendering modern authors into Latin, you may omit all 
 epitl^ets which are unnecessary, and these are by no means 
 
 . 1 *As' Part II. 3» vii. 
 
24 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 25 
 
 y 
 
 few. You must omit them when they are plainly implied 
 by the nouns they qualify and are in any way derogatory to 
 the intelligence of the reader. No ancient classical author 
 would tell you, for example, that 'Numbers perished in 
 unavailing efforts at flight'— * They were crushed by the 
 overpowering numbers of the enemy — ' or, in describing an 
 engagement between Germans and Romans, would say that 
 *Arminius and his men aimed their weapons particularly at 
 the horses of the Roman Cavalry V because footsoldiers are 
 not usually mounted, nor are cavalry as a rule on foot, and 
 Arminius was no Jason anxious to see his armed men kill 
 one another instead of killing the enemy. In fact, the sen- 
 tence is inflated to its present imposing dimensions from 
 the terse words of Tacitus *equis maxime vulnera ingerit' 
 
 The fact is the commercial spirit of our time is antagon- 
 istic to purity of style. Literature is a profession, almost a 
 trade : and the interest of the publisher is to hit the general 
 and mediocre taste. The book that in matter and style aims 
 very high is not likely to be the success of the season, and 
 the circulating libraries will ignore its existence. The in- 
 fluence of the Sosii, Horace's publishers, on their 'authors' 
 was probably directly opposite to that of a modern Firm. 
 Books copied by amanuenses must be kept within reason- 
 able compass to be sold at a reasonable price. We live in 
 an age in which fashion requires a novel to be in 3 vols., a 
 biography in 2 vols., 32^. People do not, as a rule, for 
 several reasons think of adding works so produced to their 
 own bookshelves, but the Circulating Libraries must do so, 
 and that is enough. The study of the pure form and perfect 
 expression of the masterpieces of antiquity becomes every 
 day more and more valuable as an antidote to the unwhole- 
 some influence of fashion and trade. To the student of 
 style the advice is still, 
 
 *Be perfect in the great originals, 
 Read them by day and think of them by night.' , 
 
 1 Nixon's Parallel Extracts, p. 5. 
 
 ^ 
 
 [ -if 
 
 VI. 
 
 ON PHRASES AND STYLE. 
 
 Choice words and elegant phrases perform no unimpor- 
 tant part in perfect writing. On them it depends whether 
 the form in which thoughts are expressed is artistic or no. 
 The outward body is, it is true, incomparably less important 
 than the soul by which it is animated, but as a beautiful 
 soul is doubly charming when enshrined in a beautiful form, 
 so an exquisite thought exercises its proper influence only 
 when it is embodied in choice language and phraseology. 
 The study of refined expression contributes of course in the 
 highest degree to the formation of a literary taste : but its 
 eff"ect is not hmited to this. It produces an elevating influ- 
 ence upon the character. It is impossible to escape from 
 the impression of the language we employ, and the images 
 which it depicts. The sensitive discrimination which is ac- 
 quired by choosing between phrases, will find employment 
 in other and higher spheres. 'The sentiment of intellec- 
 tual beauty, even when applying itself to literary objects, 
 must inspire a repugnance for all that is worthless and vio- 
 lent: and this involuntary aversion is a guarantee almost 
 as much to be depended upon as the principles of Re- 
 flexion \' 
 
 Finally, what is style? A student is directed, for ex- 
 ample, to translate passages into the style of Cicero or of 
 Livy. Does this mean that the translation is to be studded 
 
 1 Mdme, de Stael, De la littdrature, Discours pr^liminaire. 
 
26 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 with the mannerisms and phrases habitual to these writers? 
 Too often I fear it does, and Classical exercises are frequently 
 estimated by this erroneous standard. To such misleading 
 conceptions the following anecdote of Porson will serve as 
 a valuable corrective. When pressed for approval of some 
 school exercises in verse he replied, ' I see in them much 
 Horace and Vergil, but nothing either Horatian or Ver- 
 gilian.' 
 
 You cannot write like Cicero until you understand some- 
 thing of Latin rhetorical expression, and have some clear 
 conception of the character of the Roman people. The style 
 of Livy again is full of energy and life, because he depicts 
 men and events stamped with a republican greatness, as 
 they presented themselves upon the stage of life, and not 
 with the analytical exactness of a later and more philosophi- 
 cal age, but with the object of glorifying the Roman nation. 
 To write like Livy then the first step is to picture in your own 
 mind the events you intend to describe as they would have 
 presented themselves to a spectator, and to reaUze emotions 
 as they actuated men. This is done by the imagination and 
 implies resolute and determined thought, dicere enim bene 
 nemo potest nisi prudenter inielligit Good writing is the 
 certain result of a clear and adequate conception. Without 
 this excellence your description will be not that of a his- 
 torian, but of a chronicler. Remember too that all Latin 
 is more or less rhetorical. It is not enough to state a fact; 
 the statement must carry conviction with it^ 
 
 It is well also to remember the remark of Buffon, ' Le 
 style est de Thomme meme.' Every one not utterly devoid of 
 individuality has and must have a style of his own, and the 
 
 1 Lisez six lignes de suite dans Tite Live : involontairement la voix 
 s'dl^ve, vous prenez le ton soutenu, vous d^fendez une cause, et vous 
 prononcez un discours. Taine, Essai sur Tite Live, chap. iii. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 III ^ 
 
 I 
 
 7. 
 
 study of the masters of expression will be but sorry work' if / / 
 it results in an endeavour to hide your personality under a 
 showy and ill-fitting patchwork from the garments in which 
 their thoughts were clothed. Mere imitation, howsoever 
 successful, is never fascinating. To arrest the attention and 
 charm the imagination is the exclusive privilege of origi- 
 nahty, which is not less but more effective when accom- 
 panied by the correct taste which is one of the many re- 
 wards for a faithful study of the grand and pure monuments 
 of ancient literature, for 
 
 7J /JLeXira <pij(Ttos dyadds irKtuva 
 dwpeiTai, <pi\oi. 
 
\ ^ ) 
 
 w 
 
 U 
 
 
 PART II. 
 I. 
 
 SOME ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF LATIN 
 
 EXPRESSION. 
 
 A FEW features of Latin expression, all more or less con- 
 nected together, should especially be kept in view ; 
 i. Its concreteness. 
 
 ii. Its directness. 
 
 iii. Its distinctness and lucidity. 
 
 iv. Its realism. 
 
 V. Precision in tenses etc. 
 I. Latin is concrete in its expression. It deals with 
 the concrete and individual, not with the abstract and 
 universal. Abstract words are of a scientific nature and 
 presuppose training and education in the reader. Oratory 
 (and all Latin writing is oratorical in character) appeals 
 to the sympathies of the public, and of necessity employs 
 simple and usual phraseology ^ 
 
 A few sentences in English and Latin will probably 
 make this clear. 
 
 a. The most exalted genius is frequently overborne by envy. 
 Viri summo ingenio praediti, saepenumero invidia opprimuntur. 
 
 b. Firmness^ dignity , superiority to every accident of life, are the 
 essential characteristics of vtagnanimity and moral courage, 
 
 ^ Taine speaking of Livy remarks, Toutes ces expressions sont 
 belles parce qu'elles sont tout naturelles. C'est le charme du bon 
 style et nous en jouissons aujourd'hui par contraste, eleves parmi les * 
 abstractions pedantes qui defigurent nos ecrits et prennent la pensee 
 vivante pour la jeter morte dans les formules banales et seches. Telle 
 est la tyrannie de I'habitude : le langage usuel est un serviteur ne- 
 cessaire : si mauvais qu'il soit, nous sommes forces de I'employer. 
 Tite Live, ne dans le temps meilleurs a i\.i plus heureux que nous. 
 Essai sur Tite Live, chap. iv. 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION, 2g 
 
 Constantem enim volumus, gravem, humana omnia preme7itein ilium 
 esse quem magnanimum ^tfortem dicimu^. 
 
 c. Fed7'y desire^ exultation are inconsistent with such a disposition. 
 
 Talis enim nee timens nee cupiens nee gestiens esse quisquam potest. 
 
 d. The same treatment is not applicable to all mental distress. 
 Affliction^ commiseration^ envy^ all require different remedies. 
 
 Non omnis aegritudo una ratione sedatur : alia enim lugenti, alia 
 
 miseranti, alia cupienti adhibenda est medicina. 
 
 e. The world regards ingratitude with detestation. 
 Omnes i?ftmemorem beneficii oderunt. 
 
 f. There are differences untold between learning and ignorance, 
 Plurimum interest inter doctum et rudem, 
 
 g. He had read no poetry and was unacquainted with oj-atory. 
 Nullum poetam legerat, nullum oratorem noverat. 
 
 h. That alone is good the possession of which necessarily secures 
 happiness. 
 
 Id solum bonum est, quo qui potiatur, necesse est beatus sit. 
 
 u • Be this thy genius — to impose 
 
 the rule of peace on vanquished foes. 
 
 Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem... 
 
 j\ To perform the duties and functions of royalty. 
 
 Regis exsequi officia et munera. 
 
 k. So music flourished in Greece and all used to learn it. 
 
 Ergo in Graecia musici floruerunt, discebantque id omnes. (Cic. Tus. 
 Disp. I. II. § 4.) 
 
 /. Poetry received a tardy recognition and welcome from our 
 countrymen. 
 
 Sero a nostris poetae vel cogniti vel recepti. 
 
 Compare Quod si dolentem nee Phrygius lapis, etc. — Desiderantem 
 quod satis est, etc. in the poets. 
 
 To this concreteness of expression we may refer the 
 frequent citation of the examples of eminent men and the 
 use of the name of a well-known character to represent 
 the virtue which was his characteristic, or to give an air of 
 reality to a remark, as 
 
 a. Tempora Tullo regi quam Numae aptiora. 
 
 b. Non enim alienum est a dignitate tua habere... aliquem Nestora, 
 
 c. Proinde cum venabere, licebit, auctore me, ut panarium et 
 
30 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 langunculam, sic etiam pugillares feras : experieris non Dianam magis 
 montibus quam Minervavi inerrare. 
 
 d. Do you think that in advanced age he was in the habit of greet- 
 ing people by their wrong names ? 
 
 Num igitur censetis eum, quum aetate processisset, qui Aristides 
 esset, Lysimachiim salutare solitum? 
 
 The Rhetorical figure Metonymy may be brought under 
 the same head. On this subject Cicero supplies us with a 
 locus classicus in his De Oratore. 
 
 Gravis est modus in omatu orationis et saepe sumendus : ex quo 
 genere haec sunt, Martem belli esse communem ; Cererem pro frugibus, 
 Libertim appellare pro vino : Neptunum pro mari : Curiam pro senatu : 
 caftipum pro comitiis : togafn pro pace : arma et tela pro hello : quo item 
 in genere et virtute et vitia pro ipsis in quibus ilia sunt, appellantur : 
 luxuries quam in domum irrupit, et quo Avaritia penetravit : aut Fides 
 valuit, yustitia confecit. 
 
 Cf. Quos amisimus cives, eos vis Martis perculit, non ira victoriae. 
 
 Such expressions according to the great master erudU 
 tionem redolent. 
 
 Hence many words, such as statesmen^ diplo7)iatists, 
 theory, aim, profession and others, have in Latin no simple 
 equivalent, but require to be rendered by a combination of 
 words. 
 
 The following list may prove useful to a student. 
 
 Accomplice = scelerum or consiliorum conscius. 
 
 Agriculture and architecture =cultus agrorum exstructionesque tec- 
 
 torum. 
 
 Aim = quo animum or studia intendimus. 
 
 Antithesis = verba relata contrarie. 
 
 Aristocracy = optimates ; primores civitatis. 
 
 Arithmetic = studia or scientia numerorum. 
 
 Assessment = quod cuique tributum est. 
 
 Axiom = certa stabilisque sententia. 
 
 Calendar =compositio anni. 
 
 Character =ingenium et mores. 
 
 Chronology = descriptiones temporum («/j^ fasti). 
 
 Civilization =exculta hominum vita; humanus civilisque cultus. 
 
 Communism =aequatio bonorum. . 
 
 Conscience = conscius animus. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 31 
 
 Conservatives = qui reipublicae statum conservant. 
 
 Contracts =contractae res. Compare *rerum contractarum fidem,' 
 which as Zumpt naively remarks is equivalent to 'fidem in servandis 
 contractibus,^ quo vocabulo Cicero uti noluit. Compare also *qui in 
 contrahendis negotiis implicantur.' 
 
 Correspondence =legati et literae. 
 
 Diplomatists = qui scientiam habent in foederibus, pactionibus et 
 iure denique belli et pacis. 
 
 Enthusiasm = ardor or impetus animi. 
 
 Etymology = vis verbi. — Hoc verbi vis ipsa declarat. 
 
 Exports and imports =eae res quae exportantur et importantur. 
 
 Fire engines = quae restinguendo igni sunt. — instrumenta ad in- 
 cendia restinguenda^. 
 
 Foreboding =praesagiens malorum animus. 
 
 Gravitation = vis et gravitas. 
 
 Historian = rerum gestarum scriptor. 
 
 Humanity = leges humanae. Forgetful of the claims of humanity = 
 legum humanarum immemor. 
 
 Inspiration = divinus quidam afflatus. 
 
 Lawgiver = qui leges ponit. 
 
 Method = via et ratio. 
 
 Moral philosophy = quae de moribus et officiis praecepta sunt. 
 
 Object (in philosophy) = res obiccta sensibus, res adventitiae, or 
 extemae. 
 
 One of the old school =vir patrii moris et disciplinae. 
 
 Panic = res trepida. 
 
 Patriotism = studium reipublicae. Ingenita erga patriam caritas. 
 
 Profession = id quod profitetur aliquis. 
 
 Rhetoric =rhetorum praecepta. 
 
 Statesmen = qui in republica dirigenda versantur ; qui adgubemacula 
 reipublicae accedunt, and the like. 
 
 Statesmanship = reipublicae regendae et constituendae peritia. 
 
 String and wind instruments (tone of) = nervorum et tibiarum soni. 
 
 Superfluity = id quod afiluit opibus. 
 
 Theory =artis praecepta ; quod in praeceptis positum est. 
 
 Utilitarian philosophers = qui omnia ad utilitatem referunt 
 
 ^ Plmius Traiano, XXXIII, NuUus usquam in publico sipo, nulla 
 hama, nullum denique instrumentum ad incendia compescenda, . 
 
0-" 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 2. The want of abstract words was owing to the con- 
 sei*vative instinct of the Romans alluded to above, which 
 made them reluctant to invent a new word whenever their 
 existing vocabulary could be made available. It must not 
 be supposed that they preferred periphrasis : on the con- 
 trary, few languages are equally conspicuous for directness 
 and simplicity of expression whenever the recognised voca- 
 bulary admits of it. 
 
 Hence many single nouns* are employed to express 
 ideas for which our more subtle analysis would require two 
 substantives and a preposition, as 
 
 Officium= sense of duty; immortalitas= belief in immortality; hi 
 mores = spirit of the age; gloria = love of glory; verum = love of truth, 
 as, Expers curae quae scribentis animum etsi non flectere a vero, solici- 
 tum tamen efficere possit. Cicero, Livius etc = the style of Cicero, or 
 Livy, as 
 
 Even the style of Livy failed to satisfy Asinius Pollio. 
 Ne Livius quidem ipse Asinio PoUioni placuit. 
 Sepulcra= epitaphs or tombstones. Nee sepulcra legens vereor ne 
 memoriam perdam. 
 
 i. A remarkable example of the tendency of Roman 
 writers to employ the ordinary and simple vocabulary is 
 supplied by the incessant use of the word res. It is, so 
 to say, a blank cheque, to be filled up from the context to 
 the requisite amount of meaning. The following examples 
 are all from the earlier books of Livy, and the list might 
 be extended indefinitely: 
 
 It signifies state or empire^ res publica, res Romana, Latina, Troiana 
 
 etc. circumstances y ea utique res Troianis spem offirmat. state of 
 
 society, uttum res erant. proposal, haud displicet ?rj Tullo. victory, 
 
 ^ Gic. Tus. Dispp. IV. 5 sqq. is a mine of accurate words clearly 
 defined. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 Zl 
 
 consilium erat quo fortuna rem daret, eo inclinare vires. attempt or 
 
 experiment, tentata res est si primo impetu capi Ardea posset. govern- 
 ment, res ad Camillum rediit. property, cum ex re nihil dari posset, 
 
 fama et corpore creditoribus satisfaciebant a novelty, res nova belli- 
 
 coso populo. a revolution, res novae, -measures, as opposed to men, 
 
 nunquamne vos res potius quam auctores spectabitis? prosperity, res 
 
 secundae or prosperae, adversity, res adversae, conflict, eodem 
 
 ardore animorum gerebatur res, interest, tua res agitur. tran- 
 
 quillity, tranquillae res. This simplicity of phraseology occasionally 
 produces a poverty of expression as in Liv. x. 6, Pacatae foris res fuere. 
 Etruscum adversa belli res et indutiae quietum tenebant. 
 
 ii. Similarly esse is frequently employed when we should 
 be compelled in translation to employ a more expressive 
 verbj as 
 
 Per castra indignatio ingens erat (reigned). Succus ille et sanguis 
 
 incorruptus usque ad banc aetatem qx2Xqx\xvcv fiiit (remained). Impru- 
 
 dens suus ipse fuit (became) accusator. Romanus exercitus in agro 
 
 Lavinati erat (was stationed, encamped). lam enim erat (was in 
 
 vogue) unctior quaedam splendidiorque consuetudo loquendi. Ex hac 
 
 opinione sunt (arise, result,) ilia detestabilia genera lugendi 1. 
 
 iii. The figure called by grammarians Hendiadys' should 
 be mentioned here. An idea annexed to a substantive in 
 English either by a case and preposition, or by an adjec- 
 tive, is in Latin connected as a coordinate idea. This 
 is due 
 
 a. to the conservative tendency already explained, 
 as may be seen in such expressions as 
 
 ^ This paragraph on the use of esse is taken entirely from Grysar, 
 
 p. 307, 308. 
 
 2 Madvig alludes to this rhetorical figure, but more suo makes no 
 attempt to account for it. Pace tanti viri * Hie laticis qualem pateris 
 libamus et auro ' is not merely equivalent to aureis pateris, but is a far 
 more forcible and suggestive expression. It is a wine to be offered to 
 the gods in sacrificial vessels, aye, and in the most precious of metals. 
 
 3 
 
34 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Nundinae et conciliabula=ze«f>5/j'y^/rj, in preference to nundinalia 
 
 conciliabula. Spectator et \<^\:\^=eye-vntne55 in preference to oculatus 
 
 testis. Ratio et ^oQ\xai2i^theoretical knowledge, in preference to 
 
 rationalist doctrina. Ignominia et calamitas= instead of ignominiosa 
 
 calamitas. Artificium et tTi^o\\\.o-= artistic culture =instead of ariifi- 
 
 cialis expolitio» 
 
 b. to a love of distinctness and precision, as 
 
 a. Tundendo aique odio effecit senem, * by his odious sermonizing/ 
 
 b. He attempted to conclude his speech amidst the loudly ex- 
 pressed detestation of the House. 
 
 Odio et strepitti senatus conatus est perorare. 
 
 3. Latin expression must not merely be clear, it must 
 be precise, lucid", piercing as the sun^ at noon-day. Per- 
 spicacity with the Roman was the queen of literary merits. 
 Orationis summa virtus est perspicuitas— Quare non ut 
 intellegere possit (auditor) sed ne omnino possit non in- 
 tellegere curandum — Oratio lumen adhibere rebus debet*. 
 No ambiguity was to be admitted*. Redundancy was 
 better than obscurity ^ 
 
 i. Love of distinctness led the Romans to give a per- 
 sonal expression to many ideas which we are apt to approach 
 analytically, as 
 
 a. The assassination of Caesar was regarded by some as a glorious, 
 by others as an atrocious act. 
 
 Occisus Caesar aliis pulcherrim^m, aliis teterrimum facinus vide- 
 batur. 
 
 ^ Rationalis did not exist I believe before the silver age ; nundinalis 
 and oculatus though both used by Plautus, found no favour with the 
 Augustan writers. 
 
 ^ Sine ambiguo verbo aut sermone. Cic. de Orat. iii. 13. 
 
 ' Quintil. VII. 2. 23. * Cic. de Orat. ill. 13. 
 
 ^ Quintil. VIII. II. • Quintil. IV. a. 4. 
 
 LATIiV PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 35 
 
 b. Scmpronius^ anger appears to me very laughable. 
 Iratus Sempronius mihi perridiculus videtur. 
 
 c. This was the only instance since the building of Messena of a 
 cross being erected in that spot. 
 
 Ilia crux sola post conditam Messenam illo in loco fixa est. 
 
 d. The government of Rome was monarchical from the foundation 
 of the city till its liberation a period of 244 years. 
 
 Regnatum est Romae a condita urbe ad liberatam annos ducentos 
 quadraginta quattuor. 
 
 ۥ His ambition was increased by a marriage with Tanaquil a lady 
 of rank. 
 
 Animoi auxit dticia in matrimonium Tanaquil summo loco nata. 
 
 ii. A periphrasis however is often employed when the 
 writer aims at expressing his point of view with precision ; 
 for directness is not to be confounded with conciseness of 
 expression, to which indeed it is frequently opposed. 
 
 Meus in te animus quam singular! officio fuerit et senatus et populus 
 
 testis est (for ego fuerim ). This is particularly the case with 
 
 the word sententia, as in nua sentential tua sententia for ego, tu, Vis 
 
 animi ttvirtutis, Dicebatur ab eodem animo ingenioque. Semper 
 
 mihi ante oculos obversatur vultus Cethegi. Nee vis tantum militum 
 
 movebat, sed quod Volscorum animis nihil terribilius erat quam ipsius 
 Camilli forte oblata species; i. e. it was not a material, but a moral 
 victory. Camillus flashed upon the Volscians like an apparition and 
 they were stricken with fear. 
 
 iii. To the same love of distinctness is to be referred 
 the frequent personification of feelings and motives, which 
 imparts to the descriptions of Livy much of the life and 
 poetry for which they are distinguished, as 
 
 Ubi cum timor atque ira in vicem sententias variassent, plus abhorre- 
 bant a certatione animi. Praecipuus pavor Tribunes invaserat.- 
 
 Haec ira indignatioque ferocem animum ad vexandum saevo imperio 
 exercitum stimulabat. Tertio die cum ira Romanos, illos conscientia 
 
 3—2 
 
36 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 culpae ac desperatio irritaret, mora dimicandi nulla est facta. Pndor 
 
 primum tenuit effusos. Vertit animos repente pudor, et in ea ipsa 
 
 quae fugerant, velut caeci niebant. Hinc spes^ hinc desperatio animos 
 
 irritat. Consulis vocem subsecuta patrum indignatio est. 
 
 iv. What may be called a personality of expression with 
 the verbs habere^ tenere^ excipere^ etc., is also to be re- 
 marked. 
 
 Insequens annus tribunos militum consulari potestate habuit, 
 
 Gallos quoque velut obstupefactos miraculum victoriae tarn repentinae 
 
 tenuit, Tristem hiemem pestibus aetas excepit, Sensit eventus vir- 
 
 tutis enisae opem. 
 
 V. Hence the English impersonal expressions such as 
 ' // is said that, ,,j^ ^it is reported that, , , / and the like, receive 
 in Latin if possible a personal expression. 
 
 Thus instead of Dicitur Thucydidem scripsisse etc., write Thucy- 
 dides dicitur libros suos turn scripsisse quum a republica remotus atque 
 
 in exilium pulsus est. Ibi in quiete utrique consuli eadem dicitur 
 
 visa species viri maioris quam pro humano habitu augustiorisque. 
 
 not, Dicitur visam esse speciem. Demosthenes omnes eloquentia 
 
 superasse putabatur; not, Putabatur Z)^;;/^^//^^^/;?, etc. 
 
 vi. The love of * objective simplicity' and of directness 
 and personality induced the Romans to use the active 
 voice much more than the passive. Indeed the use of the 
 passive is, in comparison with the English usage, rare. 
 
 An empty house had been occupied by the conspirators. Arnold. 
 Liberas aedes coniurati stimpserunt. Liv. 
 
 Jerusalem at this period was fortified by three walls. Milman. 
 Urbem opera molesque firmaverant ^ Tac. 
 
 The frequent use of the past participle in the ablative 
 absolute, which seems an exception to the rule, was necessi- 
 tated by the want (i) of a perfect participle in the active voice. 
 
 Parallel Extracts, J. E. Nixon, M.A. 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION, 
 
 37 
 
 (2) by the limitation of the present participle to expressing 
 simultaneous action, (3) by the desire to put aside a tertium 
 quid, which being neither subject nor object, interfered with 
 the unity and directness of the sentence, as in railway com- 
 munication local trains are run on to * sidings' not to im- 
 pede the main traffic. 
 
 Moreover the Latin passive is somewhat cumbrous in its 
 forms and less handy than the active. 
 
 vii. The methods of rendering into Latin the English 
 word ^asy which is often a crux to beginners, may be 
 appropriately explained here. 
 
 A, When it contains a reason or other logical predi- 
 cation it cannot be rendered by ut^^ but requires a precise 
 and explicit translation, as 
 
 a, Camillus as dictator had no other course open to him. 
 Camillus, quum esset dictator, aliter facere non potuit. 
 
 b. They, as Christians, preferred to suffer the extremest tortures. 
 Illi, quum essent Christiani, extrema pati maluerant. 
 
 ' * Ut however is used before a title or designation, as ut miles^ 
 ut servHSy when we should render it by for a soldier, for a slave, as 
 
 a. He was very honest, for a slave. 
 Valde frugi erat, ut servus. 
 
 b. He was very popular, for a banker, with all classes. 
 Erat, ut argentarius, apud omnes ordines gratiosus. 
 
 c. It is considered that Cleisthenes was a powerful speaker /;r 
 those days. 
 
 Opinio est Cleisthenem multum, ut illis temporibus, valuisse. 
 
 d. At vero Diogenes liberius, /// Cynicus, Alexandro roganti 
 
4 
 
 38 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 B. If 'as consul,' etc., signifies ^ in the capacity oV or 
 ' during the consulship of,' etc., that is, if it is temporal and 
 official, the directness of Latin expression requires that ut 
 should be omitted, and the title or function be placed in 
 simple apposition to the subject, as 
 
 a, Cicero as consul expelled Catiline from Rome. 
 Cicero consul Catilinam Roma expulit. 
 
 h* Sulla as commander-in-chief handed over the deserters for 
 execution. 
 
 Sulla imperator profugas supplicio afficiendos tradidit. 
 
 c. He affirmed that he had been elected not as consul, but as an 
 executioner to harass the commons. 
 
 Non consulem eum sed carnificem ad vexandam plebem creatum 
 e^Q contendit 
 
 d» He is growing up as a great orator to succeed your generation. 
 Ille non mediocris orator vestrae aetati succrescit 
 
 C. Sometimes as is a relative in English, as 
 
 a. This is the same as that. 
 Hoc idem est quod illud, 
 
 b. Such an one as thou. 
 Talis qualis tu es. 
 
 viii. To secure liveliness and personality of expression, 
 the substitution of the verbal substantives in -tor, -trix^ -ex, 
 etc., in the place of adjectives, participles and relative sen- 
 tences, plays an important part in Latin writing, as 
 
 Mario inerat contemptor animus et superbia. Romulus exercitu 
 
 victore reducto, ipse cum factis vir magnificus tum factorum ostentator 
 
 baud minor Capitolium ascendit. Duces Romani saepe tironem exer- 
 
 citum acceperunt. Hoc in oratore videtur apparuisse ariifex, ut ita 
 
 dicam, stylus. Oratio r^wr/Z/^/rw: humanae societatis. Consul, in- 
 
 vectus est in proditorem exercitum militaris disciplinae, desertoriem sig- 
 jionim. ^Verres ille vtim proditar consulis, /ra«^/a/i?r quaesturae, 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 39 
 
 1 
 
 aversor pecuniae publicae. Scelerata et paene deletrix huius imperii 
 
 ^ica. Tarquinii tribuni militum. Ipse quoque triumph! ante 
 
 yxoXorvamflagitator Romam rediit. Sextius Liciniusque, artifices iam 
 
 tot annorum usu tractandi animos plebis, de singulis quae ferebantur ad 
 
 populum fatigabant. Praedaene interceptorem fraudatoremque etiam 
 
 malum minari ittilitibus? Adeo novum sibi ingenium induerat ut 
 
 plebicola repente omnisque aurae popularis captator evaderet pro tmci 
 
 saevoque insectatore plebis. Si adhortator operis adesset, omnes sua 
 
 sponte motam remittere industriam. — -Centurio erat M, Flavoleius 
 
 inter primores pugnae flagitator, Qui spectator erat amovendus, 
 
 eum ipsum fortuna exactorem suppiicii dedit. 
 
 ix. A similar effect is produced by the substitution of a 
 substantive for an adjective, as 
 
 Isocrates nobilitate disciptddrum floruit (for nobilibus discipulis). 
 
 Vis flammae aquae multitudine opprimitur (=violenta Jlamma multa 
 
 aqua opprimitur). Magna oratorum est semperque fuit paucitas 
 
 (Orators are and always have been rare). Quis ignorat ii qui mathe- 
 
 matici vocantur qtmntd in obscuritate rerum versentur? Hoc provi- 
 
 debam animo, remoto Catilina, nee mihi esse P. Lentuli somnum, nee 
 L. Cassii adipem, nee C. QciYiegifuriosam temeritatem pertimescendam. 
 
 Quia nusquam in tanta foeditate decreti verisimilem invenio, id 
 
 quod constat nudum videtur proponendum, decresse vindicias secundum 
 
 servitutem. Si hoc post hominum memoriam contigit nemini, vocis 
 
 expectas contumdiam, cum sis gravissuno iudicio taciturnitatis op- 
 pressus? 
 
 X, This is the case especially when the word which we 
 should render in English by an adjective, contains the catise 
 of the statement, as 
 
 Superstitio hominum imbecUlitatem ocoupavit (i.e. because they were 
 
 weak). Sin processeris longius (in aetate) non est dolendum magis 
 
 quam agricolae dolent, praeterita verni temporis suavitaie, aestatem 
 auctumnumque venisse. (In suavitate praeterita lies the cause of the 
 dolor.) 
 
 4. The realistic character of Latin expression has been 
 already indirectly illustrated, but the following instances may 
 be given : 
 
40 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 a. They refresh themselves with food and sleep. 
 
 C rpord cibo somnoque curant. Compare Curati cibo corpora 
 
 quieti dant. 
 
 b. He, having resolved to die, endured the pain without diffiailty. 
 Ille morte proposita facile dolorem corporis patiebatur. 
 
 c. Ipsa papavereas subsecat ungue comas. 
 
 d. The introduction of the games failed however to relieve them 
 either from superstition or disease. 
 
 Nee tamen ludorum primum initium aut religione animos aut corpora 
 morbis levavit. 
 
 When we frequently employ the singular in such phrases 
 as * something delights the ear, the eye,' etc., the realism of 
 the Romans demanded the plural, as 
 
 a. In instruments a musical ear detects the slightest variations 
 of tone. 
 
 In fidibus tnusicorum aures vel minima sentiunt. 
 
 h. A tyrant's end is the most wretched in the world. 
 Omnium miserrimi tyrannorum exitus, 
 
 c, I keep my eye constantly upon him. 
 Nunquam ab eo oculos deicio. 
 
 d* He commenced a journey on foot, 
 
 Ingressus iter pedibus est. Compare pedihis ire in sententiam 
 
 alicuius, of divisions in the House. 
 
 Hence, while it is correct to say, Pyxidem in manu teneo, you must 
 say Fabula quam in manibus teneo : Epicurum in manus sumo, because 
 the papyrus rolls of the Romans required to be held in both hands. 
 
 Clearness or lucidity of style results from (i) the 
 thought, (ii) from the expression, (iii) from the phrases 
 employed. Of these essentials the first is of course the 
 most important; no writing can be clear when the thoughts 
 conveyed by it are indistinct. This however cannot be 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 41 
 
 imparted by instruction : it results from an effort of the 
 writer's mind. Nothing however is more inimical to distinct 
 and precise thinking than to be content with slovenly and 
 confused writing. 
 
 The principal rules to be observed, in order to secure 
 the indispensable virtues of style in writing Latin, will sub- 
 sequently form a large portion of the directions for 'Ar- 
 ranging words in sentences,' 'The treatment of the sub- 
 ject and object,' 'The subordination of clauses in periods,' 
 and 'The position of the relative;' here a few general 
 cautions only will be given against ambiguity of expression. 
 
 i. Ambiguity results from a subject and object in the 
 accusative with the same infinitive, as 
 
 Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos vincere posse. 
 
 iL sometimes from the ablative with ab after expec- 
 tatur, petitur, poscitur, postulatur, accipitur, etc., as 
 
 Postulatur ab aliquo. ^Victoria ab aliquo reportatur. 
 
 iii. sometimes from the dative of the agent after a 
 gerundive or a future passive participle, as 
 
 Libertas nobis conservanda est. Ei ego gratiam mihi referendam 
 
 censeo. 
 
 iv. from the ablative of comparison after adverbs 
 instead of qiiam with proper case, as a doubt arises whe- 
 ther the subject or object is the first member of the com- 
 parison, as 
 
 Titum magis amo Sempronio. Ut se non unquam melius servo 
 
 vestiret; where servo is equivalent to quam servum; but it is open to 
 misconception. 
 
7 
 
 42 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Latin PROSE composition. 
 
 43 
 
 tl 
 
 V. when an objective and subjective genitive are de- 
 pendent upon one substantive, as 
 
 Helvetiorum iniuriae populi RomanL 
 
 vi. Ambiguity may also be created by the genitive of a 
 future passive participle, where it is not clear whether the 
 gender is neuter or masculine, as 
 
 Scientia verorum a falsis dignoscendorum. 
 
 For the same reason genitive, dative and ablative plural 
 in the neuter gender should be avoided, and res with the 
 feminine adjective used instead, whenever any ambiguity 
 would arise. 
 
 Say in extremis rebuSf not in extremis, 
 
 vii. Obscurity arises from the union of ablatives in 
 different senses in the same sentence, as 
 
 a, Verres homo vita atque factis omnium iam opinione damnatus 
 pecuniae magnitudine sua spe...absolutus. (Where vita atque factis-- 
 propter vitam et facta: magnitudine = propter magnitudinem,) 
 
 b, Nolite hac eum re qua se honestiorem fore putavit, etiam ante 
 partis honestatibus...privare. Cic. Mur. XL. 87. 
 
 r. Quare accipio equidem a Cyrenaicis haec arma contra casus ct 
 eventus quibus eorum advenientes impetus diutuma meditatione fran- 
 gantur. Where Wolfe interprets diutuma meditatione as in explanatory 
 apposition to armis. Klotz more correctly regards quibus as instru- 
 mental, diutuma meditatione as modal. Clearly something is wrong in 
 the expression, when the interpretation is so ambiguous. 
 
 5. The precision and logical strictness of Latin expres- 
 sion require great accuracy in the use of tenses. 
 
 I. The present participle is loosely used in English, 
 while in Latin it is never used except of what is actually 
 taking place at the moment described. 
 
 i 
 
 ■I, 
 
 i. * Varus finding out the treachery of his relative, burst into a 
 passion,* must be rendered in Latin thus 
 
 Varus quum cognati fraudem comperisset, in iram exarsit — or cognati 
 fraude comperta, 
 
 iL Seeing him fall, the guards were seized with a panic and fled. 
 Satellites, ut iacentem videre, trepidi diffugiunt. 
 
 IL As no vagueness in regard to time can be admitted 
 into Latin verbal expression, it is necessary on meeting with 
 an English Present tense to inquire whether it is a real 
 present, or is doing duty for some other tense. 
 
 L The letter is written in ink. 
 Atramento scripta est epistola. 
 
 ii. You are envied by the world, 
 tibi ab omnibus invidetur. 
 
 III. The present in English often requires a future or 
 future perfect in Latin^. 
 
 1. *He will help you if he can,' or if he is able to do so, is not 
 strictly true. The question is not whether he has the power to help now, 
 but whether he will have it when the time for assistance comes. It 
 will therefore stand in Latin thus, 
 
 te, si poterit, adiuvabit. 
 
 2. ' When the postman comes, I shall have a letter,' means strictly, 
 when the postman shall have arrived^ I shall have a letter, and must be 
 so rendered in Latin. 
 
 i. quum advenerit tabellarius, literas accipiam. 
 
 ii. If you abandon virtue, you can never be happy, 
 si a virtute decesseris, beatus esse nunquam poteris. 
 
 iii. I shall wait till the enemy retires» 
 dum abierint hostes, expectabo. 
 
 iv. As a man sows, so shall he also reap, 
 ut sementem feceris^ ita et metes. 
 
 V. I will punish the man who does so. 
 qui hoc fecerit, poena afficiam. 
 
 This perfect future tense late patet. 
 
7 
 
 'W 
 
 / 
 
 44 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 45 
 
 II. 
 
 ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 
 
 The English language, in common with all those that 
 have lost their inflexions, is compelled to obey somewhat 
 definite and rigid rules in the arrangement of the words 
 composing a sentence. The arrangement is generally that 
 of syntactical analysis, and consequently the different parts 
 of a proposition are divided with distinctness. By this 
 much is gained in facility of expression both in conversation 
 and in writing, and no severe mental tension is required to 
 comprehend the statement made in a proposition. There 
 is however a loss of emphasis, and the subjectivity of a 
 writer is not necessarily obvious on the surface. To make 
 this apparent, weak and careless writers often resort to the 
 mechanical artifices of underlining words in letters, and 
 italicizing them in print. 
 
 The Latin language, on the contrary, is transpositive, 
 and lies under no such difficulty. It has of course its 
 usual grammatical order; but this, owing to the inflected 
 forms of nearly all the nouns, adjectives and verbs, can be 
 abandoned without obscuring the grammatical construction, 
 whenever logical or rhetorical emphasis or the harmony of 
 the sentence, makes such an alteration desirable. In other 
 words, the order of syntactical analysis can, without involv- 
 ing confusion, yield to the order of thought, and allow the 
 individuality of the writer to impress itself on the face of 
 
 
 the sentence'. Hence in Latin the order of words is a 
 mirror which reflects the progress of the writer's ideas, and 
 it is therefore essential for the adequate rendering either of 
 English into Latin or of Latin into English, that the usual 
 order of words in Latin should be clearly understood. 
 
 In short, owing to the inflected forms of the language a 
 Latin sentence is, at least in the order of words, singularly 
 flexible and capable of adapting itself to the thought most 
 prominent in the mind of the writer. There is hardly a 
 word, with the exception of a few particles and prepositions, 
 which may not occupy any place from the first to the last. 
 The first essential then in rendering a sentence into Latin is 
 to find out where the subjectivity of it lies— to see what is 
 uppermost in the writer's mind ; where the emphasis should 
 fall. This is half the battle, for a perfect sentence will 
 happily strike the balance between the internal and the 
 external— the mind and the ear — the force of logic and the 
 charm of sound. 
 
 I. 
 
 On the position of the grammatical Subject a?td of the Verb. 
 
 I. The usual Order is : 
 
 Subject Verb containing predication, as 
 
 Homo mortalis est. Romulus urbem condidit Caesar Galliam 
 
 vicit Camillus pedites abire iussit* 
 
 The logical subject of a subordinate clause may be the 
 grammatical object of another sentence. The position of it 
 in its own sentence will not be altered, as 
 
 Ita memoriae traditum est, Socratem omnem istatn disputationem 
 reiecisse. Animadvertit Caesar, Sequanos nihil earum rerum facere. 
 
 ^ That this transpositive arrangement of words should impose a tax 
 upon the attention was inevitable, and is obvious from the fact that even 
 literary men like Cicero adopted mainly the syntactical order in their 
 familiar letters and conversation. 
 
 I I II n iii M « a<)l 
 
 I J UMLLlj .*" 
 
46 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 A. As the subject then, with the words that qualify it, 
 stands naturally at the beginning of the sentence, in order 
 to gain emphasis it must be placed in some other marked 
 position. The most emphatic position which it can occupy 
 is the one usually held by the verb, viz. that at or near the 
 end of the sentence, as 
 
 Cuius in oratione plurimum efficit ipsa concinnitas. Scenicorum 
 
 mos tantam habet verecundiam ut in scenam sine subligaculo prodeat 
 
 nemo. Quam me delectat Theramenes! Hannibal iam subibat 
 
 muros, cum in eum erumpunt Rotnanu Quae si populo Romano 
 
 iniuste imperanti accidere potuerunt, quid debent putare singuU?—-- 
 Citatur reus: agitur caussa: paucis verbis accusat Canutius: incipit 
 longe et alte petito prooemio respondere maior Cepasius : primo attente 
 auditur eius oratio : erigebat animum iam demissum et oppressum Oppi- 
 
 aniens. Sensit in se iri Bruttis. Prudentiam sequitur considerata 
 
 actio. Romanum quem Caudium, quem Cannae non fregerunt, quae 
 
 fregisset aeies ? 
 
 B. It must not however be assumed that the subject is 
 always emphatic because it abandons its normal position. 
 It may cede its place to some other word* which requires 
 logical or rhetorical prominence, as • 
 
 Nihil agere animus non potest. Consulis enim alterius quum nil 
 
 aliud offenderit, nomen civitati invisum fuit. 
 
 C. This is especially the case when the subject has been 
 already mentioned and is known to the reader or hearer, as 
 
 Aulus Cluentius caussam dicit ea lege qua lege senatores soli tenen- 
 tur. Si obtinuerit caussam Cluentius omnes existimabunt obtinuisse 
 
 propter innocentiam. Nee tamen mihi quicquam occurrit cur non et 
 
 Pythagorae sit et Platonis vera sententia; ut enim rationem Plato vx^^m 
 
 afferet, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret. Tulit hoc dedecus famiUae 
 
 graviter filius ; augebatur autem eius molestia quotidianis querimoniis et 
 assiduo fletu sororis. [Here molestia is already contained in ^aviter 
 
 tulit.l Soror virgo solvit crines et flebiliter nomine sponsum mor- 
 
 tuum appellat. Movit feroci iuveni animum comploratio sororis in 
 victoria sua tantoque gaudio publico. 
 
 1 For the Verb at the begitming of the sentence see below, * On the 
 position of the Verb.* 
 
 h< 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 47 
 
 ^ D. It is carefully to be noted that in Latin every- 
 thing logically connected with the subject or object is to be 
 placed in close connexion with it in the sentence, as 
 
 i. Dumnorix had much weight with the Sequani through his influ- 
 ence and bribery, 
 
 Dumnorix gratia atque largitione apud Sequanos plurimum valebat. 
 ii. The Aedui sent ambassadors to Caesar. 
 
 Aedui legatos ad Caesarem mittunt [not ad Caesarem legatos mittunt, 
 because the legati are connected with the Aedui]. 
 
 iii. They who wished to derive pleasure from the sight of his ca- 
 lamities owing to the hatred they bore him, used to come to Eumenes. 
 
 Veniebant ad Eumenem qui propter odium fructum oculis ex eius casu 
 capere vellent. 
 
 iv. Democritus was of course unable to distinguish between black 
 and white after he had lost his sight. 
 
 Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba scilicet et atra discemere non 
 poterat. 
 
 V. Since incessant showers had cut off the approach of the army 
 by inundating all the fields, two garrisons were carried by a sudden 
 attack. 
 
 Imbres continui campis omnibus inundantes quum exercitum inter- 
 clusissent, duo praesidia improviso impetu opprimuntur. 
 
 vi. Two Numidians were sent to Hannibal with a letter. 
 Duo Numidae cum litteris ad Hannibalem missi sunt 
 
 vii. When during his residence there, he was regarded with great 
 respect on account of his numerous virtues, the Lacedaemonians sent 
 ambassadors to Athens. 
 
 Hie cum propter multas eius virtutes magna cum dignitate viveret, 
 Lacedaemonii legatos Athenas miserunt. 
 
 Interrogatives naturally occupy the first place in a sen- 
 tence, but are occasionally put after an emphatic word, 
 sometimes after several. 
 
 Alexandmm Pheraeum quo animo vixisse arbitramur? Rex 
 
 denique ecquis est qui senatorem populi Romani tecto ac domo non 
 
 invitet ?- Aristides nonne ob earn caussam expulsus est quod praeter 
 
 modum iustus esset ? 
 
 / 
 
/ 
 
 / 
 
 48 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 II. 
 
 On the Position of the Verb. 
 
 The natural and usual position for the verb is, as has 
 been stated, at the end of the sentence. A curious example 
 of this is supplied by an Agrarian law (b.c. 643). 
 
 Quel ager publicus Populi Romani in terra Italia P. Mucio, 
 Q. Calpumio consulibus fuit, de eo agro, quern agrum locum populus 
 ex publico in privatum commutavit, quo pro agro loco ex privato in 
 publicum tantum modum agri locei commutavit, is ager locus domineis 
 privatus ita ut quoi optima lege privatus sit^ esto. 
 
 The Verb frequently preserves this position throughout 
 long passages*. 
 
 Et Romani quidem ad honorem Deum insignibus armis hostium usi 
 sunt: Campani, ab superbia et odio Samnitium, gladiatores (quod 
 spectaculum inter epulas erat) eo omatu armarunt, Samnitiumque 
 nomine compellarunt, Eodem anno cum reliquis Etruscorum ad Peru- 
 siam, quae et ipsa induciarum fidem rtiperat, Fabius consul nee dubia 
 nee difficili victoria dimicat, Ipsum oppidum (nam ad moenia victor 
 accessit) cepisset, ni legati dedentes urbem exissenU Praesidio Perusiae 
 imposito, legationibus Etruriae amicitiam petentibus prae se Romam 
 ad senatum missis, consul, praestantiore etiam quam dictator victoria 
 triumphans, urbem est invectus, Quin etiam devictorum Samnitium 
 decus magna ex parte ad legatos, P. Decium et M. Valerium, est ver- 
 sunt : quos populus proximis comitiis ingenti consensu consulem alterum 
 praetorem declaravit, Fabio ob egregie perdomitam Etruriam con- 
 tinuatur consulatus; Decius collega datur, Valerius praetor quartum 
 creatus. Consules partiti provincias. Etruria Decio, Samnium Fabio 
 evenit. Is profectus ad Nuceriam Alsatemam, tum pacem petentes, 
 quod uti ea, quum daretur, noluissent, aspematus, oppugnando ad 
 deditionem subegit. Cum Samnitibus acie dimicatum. 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 49 
 
 Verbo sensum claudere, says Quintilian, longe optimum est^ 
 for the excellent reason that in verbis sermonis vis: the 
 verb in fact generally contains the main predication and 
 combines together the whole sentence. This law is not 
 only deducible from literary criticism, but results naturally 
 from the circumstances under which we live. Man placed 
 in the midst of a world of sensible objects naturally has 
 his attention directed to the changes going on around him. 
 Motion first attracts the attention and stimulates thought 
 Hence verbs occupy an important place in all language^ 
 
 To depart in Composition from this or any other natural 
 arrangement without an adequate reason is mere affectation, 
 than which nothing is more opposed to the directness and 
 simplicity of Latin writing. 
 
 The excellent critic quoted above who supplies us with 
 the reason for the general rule, supplies us also with the 
 first limit to the employment of it: si id asperum erity cedet 
 haec ratio numeris. 
 
 This arrangement therefore may be abandoned, 
 
 a. for the sake of Rhythm*. 
 
 b. to give importance and emphasis to a word which 
 would not have the requisite stress in the middle of the 
 sentence. Quale est, says Quintilian, illud Ciceronis *ut 
 tibi necesse esset in conspectu Populi Romani vomere 
 postridie,^ Transfer hoc ultimum, minus valebit So also 
 
 Secuti alium ducem, sequemini nunc Camittum, ^Maxime autem 
 
 perturbantur officia in amkitiis, Siccine vestrum militem ac praesi- 
 
 ^ Cp. Liv. III. 64, VIII. 9. Also Sail. Jugurtha, Cap. I. Cic. 
 Cluent. XLiii. XLiv. xlv. 
 
 ^ Henri Veii, Recueil. 
 
 ' This is particularly to be observed in compound sentences in 
 order to avoid an accumulation of finite verbs at the end of a period, 
 an arrangement very distasteful to the Romans. This will be found 
 more fully discussed in the chapter on * The Period.' 
 
 h. 
 
 -'• ■■■»... .-— 
 
 .V- 
 
so 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 dem sinitis vexari ab inimicis ? Quo magis argui praestigias iubetis 
 
 vestrcis, eo plus vereor ne abstuleritis observantibus etiam oculos, — r- 
 Quare consulite vobisy prospicite patriae, conservate vos, coniuges, liberos 
 
 fortunasque vestras, Queruntur iniurias suas^ vim plebis, Voleronis 
 
 audaciam, His de causis C. Junius condemnatus est levissimis et 
 
 infirmissimis, Itaque oppressus est non tempore sedcausa^ 
 
 c. to gain unusual force and importance for the verb 
 itself. 
 
 Offendit te, A. Corneli, vos, patres Conscripti, circumfusa turba 
 
 lateri meo? Qualis habendus est is, qui non modo non repellit sed 
 
 etiam adiuvat iniuriam? Movit me oratio tua. Triumphavit^ quid 
 
 quaeris? Hortensius. Disces tu quidem quamdiu voles, 
 
 d. to give antithesis and point to the sentence by 
 means of the figure Xtacr/xo?. 
 
 Quamdiu vixit, vixit in luctu. Singulonim facultates et copide 
 
 divitiae sunt civitatis,- Si gladium quis apud te deposuerit, repetat in- 
 
 saniens, x^dAoxt peccatum est^ officium non reddere. Aedes pestilentes 
 
 sint, habeantur salubres. Patriae salutem anteponet saluti patris. 
 
 Romanis mos erat, in adversis vultum secundae fprtunae gerere, mode- 
 
 rari animos in secundis. Bellum innoxiis Antiatibus indici, geri 
 
 cum plebe Romana.-— Audires ululatus>^//;/d!r?/w, infantium queri- 
 tatus, clamores virorum. 
 
 €. In explanatory clauses, where the connexion is made 
 by autem and eni7n^ the verb usually comes first. 
 
 Hanc cupiditatem si honestam quis esse dicit amens est: probat 
 
 enim lepm et libertatis interitum. Etiam temperantiam inducunt, 
 
 non facillime illi quidem, sed tamen quoquo modo possunt. Dicunt 
 
 enim voluptatis magnitudinem doloris detractione finiri. Quae res 
 
 igitur gesta unquam in bello tanta? Licet enim mihi apud te gloriari, 
 — Sed hoc vitium huic uni in bonum convertebat: habet enim flebile 
 
 quiddam in questionibus. Amicum aegrotantem visere volebat : habi- 
 
 tat autem ille in parte urbis remotissima^ 
 
 /. Sum comes in the middle of a sentence to acquire 
 emphasis: often also unemphatically in definitions and in 
 sentences containing long and weighty words, as 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION gf 
 
 Virtus est una altissimis defixa radicibus. Durior est conditio 
 
 spectatae virtutis quam incognitae. ^Justitia est affectio animi suum 
 
 cuique tribuens. Temperantia est expetenda, non quia voluptates 
 
 fugiat, sed quia maiores consequatur. Virtus est absolutio naturae. 
 
 g^ The verb sometimes begins a sentence, in order to 
 prevent the separation of closely cgnnected wards. 
 
 Erat illo tempore infirma valetudine Habitus. Erant ei veteres 
 
 inimicitiae cum duobus Rosciis Amerinis. Exstant epistolae, et 
 
 Philippi ad Alexandrum, et Antipatri ad Cassandrum et Antigoni ad 
 Philippum filium, quibus praecipiunt ut oratione" benigna multitudinis 
 animos ad benevolentiam alliciant.— — Eram cum Stoico Diodoro, qu| 
 
 nuper est mortuus domi meae. Erat nemo quicum essem libentius,^ 
 
 quam tecum. 
 
 4-2 
 
52 • HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 III. 
 
 Object. 
 
 The grammatical object (as will be readily understood 
 from what has been said about the natural position of the 
 verb and subject) will as a rule find its place in the middle 
 of the sentence. If however the emphasis, falls upon it, it 
 will frequently be placed at the end of the sentence, as 
 
 Quae nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium maiores nostri 
 
 appellassent Senatum, Pugnandum, tanquam contra morbum, sic 
 
 Contra senectutem, Voluptas mentis, ut ita dicam, praestringit oculos: 
 
 nee habet uUum cum virtute commercium. 
 
 For the object at the beginning of a Period, see below, 
 Part III. VI. B. 
 
 IV. 
 
 On the Middle of the Sentence, 
 
 The middle of the sentence is usually occupied by 
 qualifying words, particles and oblique cases: that is, by 
 adverbs, hy the ablative and by cases governed by verbs 
 and prepositions. 
 
 We will consider first the position of adjectives in 
 concord and of the governed genitive which is closely allied 
 to them. 
 
 a. Most grammarians are agreed that the natural posi- 
 tion of a qualifying adjective or governed genitive is after 
 its substantive. This certainly is the case in many cus- 
 tomary phrases, as 
 
 QvA^^Romanus» Aes aliemint. lus civile, Nomen Latinuvu 
 
 -Magister equitum. 
 
 Flamen Dialis, 
 
 — Tribunus miliium, Rex sacrorum, 
 
 Pater familias, Praefectus fabrunu Praefcc- 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 5-3 
 
 If 
 
 I 
 
 Xwsiurbis,- 
 
 — Curatores viarum, Princeps Senatus. Res publica. 
 
 Volumnius consularis, Moderatio animi. Ars ludicra. Cella 
 
 lewis. \i2LAppia\ , 
 
 Hence an adjective or participle in agreement with a 
 substantive, or a genitive in connexion with one, gains in 
 force and distinctness by preceding the substantive. Thus 
 
 Mors tui fratris=the death of your brother. Fralris tui mors = the 
 
 death of your brother. Alexander magnus = the person commonly 
 
 known by that title. Magnus Alexander, or more emphatically Magnus 
 ille Alexander, calls attention distinctly to his greatness, as Eadem aetas 
 rerum magiti Alexandri est quem invictum bellis iuvenem, fortuna 
 morbo exstinxit. Liv. 
 
 An examination of the following passages from the same 
 author will place the question beyond doubt. 
 
 Deme terrorem Romanis, fugamque foedam siste. Hie ego templum 
 
 ^7a/mIovl...voveo. I. l^\ Novamipse (urbem) sub Albanomonte 
 
 condidit, quae ab situ porrectae in dorso urbis Longa Alba appellata. 
 Inter Lavinium et Albam Longam zoXox^^m deductam triginta ferme 
 
 interfuere anni. I. 3. W a diis immortalibus precari, ne qui casus 
 
 suum consilium laudabile efficiat. vi. ii". Romane, aquam Albanam 
 
 cave lacu contineri, cave in mare manare suo flumine sinas. V. J 6. 
 
 If however the substantive imparts a specific meaning to 
 an adjective, substantive or participle, it generally precedes 
 it, as 
 
 luHs prudens orconsultus. T^rr^^motus. 5^wto consultum. 
 
 Eudoxus, Platonis auditor. Plebis homines. Patrnm auctori- 
 
 tas. Legis\2Xox'^, 
 
 I It will be observed that in these phrases the substantives cims, 
 ars, pater, via, ius, etc., are of wide application, and derive their 
 special meaning by the addition of the genitive or adjecUve. 
 
 a See Raschig's note on the passage. ^ . -c r i, i^,, « 
 
 » Most of these phrases admit of being rendered in English by a 
 single word, as-earthquake, Platonist, plebeians, legislator. 
 
 X 
 

 54 
 
 Hints towards 
 
 b. Usually when several substantives have a genitive 
 belonging to them all, they shduld not be separated, but all 
 follow or precede the genitive. 
 
 ' • „ . 
 
 Huius autem orationis difficilius est exitum quam.principium invenire. 
 — Honestum autem iUud positum est in animi cura atque cogitatione. 
 
 — -Te abtoddre opoMet praeceptis institutisque philosophiae. Se- 
 
 cundae res sine hominum opibu, et studiis neutram in partem effici 
 possunt 
 
 ^. The same rule holds good of several genitives de- 
 pendent on a single substantive, as 
 
 Atque haec omnia honoris et amplitudinis commodo compensantur. 
 - Inter tyrannorum et ducis Romani certamina praemia victoris per- 
 
 nsse. Illud honestum animi efficitur, non corporis viribus. • 
 
 Bonorum et malorum fines. Humana natura imbecilla atque a^t 
 
 brevis est. Dedicatum inter cellam lovts atque Minervae est 
 
 d. And generally a word belonging to several connected 
 words precedes or follows the connected words. Hence 
 peculiar stress is thro^vn on each of the latter by separating 
 them, as / r 5 
 
 Propter summam et doctoris auctoritatem et urbis, Quod et aetati 
 
 tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae. Illi, ut erat imperatum, 
 
 circumsistunt atque hominem interficiunt, Insula est Melita satis 
 
 lato ab Sicilia mari periculosoque disiuncta. Itcstitiam cole et pietatenu 
 
 -Profluens quiddam habuit Carbo et canorum. 
 
 e. A substantive with genitive or equivalent phrase and 
 also qualified by an adjective, generally follows the genitive, 
 the adjective preceding both substantives, as 
 
 Summa oratoris eloquentia. Summam rei militaris prudentiam. 
 
 — De communibus invidiae periculis. Falsa veneni suspicio. 
 
 Constans omnium fama. Una litterarum significatio. Nostra in 
 
 amicos benevolentia. 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 55 
 
 This however is not usually the case with tlie partitive 
 genitive, as 
 
 Magna pars militum. Duo genera civium. Tria millia equi- 
 
 fii^n. Exigua pars campi, Maior pars Atheniensium. 
 
 f. If the attributes of a substantive are intended to 
 receive great distinctness, attention is drawn to them by dis- 
 connecting them from their substantives by less important 
 words, as ^ ^ 
 
 Unum a Cluentio profectae pecuniae vestigium ostende. Sangul- 
 
 nem suum profundere omnem (to the last drop) cupit, dummodo profu- 
 
 sum huius ante videat. Quae turpia sunt, nominibus appellemus 
 
 suis, In miseriam nascimur sempiternam, Somno consopiri sem- 
 
 piterno. Permagnum optimi pondus argenti. Recepto Caesar Orico, 
 
 nulla interposita mora ApoUoniam proficiscitur. Magna nobis 
 
 pueris, Quinte frater, si memoria teneo, opinio fuit, M. Antonium 
 omnino omnis eruditionis expertem atque ignarum fuisse. 
 
 V. 
 
 071 the Posiiion of Adverbs. 
 
 i. Adverbs, particularly those of degree, usually stand 
 immediately before the adjective, verb or adverb they 
 qualify, as 
 
 ■ Latius patet illius sceleris contagio quam quisquam putet. Intus, 
 
 intus est, inquam, equus Troianus. Fuit vir haud dubie dignus omni 
 
 bellica laude. 
 
 To this rule however there are numerous exceptions, as 
 the adverb, like other parts of speech, acquires emphasis 
 and importance from peculiarity of position, as 
 
 His Fabriciis semper usus est Oppianicus familiarissinie. Qui 
 
 mihi videntur in hac re versari accuratissime. Hoc si Sulpicius noster 
 
 faceret multo eius oratio esset pressior. Mors aut malum non est 
 
 aut est \iOwim potius. Pecunia a patre exacta est crudeliter. 
 
 '. -^ ^gl^'Ji.avnaB.i.^tfafci 
 
56 
 
 If/JVrS TOWARDS 
 
 VI. 
 
 On the Use of Prepositions. 
 
 ii. The investigation of the uses of Prepositions belongs 
 to the province of Syntax. It may be well however to call 
 attention to the following rules : 
 
 a. A preposition may govern several words, when they 
 express one idea or are intended to be viewed as con- 
 nected in thought or time, as 
 
 Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de reguia et iudicio volumine» Percipietis 
 
 voluptatem si cum Graecorum Lycurgo et Dracone et Solone nostras leges 
 
 conferre volueritis Sub idem fere tempus et ab Attaio rege et Rhodiis 
 
 legati venerunt. Consules decreverunt secundum Caesaris decreta et 
 
 responsa. Senatus frequens convenit propter famam atque expecta- 
 
 tioncm literarum tuarum. 
 
 b. If however the substantives represent things distinct 
 in thought or in any way separated, the preposition must 
 always be repeated ^ as 
 
 Quid est quod de re aut de perficiendi facultate dubitemus? Sitius 
 
 profectus est ante furorem Catilinae et ante suspicionem huius coniura- 
 
 tionis Non in appetentem regnum, sed in regnantem impetus factus 
 
 est. Primum de imbecillitate multorum et de variis disciplinis philo- 
 
 sophorum loquar. Deinceps de beneficientia et de liberalitate dicen- 
 
 dum est. 
 
 The case of Prepositions following a relative or demon- 
 strative Pronoun will be examined in the chapter on the 
 Relative. 
 
 1 This rule, which is invariably observed in French, is too often 
 neglected in English. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 57 
 
 VII. 
 
 On t/ie Position of Cofitrasted Words. 
 
 Love of distinctness led the Romans to place in juxta- 
 position all words standing in contrast or opposition to one 
 another, in order to render the contrast as effective as pos- 
 sible, as 
 
 Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror contemnendam. Datames 
 
 locum delegit talem ut non multum obesse multitudo hostium suae 
 
 paucitati posset. Ex bello tarn tristi laeta repente pax cariores 
 
 Sabinas viris ac parentibus fecit. E suis unum ad patrem mittit 
 
 sciscitatum, quidnam se facere vellet, quandoquidem ut omnia unns 
 Gabiis posset, ei Dei dedissent. 
 
 This is particularly observable 
 
 (i) when the same word occurs in different cases in the 
 same sentence, as 
 
 Alium alio nequiorem. Etrusci lege sacrata coacto exercitu, 
 
 quum vir virum legisset, dimicarunt. Nihil est unum uni tam simile 
 
 quam omnes inter nosmetipsos sumus. Caesar quam proxime potest 
 
 hostium castris castra communit. Nihil iam aliud quaerere debetis, 
 
 nisi uter utri insidias fecerit. Ineamus aliquam viam qua utri utris 
 
 imperent, sine multo sanguine decemi possit. 
 
 (2) when a word and another derived from it occur in 
 the same sentence : 
 
 Aliis aliunde est periculum. Sint semper omnia homini humana 
 
 meditata. Sublato tyranno^ tyrannida manere video. Quid est 
 
 aliud tollere e vita vitae societatem quam tollere amicorum colloquia 
 
 absentium. Ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum 
 
 amicissimus de amicitia scripsi. Haec tibi victor Romulus rex regia 
 
 arma fero. 
 
58 
 
 as 
 
 BINTS TOWARDS 
 
 (3) particularly in the case of sihi or suus and gtiisque, 
 
 Minime sibi quisqiie notus est, et difficillime de se qutsque sentit 
 
 Sua cuique virtuti laus propria debetur. Gallos Hannibal, spe ingen- 
 
 tium donorum accensos, in civitates quemque suas dimisit. Placet 
 
 Stoicis suo quamque rem nomine appellare. In eos multitudo versa 
 
 ostentare vincuk deformitatemque aliam : haec se ineritos dicere ex- 
 probrantes stiam quisqtte alius alibi militiam. 
 
 Obs, Contrast may be effected in many cases not 
 only by juxtaposition, but by marked separation, 
 
 Miluo erat naturale quoddam bellum cum corvo, Necessitatis 
 
 inventa antiquiora sunt quam voliiptatis. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 On Words or Phrases in Apposition. 
 
 Words or phrases in apposition to a noun are to be 
 placed in close connexion with it. Two positions are 
 possible. 
 
 (i) If the words in apposition convey a subordinate 
 idea, they follow the noun, as 
 
 Fabius consul de Samnitibus triumphavit. ^Dionysius tyrannus 
 
 Syracusis expulsus est. Sergius Virginiusque, noxii amboy alter in 
 
 alterum causam conferunt. Visus est audire vocem, se postridie 
 
 caeitaturum Syracusis, 
 
 (2) If the appositive words require emphasis, they will 
 precede, as 
 
 Sapientissimus rex, Philippus, Aristotelem Alexandre filio doctorem 
 accivit. Scipio cum collega^ Tiberio Longo, adversus eum venit. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 59 
 
 IX. 
 
 On the position of Negatives. 
 
 The love of distinctness led the Latin writers in negative 
 sentences to stamp the negative form on the sentence as 
 early as possible. AVhence such phrases as nee unquam, nee 
 quisquanij nee vero^ and similar phrases, are employed, and 
 not et nunquam, et nemo, et non^ etc. 
 
 a. And yet these things are not so tightly bound together that they 
 cannot be separated. 
 
 Neque tamen haec ita adstricta sunt, ut dissolvi nequeant. 
 
 b. I am distressed that I am not receiving any information by letter 
 from you. 
 
 Doleo non me tuis litteris certiorem fieri. 
 
 c. He that proceeds to inflict punishment in a passion will never 
 observe the golden mean between excess and deficiency. 
 
 Nunquanty qui iratus accedet ad poenam, mediocritatem illam tene- 
 bit quae est inter nimium et parum. 
 
 d. Even the Lacedaemonians were Ufiable to gairi possession of the 
 camp. 
 
 Neque ipsi Lacedaemonienses castris potiri potuerunt. 
 
 e. You will find it better not to have uttered a sound except about 
 what we ask your opinion. 
 
 Non erit melius, inquit, nisi de quo consulimus, vocem misisse. 
 
 Hence the frequency with which nego and nolo come at 
 the beginning of a sentence. 
 
 Nego unquam post sacra constituta tam frequens collegium iudi- 
 casse. ^A^^^w/ intueri lucem fas esse ei, qui a se hominem occisum 
 
|J| ^iiiJ.yviiii^ I 
 
 60 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 fateatur. Negabat genus hoc orationis quicquam omnino ad levandam 
 
 aegritudinem pertinere. Nolo enim eundem populum imperatorem et 
 
 portitorem esse terrarum. At Carthaginem et Numantiam funditus 
 
 sustulerunt. Nollem Corinthum. Solon se negat velle suam mortem 
 
 dolere amicorum et lamentis vacare. Ncgat Epicurus quemquam 
 
 qui honeste non vivit, iucunde posse vivere. 
 
 This is particularly the case when the imperative of 
 nolo is used with the infinitive of another verb periphrasti- 
 cally for its imperative, as 
 
 Noli putare me quicquam maluisse quam ut mandatis tuis satisface- 
 
 rem. Nolite ad vestras leges atque instituta exigere ea, quae Lace- 
 
 daemone fiunt. Nolite id, belle quod fieri non potest. Noli tur- 
 
 bare circulos meos. 
 
 X. 
 
 Summary, 
 
 The usual order then of words in a simple sentence 
 is this, 
 
 i. The subject; ii. adverbs and other words definitive 
 of time, place, instrument, etc.; iii. the remoter object; 
 iv. the immediate object; v. the verb. 
 
 To the period, with such liml^tions as will be mention- 
 ed subsequently, the same arrangement is applicable; viz. 
 
 i. The word or clause containing the subject with the 
 words or clauses immediately connected with it. ii. The 
 words or clauses expressive of time, place, motive, means 
 and the like. iii. Clauses expressing the remoter object, 
 that is the person or thing for which the action is done, 
 iv. The object and the clauses immediately connected with 
 it. v. The principal verb. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 61 
 
 XL 
 
 Of Nouns in a Simple Sentence, 
 
 In a list of people, things, qualities, etc. in English 
 usually the conjunction, andy is omitted except before the 
 last noun, as 
 
 faith, hope and charity. Riches, honour and glory 
 
 are before your eyes John, William and I. 
 
 In Latin all the nouns must be either asyndeta, or each 
 noun in the list must be attached to the preceding one by 
 a conjunction, as 
 
 • a, Divitiae, decus, gloria in oculis sita sunt. 
 ^. Tristitiam et adrogantiam et avaritiam exuerat. 
 
 An excellent example of both methods of expression is 
 supplied by Suetonius' character of Caesar Dictator. 
 
 De qua prius quam dicam, ea quae ad formam et habitum et cultum 
 a mores, nee minus quae ad civilia et bellica eius studia pertineant, non 
 alienum erit summatim exponere. Fuisse traditur excelsa statura, 
 colore candido, teretibus membris, ore paulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque 
 oculis, valetudine prospera. 
 
 XIL 
 On words understood in a Coordinate Clause. 
 
 Both in English and Latin it frequently happens that 
 words which strictly belong to both of two clauses, are ex- 
 pressed in one and understood in the other, as 
 
62 . HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 i. One is desirous of riches, another of honour. 
 Alii divitiarum, alii gloriae studiosi sunt. 
 
 ii. Some like Caesar^ others hate him. 
 Caesarem alii amant, alii odenmt. 
 
 iii. Some devote their time to politics, others to pleasure. 
 Alii rebus publicis, alii voluptatibus operant dant. 
 
 iv. We are affected first by lave for our parents, then for our country. 
 Primo parentum, deinde patriae amore efficimur, 
 
 V. The one defeated the fleet of the Carthaginians, the other their 
 army. 
 
 Alter classem, alter exercitum Carthaginiensium devicit. 
 
 As may be seen in the examples, a verb, adjective or de- 
 pendent genitive common to two clauses will usually be 
 placed in the second in Latin — a substantive in either clause *. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 63 
 
 1 See First Latin Exercise Book. J. Barrow Allen (Clarendon 
 Press), p. (Jo. 
 
 III. 
 
 ON THE POSITION OF THE RELATIVE AND 
 
 RELATIVE CLAUSES. 
 
 « 
 
 The Relative in Latin has an extensive use. It is em- 
 ployed 
 
 A. to subjoin a remark, or a more complete definition 
 of some person or thing in the leading proposition. 
 
 jff, as a substitute for a copula and demonstrative. 
 
 C. instead of a conjunction and pronoun to express a 
 purpose, concession, consequence or other relation to the 
 main proposition. 
 
 The investigation of these uses falls within the province 
 of grammar: rhetoric is concerned only with the position of 
 the relative in regard to its antecedent and of the relative 
 clauses in regard to the main sentence. 
 
 The Position of the Relative. 
 
 L When employed as a simple relative (under head 
 A) it should be placed as near its antecedent as the balance 
 and euphony of the sentence will permit. It is rarely sepa- 
 rated by many words. The words in the main sentence 
 require careful arrangement to secure this position, as the 
 substantive to which the relative refers, should frequently be 
 drawn to the end of the sentence in order to be brought in 
 close connexion with the relative. 1 
 
5?5ss: 
 
 ^ r 
 
 64 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Thus when no relative is employed the natural order of 
 words would be Res ad Catnillum redierant: with a relative 
 we should write Redierant res ad Camillum cui unico^ etc. 
 
 L Ut venim videretur in eo illud^ quod, etc. 
 
 ii. Secutae sunt continuos complures dies tempestates, quae^ nostros 
 in castris continerent 
 
 iii. Artes innumerabiles repertae sunt docente nahira, quam imitata 
 ratio res ad vitam necessarias consecuta est. 
 
 iv. Condemnatus est C, Junius, qui ei quaestioni praefuerat 
 
 V. Acilius, qui Graece scripsit historiam, plures ait fuisse. 
 
 vi. Ad triginta septem millia hostium caesa auctor est Claudius, 
 qui libros Acilianos ex Graeco in Latinum sermonem vertit. 
 
 Hence quamobrem, quare, quam oh causam, etc., necessarily begin 
 a sentence. 
 
 The same rule is applicable to adverbs, such as hie, 
 ibi, unde, etc., and to substantives or other words in close 
 logical connexion with a word in the preceding sentence. 
 
 L Necessitas ferendae conditionis humanae...admonet esse homi- 
 nem : quae cogitatio magno opere luctum levat. 
 
 ii. Cogebantur et ipsi orbem coUigere, quae res et paucitatem eorum 
 insignem et multitudinem Etruscorum faciebat. 
 
 iii. Hannibal tres exercitus maximos comparavit. ^E^iis unum 
 [not unum ex his] in Africam misit. 
 
 iv. Censebant decemviros quo cuique eorum videatur exercitus 
 ducere : nee aliam rem praevertL In hanc sententiam ut discederetur 
 iuniores patrum evincebant. 
 
 V. Mercatoribus est ad eos aditus magis eo, ut quae bello ceperint 
 
 quibiis vendant, habeant. 
 
 vi. Sciat orator quam plurima, unde etiam senibus maior auctoritas 
 
 est. 
 
 Hence in order to prevent the separation of the relative 
 or demonstrative from its antecedent, the preposition fre- 
 quently follows its case, as 
 
 Quam contra dicit. Quos ad soleret. Hunc adversus, 
 
 Hunc /r^T^/^r, and the like. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 65 
 
 The reason for the following constructions will be at 
 once obvious, 
 
 Quorum ad scientiam. Cuius cum moribus. Compare quam^ 
 
 obrem, quemadmodum, etc. 
 
 Ohs. A somewhat similar case occurs with adjectives, 
 especially superlatives, limited by a relative sentence. Thus : 
 
 He sent the most faithful slave he had. 
 The immortal glory won by the Greeks. 
 
 On the nearest eminence to the Gauls which he could get pos- 
 session of — 
 
 are respectively in Latin, 
 
 De servis suis quern habuit fidelissimum, misit Gloria quam im- 
 
 mortalem Graeci retulerunt In tumulo, quern proximum Gallis 
 
 capere potuit 
 
 II. Whenever, from the arrangement of the words in 
 the preceding sentence or from other reasons, a doubt might 
 arise as to the antecedent of a relative or pronoun, a noun 
 or equivalent word is added to the relative in order to ren- 
 der misconception impossible; as 
 
 i. Faciebant hoc idem ceteris in civitatibus grandes natu matres et 
 item parvi liberi miserorum: quomm utrortcmque 2iQt2iS, laborem et indus- 
 triam meam, fidem et misericordiam vestram requirebat. 
 
 Here without the addition of tctrorumque, the relative quorum would 
 naturally be supposed to refer to miseroru?n, 
 
 ii. Venerat enim in funus, omfuneri ego quoque operam dedi. 
 
 iii. Huic tam pacatae profectioni ab urbe regis Etrusci abhorrens 
 mos usque ad nostram aetatem inter cetera solemnia manet, bonis ven- 
 dendis bona Porsennae regis vendendi. Cuius originem moris necesse 
 est aut inter bellum natam esse aut a mitiori crevisse principio. 
 
 Here cuius would naturally be referred to Porsennae, were moris 
 not added. 
 
 iv. Pirustis Caesar obsides imperat. His adductis arbitros inter' 
 
66 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 civitates dat, qui litem aestiment. His confectis rebus in citeriorem 
 Galliam revertitur. 
 
 Here His confectis without the addition of rebus would naturally be 
 referred to arbitros. 
 
 V. In Samnium incertis itum auspiciis est : cuius ret vitium non in 
 belli eventum, sed in rabiem atque iras imperatorum vertit. 
 
 Obs. Caesar occasionally repeats the substantive where 
 it seems scarcely necessary, as 
 
 i. Erant omnino itinera duo, quibus itineribus domo exire possent. 
 
 ii. Re frumentaria comparata equitibusque delectis iter in ea loca 
 facere coepit, quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat. 
 
 III. The relative occasionally cedes its usual position 
 at the beginning of a sentence to give emphasis and promi- 
 nence to some important idea or word, as 
 
 i. Sed est iisdem de rebus quod dici possit subtilius. 
 
 ii. Nemo est, tibi qui suadere sapientius possit. 
 
 iii. Tributa vix, mfoenus Fompeii quod satis sit, efficiunt. 
 
 IV. A substantive standing in apposition to a sentence 
 or word and further defined by a relative, comes in the 
 relative sentence in Latin, not before it as in English. 
 
 i. Volscos, quae gens ad Campaniam euntibus non longe ab urbe 
 est, subegit. 
 
 ii. Santones non longe a Tolesatium finibus absunt, quae civitas est 
 in provincia. 
 
 iii. Romulus honorem tantum est consecutus ut deorum in nu- 
 mero collocatus putaretur, quam opinionem nemo unquam assequi 
 potuit. 
 
 iv. Cui crvitati maiores nostri maximos agros atque optimos con- 
 cesserunt, haec apud te cognationis, fidelitatis, vetustatis, auctoritati^ ne 
 hoc quidem ius obtinuit, ut unius honestissimi atque innocentissimi 
 civis mortem ac sanguinem deprecaretur. 
 
 /^ - % 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 6/ 
 
 V. The relative sentence is often separated from its 
 antecedent, 
 
 {a) when it is not definitive, but copulative. 
 
 i. Fama est aram fuisse in vestibulo templi Laciniae lunonis, cuius 
 cinerem nullo unquam moveri vento. 
 
 Here cuius is equivalent to et eius, 
 
 ii. Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum oppositam esse barbaris, 
 apud quam iam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium. 
 Apud quam is here equivalent to et apud earn, 
 
 (b) when great emphasis is thrown upon the demon- 
 strative pronoun. 
 
 i. Hanc esse perfectam philosophiam semper iudicavi, quae de 
 maximis quaestionibus 
 
 ii. Atque ego ut vidi, quos maximo furore et scelere esse inflam- 
 matos sciebam, eos nobiscum esse et Romae remansisse, magnopere 
 metuebam. 
 
 iii. Esse enim stultitiam, a quibus bona precaremur, ab iis porri- 
 gentibus et dantibus nolle sumere. 
 
 VI. The relative clause in Latin frequently precedes 
 the clause containing the antecedent, when greater force or 
 balance of sentence is gained by the transposition; or when 
 an emphasis is thrown on a demonstrative pronoun; or 
 when the relative refers to a demonstrative which stands 
 alone. 
 
 i. Plerique a quo plurimum sperant, ei potissimum insen^iunt. 
 
 ii. Ex quo intelligitur quod verum simplex sincerumque sit, id esse 
 naturae hominum aptissimum. 
 
 iii. Ego enim quae provideri poterant, non fallar in iis; quae cau- 
 tionem non habebunt, de iis non valde laboro. 
 
 iv. In quem cadit misereri, in eundem etiam invidere. 
 
 V. Laudant enim eos, qui aequo animo moriantur: qui alteri 
 mortem aequo animo ferant, eos putant vituperandos. 
 
 vi. Quod ut ita sit, quid habet ista res aut laetabile aut gloriosum ? 
 . vii. Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat. 
 
 5—2 
 
68 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 VII. The subject of the principal sentence is often 
 understood from the object of the preceding relative clause. 
 
 i. Cut quum esset nuntiatum, surrexit. 
 
 ii. Quorum uti cuiusque ingenium erat, ita nuntiavere. 
 
 iii. Cut quum Lysimachus rex crucem minaretur, istis, quaeso, in- 
 quit, ista horribilia minitare purpuratis tuis. 
 
 VIII. The subject often stands in the relative sentence, 
 when it precedes the main sentence. 
 
 i. Quae in re militari versata est virtus^ summo honore florebit. 
 
 iL Quae prima innocentis mihi defensio oblata est, suscepi. 
 
 iii. Quae cupiditates a natura proficiscuntur, facile explentur sine 
 ulla iniuria. 
 
 IX. The wish to secure distinctness and emphasis 
 often led the Latin writers to repeat the relative at the be- 
 ginning of each clause of a sentence. This figure is called 
 Anaphora^ and frequently produces a fine rhetorical effect, 
 as in the following examples. 
 
 Tigranes igitur qui et ipse hostis fuit populi Romani et acerrimum 
 hostem in regnum recepit, qui conflixit, qui signa contulit, qui de imperio 
 
 paene certavit, regnat hodie. Movit tum patris moestitia, tum Brutus 
 
 castigator lacrimarum atque inertium quefelamm, auctorque, quod viros, 
 
 ijuod Romanos deceret, arma capiendi ad versus hostilia ausos Con- 
 
 cepit animo eam amplitudinem lovis templi quae digna deum homi- 
 numque rege, quae populo Romano, quae ipsius etiam loci maiestate 
 esset. 
 
 Anaphora is frequent with other words, as 
 
 Sua quemque fraus, et suus terror maxime vexat : situm quemque 
 scelus agitat : suae malae cogitationes conscientiaeque animi terrent. 
 
 Itaque tantus pavor, taiita trepidatio fuit, quanta si urbem, non 
 
 castra hostes obsiderent. Videtis Verrutium ? Videtis primas literas 
 
 integras ? Videtis extremam partem nominis demersam in litura ?— . 
 Promisit sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis, sed malignis verbis. 
 
 LATIN- PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 69 
 
 Si loca, si fana, si campum, si canes, si equos adamare solemus, 
 
 quantum id in hominum consuetudine facilius fieri poterit ? Vercin- 
 
 getorix, proditionis insimulatus, quod castra propius Romanos movisset, 
 quod cum omni equitatu discessisset, quod sine imperio tantas copias 
 reliquisset, quod eius discessu Romani tanta opportunitate et celeritate 
 
 venissent...taU modo accusatus ad haec respotidit. Verres calum- 
 
 niatores apponebat ; Verres adesse iubebat ; Verres cognoscebat ; Verres 
 
 iudicabat. Nihil ne te noctumum praesidium Palatii, nihil urbis 
 
 vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus bonorum omnium, nihil 
 hie munitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum era vultusque 
 
 moverunt^? AXicx fessum wulnere, /essj^m cursu trahens corpus 
 
 victusque fratris ante se strage, victori obiicitur hosti. Tu a civi- 
 
 tatibus pecunias classis nomine coegisti, lu pretio remiges dimisisti : lu 
 navis cum esset a legato capta praedonum, archipiratam ab oculis 
 omnium removisti : lu tuam domum piratas abducere ausus es. 
 
 Quintilian^ compares with this figure that of EpipJiora, 
 by which the same word is repeated at the close of a 
 number of clauses, as 
 
 Qui sunt qui foedera saepe ruperunt ? Carthaginienses, Qui sunt 
 qui crudele bellum in Italia gesserunt? Carthaginienses, Qui sunt qui 
 Italiam deformaverunt ? Carthaginienses, Qui sunt qui sibi ignosci 
 
 postulant? Carthaginienses, Doletis tres exercitus populi Romani 
 
 interfectos. Interfecit Antonius, Desideratis clarissimos viros. Eos 
 quoque vobis eripuit Antonius, Auctoritas huius ordinis afflicta est. 
 AiBixit Antonius, 
 
 Sometimes Anaphora and Epiphora are effectively 
 united, as 
 
 ^w/j eos postulavit ? Appius, Quis produxiti Appius. Undel Ab 
 
 Appio Adhibe solatia mihi, non haec *senex erat^ infirmus erat' 
 
 (haec enim novi), j^^nova aliqua, sed magna, quae audierim nunquam, 
 legerim nunquam. 
 
 1 See Heinichen, Schonheit des Lateinischen Stils, § 107. 
 
 2 Lib. IX. c. 3. Et ab iisdem verbis plura acriter et instanter inci- 
 piunt et iisdem desinunt. 
 
70 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Concluding remarks on the arrangement of Words in Latin. 
 
 The arrangement of words in a Latin sentence is regu- 
 lated mainly, as may be seen in the preceding pages, by 
 two principles, 
 
 I. Words connected in thought must not be separated 
 in writing. 
 
 II. The moment of thought, the emphasis, must be 
 obvious from the structure of the sentence. 
 
 Without sacrificing either of these principles, the trans- 
 positive character of the language allowed great concessions 
 to be made to euphony and rhythm. In no other language 
 are logic and sound so happily united \ 
 
 The means by which this union is secured is particularly 
 deserving of the attention of English students. The inves- 
 tigation will not only impart a keener appreciation of the 
 beauties of Latin literature, but will also supply the best 
 means of cultivating writing as an art in England. English 
 writers yield to none in energy of expression, in vigour of 
 thought and imagination, but in style they are far behind 
 their neighbours. 
 
 The French deny that the art of writing exists in Eng- 
 
 * Cicero, the founder of rhythmical prose composition at Rome, 
 says of himself, Teiunas huius miiltiplicis et aeqiiabiliter in omnia genera 
 fusae orationis aures civitatis accipimus: easque nos primi quicunque 
 eramus et quantulumcunque dicebamus, ad huius generis dicendi incre- 
 dibilia studia convertimus. Yet no one was more opposed to bizarreries 
 of arrangement with no other object than to please the ear. Sed mag- 
 nam exercitationem res flagitat, ne quid eorum, qui genus hoc secuti, 
 non tenuerunt, simile faciamus; ne aut verba traiciamus aperte quo 
 fndius aut cadat aut volvatur oratio. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. /I 
 
 land, and they twit us, not without justice, with the awkward 
 collocations of words, the Janotismes^ which disfigure English 
 literature. In any volume of passages from our great authors 
 selected for translation into French, a good portion of the 
 notes is always occupied with pointing out the verbal dislo- 
 cations which are inadmissible in French. French in fact 
 is far more Latin than English not only in derivation, but 
 in expression. 
 
 Hence a study of French literature and composition 
 is of undeniable service to English students : but far more 
 valuable is it to penetrate to the fountain-head from which 
 French writing derives its characteristic excellencies : there 
 will be found the most perfect arrangements which subtle 
 linguistic machinery could produce : there may be studied 
 the productions of a strong logical faculty, of an inflected 
 and transpositive language, and of expression assiduously 
 cultivated as an art, to which, on account of its poHtical 
 importance, the noblest and ablest citizens were encouraged 
 to devote their powers. 
 
 -, \ 
 
PART III. 
 
 ON UNITY OF EXPRESSION IN LATIN 
 
 PROSE. 
 
 The treatment of the grammatical Subject and Object. 
 
 Latin Prose is distinguished by distinctness and concinnity 
 of style. This is secured 
 
 I. by avoiding change of the subject or the introduction 
 of several independent subjects into the same sentence. 
 The neglect of this rule is one of the commonest causes of 
 the obscurity which marks the prose composition of begin- 
 ners, because the English and Latin usages in this respect 
 are widely different, as will be seen by the following ex^ 
 amples. 
 
 a. This matter was soon accomplished, and the legions returned 
 to winter quarters. 
 
 Eo celeriter confecto negotio, in hibema legiones redierunt. 
 
 b. The plan was universally approved, and the consul was entrusted 
 with the execution of it. 
 
 Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consuli datur. 
 
 c. The jury flamed up at his answer and condemned an entirely 
 guiltless man to death. 
 
 Cuius response iudices ita exarsenint ut capitis hominem innocentis- 
 simum condemnarent. 
 
 9 
 
 Kah 
 
 ^ii 'iia •«!■»', "". 
 
 .-« .-. .-t-i- «^.a» -^ V. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 71 
 
 Obs. The following sentences therefore are not to be 
 imitated. 
 
 a» Cum (ille) causam mirabatur neque (causa) reperiebatur. 
 
 b, Adeo neminem noxiae paenitebat ut etiam insontes fecisse videri 
 vellent, palamque ferretur (impersonal) malo domandam tribunitiam 
 potestatem. 
 
 c, Carthaginiensibus conditiones displicuerunt, iusseruntque Han- 
 nibalem pugnare. 
 
 d. Statim Carthaginienses pacem petierunt, tributaque est eis pax. 
 
 e. Ubi is dies quem constituerat cum legatis venit, et legati ad 
 eum redierunt, etc. 
 
 XL by keeping a noun, as far as is possible, in the 
 same case throughout the period, 
 
 a, Whgn Crito asked Socrates for his opinion, he replied : 
 Socrates a Critone sententiam rogattis respondit. 
 
 b. When Zopyrus, who professed to be able to read every one's 
 character from his outward appearance, had at a party made a large 
 catalogue of moral defects to reproach him with, the rest laughed Jwn 
 to scorn, but Socrates came to his assistance 
 
 Cum multa in conventu vitia collegisset in eum Zopyrtis, qui se natu- 
 ram cuiusque ex forma perspicere profitebatur, deristis est a ceteris, ab 
 ipso autem Socrate sublevatiiSy quum ilia sibi insita, sed ratione a se 
 deiecta esse diceret. 
 
 €. After he had discoursed on the immortality of the soul, when 
 Crito asked him how he wished to be buried, *I have wasted,' said 
 he * much time to no purpose.' 
 
 Quum enim de immortal itate animorum disputavisset, rogatus quem- 
 admodum sepeliri vellet, multam vero, inquit, operam frustra consumpsi, 
 
 d. Inter haec ab Hasdrubale, postquam a Placentiae obsidione 
 abscessit, duo Numidaey cum Uteris ad Hannibalem missi, quum per 
 medios hostes totam ferme longitudinem Italiae emensi essent, dum 
 Metapontum cedentem Hannibalem sequuntur, incertis itineribus Taren- 
 tum delati, a vagis per agros pabulatoribus Romanis ad Q. Claudium 
 propraetorem deducuntur. 
 
74 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LA TIN FROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 75 
 
 tt 
 
 e, Sabini magna manu incursionem in agrum Romanum fecere: 
 lateque poptdati, quum hominum atque pecudum inulti praedas egissent' 
 recepto ad Eretum, quod passim vagatum erat, agmine, castra locant 
 spem in discordia Romana ponentes^ earn impedimentum delectui fore. 
 
 Obs. Hence it frequently follows that the pronoun is 
 not to be repeated in Latin where the English usage would 
 require it. 
 
 a. Dolore superante [not eiim\ exclamavit. 
 
 b. Praeclare Anaxagoras qui cum Lampsaci moreretur, quaerenti- 
 bus amicis velletne Clazomenas, si quid accidisset auferri, nihil necesse 
 est, inquit, undique enim ad inferos tantundem viae est. 
 
 We should say, 'when his friends asked him: 
 
 c. At vero Diogenes liberius, ut Cynicus, Alexandre roganti (not 
 eum) ut diceret si quid opus esset: Nunc quidem paullulum, inquit, 
 a sole. 
 
 III. by giving emphasis and distinctness to the stibject, 
 which with this view often takes precedence of words which 
 grammatically would begin the sentence. In other words 
 the subject should be placed at the beginning of the period, 
 and in the principal sentence, not in a sentence of time or 
 cause, as frequently happens in English. 
 
 a. When Hannibal had reviewed his auxiliary forces, he set out for 
 Gades. 
 
 Hannibal, cum recensuisset auxilia, Gades profectus est 
 
 b. When Darins had fled to Babylon, he implored Alexander by 
 letter to allow him to redeem the captive ladies. 
 
 Dariusy cum Babyloniam profugisset, per epistolas Alexandrum 
 deprecatur, redimendarum sibi captivarum potestatem faciat. 
 
 c. After Alexander had killed his friend Clitus, he nearly com- 
 mitted suicide. 
 
 Alexander, quum interemisset Clitum familiarem suum, vix a sc 
 manus abstinuit. 
 
 IV. by making sentences co-ordinate in English sudor- 
 diiiate in Latin. 
 
 a, Hannibal had taken Saguntum and retired to New Carthage. 
 Hannibal, Sagunto capto^, novam Carthaginem concesserat. 
 
 h. This he persistently repeated and his whole discourse was spent 
 in eulogizing virtue. 
 
 Quae cum diceret constanter, omnis eius oratio in virtute laudanda 
 consumebatur. 
 
 c. Hannibal allowed him to leave the camp, but he soon returned 
 because he said he had forgotten something. 
 
 Cum Hannibalis permissu exiisset de castris, rediit paulo post, quod 
 se oblitum nescio quid diceret. 
 
 d. This was observed, and they altered their plan. 
 Id ubi vident, mutant consilium. 
 
 e. Dionysius was afraid to take his stand on the ordinary platform, 
 and used to deliver his public addresses from a lofty tower. 
 
 Dionysius, quum in communibus suggestis consistere non auderet, 
 concionari ex turri alta solebat. 
 
 / That I cannot admit : every one is not to be actuated towards 
 his friend by the feeling he entertains for himself. 
 
 Ilia sententia non vera est, ut quemadmodum in se quisque, sic in 
 amicum sit. 
 
 It will be seen from the examples given above and 
 from others that whenever two or three sentences have the 
 same subject, they are in Latin formed into a Period. 
 
 1 The action which indicates the time of the main action, or the 
 occasion, means or condition of its accomplishment, is frequently thrown 
 into the Ablative Absolute. The subject or object of the main sentence 
 should not be placed in the Ablative Absolute clause. In other words 
 the Ablative Absolute should stand only for a subordinate clause, and 
 not for any part of the main sentence. Exceptions to this rule are not 
 unfrequent, but should not be imitated by a learner. See Madvig, Lat. 
 Gr. p. 376. 
 
 a^^SiSs^^-at^i! .'Asi^fsai* 
 
76 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 V. by marking a change of subject by the introduc- 
 tion of a pronoun, if the new subject has been already men- 
 tioned in the preceding sentence, 
 
 L Quo facto eum barbari magis etiam contempserunt, quod mm 
 Jgnorantia bonarum rerum ilia sumpsisse arbitrabantur. Hie quum ex 
 Aegypto reverteretur in morbum implicitus decessit 
 
 il Pergamum ad regent venerunt. Is legates comiter exceptos 
 Pessinuntem deduxit 
 
 iii. ^ Principium defectionis ab OtJione factum est. Is cum magna 
 popularium manu transfugit. 
 
 iv. Alterius factionis principes partim interfecerant, alios in exilium 
 eiecerant. Hi omnes fere Athenas se contulerant. 
 
 V. Nemo Epaminondam responsurum putabat quod quid diceret 
 non haberet. At ille in iudicium venit, omniaque confessus est. 
 
 vL Huius filiam virginem auro corrupit Tatius, ut armatos in arcem 
 accipiat. Aquam forte ea extra moenia petitum ierat. 
 
 vii. P.^ Volumnius vidit cadentem. Is dato negotio suis ut corpus 
 protegant, ipse in locum vicemque consulis provolat. 
 
 VI. by giving prominence and distinctness to the sub- 
 ject and object in principal sentence and subordinate clauses. 
 Four cases here require especial consideration. 
 
 A. When the subject is the same for both principal 
 sentence and subordinate clauses. 
 
 B. When the object is the same in both principal sen- 
 tence and subordinate clauses. 
 
 C. When the subject of the principal sentence is the 
 object of the subordinate clauses. 
 
 D. When the object of the principal sentence is the 
 stibject of the subordinate clauses. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 77 
 
 The following examples of each case will render the 
 matter plain. 
 
 A. When the subject is the same for principal sentence 
 and subordinate clause, it should be placed at the begin- 
 ning of the Period before the conjunction, and the acces- 
 sory clauses qualifying the subject immediately after it. By 
 this arrangement only one mention of the subject is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 a* When Brennus had the temple in view, he began to point out 
 the richness of the booty to his soldiers. 
 
 Brennus, quum in conspectu haberet templum, praedae ubertatem 
 militibus ostendebat. 
 
 b. If the elevation of mind which is discerned in dangers have no 
 admixture of justice, it is faulty. 
 
 Ea animi elatio quae cernitur in periculis, si iustitia vacat, in vitio 
 est. 
 
 c. Had Croesus ever been a happy man, he would have prolonged 
 his happiness to the well known pyre which Cyrus made for him. 
 
 Croesus, si beatus unquam fuisset, beatam vitam usque ad ilium a 
 Cyro exstructum rogum pertulisset. 
 
 d. After Pausanias discovered that the prisoners he had taken at 
 Byzantium were relatives of yours, he sent them to you without ransom. 
 
 Pausanias, dux Spartae, quos Byzantii ceperat, postquam propinquos 
 tuos cognovit, tibi muneri misit. 
 
 e* Dionysius, cum gravior crudeliorque indies civitati esset, iterata 
 coniuratione obsidetur. 
 
 B, When the object is the same for the principal sen- 
 tence and subordinate clauses, a prominent position must 
 be assigned to it at the beginning of the Period, as the 
 interest is centered upon it. . 
 
 a, Atigurcm Tiresiam, quem sapientem fingunt poctae, nunquam 
 inducunt deplorantem caecitatem suam. 
 
;8 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 79 
 
 h. Since Homer had conceived Polyphemus as inhuman and brutal, 
 he introduces him in conversation with a ram. 
 
 Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finxisset, cum ariete 
 coUoquentem facit. 
 
 c. He continued to perfect in crime the youths whom he had 
 ensnared, 
 
 luventutem quam illexerat, multis modis mala facinora edocebat. 
 
 d. If the occasion be favourable for the change^ we shall effect it 
 with more ease and facility. 
 
 Earn mutationem si tempora adiuvabunt, commodius et facilius 
 faciemus. 
 
 e. If I cannot crush my annoyance^ I will conceal it. 
 Dolorem si non potero frangere, occultabo. 
 
 f, Cn. Pompeius made preparations for the campaign at the close 
 of winter, began it at the beginning of spring, finished it by the middle 
 of summer. 
 
 Bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere susce- 
 pit, media aestate confecit. 
 
 g. He won by the common consent of the competitors the prize for 
 valour^ but resigned it to Alcibiades whom he devotedly loved. 
 
 Praemia virtutis communi petitorum consensu tulit, concessit autem 
 Alcibiadi quem magno opere dilexit. 
 
 h, Quem ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis eminus 
 emissis interfecerunt. 
 
 C. When the subject of the principal sentence is the 
 object of the subordinate clause, the subject is placed at the 
 head of the Period, and the object is represented by a pro- 
 noun in the subordinate clause. 
 
 a. When their territory was inadequate for the Gauls they des- 
 patched 300,000 men to seek a new settlement. 
 
 h, Xenocratcs quum legati ab Alexandro quinquaginta ei talenta 
 attulissent...abduxit legates ad caenam in Academiam, et iis apposuit 
 tantum quod satis esset, nullo apparatu. 
 
 c. Rex Prustas, quum Hannibali apud eum exsulanti depugnare 
 placeret, negabat se audere, quod exta prohiberent. 
 
 [This form of sentence is not to be imitated so much as A and B. 
 There is less distinctness about it, as may be felt in many cases by the 
 hesitation as to whether the demonstrative or reflexive pronoun is to be 
 employed in the subordinate clauses.] 
 
 D. When the subject of the subordinate clause is the 
 objea of the principal sentence, place the object in the front, 
 and let the subject of the dependent clause be understood. 
 
 a. Captis, quum poenitentiam profiterentur, ut parceretur edixit. 
 
 b. Idem Cretensibus, cum legatos deprecatoresque misissent, spem 
 deditionis non ademit. 
 
 c. Timotheiimy clarum hominem Athenis et principem civitatis, 
 ferunt, quum caenavisset apud Platonem eoque convivio admodum 
 delectatus esset vidissetque eum postridie, dixisse.... 
 
 d. Manlio Auli filio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tribu- 
 nus plebis diem dixit. 
 
 e. Midae illi Phrygio quum puer esset, dormienti foimicae in os 
 tritici grana congesserunt. 
 
 / Scipionem Hannibal eo ipso, quod adversus eum dux esset 
 potissimum lectus, praestantem virum credebat. 
 
 Note. It would perhaps appear at first sight that it would be more 
 natural in the first example to write poenitentiam profitentibus, or pro- 
 fessis, but the object of the writer is to bring prominently forward that 
 the profession of repentance was the reason for obtaining pardon. A 
 somewhat similar explanation will apply to the subordinate clauses in 
 most instances of this constmction. 
 
 It will be readily seen that all the arrangements illus- 
 trated in this Chapter spring naturally from that love of 
 directness and distinctness of expression which, as has 
 been repeatedly insisted upon, is the essential characteristic 
 of all good writing, and particularly of Roman Literature. 
 It is of course necessary to reach the end of a sentence or 
 
8o 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 8r 
 
 paragraph in Latin in order to arrive at the judgment or 
 views of the author; but as to the subject about which 
 he is talking, there can be no mistake. This, in whatever 
 case the grammatical construction may introduce it, always 
 fronts us in a striking position. Nor is this less obvious in 
 poetry than in prose, and indeed there is no more instructive 
 writer in this respect than Horace, who, though largely 
 influenced by Grecian examples in choice of subject and 
 sometimes in niceties of phrase, was nevertheless in expres- 
 sion thoroughly Roman. If, for example, he would im- 
 press upon us that human rage and even the collapse of 
 nature herself is impotent to shake the purpose of a 
 righteous soicl, he writes : 
 
 lusttim et tenacem propositi virum 
 non civium ardor prava iubentium 
 non vultus instantis tyranni 
 mente quatit solida, etc 
 
 That the accidents of life are powerless to disturb the 
 serenity of Co7iteiit^ he tells us thus: 
 
 Desiderantem quod satis est, jieque 
 tumultuosum sollicitat mare 
 nee saevus arturi cadentis 
 impetus aut orientis haedi, etc. 
 
 Compare also : 
 
 Dulce et decomm^est pro patria mori: 
 
 mors et fugacem persequitur virum, 
 
 nee parcit inbellis iuventae 
 
 poplitibus timidove tergo. 
 
 Virtus repulsae nescia sordidae 
 
 intaminatis fulget honoribus, 
 
 nee sumit aut ponit secures 
 
 arbitrio popularis aurae. 
 
 Virtus, recludens immeritis mori 
 
 caelum, negata temptat iter via, 
 
 coetusque vulgares et udam 
 spemit humum fugiente pinna. 
 Est et fideli tuta silentio 
 merces: vetabo, qui Cereris sacrum 
 vulgarit arcanae, sub isdem 
 sit trabibus fragilemque mecum 
 solvat phaselon: saepe Dicspiter 
 neglectus incesto addidit integrum; 
 raro antecedentem scelestum 
 deseruit pede Poena ^ claudo. 
 
 ^ On the position of Poena see above, *0n the position of the 
 Subject.' C. 
 
 ! 
 
PART IV. 
 
 ON THE PERIOD IN LATIN PROSE. 
 
 I. 
 
 Definition of a Period. 
 
 A Period is a Compound Proposition, consisting of at 
 least two, frequently of many sentences, so mutually de- 
 pendent and connected that the sense and the grammatical 
 construction of the proposition is incomplete without the 
 last clause. 
 
 A Period {circiiitiis or afnbitiis verboru??:) is so called be- 
 cause the reader, in order to collect together the words of 
 the principal sentence, must make a circuit, so to say, round 
 the interpolated clauses ^ These are the conditions and 
 limitations to which the main predication is subjected, and 
 which are woven with it into a stately whole, which satisfies 
 the ear by the fulness of its sound, while it strains the mind 
 to attention by its length*. Yet the clauses of a well writ- 
 
 ^ See some good observations in the Introduction to the * Essay on 
 Man' by Mark Pattison, p. 20. 
 
 * Hence the following sentences are not strictly periods : 
 
 Nihil omitti debet, quod ad humanam felicitatem pertinere videatur. 
 
 Quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescunt ita discordia etiam 
 
 maximae dilabuntur. Scheller, Praecepta StyU Ciceroniani, Part i. c. 5. 
 
 LATIN FROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 83 
 
 ten Period, though intertwined, are never entangled; they 
 are separate links adroitly connected so as to form a sym- 
 metrical chain. 
 
 II. 
 
 Frequent use of it in Latin, 
 
 The aptitude of the Latin language for the formation of 
 lengthy Periods involving no confusion of meaning or con- 
 struction, is unique, and the essentially oratorical style of 
 the Roman writers, particularly of Cicero and Livy, led 
 them to adopt in the main a periodic style which flows on 
 with the full stream of a noble river, or, to change the figure, 
 moves onward majestically, like a well disciplined army, in 
 the full confidence of oratorical victory. They abandoned 
 occasionally the periodic for the detached style, as will be 
 seen below, when the nature of the subject required the 
 change, but they returned to the Period by a natural 
 instinct. 
 
 The investigation of the Period in Latin deserves espe- 
 cial attention, partly because, as belonging to the province 
 of rhetoric rather than of syntax, it usually meets with but 
 slight notice in grammars, and partly because the periodic 
 style, so carefully cultivated by the Romans, is usually dis- 
 carded by modern English writers, whose usage it is to 
 make clauses logically subordinate and interdependent into 
 co-ordinate and independent sentences, as may be seen in 
 any modern historian or philosopher. The condition and 
 requirements of modern society demand facile and rapid 
 expression. 
 
 The following passages may serve as illustrations of this. 
 
 Early in June the Fellows were cited to appear before the High 
 Commission. Five of them, deputed by the rest, obeyed the summons. 
 
 6—2 
 
84 ' HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Jeffreys treated them in his usual fashion. When one of them, a grave 
 doctor named P'airfax, hinted some doubt as to the validity of the Com- 
 mission, the Chancellor began to roar like a wild beast. 
 
 In examining the different opinions which are or may be entertained 
 on this subject, it will simplify the exposition very much if we at first 
 limit ourselves to the case of physical, or what we commonly call material 
 objects. These objects are of course known to us through the senses. 
 By those channels and no otherwise do we learn what we do learn con- 
 cerning them. Without the senses we should not know or suspect that 
 such things exist... There are, however, conflicting opinions as to what it 
 is that the senses tell us concerning objects. About one part of the in- 
 formation they give there is no dispute. The objects excite or awaken 
 in us certain states of feeling. 
 
 These passages, as any one may see at a glance, if ren- 
 dered into Latin by a corresponding number of independent 
 sentences, would not be Latin prose at all, nor could they 
 be adequately translated without a knowledge of the struct 
 ture and characteristics of the Latin Period. 
 
 An attempt to contrast the Latin and English usage on 
 this point may not be out of place, and will form the sub- 
 ject of the next division. 
 
 in. 
 
 Contrast of the Engiis/i and Latin usage. 
 
 I. During this harangue of Horatius the decemviri were at a loss to 
 <Hscover a method either of indignation or indulgence, and did not see 
 what issue the matter would have. C. Claudius the uncle of the Decem- 
 vir Appius, delivered a speech savouring rather of entreaty than that of 
 opprobrium. He implored him by the spirit of his brother and his bro- 
 ther's father to retain a recollection of the society in which he was 
 born rather than of a compact impiously formed with his colleagues. 
 
 This in Latin admits of being expressed and is natu- 
 rally expressed in a single Period, because there is only one 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 85 
 
 statement of importance, viz. the speech of Caius Claudius. 
 The first part of the paragraph only gives us an account of 
 how an opportunity arose for delivering it The passage 
 therefore stands in Latin as follows, 
 
 Haec vociferante Horatio cum decemviri nee irae nee ignoscendi 
 modum reperirent nee quo eversura res esset cemerent, C. Claudii, qui 
 patruus Appii decemviri erat, oratio fuit precibus quam iurgio similis, 
 orantis per sui fratris parentisque eius manes ut civilis potius societatis 
 in qua natus esset, quam foederis nefarie icti cum collegis meminisset. 
 
 II. The Volscians found that now they were severed from eveiy 
 other hope, there was but little in prolonging the conflict. In addition 
 to other disadvantages they had engaged on a spot ill-adapted for fight- 
 ing and worse for flight. Cut to pieces on every side they abandoned 
 the contest and cried for quarter. After surrendering their commander 
 and delivering up their arms, they passed under the yoke, and with 
 one garment each, were sent to their homes covered with disgrace and 
 defeat. 
 
 In these several sentences there is one subject only, and 
 one main idea, that of the ignominious return of the Vol- 
 scians to their homes; the rest consists of the attendant cir- 
 cumstances of the surrender and the causes that led to it. 
 H ence the whole may be in Latin expressed in one Period 
 as follows, 
 
 Volsci exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, quum tentas- 
 sent, praeter cetera adversa loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, 
 iniquiore ad fugam, quum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a cer- 
 tamine versi, dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub iugum missi, cum 
 singulis vtstimentis ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur. 
 
 III. But gloomy silence and voiceless sorrow had paralysed the 
 minds of the inhabitants. For very dread they forgot what they were 
 leaving behind, what they were carrying with them. With no fixed idea, 
 and inquiring every man of his neighbour, they were at one moment 
 standing at their thresholds, at another wandering restlessly through their 
 homes to see the end. 
 
86 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Here again there is one main idea. The people were 
 stricken with fear, and all that they did and did not do, was 
 the consequence of it. Hence the whole is represented in 
 Latin as a Period composed mainly of consecutive sentences. 
 
 Sed silentium triste ac tacita moestitia ita defixit omnium animos, ut, 
 prae metu obliti quid reJinquerent, quid secum ferrent, deficiente con- 
 silio, rogitantesque alii alios, nunc in liminibus starent, nunc errabundi 
 domos suas, ultimum illud visuri, pervagarentur. 
 
 IV. And so they passed under the yoke, and, what was almost 
 heavier to bear, amidst the gaze of their foes. They emerged from 
 the defile like men rescued from the nethermost pit. They seemed to 
 behold the sun-light then for the first time, yet as they gazed on the 
 column in such degradation, the sun was a sight more sad than any 
 death. 
 
 These sentences contain one main predication, that in 
 the last line: Mife was to the Romans sadder than death.' 
 This is qualified by a concessive sentence, and preceded 
 by sentences containing the reasons that made life hateful. 
 The logical connexion requires to be exhibited with much 
 greater clearness in Latin, and the whole is formed into a 
 Period thus, 
 
 Tta traducti sub iugum, et, quod paene gravius erat, per hostiura 
 oculos. Quum e saltu evasissent, etsi, velut ab inferis extracti turn 
 primum lucem adspicere visi sunt, tamen ipsa lux ita deforme intuen- 
 tibus agmen omni morte tristior fuit. 
 
 V. Tie sent a number of embassies by land and sea to the surrounding 
 nations, but effected no result beyond the importation of an insignificant 
 amount of com from Etruria, and produced no effect upon the market. 
 On applying himself to the administration of the meagre supplies, he 
 compelled people to make a return of the corn they held, and to offer for 
 sale all that exceeded the necessary supply of their wants for a month. He 
 robbed the slaves of a part of their daily rations, and proceeded to libel 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION 8/ 
 
 the corn-merchants and expose them to the fury of the populace. By 
 this galling inquisitorial policy he revealed rather than relieved the 
 distress. Many of the lower orders in utter despair, bandaged their 
 eves and threw themselves into the Tiber sooner than endure the tor- 
 nient of a prolonged existence. 
 
 Here the principal fact is that many of the poorer 
 citizens preferred a voluntary death to the miseries inflicted 
 on them by tyranny. The official policy which drove them 
 to suicide is the prelude and cause, and is therefore in the 
 Latin construction thrown into due subordination. 
 
 Qui quum, multis circa finitimos populos legationibus terra manque 
 nequicquam missis, (nisi quod ex Etruria baud ita multum frumenti 
 advectum est) nullum momentum annonae fecisset; et, revolutus ad 
 dispensationem inopiae, profiteri cogendo frumentum et vendere quod 
 usu menstruo superesset, fraudandoque parte diurni cibi servitia, crimi- 
 nando inde et obiciendo irae populi frumentarios, acerba inquisitione 
 aperiret magis quam levaret, inopiam ; multi ex plebe, spe amissa, 
 potius quam ut cruciarentur trahendo animam, capitibus obvolutis se in 
 Tiberim praecipitaverunt. 
 
 IV. 
 
 TJie Characteristics of the Period in Latin, 
 
 The essentials of a Period in Latin are clearness, pro- 
 portion, harmony of sound and rhythm and freedom from 
 monotony. 
 
 Clearness. 
 
 A Latin Period must be more than intelligible; it should 
 be lucid, even luminous. 
 
88 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 This lucidity will be secured 
 
 I. by putting the leading conception of the thought 
 or description into the principal sentence, an arrangement 
 which often requires much care. 
 
 a. Hannibal shifted his camp to Nok. The Consul summons 
 Pomponius, the propraetor, and prepares to march against the enemy, 
 as soon as he was aware of his approach. 
 
 The leading statement here is the Consul's determina- 
 tion to march. His ' summons' to Pomponius precedes his 
 starting; both are subsequent to his knowledge of Hanni- 
 bal's approach. The Latin therefore stands thus — 
 
 Hannibal ad Nolam castra movet. Quem ubi adventare Consul 
 sensit, Pomponio propraetore accito, hosti obviam ire parat. 
 
 The examples from Livy already cited on the frequency 
 of the Period in Latin will supply examples of this. 
 
 IL by admitting nothing into the period but what is 
 essentially connected with the main conception, i.e. the 
 principal sentence. In other words, when several sentences 
 are to be formed into a period, select the one containing 
 the central idea and subordinate to it the accessory sen- 
 tences necessary to complete it. 
 
 Much of the difficulty of Tacitus' style is caused by neg- 
 lect of this rule. He frequently introduces into his periods 
 accessory sentences deserving and requiring distinct con- 
 sideration. This makes an excessive demand on the at- 
 tention of the reader and tends to obscure the main idea. 
 In Livy, on the contrary, the accessory sentences are intel- 
 ligible without effort and throw a light on the main con- 
 ception which they are intended to introduce or illustrate. 
 
 Hence the frequency of parenthesis in his writing. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 89 
 
 Tantisper tutel^ muliebri (tanta indoles in Lavinia erat) res Latina 
 ct regnum avitum paternumque puero stetit. Haud nihil ambigam, 
 (quis enim rem tam veterem pro certa affirmet?) hiccine fuerit Ascanius, 
 an maior, quam hie, Creusa matre Ilio incolumi natus, comesque inde 
 patemae fugae, quem lulum eundem lulia gens auctorem nominis sui 
 nuncupat. Is Ascanius, ubicunque et quacunque matre genitus (certe 
 natum Aenea constat) abundante Lavinii multitudine, florentem iam 
 (ut tum res erant) atque opulentam urbem matri seu novercae, reliquit : 
 novam ipse aliam sub Albano monte condidit. 
 
 III. by arranging the accessory sentences in their na- 
 tural order, i,e, in the order of the logical sequence of 
 thought or details, which in narrative means the order of 
 time\ 
 
 i. The consul summoned the senate away from that spot to the 
 Flaminian meadows, where the Temple of Apollo now stands, in 
 order to give no opportunity for the insinuation. 
 
 The * insinuation' is of course connected with the pre- 
 vious meeting place, not with the Flaminian meadows. The 
 Latin is therefore 
 
 Itaque inde consules ne criminationi locus esset, in prata Flaminia, 
 ubi nunc aedes ApoUinis est, avocavere senatum. 
 
 iL He did not venture to make any objection (to giving up the slave 
 to torture), although he considered that the slave was devoted to him 
 and had been so to his father; for he was a mere boy at the time, etc. 
 
 Here the subject of the subordinate clauses being the 
 subject of the principal sentence also, should be placed 
 at the beginning, the circumstances connected with the sub- 
 ject following in their natural logical order, thus, 
 
 ^ This is a point which always demands attention, because, even in 
 our standard authors, there is often great negligence about the order in 
 which the incidents of a narrative or the motives of an action are 
 detailed, whether the form of the narrative be periodic or not. 
 
i 
 
 90 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 I lie cum esset illo tempore puer, et ilia quaestio de patris sui morte 
 constitui diceretur, etsi ilium servum et sibi benevolum esse et patri 
 fuisse arbitraretur, nihil ausus est recusare, 
 
 iii. Interea Oppianicus, cum iam convalesceret, neque in Falerno 
 improbitatem coloni diutius ferre posset, et hue ad urbem profectus 
 essct, cecidisse ex equo dicitur. 
 
 Observe the order. He was well enough to go out, he 
 had a reason for leaving home, he started to town and had 
 a fall from his horse. 
 
 iv. Adopting an expedient employed of old by the founders cf 
 cities, who by convoking a crowd of men of unknown and low origin 
 imposed upon the world by the assertion that the population had sprung 
 from the earth, Romulus opened as a sanctuary the spot which now lies 
 in enclosures between the two sacred groves as you come down (from 
 the Capitol), with the intention of attracting population, for he was 
 afraid his great city would be uninhabited. 
 
 Will this translate into Latin in its present order? Ex- 
 amine it for a moment. Something is done — in a particular 
 way — with a motive — in consequence of a misgiving. The 
 real order in which the thing developed itself in the mind 
 of Romulus is this: first comes a misgiving; then the desire 
 to obviate the evil; then the determination how to do so, 
 and lastly the thing done. This then is the Latin order. 
 
 Deinde, ne vana urbis magnitudo esset, adiciendae multitudinis 
 causa, vetere consilio condentium urbes, qui, obscuram atque humilem 
 conciendo ad se multitudinem, natam e terra sibi prolem ementiebantur, 
 locum, qui nunc septus descendentibus inter duos lucos est, asylum aperit. 
 
 V. Cativolcus rex dimidiae partis Eburonum, qui una cum Am- 
 liiorige consilium inierat, aetate jam confectus quum laborem aut belli 
 aut fugae ferre non posset, omnibus precibus detestatus Ambiorigem 
 qui eius consilii auctor fuisset, taxo cuius magna in Gallia Germaniaque 
 copia est, se exanimavit. 
 
 V 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION^ 
 
 91 
 
 Here the leading thought is Cativolcus se exanimavit^ 
 subordinated to it are the means by which his purpose was 
 effected, the occupation of his last moments, and the motive 
 for the. act. The arrangement in Latin is natural and logi- 
 cal, ist the subject and all connected with it in explana- 
 tory apposition; 2nd the sense of the growing evils of age; 
 3rd the resolve arising from it; 4th the conduct which fol- 
 lowed and the means selected for the act, and lastly the act 
 itself. 
 
 IV. by beginning every sentence as far as possible with 
 the word in closest connexion with the preceding sentence. 
 
 This is the natural and logical course. By proceeding 
 from the known to the unknown in an intelligible manner 
 the connexion of ideas is made apparent to the reader, and 
 each sentence introduces him to its successor. 
 
 This coUigatio sente?itiar'wn was, Cicero informs us, one 
 of the results of studying writing and speaking as an art in 
 his day. Among preceding masters of expression there 
 had been no lack of matter or sweetness in isolated sen- 
 tences, but these were inadequately connected together. 
 
 The point de depart (as the French appropriately term it) 
 or * starting point' of each sentence deserves study, particu- 
 larly in the unperiodic or detached style : for short sentences 
 are not necessarily easy to follow, and indeed make a far 
 greater strain upon the attention than periods do, unless the 
 connexion of thought is obvious from the arrangement of 
 words. A number of illustrations of the Latin usage are 
 subjoined. 
 
 a, Bellum propter nos suscepistis; susceptum quartum decimum 
 annum pertinaciter geritis. 
 
 h, Princeps Labienus iurat se eum non esse deserturum. Hoc idem 
 iurant ceteri legati. 
 
|i 
 
 92 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 93 
 
 e. Vacuam noctem operi dedere, pugnatumque cum consule ad 
 lucem est Luce prima iam circumvallati ab dictatore erant. 
 
 d. Noli avarus esse. Avaritia enim quid potest esse foedius ? 
 
 e. Consules partiti provincias: Etruria Decio, Saninhim Fabio 
 evenit. Is profectus ad Nuceriam Alfaternam turn pacem petentes, 
 quod uti ea quum daretur voluissent, aspernatus oppugnando subegit. 
 Cum Samnitibus acie dimicatum. Hand niagno certamine hostes victi : 
 neque eius pugnae memoria tradita foret, ni Marsi eo primum praeb'o 
 cum Romanis bellassent. Secuti Marsorum defectionem Peligni eandem 
 fortunam habuemnt. 
 
 Whenever connecting particles are dispensed with, the 
 point de depart alone supplies the mind with the logical 
 connexion and is especially important, as may be seen in 
 the following passage : 
 
 Brevis consultatio senatus fuit. Ad unum omnes iungendum foedus 
 cum Lucanis, resque repetendas ab Samnitibus, censent. Benigne re- 
 sponsum Lucanis, ictumque foedus. Feciales missi, qui Samnitem 
 decedere agio sociorum ac deducere exercitum finibus Lucanis iuberent, 
 quibus obviam missi ab Samnitibus, qui denunciarent, Si quod adissent 
 in Samnio concilium, haud inviolatos abituros. Haec postquam audita 
 sunt Romae, bellum Samnitibus et Patres censuerunt et populus iussit. 
 Consules inter se provincias partiti sunt. Scipioni Etruria, P'ulvio 
 Samnites obvenerunt; diversique, ad suum quisque bellum, pro- 
 ficiscuntur. 
 
 V. Avoid a * precipitate' or agglomeration of verbs 
 at the end of a period. This is one of the commonest 
 faults in the Latin writing of the inexperienced. Sentences, 
 of which the following is a fair specimen, are familiar 
 enough to all teachers : 
 
 Ad te servum quam quid novi afferres ignorarem misi. 
 
 The following sentence from Livy is therefore justly 
 censured by Madvig. 
 
 
 Constituerunt, nuntios in castra remissos, qui, quid sibi, quando 
 praeter spem hostis occurrisset, faciendum esset, consulerent, quieti 
 opperientes (xxxiii. 6), 
 
 In such sentences distinctness, proportion and rhythm 
 are alike -lost. 
 
 It should be observed, therefore, that the Principal Verb 
 generally precedes 
 
 A. the subordinate proposition in final and consecutive 
 sentences, as 
 
 i. Talis est ordo actionum adhibendus, ut in vita omnia sint apta 
 inter se et convenientia. 
 
 ii. Verres Siciliam ita vexavit et perdidit, ut restitui in antiquum 
 statum nullo modo possit. 
 
 iii. Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores 
 fetus possit et grandiores edere. 
 
 iv. Accepti obnitam armis necavere, seu ut vi capta arx videretur, 
 sen prodendi exempli causa, ne quid usquam fidum proditori esset. 
 
 V. Quam rem Tarquinius aliquanto quam videbatur aegrius ferens, 
 confestim Turno necem machinabatur, ut eundem terrorem, quo civium 
 animos domi oppresserat, Latinis inferret. 
 
 vi. Ipse autem Ariovistus tantos sibi spiritus, tantam arrogantiam 
 sumpserat, ut ferendus non videretur. 
 
 B. the substantive clauses in long periods in the oratio 
 obliqua. 
 
 i. Si obtinuerit causam Cluentius... omnes existimabunt obtinuisse 
 propter innocentiam, quoniam ita defensus sit. 
 
 ii. Non enim mihi exomplum summi et clarissimi viri P. Africani 
 praetereundum videtur : qui quum esset censor, et in equitum censu 
 C. Licinius sacerdos prodiisset, clara voce ut omnis contio audire posset, 
 dixit se scire ilium conceptis verbis peierasse. 
 
94 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 iiL Cum iam t rtor atque essent tormenta ipsa defessa neque tamen 
 finem facere vellet (Sassia), quidam ex advocatis intelligere se» dixit, noii 
 id agi ut verum inveniretur, sed ut aliquid falsi dicere cogeretur. 
 
 C. and in oblique petition^ as 
 
 i. Commilitones appellans orabat ne quod scelus Ap. Claudii esset, 
 sibi attribuerent. 
 
 ii. Dicebat se communi iure civitatis civem Romanum postulare, ut 
 dicere liceat, ut iudicium populi Romani experiri. 
 
 iiL Is magno iam natu sordidatus in Foro prensabat singulos ora- 
 batquc ne Claudiae genti earn inustam maculam vellent, ut carcere et 
 vinculis viderentur digni. 
 
 VI. To preserve the balance of the clauses and to avoid 
 the accumulation of verbs at the end of a period, the prin- 
 cipal sentence is frequently introduced in the subordinate 
 clause. 
 
 i. Haec res, metuo, ne fiat. 
 
 ii. Sed vos squalidius : illorum, vides, quam niteat oratio. 
 
 iii. C. Corconius quem tu dirumperis quum aedilicium vides. 
 
 iv. Stoicorum autem non ignoras quam sit subtile vel spinosum 
 potius disserendi genus. 
 
 Madvig points out that this is particularly to be observed 
 in propositions in which a dependent clause is drawn to the 
 beginning by a pronoun or relative referring to something 
 antecedent, or in those which contain antithesis or em- 
 phasis. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 95 
 
 V. 
 
 On Proportion and Balance in the Period. 
 
 A period to be satisfactory should have its clauses 
 well proportioned and evenly balanced in length, a slight 
 preponderance being generally given to the final clause, as 
 
 i. Quid autem agatur, [ cum aperuero, | facile erit statuere, | quam 
 sententiam dicatis | . 
 
 ii. Quum vagus et exsul errafet | atque undique exclusus Oppiani- 
 cus, I in Falernum se ad C. Quintilium contulisset; | ibi primum in 
 morbum incidit, | ac satis vehementer diuque aegrotavit. 
 
 iii. Larlnum ipsa proficiscitur cum suis, | moerens quod jam certe 
 incolumem filium fore putabat, | ad quem non modo verum crimen, 
 sed ne ficta quidem suspicio perveniret. 
 
 iv. Quaerenti mihi multumque et diu cogitanti, | quanam re possem 
 prodesse quam plurimis, | ne quando intermitterem consulere rei pub- 
 licae; | nulla maior occurrebat, | quam si optimarum artium vias trade- 
 rem meis civibus ; | quod compluribus iam libris me arbitror consecutum | . 
 
 V. Et quisquam dubitabit, | quin huic tantum bellum transmit- 
 tendum sit, | qui ad omnia nostrae memoriae bella conficienda, | divino 
 quodam consilio natus esse videatur ? | 
 
 To this desire for proportion and balance commentators 
 refer some peculiarities in style adopted by Cicero, particu- 
 larly redundancy, as 
 
 i. Nihil mihi ad aestimationem turpius, nihil ad dolorem acerbius 
 accidere posset. 
 
 ii. Partes neque ad usum meliores, neque ad spcciem pulchriores. 
 
 iii. Qui consul insidias reipublicae consilio investigasset, verifaU 
 aperuisset. 
 
96 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 97 
 
 J 
 
 iv. Faciam id quod est ad severitatem lenius et ad communem 
 salutem utilius. Cic. Cat I. V, 
 
 This artifice, however, in clumsy hands is transparent 
 and ineffective as the same authority informs us: *Apud 
 alios autem numero servientes, inculcata reperias inania 
 verba quasi complementa numerorum.' 
 
 VL 
 
 On the Rhythm and Cadence of Periods. 
 
 Besides clearness, the observance of the logical order 
 of thought, the subordination of details to the leading con- 
 ception or fact by a grouping as artistic as the arrangement 
 of accessories in an exquisite picture, the classical writers 
 demanded in a period rhythm and cadence. The ears were 
 to be considered as well as the intellect. Those who were 
 insensible to the charm of rhythmical writing were more or 
 less than man». 'My ears,' says Cicero, 'find pleasure in 
 perfection and completion of periods, are sensitive to abrupt- 
 ness, and dislike redundancy/ The rhythm of prose is, 
 he tells us, as essential as that of verse, and is more 
 difficult to obtain, inasmuch as the one is regulated by de- 
 finite laws, and of necessity repeats itself to a certain extent; 
 while the charm of prose rhythm consists largely in its 
 variety. On this topic the advice of Quintilian is well 
 worthy of consideration. 
 
 Etiam monosyllaba si plura sunt male continuabuntur quia nccesse 
 est compositio multis clausulis concisa subsultet. Ideoque etiam breviura 
 
 Quid in his hominis simile sit nescio. Cic. 
 
 verbomm et nominum vitanda continuatio, ex diverse quoque longo- 
 rum : afferunt enim quandam tarditatem. Ilia quoque vitia sunt eiusdem 
 loci, si cadentia similiter et similiter desinentia et eodem modo declinata 
 iungantur. 
 
 An exhaustive examination of the rhythmical laws to be 
 observed in the whole period, would be out of place in a 
 treatise of this kind, the limits of which only admit of a few 
 hints on the Cadence and Close. Many, said Cicero, con- 
 sidered that a rhythmical cadence was all that could be de- 
 manded; and, though he rightly asserts that the entire 
 period should flow on evenly from the beginning to the end, 
 and there come to a natural close, the pre-eminent import- 
 ance of the cadence is indisputable. The ear expects it ; 
 it rests there ; it has time to criticise the last period before 
 the next begins. 
 
 I shall therefore give a few of the canons which found 
 favour with Cicero and Quintilian^ 
 
 I. Avoid closing a period with the end of a verse, as 
 ^lacuisse Catoni^; esse videtur; quo me vertain nescio. 
 
 The same objection applies to beginning a sentence 
 with the beginning of a verse. The reason is the same in 
 both cases. The metrical fragment either hurries or slackens 
 the time and reading of prose. 
 
 1 This Ciceronian canon is repeatedly violated by Livy, who has a 
 fondness for such endings, as in vincula duci: impedienda gerehant: optare 
 licebat. Indeed the rhythm of Livy is often poetical thus Turn repente 
 quibus census equestris erat, narrowly escapes being a pentameter. Nor 
 
 is his diction less so, as Primo robore virorum caeso, Pleni lacri- 
 
 tnarum procubuerunt, Numisius affirmabat communem vere MarUm 
 
 belli utramque aciem pari caede prostravisse* 
 
98 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 The beginning of a verse rhythm may frequently be 
 employed with effect as a cadence, as in Africa Juisse. 
 
 The final spondee therefore cannot be preceded by a 
 dactyl. It may by a cretic foot, (- -- -), as criminis causa. 
 
 A less forcible termination is produced when the spondee 
 and cretic form one word, as Archipiratae : a still weaker 
 termination is a spondee preceded by a tribrach, temeritates. 
 A less appropriate foot to precede the spondee is an 
 anapest, as verum etiam not&. Two spondees are rarely 
 employed unless they are composed of three words, as is 
 contra nos. 
 
 II. A molossus in one word ( ) gives a sonorous 
 
 termination, as conclusionesque verborum — atque vobiscum. 
 
 III. The ditrocheus, or double trochee in one word 
 was an especial favourite: collocavit, comprobavit, postula- 
 baty magnitude, temperata, 
 
 IV. The termination esse videatur, was considered so 
 good that Quintilian called it ^hacknied,' 'iam minus 
 frequens.' 
 
 V. The following arrangements of a final cretic (- ^ -) 
 are common ; two cretics, servare quam pluri?nos — amphi- 
 brachys and cretic, carere versibus. 
 
 These however are not intended to form models to be 
 slavishly observed, and a short time spent in studying some 
 of the finer passages of Cicero will convey more informa- 
 tion than can be given by rules, however numerous and 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 99 
 
 precise. The following table may nevertheless be found 
 convenient ^ 
 
 Creticus cum ditrochaeo - - - | - - 
 
 Trochaeus cum molosso - ^ I 
 
 Creticus vel duo cretici cum cre- 
 tico - ^ - \ 
 
 Dochmius ^ — ' — 
 
 Tribrachys cum spondeo - - - - - 
 
 Trochaeus) ,. , --) 
 
 >cum dispondeo \ 
 
 Iambus J "~J 
 
 Bacchius ^ — 
 
 Palimbacchius — ^ 
 
 ^ glpriam comparavit. 
 membra firmantur. 
 
 Tcogitans sentio. 
 Iperpeti turpiter maluit 
 
 (i)ra victoriae. 
 (es)se videatur. 
 Tpluribus de causis 
 (virum condemnarunt. 
 videri. 
 novisse. 
 
 As an example of the charm arising from mere arrange- 
 ment of words, phrases and clauses, let us take the Latin 
 original of Paley's celebrated argument founded on the effect 
 produced upon the mind of a savage by contemplating a 
 watch. The argument may be stated as follows. 
 
 Si aliquis hanc sphaeram, quam nuper noster familiaris Posidonius 
 effecit, cuius singulae conversiones, idem quod in caelo singulis diebus 
 et noctibus efficitur, in sole, luna, et quinque stellis errantibus efficiunt, 
 in Scythiam aut Britanniam tulerit, quis in ilia barbaria dubitet quin ea 
 sphaera ratione perfecta sit? Hi autem de mundo, ex quo omnia et 
 fiunt et oriuntur, casunc ipse aut aliqua necessitate an ratione ac mente 
 divina effectus sit, et Archimedem in imitandis sphaerae conversionibus 
 quam naturam in efficiendis, praesertim quum ilia multis partibus sol- 
 lertius perfecta quam haec simulata sint, plus valuisse arbitrantur. 
 
 Ramshoni; Lateinische Grammatik, IV. § 202. 
 
 7—2 
 
lOO 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSTTION, 
 
 lor 
 
 We see before us the lifeless bone of a certain gram- 
 matical accuracy, in which there is no false concord or 
 wrong gender to correct, and very little to admire. Let the 
 hand of the great composer touch the dry bones and they 
 assume the living grace of Latinity. 
 
 Quod si in Scythiam aut in Britanniam sphaeram aliquis tulerit hanc, 
 quam nuper familiaris noster effecit Posidonius, cuius singulae conver- 
 siones idem efficiunt in sole et in luna et in quinque stellis errantibus, 
 quod efficitur in caelo singulis diebus et noctibus, quis in ilia barbaria 
 dubitet quin ea sphaera sit perfecta rati one? Hi autem dubitant de 
 mundo, ex quo et oriuntur et fiunt omnia, casune ipse sit effectus aut 
 necessitate aliqua an ration e ac mente divina, et Archimedem arbitrantur 
 plus valuisse in imitandis sphaerae conversionibus quam naturam in 
 efficiendis, praesertim quum multis partibus sint ilia perfecta quam haec 
 simulata sollertius.- 
 
 VII. 
 
 On the limitations to the employment of the Period. 
 
 It must not however be supposed from what has been 
 said of the frequency of the periodic structure of sentences 
 in the best Latin writers, that Latin prose is composed of 
 nothing but a succession of lengthy, well arranged and duly 
 proportioned periods. Balance and proportion of clauses 
 and due subordination of logically connected propositions 
 have unquestionably a peculiar dignity and beauty, but 
 when carried beyond certain limits they grow monotonous 
 and ineffective. Such regularity is purchased by the loss of 
 movement, of interest and of life. 
 
 Livy could write periods of exquisite arrangement and 
 proportion which might well have tempted him to adopt the 
 sonorous period throughout : but from this he was saved 
 by his love of precision and simplicity, his force and above 
 all by his rhetorical faculty. With him the subordinate fea- 
 tures of a narrative which are logically connected with and 
 lead up to another more important event, gather round it in 
 due subordination. Incidents merely contemporaneous and 
 unconnected are given co-ordinately or disconnectedly : for 
 there is a native truth in his descriptions, and indeed in 
 Latin writing generally, which was entirely opposed tq a 
 pedantic formation of periods out of sentences logically 
 distinct. All writers on this subject quote a passage in Liv. 
 I. 6^, as a specimen of the union of symmetry and effect 
 in a Latin period: and so it is, but si sic omnia dixissety 
 where would have been his vivacity, variety, naturalness 
 and charm ? 
 
 Cicero again, the great master of the periodic style, 
 derives much of his imposing dignity and argumentative 
 force from the artistic perfection of his periods ; but he was 
 too great a master of rhetorical effects not to know that 
 sometimes the period must be thrown aside. He knew that 
 an adversary is not to be driven step by step from a posi- 
 tion by lengthy periods, but by a shower of detached 
 sentences ^ 
 
 ^ Numitor inter primum tumultum hostes invasisse urbem atque ador- 
 tos regiam dictitans, cum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisque 
 obtinendam avocasset, postquam iuvenes perpetrata caede pergeread 
 se gratulantes vidit, exemplo advocato concilio, scelera in se fratris, 
 originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinde 
 tyranni seque eius auctorem ostendit. 
 
 2 Incisum autem et membratim tractata oratio in veris causis pluri- 
 mum valet maximeque his locis cum aut arguas aut refellas, ut nostra 
 in Comeliana secunda. Cic. de Orat. LXVii, 
 
 i 
 
 ' 
 
102 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 The detached style then should be adopted 
 I. In argument and refutation, as 
 
 A rebus gerendis senectus abstrahit ! Quibus ? An iis, quae iuven- 
 tute geruntur, et viribus? Nullaene igitur res sunt seniles, quae, vel 
 ihfirmis corporibus, animo tamen administrentiir? Nihil ergo agebat 
 Q. MaximuS? Nihil L. Paulus, pater tuus, Scipio, socer optimi viri, 
 filii mei? Ceteri senes, Fabricii, Curii, Coruncanii, cum Rempublicam 
 consilio et auctoritate defendebant, nihil agebant ? 
 
 11. Excitement, passion, denunciation and irony do 
 not wait for periods. 
 
 Sin autem servire meae laiidi et gloriae nlavis, egredere cum impor- 
 tuna sceleratorum manu : confer te ad Mallium : concita perditos cives : 
 seceme te a bonis : infer patriae bellum. Cat. i. ix. 
 
 Quae cum ita sint, Catlilina, perge quo coepisti : egredere aliquando 
 ex urbe ; patent portae : proficiscere. Nimium nimium diu te impera- 
 torem tua ilia Malliana castra desiderant. Educ tecum etiam omnes 
 tuos: si minus, quam plurimos. Purga urbcm. Magno me metu 
 liberabis, dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit. Nobiscum versari 
 iam diutius non potes : non feram, non patiar, non sinam. Id. I. 5. 
 
 Servio propere accito, quum pene exsanguem virum ostendisset ; 
 dextram tenens orat, ne inultam mortem soceri, ne socrum inimicis ludi- 
 brio esse sinat. Tuum est, inquit, Servi, si vir es, regnum ; non eorum, 
 qui alienis manibus pessimum facimus fecere. Erige te, Deosque duces 
 sequere, qui clarum hoc fore caput divino quondam circumfuso igni 
 portenderunt. Nunc te ilia caelestis excitet flamma. Nunc expergiscere 
 vere. Et nos peregrini regnavimus. Qui sis, non unde natus sis, re- 
 puta. Si tua re subita cbnsilia torpent, at tu mea sequere. Liv. I. xli. 
 
 P. Valerius, collega senatum retinente, se ex curia proripit, inde in 
 templum ad tribunos venit: Quid hoc rei est, inquit, tribuni? Ap. 
 Herdonii ductu et auspicio rempublicam eversuri estis? Tarn felix 
 vobis corrumpendis fuit, qui servitia vestra non commovit auctor? 
 Quum hostes supra caput sint, discedi ab armis legesque ferri placet ? 
 Inde ad multitudinem oratione versa : Si vos urbis, Quirites, si vestri 
 nulla cm a tangit; at vos veremini Deos vestros ab hostibus captos. 
 
 LATIJSt PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 103 
 
 lupiter optimus maximus, luno regina, et Minerva, alii Dii Deaequc 
 obsidentur. Castra servorum publicos vestros penates tenent. Haec 
 vobis forma sanae civitatis videtur ? Tantum hostium non solum intra 
 muros est, sed in arce supra forum curiamque : comitia interim in foro 
 sunt: senatus in curia est : velut quum otium superat, senator senten- 
 tiam dicit : alii Quirites suffragium ineunt. Id. III. xvii. 
 
 III. Admiration and astonishment like other emotions, 
 must come with a natural outburst from the heart, as 
 
 Quam me delectat Theramenes ! quam elato animo est ! 
 
 Gladiatores, aut perditi homines aut barbari, quas plagas perferunt ! 
 quo modo illi, qui bene instituti sunt, accipere plagam malunt quam 
 turpiter vitare ! quam saepe apparet nihil iUos malle quam vel dommo 
 satisfacere vel populo ! 
 
 O spectaculum miserum atque acerbum ! Ludibrio esse urbis gloriam, 
 populi Romani nomen ! hominum conventum atque multitudinem! pira- 
 tico myoparone, in portu Syracusano, de classe popuU Romani tri- 
 umphum agere piratam ! 
 
 IV. The incidents of a panic should be narrated not 
 as they might be grouped together subsequently in the mind 
 of a historian, but as they broke upon the helpless spectators 
 and sufferers, as 
 
 Hinc atrox rixa oritur. Valerium Horatiumque lictor decemviri 
 invadit. Franguntur a multitudine fasces. In contionem Appius ascen- 
 dit Sequuntur Horatius Valeriusque. Eos contio audit: decemviro 
 obstrepitur. Iam pro imperio Valerius discedere a privato lictores 
 iubebat: quum fractis animis, Appius, vitae metuens, in domum se 
 propinquam foro, insciis adversariis, capite obvoluto, recepit. Sp. Op- 
 pius, ut auxilio collegae esset, in forum ex altera parte irrumpit. 
 
 The following passage from Q. Claudius Quadrigarius 
 is well worthy of examination, not only from its descriptive 
 merits, but as a specimen of the simple vigour of the early 
 prose writers of the republic, of whose works unfortunately 
 
104 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 t 
 
 so little remains. Of this particular fragment Favorinus, 
 the philosopher, said that his heart beat as he read it, as 
 though he were watching the conflict itself. 
 
 Cum interim Callus quidam nudus praeter scutum et gladios duos 
 torque atque.armillis decoratus processit : qui et viribus et magmtudine 
 et adolescentia simulque virtute ceteris antistabat. Is maxime proelio 
 commoto atque utrisque summo studio pugnantibus manu significare 
 coepit, utrimque quiescerent pugnae. Facta pausa est. Extemplo 
 sllentio facto voce maxima conclamat, si quis secum depugnare veUet, 
 uti prodiret. Nemo audebat propter magnitudinem et immamtatem 
 facie Deinde Callus irridere coepit atque linguam exertare. Id subito 
 perdolitum est cuidam T. Manlio, summo genere nato, tantum llagitmm 
 civitati accidere, e tanto exercitu neminem prodire. Is, ut dico, pro- 
 cessit : neque passus virtutem Romanam a Callo turpiter spolian, scuto 
 pedestri et gladio Hispanico cinctus contra Galium const.tit. Metu 
 magno ea congressio in ipso ponte utroque exercitu inspectante facta est. 
 Ita ut ante, dixi, constiterunt. Callus sua disciplina scuto proiec o 
 cantabundus: Manlius animo magis quam arte confisus, scutum scuto 
 percussit atque statum Callo conturbavit. Dum se Callus iterum eodem 
 pacto constituere studet. Manlius iterum scutum scuto percutit atque de 
 oco hominem iterum deiecit. Eo pacto sub Callicum gladmm successit, 
 atque Hispanico pectus hausit. Deinde continuo humerum dexterum 
 eodem concessu incidit, neque recessit usquam donee subvert.t. ne Cal- 
 lus impetum icti habcret. Utque cum evertit, caput praecidit: torquem 
 detraxit, eamque sanguinolentam sibi in collum imponit. Quo ex facto 
 ipse posterique eius Torquati sunt cognominati. 
 
 V. The detached style is frequently employed in con- 
 clusion to wind up a narrative, as 
 
 Diu cum esset pugnatum, impedimentis castrisque nostri potiti sunt. 
 Ibl Orgetorigis filia, atque unus e filiis captus est. Ex eo proeho cir- 
 citer millia hominum CXXX superfuerunt, eaque tota nocte contmenter 
 ierunt: nuUam partem noctis itinere intermisso, in fines Lmgonum die 
 quarto pervenerunt, cum, et propter vulnera militum et propter sepu 1- 
 turam occisorum, nostri. triduum morati, eos sequi non potmssent 
 Caesar ad Lingones literas nuntiosque misit, ne eos frumento neve alia 
 reiuvarent: qui si iuvissent, se eodem loco, quo Helvet.os, habiturum. 
 Ipse, triduo intermisso, cum omnibus copiis eos sequi coepit. 
 '^ ' Caesar, Bell. Call. I. 20. 
 
 LATIN' PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 105 
 
 Nostri ad unum omnes incolumes, perpaucis vulneratis, ex tanti 
 belli timore, cum hostium numenis capitum CDXXX millium fuisset, se 
 in castra receperunt Caesar his, quos in castris retinuerat, discedendi 
 potestatem fecit: illi supplicia cruciatusque Gallorum veriti, quorum 
 agros vexaverant, remanere se apud eum velle dixerunt His Caesar 
 libertatem concessit. Caesar, Bell. Gall. iv. 15. 
 
 VI. With asyndeton, as 
 
 Utrinque clamore sublato, excipit rursus ex vallo atque omnibus 
 munitionibus clamor. Nostri, emissis pilis, gladiis rem gerunt. Re- 
 pente post tergum equitatus cemitur: cohortes aliae appropinquant : 
 hostes terga vertunt: fugientibus equites occumint: fit magna caedes. 
 Sedulius, dux et princeps Lemovicum, occiditur: Vergasillaunus Ar- 
 vemus vivus in fuga comprehenditur: sigija militaria Lxxiv ad Caesarem 
 referuntur: pauci ex tanto numero se incolumes in castra recipiunt. 
 Conspicati ex oppido caedem et fugam suorum, desperata salute, copias 
 a munitionibus reducunt. Fit protinus, hac re audita, ex castris Gal- 
 lorum fuga. Quod nisi crebris subsidiis ac totius diei labore milites 
 essent defessi, omnes hostium copiae deleri potuissent. De media nocte 
 missus equitatus novissimum agmen consequitur: magnus numerus 
 capitur atque interficitur, reliqui ex fuga in civitates discedunt. 
 
 Id. VII. 89. 
 
 VII. Since a letter may be defined to be a * conversa- 
 tion in writing/ the period is not generally suitable to the 
 epistolary style, of which the great charm is simplicity, 
 naturalness and ease. 
 
 VIII. Periods, from their oratorical character, are out 
 of place also in a summary pr detailed description, such as 
 
 Duo exercitus erant : scuta alterius auro, alterius argento caelaverunt. 
 Forma erat scuti, summum latius, qua pectus atque humeri teguiitur, 
 fastigio aequali; ad imum cuneatior, mobilitatis caussa. Spongia pectori 
 tegumentum: et sinistrum cms ocrea tectum. Galeae cristatae, quae 
 speciem magnitudini corporum adderent. Tunicae auratis militibus 
 versicolores, argentatis linteae candidae. His dextrum cornu datum: 
 illi in sinistro consistunt. 
 
 f 
 
ic6 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Eodem anno Q. Fabius Maximus moritur, exactae aetatis ; siquidem 
 verum est, augurem duos et sexaginta annos fuisse, quod quidam auc- 
 tores sunt. Vir certe fuit dignus tanto cognomine, vel si novum ab eo 
 inciperet. Superavit paternos honores, avitos aequavit. Pluribus vie- 
 toriis et majoribus prdeliis avusinsignis Rullus: sed omnia aequare unus 
 hostis Hannibal potest. Cautior tamen, quam promptior, huic habitus 
 fuit : et, sicut dubites, utrum ingenio cunctator fuerit, an quia ita bello 
 proprie, quod turn gerebatur, aptum erat, sic nihil certius est, quam 
 unum hominem nobis cunctando rem restituisse, sicut Ennius ait. 
 Augur in locum eius inauguratus Q. Fabius Maximus, filius: in eiusdem 
 locum pontifex (nam duo sacerdotia habuit) Ser. Sulpicius Galba. 
 
 Stantibus ac confertis postremo turba equis, vir virum amplexus 
 detrahebat equo, pedestre magna iam ex parte certamen factum 
 erat: acrius tamen quam diutius pugnatum est; pulsique Romani 
 equites terga vertunt. Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum 
 pugna. Primo et viribus et animis pares constabant ordines Gallis 
 Hispanique : tandem Romani, diu ac saepe connisi, aequa fronte acieque 
 densa impulere hostium cuneum nimis tenuem, eoque parum validum, 
 a cetera prominentem acie. 
 
 An examination of any of Cicero's speeches or philo- 
 sophical treatises will show how the rapid succession of ques- 
 tion and answer, the outburst of admiration, the decisive 
 precise statement of isolated facts, and, above all, the logical, 
 balanced Period contribute, each in its turn, as the theme 
 suggests, to the interest, force, vivacity, dignity, sonorous- 
 ness and modulation which are the characteristics of the 
 best Latin prose. 
 
 « 
 
 It may be remarked that some misappreciation of the 
 Period in Latin is due to the idea that it is adequately re- 
 presented by the periodic style of modem classical writers. 
 This is not the case. These writers have reproduced the . 
 balance, connexion, gravity and even the elegance and 
 music of the classical period : but the variety is gone. The 
 Period is all absorbing. It bears upon it the curse of imi- 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION', 
 
 107 
 
 tation; it is affected, unnatural and prone to excess ^ ^ La 
 p^riode continue,' says an excellent critic (et moderne may 
 I venture to add?), *ressemble aux ciseaux de La Quintinie, 
 qui tondent tous les arbres en boule, sous pr^texte de les 
 omer. — Le rhythme r^gulier mutile T^lan de I'invention 
 naturelle. — Les commentateurs qui notent dans Addison le 
 balancement des pe'riodes lui font tort. lis expliquent 
 ainsi pourquoi il ennuie un peu^' 
 
 Concludi7ig Remarks. 
 
 It may naturally occur to a reader of the preceding 
 pages that, though many characteristics of Latin Prose are 
 alluded to at the outset, still the practical hints are so many 
 rules for procuring only one of these, namely, directness of 
 expression. The reply to this objection is, that in directness 
 lies the basis of everything Roman. 
 
 For example, we are all more or less acquainted with 
 the celebrated Roman roads, either from actual observa- 
 tion, or from the description of others. If not, the 
 engineering terms in Latin will tell us much on the 
 subject. The Romans were not content with * making a 
 way.' They munierunt viam^ and produced an agger viae. 
 This suggests at once a greatness of purpose, a solidity and 
 
 1 It must not be supposed that excessive use of the periodic style is 
 necessarily the result of studying Latin authors. French prose was 
 extravagantly periodic before the Renaissance, and found its best cor- 
 rective in the study of Latin. Geruzez remarks that in the hands of 
 Calvin * elle atteint a la hauteur de la prose latine, qui lui a servi de 
 
 modMe.' 
 
 2 Taine, Littcrature Anglaise. L'^ge Classique, Liv. IV. c. 5. 
 
io8 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 magnificence of execution. There would be beyond this 
 much no doubt to attract the eye of a traveller and excite 
 his admiration. As he proceeded in the straightest possible 
 line^ over hill and valley, he would meet here with an 
 extensive view, here be charmed by a wood, a river, a 
 fertile plain and other delights of varied scenery. He 
 would feel however that all these were but accidents of the 
 main design. The engineer had been in search neither of 
 the charming nor the beautiful. These fell in his way 
 naturally, but the one object before him was directness and 
 facility of communication. 
 
 So it is with Latin Prose : as you read, you meet With 
 a great variety of grand and imposing effects : you admire 
 the author's command over the resources of language and 
 the mechanism, so to say, of expression — ^you meet with 
 much that is perfect in execution, and much that is delight- 
 ful and beautiful; but you feel that the author neither 
 started in quest of the beautiful, nor abandoned himself to 
 the capricious suggestions of fancy. The purpose has been 
 practical throughout, and the surroundings are varied and 
 beautiful and the execution delightful because nature has 
 willed that through them should lie the directest and surest 
 way to the object in view. 
 
 The preceding remarks apply mainly to the Republican 
 era and its close. The Augustan writers who deified the 
 Imperial government, *knew not eating death.' They failed 
 to see that their merits and success were due to the freedom 
 
 ^ Whether the Romans shewed *a sovereign contempt for all the 
 principles of engineering* or no, is nothing to the point. It may be 
 remarked however that the Roman roads were especially intended for 
 military purposes and that their method of transport was not by trac- 
 tion but portage. They employed not vehicles, but beasts of burden. 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 109 
 
 in which they had been born and not to the fostering care of 
 Caesarism. It was not long before the literary dilettanteism 
 of Nero and others fell like a blight upon Latin literature. 
 Pliny and Quintilian, who studiously modelled their style 
 on the wholesome and vigorous productions of the old 
 writers, protest incessantly against the pedantic artificiality 
 which from its prevalence in their day, may be presumed 
 to have received encouragement from high quarters. Instead 
 of the direct and lucid style which was the natural result 
 of the practical and political activity of earlier times, we 
 find the feeble, the involved and the obscure. The effects 
 of tyranny were not limited to physical sufferings. It para- 
 lysed the energies and deadened the faculties of the mind^ 
 Under the empire it was a positive merit to be intelligible 
 only to cultivated ingenuity^. The charm of style consisted 
 in being declamatory, inflated, obscure, meretricious and 
 depraved'. 
 
 ^ Priorum temporum servitus ut aliarum artium sic etiam iuris 
 senatorii oblivionem quandam et ignorantiam induxit. Quotus enim 
 quisque tam patiens ut velit discere quod in usu non sit habiturus? 
 Plin. Epp. VIII. 14. Eadem mala vidimus tulimusque, quibus ingenia 
 nostra in posterum quoque hebetata, fracta, contusa sunt. Ibidem. 
 
 2 Id demum eleganter atque exquisite dictum putant quod inter- 
 pretandum sit. Quint. Ingeniosi scilicet, si ad interpretandos nos opus 
 sit ingenio. Id. 
 
 '3 Ostendi in his quam multa obscura, tumida, humilia, sordida, ' 
 lasciva, effeminata sint quae non laudantur modo a plerisque, sed (quod 
 est peius) propter hoc ipsura quod sunt prava, laudantur. 
 
PART V. 
 
 METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 A metaphor is a word belonging properly to one subject 
 and transferred^ to another, for which no word exists or 
 none for the author's purpose so suitable as the borrowed 
 word. It is in fact* a condensed simile. In saying ^man is 
 as the flower that fadeth away' we employ a simile : but 
 *the rich man fadeth away in his ways' is a metaphor, and 
 the word * fadeth' implies the comparison which the simile 
 expresses in full. Thus when Wordsworth addresses the 
 moon as * bright ship of heaven ' and bids us look 
 
 * Where the moon along the slcy 
 Sails with her happy destiny,' 
 
 he uses a metaphor, which necessarily implies a simile. The 
 movement of the moon along the sky is like the progress of 
 a ship over the sea. If we were to say * as the waves are 
 parted by the prow of a ship, so do the clouds fly asunder 
 before the moon,' we should express in full the simile 
 which the poet has compressed into a metaphor ^ 
 
 Like other human inventions, metaphors are the off- 
 spring of necessity ; as they grow old they pass into the 
 service of the intellect and minister to the delights of the 
 mind. In their use, as Cicero says, they resemble clothing, 
 which was made in the first instance to protect the body 
 
 ^ See transferre : translaiio, 
 
 ^ See English Lessons for English People (E. A. Abbott and J. R. 
 Seeley), p. 125. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION', 
 
 III 
 
 from cold, but is subsequently worn to add to its grace and 
 dignity'. 
 
 In the history of the use of metaphors there is a law of 
 growth analogous to the law of progress in the history 
 of a nation: first comes the satisfaction of pressing ne- 
 cessities, then the desire for power, then the gratification 
 of the love of beauty ^ We use metaphorical language in 
 the first case because we have no other: then, because 
 it adds force to our expression : lastly, because it also 
 adds grace and beauty to speech. We call a man 'rough' 
 or 'hard,' because we cannot express our idea of him except 
 in such borrowed terms : we say he 'bursts into a rage' or 
 'is burning with rage,' because these phrases convey a lively 
 impression of his attitude and temper : we talk of the 'spring 
 time of life,' 'the waning powers of the mind,' 'the dawn of 
 love,' 'the thunders of eloquence,' because such phrases are 
 pleasing or forcible or suggestive. 
 
 The necessity for the use of metaphorical language arises 
 from the fact, that while much we think and talk about is 
 invisible and incorporeal, this is not what first engages 
 the attention. We begin with external nature, indeed with 
 the objects which fall immediately within the range of the 
 senses. These are and must be the pioneers of knowledge : 
 the results of their activity are garnered in the memory, and 
 from this store the imagination and the reason derive the 
 materials with which they work. Our reflective powers are 
 at times busied about spiritual invisible subjects, far re- 
 moved from the earth : but our faculties resemble the great 
 Orion, they soar to the clouds, but still must 'plant their 
 footsteps on the land,' 
 
 Ingrediturque solo et caput inter nubila condit. 
 
 ^ Cic. de Orat. III. xxxviii. 
 
 2 Quinct, Inst. Orat. Lib. viil. 6. 
 
112 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 'Thinking,' for instance, has a singularly immaterial aspect 
 about it : but if you wish to state that you are thinking or 
 to explain your mental processes to others, you must employ 
 metaphors derived from material operations. The verb 
 ^think' denken, is probably connected with So/ccco and diico, 
 and the original meaning is to draw out, set before the mind^ 
 A dictionary explains * thinking' as 'having ideas in the mind, 
 revolving ideas in the mind.' The exj^lanation does not 
 carry us off the earth, for * ideas' after all are only 'forms,' 
 and 'to revolve' them is 'to roll' them. The Latin writers 
 were no better off. Futo^ arbitror, ce?tseOj reor, are all 
 material in their origin. Is qui putat^ 'prunes,' 'cleans' his 
 ideas : sets them in order : cuts off what is unnecessary : 
 treats what comes into his mind as a vinedresser does his 
 vines, as a surgeon excrescences. Is qui arbitratur is an 
 arbiter^ goes to see or hear something. Censeo^ exisiimo are 
 metaphors taken from the balance ; and reor carries us at 
 once to the most material and objective of words, res. 
 
 A poet composing verses may glance from earth to 
 heaven and from heaven to earth, but his language is 
 derived from the worid of matter above which his spirit 
 would fain rise. He is a maker, he puts together his verses, 
 and his verses are rows and furrows, and he does with his 
 pen, so far as expression is concerned, what the rustic at 
 plough does with the share*. 
 
 Neither in thought nor expression can we ever float 
 through the air. From the known to the unknown, as far 
 as language is concerned, there is but one path, over the 
 stepping stones of what we know. The unfamiliar, the ob- 
 
 1 The argument does not depend on the etymology (which is taken 
 from the Imperial Dictionary), as any other would lead us to the same 
 conclusion, 
 
 ^ See povffTpo(f>rj^6y, 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 113 
 
 p. 
 
 w 
 
 scure, the impalpable must be explained by the familiar, the 
 clear, the palpable. The close union between soul and body, 
 between sight and thought is assumed in every conversation. 
 The poet, the philosopher, the statesman, the village poli- 
 tician, all alike make inevitable appeals to the world around, 
 and the physical sensations of every day\ Here learned 
 and unlearned meet on common ground, from which all 
 language has sprung. The lifeless words of to-day are the 
 living metaphors, the picture words of yesterday. The verb, 
 or noun, or adjective, which to-day is used as a common 
 word and makes little or no impression, presented an image 
 to the man who used it first. To him it was visible and full 
 of movement, for, as Emerson says, 'he that thinks earnestly 
 or discourses eagerly will see a material image more or less 
 luminous arise in his mind.' In brief, metaphors are the 
 poetry of language, and a developed language is 'the 
 archives of history,' and the 'tomb of the muses.* Such 
 phrases as 'the decline of life,' 'an acute' or 'subtle intel- 
 lect,' 'a flourishing business,' 'a biting sarcasm,' 'the war of 
 the elements,' are no longer regarded as picturesque : they 
 are commonplace and come ready to hand : nevertheless 
 the Muses watched over their birth. 
 
 The employment of metaphorical language betokens a 
 victory over matter and nature : the results of experience 
 and observation are pressed into the service of the intellect 
 in its endeavour to master things unseen and unknown. Thus 
 a complete list of the metaphors used by any people would 
 be a measure of the activity of their intellect, of their poetic 
 power, as well as a historical record of the dominion they 
 have achieved over nature and their progress in Art and 
 Science. 
 
 1 Translatione frequentissime omnis sermo utitur non modo urbano- 
 rum, sed etiam rusticorum. Cic. Or. xxiv. 
 
 8 
 
114 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Hence the extent and variety of the metaphors in use 
 among a people necessarily varies directly with their know- 
 ledge and civilization. Among rude tribes they are few and 
 primitive. With the Kaffirs, for example, *to listen atten- 
 tively' is ^to give a person your ears/ *to be quite dead' is 
 * to be snapped asunder;' *to weary a person' is *to break his 
 head;' 'to be proud' is 'to eat yourself;' 'to be on good terms 
 with a man' is 'to eat with him;' 'to confiscate his property' 
 is ' to eat him^' 
 
 Compare the paucity and rudeness of these Kaffir meta- 
 phors with a passage from one of Mr Emerson's suggestive 
 essays. 'Polarity we meet with in every part of nature, in the 
 inspiration and exspiration of plants : in the systole and 
 diastole of the heart ; superinduce magnetism at one end of 
 a needle and the opposite magnetism takes place at the other. 
 An inevitable dualism bisects nature. The magnetism which 
 arranges tribes and races in one polarity is alone to be 
 respected : the men are the steel filings. Whilst we speak, 
 the loadstone is withdrawn : down falls our filing in a heap 
 with the rest and we continue our mimicry to the WTCtched 
 shavings : we are the photometer : we are the irritable gold- 
 leaf and tinfoil that measure the circulation of the subde 
 element.' Here almost every noun introduces a scientific 
 fact; nay, every verb and adjective now is fresh and sugges- 
 tive, but is doomed with the extension of scientific know- 
 ledge to grow lifeless and commonplace. 
 
 It requires but little knowledge of history to warn us 
 against looking for a corresponding passage in classical 
 literature. No ancient writer had such stores of scientific 
 knowledge to draw from. The extract is moreover foreign 
 in tone to the style of the classical authors. It is of course 
 
 ^ Max Muller, Science of Language, Vol. ii. p. 377. 
 
 LA TIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 IK 
 
 intended to supply a collection of illustrations, but even 
 granting this, there is something plethoric about it. Like 
 much modem writing it is too suggestive of the common- 
 place-book, and the accumulations of omnivorous reading. 
 There is an incontinence of expression in it, as unlike the 
 majestic self-restraint of Cicero and Quinctilian as the 
 modem mitrailleuse is unlike the Roman pilum. A metaphor, 
 according to Cicero, ought to have an air of modesty. He 
 thought that an author should as far as possible confine 
 himself to the materials which naturally offered themselves : 
 if the meaning was not self-evident and could not speak for 
 itself, it might bring a metaphor with it ; the metaphor, how- 
 ever, was not to put itself fonvard rudely, but to be introduced. 
 Any invasion of the domain of poetry demanded an apolo- 
 getic tanqiia7n— quasi— quidem—ta?tquam quidem—ita—utiia 
 dicam, or some similar expression, as maiorum gloria posteris 
 quasi himen tsi—tanquam tormenta quaedam adhibemus. 
 
 Figures, metaphors and illustrations should not be scat- 
 tered about with a lavish hand, to shew the writer's know- 
 ledge. Meretricious ornament betrays the character it is 
 intended to hide. Metaphors and figures are often the 
 proper 'dress for sentiments,' but should always be justified 
 by coming under some one head of Quinctilian's golden 
 rule— they should be necessary, forcible, or beautiful, for after 
 all ' the great art in writing is to know when to be simple.' 
 
 Since, as was said above, external nature in its common- 
 est and most obvious operations first engages the attention of 
 the mind, the first and commonest metaphors are sure to be 
 derived from the visible movements of the natural worid, 
 and in Latin metaphors the remark of Pliny again holds 
 good, 'in verbis sermonis vis','— verbs play a great part in 
 metaphorical expression. 
 
 A See *0n the Position of the Verb.' 
 
 8-2 
 
ii6 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 117 
 
 I. Among the words expressive of motion those con- 
 taining the idea of * flowing' and * rushing' play the foremost 
 part, such as fiuere, diffluere, effluere, manare, redundare, 
 and the like, as 
 
 Omne supervacuum fleno de pectore manat, ^Ita natura com- 
 
 paratum est, ut altius iniuriae quam merita descendant, et ilia cito 
 
 defluant, has tenax memoria custodiat. Antequam plane ex animo 
 
 tuo effluo, Id iinde, tanquam a fonte rivus^ omnia mala oriuntur. 
 
 'Flumen orationis. Profluens oratio. 
 
 II. From the vegetable world, the flowers of spring, the 
 falling leaves of autumn, and the like. 
 
 Gratia non virtutis specie, sed aetatis Jlore colleda. Hortensio 
 
 florente Crassus est mortuus. Ex rerum cogitatione efflorescat oportet 
 
 oratio. Crassus ingenii \q,\x<^q floruit. Ficta omnia tanquam y^c^jrw// 
 
 decidunt, Maturus et mitis scriptor. Possessio quasi caduca et 
 
 yacua. Ipse Thucydides si posterius fuisset, multo maUirior fuisset 
 
 ac mitior, Acerbissima morte mori, Tua obiurgatio nimiam habuit 
 
 acerbitatem. 
 
 III. From storm and aspects of the sea. 
 
 Tempestas invidiae impendit. Agitari tribuniciis procellis,- 
 
 Priusquam illam eloquentiae /r^^^/Azw effunderet Ulixes. TempestcUes 
 
 et procellae-m illis fluctibus contionum. In transferendis faciendisque 
 
 verbis tranquillior Isocrates. Republica in iranquillum redacta, 
 
 In maximis turbinibus ac fluctibus reipublicae navem gubernare, 
 
 •Tument negotia.* Tm procel/a patriae, turbo atque tempestas pacis 
 
 atque otii. Massiliam statim profectus est ut socerum videre con- 
 
 solarique posset fluctibus reipublicae expulsum^ in alienis terris jacentem. 
 
 The whole of Chap. 20 in the Pro Sestio may be consulted with 
 
 advantage. 
 
 IV. From navigation, winds, and breath. 
 
 Cum prospero flatu fortunae utimur, ad optatos exitus pravehimur, 
 
 Nos in eodem cursu fuimus a Sulla dictatore ad eosdem fere con- 
 
 sules. Pandere vela orationis. Ventum quendam popularem quae- 
 
 rere. (cf. Arbitrio popularis aurae.) Sperat sibi auram posse ali- 
 
 quam afliari voluntatis. Res tetra, detestabilis, veils, ut ita dicam, 
 
 r<?wwque fugienda. Atque eorum alter fefellit neminem. Quis enim />^ 
 
 clavum tanti impemjenere et g^bjrnacula^reipublicae /r/zc^^^jcui^maximo 
 cursu ac fluctibus posse arbitraretur hominem emersum subito ex 
 diutuniis tenebris lustrorum ac stuprorum ? 
 
 V. From whirlpools, etc. 
 
 Ad tribunatum, qui ipse ad sese iamdudum vocat et quodam mode 
 
 absorbet orationem meam, contento studio cursuque veniamus. Sed 
 
 hunc quoque absorbuit aestus quidam insolitae adolescentibus gloriae. 
 
 Non Charybdim tarn infestam, neque Scyllam nautis fuisse arbitror. 
 
 Veteres inlibatasque divitias in profundissimam libidinum suarum 
 
 gurgitem profundere. 
 
 VI. From fire and flame. 
 
 7. id 
 
 Odia improborum in nos ittcendamits.- 
 —Ardet dolore Pompeius. 
 
 -Cum arderet Syria bello. 
 
 The word fax supplies Cicero with favourite metaphors. 
 It implies (i) that which influences to good or evil, as 
 
 dicendi faces, Alicui quasi quasdam faces verborum ad- 
 
 movere. Flagrantibus iam militum animis velut faces 
 
 addere. (Tac.) So fax belli, accusationis etc. (ii) It 
 
 expresses intensity. Dolorum cum dAmoYentnv faces, 
 
 Dolor ardentes faces intentat. Qox^^ovL^facibus infiammari. 
 
 VII. From stopping fire by pulling down houses and 
 other means. 
 
 Ardorem restinxi.-^ — Vis fuit ilia et ruina quaedam atque tempestas. 
 
 In hac ruiita rerum stetit una integra atque immobilis virtus populi 
 
 Romani. Ruina urbis incendium meum restinguam, 
 
 VIII. From (i) motions and positions of the body. 
 These are too common to need illustration, and will be 
 found in any dictionary, under 
 
 lac ere. Cadere. Stare, Claudi^are, Intercurrere, 
 
 Insistere, Labare. Inclinare, Irrepere, and the like. 
 
 From (ii) bodily defects. 
 
 See Luscus. Caeciis, Pinguis. Cf, Pingui Minerva. 
 
 McLcra et exilis oratio. Infrcuti animi. 
 
iiS 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 Punire aliquem aiit 
 
 From (iii) fatigue of body. 
 
 Animi defatigati multitadine verborum.— 
 \^x\as> fatigare, 
 
 IX. From the forge, the hammer, the whetstone, etc. 
 
 Acttenda est lingua. ^Ne te obtunderem. 
 
 lunsa sunt. 
 
 Ingenia nostra ob- 
 
 X. From the loom. 
 
 Suhtilis oratio. Nee facile interrupta contexo, Contextae 
 
 voluptates. Crimina contexere. Venae toto corpore intextae, 
 
 Argumentandi iQmxQjUum, Fiiiim orationis expetcre. 
 
 XI. From the carpenter's shop. 
 
 See congliitinare, Limare, 
 
 XII. From the effects of heat and cold. 
 
 See ttrere, /rigusy refrigescere, Calere, 
 
 XIII. From clothes. 
 
 — Vestire, Jnvohtcrum, 
 
 See integumentum. 
 
 XIV. From the balance. (Jo-,,^ •^.^Jl^^S^'^^''^^^ 
 
 Populari trtitina examinare. In altera librae lance ponere. 
 
 Omnis caedes et vulnera et sanguis aviditate praedae pensaba7ititr. 
 
 Hue inclinavit Antonius. Incommoda vitae sapientes commodomm 
 
 compensatione leniunt. Vectigalia pefisitare, 
 
 XV. (i) From animals and their ways, as 
 
 Adulari, Fremere. Obtrcctare. Conviciis lacerare, Ve- 
 
 ftena instillare. Adverse coritii petere. Dente malo carpere. 
 
 Obliquo ictu petere. Dente Theonino. Deliciis et voluptatibus 
 
 *volutaru 
 
 -See generally volo and its 
 
 (ii) From birds. 
 
 Nidum servare. Altius volare,— 
 
 compounds. 
 
 XVI. From mixing, as a source of confusion. 
 
 Omnia miscere et turbare, Omnia infima summis paria fecit, 
 
 turbavity miscuit, Omnia potius permisaeenmt, quam ei legi 
 
 parerent. Ea philosophia, quae confundit vera cum falsis. Omnes 
 
 in oratione quasi permixtos et con/usos pedes. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 119 
 
 XVII. From shuddering, as expressive of fear and horror. 
 
 Ingrati animi crimen horreo. Haec dominatio quorsum eruptura 
 
 sit, horj-emtis, See Reformidare, horrlbilis, 
 
 XVIII. From riding and driving. 
 
 lactabit se, et in his equitabit eqindeis: emi, pecuniam solvi. 
 
 Frenatam tot malis linguam resolvimus. — Semper magno ingenio ado- 
 
 lescentes refrenandi potius a gloria, quam incitandi sunt. Cum 
 
 oratione sua multa invectus esset in Thebanos. Exercitatio eloquendi 
 
 celeritatem uuitat, Incitatior oratio. 
 
 XIX. From closing and fastening doors and gates. 
 
 Non daudenda res est familiaris, ut eam benignitas apeiire non 
 possit, sed ita reseranda est ut pateat omnibus. — —Aperuerat Italiam 
 
 iam ala Sillana. Caesar claudere videtur maritimos exitus. lam 
 
 reseratam Italiam videtis. 
 
 XX. From hunting, fowling, etc. 
 
 Quoniam incidit in y&z/^^;«, obruatur. In apertam perniciem in- 
 
 currere, Videte, in quos laqiieos se indiierit. Videte, ut dum 
 
 expedire se vult, indiuxt. Adolescentulum corrupt elarum illecebris 
 
 irretire. ludiciis iniquissimis irretire, Laudem modestiae venari. 
 
 Si minus eiusmodi quidpiam venari potuerant, ilia quidem pro 
 
 leptisculis capiebantur, patellae, paterae, turibula. Famam sibi fl«- 
 
 ciipari. Aiicupiutn delectationis. Auciipia verborum. 
 
 XXI. From painting and use of pigments, etc. 
 
 Sententiae verae sine pigmentis, fticoo^^ puerili. Sine fuco et 
 
 fallaciis. Concinni poetae 2sifucus, 
 
 XXII. From building, architecture, etc. 
 
 Aedificare naves. — Si quis adhibere volet non modo ut architedos. 
 
 verum etiam ut fabros ad aedificandam rempublicam. Architedari 
 
 voluptates. Epicurus beatae vitae architectiis. Stoici sunt archi- 
 
 tedi paene verborum. Politus scriptor atque artifex. Admirabilis 
 
 fabrica membrorum. 
 
 XXIII. From show of violence. 
 
 Alicui actionem perduellionis intendere. Probra et minas alicui 
 
 intendere, Formidinem incutit. Timor incutitur ex ipsorum peri- 
 
 culls. 
 
1 20 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 XXIV. From brightness of metals, etc. 
 
 Facta splendida. Spkndidissima ingenia. Nitet oratio.- 
 
 Nihil est tarn insulsum quod non splendcscat oratione. 
 
 XXV. From infancy and nursing. 
 
 Haec sunt in gremio sepulta consulatus tui. Aetolia procul a 
 
 barbaris disiuncta gentibus, in sinu pacis posita, medio fere Graeciae 
 
 gremio continetur. Ut paene cum lade nutricis errorum suxisse 
 
 —Quasi fovebam dolores meos. Non alienum fuit de 
 
 videamur. 
 
 oratoris quasi mcunabulis dicere. Humus radices tenero velut nutricio 
 
 sinu accipit. Educata huius nutrimentis eloquentia. 
 
 N.B. Curiae is used metaphorically only by the poets. 
 XXVI. From infection, etc. 
 
 Cantagiones malorum, quae ab uno profectae manant latius.- 
 
 Latius patet illius sceleris contagio quam quisquam putet. Intelligo 
 
 hanc /^j'/^;;^ reipublicae reprimi posse. Multa /^///^r^ sciscuntur in 
 
 populis. Pestifer et funestris tribunatus. Ut eos ludos haec hies 
 
 impura pollueret. Immensam belli hieni (legiones). 
 
 XXVII. From surgery and medicine. 
 
 Non ea est medicina cum sanae parti corporis scalpellum adhibetur 
 atque integrae : ii medentur reipublicae qui exsecant pestem aliquam 
 
 tanquam strumatn civitatis Medicamenta ilia epicurea tanquam de 
 
 narthecia promunt. Medicina non minus esset probanda quae 
 
 sanaret vitiosas partes reipublicae quam quae exsecaret. 
 
 The metaphors so far given are the common property of 
 all nations, and are not more frequent in Latin than in 
 other literature. 
 
 The metaphors most frequent in Roman writers and 
 characteristic of them may be illustrated at greater length, 
 though some of the ground has been already in part gone 
 over already. 
 
 I. From horticulture or farming. 
 
 Vir magnus leges, instituta, rem publicam non seret, Serendi 
 
 etiam mores. Qui dialectici dicuntur, spinosiora multa pepererunt. — 
 
 Senatus ad auctoritatis pristinae spem revirescit, An quisquam ita 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. 
 
 121 
 
 insipiens est, qui credat exaratum esse Deum? Non mediocris ille 
 
 orator vestrae quasi stucrescet aetati. SuUani temporis messem re- 
 
 cordari. 
 
 II. Navigation and shipwreck. 
 
 Fortunae motum ratione c^'a.di'aLm gubernare, Custos gubernatorque 
 
 reipublicae. Clavum tanti imperii tenere ^\. guhernacula, Senatus 
 
 a gtibemaculis deicere. Res velis, ut ita dicam, remisque fugienda. 
 
 Velispassis pervehi. Naufragium fortunarum facere. lacturae 
 
 rei familiaris erant faciendae. Patrimonio naufragus esse. Qui ex 
 
 naufragio luculenti patrimonii ad haec Antoniana saxa proiectus est, 
 
 Syrtim patrimonii. Scopuloso loco versarL In hos scopulos vitae 
 
 incidere. Nee tuas unquam rationes ad eos scopulos appulisseSy ad quos 
 
 Sex. Titii afflictam navem videres. 
 
 III. From the Campus Martius and the Amphitheatre. 
 
 Magnus est in republica campus^ multis apertus cursus ad laudem. 
 Ex ingenti quodam immensoque campo in exiguum sane ^rww oratorem 
 
 compellitis. Nullum nobis sors campum dedit, in quo excurrere 
 
 virtus posset. In \ioq. flexu quasi aetatis fama adolescentis paullum 
 
 haesit ad metas, Ad cai'ceres, ad metas revocari. Rude donatus 
 
 est. Rudem accepit. In hoc gladiatorio vitae certamine. Suo, 
 
 quemadmodum dicitur, gladio conficitur. Mortiferam plagam rei- 
 publicae imponere. Habemus Senatus co-nsultum, at vagina recon- 
 
 ditum. 
 
 IV. From the army. 
 
 In aciem forensem irruere. Philosophia ad forenses caussas in- 
 
 structa. Omnia mea tela sic in te conicientur ut nemo per tuum latus 
 
 saucietur, Quantum in hac acie quotidiani numeris spatium datur. 
 
 In Epicuri nos castra coniecimus. Si nudus sis, da iugulum. 
 
 Armis pudicitiae caussas defendere. Ad arma alicuius se con- 
 
 ferre. ^Verum haec ludorum atque pompae : nos autem in acieni 
 
 dimicationemque veniamus. Educenda est dictio, medium in agmen, 
 
 in pulverem, in clamorem, in aciem forensem, Non differendum est 
 
 tirocinium in senectutem. Nulla in re tiro ac nidis. 
 
 V. From the Palaestra and Ludus. 
 
 Utemur ea palaestra quam a te didicimus. Nitidum genus ver- 
 
 borum sed palaestrae magis et olei quam huius civilis turbae et fori. — -- 
 Ut videret unius corporis duas acies, lanista Cicerone, demicantes. 
 

 122 
 
 HINTS TOWARDS 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 
 \2\ 
 
 VI. From weapons, etc., peculiar to the Romans. 
 
 /^/7//;;/ alicui inicere. Tehun ei e manibus ereptum est. Non 
 
 dubito quin ea tela hebdlora sint. Munitae sunt palpebrae tanquam 
 
 vallo pilorum. Leges propugnaciila sunt murique tranquillitatis. 
 
 Graecia esset agger oppugnandae Italiae. Apud me cura haec 
 
 excubat, Cum hominibus enervatis atque exsanguibus consulatus 
 
 tanquam gladms esset datus, qui per se pungere neminem potuisset, ii 
 
 summi imperii nomine armati totam rem publicam trucidarent, - 
 
 Neque putavi cum omnibus machinis atque tormentis, vi exercitu copiis 
 oppugnarer, de uno sagittario me queri convenire. 
 
 VII. From gaming. 
 
 Non perspicitis aleam quandam inesse in hostiis legendis. Pros- 
 
 periore alea uti. Dare summam rerum in aleam non necessariam. 
 
 Ubi salubritas non est, cultura non aliud ^ est quam alea vitae 
 
 domini. 
 
 VIII. From the stage. 
 
 Induit persona7n iudicis ; amici exitit, Quid est autem cur ego 
 
 personatiis ambulem? Tres personas unus sustineo. Magistratus 
 
 gerit personam civitatis. Personam tueri. Contio est quasi scena 
 
 oratori. Nunc populo et scenae^ ut dicitur, serviendum est. 
 
 Amici partes agit, Huic primas dedisse Demosthenes dicitur. 
 
 Hortensius facile primas tenebat, Pericles, cui primac deferebantur. 
 
 Quod quidem me plaudente dicit. Huic //awj«j maximi imper- 
 
 tiuntur. Plausnm quaerit, captat, etc. 
 
 IX. From patron and client. 
 
 Arripere patrocinium aequitatis. ^Voluptas plurimorum patro- 
 
 ciniis defenditur. Senatus propugnator ac paene patronus, An- 
 
 tonius patrocinari sibi ausus. Scriptores et poetae sub clientela 
 
 Musarum sunt. Se in clientelam alterius conferre. 
 
 X. From elections. 
 
 Repulsam ferre. Virtus repulsae nescia sordidae. Ambitiosa, 
 
 fucosaque amicitia. Omne piinctum ferre. Ei meorum temporum 
 
 memoriam j//^r^^d:n videbam. Laudibus cuiuspiam suffragaru 
 
 XI. From the stilus, etc. 
 
 Stilum exercere. Attico stilo scribere. Stilo ubertatem ora- 
 
 tionis depascere. 
 
 \ 
 
 XII. From the cross and other punishments. 
 
 Libido et ignavia animum excruciant. Terribiles animi cruciatus, 
 
 —Dies noctesque torqueor, Torqueor quod discipulum amisisti. 
 
 xiiL From the triumph. 
 
 Hoc te laudare, tritimpJio et gaudeo Laetaris tu in omnium 
 
 gemitu et triumphas, Is demum est mea sententia veras triump/uis 
 
 cum bene de Republica meritis testimonium a consensu civitatis datur. 
 
 XIV. From the Forum. 
 
 In faro versari. Extra suum forum vadimonia promittere. 
 
 Cedereyi7r^ (to become bankrupt). 
 
 XV. From the Province. 
 
 Sibi provinciam depoposcit ut me in meo lectulo trucidaret. Qui 
 
 earn provinciam susceperunt, ut in balneas contruderentur. 
 
 XVI. From the Roman Law Terms. 
 
 Reus fortunae. Reus facinoris. Fortuna una accusatur, una 
 
 asritur rea. Conscientia convinci. Amici tui silentio temeritatem 
 
 tuam condemnaverunt. Indicium facere quanti sibi quisque faciendus 
 
 esset. ' 
 
 XVII. From the Toga and its folds. 
 
 Cur quod in sinu vestro est, excuti iubetis potius quam ponatis, nisi 
 
 aliqua fraus subest? Non excutio te. Iste vero sit in sinu semper 
 
 meo. Confugit in sinum tuum concussa res publica. Ut in sinu 
 
 —Opes Cremonensium in sinu praefectorum legatorumque 
 
 gaudeant.— 
 fore. 
 
 The metaphors from the Tunica (see accingor — discinc- 
 tus — succinctus) are nearly all poetical. 
 
 XVIII. From slavery. 
 
 Nunquam exuitur muliebris servitus, Animi imperio, corporis 
 
 servitio magis utimur. Sei'vire and inset vire (both almost always in a 
 
 good sense), utilitati, venustati, studiis, reipublicae, etc. In Uberta- 
 tem rempublicam vindicare. S^pientia sola nos a formidinum ter- 
 
 rore vindicate Caedi discentes deforme et servile est. Sed agam 
 
 moderate et huius potius tempori serviam quam dolori meo. 
 
12^ HINTS TOWARDS LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION 
 XIX. From augury, etc. 
 
 O mea semper frustra verissima angina renim futurarum. — 
 
 -De 
 
 Gracchi tribunatu quid expectem, non libet augurari, Atque ita 
 
 locutus est, ut eius oratio omen fati videretur. Hisce ominibusy Cati- 
 
 lina, proficiscere. Omnes cum te viderint, tanquam auspiciiim malum 
 
 detestantur. Quod quasi avem albam videntur bene sentientem civem 
 
 videre. Sed ego fortasse vaticinor, Eos qui dicerent dignitati esse 
 
 serviendum vatkinari atque insanire dicebat. 
 
 It is obvious that since metaphorical language is 'fossil 
 poetry/ the list of metaphors might be immensely enlarged 
 by an examination of the language of the poets. Here 
 we are necessarily confined within the limits of the pedestris 
 oratio, and the examples are, to a great extent, taken from 
 Cicero. 
 
 Of course these specimens of metaphorical language do 
 not supply anything like an exhaustive list of Latin meta- 
 phors. The aim has been to select those which were most 
 usual, and therefore most useful for the purposes of Latin 
 Prose Composition. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 [The numerals refer to the pages.] 
 
 Ablative absolute, use of, 75 w. 
 Abstract terms, avoided by Romans, 
 
 28—31. 
 Accessory sentences, arrangement 
 
 of, 89. 
 Active voice, common use of, in 
 
 Latin, 36. 
 Adjectives, position of, 52 sqq. 
 Adverbs, position of, 55. 
 Affectation of expression, not Latin, 
 
 49,96. 
 Ambiguity of expression, cautions 
 
 against, 41, 65. 
 Anaphora, 68. 
 Apposition, 56. 
 
 Arrangement of Latin words, 70. 
 Arts among the Romans, 6 sq. 
 As, translation of, in Latin, 37 sq. 
 Attributes, how emphasized, 55. 
 
 Balance of period, 95. 
 Bizarreries of expression, not Latin, 
 3, 70 «. 
 
 Cadence of period, 95 sqq. 
 Caesar, purity of his phraseology, 
 
 13. 
 Calvin, services of, to French style, 
 
 107 n. 
 Change of subject, to be avoided, 72. 
 Chiasmus, 50. 
 Cicero, influence of, on literature, 
 
 13 sq. ; remarks of, on rhythm, 
 
 96 sqq. ; command of, over periodic 
 
 style, 10 1, 106. 
 CoUigatio sententianim, 91. 
 Commercial spirit, effect of on 
 
 Literature, 24. 
 Composition, perfection of ancients 
 
 in, 3 ; reasons for, ib. 
 Compound words in Lucretius, 13. 
 Concreteness, characteristic of Latin 
 
 style, 28—30. 
 Contrast, how produced, 57. 
 Correctness of style, i, «. 
 
 Detached style, hints on, 91 ; when 
 to be employed, 102 sqq. 
 
 Dictionaries, danger of excessive use 
 of, in composition, 22. 
 
 Distinctness of Latin style, 28, 34 sq. 
 
 Drama, little cultivated by the Ro- 
 mans, 10. 
 
 Education, Roman, 9. 
 
 English language, character of, 5 ; 
 
 arrangement of words in, 44, 70 
 
 sq. ; style, faults of, 70 sq., 89; 
 
 unperiodic, 83 sqq. 
 Epiphora, 69. 
 Epistolary style, syntactical, 45 n. ; 
 
 definition of, 105. 
 Esse, frequent use of, 33 ; position 
 
 of, in sentence, 51. 
 Expression, Roman, i sqq., 28 sqq. 
 
 Family, importance of, at Rome, 9. 
 French literature, value of study of, 
 
 71. 
 
 Genitive, position of, 52 sq. ; parti- 
 tive, 55. • 
 
 Greek language, 16 sqq. ; philosophy, 
 how regarded at Rome, 11 sq.; 
 spirit, 19. 
 
 Habere, frequent use of, 36. 
 
 Hendiadys explained, 33. 
 
 Hie, position of, 64. 
 
 History, encouragedby the emperors, 
 
 18. 
 Horace, directness of expression oi. 
 
 80 sqq. 
 
 Ibi, position of, 64. 
 Imperialism, effects of, on literature, 
 18, 108 sqq. 
 
 Janotismes, English, 71. 
 Junctura of clauses, 20. 
 
 Language, English, character of, 5 ; 
 Roman, compared with Greek, 
 
 16 sqq.; vitality of expression in, 
 
 17 ; defects of, 19; merits of, ib, 
 Latin expression, concrete, 28 sqq. ; 
 
 conservative, 32 sqq.; arrange- 
 ment of words in, 70; unity of ex- 
 pression in, 72 ; directness of, 80 ; 
 period in, see Period ; prose, essen- 
 tials of, 1 . 
 
126 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Literature, Latin, simplicity of, 3; 
 
 origin of, 16 sqq. 
 Lawyers, influence of, at Rome, 12 ;/. 
 Lucidity of Latin style, 28, 34; liovr 
 
 produced, 40, 88 sqq. 
 
 Mathematics at Rome, 7. 
 
 Metaphors, vividness of Latin, iS, 
 19; defined, no; growth and 
 necessity of, in; examples of, 
 116 — 123. 
 
 Metonymy, 30. 
 
 Nagelsbach on Latin metaphors, 
 
 19 «. 
 Names, proper, character of Ro^ 
 
 man, 8. 
 Negatives, position of, 59 sqq. 
 
 Object, grammatical treatment of, 
 
 52, 77 sqq. . _ ,. , 
 
 Order of words, m English and 
 
 Latin, 44; in Latin, 60; principles 
 
 of, 70. 
 
 Painting, Roman, 7. 
 
 Patria potestas, 9. 
 
 Period in Latin, defined, 82; fre- 
 quent use of, 83 sqq. ; character- 
 istics of, 87 sqq.; balance of, 
 95 ; cadence and rhythm of, 96 
 sqq.; when not to be used, 100 
 sqq. 
 
 Periphrasis, when employed in Latin, 
 
 35. 
 
 Personality of Latin expression, 34 
 
 sqq. ^ 
 
 Personification, 35. 
 Philosophy, Greek, 11; Roman, 
 
 imitative, ib. 
 Phrases, value of, in writing, 25. 
 Point de depart, 91 sqq. 
 Position of words, 44 — 62. 
 Prepositions, use of, 56; when to 
 
 be repeated, ib, ; after their crises, 
 
 64. 
 Present tense when to be used, 42. 
 F*rofessions at Rome, 9. 
 Pronoun, employment of, 74, 76, 
 Prose, Latin, see Language. 
 
 Quadrigarius Q. Claudius, quoted, 
 
 103. 
 Quamobrem, quare, use of, 64. 
 
 Realism of Latin, 28, 39 sq. 
 
 Relative, uses of, in Latin, 6i\ posi- 
 tion of, ibry preceding grammati- 
 cal antecedent, 67. 
 
 Republic, Roman, literature of, 1 2, 
 17, 103 sqq., 108 sq. 
 
 Res, frequent use of, 32. 
 
 Roads, Roman, character of, 107. 
 
 Romans, characteristics of, 5 sqq.; 
 literature of, 11; philosophy of, 
 ib, sqq. ; vigour and directness of, 
 108. See Language. 
 
 Society, Roman, 9 sq. 
 
 Speeches, ancient, perfect form of, 3. 
 
 Style, remarks on, 25 sq.; under the 
 empire, 109. 
 
 Subject, usual position of, 45 ; em- 
 phatic, 46 ; in relative sentence, 
 68; change of, to be avoided, 72 
 sqq.; prominence to be given to, 
 
 74 sqq. 
 Substantives, frequent use of verbal, 
 38; in apposition to a sentence, 
 
 Tacitus, obscure style of, 88. 
 Taine, remarks of, on Livy, 28; on 
 
 Enghsh periodic style, 107. 
 Tenses, accuracy of, in Latin, 43. 
 Translation, hints on, 11, 20 — 24. 
 Transpositive languages, 44. 
 
 Unde, position of, 64. 
 Unity, in composition, 3; of Latin 
 expression, 72 sqq. 
 
 Verbal substantives, frequent use of. 
 
 Verbs, position of, 48 sqq.; not to 
 be agglomerated at end of period, 
 92 ; principal verb, when not to 
 close the period, 93 sqq. 
 
 Vitality of Roman expression, 1 7, 38. 
 
 Word-painting, 23. 
 
 CAMIiKIDGE; l-KlNTitD BY C. J. CLAY, M.A, AT THE UNIVERSITY I'KEbS. 
 
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